1 >* V V- ' < \ -Y' - ~r \ THE CYCLOPEDIA OF EDUCATION. THE CYCLOPEDIA OF EDUCATION: A DICTIONARY OF INFORMATION Knit Til i: USE OK TEACHERS, SCHOOL OFFICERS, PARENTS, AND OTHERS. EDITED BY HENRY KIDDLE, Superintendent of Public Schools, New York City, AND ALEXANDER J. SCHEM, Assistant Superintendent of Public Schools, New York City. Third Edition. WITH Ari'KNDIX. * a .» © * ■ . NEW YORK.: K STEIGER & CO. LONDON: SAMPSON LOW & CO. 1883, f *f* OP THE [UKIVER3IT7] Ccpyright, 1870, By E. Steioer. I'rc-is of E. Stkiubu. N. Y. - 4/; J P R T. F A E. The work here offered to the public is the first cyclopaedia of education in the English language, although the need of such a work has long been felt. Cyclopaedias, both general and special, are rapidly increasing in number, not only in countries in which the English language is spoken, but wherever, under the influence of advancing civilization, literature flourishes, and the cultivation of science and art has enlarged the boundaries of human knowledge. Information scattered through a multitude of volumes is usually inaccessible to those by whom it is most needed : and. consequently, the most important results of study and research are often of no avail to those whose special office it is to apply them to a practical purpose. Hence, the need of works that present in a condensed form, and so as readily to be referred to, all the important facts in the various departments of human knowledge; and, consequently, we find that it is fast becoming the habit of the educated classes every-where to consult such works. Tn view of the large number of special cyclopedias in other departments of knowledge, and more especially of the excellent cyclo- paedias of education which Germany has possessed for many years, it is quite surprising that a branch of knowledge so extensively valued and studied as education, should have continued, in this country and in England, for so long a time without its special cyclopaedia. Accordingly, the first announce- ment of this work was, on all sides, greeted with the most earnest expressions of approbation and welcome. The value of a work of this kind mast, of course, depend on the plan which forms its ground- work, and the accuracy and fullness with which the plan is carried out. To both of these points the editors have given their undeviating attention, striving to leave nothing to be desired in either respect. The plan of the work has been constructed after a careful examination, not only of all the cyclopedias and general histories of education which have thus far appeared, but of the principal cyclopaedias, both general and special, which have been published in English or in other languages. Of course, the editors did not contemplate, for a moment, the task of undertaking a work of the magnitude of Schmid's great German encyclopaedia of education, which was com- menced in 1S5T, and of which the last (11th) volume is not yet completed, although a revised and enlarged edition has already been issued of the first volume. Their design was to prepare a work which, while comprehensive and complete within its scope, would be of moderate size, and would be completed within a reasonable time — a work which, while useful to all. would, like the dictionary, be upon every teacher's desk, to be consulted whenever occasion might require, thus affording information and practical aid at every exigency of his daily labors. Such a work, it was thought, would not only supply valuable information, but would stimulate the study of pedagogy, still very widely neglected because of the want of a brief but comprehensive embodiment of the whole subject. In accordance with these views, the editors now present, a little more than two years after the first announcement of the work, a single volume of nearly 900 pages, in which they have endeavored to treat, in alphabetical order, of all the subjects, which they have deemed to come within the limits of their plan, embracing the following general topics : (1) Theory of Education and In- struction (pedagogy and didactics), including a consideration of the principles of education, in each of its departments, with practical suggestions as to the best methods of applying them, both in training and instruction. In this connection, it will be found that every subject ordinarily embraced in the school or college curriculum has been carefully treated in its relation to practical education, special attention having been given to tli" department of language, both the classical and the im- portant modern languages being separately considered. (2) Sckool Economy, including the organ- II ization and management of schools, also discipline and class teaching. (3) The Administration of Schools and School Systems — embracing supervision, examinations, school hygiene, school architect- ure, co-education of the sexes, etc. (4) Governmental Policy in regard to Education — including such subjects as state education, compulsory attendance laws, the secular and denominational systems, etc. (5) The History of Education, giving an account of the most noted plans and methods of instruction and school organization that have been proposed, or that are now in vogue, as well as the history of the school system of every state and territory in the Union, and of every important country in the world. Much of the matter under this section is entirely new, and will be found to be of great interest. (6) Biographical Sketches of distinguished educationists, educators, and others who have been celebrated for their efforts as promoters or benefactors of educational progress or enterprise. (7) Statistical and other information in regard to (a) schools and other institutions of learning of different countries, states, cities (in the United States, of those having a population of 100,000 and upward), and religious denominations (the latter treated with considerable fullness) ; (b) different kinds of schools, as public schools, private schools, parochial schools, academies and high schools, kindergartens, colleges and universities. Every important college or university in the United States has been described in a separate article ; and special articles also inserted on the great universities in England, the latter articles having been written in that country. Considerable care has also been taken to show what has been done, during the last few years, for female education, and more particularly for the higher education of women (especially in this country and in Great Britain). (8) Educational Literature, which is constantly brought to the notice of the reader in connection with the various articles. As the immense mass of material to be condensed within the compass of a single volume has necessitated the greatest possible brevity, references are made throughout to standard works on educational science, as well as to statistical works affording more detailed information. It is believed that this will prove one of the most valuable features of the work. (9) The main work is followed by an Analytical Index, in which reference is made to the principal topics of all the longer articles, as well as to the pages on which the more important subjects are treated incidentally. Of course, the editors of a cyclopaedia cannot be expected to carry out their plan without the support of an adequate corps of able contributors. However extensive their own information may be in relation to the general subject, there must always be many topics to the details of which specialists have devoted a much more minute study, and of which, therefore, their knowlege must be more comprehensive and exact. The list of special contributors which follows this preface will show to what extent the editors have succeeded in securing the co-operation of distinguished educators and writers in the preparation of this work. Most of the names presented will be at once recognized as those of persons of well-established reputation for successful experience in their respective spheres of effort. The editors deem themselves singularly fortunate in securing to so large an extent the aid and co-operation of the state and city superintendents throughout this country, the articles on the school systems having been prepared by them or under their direction, or compiled from the latest and most accurate information officially supplied by them. The articles on the different classes of professional, scientific, and denominational schools and colleges have, in the main, been written by persons professionally conversant with those institutions, and thus afford an amount and kind of information very difficult to obtain, but often of great value to students and educators. It is proper to say that the announcement of this work has met with a most earnest and encouraging response from educators in Great Britain, and that the editors have received most prompt and valuable assistance, as well as cordial co-operation, from that source, so as to enable them to carry out their intention to make the usefulness of the Cycto/xrtlia co-extensive with the English-speaking race. It is. however, a cause of deep regret to the editors that a long illness, terminating ill death, deprived them of the co-operation of one of the ablest and most highly esteemed English educators, the late Joseph Payne, who not only was among the first to afford encouragement to this work when proposed, but promptly engaged to contribute a number oi important articles. As a work of reference for information in regard to American institutions for higher education, the Cyclopaedia will, it is hoped, prove eminently satisfactory. Great pains has been taken to secure the fullest and most accurate information respecting the colleges and Ill universities of this country; for which purpose, every article of this description has been sub- mit ted, in proof, to the president of the institution described, and, with but very few exceptions, has received the benefit of his revision. The editors also acknowledge their indebtedness for the very full information, in regard to the educational work of the various religious denominations of the United States and Great Britain, which they have received from distinguished members of those denominations. Very much of this information could have been obtained by no other means than by a long official connection with the educational boards of the churches, and, to a considerable extent, is now supplied exclusively by this work. To all the contributors the thanks of the editors are due for a support without which the work could not have been completed — at any rate, could not have possessed the value which may, with considerable confidence, be attributed to it; and certainly could not have earned the approval which it may justly be expected to receive. The editors, also, take occasion to express their obligations to the many friends who, though not special contributors, have afforded valuable aid in the revision of special articles, in giving important advice, or in affording needed information. In these few remarks, the editors have briefly stated the object they have striven to attain, and some of the instrumentalities of which they have availed themselves; but they are by no means so presumptuous as to suppose they have produced a work without fault or blemish. The Cyclopaedia, it must be borne in mind, is but a pioneer, opening out, it is to be hoped, a wide path for further literary and professional effort in the same direction. It will, doubtless, share the fate of all books of its class, in which the habitual reader, as well as the scrutinizing critic, by the side of that which elicits his approval, meets with statements that are capable of improvement or that require correction. In every future edition of the work, pains will be taken to correct what is faulty and to improve what is imperfect; and any assistance which those who appreciate the aim of the work may be able to render to that end, will be gratefully acknowledged. New York, March 17, 1877. NOTICE OF THE THIRD EDITION. In issuing the Third Edition of the Cychpcedia, the publishers would express their grateful acknowledgments to the educational public for the favorable reception hitherto accorded to it, and the many appreciative, commendatory notices it has received from scholars and educators of the highest culture and the ripest experience. For the present edition of the work, the articles have been carefully revised for the correction of inaccuracies, but no essential change has been made in any of them. In order, however, to bring the work down to the present time, a brief Supplement has been added, containing a summary of the latest educational statistics of this country, as far as they have been received in reply to inquiries. It has been considered best thus to limit the information given, and to refer for further particulars to the official reports and catalogues. . ~ E. Steiger & Co. New \ ore, Feb. 1, 1883. A LIST OF THE PRINCIPAL CONTRIBUTORS TO THE CYCLOPEDIA OF EDUCATION. Prof. E. B. Andrews, I^ancaster, O. Ohio. Hon. Ellis A. Apgar, Supt. Public Instruc- tion, New Jersey. New Jersej . Prof. Th. Appel, Franklin and Marshall Col- lege, Lancaster, I 'a. Reformed Churches (in part). Rev. John G. Baird, Asst. Sec. Board of Edu- cation, Connecticut. Connecticut. Wm. Uland Bourne, New York. Seton, Samuel W. Prof. B. P. Bownk. Boston Oniversity. College (in part). Hegel,— ami other biographical articles. Rev. Dr. R. L. Breck, Chancellor Central Uni- versity, Richmond, Ky. Presbyterians (in part). Eon. Dan. B. Briggs, Supt. Public Instruction, Michigan. .Michigan. Henry B. Buckham, A. M.. Principal State Normal School. Buffalo, N. V. Buffalo. Norman A. Calkins, Asst. Supt. Schools, New York. Color, N umber, Numeral Frame. M. P. Oavert, A. M.. Rhinebeck, N. Y. New York (State). Henry Chettle, M. A. Cxon., Headmaster of Tottenham Grammar School, England. < Oxford l ' Diversity. Jinn. Ki>\\ \i:n Conant, Supt. Public Instruction, Vermont. Vermont. Hon. J. C. Corbin, late Supt, Public Instruc- tion, Arkansas. a rkansas. Rev. I>r. B. T. CORWTN, Millstone. N. J. Reformed Churches in part . George II. Oi rtis, Prof, of Music. New York. Urate, Singing-Schools, Voice, Culture <>r t be. Rev. Dr. S. S. Cotting, Cor. Sec. Baptist Edu- cational Society, Brooklyn, N. Y. Baptists Prof. E. II. Day, .Normal College, New York. i teology, m Lneralogy, Science, The Teaching <>r (part it.). Rev. Dr. Charles I'. Deems, New York. Mci hodlsts (in part i. Bon. W. L. Dickinson, Supt. Schools, Jersey City. Jersey City. James Donaldson, LL. D., Rector of the High School of Edinburgh, and Editor of the Edu- cational News. I'Mucal inn I I heory oi), England (in part), I nst ruction, Memorj . Science, The Teaching of (part I.), Senses, Education of the. Dr. A. Douai, [rvingtou, N. J. Developing Method (in part), Bar, < ultivation of, — an I other articles. Prof. W. E. Grtffis, late of the Imperial Col- lege, Tokio. Japan. Japan. .Miss Maky Gdrney, of the Women's Education I nion. London, England. Women, Higher education of. Hon. II. M. Hale, Supt. Public Instruction, Colorado. Colorado (in part). Prof. Wm. (i. Hammond. Law Department Iowa State University, Iowa City. Law Schools. Thomas F. Harrison, Asst. Supt. of Schools, New York. Geography. Dr. E. O. H wi:\. Chancellor Syracuse Univer- sity. Syracuse, N. Y. Mel liodists (in part). J. W. 11 \wi:s. New York. College (in part), Harvard University, ^ ale College, — and other articles on \m. rican colleges and universities. Rev. W. W. Hicks, Supt. Public Instruction, Florida. Florida (in part). Hon. T. W. Higginson, Newport, R. 1. Rhode Island. Prof. Charles T. IIiuks. Dickinson College, < larlisle, Pa. ( heinist ry. Dr. Fred. Hoffmann, New York. Pharmaceutical Schools. Hon. HENRY HOUCK, Dep. Supt. Public In- struction. Pennsylvania. Pennsylvania. Thomas Hi (jter, A. ME., President Normal Col- lege, New York. Teachers' Seminaries. Rev. I>r. I. F. HcRST, Pics. Drew Theological Seminary, Madison, N. J. Seneca. Rev. I>r. E. T. Jeffers, Prea Westminster Col- lege, New Wilmington, Pa. Prosbj terlans m part). Prof. D. P. Kidder, Drew Theological Semina- ry, Madison, N.J. Sunday-Schools, Theological Schools. Albert K lam roth, late Commissioner of Com- mon Schools, New York. Falk, P. L. A., Germany. Rev. Prof. E. G. Klose, Moravian Theological Seminary, Bethlehem, Pa. Moravians. W. H. Larrabee, New York. Francke, A.H.,— and other biographical articles. Dr. Edwin Leigh. Brooklyn, N. Y. Illiteracy, Phonetics. R. M. Leverson, Ph. D., Denver, Col. Social Kconoiny, Dr. J. Berrien Lindsley, Nashville, Tenn. Nashville University, Presbyterians (in part). J. M. Logan, Princ. Springfield School, Pitts- burgh. Pa. Pittsburgh. W. MacDonald, High School of Edinburgh, Scotland. England (in part), Ireland in part), Scotland (in part). Wdlson MacDonald, Artist, New York. Art-Education. Hon. J. M. McKenzie, Supt. Public Instruction, Nebraska. Nebraska (in part . Hon. J. M. McKleroy, Supt. Public Instruction, Alabama. Alabama (in part) Prof. Francis A. March, Lafayette College, Easton, Pa. Anglo-Saxon, Belles-Lettres, Classics, Christian, English, the Study of, Lafayette College, Orthography. Prof. J. M. D. Meiklejohx, University of St. Andrews, Scotland. English Literature. Thomas Miller, M. A., late Fellow of Queens' College, Cambridge, England . Cambridge University. Prof. 0. W. Morris, late of the Deaf and Dumb Inst., New York. Deaf-Mutes (in part). Prof. Edward Olney, University of Michigan. Algebra, Arithmetic, Geometry, Mathematics. S. S. Packard, of Packard Business College, New York. Book-keeping, Business Colleges. Hon. John D. Philbrick, Supt. Schools, Bos- ton, Mass. Boston. Hon. J. L. Pickard, Supt. Schools, Chicago, 111. Chicago. Prof. A. Rauschenbdsch, Theol. Seminary, Rochester, N. Y. Mennonltes. Hon. Andrew J. Rickoff, Supt. Schools, Cleve- land. 0. Cleveland. Prof. I. P. Roberts, Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y. Agricultural Colleges. C. C. Rounds, Princ. State Normal School, Far- mington. Me. Maine. Win. H. Rcffner, LL. D., Supt. Public In- struction, Virginia. Virginia. Prof. Charles A. Schlegel, Normal College, New York. Mager, Karl. Prof. David B. Scott, College of the City of New York. New York, College of the City of, Oral Instruction, Khetorlc. Edward Seguin, M. D., New York. Thermometry, Educational. Hon. R. D. Shannon, Supt. Public Instruction, Missouri. Missouri. Hon. J. W. Simonds, Supt. Public Instruction, New Hampshire. New Hampshire. Hon. J. H. Smart, Supt. Public Instruction, Indiana. Indiana fin part). Prof. Walter Smith, State Director, Art Edu- cation, Mass. Drawing. William L. Stone, Jr., New York. Stone, William L. Hon. John Swett, late Supt. Public Instruction, California. California, San Francisco (in part). Rev. Dr. I. N. Tarbox, Cor. Sec. Amer. Educ. Society, Boston, Mass. Congregationalists. Rev. Dr. H. A. Thompson, Pres. Otterbein Uni- versity, Westerville, 0. United Brethren in Christ. D. L. Thompson, Plainfield, N. J. Genius, Locke, John, — and other articles. J. S. Thornton, B. A., University College School, London, England. King's College London), London, University of, Murray, Lindley, Owens College (Manchester, England), Preceptors, College of, Rousseau, University College (London). Whxiam B. Wait, Supt. New York Institution for the Blind. Blind, Education of the in part). S. Walker, University College School, London, England. Working Men's College (London). H. L. Wayland, Editor of Tlie National Bap- tist, Philadelphia. Wayland, Francis. Rev. Dr. J. P. Weston, Pres. Dean Academy, Franklin, Mass. Universalists. Prof. J. H. Worman, Norwich, N. Y. Hebrews, Plato, Ronie, — and other articles. R. M. Wyckoff, M. D., Brooklyn, N. Y. Medical Schools (in part 1 . F. Zinsser, M. D., New York. Medical Schools (in part;. •*,> OP THP! ^ lUHIVEESITy] E CYCLOP.EKIA OF EDUCATION. ABACUS (6r. 5/3of, a slab or board), a piece of school apparatus, used to facilitate the teach- ing of chili hen to count, and perform other sim- ple arithmetical operations. Various forms of the abacus are employed as counting or adding machines. .Such a contrivance was much used among the ancients; and in China, epiite long and difficult computations are performed by means of such an instrument, called swan-pan. (See Numeral Frame.) ABBOT, Benjamin, LL. D., distinguished for his long connection with Phillips Academy. Exeter, N. IF., of which institution he was the principal for a period of fifty years, from 1 788 to 183S. He was a graduate of Harvard College. He died at Exeter in 1849, at the advanced age of 86 years. Edward Everett delivered one of his graceful and elegant speeches on the occasion of the retirement of I >r. Abbot from the prin- cipalship of Phillips Exeter Academy. — See Everett, Orations and Speed/is. ABBOTT, Rev. Jacob, a distinguished cler- gyman, teacher, and author, was born at Hallo- well, Me., in 1803. and graduated at Bowdoin College in 1 820. He was professor of mathemat- ics and natural philosophy in Amherst College from 1825 to 1829, and afterwards took charge of the Mount Vernon school for girls, in Boston. In connection with education, he is chiefly noted for his numerous books for the young, among which may be particularly mentioned the Rollo Books, the Franconia Stories, the Harper Stun/ Books, Science for the Young, and The Teacher. A full catalogue of his publications embraces about 200 titles. He has also edited many other educational works, and compiled a series of read- ing books. His brothers, Rev. Gorham D. and Rev. John S. C, are also noted for their labors in the field of educational and literary effort. ABC, the first three letters of the English alphabet, often used to denote the alphabet itself; as. " To learn A B C is felt to be extremely irk- some by the infant," Tat/lor (See Alphabet.) A-B-C BOOK, a primer, or little book used to learn the alphabet and its simplest combina- tions, with tlie most rudimental lessons in read- ing. (See I Lorn-Book.) A-B-C METHOD. See Alphabet Method. ABECEDARIAN. This word, formed from the names of the first four letters of the alpha- bet, is generally used to denote a pupil who has not advanced beyond the most elementary stage of school or book education, that is, who is learning A B C, or the alphabet, The name has been sometimes applied to one engaged in teaching the alphabet, (See Reading, and Word Method.) 1 A-B-C SHOOTERS(Germ. ABC-Schiitzen), pupils of those scholastic vagrants who, during a certain period of the middle ages, and even later, used to wander through many parts of Ger- many, giving instruction to such pupils as they could pick up, who accompanied them in their journeyings. These itinerant teachers were called Bacchants, from their disorderly lives and their disposition to indulge in wild revels. Their pupils were often obliged to purloin food, fowls, etc., to supply their masters' wants, and hence were called, partly in derision of their elementary knowledge, A-B-< ! Shooters — shoot, in their parlance, being the slang word for steal. — See Sohmid, Enci/clopddie; and Barnard, American Journal of Education, vol. v. ABELARD, or Abailard, Pierre, one of the most famous teachers of pliilosophy and theology in the middle ages, was born in Nantes, in 1079, died April 21st, 1142, at St. Marcel, near Chalons-sur-Saone. A pupil of William of Champeaux in philosophy, and of Anselm of Laon in theology, he became the dreaded and hated rival of both, as they found themselves entirely eclipsed by the cosmopolitan reputation of their pupil, who for a time was re- garded in the Christian world as the foremost of all living teachers. The tragic end of his love for his pupil Heloise, whom he had seduced, closed to him the higher ecclesiastical dignities, and drove him into the austerities and retirement of monastic life; but his theological and philo- sophical writings continued to keep the Christian world in a high state of excitement. His opin- ions were repeatedly condemned by councils and synods as heretical, but he always preferred submission to the sentence of the Church rather than open defiance. His influence on the schools of the middle ages was, without doubt, greater than that of any of his contemporaries. He in- troduced dialectics into theology, and thus, as Cousin says, "contributed more than any other to the foundation of scholasticism." A complete edition of the. works of Abelard was published by Cousin (2 vols., Paris, 1849— 1859), containing also valuable notes by the editor. Among the best biographical works on Abelard are those bylte'musat (Abelard, 2 vols., Paris. 1845), and Wilkens (Peter Abalard Gottingen, is.').")). — See also Schmidt, Geschichte der Padaqogik. ABERCROMBIE, John, M. D., was born at Aberdeen, in 1781. and died in 1844. In his profession as a physician he rose to great eminence, and was widely distinguished for his writings on medical subjects. In connection with education, he is noted for his Inquiries con- ABIXGDOX COLLEGE ACADEMY centring the Intellectual Powers, and Tlie Philos- ophy of the Moral Feelings. These two works possess great merit, and have been quite exten- sively used as school text-books. They were edited and adapted to the use of schools in this country by Jacob Abbott. ABINGDON COLLEGE, at Abingdon, HI., under the control of the Disciples of Christ, was founded in April, 1853. The number of students in the institution in 1875 was about 180. It has an endowment of $20,000. The college building is a handsome edifice well supplied with modern furniture and appliances. There are about 1000 volumes in the library, besides which the institution has a museum and laboratory. 'I he names of its successive presidents are Patrick Murphy. •(. W. Butler, and Oval I'irkey. The annual tuition fee is from $30 to S.'i 1 .). ABSENTEEISM is opposed to regularity in the attendance of pupils belonging to a school; that is. the number of school sessions from which a pupil was absent, as compared with the number at which he was present, during any particular period, gives the absenteeism of the pupil for that period. The average daily attendance of pupils divided by the average daily enrollment the "average number belonging" shows the per- centage of attendance: and this subtracted from loo gives, of course, the percentage of absentee- ism. Within certain limits, this is a criterion of efficiency of management and instruction. Class teachers who interest their pupils neces- sarily secure a more regular attendance than those who fail in this respect : and principals of schools who keep a careful watch over all the pupils belonging to their schools, strictly and uniformly enforcing wholesome rules of disci- pline, and carefully notifying parents of the ab- sence of their children, inquiring into the cause of the same, and admonishing both parents and pupils of the need of strict regularity, will, of course, succeed best in this regard. Where the basis for computing the degree of absenteeism is the average enrollment, and where regularity of attendance is made a test of efficient manage- ment, teachers will be more careful to keep the number of pupils on the rolls as little as possible above the average attendance. I leiice. to render this test reliable, a uniform rule should 1h> follow- ed in the discharging of pupils for non-attend- ance. Such a rule has been adopted in many cities <>f the Union, any pupil's name being in- variably dropped from the roll after a certain number of days of absence, however caused. This is based on the principle that irregularity of attendance being at school one day. one week, or one month, and absent the next is not only of no profit to the pupil concerned, but a positive injury to the other pupils, and is a serious hin- drance and embarrassment to the teacher in the management of the school. To some extent, ab- senteeism thus computed may indicate also the prevailing tone of the community in regard to education the degree of appreciation of the benefits of education generally felt by the people, as inducin;; parents to sacrifice their own persona] advantage, in the employment of their children, to the interests of the latter, in enjoying the bene- fits of school instruction. "Absenteeism" is also technically applied to a total neglect of school attendance by a part of the school population of any place. This is exhibited by a comparison of the average attendance of 1 hi pi Is with the census of children of school age. (See Attendance.) ABSTRACT AND CONCRETE. These terms have a very important application in many departments of practical education. Abstract has reference to general ideas, or the ideas of qualities considered apart from the things to which they belong; concrete, to those which are only conceived as belonging to particular objects orsubstances. '! bus, if we speak of a man. a horse, a tree, etc.. we use abstract or general idea.-: for we are not thinking of any particular object of the class, but only of the assemblage of qual- ities or characteristics that especially belong to all the members of the class. But when we mention such names as ( 'icero. Washington. John Smith, etc.. we have in our mind a conception of the charai teristics that served to distinguish those persons from all other men. Thus, the expression five pounds represents a concrete idea : the word five, an abstract one. The immature minds of young children em- ploy to a greal extent concrete ideas, and hence the instruction addressed especially to them should deal principally with these. As the mind advances, it becomes more and more occupied with abstract conceptions, which constitute the material for all the higher forms of thought and ratiocination. ACADEMY i ( Jr. ' \mS^ftm or 'AKod^/teia) was originally the name of a pleasure ground near Athens, and was said to be so called after Aca- demus, a local hero at the time of the Trojan war. Its shady walks became a favorite resort for Plato: and. as he was accustomed to lecture here to his pupils and friends, the school of phi- losophers which was founded by him was called i he Academic School, or merely the Academy. In the history of ancient philosophy, three dif- ferent academies are distinguished, the Old Acad- emy, formed by the immediate followers of Plato, the Middle Academy, founded, about 24 I. by Arcesilaus. and the New Academy, whose founder was ( 'arueades, about L60 B. C. Some- times the philosophical schools founded by Philo and AntiochuS tire called respectively the Fourth and tin' Fifth Academy. Among the Romans. ( 'icero. who regarded himself as all adherent of the Academic philosophy, gave the name of Academy to the gymnasium at his villa near Tusculum, as well as to one of his villas in Campania, where he wrote his Academical Qucestiones. During the middle ages, the term was but little used for learned institutions: but. after the revival of classical studies in the L5th century, it again be- came frequent. In a wider sense, it was some- times applied to higher institutions of learning in general. I iradually. however, its use was, in most countries, restricted to Special schools, as ACADEMY ACCOMPLISHMENTS academies of mining, of commerce, of forestry, of fine arts, and, especially, of music. In Eng- land and the United States, the national high schools for tlic education of military and naval officers arc called academies. Thus, England h;is the Naval Academy at Portsmouth, and the Royal Military Academy at Woolwich; and the United States, the Military Academy at West Point, and the Naval Academy at Annapolis. In the United States, the name has also been assumed by a large number of secondary schools. ■which are designed to prepare ih rir pupils for colleges, or to impart a general knowledge of (he common and higher branches of education. As they are. in nearly all cases, private institutions, independent of any control by state boards, their courses f instruction widely differ, ranging from the lowest primary class to the highest classes of grammar and high schools. Tiny are usually both boarding and day schools. The name academy is also employed to des- ignate associations of learned men for the ad- vancement of science and art. Some of these associations are of an entirely private character, others have been founded by the state. The first academy of this kind was the Museum of Alexandria, in Egypt, which was founded by Ptolemy Soter. After its model, the -lews, to- ward the close of the first century of the < hristian era, began to establish academies for the develop- ment of Talmudic science. Later, the Arabian caliphs established academies at their places of residence, to show their interest in the promotion of science. Efforts to establish Christian acad- emies of this kind were made by Gregory the Great and Charlemagne, but both failed. It was not until the middle of the fifteenth century, that associations of this kind were formed in Italy for the purpose of fostering the free development of science and art, in opposition to the rigid conser- vatism of the monastic and ecclesiastical schools. They gave special attention to the cultivation of the Italian language and literature. It was es- pecially the Aceademia della Crusca, founded at Florence by the poet Grazzini, to which the Italian language is indebted for its purification and development. From Italy, these institutions spread to the other countries of Europe : and, as they became the centers of literary activity, they exercised every-where a prominent influence upon the intellectual progress of the several countries, and, especially, upon the improvement | and regulation of the native tongue. Prominent among these academies, was the Academie fran- caise, instituted, in 1 <'.'{.">. by Cardinal Kiche-j lieu. In 1 7!':"), it was united with three other! French academies into the Instilut national,] the name of which was changed by Louis XVI. i into histitut de France. The Institute con- sisted then of four academies: (1) V Academie francaise, (2) P Academie des inscriptions et\ belles lettres, (3) V Academie des sciences, (4) V Academie des beaux arts. A fifth academy,; V Academie des sciences morales et poUHques, was added in 1832. These academies are among the most important of the kind in the world, and their influence on other educational insti- tutions has been considerable. The Academie franpaise is the highest authority upon every thing relating to the niceties of the French lan- guage, to grammar, and the publication of the French classics. The Academie des inscriptions et 6c//cs- Ifttrrs embraces among the objects of its attention comparative philology. Like the French Institute, the academies in the capitals of Spain, Portugal, Sweden, Russia, and other countries, have gradually become great national centers for the promotion of science and ait; but no such centralization has been effected in Italy, Germany, England, or the United States. In England, the learned corporations correspond- ing to the continental a< ademies of sciences have generally the name society or association. Eng land proper has, however, a royal academy of arts (founded in 1765, re-organized in L768) and a royal academy of music (established in 1822); and in Edinburgh, there is a, royal academy of yachting (founded in 1754). In Ireland, the name academy, according to its continental use. has been adopted forthe Royal Academy of Sciences at Dublin (founded in 1782). --In the United States of America there are also a number of learned societies to which the name academy, in the sense used on the continent of Europe, has been applied. The following societies are called academies : The American Academy of Arts ami Sciences, at Boston (founded in 1780), the Connecticut Academy of Arts and Sciences (founded in 1799), the Academy of Natural Science in Philadelphia (founded in 1818), the Pennsylvania Academy of Fine Arts (established in 1807), the National Academy of Design, at New York (founded in 1828) ; the Medical Acad- emy of New York. The National Academy of Sciences was incorporated by Congress, March 3d, 1863. In New York, Philadelphia, Brook- lyn, Chicago, and other large cities, the princi- pal opera house is called the Academy of Music. ACCOMPLISHMENTS. This term, as contrasted with en/turf, refers to those educa- tional acquirements which fit a person for certain special activities, while culture has reference to the general improvement of the character or mental faculties. Hence the expression "external accomplishments," or " ornamental accomplish- ments," such as skill in foreign languages, music. drawing, painting, dancing, etc. Involved in this application of the term, is the idea of display, or the ability to please, or the power to awaken ad- miration in the beholder. Thus in the Spectator we find the expression "the visible graces of speech and the dumb eloquence of motion.'* as indicating the accomplishments of a pleasing a I dress and a graceful carriage. Accomplishments are either purely intellect- ual, as that of language, or partly or wholly artistic, such as music, drawing, dancing. etc. In the education of boys, fencing and boxing were formerly considered as Indispensable accomplish- ments; but of these, at the present time, rowing seems to take precedence, as contributing to a healthy development of the physical system. ACCOM PLISHMKN'TS ADAMS In many classes of schools, particularly in private seminaries, the acquisition of certain orna- mental accomplishments constitutes the chief end of education. Were these accomplishments based on a solid culture of the intellectual and moral nature, they would be very proper and desirable; but being merely showy and superficial, they constitute a perversion of the true end of edu- cation. Tims Hannah More remarks: "In train- ing our daughters, should we not carefully culti- vate intellect, implant religion, and cherish mod- esty? Then, whatever is engaging in manners would lie the aatural result of whatever is just in sentiment and correct in principle. Softness would grow out of humility, and external delicacy would Bpring from purity of heart." The folly and wrong of giving this exclusive attention to mere accomplishments have very frequently been a subject of satirical invective. Says Sydney Smith: "A woman of accomplishments may entertain tin ise who have the pleasure of knowing her for half an hour with great brilliancy ; but a mind full of ideas, anil with that elastic spring which the love of knowledge only can convey, is a perpetual source of exhilaration and amuse- ment to all that come within its reach. Therefore, instead of hanging the understanding of a woman upon walls, or hearing it vibrate upon strings, instead of seeing it in clouds, or hearing it in the wind, we would make 1 it the first spring and or- nament of society, by enriching it with attain- ments, upon which alone such power depends." Goldsmith also inveighed severely against this practice in his time. "Another passion," he says, " which the present age is apt to run into is, to make children learn all things, — the lan- guages, the sciences, music, the exercises, and painting. Thus the child soon becomes a talker in all, but a master in none. Ife thus acquires a superficial fondness for everything, and only shows his ignorance, when he attempts to exhibit his skill." The tendency of the present time, in what is called fashionable education, is equally subject to the same unfavorable criticism. Ac- complishments, in the first stages of education, are to lie regarded as secondary to the solid im- provement of the mind. Those rudimentary at- tainments which constitute the basis of all school education, and are indispensable to any further progress, namely, reading, spelling, writing, and arithmetic, must of course he made: to which should be added the ability to use one's own lan- guage, in speaking and writing, with tolerable ease and propriety. A common-school educa- tion should give great prominence to these, as not only constituting the acquirements most generally needed for success in hf e', bul as placing in the hands of the pupils the keys to future progress in learning. Accomplishment, being derived from the French accomplir, to finish or complete, may be contrasted with smattering, a mere superficial acquirement of some of the prominent orrudi- mental parts of any subject. No educational scheme should admit of the study of any branch of knowledge which cannot, under the given circumstances and in the time proposed, be ac- complished so as to give the pupils who are to pursue it. a thorough knowledge of the subject, as well as the ability to apply it to some prac- tical purpose. The peculiar talent, or bent of mind, of children should be regarded, in the at- tempt to bestow upon them ornamental ac- complishments, such as music and drawing, ex- cept such elementary portions of these arts as are within the capacity of all. and which constitute, not indeed special accomplishments, but a part of that general culture which the most element- ary education should bestow. (See CULTURE.) ACQUISITION. The acquisition of knowl- edge must be, to a certain extent, the scope of every process of teaching. Sometimes it is the primary object : but, in the earlier stages of edu- cation, it is generally secondary, the educative value of the process taking precedence of the prac- tical importance of the knowledge communicated. The acquisition of new ideas must always, more or less, improve the mind by affording additional material for the exercise of its various faculties: but. in education, what particular faculties are concerned in the study of any subject or branch of knowledge, is a matter of paramount im- portance, and therefore should never be lost sight of by the teacher. Where this is disre- garded, instruction is apt to degenerate into mere rote-teaching ; and the teacher will often rest satisfied when his pupil can repeat the formula 1 of knowledge, without evincing the acquisition of new ideas, on which alone the improvement of the mind depends. ACROAMATIC METHOD (Gr. oKpoaua- tikoc, to be heard, designed for hearing only), a name originally applied to the esoteric teachings of Aristotle and other Greek philosophers, to designate such as were confined to their imme- diate hearers, and not committed to writing, loiter, the term has been applied to a system of instruction in which the teacher speaks and the pupil only listens. A method of this kind, of course, presupposes scholars of a certain maturity of age and of considerable progress in intellectual culture, it forms the basis of the lecture system. (See Lecture.) ADAM, Alexander, I/L. D., was born in Scotland, in 17-11. and died in L809. He at- tained a high distinction as a teacher while licet or ,.f the High School at Edinburgh (1768 -1808). lie was also the author of several educational text-books, among which his Roman Antiquities (1791) has been very extensively used in this country and in < Ireal Britain. ADAMS, John, LL. D., was born in Can- terbury, < 't.. in L772, and died m Jacksonville, 111., in L863. lie was noted both as a teacher and a philanthropist. After graduating at rale College, in I7',l.">. he taught the academy in his native town, and subsequently other schools. till, in L810, he became principal of Phillips Academy. Andovcr. Mass., in which position he continued for twenty-three years. In L833, he removed to Illinois, and was very active in effect- ing improvements in the school system of that ADRIAN UOLLKGE ESTHETIC (TI/ITRK State. His labors in connection with various }>enevoleiit institutions in both States, were nu- merous and important. Through his efforts, a large Dumber of Sunday-schools were established in his adopted State. Many essays and other publications on education attest the intelligence and ability with which he devoted himself to the training of the young. ADRIAN COLLEGE, at Adrian. Midi., was founded in is.")!), by the Methodists. The number of students is about 21)0, males and females, about one fourth of whom belong to the collegiate department. It has a classical and a scientific course of instruction, a school of the- ology, a school of music, and a normal class. Its corps of instructors numbers twelve, and it, has one endowed professorship. The number of volumes in its library is about 1000; its endow- ment is$100,000. Rev. (J. B McKlroy, D. D., is the president of the Institution (1876). The tuition fee is very small. ADULTS, Schools for. The proper time to obtain instruction is during the periods of boyhood or girlhood, and youth. (See Age in Education.) It is in the interest of states as well as of families and individuals, that, as much as possible, every child, not prevented by physical disabilities, should have its share in the instruc- tion provided by public legislation and private effort. The majority of states have even deemed it a duty to make education compulsory, in order to render it universal. (See Compulsory Edu- cation.) It is also the general tendency of edu- cational legislation to extend the legal school age to the utmost, in order to make the educa- tion of the school population as thorough as pos- sible. (See School Age.) Still, though boy- hood and youth are the proper ages for in- struction, the need of special schools for adults has always been deeply felt. Though modern legislation has succeeded in some countries in almost wholly extinguishing illiteracy (see Illit- eracy), the number of adults whose education, during the proper age. has either been entire- ly insufficient, or who find themselves on en- tering life, without the requisite amount of information specially needed in their several avocations, remains ;us great as ever, and is even likely to increase, as the standard of popular education becomes more elevated. Systematic reading, instruction by private teachers, and. more recently, popular lectures, are among the principal agencies for supplementing the de- ficiencies of school education. Efforts have, How- ever, not been wanting in many states to establish schools for adults for the special purpose of giving to those who have left the public schools and entered into practical life, a suitable oppor- tunity to supply the deficiency of their school education. .Many German states began in the l*th century to establish Sunday-schools in which, besides religious education, a review of the instruction given in the elementary school was provided for. As the school age. in the < rerman states, only extended t<> the 1 Ith year, a Sunday-school was specially provided for boys and girls to the Kith or 18th year of age. Sev- eral states made attendance at these schools ob- ligatory for all boys and girls who had left the elementary school and not entered any higher school. Special attention has been given to schools of this class in Austria, where the gov- ernment has established "reviewing schools" ( Wiederfiolungssohulen.) (See Austria.) As the ordinary Sunday or reviewing school was found to be insufficient, especially for young me- chanics, special classes or schools were organized in which particularly instruction in drawing was given. The attendance at these schools is always voluntary ; inmost of them the scholars have to pay moderate fees; instruction is gen- erally given on Sunday mornings, and, in most schools, is confined to writing, arithmetic, and drawing. In some of the German states, espe- cially in Wiirtemberg, an evening school on week-days has been added to the Sunday-school; and thus a great impulse has been given for the further development of industrial schools for adults. (See Industrial Schools.) The Schools for Adults established in other Euri >pean countries are .mostly evening industrial schools. In the United States, evening schools have been very ex- tensively introduced, to give to all adults an op- portunity of obtaining the same education as children receive during the day: ami some of the larger cities afford in these evening high schools instruction in the studies of a higher grade. (See Evening Schools.) ADVENTISTS. This is the name of several organizations of American Christians, the dis- tinctive doctrine of whom is the belief in the speedy second advent of ( hrist, and the end of the world. In 1875, there were four different organ- izations: (1) The Advent Christian Association ; (2) TheAmerican Millennial Association (Evangel- ical Adventists); (3) The Life and Advent Union; (1) The Seventh Day Adveutists. 'I he churches of this denomination were formerly almost wholly independent, and had fewer church boards for common interests than most of the other religious denominations of the United States. The great- est advance in point of organization has been made by the Seventh Day Adventists. 'I he sub- ject of education and the founding of a denomi- national school was brought to the attention of the members of this denomination by Elder •James White and wife, in the early part of 1872. The matter was referred to a General Com- mittee, who. during the summer and autumn of 1ST.'}, solicited subscriptions to this enterprise, obtaining pledges for over $54,000. I Mi the 1 6th of March. L874, an association was formed, under the law of Michigan, 'dor the incorporation of institutions of learning ;" and a school edifice, capable of accommodating between four and five hundred students, was finished in 1875. — Sec Annual Cyclopedia, 1875, art. Adventists; also SeventJi Day Adventists; a brief sketcli of their Origin, Progress, and Principles (Battle Creek, L874). AESTHETIC CULTURE. See Esthetic s Ct'LTHBE. AFFECTATION AGE AFFECTATION, as opposed to what is real, genuine, and natural, is care fully to be guarded against in the education of the young. In certain peculiarities of character, there is a proneness to the formation of habits of affectation in manners and speech. This tendency, however, rarely shows itself at an early age. < 'hildren generally yield to their natural impulses, and do not as- sume or feign what they do not feel. or. to use a common expression, " put on airs." Their mode of training, however, may tend to this, partic- ularly if they arc forced to assume an unnatural mode of expression in phraseology or pronuncia- tion, in the attempt to make them excessively pre- cise in such matters. Some styles of reading and elocution may lead to this characteristic; and hence the importance of adopting methods that, in all respects correspond to the prevailing usage. Certainly, nothing can be more disgusting than the forced imitation of peculiar and unnatural models of conceived propriety of speech and manners, which we sometimes find to prevail among the pupils of certain schools, or the ••min- cing airs " which are often assumed by those, both male and female, but particularly the latter, who affect to belong to the best society, and hence ar- rogate to themselves a superior degree of refine- ment. The standard of the educator should lie. in every respect, that ease, grace, simplicity, and beauty that belong to what is natural : and every tendency to the contrary, in his pupils, should be promptly and sternly repressed. Locke says: "Plain and rough nature left to itself, is much lietter than an artificial ungracefulness, and such studied ways of being ill fashioned. The want of an accomplishment, or some defect in our be- havior, coming short of the utmost gracefulness, often scapes observation ; 1 nit affectation in any part of our carriage, is lighting up a candle to our defects, and never fails to make us to be taken notice of, either as wanting sense or want- in- sincerity." — See Locke, Thoughts concern- ing Education. AGASSIZ, Louis John Rudolph. This eminent naturalist and teacher was born at Motiers, near Neufchatel, in Switzerland. May 28., 1807, and died at < lambridge, Mass., Dec. 14., Is;:!. His ancestors were Huguenots, driven from France by the revocation of the edict of Nantes. His father was the pastor of a protest- ant parish; his mother, the daughter of a phy- sician. Under the latter he received his firsl education till the age of eleven, when he was M'nt to the gymnasium at Bienne, where he re- mained four years. His subsequenl studies were puisne 1 at the college of Lausanne, the medical school of Zurich, ami the universities of Heidel- berg and Munich. At the latter place, he partic- ularly distinguished himself for his attainments in natural history. At Paris, he made the ac- quaintance of Humboldl and Guvier, both of whom held him in high esteem for his talents and scientific acquirements. In 1846, he came to the United States, being invited to deliver a course of lectures at the I owell I list it ute. in Boston. The next j ar, he accepted the appointmenl <>f professor of zoology and geology in the Lawrence Scientific School, then just established. He com- menced his duties in 1848, and settled per- manently in the United States, where his greatest fame was achieved by his numerous labors as a naturalist and a scientific lecturer and teacher. The establishment of the Anderson School of Natural History on Penikese Island in loTH, was almost the last act of his life. The means for founding this school were furnished by Mr. John Anderson, a generous and public-spirited citizen of New York, who not only devoted for this ob- ject the island of Penikese, but the sum of $50,000, as a permanent endowment. Agassiz had long advocated the establishment of such a school for the special instruction of teachers in marine zoology ; and during the summer of L873, he devoted his time and energies to this institution, being present at every exercise and lecture, and the constant companion of the students. His chief publications were Recher- ches sur les Poissons Fossiles, L833- — 1844; Etudes sur les (/lacier*. 1840 ; System?, gla- ciaire, is IT. and Contributions to the Natural History of the United States. Though chiefly eminent as a naturalist, and particularly in the department of ichthyology, he was an accom- plished linguist, being versed in six languages, lie read Plato and Aristotle in the original, wrote several works in elegant Latin, and was a good Hebraist. French and German were to him vernacular tongues, and he could speak and write the English language with case and correctness. He was a natural teacher, fond of giving instruction, patient and sympathetic, overflowing with an earnest love for bis sub- ject, and having a mind replete with stoics of information. His voice. look, and manner at once gained the attention of his pupils : and the clearness of his explanations as well as the fluen- cy of his delivery gave interest to every subject upon which he spoke. His skill in ready graphic delineations with chalk and blackboard was astonishing, and greatly contributed to the effectiveness of his teaching. Lew have ever made such rich additions to the stores of science, or have been more zealous in diffusing the bene- fits of knowledge among mankind. His ex- ample as a teacher has been of very greal value, since his system was to teach from natural ob- jects rather than from books,- to enable the pupil to acquire an experience of bis own before presenting to his mind the results of the ex- perience and observation of Others. His own assumed title " Louis Agassiz Teacher," was tin c Of which he seemed to be most proud ; and till teachers should cherish the example which he set, as the true means of success. AGE, in Education. The life of man has been variously divided into periods, or ages. Thus Pythagoras assumed four, Solon and Ma- crobiusten, different ages, while others have pre- ferred a division into five, six. seven, or eight. With regard to the education of man, one great turning point stands forth so conspicuously, that t ichers al all times have chosen it as a broad A.GE line of demarcation, into whatever number of periods they have thought it proper to divide human life. This turning-point in life is the period when man panes from the age of youth into that of virility. The physical development at this time has become complete ; in social life both Bexes have attained majority ; and the edu- cation of the young man or woman for the career that has been selected, is, in the main, con- cluded. Up to this time, the education of man is conducted by others, chiefly parents and teachers: henceforward, he is expected to edu- cate himself, and to assume the education of others. Daring the period of life when man is depend- ent upon others for his education, three different ages are broadly distinguished, — childhood, boy- hoo 1 or girlhoo Land youth. These are marked. in the physical development of the body, by the shedding of teeth, the entrance of puberty, and the setting in of virility. The process of mental development in these three ages is as different aa the physical basis ; and, accordingly, each of them demands a peculiar pedagogical and didactical treatment. Childhood, which embraces the first seven years of life. is characterized by the rapid growth and development of the organs of the body. At the age of seven a chill weighs about six times as much as at its birth, and it has attained one half of the stature, and about one thir 1 or one fourth of the weight of the grown man. The mind is. during this period, more receptive than self- active : the only manifestations of self-activity being found in the efforts to retain and arrange the impressions which have been received. All pedagogical influence upon the pupil in this age can be only of a preparatory character. The body must be guarded against injuries, and must have opportunities for a vigorous and manifold develop- ment. The mind must be preserved from debasing, weakening, or over exciting influences, and must be kept open for any thing that is conducive to the development of its faculties; and, in order not to become sated and confused, it must learn to distinguish what is important from the less important. As the child is thoroughly dependent upon its educator and unable to direct its own exertions, it should be made to understand as clearly as possible, that any opposition of its own will to that of its educators can be followed by only evil consequences. It should, therefore, be taught obedience, but not obedience through fear, for fear has a repressive influence upon the development of the mental faculties, but an obedience springing from confidence in the superior wisdom and experience of the teacher, and from love produced by his kindness. The natural educators of the child are the parents, especially the mother; but, toward the close of this age. systematic teaching by a professional teacher begins. Legislation in regard to the school age differs considerably in different countries. In some, children are sent to the pub- He schools when they are four years of age : in others, not until they are seven. (See School A ok.) Of course, instruction at such an age must be limited to the most elementary rudi- ments, such as reading, writing, and arithmetic. The method should be thoroughly adapted to tin- mental condition of the child, and modern edu- cators are agreed in recognizing the importance of object teaching for the first stages of a child's instruction. A novel mode of instruction, specially intended as introductory to the regular prima r\ school, is the kindergarten, founded by Frcelxd. The astonishing rapidity with which it lias spread through all the countries of the civilized world, and found admission into educational systems otherwise radii ally at variance, seems to prove it to lie a great improvement in elementary education. (See Kindergarten.) Boyhood or ijirlhooil embraces the time from the 7th to the 14th year of age. In the develop- ment of the body, this age is characterized by lie appearance of the permanent teeth, by the completed growth of the brain, and by the first consciousness of sexual difference. Boys and -iris long for the free and frequent exercise of their muscular systems. At the beginning of this age. girls like to take an active part in the plays of the boys ; but they soon show a preference for more quiet occupations and less publicity ; while, on tie other hand, boys manifest an increased interest in noisy and wild sports. It is among the prime duties of the educators of this age. to keep the development of the natural desires and aspirations of the two sexes within the right channels. The minds of boys and girls afford many proofs of independent thought and activity. The company of adults is not sought for by them as eagerly as before, but they feel entire satisfaction in the society of children of their own age. They think, as yet. little of the realities of life and of their future careers ; but their plays give more evidence, than before, of plan, serious thought, and perseverance, and generally indicate the faculties with which they have been most strongly endowed ; each child, in this way, foreboding to some extent its future career. It is of great importance that the educator should not only understand the peculiar nature of this age in general, but that he should thoroughly know the character of each individual ; for the faults which are peculiar to this age are best overcome in individual cases, if the educator knows how to make the right kind of appeal to those good qualities of his pupils which are most strongly developed. !n arran- ging a course of instruction for this age. it must be specially remembered that the minds of boys ami girls are predominantly receptive. Hie mem- ory readily receives and faithfully retains im- pressions: and this, therefore, is the right time for learning a foreign language and geographical and historical facts. The independence of mind peculiar to this age shows itself at the same time in the growth of imagination, which awakens in the boy a lively interest in all that is great and extraordinary in history. On many questions telat in-- to the education proper for this age. educators still differ. Prominent among these AGRICOLA AGRICULTURAL COLLEGES questions, are, whether the two sexes should be educated separately or conjointly, to what extent the same course of instruction should be pre- scribed for both, whether special studies should be begun at this age, or whether the entire course should be obligatory for all the children of a school. (See Co-education of the Sexes.) The age of youth extends from the beginning of puberty to the complete development of sexu- ality, or from the fourteenth to about the twenty- first year of age. At this time the growth of j the body is completed ; young men and women j become aware of their special duties of life and of the difference in the careers upon which they are | respectively to enter. The time of study is draw- I ing to its close ; the entrance into active life is at | hand. Among the lower classes of society, this transition occurs at the beginning of this age; and the only increase of knowledge that is access- j ible to most persons of these classes must be de- rived from evening schools, public lectures, and reading ; while those of the wealthier classes, and all who wish to fit themselves for any of the learned professions, now enter upon the special studies of those professions, or finish the general studies of the preceding age. Toward the close of this period, if not earner, the preparations for enter- ing public life are completed,* >r an actual entrance into life begins. —See Schw irz, Erziehungslekre; ScHLEIERMACHEK, Erziekztngslehre, edited by Platz; Beneke, Erziehungs- und Unterrichts- lehre; Berbart, Umriss padagogiscTier Vor- lesungen. AGRICOLA, Rodolphus, an eminent edu- cator of the middle ages, was horn in August 14-!3 (or 1442) at Baflo, near Groningen, in Holland. Bis original name was Buysmann, which, after the custom of his time, he exchanged for a Latin name. After his native province, Friesland, he is also sometime-; called Frisius. lie studied at the universities of Louvain, Paris, and Ferrara; and, after returning to bis native country, distin- guished himself greatly by introducing the study of Greek into the countries north of the Alps. In 14S.'i, lie accepted an invitation from his friend. Bishop Dalberg of Worms, and deliv- ered lectures alternately at Beidelberg and at Worms, lie died in Heidelberg, Oct. 28., 1485. Ilis works, which are uol very numerous, are written in Latin. His principal work De inven- tione dialectica attacks the scholastic philosophy of the age. In an educational point of view, his epistle to Barbirianus in Antwerp, the so-called Epistola de formando studio, is of special im- j portance. At the time of its publication, it was regarded as a compendium of the pedagogical views of the German humanists. Its prime ob- ject was to advise his friend as to the continua- tion of hisstudies. Agricola recommended philos- ophy, by which term he understood also ethics and physics, and, in general, the entire range of natural science, as the study most deserving his friend's attention: he represents it as the only road to true knowledge and perfect felicity. the other science could procure only a Willi" doubtful happiness. The Latin language was regarded at that time as necessary for this study, but Agricola advised his friend always to repro- duce what he had learned in German. Three things were needed for pursuing any study: (1 ) To understand what had been learned; (2) To retain what had been understood ; (3) To derive ad- vantage from what had been learned. The first was obtained by application, the second was the gift of memory, the third could only be ac- quired by practice. While the works left by Agricola would alone not suffice to assign to him a prominent place among the educators of the middle ages, it appears from the writings of his contemporaries that his personal influence was very great, and that, in fact, he was regarded as second to none but his friend Reuchlin. His letters to Reuchlin, to Alexander Hegi us, an ex- cellent educator, who founded the famous school of Deventer, to Antonius Liber of Soest, a very zealous humanist, who. after fruitless efforts to establish a school at Emmerich. Kampen, and Amsterdam, at length succeeded at Alkmaar, where he died in 1514, and to other contem- poraries, contain a large amount of information on the educational movements of his times. A complete edition of the works of Agricola has been published by Alardus, of Amsterdam (Co- logne. L539). — See Schmidt. Oeschichte der Pa- dagogik, h. 152; Ratjmer, Geschichte der Pdda- <>!> : making the total number who have entered these courses, for a. longer or a shorter period. 2,676. The number of students, as far as reported, in all the depart- ments of the institutions named, is 6,907, of whom 715 are ladies, and 2,889 are receiving instruction in military tactics. The minimum cost of board — usually in clubs — is SI. 25 per week; the maximum cost, $5.00; and the average, $3.00. The cost of room rent per term ranges- from $1.33 to $12.00. In all but two or three institutions, some provision is made for a greater or less number of free scholarships, and several offer free tuition for all. As a general rule, no pains have been spared by these colleges to fur- nish all the facilities for pursuing a college course at the least possible expense. Manual labor is re- quired in 11 of the colleges ; in the others, it is optional. The price paid for students' labor ranges from 5 to IS cents per hour. State ap- propriations have been made of nearly one and a half million of dollars, which have been largely used for erecting buildings. The amount of pri- vate donations it is iuqwssible to arrive at ac- curately, but they cannot fall short of $5,000,01)0. The late Ezra Cornell gave $700,000 to the uni- versity that bears his name, and the total amount of private donations to this single institution is not less than SI ,400.000, of which the colleges of agriculture and the mechanic arts have received their due proportion. The number and equipment of laboratories, workshops, etc., in the colleges that serve, directly or indirectly, to illustrate and teach subjects relating to agriculture, an- as fol- lows : mechanical laboratories or workshops, 10, all of which are furnished with tools for work- ing in ii and wood, and several with engines, planers, turning-lathes, drilling-machines, saws. and other necessary but less expensive tools; physical laboratories, L6, most of which are furnished with apparatus for illustrating the sub- jects of mechanics, electricity, magnetism, heat, acoustics, and optics. All. with one or two ex- ceptions, have well equipped chemical labarato- ries; and several of them furnish facilities for in- struction in chemistry not excelled in any other 10 AGRICULTURAL COLLEGES institutions in the United States. Nine anatom- ical, 12 geological, and 15 botanical laboratories are already equipped for student practice. Eight of these colleges have greenhouses in operation ; most of them have drafting-rooms, with the necessary tables and models for illustrating the subjects taught. A large amount of practice in drawing is, moreover, required in several of the branches related to agriculture. Eree-hand • hawing, as yet, has not been largely introduced. Some ten colleges have large collections of mod- els of farm implements and machinery; engrav- ings, photographs, charts, and drawings; to- gether with numerous specimens of grains, grasses, anil other plants ; geological and miner- alogical specimens : collections of insects and skeletons of domestic anl other animals: all constituting what might be called an agricult- ural museum, though usually kept in separate rooms for the sake of convenience. Ten of these institutions offer one or more prizes for good scholarship; six report, through their lea ling otficer, that the effect of offering such prizes appears to be "good ;" six consider it "bad;" two. "doubtful :' one, •• that it depends on cir- cumstances :" one. that it is " a healthy stimu- lant to be carefully used : " and one. " won con- slat" \\ least twelve appear to have kept care- ful accounts of farm receipts and expenditures; but since we have no reports of the amount of increase in the valuations of farm-stock, imple- ments, etc., it is impossible to say whether the farms are worked at a profit or a loss. The total gross receipts of twelve farms reported, for L874, are $64,329.60, or an average of $5,360.80 per farm. The total expenditures for experi- ments, during the same year, on eight of these farms, are S"\l-13.2<>. This indicates that farm experiments are not, as yet, carried on to any great extent ; and the reason for this is, doubt- less, a lack of means rather than of disposition. Every professor of agriculture fully appreciates the benefit, not only to his class but to himself as well, of extended and systematically conducted experiments. They are, indeed, effective but costly auxiliaries to the class-room lectures. There is a constantly increasing tendency to- ward using the farm and its appliances, regard- Less of pro'it or loss, in order to teach and illus- trate the principles of agriculture, rather than — - as has too often been the case using it simply as a means of increasing the common fund. The aggregate number of acres used for general and experimental farming by twenty of these col- leges is 5,081 ; added to which there are 1 12 acres of orchard. 92 acres of vegetable gar- den, 29 acres of small-fruit garden, 1,360 acres of native timber, 438 acres of planted timber, and 580 acres used as college "■rounds. Though we find thai the planted timber is about six acres to each hundred of arable land, - w Inch is certainly a very creditable showing yet forestry i- taught to but a limited extent, there being no distinctive course yel marked out in that branch of study. We are far behind some of the Euro j »ean countries in our facilities and methods for training students in the art and practice of the care, preservation, and planting of forests. As a part of the equipment for illustration and practice on these farms, are found some 500 head of neat-cattle. 236 of which are thorough-breds. representing nine distinct 1 needs. The horses and mules number 129, only 3 of which are thorough-breds: the total number of sheep is 233, of which 58 are pure bloods of various breeds; the swine exceed 500, including about 4()i> pure-bred animals, representing nearly all of the well-established breeds. This aggregation of laboratories, workshops, museums, greenhouses, orchards, gardens, farms, and domestic animals is furnished and provided for the express pur- pose of affording, not only the means for illus- trating the subjects taught, but actual experience and skill in those processes which require that the judgment, eye. and hand, as well as the in- tellect, should be trained. The propriety and expediency of the Congres- sional grant by means of which these institu- tions have been established, have been seriously called in question; indeed, it has been held that the function of government should be strictly confined to the promotion of elementary instruc- tion. In L873, President Eliot, of Harvard College, took strong ground against the endow- ment, by the Government, of institutions for su- perior or technical instruction, and was sus- tained in this view by President McCosh and others. At the session of the National Educa- tional Association, held at Elmira, N. V., in Au- gust, L873, this question was considerably dis- cussed, and the principle underlying the endow- ment of the agricultural colleges was ably vindi- cated in a paper by Prof. f Wehrli, and educated nearly 3,000 pupils. 'I he success of Ilofwyl led to the establishment of other schools of the same character; and. at present, such schools are found in every country of Europe. They are very numerous in Germany and Aus- tria, and are divided into two classes. — a lower, called Ackerbauschule, intended chiefly to give practical instruction in agriculture, and a higher, called Landwirlhschafisschule, in which the whole science of agriculture, with all its auxil- iary sciences, is taught. The most celebrated among the schools of a higher class are those at Hohenheim (established in 1818), Schleisheim (1822), Jena (1826), Eldena (1835). Wiesbaden (1836), Tharand (1829), Regenwalde (1842), Poppelsdorf (1H46), Proskau (1847), I ngarisch- Altenburg (181 8). Special chairs of agriculture have been established at the universities of Rer- lin, Halle, Gottingen, Munich, Leipsic, Uiessen, and Jena ; and instruction in agriculture is also given in the polytechnic schools. England has a Royal Agricultural College at Cirencester, founded in 1849 ; and in Scotland, the Uni- versity of Edinburgh has a chair of agriculture, and special lectures are given in a college at Aberdeen. Ireland has two agricultural schools of a higher grade, — one at Templemoyle, founded in 1827; and the other at Glasnevin, founded in L838. France has three higher agricultural schools and one school of forestry. In Italy, there are two agricultural schools of a higher grade, at Milan and 1'ortici. Russia, besides a large number of schools of agriculture and forestry of a lower grade, has an Agricultural Institute at Gorygorezk, founded in L836, an Institute of Agriculture and forestry at New Alexandria, and an Academy of Agriculture and forestry at Pctrovskoi. See LoEBE, Die landwirthschofUichen LehranstaUen Europa's (Stuttgart. L849) ; Schulz, Die (heoretisch-prak- tische Ackerbauschule (Jena, 1869). In the following tabular exhibit, will be found a full statement of the location, condition, re- sources, etc., of all the agricultural colleges and departments in the United States. 12 AGRICULTURAL COLLEGES STATE TOWN Arkansas Fayetteville Alabama Auburn California Oakland Connecticut New Haven Delaware Newark Florida J ... ' ( Athens ) Borgia | Dahlonega . . . } Illinois Champaign Indiana La Fayette Iowa 'Ames Kansas 'Manhattan Kentucky . Louisiana . Maine Lexington Orono Maryland Near Hyattsvillo, (Boston Massachusetts ( Amherst . Lansing Michigan . . Minnesota Minneapolis Mississippi Oxford Missouri jColumbia Nebraska Lincoln Nevada lElko New Hampshire Hanover New Jersey New York North Carolina. Ohio Oregon Pennsylvania . . Hhode Island. . , South Carolina. Tennessee , Texas \ ermont New Brunswick. Ithaca Chapel Hill Columbus Cor vail is State College. Providence. . . Orangeburg . Knoxville Bryan Burlington . . Name and location of insti- tution, and date of organiza- tion Virginia West Virginia. Wisconsin ! (Hampton f Blaoksburgb antown . . M:i llS'in ( Ark. Indus. University, i ( Jan. 1871 j | Agr. & Mechan. Coll. of ( Alabama, March 1872. ( Univ. of California, Fall I of 1869 Yale Coll. — Sheffield Scientific School, 1846. . Delaware College Florida State Agr. Coll. Univ. of ( Coll. of Agr. Georgia. ( & Mech. Arts (HI. Indus. University, I March 1808 ( Perdue Univ., Septem- ( ber 16th, 1874 Iowa State Agr. Coll. '68 Kansas State Agr. Coll. (Agr. & Mechan. Coll. of ( Kentucky, 1866 ( Maine State Coll. of Agr. ) ( & Mech. Arts. 186'.).. . J Maryland Agr. Coll., '68 I Mass. Inst, of Technol- 1 I ogy ( \ Muss. Agr. College, Oc- I I tober 2d, 1867 j I Mich. State Agr. Coll.. I ( February 1855 ) Univ. of Minn., 1868.... Univ. of Mississippi .... /Univ. of Mo., 1840 \ Agr. College, organized ) 1870 { Agr. Coll. of Nebraska, i | June 1872 J Prep. Department Dartmouth Coll.— N. H. Coll. of Agr. & Mech. Arts Rutgers College, 1770... Cornell University. 1868 Univ. of North Carolina (Ohio Agr. & Mech. Col-) ( lege, 1873. ( (Corvallis College, Au- I gust, 1868 j Pennsylvania State Col- 1 I lege, February 1859..] Brown University I ( llaflin University .Stale > I Agr. Coll. & Mech. Ins. ) Tenn. Agr. Coll.. 1869.. . I Agr. & Mech. coll. of I Texas I Univ. of Vermont and I state Agr. coll.. 1866. j Hampton Normal \- Agr. | i ustitution ) ( Virginia Agr & Mech. i \ College, 1872 i West Virginia Univ I ii\ . el' Wisconsin. 1868 Name. title, and age president of N. P. Gates, A. M., 42. . . Rev. I. F. Tichenor, D. D.,49 U (J ^i re. O h ■- - '— a c SJ — V E r. u — ^ < z — u 3 - u O O 2 ■z: ■ • 3-3 J= ~ t» 'J a 3 v -O s<5 2 5-ca N> u . g o< u ° o £ 5 »J °5; 6.2 s-s Rev. Noah Porter, D. D., LL. D Win. H. Purnell, A.M.. (Not yet organized.] Bev. A. Lipscomb, D. D. John M. Gregory, LL.D., regent A. M. Shortridge, A.i M., 42 A. S. Welch, LL.D., 53.. ( Rev. Joseph Deuison, I D. D J. B. Bowman, LL. D., regent Not yet organized.) Rev. C.F. .Allen, D.D., 59 W. H. Parker. 49 John D. Runkle, Ph. D.. LL. D W. S. Clark, LL. D., 50.. 10 10 5 20 35 10 11 29 1 13 13 7 34 T. C. Abbot, LL.D. W.W. Folwell. M. A..43. < Rev. J. N. Waddel, D. D., I Chancellor D. Read. LL. D..68 S. R. Thompson Dean. 42 I D. R. Sessions, Prin- i cipal. 36 Rev. Asa D. Smith, D.D., LL. D (Rev. W. H. Campbell. i Ii. D A.D.White, LL.D, 43.. (Not yet organized.) Edward Orton. A. M... B. L. Arnold, A. M.,38.. Jas. Calder, D. D , 50... (Bev. E. G. Robinson. ]). j D., LL.D Bev. K.Cooke. A.M., M.l> | Rev. T. W. Humes. S. T. | D., 60 Not yel organized.] M. D.Buckham, A.M.. 43 S. C. Armstrong. 86. . . . c. I., c. Minor, M. \.. 1. 1.. D., 30 13 10 13 25 i Rev. .1. H.Twombly, l> i i>.. 48 ii 10 23 10 5 11 16 7 18 7 16 54* 22 40 77 123 40 1 •jo 15 344 15 88 312 230 56 SO 277 71 352 iss 512 166 52 148 255 30 292 12 P 1" 2501 123 407 P P P 113 P 37 | Ii:. 56 77 I 100J 123 156J 11 255 P 4911 P 18 P 18 479 P 1' 23 91 200 P 222 P 345 P * No distinct degree for these departments. Graduated as Ph. B. ** No Beport . AGRICULTURAL COLLEGES 13 age LH 83 45 L15 L16 L16 79 M 10—15 cts 8 cts $130,000 L15 8 L16| L L14 59 L16 87 L15 1,14 1, 17 40 12 } z cts 7—10 its 9 cts 5—10 cts 10 cts 15 cts 10 cts 15 cts 12 cts 10—15 cts L L14 50 1,16 L14 89 $130,000 $253,000 $120,000 15 cts 10—18 cts 5—10 cts 5 — 8 cts 7—18 cts 15 cts $319,000 $371,000 $500,000 $1G5,000 $134,000 $12,800 $450,000 $231,377 $256,037 $319,000 $212,238 $165,000 $134,000 $170,000 $231,377 $256,037 $54,749 25,000 a. t $75,000) 31.321 a. 165,154 a.) $495,463 j 149,374 a. I $945,770) 200,000 a. ) $325,000 ) 90,000 a. ) $300,000 ) $25,000 $22,000 $50,000 to 53,000 $40,000 to $48,000 $10,000 $20,000 $6,000 $145,000 $100,000 K(l -1 ■> 86 $35,000 $18,000 $13,000 $12,800 $25,000 variable $34,698 $63,467 $27,710 $20,000 $32,000 7(1 $2,500. Farm 70 $65,000 50C $210,000 ; 145 $60,000 , 294 4d 40 35 8 4 Id 1(1 $397,325 $1,261,999 $116,000 $601,999 $500,000 $395,267 $50,000 $396,000 $268,909 $125,000 $210,000 $220,833 ( 400,000 a. \ { $2,000,000 ) 90,000 a. $9,900 $8,000 $6,000 $8,500 $16,196 $10,699 $5,474 $107,500 $250,000 $180,000 $100,000 $250,000 $231,407 $147,713 2,250. Stock 400 7 12 370 285 383 150 114 640 293 2 1 5 8 2 3 20 is 1 1^ $6,960 $40,000 $40,000 Farm & Stock $56,000 $122,626 $95,000 $190,000 52,403 a. \ $65,503) $6,500 $32,923 $30,000 $20,500 $22,572 $19,000 $40,000 is, Kill $10,329 $20,629 $65,781 $16,148 $632,000 $125,000 $180,000 $209,500 $38,950 95 124 227 200 5 10| 6 150 150 175 35 40 300 250 20 300 75 55 21 23 90 50 22 20 ll 60 12 20 30 1 185:18 300 5 150 6 2d 30 65 l! 50 •jo 1 60 60 26 20 10 30 80 14 ANN ALABAMA AHN, Johann Franz, a (Jerman teacher, noted for his method of teaching foreign lan- guages, was born in 179(*>, and died in 1865. He gave instruction for many years in the Meal- schule at Neuss, and published several manuals for teaching the German and other languages ; but his chief work was his Practiced Method/or tin' rapid and easy Learning of the French Language (Praktischer Lehrgang zur schnel- len und leichten fflrlernung der franzb'siscJien Sprache). 'Phis work, between L834 and 1875, passed through 190 editions. He was also the author of several works in general literature, llis elementary books on the study of foreign lan- guages have been translated into all the languages of the civilized world, and have everywhere found an immense circulation. The fame thus acquired by Aim's method of studying foreign languages has led to numerous imitations, not a few of which are utterly unworthy of the just reputa- tion of the original author. The method of Aim was. to a. large extent, founded on the works of Dr. Seidenstucker, and combines both the analytical ami the synthetical method. The principle on which it is ba£ed is. that the mode of learning a foreign language should, as closely as possible, correspond to the manner in which a child acquires a knowledge of his native tongue. AINSWORTH, Robert, an English teacher and scholar of considerable eminence, was born in L660, and died in 1.743. He taught private schools for some years, but having soon obtained a competency, he was enabled to relinquish the business of teaching. From 171 4 to 1736, he was engaged in compiling the Latin dictionary which has made him famous. This work was extensively used in schools both in England and in the United States, but has for some years been superseded by works of greater accuracy. ALABAMA, one of the southern states of the American Union, was originally a part of Georgia, except the south-western portion, which belonged to Florida. It was set off from Georgia, in L798, as a portion of the Territory of Missis- sippi, from 1 si 7 to L819, it was known as the Territory of Alabama, in the latter year, being admitted into the Union as a state. Its area is 50,722 si|. m. : and its population, in 1870, was 996,992, of whom 521,384 were whites: 475,510, colored persons; and 98, Indians. Educational History. — The first constitution of the state declared that "schools and the means of education should be forever encouraged," and gave directions for the preservation of all land grants r ived for this purpose from the general government, and the seminary lands for a "state university for the promotion of the arts, litera- ture, and science." Attempts were made, in L823, and at various times thereafter, to organize an efficient public-School system; but little was accomplished ti!L 1854, when a general system was established under which, according to the report of the supc rintendent of education, the state, in lNf>7, was "in proportion to her white tax-paying and school-attending population, far ahead of nearly all the southern states, and most of the New England states ; was the superior, in the school room, of even Massachusetts; and was almost the peer of New York and Pennsyl- vania/' In L856, county superintendents were substituted for the county boards of school com- missioners previously existing. Under this sys- tem, township trustees had complete control of the school funds, and could aid schools already established according to their discretion. In 1860, according to the census of that year, there were in the state 1.903 public schools, with I'd ,751 pupils, and 17 colleges, attended by 2,120 stu- dents, besides 206 academies and other schools, with 10.77s pupils. The income for the support of common schools was $489,474, of which near- ly $200,000 was derived from public funds. The progress made during the previous decade is in- dicated by the fact that, in 1 Sat), there were re- ported 127,390 children in the state, of whom only 35,039 were attending school. The consti- tution of the state, ratified Feb. 4., L868, ex- pressly provided that all children between the ages of 5 and 21 years should be educated free of charge; and in accordance with its provisions, a new system was adopted the same year, which placed the schools under the supervision and control of a. board of education, and gave to county superintendents much of the power be- fore committed lo township trustees. In L871, the school law was again changed, the control of the schools being entrusted to a state superin- tendent, district superintendents, and township trustees, all elected by the people. 'I he state board of education was abolished, its duties be- ing discharged by the legislature, which, in the words of tiie law, "shall designate, in advance, such days as they may deem best (during the session of the general assembly) for the consider- ation of measures relating to the educational in- terests of the state; on which days the state Superintendent shall be entitled to a seat in the house then considering educational measures, and shall have, and may exercise. all of the rights and privileges of a member of such house, but have no vote." In 1872.-.':. and - I, various changes were made in the school law; but the new constitution of the state, which took effect December (>.. 1875, supersedes all laws previous- Iv passed, and confirms that portion of the act proposed in 1871, which relates to the admin- istration of the schools. State Superintendents. — The office of state superintendent was first tilled by General W. F. Perry, his title being Superintendent of Educa- eation. He was elected by the legislature in L854. His successor, in 1854, was »i. It. l>u Val, who died in office, his successor being. I. B.Taylor. who was appointed to lill the vacancy in L865. John Ryan was elected to the office in L866,and served till L867, when the office was merged in that of State comptroller, its duties being per- formed by M. A. Chishohn. from November. L867,t0 -inly. L868. In that year, the title of the office was changed to that of Superintendent .a Public Instruction, N. B. Cloud being the first incumbent, llis successors were J. llodg- ALATtAMA. 15 son (1870—72); Joseph II. Speed (1872—4); John M. McKleroy (1874—6); and I.croy P. Box, with the title of Superintendent of Education, restored by the constitution of 1875. School System. — By the law of L877, the officers i>f the school system are (1) a superin- tendent of education for the state, (2) a county superintendent in each county, and (■">) three trustees of public schools in each township or other school district. The state superintendent is elected by the people, and holds office for two years. I lc is required to give a bond in the sum of 815,000, for the faithful performance of his duties, which are as follows: ( 1 ) To exercise a general supervision over all the educational in- terests of the state ; (2) To visit annually every county in the state for the purpose of inspecting the schools and their management, assisting also in the organization and managementof teachers' institutes: (3) To apportion and distribute an- nually the school money as prescribed by law, and to sec to its proper disbursement; (4) To keep proper records, and to prepare and dis- tribute to the other school officers necessary blanks : (5) To keep in his office an accurate ac- count of the capital of all sixteenth-section or other trust fund to which each township may be entitled: and (6) To make an annual report to the governor. The county superintendents are appointed by the state superintendent for two years. Their duties are to pay the teachers, to receive and take charge of the school moneys of the county,and distribute the same, and to make an annual report of their proceedings and the con- dition of the schools of the county, to the state superintendent. They are required to give bonds for the faithful performance of their duties. — Three township trustees are elected biennially who have the immediate control of the schools. subject to supervision by the county superintend- ent. In several of the cities, special school laws are in force, by which the immediate manage- ment of the schools is entrusted to city boards ol commissioners, subject cither to the supervision of the county superintendent, or of city super- intendents. Four grades of schools are compre- hended in the operation of the law — primary, intermediate, grammar, and high schools. In the filet, spelling, reading, and the elements of arith- metic and of geography are taught ; in the second, these studies are continued, with the ad- dition of grammar and writing; in the third, etymology, composition, history, and elocution are added : and in the fourth, the higher branches common to schools of this grade are pursued. The school fund is composed of "the income from the 16th section trust fund, the surplus revenue fund, until it is called for by the United States government :" the proceeds of " all lands or other property given by individuals or ap- propriated by the state for educational purposes, and all estates of deceased persons who die with- out leaving a will or heir:" " an annual poll tax. not to exceed one dollar and fifty cents on each poll ;" with such other moneys, " to be not less than §100,000 per annum, as the general as- sembly shall provide by taxation or otherwise." It is. also, made the duty of the assembly to increase, from time to time, the public school fund, as the condition of the treasury ami the resources of the state will admit.' In addition to this, each county may raise, by annual taxa- tion, an amount not exceeding 10 cents on each $100 of taxable property. Ninety- six percent of the money raised oi- appropriated must be used for the payment of teachers unless other- wise directed by a vote of two-thirds of each branch of the legislature. Schools tor whites and blacks must be separate. Sectarian or denomina- tional schools are not cut it led to any share of the public-school money. 'I he school age is from 7 to 21 years. Educational Condition. — The number of school-districts in the state, in 1875, was 1,696, the area of each being six miles square except in the ease of fractional townships. In each of these districts, there must be. at least, one school for each race, — white and colored. The *'/'<><>{ reve- nue, at that time, was as follows : Interest on Kith section fond $146,983.32 " " the surplus revenue fund 53,526.94 One-fifth of the state revenui the previous year 209,887. 1 1 Poll-tax collected in IsT'J— :;.. . . - 0,486.66 '• •• '« 1S7.» 73,555.30 Total $564,439.66 This state has received from the Peabody fund, since 1868, §59,550. The amount received in 1875 was |4,300. (See Peabody Fund.) The expenditures were as folloyvs : Poll-tax disbursed by superintend- ents $73,555.30 Apportioned to counties and cities 176,332.29 Apportioned to normal schools. . . 10,000.00 Incidental expenses 2,550.00 Total $562,437.59 The other principal items of school statistics are the following : No. of children of school age: white, '.'.'!:!, 7:;:: colored, 172,537 Total 40"3,270 No. of children enrolled: white, 91,202 colored, ."> 4 ,.">!»"> Total 145,797 Avcrage attendance: white, 67,024 colored, 4::,22:> Total. Xo. of teachers: white, male, 1,669 " female, 1,006 colored, male, 1,002 female, 'isl .110,253 Total 3,961 Average monthly salary, white teachers $26.50 » " " colored " $'!'■ 87 Normal Instruction. — Three state normal schools are in existence, the expenditure for which, during the year 1875, was 810,000. The first, at Florence, organized' in 1873, is designed for the education of white teachers of both sexes. ■11 ; ALABAMA It has a library and apparatus valued at $8,000, besides the buildings, which are estimated at $30,000; and, in L875, reported 4 teachers and 126 pupils. The State Normal School and Uni- versity, at Marion, and the Normal School, at JIuntsville, are neither of them so extensive as that at Florence. They are intended for the education of colored teachers. The former, in 1875, had 3 teachers and 70 pupils ; the latter, 2 teachers and 8-1 pupils. This institution is designed to become a university for the colored population of the state. Besides these state nor- mal institutions, there are four schools of the same grade under the control of the American Missionary Association, and one conducted by the Methodists, having an aggregate, in the state, of G59 pupils under normal instruction. Teachers' institutes were held, during the year 1875, in six counties, and their organization is contemplated in four more. The interest aroused, both on the part of the teachers and of the people at the places of meeting, leads to the belief that their permanent establishment is only a question of time. Secondary Instruction. — There are 21s pub- lic high schools in operation in the state, 3 of which are for colored, the remainder, for white pupils. The course of study prescribed for these institutions has been already stated. A number of high schools and academies are scattered through the state, which occupy a position intermediate between the primary schools and colleges. Accu- rate statistics in regard to them are, however, dif- ficult to procure. In Talladega College, the work has thus far been entirely preparatory, the colle- giate classes not having been formed. In 1875, it had 1 2 instructors, and a total of 247 students in all the departments. It is conducted by the American Missionary Association for the benefit of the colored people. Superior Instruction. — There are several in- stitutions of this grade in the state, the most important of which are enumerated in the fol- lowing list : NAME Howard College Southern University. Spring Hill College. . Univ. of Alabama. . . . Location \\ lien Religions found- denomina- ed tion Marion Greensboro Near Mobile Tuscaloosa 1hi:j Hap. L856 M.F.pis.S. 1836 B. C. 1820 Non-sect. To the above list. must be added 9 institutions which afford opportunities for the higher edu- cation of women. In addition to the studies usually pursued in such institutions, special at- tention is given to the ornamental branches. The number of instructors in these institutions, in L875, was 80 ; the number of students. ss:j. Professional and Scientific Instruction. — The Agricultural and Mechanical College of Ala- bama was established at Auburn by an act of the legislature, its endowment being the proceeds of the liuid grant made by Congress for the benefit of agriculture and the mechanic arts. The amount thus derived was $218,000, to which was added .all the property of East Alabama College, amounting to more than SI 00,000. Students are required to pursue a three years' elementary course, after which they are permitted to choose one of four courses — that of scientific agriculture, of civil and mining engineering, of literature, or of science. Under agricultural chemistry, are taught the composition of soils, the relation of air and moisture to vegetable growth, the chem- istry of farm processes, the methods of improving soils, etc. These are accompanied by lessons in practical agriculture throughout the course. Mili- tary training is given, but only to the extent of improving the health and bearing of the stu- dents. Free scholarships, two in number, are pro- vided for each county in the state. The course of study covers four years. The number of in- structors in all the departments, in 1*75, was 7; the number of students, 50, in the regular course, and 5 in the special. Law is taught in departments organized for the purpose in the State University and the Southern University ; theology, in the Southern University, in Talladega College, and, to some exteut, in Howard ( ollege ; medicine, in the Southern University, and in the Medical College of Alabama, at Mobile. This last in- stitution provides a two years' course of study, and, in 1875, had 9 instructors and 50 students. Special Instruction.- The Alabama Institution for the Deaf, Dumb, and Blind was founded in 18f>0 at Talladega, and is maintained at an annual expense of about $1H,000. The deaf-mute depart- ment is provided with a small museum of natural history and a library of 300 volumes. The studies pursued are mathematics and the ordinary En- glish branches. Instruction is also given in agri- culture and gardening. In 1875, there were 4 instructors and 52 pupils. In the department for the blind there were, in the same year, 2 in- structors and 10 pupils. ALABAMA, University of, at Tuscaloosa, was chartered in 1820, but not organized till ls.il. At the commencement of the civil war, it was in a prosperous condition, but was burned by a federal force during the war. It was rebuilt in 1868, and is now in a nourishing condition. The value of its grounds, buildings, apparatus, etc., is estimated at $150,000 : and it has an en- dowment of $300,000. Its library contains 5,000 volumes. In L874, the number of instructors was 9, and of collegiate students 7(i. 'I he aca- demic depart men t embraces eight courses of study, i 'I nil to the selection of the students: (1) Latin language and literature; (2) Greek language and literature; (.'!) English language and literature; ii) Modem languages; (5) Chemistry, geology, and natural history; (6) Natural philosophy; (7) Mathematics and astronomy ; (8) Mental and moral philosophy. The department of profes- sional education embraces a school of law, and a school of civil engineering. All the students, except those specially infirm, are subjected to military drill. A special military school affords in- struction in military science and art, in military law. and in elementary tactics. The president of the institution is Carlos G. Schmidt, LL. D., elected in 1874. ALP.ION COLLEGE ALEXANDRIAN SCHOOL 17 ALBION COLLEGE, al Albion, Mich., was chartered aa a college in L861, by members df the Methodist Episcopal Church. The number of students is about 200, males and females. It lias a preparatory, classical, and scientific course of instruction, its endowment fund is $200,000. It- library contains about 2000 volumes. Rev. <;. B. Jbcelyn, D. 1>.. is the president of the institution (1875). The tuition is free. ALCOTT, Amos Bronson, an American educator, was born in L799. He firsl gained distinction by teaching an infant school, for winch employment he evince I a singular aptitude and tact. He removed to Boston in L828, \vh re he manifested the same skill in teaching young children at the Masonic Temple. His methods, however, were in advance of public opinion, and were disapproved, (hi the invitation of James P. Greaves, of London, ^he co-laborer of P< loz/.i in Switzerland, in educational reform, Mr. Alcott, in L842,went to England; but the death of Mr. < rreaves, which occurred before his arrival, interfered with his prospects. On his return to thi< country, he attempted with some of his Rngjish Mends to establish a new community at Harvard. Mass.; but the enterprise was soon abandoned. Mr. Alcott has since written several works, one of which, Concord Days, was pub- lished in 1872. — See E. P. Peabody, Record of Sr](nol ( Hoston, 1834), and Conversation on the Gospels (Boston, 1836). ALCOTT, William Alexander, M. D., cousin of the preceding, noted for his zeal and success as a common-school teacher, and his life- long efforts in behalf of popular education, was born in Woleott, Ct., in 1798, and died at Auburndale, Mass., in 1859. He bad only an elementary education : and, for several years, he taught in the district schools of his native State, distinguished for his remarkable earnestness, and the many reforms which he labored to introduce into the imperfect school management and in- struction of his time. He afterwards studied medicine; but Ids chief labors were devoted to the cause of education, co-operating with Gallau- det, Woodbridge, and others in the endeavor to bring about much-needed reforms in the public schools of the State. Subsequently, he associated himself with William ( '. Woodbridge, and as- d him in the compilation of his school geog- raphies, and also in editing the American An- nals of Education. He also edited several juve- nile periodicals. His newspaper contributions were very numerous, and quite effective ^>n ac- COUnl of their racy and spirited style. An article which he published on the Construction of - oolrHouses gained him a premium from the American Institute of Instruction. His labors as a lecturer on hygiene, practical teaching, and kindred subjects were severe and unintermitting. He is said to have visited more than 20,000 schools, in many of which he delivered lectures. His writings are very numerous; and some of them were widely popular. The most noted are : Confessions of a Schoolmaster, The House I Lir^ in, The Young Man's Guide, The Yo>*//>/ Woman's Guide, The Young Housekeeper, etc., etc. l>r. Alcott was a genuine philanthropist, though extreme and somewhat eccentric in mans of his views. As one of the pio rs in the cause of common-school education and reformin practical teaching, his labors were of incalculable value. ALCUIN (Lat. Flaccus Albinus Alcuinus), a distinguished English scholar, ecclesiastic, and reviver of learning, was born in Yorkshire aboul 753, and did in 804. lie was educated at York under the direction of Archbishop Egbert, and was subsequently director of the seminary in that city. Returning from Rome, whither he had gone by direction of the English king, he met the emperor Charlemagn< Parma, and was induced by that monarch to take up his residence at the French court, and become the royal preceptor. Accordingly, at Aix-la-Chapelle, he gave instruction, for some time, to Charlemagne and his family, ill rhetoric, logic, divinity, and mathematics. It has been said with much truth, that " France is indebted to Alcuin for all the polite learning of which it could boast in that and the following ages." The universities of Paris, Tours. Soissons, and many others were either founded by him, or greatly benefited by his zeal in their behalf, and the favor which he procured for them from Charle- magne. In 796, be was appointed abbot of St. Martin's at Tom's, where he opened a school wdiich acquired great celebrity. Here he continued teaching till his death. Alcuin was probably the most learned man and the most illustrious teacher of his age ; and his labors were veiy im- portant in giving an impetus to the revival of learning, after the intellectual night of the Dark Ages. He left many epistles, poems, and treat- ises upon theological and historical subjects, all written in Latin, and noted for the elegance and purity of their style. The Life of Alcuin (Lebe/t Alalia's) by Prof. Lorf.nz. of Halle (1829) has been translated into English (1837) by Si.ee. — See AUgemeine Deutsche Biographic, art. Alcuin. ALEXANDRIAN SCHOOL, a name vari- ously applied, but chiefly designating (1) a school of philosophers at Alexandria in Egypt, which is chiefly noted for the development of Neoplato- nisin. and its efforts to harmonize oriental theol- Ogy with (deck dialectics; (2) a school of Christian theologians in the same city, which aimed at harmonizing Pagan philosophy with Christian theology. The city of Alexandria be- came, soon after the death of Alexander the Great, by whom it had been founded, a chief seat of science and literature. The time during which the teachers and schools of Alexandria enjoyed a world-wide reputation, is called tin Alexandrian Age, and is divided into two pe- riods, tin' former embracing the time of the Ptolemies, and extending from 323 to 30 I'.. C. and the second embracing the time of the Ro- mans, extending from .'!<) !!.('. to 640 A.D. (irammar, poetry, mathematics, and the natural sciences were all taught in the Alexandrian School ; and among the most illustrious teachers 18 ALFRED THE GREAT ALGEBRA were Ammonius, Plotinus, Hierocles, Proclus, Apollonius (poet), Galen (physician), Euclid (mathematician), Eratosthenes (astronomer), Ptol- emy (geographer). When Christianity began to gain a firm footing, it was found necessary to de- vote to the instruction of the catechumens special care, in order to fortify them against the attacks upon Christianity by the pagan philosophers. The catechists not only gave to the candidates for admission into the Christian Church element- ary instruction. 1 tut also delivered learned lectures on Christianity, and combined with it instruction in philosophy. Though, from its original character, the school continued to be called the catechetical school of Alexandria, it was in its subsequent development something very different from a catechetical school, and may rather be regarded as the first theological faculty, or school of scien- tific theology, in the Christian Church, [n op- position to the pagan philosophers, the teachers of the Christian schools chiefly undertook to show that Christianity is the only true philos- ophy, and alone can lead to the true gnosis, or knowledge. As the first teacher of the Christian theological school, Pantaenus (about 180)is men- tioned, who was followed by Clement, Origen, Heraclas, Dionysius, Pierius, Theognostes, Sera- pion, IVter Martyr. The last famous teacher of tin' school was Didymus the Blind (335 to .'!'.).'>). who, being blind from boyhood, had learned read- ing, writing, geometry, etc.. by means of brass let ters and figures, and was equally distinguished for his piety and extent of knowledge. The method of teaching used in this, as well as in the other schools of that age. was the Pythagorean. The teacher explained, and the pupil listened in silence, though he was permitted to ask questions. Every tefifiher taught in his own house, there be- ing no public school 1 mill lings. The teachers did not receive a fixed salary, but the pupils made them presents. Origen is reported to have de- clined all presents, lie supported himself on a daily Stipend of four oboli, which he received for copying the manuscripts of ancient classics. — See M ltter, Histoire de I'ecole d'Alexandrie (2 vols., 2d ed., Paris, L840 1844); Barthelemy St.- Hilaire, De I'ecole d'Alexandrie (Paris. L845); Simon, Histoire l>eeiaUy to the promotion of education. Al- though he is said to have been twelve years of age, before he was taught the alphabet, and although his health was always feeble, he showed a thirst for knowledge which is almost without parallel in the history of European princes. He gave eight hours every day to religious exercises and to study. He translated nu- merous works from Latin into Saxon, as Bede's History of England, Boethius' De Consola- tione Philosophiae, and the Liber Pastoralis Curae of Gregory the Great. He invited dis- tinguished scholars to his court from all coun- tries, among whom Wernfried. Plegmund. and Athelstan of Mercia, Grimbald of France, the Irishman John Scotus Krigena. and the monk Asser of Wales are the most famous. A large number of schools were founded and suitably ( irganized. The convents became, more genera 1 1 v than had been the case before, nurseries of science. All the public officers were required to learn to read ami write ; and Alfred declared that the children of every freeman without ex- ception should be able to read and write, and should be instructed in the Latin language. A complete list of his works is given in the Ency- clopaedia Britannica, art. Alfred. — See Stol- bero, Leben Alfred desGrossen, \ M iinster, L815); Weiss, Geschichte Alfred des Grossen (Schaff- hausen, 1852); Freeman, Old English Jlistan/ and History of the Norman Conquest. ALFRED UNIVERSITY, at Alfred. X. V., was founded in 1857, by the Seventh Day Baptists. The number of students in the pre- paratory department (in 1874) was 293, males and females, ami in the collegiate department 114, of whom 42 were females, it has a clas- sical and a collegiate course of instruction. Its endowment is $70,000; the number of volumes I in its library is about 3500. Rev. .). Allen is the president. Its tuition fee is small. ALGEBRA (Arab, aljabr, reduction of parts to a whole). For a general consideration of the purposes for which this study should he pur- sued. and its proper place and relative proportion of time in the curriculum, the reader is referred to the article MATHEMATICS. If is the purpose of this article to indicate some of the principles to be kept in view, and the methods to he pursued in teaching algebra. The Literal Notation. — While this notation is not peculiar to algebra, 'out is the char- acteristic language of mathematics, the student usually encounters it for the first time when he enters upon this study. No satisfactory progress can be made in any of the higher branches of mathematics, as General Geometry, Calculus, Mechanics. Astronomy, etc.. without a good knowledge of the literal notation. By far the larger part of the difficulty which the ordinary student finds in his study of algebra proper - the science of the equation — and in his more advanced study of mathematics, grows out of an imperfect knowledge of the notation. These are facts well known to all ex- perienced teachers. Nevertheless, it is no unfre- quent tiling to hear a teacher say of a pupil : ALGEBRA 19 " He is quite good in algebra, but cannot got along very well with literal examples!"' Nothing couM be more absurd. It comes from mistaking the importance and fundamental character of this notation. It is of the first importance that, at the outset, a clear conception be gained of the nature of this notation, and that, in all the course, no method nor language be used winch will do violence to these principles. Thus, that the letters a, b,.c. y, etc., as used in mathematics, rep- resent pure number, or quantity, is to be amply- illustrated in the first lessons, and care is to be taken that no vicious conception insinuate itself. To Bay that, as 5 apples and G apples make 11 apples, so 5a and (>a make 11a, is to teach error. If this comparison teaches any thing, it is that the letter a in 5a, 6a, and 11a, simply gives to the numbers 5, 6, and 11 a concrete .-iirnificance. as does the word apples in the first instance ; but this is erroneous. The true conception of the use of a, to represent a num- ber, may be given in this way : As 5 times 7 and 6 times T make 1 1 times 7, so 5 times any number and 6 times the same number make 1 1 times that number. Now, let a represent any number whatever ; then 5 times a and 6 times a make 11 times a. The two thoughts to be im- pressed are. that the letter represents some num- ber, and that it is immaterial what number it is, so long as it represents the same number in all cases in the same problem. Again, the genius of the literal notation requires that no concep- tion be taken of a letter as a representative of number, which is not equally applicable to frac- tional and integral numbers. Thus we may not say that a fraction which has a numerator a and a denominator b. represents a of the b equal parts of a quantity, or number, as we affirm that f repre- sents 3 of the 4 equal parts ; for this conception of a fraction requires that the denominator be integral ; otherwise, if b represent a mixed num- ber, as 4|, we have the absurdity of attempting to conceive a quantity as divided into 4§ equal parts. The only conception of a fraction, suf- ficiently broad to comport with the nature of the literal notation, is that it is an indicated oper- ation in division : and all operations in fractions should be demonstrated from this definition. So also to read .r m , u x to the mth power", when m is not necessariiy an integer, is to violate this fundamental characteristic of the notation. In like manner, to use the expressions greatest common divisor, and least common multiple, when literal quantities are under consideration, is an absurd- ity, and moreover fails to give any indication of the idea which should be conveyed. For example, we cannot affirm that 'lax 1 — 2bxy is the greatest common divisor of 2a 3 .c 4 — 2d 2 bx 3 u-\-2ah i x i y i — 2b 3 xy 1 and WbWy 2 — 2ab i x 2 y i —2b*xtf\ since ax— by is a divisor of these polynomials, and whether 2ax' 2 — 2bxy is greater or less than ax — by cannot be affirmed unless the relative values of the letters are known. To illustrate, 2ax l — 2bxy=2x {ax — by). Xow eujjpose «=500, 6=10, y=2, and .r^-rV; then ax — 6y=30, and 2ax' 2 — 2bxy=6. Moreover, it is not a question I as to the value of the divisor that is involved ; it is a question as to the degree. Hence, what we wish to affirm is that 2ax" — 2bxy is the highest common divisor of these polynomials, with respect to x. In order that the pupil may get an adequate conception of the nature of the literal notation, it is well to keep prominently before his mind the fact that the fundamental operations of ad- dition, subtraction, multiplication, and division, whether of integers or fractions, the various trans- formations and reductions of fractions, as well as involution and evolution, are exactly the same as the corresponding ones with which he is already familiar in arithmetic, except as they are modi- fied by the difference between the literal and the Arabic notations. Thus, the pupil will be led to observe that the orders of the Arabic notation are analogous to the terms of a polynomial in the literal notation, and that the processof "carrying in the Arabic addition, etc., has no analogue in the literal, simply because there is no established relation between the terms in the latter. Again, he will see that, in both cases, addition is the process of combining several quantities, so that the result shall express the aggregate value in the fewest terms consistent with the notation. This being the conception of addition, he will see that for the same reason that we say, in the Ara- bic notation, that the sum of 8 and 7 is 5 and 10 (fifteen), instead of 8 and 7, we say, in the literal notation, that the sum of 5aa: and 6ax is Wax. Infact.it is quite conceivable that the pupil, who understands the common or Arabic arithmetic, can master the literal arithmetic for himself, after he has fairly learned the laws of the new notation. Positive and Negative. — Although the signs + and ■ — , even as indicating the affections positive and negative, are not confined to the literal nota- tion, the pupil first comes to their regular use in this connection, and finds this new element of the notation one of his most vexatious stumbling-blocks. Thus, that the sum of 5ay and — 2ay should be 'Say, and their difference lay, and that " minus multiplied by minus should give plus," as we are wont to say. often seems absurd to the learner. Yet even here he may be taught to find analogies in the teach- ings of the common arithmetic, which will at least partially remove the difficulty. When he comes to understand, that attributing to numbers the affection positive or negative gives to them a sort of concrete significance, and allies them in some sort to denominate numbers, he may at least see, that bay and 'lay do not neces- sarily make lay ; for, if one were feet and the other yards, the sum would not be lay of either. if. then, he comes to understand that the funda- mental idea of this notation is, that the terms positive and negative indicate simply such opposi- tion in kind, in the numbers to which they an applied, as makes one tend to destroy or counter- balance the other, he is prepared to sec that the sum of bay and — 2ay is 3ay ; since, when put together, the — 2ay, by its opposition of nature . 20 ALGEBRA destroys lay of the 5a//, The ordinary illustra- tions in which forces acting in opposite directions, (notion in opposite directions, amounts of proper- ty and of debts, etc., are characterized as positive ami negative, are helpful, if made to set in clearer light the fact, that this distinction is simply in regard to the way in which the numbers are ap- plied, and not really in regard to the numbers themselves. So, also in multiplication, the three principles, ill that the product is like the multiplicand; ili ii a multiplier must be conceived as essen- tially abstrad when the operation is performed; and (3) that the sign of the multiplier shows what is to be done with the product when obtaine I. remove all the difficulty, and make it a mi more absurd that "min is multiplie I by minus gives plus."' than that -plus multiplie 1 by plus gives plus": in fact, exactly the same course ofargumenl is required to establish the one con- clusion as to establish the other. When we ana- lyze the operation which we call multiplying a by j A. we say " f- a taken h times gives -{-ab. Now the sign -j- before the multiplier indicates that the product is to be taken ad- ditively, that is, united to other quantities by its own sign.'" So when we multiply — a by — b, we say- - a multiplied by b (a mere number) gives — into two equal factors, as \/b and \Jb, ab will be resolved into four factors which can be arranged in two equal groups, thus x a K b X s/as/'l>. Hence x a v b is the square root of ab because it is one of the two equal factors into which ab can be conceived to be resolved. In this manner, all operations in radicals may be seen to be It; used upon the most elementary principles of factoring. Again. a> another illustration of this vicious use of the equation in demonstrating elementary theorems, let us consider the common theorems concerning the transformations of a proportion. As usually demonstrated, by transforming the proportion into an equation, and pice versa, the real reason why the proposed transformation does no! vitiate the proportion, is not brought to light at all. for example. Suppose we are to prove that. If four quantities are in propor- tion, they an' in proportion by composition, i. e., if u : b : : c : d, a : a + b : : c : c -\- it. The common method isto pass from the given proportion to the equation be = ad, then add ac to each member, obtaining i/r -{-be =oc-|- <"!■ or c (a + b) = a (c -f- d), and then to traii-form this equation into the proportion n : a I It : : r : r \ il. No doubt, this is concise and elegant, but the real reason why the transfor- mation does not destroy the proportion. \ i/.. thai both ratios'have been divided by tin' same mnn- ber, is not even suggested by this demonstration. On the other hand, let the following demonstra- tion be used, and the pupil not only sees exactly why the transformation does not destroy tin' ALGEBRA 21 proportion, bat at every step has his attention held closely to the fundamental characteristics of a proportion. Let the ratio a : 6 be r; hence as a proportion is an equality of ratios, the ratio C : '/ is /■ ; and we have a -£- /> = r, and C -r- '/ = r, or a = br. and c = dr. Substituting these values of a and e in the terms of the proportion which are changed by the transformation, we have the public in Olsf.y's University Algebra in is":;. mar school, or. if in the country, never have other school advantages than those furnished by the common or rural district school. Nevertheless, many of these will receive much greater profit from Spending half a year, or a year, in obtaining a knowledge of the elements of algebra (and even of geometry) than they usually do in study- ing arithmetic. (Sec AJUTHMETIC.) For this class the proper range of topics is, a clear expo- sition of the nature of the literal notation; the fundamental rules, and fractions, involv- ing only the simpler forms of expression, and excluding such abstruse subjects as the more difficult theorems on factoring, the theory of lowest common multiple and highest common divisor; simple equations involving one, two, and three unknown quantities; ratio and pro- portion; an elementary treatment of the subject of radicals with special attention given to their nature as -roving out of the simplest principles of factoring; pure and affected quadratics in- volving one. and two unknown quantities, 'flic second class comprises what may be called high school pupils. For this grade the range of toi>ies need not be much widened, hut the study of each should be extended and deepened. This will be the ease especially as regards the theory if exponents, positive and negative quantities, radicals, equations involving ruoubtless the scientific order is that just given; but in such an introduction to the subject as we are considering, it may be best to present the 3d first; since this is a truth already familiar, and h nee affords a connecting link with previous knowledge. Moreover, this being alrea ly before tin' mini as a, statement of what is to be done, the 1st and I'd will follow in a, natural order as an answer to th ■ question how the purpose is ac- complished. To present the 3d principle, the teacher may place on the blackboard some sim- ple example in subtraction as : 12.'. |1,. will then question the class thus: ■ .;,. What is the L25 called? What the 74? What the 5] ? How much more than 71 is 125? [f we add 71 and 25,wha1 is the sum'.' Of what th ii is the minuend composed ? What is 5] | 7 I '.' [f we destroy the 74, what remains? If in any case we can destroy the subtrahend from out the minuend, what will remain? Saving brought this idea clearly before the mind, the teacher will proceed to the 1st principle. If — Sab be added to lab how much of the lab will it destroy? (Here again we proceed from a fundamental con- ception — the nature of quantities as positive and negative, thus deducing the new from the old.) Repeat such illustrations of this principle as may have been given in addition If several boys are urging a sled forward by lab pounds, and the strength of another boy amounting to 3ab pounds is added, but exerted in an opposite direction, what now is the sum of their efforts? What kind of a quantity do we call the 3ai? [Negative.] Why? How much of the-f-7ai does -Bab destroy w hen we add it? If then we wish to destroy + 3ab from -\- lab, how may we do it? Proceeding then to the 2d principle, it may be asked, how much is 6 ay — 2 ay? If now we add -f '_' ay to (i ay — 2 ay, which is 4ay, what does it become? What does the — 2ay destroy? What then is the effect of adding a positive quantity? Such introductory elucida- tions should always be held closely to the plan of development which the pupil is to study, -and should be made to throw- light upon it. It is a common and very pernicious thine.' for teachers to attempt to teach in one line of development, while the text -book in the pupils hands gives quite another. In most cases of this kind, either the teacher's effort or the text -book is useless, or probably worse — they tend to confuse each other. Such teaching should culminate in the very lan- guage of the text; and it is desirable that this lan- guage be read from the book by the pupil, as the conclusion of the teaching. Moreover, there is great danger of overdoing this kind of work. Whenever it is practicable, the pupil should be required to prepare his lesson from the book. A competent teacher will find sufficient oppor- tunity for ••teaching" after the pupils have gath- ered all they can from the book. Another im- portant service to be rendered by the living teacher is to emphasize central truths, and hold the pupils to a constant review of them. So also il is his duty to keep in prominence the outlines of the subject, that the pupil may always know just where he is at work and in what relation to other parts of the the subject that which he is studying stands. All deli nit ions, statements of principles, and theorems should be thoroughly memorized by the pupil and recited again ami again. In entering upon a new subject., as soon as these can be intelligently learn- ed, they should be recited it: a most careful and formal manner: and. in connection with sub- sequent demonstrations and Solutions, they should lie called up and repeated. Thus, suppose a high school class entering upon tin' subject of equa- tions. Such a class may be supposed to be able to grasp the meaning of the definitions without preliminary aid from the teacher, save in special cases. The first lesson will probably contain a dozen or more definitions, with a proposition or two; and the first work should be the recitation of these by the pupils individually, without any questions or suggestions from the teacher. Il- lustrations should also be required of the pupils ; ALGEBRA 23 but neither illustrations nor demonstrations should be memorized, although great care should be taken to secure a good style of expression, modeled on that of the text. To this first rec- itation on a new subject all the class should give the strictest attention; and every point in it should be brought out, at least once in the hear- ing of every pupil. In the course of subsequent recitations in the same general subject, individ- uals will be questioned on the principles thus developed. For example, what algebra is will have been brought clearly to view in this first recitation; but when a pupil has stated and solved some problem, and has given his expla- nation of the solution from the blackboard, the teacher may ask: Why do you say you have solved this problem by algebra? The answer will be: Because 1 have used the equation as an instrument with which to effect the solution. Can you solve tliis problem without the use of an equation? What do you call such a solution ? What is algebra ? Again, suppose the solution has involved the reduction of such an equation as 2.r— }=l (3.6-— 1) 4- i (,c + 1). Of course, in the first place the pupil will solve the example and give a good logical account of the solution; but the teacher will make it the occasion for review- ing certain definitions and principles with this particular student, in such a practical connec- tion. Thus he will ask: What is your first equa- tion ? What is your last? [a?=2.] Do you look upon these as one and the same equation, or as different equations ? In how many different forms have you written your given equation ? What general term do you apply to these processes of changing the form of an equation ? What is transformation ? Similarly, every principle and definition will be reviewed again and again in such practical connections. But the great, and almost universal, evil in our methods of conduct- ing recitations is the habit of allowing mere statements of processes to pass for expositions of principles, as given by the pupil from the black- board in explanation of his work. The writer's observation satisfies him that this most pernicious practice is. as he has said, almost universal Let us illustrate the common practice, and then point out the better way. The pupil has placed the following work upon the board: lx i — 28.r+14=238 7a; 2 — 28.r=224 x-— 4,c=32 x 2 — 4a;4-4=36 x— 2= + 6 ,t a quantity, and hence has no value. The equality of the members is meant. 24 ALGERIA ALPHABET principle that equals divided by equals give equal quotients," etc. Again, while it is admissible when the purpose is to fix attention upon any particular transformation, to omit the reasons for some of those previously studied, it is far better that these be omitted pro forma, than that something which is not an exposition of reasons be given. Thus, if the present purpose is to secure drill in the theory of completing the square, after having enunciated the problem, the pupil may say: " Having reduced the equation to the form as*— 4or=32," etc., proceeding then to give in full the explanation of the process under consideration. But it is well to allow no recita- tion on such a subject to pass without having at least one full explanation. These remarks apply to study ami recitations designed to give intel- ligent facility in reducing equations. In what may he called "Applications of equations to the solu- tion of practical problems" the purpose is quite different, and so should lie the pupil's explanation. In tin 'si '.the statement is the important thing, and should be made the mam thing in the explanation. In mosl such cases, it will be quite sufficient, if, after having given the reasons for each step in the statement, thus fully explaining the principles on which he has made the equation, the pupil conclude by saying simply: "Solving this equa- tion, I have," etc. Outlines of demonstrati and synopses of topics arc exceedingly valuable as class exercises. I -'or example, it requires a far better know ledgeof the demonstration of Sturm's theorem to be able to give the following outline than to give the whole m detail : (I) No change in the variable which does not cause some i of the functions to vanish, can cause any change in the number of variations and permanences of the signs of the functions: ('_') No two consec- utive functions can vanish for the same value of the variable: (.'{) The vanishing of an inter- mediate function cannot cause a change in the number of variations and permanences; and (4) The last function cannot vanish for any value of the variable; and, as the first vanishes every time the value of the variable passes through a root of the equation, it by so doing causes a, loss of one, and only one, variation. We, therefore, have the theorem [giving the theorem]. Finally, no subject should he considered as mas- tered by the pupil until he can place upon the blackboard a synoptical analysis of it, and discuss each point, cither in detail or in outline, without any questioning or prompting by the teacher. The order of arrangement of topics, i. e., the sequence of definitions, principles, theorems, etc., is as much a part of the subject considered scientifically as are the detailed facts; and the former should lie as firmly fixed in the mind as the latter. ALGERIA, a division of N. Africa, which was formerly a Turkish pashalic, but has since L830 been in possession of the French. The boundaries are not defined, and the tribes dispute the claims of the French to large tracts on the border. The territory claimed by the French is estimated at about 258,317 sq. m. ; of which about 1.50,568 are Subject to the civil, and the remainder to military, government. The popu- lation according to the census of 1872 was 2,416,225, of whom 245,117 were Europeans and their descendants ; 34,574 native Jews; the remainder were Mohammedans. In regard to re- ligion. 233,733 were Catholics, 6,006 Protestants, 39,812 (including those of European descent) Jews, and 141) had made no declaration. The Catholics have an Archbishop and two Bish- ops : the Protestants three Consistories, under which both the Lutheran and Reformed Churches are placed. In regard to public instruction, Algeria constitutes a division, ballet 1 the .1 a " lemy of Algeria and headed by a rector. The number of free public schools in 186(1 was 4 26, with 45,375 pupils ; for secondary instruction there are four colleges and one Lyceum (at Algiers, Bona, Constantine, Philippeville, and Oran), the secondary institution at Tlemcen, and the free school at Oran. A special system of instruction lies been arranged for the Mohammedan popu- lation. It comprises the dollar (village or camp) schools, the law schools (zaiouas), the schools of law and literature i m\ dresas), the French Arabic si hools, ami the French Arabic colleges. Algiers, capital, has special schools of theology and of medicine. The educational progress of this coun- try derives a special interest from the fact that it illustrates the influence which the government of a Christian country can exercise upon a Moham- medan dependency. — See Bi.ocK,Dictionnairege- neralde la />//'r. A full account of the French laws regulating public instruction in Algeria may be found in Greard,Lcj Legislation de Vlnstrue- tiou Primaire en France, torn, m., art. Algerie. ALLEGHENY COLLEGE, at Meadville Pa., was founded in 1817, and is under the direction of the Methodist Episcopal Church. The number of students in 1*74 — ."> was L32, more than one half of whom were pursuing the collegiate course. It has classical, scientific, and biblical departments, and is open to both sexes. Its library contains about 12,000 volumes. Rev. L. 11. Bugbee, P.P.. is the president of the faculty. ALMA MATER (Lat., fostering mother) is a name affectionately given by students of colleges. and universities to the institution to which they owe their education. ALPHABET. The alphabet of any language is the series of letters, arranged in the customary Order, which form the elements of the language when written. It derives its name from the first two letters in the Greek alphabet, which are named alpha, beta. The letters in the English alphabet have the same forms as those of the Latin language, which were borrowed from the Greek. The Latin alphabet, however, did not contain all the Greek letters. The letters of the Greek alphabel were borrowed from the Phoeni- cian, which was that used by many of the old Semitic nations, and i.- of unknown origin. It consisted of 22 signs, represent i ng consonantal sounds. Into this alphabel the < .'recks introduced many modifications, and the changes made by the Romans were also considerable. Its use in English presents many variations from its ALPHABET MKTIIoh 25 final condition in the Latin language. Thus, I and J, and (J and V, instead of being merely graphic variations, were changed so as to represent different sounds, during the Kith and L7tn cent- uries. W was added previously, in the middle ages. The twenty-six letters of our alphabet have been thus classified with regard to their history: (1) B, 1>, H. K. I, M. X. 1', <>. R, S, T, letters from tlir Phoenicians ; (2) A. E, I. 0,Z, origin- ally Phoenician, but changed by the Greeks; (3) IT (same as V), X, invented by the Greeks; (4) C, F, Phoenician letters with changed value ; (5) G, of Liitin invention; (6) Y, introduced into Latin from the Greek, with changed form; (7) •'. V. graphic Latin forms raised to inde- pendent letters; (8) W,arecen1 addition, formed by doubling D (or V), whence its name. The Imperfections of the English alphabet are manifold: (1) Different consonants are used to represent the same sound; as c (soft) and s, 30ft) and j, c (hard) and A'. y and k, x and ks. (2) Different sounds are expressed by the same Letter; as c in cat and cell, g in get and gin, s in sit and as, f in if and of, etc. (3) The vowels are constantly interchanged, as is illustrated in the following table of the vowel elements of the language and their literal representations, the diacritical marks used being those of Webster's Dictionary. Long. | e as in apo, they a i care, ere a •■ •• art a 6 •• " all. orb $ as it a " a 8 Short. in end •• hat " ask •• what, not £ i ■■ •• eve, p que e i y " " her, sir, myrrh 3 '■ " old o u So •' " do, rule, too u " •• " urn l " q u ot> " 6u •• ait " wolf, put, book " love, luck u " " use i y " " ice, my oi oy " " oil, boy on ow " " out, owl From this table it will be seen that the letter 'i is used to represent sere// different sounds; e,five sounds; o, sir sounds, etc. (See Phonetics.) The names given to the letters are not in conformity with a uniform principle of designation. Thus. the names of /;, c, d, g, />, t, v, and z are be, ce, de, ;/e, etc. ; while the names of f, 1, m, it, s, and x are ef, el, em, en, etc. ; and the names of j, k, are ja, ka. The heterogeneity of these names and of their construction will be obvious. It is important that the teacher should take cogni- zance of these incongruities in giving elementary instruction, as they dictate special methods of presentation. (See Alphabet Method.) ALPHABET METHOD, or A-B-C Method. This has reference to the first steps in teaching children to read. According to this method, the pupil must learn the names of all the letters of the alphabet. cither from an A-B-( 'book, from cards, or from the blackboard; that is. he must be taught to recognize the various forms of the letters, and to associate with them their re- spective names. The method of doing this, once very general, was to supply the pupils with books. and then, calling up each one singly, to point to the letters, one after the other, and to pronounce the name of each, so as to associate arbitrarily the form with the name; or, in simultaneous class instruction, to exhibit the letters on sepa- rate cards, and teaeh their names by simple repeti- tion. This process must, of course, be not only long and tedious, but exceedingly dry and uninter- esting to a child, since it affords no incentive to mental activity, — no foot 1 for intelligence. By a careful selection and discrimination, however, in presenting the letters to the attention of the child, its intelligence may be addressed in teach- ing the alphabet by this method. The simple forms, such as I. 0, X, S, will be remembered much more readily than the others; and these being learned, the remainder may be taught by showing the analogy or similarity of then forms with the others. Thus becomes ("when a portion of it is erased; one half of it with I. used as a bar, forms I>; two smaller D'sform I>; and so on. This method is very simple, and may be made quite interesting by means of the black- board. The letters which closely resemble each other in form, such as A and V, M and N. E and F, and C and (J. among capitals, and b and d, cand e, p and q, and n and u, among small letters, should lie presented together, so that their minute differences may be discerned. When the black- board is used (as it should always be in teaching classes), the letters may be constructed before the pupils, so that they may perceive the elements of which they are composed. Thus the children will at once notice that b, d, p, q, are composed of the same elements, differently combined. — a straight stroke, or stem, and a small curve. By an appropriate drill, the peculiar forms, with the name of each, will then be soon impressed upon the pupils' minds: and. besides that, their sense of analogy, one of the most active principles of a child's mind, will be addressed, and this will render the instruction lively and interesting. In carrying out this plan, the teacher may use the blackboard, and as a review, or for practice, re- quire the children to copy, and afterwards draw, from memory, on the slate, the letters taught. Cards may also be used, a separate one being employed for each letter. With a suitable frame in which to set them, these may be used with good advantage, the teacher making, and the children also being required to make, various combinations of the letters so as to form short and familiar words. A horizontal wooden bar with a handle, and a groove on the upper edge in which to insert the cards, forms a very useful piece of apparatus for this purpose. Letter- Blocks may also be used in a similar manner by both teacher and pupils. These blocks are some- times cut into sections so as to divide the letter into several parts, and the pupil is required to adjust the parts so as to form the letter. This method affords both instruction and amusement to VOUng children, and at the same time, gi play to their natural impulse to activity. 'I bese various methods will be combined and otb devised by every ingenious teacher. In some schools a piece of apparatus, called the reading 26 ALUMXEUM AXALYSIS frame, is used. This is constructed like a black- board with horizontal grooves, in which the let- ters can be placed so as to slide along to any required position. Hy the use of assorted letters, the teacher can construct any word or sentence, building it up letter by letter, as types are set. .Many interesting exercises in reading and spelling may be given by means of such an apparatus, the children being required to construct words and sentences themselves, as well as to read those formed by the teacher. The A B C Method of teaching the elements of reading has now, quite generally, been superseded by the Word Method. — See Currie, Early and Infant School Edu- cation, and Principles and Practice of Common School Education ; Wickebsham, Methods of Instruction. (See Word Method.) ALUMNEUM, or Alumnat (Lat., from alere, to feed, to nourish), the name given in Germany to an institution of learning which af- fords to its pupils board, Lodging, and instruc- tion. The first institutions of this kind arose in the middle ages in connection with the convents. Among the most celebrated are those founded by Maurice of Saxony.in the L 6th century, at Pfbrta, Meissen, and Grimma. When the pupils were i ceived and instructed gratuitously, they were expected to perform various services for the school and church, such as singing in the choir. The pupils of thi'se schools were called alumni. (See Alumnus.) ALUMNUS, pi. Alumni (Lat., from alere, to feed, to nourish) originally the name of a student who was supported and educated at the expense of a learned institution (see Alumneum), now generally applied to a graduate of a college or similar institution. The graduates of higher seminaries or colleges for females are sometimes called alum inc. AMHERST COLLEGE, at Amherst. Mass.. is one of the chief seats of learning in the United Stales. It was founded in L821 by the Orthodox Congregationalists, especially for the education of young men for the ministry; but its charier was not obtained till L825. Its first president was the Rev. Zephauiah S. Moore, who in L823 was succeeded 1 > v the Rev. 1 leman Humphrey, to whose strenuous and prudent efforts the college owed much of its success, lie continued in office till L845, when he was suc- ceeded bj the Rev. Edward Hitchcock; and, on the resignation of the latter, in L854, the presenl incumbent, the Rev.Wilham A. Stearns. D. D., was elected. This institution has been the recipient of very large donations from private persons, anil appropriations from the Slate amounting to upward of $50,000. The college funds amount in the aggregate to more than $650,000. lis charity fund for the gratuitous • ■ducal i f clergymen amounts to about $70,000; and its fund for free scholarships is at least $100,000. The n; s of the principal donors to the institution are Dr. William J. Walker, to the extent of $240,000 : Samuel A. Hitch- cock. $175,000; Samuel W'illiston. $150,000; and a college church was erected a short time ago from funds contributed for the purpose by W. F. Stearns, son of the president. This in- stitution occupies twelve public buildings, besides the president's house, including an edifice for sci- entific instruction, and the college church. There are also a gallery of art. a cabinet of natural history, containing about 100,000 specimens, and an astronomical observatory. The department for physical training is very efficient. It com- prises an extensive and well-appointed gymna- sium ; and, at a certain hour, each class is re- quired to attend, and engage in exercise under the direction of the professor, who is a thoroughly qualified physician. The faculty includes twenty- three instructors, and there are several endowed professorships. The number of students in L874 was about 340. The college library contains more than 30,000 volumes: and those of the societies, about 10.001). There is a scientific as well as a classical course: also a post-graduate course, established in 1874, in history and polit- ical science, with especial reference to a "science of statesmanship;' while any graduate may arrange to pursue a course ol study in any de- partment additional to the college course. The tuition fee is $90 per annum. ANALYSIS, Grammatical, or Senten- tial. — I'>y the analysis of a sentence is meant a decomposition of it into its logical elements. Every sentence must either be a single proposi- tion, or be composed of propositions more or less intimately related: and every proposition must contain a subject and a predicate, the for- mer expressing thai of which we speak, and the latter, what we say of it. The entire or logical Subject must contain a noun or pronoun, either alone or with related words called modifiers OS adjuncts, or it may be a phrase or a clause. The entire or logical predicate, in the same manner, must consist of a veil) with or without adjuncts. These constitute all the parts, and all the relations. involved in the construction of a sentence. A few words, such as interjections, may be used inde- pendently of them. Grammar has been defined as the"arl of speaking and writing correctly." or as the ■• practical science which teaches the right use of language"; and for general pur- poses this account is. perhaps, sufficiently ex- plicit. It docs not. however, truly distinguish grammar from the other aits concerned in teach- ing the "right use of language," and hence does not correct Iv point out its peculiar province. from a want of precision in defining tin' limita- tions of any art or science, there must necessarily follow a corresponding inaccuracy and looseness in its treatment : since, before we can reason properly as to the best methods of attaining any object, we must clearly conceive what thai objecl is, and carefully distinguish it from all others. The special province of grammar does nol ex- tend beyond the construction of sentences: hut it is (piite obvious that to use language correctly, those principles and rules must lie understood which underlie the proper method of combining sentences so that they may constitute decani and logical discourse. A person may be sufficiently ANALYSIS 27 familial- with grammatical rules to construct sen- tences with perfect correctness, but may so ar- range them as to express only nonsense ; and such a person could scarcely be considered a.s un- derstanding the "right use of language." The sentence being the peculiar province of grammar, it follows that the only subjects of investigation embraced within it arc words, their orthography, inflectional forms, and pronunciation, and their arrangement in sentences. All grammatical de- finitions and rules are founded upon the relations of the parts of a sentence to each other; and. therefore, these relations should be firsfc taught, it is with reference to these relations, that words are classified into parts of speech, or, as they might properly be called, parte of the sentence. To define or explain these* parts of speech before giving any definition of a sentence, is, therefore, clearly illogical : yet this has been the method of many grammarians, words being explained and parsed aa if they had only individual properties, it is in this that the distinction between parsing and grammatical analysis consists. Both are. in fact, only different kinds of analysis, and are base 1 on precisely the same relations, — those in which the words stand to each other as parts of tttence. Parsing, as uniformly employed by gram- marians, is a minute examination of the in- dividual words of a sentence, with the view to determine whether the rules of grammar, proper to the particular language in which the sentence is written, have been observed or violated. Anal- ysis, on the other hand, deals with the relations upon which those rules are based, and which are common to all languages. Thus, in parsing, the pupil is obliged to scrutinize all the inflec- tional forms in which the words composing the sentence arc used ; and, in order to determine whether they are proper or not, must not only know the rules of syntax, but the relations of the words to each other, so as to be able to apply those rules. The relations are invariable in all languages, but the rules which refer to the in- flections are founded on particular usage, and hence are in no two languages exactly alike. ( >n this account, since the general logically precedes the special, the treatment of sentential analysis should precede any exercises in parsing. Other- wise, how. for example, could a pupil be required to distinguish the eases of nouns and pronouns, and the person and number of verbs, before be- ing taught the relations of the words to each other? By means of the analytical method, when rightly applied, the study of grammar is made clear, logical, and easy from the very beginning. The pupil is first taught the nature of the sentence, its essential parts, and their relations to each other, and is shown how to analyze sentences of a simple character. He is troubled with but little phraseology ; for all the terms that are es- sential to the complete distinction and designa- tion of the parts of a sentence are subject, verb or predicate, object, attribute, and adjuncts. These being defined, and the pupil taught how to dis- tinguish them, a complete foundation has been laid for the intelligent study of all other gram- matical terms and distinctions; and this being the foundation, should, of course, be the first thing done. Those who oppose the analytical method assert that words are the real elements of a sentence, and that any consideration of these involves, therefore, an exhaustive analysis of the sentence itself. With the same propriety mighl it be said that pieces of iron of various shapes are the elements of the steam-engine. They in- deed compose the machine, and it can ultimately be resolved into them; but could its structure and workings be explained by taking these frag- ments of metal in a hap hazard way. and noticing how they are related toothers in immediate jux- taposition, without regard to the general struct- ure of the machine, and the dependence of its operation upon a few elementary orprimary parts. as the cylinder, piston, condenser, etc.? Words are not necessarily the real elements of a sen- tence. These are the subject and predicate and their adjuncts: and. unless these component parts of the general structure be first observed, the relations of the separate words cannot be under- stood. Hence, we find that those writers who have ignored a definite consideration of tl logical elements, have fallen into many errors and inconsistencies. The various systems of analysis in use differ in no essential respect, the chief variation being in the nomenclature employed to designate the elements of the sentence. The name generally applied to a proposition forming a part of a sen- tence is a clause, and any group of related words not making a proposition is called & phrase. The modifying elements are by some called adjective or adverbial, according as they perform the func- tions of adjectives or adverbs. Instead of the term adjective, adnominal is sometimes employed. The term adjunct is generally employed to des- ignate an element subordinate to either subject or predicate. Such adjuncts may be modifying, descriptive, or oppositional. A modifying ad- junct changes the meaning of the element to which it is applied, generally, by making it more specific, or by restricting the class to which it be- longs. Thus animal is a more general term than four-footed animal ; hence./bwr^oofea is a modi- fying adjunct. But the term man is no more general than man thai is born of a woman,or mortal man ; the adjuncts, that is born of a wom- an and mortal being only descriptive, not modi- fying. A] (positional adjuncts only explain : as: He, the chieftain of them all, in which the phrase, the chieftain, etc., is only explanatory, or appositional Adjuncts may be single words. phrases or clauses; and one of the chief ad- vantages of sentential analysis is to show the pupil that groups of words are often used so as to perform the same office as single words. In teaching this subject, a proper gradation of topics should Be observed; and much caution exercised to avoid the perplexing of the young pupil by presenting to his mind distinctions too nice to be discerned by his undeveloped powers of analysis Various methods have been devised in order to 28 ANALYSIS ANDREW present to the eye of the student the analyzed sentence, so as to show clearly the relation of its parts; and. in the radimental stages of the in- struction, these are, without doubt, of consider- able utility; but they should not be carried so far us to present to the student a confused mass of loops, lines, curves, or disjointed phrases, far more difficult to disentangle than to analyze, with- out any such aid, the most involved sentence. All such devices, it must be remembered, are only auxiliaries to the mind's natural operations, and cannot at all supersede them. Neither should the exercise of analyzing sentences be al- lowed to degenerate into the mechanical applica- tion of its must simple requirements. As the student advances, he will be able to omit more and more of the routine, until he reaches a stag i of progress, at which the general structure of the sentence — its component clauses and their re- lations, will be all that he need observe or state. When judiciously and rationally employed, sen- tential analysis must engender a very important quality of mind, ami greatly conduce to clear thinking, intelligent, critical reading, and accurate, terse expression. -See Mulligan, Gramma Structure of the English Language (N.Y., 1852); Goold Brown, Grammar of English Gram- mars, and Institutes if English Grammar, with Kiddle's Analysis; Welch, Analysis of the English Senten.ce; Greene, Analysis of the English Language; Clark, Normal Grammar of the English Language; Cruttenden, Phi- losophy of Sentential Language; March, Pars- ing and Analysis; Andrews and Stoddard, Latin Grammar. ANALYSIS, Mathematical. See Math- em vni's. ANALYTIC METHOD OF TEACH- ING. This is the method used by the teacher when he presents to his pupils composite truths or facts, and by means of analysis shows tin' principles involved, or leads the mind of the pupil to an analysis of them for himself. In this way he teaches principles which the pupil is to apply to the elucida- tion of many diverse problems. In the synthetic method, the teacher begins with principles, ex- plains their meaning, and shows how they arc to he applied, 'rims, suppose the pupil is to lie taught how to add and subtract fractions. Ac- cording to the analytic method, the fractions to lie operated upon are presented to the pupil's mind, and he is shown, firsl the difficulty in- volved, and sec My, Imw to surmount this diffi- culty, by (h tin ling a common denominator, and (2) by Changing the numerator so that the fractions with the common denominator may have the same value as the given fractions. 'I lieu the method of addition or subtraction becomes obvious. In this way learning the principle him- self by analysis, the pupil is enabled to construct • ' genera] rule, and applj it to .my given ease. In the synth tic method, the pupil would be taught in the first place the nature and use of a common denominator, then the method of reducing frac- i- to a comm 'ii denominator, and then to add or subtract fractions by finding a common de- nominator. If the object of the instruction given were, exclusively, to make the pupil expert in adding and subtracting fractions, the synthetic method would perhaps have some advantage over the analytic ; but. since an important part of this object is to train the mind, the analytic meth- od is greatly to be preferred; for (1) it stimu- lates the mind to greater activity. (2) it teaches it how to investigate for itself, and to discover truth, and (3) it gives it a much clearer knowl- edge of the fundamental principles involved in the subject taught, Whether the analytic meth- od should be employed and to what extent, is to he determined by a consideration of the nature of the subject taught, and the degree of advance- ment of the student. In the higher stages of education, much time would be lost by rigorously following this method : and if, in the more elementary stages, the pupil's mind has been thoroughly trained in this way, it will not be necessary to adhere to it when he comes to study the higher branches. At everystage, and in ev< ry branch of instruction, however, there will be oc- casion for the use of both analysis ami synthesis; and the skill and judgment of the teacher must be exercised, at every step. to determine which is the appropriate method to be employed. — Palmer, Th.e Teacher's Manual (Boston, 1840). ANDREW, Johann Valentin, a German clergyman and educator, was born at llerreii- berg, in Wurtemberg, in L586, and died in Stuttgart, in 1654. After tilling several eccle- siastical positions in the Lutheran church of his country, lie became, in 1650, Superintendent General at Babenhausen, and in L 654 at Adel- berg. Be was a stern and influential opponent of the principles which the Lutheran orthodoxy, at that time, endeavored to carry out in edu- cation, lie denounced, in particular, the me- chanical method of teaching Latin, which then prevailed, as well as the equally mechanical method of catechetical instruction in the pub- lic schools; and he is known, in the history of German education, by the reforms which he in- troduced in these studies, lie insisted that no orders should be given to the pupils in a foreign language, that they should not be required to learn any thing which they did not understand, and that no explanations should be given to them exceeding their comprehension, or not enlisting their interest. His views on pedagogical and didactical reform are fully developed in the work ReipubliccB Christiana Descriptio (1619), which sketches the constitution of an ideal ( 'hristian republic, giving due prominence to the organization of education. Another work, writ- ten in his youth. Idea Bonce Tnstiiutionis, is no longer extant. Andrea' was an intimate friend of Amos ( 'omen ins. whose work. Didactica Magna, h ■ earnestly recommended. The autobiography of Andrea' in Lit in has been published by Lheiii- wald i Berlin 1849). - See Schmidt, GescJiichte der Padagogik, rrr, 338; Hossbach. Andreas imil sein Zeitalter (Berlin, 1830); IIkxkk in Deutsche AUgemeine Biographie, art. Andrea?. ANGLO-SAXON 29 ANGLO-SAXON is the current name for thr mother-tongue of the modern English lan- guage. During the 5th and 6th centuries, tribes from the shores of the North Sea. — Angl Sax. 871 901. In the careful Study of its literary remains, it is necessary to distinguish three dialects, the North- umbrian, the Wes1 Saxon, and the Kentish; and three periods, the early, the mi Idle, an I the late: but in this article, our attention will be mainly directed to classic Anglo-Saxon, which is West Saxon of the middle period. This literary lan- guage was cultivated mainly by rewriting in it, for the use of the people, the best Latin works of the time on religion, history, and philosophy. King Alfred and his learned assistants thus pre- pared Gregory's Pastorale; the General His/on/ of Orosius, the Ecclesiastical History of Bede,the Consolations <>f Philosophy of Boethius; and these were followed by many other translations in prose and verse. The language in this way attained accuracy and ease in following Latin compositions, and a, higher general cultivation than any other Teutonic tongue of the time. It is a very j mre Low German speech, closely akin to the Friesic ( >ld Saxon, and I hvtch. These Low- German tongues are most nearly related, on the one side, to High German, and on the other to Scandinavian; and more remotely to Latin, Greek, Slavic. Sanskrit, and the other Indo- European or Aryan languages. The Anglo- Saxon is to lie classed with the older inflected or synthetic languages, like the Latin, Greek, ami Sanskwit. rather than with the analytic, or little- inflected, like French and English. The noun has five cases, and three genders: and four de- clensi mi- growing out of differences in the stems. The adjective is declined as in German, in a definite and an indefinite declension, with two numbers, three genders, and five cases. The onal pronouns are also fully declined in three numbers, having special forms for the dual number in the first ana second persons. There are two great classes of verbs, one of which forms the past tense by reduplication, ami the other by composition with dide, did. In the first class are five conjugations, arranged accord- ing to their root vowels, and from these com, ■ most of what are called the irregular verbs of modem English; our regular verbs come from flu' sixth conjugation. <>ur Buffixes of derivation, our prepositions, and conjunctions are also in great part Anglo-Saxon. The syntax is of course that of a highly inflected language. Some verbs govern an accusative, some a dative or in- strumental, some a genitive, some two accusa- tives, some an accusative and dative, and so on as in Latin and Greek. The uses of the modes are also a matter of great nicety. The body of rules for the use of the subjunctive rivals that for the Latin subjunctive. Most of the diffi- culties if English syntax find their solution in the tact that they are relies of idioms which were gen- eral, ami are easily understood, in Anglo-Saxon. The laws of sound, including prosody, are note- worthy. The vowel sounds are very susceptible to the influence of adjacent letters. A root a will change to ae, ea, e, o, as one or another letter follows it: ami so with the other vowels. It is in this way thai the plural of man comes to be men, from mani. And, m general, the changes ■ of the original letters of an English word in in- flection are to be explained from the phom laws of Anglo-Saxon. The verse. like that of the other early Teutonic nations, is accentual, and marks off the lines by alliteration. The art of poetry was highly cultivated: the sedp, or ] o(t, was highly honored, and it was a disgrace to any man nol to be able to sin- in his turn at the feasts. We have specimens of the old ballad epic reaching far back into heathen antiquity, the Iliad and Odyssey of the North. There is also a body of Christian poetry in similar verse and in somewhat similar style. From this sketch of the language and its literature it will appear, that whatever disciplin- ary advantages are to be gained from the study of an inflected tongue as such, or of a literature introducing us to a new world of thought and manners, are to be gained as well from the study of Anglo-Saxon as of Latin or Greek. It has, however, additional and more intimate uses to those who speak and write English, and have English for their foster-mother in literature. It is the mother of our mother-tongue, and the knowl- edge of it helps us at every step in our study of English grammar and literature, and is essential ] to any really advanced scholarly knowledge of either. We may. therefore, find a place for Anglo-Saxon in all grades of schools in which language and literature are studied, using it in different wavs at different stages of progress. The study of language must always occupy a chief place in any comprehensive educational scheme. It has two great divisions: (1) as the study of the art of communication, (2) as the study of the record of human thought. With- out the art of communication, man cannot live: w ithout access to the accumulated thought of the race, any generation would be savages; without an introduction to the emotions and ideals of the great and noble which are embodied in lit- erature, any generation would lapse toward moral idiocy. Common Schools. — The Anglo-Saxon is no longer spoken, ami it would be hardly worth while to learn to speak it: but in learning to speak and write English we need to know much of it. The power to speak well is founded on familiarity with choice idioms and synonyms. These are learned in connection with the history of the formation and meanings of words, and especially in English, of our Anglo-Saxon words. 30 ANGLO-SAXON There are several school etymologies which afford manuals of practice in the study and use of the Anglo-Saxon elements of our speech, among which may be mentioned : Hand-Book of Anglo- Saxon Hi nit- Words (New York); Hand-Bookqf Anglo-Saxon Derivatives (New York); Gibus's Teutonic Etymology (New Haven); Sargent's School Manual of English Etymology (Phila.). In these books the pupil is told the meanings of certain Anglo-Saxon words, prefixes, and suffixes, and of English words which are derived from them; and exercises are arranged in which to acquire skill in the ready use of this knowledge. They are intended for the Common School. Haldeman's Affixes (Phila.) is a treasury of this branch of learning. In the High School or Academy, Anglo-Saxon is to be read and studied not only as explanatory of English, but for its own structure and liter- ature, just as Latin, Greek, and German are studied. Manuals for this study in its simplest form contain brief grammars, selections for read- ing, notes, and vocabulary. — Such books are S. M. Shdte's Anglo-Saxon Mo,, mil (N. V.); Bar- nes's Anglo-Saxon Delectus (London); Vernon's Guide to the Anglo-Saxon Tongue (London); < !arpenter's Introduction to the study of the Anglo-Saxon Language (Boston). Similar to these, but containing more apparatus for a comparative study of the language and philo- logical Dotes, are March's Introduction to the Anglo-Saxon Language (N. Y.); Morris's Ele- mentary Lessons in Historical English Gram- mar, containing Accidence and Word Forma- tion (London). Normal Schools. —There are no persons to whom tin's study is more important, than to teachers of English grammar. The explanations of the forms of words arc- all to besought in it. The origin and meaning of the possessive ending 's, of the plural endings, of the endings for gender, of the tense forms and other forms of the verb, the adverbial endings, the prepositions, may at any time be de- manded of the teacher. Pupils will ask him whether John's hool: is a contraction of John his book; how comes geese to be the plural of goose, and men tiaeplural of man: how comes lady to be the/eminine of lord; how cornea I have loved ti> express the perfect tense; what does the to mean when you say to be, or not to be, that is the question, and so on without end. Bui such questions cannot be answered without knowing Anglo-Saxon. It is the same with questions of syntax. Almost all difficulties crow out of Anglo-Saxon idioms, or find their solution in the forms of that speech. Teachers who know nothing of the history of the language puzzle themselves infinitely with subtle reasonings to prove that expressions must he parsed in one way CT another, when a glance at an Anglo- Saxon grammar would settle the matter in a moment. No teacher can safely pronounce on any such mooted questions of our language with out knowing the Anglo-Saxon forms. No nor- mal school ought to send out graduates from its grammar department wholly ignorant of this study. A lesson a day during the last school term skillfully directed to the most frecpient ex- amples in which this knowledge comes into use, would perhaps answer the most pressing necessi- ties of the common school teacher. Twice that time woidd be a meager allowance to lay the foundation of the education of an accomplished high-school teacher in this department. For this study may be used March's Comparative Gram- mar of the Anglo-Saxon Language I New York); — this contains a full syntax ; R. Morris's His- torical Outlines of English Accidence (London Eadley's Brief History of the English Lan- guage, in Webster's Dictionary (1865). Colleges and Universities. — The earliest im- portant use of Anglo-Saxon in our schools was that introduced by President Jefferson Into the University of Virginia, in 1825. Be thought that it was a rude form of colloquial English dis- guised by bad spelling, and that the whole gram- matical system as given in the text-books was a series of ■• aberrations into which our great Anglo- Saxon leader. Dr. Bickes, has been seduced by too much regard to the structure of the Greek and Latin languages." " Remove," he says. -the obstacles of uncouth spelling and unfamiliar character, and there would be little more diffi- culty in understanding an Anglo-Saxon writer than Bums' poems." lie proposed to have text- books prepared, in which the original Anglo- Saxon should be accompanied by a parallel column containing the same matter respelt into modern English or forms like the modern En- glish, and h\ explanations of the meaning of unusual winds. 'I hese he thought would be few, so that the whole tongue might be mastered with great ease and rapidity. These views of the language are all wrong; the best Anglo-Saxon manuscripts are really spell on a more careful and more scientific system than our modern English. The language, really, is an inflected language, like I atin and (deck, having its case- endings and other inflective forms from the same Original as those sister-speeches. Of course. no one has carried out Mr. Jefferson's plan liter- ally. One of its suggestions has, however, been embodied in March's Introduction to Anglo- Saxon (New York). An early division of the prose is prepared iii parallel pages of Anglo- Saxon, and a sort of English made by giving for each Anglo-Saxon word the corresponding En- glish word to which it has given rise, if there be any, or a kindred English word. The following is a specimen: Se leornere segeth: We cildru biddath the, eala lareow, thael thu baece Qssprecan on Ledene gereorde rihte, fortham ungelaerede we sindon, and gewemmedlice w e sprecath. (The learnersaith: Wechilder 1 bid- thee, O-lo lore-master, that thou teach us /o-speak in Latin i-rerd right, lot-that * un-i-lered ■■ we are. and i-weiiiincilly we speak.) l children (Chauoer). spray, nlanguago HalliwelT. 'because, o unlearned Stratuiauu). c corruptly, from. wrm, a spot. ANGLO-SAXON ANSELM 31 An extract from the poetry of Caedmon is prepared in the Bame manner. Tt will be Been that this affords an easy introduction to a gen- eral knowledge of the Anglo-Saxon vocabulary, and is a grateful means of enabling beginners who wish only to read in an off-hand fashion, to get a fair knowledge of the contents of Anglo- Saxon books, especially of simple prose, and makes a good beginning for grammatical and philological study. There has been a great increase of Anglo-Saxon study in our colleges within the last ten years. From being almosl unknown, and wholly unpro- vided with any suitable apparatus, it has become a common study, and a number of manuals have been published for beginners in it. both in America and Europe. There is ft difference of opinion among our educators as to whether it should be studied early in the college course and in connec- tion with English simply, or later and in connec- tion with Latin, Greek,and German; whether it. should he mainly a literary study, for reading and the vocabulary, or chiefly a grammatical and philological study. The earliest of the later text- books announced for publication was a < 'ompar< - Hi-.- Grammar by P. A. March, Prof, of the English Language and Comparative Philology i:i Lafayette College. This was primarily intended for the use of a Junior Class in college, who have already studied Latin, Greek, French, and German, according to a progressive plan by which each language is compared with the others in its grammatical forms and analogous words, so that when beginning Anglo-Saxon, the students are good comparative grammarians within the range of the above languages. It is the plan of this grammar to compare the Anglo-Saxon with Sanskrit, Greek, Latin, Gothic, Old Saxon, Old Frisic, Icelandic, and Old High German. Gen- eral principles of phonology, enough to cover all the changes of sound, are first laid down, and then parallel paradigms of the inflection forms in these languages are given, and the Anglo-Saxon explained under their guidance. A comparative syntax is also given. The author in this way introduces the student to the methods of the modern science of language in connection with the study of Anglo Saxon, so that our mother-tongue may share the honors of this new science. This grammar was followed by a Reader, which is prepared with notes .adapted to lead to and aid in the study of the grammar. These books have been since studied at Lafayette College in the manner here sug- gested. A class goes slowly on with the reader and grammar together, studying, word byword, letter by letter, the relations of the forms to . (1859—62), George W. Bosmer, I). i>. (1866 — 72); and since then, the college has been under the direction of Prof. Edward Orton and Samuel < '. Derby, A. M., acting presidents. Its endowment is upward of SI 2(1,000. It has a preparatory and collegiate department ; and stu- dents are permitted to select any studies from its curriculum which they are able to pursue with advantage, and receive a certificate for the same, after passing a satisfactory examination. In this respect, the institution affords the advantages of the best academies. It has a musical institute under the supervision of the faculty, and a li- brary of 5000 volumes. The number of students in 187 I was about 100. The co-education of the sexes has been very successful in this institution. The annual tuition fee is S.'iT. ANTIPATHY. This term, the opposite of sympathy, denotes the instinctive dislike which is fell towards some persons on account of cer- tain peculiarities of temperament, disposition. manners, etc. The natural characteristics of dif- ferent persons show remarkable diversities in this respect. Some seem lo exert a kind of magnetic influence, which attracts and engages others, and by means of which they immediately gain the good-will and affection of those with whom they are brought into communication. ()ihers. on the contrary, appear to repel, as it were, all who approach them, and aie obliged, therefore, to make special efforl to secure the con- fidence and good-will of their associates, T'rank- ness and candor tend to inspire confidence; while an exhibition of reserve and shyness produces aversion ami distrust. Shy. secretive persons strive to avoid others, and are instinctively avoided. They naturally produce antipathy. Hatred is engendered in the mind towards those who com- mit positive acts of injury, wrong, or crime; but this is to be distinguished from antipathy, which is an instinctive dislike. Such a feeling is apt To exist on a first acquaintance only, and is often dismissed subsequently as a prejudice. No per- son can succeed in teaching children, who pos- sesses an unfortunate temperament or mental con- stitution of this kind, ami such a one should seek other employment ; since all real success in prac- tical education, depending as it does upon in- spiring the minds of pupils with love, esteem, and confidence, must be founded upon the opposite quality, sympathy. (See Sympathy.) APHORISMS, Educational. The expres- sion of general truths in the form of aphorisms has some advantages over more extended state- ments, particularly in their brevity, pithiness, and point. The understanding grasps them as the keys to practical rules, and as guides in conduct : and the memory more readily retains them. It is not. however, to the uninformed, untrained mind, that such expressions are of the greatest use. but to those who,having already ac- quired by experience and reflection a good store of facts and idea- upon the subject treated, are glad to find them concentrated, as it were, in these small and convenient verbal repositories. \o subject is richer in such aphorisms than education ; and to no one will their study and acquisition prove more serviceable than to the practical teacher, eager to avail himself of the treasured experience of others. In these scintil- lations of wisdom, struck out from the minds of ancient and modern sages, philosophers, and edu- cators, will be found an illumination sufficient per- haps to guide the humble explorer in the field of pedagogical lore, to the true path to professional success, as well as to the temple of speculative and practical truth. The few here given have been selected not only for their appositeness, but for their value as the exponents to correct educa- tion and teaching. Their arrangement by topics will not only serve to divest them collectively of their fragmentary character, but render them easy of reference and application. In regard to the value of aphorisms in general, t 'oleridge remarks: " Exclusively of the abstract sciences, the lar- gest and worthiest portion of our knowledge consists of aphorisms: and the greatest and best of men is but an aphorism." I. Value of Education. Man cannot propose a higher or holier object tor his study than education and all that per- tains to education. — l'l.Vl'o. Man becomes what he is principally by edu- cation, which pertains to tin whole of lite. l'i vm. Man becomes whal he is by nature, habit, instruc- tion; the last two together constitute education, and must always ace pan} each other. Aristotle. There is within every mind a divine ideal, the type after which he was created, the germs of a perfect person ; and it is the office of education to favor and direct these germs. Kant. Mali is tin product of his education. — Helvetius. A right-directed system of education is a moral power in the mind, second only to that creating energy that formed and sustains in existence its material frame-work. — A. E. Craig. APHORISMS 33 Of all the men we meet with, nine parts out of ten are what they arc, good or evil, useful or not, by their education. — Locke. Education is to inspire the love of truth, as the supreme good, and to clarity the vision of the intellect to discern it. — H. Mann. Education is the one living fountain which must water even part of the social garden, or its beauty withers, and fades away. — E. Evebett. II. Scope of Education. The object of education is not external show and splendor, but inward development. — Seneca. A good education consists in giving to the body and the soul all the perfection of which they are susceptible. — Plato. Education can improve nature, but not com- pletely change it. — Aristotle. The object of the science of education is to render the mind the fittest possible instrument for discovering, applying, or obeying the laws under which God has placed the universe. — "Wayland. The first principle of human culture, the foundation-stone of all but false, imaginary cul- tm-e. is, that men must, before every other tiling, be trained to do somewhat. Thus, and thus only, the living force of a new man can be awakened, enkindled, and purified into victorious clear- ness. — C arlyle. The object of education ought to be to develop in the individual all the perfection of which he is capable. — Kant. I call that education which embraces the cult- ure of the whole man, with all his faculties — sub- jecting his senses, his understanding, and his pas- sions to reason and to conscience. — Fellenberg. I call a complete and generous education that which fits a man to perform justly, skillfully, magnanimously, all the offices, both private and public, of peace and war. — Milton. All true education is a growth ; the mind is not a mere capacity to be filled like a granary ; it is a power to be developed. — J. P. Wickersham. The object of education is rather to form a per- fect character, than to qualify for any particular station or office. — A. Potter. The educator should not so much form and instill, as develop and call out. — Michaelis. The school is a manufactory of humanity. — ___ _ , , _ ., Comenius. III. Teacher and Pupil. Nature without instruction is blind; instruc- tion without nature is faulty ; practice without either of them is imperfect. — Plutarch. The fittest time for children to learn anything, is when their minds are in time, and well-dispos- ed to it. — Locke. Let the tutor make his pupil examine and thoroughly sift every thing he reads, and lodge nothing in his head upon simple authority and upon trust.— Montaigne. Let the child learn what is appropriate for his years, and not precociously what he ought to learn afterwards. — Rousseau. To learn is to proceed from something that is known to the knowledge of something link n< >wn. — Comenius. Perverseness in the pupil is often the effect of frowardness in the teacher. — Locke. The great skill of a teacher is to get and keep the attention of his scholar; whilst he has that, he is sure to advance as fast as the learner's ability will carry him. — Locke. 3 It is the teacher's character that determines the character of the school; not what lie does SO much as what he is. The maxim is a true one: As is the teacher, so is the school. — J. Currle. Teachers should observe the following rules: 1. Never to correct a child in anger. 2. Never to deprive a child of anything without returning it. 3. Never to break a promise. 4. Never to overlook a fault. 5. In all things, to set before the child an example worthy of imitation. — Wilderspin. It matters not how learned the teacher's own mind may be, and how well replenished with ideas, and how widely soever he sees them, there is a power beyond this necessary, to produce copies of these ideas on the minds of others.— A. R. Craig. Those studies should be regarded as primarj . that teach young persons to know what they are seeing, and to see what they otherwise would fail to see.— J. S. Blackte. Long discourses and philosophical reasonings, at best, amaze and confound, but do not instruct children. — Locke. It is as important how children learn, as what they learn.— Dr. Mayo. A skillful master who has a child placed under his care, will begin by sounding well the character of his genius and natural parts. — Quintiuan. Pules should not be set before examples. — Comenius. Actual intuition is better than demonstration. — Comenius. At first it is no great matter how much you learn, but how well you learn it. — Erasmus. Study is the bane of childhood, the aliment of youth, the indulgence of manhood, and the restoration of age. — W. S. Landor. A teacher ought to know of every thing much more than the learner can be expected to acquire. He must know things in a masterly way, curious- ly, nicely, and in their reasons. — E. Everett. The teacher should create an interest in study, incite curiosity, promote inquiry, prompt investi- gation, inspire self-confidence, give hints, make suggestions, and tempt pupils on to try their strength and test their skill. — J. P. Wickersham. There is frequently more to be learned from the unexpected questions of a child, than from the discourse of men who talk in a road, according to the notions they have borrowed and the prej- udices of their education. — Locke. From every thing noble the mind receives seeds, which are vivified by admonition and in- struction, as a light breath kindles up the spark in the ashes. — Seneca. Curiosity in children is but an appetite after knowledge ; and, therefore, ought to be encouraged in them, not only as a sign, but as the great in- strument nature has provided to remove that ignorance they were born with. — Locke. Clearness of id«as must be cultivated by exer- cising the intuition, and the pupil must be edu- cated to independent activity in the use of his own understanding. — Seneca. Ideas before words; principles before rules; the judgment before the memory ; incidental in- formation before systematic : reading before spelling ; the sounds of the letters before their names; and, on the whole, nature before art. — A. R. Craig. 34 APHORISMS The school should cautiously beware of making sacrifice to the arrogant requirements of the spirit of the age; which, when it takes a wrong direction, promotes nonsense, and desires to study by steam. — Stoy. Arouse in the child the all-powerful sense of the universe, and the man will raise himself above the world ; the eternal over the changeable. — Eichter. The process of enlightening the mind should not be like lightning in the night, giving a strong light for a moment, but only blinding by it, and then leaving every thing dirk again ; but like daybreak, which renders every thing gradu- ally light. — J. A. Fischer. Human perfection is the grand aim of all well- directed education : the teacher should have ever present with him his ideal man whose perfections he would realize in the children committ id to his care, as the sculptor would realize the pure forms of his imagination on the rough mar I lies unchiseled before him. — J. P. Wickebsham. IV. Training and Habit. Train up a child in the way he should go, and when he is old he will not depart from it. — Solomon. Training is developing according to an idea. — SCHWABZ. No teaching or lecturing will suffice without training or doing. — Stow. You cannot by all the lecturing in the world enable a man to make a shoe. — Dr. Johnson. Nature develops all the human faculties by practice, and their growth depends upon their exercise. — Pestalozzi. The intellect is perfected not by knowledge, but by activity. Abistotle. The end of philosophy is not knowledge, but the energy conversant about knowledge.— Aris- totle. The great thing to be minded in education is, what habits you settle. — Locke. Infinite good comes from good habits; which must result from the common influence of exam- ple, intercourse, knowledge, and actual experience: morality taught by good morals. Plato. It is habit which gives men the real possession of the wisdom which they have acquired, and gives enduring strength in it. — Pythagobas. A man is not educated until he has the ability to summon, on an emergency, his mental powers in vigorous exercise, to effect his proposed ob- ject. I>. \\r.:,,ii;i;. The great result of schooling is a mind with just vision to discern, with free force to do; the i schoolmaster is Practice. — Cablyle. 1 [abil is a power which it is not left to our op- tion to call into existence or not; it is given to us to us or abuse, but we cannot prevent its working.— J. Cubs 1 hi mind, impressible and Boft, with ease [mbibi s and copies « hat Bhe bears and sees, i life's labyrinth holds Cast the clew That education gavi her. raise or true.— Cowfeb. V. Development of the Faculties, All our kn I I e originates with the senses, proceeds thence to the understanding, and ends with the reason, which is subordinate to no higher authority in us. in working up intuitions, and bringing them within the highest unit\ of thought. — Kam . The power of reflection, it is well known, is the last of our intellectual faculties that unfolds itself; and, in by far the greater number of in- dividuals, it never unfolds itself in any consider- able degree. — D. Stewart. Clearness of ideas must be cultivated by exer- cising the intuition, and the pupil must be edu- cated to independent activity in the use of his own understanding. — Niemeyeb. The laws which govern the growth and opera- tions of the human mind are as definite, and as general in their application, as those which ap- ]>ly to the material universe ; and a true system of education must be based upon a knowledge and application of these laws.— J. Henry. Knowledge begins with perception by the si uses; and this is, by the power of conception, impressed upon the memory. Then the under- standing, by an induction from these single con- ceptions, forms general truths, or ideas ; and lastly, certain knowledge arises from the result of judgments upon what is thoroughly under- stood. — COMENTOS. The mind may be as much drawn into a habit of observation and reflection from a well-directed 1 sson on a pin, as from the science of astron- omy. — A. E. Craig. During early childhood enough is done if mental vivacity be maintained. — I. Taylor. The conceptive faculty is the earliest develop- ed, and the first to reach its maturity: it more- over supplies materials and a basis for every otlur mental operation. — I. Taylor. VI. Language. Things and words should be studied together, but things especially, as being the object both of the understanding and of language.— CoMENTCS. He who has no knowledge of things will not In lulpi d by a knowledge ol words. — Luther. The sie,ns of thought are so intimately asso- ciated with thought itself, that the study of lan- guage, in its highest form, is the study of the processes of pure intellect. — E. Everett. Speech and knowledge should proceed with equal steps.- ComentcS. We cannot express in words the thousandth part of what we actually think, but only a few points .if the rapid stream of thought, lrom the crests of its highest waves. — Zschokee. Language is the sheath in which is kept the sword of the mind : the casket in which we pre- serve our jewel; the vessel in which we secure our drink ; the store-house where we lay up our food.- -LOTHEB, Thinking is aided by language, and, to a great extent, is dependent upon it as its most efficient instrument and auxiliary. — N. Pobteb. VII. Self-Education. The primary principle of education is the de- termination of the pupil to self-activity— the do- ing nothing lor him which he is able to do for himself. Sir W. Hamilton. The peculiar importance of the education of childhood lies in the consideration, that it pre- pares the way tor the subsequent self-education of manhood. — J. CrjRRlE. Self-activity is the indispensable condition of improvement ; and education is only education — that is, accomplishes its purposes, only by afford- ing objects and supplying materials to this spoil- APHORISMS APPARATUS 35 taneoua exertion. Strictly speaking, every man mnst educate himself. —Sir W. Hamilton. The child learns more by his fourth year, than the philosopher at any subsequent period of his life; he learns to affix an intelligible sign to every outward object and inward emotion,by a gentle im- pulse imparted by his lips to the air. — E. Evekett. If all the means of education which arc scatter- ed over the world, and if all the philosophers and teachers of ancient and modern times, were to be collected together, and made to bring their com- bined efforts to bear upon an individual, all they could do would be to afford the opportunity of improvement. — Degkrando. VIII. Moral Education. The best-trained head along with a corrupt heart, is like a temple built over a den of rob- bers. — Tegner. Head and heart constitute together the being of man, and lie who is sound in one only is a cripple. Stot. It holds as a rule in mental as well as in moral education, that the learner should be habituated to what is right before he is exorcised in judging what is wrong. — J. CuRRTE. If you can get into children a love of credit, and an apprehension of shame and disgrace, you have put into them the true principle, which will constantly work, and incline them to the right. — Locke. Man may be said originally to be inclined to all vices ; for he has desires and instincts which influence him, although his reason impels him in an opposite direction. — Kant. In my opinion, the first lesson which should quicken the understanding of the young, should be intended to form their morals and their perceptions ; to teach them to know themselves, to live well and to die well. — Montaigne. Direct teaching on moral ideas and principles is an important-part of instruction. —Hegel. Faith in God is the source of all wisdom and all blessings, and is nature's road to the pure education of man. — Pestalozzi. He that will have his son have a respect for him and his orders, must have a great reverence for his son. "Maxima debetur pueris reverentia. " — Lo< ike. A properlj conducted school is a sort of moral gymnasium, preparatory to the great struggle on the arena of life. — A. R. Craig. Morality is in infancy founded on the authority of the parent, acting with the support of habit and association; what he commands is law; the virtue of childhood is summed up in obedience. —Currie. In man, the ideal is older than the actual. The loftly lies nearer the child than the debased. We measure time by the stars, and reckon by the clock of the sun, before we do by the city clock. — Richter. Love awakens love; and a cold and heartless education usually produces a pupil of the same character.— J. A. Frscm Children should live in their paradise, as did our first parents, those truly first children. — Rousseau. IX. Discipline and Government. Correct thy son. and he shall give thee rest ; yea, he shall give delight unto thy soul — Solomon. He that Bpareth his rod hateth his son ; but he that loveth him chasteneth him betimes. — Solo- Ki is. No father inflicts his severest punishment, un- til he has tried all other means. — Seneca. A principal point in education is discipline, which is intended to break the self-will of chil- dren, in order to the rooting out of their natural lc > w tendencies. — He< a ■: I .. There is one, and but one fault, for which children should be beaten ; and that is obstinacy or rebellion. — Locke. Beating is the worst, and, therefore, the last means to be used in the correction of children. — Locke. The shame of the whipping, and not the pain, should be the greatest part of the punishment.— Locke. No frighted water-fowl, whose plumage the bullet of the sportsman has just grazed, dives quicker beneath the surface, than a child's spirit darts from your eye when you have tilled it with the sentiment of fear. - II. Maun. A school can be governed only by patient, en- lightened, Christian love, the master principle of our natures. It softens the ferocity of the savage; it melts the felon in his cell. In the manag ment of children it is the great source of influence ; and the teacher of youth, though his mind be a store-house of know! dee, is ignorant of the first principle of his art, if he has not embraced this as an elemental maxim. — E. Everett. Angry feelings in a teacher beget angry feelings in a pupil; and if tiny are repeated day after day, they will at last rise to obstinacy, to obduracy and incorrigibleness. — H. Mann. The evil of corporal punishment is less than the evil of insubordination or disobedience. — H. Mann. It is the teacher's duty to establish authority ; peaceably, indeed, if he may, —forcibly if he must. — D. P. Page. There are usually easier avenues to the heart, than that which is found through the integuments of the body.— D. P. Page. Several collect ; ons of educational aphorisms maybe found in Barnard's American Joumail of Education (passim).— See also Wohlfartii, Pedagogical Treasure- Casket I Padagogisches Schatzkastiein, (Jot ha, 1857), translated in Bar- nard's Jon rind: also the same, republished from Barnard's Journal, entitled Educational Aphorisms and Suggestions, Ancient and Modern. APPARATUS, School. — The work of in- struction in school is very greatly facilitated by sufficient and appropriate apparatus, such as blackboards, slates, globes, maps, charts, etc. This is especially required in the teaching of children in classes, as in common schools. By this means, the sense of sight being addressed, the impressions made are clearer and more du- rable. Besides, the concrete is made to take the place of the abstract, by the use of suitable ap- paratus; and, in the first stages of education, the former is almost exclusively to be employed, since ract principles or truths are not compre- hende 1 by the young mind, except upon a suffi- ciently extensive basis of concrete tacts. Thus, by means of the numeral frame, the various rudi mental combinations of numbers are presented to the mind of the young pupil, in conne t 36 APPAR \TUS A HAITIAN SCHOOLS with actual objects ; and in this manner a clear idea is given of those processes which, merely by abstract statements of the truths, would scarcely be apprehended at all. Of course, the teacher should be careful not to carry the use of such apparatus beyond its proper limits ; since the pupil's mind is gradually to be accustomed to conceive clearly t lie truth of abstract propositions without regard to their concrete applications. Every stage or grade of school instruction must have its appropriate apparatus. Infant in- struction requires a great number and variety of simple apparatus {gifts) in order, by natural methods, to aid the development of the child's mind. (See Kindergarten.) The primary school should be supplied with a numeral frame, blackboards, slates, and pencils for the use of the children, a box of forms, spelling and reading charts, color charts, pictures of animals, etc.; and, when elementary geography is taught, simple maps and a small globe. For this purpose, one that may be divided into hemispheres (Hand Hemisphere Globe) is best ; since by means of it the relation of the planisphere maps to the globe may be clearly shown. (See Globes.) A simple relief globe is also of great service at this stage. Other ingenious and attractive apparatus has been devised to aid the work of the primary school teacher, to which a special reference is not needed. In the more advanced stages of instruc- tion, the use of any other than the ordinary ap- paratus, such as the blackboard, maps, globes, etc., becomes less and less necessary, except in the teaching of certain special subjects; as higher arithmetic, mensuration, astronomy, and other de- partments of natural science. For such pur- poses, the cube root blocks and other geometrical solids, a tellurian, an orrery, etc., will be of great value. Charts of physiology, history, etc., are scarcely to be dispensed with. In the teaching of natural science, very expensive and compli- cated apparatus is not at first required Indeed, the simpler it is, the better ; since the use of such appliances will incite the pupil himself to experi- ment with those simple contrivances which his own powers of invention will enable him to de- vise. Thus the use of the level' may be just as well explained by means of a pen-holder or a pointer as by a polished steel rod specially con- structed for the purpose. Nothing marks more fully the ability of the teacher man adroitness in availing himself of all common resources for the purpose of illustration. Some of the most important discoveries in physical science have been made with very rude apparatus. In the use of apparatus to illustrate scientific facts, as of the globe, tellurian, or orrery for the purpose of tea hing astronomy, it should always be borne in mind that such contrivances cannot supersede the study of nature itself. Cumbrous ami compli- cated machinerj , without an attentive observation of the natural phenomena which they arc in- tended to explain, rather serve to give false notions than to imparl correct ideas of the actual facts. The latter must be clearly grasped by the mind as facts before their illustration is attempted by means of artificial contrivances. This depends upon an important principle which the teacher should be careful to recognize and apply. (See Blackboard, and Numeral Frame.) APPORTIONMENT. See School Find. ARABIAN SCHOOLS. The peninsula of Arabia, situated between the Red Sea and the Persian Gulf, has an area of 1,218,798 square miles, and a population estimated at 5,000,000. Of late, the Arabs have been of but little account in the annals of education as well as in political history. In former centuries, on the other hand. t hey occupied, for a considerable time, a promi- nent position. Arabia was the birthplace of Islamism, which, in its doctrinal and ethical peculiarities, bears the most evident marks of the people among whom, and the country in which, it originated. With the rapid spread of this religion, the Arabs became a powerful people. extending their political rule far beyond their original borders. Large empires were founded in Asia, Africa, and Europe; and science and the arts kept pace in their development with the in- crease of political power. The Arabian schools of the caliphate, and, later, those founded by the Moors, in Spain, not only attained a world- wide reputation, but, for a time, were generally recognized as eclipsing all other literary institu- tions. The prosperity of these schools began during the rule of the dynasty of the Ommiyades. These monarchs transferred their residence to Damascus, the capital of Syria, which at that time was a chief seat of Creek literature, appoint- ed many Greeks and Syrians as surveyors, archi- tects, and physicians : and brought the Arabian mind into contact with the civilization of the Greeks and the Syrians. The dynasty of the Ah- bassides. which succeeded that of the Ommiyades in 7")(), were still more instrumental in the pro- motion of science and literature among the Arabs. A large number of Greek authors were translated into Arabic; and in medical literature the Arabs became BO proficient, that through the middle ages they were regarded as the highest authorities. Soon the Arabian schools were also regarded as superior to all others in mathematics and astronomy. A translation of Aristotle had a far reaching influence upon the further develop- ment of the Arabian mind. The teachings of Aris- totle not only became the basis of Arabic philos- ophy, but through the influence of the Arabian schools, the study of this great Creek philosopher became popular among the Jews in Spain and. Subsequently, generally among the dews and Christians of Europe. The highest prosperity was attained by the Arabian Schools in Spain. In the higi) schools of Cordova. [Toledo, Sala- manca, ami Seville, nearly all branches of human knowledge, Mohammedan theology and law, mathematics, astronomy, history and geography, grammar and rhetoric, medicine and philosophy, were taught. In these schools, dewish. Moham- medan, and Christian teachers worked harmoni- ously together. The students lived in coUeges,and, from time to time, had to pass examinations. The teachers sometimes employed substitutes. In the ARCII.KOUMJY ARGENTINE REPUBLIC 37 lower schools, which were mostly connected with mosques, the pupils often received their clothing and hoard gratuitously. The fame of the Arabian schools in Spain attracted students from all parts of Christian Kurope. who were anxious to acquaint themselves with the Greek and Arabic literature and the Aristotelian philosophy. Among the many celebrated men who studied there, was the learned Gerbert, who became pope under the name of Sylvester 11. Among the results which these students brought with them from the Arabian schools, were the Arabic numbers, now in genera] use in the eivili/.ed world. At the close of the H>th century, the Arabian schools in Spain began to decline, and the downfall of the caliphate of Bagdad, in L258, extinguished the fame of their Asiatic schools. In Arabia, at present, there is little education deserving the name. Among the Bedouins, there are no schools, and those that exist in the towns and villages are only of a very elementary character, generally connected with the mosques, and giving instruction in reading, particularly of the Koran, writing, and the rudiments of arith- metic. In the schools connected with the mosques, which are public schools, the poorer children are taught gratuitously; but besides these schools, there are private seminaries for the instruction of children of the higher and middle classes. A private teacher for children and young slaves is no uncommon part of the domestic establish- ments of distinguished families. There is no public provision for the education of women. In some of the larger towns and cities, there are colleges and professional schools, in which mathe- matics, astronomy, medicine, etc., are taught. One of the chief studies is that of the Arabic, to enable the scholars to read the Koran and the commentaries upon it. of which there are several; since these are written in a dialect differing in some respects from that now in general use. — See Schmidt. Geschickte r Padagogik, vol. n. ARCHEOLOGY (from apyalnr, ancient, and ?.6yog, knowledge, science) denotes properly the science of antiquities. In the widest sense of the word, it would embrace the history, mythology, political institutions, religion, commerce, industry, literature, and fine arts of ancient times, but it is now more generally used in a restricted sense. Some writers, especially in America, apply it to the researches into the primeval period of man, and, in particular, into the history, customs, and remains of the primitive inhabitants of a coun- try. Thus the Indians in the United States and the Celts in Creat Britain, have become the sub- jects of profound archaeological research.— In Germany the term is now more frequently used to denote the science of the monuments which are left to us from ancient times, and especially from Greek, Etruscan, and Latin antiquity. As the ancient monumentB contain a v;ust amount of in- formation, not to be derived from classical litera- ture, archa'ology is regarded as an important auxiliary to the science of classical philology. the founder of arclueology as a special science was Winckehnann : and the most famous work on thui subject is the Handbuch der Archotologie by K. (). Miki.i.kh (3d edit., by Weleker, Bres- lau, 1846). An English work on the subject is Westropp's Handbook of Archaeology (Loud., 1869). Biblical archaeology and ecclesiastical oi Christian archa'ology, are branches of theology. The former treats of the ancient geography, physical condition, and ethnography, and the general antiquities of Palestine and the adjacent countries; the latter, of the antiquities of the Christian Church, and chiefly of the early his- tory of Christian worship. Works on biblical archaeology have been written by lb: YYkitk, Scholz.Jahn, ItosKNMiKi.i.KK, Kkii., and others; on Christian archa'ology, by Bingham, Pellicia, Augusti, Bintkrim, Rheinwald, Ottk. Henry (Philadelphia. 1837), Riddle (2d edit., Loud., L843), Coleman. [Ancient Christianity exempli- fied, Philadelphia, 1853). At many of the European universities and theological schools, special courses of lectures on classical, biblical, or ( 'hristian archaeology are provided for. ARCHITECTURE. See Fine A ins. ARCHITECTURE, School. See School House. ARGENTINE REPUBLIC, an independ- ent state of South America, area 841 .000 sq. m., or, if we add the territory which is claimed by both the Argentine Republic and Chili, 1,000,1 100 sq. in. ; population, according to the census of 1st)!), L,879,410. The republic is growing rap- illy, the increase of population from 1836 to 1869 amounting to 146 per cent. Since 1863, immigration has begun to assume large propor- tions. While, from 1863 to 1866, it averaged annually little more than 10,000, it reached, in 1870 and the following years, 40,000. The for- eign element is especially large in the city and province of Buenos Ayres, and a considerable number of prominent positions in the literary institutions of the country are occupied by for- eigners. Almost the whole native population belongs to the Roman Catholic Church; but the immigrants from the United States. Great Brit- ain, Germany, and Switzerland have established a number of Protestant congregations and schools. To these a few native congregations have been added by the Methodist missionaries from the United States. '1 here is a marked difference between the population of the towns, and that of the country. 'I he former are gener- ally civilized, and take a profound interest in education ; but the gauchos, or the horsemen of the plain, think hut little of education and civili- zation. The territory of the Argentine Republic, after being occupied by the Spaniards, formed a part of the Viceroyalty of Peru till 177<>, when the Viceroyalty of La Plata was erected. The war of independence against Spain began in L810, and was successfully ended in 1812. In 1813, a Sovereign Assembly was convoked ; ami in 1817, the independence of the United Provinces of La Plata was formally declared. Pike the other republics of Spanish America, the country suf- fered much from civil wars, from 1H.V2 to I860, 38 ARGENTINE REPUBLIC ARISTOTLE Buenos Ayres was separated from the confedera- tion of the other provinces, and formed an in- dependent commonwealth. More recently, the progress of the country has been greater and more rapid than that of most of the other South American republics. As early as 1605, the Jesuits established the university of Cordova, which soon became the literary center of all the territory lying in the basin of the La Plata river. Of course, instruc- tion during the 17th and L8th centuries was entirely in the hands of the clergy, especially the Jesuits; and very little was done in the way of primary instruction. After the expulsion or the Jesuits, in I TUT. the university passed into the hands of the Franciscans and greatly declined. Though, after the establishment of national inde- pendence, there were not wanting those who fully appreciated the importance of education, and sought to devise plans for its future development, the progress at first was very slow. The active progress of education dates from the adoption of the constitution of Sept. I860, which still rules the country. Among the first provisions, is one for securing primary e lucation in every province' of the republic, making this an essential obliga- tion. To the general government was given the power to dictate plan of general and university education; and a special ministerial department of public instruction was created. Such, how- ever, was the indifference of the people, that the government, in order to carry out its plans of sec- ondary education, was compelled not only to offer instruction, hooks, and all other necessaries free, but also to pay the pupils for the trouble of attending school and studying their lessons. The National College of Buenos Ayres was founded shortly after the adoption of the present constitution. Scholarships, under the name of cecas, were established, giving to the student a monthly allowance of from ten to fifteen dollars in gold. About the same time, three other pro- vincial institutions, the College of the Uruguay in the province of Entre Rios, and the College ami the University of Cordova, were nationalized ami placed upon ;\ similar basis. Up to 1868, there were established five other similar institu- tions in the provinces of Tucunian, Salta, Cata- marca, San Juan, ami Mendoza; and, in L868, five others were added in San Luis, La Lioja. Jujuy, Santiago, anil Corrientes. In 1872, there were thirteen colleges, with uii'.iT students and 162 professors. The colleges are visited by an inspector of national colleges, who is himself a government employe. In L865, the national government took its first step in favor of primary instruction, distrib- uting $22,000 in gold among the various prov- inces, for the purpose of promoting a popular movement in this direction, In I Hon and 1867, th, u mill was voted by the national con- gre for this purpose. In August 1868, began th • a lininist ration of President Sariniento. who has done more for the promotion of education than any other statesman of South America. The progress made since then is wonderful. The new minister of public instruction, Dr. Nicolas Avellaneda, in his first report to the congress (lHo9), earnestly advocated sweeping reforms: and the work of carrying out these reforms was begun energetically. For the year 1 869, $1 15,000 was voted tor the purpose of encouraging pri- mary instruction; for 1870, $95,000, and for 1871 $215,000. In L871, a law was also passed, crea- tine a special and independent fund tor the pur- poses of primary instruction, distributing the proceeds among the various provinces in propor- tion to the efforts which they themselves might make. This law took effect in January L873. In 1ST2. primary instruction was given in Kiss public and 566 private schools. 'I he children of school age (( It. ('. at Stagira, a Greek colony of Macedonia, near the mouth of the Strymon. from his birthplace ho is often called "the StagiriteJ His father. Nicom- achus, was a distinguished physician and friend of the .Macedonian king Amynlas II.; and bom him Aristotle received the first instruction. Hav- ing lost his parents, he went at the age of seven- teen to Athens, where he was for twenty years a pupil of Plato. His great teacher used to call him. on account of hi- r-st less study and his thirst for knowledge, the philosopher of truth and the in- tellect of his school. Subsequently, however, an estrangement arose between them, owing chiefly to the radical differences in their philosophical and educational systems. While Plato was a thorough idealist. Aristotle was just as fully a ARISTOTLE 39 realist ami the father of experimental science. About •> 13 I!. ( '.. Aristotle was appointed by king Philip of Macedon teacher of his son Alexan- der, at that time thirteen years old. The history of Alexander, who intellectually was no less prom- inent among the kings of the ancient world than as a conqueror, testifies to the success of Aristotle as a practical teacher. For a long time, Alexander was anxious to show his gratitude to his preceptor ; and after the conquest of Persia, he presented him with eight hundred talents, or nearly a million of dollars. Later, however, the friendly relations between Alexander and Aris- totle greatly suffered from the vicious habits of the former. After completing the education of Alexander, Aristotle returned to Athens fin 335, or according toothers in 331, B. ('.) and taught philosophy in the Lyceum. a gymnasium near the city. In the morning, he instructed the advanced ilars in lectures acroamatic or esoteric: in the evening, he gave popular or exoteric lectures to larger circles of hearers. From the shady walks - -.-ni) around the Lyceum, in which he walked up and down while delivering his lectures, his school was called the peripatetic. After having taught in this way for thirteen years, and composed most of his immortal works on philos- ophy ami natural science, he was accused by hemophilus, a prominent citizen of Athens, of impiety, because in a poem he had attributed di- vine honors to his friend liermias. lie, therefore, tied to Ohalcis in Eubcea, where he died, in o22, B. C, of a chronic disease of the stomach. Aristotle's method of teaching was essentially .analytic. Proceeding from the concrete, he tried to derive general ideas from a number of ob- served facts and phenomena ; and his entire phi- losophy is based on the principle that all our know ledge must be founded on the observation of facts. Pedagogy, according to Aristotle, must be founded on principles derived from the knowl- edge of man. The highest goal of all human activity is evdaijiovia, happiness, both tor the in- dividual and for the state. This evdaifiovia is based on virtue, which is acquire 1 ly the perform- ance of moral actions. As man is a social being, destined to live in society, the development of virtue in general is dependent upon political lite. The object of the state is to establish the iplete happiness of families and communities, and the preservation of the state depends on an educational syst a conformable to the laws and constitution. Thrjmmr education will not pro- duce the same virtues in different persons; for the formation of character in each person is de- pendent on three different things, — nature. habit. and instruction. It must be the aim of habit and instruction to develop the peculiar faculties which nature has implanted in each individual. In the education of a child, as it is of the great- est importance that its body be, from its birih.as perfect as possible, care should be taken that the parents be suitably matched, and that women during their pregnancy receive substantial food, and be preserved as much as possible from men- tal agitation. Children who at their birth are crippled should not be brought up at all. Until the fifth year of age, children should not be oc- cupied in hard labor ; on the other hand, how- ever, they should not remain inactive, but have suitable exercises in plays adapted to their age. During this time, as well as during the two fol- lowing years, education by means of habit takes place, as children observe what they subsequently have themselves to perform. Education by means of instruction begins in the Tth year of age and lasts to the 'J 1st. This time is divided into two periods, the one extending from the 7th year to the age of puberty (about the I lthyear) theotherfrom the 1,4th to the 21st. Education by habit during this period continues, but the chief work is done by instruction. As a general principle, it must be observed, that a state can only exist if children are educated in accordance with the -existing con- stitution; in democratic commonwealths, in which all in turn may rule or be ruled, it is, therefore, of importance that boys should be taught obe- dience, for only those who have learned how to obey will be able to rule. In regard to the subjects in which instruction should be given, three classes should be distinguished, (lj that which is necessary and useful for life, (2) that which leads to ethical virtue, and (3) that which, going beyond these, serves the highest theoretic- al aims. In things pertaining to the ordinary occupations of life, the young are to be instructed only so far as such occupations are becoming to a free man. Every mechanical work, every kind of servile or menial labor, and especially every thing that might injure the body, is to be avoided. The fine arts should be practiced with a view to general culture ; but no special excellence should be aimed at. In regard to ethical virtues, children must especially be taught to be consider- ate and temperate, in order that the exertions necessary to attain self-control may lose their original unpleasantness by means of habit. Fi- nally, there are for ethical as well as theoretical education , certain instructional means, namely reading and writing, gymnastics, music, including rhythmics and poetry. and occasionally also draw- ing. The first and the last of these serve also for the necessities of life: and care should, there- fore, be taken that the supreme aim of a noble education be not infringed upon. Tin instruction in drawing, therefore, should be given in such a way as to enable the youthful mind to under- stand ami criticise the works of plastic art. Gymnastics educate the youth in manliness, and give to the body health and beamy. That which is properly athletic and especially every thing that leads to rudeness and ferocity, should be avoided, a point of view which the Spartans, in their otherwise excellent educational system, Somewhat lost sight of. Before the age Of pu- berty, only easy exercises should be practiced, and all violent exertions that might impede natural growth, should be avoided. After attaining the a-_ ■• of puberty, boys may n the educational system of Aristotle, sec Schmidt, Gesckickte der Pada- gogik, vol. i; and Onckbn, Die Staatslehre des Aristoteles, 2 vols., IsTO — 1875. — See also Ari- stotelis Ethica Nicomachea, edited by J. E. 'I'. BOGERS, (Lond., 1874); and the same, translated by R. Williams. (Lond.. L874); The Politics (Greek text, with English notes), by Richard Congreve, (Lond.. 1874); The Ethics, with Es- says mill Notes, by Sir A. Grant, ilxmd., 1874); (trotk, Aristotle (Lond., lsT'ij. ARITHMETIC (Gr.ap^^ffljfromap^rfc, number), the science of numbers. This subject oc- cupies a prominent place in the curriculum of all elementary schools, both primary and grammar, as well from its educational or disciplinary, as its practical value. On a fair estimate, not less than one-fourth of the pupil's time, for the first eight or ten years of his school lite, is given to the study of this Bubject; hut the results are too often quite inadequate to this large expenditure of time, the most that can generally he claimed being a tolerable familiarity with the processes of the fundamental rules, common fractions, and denominate numbers, with a very imperfect knowledge even of the processes of decimal frac- tions, proportion, evolution, and the business rules 01 arithmetic. Any such knowledge of the subject as enables the student to give a clear ex- position of the reasons tor the various processes, or as is required to render him trust worthy in ordinary business computations, is far from be- ing the usual attainment. This arises, in part at hast, from a fundamental error in the general treatment of this branch of instruction. — the dis- sociation, to a great extent, of mental from writ- ten arithmetic ; whereas they should be so com- bined as to constitute only different exercises of the same subject, (^uite within the memory of some of our living educators, the text-books of arithmetic generally in use were simply single books of definitions, rules, and examples. Such were Ostrander's, Pike's, Dabol's, etc. These were succeeded by two classes of text-books, — one, called Mental Arithmetics, of which Lolburn's is- a type ; and the other, such as presented an at- tempt to explain the reasons of the processes in- volved in the different rules. Of the latter, Adams's New Arithmetic affords a fair example. Following these two lines, the science has been practically divided into two; and so diverse are these in their methods, that a pupil may be quite expert in one, and almost entirely ignorant of the other. If. in addition to this, the fact is con- sidered that the text-books in the course have been multiplied until there are now two books in mental arithmetic, and three in written, in several of the series in general use, the rea- son for the length of time consumed on this sub- ject La our public schools will he obvious. But there is still another cause which operates with considerable force: that is. the cumbering of our text-books with so many subjects that are utterly useless to the student. No branch of business re- quires a knowledge of greatest common divisor, least common multiple, circulating decimals, or duodecimals. It is indeed important that a pupil should know how to reduce a fraction to its lowest terms : but no ordinary case requires a knowledge of the process for finding the 7. c. c given. And lastly, on this topic, of what conceivable use are many of the examples which occupy SO much space in our books, and BO much time in the course? Take the following as specimens: I bought a hat coat, and vest, For $34; the hat cost ,-; of the price 0? the coat, and the vest j of the price uf the hat : what was the cost of each? One-half of A's money = $ of B'SJ and the intere-t of 3 of A's and i of l!'s money, at 4 per cent for '_' yr. .'! inmi. is Sis": how much lias each? \ and li have the same income; A saves J of his; lint I!, by BDending (SO per annum more than A, at the end 'of s years finds himself $40 in debt; what is their income, and what does each spend per annum 1 l!ut it is said by some that these things are necessary as mental gviiinasties. However ap- AKTTHMETIO 41 plicable the principle involved in this may be, in education there is really no need of it. If the demands of actual life are so meager, that we must make a large part of our discipline in arithmetic consist in unraveling such manufact- ured puzzles, is it not well to ask the question whether there are not other branches of science which will afford the needed discipline by deal- ing with the actual and useful, instead of wasting time and strength on the purely fictitious? The arithmetics of to-day. however, are a great ad- vance, in this respect, on those in use fifty years ago ; but no editor of a text-book on arithmetic has yet felt at liberty to cut out entirely these superfluous problems. Undoubtedly, the demands of science and of business life furnish abundant resources in this direction ; but these more ab- struse problems do not fall within the purview of an elementary course, nor come within the demands which actual life makes upon the great majority of persons. There are a great number and variety of intricate questions which do act- ually arise in discounting negotiable paper, as well as in the abstruse questions which insurance and annuities present ; but it is not the aim of our elementary courses to train pupils for such specialties; and when in any properly co-ordin- ated course of study such topics are reached, their solution will then come in the regular line of the application of general principles, and the Student will have acquired sufficient maturity to comprehend the business, economical, or political relations which give rise to them. What should constitute the course in arith- metic. — In the first place, there should be a thor- ough unification of the processes of mental and written arithmetic. There is but one science of arithmetic ; and every thing that tends to pro- duce the impression in the pupil's mind that there are two species, the one intellectual and the other mechanical, is an obstacle to his true progress. What is valuable in the methods now peculiar to mental arithmetic, needs to be thoroughly in- corporated with what is practically convenient or necessary in written arithmetic ; so that the whole may be made perfectly homogeneous. The basis upon which this is to be effected is, that principles should be discussed first by the use of small numbers which can be easily held in the mind, and which do not render the difficulty or labor of combination so great as to absorb the attention, or divert it from the line of thought; and that we should pass gradually, in applying the reasoning, to larger numbers and more difficult and complex combinations, in which pencil and paper are necessary. The rationale should be al- ways the same in the mental (properly, oral) arith- metic and in the written, pencil and paper being used only when the numbers become too large, or the elements too numerous, to render it practi- cable to hold the whole in the mind. For example, suppose the pupil to be entering upon the sub- ject of percentage. The first step is to teach what is meant by per cent. In order to this, small numbers will be used, and the process will not require pencil and paper, nor will such num- bers be selected at first, as will cause difficulty in effecting the combinations. Thus, the first questions may be, " Mr. A had 300 sheep and lost f> out of each hundred: how many did he lose?" " What phrase may we use instead of '5 out of each hundred?'" "Mr. U had an or- chard of 400 peach-trees and lost 6 per cent of them; how many did he lose ?" " What phrase may we use instead of '(5 per cent?'" To as- sign as the first example, one like the following would be a gross violation of this principle : "Mr. A put out $759, on 7 per cent interest; what was the interest for a year?" After the principle to be taught is clearly seen, larger numbers should be introduced, and such as re- quire that the work be written. But the same style of explanation should be preserved ; and great care should be taken to have it seen that the method of reasoning is the same in all cases. To illustrate still farther; as, in practice, the computer ordinarily uses the rati' as the multiplier, the form of explanation, when the whole is given orally, should be adapted to this fact. At first, such an example as the first above will naturally be solved thus : " If Mr. A lost 5 sheep out of 100, out of 3 hundred he lost 3 times 5, or 15 sheep." But before leaving such simple illustra- tions, the reasoning should take this form: "Since losing 1 out of 100 is losing .01 of the number, losing 5 out of 100 is losing .0") of the number. Hence, Mr. A lost .05 of 300 sheep, which is. 1 5 sheep." Thus, in all cases, the form of thought which will ordinarily be required in solving the problem, should be that taught in the intro- ductory analysis. A farther illustration of this is furnished by reduction. At first, the question, " How many ounces in ft lb.?" will naturally be answered, " Since there are 16 oz. in 1 lb., in 5 lb. there are 5 times 16 oz., or HO oz." But in practice the 1 6 is ordinarily used as the multi- plier, and it is better that the introductory (mental) analysis should conform to this fact. I Ience, the pupil should be led to see, at the outset, that, as every pound is composed of 16 ounces, in any given weight there are 16 times as many ounces as pounds; and he should be re- quired to analyze accordingly. Apart from this use of what are called mental processes, there is no> proper well-defined sphere for their employment. In practical applications, it is quite unphilos- ophical to classify the examples, by calling some mental and others written. We do not find them so labeled in actual business life. The pupil needs to discriminate for himself as to whether any particular example should be solved without the pencil or with it. It should also be borne in mind that business men rely very little upon these mental operations. They use the pen and paper for almost every computation, in the second place, in constructing our course in arithmetic, we need to give the most careful attention to the condition and wants of the youth found in our public schools. Perhaps it is no exaggeration to say, that from eighty to ninety per cent of the pupils disappear from these schools by the close of the seventh school 42 ARITHMETIC year; and not more than one in one hundred takes a high school course. Since all pupils of the common schools have need of the rudiments of number, as counting, reading and writing .small numbers, the simple combinations em- braced in the addition , subtraction, multiplica- tion, and division tables, the simpler forms of fractions, and the more common denominations of compound numbers, an elementary text-book is deemed to be needful for many schools. The objections often urged to having these primary Lessons entirely oral are, that it makes an un- necessary draft upon the time and energy of the teacher, renders the pupils' progress very slow, does not so readily supply the means of giving them work to do in their seats, and more than all, begets in their minds a dislike for study and self-exertion, and a disposition to expect that the teacher must do all the work, and tints ■Carry them along. But whatever disposition may he made of primary arithmetic, as usually un- derstood, there is an imperative demand that the course in arithmetic for the masses should lie so arranged that the more important practical sub- jects can be reached and mastered by a majority of our youth during the comparatively short time which they can spend in our schools, [n order to effect t his, three things will lie found necessary: (1) a rigorous exclusion of all topics relatively unimportant, (2) a judicious limitation of the topics presented, and (3) care that, in the laudable desire to secure facility in fundamental processes, — adding, multiplying, etc., the teacher tln-s, not consume so much time that the great mass of tin- pupils will never advance beyond the merest rudiments of the subject. The range of topics to be included in the common school course, will In 1 the fundament d rules; common and decimal fractions; denominate numbers (care being taken to reject all obsolete or unusual denominations, ami to give abundant exercises calculated to insure a definite conception of the meaning of the denominations); percentage, includiu'4 simple, annual, and compound interest, with partial payments, common and bank dis- count, and some of the more common uses of percenidge. If. after this, the course may be ex- tend I'd, the nexi subjects in importance are ratio, propoi'lioii'j&nd th • square and cube roots. Much more than this cannot be embraced in a course Whiqh the mass a of, our youth are able to master; and in treating these. cOttStatil care will lie neccs- xii v tu introduce problems which occur in actual life, and as far as possible to exclude all others. Somethihg of common mensuration should be introduced in connection with the tables of meas- ures of extension; and the more common prob- lems in commision, insurance, taxes, stocks; etc., will he readily introduced in percentage without OCCUpj ing either much space or time. For tlie few who call take a more extended course, a thoroughly scientific treatment of the Bubjed of arithmetic is desirable; and this quite :is much for its disciplinary effect, in giving breadth and scope tu the conceptions, and in- ducing a disposition to systematize and gener- alize, and thus to view truth in its relations, as for the amount of mere arithmetical knowl- edge which may be added to the pupil's stock. Here we may introduce an analytical outline of the subject, presenting the topics in their philo- sophical relations, rather than in their mere prac- tical and economic order and connection. 'Ihus, in treating notation, the various forms of nota- tion can be introduced, as of simple and com- pound numbers, other scales than the decimal, various forms of fractional notation. the elements of the literal notation, etc. Then, as reduction is but changing the form of notation, this topic will come next, and will embrace all the forms of reduction found in common arithmetic, as from one scale to another, of denominate numbers, of fractions common and decimal, etc., showing how all arithmetical reductions are based on the one simple principle: If the unit in reference to which tin' numbe?' is to In' expressed is made smaller, the number must be multiplied, and if the unit of expression is moil" larger, the num- ber must In- divided. Passing to the combina- tions of number, under mi a/inn all processes thus designated in arithmetic will be treated, and the general principles out of which they all grow will be developed. In this method of treatment. the pupil will noi find himself merely going overthe elementary subjects through which he plodded in t he days of his chili lliood.l nit new ranees of thought will lie presented, at the same time that all the principles and processes of the elementary arith- metic are reviewed : the very first sections, even those on notation, reduction, and the ftindamen- itil rules, bringing into requisition must of his knowledge of arithmetic, and giving vigorous ex- ercise to his mind in grasping new truth. I5ut in addition to all this, which pertains to the method of presentation, there will lie much of practical arithmetical knowledge to be gained. In the business rules, discount needs a much ful- ler treatment than it has usually received in any of our textbooks. Many problems, of frequent occurrence in modern business circles, are nut pro- vided for in these books : and. in fact, some of the must common have had no solution at all which has been made public. The wonderful develop- ment of the insurance business demands that its principles and methods receive a much fuller treatment than thej can have in an elementary course: this is especially true of /;'/'< insurance. Fan ion exchange, customs, equation of pay- ments, etc.. are other topics suitable for this ad- vanced course, which are quite impracticable in an elementary course within the reach of the masses. Two other ends will he subserved by this method: (1) It will he a leading purpose to teach the pupil how to investigate, ana to this end he should he put in possession of the great in- sirumcni for mathematical investigation, namely, the equation. Of course, only the simpler forms of the equation can he introduced : nevertheless, enough can he given to enlarge very greatly the student's power to examine new questions for himself. By means of the equation, he may he taught the solution of such problems as the fol- ARITI IMKTIO 43 lowing, which would he quite out of his reacli without this instrument : To find what each payment must be in order to discharge a given principal and interest in a given number of eijttul payments at equal inter- vals of tiin>\ To find the present worth of a note which has been running a certain linn-, and is due at a future time, with minimi payments on the principal, and mm mil interest; so that the pur- chaser shall receive a differentrate of annual interest from that named in th<> note. These and many other important business problems are quite within the reach of the simple equation, and arc scarcely legitimate ques- tions to propose to a student who has not some knowledge <>f this instrument. (2) The second general purpose which we shall mention as being subserved by this course is, that by grouping all the arithmetical processes under the fewest pos- sible heals and showing their philosophic de- pendence, the whole is put in the best possible form to be retained in the memory. Thus, if it is seen that a single principle covers all the eases in reduction, that another simple principle covers all the so-called "problems in interest" that all the common intricate questions in discount axe read- ily solved by the simple equation, etc., these proc- esses will not he the evanescent things which they have often been. Principles and maxims to be kept in view while f'-'ir/i/,/>/ arithmetic. — I. There are two distinct and strongly marked general aims in arithmetical study: ( 1 ) To master the rationale of tlii- processes, and (2) To acquire facility and ac- curacy in the performance of these operations. The means which secure one of these ends are not necessarily adapted to secure the other. Thus, to secure the first, for example, in reference to ad- dition, the steps are, learning to count, learning how numbers are grouped in the decimal system, learning how to make the addition table, and, finally, by means of a knowledge of the sum of j the digits taken two and two, learning to rind the sum of any given numbers. In regard to the latter pro, ess, the pupil nee Is to know why we write units of a like order in the same column, why we begin at the units' column to add. why we •• carry one for every ten," as the phrase IS, etc. Bttt all this may he known, and yet the pupil make sorry work in practical addition. In order ■■lire a knowledge of the rationale, each step needs to be-clearly explained and fully illustrated, and then the pupil must he required to repeat the ; whole, "over and over again," in his own language. For this purpose, much class drill on the black- board, in having each pupil separately explain in detail the reasons for.each step of the work which lie has before performed, will be necessary. Pupils may be required to bring into the class practical exercises Solved on their slates, and then sufficient time be given to explanation from the slates. These three things repeated in about the same way, (1) a clear preliminary explanation of principles either given in the text bunk or by the teacher, (2) a thorough mastery of these principles by the pupil so that he can state them in a general way. and (3) a careful and con- tinued repetition of them in the class, in appli cation to particular examples, will secure the first of these general ends of arithmetical study. To secure the second, namely, facility and accuracy in applying these principles, so as to be able to add with ease, rapidity, and accuracy, lone, con- tinued drill, with the mind quite unencumbered by any thought of the reasons for the processes, will be indispensable. It will not be sufficient that pupils solve accurately numerous examples. in the slow plodding way to which they an accustomed in their private study, but large numbers of fresh problems should be furnished in the class, which the pupils should be required to solve with the utmost promptitude, and with perfect accuracy. In respect to all mere numerical combinations, as addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, involution, evolution, etc., oral drills like the following will be of the greatest use and should be continued until the combinations can be made as rapidly as we would naturally read the numbers: Teacher repeats while the pupils follow in silence, making the combinations, "5-j-3-^2*+3, squared, — 7^f-7x 3+7, square root, etc." These oral drills maybe commenced at the very outset in regard to addi- tion, and extended as the other rules are reached, and should not be dropped until the utmost facil- ity is secured. A similar drill exercise can be secured by pointing to the digits as they stand on the board, or on charts, and simply speaking the words which indicate what combinations are required. Any figures which may chance to stand on the board may be used in this way to secure an indefinite amount of most valuable drill. This latter exercise. — making the combina- tions at sight — is of still greater practical value than the former, in which the ear alone is de- pended upon; for it is a singular fact that facility in one method docs not insure it in the other, and the latter is the form in which the process is usually to be applied. Again, in the business rules the principles underlying the pro- cesses must be clearly perceived, and the pupil, by continued practice in explaining solutions written upon the board, must become able to give in good language the reason for each step. Bu1 when all this is secured, there will be found need of much drill on examples to the answers of which he cannot have access, and which he must take up and solve at the moment. In this depart- ment, much valuable exercise may be given by handing the pupils written notes or papers indue form, and requiring them to compute the in- terest, or discount, or make the required com- putation at sight. But the illustrations now given will Buffice to show that there are, as above stated, two general purposes — the theoretical and * The si^ns of division, multiplication, etc. are not used with strict propriety in this specimen exercise; they are applied to the result of all the preceding operations in each case as though all before them bad been included in a parenthesis. Thus In this ca 5-J-8, or 8 which is meant to be divided by 2, wiving 4, to this :i added, giving 7, this squared, niviiii,- 49, etc. 44 ARITHMETIC the practical — which must run parallel through all good teaching in arithmetic, and that they are generally to be attained by different means. II. In order to realize the above, a careful discrimination needs to be made between simply telling how a thing is done, and telling why it is done. Very much of what we read in our text-books, and hear in classrooms, under the name of analysis, in explanation of solutions, is nothing more than a statement of the process — a telling how the particular example is wrought. This vice is still so prevalent as to need the clearest exposition and the most radical treat- ment. Indeed, it has become so general as to be mistaken by the masses for the thing it purports to be ; and pupil and teacher frequently seem to think that this parrotdike way of telling what //us been done is really a logical exposition of the principles involved. The following ex- ample, clipped from a book not now a candidate for popular favor, will serve to illustrate our meaning: ".0017)36.3000(21352 Commencing the di- .'54 vision, we find that 1 7 is contained in 36, 2 23 times. We place 2 in 17 the quotient, and sub- tract 2 x 17 from .'ill. 60 The remainder is 2::. 51 17 is contained in 23, 1 time. Place 1 in the 90 quotient, and subtract 85 1x17 from 23. To the remainder <> we annex 50 one of the 0s, and find 34 that 17 is contained in 60, 3 times with !» re- 16 mainder. We continue this process, annexing to each remainder a new figure of the dividend, until we find a final re- mainder Hi, which does not contain 17. but the division by 17 may be expressed by writing the divisor underneath." Compare this with the following: Reasons for ///>- Huh' in Short Division. — The divisor is written at the left of the dividend, simply that we may be able to see both at once conveniently. We begin at the highest order to divide, be- cause by so doing we can put what remains after each division into the next lower order and divide it : and thus we get all that there is of any order in the quotient as we go along. We write the quotient figures under the orders from whose division they arise, because they are of the same orders. The process ascertains how many times the divisor is contained in the dividend, by finding how many limes it is contained in the parts of tin' dividend and adding I he results. This may be readily illustrated by an example. For this purpose let us divide 1547 by 4. lhe following is an analysis of the operation: 1547 e<|iials 12 hundreds, ,'52 tens, 24 units, and 3 units ; in 4 is contained 12 hds. 3 hds., or 300 times. 32 tens 8 tens, or 80 times. 24 units (') units, or ti times. 3 units, no times. 386 times. I L547 with a remainder .3. III. There should, also, be a careful dis- crimination between pure and i/jijitierf arithme- tic in order that they may be so taught as to secure the proper end of each. Pure arithmetic is concerned solely with abstract numbers, and the breadth of discipline to be secured by its ttudy is not great ; but the applications of arithmetic are almost infinitely varied, and give a far wider scope for mental training. In the latter, the questions are not how to multiply, add. subtract, etc.. but why we multiply, add, or subtract. Thus, in solving a problem in interest, it would be quite out of place to cumber the explanation with an exposition of the process of multiplying by a decimal, but it is exactly to the purpose to give the reason for so doing. The most im- portant object in applied arithmetic is to ac- quaint one's self so thoroughly with the conditions of the problem — if in business arithmetic, with the character of the business — as to discern what combinations are to be made with the numbers involved. .Many of these applications are quite beyond the reach of the mind of a mere child. Thus, to attempt to explain to very young pupils the commercial relations which give rise to the problems of foi'eign exchange, or the circum- stances out of which many of the problems in regard to the value of stocks grow, would be per- fectly preposterous. IV. In teaching applied arithmetic, it is of the first importance that the problems be such as occur in actual life, and that in expressing them, the usual phraseology be employed. For example, compare the following: (1) What is the present worth of $600 duo :? yr. 7 mo. 2(i da. hence, at <; per cent per annum! (2) 1 have a 7 per cent note for $500, dated Feb. 6th, 1st::, and due July loth, 1876. Mr. Smith proposes to buy it of me Sept. lstli, 1*74, and to pay me Bach a sum tor it as shall enable him to realize 1(1 per cent per annum on his investment. What must he pay me? In other words, what is the present worth of this note Sepl 18th, L874? The first supposes a transaction which could rarely, if ever, occur, and even disguises that. Most pupils who have cone through discount in the ordinary way. if asked, " What interest does the $500 bear, in the first example?" would an- swer, "6 percent." ( •fcoursc.it is understood that the money is not on interest. Moreover, we find no such paper — no notes not bearing interest in the market. Again, the assumption seems to he that the note - if even a note is suggested at all— is discounted at the time it is made. Thus, it is obvious that the first form is calculated to give the pupil quite erroneous imp re ssions; whereas the second brings a real transaction into full view. ARITIIUKT1C ARIZONA 45 V. From the beginning to the cm lot' the course, it slunil I In' the aim to teach a few germinal prin- ciples and lead the pupil to apply them to as great a number of cases as his time and ability may permit. Thus, at the very outset, a good teacher will never tell the child how to count ; but hav- ing taught him the names of the numbers up to fourteen, will show him the meaning of the word "fourteen | four and ten); then he can be led to go on to nineteen by himself. No child ought to be told how to count from fifteen to nineteen; and after twenty, he needs only to be shown how the names of the decades, as twen-ty, thir-ty. for-ty. and tif-ty arc formed, to be able to give the rest himself; nor docs he need to be told how to count through more than one decade. In reference to the fundamental tallies, it may be suggested that no pupil should be furnished with an addition, subtraction, multiplication, or division table ready- made. Having been taught the principle on which the table is constructed, he should be re- quired to make it for himself. As preliminary to practical addition and subtraction, the combi- nations of digits two and two which constitute any number up to 18 (9+9) should be made perfectly familiar. Thus the child should recog- nize 1 +4, and 2-|-3, as 5; l + ~>, 2+4, and 3+3, as G; etc.; and this should be made the founda- tion of addition and subtraction. He should be taught, that if he knows that 3+4 = 7, he knows by implication that 23+4 = 27, 33+4 = 37, etc. Passing from the primary arithmetic, he shoidd be taught common fractions by means of the fewest principles and rules consistent with his ability. Thus in multiplication and division. To multiply or to divide a fraction by a whole number, and To multiply or to divide a irhole ■number by a fraction, are all the cases needed; and these should be taught in strict conformity with practical principles. Thus, to multiply a whole number by a fraction is to take a frac- tional part of the number; and to divide a num- ber by a fraction is to find how many times the latter is contained in the former. To cover all the forms of reduction of denominate, members, nothing is needed but the principle or ride, that to pass from higher to lower denominations, we mul- tiply by the number which it takes of the lower to make one of the liigher; and to pass from lower to higher we divide by the same number. These simple principles should be seen to cover all cases, those involving fractions as well as others. In like manner, by a proper form of statement of examples, and an occasional suggestion or question, most of the separate rules usually given endear percentage may he dispensed with. In dealing with the cases usually denominated prob- lems in interest, ail that is needed is the following brief rule: Find tin- effect produced by using a unit of the number required, under the given circumstances, and compare this with the given effect. This should be made to cover the cases usually detailed under six or eight rules. \ I . There are three stages of mental develop- ment which should be carefully kept in view in all elementary teaching : (1) The earliest slaye, in which the faculties chiefly exercised are obser- vation, or perception, and memory, and in which the pupil is not competent to formulate thought. or to derive benefit from abstract, formal state- ments of principles, definitions, or processes; (2) An intermediate stage, ia which the reason- ing faculties (abstraction, judgment, etc) are coming into prominence, ami in which the pupil needs to be shown the truth, so that he may have a clear perception of it. before he is presented with a formal, abstract statement, the work, how- ever, not being concluded until he can state the truth (definition, principle, proposition, or rule) intelligently, in good language, and in general (abstract) terms: (.'!) An ultimate stage, or that in which the mental powers are so matured and trained, that the pupil is competent to receive truth from the general, abstract, or formal state- ment of it. At this stage, definitions, principles, propositions, and statements of processes maybe given first, and illustrated, demonstrated, or ap- plied afterward. (See Analytic Method, and Developing Method.) ARIZONA was organized as a territory Feb. 24th, 1863, being formed from the territory of New Mexico. Its area is 113,910 square miles; and its population, excluding tribal Indians and military, in 1870, was 9,581. Educational History. — An act was passed by the territorial legislature in October, 1863, author- izing the establishment of common schools ; and the next year, another and more complete law was enacted. Nothing, however, of any impor- tance was accomplished toward the establishment of a system of common schools in the territory until the appointment of A. P. K. Safford as governor in 1869. Through the most laborious efforts on his part, a public opinion in favor of common schools was awakened among the people; and in consequence thereof, a law was passed in 1871, which levied a tax for the support of schools, of ten cents on each one hundred dollars of the taxable property of the territory, and authorized the supervisors of counties and the trustees of the school-districts to levy addi- tional taxes for the establishment and mainte- nance of free schools in their respective districts. By this law, the governor was made ex officio superintendent of public instruction, and the judges of probate, county superintendents. It was not until 1872 that, in pursuance of these ] mivisions, schools were established. In July of that year, the governor stared that "a free school had been put in operation in every school-district where there was a Sufficient number of children." The larger portion of the children, he further stated, '• were of Mexican birth, and few could speak the English language; but they had been taught exclusively in English, and had made satisfactory progress." In L873, the total school population between the ages of 6 and 21. was reported as 1,660, of whom 836 were males, and 824 females. Of these there were only 4S2 at- tending public and private schools, the former. 343. The whole amount paid for school pur- poses was $11)080. In February. 1S73, the 46 ARKANSAS school law was amended, constituting the system ;is it now exists. School System. — The governor of the terri- tory is ex officio superintendent of public in- struction, and apportions the school fund among the several counties, according to their respective school population, consisting of children be- tween the ages of six and twenty-one years. It is made his duty to visit and inspect the schools as often as once in each year. The probate judges of the several counties are ex officio super- intendents of public schools for the same. 'I hey are appointed by the governor, and hold their respective offices for two years. A tax of 35 cents on each $100 is levied in the several counties for the maintenance of schools, and a tax of 1 5 cents on $100 for the whole territory. The money is divided in proportion to the school attendance. Each district may levy additional taxes by a vote of two thirds of the district. Education is made compulsory; that is, parents or guardians can be compelled to send their children sixteen weeks during the year to some school, when within two miles of their residence, or have them instructed at home. Educational Condition. — The schools of Ari- zona are all of a primary grade; and teachers receive from $100 to $125 a month, males and females receiving an equal salary. According to the report of Gen. Safford, of Dec. 21st. ls7.">. there were in the territory 2,508 children be- tween the ages of six and twenty-one. of whom 598 attended public schools. The receipts for the preceding year were $28,759. 92, and the dis- bursements were $24,151.96. This report stated that, under the existing school law. the free school system had been made a success, and that ample means were afforded by which every child in the territory might obtain the rudiments of an e lucation. ARKANSAS. This state was originally a portion of the territory of Louisiana, purchased from the French government in lso;!. It re- mained a pari of that territory until L812, when Louisiana being a Lmitted as a state, it became a, part of the Missouri territory, which was or- ganized in tli.it year; and so continued till L819, when it was organized as a separate territory. It was admitted into the Pnionas a state in L836. Educational History. — The constitution of L 836 contained a declaration in favor of educa- tion to the effect that " as knowledge and learn- ing, generally diffused through the community, are essentia] to the preservation of free govern- ment," ii should lie ih' duty of the general as- sembly to provide for the sale of land.- donated to the state bj the general government for edu- cational purposes and to apply the money re- ceived therefrom, to the establishment and sup- port of schools. In accordance with this pro- vision of tlii' constitution, the legislature passed certain acts prescribing I lie manlier of disposing of the school lands, which ads are. substantially. Still in force. Two provisions of this law are worthy of special notice, on accounl of their dis- astrous consequences. The first was. that, upon the petition of a majority of a township, the comity commissioner should sell the sixteenth section, in forty-acre tracts, to the highest bidder, one-fourth of the purchase money being payable in cash, and the balance, within eight years, in installments. The second was. that the county commissioner should loan the school moneys in his hands to parties who would give satisfactory notes to secure their payment with interest. The practical operation of the law was as follows : A. B, and (' purchased a sixteenth section, say Janu- ary 1st; A and I! being security for O's notes for deferred payments, 15 and C for A's notes, and A and (' for Bs notes. Each party paid tin- school commissioner, say five hundred dollars, as his first payment, and took his receipt. The same day. they each borrowed live hundred dollars from the school fund of the county, thereby vir- tually borrowing from the school commissioner the money to make the firsl payment on the lands. The notes given were made payable in •lawful money of the United States"; but. after the secession of the state, payments were made iii confederate money, and purchasers of school lands were not slow to complete their payments in that currency at par. During this period, the state auditor was the thief executive school of- ficer, and made his report to the governor. The last school report, under the ancien regime, was made by William Et. .Miller, state auditor, to Governor Reetor, who held office at the time of the secession of the state. In its printed form. it consisted of one leaf of a book about as huge as Webster's Spelling Hook. and states that there were then but two public schools in the state. Evidence from other sources shows that, by the peculiar system of financiering^described above, Dy loss in Confederate money and Arkansas war bonds, and from the usual casualties incident to a state of civil war. a very large proportion of the sixteenth section and other school lands of the state was squandered, without creating anj considerable permanent school fund, (if thai which was created, the sum of $8,000, the last remnant, was invested in the purchase of medi- cines for the confederate troops; and the medi- cines were lost on a steamer which was wrecked on Brazos river, in Texas. Two provisions of the Constitution of L868 related to public schools. Section I. of Article V I. provided that "'the executive department of (his state shall consist of a governor, etc.. ami a superintendent of public instruction, all of whom shall hold their sewral offices for a term of four years.'' Article XI. related to education, and its several sections provided, (1) that the general assembly should establish and maintain a system of live schools for the gratuitous in struction of all persons between the agesof five and twenty-one years; i'-'i that the supervision of such school.-, should be intrusted to a superin- tendent of public instruction; (3) that a state university should he established; (4) that a school fund should he created from the sales of school lands, escheats, estrays. grants, gifts, one dollar capitation tax. etc: a that no part of the ARKANSAS 47 school fund .should be invested in the bonds of any state, city, county, or (own : ((!) that the distribution of the school fund should lie limited to such districts as had kept a school for at least three months in the year for which the distribu- tion was made : and that each child should 1 e re- quired to attend School at least three years: (7) that, in every district in which the school fund should he insufficient to support a school for at hast three months in the year, the general as- sembly sin mill provide by law for levying a tax ; (8) that all lands, moneys, etc., held iii the va- rious counties for school purposes, should lie re- duced into the general school fund ; and (!)) that the general assembly should he empowered to raise money by taxation for building school- houses. In addition to these provisions, a section of the article on finance, etc., made the purchase money for school lands payable into the state treasury, and obligated the state to pay interest at the rate of six per cent per annum, upon the same. This constitution was adopted in February, L868; and, upon the l.'ith day of March suc- ceeding, an election for state officers was held, General Powell Clayton being elected governor, ami I fon. Thomas Smith, superintendent of public instruction, (hi the 2d day of April ensuing, the first legislature under the new constitution met. and, in due time (July '1 .'id), enacted the school law. which with certain modifications, few in number 1 nit very important in character, has ever since been in force in the state. This law provided for the appointment of cir- cuit superintendents, one in each of the ten judi- cial districts of the state, whose duties in their several circuits were analogous to those of the state superintendent, in supervising, making re- ports, etc. A school trustee was appointed in each school district, with the same duties as those already specified. The report of the school trust ees were made annually to the circuit super- intendents, who transmitted the information to the state superintendent, to be used in his bien- nial report. Cinder many difficulties and embar- rassments, Superintendent Smith organized his department in August, L868; and in December following, the trustees of the various districts were elected. In September. L869, a Special ses- i sion of the state board of education — composed of the state and circuit superintendents — was he! I. At this time the only free schools existing in the state were a few for persons of color. established by the Onited States, through the agency of the Freedmen's Bureau. The resources nf the school department consisted of (1) saline lands, about 20,000 acres; (2) seminary lands, about 1 .Dili) acres; (3) sixteenth-section lands, about 841,000 acres. The original quantities of these lands, which were donated by the United States government for common school purposes, were two sections, each of the first two classes, and 928,000 acres of the third class, of the saline and seminary land funds, about $12,000 in specie, war-bonds, confederate money, etc.. had been transferred, after March 6th, L861, to the general revenue fund of the state ; and about $45,000 of outstanding notes, to the solieitor- general for collection. In all, the claims of the state for school lands sold and moneys loaned, with accrued interest, amounted to about three quarters of a million of dollars. The several amounts of the school fund on hand at the be- ginning and end of the period embraced in Superintendent Smith's first biennial report, were as follows : — Oct. 1, 1868. U. S. Currency $ 2,691.98 State Scrip 56,302.97 Total $58,954.96 Oct. 1, 1870. U. S. Currency $22,201.37 State Scrip.. .*. 12,991.12 Total $35,192.49 During this period, the scl 1 revenues were subject to depletion from three causes: (1) The taxes on sixteenth-section lands were merged in- to the general revenue of the state: (2J The "fines, penalties, and forfeitures." levied by the various courts, were loosely handled by the col- lecting officers ; (3) in many cases, the 'electors of the various school districts refused to authorize the levying of the local tax for school-houses; and (4) by an act approved March 2d, L869, school-taxes were made payable in interest-bear- ing certificates issued by the state treasurer. Notwithstanding all these obstacles, the school system was able to present, in 1870, considerable progress since the preceding year, as will he seen from the following statistics : ls70 lso,274 107,908 2,537 2,302 41 $405,748 I-;, i 176,910 117,112 1,489 1,335 VI $188,397 \ umber of children of school age. " " attending school '" schools " " teachers " " teachers' institutes Amount of money paid teachers. The whole number of school-houses built prior to 1868, was 632 ; in L869 and L870, it was 657. The apportionment of the state fund for 1868 -1869 was $377,919.94, and the district tax. $215,348.79. In addition to these evidences of progress should be mentioned the organization of the State Teachers' Association, July 2d, L869 ; and the commencement of the Arkansas Journal of Educatioti, Jan. 1st. IsTO. The institutions for the blind and for deaf-mutes were also re organized during the period referred to, and handsome buildings erected for their accommo- dation. Superintendent Smith's second report, for the two years ending September 30th, L872, presents striking evidence oi the decadence of the newly Wished school system. Many of the school districts had become deeply involved in debt, and had levied exorbitant taxes to remove the in- cumbrance; the depreciated paper was destroy- ing the schools and driving tin bes1 teachers from the state: and the circuit superintendents Were neglecting the schools. The following was fch< condition of the school fund : United States Currency *l I .'■ 10.84 ."..20 Bonds 24,186.25 State Scrip 56,804.22 Total $95,501.3] 48 ARKANSAS ARKANSAS UNIVERSITY 1872 1871 194,314 196,237 32,863 69,927 2,035 2,128 25 31 $353,624.90 $424,4i.i. 90 187 302 The amount of money distributed since Oct. 1st, 1870, was as follows : United States Currency $ 33,688.03 State Scrip 454,407.76 Total $488,095.79 The balance on hand at the above date was $39,87(>.75, of which nearly the whole was in state scrip. The following general summary of statistics shows a decrease in nearly every item as compared with those of 1870 : No. of children of school age. " " " attending school " " teachers " " teachers' institutes. .. . Amount paid teachers No. of school-houses erected.. Almost the only encouraging feature of the period covered by Superintendent Smith's second report, was the opening of the Arkansas Indus- trial University (Jan. 22d, 1872), in the town of Fayetteville. Mr. Smith was succeeded in the office of superintendent by Joseph I !. Oorbin, who entered upon the duties of his office in 1872; and the only report which he issued was for the year ending September 30th, 1873. Prior to this, the general assembly passed a new revenue law, which was construed to repeal the provision of the former law appropriating two mills on the dollar out of the ordinary revenue of the state for school purposes. This reduced the amount of the semi-annual apportionment from $210,000 to $55,000, all of which was in state scrip, worth at the time about 35 per cent. The same legislature abolished the office of circuit superintendent, and substituted that of county superintendent. It also limited the local tax to a maximum of five mills ; and a decision of the supreme court made even this tax payable in state scrip. The following are the principal items of the school statistics for the year IS 7.'! : Attendance of pupils 59,687 Number of teachers 1,481 Number of school-houses 1,035 Number of teachers' institutes 26 A iin Hint paid teachers $259,747.08 Revenue raised for school purposes. . .$258,456.09 Amount of expenditures $3ls,i);i7.77 A new constitution was adopted in lH74,of which the following are the chief provisions in regard to education: — (1) That the state "shall ever maintain a general, suitable, and efficient system of free schools, whereby all persons in the slate. between the ages of six and twenty-one years, may receive gratuitous instruction;" (2) That no school money or property shall be used for any other purpose; (.'>) That the general assembly shall provide for the support of common schools by a tax, not to exceed the rate of two mills on the dollar, on the taxable propertyof the state; a capitation tax of one dollar, and a local tax not to exceed live mills on the dollar ; (4) Thai the supervision of the schools shall be vested in "such officers as may be provided for by the general assembly." Under this last pro\ ision, the duties of superintendent of public instruction were transferred to the secretary of state, "until other- wise provided by law." Elementary Instruction. — The only common schools in the state at present (Nov. 1875) arc those of the city of little Rock, which were opened September 13th, 1875. The sole reliance of the mass of the citizens for educational advan- tages is. therefore, upon private schools, of which a large number were opened at the beginning of the school year. No school report has been rendered since that of Superintendent Corbin, in 1873, as the necessary duties of the secret an of state have rendered an active supervision of the schools impossible, and the returns from the local officers are very imperfect. Normal Instruction. — ■ The chief provision for the training of teachers in the state is the normal department of the State Industrial Uni- versity. A course of two years and one of three years have been arranged, the former embracing all the studies likely to be taught in any of the common schools, and the latter, those of the high schools. Male applicants far admission are re- quired to be 1 (i years of age, and females 14. A training school is operated in connection with this school. Besides this. Quitman College, in Van Buren county, is a normal school for the training of colored teachers. There is also a state teachers' association. Superior Instruction* — The most prominent of the higher educational institutions of the state are the Arkansas Industrial University, at Fayetteville (q. v.). and St. John's College, at j little Rock (q. v.) ; the latter of which is under I the control of the masonic fraternity. Special Instruction. — The Arkansas Deaf- Mute Institute and the Arkansas Institute for the Education of the Blind, both at little Rock, are the only institutions for special instruction. The former was incorporated as a state institu- tion in 18(>8. The latter, the same year, was re- moved from Arkadelphia to Little Rock. The financial embarrassments of the state have great- ly impeded the progress and efficient operation of these institutions. Educational .Inn noil, etc. — The last educational journal published in the state was the Arkansas Journal of Education, which suspended publica- tion in 1872 ; and the only works on the schools of the state arc the three educational re]>orts of the state superintendents. While the present educational condition of Arkansas is by no means cheering, it is not quite hopeless. The decadence of the school system, which a short time ago was so promising, is the result of financial, political, and social c\ ils and misfortunes thai have afflicted the state from its earliest history. Many of these evils, however, are already things of the past, of which only the effects remain. Under the present administra- tion, much has been done towards developing the natural resources of the state: and there is no doubt that, in a few years, its educational pros- perity will be restored. ARKANSAS INDUSTRIAL UNIVER- SITY, at Fayetteville, Arkansas, was provided ARMY SCHOOLS ARNOLD 49 for by an act of the state legislature in 1868, hut was not opened until January 22., L872. The law regulating the institution provides for 321 beneficiaries who are entitled to four years' Eree tuition. The value of the mounds, build- ings, etc. is $] B0,000. The buildings will accom- modate four hundred students, and consist of a brick edifice five stories high, 21 I feet in length, with a depth in the wings of L22 feet, with five large and several small halls, and thirty class- rooms. The. report of the university for 1874 showed an attendance of 32] students, in its various departments, under the instruction of so professors and three other instructors. The institution includes a preparatory aud a normal department, a college of engineering, and a college of general science and literature. A college of agriculture and a college of natural science; with a school of military science, and a school of com- merce, are also provided for : and an experimental farm for the agricultural college has been secured. The university library is as yet quite small. Gen. Albert \\\ Bishop is the president of the institution. ARMY SCHOOLS. See Military Schools. ARNDT, Ernst Moritz, a German patriot an I author, was born Dec. 26., 1769, at Schoritz on I; men, and died Jan. 29., 1860, at Bonn, lie was appointed, in 1 805, professor at the university of Greifswalde ; but he wrote violently against Napoleon and, therefore, fled, after the battle at Jena, in 1806, to Sweden. In 1809, he returned, and henceforth took a prominent part in the na- tional movement in Germany which led to the wars of liberation (1813 to 1815), and the over- throw of the French rule in Germany. In 1818, he was appointed professor of history at the uni- versity of Bonn; but, in the next year he was retired in consequence of his liberal sentiments. In 1840, he was reinstated by the new king Frederick William IV. ; and, in 1848, he was a member of the National Assembly of Frankfort, which attempted the reconstruction of a united Germany. Arndt is chiefly famous in Germany as one of the foremost promoters of patriotism. One of his songs, Was isi des Deutschen Vater- land? was long regarded as the most popular national hymn; but was superseded in popular favor, during the Franco-German war. by Die Wacht am Rhein. Some of Arndt "s numerous works are of a pedagogical character, the most important of which is Fragmente Hber Menschen- bildung (Altona, L805), which explains the prin- ciples of a rational education of man in accor- dance with the dictates of his nature. In opposition to the ideas of Rousseau, he insisted that the essence of man must not be sought in the sensuous nature of the isolated individual. but in his spiritual part, and in his rela- tions to parents, family, society, and his native country. From this point of view. Arndt con- tends, with Pcstaloz/.i. that the mother should be the first teacher of the child, and that her in- struction should proceed from the concrete. He represents love, necessity, and freedom as the tliree powers which cooperate in the education 4 of man. The work of these three great powers IS conditioned by the bodily and spiritual develop- ment of the pupil. In childh 1, it is chiefly the power of lo\e. represented by the mother, which moulds the young mind, and instills into it the first notions of God, man. and life. The power of necessity must curb and discipline the vehemence of boyhood, and teach the habit of diligence. At last, in the age of ripe youth, love and necessity coalesce into the spirit of freedom, or self-control, which is the completion of every harmonious education. A few years later. Arndt gave an exposition of the same principles, with special reference to the education of princes, hi his work Entwurf Ster Erziehung und TJnter- weisunp eines F&rsten (Berlin, 1813). These educational works of Arndt exercised far less in- fluence upon the rising generation of Germany than his fairy tales, and especially his patriotic songs, many of which are to be found in most German reading-books and thus have contributed very much toward shaping the German mind of the nineteenth century. In his autobiography, Erinnerungen aus diem ausseren Leben (l.eip- sic, 2d ed., 1840), Arndt treats fully of his own education. Biographies of Arndt have been written by Eugen Labes (I860), II. Rehbein and R. Keil (1861), and D. Schexkel (1866). — See also G. Freytag, in Deutsche Allgemeine Bio- graphie, art. Arndt. ARNOLD, Thomas, D. D., the illustrious English teacher and historian, was bom at West Cowes, in the Isle of Wight, in 1795. He was educated at Winchester College and Oxford University, from the latter of which he obtained a first-class degree in 1814. He attained his greatest fame as head-master of Rugby School, to which position he was elected in 1828, and in which he continued till his death. In the course of instruction of this school, he introduced many improvements ; but it was the system of moral teaching and training which he established, that gave to him and to the school their greatest distinc- tion. He preserved among the boys the highest tone of moral and religious sentiment ; and. with consummate tact, habituated them to the practice of the principles which he taught, making him- self both feared and loved. His chief reliance was upon guiding the public opinion of the school, as the most powerful element of control in every community. For the practice of "fag- ging" previously in vogue in the school, he insti- tuted a system of responsible supervision by the pupils of the highest class over the younger boys, thus giving full opportunity for the active exercise of those virtues which they had been taught. Rugby, however, by no means occupied all his time and attention. For some time he held a place in the senate of the London Uni- versity, and a short time before his death, ac- cepted the appointment of Regius Professor of Modern History at Oxford, where he delivered some introductory lectures. To this position he intended to devote his whole energies, retiring from Rugby; but his plans were frustrated by his sudden death, in 1842. His greatest literary 50 ARNOLD ART EDUCATION work is the History of Rome, which he publish- ed in three volumes (1838 — 1840 — 1842), brought down to the end of the Second Punic War. Tins work he did not live to complete. His miscellaneous writings are varied and numer- ous. Dr. Arnold's purity and elevation of char- acter, his conscientious zeal and wise efforts as a practical educator, his learning and literary skill, and the excellent example which he presented in all the relations of life, entitle him to be con- sidered "one <>f the brightest ornaments of his age." — See Stanley, Arnold's lAfe and Cor- respondence (London, L845) ; also Tom Brown's School-Days at Rugby (Ixmdon and Boston, 1857). ARNOLD, Thomas Kerchever, an En- glish clergyman, was born in 1800 and died in L853. He is chiefly noted for his school man- uals for elementary instruction in Greek, Latin, French, German, and some other languages. These books have been extensively used in this country as well as in England. They are based upon a thorough system of practical drill in all the peculiarities of the language to be taught. Mr. Arnold also prepared a series of school classics, and published articles on various relig- ious and ecclesiastical questions. His manuals for classical study are based on a system similar to that of Ollendorff. ART EDUCATION. Every complete sys- tem of education must provide for the cult- ure of all the varied faculties of the human mind, physical and intellectual, moral and spir- itual, esthetic ami emotional; and must, be- sides, supply the means necessary for the develop- ment of those practical capacities upon which the social and national progress of every civilized people depends. Among the agencies required for this purpose, art education claims profound attention. The element of beauty, which exists in the human mind, when made the subject of progressive cultivation, and applied to the vari- ous industries of social life, becomes a thing of pecuniary as well as esthetic value. The train- tng of the hand and eye. which is obtained by drawing, is proved by experience to be of very great advantage to the operative in every branch of industry ; indeed, in many occupations, draw- ing is indispensable to success. But the value is still greater if to this simple training, the culture of the perception and conception of forms and their combinations is added, Leading to skill in designing a branch of art of the highest value in very many departments,)!' manufacturing in- dustry. "Art education", says an eminent author- ity, ■■ embraces all those appliances ami methods of training by which the sense of form and pro- portion is developed. It is successful when the student unerringly discriminates between what is ugly and what is beautiful, and expresses his ideas of form in drawing as readily as ideasof ot her sorts on tlic written page." Art culture among the ancients must have been carried to the highest degree of perfection, as is obvious on an inspection .if Egyptian, As- s\rian. and more especially Grecian antiquities. The genius of Phidias and Praxiteles must have owed its development to the results of many centuries of previous culture. The Parthenon was the noblest achievement of the loftiest genius making use of the agencies and residts of the most complete culture and education in art. We have, however, no history of that education in detail. Instruction in the art of design (ypcujuidji) was quite general at Athens and in some of the other ( brecian states ; and Aristotle, in his scheme of education, attributes to it great importance as a means of cultivating the sense of the beautiful. The establishment of art-schools and schools of design for the masses is, however, of modern origin, and is due to a consideration, based upon experience, of the great value of general artistic skill in increasing the sources of national wealth. This will be fully shown as we proceed : but as immediately relevant to it we quote the follow- ing statement of the French imperial commis- sion, in its summary of the inquiry on profes- sional education : "Among all the branches of instruction which, in different degrees, from the highest to the lowest grade, can contribute to the technical education of either sex, drawing, in all its forms and applications, has been almost unan- imously regarded as the one which it is most important to make common." Heretofore, in the struggle and conflict of nations for suprema- cy and power, it was believed they could depend exclusively upon armed men and heavy guns; but to-day the great nations of Europe rely on industrial education, and the general culture of the people. The World's Fair held at London, in L8.")l, revealed plainly to England that she was far behind her great rival France in the produc- tion of articles requiring skilled labor and taste, indeed, below all the other civilized nations ex- cept the United States. Convinced of her inferi- ority, she went vigorously to work to give general instruction in the tine and industrial arts, by establishing schools for special training, free of cost, to those whom the science and art depart- ment of the government had selected for art- masters. Art scl Is were founded for instruc- tion in drawing, modeling, and design, in many of the large cit ies and towns throughout the king- dom. The British official report for L872 shows that there were, at that time, in England 122 in- dustrial art-BChools; besides which there were 194,549 children receiving instruction in draw- ing in the •■schools for the poor." Fp to that time, there had been established one well-ap- pointed art school of I'.IO students for every 210.000 of the population; so rapidly was in- struction iii an as applied to industry provided for and diffused anion- the industrial classes of ( ireat Britain. Hut the results had, previous to this time, been already definitely shown. At the Fan's Fxposition of L867, Englandstood in the first rank of artistic nations, and even surpassed sonic of those who previously had carried off the highest honors. This great advance made by the E nglish from L851 to L867 alarmed the French. They saw tiny could do Longer rely on that prestige which had always placed .them at the head; and they. ART EDUCATION" 51 in turn began to reconstruct, improve, ami in- crease their art-schools. The commission ap- pointed by the emperor Napoleon III., after due consideration, made an elaborate report, and the government acted upon its recommendations. Immediately after the late war between France and ( t'crmany.the Prussian minister of commerce and industry issued a circular calling upon the government and the people to follow the example of France : and it is now being followed in all the schools of Prussia, from the primary school to the university. Not only in England, France, and Germany, hut in nearly all the other Euro- pean countries is this great movement in art-edu- cation in progress. The United States, alone of all enlightened nations, is making but little ad- vancement and little effort in this direction. New York, Massachusetts, and a few other states have enacted laws concerning the teaching of free- hand drawing in the public schools, and in this way have shown some appreciation of the great importance of the subject. During the first twenty-five years of the na- tional independence of the United States, nothing was accomplished in art-education. All teaching was confined to the few lessons that were given by professional painters. Even at the com- mencement of the present century, no school had been established. In 1802, however, a proposi- tion was made to found an institution for the promotion of the arts of drawing, painting, and sculpture, in the city of New York, under the name of The New York Academy of 'Fine Arts. On account of the want of public interest in the enterprise, and the inactivity of those who start- ed it, the charter for the academy was not ob- tained until 1808. In 1805, the Pennsylvania Academy of Fine Arts was founded at Philadel- phia by seventy-one citizens ; and in Boston, in 1807, the Public Library and Department of Fine Arts was established. These institutions are still in existence : but the New York Academy only lasted till 1816. There is no evidence that there were any schools of importance connected with the first academies. The few artists who belonged to them probably practiced drawing from casts, and, it may be, sometimes from life. — Among the names of those who took an in- terest in art-matters at the early date here refer- red to, may be found some of the best men of the time; and at their head stood De Witt Clinton, certainly the foremost man in the State of New York. He was the president of the Academy. and delivered an address upon the Fine Arts when he retired from active participation in its affairs. According to the venerable Thomas A. CummingS, a veteran artist at this date (1876), this address was probably the first ever delivered in this country on that subject. It is likely that there were some artistic societies, classes, or clubs besides those mentioned, straggling into existence in cities like Boston. Philadelphia, Baltimore, Richmond, and ( Charleston, but of these we have but little or no history. It is quite certain that, up to 1816, no attempt had been made to in- struct students anywhere in this country. In 1825, Samuel F. B. Morse was chosen to pre- side over a new association, just then formed, called the New York- Drawing Association. It was out of the small number of artists who constituted this association, and who met fchra times a week to draw from casts, that the present National Academy of Design was established Much dissatisfaction was caused among the members of the Drawing Association, on ac- count of an attempt of Col. John Trumbull, the historical painter, acting as the president of the then almost defunct Academy of Fine Arts,tx> assume a kind of dictatorship over them. These pretensions, however, were stoutly and success- fully repelled by president Morse and the young artists of the association. Col. Trumbull was evidently opposed to art-schools; and according to Mr. Cummings. he assailed the students of that day in a very rude and improper manner. The resolution of Morse and his associates estab- lished on a firm foundation the National Academy of Design,aa the L8th of January, 1826, with twenty-five artists, and a life school of eleven students. Mr. Morse delivered an ad- dress at the first exhibition of the new academy, in which he announced a new departure from the old forms and usages of the art-associations which had previously been established. His course was to be the same as that adopted and sanctioned by the academies of Europe. From 1826 to 1830, there was a bitter feud between the rival institutions, the American Academy and the National Academy, — the former sup- ported by the renowned John Vanderlyn, and the latter by the illustrious and indefatigable Morse. The contest ended by the discontinuance of the older institution ; but while it was in progress, the interests of art were neglected, and art-education sunk to a low ebb. Owing to causes that have not been explained, the National Academy of Design has never been able to estab- lish and continue a first-class school for the edu- cation of students. On this account, the institu- tion can hardly lay claim to be a national one. nor can it be said that it has kept pace with the educational institutions of the country. Methods of AH Instruction. — The modes of drawing and the usages of art-schools are nearly the same now that they were in the Old World two hundred years ago; that is. in schools in which pupils are trained to be professional artists. After students have learned to draw from the flat, from lithographs, drawings, etchings, etc., on paper, they are required to draw from plaster casts, — mostly figures and fragments of the antique, statues, and busts. The teacher of draw- ing very Often selects for the student those casts which arc best suited to his taste, style and abil- ity. These casts are generally so arranged and illuminated as to show strong contrasts of light and shade ; and each student is provided with an old-fashioned i Ira wing-board, which is simply a board, generally about 35 x 25 inches, with two legs, resting upon the floor and thus support- ing one end, while the other end rests on the lap of the student. A charcoal outline of the object to be 52 ART EDUCATION drawn is first made. This being easily rubbed off, the student is thus enabled to get the outline with less trouble than would be possible with crayons, which are only resorted to after a correct outline has been obtained. — The life-school, as it is called, or more properly speaking, drawing from the living form, is generally conducted in the following manner. The model, or person who is to stand, or pose, is placed generally under the light, in whatever position may be chosen by the students. They then arrange themselves around the model, and begin their drawings. The model stands from twenty-five to fifty minutes in one position. A resl is then taken, and at will the model again assumes precisely the same position as before, and the drawing goes on until each student has finished. Art Schools in Ike United States. — The num- ber of art-schools or institutions affording art- instruction, in the United States, according to the Report of the V. S. Commissioner of Edu- cation, for L 874, is twenty-six; as shown in the following table. Institutions affording Art Instruction in U. S. When Name School of Design of the San Francisco Art-As- sociation Yale School of the Fine Arts Art-Schools oi Chicago Academy of Design . . Illinois Industrial Univer- sity Schools of Art and Design iif Maryland Institute Art-School Boston Art-Club Lowell School of Practical Design Mass. lust, of Technology Mass. Normal Art-School Worcester County Free Institute of Industrial Science St. Louis Art-School Manchester Art-Associa- tion Brooklyn Art-Association Cornell I ni\ ersity Ladies' A i i-A --ociation , National Academy ol I >' sign The Palette Club CooperTJnionArt-Schools, 1. Women's Art-School 2. Free School of Art. Colli ge of Fine Arts of Syracuse University School oi Design of th< University of Cincinnati Toledo University of Arts and Trades ...'.... Franklin institute Draw- ing i llasses Art-Classes of the Penns, \ id >my oi Fine Arts. Philadelphia School of Design for Women .... Pittsburg School of De- aign for Women Location founded San Francisco, Cal. New Haven, Ct. I Ihicago, 111. Urbana, 111. Baltimore, Md. Baltimore, Md. Boston, Mass. Boston, Mass. Boston, Mass. Boston, Mass. Worcester, Mass. St. Louis, Mo. Manchester, N. H. Brooklyn, X. Y. Ithaca, X. Y. New York, N. Y. New York, X. V. New York, X. Y. New York, X. Y. New York, X. Y. Syracuse, N. Y. Cincinnati, 0. Coledo, 0. Philadelphia, l'a. Philadelphia, l'a. Philadelphia, Pa. 1873 1864 1867 1*71 IMS lsri 1 K.-,.-> 1872 1861 1873 1865 1872 lsTl isul Is.;;, 1870 1820 L869 1 866 IV, 7 IsT'J ISC!) Is72 1 82 1 L806 ls|7 L866 Pittsburg, l'a. Of these institutions three are the great art- schools at Philadelphia, New York, and New Haven; namely, the Pennsylvania Academy of the F'nif Arts, the National Academy of Design, and the Yale School of the Fine Arts. Ten of these institutions are for the special training of artists. Three others, the Boston Art-Club, the Palette Club, and the Ladies' Art-Association, are voluntary associations of artists, with life-classes, etc., for their own im- provement. In some of these schools nearly every kind of art-culture receives attention, — drawing from the flat, from simple objects, casts, the antique, paintings, and from life; modeling in clay, wax, and plaster; painting in oil and water colors ; architecture ; and fresco painting. In others, the instruction is given with special reference to the practical application of science to art. to the edu- cation of skilled artisans, to mechanics, manu- facturers, etc. Tlie number of art schools is so small, com- pared with the number of inhabitants, that, in fact, but very little national progress in art-cul- ture can be expected. On account of the lack of opportunities for studying painting and sculp- ture, most students who have the means go to Europe to obtain those facilities which are not to lie found in this country. According to the Re- port above quoted, there are only 27 art-must urns and art-collections, of colleges, etc.. in the United States. Of these seven are in New York, six in Massachusetts, two each in Connecticut and Pennsylvania, and one each in Illinois. Indiana, Louisiana. Maryland, Michigan. New Hampshire, Ohio. Rhode Island. Vermont, and the District of Columbia. The incomes of eight of these institutions, in lsTl. were reported as amounting in the aggregate to about $200,000; bul of this, $70,000 was reported as the income id' the Cor- coran .1/-/ Gallery, aX Washington, which lias an endowment of $1,000,000. Eleven of the twenty- seven institutions above referred to are art -collec- tions connected with colleges or universities, and mosl of them are of recent foundation, — five since 1S72. Instruction in Drawing. — There is a growing appreciation of the value of drawing as a branch nt common school instruction. and a much clearer perception of the fact that to teach drawing sys- tematically in the schools of the people is to lay the foundation not only of national art-culture, but of national progress in the industrial arts. The state superintendents and many of the city superintendents of public instruction express this sent imeiit very generally and strongly, and earn- estly advocate the encouragemenl of drawing in the public schools, especially for the purpose of educating thai class id pupils who are to become the future skilled laborers and artisans of the nation. As an illustration, we quote from the superintendent of schools in Indiana: "Indiana, as much as any slate in the In ion. needs to look after these interests, and needs to educate her children for the work which must either be done by them or bysome more skillful class, imported from abroad to supply their places. Her wood. wool, minerals, and other rough materials are ART EDUCATION ARTS 53 carried away ami manufactured into the com- monest articles of daily use, and are returned to the state as imported articles at an enormous cost . • • The skill of our native workmen is limited through want of training, and our labor is not, therefore, of the most profitable quality. That our system of education IS in tliis point de- fective, and that it needs such improvement as shall look to the preparation of persons for skillful labor, are no longer matters of ques- tion." i Sec Report, k s 71 ) lie, therefore, recom- mends that the statutes of the state be SO amended as to include drawing as one of the common school branches of study. In Massa- chusetts, much has been done in this direction, in compliance with the law of 1 870, which provided that " any city or town may. and every city and town having more than 10,000 inhabitants shall, annually make provision for giving free instruc- tion in industrial or mechanical drawing to per- sons over fifteen years of ag !." < If the twenty- three cities and towns of the State, in L874, twenty had compile I with the statute. In 1871, on the invitation of the school committee. .Mr. Walter Smith, head-master of the school of art in Leeds, England, t >ok the direction of this branch of instruction in the public schools of Boston : and subsequently was appointed State-Director of art-education. Jn 1873, the State Normal Art-School was established at Boston, under the direction of Mr. Smith, for the training of art teachers, or teachers of in- dustrial drawing, which institution, in 1874, had 12 instructors and 240 students. The results of this system, so complete and admirable, have thus far been eminently successful. The state of New York, following the example of Massa- chusetts, in 1875, passed a law requiring indus- trial drawing to be taught in all the common schools of the state. (See Drawing.) Mule, of Establishing Art Schools. — The first thing necessary for the establishment of art- schools, or for the introduction of drawing, modeling, and designing into schools already established, is to obtain capable teachers, or art- masters. These must be trained in the art in normal schools ; or the officers of school-districts may institute classes for this purpose. The Cooper Tustitiilf, in the City of New York, and the School of Design, in Cincinnati, and some others, have prepared a considerable number of excellent art-teachers. The state normal schools have also done something in this direc- tion, but have the facility and means, if properly applied, to do very much more. The customary mode of procedure in art-instruction has already been explained; but the various methods of in- struction in drawing will he given in another f>art of this work. (See Drawing.) Modeling lis not yet become as prominent in industrial art-education as its importance demands. With- out doubt, the modeling of real forms is much more beneficial for the future artisan than representation of forms upon flat surfaces. It will be readily perceived tha the wood-carver, cabinet-maker, machinist, jeweler, and all o1 whose work consists in the production of fori) would be liettcr trained in this way. To the de- signer of fabrics, drawing on flat surfaces is the preferable practice ; but in Dearly all other eases, modeling affords the most efficient train- ing. A set of objects classified and graded, from the simplest to the most complicated forms. as well as compositions for drawing and model- ing purposes, is of great value in this instruction; and, accompanying this, there should be a com- prehensive text-1 k.or manual,giving directions as to the modes of teaching, the arrangement of rooms and studios, the adjustment of lights, and the placing of casts and models ; together with a full description of the materials and instruments needed at each stage and in each department of the instruction. For valuable information and suggestions in this direction, see Art-Education, by Prof. C. 0. Thompson, in Report of Commis- sioner of Education (1873). Importance of Art-Education. — This country can compete with foreign nations in the produc- tion of articles requiring taste and skilled labor only by establishing schools for instruction in the iine arts and in industrial art. so that the native artisans may be properly educated. Millions of men, women, and children, in Europe, are at the present time receiving an industrial art-education at the public expense; and the United States. through the state or national governments, must make a similar provision. The following facts clearly show this necessity. In lSTT. there were exported from the United States articles upon which skilled and mechanical labor had been ex- pended, of the value of $24,631,835; while the value of such articles imported, was $1 77 s;>7.i32. In the same year, the articles of taste and skilled labor exported from France amounted to $434,513 800, and from England, to $384,787,944. The contrast presents an instructive lesson as to the importance of art-education in its relation to national wealth and prosperity. — See Modem Art-Education (Boston, 1875); Official Report of the Vienna Exposition (1873); Reports of U. S. Commissioner of Education (1872,-3,-4.) ARTISANS, Education of. See Tech- nical Education. ARTS, Liberal. The term arts, or liberal arts, was, during the middle ages, applied to cer- tain studies which constituted an essential part of a learned education. The full course of study, at that period, embraced " the seven liberal arts," three of which — grammar, logic, and rhetoric — composed what was called the trivium I the triple way to eloquence); anil the remaining four — music, arithmetic, geometry, and astronomy - constituted the quodrivium (the quadruple way |. The termfaculty of arts denoted, in the univer- sities, those who devoted themselves to philos- ophy and science, in contradistinction to the faculty of theology, of medicine, or of law. Master | Lat. magister) was used to designate one who taught the liberal arts: and doctor, one who bt or practiced divinity, law. or medicine. The first degree (gradus) of proficiency in the arts, instituted, as it is said, by Gregory l. v . 54 ASCHAM ASTRONOMY about the middle of the 13th century, was that of bachelor (Lat. baccalaureiis); and the second that of matter, which originally conferred the right, and indeed imposed the duty, of teaching one or more of the liberal arts. This title, in the colleges and universities of the United States, England, and Prance, is now merely honorary. (See Degrees.) ASCHAM, Rogar, a celebrated English scholar and teacher, who flourished during the reigns of Henry VIII., .Mary, and Elizabeth, was horn in l.">15, and died in 1568. He graduated at St. John's College, Oxford, in 1537, became a college tutor, and was appointed to read Greek in the public schools. In L545, he pub- lished Toxophilus, or the School of Shooting, in which, as Dr. Johnson says. " he designed not only to teach the art of shooting, but to give an example of diction more natural and more truly English than was used by the common writers of thai age." In 1548, he was appointed teacher of the learned languages to the lady Elizabeth, afterwards queen, and continued to perforin that service for two years. In 1553, he was appointed Latin secretary to Queen Mary, and was contin- ued in the same office by Elizabeth, besides acting as her tutor in Latin and Greek. His most noted work is ■• The Schokmaster, or u Plain and Perftte Way of leaching Children to understand,read, and write the Latin Tonge," published by his widow in 1571. Dr. Johnson said, this work was '■' perhaps the best advice that was ever given for the study of languages :" and a recent authority says: "This book sets forth the only sound method of acquiring a dead language.'' — See Life of Ascham, written by Dr. Johnson for an edition of his English works, published in 17(d : Grant, h<> Vita Rogeri Ascham; Wood, Fasti Oxonienses ; Hartley Coleridge, Lives (f Northern Worthies, vol. n. ; Quick, Essays on Educational Reformers (London. 1868.) The last mentioned work contains an excellent sketch of Aschani's method. ASSOCIATION OF IDEAS. By this is meant that relation or connection which is formed between ideas, so that one immediately suggests the other, hence called by Dr. Lrown the principle of simple suggestion. This law of mental operation demands a most careful con- sideration in 1mi|1i moral and intellectual educa- tion. Peelings of pleasure and pain are often associated with certain ideas or objects in the minds of pupils at school, and thus control their whole after life. Antipathies, prejudices, or predilections are thus so firmly fixed, that thej can never be eradicated. The law of association. rightly applied by the teacher, may thus be used to establish in the minds of his pupils an abhor- rence of meanness ami wrong, of falseh land dishonesty, which will go far toward forming a thoroughly virtuous character. This law has a very important application in the intellectual training of the young, and in the general cultlva- ii »f the mind. Here we are to consider the various ways in which the law of association operates. (See Fa< i lties, Development of.) The power to control the succession of our ideas or thoughts very much depends upon the habits we may have formed in establishing these associa- tions. If the ideas with which a person *s mind is stored are connected only by arbitrary or acci- dental associations, he will find it difficult to arrange his thoughts on any subject in a regular, logical order. On the other hand, there are minds so trained as to be able, at any moment, to command their ideas upon any subject with which tiny are acquainted, so that they flow forth in an unintermitting logical stream. Ma- caulay says of Sir James Mackintosh. "I lis mind was a vast magazine, admirably arranged ; every thing was there, and every thing was in its place. His judgments on men. on sects, on books, had been often and carefully tested ami weighed, and had then been committed, each to its proper receptacle, in the most capacious and most accurately constructed mem- ory that any human being ever possessed. It would have been strange indeed, if you had asked for anything that was not to be found in that immense store-house. The article which you require I was not only there : it was ready ; it was in its own proper compartment. In a moment it was broughl down, unpacked and dis- played." This admirably expresses, of course in a very high degree of development, and partly as the result of a natural constitution of mind, the intellectual quality to be aimed at by the teacher, in connection with the association of ideas. It follows, too, from this that the law by which ideas become permanently associated by means of repetition, should have a most important place in the consideration of the teacher. Certain branches of knowledge require the special appli- cation of this law: such as arithmetical tables, grammatical paradigms, and all other things that. having no logical relations, are to he arbitrarily associated. The point to be gained in such acquisitions is to connect these ideas iii the mind in such a way that one will instantly, and, ;is it were, automatically, suggest the other, d he per- ceptions of sight and hearing may both be brought into play in ace plishing this. The former are. without doubt, the strongest and the most enduring, as Horace truly says. 8 gulus irritant animoa demissa per aureru, Quam quae sunt oculia aubjecita fidelibua. Hence the use of the blackboard and slate, par- ticularly tin- 1 former ; also the importance of repeating aloud from the printed page. (See Intellect! \i. Education, Memory, Mnemonics, and Rote-Teachtng.) ASTRONOMY (Gr.dorpov.a star, and vduoc, ,i law i. the science which treats of the heavenly bodies, has peculiarly strong claims to a place i.i every educational scheme of study, both its a means of intellectual training, and on account of the practical value of the class of facts which it embraces, as well as its ennobling influence upon the mind of the student. The progress of this science in modern times has been perhaps the most interesting feature of the intellectual histo- ry of the period, and its cultivation in this coun- ASTRONOMY 55 try has shed a peculiar luster upon American scientific and mathematical genius. The im- mediate results 'it' this study not being so obvi- ous as those of most others to which is universally conceded a place in the courses of instruction prescribed forcommon schools, it has been in these schools, comparatively speaking, a neglected Subject. Bui the science to which we owe our means of measuring time, of locating places on the surface of the earth by Longitude and latitude, of fixing the boundaries of countries ami sections of country, of accurately mapping out coast-lines, of navigating the ocean, of ascertaining the mag- nitude and exact figure of the globe which we in- habit, and determining its relations to the uni- verse, certainly should not be overlookd 1. Pri- marily, astronomy is a science of observation. Its materials are observed farts: but it differs from many other natural sciences in that the observed facts, far from explaining themselves, demand a peculiar exercise of conception, judgment, and reason, in order to infer from them the truths ■which they obscurely indicate. Thus, when we observe the varying apparent diameters of the sun and moon, the phenomena of eclipses and tides, the progressions, stations, and retrograda- tions of the planets, etc. we have advanced, how- ever accurate our observations, but little toward a solution of the mysteries involved in these ap- pearances. We must conceive how. under a general hypothesis of the structure of the solar system, these phenomena are caused, since the phenom- ena often seem to be at variance with the facts; e. g. the apparent motions of the planets appear to contradict the general truth, or law, of their eastward orbital motion. Li teaching this subject, the order of investi- gation — the analytic method, should be at tirst adopted, for two reasons: (1) because in this way we are able to impress upon the mind of the pupil clearer conceptions of fundamental facts, and (2) because he will thus form the habits of though! which are particularly needed in the study of thi j .science. We should insist upon his observing for himself all the more obvious phenomena, and then stating, as fully and accurately as possible, the result of his observations. It is astonishing how many persons go through the world, filling the measure of a long life, without casting any thing but an indifferent, uninquuing, and un- interested glance at the glories of the stellar firma- ment. So it is also with children, before their at- tention is attracted, and their interest aroused, to observe the wonders of the heavens. The teacher, therefore, should lead his pupils, by questioning them, to notice some of the most ordinary phe- nomena: 88 the rising and setting of the sun and the moon, the phases of the latter, the apparent diurnal revolution of the stars, the positions and apparent movements of the larger and more con- spicuous planets among the stars, the ebb and flow of the tides, the solar and lunar eclipses, etc. Finding, from such questioning, that they have really been inattentive to what they might readily have observed, the pupils will strive to see these things for themselves, and will thus, in a short time, acquire such an experience of their own. as will enable them to pursue the study with interest and success. As soon as they have acquired a clear conception of these natural ap- pearances, their attention should be called to the explanation of them: and in this, for a short time at least, it would be well to let the pupils try to think out for themselves some hypothesis to account for what they have seen, and not to give them the correct scientific explanation until they have exhausted their own conjectures. For, it is not so much facts that we desire to communicate as mental habits: and. by the process here recom- mended, whatever facts are finally imparted, though they maybe few. will he indelibly im- pressed upon the memory. This process is. how- ever, strictly in accordance with the educational axiom, that the pupil should be told nothing which he maybe made to discover for himself; to which may perhaps be added, that he should In' told nothing until he has endeavored to dis- cover it for himself , and has failed in the effort. (See Science Teaching.) After this prelimi- nary instruction, an elementary course in astron- omy would embrace the following topics ar- ranged in the order of presentation: — (1) The earth — its form, magnitude, motions, etc., with the phenomena connected with it, and arising from its relations to the sun, such as day and night, and the seasons; ('_') The solarsystem — its general arrangement, the bodies of which it is composed, with their magnitudes, distances, periodic times. the position of their orbits and axes, and their apparent motions; (3) The circles etc. of the sphere; as equator, equinoctial, ecliptic, merid- ians, tropics, polar circles, longitude and latitude, both terrestrial and celestial, declination and right ascension, the horizon, vertical circles, alti- tude and azimuth, etc. If the preliminary in- struction has been correct and thorough, these various tropics cau be taught in such a manner as. at every point, to appeal to the learner's in- telligence, and. not as a mass of arbitrary facts, encumbering his memory for a while, to drop out afterwards as useless lumber. For example, if we would lead his mind to a clear idea of the use of longitude and latitude on the surface of the earth, we ask him to locate, that is. to describe the location of. any point on the surface of the globe. He will soon he led to perceive that this cannot be done without some standards of reference; and thus the use of the equator and meridians will become obvious, ami. in a similar manner, that of altitude and azimuth, in locating the positions of stars and planets in the visible heavens, or right ascension ami declina- tion, in fixing their places in the celestial sphere. No part of this science need be taught arbitra- rily. Even the numerical facts, as distances, mag- nitudes, periods of revolution, etc., should, in part at least, be worked out, however rudely, for the student from the data of observation: or he should be required to work them out himself. after being taught the principles and methods involved. Thus, the teacher may begin with the diameter of the earth, and show how this has 56 ATI I EN HUM ATHENS been determined; then the distance of the sun from the earth, explaining in this connection the nature and use of parallax; then the linear di- ameter of the sun from its apparent diameter; then the sidereal year of the earth, and the sidereal periods of the planets from their observed synodic periods: and next the distances of the planets from an application of Kepler's third law, etc. In this way, the whole subject will be so woven together in the pupil's mind, that it will be impossible for him to forget its funda- mental principles, however few of its facts of detail he may retain. After such a course, it will be a very simple matter to present for his study the other important topics comprehended in the general subject. The use of diagrams and apparatus should be constantly resorted to in giving the instruc- tion here marked out ; but great care should be observed to prevent the use of apparatus from superseding or obscuring the ideas obtained from the observation of nature itself. The student must come down to the apparatus from a clear conception of the actual phenomena, using the machine to apprehend the manner in which the phenomena occur. Very simple apparatus is much to be preferred to cumbrous and compli- cated machinery,-— admirable, perhaps, aspiecas of ingenious workmanship, but of little value for the purpose of illustration. The student should, however, be thoroughly practiced in the use of the globes, as a myessential part of the training comprehended in this branch of instruction. The use of a telescope, of at least moderate power, is also a valuable means of augmenting both the interest and in ton nation of the student, especially in connection with the study of uranography, which is certainly one of the most useful as well as entertaining departments of astronomical science. In this part of the study, a good plani- sphere will prove a valuable adjunct. The religious aspects of the study should not be lost sight of in giving this instruction. The student should be constantly reminded that, in studying the phenomena and laws of the material universe, he is contemplating the works of an infinitely wise and beneficent Creator, who has wonderfully endowed us with faculties to behold the splendor of his works, and. in some degree, to conceive of their vastness. Says a distinguished German educator: "Astr my is. more than .■iu\ other science, valuable as a study for youth. None will seize so strongly and fully upon the youthful mind. It hardens the body, sharpens the senses, practices the memory, nourishes the fancy witli the noblest images, develops the power of thinking, destroys all narrow-minded- and lays an immovable foundation for faith in ( Sod." ATHENETJM, or Athenaeum ((Jr. vaiov, a building dedicated to Athena, or Minerva, t'i ■ tutelary goddess of Athens.. was the name ap- plied to a temple at Athens, in which poets and scholars used to meet ami read their productions. At Komi', a celebrated institution of the same mi o ■ v.,;- founded by the emperor Hadrian, on his return from the east, about 133 A. D. It existed until the 5th century, and also served as a school in which teachers, specially appointed for the purpose, gave instruction in poetry and rhetoric. In modern times, this name is frequent- ly used to denote a scientific association or the building in which such an association meets. In Belgium and Holland, it is used to designate a school of a higher grade, ranking next to the university. (See Belgium, and Netherlands.) ATHENS, the capital of ancient Attica, one of the political divisions into which Hellas proper was divided, is famous as the city in which Greek science and education attained the highest degree of perfection. The educational laws of Athens constitute a part of the legislation of Solon. (See Solon.) They are. in some respects, in direct opposition to the principles which regulated public education at Sparta. (See Si-arta.) While the Spartans almost exclusively aimed at develop- ing the highest perfection of the body. at Athens a cultivated mind was regarded as the highest product of education. All the Athenian chil- dren, rich and poor, had to attend school and to learn how to read : and tardiness in attending school as well as truancy was punished by a fine. Pupils were not admitted to school In fore their seventh, nor after their tenth year of age. Afb i attending school for several years, pool- children were required to be employed in agriculture, commerce, or some trade : while the children of wealthy parents devoted themselves to music, hunting, philosophy, or similar occupations. If a father neglected to have his son instructed, the son was not bound to support him in his old age. The elementary schools had at first one. subsequently two teachers. — the grammatist, who taught reading and writing (r<) yp&MMTa), and the clitic, who read the classics w ith the children. explained to them the poets, and heard them recite poems. Homer's works were in almost every school; and.it is said, Alcibiades, on one occasion, boxed his teacher's ears because he did not find a copy of Homer in his school. The second book of the Iliad, which enumerates the tribes and princes who followed Agamemnon to the Trojan war. and the allies of the Trojans. Supplied tin' outline of the instruction in geog- raphy, history, and genealogy. The grammatist first taught the children the alphabet, the forma- tion of letters into words, and reading: direct- ing them to pay special attention to long and short syllables, to correct accentuation, and to euphonious pronunciation. ' When they had ac- quired a sufficient knowledge of reading, instruc- tion in writing began, embracing within its scope both tachygraphy (short-hand writing) and cal- ligraphy. I he use of signs for abridgments was known to the Athenian snort-hand \\ rio re. The letters were drawn by a s////i>s (a sharp-pointed iron instrument i on wax tablets, and copied by the children. The use of ink was also ki.ov n. It was prepared of soot and gum. ami applii I to parchment, linen, or Egyptian paper (papyrus), by means of a brush or tube. All the children were required to learn music and to play on ATLANTA UNIVERSITY ATTENDANCE :.: the lyre or cithara. Many learned also to play on the flute. The instruction in music was difficult, as the Greeks usedavery complicated system of notation. Among the ancient Greeks, however, music {jxovaiidj] had a much more com- prehensive signification, embracing grammar, rhetoric, and poetics. The school-house {rn 616a- aKakelw) had benches for the boys.anda chair or pulpit (Ka&iSpa) for the teacher. The teachers of the elementary schools enjoyed but little repu- tation in consequence of the small amount of their knowledge and their severity toward their pupils. The chili hen of affluent parents were educated in the higher branches of study, as well as trained by regular bodily exercises in the gymnasia. All the children were obliged to take part in the gymnastic exerfises, in order that, by a proper physical development, they might befitted for their duties as citizens, both in peace and war. At the head of each gymnasium, was thegymna- siareh. who was elected by the citizens for the term of one year, and who not only did not receive any salary, but had to pay for the oil which was used for the anointment of the pupils. The gymnasi- arehs were assisted by inspectors who had to maintain order, discipline, and cleanliness. The boys were required to attend at one of these in- stitutions for a. term of two years, but they were allowed to make their own selection. They practiced in these institutions jumping, running, climbing, riding on horsebaek, driving chariots, wrestling, throwing javelins and quoits, fencing, and similar exercises. Special attention was given to swimming, which all Athenian boys had to learn. Every gymnasium had a bath which was closed at sunset, and which strangers, during bathing hours, were forbidden to enter upon penalty of death. The private tutor (iratdayu-) <>, ) of an Athenian family was generally a trust- worthy slave, to whose care children were com- mitted on attaining their sixth or seventh year. He went with them to and from the school and gymnasium, and was rather their custodian than their teacher. The latter {Sidaamhig) instructed them in grammar, music, and other branches of learning. The education of girls was almost ex- clusively left to their mothers, and was generally much neglected. ( trphan children, wdiose parents had fallen in battle, were carefully educated in the public institutions at the expense of the state. — See Schmidt, Geschichteder Padagogik,v6L i ; Wachsmuth, HeUenische AUerthumskun.de, vol. ir.; II. I. Schmidt, History of Education (N. V.. 1842); Grote, Hixton/ of fV/wtv, vol. vm. (N. Y., 1859). ^ ATLANTA UNIVERSITY, at Atlanta, '■a., was organized in 1869, is non-sectarian, and offers the advantages of education to either sex, without regard to race, color, or nationality. It was established in accordance with a plan formed early in the history of the work of the American Missionary Association in the South, the means being furnished by the Freedmen's Bureau and the state of Georgia, as well as by the Association. 'Hie value of its grounds, buildings, etc., is estimated at $100,000 : and by a law passed in 1*71, it receives an annual appropriation of $8000 from the State. Its library contains about 3000 volumes. In IsTI. its corps of instructors numbered II; and the whole number of students was 236: in the pre- paratory department 46; in the collegiate, 18; in the theological class, .'? ; and in the normal courses. 169. The normal department has sup- plied a large number of teachers for the schools of the State. The president of the institution is Edmund A. Ware, A. M. Its annual tuition fee is 82 I ; but all pupils are required to work for the institution at least one hour a day. ATLAS is the name applied to a collection of maps, first thus used by Mercator in the sixteenth century, the figure of Atlas, bearing the globe on his shoulders, being on the title-page of his book of maps. Atlas, in theancient mythology, was one of the Titans, who for the crime of at- tempting to take heaven by storm was compelled to bear the vault of the heavens. Some suppose that by this myth is communicated the fact that a certain king, named Atlas, labored to solve the astronomical problem of the starry universe. The first important atlas published in this country was that of Jedidiah Morse in 1775. Vast num- bers of this work were issued; and Blackwood's Magazine remarked, that, it had quite superseded all other works of the kind in this part of the world. Many new editions of the work were subsequently published. That of Sidney E. Morse in 1823 was widely noted : and of this an edition with cerographic maps afterward had a. very extensive sale down to comparatively recent times. Among the most important and valuable atlases, apart from school geographies, at the present time, may be mentioned Stieler's Hand- Atlas, issued from Justus Perthes's world- renowned cartographical establishment at Gotha, under the editorial supervision of A. Petermann (completed in 187")). These maps are noted for their minute accuracy. Macks and Johnston's Atlases, published in England, are of great merit and value. Von Spruner's Historico-Geograph- ical Atlas, and .Menkes OrbisAntiqui Descriplio, also deserve to be mentioned. Among astronom- ical atlases, those of R. A. Procter are the most elaborate and correct. ATTENDANCE, School. This is an im- portant subject of consideration in estimating the effectiveness of any system of public education, as showing what proportion of the community participates in its benefits. Educational statistics are too imperfect and too deficient in uniformity to render any comparison of different states and countries in this respect entirely reliable. Thi average attendance, accurately computed, as compared with the entire scl I population, Can alone show in what degree the people ot ' an\ state or country participate in the advantages of the education provided by the government, and. con- sequently, the need of measures designed to in- duce or enforce school attendance. 'I lie annual average attendance is usually found by addi together the whole number of pupils present each session during the year, and dividing the 58 ATTENDANCE sum by the number of sessions. Of course, this does not afford an accurate basis for comparison where the schools are kept open during different periods of the year; since a school which has been kept open all the year would, with the same number of pupils, show no larger average attend- ance than one kept open only one half the year. To rectify this, the aggregate number of pupils in attendance at all the sessions is often divided by a fixed number, without regard to the actual number of sessions. This method is sometimes legally enjoined for the purpose of an equitable distribution of the school moneys. Obviously, both tin' actual average and statute average are needed to ascertain the true effectiveness of a system of schools. The average attendance com- pared with tin' " average number belonging" is useful as showing the temporary regularity or irregularity of attendance, arising from various local or incidental causes. (Sec Absenteeism.) It is generally conceded thai in the United States — .particularly in the Northern and Western States - there arc but few native children who do not attend school some portion of the year, or who have never attended any school during their lives, li is chiefly among the foreign pop- ulation, that the opportunities for school attend- ance are neglected. Table of School Attendance. State Alabama Arkansas California Connecticut . . . . Delaware Florida <»eorgia Illinois Indiana toira Kansas Kentucky Louisiana Maine Maryland Massachusetts . M ichigan Minnesota Mississippi Missouri Nebraska .W\ ada New Hampshire. Ww Jersey New Fork North Carolina. . Ohio Oregon Pennsj U ania. . . . Rhode Island Smith Carolina . . Tennessee Texaa Vermont Virginia ( ii ■ inia . . . Wisconsin Per cent of enrollment on school pop. 35.8 ? 7:i.'.i 86.3 39.3 31.7 30.9 To.;, 7-1. <; 72.1 63.1 9 26.5 64.4 4 ).2 100 74.9 G1.3 G3.8 52.6 i,.-,.:; 76,3 !»J.5 62.fi 65.4 42.1 71.8 50.6 7ILS 89.7 43.7 60.2 51.6 87.3 39.8 62.4 61.1 Per cent of attendance on school pop. 27.1 16.9 44.3 48.2 9 23.7 l!i.3 40.8 47.» 44.8 39.9 26.8 15.9 49.0 23.6 71. S 38.8 f 31.4 29.8 64.1 16.8 64.3 32.3 112. 3 28.1 13.5 37.1 45.3 65.8 ? 37.5 38.6 55.9 22.fi 38.7 39.8 Per cent of atten- dance on enroll- ment. 75.6 9 60.0 55.8 ? 7l.!i 62. 1 57. s C3.7 G2.2 57.1 9 fill. 2 89.8 48.6 70.7 51.7 v £9.2 56.7 98.2 59.9 68.3 5 1 .fi 49.8 66.6 60.8 73.3 63.9 61.9 9 62.3 74.8 64.0 5(1.7 63.0 65.1 The above table is chiefly based on returns made to the Bureau of Education at Washing- ton (see Report of Commissioner of Education for 1874), and obviously shows, except in Mas- sachusetts, great irregularity of attendance, as compared with the census enumeration of child- ren of legal school age. The variations in the latter in the several States must lie taken into account in the consideration of these compara- tive statistical facts. (See School Age.) In Delaware. Iowa, Kansas, Minnesota, Mis-} sissippi. Missouri, Nebraska. New York, and West Virginia, the school age is the same — 5 to 21 ; in Florida. Illinois, Indiana. Louisiana. North Carolina. Ohio, Pennsylvania, and Wis- consin, it is from (i to 21 ; in Georgia, Nevada, Tennessee, and Texas, it is from (i to 18; in California..") to IT; Connecticut, 4 to 16; and in Massachusetts and Rhode Island, 5 to 1.5. The exccs< (if attendance over the enumeration in Massachusetts, indicates that pupils are per- mitted to attend School who have not as vet reached, or who have passed, the legal school age. The percentage of population between the ages of 5 and L5 enrolled in the scl Is in 1872—3 was. in Alabama, 38; Delaware, 59 : Florida. -12: Maine, 90; Maryland, 67; Mississippi, 70 ; Missouri. 88; North Carolina, :">1 : South Caro- lina, -fti ; Rhode Island. 91; Tennessee, 50; Texas, 56; Virginia, 51 ; West Virginia, 67. In England and Wales, the average attendance at the public schools, in L873, was about 28 per cent of the population of school age (between 3 and 13); and about 69 per cent of the total enrollment ; and, consequently, the enrollment was about -11 per cent of the school population. Under the compulsory education act in force in that country, the school attendance had con- siderably increased. (See England.) A careful comparison of the census returns of different countries shows that, on the average, tin' children between the ages of 6 and 12 constitute about 17 per cent of the entire population. Comparing this rate with the following percentages of school attendance as compared with population, we may ascertain approximative^ the relative rate of attendance in each country. In Saxony the school attendance is about 20 per cent ; in Prus- sia, I ."> per cent; in Norway, I I per cent; in the Netherlands, 13J per cent; in Denmark, 13 percent; in Scotland and Protestant Switzer- land. 11 per cent; in Belgium, 11 percent; in Austria, in percent : in England, 9 per cent; in belaud ami Catholic Switzerland, 7 percent; in Frame, 5 per cent; in Portugal, lj per cent : in Italy, l percent ; in Greece, as] to 118; in Spain, as I to 1 7d; ami in Russia, as I to 700. Mr. Framis Adams, in his work on the Free s< ■//nil/ Systi 'in of Ho' I T n iti •< I Sh it< 's (London, 187 5 ) . remarks, in connection with a comparison of the school attendance in this country v ith that of Eng- land : "While in England we have a more select enrollment, and. consequently, a more regular at- tendance than in many Of the States. some of them the principal Northern ami Western Slates yet, so far as concerns our hold upon the great mass of the population, we stand only on a level with some of the most backward of the old ATTENDANCE ATTENTION f)9 slave states. T do not forget that our average attendance is estimated upon a longer school year than that in most of the states, hut against this fact may be set the later sehool age in the United States; and where allowance is made tor every difference which would tell in our favor, there *an he hut one conclusion — that, in the work of getting the masses into school, we are still far behind a country in which absenteeism and irreg- ularity of attendance are admitted. on all hands, to he the most crying evils under which their -in labors." There is considerable difference in the school attendance in cities and in rural districts, greatly in favor of the former, owing to the difference in circumstances. In summer, the children in the country are kept from school to assist in the rural labors of their homes; and in the winter they are often prevented from attending school by t'n ■ long distance, which they have to travel, frequently over bad roads, in order to reach the sch ii il. The following exhibits the attendance in some of the large cities of the Union : City Baltimore . . . . Boston Brooklyn Chicago Cincinnati . . . . Cleveland . . . . Detroit Jersey city . . . Newark New York. . . . Philadelphia.. St. Louis San Francisco. Per cent of attendance on populat. Per cent of attendance mi whole Per cent of attendance on average < . i 12.2 8.3 8.1 7.2 8.9 8.5 9.3 7.8 10.9 9.7 ;>.4 9.6 enrollment enroUm't. 55.0 T.i.l .VI. I 67.2 74.5 63.6 6G.3 50.9 52.5 i;:i.u 68.4 67.4 61.9 so. :i2.;. 88.7 94 2 95.4 93.5 88.9 S'.I.O 915.4 8ti.2 'X',A 76.6 The only thoroughly reliable basis for a com- parison of the school attendance of different places is either the whole population or the school population between certain ages. The enrollment is not to be depended upon, because it is not kept the same way in different places. In some, it is greatly increased by including all the children enrolled in any of the schools during the year, many pupils being thus counted several times. The following table will permit a comparison between the American and English cities in re- spect to school attendance : City Kate of Number Per cent of enrollment enrolled attendance Liverpool. . . Fcl.. Wo 57,698 66.6 Leeds Feb. i^7o 44,498 61.8 Bristol Fell. 1^7o 25,182 70.7 Newcastle | on Tyne ( Jan. 1875 17,444 69.6 Birmingham June 1875 61,334 67.6 Manchester.. Feb. H7o 18,275 67.1 It will he thus seen t hat the average attendance, as compared with the number enrolled, is better in this country than in England . In estimating the efficiency of school systems, the period of attendance is a very important ele- ment to be considered. (See School Age, and B( HOOL Vk.vr.) ATTENTION (from the Latin tendere, to strain, implying a strained effort of the mind) is perhaps the most important of the mind's activi- ties, since the quality and duration of the intel- lectual impressions depend upon the degree of at- tention with which the faculties have been exerted iii acquiring them. There is no point of difference between the trained and the untrained intellect so Striking as the voluntary power of fixing the mind for a continuous period of time upon any given subject. Hence, to discipline this power becomes, in an especial manner, the ollice and duty of the educator. Commencing with the most rudimen- tal exercise of the observing faculties, he passes on, step by step, to the process by which, through the entire and determined giving up. as it were, of the whole mind to the contemplation and study of any given class of facts or ideas, the student learns to evolve new truths, or analytically to ex- plain the intricacies of abstruse problems. When the attention has become obedient to the will, this branch of mental training is complete ; and, therefore, the aim of the educator should lie to instill habits of controlling the attention, and rigidly preventing those of desultory, wayward application, or listlessness. This power of con- tinuous attention is, without doubt, the most valuable result of intellectual training. To pro- duce this result, it is of the first importance to interest the pupils, especially in the earlier stages of instruction. Young minds have an intense desire to know — not words merely, but things. They have a strong craving for new ideas, and take the deepest enjoyment in the exercise of the perceptive and conceptive faculties. Hence the importance of object-teaching. The perceptive faculties are exercised in the observation of the sensible qualities of all the different things with which the child is surrounded, or which may be presented to its view by the teacher, for the pur- pose of attracting its attention; and these objects should be diversified as much as possible, so as to appeal to the child's love of novelty. The attention should not lie exercised for Ion-' periods of time. When the teacher per- ceives that it is Sagging, it is best to stop the exercise; for all that is done while the child's attention is relaxed, is worse than fruitless. It is from an inattention to this truth that children are often made incurably listless in school. They are set at exereises which awaken no interest in their minds, and. consequently, ac- quire ineradicable habits of superficial, careless attention. In all the subsequent studies of the pupil, it is essential that his interest be awakened as much as possible; but it will he found there is a reciprocal action of interest and attention. The pupil having acquired in the first stages, in some degree, the hain't of voluntary attention, will, as a matter of duty, apply his mind to the studies prescribed for him; and this very appli- cation, if earnest and diligent, will soon excite the deepest interest in the subjects of study. 'I he dependence of memory upon attention is well known to all who have observed, however Superficially, the operations of the mind; and the GO A D G USTANA COLLEGE AUGUSTINE power to recall at will our mental impressions and acquisitions is perhaps directly in proportion to the attention with which the associations bind- ing them together were formed. When these are feeble, loose, accidental, and formed with little volition, the mind will have but an imper- fect control of its thoughts, and will thus be wanting in the chief quality of a sound intel- lectual character. Attention requires a vigorous exercise of the brain, and, therefore, is, more or less, dependent upon the physical condition. When this has been exhausted by labor, either bodily or men- tal, or weakened by disease, attention is scarcely possible; and the effort to give it is injurious, because it induces still farther nervous pros- tration. Neither should deep attention be exerted or attempted immediately after a hearty meal. The nervous energy is then directed to the digestive functions, which active cerebration will greatly disturb. Hence, the diet of a studenl should be light, lntt nutritious. The brain should also be supplied with thoroughly oxygenated blood. No one can think well iii an impure at- mosphere, especially if it is contaminated by the breathing of many persons. In this way. children often suffer a serious loss of health. They are crowded in apartments too small for the number to be accommodated, and very imperfectly ven- tilated ; and, at the same time, are expected to give close and earnest attention to the subjects of instruction. This is a physical impos- sibility, and the attempt to do it must always be followed l»y disastrous results. In no re- spect has the aphorism. " A sound mind in a sound body" a more forcible application than to the exercise of attention. For whal contrast can be stronger than that presented by the poor wretch whom disease has berefl of every mental state but wandering thoughts or absolute vacuity, and the man of sound health and a well- trained mind, who is ready at will to concentrate all his intellectual energies upon a given subject, and to keep them steadily fixed upon it until the object of his investigations his been attained! i See Intellectual Fine mow.) AUGUSTANA COLLEGE was founded at I'axton, III., in L863, by the Swedish AugUStana Synod of the Evangelical Lutheran Church. It was removed to Rock Island. 111., in L875, where it has buildings, grounds, and apparatus estimated at $50,000 in value. It has a library of 7000 volumes, a faculty of seven professors and two tutors, and III! si lulents, of whom 92 are in the collegiate department. The chief object of this college is to afford to young men a thorough edu- cation at the lowest possible rates ialmiit $100 per annum for tuition, board, and room), and also to prepare young men for the theological seminary connected with it, and for teaching in the paro- chial schools of the Swedish Lutheran congre- gations. The Rev. T. V Hasselquist, D.D., is the president. | L) AUGUSTINE, Saint flat. Aurelius An- gustinus), a celebrated doctor of the Latin church, and one of the 'greatest of Christian teachers and theologians, was horn Xov. 13., '■',' A . at Tagaste. in Numidia, the modern Algeria. His father, Patricias, was a pagan; his mother. .Mon- ica, a fervid christian. He was sent by his father to the famous school of Madaura, and after the death of his father continued his studies at Carthage. His life at this time was very licen- tious ; but he never forgot the pious instructions which his mother hail given him. nor the devo- tional exercises to which she had accustomed him. Dissatisfied with the religious systems of the an- cient Greeks and Romans, as well as with the Jewish and Christian scriptures, he tried to find rest for his mind in the Manichean system. At Rome, to which he went at the age of 20, he achieved great reputation as a teacher of elo- quence. Six months later, he was called to Milan as a teacher of rhetoric. 1 lis intercourse with Saint Ambrose, who was then bishop of Milan, and the incessant entreaties of his mother, shook his faith in Manicheism, and. in ,'fsT. brought about his conversion to Christianity, lie became at once one of the most prominent writers of the Chris- tian church; and after spending three years in seclusion at his birthplace Tagaste, he was obliged, in compliance with the demand of the people of the neighboring town of Bippo, to take on so that he might assist bishop Valerius in his failing age. Alter the death of Valerius, in •'!»•">. he was elected his successor, and continued bishop of Hippo till his death, in 430. His reputation as a theological writer, soon tilled the entire church, and his influence upon theological doc- trine and upon the theological schools of the Christian world proved to he greater than that of any one who had preceded him. The most famous of all the numerous work.- of Augustine, the Confessions, has also a great edu- cational interest, as it contains the reflections of one of the most distinguished scholars of the Christian church on his own education. He demonstrates, in the clearest light, the strong and imperishable influence of maternal education upon the whole after life of man : and from his touching account of the fierce conflict between the highest intellectual and philosophical aspira- tions on the one hand, and moral weakness on the other, many prominent teachers have professed to have learned more than from the study of many theories of education. — Augustine followed Tertullian in advocating a rigid exclusion of pagan authors from the education of young Christians. Especially did he oppose the reading of the •• impioUS fahles of the poets, the polished lies of the rhetoricians, and the verbose Bubtleties of the philosophers;" but the reading of the historians he did not absolutely object to. This question as to the use of pagan classics in Chris- tian schools has continued in he a lively qpntro- versy in the Christian church: and. even in the nineteenth century, the views of Tertullian ami Augustine have found many defenders. (See ( /HRISTl \n ( 'i. \ssics.) By the establishment of a training institution for candidates for the priesthood, Augustine laid the foundation of episcopal seminaries, and gave a AUSTIN" COLLECE AUSTRALASIAN COLONIES 111 powerful impulse to the diffusion of theological nee among the clergy. He refused to ordain any one as a priest who had not been edu- cated in his seminary. A number of his pupils ablished similar institutions in their dioceses; and. when the church of North Africa vas dev- astated by the incursions of the Vandals, the African bishops established seminaries in many of the plaees where they found a refuge. — By his work De catechizandis rudibus, Augustine became the father of I 'hristian catechetics. The work was compiled in compliance with the ap- plication of a deacon of Carthage, by the name of DeogratJas, who wished to have a guided took for the instruction of the catechumens. In this work, Augustine demands for the instruction of the catechumens a historical basis, regarding an outline of Bible history as the best compendium of the knowledge that is necessary for salvation. Of the other writings of Augustine, the work De musica, a dialogue between a teacher and a scholar, and De magistro, which treats of Christ- as the best teach t. are partly of an educational character. — Sec Schmidt, Geschichte der Pada- gogik, n, 59, sq. ; Bindemann, Der heil. Augu- stinus, (2 vols.. 1S44 — 1855): Poojoolat, Vie de SLAugustin; Mosheim, Ecclesiastical History, vol. i.; The works of St. Augustine, edited by M. Dons (London, i ST (—(!). Of the earlier editions of his works, that by the Benedictines, in 11 vols. (Paris. 1(579 — 1700) is considered the AUSTIN COLLEGE, at Huntsville, Texas, was founded in 1849, by Presbyterians. Its f rounds, buildings, and apparatus are valued at G0,()00. It has a library of 3000 volumes, and a preparatory and classical department. The number of students is about 90. The Rev. S. M. Luckett, A. M., is the president. The annual tuition fee is from $30 to .§50. AUSTRALASIAN COLONIES. This name is now commonly vtsed to designate the English colonies on the continent of Australia, as well as the neighboring islands of Tasmania and New Zealand. The following exhibits the area and population of each of these colonies : New South Wales . 308,560 sq. m. 584.278 inhab. Victoria 88,4. r )l " 807,756 " South Australia ... 380,602 " 204,883 " Queensland 668,259 " 160,000 " West Australia !i7.">,s24 " 26,209 " Northern Territorv 526,531 " 200 " Tasmania ". . 26,215 " 105,000 " NcwZ-aland 106,259 " 2!)!),500 " Total 3,077,701 sq. m. 2,187,826 inhab. Natives J Australia 55,000 " natives [ NewZealand 45500 «. Grand Total .2,288,326 inhab. The progress of most of these colonies, especial- ly that of New South Wales, Victoria, and South Australia, has been very rapid; and it maybe ly inferred from their vast resources, as well as from their rapid progress in the past, that these colonies will, ere long, hold a prominent place among the civilized countries of the world. Their national language is the English. There is no state church as in England, but the Episco- palians form the dominant body as regards num- ber. Next to these are the Roman Catholics, who constitute about 25 per cent of the total population. The Methodists rank third. All other denominations are well represented. As the colonies are independent of each other, each has its own educational system, which, how- ever, in all the colonies is more or less assimi- lated to the educational law of England or the national system of Ireland. At the head of the system, is a board or council of education, con- sisting of members appointed by the govern- ment. The government establishes schools to be entirely supported and controlled by the state. bu1 also grants aid to schools established by other parties, in case they submit to certain regula- tions. In several of the colonies, education has been made compulsory. With regard to grade, the schools consist of primary schools, grammar schools, colleges, and universities. Of the latter. two have been in operation for some time, — those at Sydney and Melbourne, the former in 1874 with 45 students, the latter with L22. A third university was more recently established at Dunedin, New Zealand, and a fourth, in L875, at Adelaide. A monthly periodical, devoted to education, is published in Sydney. The Australian Handbook and Almanac for 1876 gives the following educational facts and statistics for the several countries : New South 71 'ales. — The number of schools is returned at 1 508,with 2,334 teachers of both sexes, and 110,287 scholars, of whom 57,917 are boys.and 52.370 girls. Under the council of education, there were 942 schools, employing > s 77 male and 512 female teachers, with 92,303 scholars of both sexes. These schools are particularized as public schools, provisional schools, and half-time schools. The denominational schools under the board num- ber 209, of which 90 belong to the church of England, 87 to the Roman Catholics, 15 to the Presbyterians, 10 to the Wesleyans, and 1 to the Jews. There are also under the control of the board 2 orphan and 3 industrial schools. The private schools of the colony numbor 555, of which 55 are for boys. 87 for girls, and 1 1 3 mixed. St. Paul's College had 12 students. St. John's College 1, the Grammar School 293, the Heal' and Dumb Institution 53. Toward the support of these educational institutions, the sunt of £154,220 was contributed by the government, and L'i;7..'177 was received in shape of fees and voluntary contributions. The number of sundaj schools was 1.023, with an average attendance of 51 ,478, and 6,497 teachers. Victoria. -Of day schools, including state schools, private educational establishments, col- leges, and grammar schools, there were. March, :;i.. 1st::, 1936, with an attendance of 160,743 scholars and 4,257 teachers. The common & ho numbered L.048, with 2,416 teachers. 73,826 boyB, and 62.136 girls. The local receipts for the maintenance of the schools, arising from fees and other sources, were £117,868, this amount being supplemented by a government grant of £182,202, making a total of £300,070. The private schools 62 AUSTRALASIAN COLONIES AUSTRIA numbered 881, with 11,024 male and 13,595 female scholars, and 528 male and 1236 female teachers. The number of grammar schools and colleges was 7, of which 2 were Episcopalian, 3 Presbyterian. 1 Methodist, and 1 Roman Catholic. The total number of masters in these colleges and grammar schools was 77, the total number of students 1,162. Under the new educational act, the instruction in the state schools is free, secular, and compulsory. The governing power is in the hands of a minister of education, assis- ted by a .secretary. Each school is under period- ical inspection. The teachers are required to pass an examination, and are paid by fixed salaries; hut they also receive the fees of the scholars, and have a further allowance according to the progress made by the scholars under their charge. The number of Sunday-schools was 1,381; Episcopa- lian 262, Presbyterian 308, Wesleyan 324, Prim- itive .Methodist 73, ( ongregationalist 54, Bap- tist 5!). Roman Catholic 171; with 111,540 schol- ars and 11, si 5 teachers. Son/// Australia. — The central board of Education consists of 7 members ; the officers are 3 inspectors and a secretary. The number of licensed schools open at the close of 1874 was 320, with 17,42G enrolled pupils, and 315 teachers. West Australia. — The legislative council in 1870 passed an education act, based upon the principle of Poster's act, now in operation in England. Schools are divided into elementary and assisted schools. The former are maintained wholly at the cost of the colony, the latter are private, hut may receive- a capitation grant on submitting to government inspection for secular results, and to the observance of a strict conscience clause during the four hours of secular instruc- tion enjoined by the Act. The elementary schools are under the control and supervision of a central board appointed by the governor, and the local district boards elected by the electors. Attendance at school may be enforced by the local boards. In the elementary schools, one hour a day is de- voted, under the provisions of a conscience clause, to reading the Bible or other religious books approved by the hoard; but no catechism or religious formulary of any kind can lie used ; and tin Bible must he read, if at all. without note or comment. In L874, the number of national and assisted schools was 85, with an average attendance of over 3,000. There is a Church of England collegiate school in Perth, under the patronage of the bishop. Qi ensland. - Education is free. The prop- erty of the schools, and the laud granted for school purposes, are vested in a board of educa- tion. Aid is granted to schools not established l'\ the board, on complying with certain regula- tions. The state also assists in the establishment of grammar schools, whenever a district raises a .sum lor this purpose by subscription. In 1*71. there were 203 i ni 1 1 i;i t n schools, with 590 teach- ers, and 29,012 scholars. There were also 62 private schools, with lis teachers and 2,123 scholars. The parliamentary appropriation for educational purposes in 1874 was £72,000, the local subscriptions were £3,116. The property vested in the board was valued at £83,358. Tasmania. — The educational system is under the management of a council, and the attendance of chili hen at school is compulsory. The number of schools supported by the government was. in 1874, 147, average attendance 7,070, scholars enrolled 1.2,158, teachers ins male and 116 female, besides 3!) pupil teachers and paid monitors. There are four schools of a higher grade. The number of Sunday schools is 112, with 1.112 teachers and 1 d.Oll scholars. In New Zealand, each province has its own laws and regulations. To both national and de- nominational schools, in some cases, state aid is given ; in others, it is limited to national schools. Dunedin has a university. In 1871, out of chil- dren from 5 to 15 years of age, 59 in every hundred could read and write, and 72 were at- tending school. The increase in attendance from L872 to ls7l was very large. The number of common schools, in 1874, was 41)4. of colleges and grammar schools 4, and of private schools L82 ; total 680, having an attendance of 41.(127 scholars, of whom 21,774 were males, and 19.253 females. Of the entire attendance. 33,790 be- longed to the common schools: 498, to the col- leges and grammar schools: and (i.73!), to private schools. Besides these, there were 47 native schools, with (IS teachers and 1.214 scholars. AUSTRIA (Germ. Oesterreich or Oestreich, eastern empire), officially designated since Isi'iN as the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy, has an area of 240,381 sip in., and a population, ac- cording to the last census, in 1869,01 35,904,435. The empire now consists of two main divisions; Austria proper and Hungary, each of which has the legislative and administrative control of its own educational affaire. In this article we shall treat only of Austria proper, called also ('is- leithania, because the small river I.eitha con- stitutes pari of the frontier between it and Hun- gary. For thi' rest, see BtJNGABY. Austria proper, or Cisleiihania, consists of 14 provinces With an aggregate area of 115,925 si p in., am 1 a population numbering, according to the census of L869, 20,217,531, and estimated at the close of L874 at 21,169,341. The provinces formerly wen' either independent, or belonged to different states, and they still are inhabited by people of various nationalities. An official cen- sus of the nationalities has not been taken since 1850; hut their comparative strength is well known, and the estimates made by writers on this subjeci substantially agree. The Germans number about 7,109,000, or 35,16 per cent; the (Vcchs and Slovacks, 1,719,000, or 23,34 per cent : the Poles. 2,444,000, or 1.2,09 per cent : the Ruthenians, 2,585,000, or 1.2,80 per cent ; the Slovens OT Winds. 1,196,200, or 5,92 per cent; the Croats or Serbs, 522,400, or 2.5s per cent ; the Magyars, 17,700, or 0,09 per cenl : the Italians, 588,000, or 2,91 percent; the Rouma- nians, 2(>7. '.Mill, or 1.(12 per cent: the .lews. 820,000, or 1.05 per cent. Two of the provinces, AUSTRIA 63 Upper Austria and Salzburg, are wholly Ger- man; besides, the Germans bare a majority in Lower Austria f 90 per cent), Carinthia (69 per cent)', the Tyrol (60 percent), Styria (63percen1 1, and Silesia (51 per cent). The Czechs control two provinces, Moravia (71 per cent) and Bohe- mia (60 percent); the Slovens (inc. Carniola (93 percent); and the Croats or Serbs one. Dalma- tia (87 per cent). In four provinces, no one na- tionality has an absolute majority; in Galicia, the Ruthenians Dumber 44 per cent, and the Poles l'.!: in the Bukovina, the Ruthenians 10, and the Roumanians 39; in the Littorale, the Slo- vens 12, the Italians 31, and the Croats 21. A greater harmony than in regard to the nationality of the inhabitants, prevails in re- spect to their religion. The Roman Catholics, in 1869, constituted 91,92 per cent of the total population: the dews 4,06 per cent, the ( h'tho- ilox Creeks '2:21, the Lutherans 1,22, the Re- formed 0,51, all others 0,02 per cent. Included in the number of Roman Catholics are the United Greeks (11,53 per cent) and the United Armenians (0,02 per cent). The Roman Cath- olic Church is in the majority in every province. except the Bukovina. and in every nationality, except the Roumanian. Until the government of Maria Theresa, public education was in a very backward state. As late as 1770, thirty years after the accession of the empress to the throne, only 24 per cent of the children from the 5th to the 13th year of age attended the public schools of Austria ; in Lower Austria, only 1G per cent: in Silesia, only 4 per cent. The large majority of the children, especially in the country, grew up without any instruction. The first impulse to the thorough or- ganization of a public school system -was given by a memorial which the bishop of Passau, Count Finnian. addressed to the empress. In accordance with his suggestions, the council of state proposed the establishment of two permanent school com- mittees for the provinces of Upper and Lower Austria for the purpose of improving the methods of teaching and the administration of the schools. The government approved the plan, and the first committee was established May 19., 1770. One of the first acts of the committee was the estab- lishment of a model school at Vienna, in January, 1771. and of a model school fund. The influence of these reforms was so satisfactory, that the establishment of school committees, school funds. and model schools in all the other provinces, was either carried into effect, or at least begun. The establishment of a court committee on stud- Studienhqfcomm ixxii >n ). February 12.. 177 1. which was to have the chief control of all the edu- cational affairs of the empire, was another re- form of gnat importance. In December, 1774, the first comprehensive school law was published. It provided For the establishment, in connection with every parish church, of a common {trivial) school, in which religion. Bible history, reading. writing, and the elements of arithmetic, should be taught: for the establishment in each circle of at least one principal-school (Hauptschule), with three or four teachers, who should give instruction in the Latin language, geography, history, com- position, drawing, geometry, and the elements of agriculture ; and for the establishment, at the seat Of each school committee, of a model and normal school, \\ hieh. besides extending the course of in- struction pursued in the principal-scl I. was also to prepare candidates for the office of teacher. At- tendance at school was made obligatory after the 6th year of age, and penalties were imposed upon parents and guardians who should fail to send their children to school. All teachers were bound to use the text-books which the government caused to be specially prepared for the Austrian schools. The school law was chiefly the work of Abbot Felbiger. who in connection with kinder- mann and other distinguished educators, worked indef atigably to carry into effect the pro* isiona oi the law. The emperor Joseph 1 1, regarded the dif- fusion of education a.s the soundest basis of his reformatory, schemes. He enforced by compul- sory" laws the education of all children from 6 to 12 years of age ; and. in 1 781 . ordered a general school census to be taken. The patrons of the churches were required to provide for the estab- lishment of a school in connection with every church winch was without one. The patent of toleration of Oct. 13., 1781, gave als< > ti > the Prot- estants of the Augsburg ami Helvetic confessions, and to the non-united Creeks, the right to estab- lish a church and school for every 500 persons. The Jews, also, were at first authorized, but soon afterward commanded, to establish schools for the education of their youth. Great prominence was given, even in provinces not I ierman.to the teach- ing of the German language, the knowledge of which was an indispensable qualification for an appointment to any state office. Instruction in singing, mechanical work, and horticulture was recommended. Corporal punishment was limited to extreme cases. A review course of instruction I WiederTiolungsunterricki) was to be provided on Sundays and holidays for children who had finished the course of the elementary schools. In the capital of each of the circles into which the Austrian provinces were divided, school commis- sioners were appointed to superintend the public schools in common with the deans. During the reign of the emperor Leopold, teachers' associa- tions were organized, and delegates chosen by these associations were admitted to the provincial boards of education. A revisory committee on studies (Studienrevisionscommissicm I, which was formed in 17'.».">. under the emperor Francis, pre- pared a new constitution tor the public schools, which was published in 1805, and formed for a long time the legal basis for public education in Austria. The influence of teachers and teach associations on the government of the schools was greatly restricted ; while, on the other hand, that of the Catholic Church was greatly extended, the inspection and superintendence of schools being almost wholly transferred to the parish priests ana the bishop. The organization of the review course of instruction, a peculiar feature of the Austrian system, was completed in 1816 by a special law. 04 AUSTRIA which made attendance at the review course of instruction compulsory until the close of the 1 5th year of age or the end of apprenticeship. In 1828, the government began to publish statis- tical accounts of the progress of public educa- tion, which, as appears from these accounts, con- tinued to be steady in all the provinces of the empire. A peculiar feature in the educational history of Austria, at that time, was the more general introduction of the vernacular languages of the various nationalities into the public schools, in place of the German, which thus far had been too predominantly used even in some districts not German. Among the first re- sults of the revolution of 1848, which led to the abdication of the emperor Ferdinand 1.. and tlie accession of the emperor Francis Joseph I., was the establishment of a ministry of public instruction, which in the same year published an outline of the proposed re-organization of all the Austrian schools. This outline established several important principles: (1) The maintenance of a public school was made obligatory for the com- munities; (2) Instruction was every-where to be given in the mother- tongue of the pupils; and (3) For the candidates of teachers who formerly had received only a six months* instruction, a special course of two or three years was arranged, which was gradually to be developed into a teach- ers' seminary. In 1849, Count Leo Thun was appointed minister of public instruction, who. dur- ing the eleven veal's 01 his administration, carried into effect some of the reforms proposed in the outline, and organized in the capital of every province a provincial school board, consisting partly of experienced educators who received the title of school councilor (Sckulrath), and partly of administrative officers. Put the chief aim of this minister was the establishment of a far-reach- ing control of the ( 'atholic ( Ihurch over the public school system. The concordat between Austria and the Pope, which was concluded in August. 1855, provides thai the entire instruction of the Cath- olic youth, both in public and private schools, must be in accordance with the ( atholic religion; thai all the teachers in the Catholic schools are placed under the superintendence of the church, and that the bishops will propose to the govern- ment lit pei-sons for the otlice of school superin- tendents. The disastrous issue of the war against Prance and Italy led to the introduction of Several Sweeping reforms, and the establishment of a national representation, or ReicTisrath, in which the Liberal party impetuously demanded the emancipation of the public schools from the control of the church, and the abolition of the concordat. The ministry of instruction, which was Looked upon by the Liberals as a tool of the church was totally abolished ; but the govern- Mi Hi showed greal reluctance in yielding to other demands of the Liberals. A new organization of the public school system was provided tor by the law of May I I., L869. It substitutes for the former Haupt- mnl Trivicdschulen (high and common bcI Is) a division into Vblks8ckulen (people's schools) and Burgerachnlen (citizens' schools). The subjects to be taught in the former are religion, language, arithmetic, writing, geometrical forms, the elements of natural science and history, singing, and gymnastic exercises. According to the number of teachers allowed, it may have from one to seven classes. In the Bv/rgerschule, moreover, composition, natural science, geometry, book-keeping, and drawing are taught. Schools of the latter class have, when com- plete, 8 classes, or if connected with a Volkssch ule of 5 classes, only 3 classes. The communities must establish a school whenever, in the circuit of one hour's walk, 40 children are found who attend a school at least half a German mile distant. A second teacher is allowed when the number of children exceeds 80 ; and another for every additional 80. The school age lasts from the 6th to the 14th year. There are special school boards for the communities, districts, and provinces. The number of Bihrgerschulen and Vblksschulen in 1871, was 14,769. of which 6560 were German, 5746 Slavic. 1080 Italian. 24 Boumanic, 5 .Magyar. '! Greek, and 1352 mixed. The number of male teachers was 20,904; of female teachers, .'1, 1 !.">. The attendance at school was 941,497 boys and S7s.ll>:; girls. In two provinces, the Tyrol and Moravia, the number of children attending school exceeded that of the children of school age; in UpperAustria, Bohemia, and Silesia, it was between 90 and '.HI per cent. ; in Lower Austria. Salzburg. Styria. and < 'arinthia, bet ween 7."> and !'.">; in ( 'arniola and the Littorale. between 50 and 55; in < 'alicia, 20; in 1 ►ahnatia, 1 •">: and in thi' Ibikovina, only 12 percent. The middle schools, which prepare boys for the higher studies, are either gymnasia, realschool$,or realgymnasia. The gymnasia prepare their pupils for the uni- versities, the realschools for the higher technical schools, and the realgymnasia for both. In 1870, there were 97 gymnasia with 27.2*7 pupils. 24 realgymnasia with 3,210, and 50 realschools with 1 3,229 pupils. Of universities there are 7: those of Vienna, Gratz, Tnnspruck. Prague, Cracow, Ijem- berg, and < Izernowitz. They all contain, like the German universities. 4 faculties, except l.emberg and Czernowitz, which have only 3. The number of students, in the winter semester of L874 — 5, was. at Vienna 4,223, at Gratz 930, at Lnnspruck 633, at Prague 2,011, at Lemberg upwards of L100, and at Cracow upwards Of 1,000. There are seven technical high schools: 2 at Prague [1 German and 1 Czechic), and 1 each at Vienna, • irat/.. I'ninn, l.emberg. Cracow, and, in all, about 270 professors and 3,000 pupils. -Male teachers' seminaries were first established in accordance with the new law of L869, in L870. Of these, there were, in 1 873, 40, with L45 principal and 207 assistant teachers, and 2,111 pupils, of whom L,093 were Germans, 530 Czechs, 215 Coles. 9.'} Ruthenians, L 28 Croats or Servians, 95 Italians, and L5 Roumanians. For the education of female teachers, then' are 21 seminaries, with 105 prinei pal and 111 assistant teachers, and 1 ,(><>7 pupils. The number of special schools is very largei embracing theological, medical, and industrial Schools, schools for navigation, mining, agricult- Al'TIIulMTY 65 ure. forestry, ami the fine arts, together with military institutions, institutions for the deaf and dumb, and the blind, orphan asylums, infant in- stitutions [creches , The most important educational periodicals are Der Oestsrreichische Schulbote (since 1851) and Zeitschrift filr GstreichiscJie Gh/mnasien (since 1850). A full account of the history and statistics' of public education in Austria is given by Dr. Picker, in Sciimid's P&dagog. Elncyctopadie, \< >1. v. p. 242 — 566. Sec also Hblfebt, System der tetreich. VoOcsschule (Prague, L861), a collection of all the laws relating to the public school system ; Schtmmer, Statistik der LehranstaUen des Sstreich. Kaiserstaates von 1851 — L857, (Vienna, 1858). The latest official statdstics are annually published in the Statistische Jdhr- buch, by the central statistical commission of Vienna. AUTHORITY (Lat. auctoritas), the right to conunanil. or the persons or body by whom the right is exercised ; sometimes also, in matters pertaining to the intellect, the power to influence or exact belief. In education, the term has espe- cially this twofold application: (1) to the disci- pline, or management of children.; (2) to their in- struction. The primary authority, both in re- spect to time and importance, to which the child is subjected is that of the parent ; and for several years no other can be exercised over it, except in loco parentis. It is true, the state extends a pro- tecting care over the child ; but only by an exer- cise of its authority over the parents, requiring them to perform their proper duties as the nat- ural guardians of their children. When the parents neglect oi repudiate these duties or are guilty of acts in contravention of them, the state interposes its authority, but not even then direct- ly, upon the child, but only to placd it under the authority of those who will better care for its interests, and perform for it the natural duties of its parents. The right exercise of parental authority is, therefore, one of the most im- portant elements in the education of the child. (See Home Education.) If the child from its earliest years has been accustomed to recognize and submit to the authority of its parents, firmly but judiciously exercised, were will be, ordinari- ly, but little difficulty, on the part of the teacher, in making his authority effective. The child, on entering the school, feels for the first time that it is under an authority different from that of its parents, to which it has previously learned to sui. mil with unquestioning obedience. Its first imptdse is, perhaps, to refuse submission to this new authority ; and the influence of the teacher over the child will greatly depend upon the man- ner i,i which obedience is enforced. (See Disci- pline.) In the authority of the teacher, as well as in that of the parents, two elements arc com- bined, — one that attracts and encourages, and one that curbs and subdues. Without the former, authority is arbitrary and violent: without the latter, it is feeble and often powerless. In oilier words, the authority that truly educates should be founded not alone upon fear, but upon love and esteem as well. The authority of the teacher is not, like that of t lie parents, based upon a natural law, but is delegated either by the parents or by those who stand in the parental relation to the child. This is what is meant when it is said that the teacher is in loco parentis ; not that he has exactly the authority of the parent, but only so far as it is not limited by the general usages of society, or by special contracts. The conscien- tious teacher cannot, for a moment. doubt that it is his duty strictly to observe these limits ; since, by willfully overstepping them, he must either break a contract, or violate;! most sacred trust ; and, in either case, his authority will be either weakened or destroyed. When schools arc controlled by boards of edu- cation or boards of trustees, such constituted authorities stand to the children in place of the parents, in respect to school education ; and the teachers become simply the agents of the school board, and can only exercise an authority limited by the rtdes of such board. The limits of the authority delegated to teachers by the appointing power, vary considerably in different places, some school boards reserving to themselves certain powers or functions which others confer upon the teacher. It is a matter of the utmost importance that all persons concerned in the edu- cation of the child should co-operate harmoni- ously ; since nothing tends so much to weaken the force of authority in the mind of the child as to notice a conflict among those under whose control it is placed. Father and mother, parent and teacher, teacher and school board, should, at any rate, as far as the child is aware, agree ab- solutely; since the less children know of any differ- ence of opinion between their custodians, the more cheerfully will they respect and submit to the principle of authority in general. Many cases will arise, both in the family and in the school, in which children will refuse submis- sion to the authority of their educators ; and hence; the mode of enforcing authority becomes a mat- ter of serious importance. Authority, of course, implies a control of the will of those over whom it is exercised; and the means by which this is to be obtained will differ according to the dis- position and habits of the child, and. to a coin siderablc extent, also according to the character of the educator himself. A violent . irascible, morose, or capricious parent or teacher will have a con- stant conflict with the child, and will never be able to establish his authority, to whatever extent, for the time being, he may compel a seeming obedi- ence. Authority is thus described by an eminent teacher: — "H is not mere legal form, nor the instrumentalities for executing it. that constitutes authority. It is a power in the individual him- self, independent of all circumstances, and rising in its own majesty above all mere conventionali- ties. It is a power difficult to describe, but which -end- out its .streams of influence al the teacher's pathway. It exists in the man. de- manding, securing, and retaining cheerful obedi- ence." Authority should not be exercised as such; 66 AUTHORITY " the right-feeling parent," says Herbert Spencer, " like the philanthropic legislator, will not rejoice in coercion, but will rejoice in dispensing with coercion." [Sec Mm: w. EDUCATION.) In this connec- tion, arises the question of the propriety of corpo- ral punishment to enforce authority in the family or school. All educators are agreed, that the use of physical force, if at all sanctioned, should be only, as a dernier ressort, brought in when every other means of coercion has failed; some, how- ever, condemn the " use of the rod " utterly. Locke assents to it only in cases of extreme ob- stinacy. " The teacher," says D. P. Page, " has the right to establish authority by corporal in- fliction; and thus to save the school and also save himself It is his duty to establish authority, pea eably, indeed, if he may, — forcibly if lie must." (See Corporal Punishment.) In the exercise of authority, both parent and teacher should faithfully consider the influence they are exerting over the future character of the child. As Locke says, •• Every man must some time or other lie trusted to himself and his own conduct ; and that he is a good, a virtuous, and able man, must he made so within." In the family and school, as in the great world beyond, authority should, as far as possible, lie exercised without- being felt. Richter justly remarks, "The best rule in polities is said to be -[ins trap tjouverner'', it is also true in education." The principle of authority has an important application to the mental as well as the moral education of children. In the earliest stages of intellectual instruction, the child must receive most of the information imparted to it on the authority of its teacher; but modern principles and methods require that, even from the first, as far as possible, the child should learn for itself by the exercise of its perceptive and conceptive faculties, and not merely on the authority of its tcaehei-s. .Much, however, must be imparted. that is beyond the scope of the chihl's under- standing and experience; ami, consequently, there will he a wide range for the operation of the teacher's authority. It will, of course, be greater or less in proportion to his personal influence in Other respects, and particularly in proportion to the confidence fell by his pupils in bis wisdom and attainments. In some instances, as exem- plified in the history oi religious orders and creeds and of the schools of philosophy and ice. the authority of eminent teachers has i been so greal as to exert an influence for many centuries over thousands, or even millions, of intellects. Such was the intellectual authority of Pythagoras, Plato, Aristotle. and other leaders of ancienl Bchools of philosophy. Teaching too much by authority, and failing to appeal suili- cicntlv to the r, I judgment of the pupil is an error to be carefully avoided : since it must exert a. disastrous influence upon the student's habits of thought and acquisition. With all due deference to the philosopher of Samos, who was content to have his disciples depend upon the Ipse dixit Pi/thagaras, his example cannot be wisely imitated by the teachers of our time. Every one must learn to form his own opinions. carefully, dispassionately, after due investigation, and a proper consideration for the conclusions and experience of other minds; but still they must lie his own. The teacher should infuse into the minds of his pupils an intellectual independ- ence, — not a skeptical ipiestioning of every- thing, but a thoughtful investigation of the why and the wherefore, a diligent balancing of the weight of testimony, and a habit of inquiring into the ultimate reasons of things, as far as they can be adduced. This will impart coneentrative- ness and activity of mind, and call into exercise the judgment and reflection upon whatever is presented to the attention, whether in Study, reading, or conversation. The pupil thus in- structed would soon realize the force and beauty of that tine sentiment of Emerson : " 1 had better never sec a book than be warped by its attraction clean out of my own orbit, and made a satellite instead of a system." Montaigne strongly condemned the prevalent modeof teach- ing by authority. '■ Let the tutor," says he, "make his pupil examine and thoroughly sift every thing he reads, and lodge nothing in his head upon simple authority and upon trust .... \a'\ him know that he does know." lious- seau also severely criticised the pedagogy of his time, for basing the science of education on the principle of authority. He demanded thai n. ■ pupil should not know any thing merely because it was told him by the teacher, but because he understood it. lie should not learn the science, but discover it. " If." said he. "you give him ;m authority instead of a reason, he will never think independently, but will always be the foot- ball of tin' opinions of others." This is an ex- treme view, as every teai her of experience must know. The authority of the teacher cannot be eliminated in intellectual education ; since to do so would put the undeveloped understanding of the pupil on an equality with the mature and devel- oped intellect of the instructor: neither can its just limits be definitely fixed. The disposition to accept the statements of the teacher as truths, when not fully understood, should be cultivated. Modesty is often as requisite and as becoming in thoughl as in morals. The great principle to be kept in view — and it is to the credit of Kousseau that he so clearly perceived, and so emphatically enunciated it - is. that authority should not have its aim within itself, but that its object should be to develop the faculties of the pupil, so that he may fully understand as true and right, what he has received on the authority of the teacher. — See Montaigne, Essais (Cotton's translation, edited by \V. Ilazlitt) ; Locke, Tlioughte con- cerning Education; Rousseau, Emue on tie VEducation; Eerbert Spencer, Education: dual, Moral, and Physical. BACCHANTS BACON 67 BACCHANTS (Lat. Bacchantes) is a term applied in mediaeval times to those university students who had not yet finished their first year's studies, and being taxed for drinking pur- poses by the older students, were thus drawn into revels and debauchery. Later, this name was riven to those idle, dissolute students who traveled about the country. Collecting money, ostensibly to enable them to pursue their studies. iietimes they were accompanied by pupils, whom they compelled to steal and beg for them. (See A B C-Sh00TERS.) So numerous were these itinerant scholars, that organizations of them existed with constitutions and rituals; and some- times these bodies were supplied with board and lodging by the cities in which they located them- selves. These practices ceased almost entirely with the Reformat ion, but we find traces of them in Germany and England down almost to the present century. Burkard Lingg and Thomas Platen were Bacchants, whose autobiographies in German are still extant. BACHELOR (Lat. Baccalaureus), a term ap- plied to one who has reached a certain grade in a college or university education ; as, Bachelor of Arts (A. B., or B. A.), Bachelor of Civil Law (B. C. L.), Bachelor of Divinity (B. D.),etc. The word as thus used is of uncertain etymology. It was introduced into the University of Paris by Pope Gregory IX.. in the 13th century, and ap- plied as a title to those students wdio had passed certain preliminary examinations, but were not prepared for admission into the rank of master, teacher, or doctor. Afterwards, it was adopted by other European universities, to indicate the lowest academical honor, as it is now used both in this country and in Europe. (See Arts, and Degrees.) BACON - , Francis, Viscount St. Albans and Baron Verulam, one of the most illustrious of English philosophers, was born in London, Jan. 22., 1 .".id, ami died April 1)., 1626. Little is known of his early education, but from the social position of his father. Sir Nicholas Bacon, he must have enjoyed the advantages of the best in- struction that could have been obtained. Be was matriculated at Trinity College, Cambridge, in 1573; and. after going abroad for a time, he returned and commenced the study of the law in 15811. He was soou called to the bar. and in L590, his reputation was so great, that he was le ''counsel extraordinary'' to Queen Eliza- beth, lie afterwards served in parliament, wh in he showed so much spirit, that on receiving the royal rebuke for a certain speech, which he had delivered, he uobly replied, that " he spoke in di-eharge of his conscience, and his duty to God, to the queen, and his country." As an orator. he was much commended by his contemporaries. Ben Jonson said that while he was speaking, "the fear of every man that heard him was Lest he should make an end.'' The earl of Essex had been his friend and benefactor ; but when that rash and unfortunate nobleman was under trial. Bacon, evidently from fear of the queen's displeasure, spoke .severely against him. and was instrumental in securing his conviction. This has subjected him to much obloquy, as being guilty of meanness and ingratitude. After the acces- sion of James 1.. Bacon rose rapidly in the royal favor; his professional practice became very la and lucrative, besides which he held the office of nie\ general which yielded him £6,000 per annum. In L616, he was made lord high chancellor, ami, besides, received the title of Baron Verulam; and, in 1621, he obtained the additional title of Viscounl St. Albans. At this time, he stood upon the highest pinnacle of polit- ical preferment and literary fame ; for he had just published his greatest work, the Novum Organum. From this lofty position he suddenly fell, accused and condemned of taking bribes from those whose cases were before his court. Mis own words to the House of Lords, when the facts had been disclosed by an investigation, were, '' I do plainly and ingenuously confess that 1 am guilty of corruption, and do renounce all defense, and put myself upon the grace and mercy of your lordships."' He was, accordingly, sentenced to pay a fine of £40,000, and to suffer imprison- ment in the Tower during the king's pleasure (1(121). He was, however, released from confine- ment in two days, and the fine was subsequently remitted. He never regained the position he had so disgracefully lost, but spent the few re- maining years of his life in a studious and liter- ary retirement. Between the career of Bacon as a politician and his career as a philosopher there is a marked contrast. -1 lad his life.'' says Macaulay, "been passed in literary retirement, he would, in all probability, have deserved to be considered, not only as a great philosopher, but as a worthy and good-natured member of society. But neither his principles nor his spirit were such as could be trusted, when strong temptations were to be resisted, and serious dangers to be braved.'' His desire to keep up a grand establishment, to make a brilliant figure in society by the princely character of his entertainments, his equipage, and all the other fascinations of luxury, caused ex- penditures far beyond his means, which he endeavored to meet by unlawful gains. His philosophical views were in one sense entirely consistent with his character. They were prac- tical : tiny aimed to make science minister to the worldly wants of mankind. The si holastic learn- ing of the universities which he had inveighed against shortly after leaving Cambridge, was, he perceived, nothing hut antiquated, profitless word- learning, lie wished to incite to the discovery of new truth, that it might "mix like a living spring with the stagnant waters." "Two words," says Macaulay. "form the key of the Baconian doctrine — utility and progress. The ancient philosophy disdained to be useful, and was eon- tent to be stationary. It dealt largely in theories 68 BACON BAHRDT of moral perfection, which were so sublime that they never could be more than theories ; in at- tempts to solve insoluble enigmas ; in exhorta- tions to the attainment of unattainable frames of mind. It could not condescend to the humble office of ministering to the comfort of human be- ings." Bacon held that all knowledge must be obtained by a careful and unprejudiced induction from facts. I fence the importance of experiment ; for without experiment man may indeed stumble on t lie discovery of truth, but by experiment in- ventions are made. " Bacon," says Kuno Fischer, ••is the philosopher, not simply of experience, but of invention. Bis only endeavor is philosoph- ically to comprehend and fortify the. inventive spirit of man. From this point alone is his op- position to antiquity to be explained." Bacon's career commenced at a time when a great in- tellectual revolution was already in progress. The Aristotelian philosophy so called, which was indeed a perversion of Aristotle's teachings, and the senseless attempt to employ the syllogism as an instrument of discovery, had already disgusted a large number of active minds, as being utterly barren of fruit. As Macaulay remarks, - Before the birth of Bacon, the empire of the scholastic philosophy had been shaken to its foundation. Antiquity, prescript ion. the sound of great nanus had ceased to awe mankind." Bacon's mind was so constituted as to sympathize at once with this changed condition of things; and throwing the weight of his vast intellect against the already tot- tering fabric, he precipitated its fall. As Aristotle analyzed the method of deductive reasoning, so Bacon explained the principles and method oil in- duction, proving it to lie the great instrument . or organon, for the discovery of truth and the im- provement of the condition of humanity. The full title of his great work is Nornm Organum^ ^Quarreled with his patron, his connection with this institution lasted only one year; but having been appointed superintendent-general at Diirk- heiin. he established, in May 1777. a new philan- ihropin in the neighboring castle at Heideeheim. This attempt was likewise unsuccessful, and the new philanthropin on the brink of ruin, when Bahrdt was suddenly summoned before the sive Indicia Vera de Tnterpretatione Natural et Regno Hbminis. [The New Organon, or True Directions concerning the Interpretation of Nature ami tin- Kingdom of Man.) The kej to the whole philosophy is contained in the first of the aphorisms of which it is composed : " Man. being the servant and interpreter of nature, can do and understand so much, and so much only, as he has observed, in fact or in thought, of the course of nature : beyond this he neither knows anything nor can do any thin-.'' Previous to the publication of this work, he had published The Advancement of Learning (1605), which was the germ of De Augmentis Scientiarum, published in W'.'j:;. These and other works. published or proposed by him, were to constitute an Tnstauratio Magna— & grand re-establish- ni nt not only of the true method of scientific investigation but of science itself , in all its varied departments. Modern discovery and invention are to a great extent the offspring of this splendid gift of human -cuius. Bacon's most popular work was the Essays, originally published in L597, but afterwards enlarged and improved. Dugald Stewart has said of this work. " It may be icad from beginning to end in a few hours. and yet after the twentieth reading, one seldom fails to remark in it something overlooked before." In his essay on Education, Bacon refers all its efficacy to custom, or habit: " Certainly custom is most perfect when it beginneth in young years: this we call education ; which is. in effect, but an early custom." But Bacon's contribution to edu-*"? cation does not consist in any particular precepts concerning it or any special treatment of that sub- ject ; but in the general effect of his philosophical- views, in setting free the human mind from errors and prejudices, and placing it on the direct road which leads to scientific truth. The best edition of Bacon's works is that edited by Spedding, Ellis, and Heath. vols. i. — xv.(London andBoston, . 1858—1861). In this is contained the life of Bacon by William Rowley, !>.!).. his chaplain. — See also Macaulay's Essays, s. v. Bacon; Hep- worth, Personal History of Lord Bacon (Lon- don. L859); Remusat, Bacon, sa vie et son in- fluence (Paris. 1857); Kino Fischer, Francis Bacon von Verulam (2d edit., Leipsic, 1875), which has been translated into English by John Oxenford (London, 1857); American Journal of Education, vol. rv. (1829), passim. BADEN. See Germany. BAHRDT, Carl Friedrich, a German professor and scholar, was born in 1741, and died in L792. As professor of theology at the universities of Leipsic, Erfurt, and Giessen, he was regarded as one of the foremost rep- resentatives of the theological rationalism which prevailed at that time. As his dissolute life and his fondness for violent theological quar- rels made his position as professor of theology impossible, he eagerly accepted, in 177."), the management of a philanthropin founded by llerr v. Salis at Marschlins. in the Swiss canton of Orisons. (See Philanthropin.) As he soon Reichshofrath (Imperial Court Council) for teaching doctrines not in accord with any of the three churches recognized in the empire, and. without any trial, deprived of all his offices. The unfairness of this treatment gained for him a great deal of sympathy, and from the Prussian government an appointment as professor at the university of Halle: but in consequence of the unsteadiness of his habits, he held this posi- tion likew ise only a short time, and lost with it the esteem of nearly all who knew him. I'ahr It was one of the most gifted men of his age, and but for his total want of moral character, would undoubtedly have risen to great eminence, both as an educational w liter and a practical educator. lie founded two educational periodicals, entitled Literarisches Gorrespondem- und TnteUigenzblati (1776) and Pddagogisches Wochenblatt (1778), which clearly indicate the rare talent of the editor, but neither of which survived the first year of BALDWIN UNIVERSITY BALTIMORE 69 its existence. The disrespect which was generally felt for Bahrdt, greatly injured the entire school of PhilanthropinistB. I le published an autobiog- graphy, entitled Dr. Bahrdt's history of his life, his opinions and //is vicissitudes (4 vols., Bruns- wick, 1790), which is of considerable value for the information it gives of the educational move- ments of those times. -See Letsbb, KaaiFried- rich Bahrdt (2d edit., Neustadt, L870). BALDWIN UNIVERSITY, at Berea, Ohio, was established in L846 as Baldwin Insti- tute, for the education of both sexes, by the North Ohio conference of the Methodist Epis- copal church. Ten years afterward, it was char- tered as a university under its present name. Its design is to provide the means of a thorough general education, or to afford to students a com- plete scientific basis for the various industrial pursuits. It has a scientific and a classical de- partment, in each of which there are preparatory i and collegiate classes. There is also a college of pharmacy connected with the institution. It received a valuable endowment in quarry land from John Baldwin, after whom it was named. Its successive ] >r< sidents have been J< >hn Wheeler, D.D., from L856 to L871 : W.D.Godman, D.D., from L871 to 1ST."); and A. Schuyler. LL. D., from L875. The number of students in the in- stitutiou, in 1875 — 7(>, was 180. The tuition is free. BALTIMORE. The first attempt to pro- vide the means of education for the lower classes in this city was the establishment, in 1820, of a school on the Lancasterian system. \n 1825, an act was passed by the legislature, which author- ized the establishment of public schools in Balti- more, and empowered the corporate authorities to levy a tax for their support. In 1828, a board of six school commissioners was organized ; and, the next year, three schools were opened, and 269 pupils enrolled. The first school-house was erected in 1830, hired built lings having previously been used. In 1839, the number of pupils en- rolled had increased to 1.126 ; and the mayor and city council requested the commissioners to establish a high school. The request was promptly complied with, and the school opened the same year. This had the effect not only to raise the grade, but to increase the efficiency, of the com- mon schools; for, the next year (1840), there were nine schools in operation, with 1 ,834 pupils. Since that time the growth of the system has been rapid. In 1874, there were 122 schools, and the number of pupils enrolled was - _'!)d08,of whom there were 2.'i.."i<>*2 in average attendance. The first superintendent of public instruction was Rev. J. N*. McJilton, who served for about twenty years, acting, from L849to 1866, as treas- urer of the board as well as superintendent of the schools, lie was succeeded, Feb. I., L868, by William \\. Creery; and after his death, -May 1.. 1st."), the present incumbent, Prof. Henry E. Shepherd, was elected to the position. School Statistics. — For the year ending Sept. 30., 1875, the following statistics were reported : Number of schools 125 Number of pupils enrolled 12,689 Average daily attendance 24,918 Number of teachers 7<>t; Number of months schools were open. lo Amount paid for teachers' salaries $426,719.75 do do for school buildings 167,363.78 do do for books and stationery.. .. . 51,767.49 do do for colored schools 45,496.78 do do for other expenses 25,601.02 Total expenditures $71.i BALTIMORE CITY COLLEGE. This institution is under the care of the commission- ers of public schools of Baltimore, and forms a pari of the common school system of that city. It was originally established as the Central High School, with 16 pupils; bu1 has graduated more than 500 .students. The number on the roll Oct. 31., L874, was 400, and the number of in- structors was II. t Jandidates for admission must pass a satisfactory examination in spelling, writ- ing, grammar, geography, arithmetic, and algebra through simple equations. The curriculum em braces the English, French, German, and Latin languages (Greek optional), history, writing, and book keeping, arithmetic, algebra, g netry, trig- onometry, analytical geometry, calculus, physiol- ogy, chemistry, physical geography, natural phi- losophy, astronomy, psychology, logic, rhetoric. moral philosophy, political economy, and the con- stitution Of the I nited Slates. 'I lie lull course is four years. Boys fourteen years of age, whether pupils of the public schools or not. may be admitted on passing the required examination. BAPTISTS A handsome and spacious edifice for the accom- modation of this institution was completed in L875. BALTIMORE FEMALE COLLEGE, at Baltimore, Md., was founded in 1849, and was under the control of the Methodist Episcopal < 'hutch from that date to 18G8, when, by an act of the legislature, tlie Hoard of Trustees became a permanent corporation ; and the Board is now composed of Methodists, Episcopalians, and Pres- byterians. The number of students in the in- stitution is (1876) about 100; Nathan C.Brooks, LL. D., has been the president of the College since its foundation. It has an endowment of $2,500 from the State of Maryland, but tuition fees con- stitute its chief support. While its course of higher education has been general, it has trained and sent forth L57 teachers, most of whom are occupying positions of n sj io] isibility in academics, high schools, and colleges. BAPTISTS, a denomination of Christians distinguished by the denial of baptism to infants, and by the restriction of that rite to those who therein profess personal faith and regenera- tion. They baptize byimmersion only, and in the form of their church-government are congrega- tional. In i Ingland, they are known as General and Particular, the former, which is by a lew years the older denomination in that country, being Arminian, and the latter, which composes the far greater part of the denomination, being Calvin- istic, in theology. They are likewise distinguished as Close -Communion and Open - Communion, the larger part of the denomination in England being Open-Communion. Baptists came to this country with the first settlements. In Rhode [stand, their churches are its old as the colony; and before the close of the seventeenth century they had gathered churches in Iloston, in the neighborhood of Philadelphia, and at Charleston. Their rapid growth commenced about the middle of the eighteenth century. At the time of the Revolution, they are supposed to have had about 25,000 communicants. In L876, they have more than 1,800,000. The great body are known by the appellation Baptists ; lesser bodies are know u as l-'ree-W ill. or lately as free. Seventh-Day, Six Principles, and Old School. All these last con- stitute a fraction only of those who bear the ric name. The Disciples, or Campbellites, followers of Uexander Campbell, are a I. ion, distinguished by peculiar theological views. In this country, the Baptists, meaning 1>\ this the chief denomination SO tailed, are Close-Communion; that is, believing that no baptism is regular which is not the baptism of a believer and by immersion, and that a regular baptism is to preach participation in the Lord's Supper, they restrict their communion to the members of their own churches. Several of the ministers, in the rise of the Baptist denomination in England, were univer sity graduates; bul thai source hopelessly failing with the Restoration, the Baptists are found. with other denominations, taking measures for the e I uca t ion of a ministry by means strictly their BAPTISTS 71 own. The first resort was to private tuition, and Mr. John Tombes, at one tune preacher in the Temple church, London,, was the teacher of young ministers. In 1675 and in L689, concerted action was taken in the denomination in this direction. Edward Jewell of Bristol, dying about L686, left a legacy which provided for instruction to candidates for the ministry, and became after the lapse of thirty years the foundation of a school, known still later as the Bristol College. With tlic growth of the denomination several other colleges arose, which according to the "Baptist Hand-Book for 1876'' (London. 1876) were located in the following places : liawdon near Leeds (founded at Horton, 1804, removed to Rawdon 1859); Pontypool, (founded at Aber- gavenny. 1807, removed to Pontypool, 1836) ; Regents Park. London (founded 1810; removed tn Regents I 'ark. 1856); Haverfordwest (found- ed 1839) : Chilwell, near Nottingham (founded 1797, removed to Chilwell, 1861); Pastor's Col- lege, Metropolitan Tabernacle, London, (founded !); Llangollen, or North Wales (founded 1862); Manchester Baptist Theological Institu- tion (founded 1866) ; The Last End Training Institute for Home and Foreign Missions, Lon- don i founded 1873). All these colleges are un- derstood to be for the education of ministers only. In the American colonies, the denomination had not grown to sufficient magnitude in the Seventeenth century to undertake any denomi- national work in education. In the earlier years of the eighteenth century, appear their first graduates from American colleges. Down to and including 1776, the number of their college- bivd ministers, as far as can now be ascertained, was 19, of whom, however, two were not gradu- ates. They had an equal or larger number whose education was not greatly inferior to that of a College course. Notices of attempts towards the education of their ministry under denominational auspices, appear early in the history of the Philadelphia Association, — the benefactions to Harvard Col- lege of Mr. Hollis, a London Baptist, having i a stimulus in that direction. Similar meas- ures were taken in 1755 in the Charleston As- sociation. In 1756 was opened the Academy at Hop 'well, X. J., which was the cradle of Rhode Zsli nd College, now Brown University, organized in 1764. Academics had been opened and sustained for many years by individual teachers, in the half century following the establishment of Brown University, but no general movement in the direction of education occurred till about the time of the organization of the denomination for the work of missions. In this organization education was embraced. To this date. 1812 — 20, must be referred efforts to establish theological schools in Philadelphia and New York City, at Waterville, Maine, and at Hamilton, X. V.. and the rise of several societies to give pecuniary aid to young men preparing for the ministry. The Philadelphia movement became merged in the founding of Columbian College, Washington !>. C; the New York movement in the rise of the institution at Hamilton, now known as Madison University, but having in alliance with it a the- ological seminary; and the Waterville movement in the establishment of the college, now known as Colt University. With the close of that decade commenced the rapid establishment of colleges and universities under the auspices of the denominations in all parts of the country. (Georgetown College, Ky., bears the date of 1S29; Denison University, Ohio, |s:il ; Shurtleff Col- lege, HI., 1832; Wake Forest College, N.C.,1834; Franklin College, Ind., 1834; Mercer University, Ga., 1837 ; Richmond College. Ya.. 1840; How- ard College,, Ala., 1843; Baylor University, Texas, 18 15 : University at Lewisburg, I 'a., 1847; William Jewell College, Mo., 1849; University of Rochester, N. Y., 1850 ; Mississippi College, 1850; Furman University, S. < '.. 1851 ; Mossy Creek College, Tenn., 1853"; Central University, Pella, Iowa. 1853; Kalamazoo College, Mich., 1855 ; Bethel College. Ky.. 1856 ; McMimmlle College, Oregon, 1858; University of Chicago, HI., 1859; Waco University, Texas, 1861 ; Yas- sar College, N. Y., 1861 : University of Des Moines, Iowa, 1865; La Grange College, Mo., 1866; Concord College, Xew Liberty. Ey.,1866; Louisiana Baptist College. Mo., 1869; California ( 'ollege, 1871 ; Monongahcla College, Pa., 1871 ; Southwestern University, Tenn., 1874. Of the later Colleges, those which have risen to chief reputation and strength, are in the Xorth, Rochester, Madison and Denison, and in the South, Richmond. Yassar, the chief college in the United States for young women, should be ranked with Baptist institutions only from the fact, that the founder, an adherent of the denomi- nation, made the majority of its trustees Baptists, charging them, however, to make it Christian and unsectarian, which they have done. Several of the colleges in the above list are very weak, and some hold the title doubtfully. According to the Baptist Year-book of 1876, the total amount of property held by the Paptist colleges is |8,045,146. This must be accepted as a proxi- mate statement only, and is in part probably exaggerated. Brown University has a very valuable library of 45,000 volumes, several have libraries from 9,000 to 12,000 volumes ; Brown University has a library fund of about $27,000, and the University of Rochester of $25,000. The total number of students in L875 -.6 was t,985, of whom 1,092 were females. These num- bers, however, are of uncertain significance, be- cause in some cases professional, and in many cases preparatory students are included. The curriculum of these colleges varies in character, hut corresponds in that respects to the vary- ing character of American colleges in general. Some of them take rank with colleges of the first class. There are in the United States six Paptist theological seminaries of the highest grade, be- sides departments of theology in four or more colleges. Of these seminaries. Hamilton wad founded in b s 2 n , Xewton in L825, Rochester in 72 Rvw.Arr.n BARNARD -out hem in 1859, Chicago in 1867, and Groan in L868. In these seminaries, there were in 1875 — 76, 362 students, of whom probably about ;{'ki were in the c o m pfefr courses designed for graduates of colleges, are as high and as thoi ) are known to theolqg inarii-s. There are likewise in the United States about fort imies, or institutions of that grade having other Dames, which are ts under Bai • pices, holding property of the estimat- ed value of 82,000,000. Among these academies or other institutions, are those established under the protection and patronage of the American Baptist Home Mission Society, at Was Richmond, Raleigh, Columbia, Angusta, N ville. and New Orleans, for the education of colored preachers and teachers. T. jtitu- tioi. _ 1 1 in their infancy, are perform] very important and There hare been three epochs of remarkable .rk of American Baptists the middle of the - century, had for its fruit the foundii a Hopewell Academy and Brown University. I be md, contempora nary movement. the movement h - the prolific of all the later colli . and seminaries. 'I he third the year L870, n hen the ional ed tional convention of tfa • Ba] Id under the auspices of the Amei Educatii - in Brooklyn, N.T. A remark. impulse \v ition to the founding and endowment of academies, for which purp . i im- of money I since been raised. From that time, di-. of education. d questions in the denomination have been marked b _ I breadth and force, the number oi students in colleges and seminaries i id the raid. money for the endowment of institutions of learn- ing has becom iltaneous and unive effort. A aecond educational convention held in Philadelphia in 1872. In L873, the American Baptist Educational Commission re- commended the celebration of the Centennial of natron by a common movement for the i >f funds for ional pu rod that work is now pro< The Baptists have had distinguished of whom among the dead. rrai \\ :i\ land and I [oratio I!. Flacketl may be named as pre-eminent. ' »f the chief benefactors of edu- ■n. like he dead, may be named, • II. Thom. i . I lollis. \ i. ■ rwn, and Vfal The list of living names and honorable, were there suffi- • enumeration. BARBAULD, Anna Laetitia. an I wri'. noted for her excellenl read mg children. born in I 7 13, and di 25. I hr father John Aikin, a I nitarian minis the principal of in Iaxv his children. In 1 77 l ( married the Rev. Ro ch e m ort Barbauld, with iiool for el.-ven years. Her r noted educational publications are Early Lemons for Children, H&mnu in ['rose, and the pieces which die contributed for /. ,■«• ,,,/ Arte. Among his pubheati u hich have related chief! tad edu- cational may be mentioned : 1 on .! - \natytic Grammar "-itlt. I .• ■ rtii ' hich originated ,ii the principal institutions. he deaf and dumb : s Inch attracted much attention; Education Art ( '„:■ Coast & BARNARD BASEDOW 73 3); Vndtdatory Theory / Weights and 1/ sures i 1 871 I. BARNARD, Henry, LL. !>.. was born in Hartford, t 't.. in I 81 1 . I [e graduated from Yale College in 1830 with honor, his course having been marked by diligence and success in the classics and an unusual devotion to English literature. The next five years were devoted chiefly to the study of the law. joined to a dili- gent reading of the besl English and classical authors. During this period, he taught Bchool for a time, and toward its close spent some months in traveling through the western and southern portions of the United States. In L835, be visited Europe, and traveled extensively on tool through England, Scotland and Switzer- land, devoting his attention chiefly to the social lition of the people. On his return, after an absence of eighteen months, he was elected to the Connecticut legislature and represented his native city in that body for three years. There, various measures relating to the social, intellect- ual, and moral condition of the people engaged his attention, embracing the education of the deaf and dumb, and the Mind, the care of the poor and insane, the reorganization of county prisons, the establishment of public libraries, and the completion of the geological survey of the state. His great work was the originating and securing the passage of an "Act to provide for the better supervision of common schools," which created a board of commissioners, whose duty it was to investigate the condition of the schools, and to endeavor to improve them by ad- dresses, lectures, correspondence, the publication of a journal, and the recommendation of appro- priate measures. Mr. Barnard was a member and secretary of this commission for four years. until it was abolished by adverse political action in L842. In this capacity the duties of the hoard devolved chiefly on him; besides which he edited the Connecticut Common School Journal, and made four annual reports, which were marked by it ability and were highly commended. After tit teen mouths spent in a tour of the United States for the purpose of collecting materials for a His- tory of public schools and other means <>f pop- ular education in the United Slates, be was ap- pointed commissioner of public schools in Rhode Island, an office which he had been instrumental in creating. In five years he organized an ex- cellent system of popular education, and on re- tiring from office, in consequence of ill health, in 1849, he received the unanimous thanks of the state legislature. During this period he published several volumes relating to the schools of Rhode Island, and edited (1845 9) the Jour- mil i if the Rhode Island Institute of Instruction. From l v >n to L854, he was principal of the newly established < ionnecticut state normal school and state superintendent of common Bchools, in editing the Common School Journal. In L855, he was chosen president of the American Association for the Advancement of Education, and. in 1 8 56, he commenced the publication of the American Journal 7 to l v ">'.t. he was chancellor of the university of Wisconsin, and in 1865 — n' president of St. John's College, Annapolis, Md. Upon the organ- ization of the United States bureau of educa- tion, in L867, for the establishment of which he had labored, he was appointed the liist com- missioner and held the office till L870. Dr. Bar- nard has done much toward the improvement of school architecture, the organization of teachers' institutes, and the establishment of high and normal m1i.mi1>. Among his works are, School Architecture (1839), of whichl30,000 copies were sold: Normal Schools (1851 1; National Education 'in Europe (1854), which was Baid by the West- minster Review to group " under one view the varied experience of nearly all civilized countries"; Educational Biography (1857); Reformatory Education (1857); ObjecLTeaching (1860); and Military Schools (1862). BASEDOW, Johann Bernhard, the found- er of the Philanthropin, was horn in Hamburg, in 17'_'.'>. His early youth was gloomy and un- happy, owing to the excessive severity of his father and the habitual melancholy of his mother. While still a hoy. he ran away from his paternal home, and entered the service of a country physician in Holstein. Having re- turned to Hamburg, upon the urgent entreaties of his father, he entered tin' Johanneum, where he became noted among hisscl [-mates for his foolish tricks. In 1711. he went to the gymnasium of I [amburg, where Reimarus, the famous author of the Wolfenbvitel Fragments, was among his teachers. While there, he had to support him- self by giving private lessons and writing occa- sional poems; but a large portion of the money which he earned was spent in debauchery, and his own studies were conducted without system or perseverance. From 1 7 1 1 to 1 7 H'.. he studied theology and philosophy at the university of Leipsic. He was very irregular in attending the lectures: and the Wolffian philosophy, which at that time predominated, brought him, as be Bays himself. •• into a state of half-way between Chris- tianity and naturalism.'' In I 7 19, he was engaged by Herr von Quaalen, in Holstein, as private tutor for his children ; and while in this position, Worked out for his pupils a new method of studying languages, an account of which he has. given in a Latin dissertation, entitled " />- inusi- tiitti i'/ optima honestioris juventutis erudiendce methodo" (Kiel. 17.V2). Herr von Quaalen, who was much pleased with the results of Basedow's teaching, procured for him. in L 753, the chair of ethics and fine arts, and subsequently that of theology, at the Ritterakademie (Knights' Acad- emy) at Soroe. On account of the unorthodox views expressed in his work On i>ru< philosophy for nil ranks, he was obliged, in 1 761 . to remove to the gymnasium of Altona II two other heterodox publications, Philalethiaaiid Methodical Instruction in both Natural and Biblical Religion, involved him in a severe con- troversy with several theologians, among oth 74 BASEDOW BATES COLLEGE Senior Gotze of Hamburg, and caused him and lu's family to be excluded from the Communion. In 1767, he conceived a comprehensive plan for a radical reform of public education, and soon suc- ceeded in securing the support of the Danish minister Bernstorff, who relieved him from the duties of his position, and granted him a salary of eight hundred thalers. In 1768, he pub- lished the Address to the Philanthropists and Men of Property ', upon Schools and Studies, and their Influence upon the Public Weal ( Vbr- stellung an Menschenfreunde etc.) with the plan of an elementary work on human knowl- edge. He applied to many princes, governments, ecclesiastical dignitaries, freemasons' lodges, and other learned men and societies, to aid him in t\w publication of the elementary work which be proposed; and the success of these applications was so great, that. in 1771 (Contributions amount- ing to more than $10,000 had been received. As tin' first part of the proposed Elementarwerk, Basedow published, in L770, Methodenbuch (book of methods), of which a second edition appeared in 1771, and a third in 177.'!. The chapter on Education of Princes, was omitted in the second edition of the work, and having been revised " with a care worthy of th i subject," it was pub- lished in 1771, as a separate work, under the title of Agafhocrator. Prince Albert of Dessau sent the author, in return for a copy of this book, 10(1 thalers; and the emperor Joseph II.. a medal with his portrait. At the same time, Basedow received from the ruling prince of Des- sau, Leopold Frederic Francis, a call to Dessau, to carry out his plan of a large reformatory edu- cational institution. Having, accordingly, re- moved to Dessau, he published then 1 , in 177 1. his long expected Elementarwerk, in 4 vols., illustrated with one hundred plates, mostly en- graved by Chodowiecky. The object of this hook is, as Basedow himself remarks. (I) Elementary instruction in the knowledge of world and things ; (2) An original method, founde 1 upon experience. Of teaching children to read without weariness or loss of time I Natural knowledge ; ( I) Knowl- edge of morals, the mind, and reasoning; (5) A thorough and impressive method of instruction in natural religion, with a perfectly impartial ac- count of dogmatic articles of belief; and (6) A knowledge of social duties, of commerce, etc." This work was translated into Latin by Mangels- dorf, and into French by I [uber. The foundation of the educational institution which became famous in history as the Philan- thropic was laid in Dessau, Dec. 'J7.. 1771. The prince of Dessau gave the building, a garden, and $12,000. The object of the in- stitution was i" supply a model school in which the principles of the Elementarwerk could be applied in practical methods. Poor pupils were received at reduced rates, under the name of famulants. In I77">. the number of boarders was nine, and of famulants six. Many of the prominent scholars and educators of the time, as Cant, Oberlin, Nicolai, and Zolhcoffer, took a profound interest in this novel institution. which, as Basedow promised, was to be free from sectarian bias and to lie carried on without a re- sort to corporal punishment ; gymnastic exercises were to be afforded and the work uf learning was to be made " three times as short, and three times as easy as it usually is." The expectations raised by Basedow's enthusiastic announcements and promises wire, however, not realized. As early as Dec, 1774. Basedow was obliged to transfer the supreme management of the institu- tion to Campe, under whom the number of pupils rose to 50. For a short time, Basedow was again placed at the head of the institution: but, in 177S, he had finally to leave it. In 1784, the periodical of the PhUanlhropin, entitled Ped- agogical Conversations il>i'' padagogischen Un- terhaUungen) was discontinued: and. from that time, the institution declined rapidly and was soon entirely abandoned. The teachers, however, were scattered through all parts of Germany, ap- plying in various ways the principles of the founder. Basedow devoted the last years of his life to writing theological and educational works. lie died, duly 25., L790, at Magdeburg. His last words were, " I desire to be dissected for the benefit of my fellow-men." Like Rousseau, Basedow gave a powerful impulse to the discus- sion of new educational theories; and he re- sembled Rousseau, too. in being entirely unfitted for a practical educator. There was much in his method of teaching that appeared strange, eccentric, and even farcical: but. on the other hand, those who most severely criticise his defects, rea lily acknowledge that his life-long labors in behalf of education were not in vain. His pur- pose vas, without doubt, honest and unselfish. Like Rousseau, he labored ardently, and with considerable success, for the removal of many un- natural restraints, which, at that time, were so common. Physical education, according to his system, was attended to in a manner quite original at that time: and the favorite principle of Base- dow that the scholars should barn with love, and nol with repugnance, had a most beneficenl in- fluence upon the practical methods of other educational institutions. See Lai her, Ge- schichte tier Padagogik, vol. n. (translated in Barnard's German Educational Reformers); Max Muller (grandson of Basedow) in AUge- meine Deutsche Biographie, art. Basedow; Meyer, CJiaracter und Schriften Basedow's (2 vols., Hamburg. 1791 -1792); Quick, Edu- cational Reformers (London. 1868, and Cin- cinnati, L874). BATES COLLEGE, at Lewiston, Me., was established in L863, by the Live Baptists, and named in honor of Benjamin I''., bales of boston. w ln> contributed $200,000 to its endowment. It has handsome grounds, three tine college build- ings, ami a president's residence. The value of its grounds, buildings, and apparatus is about $200,000. In L874,'it had a corps of S instruct- ors, and 100 students in the different coll. classes, of whom .'! were females. Nine different schools and academies ad as preparatory schools for this college. There is here an endowed schol- BAVARIA BELGIUM 75 arskip for a lady student, supposed to be the first instance of such an appropriation in any of the Colleges of this country. There are ten state scholarships, giving tuition to ten students, to be selected by the governor; and in awarding these scholarships, preference is required to be given to the children of those who have fallen in defense of their country, and always to those who are indigent and meritorious. There is a professor- ship of mental and moral philosophy, named after Asa Reddington, LL. 1.)., of Lewiston, who re a large amount toward its endowment. The Cobb professorship of logic and Christian evidence was named in honor of J. L. II. Cobb, of Lewiston, who contributed the chief portion of the funds for its endowment. The various libraries, — college, theological, and societies', con- tain about 9,000 volumes. The president of the institution is (1876) Rev. 0. B. Cheney, D. D. The annual tuition fee is $36. BAVARIA. See Germany. BAYLOR UNIVERSITY, at Independ- ence, Tex., was founded in L845 by the Baptists. It bad, in L874, a corps of 5 instructors. 2 endowed professorships, 81 students, and a library of about 3,000 volumes. It has a theological as well as a collegiate department. The value of its grounds, buildings, etc. is estimated at $35,000 ; its endow- ment is about $16,000. Rev. Win. C. Crane, D. D., LL. I)., is (1876) the president. The an- nual tuition fee is from $30 to ■Slid. BEACH GROVE COLLEGE, at Beach Grove, Tenn., was founded in 1868. It had, in 187-1. a corps of 5 instructors, and 106 students hi its preparatory, and 18 in its collegiate depart- ment. Its grounds, college buildings, and ap- paratus are valued at $30,000. M. Parker, A. It., is (1876) the president. It is non-sectarian. BEBIAN, Roch Ambroise Auguste, a noted teacher of deaf-mutes, was born on the island of Guadeloupe, in 1 789, and died there in 1 8 •'! 1. He was godson of the abbe Sicard, so 1 mil for his efforts in behalf of the instruc- tion of deaf-mutes, and under him was prepared for the task which he afterwards assumed. After the publication in 1S17, of his h'xxo/' sur les aourds-muets et sur le langage naturel, he was appointed a professor at the royal institution; but the jealousy and opposition excited toward him by his zeal for innovation and reform, com- 1 him to resign, in 1825, after which he re- turned to Guadeloupe. His Eloge historiqw Jhtbbe de ! Epee obtained a prize from the acad- emy. Bisother important publications are, Mimo- graphie, ou Essai d'ecriture mimique (1822), and Manuel d'enseignement pratique (1827). BEDE, or Becla, styled the venerable Bede, a celebrated Saxon ecclesiastic and scholar, and the earliest English historian, was born in Dur- ham, England, about 677, and died in 7."».">. He possessed an excellent character, was humble, diligent, and truly pious ; and rose to great emi- nence in the church through his learning and literary ability. His biography, written by his pupil Cuthbert, says of him, that having been brought by his relations, in his seventh year, to the abbot Benedict Biscop, in Wearmouth, he devoted all his energies to the stmly of the Script- ures, and occupied his spare time in learning, teaching, and writing. He spent his entire life in the monastery of Wearmouth in study and teaching, and acquired a wide reputation both as an instructor and a scholar. Many students came from afar to hear him ; and others, who could not come in person, requested of him, by letter, explanations of difficult biblical passages. Of his method of teaching, nothing is recorded; but it consisted, without doubt, of lectures to the students. There is no doubt that he possessed an attractive delivery, and the excellence of his diction may be seen from his literary works. His studies were, by no means, confined' to theol- ogy, but extended to every science, as we see from Ids work on orthography and his works De arte metrica, Liber de schematis et irqpis sacrce scripturae, and De natura rerum, the latter treating of physics, astronomy, and geography. The greatest of his works, the Ecclesiastical History of the English Nation, written in Latin {Historia Ecclesiastica Gentis Anglorum), was translated into Anglo-Saxon by King Alfred, and is still the best authority for the period on which it treats. Bede's complete works, as far as extant, have been published by Dr. Giles (London, 1843 — 1844). A new English trans- lation appeared in 1871. — See also Weight, Bio- graphia Britannica Literaria, vol. i. (London, 1842). BELGIUM, a kingdom of Europe, has an area of 11,373 sq. m.. and a population, in 1^7.'!. of 5,253,821. Almost the entire population be- longs nominally to the Roman Catholic Church. The number of Protestants is variously estimated at from 10,000 to 26,000; that of the Jews at 2000. The influence of the Catholic Church on legislation is greater than in any other country of Europe, and the Catholic party, which aims at shaping the legislative functions of the national assembly in accordance with the heads of the ( 'hureh. has controlled the destinies of the nation during the greater part of the time which has elapsed since the establishment of Belgian inde- pendence. The Belgians are almost equally divided into two nationalities, the blemish, a branch of th i race, and the Walloon, an offshoot of the French. The Flemings are estimated at about 49,8 per cent of the popula- tion, and prevail in the provinces of Hast Flan- ders (92,4 per cent of the total population), Ant- werp (92,4 p. a), Limburg (88,8 p. a). West Flanders (88,0 p. a), and Brabant (56,1 p. a), while the Walloons have a majority in the prov- inces of Liege (89.6 p. c), llainauit (95.8 p. a), Namur (99.1 p. a), and Luxemburg 84.7 p. i The country constituting the present kingdom of Belgium formed part of the great Carlovingian empire, utter the dissolution of which, the Scheldt formed the boundary between France and Ger- many. Subsequently it was united with Bur- gundy, conjointly with which it was inherited by the kings of Spain. The peace of Ctrccht (1713) gave it to Austria, from which, in 1 71)4. it was 76 BELGIUM conquered by the French. On Xapoleon's abdi- cation in L814, it was united with Holland, with which it remained until 1S,'{0, when a successful revolution established its independence. The first schools after the introduction of Christian- ity were connected with convents and collegiate churches, and some of them, as the schools of Liege. Gemblours, Dornick, Ghent, etc., achieved a high reputation. Elementary schools were established in many places by the monastic order of the llicronymites or Hieronymians. During the rule of the I hikes of Burgundy, the famous university of Louvain was founded (in 1426), which soon occupied a trout rank among the high schools of Europe, and at one time was attended by 6000 students. I hiring the Dutch rule, a thorough system of inspection, reports, and full publicity, was instituted; a normal school was established at Liege in lslT. and in 1822 all per- sons were forbidden to exercise the functions of a school-master in the higher branches of public schools who were not authorized by a central hoard of examination. On the other hand, how- ever, the efforts of the Dutch government to re- press the use of the French language and the in- fluence of the Roman Catholic Church, produced an intense and general dissatisfaction, and became one of the | iriniary causes of the revolution of L830, and the permanent separation of Belgium from Holland. The overthrow of the hate 1 Dutch rule was naturally followed by the aboli- tion of the educational laws introduced by the Dutch government. In the place of the strict control of the entire educational system by the state, the most absolute freedom of instruction was now introduced. The cl argy founded a number of schools, which remained under the exclusive control of the church, while the Liberal party supported, in opposition to the church schools, the public school system. In 1836, a compromise between church and state was ar- rived at. The government gave to the clergy an influence Upon the state schools, while the church Subjected all its schools which received Support from the commune, the government, or public funds, to the inspection of the state. Since L865, the educational question has been the subject of a very animated controversy between the Liberal and the Catholic parties. The Liberals founded an association called Ligue de I'enseignemeni, which aimed at emancipating the state schools from the influence of the church. Primary instruction is based on the law of Sept. 23., 1842. This law provides that every commune (the smallest territorial and civil suh- di\ ision of the state) must have at least one public elementary school, unless the instruction of all the children is sufficiently provided for to the satis- faction "1 the government, in private, endowed, or denominational schools. Tin' elementary school must he free In tin poor, and may I"' made free to all by vote of i he communal council. The primary school must give instruction in religion and morals, in writing, in the mother-tongue of the children (French or Flemish), and in arithmetic. The law provides for a superior elementary school in every large city. In ISoO, this class of schools was changed into secondary schools. The schools are managed by the communal council, and the expenses required for their support are included in the local taxes. The teachers are chosen by the communal council from among candidates who have for at least two years pursued the stud- ies of a normal school. They must receive a certificate of qualification from a board consist- ing of a lay and a clerical member, the former appointed by the state and the latter by the ec- clesiastical authorities. The communal council may suspend the teacher for three months, the provincial inspector may, on consultation with the communal council, dismiss him. The inspec- tion of primary schools is exercised both by the state government and the ecclesiastical author- ities. The king appoints a cantonal inspector for each canton, and a provincial inspector for each of the nine provinces. The cantonal in- spector is appointed for the term of three years, lie must visit each school of his district at least twice a year, and report to the provincial inspect- or. The latter must visit each school at least once a year, and report to the minister of the in- terior. All the provincial inspectors assemble once a year as a central commission, under the, presidency of the minister of the interior. 'I he. bishops also appoint cantonal and diocesan in- spectors, and must once a year report to the minister of the interior on the state of moral and religious instruction. In the Protestant and Jewish schools a dele-ate of the consistory super- intends the religious instruction. The govern- ment annually publishes a list of text-books that may be used. From this list each teacher can make his selection. 'I here is no special ministry of public instruction, but all educational matters are assigned to the minister of the interior, with a separate bureau. Tin' state has established two normal schools for primary teachers, a Flemish sel I at Lierre, and a Walloon school at Nivelles. 'I here are. besides, seven normal departments an- nexed to higher primary schools, and seven epis- copal normal schools, which have been placed by the bishops under government Supervision. 'I he courses of instruction in the state normal schools are for three veal's, and in the episcopal schools for four. The pupils tire usually required to board and lodge upon the school premises* Teachers' conferences, generally occupying only one day. and never more than three, are held quarterly during vacations. and conducted by the provincial and cantonal inspectors. Secondary instruction was re-organized in 1 s .»ishops; and one, that of Brussels, to an association of liberals. Ghent, Ldege, and Brussels have each four facul- ties; Louvain has five. There is a council of superior studies (conseil de perfectionnement de Venseignement supirieur), consisting of the 2 rectors and 8 professors of the state universities (1 from eaeli faculty), the school inspectors, and gome private individuals. Industrial instruction is given in institutions of three grades; higher instruction, in the special schools of arts, and manufactures and mines, attached to the Uni- versity of Liege, in those of civil engineering, and of arts and manufactures, annexed to the University of Ghent, and in the superior in- stitute of commerce at Antwerp; intermediate instruction in the industrial departments at- tached to all the athenaeums and high schools ; primary instruction, in the industrial schools for workmen. The latter are very numerous, lace- making alone being taught in 586 schools. There is a military school for training officers of all arms, regimental schools for the instruction of ig- norant soldiers, and a school for the education of soldiers' children. There are 2 veterinary schools, 3 conservatories of music, 72 schools of drawing, painting, sculpture, and architecture, a national observatory, 2 schools for deaf-mutes, 1 for the blind, 6 for orphans, and 3 for young criminals. Education in Belgium is not compulsory, and the number of children receiving no kind of in- struction is still large. Of the conscripts there were, in 18-45, 31)1 out of 1000, who could neither read nor write ; in 1863, 302. The salaries of primary teachers were fixed by a law of 1863 as follows: (1) in schools with more than 100 scholars, minimum salary 1,050 francs; (2) in schools with from 60 to 100 schol- ars, 950 francs; (3) in schools with less than 60 scholars, 850 francs. The chief town of every province has a special savings-bank for teachers (caisse de prevoyance), into which every teacher is required annually to pay a certain fixed amount from his salary, and which also receives contribu- tions from tin' provinces, the state, and private individuals. Every teacher who is sixty years old and has served thirty years is entitled to a life pension. The full pension of teachers is also paid to their widows and to their orphans till the latter have reached their Kith year. Of the four universities of I ielgium, the free Catholic University of Louvain had, in 1872, the largest uumbefof students (901); the free iMberal) University of Brussels had 583; the State University at Liege 436, and the State University of Ghent 210; the Royal Academy of Pine Arts at Antwerp, 1576 students. The Conservatory of Music at Brussels was attended by 675 pupils, that of liege by 789. The number of teachers in the primary schools, in 1 S7-1, was 10,629, of whom 7.032 were laymen, and 3,5'.i7 members of religipus orders and clerics. The latter class has increased since 1851 by 1 .098, the former only by 624. The schools for adults num- bered L99.957 pupils, 9,219 more thaninl848, being ;5.98 per cent of the population. The aggregate expenditures made for primary instruc- tion, in L874, were as follows: national govern- ment, 6,643,415 francs; provinces 1.5s 1. 010 f r . ; c mimes 5,863,561 fr. ; total L4,090,986 fr. To what extent illiteracy still prevails may be inferred from the fact that, in 1874, of 43,311 men who were drafted for the militia. 8, 727 could neither read nor write. 1,976 could only read, 15,726 could read and write. L 6,228 had a higher education, and of 651 the degree of instruction was unknown. — See Barnard, National Edu- cation, part ii., p. .'569 to 401; Juste, Histoire de V instruction publique en Belgique (1840) ; Raj>- portstriennaux,publiesparle gouvernement sur Venseignement des trois degres; Annuaire stati- stique de la Belgique. BELL, Andrew, D.D., a distinguished edu- cationist, the author of the system of mutual or monitorial instruction sometimes called the Madras system, was born at St. Andrews. Scot- land, in 1 753, and died at Cheltenham, England, in 1832. He was educated at the University of St. Andrews, went to America, and after a short residence there, returned and took orders in the Episcopal Church, in 1787. he embarked for India, and on his arrival at Madras, was ap- pointed chaplain to the English garrison, and also superintendent of the school then recently estab- lished for the education of the orphan children of British soldiers. Finding great difficulty in obtaining the assistance of competent teachei-s iu this arduous work, he resorted to the expedi- ent of conducting the school by means of the pupils themselves. This method was partly suggested to his mind by his seeing, on one of his morning rides, the children of a Malabar school sitting on the ground and writing with their fingers iu sand. He immediately intro- duced this method of teaching the alphabet into his school, and finding the ushers averse to the innovation, gave the A-B-C class to a boy whom he selected as especially fitted for the task. Tin's boy, whose name was John Erisken, and who was probably the first monitor in English educa- tion, was the son of a soldier, and then about eight years old. The success of this lad induced Dr. Bell to extend the experiment. He appointed other boys to teach the lower classes : and soon afterwards applied his system of monitors to the whole school (1791). This was continued under his superintendence till his return to Europe, in L796. (See Monitorial System.) After his arrival in England, he drew up a full report of his school, which was published in London, in 1797, under the title of An Experiment in Education, madeatthr Malr Asy/iutl. Madras; suggesting a System by which a School or Family may teachitself under tkesuperintt ndence of the Master or Pare/it. This pamphlet at tracted little attention, until, through the effo of Joseph Lancaster, the monitorial system of instruction invented by him was introduced into 78 BELL BELLES-LETTRES the schools of the Dissenters. A controversy as to the respective merits of the systems of Bell and Lancaster then sprung up. the friends and adherents of each claiming for it not only superiority in merit, but priority of invention. The idea of mutual instruction was, however, not new. Indeed, it is as old as Lycurgus ; and Lancaster was too candid a man to claim an ab- solute originality for his plan. Tn his first pam- phlet, published in 1803, he says : •• I ought not to close my account without acknowledging the obligations 1 lie under to Dr. Bell; I much re- gret that I was not acquainted with the beauty of his system till somewhat advanced in my plan. If 1 had known it, it would have saved me much trouble and some retrograde move- ments." This controversy was as much sectarian as educational, as the rival systems were favored, the one by the Dissenters, and the other by the Church of England, [t, however, served a use- ful purpose, in giving an impetus to the prog of education. In L811, a society, called National Society, was formed for the establish- ment of schools in connection with the Church of England, on Dr. Bell's plan; and Dr. Bell was appointed to superintend the enterprise, a duty which engrossed much of his time and ef- forts until his death. By this means, the Madras system obtained an introduction not only in England, but in Scotland and Ireland, as well as in some parts of the United States. For the purpose of bringing it to the notice of educators on the continent, I>r. Bell made an exteusb ■ tour, in the course of which he visited the schools of Pestalozzi and Fellenberg, with the former of whom he was quite charmed. " lie has much that is original," he remarked, " much that is ex- cellent. If he had a course of study — if he were to dismiss his masters, and adopt the monitorial system and the principle of emu- lation, he would be super-excellent." In the mean time, the analogous system of Lincaster had been carried into effect in numerous schools established by an association of Dissenters, styled The British and Foreign School Society; and much active rivalry existed between the two so- cieties. [Sec Lancaster, Joseph.) During his hie. Dr. Bell received several lucrative offices in tin' Church, from which he was enabled to amass a large fortune. The whole of this, amounting to £120,000, he bequeathed to various towns in his native country for the endowment of schools, lie founded Madras College, at St. Andrews, and a Lectureship, at Edinburgb 1 rniversity, on the prin- ciples of teaching, and on the monitorial system. ( in Ins death, in I B32, he was buried in Westmin- ster Abbey, the highest dignitaries of the Church and many distinguished noblemen attending as mourners. An eleganl monument marks his resting-place, with an inscription in which he is characterized as the •• Author of the Madias System." See Soi iimv. Life of lh>- "Rev. An- drewBell, D.J). (Lend., L 844); the Edinburgh Review, voL xxxm.; Lettch, Practical Educa- tionists mill their Systems of Teaching (Cla^- gow, lb"i'>). BELLES-LETTRES is a French expres- sion for polite Iiterature,i. e., books and language in so far as they are shaped by the idea of beau- ty. It has been used in English to designate a somewhat vague class of studies connected, more or less nearly, with the mastery of literature on its esthetic side. Some of the colleges in the United States have had a professor of belles- lettres. He lias taught rhetoric and elocution mainly: hut poetry, drama, prose fiction, criti- cism, classical philology, the humanities in gen- eral, are all in his province. Blair's Rhetoric was long widely used as a text-book in this branch ; and several editions of it are still kept in print. — Esthetics (the science of beauty) and philol- ogy have, of late years, made great advance, and new textdiooks are needed to set forth modern methods of studying literature and language, so as to understand their beauties. The elements of the study should be taught early. In the kindergarten or other infant school, the children should be taught to admire and examine beau- tiful objects, to notice the qualities which give them beamy, to name the objects and the qual- ities : they should be told anecdotes in which beautiful persons do beautiful acts, and the words expressive of beauty should be spoken with tones and gestures which may give them lively associations and a permanent place in the memory; passages of verse or rhythmical prose in which beautiful thoughts are fittingly ex- pressed, and of which the teacher is fond, should be repeated till they are caught by the pupils. Such passages may be among the noblest of our literature. It is not necessary that they should be wholly comprehended by the Learners. They may be regarded as music, producing compar- atively vague intellectual processes, but quick- ening powerfully the emotional clement of es- thetic culture. Language and literature should had the youth of cultured races to a more rapid development than the natural growth of the understanding. Beautiful and noble words thus learned by heart will serve as molds in which the expanding intellect may How and form. This early oral instruction may be happily aided l>\ Learning to read in illustrated books, in which beautiful pictures are made to interpret and en- force the thought. Some of the magazines for children afford such aid in a <_mod form : such as The Nursery (Boston); St. Nicholas (N.Y.). Children taught in this way will be ready to pursue the study of belles-lettres when they have learned to read with ease. The simplest method used in our schools is the reading in class of selections of characteristic works of the most admired authors in our own and other classic Languages. Textdiooks of selections for this purpose are: lb dson's Textrbooh of Poetry, lb oso\'s Text-book of Prose (Boston); Under- wood's British Authors ; Undeewood's Amer- ican Authors (Boston); Typical Selections from the best English Authors from the I6ih to the, \'Mh Century (Clarendon Press, Oxford); most scries of School Readers have a class book of literature, and some of them are well selected BELLES-U<;TTRKS 19 and arranged. The kind of beauty earliest appre- ciated is that of adventure. Short stories please; such as fables and parables. The style must be simple, the movement rapid. Lyrics or orations expressing tender or noble feelings come next. The appreciation of epic and romantic narrative will grow rapidly; minute delineation of char- acter, the drama, and the modern novel will then follow, ami finally descriptions of works of art, Bcenery, and nature. The liking for ornate lan- guage, figures of speech, rhythmical effects, and other arts of style, generally needs special culti- vation to make it strong in young leaders. Whatever be the passages chosen to read, the teacher aiming to give instruction in belles- lettres will direct the attention of the class to beautiful thoughts, figures, and expressions, and will have them read with .care and expression, so as to bring out the thought and feeling of each passage. He may also mention criti- cisms which have been made on the passage, tell of occasions on which it has been quoted or imitated, quote similar passages in other authors or the same author, and have parts committed to memory. In such studies, more is caught than taught. The teacher must feel the beauties and communicate the feeling by looks and tones. Pupils who read with expression should also be used to heighten the interest of the exercise. A single good reader will often stimulate a whole class. Comment and criticism should be mainly used for pointing out beauties, and exciting ad- miration for them. Appreciative reading, com- ment, and memorizing may thus be made a de- lightful introduction to literature, leading natur- ally to further study in two main directions, — ■ the historical and the philosophical. The historical is the easier in its beginnings. Courses of lectures on the history of literature, and text-books giving material for historical and biographical study in connection with selections for reading, are to be had. Cleveland's Compendium of English Literature (\. Y.) includes the most eminent authors from Sir John Mandeville to Cowper. The same author has published similar works on the Literature of the VMli Century, and on Amer- ican Literature (N. Y.). Somewhat like them are Shaw's History and Specimens of English Literature (edition by Backus, N. Y.) ; and Chambers's Manual of English Literature. Larger works for the teacher and for reference are < Ihambers's Cyclopaedia of English Literature (N.Y.); and DuvcKiNCx's Cyclopaedia if Amer- ican Literature I Phila.); and indispensable to the thorough teacher is Allibone's Dictionary of Authors (Phila.), which is a great store-house of biography, bibliography, and criticism gleaned •from many sources, and quoted at length. With these aids, the student of belles-lettres must be led to point out how each successive beauty in the passages which are read is related to the character, education, and times of the author; and by well-directed study he may acquire, in time, clear ideas of the representative works of literary art in the great eras of history, — first of English history, then of the history of other nations. This will require the reading of many more books than can usually be read in school. The teacher should, however, see that many are read. This can best be done by requiring writ- ten exercises of such a kind as to assure him of the fact without taking much of his time. He may have brief outlines of stories handed in, as, of some of the Canterbury Tales; or the gist of the critical views of some author on a partic- ular point, as Coleridge's in regard to Hamlet; or the brief mention of ten of the most interesting passages in a book; as, in the Pilgrim's Progress, (1 ) The Slough of Despond, ('!) The Interpreter's House, (3) The Fight with Apollyon, and so on. Or he may ask for biographical facts on which works of art are based ; as, what events in Mil- ton's life suggested passages in Paradise Lost. Writing should also be freely used to stimulate original production ; imitative production is, to be sure, what is to be expected of the young stu- dents of belles-lettres ; but they should use their pens freely, in such a way as the authors they ad- mire or their own powers may prompt. If they show signs of talent, the teacher should encourage them. The meters of the poets may easily be imitated; and it is only by practice in production that the secrets of style are attained or thoroughly understood. The student of belles-lettres will soon learn that the English is only one among many classic literatures. He will wish to become acquainted with Homer, Virgil, and Dante as well as with Milton ; with Boccacio as well as Chaucer; Goethe as well as Shakespeare. He will wish to learn Greek, Latin, Italian. French, Ger- man. (See the articles on these and other lan- guages.) No literature can be mastered without mastering the language in which it was original- ly written ; but much may be done by transla- tions. Several text-books of such selected trans- lations are available : Longfellow's Poets and Poetry of Europe (Phila.) ; Elton's Specimens of Greek and Roman Poets (Phila.) ; Weight's The Golden Treasury of ancient Greek Poetry (Oxford) ; Ramage's Beautiful Thoughts from Greek Authors; same from Latin Authors; from German andSpanish; from French and Italian (London) ; Angel's French Literature (Phila.); Berard's Spanish Art and Literature (Phila.) ; Botta's Universal Literature (Boston); and The Hebrew Poetry in the English Bible. But in order to render this historical study as valuable as possible, it should be accompanied with the critical study of literary works relating to the principles of art, or the laws of beauty. Such study requires a knowledge of descriptive rhet- oric and prosody, and of the technical terms of esthetic criticism; so that the students may be able to classify and name the facts which come before them, and talk of them with perspicuity. They should, for example, when set to study a In autiful passage, recognize the rhetorical forms which occur in it, such as similes, metaphors, personification, etc ; if it is poetry, they should recognize the poetical forms, such as the meter, with its management of the feet and caesuras, of rhyme and alliteration ; they should be able to 80 BELLES-LETTRES BENEDICTINES apply the ideas of order, proportion, form, ex- pression, and the like, to single beautiful pas- sages, or to whole works of art. This presup- poses the study of the science of beauty. (See Esthetic Culture.) The most effective general theory of the beautiful, for use in study of this kind, is that which looks to variety in unity to explain all eminent beauty. Take, for example, Shakespeare's Julius Gcesar for study. On read- ing the first scene, let the class point out the variety (1) among the characters, — as between the tribune and the populace, between the loud and the gentle tribune, between the simple car- penter and the punning cobbler, and the like: (2) in the action, — the meeting, the haranguing. the dispersing of the crowd : (3) in the mode of thought, — now comic, now tragic, foolery and elo- quence; (4) in the language, part prose, part verse, cobbler's puns, tribune's tropes, and t lie like. This simly of variety directs attention to all the particulars of beauty, the elements by which the sensibilities, always craving novelty, are kept pleasurably excited. After these elements have been faithfully collected, let the pupils seek for the unity by which all this variety is made to gratify the reason. Let them point out the central thought in the play : give an outline of the plot by which the thought is developed; and then show how each scene is necessary to bring out the thought, and how each character, each event, each particular beauty, is fitted for its place, and contributes to the one end. Teachers may find such an examination of Milton's Paradise Lost, in Addison's papers in the Spectator. Topics and questions to guide in such study, are mi- nutely given in March's Method of Philological Stud// of the English Language (N.Y.). Fqr other aids, especially for editions of particular authors, see English, tiik Study of. — The beau- ty of language is not all included in the study of it as combined in connected discourse. In single words, also, when we examine their ety- mology and history, much poetry is to be found. This is an interesting department of belles-lettres, and the study of essays in it is a favorite one with most good teachers of language and liter- ature. Among these, may be mentioned, Trench, Ou the Study of Words ; and Glossary of En- glish Words; and Db Yerk, Studies in English (\. Y., 18G7). These books afford many hints which the teacher may use to enliven the study of literature. Teachers should also be familiar with critical essays on art. and introduce them to the acquaintance of their pupils; these consti- tute a part of belles-lettres. Such are lb skin's Lectures 071 Art, Of which selections have been made foi reading (\. Y.): WinCKELMANN'S His- tory of Ancient Art (Boston); Lessing's Laoc- oon | Boston); ■' imeson's Sacred and Legendary Art l to I 'ii i. To these may be added similar books oi criticism on literary art ; such as those of DeQi incey, Lowell, Emerson ; II irt'b Spen- ser and the Fairy Queen V V.. IHTu Bud- son's Shakespeare (Boston, L851 — 6); White's Shakespeare's Scholar | V Y., 1854); Bchlbg Lectures on Literature (I'hila.). BELOIT COLLEGE, at Beloit, Wis., was founded by the ( 'ongregationalists, in 1845. In 1 ST-4, it had a corps of 11 instructors, 146 stu- dents in the preparatory, and (if) in the collegiate department, and a library of about 9,000 volumes. Its productive funds amount to $120,000, and the value of its grounds, college buildings, and apparatus, to $90,000. The president of the in- stitution is (1876) the Bev. A. L Chapin, I>.I). BENEDICTINES, Schools of the. The monastic order founded by St. Benedict of Nun-da, at the beginning of the 0th century, occupies a prominent place in the early history of education in Christian Europe. Parochial and communal schools could not thrive well at a time when the people at large felt no desire for education, when the number of teachers was so small, and when the few schools that were established, in connec- tion with the parish churches, had to suffer so much from constant wars. The education offered by the Benedictine order was, at first, intended only for boys Avho were to enter upon a monastic life. According to the fundamental rule of the order, the separation of the monk from t lie world should begin as early as possible. Boys, called jui, ri oblati, were admitted when only five years of age. The discipline was strict. The rod was u>fi\ to punish offenses against punctuality and order, and deficiencies in recitations: more serious offenses were sometimes punished by the scourge. Latin was a prominent part of the instruction, and almost exclusively the language of conversa- tion. Beading, writing, and the singing of psalms were the prominent subjects of instruction ; but the course also included rhetoric, dialectics, arith- metic, astronomy, geography, natural science. and medicine. Special attention was given to history, as is proved by the numerous annals and chron- icles issued from the Benedictine convents. As few schools outside of the Benedictine convents could lie found, which offered equal opportunities for the education of children, the monks were soon requested to admit also boys not devoted to monastic life. These applications came especially from noble and wealthy families, and wen numerous that it was SOOll found necessary to provide special rooms, and probably also special courses of instruction, for each class of boys (scholce interiores and exteriores). — The in- struction in the elementary branches was im- parted by a teacher called ScholosticUS / in the larger schools and for lusher studies, learned monks, called magistri, wen- appointed, under whose direction other monks, called SenioreS, acted a- assistant teachers. Many convents of tin' Benedictine nuns had similar schools for girls, though they were not so numerously at- tended as those of the monks. Sometimes these Schools of the convents also admitted boyB. With the decay of the Benedictine order these schools declined. Convent education, after the I'.'tli Century, did not retain the ascendency which it had formerly enjoyed; and when- it was still preferred, it passed toa large extenl into the hands of other monastic orders. (Sec Co.wKNT Schools.) BENEKE BENGEL 81 Among the most famous schools of the Bene- dictines, were Monte Casino. Bobbio, Koine, and Milan, in Italy: Toms, Corbie, Fleury, which at onetime hail 5,000 students, Clermont, Ferrieres, Fontenay, Reims, Aniane, Marmoutier, 'Lobbes, in Prance and Belgium; St. Gall, Reichenau, Fulda, Fiit/.lar, Hersfeld, Mayence, Treves. Prum, Lorsch, Weissenburg, Ratisbon, Salz- burg. Korvei, in Germany and Switzerland. In England, St. Peter's Convent at Canterbury bad a wide-spread reputation, through Theodore of Tarsus and his companion Hadrian. The double convent of Wearmouth and Yarrow, Which was founded in 673 by Benedict Biscop, gave to western teachers the learned and illustrious B de. (SeeBEDE.) York, which owed its celebrity to Egbert and Adelbert, counted among its pupils the celebrated Alcuin. (See Alcuin.) Though the prominent influence which the Benedictines, at the beginning of the middle age, exercised upon the education of Catholic Europe, was never recovered, they still continue to con- duct a number of educational institutions. At present (1876), they have a number of colleges and gymnasia in the United States, in Austria, Switzerland, and several other countries. BENEXE, Friedrich. Eduard, an ingenious I rerman writer on the art of education, was born at Berlin, Febr*. 17.. 1798. He studied theology and philosophy at the universities of Halle and Berlin, and finally decided to devote himself wholly to philosophy in order to reform it. He became a lecturer (privatdocent) on philosophy at the university of Berlin in 1820, and, placing himself wholly upon the stand-point of empiri- cism and denying the possibility of a priori cogni- tions, at once boldly attacked the system of Hegel who at that time was all-powerful. The Prus- sian government, in 1822, deprived him of the right of lecturing at the university, because as the minister of public worship, Alten- stein, personally explained to him, a philosophy which did not derive everything from the ab- solute, could not be recognized as a philosophy at all. Beneke removed, in 1824, to the university of Gottingen, whence he returned, in 1827, to Berlin, where he was appointed after the death of Hegel, in 1832, extraordinary professor of philosophy. He suddenly disappeared, March 1., 1854, and a year later his corpse was found in the canal at Charlottenburg. It has never been ascer- tained whether he committed suicide, or whether his death was caused by an accident. Most of the numerous works of Beneke are of a philosoph- ical character ; as an educational writer, he became first known, in 1835, by a work, entitled Theory of Education and Instruction (Erzie- hungs- und Vhterrichtslehre), which made a profound impression among teachers and friends of education. The system of education pro- posed by him is based exclusively on psychology, and he claims for it the character of a wholly empirical science. He found many enthusiastic admirers, one of whom, Dressier (in Hergang's Realenct/clopddie, i, p. 2(14), says of him: All former achievements in the province of pedagogy 6 were surpassed by Beneke. Through him the education of man has gained a character which was formerly unknown — certainty of success. Previous successes were accidental, but the psy- chology of Beneke has given us a power over nature which does not fall behind the power ex- ercised by physicists and chemists. The number of adherents of this system is small, though the genius of Beneke is universally acknowledged. Among (he other educational works of Beneke, one published in L836, and entitled Our Uni- versities and what they need, attracted great attention. BENEVOLENCE, good-will, general and habitual kindness of disposition in our feelings, not only toward each other, but toward the lower animals, is a trait of character which should re- ceive a careful cultivation in the education of the young. Children, in general, are not naturally benevolent. Their undeveloped sympathies, their active propensities and love of sport, and their proneness to what is called by phrenologists " de- structiveness", incline them to acts of selfish- ness and cruelty. In order to check this tendency, their sensibilities should, as much as possible, be aroused ; they should not be subjected to harsh or inconsiderate treatment, and they should not only read and hear stories that awaken their sympathies, but should be made to observe ob- jects of compassion that require their active aid ; and they should be incited and encouraged in every possible way to self-sacrifice in relieving the sufferings of others. In their conduct toward each other, they should be habituated to lay aside their resentments, to forgive injuries, to put the kindest and most considerate construction upon the acts of their companions, and to dismiss from their minds all suspicions and jealousies, as well as all distrust that is not based upon indis- putable facts. The quarrels of children may for this purpose become the means of wholesome discipline in instruction ; since the disputants themselves may be made to feel the desirability of mutual forbearance, and their associates, by being brought in to aid in reconciling them, may be impressed with the beautiful character of the peace-maker. In the treatment of the lower ani- mals by children, there is much occasion for this kind of training ; and the skillful teacher will not fail to make use of the numerous incidents of school life to impress this virtue upon the child's character. (See Moral Education.) BENGEL, Johann Albrecht, a celebrated German theologian and educator in Wurtenibere, was born in 1(>87, and died in 1752. lie is chiefly famous as a theological writer, being well known as one of the most prominent representa- tives of German pietism, lie was, from 1713 to 1711. a very successful teacher at a theological seminary at Penkendorf, and while there intro- duced many educational reforms. The course of studies which he drew up for his school, in con- cert with his colleagues, attracted great attention. From an educational point of view, his writings are valuable as illustrating the peculiar position which pietism occupies in the history of German 82 BENTLEY BIBLE pedagogy. ITis life was written by his son-in- law. Ch. Burk. — See also Palmer, Eoangeiische Pddagogik. BENTLEY, Richard, considered the best classical scholar England has ever produced, was born at Oulton, in Yorkshire, in 1662, and died at Cambridge in 1 742. lie was educated ,-it Cambridge University, but subsequently, while tutor of the son of Dr. StUlingfleet, he pursued his classical studies at Oxford. His most cele- brated work was his Dissertation on the JEpisUes of Phalaris, in which, in controversy with the most eminent scholars and literary men of bis time, he proved that the Epistles were spurious. "This was," says I lolland, "the first gnat literary war in England;" and Bentley showed such pro- found scholarship, acute criticism, and masterly logic, that he not only vanquished his opponents, but achieved for himself a reputation throughout Europe. In 1700, he was appointed Master of Trinity College, Cambridge, in which he con- tinued till his death ; but his arrogance and rapaci- ty involved him in the mosl bitter and protracted quarrels and lawsuits, and at one time came near ignominiously depriving him of his position. Ho published critical editions of many classical authors, of great merit and value among which his Horace was the most elaborate and the most popular. II is edition of Milton's Paradise Lost (I 732) was, however, quite unworthy of his fame. His edition of 1 1 omer he did not live to complete. Bentley did a most valuable service not only to classical scholarship, but to historical criticism, the latter of which he established on a new basis. While as an official he was arbitrary, exacting, and severe, in private life he was courteous and amiable. — See T. II. Monk, Life of Bentley (1830); Hakti.ky Coleridge. Lives of Northern Worthies (edited by his brother, London, 1852); I>k Quincey, Essays on Philosophical Writers, vol. ii. (Boston, L85 l.i BEREA COLLEGE, at Berea, Ky., was founded in 1858. It supplies the means of edu- cation to students, both white and colored, male and female. In L875, it had 1 I instructors and 271 students; of the latter, 157 were males and 1 1 I females; L26 white, and 1 l"> colored. Of the colored students, f>7 were females. It includes a ] preparatory and a collegiate department. All the female sttiileiits are included in a ladies' de- partment, under the special supervision of a lady principal. No separate course of study is ar- For females, but both sexes recite together whenever their studies are the same. There is also a normal department with a special course for teachers; also a commercial course. The college is well supplied with apparatus and has a library of nearly 2,000 volumes. The college buildings are spacious and elegant, particularly the ladies' Mall, erected in 1st.'!. Rev. E3. li. Pairchild (1875) is the president of the institu- tion. Tli • annual tuition I. e 18 $1 It. BERNHARDI, August Ferdinand, one of th ' mosl eminent schoolmen of Prussia in the beginning of this century, was born in L769, iu Merlin, and died in L820. He became a teacher in the Fried 'rich Wefd&r Gymnasium, in Merlin, in 1791, and director of the same in- stitution in 1808. In the same year, he gave I 'estalozzi's method of teaching arithmetic a trial, enlarged the exercises, and finally introduced it into his school. His success as director of the gymnasium was remarkable, the number of pupils increasing from !>7 in 1808, to 4(H) in 1812. Many of the most distinguished men of Prussia proceeded from his school. He found no time for the publication of large works: but some of his essays and Lectures have been published under the title of A view of the Organization of the Learned /Schools. The programmes edited by him in 1809, 1810, and 1811,give his views upon the Number, importance, and relation of the sub* jecis taught in a gymnasium, also on Hie First principles of method, «dA on the First principles of discipline. In later essays, published from Is] | to 1816, he gave a fuller exposition of the proper course of studies for a gymnasium ; and the ideas which he developed in regard to this subject, have gained for him the reputation of being one of the best writers on the German gymnasia. " BETHANY COLLEGE, at Bethany, W. A'a.. was established in 1841 by the Rev. Alex- ander Campbell, the founder of the sect of Map- fists, called Disciples. This institution had. in 1873, a corps of 9 instructors, and 123 students in the collegiate department. Its productive funds amount to $60,000, and the value of the college property. — grounds, buildings, etc, is estimated at $250,000. The president of the college is (1876) W. K. Pendleton. BETHEL COLLEGE, at Uusselville. Ky., was founded by the Bethel Baptist Association of South-western Kentucky, in Is pi. as a high school; and. hi L856, it was chartered as a cot lege. Its successive presidents have been M. T. Mlewitt to 1861 : h'ev. Geo. Hunt, from L863 to 1864 : Prof. J. W. Rust, from 1864 to 1868; Noah K. Davis.from 1868 to 1873. The die. cipline of the college is now under the direction of Leslie Waggener, as chairman of the faculty. In the winter of 1861 — 2, the college buildings were used as a hospital by the Confederate fores lying at Bowling Green. The endowment funds amount (1875] to #85,000, besides which it has a beneficiary fund of about $8,000, and its real estate, in addition to the college buildings and -rounds, is valued at $85,000. It contains schools of Latin, Greek, mathematics, natural science, English, mental science, biblical knowl- , and theology , in which, in 1874 — 5, there were about 350 students; of whom !»7 were in the collegiate department. The school of English is very complete, affording to its students a knowledge of the Anglo-Saxon language, as a basis for a critical knowledge of English gram- mar and literature. The tuition fee 18 $60 per annum. BIBLE (Qr. (kf3Ma, books), the sacred scrip- tures of the Christians. All churches which recognize Christ as their founder, whatever may be their denomination, tierce in regarding tho BIBLE 83 Bible as the divinely inspired book which con tains the tenets of Christian belief and of Chris tian ethics. The Bible is divided into two parts, called the Old and the New Testament. The former is regarded as holy writ, not only by Christians, but also by the .lews. 'There is not an entire agreement in regard to the number of books constituting the Old Testament. Several books are regarded by the Catholic Church as belonging to, and partaking of, the inspired character of the Scriptures, which Protestants generally regard as a class of works highly venerable and useful, but not of divine origin. The Catholic Church calls these books delltcro- eanonical, the Protestants apocryphal, or, collect- ively. the Apocrypha. The X sw Testament is the same in the Catholic* Church as in Protestant churches ; but one ( 'hristian sect, the Abyssinian Church, recognizes, in addition to the books ac- cepted by both Catholics and Protestants, a number of others as a part of the New Testa- ment. Catholics and Protestants, though accepting the same books as the sources of divine truth, differ widely in the interpretation of their contents. Most of the biblical Protestants regard the Bible as the only source of Christian faith, and main- tain that, whatever differences of opinion may exist in regard to some particular doctrines, the great fundamental truths of Christianity are set forth in it so clearly, as to supersede fully the need of any other standard of faith. The Catholic Church, on the other hand, holds that the Bible was not given by God to man to be the only guide for the formation of his religious be- lief, but that, for that purpose, an infallible church was instituted, whose office it is to ex- plain to the faithful the true meaning of the Bible. From the different position which these two large denominations of Christians assume in re- gard to the Bible, it follows that they must teach a different way of using it. Thus, the Protestant churches consider it a matter of prime import- ance that every child should become acquainted with the Bible as the only infallible source of the pure word of < rod, and should learn, as soon as possible, to read and understand it ; while the Catholic Church enjoins upon its members to keep constantly in mind, in reading the Bible, that only the infallible church possesses the key to its true meaning. The Protestant churches earnestly desire that the Bible should be placed in the hands of every Christian: and they have, therefore, founded in all Protestant countries Bible Societies, designed to carry out this object, and thus have already fully succeeded in mak- ing the Bible the most widely circulated book in the world. The Catholic Church prefers the use of annotated Bibles, or of selections from the Bible, to that of the Scriptures without note and comment. . When, in the thirteenth century, the Albigenses translated the Bible into their ver- nacular languages, and referred their members to the text of the Bible as contradicting the teach- ings of the church, the synod of Toulouse, in l'J'J!». forbade laymen to read the Bible in the vernacular language ; and, in modern times, the efforts of the Bible societies have been repeatedly condemned by the popes. In Protestant coun- tries, the reading of the Bible has been a very prominent agent in the development of public education. The Bible having become, through Luther and other Reformers of the sixteenth century, the principal book for the church and the home-circle, the instruction of children in this book continued for a long time to lie the chief object of popular education. Children were taught to read in order that they might lie able to peruse the bible ; ami instruction in the dog- matic tenets of the Church, as well as instruc- tion in history, geography, and other branches, was secondary to the reading of the Scrip- tures. In process of time, the relation of Bible reading to other branches of education became greatly modified : but, wherever public schools still have a distinctively Protestant character, the reading of the Bible is retained as a special branch of instrnction. Protestant educators dif- fer in regard to the question, whether it is pref- erable to place the entire Bible, or only editions specially abridged for the use of children [school- bibles), into the hands of the pupils. Both vie w> have found able advocates ; but the use of the entire Bible has thns far been favored by the legislation of most of the Protestant states of Eu- rope. On the other hand, educators have generally agreed in recommending to teachers not to re- quire the entire Bible to be read consecutively by the pupils ; but to leave out those portions which are either inappropriate or too difficult for children. The Catholic Church is opposed to the intro- duction of the Bible without note or comment into schools, and substitutes for it the use of bib- lical historic^ and selections from the Bible. Recent Catholic works on education express the wish, that to the reading of suitable selections from the Bible greater prominence should be given than has heretofore been the case. See Rolfus & Pfister, Real-Encyclopddie des V.r- ziehungs- tnnl Unterrichtswesens nach k>itlio- lischen Principien, art. Bibel. Bible Question. — In the United States, the pub- lic schools are of an undenominational character, being intended to receive children of all kinds of religious belief or unbelief. The question whether the reading of the Bible is to be retained in the public "schools, has been and still is the sub- ject of animated discussion and agitation. The decision of this question is mostly left to the local boards of education, which may prescribe, allow, or forbid the reading of the bible. The legislation of several of the states of the I Fnion pro- rides, however, that no ordinance shall be passed by any local board of education forbidding the use of the Bible. The majority of the Protes- tant churches still favor the reading of the Bible, though some of the most prominent eler gynien have, of late, taken the ground thai would be unjust to request the children of Cath- olics, Jews, or Non-Christians to take part in re 84 BIBLE HISTORY BLACKBOARD ligious exercises to wliich their parents object. The Catholics and Jews, together with all the op- ponents of Christianity, generally demand the ex- clusion of the Bible from the schools. In the city of Cincinnati, a resolution by the board of education forbidding the reading of the Bible in the public schools, led, in 1869, to a legal contest which lasted four years. The superior court of < I'neinnati, in 1870, decided against the board of education ; but the supreme court of Ohio, in June 1873, reversed this judgment, and sus- tained the Cincinnati board of education. The school board of Chicago, in 1875, followed the example of Cincinnati, and forbade the reading of the Bible in the public schools. The question has also been vehemently agitated in the city of New York. — .See The Bible in the Public Schools; Arguments in tl/» case of Joint I). Minor et al. ccrs/is the Board of Education of the Oity of Cincinnati et al. (Cincinnati, 1870) ; Bournk, History of the l'nl>lir School Society (X. Y., 1870) ; Boesk, Public Education in the Oity of New York (New York, 1869); T. II. Huxley, The School Boards, in Critiques and Addresses (London, and X. Y.. 1*7.'!): Gbtmke, Use of the Bible in Common Education, in Amer. Annate of Education, vol. in. (1833), and The Bible as a Class Book, in Addresses (1831.) BIBLE HISTORY, or Biblical History. Tlic connected history of the events narrated in the Bible is in many schools, both Protestant and Catholic, a part of the prescribed religious in- struction. The method of teaching it greatly varies according to the age of the scholars. While children of the primary grade are taught only the most notable events of sacred history. in language adapted to their age, more advance I students are introduced into a full understanding of the Bible. In the compilation of text-books for this study, the authors have sometimes endeavored to give the whole narrative as much as possible in the words of the Bible, so as to make the book, in fact, an abridgment of the Bible. Others have deemed it better to pay less attention to retaining the words of the Bible, and to look, in the first place, to making the sub- ject as interesting, attractive, and intelligible to children as possible. Germany, where Biblical history (Jiib/ische (lesehichte) is generally adop- ted as a pari of the course of instruction in public schools of various grades, has a very ex- tensive literature on the subject, including many manuals for teachers. Of scientific theology, Bible history forms an essential part, and is di- vided, like the Bible itself, into two sections, the history of the Old, and the history of the New Testament. 1* tonus the connecting link between exegetical and historical theology, explaining, on the one hand, the contents of the Bible, and. on the other hand, treating and elucidating them the same as any other historical Subject, Bible history may also be viewed as a history of the volume containing the sacred writings of the Christian church. Lb tlus.sense.it treats of the origin ot the several hooks composing the Bible, and oi then- collection in the canon. The works treating of this subject are generally en- titled Introductions to the Bible; but a number of prominent theologians, rejecting this title as unsuitable, have treated of this subject under the heading, History of the Bible, or History of the Biblical Revelation. The most noted works of this class are: Reiss, Die Geschichte d*>r heii. Schriften des iY. T. (1853, 3d. edit. 1860); Gue- ricke, Gesdmmtgeschichte des N. T. (Leip.,18.">4j: Haneberg, Versuch einer Geschichte der bibli- schen Offenbarwng (liatisbon, 1850). BIRCH, as the name of the tree from which rods or twigs were formerly obtained for the in- fliction of corporal punishment, is often used as denoting this species of punishment ; and the tree is frequently referred to in connection with school-keeping in the olden time. Shakespeare speaks of the "threatening twigs of birch": and Mienstone, in The Schoolmistress, thus refers to the tree and its connection with school-man- agement : "And all in sight doth vise a birchen tree, Which Learning near her little dome did stow, Whilom a twig of small regard to see, Though now so wide its waving branches flow, And work the simple vassals mickle woe; For not a wind might curl the leaves that blew, But their limbs shudder'd, and their pulse boat low, And as they look'd, they found their horror grew, And shajied it into rods," and tingled at the view.'' Doubtless, the toughness and elasticity of the 1\\ igs of the birch made them, before the intro- duction of the rattan, very useful implements for the purpose of school chastisement. (See Corporal Punishment.) BLACKBOARD, an important piece of school apparatus now in use in all classes and grades of schools. It is generally constructed of wood, and is either attached to the wall of the room, or made to stand on an easel or revolve in a frame. Instead of blackboards, wall slates are now very frequently used, which, although much more expensive, are to be preferred on account of their durability. Sometimes, a portion of the wall itself is painted black, or covered with liquid slating, for this purpose : and at the pres- ent time a kind of slated cloth is manufactured, which being attached to the wall answers every purpose of a blackboard. The blackboard tor the use of the teacher in giving his instruction or explanations to the whole school or class, should. for the sake of con- venience, be placed near his desk and in front of the pupils. It is a great advantage also to have sufficient blackboard surface to admit of its use by all the pupils of a class, or by sections of it. This is especially desirable in higher instruction: but even in elementary district schools will he found to be quite desirable. Borne id' the pupils id a school can lie employed in writing, drawing, or working out arithmetical problems on the blackboards, while others are engaged in oral rec- itation. There is scarcely any branch of in- struction, or any kind of teaching, from the ob- ject lesson of the primary school to the lecture of the college professor, in which the use of the blackboard is not found to be almost indispcu- BLACKBURN UNIVERSITY BUND 85 aable. In teaching mathematics, it has an espe- cial value. Scarcely a teacher, at the present day, in the most remote country school-house, would think of teaching arithmetic without a blackboard. But it is a most important aid also in teaching writing, drawing, geography, grammar, composition, history, and music: in- deed, in every thing that admits of, or requires, an ocular demonstration addressed to a large Dumber of pupils. Blackboard drawing can be made very instructive and interesting, particu- larly when crayons of different colors are used. In some schools this kind of drawing is carried to great perfection. Map-drawing, or rapid map-sketching, on the blackboard, is also very useful in teaching geography. Recitations on this subject may be conducted by this means. One of the pupils draws the outline of the state or country which is the subject of the lesson ; another fills in the rivers ; the next, the cities. etc., till the map is complete. As the study of maps depends so largely on the proper and at- tentive use of the eye. this method of blackboard instruction cannot fail to be quite effective. Blackboard illustration will also prove very effective in the oral teaching, by a series of les- sons or lectures, of abstract subjects other than mathematics, such as logic, metaphysics, mental and moral philosophy, etc. By this means the divisions and subdivisions of the subject, with their exact logical relations, are presented to the mind through the eye, and a much stronger, dearer and more durable impression is thus male. For an excellent example of this kind of teaching, see M.vrk Hopkins, An Outline Study of Man (New York, 1876). See also W. A. Alcott, Slate and Blackboard Exercises; Wickersham, School Economy (Philadelphia, 1868). BLACKBURN UNIVERSITY, at Carlin- ville. 111., was organized in 18(i7, by the Presby- terians. It has a preparatory, a collegiate, an eclectic, a scientific, and a theological course, to which both sexes are admitted on equal terms, and receive the same honorary degrees on the completion of the course pursued. There were, in 1873, 257 students, of whom 141 belonged to the preparatoiy and 11(> to the collegiate depart- ment : and the corps of instructors numbered 1 .'5, exclusive of 4 endowed professorships. The value of its grounds, buildings, etc. is $90,000 : and its productive endowment $90,000. The president of the institution is ( 1 k 7 r. j Rev. J. W. Barby, D.I>. The annual tuition fee is $25. BLIND, Education of the: The blind constitute, in every country, a numerous class of atHicted persons for whom special instruction is needed. Blindness, or loss of sight, is either con- genital, or is caused by accident or disease oc- curring after birth. The statistics of different countries show that the number of blind persons in all lias been quite huge; ami. in modern times, this has led to considerable effort with the view to afford to these unfortunates the means of education, not only for their mental improve- ment, but to train them to independent support, so that they may be lifted out of the pauper class, and be enabled to earn a respectable livelihood. There is a great diversity in the number of blind persons as compared with the population in different countries. Tims, according to the census of 1870, the total number of blind persons in the United States was 20.320, or 1 in I !»()() of the population. In England and Wales, the proportion is reported as I to 1,037: in France, 1 to 938; in Greece and Turkey, 1 to 800; in Iceland, 1 to 300 ; and in Egypt. 1 to 200. In all countries, the number of males among the blind exceeds that of the females: and. in the United States, about one half of the blind are over 48 years of age. The proportion of those born blind to those who become so after birth is quite small. The ancients appear to have had a certain de- gree of reverence for the blind, to some of whom they attributed the gift of prophecy; but it was not until the Middle Ages that any provision was made for their care and protection : and it was reserved for modern times to afford them the means of education. The Hospice des Quinze- Vingts (Hospital for the 300), in Paris, founded by Louis IX. in 12G0, is supposed to be the first public asylum established for the blind, the ob- ject of the French king being to provide a re- treat for the soldiers of his army who had lost their eyes in Egypt, during the crusade which he led against the Moslems. This institution still exists, and has an annual income of $80,000. It is, however, as it was originally, only an asylum, affording no means of instruction ; indeed, it was not until the 16th century that any processes were devised for this purpose. But little was ac- complished in this direction till 1784, when Va- lentin Hatiy, incited by the example of the abbe de LEpe'e in connection with the education of deaf-mutes, commenced his exertions to find an efficient method for teaching the blind. Having succeeded with a few individuals, by the use of raised letters, he opened a small school, which in 1791 was taken under the patronage of the gov- ernment, and afterward became the Royal Insti- tution for tin- Blind. He subsequently founded institutions for the blind at St. Petersburg and at Berlin. About the same time, similar insti- tutions were established in England and Scot- land ; and, after the example of that at Berlin, in many of the cities of (Jermany. There are now 1(> public institutions for the blind in Eng- land, the oldest of which is the School for the Wind, in Liverpool, founded in 1791 ; 4 in Scot- laud, of which the Asylum for Industrious Wind, in Edinburgh, was founded in 1793 ; and 4 in Ireland, the oldest being the Richmond National Institution, in Dublin, founded in 1810. In London. 23 private institutions have been established by charitable endowments. France has 13 schools for the blind, besides the Hospice drs Quinze -Vingts. There are between thirty and forty institutions for the blind in (Jcrniam , of which the oldest is that commenced at Berlin, in 1806, by Hatty. The Netherlands, Belgium, and Switzerland have similar institutions. In 86 BLIND the Netherlands, they are supported entirely by voluntary subscription. In Belgium, an asylum for the blind is said to have been founded at Bruges in L305; but the first school was opened at Brus- sels in lS.'J.'b hi Spain, there are two institutions for the blind, one at Madrid, and the other at Barcelona- There are also institutions of the kind in Italy, and a school for the instruction of the blind at Rio Janeiro, commenced in L854. The first institution for the blind in the United States — the Perkins Institution at Boston, was chartered in 1829, but not opened till August, 1832. It was named after Col. Thomas II. Perkins, who gave his mansion for its accom- modation. It was under the direction of Dr. Samuel '<'. Howe until his death in 1876. The New York Institution for the Blind was opened March L5., L832. The following table of statis- tics has been compiled from the Report of the U. S. Bureau of Education for 1875. Institutions for the Blind in the United States. 5 - .= tU-9 » « "2 i. • c A a « * S a .- - •-- •_ - - NAME. LOCATION Control ^ = c t p SB °.«8 £ ~ z ' - ~ Z u c3 State * 1 *> P - — Inst, for Deaf and Dumb, ami Blind. Talladega, Ala... . 1866 40 2 $18,000 $40,000 fast, for Education of the Blind. . . . Little Hock. Ark.. . 1859 State 107 13 7,703 30,000 Inst, for Deaf and Dnmb, and Blind. Oakland, Cal 1860 State S4 3 36,000 100.000 Georgia Academy for the Blind Macon, Ga 1862 1 Corporation. 144 11 13,000 7;, .ooo Insi. lui' the Education of tin- Blind. Jacksonville, 111. . . 1849 State 506 29 31.IKKI 166,000 [nst. for the Education of the Blind. Indianapolis, Ind.. 1st: State 52] 25 32,500 525, i towa < iollege for the Blind Vinton, Iowa 1853 Stale 317 28 26, .-,011.0(10 Kansas State Blind Asylum Wyandotte, Kan.. . 1867 State 65 11 9,(100 40,00(1 Asylum forthe Education ofthe Blind Louisville, Ivy 1842 State 358 20 19,380 100.000 Inst, for the Educati 1 the Blind. Baton Rouge, La... 1871 State 63 8,000 250,000 Just, tor the Instruction of the Blind Baltimore, Md 1853 Corporation. 173 16 22,000 255,000 Inst, for Colored Blind and Deaf-M. Baltimore,. -Md is?'.' Corporation. IS 7 10,000 2(1.(100 Perkins Enst. and Mass. Asylum. . . . Boston, Mass 1832 Corporation. SMI is 30,000 354,716 Jnst. for Deaf and Dumb, and Blind. Flint, Mich 1853 Trustees. .. . 51,872 376,316 Inst. I'ni- Deaf and Dumb, and Blind. Faribault, Minn. . . 1866 32 4 .-,.(i(!(i 2."., 000 ls.",'J State 275 6 23 10,000 21,000 10,000 200,000 Inst, for the Education of the Blind. Is.", 1 State 338 State Institution for tin' Blind Batavia, X. Y 1868 State 29 3 25,000 70,000 N. V. Institution for the Blind New York. X. Y... 1831 ( lorporation. 1,172 60 62,600 324,500 fast for the Deaf, Dnmb, and Blind Raleigh, ST. G 1851 State L50 6 40,000 .-,0,0(10 Inst, for Education of the Blind .... Columbus, 1837 State siis 50 60,785 500,000 1873 State 12 3 2,000 __ In-t. for Instruction of the Blind... . Philadelphia, Pa. . Im::; 1 orporation. ss.-, 63 39,000 201,000 Inst, for Deaf and Dumb, and Blind. Spartanburg, S. C. 1849 State — r,o,ooo Tennessee School for the Blind Nashville, Tetm.. . 1S44 Cot] Miration. 17.". 9 I.->. 60,000 Texas Institute for the Blind Austin, Tex L856 State — 10 10,660 4. ".,000 Inst, for Deal and Dumb, and Blind. Staunton, Va . 1839 State 208 5 40. 1 1 7.-i,ooo [net. for Deaf and Dumb, and Blind. Romney, W. Va 1870 State 29 3 25 000 70.000 Janesville, Wis.. . . 1850 State 236 21 83,000 85,000 From the above table it will be seen that there are 29 institutions, either exclusively forthe edu- cation of the blind, or for that of the Mind and the deaf and dumb; and that, since L832, when the New York and Boston institutions went into operation, about 7..">H<> blind persons have re- ceived instruction ; also, that, in L874, the amount of state and municipal appropriations forthe supporl of these institutions was upward of $740,000, and that the amount of money invested in grounds, buildings, etc., belonging to them, is more than $4,500,000. It is an interesting fact also that 22 of these establishments arc purely state institutions. Methods of Instruction. — An institution for the blind should comprehend three schools, or de partruents; namely, the literary department, or .school proper, the school of music, and the in- dustrial school. 'This organization is essential, in older to give the general instruction which every child needs, and also such special training as blindness renders necessary. In the literary department, the course of instruction includes the branches which are usually taught, in the common and high sd Is, to the seeing; the prin- cipal difference being in the apparatus and meth- ods of teaching em ployed. Instead of the black- board, wall-maps, slate and pencil, and pen and ink. there are employed topographical maps, em- bossed Bonks, slates with movable type to repre- sent numerals and algebraic signs, geometrical cards with figures in relict, metal tablets for tan- gible writing, according to the New York point system, also for the New Fork system of alpha- betic writing 1 and musical notation. The first efforts to instruct the blind found expression in an attempt to teach them how to read by means of the fingers. Many alphabets in relief have been devised. But all may Be in- cluded in two classes: (1) Those composed of line-, forming the ordinary capital or small let- ters in their original form, or iii some modifica- tion of it ; (2) Those in which the letters are formed of raised points, or dots, in no respect resembling the ordinary letters, and called the point alphabet. These can Be Both printed and BLIND 87 written in B tangible form. The use of line let- ter text-books in classes is very limited, from the fact that a classification according to reading ability differs entirely from that based upon mental capacity and attainments. For this reason, the instruction in each of the depart- ments is chiefly oral. The instruction of the Mind in music is of paramount importance. It develops and refines the taste, promotes general culture, affords con- stant and inexhaustible enjoyment, as well as the means of respectable support. The musical course of instruction comprises voice lessons. part and chorus singing, lessons and practice in piano and organ playing, and a thorough course of teaching and training in the tuning of pianos. Blind organists teachers of the piano, and piano- tuners may be found in all parts of the country. One of the best tuners employed by Steinway & Sons, the celebrated piano-forte makers of New V. irk. is totally blind. Heretofore, tins depart- ment of instruction has been exclusively oral ; but there is now in press a piano instruction book, in the N< w Yorkpoint system of musical notation, by which the blind pupil may learn by finger-reading from the printed or written page. The importance of mechanical training, in comparison with other branches of instruction. in the education of the blind, is a matter of vital interest. Some are of opinion that instruction in trades is of the first importance ; others give it simply a place co-ordinate with other depart- ments of teaching : while still others attach the chief importance to such branches as lead to those employments in which skilled manual oper- ations are required. The latter position cannot be maintained, since in all such operations the guidance of the eye is more or less essential to perfection and dexterity of manipulation; from which fact it is obvious that purely mechanical pursuits are not necessarily the best adapted to those who are deprived of sight. This being so, it is a great mistake to rest the education of the young blind, and the prospects of their future usefulness and welfare, exclusively upon such employments. The true plan is to give manual pursuits such a place in the scheme of education as is required by the conditions which blindness imposes. The training of the young blind in one or more industrial occupations should be rigidly enforced, not because such employments furnish the only, the best, or the most available means of future support, but because such train- ingand discipline of the head and the hand in work are necessary to the proper education of every pupil. Thus, manual training is made the means to an end. hut not the end itself. Male pupils are taught to make brooms, mats, mat- tresses, and brushes ; to put cane bottoms into • hairs: and to perform Other handicraft labors. Female pupils arc taught to sew. knit, and cro- chet, to use the sewing and knitting machine, and to work a great variety of articles useful and ornamental. Government j. The first book in English printed in relief was issued by James Gall. of Edinburgh, in 1827: and two years afterward, he introduced relief printing in Lon- don. His alphabet consisted of the ordinary English lower-case letters reduced to straight lines and angles. In 1832, Dr. Fry obtained the prize offered" by the Society of Arts in Scotland for the best alphabet and method of printing for the blind. This alphabet consisted of the Roman capitals .simplified, and was nearly the same as that used formerly in Philadelphia. A stenographic alphabet, invented by Mr. Lucas, of Bristol, England, is used in some of the schools of that country. A few years later, a phonetic alphabet was invented by Mr. Frere and intro- duced into some of the English schools. In Is 17. a simplified alphabet, the letters of which con- sisted of lines, was invented by Mr. Moon. This alphabet has been used in many schools. The al- phabet forming the system of tangible point- printing, was, about 1839, introduced into the imperial institution for the blind in Paris, by M. Braille; and has been extensively used in the schools of France, Switzerland, and Belgium. A system of point writing and printing has been de- vised by William B. Wait, superintendent of the New York Institution for the Blind, and is now used in nearly all the American institutions. This system has also been applied to musical notation. Systems of notation in raised characters have also been invented by Rousseau,Guadet,andMahoney. See Reportsof TJ. S. Commissioner of Education for L872, -3, and I ; Proceedings of the .1 ciation of American Instructors of the Blind |\V. 15. Wait. Cor. Sec.): also the publications of the American Bible Society, and of the Ameri- can Printing-House for the Blind. 88 BLOCHMANN BOLIVIA BLOCHMANN, Karl Justus, an eminent German educator and pupil of Pestalozzi, the founder and for many years the director of a celebrated educational institute, called after him Blochmtuni'schrx lnstihtt, was born in 178(i, and died in 185"). He studied, from 1805 to 1809, at the university of Leipsic, theology and peda- gogy, and at the same time endeavored to ac- quire a practical experience as a teacher. In 1809, he went to Switzerland and became an in- structor in Pestalozzi's school, where he remained eight years. He then returned to Germany, and became vice-director of the Friecbrieh August School, in Dresden. In order to be fully able to carry out his pedagogical views, he opened his own school in 1 824, which was united with the Vitzthum Grymnasium in L829 ; and he received from the Saxon government the license, very rarely granted to private institutions, to give to its pupils certificates of preparation for the uni- versity. I [e retained control of these two schools until 1 85] , when he transferred their administra- tion to his son-in-law. Dr. Bezzenberger. .V large number of prominent < let-mans, including several princes, have received their education in this in- stitution, which ceased to exist Oct. 16., 1861. Though a pupil and admirer of Pestalozzi, Bloch- mann differed from his master in the importance which be assigned to the religious element in education. While Pestalozzi strongly sympa- thized with the liberal movements in Prot- estant theology, Blochmann was firmly devoted to the strictest orthodoxy. BLUE -COAT SCHOOL. See Christ's Hospit \i.. BOARD OF EDUCATION. See School Board. BOARDING-SCHOOL, a school in which the pupils receive board and lodging as w T ell as instruction. Boarding-schools are generally the property of private individuals; but sometimes they belong to associations or religious de- nominations. Their management is independent of any control by the state. In some countries, the government does not allow any one to keep a boarding or any other private school, who does not hold a teacher's license ; in others, as in the United States, the establishment of private Schools is entirely free. The demand for schools of this kind appears to be. in most countries, very extensive. In small towns ami in country districts, the public school frequently appears to educated parents as not fitted for the instruction of their children ; partly, on account of the un- pleasant associations to which the children are exposed, partly, because the .course of study appears to be insufficient. Even in large towns ami cities where there is no want of good public schools, a large Dumber of parents are found who prefeT boarding-schools to the best public schools. Fashion has sometimes a great deal to do with the attendance of pupils at boarding-schools; and a school that once has a well-established reputation in wealthy circles of society, may be expected to receive numbers of pupils for no other reason than because it is fashionable. A consideration which induces many parents of even moderate means to send their children to boarding-schools, is the expectation that, in such schools, more attention can be given to individual teaching than in public schools, and that especially children of small intellectual capacities, as well as those who. in consequence of the delicacy of their health, are less regular in their studies, will receive special attention. In other families, it is not the expectation of a superior method of instruction which causes children to be sent to boarding-schools, but the belief that there they will be under better and more constant educational influence than the paternal roof can afford them. As boarding-schools are entirely independent of public school boards, there is the greatest possible variety in their courses of instruction. Moreover, since the financial success of these in- stitutions depends upon the number of pupils secured, the proprietors generally find it necessary not oidy to receive pupils at any time of the year, but to provide special instruction for every pupil, of whatever grade or capacity. The inev- itable consequence of this is, that the classifi- cation, in the majority of these schools, is unsat- isfactory. Very great danger, moreover, arises from the fact that a large number of children of evil habits are often received into such insti- tutions, the parents hoping that the teachers of these schools will be more successful in reforming such pupils than public-school teachers. The greatness of the danger which an association with children of this class involves, for all the pupils of tin' institution, cannot lie overestimated, and is certainly not sufficiently appreciated by many of those who have the charge of boarding- schools. On the other hand, however, it has been strongly and justly urged that instructors of superior qualifications often find in this class of schools an excellent and. it may be, the only opportunity of turning their peculiar talents to the use of mankind. Many of the greatest educators that ever lived, would never have been able to test their theories practically. if they had not been at the head of private boarding institutions. The boarding-school un- doubtedly offers to educational reformers a grand field of usefulness, and the more the public-school system suffers in any particular place from the incompetency of school boards, or the more, in large cities, the standard of the public schools is. depressed, the more strongly will the demand for private and boarding schools make itself felt. Nearly all hoarding schools alsoadmit pupils who attend only for instruction {day-8chokars)\ and very commonly they also provide board for chil- dren of resident parents Uic^boarders). BOLIVIA, a republic of South America, having an areaof 500,880 sq. m.,and a population, in L865,of L ,831 ,585, exclusive of about 250,000 Bavage Indians. The civilized population cona ts of native whites, for the most part descendants of the Spanish settlers, mestizos OT Choice iinived white and Indian I. mulattoes, zambOS (mixed Indian and Degro), and Indians in a domesticated BONET BOOK-KEEPING 89 state. About three-fourths of the total popula- tion is of Indian descent. Nearly the entire population of the country belongs to the Roman Catholic Church. 'The exercise of other relig- ious denominations is not prohibited; but un- restricted toleration cannot be saitl to exist in Bolivia. In a concordat concluded with the Pope in 1851, the Bolivian government promised to support missions among the savage tribes, hut a considerable number of them still remain pagan and uncivilized. The national language is the Spanish, but several Indian tribes, espe- cially the Avinaras and the Quichuas, continue to speak their own language. The territory of Bolivia, after its conquest by the Spaniards, formed a part of the viceroyalty of Peru till L 780, when it Vas united under the name of Chareas with the new viceroyalty of La Plata. The declaration of independence and the establishment of the republic of Bolivia took place in L825. Since then, the country has been, almost without interruption, a prey to civil wars. The condition of education is as yet very un- satisfactory. There is a special minister of public instruction, under whom the chiefs of the three universities of Chuquisaca (Sucre), La Paz, and Cochabamba administer the educational affairs of the country. The university of Chuquisaca, named after St. Francis Xavier, and founded by the Jesuits, was reformed in 1845 and endowed with faculties of law and medicine. It possesses an excellent library. The archiepiseopal seminary is devoted to educating priests, but its pupils are at liberty to prepare for any other vocation. The subjects taught in the seminary comprise Latin, mathematics, physics, philosophy (logic, ethics, and metaphysics), theology, and civil and ecclesiastical law. There is also in Chuquisaca a high school, called Colegio de Junin, in which grammar, mathematics, mechanics, logic, and ethics are taught. The universities of La Paz and Cochabamba educate lawyers almost ex- clusively. There is, however, also a medical school at La Paz and a colegio superior de cien- oias y artes in La Paz, and Cochabamba. In the entire reptiblic, there are 24 similar colegios, of which 8 are colegios de ciencias with about 1070 pupils, and 10 colegios de artes (a kind of real- schools). There were, hi 1846, only 4 female in- stitutions of a higher grade, with 68 pupils. The number of primary schools, public and private, according to the latest reports, is about 800, with 'J 1 ,000 pupils. The school-books are to a large extent translations from the French. — See Schmid, Real-Encychp., art. S'udauierira; d'Ou- bigky, Description geogrdfica, kistdrica, y esta- (Mstica de Bolivia (2 vols., Paris. L835). BONET, Juan Pablo, one of the earliest instructors of deaf-mutes, was born in Aragon. in the latter part of the 1 6th century. Though Pedro Ponce, a Spanish Benedictine monk, who lived about fifty years before Bonet, had em- ployed a method of teaching the deaf and dumb by means of an alphabet of manual signs, to lionet is attributed the credit of originating a similar iiiet hod. since he could have had no in- formation of Ponce's invention. Bis plan is fully explained in his work, Reduction de las letras y artes para ensefu.tr a hablar a los mudos (Madrid. 1620), which was the first formal treatise on this branch of special instruction. He used the articulation system to some extent, but also made use of a manual alphabet, which was almost exactly the same as the single-hand alpha- bet now in use. lionet was secretary to the constable of Castile, and taught a brother of his patron, who had become deaf when only two years of age. This young man was introduced to prince Charles of England during the visit of the latter to Spain, in L623 ; and it was stated by Sir Kenelm Digby, one of the prince's escort, that he could not only understand an ordinary conversation, but could himself speak with re- markable distinctness. (See Deaf-Mutes.) BONNYCASTLE, John, an eminent En- glish teacher and mathematician, and the author of many excellent elementary works in various de- partments of mathematics, was born at White- church, England, and died at Woolwich, in 1821. He was for more than forty years a professor of mathematics at the Royal Academy at NVool- wich. His chief publications were Introduction ft> Mathematics (1782), Elements of Geometry (1789), Treatise on Trigonometry (1806), and Elements of Algebra (1813). The last of these- works has been highly commended, and exten- sively used both in the United States and in Eng- land. He also published the History of Math- ematics, & translation of Bossut's Essai sur l'J/i.<- ioire generate des Maihematiques (Paris. 1810). BOOK-KEEPING, a system of recording the transactions of a business so as to exhibit, in a plain and comprehensive manner, its condition and progress. The usual method of such a record comprises (1) a history of the transactions at the date and in the order of their occurrence, in a book, called the day-book, and (2) the classifying of results in a book called the ledger. This clas- sification consists in arranging upon opposite- sides of separate statements, or accounts, all items of purchase, sale, receipt, expenditure, in- vestment, withdrawal, production, cost, etc., which, in any way, affect the business. The ac- counts taken together should thus be adequate to express all that one may need to know of the progress of the business and its condition at any time. The simplest form of record, by day-book and ledger only, here explained, is applicable merely to a very limited business. En the more ex- tended and complicated enterprises, various con- current or auxiliary books are required, their number and character depending upon the na- ture and peculiar operations of the business. In. even the simplest kinds of book-keeping, it is customary to use an intermediate book between the day-book and ledger, called the journal, the office of which is to state, or separate, each trans- action so as to simplify its transfer to the ledger. The only competent system of book-keeping is. that known as double entry, eo called from the fact that the complete record of any transaction requires at least two entries in the ledger 90 BOOK-KEEPING on the debit or debtor side of some account, and one on the credit or creditor side of sonic other account. The terms debit and cn-dil (meaning debtor and creditor, and usually marked Dr. and Or.) arc for the most part, used arbitrarily. They are really significant only when applied to personal accounts; hut their uniform application to all accounts is a matter of great convenience. The charm and utility of the double-entry system consist in the philosophical adjustment of math- ematical facts to the most exacting requirements of finance, and in the tests afforded of the cor- rectness of the work at any point. The simple principles underlying the system may be suc- cinctly stated thus: (1) All financial resources, or items of wealth, are measurable by the money Standard; (2) The sum of all the resources of a concern, thus measured, less the sum of all its liabilities, is its real or present worth: (.'{) All increase or diminution in wealth comes from one of two sources; namely, the receiving of more or less for an article than its cost, or the appreciation or depreciation of the value of an article while in possession; ill The immediate result of all gains or losses is the adding to, or taking from, the net worth of the concern; and. consequently, the net gain or net loss of a business during any specified time must agree with the increase or diminution of its net worth for the same period. The foregoing propositions may he said to be self-evident facts ; but they are important facts nevertheless, and such as any competent presentment of business affairs must recognize and enforce; and this is just what double-entry book-keeping does. The science, or philosophy, of the system is shown in the ledt/i'r, which, as before stated, con- sists of accounts. An account is a collection of homogeneous items pertaining to some part of the l>u>incss. such as the receipt and disburse- ment of money [cask), the purchase and sale of goods, the issue and redemption of notes, the in- curring and liquidating of personal indebted- ness, etc. All accounts are alike in their struct- ure, each having a title, more or less significant, and two Bides, with the items on one side exactly Opposite in effect to those on the other; and like plus and minus quantities, each canceling the other to the extent of the lesser side, the preponderance, or excess, of cither side being the true Bhowing ami significance of the account. Thus, the debit or let' hand side of the cash ac- count contains the items of cash received] a.i 1 the credit orright-han I si le, the items of cadb. dis- bursed; the difference or balance, which. if any. must be ill faVOr Of the debit side will be t he anion hi of cash on hand. A gain, the debit of mer- chandise account contains the items of the cost of goods purchased ; and the credit side, the items oi avails of goods sold, or what the separate sales have produced ; the difference or balance, when all the facts are shown, being the preponderance of production over cost, or of cosl over production, as the case may be in other words the net gain or net loss. All transactions which mark the prog- ress of the business, having in them the element of gain or loss, must occur between the two classes of accounts represented by cash and mer- chandise — the one taking cognizance of measur- ing financial worth, the other indicating its in- crease or diminution. (The mere exchange of one fixed value for another, such as the canceling of a personal indebtedness by receiving or pay- ing cash, should be called a liquidation rather than a transaction .- for although it requires a complete record, the same as the buying and sell- ing of goods, it has nothing to do with the prog- res-, of the business, having in it no element of gain or loss.) The real transactions of the busi- ness being, therefore, divided between these two classes of accounts, we have in the one class — such as merchandise — the indication or state- ment of all the separate gains and lo.-ses which have occurred, and in the other — such as cash — the complete measure of the net resources, or real wealth: the two together establishing the satisfactory concurrence of canst' and effect, or assertion and proof. Thus, the accounts of as- sertion or cause indicate a net gain or net loss, while those of proof or effect show correspond- ingly increased or diminished net worth. The peculiar methods or forms of recording business affairs are so various — owing to the great variety of manipulation or processes, as also to the difference in the estimates of a com- petent record, that they cannot be pointed out. The general conception of the purpose and sphere of book-keeping, however, may be stated as compassing such a record of affairs as will enable the proprietor to know, at any time, the extent of his wealth and of what it consists. Of course, if the real worth of a business man can be ascertained at any time, the increase or diminution between any two periods may readily lie obtained. Book-keeping by the double-entry system has been in vogue since the latter part of the L5th century. It was originally practiced in Venice, and is even now known as the Italian method. The first treatise on the subject was written by I, ilea di Borgo, and published at Venice in 1 195. A German treatise, written by Johann Gottlieb, was published at Nuremberg as early as L53] : and m England, in L 543, Hugh Oldcastle pub- lished a work on this subject under the fanciful title ^1 profitable Treatyce in learn In know the good order of the kepying of tic famous ree- onynge, called in Latin, dare et habere, and in Englyshe, Debitour mid Creditour. M ua'a Book-keeping Modernized was in very general use . and died about L802. lie was a poor artisan, who took a compassionate interest in vagrant children, lie commenced his benevolent work by taking a number of these children to his home, providing them with food and clothing. and apprenticing them to trades. Knlisting the active interest of others, he was able to hire a suitable building, in which considerable numbers could be accommodated ami taught ; thus estab lishing what was afterwards called in Scotland and Kngland a "ragged school." The institution founded by Borgi was continued after his death and found an earnest patron in Pope Pius VI 1 (See Bagged Schools.) 92 BOSTON BOSTON, the capital and metropolis of Massachusetts, having a population, in L875, of 341,919. The origin of the public-school system of Boston is found in the following order adopted by the freemen of the town, on the 13th of April, "1035: "Likewise it was then generally agreed upon, that our brother Philemon Purmont shall be entreated to become schoolmaster for the teaching and nurturing of children with us." The school thus set up has been perpetuated to the present day, and has long been known as the Public Latin School, whose chief function, during the whole period of its existence, has been the fitting of boys for Harvard College. This was the only public school in the town until 1682, when it was voted, in town meeting, "that a committee with the selectmen consider and provide one or more free schools for the teach- ing of children to write and cipher within this town." Afterward, schools were established for teaching reading and spelling. These reading and writing schools have been gradually developed into the present grammar schools. Pupils were not admitted to these schools until they were seven years of age. Girls were not admitted to the grammar school until 17s!) ; and, during the next forty years, they were permitted to attend only half t lie year, from April to October. Tn 1818, primary schools were established to fit pupils of both sexes for the grammar schools, to which children four years old and upward were ad- mit ted. In 1821, a school similar to the German real school, and named the English High School, '•was instituted, with the design of furnishing the young men of this city, who are not intended for a collegiate course of study, and who have en- joyed the usual advantages of the other public schools, with the means of completing a good English education." A normal school for qualify- ing female teachers for the public schools of the city was established in 1852, in which a two years' course of training was provided. The plan of this school was soon nnnlilied by extending its course of study to three years, and by including in its curriculum all the branches usually taught in high schools. In 1ST2, this twofold institu- tion, which bore the name of the* Jirls' 1 [igh and Normal School, was separated into two distinct schools, a normal school for girls and a high school for girls. By the annexation of adjacent municipalities, during the past eight years, live mixed high schools have been added to the free public schools for secondary instruction. Ele- mentary evening schools, and day schools for newsboys and bootblacks (licensed minors), were established in L868; an evening high school, in 1869; a scl I for deaf-mutes, in 1869; evening industrial drawing schools, in 1870; a kindergar- ten, in 1 870. The public Bchoi Is were originally. and for more then a .century and a half, managed by the selectmen of the town, the clergy being invited bj them to \ isil the schools, especially on public occasions. From I 789, until the adoption of the 'ity charter, in 1822, they were controlled by a board composed of the select men and twelve committee men. annually elected iu town meet- ing. Under the charter, the selectmen were re- placed by the eight aldermen. From 1835 until 1 855, the school board, called the Grammar School Board, consisted of twenty-four com- mittee men, two being elected annually by the people in each ward, with the mayor and the president of the common council, ex officio. Up to this time, the primary schools had been under the management of a board, appointed annually by the Grammar School Board, consisting of one member for each school or teacher, the number being at first 3l>. but increased finally to 190. I'uring the past twenty years, the school system of public schools has been in charge of one board, consisting originally of 7-4 members, 6 being elected in each ward by the people, to hold office for three years, the mayor and president of the common council being also members. By the annexation of municipalities above mentioned, the number of members was ultimately in- creased to 11G. This board was discontinued at the beginning of 1870 ; and, in its place, a board was constituted consisting of the mayor, and 24 members elected by the people on a general ticket, to hold office for three years. — 'I he office of superintendent of schools was estab- lished in 1851. The first incumbent was Nathan Bishop, who was succeeded by John D. .Phil- brick, who held the office for nearly 18 years, retiringin L874. The old board did not fill the vacancy; and Mr. Philbrick was re-elected to the office by the new board in 1876. Under the new system of supervision, the school board is author- ized to elect aboard of six supervisors. The follow- ing persons were elected to this board: Lucretia ('rocker. George M. Folsom, Samuel W. Mason, William Nichols. Kllis Peterson, and Benjamin F. Tweed. The superintendent ia,exqfficio,a member and the chairman. The principal duties assigned the board of supervisors are those of examining candidates for teachers, of examining the schools, in detail, twice in each year, and of conducting the annual examination of the pupils, in the different grades of schools, who are candidates for grad- uating diplomas. — Besides this board of super- visors, there is a general director of music, and another of drawing, each having several assist- ants. -For the purposes of supervision, the city IS divided into nine territorial divisions, each division comprising from four to seven territorial districts, and each district containing one gram- mar school and several primary schools. 'I he master of the grammar school is the principal of the district, having the supervision of all the schools situated therein. There are no primary principals. Each division is under the charge of a committee composed of three or five members of the school board. There is also a standing com- mittee iii charge of the high schools. School System. — Besides a normal school for girls, with a course for study and training for one year, to which pupils arc admitted only on passing a satisfactory examination in the usual high-School studies, there are 8 high school.: namely, •"> large central schools, the Latin and the English high School for boys, and the girls" BOSTON 93 high school, and 5 others for both sexes, located in recently annexed districts. These schools (187C) contain 2,180 pupils, taught by 50 male teachers and 48 females, whose annual salaries amount to $180,251.33. There are :')() grammar schools, with 23,971 pupils, taught by 96 male teachers, and oil females; the greater part of these schools are unmixed. In the primary grade, for children from 5 to Byearsof age, there arc 18,665 pupils, taught by 414 teachers. The whole number of pupils belonging to the day and evening schools is 49,423. The aggregate annual salaries of the teachers of the grammar and pri- mary schools amount to $993,932.95. The spe- cial schools are, 2 for licensed minors. 1 for deaf- mutes, 1 kindergarten, 14 elementary evening schools, 1 evening high school, and evening schools for industrial drawing. These schools arc taught by 177 teachers, whose annual salaries amount to 8 12,82 1.64. The whole number of reg- ular and special teachers employed in the day and evening schools is 1,296; and the whole amount of their salaries is $1,217,008.92 ; incidental ex- penses, including salaries of officers, §507,364.69; total current expenses, $1,724,373.61. The amount expended during the year, besides this, for school- houses and sites, was §356,669.74. The cost per Bcholar for tuition, based on the average number belonging to the day schools, is §26.30; for inci- dentals, §10.55 ; total cost per scholar, §36.85. In 1875, the whole number of school-houses owned by the city was 144, which, with their sites, were valued at Ss,500,000. The revenue for the sup- port of the schools is derived exclusively from an annual tax on all the personal and real prop- erty in the city, which is levied by the city council. There is no legal restriction to the amount that may be levied for schools. The school sites are purchased, and the school buildings are erected, by the city council; but the plans of the buildings and the sites must be first approved by the school board, who have the authority also to determine the amount to be expended for the salaries of teachers. Tuition is gratuitous in all the schools ; drawing-books, writing-books, and stationery are furnished gratuitously to all pu- pils ; and, to indigent children text-books are also furnished at the public expense. Salaries.— The salary of the superintendent is $4,500 ; of members of the board of supervisors, $4,000 each ; of head-masters of high schools, $4,000; of masters of grammar schools and mas- ters in high schools. §3.200; submasters in gram- mar and high schools, §2.600 ; of ushers in gram- mar and high schools. $2,000 ; of head-assistants [females) in grammar schools. § 1 ,200; of assistants (female) in high schools §1 .lit II I to SI .50(1; of assist- ants (female) in grammar schools, and teachers in primary schools, s^OO ; of supervisors of music and drawing, §3.300 each ; and their assistants, §2,500. The city is divided into 14 truant dis- tricts, each having a truant officer, with a salary of §1,200. Habitual truants, pupils who have absented themselves from school several times without permission from their parents or teach- ers, and absentees, legally described as " children found in streets and public places, not attending schools and not engaged in a lawful occupation," are sentenced to a reformatory for one or two years. This plan of dealing with truants dates from 1S50, and it has proved an efficient agency in promoting good attendance at school. Chil- dren growing up without education or salutary control, by reason of orphanage, or the neglect, crime, drunkenness, or other vice of parents, on complaint of the truant officers, may he sent to an institution assigned by the city for the pur- pose, where they arc hoarded and educated. Private Schools nl other Institutions. — In 1874, the whole number of pupils in private tui- tion-paying schools (excepting commercial "col- leges"), whether incorporated or not, below the college grades, was 3,ss7. There were, besides, about 5,000 pupils in free denominational schools (Roman Catholic). The aggregate number of pri- vate schools is 93, with 358 instructors. There are 14 orphan asylums, with 37 instructors and 1,344 pupils; 5 business colleges, with 19 instructors and 717 pupils ; 1 school of pharmacy, with 3 professors and 75 students; 2 schools of dentist- ry, with 15 professors and 40 students; 1 college (The Boston College, R. C), with 8 professors and 1 15 students; 1 university (The Boston Univer- sity, Methodist), with a school of liberal arts, and several professional schools; 1 school of theology, with 7 professors and 94 students ; 1 school of law, with 14 professors and 08 students; 2 schools of medicine, with 35 professors and 195 students; 1 polytechnic school (Massachusetts Institute of Technology) , with 36 professors and 356 students ; 1 normal art school (state), with 8 professors and 200 students ; 1 museum of fine arts, value of collections §100,000, value of buildings, etc., §400,000; 1 museum of natural history, having 10,000 volumes; value of collections, §100,000, of buildings. §138,000; 14 public libraries, 456,427 volumes, 232,900 pamphlets; value of buildings, §1 ,026,700; Sunday-schools, 157, with 4,450 teach- ers, 43,540 scholars, and 83,700 volumes in lib- raries. There are two conservatories of music, and numerous smaller music schools. One of the most important educational institutions in Boston is the Lowell Institute, established in 1839 by the munificence of John Lowell, to provide for "regular courses oifree public lectures upon the most important branches of natural and moral science, to be annually delivered in the city of Boston." The fund, in January, 1873, was §642,711.32 ; the expenses for 1872 were §31,912.47, the number of free lectures delivered during the year being 264. Two drawing-schools, and the school of industrial design in connection with the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, are maintained by the fund. The Institute is managed by one trustee, a kinsman of the founder. No printed document or report has ever been issued by the Institute. The Boston City Free Public Library, which was opened in 1853, and is supported by taxation in the same manner as the public schools, has six branches, and contains 306,287 volumes; the annual ex- pense of maintaining it is about §130,000. 94 BOSTON COLLEGE BOSTON UNIVERSITY BOSTON COLLEGE, at Boston, Mass., was founded in L863 by the Fathers of the Society of Jesus, by whom it is conducted. Its object is to impart a religious, classical, and scientific education. The course begins with a ••class of rudiments," and extending, in success- ive years, through three " classes of grammar," a •• class of poetry," and a " class of rhetoric." into a seventh year of philosophy and chemistry. As in must of the colleges of this fraternity, classical studies occupy a prominent place in all the classes of the entire course. In 1874, there was a corps of 16 professors and other instructors, with 1 5 collegiate, and 143 preparatory students. The value of its grounds, buildings, etc.. is $200,000, an. I it has a library of about 4,000 volumes. Rev. Robert Fulton. S. J., is (-1876) the presi- dent of tlie institution. The annual tuition fee is sen. BOSTON UNIVERSITY, at Boston, Mass., was founded by the munificence of Isaac Rich, who bequeathed tor that purpose the greater part of his estate, amounting to Dearly 12,000,000. The first, however, to suggest and advocate its establishment, was the late Lee Claflin, father of a recent governor of Massa- chusetts, whose views found an earnest supporter in Jacob Sleeper. Hence, these three persons are regarded as the founders of the institution, although Mr. Rich was its most munificent patron. Its charter was obtained from the legis- lature of Massachusetts in 1st;!), its plan of organization is unique and comprehensive, in- cluding (1) Preparatory Departments; (2) Col- hycs ; (.'!) Prnfi'sximtul Schools; and (I) School ,,)' all Sciences (Schola Scholarum). The first of these are designed to fit students for the col- leges : the second, to prepare them for the higher industries and arts of civilization, and for the study of the learned professions; the third, to qualify them theoretically and practically for professional life : while the fourth, including and Supplementing the work of the professional schools, is designed to he a universal, or non-pro- fessional school of elective post-graduate studies, with special degrees, scholarships, and fellow- ships. Of the colleges three have already been or- ganized: (1) that of Liberal Arts, in 1873 ; (2) that of Music, in IsT'J ; (.'!) that of Agricuti supplied by the Massachusetts Agricultural Ool- ;it Amherst, associated with the university in I 875. This college has enjoyed a very high rep- utation since its organization in L867 ; and by the arrangemenl made with the Boston I Diver- sity, matriculants in the latter, who desire in- struction in agriculture, horticulture. and related branches, can receive it in the College, and on completing the prescribed course, can receive their degree from the I diversity as well as from the College. 'I'he ' qf Liberal Arts answers to what is called in some American universities tin- Academic Department. Its courses of in- struction qualify studi bs for tin' degrees oi bachelor "t arts, bachelor of philosophy, and bachelor of science. The College of Music is 1 designed for students of the average proficiency of graduatesof the best American conservatories of music ; and is the only institution of its grade and kind in the United States. The regular courses of instruction extend through four years, and include (1) a course for vocal- ists : (2) a course for pianists : (3) a course for organists; (4) courses for orchestral performers. All these courses include the study of musical theory, also the history and esthetics of music. The professional schools include that of theol- ogy, adopted in IsTl ; of law. opened in 1872; of medicine, in 1873 ; of oratory, in 1^7.'!. The School of all Sciences was established in 1874. The school of theology was formerly the Meth- odist Episcopal Theological Seminary of Boston, which was organized in TS47. A school of fine arts is projected. A fundamental idea with those who organized the university was. that a university should exist not for one sex merely, but equally for the two ; hence the most ultra principles of co-education are carried out. Young men and young women are welcomed to all the advantages of the insti- tution on precisely the same conditions, -not merely to the bench of the pupil, hut also to the chair of the professor. The trustees of the New England Female Medical College, said to he the ' oldest medical college for women in the world, by a special act of the legislature, in 1 s 7. ">. trans- ferred all its properties and franchises to the Boston Cniversity, and was thus merged into its broader co-educative school of medicine. Post-graduate students of this university, de- siring to fit themselves for professorships of Greek, Latin, modern languages, philosophy, history, or art. enjoy special advantage's. By virtue of an arrangement, effected in 1875, with the authorities of the National University at Athens, and those of the Royal Cniversity at Rome, any member of the School of all Sciences, duly recommended, may pursue, without expense for instruction, and for any Dumber of years, select or regular courses of study in any depart- ment of said universities, enjoying all the lights and privileges of university citizenship; and upon returning, and passing a satisfactory ex- amination in tlie work accomplished, can receive a degree from the Boston I'niversity. The faculties of these two foreign universities are thus co-operating faculties of the School of all Sciences, which is designed 1 1 ) for the benefil of bachelors Of arts, philosophy, or science. of what- soever college, who. with little or no direct refer- ence to fitting themselves for a professional life, may desire to receive post-graduate instruction in this university; (2) to meet the wants of all graduates in theology, law. medicine, or other professional course, who may wish to supplement their professional culture by courses of study in related sciences, arts, and professions. This school is. thus, like the studium generate of the middle ages, the crowning and unifying department of the entire university organization. Thus far. this comprehensive plan ha- been successfully carried out : and the institution has BOTANY 95 received a large patronage and haa accomplished much work, lu L874 — 5, there were 745 stu- dents belongingto the institution; <>f whom 268 wciv iii the preparatory departments; 81, in the colleges; and 396 in the schools. Of the entire number in the colleges and schools. L02 were females, rts graduates from the schools of theol- ogy, law. and medicine were more numerous than those from the corresponding- schools of Harvard or Yale. Its financial condition is prosperous, notwithstanding the heavy loss which it suffered in the great Boston conflagration of 1872. The final transfer of the Rich fund does not take place till L882. The president of the university is William F. Warren. S.T. !>.. LL. I >.. elected in 1873. — See Boston University Tear Books, edited by the university council, vols, i, ii. and in. BOTANY (Gr. loravri, herb, plant), the sci- ence of vegetable life, treating of the elementary composition, structure, habits, functions, and ssification of plants, in which are included herbs, shrubs, and trees. This is a branch of that general descriptive, or empirical science, called natural history : being based upon the facts of observation. The educative value of botany, especially in the early stages of the mind's development, is very considerable, — far more so, indeed, than its usual place in the cur- riculum of school education would indicate; since it is generally superseded by subjects which seem to be of more practical importance to the pupil in his after life. In the more modern ems of elementary education, both in this country and in Europe, particularly in Germany, the training of the perceptive faculties by the systematic observation of objects holds a very prominent place, indeed is considered the basis of all sound mental culture ; and among all the objects of nature, none can claim precedence in point of variety, beauty, and interest, for this purpose, over those of which botany treats. It has been well said by a writer upon this subject, •As the love and observation of flowers are among the earliest phenomena of the mental life, so should some correct knowdedge of them be among the earliest teachings.'' The facdity with which plants maybe collected, handled, and ana- lyzed, as well as their general attractiveness, makes them peculiarly well adapted for object teaching. Bugs and beetles are often quite re- pulsive to a child, bu^ where is the girl or boy who is not pleased with the contemplation, or the manipulation, of leaves and flowers? For the purpose of this kind of instruction. and as an introduction of the subject to young minds, the chief point is to direct the attention of the child to the most obvious characteristics of plants and of their parts, as leaves, stems, roots, flowers, seeds, etc. They should be set at once to collect specimens for themselves, and be shown how (1) to observe them, ('!) how to state and record the results of their observations, so that they may acquire a knowledge; of the words used to express the characteristic peculiarities of different objects. Here will be afforded a wide range for the exercise of comparative observation, in the perception of both resemblances and differences, lint particularly the latter. It is not requisite, nay it would he injurious, to teach anything of classification al this stage; nor in- deed is it necessary that the child should know the name of any plant the whole or part of which is under observation. Some prefer to teach the names: since the child's mind ha cra\ ing for the names of such objects as interest it. When therefore, the name is asked f or by the pupil, there can be no objection to the teach- er's telling it. The observation and description of the characteristics are. however, the essential points to be insisted upon, for this purpose, no plan can be better than the " Schedule Method," invented by Prof. .1. S. Ilenslow. of Cambridge, England, and ingeniously, as well as exhaustively, applied by Miss Youmans in her elementary text- books on this subject. According to this method, the pupil starts with an observation of the sim- plest characteristics, as the parts of the leaf — its blade, petioles, stipules; its venation, margin, etc. The general appearance of these may be at. first represented by pictures, but only to enable the learner to study the natural objects, which he carefully observes, and writes the characters in his schedule, attaching each specimen to it, as a verification to the teacher of the accuracy of his observation. (See Yoimaxs's First Book of Botany?) It will be easily seen that by a con- tinuous application of this plan, the pupil will acquire a considerable knowledge of the charac- teristics of plants, as well as of the nomenclature of the science; and. moreover, that at every step his observation, and his judgment too. will be thoroughly exercised and trained, in order to be able to describe the minute distinctions of form, structure, color, etc., that are subjected to his dis- criminative attention. This process harmonizes entirely with the following just view of a distin- guished educator : '"The first instruction of children in the empirical sciences should mainly consist in exhibiting to them interesting objects and phenomena; in allowing them to look, handle, and ask questions'; and in giving oppor- tunity for the free exercise of their youthful imaginations. A teacher may guide them in their explorations of the neighborhood, direct their observations, make inquiries, give explana- tions, conduct experiments, call things by their light names ; but he must be careful to do it in such a maimer as not to check their play of fancy or chill their flow of feeling.'' (See Wickbbsham's Methods of Instruction.) Bui the young pupil is not to be kepi constantly at mere observation. or the comparison of the form, structure, color, etc., of leaves, flowers, and other parts of plants; his attention may be called to the simple facts of vegetable physiology, and thus shown "how plants grow" and "how they be- have," as well as what they are. The elementary works of Prof. Gray, bearing the titles above quoted (How Plants Grow, and How Plants' Behave), and Dr. IIookkr's Child's Book of Nat' ure, will be useful auxiliaries to the teacher for 96 BOTANY this purpose. Such information as the circula- tion of the sap, its use, the functions of the leaf, the root, the flower, and the seed, communicated in an appropriate style and explained by their analogy with other things, familiar to the mind of every child, will properly supplement the knowledge gained by the pupil through his own observations. The following description from the Child's Book of Nature, will illustrate what is meant by this : ' ' The bark is not all one thing. It is made up of two parts ; or rather, we should say, there are two barks. There is an outer bark and an inner one. The outer bark has no life in it. It is this outer bark that gives such a roughness to the trunks of some trees, as the elm and the oak. This outer bark is a coat for the tree. It covers up the living parts so that they shall not be injured. It does for the tree what our clothes do for our bodies. It is not a perfectly tight coat. It has little openings everywhere in it. It would be bad for the tree to have this coat on it tight, just as it would be bad for our bodies to have an India-rubber covering close to the skin." In such a simple style as this, and with the use of similar illustrations, much interest may be awakened in the child's mind, its observing ami reasoning faculties quickened, and a love of natural objects infused, which independ- ently of the practical use of the knowledge gained, will constitute a mental culture of the highest value and prove a life-long blessing to its possessor. If. after this elementary instruction, it is deemed important that the science should be studied as such, the pupil must be gradually trained in classification, for which the founda- tion will have been laid, in this branch of study. as in all other departments of natural history, the mental processes to be successively performed are: (1) Observation, with the view to compar- ison and analysis ; (2) Classification ; (3) Induc- tion, or the discovery of principles, so as to em- body the observed facts into a science ; and (4 ) Application of the scientific principles to new facts. The elementary exercises already described conduct the pupil through the first stage only ; but the scientific study does not begin until the third, and is not completed till he has become practiced in the fourth. The observation of common characters in plants will necessarily lead the mind of the pupil to perceive the method and the value of classification : but such exercises need not lie very protracted, since it is natural even to a child I" generalize and classify. He will soon be prepared for the methodical study of systematic botany; and then very properh may lie supplied with a good text-book. Bui the pupils must only use it as an auxiliary or instrument, in the study of nature. Let them .■-till be encouraged to collect specimens, to notice as fully and accurately as possible their peculiar ities. and to describe them by the proper terms. Borne simple means of drying and preserving plants will be very serviceable, so that tin school at least may possi tolerably complete her barium. Magnified and colored representations, such as those supplied by Prang's Natural History Series, and especially Henslow's Botan- ical ('harts, will prove a great aid in showing clearly what the pupils fail to make out in the actual specimens. For the purpose of analyzing flowers, etc., a small microscope will be needed; one that can be so used as to leave both hands free for the work of dissection, is greatly to be preferred. This, with a sharp knife, forceps, and large needles, fixed in handles, is all that will be needed. Judgment should be exercised in the selection of the flowers for analysis. The simpler and more obvious, as the Oruciferae, Rosacece, Leguminosce, Ranunculacece,Violacece, and Labiatce, before such orders as the Com- posilce, Umbettiferce, Juncacece, and <'///>ei-acece. The grasses, ferns, mosses, fungi, etc., will need to be studied at an advanced stage of the course. The artificial keys supplied in most text- books should be used with judgment. Students are very apt to become absorbed in the desire to discover the names of plants by the use of these devices, as if that were the end of the study. But while there is no doubt that much progress can be made by the verification of the order and species of a plant, in this way, the great object to be attained is, that the student should become so well versed in observing and describing the peculiarities of plants, and in their classification, that he may bj able to place them at once where they belong, only using the key when he has come across a specimen which belongs to some order with which he is unacquainted. The utility of botany as a branch of school study has been thoughtlessly called in question. Its value as an educational agent has already been sufficiently shown, and a brief consideration of the relations of vegetable life to the most important interests of society will suffice to demonstrate its exceeding importance as a branch of knowledge. The agriculturist is greatly at fault who knows nothing of the principles of vegetable physiology, who cannot distinguish the properties and characteristics of the plants that cover his domain — some the object of his most tender care and concern, others his greatest bane. The florist and horticulturist are certainly un- acquainted with their own arts, unless they are proficient in a knowledge of the structure, functions, and habits of plants ; and the apoth- ecary and physician have also an especial need of similar information. The geographer and the geologist; and indeed the scientist, in every de- partment, needs tu have a good acquaintance with the vegetable kingdom. Says Prof. Ilen- fiw: •■ In geography , that is. physical geography, the concrete natural history of plants becomes a portion Of the concrete natural history of the globe: the physiological laws are involved with physical laws of climate, soil, etc.. in the ex- planation of possible distributions, either in an abstract point of view, or for the purpose of practical application; while the systematic classi- fications, and the natural history of particular species, become the only guide by which we can attempt to trace back the existing conditions of distribution towards their origin, and thus per- BOYVDOIN C0LL1K 1 E ROYS 97 form the share duo to botany; in the historical connection of physical geography with geology, of which it is properly only the statical part." Moreover, to the clergyman, the lawyer, the orator, and all who need to cultivate and employ tlie art of persuasion, involving as it does, too, the art of elucidation, few subjects present so wi le a field for familiar and impressive illustra- tions as the domain of plants, rich not only in those natural flowers which are pleasing to the eye, but also in those flowers of speech, which constitute the most attractive ornaments of rhetoric and poetry. The traveler and explorer in distant lands, who is a botanist, can find in the flora of every region he visits, food for prof- itable instruction and research; and the rural wayfarer, who has fled the bustle and confusion of city life for relief and rest, will, in a knowledge of this science, never fail to realize, at every step he takes, the most refreshing enjoyment. Surely no stronger plea can be set up for any of the branches of study which occupy so conspicuous a place in the educational schemes of schools and colleges, those alone excepted which constitute the indispensable foundation of all mental improve- ment. — See Youmans, Educational Claims of Botany (N. Y., 1870), First Book of Botany (N. Y.. 1870), and Second Book of Botany (N. Y., 1873) ; Gray, How Plants Grow (N. Y, 1858); F. A. P. Barnard, Early Mental Training, and Henfrey's lecture on the Educational Claim* of Botanical Science, in The Culture demanded by Modern Life, edited by E. L. Youmans (N. Y., 1867) ; Wickersham, Methods of Instruction (Phil., 1865) ; How to Teach, a Manual of Meth- ods (X.Y.,1873). BOWDOIN COLLEGE, at Brunswick, Maine, the oldest and most prominent literary institution in the state, was chartered in 1794, and organized in 1802. It was named in honor of Gov. James Bowdoin of Massachusetts. The government was vested in a board of trustees and a board of overseers, which, in 1801. elected Joseph McKeen, D. D., the first president of the College. He was succeeded, in 1807, by Jesse Appleton, D. D., who served till 1819, when Rev. William Allen was elected his successor, and continued in office till 1839, when he was succeeded by Leonard Woods, D. D., who held office till 1866. In 1867, the Rev. Samuel Harris, S. T. D., was elected president, and was succeeded, in 1871, by Joshua L. Chamberlain, LL. D., the present incumbent. The prevailing religious denomination is the Congregationalist. Provision is made in this institution for a scientific course of study, distinct from the regular collegiate course, during the last two years, and especially embracing the modern languages, natural science, (leering, mechanics, and drawing. There is also a post-graduate course, which affords in- struction in (1) Letters, comprising languages, ancient and modern (including the oriental), with the literature of each : philology, rhetoric, logic, history, elocution, and the fine arts ; (2) Science, comprising higher mathematics, physics, natural history, and chemistry, in their uses and 7 applications; (3) Philosophy, comprising psy- chology, metaphysics, ethics, esthetics, and pol- ities, the latter including the theory of govern- ment, constitutional history, principles of law, and international law. The first leads to the degree of master of arts (A. M.); the second, to that of doctor of science (Sc. D.) ; and the third, to that of doctor of philosophy (Ph. D.). Graduates who have completed any course in the post-graduate studies with honor, may be appointed fellows, to reside at the college with all the privileges of the same one or two years further, without charge, enjoying facilities for studies still more advanced, with opportunities for teaching in the line of their specialties. Much attention is given to physical culture, a gymnasium being provided with the most ap- proved apparatus. The exercises are carefully directed upon physiological and hygienic princi- ples, with the view to develop the bodily powers, but are, at the same time, subservient to the discipline of the mind. Instruction is also afforded in military science, and daily exercises in drill are given by an officer of the army detailed for that purpose. Since 1873, these drill exercises have been optional, the students electing be- tween them and the gymnasium. Medical training is given through the Medical School of Maine, which, by an act of the legislature, in 1821, was placed under the superintendence and direction of the trustees and overseers of Bow- doin College. The number of professors and other instructors in the college, in 1874, was 15, and of students, 173, exclusive of those in the medical school. The value of the grounds, buildings, and apparatus is about $85,000, and its productive funds amount to $154,000. The college and so- ciety libraries contain about 31,000 volumes. The roll of alumni includes some illustrious names. Here, in 1825, graduated Henry W. Longfellow and Nathaniel Hawthorne ; and subsequently Franklin Pierce, Geo. B. Cheever, John P. Hale, S. S. Prentiss, and Calvin E. Stowe. Thomas C. Upham, D. D., was professor of mental philos- ophy from 1824 to 1867 ; and H. W. Long- fellow held the position of professor of modern languages from 1829 to 1835, when he was called to a similar position in Harvard College. The an- nual tuition fee is about $75. There are ten en- dowed scholarships, yielding from $50 to $60 per annum and, besides these, funds donated to the institution, amounting to about $10,000, from which aid is liberally afforded to indigent students. BOYS, Education of. In the education of boys, the same general principles are to be ap- I as in that of girls ; and, up to a certain age, in their school education, the same arrangements for discipline and instruction will answer. Edu- n. however, rightly considered, has for its object to aid and guide the development of the powers or faculties, both generic and specific, of the individuals who are subjected to its minis- trations; and, consequently, its processes should vary with the character of the facidties which are to be developed. And this is by no means the whole. Education is to be addressed to all 98 BOYS the elements of character, — physical, mental, and moral. There are propensities to restrain and subdue as well as powers to bring out and direct. There are tendencies to good to cultivate and en- courage: and then- are, from the first, those of an opposite character to repress or extinguish. There is not only the intelligence to be stimu- lated and guided, there is the will to be subdued, — to be made subject, not only to the authority of the educator, lmt to the conscience of the edu- cated. Doubtless, there are principles sufficiently comprehensive to embrace all these considera- tions, and to afford a safe foundation for prac- tical methods and rules sufficiently minute to reach every case, however peculiar or eccentric : but what we wish here especially to lay down, is th- important, fundamental law. that education, claiming to be scientific, and nota nit re mechan- ical empiricism, must take cognizance of all these elements of human character, not only in their average condition and degree, but in those marked diversities which constitute individual character. (See Education.) According to this principle, boys and girls can never properly be subjected to precisely the same processes of edu- cation, because their natures are very different, — physically, mentally, and morally. This fact is, however, not necessarily in t diet with co- education ; indeed, it may be an argument in favor of it. Children of both sexes may be trained in the same family, and instructed in the ie school or class; but the wise parent and the skillful teacher will often have to make a careful discrimination in his treatment of them as boys or girls. The ancients had very different educational systems for the two sexes, for two reasons : ( 1 ) because of their diverse natures, and {'!) because of their different spheres of life. Nearly all that we read of ancient education concerns boys; but we are not to suppose, for this reason, that the education of the girls was overlooked. That of the boys was public, and was a matter of pub- lic concern, for the welfare and the safety of the state depended upon it: but that of the girls exclusively belonged to the social circle, and was, therefore, strictly private. In the Oyropd'tlin of Xenophon, we have a beautiful picture of the education of boys among the Persians, fictitious in some particulars, with- out doubt, but illustrative of ancient manners and views as to the objects of such an edu- 'ii. The public good was the exclusive end of this system: ami as the education of the future citizens for their duties in p and war was the mosl important concern of the state, this duty was not left to the parents. by whom it might be oeglected or improperly performed, bu1 was the subject of special gov- ernmental regulations. Boys were all brought up iii common, according to a uniform system. which prescribed the kind of food, the times of eating, the nature and duration of physical exercises, and the modes of punishment. By B very plain and simple die!, the boys were accustomed to strict temperance; and such modes of bodily exercise were employed as would inure them to the hardships and fatigues of war. Tn their schools, the chief object was to teach the pupils justice and virtue, with the view that it is much easier to prevent the commission of crimes by proper early education, than by severity of punishment at a more advanced period of life. The Spartan system of educating boys re- sembled that of the Persians as described by Xenophon, except that it was deficient in some of the finer moral elements; and in its physical characteristics was. perhaps, more severe. (See Sparta.) For an account of the education of boys among the Athenians, see Athens. ^\mong the Romans, the education of boys was under the guidance of the father; though much of it, particularly in its earliest stages, was under the superintendence of the mother. She attended not only to their physical wants, but took pains to form their language, their ideas, their moral sentiments, and their religious feelings. Of this we have an example in Cornelia, the mother of the < rracchi. Later, the boy was furnished with a custos, or paedagogus, who sometimes in- structed him in gymnastics, or accompanied him to the exercises, or to the theatre, being responsible for his safety. This office, in a Woman family, was performed by one of the older slaves, and its functions continued until the age of manhood was reached. Some distinguished Romans, the elder Cato for example, taught their own sons; but usually teachers were especially employed to give instruction in reading, writing, calculation, rhet- oric, etc. A teacher of this kind was called hull magister. Youths were, for the space of a year, exercised in arms in the Campus Martins, and iii swimming in the Tiber. (See Rome.) The most celebrated writer on the education of boys among the Romans is Quintl'lian, whose great work Fnsiitutiones Oratorios, although designed to explain tin' education necessary for the com- plete orator, yet treats likewise of the early training ami instruction of the boy. Thus ho says: •• Many are opposed to t he public schools, for the reason that the children acquire bad habits there, and also because the teacher can bestow more attention upon one than upon many: but these objections against the good old dations are not valid, since there are also many evils connected with private instruction; and. moreover, if boys were not early rendered effeminate, they would not be so easily corrupted in the public schools. The instruction in tl schools is to be preferred, especially for the fu- ture orator, in order that he may accustom him- self to the multitude, and be Stimulated by com- petition." Quintilian enjoined particularly uj)on the teacher to make himself acquainted with the disposition and capacity (natura et ingeniitm) of his pupils, and to treat every one according to his peculiar traits. Other Woman writ, is treated of the education of youth. Varro wrote Gapy8,atU de liberis educandii, which, together with most of this author's numerous treatises, has perished. BOYS BRAILLE 99 Tn modern times, most of the special treatises cm education refer particularly to the training and instruction of boys. This is true of Mon- taigne, Milton, and Locke. The special education of u r irls has engaged the attention of bul few writers. Very many, therefore, of the principles and rides laid down are based upon the peculiar disposition and character of boys. Milton's defini- tion of education is limited to the one sex, its scope being"to lit a man to perform justly, skill- fully, and magnanimously all the offices, both private and public, of peace and war": and his various directions as to studies, physical exer- cises, etc., all have an exclusive application to hoys, w ho he says, among other things, " must be also practiced in all the locks and gripes of Wrestling, wherein Englishmen were wont to excel, as need may often be in fight to tug, to grapple, and to close." Fencing he particularly approves : " The exercise which I commend first, is the exact use of their weapon, to guard, and to strike safely with edge or point ; this will keep them healthy, nimble, strong, and well in breath, is also the likeliest means to make them grow large and tall, and to inspire them with a gallant and fearless courage, which being tem- pered with seasonable lectures and precepts to them of true fortitude and patience, will turn into a native and heroic valor, and make them hate the cowardice of doing wrong."' .Most writers on education have recognized the necessity of discriminating between the sexes in education. " From the beginning of the eighth year," says Schwarz, "the two sexes require, in almost every respect, a different education. The principal concern of boys are the studies of school, alternating with bodily exercise. Their amusements are, at an early age, of the more active kind : chasing the butterfly, and scouring the plain with other boys; at a later age, they should engage in pedestrian excursions and bold undertakings, and enjoy the cheerful company of their equals; taking care, however, that their playmates be of the proper character, and that their hearts be cultivated for what is noble and generous. This vigilant supervision should fol- low- them to the latter years of youth, and guard them against all bad company. Their propensity to imitate their older associates, which, among other evil practices, so often leads to the early habit of smoking, and the like, should be en- listed on the side of what is good and praise- worthy, by constantly managing their entire education in accordance with sound principles." The same writer also observes very justly : " Al- though hoys should be chiefly educated by men. and girls by women, the two sexes should unite in the education of both boys and girls. The boy requires the mild and gentle treatment of the mother, in order that his sensibility may not become callous ; and. besides, he will always need some intercourse with persons of the other sex. both young and adult, as it is found in families, because otherwise he will contrail habits of rudeness, without developing a susceptibility for the finer feelings of humanity." The requirements of modern civilization, as well as the usages of modern social life, appear to dictate a separate education for boys, alter the elementary stages, both on accounl of the diver- sity in the mental and physical constitution of boys and girls, and because of the difference in the spheres of life which they are to occupy. Here, however, there is great difference of opin- ion, many, and particularly females themselves contending for the breaking down of all distinc- tions of the kind, and throwing open all grades and classes of educational institutions, both gen- eral and technical, to both sexes. (See Co-kim - CATION.) This question will not be discussed here; but the tact simply stated that many of the public schools in the United States have an organization especially adapted to males, and that, among private seminaries, this rule chiefly prevails. Hoarding-schools, with arrangements for gymnastic and other physical exercises, and a school military drill, are quite common ; while business and commercial colleges and schools have become very numerous. (See Bu- siness Colleges.) These institutions aim to give a training which will fit their pupils to till their future positions as accountants, merchants, or business men in any capacity ; and, in con- nection therewith, impart such principles of honor and integrity, as will give them true man- liness and Christian integrity. Some of these institutions are open to girls as well ; but just as there are seminaries and colleges which are for females exclusively, so there are likewise in- stitutions especially devoted to the education of boys. — See Milton, Of Education; Schwarz, Erziehungslehre (Leipsic, 1829) ; Rousseau, Emile, ou de l Ed 'wet it 'ion; H.I. Schmidt, His- tory of Education (N. Y., 1842); Hailman, History of Pedagogy (Cincinnati, 1874.) BRAIDWOOD, Thomas, a noted teacher of deaf-mutes, was born in Scotland in 1715, and died at Hackney, near London, in 1806. He kept an establishment at Dumbiedikes, near Edinburgh, which was the first regular school for deaf-mutes in Great Britain. It is this in- stitution that Dr. Johnson praised so highly, and in which, as recorded by Boswell, he gave one of his sesquipedalia verba, to test the skill of the pupils in articulation. (See Boswell's Life of Johnson.) Subsequently, Braidwood kept a school at Hackney, near London, in which he continued till his death, and which was after- ward maintained by his widow and grand-chil- dren till lslG. He kept his methods of instruc- tion secret as far as possible; but the chief tea tn of his system was articulation and reading from the lip. The manual alphabet was like- wise employed. An account of his Edinburgh school was published by Francis Green of Los- ton, the father of one of Braidwood 's pupils, in a work entitled Vox ocu/is subjecta (London, 178::). BRAILLE, Louis, the inventor of a tan- gible point system for the instruction of the- blind, was born near Paris in 1809, and died in 1852. He lost his sight at a very early age, and 100 BRAIN" BRAZIL was instructed in the institute for the blind at Paris. He was highly distinguished for his in- telligence, and the rapidity with which he ac- complished himself in various branches of knowl- edge, particularly music ; and besides being a skillful player upon several other instruments, was reckoned among the best organists of his time. At the age of eighteen, he became a pro- fessor in the Royal institute ; and while in that position (about 1839), devised his method of writing, based on the point system of ML ( narles Barbier, which he also applied to musical nota- tion. Le systems Braille was introduced in most of the continental schools. A new system of tangible point writing and printing has, quite recently, been devised by William B. Wait, superintendent of the New York institution for the blind, in which the letters which occur oftenest, such as e, this process ; and unless her cai'e is interfered wit li through the ignorance, folly, or neglect of the mother or nurse, it results in a healthy growth and development. When the age of in- fancy is passed, and the child is surrendered to the educator, intelligence and skill may accom- plish much benefit in regulating the cerebral de- velopment : or a want of skill and intelligence may do, and often does, very great injury. Ex- ercise is the natural instrument by which all the bodily organs are brought to a maturity of growth and strength, and by which they are kept in a condition of health. In applying this principle, the teacher should see that the exercise be proper, (1) as to its kind, (2) as to its degree, (3) as to its direction ; and in all these respects, thai ii is adapted to the age and peculiar phys- ical conduit f the child to be educated. The same processwil] not answer for all. The teacher who wishes to do good, whose aim is really to educate, will study the external indications of temperament, of bodily health and disease, and also of cerebral structure; and will, as fai possible, regulate his operations accordingly. The brain i-^ exercised both by thought and feeling ; being the seat of various faculties, both mental and moral, its activities are aroused by whatever is addressed to the intellect, the conscience, the emotions, or the propensities. " The first step," says Combe. " towards establishing the regular exercise of the brain, is to educate and train the mental faculties in youth ; and the second is to place the individual habitually in circumstances demanding the discharge of useful and impor- tant duties." The healthy development of the brain may be prevented ( 1 ) by wrong exercise, ('_') by being overtasked, (3) by bad physical con- ditions. (4) by bad moral conditions. Over- strained or too long continued attention, excess- ive tasks from books, committed to memory under the pressure of fear, long confinement in close rooms, and hence the want of properly oxygenated air. will impair the functions of the brain, and lay the foundation, not only of future disease, but perhaps of future imbecility. So, too, when subjected to harsh disci] .line, to un- kind treatment, to a moral atmosphere vitiated by the irritability, ill-humor, and moroseness of the ] talent or teacher, the brain of the child loses even its natural or normal physical condi- tion ; and its growth is necessarily morbid. (See Physical Education.) BRAZIL, an empire of South America, having an area of .'!. '288,100 sq. in., and a popula- tion, according to the census of L872, of 9,700,187. It is one of the most important states of the world, being exceeded, in extent, only by the Russian, British, and Chinese empires, and by the United States ; while, in regard to popula- tion, it ranks as the Kith state. The established religion of the empire is the Roman Catholic ; but according to Art. 5. of the constitution, all other religions are tolerated, "with their domestic or private forms of worship, in buildings erected for this purpose, but without the exterior form of temples." No person can be persecuted for religious acts or motives. The number of Prot- estants is estimated at about 30.000. The ma- jority of them are Germans, who have about 20 churches and are united in a synod. Besides the German Protestants, there are Knglish and French Protestant churches; and the Presbyteri- ans of the United States haw established a small number of congregations among the native Brazilian population. The national language is the Portuguese. The number of German and Swiss colonies was, in L869, about 50, with about 40,000 German-speaking settlers. The whites number probably one third of the popula- tion, the remaining two-thirds being made up of mixed races, civilized and savage Indians, and Africans, which last form the most numerous unmixed race in the empire. The number of Bavage Indians is estimated at from 250,000 to 500,000. They are divided into a large number of different t lilies and speak many different dialects, though all understand the lingoa geral, which was formed by the priests, traders, and slave hunters, on the basis of the Tupi-Quarani i language of the native tribes Tupi&aa Guaranty The Indians being found unprofitable as slaves, recourse was had to the importation of negroes from Africa. These were treated, until 1850 with almost unparalleled cruelty, though eman- bba/ib m cipation was always encouraged, and no man was debarred by his color from reaching any position inchurch or state. A law, passed Sept. 28., lsTl. provided for the gradual abolition ot slavery. Brazil was discovered and taken possession of for the king of Portugal, in L500, and from that time remained under the control <>t' Portugal, with a short interruption, until L822, when it was declared an independent empire, and Dom Pedro L was proclaimed its first emperor. Ac- n mviing to the constitution of L824, public ele- mentary instruction is gratuitous, and placed under tiie control of the state. Private schools, like all others, are subject to the superintendence of the state government. Public instruction is graded, as in other countries, into primary, secondary, and superior or scientific instruction. Public instruction, like ecclesiastical affairs, be- longs to the department of the minister of the interior. Secondary and primary instruction, arc, however, chiefly regulated by the provincial assemblies, and placed under the administra- tion of the presidents of the provinces. As the Brazilian provinces enjoy a high degree of self- government, there is but little uniformity in the Organization, but generally the provinces have modeled their schools after those of the capital. As long as Brazil was a Portuguese colony, little was done for public instruction; but Dom Pedro I., as soon as he had ascended the throne, showed great interest in the promotion of public education, and established a number of new schools. Still more was done by his son and successor, Pedro II. (since 1831) ; but the provi- sions of the constitution of 1824 were never fully carried out until 1851, when the two cham- bers passed a law authorizing the government to reorganize the systems of higher instruction throughout the empire, and those of secondary and primary instruction in the capital. In ac- cordance with this law, the minister of the inte- rior, Pedreiro de Couto Ferraz, promulgated, Feb. 14.. 1854, the organic provisions which had been drafted by De Almeida Roza, and which have remained the basis of everything that has since been accomplished in Brazil for the promo- tion of public instruction. Brazil has, like Portugal, public schools of the first and second (higher) grade. The course of instruction in the former embraces religion, ethics, reading and writing, the elements of the Portuguese grammar and of arithmetic, with legal weights and measures. In the female schools, instruction is also given in embroidery and other kinds of needle-work. In the schools of the sec- ond grade, the gospels are read and explained, and instruction is given in biblical and universal history, geography, especially that of Brazil, arithmetic, the elements of geometry and en- gineering, drawing, music and gymnastics. The number of schools is as yet entirely insufficient, and as the salaries paid are generally very small, there is a great want of competent teachers. The country owes many important reforms to the zealous minister of the interior. Correa de Oliveira (1871 — L875), who has announced his intention to introduce compulsory instruction and to establish two national normal schools, of which there is as yet a great want, as the few institutions of the kind existing in the provinces can be regarded as only a small beginning of real normal instruction. Before being allowed to teach, all persons have to pass both a written and an oral examination. Thequestions for the former are arranged by the council of studies at the beginning of every school year. This council consists of the general inspector of schools, of the two rectors of the Gollegio de Pedro //., and four elective coun- cilors. There are also 5 assessors, 1 clerk with 1 assistants, and IT delegates of parishes, of whom il belong to the city ot Bio de Janeiro. — Pupils are admitted into the public schools from the 5th to the 15th year of age. The school hours are mostly from 8 to 11 A. M., and 3 to 5£ P. M. The schoobbooks, which must be approved by the inspector general, are to a great extent trans- lations from the French and the English; among them is a translation of Peter Parley's Universal History. The school is opened every day with a short prayer. Corporal punishment is not permitted. Every school is annually examined by a committee consisting of a delegate of the district as president, the teacher, and a third person appointed by the inspector general. The rive most successful scholars receive rewards, consisting of books. The president of the com- mittee makes a report on the examination to the inspector general. According to the report of the minister of public instruction to the legislature for 1872, the number of public primary schools in the capital was 111, with 6,149 scholars, namely 3,900 boys and 2,249 girls. The number of public primary schools in the provinces is 3,4 91 , namely 2,343 for boys, and 1148 for girls, attended by 106,705 scholars, namely 75,594 boys, 29,096 girls, and 2,015 whose sex is not stated. The number of private primary schools is 711, with 19,162 pupils. The total sum expended annually in the provinces for public instruction was 3,362,687 milreis (about $1,836,000). The model secondary school of Brazil is the Colleyio de Pedro II. at Rio, which was organ- ized in 1854. It consists of 2 separate institu- tions, one of which is a boarding and the other a day school, each with its own rector. The num- ber of students was 351 ; of whom 221 were day scholars and 130 boarders. Besides this college, there were in the city of Rio de Janeiro 60 pri- vate secondary schools, — 30 for boys, 25 forgirls, and 5 for both sexes. The course of instruction in these institutions varies somewhat, but in most of them the following subjects are taught: Portuguese. Latin, French, English, natural phi- losophy, arithmetic algebra, geometry, history, geography, rhetoric, and poetry. The number of public secondary institutions in the provinces was 107. with 2.9!) 1 scholars, namely 2,916boys, and 7S girls. The number of private institutions was 12::. with an attendance n\ 5,089 scholars. — 3,852 boys and 1.237 girls. The secondary :]-OU brum; MAN BRITISH COLUMBIA institutions in the province arc under the control of the provincial administration, and there is on tiiat account a great lark of uniformity in their courses of instinct ion and their entire admin- istration. The government of Brazil intends, however, to establish, as soon as practicable, state colleges on a uniform plan. For the (ierinan colonies in the province of Sao Paulo a "Ger- man lyceurn" has been established; most of tin' secondary schools resemble, however, the French lyceums. Brazil has as yet no university : but only tun law faculties at Recife (Pernambuco) and Sao Paulo, with an aggregate number of 542 students, and two medical faculties at Rio de. Janeiro and Bahia, with an aggregate number of 868 stud The establishment of a complete university at Rio de Janeiro is projected, and is urgently recommended by the ministerof public inst rue tion in bis annual reports to the legislature. Theological faculties are connected with nearly all the episcopal seminaries. Of other special schools, there arc at the capital a business college (with 36 students in 1872), an institution for the blind (with L 9 pupils), an institution for deaf- mutes (with 1!) pupils); tli- Central School (sci- entific school), with which a military school is connected, a naval school and a naval artillery school, an academy of fine arts (with 187 stu- dents), a conservatory of music (with 139 stu- dents), and an imperial lyceum of arts and in- dustry, belonging to the society for promoting fine arts, a sort of polytechnic school (with 1,233 Btudents). In the provinces, there are several agricultural and industrial schools. See Lb Rot, in Schmid's Realencyclopadie, vol. ix., pp. 8G9 — 920; Kidder and Fletcher, Brazil and the Brazilians (8th edit., Boston 1866); Aoassiz, A Jonrna/ in Brazil (ls(JS), "Waim'.ki s. Das Kaiserreich Brasilien (Leipsic, 1871); Annual reports of the minister of public instruction of Brazil to the legislature. BEIDGMAN, Laura, a remarkable blind deaf-mute, born at Hanover. N. II., in 1829, is particularly noted as the subject of a very suc- cessful course of training and inst ruction, by means of which she was taught to read, write, and converse with others, and enabled to acqu a knowledge of many useful branches of learn- ing, besides becoming highly accomplished in music. She lost ber sigh! and bearing al the age of two years; and when aboul eight years old, b icame an inmate of the Perkins institution for ill-' blind in Host on. then under the care of Dr. Samuel < b 1 1 owe. so noted lor his benevolence and devoted philanthropy. Finding that she possessed a high degree of intelligence, he resolved, despite the many discouragements of the case, to attempt ber education. Through the sense of touch, he firel associated, by constant repetition, objects with their names in relief letters, and when a few of these were learned and the relation thor- oughly established, be taught her to recognize the separate letters composing each word, and then to construct the words herself from the let- ters. She was then taught the manual alphabet. and its use in naming objects : after which, through these channels of communication, she learned the qualities, uses, and relations of ob- jects, as well as their names. Subsequently, she learned to write and to play upon the piano, in which she became very skillful, and acquired also a dexterity in needle-work and in the perform- ance of many household duties. Her moral and religious education was more difficult; but this also was successfully accomplished, so that, in 1873, I>r. Howe could say of her: " She enjoys life quite as much as most persons do. She reads whatever books she finds in raised print, but especially the Bible. She makes much of her own clothing: and can run a sewing-machine. She seems happiest when she can find some per- son who knows the finger alphabet, and can sit and gossip with her about acquaintances, the news, and general matters. Her moral sense is well developed." This case possesses peculiar value iii showing what can be accomplished by a devoted teacher despite the greatest natural obstacles to the acquisition of knowledge; and is a most encouraging example of the result of patience n<\d address on the part of the educator. — See I'.aknakd's Ameri'-an .Journal of Erfu- rt, vol. xi. s. v. Samuel G. Howe. BRITISH COLUMBIA, a province of the Dominion of Canada, having an area of about 233,000 sq. m.. and a population, in 1871, of 8,576 whites, 462 negroes, and 1548 Chinese; total, 10,586, exclusive of Indians, estimated at 35,000 to 40,000. It was created a distinct colonial government by an act of parliament passed .Vug. 2., 1858. In 1866, Vancouver Island was united with British Columbia under one government; and. in 1871, British Columbia was admitted into the Dominion of Canada. Although a common school ordinance was passed in lSfi!) and amended in 1870, the real foundation of the educational system in this prov- ince was the public school act of 1872. This law is an adaptation of the Ontario act. and its enactment was advised by the superintendent. himself a teacher trained in the Toronto normal school. Amendments were made to the first act in 1873, and a further act was passed in 1874. The act provides for an annual -rant of $40,000 as a public school fund, and for the appointment by the government of six persons, to hold office during its pleasure, as a board of education : also of an experienced person to be superintendent of education, who shall be exoffieio chairman of the board. School districts arc established and altered h\ the government . which also makes -rants for teachers' .salaries, the erection and fur- nishing of school houses, and current expenses, and establishes other schools, without a district. where needed. The board of education prescribes a uniform Beries of text-books to be used, and provides for their supply to the schools, makes general regulations, examines teachers and -rants certificates, appoints teachers and lixes their salaries, purchases and distributes school ap- paratus, and may establish high schools. The superintendent visits each school once a year. BROOKLYN 103 a instruction, enforces the law, suspends, if necessary, a teacher's license till the meeting of tin' board, -rants temporary certificates, settles disputed elections, and makes an annual report. An annual meeting for the election of trustees is held in each district in January. There are three trustees, of whom one retires at the annual meet- ing, and no trustee may be a superintendent or teacher. The trustees appoint the place of and call the annual meeting, on ten days' notice. No uncertificated teacher can be engaged in a public school. All public schools must lie conducted Upon strictly non-sectarian principles, no religious dogma or creed being permitted to be taught. •In Iges, clergymen, members of the legislature, and others interested arc visitors. 'The compul- sory clause provides that trustees may make by- laws, with the sanction of the superintendent, for requiring the attendance, at some school, of chil- dren between the ages of 7 and 1 I years, with certain limitations as to distance, etc. The act of L874 provides for the establishment of public boarding-schools. Such schools are managed by three trustees, who are appointed by the gov- ernor and hold office during bis pleasure; and these officers appoint the teachers. The teachers under the board are paid on the following scale: For an average attendance of from 10 to 20 pupils, $50 a month : from 20 to 90, $60; 30 to 40, $70; in to 50, $80. When the average ex- ceeds 50, the school is entitled to an assistant. Teachers whose schools are far inland receive £10 a month more. The estimated number of children of school age was, in 1874, about 2,240, of whom 1,245 at- tended school some portion of the year ; this was an increase of 711 over 1872. in consequence of the exceeding sparseness of the population, the boarding system has been introduced : and one such school was, in 1875, in successful oper- ation. The compulsory clause of the act did not work successfully, its enforcement being op- tional with the local authorities. The total ex- penditure for the public schools for the year was $35,287, of which 822,219 was paid for teachers' salaries. An additional sum of $6,657 was ex- pended by the superintendent in supplying books and apparatus. There were .'!li teachers in the The establishment of high schools at \ ictoria and New Westminster was advocated by Superintendent John Jessop in L875. The rising city of Nanaimo has a school of a higher grade (St. Paul's School), in connection with the Episcopal church. It was originally established in L862, but was (dosed in 1870, and re-opened September 1874. — See Marltng, <'">< do do for bonks and stationery. . . 6,616.61 do do for colored schools 11,164.78 .do do for other expenses 434,221.42 Total expenditure $l,4!t:S,339.58 School System. — The system consists of a board of education of 45 members, a superintendent of public instruction and an associate superintendent. The city is divided into .'51 districts, containing 34 grammar and intermediate school buildings, 11 separate primary schools and 1 colored schools; making the total number of the district schools 49; liesiiles which there are 16 evening schools, (2 for colored pupils), 1 evening high school, and 9 corporate, or orphan asylum, schools. Most of the grammar departments of the schools are for both sexes. The school age is from 5 to 21. The members of the board of education are appoint- ed for three years by the common council, on the nomination of the mayor, one-third of the board retiring each year. The board elects the su- perintendent ami associate superintendent, whose term of office is three years, appoints teachers and determines their salaries, prescribes the course of instruction for the schools and the books to be used therein, and makes all needful regulations tor the management of the same. It has the power to purchase sites and erect school- houses with the consent of the common council to purchase text-books for use in the schools, and to sell or donate them to the pupils. Each school is under the particular charge of a local commit- tee of the board of education. The course of instruction includes six grades for tlie primary departments and six for the grammar departments. The studies prescribed for the former are reading, spelling, arithmetic as far as long division, elementary geography, and writing; in the latter, in addition to these studies, English grammar and composition, higher geography and arithmetic, etymology, the history of the United States, astronomy, pen- manship, drawing, and book-keeping, together with natural philosophy and algebra as optional studies. Under the direction of the local com- mittee and the superintendent, a supplementary ci mrse. including higher branches, may be pursued. This grade is, in fact, an academic course in all respects except the study of Latin. Vocal music is taught in all the grades. Each grade of study occupies one half of the school year, or about 5 months. There is no high school or colleg connected with the system ; but the board of education has at its disposal 99 free scholarships, in colleges and seminaries for the benefit of pub- lic-school pupils, the average value of each of which is about $100. Examination and Qualification of Teachers. — The grade of scholarship of each teacher is fixed by the superintendent, after examination in one of the classes designated A, B, and C. As most of the appointments are made from the supplementary classes, the certificates graded B or 0, are those usually granted at first. Those of grade (' license to teach any primary grade; those of B, any below the fourth grammar grade. Certificates of the highest grade (A) are con- ferred upon those only who have presented evi- dence of superior efficiency as well as superior scholarship. No provision exists for the instruction of teachers other than that afforded by the supple- mentary classes of the grammar schools. Private Seminaries and Schools. — The pri- vate educational institutions of Brooklyn are very numerous, and many of them quite cele- brated for their efficiency and high grade of scholarship. The Packer Collegiate institute, incorporated in 1853, is a female seminary of high reputation. It was named after William S. Packer, from whose widow the institution received a large endowment. It has a corps of about 40 instructors, between 700 and 800 stu- dents, and a library of nearly 5.000 volumes. It has also a large number of free and endowed scholarships. The Brooklyn Collegiate and Polytechnic Institute, for males, was founded in L854, with a capital stock subsequently in- creased to SI OO.oiii). It is under the manage- ment of a board of 17 trustees. In 1874, it had a corps of 30 instructors, and 605 students, of whom 136 were in the collegiate department. The value of its grounds, buildings, and appa- ratus was estimated at $164,000, and its receipts from tuition fees amounted to about $63,000. The Adelphi Academy, incorporated in 1869, is also an institution of a high grade of efficiency. In L 874, its corps of instructors numbered 29, and the whole number of students was 546. The BROWN BUCHTLL colli;*;!'] 105 value of its grounds, buildings, etc. was $160,000, and its annual income from tuition feea was about sin.iiiii). The institution is non-sectarian. For (he early history of education in Brooklyn, see D.T. Pratt, Annate of Public Education in the state of New York ( Albany, I 872);Stile3, Hist wry of the < Hty of Brooklyn (3 vols, N.Y., I 864— '70.) BROWN, Goold, an eminent American grammarian, was born in Providence, 11. L, in 1791, and died at Lynn, Mass., in L857. He was a teacher for more than twenty years in the city of New York. His Institutes of English Grammar (N. Y., 1823), and First Lines of English Grammar (N. I., 1823) .have been more extensively used in the schools of this country than any other grammatical tert-books. The edition of these works with Kiddle's Analysis nf Sentences has still a very wide circulation. Qoold Brown's Grammar of English Gram- niirrs (X. Y, 1851) is probably the most exten- sive and complete treatise on the subject ever published. This work contains a very valuable catalogue of works on English Grammar. See 10th edition with index, by Samdel W. Berrian (X. V.. 1871). BROWN UNIVERSITY, at Providence, R. I. formerly called Rhode Island College, was founded in 1 7(14, through the instrumentality of the association of Baptist churches at Philadel- phia, and by the aid of certain prominent Bap- tists of Newport. A charter was obtained in 1764, one of the provisions of which was, " that into this liberal and catholic institution shall never be admitted any religious tests; but, on the contrary, all the members hereof shall for- ever enjoy full, free, absolute, and uninterrupted liberty of conscience ; and that the public teach- ing shall, in general, respect the sciences, and that the sectarian differences of opinions shall not make any part of the public and classical in- struction." Of the 12 members of the board of fellows, having the government of the college, 8, including the president, must be Baptists ; and of the board of 36 trustees, 22 must be Baptists, 5 Friends, 4 Congregationalists, and 5 Episcopa- lians, representing the proportion of each denom- ination in the colony at the time of the char- ter. The first president of the college was the Bev. James Manning, D. D., who served till 1791. During this period, the seat of the college was fixed at Providence; and, during a part of the Revolutionary period, the operations of the institution were suspended, the college building being occupied by the state militia, and by the troops of Rochambeau. The Rev. Jonathan Maxcy, I >. I >.. was the second president, who served from 17!U to 1802, when he resigned, and was succeeded by the Rev. Asa Messer, l>. I>., who held the position till 1826. During his in- cumbency, in I si) |. the name of the institution was changed to Brown University, in. honor of Nicholas Brown, from whom it had received the most munificent donations. Dr. Messer was suc- ceeded in 1x27 by the Lev. Francis Wayland, D. D., LL. !>., who resigned in L855, and was fol- lowed by the Rev. Lamas Sears. D.D., LL. !>.. who served till 18(17, and was succeeded by the Lev. Alexis Caswell, Q.D., LL. D. In January, 1x72, he was succeeded by the presenl incumbent, the Lev. E. G. Robinson, I>. !>.. LL. I). The in- stitution has five college buildings and a mansion for the president. Its situation is commanding and salubrious, the inclosed college grounds cover- inga space of 1 <*> acres. The value of its grounds, buildings, and apparatus is estimated at $1,500,000; the amount of its productive funds, including scholarships, is stated (1876) as $662,555. The average amount of scholarship funds exceeds 950,000. In addition to the classical and scientific courses, there have been established departments of practical science, including (1) chemistry, applied to the arts, (2) civil engineering, and (3) agriculture. This is for the benefit of students who wish to prepare themselves for such pursuits as especially require the knowledge of the mathe- matical and physical sciences, and their applica- tions to the industrial arts. There are two parallel courses of instruction for the degree of bachelor — ■ of arts, and of philosophy, each extending through a period of three years. The one is largely com- posed of classical studies, the other substitutes, for them a larger amount of scientific studies. Arrangements are made by which students have daily exercises in the gymnasium. The univer- sity library contains 4:>,, and a resolution was adopted to establish a common school in each, with departments according to its needs and numbers, and a " Central School, where all the higher branches necessary to a complete English education could be pursued;" and. in all these schools, education was to b i entirely free. In 1839, live new and commo lions school-houses were built. In L853-4, important changes were made in tiir city charter, by which, and by ordinances of the city council in pursuance of the .same, the sm received its present organization. In 1*73. Superintendent Larned endeavored to secure the passage of a law creating a board of c lueation, to have the management of the schools; but the measure met with but little popular favor, and did not prevail. — The city superintendents have been as follows: Under election for one year by the common council, R.W. Haskins, \. I*. Sprague, and 0. G. Steele, successively, daring 1837; Oliver (J. Steele. 1838, -39, -45, and -51 ; Daniel Bowen, 1840, -46, and 19; Silas Kingsley, 1841; Samuel Cald- well, 1842 and -43 ; Ettas S. Ilawlev. 18 II, -47, and -48; Henry K. Viele, 1850; Victor M. Bice, -52 and 53 ; under the new law, electing for two years, Ephraim F. Cook. 1854—5 and'ls.V, —7 ; Joseph 'Warren, 1858—9 ; Sandford B. Hunt, L860— 61 ; John B. Sackett, L862— 3; Henry 1). Garvin, L864— 5 ; John S. Fosdick, 1866 7; Samuel Slade, 1868— 9; Thomas Loth- rop , L870 — 71 : Josephus N. Larned, 1S72— 3; William S. Rice, 1874—5, and re-elected for the term which expires I >cc. 31., 1 B77. School System. — By the charter of 1853 — 4, the schools are under the control of the com- mon council, an 1 arc free to all persons between the ages of 5 and 20 years. Colored children are admitted to any of the schools, but one Colored school must Ik- maintained. The cost of sites and school houses must lie assessed on the property of Bchool - districts ; bu1 all other ex- panses are pail out of the general fund or by tax. The Central High School is entitled to share in all appropriations to academies; and the districts participate in the apportionment to public schools. — The superintendent of education La elected on general city tickel for two years. He is the chief executive officer of the depart- ment of education ; and his duties are, to recom- mend courses of study, to hire teachers, who are subject to bis directions ; under direction of the city council, to contract for lots, houses, and supplies, and to carry into effect all provisions relating to education. — The course of study is divided into ten grades, and embraces, besides the common branches, drawing, composition, vocal music, and, in some schools, German. "Educational Condition. — The number of school-districts is 35; of schools with one de- partment, 14; with two departments, 11 ; with three, 17 ; of night schools, 7. The principal items of school statistics for the year ending Dec. 31., 187(3, are as follows : Whole number of children enrolled (estimated) 40,000 No. of pupils registered in day schools 23,000 No. of pupils registered in night schools 1,121 Xo. of teachers em ployed 420 Receipts from school fund. . . $77,552.27 " by tax 237,597.73 Total $315,150.00 Total expenditures $313,750.00 Of the 42 principals employed, 33 are males. with salaries ranging from $550 to SI .450; and '.) arc females, with salaries ranging from 8550 to $800. The salaries of assistants range from $400 to $650. The amount paid for salaries is $275,000. In the ( 'entrai School, the courses of study are a shorter English course, requiring two years, and an English and a classical course, each re- quiring three years. The Regent's examination in full admits to the two regular courses. In 187(i, there were in attendance 159 boys and 220 girls; and the number of teachers was 14, the amount of whose salaries was 815,750. The state normal school at Buffalo was opened in 1871. The common council appropriated 845,000, and the supervisors of the county, an equal sum, for the erection of a building, on a site com- prising 5 acres, given for the purpose by Jesse Ketehum, for the nominal sum of 8-1.5(10. Pupils are admitted, at 1 (i years of age, on the recom- mendation of the local school officers, and after passing an examination in the common English branches. Parochial Schools. — There are 15 parochial schools for instruction in common branches, in connection with the Roman Catholic Church, 2 colleges, and several convent and Sisters' schools. In the first, during the year ending Dec. 31.. L876, there were 7.!>7f> pupils, taught by 98 teach- ers. Canisius College is conducted by Jesuit Fathers, assisted by lay teachers: in L876, it had 1 Hi students. St. Joseph's College is under the charge of Christian Brothers, with 300 pupils. Private Schools. — The Buffalo Female A.cad- emy was organized in L851. It is under the con- trol of a hoard of trustees, and hasa collegiate de- partment, academic departments, and a primary department, other schools are. the Beathcote school for hoys. and the Buffalo Classical School, the latter a school of lone, standing. Besides these, then' are numerous other schools. ( 'atholic ami Protestant, both for boys and for girls. BUGEXIIAGEN BUREAU OF EDCCATION 107 BUGENHAGEN, Johann, one of the leaden of the German reformation in the six- teenth century, was born in 1485, at Wollin in Pomerania, and died in L558. NV\t to Melanch- fchon, be was the most prominenl educator among the fathers of German Protestantism. When onlv is wars of age, In 1 was placed at the bead of the school of Treptow, which soon became BO famous that it attracted scholars from various countries of northern Europe. In L517, he was called by the abbot of Belbuck to assume the office of teacher of theology to his convent. Alter joining the reformation, he was for some rears professor at the university of Wittenberg; but from 1536 until his death, his time was chiefly devoted to carrying on the work of the Reforma- tion in various . mnt i - In connection with every Protestant church, he endeavored to estab- lish a Protestant school, and he is believed to have thus done more for tfte spread of education in Prot -tint Germany than even Luther him- self. The church established by him in the duchy of Brunswick served as a model fora large Dumber of others. The church constitution of this duchy, drawn up by him in 1528, provides for the establishment of two Latin schools for boys, each with three teachers, of two German s hools for boys, and four girls' schools. The in- iction given in these schools consisted chiefly in teaching the catechism and singing; but in the girls' schools, biblical history was an essential branch. The poor were to be aided as much as possible to obtain admission into these schools, and the heads of the parish were to exercise a careful supervision over the education of all the children. In the villages and towns, the sexton was expected to give instruction to the lowest classes. To aid this work of teaching, Bugen- hagen translated the Bible into Low German, very closely following the High German trans- lation of Luther. BUREAU OF EDUCATION, National, an office in the Department of the Interior of the government of the United States, organized in pursuance of an act of congress approved March 2., lSI>7. This office had its rise in the need, Ion,' felt by leading educators, of some central agency by which the general educational statistics of the country could be collected, preserved, con- densed, and properly arranged for distribution. In February, 1866, a m -mortal was presented to the House of Representatives, asking for the establishment of a national bureau of education. This memorial emanated from the National As- sociation of State and City School-Superintend- ents, aiid enumerated the following as the means by which the proposed bureau coiil 1 promote the interests of education : "(1) By securing greater uniformity ami accuracy in school statistics, and so interpreting them that they may be more widely available and reliable as educational tests and measures; (2) By bringing together the re- sults of school-systems in different communities, s. and countries, and determining their com- parative value : (3) By collecting the results of all important experiments in new and special methods of school instruction and management, ami making them the common property of school- officers and teachers throughout the country; (I) By diffusing among the people information re- specting the school-laws of the different states ; the various modes of providing and disbursing school-funds ; the different classes of school-officers and their relative duties: the qualifications re- quired of teachers, the modes of t heir examina- tion, and the agencies provided for their special training; the best methods of classifying and grading schools, improved plans of school houses, together with modes of heating and ventilation. etc., —information now obtained only by a few persons and at great expense, but which is of the highest value to all intrusted with the manage- ment of schools ; (5) By aiding communities and states in the organization of school-systems in which mischievous errors shall be avoided, and vital agencies and well-tried improvements be included; (61 By the general diffusion of correct ideas respecting the value of education asaquiek- ener of intellectual activities, as a moral renova- tor, as a multiplier of industry and a consequent producer of wealth, and. finally, as the strength and shield of civil liberty." The act establishing the bureau prescribes that its operations shall be the •■ collecting of such statistics and facts as shall show the condition and progress of education in the several states and territories, and the diffus- ing of such information respecting the organiza- tion and management of school-systems and methods of teaching as shall aid the people of the United States in the establishment and maintenance of efficient school - systems and otherwise promote the cause of education." Henry Barnard, LL. D., was the first commis- sioner of education, appointed in pursuance of this law ; and under him the Bureau was organ- ized and put in operation. Two reports were is- sued by him, that of 1867 — 8, and a special re- port on the District of Columbia ; but for several reasons, chiefly the want of congressional co-oper- ation and support, the operations of the Bureau, during this period, were neither extensive nor of considerable importance. On the 17th of March, 1870, Dr. Barnard retired, and was succeeded by John Eaton, Jr.. the present incumbent, during ax years of whose administration, the Bureau has accomplished a vast amount of work. Be- sides the five annual reports, from 1870 to 1874, it has issued twenty-seven circulars of informa- tion, containing important summaries of intelli- gence relating to the condition of education in foreign countries, or upon other interesting edu- cational topics. The relation of the Bureau to the educational authorities of the country, which are exclusively under state control, is entirely ancillary. Its office is to aid by dispensing information, not to direct. It has no] lower to demand information; but is en- tirely dependent upon the courtesy of the state and city authorities and officials in affording proper replies to its interrogatories. 'The extent of its operations in gathering information will be ap- parent from the following statement extracted 108 BUI? MAT OF EDUCATION BCRGHER SCHOOL from a recent "Statement," issued under the authority of the Bureau itself : — " The field for exploration it presents embraces the thirty-seven states and eleven territories. To make the exploration thorough, the bureau must examine every school law, and mark whatever change or amendment may be made, including the charters of city boards of education, with their rides and ordinances. It must sift, for things deserving general attention, the reports of every state-, county-, and city-superintendent of the public schools that may be sent to it. It must get at the work not only of the public high schools, but also of the private academies and special preparatory schools. It must look through the annual catalogues and calendars of a long list of colleges and universities; schools of divinity, law, medicine, and science; reformatories, and institutions for the training of the deaf and dumb, the blind, and the feeble-minded— selecting from each wdiat is worthy to be noted in the way of either improvement or defect. And, besides all this, it. must keep its eyes wide open to ob- serve the growth of libraries, museums, schools of art or industry, and other aids to the proper training of the people; must see what the edu- cational journals say as to school-matters in their several states; must note what maybe worth pre- serving in the utterances at teachers' associations and gatherings of scientific men ; and must keep up, with reference to all these things, an incessant correspondence with every portion of the country. In fact, its correspondence reaches, more or less directly, to the 48 states and territories, to 206 cities, 132 normal schools or departments, I 1 1 business colleges, 54 kindergarten, 1,455 acad- emies, 103 schools especially engaged in prepar- ing pupils for the colleges, 240 institutions for the higher training of young women, 383 colleges and universities, 73 schools of science, 115 of theology, 37 of law. and 98 of medicine; with 58f) libraries. 26 art museums, natural history. Ill institutions tion of deaf-mutes, 28 for the feeble-minded, 4(10 for orphans, reformation of misguided youth.'' The diffusion of information by the Bureau takes a wide range, embracing not only full and statistical information in regard to the progress and condition of education in the United States, but as to the " ministries of instruction in the several European states, as to the useful sugges- tions in foreign educational reports and journals, and as to the systems of training in the universi- ties, gymnasia, real-scl Is. schools of architec- ture and drawing, and the various institutions of primary education in every civilized com- munity or state." Tin' mode of disseminating this intelligence is, il ) By mi ii mil reports^ each giving abstracts of the various classes of instruc- tion (such as primary, secondary, superior, pro- ional and special), with lists and statistics of noticeable institutions and estimates of progress or retrogression in various lines; (2) By occasional circulars of information (of which 27 have been lied up io L876) ; and (3) By written answers 53 museums of for the instruc- blind, for the and 45 for the \ to inquiries on school matters addressed to the commissioner. The amount of intelligence con- veyed, by these means, with respect to educational systems, school laws, and important institutions, j is such as has never previously been made gener- ally accessible in the United States, and such, certainly, as no single state, much less any single individual or private association, coidd have obtained, without an expenditure which it would have probably been either unable or unwilling to ! incur. While there is a very emphatic and general opposition in the United States to the establish- ment of any national system of education, or to- j conferring upon the general government the right to interfere in any way with the state systems, there has nevertheless been generally manifested a full appreciation of the value of the Bureau of Education as now constituted, and a cordial disposition to supply the Commis- sioner with the fullest replies to his inquiries for information, as well as with copies of all edu- cational documents issued under state or city authority. In bringing about this very desirable state of things, of course, the manner in which the affairs of the Bureau have been administered has had much to do. It would he easy by an injudicious course to bring about an antagonism that would most effectually prevent any further progress. An educational library of probably unsur- passed richness is another of the valuable fruits of the work of the Bureau. This is, in part, composed of choice collections bearing on the history and art of education in this country and abroad; in part, of the accumulations made in the process of annual examination into the con- dition of public-school instruction, the state of academies anil colleges, and the rise and work of professional and special schools. This library.it is said, for purposes of practical investigation, is superior to any other educational library in exist- ence, except, perhaps, the one at Vienna. With its vast accumulations from year to year, its value as a library of reference is constantly increasing. — See Reports of U.S. Commissioner of Edu- cation, INTO — I: also XulioiKil Bureau of Education; its History, Work, and Institutions, a pamphlet by Alex. Shtras, !>.!>., prepared under the direction of the < 'ommissioner of Hdu- cation i Washington, L875). BURGHER SCHOOL (Ger. Burgerschule), a name given to many public schools of a higher grade in the towns of Germany, designed to ed- ucate the children of citizens for a practical busi- ness lite. Formerly, the course of instruction in the town schools embraced the ancient languages; and the study of Latin, in particular, was fre- quently, even as late as the eighteenth century, regarded as the most important part of the entire course. In the last quarter of the eighteenth century, a radical reform began gradually to lie. effected. Teachers and school authorities investi- gated the comparative usefulness of the different branches of instruction for all those classes ol towns-people who did not follow one of tin; BURLINGTON UNIVERSITY BUSINESS COLLEGES 109 learned professions, and the conclusion generally bed was, that natural science, geography, history, and similar Btudies are of very much higher advantage to the future citizen, than a knowledge of Latin. The organization of the town schools was gradually changed, in accord- ance with these principles; and, on Jan. '2.. L804, the first B&rgersckiue was opened at Leipsic. Since that time, a large number of flourishing i ils bearing this name have sprung up in the large cities. In the further development of the school system of Germany, the term, as a dis- tinctive name, has to a great extent been dropped, and the schools formerly thus designated consti- tute, under various names, the higher division of the Vblksschulen. The name hdhere B'tir- '•• is identical with the more common 1! . (See Real School, and Germany.) BURLINGTON UNIVERSITY, at Bur- lington, Iowa, was founded by the Baptists, in 1852. In 1875 — 6, it had (i0 students, and a corps of 8 professors and other instructors. The value of its grounds, buildings, and apparatus is about 840,000; its endowment fund, about $20,000. Prof. L. E. Worcester has been the president of the institution since 1872. The annual tuition fee is 812. BUSBY, Richard, D. D., one of the most noted of English pedagogues, was born in Lutton, Northamptonshire, in 1(306, and died in 1695. He was educated in the Westminster School and Oxford University ; and, in 1 640, was ap- pointed head-master of Westminster, in which position he continued for more than fifty years. It was here that he achieved his great fame as the most successful school-master of his age, and the most imperious one too, for his frequent and excessive use of the rod or birch has made his name proverbial. Within his school he was the most arbitrary of despots ; and it is said that when the king entered his school-room, he would not remove his hat, being unwilling that the boys should deem any one his superior. When taxed with the severity of his punishments, he pointed to the many illustrious and learned men whom he had educated in his school, among whom at one time he could number no less than sixteen bishops. Dr. South, one of the most eminent of his pupils, was at first a very dull, obstinate, and intractable scholar ; but Dr. Busby discerned his latent genius, and used his utmost efforts to bring it forth, in the doing of which the rod was by no means spared, and the master lived to enjoy his pupils fame as one of the most brilliant pulpit orators of his time. Dr. Busby's works as an author were confined to some text-books, which he compiled for the use of schools. BUSINESS COLLEGES, as now existing in the United States, are the product of individual effort directed to the supplying of a public want. As distinct institutions, they are the outgrowth of the past thirty years, although schools and private classes for instruction in the commercial branches — particularly book-keeping and pen- manship — have been in vogue for a much longer time. Thirty years ago, most of this kind of in- struction was given by a few private teachers in the large cities (who generally united the duties of teacher with those of public accountant), and by itinerant professors who traveled from place to place, teaching special classes for a limited num- ber of lessons at low rates. These teachers or professors were often authors of books or of systems claiming pre-eminence over the ordinary school methods; and by confining themselves to the work in which they excelled, they undoubt- edly accomplished much good. The utility of this practical training was readily apparent, and as a matter of self-protection no less than of self- respect, the established schools, public and private, were induced to recognize the importance of these useful branches, and to supply instruction therein in more liberal measure. There sprung up also, in the large cities and villages, schools, making the practical studies a specialty, and calling themselves commercial or mercantile colleges. Home of them were organized under state char- ters and authorized to issue diplomas in due form. • These institutions placed themselves before the public as professional schools, assuming the same relations to the future business-man as those which already existed between the medical, law, and theological schools, and the members of those various professions. Among the pioneers in this work, may be mentioned R. M. Bartlett of Cincinnati, Peter Duff of Pittsburgh, James Arlington Bennett of New York, and George N. Comer of Boston. As there was no unity of action among these teachers and no means of measuring their indi- vidual efforts, either absolutely or relatively, it is impossible to say what was the prescribed course of study adopted, or to what extent the various schools made good the claim to their chosen title. But the respect in which they were held by the community, and the fact that they supplied in a good measure preliminary training which had heretofore been obtainable only in counting- houses, is presumptive evidence that they deserved the recognition and support which they received. The time required for a full course of study in these pioneer schools varied, according to the capacity of the student, from three weeks to three months ; wdiereas. the reputable business colleges of to-day do not pretend to graduate their stu- dents in less than from one to two years. These facts alone must be accepted as evidence of a substantial increase in the body of learning which makes up the college course. Not only have the main studies, — book-keeping, penmanship, and arithmetic, been materially enlarged and intensified, but other not less important branches have been added, the purpose and effect of this being to give form and symmetry to the training, and to meet the increased demand for broadly educated accountants and clerks. Among the branches which have been added are political economy, including civil government ; commercial law ; correspondence, embracing the elements of English composition and practical grammar; pho- nography and modern languages, particularly German, French, and Spanish. Some institutions 110 BUTTMANN CALIFORNIA have also made a prominent feature of telegraphy. But the feature which attracts most attention. both from its novelty and its usefulness, per- tains to the practical methods of applying in- struction under the guise of real business opera- tions. This plan embraces the organizing of the advanced students into business communities, so adjusted in their workings as to represent the varied interests anil intercourse which exist in the outside world. Thus, certain members are established as merchants, others as agents or brokers, others as manufacturers, others as im- porters and jobbers, others as bankers, etc.: each in his turn serving in these several relations, and all together performing the functions of a work- ing community. Not only is this method carried on in the separate schools, but some of the most prominent among them in the larger cities have established a system of intercommunication by which the work is widely extended through postal correspondence. Thus representative merchandise is really shipped by the members of one school to those of another, drafts ate drawn, remittances made, extended business settlements effected. and. in fact, all the minute details of a varied business are carried on. As will be seen, this extended correspondence and co-operation give the best opportunity for effective criticism and discipline, and may be made as completely the rehearsal of the future business man for his life-work, as is the clinical practice of the medical college or the moot-court of the law school. The business colleges of America differ in important respects from those of European coun- tries. The commercial colleges of Germany and France are less professional in their design and less practical in their operations. In France particularly, the commercial schools are under government patronage and direction, and aim to Supply not only well-trained clerks for the civil service, but educated sailors and scieut ilic ship- builders as well. The course of study covers three years, and is definitely prescribed by the government. The American business schools, on the other hand, having no public recognition, except ;is the result of individual work — with no official supervision to inspire or control their actions, are as various in their methods ami their degrees of excellence as are other purely business enterprises. And there is little doubt that, like other business enterprises, they will continue to meet the increasing demand for faithful work, until they shall become as much a part of our educational system as are the classical and pro- fessional schools and colleges, whose purposes and scope are more definitely fixed in the public mind. 'I he report for 1 874 of the I '. S. ( lommissioner of Education showed that then' were L38of these institutions in the diff erenl Btatesof the Union, in 126 of which there were "'77 instructors, and '_' students, of whom 2,867 were females. BUTTMANN, Philipp Karl, a German professor of classical literature, was born at Frankfort on the Main, in 17(1-1. and died in Berlin, in 1829. After completing his studies at the university of Gbttingen, he was for a time tutorof the princes of Anhalt-Dessau, became, in L789, assistant secretary, and in L796 secretary of the royal library of Berlin, in L800 professor at the Joachimsthal Gymnasium, and in 1 si 1 librarian and member of the academy of science. He was also, from L803 to I -I "J. editor of the Spener'sche Zeitung. Buttmann is the author of three * beek grammars, two of which, prepared for the gymnasia (Griechische Grammatik. Ber- lin, 1792, 22d edit.. L869, Griechische Schul- grammatik, Berlin, 181(i. 17th edit.. L875), have had for many wars an almost exclusive sway in many learned institutions. Both have been trans- lated into English He also published Lexilogus, an explanation of Greek words, especially for Homer and llesiod (Berlin, 1818 — L825, EngL transL, 3d ed., London, L846); Muihologus, a col- lection of essays on the legends of antiquity (Berlin, L828— 1829), and editions of several Greek and Latin classics. CADET. Pee Military Schools, and Naval Schools. CADETS' COLLEGE, (lie name of a de- partment of the Royal Military College at Sand- hurst, England. Its objects are, to give a sound military education i" youths intended for the army, and to facilitate the obtaining of commis- sions when the education is completed. Appli- cation for admission is made to the commander in chief, who, mi the production of satisfactory Certificates and references, gives permission to place the name of the youth applying on the list of candidates. The age for admission is between 16 and l!>. The course for admission includes English composition, modern languages, math- ematics, geography, history, the natural and e\ perimental Sciences, and drawing. After exami- nation, the candidates are reported to the com- mander in chief in the order of merit ; and those who have the highest standing are admitted as cadets as soon as vacancies occur in the college. When admitted, they study for two years a great variety of subjects connected with military sci- ence and practice: and when the course is C - pleted, the cadets are eligible to the reception of commissions in the cavalry and infantry, a cer- tain number of which are placed at the disposal of the college. CALIFORNIA was a part of the territory which was ceded to the United States at the close of the .Mexican war. It was admitted into the Onion as a state Sept. I'.. 1850. Educational History.— The foundation of the school system of the state Wafi laid by the consti- tutional convention at Monterey, in 1849, by a provision tor appropriating for school pur):, the proceeds to be derived from the sale ot the 500,000 acres of land. granted by Congress to new CALIFORNIA 111 states, for the purpose of infernal improvements. This measure was carried after a sharp struggle, and by one vote. The constitution also provided far a superintendent of public instruction, ami empowered the Legislature to provide for a system minion schools, to l>e kept open at least three months in the year. The first legislature, of 1849 50, took no action on school matters: but, in 1850 1, the second state legislature passed a crude law providing for the apportionment of the state school moneys, pro rata, to sectarian and re- ligious as well as tO public Scl Is. In L852 — 3, Hon. Frank Soule" drafted and secured the pas- of a more complete school law. which re- mained in force until Is.")."), when Hon. I ». \l. Ashley secured the passage of a revised law which contained stringenl provisions against the apportionment of public moneys for the support of sectarian schools. This law was not materially changed until L 864, when the state superintend- ent secured the passage of important financial amendments which more than doubled the school revenue. Among these provisions was the levy- ing of a state tax of five cents on the hundred dollars. A state normal school was organized in 1862, and was located in San Francisco. In 1866, "an act to provide for a system of common schools." drafted by the state superintendent, was passed under the title of the Revised School Law. This law remains, with a few unimportant changes, on the statute books at the present day. In 1869, the state university was established at Berkeley, near Oakland. In 1874, the state-tax was increased so as to yield a revenue of ST per unit of the school census, — a revenue which, in lsT.">. amounted to SI. 100.000. The first public school was opened in San Francisco, Dec, 1849, by John C. Pelton, after- wards city superintendent of San Francisco. In 1866, the whole state attained to a free-school system. rate-bills being abolished by law. Pre- vious to this time, most of the countiy schools eked out their limited amount of school moneys by monthly rates of tuition. The total amount of money expended for public school purposes from 1S.">1 to 1S75 was $20,000,000. Slate Superintendents. — The following is a list of the state superintendents: (1) John . P. Fitzgerald, from 1868 to 1872; (6) I bury X. Bolander, from 1872 to 187t is composed of the governor, the state superintendent, and six county superintendents, all being members ex officio, and has power to adopt a uniform series of text- books, to issue life diplomas, to adopt a course of studies for the schools of the state, and to make rules and regulations for the government of the schools. The city boards of < are elected by the people directly, under special city charters and local school laws. Besides these, there are boards of district school trustees, chosen at special school elections, for the term of three years, one trustee being elected annually. There are boards of examination for the state, for the counties, and for the cities. The state hoard of examination is composed of the state superin- tendent and four professional teachers appointed by him. at a salary of $200 a year, and has power to prepare questions for the state, city, and county examinations, and to issue, on the result of such examinations, educational diplomas, valid for years, ami first, second and third grade certificates, valid for 4, 3, and 2 years, re- spectively. The cowMy boards of examination are composed of the county superintendent, and from 3 to 5 professional teachers, holding first grade certificates, appointed by the county super- intendent, for the term of two years, at a compen- sation of $3 a day. and traveling expenses. They are authorized to hold quarterly county examina- tions, and to issue first, second, and third grade certificates, valid for 3 years, 2 years, and 1 year, respectively. The city boards of examination are composed of the city superintendent and four professional teachers, holding educational diplo- mas, and elected by the city board of education. Their powers are similar to those of the state and county boards. All boards of examination must be composed exclusively of professional teachers. The schools must be kept open at least six months in the year to secure the state apportion- ment, and to all children from 5 to 21 years of age. Separate schools may be established for colored children at the option of the local boards. The daily school sessions must not exceed six hours, and, for primary children under 8 years of age. must not exceed 4 hours. For district school libraries, there is an allowance of $50 a year, out of the state apportionment, to be ex- pended by the trustees. No sectarian or deno- minational doctrines can be taught in the schools. There is a compidsory education law, but no pro- visions for properly enforcing it. The school re re/me consists of the annual in- terest of the state school fund, invested in 6 per cent and 7 per cent bonds. This fund amounts to $1,737,500, and the annual interest to$97,560* There is a state tax sufficient to raise $7 for each child between the ages of 5 and 17, as shown by the last preceding school census, amounting, in L875,to $1,100,000; a county school tax. at a rate not less than $3 per unit of the school census; nor exceeding 50 cts. on each hundred dollars of the county assessment roll. The amount raised from the county and city school tax in ls7."> was. $1,115,000. Besides these, there is a district school tax, submitted to local vote, for building purposes, or for maintaining schools, not to ex- ceed, in any one year, SI on each §100. There is no supervision by school inspectors. County superintendents are required to visit and 112 CALIFORNIA examine every school once a year, but this is merely nominal. Each school district has a board of three trustees ; and incorporated cities have special boards of education, as well as city superintendents. The salaries of teachers are as follows : Aver- age monthly salary of male teachers §84.93 ; of female teachers, 368.01. The course of instruction as prescribed bylaw for the public schools, must include the follow- ing branches of study : reading, writing, spelling, arithmetic, grammar, geography, the history of the United States, physiology, natural history, drawing, and music. There is a course of study adopted by the state board of education ; but as there is no way to enforce it, but little attention is paid to it in the country districts. Each city has its own special course. In San Francisco, German and French are taught in a part of the primary and grammar departments. The high schools have the usual course of study in order to prepare pupils for admission to the state uni- versity. Educational Condition. — The total number of school districts in the state is 1579. The number of schools in each of the three grades is as follows : state university, 1 ; high schools, 14 ; first-gTade (grammar) schools, 875 ; second-grade (intermediate) schools, 770 ; third-grade (pri- mary) schools, 545 ; total number of schools, 2,205. Besides these, there are public evening schools in San Francisco, free to men and boys, and kept open 10 months in the year. These schools are graded, with special classes in book-keeping and drawing. The number of teachers, in 1875, was 25; of pupils, 1,100. The following are the principal items of the school statistics for 1875 : Number of pupils enrolled 130,930 Average daily attendance 78,027 Number of teachers, males 1,033 " " " females 1,660 Total receipts $3,390,359. Total expenditures $2,658,241. Normal Instruction. — The State Normal School was organized in 1861, at San Francisco, but in 1870 was removed to San Jose. The building was erected at a cost of $250,000. This school is open to both sexes, and is entirely free. The number of students in L875 was 240, mostly young women; the number of instructors was 9. The annual cost of the school is about $20,000. The total number of graduates, from its foundation to 1876, was 378. Secondary Instruction. There are 14 high schools in the state, of which 2 are located in San Francisco, one for girls, and one for boys. There is one in each of the following cities : Oak- land, Sacramento, Stockton, Lob Angeles, San Jost''. Vallejo, Petaluma, tirass Valley, Nevada. Marysville, Santa I llara, Santa Cruz, and Alame- da. These schools, which are preparatory to the state university, contain 1,500 pupils, taught by A'A teachers. Besides the high schools, there i- a large number of flourishing private schools, of which some are for boys exclusively, others for girls, and some for both sexes. Denominational Schools. — The denominational schools are quite numerous and extensive. In San Francisco, six Roman Catholic schools give instruction to 600 boys and 850 girls; besides which, the Presentation Convent School, for girls, has 700 pupils and 26 teachers : and the Sacred Heart Presentation Convent, 750 pupils and 26 teachers. The Academy of Notre Dame, at San Jose, has 550 pupils and 30 teachers. Other Catholic schools in various parts of the state give instruction to 1,385 pupils. The Protestant schools in various parts of the state give instruc- tion to about 1,500 pupils. Superior Instruction. — The California State University (q. v.) crowns the public school sys< tern, being entirely free in all its departments. Other institutions of a similar grade are included in the following list : California College Christian College Pacific Meth. College Sacred Heart College St. Ignatius College SantaBarbaraCollege St. Mary's College Santa Clara College Univ. Mound College University of Cal. Univ. of the Pacific •a a o xi a Religious Denomina- tion Location 1-71 Baptists Vacavflle 1872 Christians Santa Rosa 1862 Meth. CI). s. Santa Rosa I-;:; Rom. Cath. Ban Francisco 1 355 Rom. Cath. San Francisco I --7 1 [ndep.Prot. Santa Barbara L861 Rom. Cath. San Francisco '.mi. Cath. Santa Clara 1859 Presbyt. San Francisco 1869 Non-sect. Berkeley ls5l|.Meth. Epis. Santa Clara Special Instruction. — The principal institu- tions for special instruction are the following : The California Institute for the Deaf and Dumb and the Blind, near Berkeley, established in 1860, and supported by the state ; the Pacific Theo- logical Seminary (Congregational), at Oakland; the Theological Seminary, at San Francisco; the School of Design, at San Francisco, organized in 1873 ; besides which, there is the medical depart- ment of the University of California, the Medical College of the Pacific, and the California College of Pharmacy. There is no state reform school, but the San Francisco Industrial School serves the purpose of one, as minors from other counties may be com- mit ted to its care on the payment of a stipulated sum. The school connected with this institution is well graded and equipped, and the buildings for the accommodation of its different depart- ments are large and spacious. Teachers' Associations. — The first state teach- ers' convention was held in San Francisco, in Dec., L854; thefirsl teachers' institute met in San Francisco, May. 1863, under the direction of State Superintendent Moulder. The third state institute, in L863, gave a marked impulse to educational interests. The California State Edu- cational Society was organized in L863, with John Swetl as president. bership only holders of plomas. This society for tile California Teacher. It admitted to mem- state educational di- five years controlled In 1875, a state edu- cational association was organized at San Jose. CALIFORNIA COLLKCE CALISTHENICS 113 Educational Literature. — The first educational journal was the California Teacher, commenced in July 1863, published under the general control of the State Educational Society, and, edited, for the first four years, by John Swett and Samuel I. 0. Swe/.ev. It was saved from a speedy termi- nation by a state subscription. In 1873, it was taken from the control of the society, and became the organ of the state superintendent. In 1876, the state subscription of $4,000 was withdrawn, and the journal expired with the official term of Supt. Bolander. The Pacific Educational and Home Journal, was com- menced in April, 1877; and Fitzgerald's Home Newsp iperand Educational Jownai, in March, 1877. The History of the Public School Sys- tem of California, by John Swett, was pub- lished in 1S76. CALIFORNIA COLLEGE, at Vacaville, Gal., was founded in 1871, by the Baptists. It includes both collegiate and theological depart- ments, has an endowment fund of about $20,000, a corps of 8 instructors, and 160 students, of whom 50 belong to the collegiate department. The value of its grounds, buildings, etc., is esti- mated at 825,000 ; and its library contains about 2,500 volumes. A. S. Worrell, A. M., is (1876) the president of the institution. The cost of tuition per annum is about $50. CALIFORNIA, University of, at Berke- ley. 4 miles N. of Oakland, was organized in 1869, and forms a part of the public educational system of the state. It is under the control of a board of 22 regents, of which the governor, lieutenant gov- ernor, state superintendent of public instruction, speaker of the assembly, president of the state agricultural society, and president of the mechan- ics' institute of San Francisco are ex officio mem- bers. It is open to both sexes, young women be- ing admitted on the same terms as young men. Its endowment fund consists of the 150,000 acres of land granted by Congress in aid of agri- cultural schools, and the 72 sections, comprising 46,080 acres, set apart for a " seminary fund " from the public school lands. The 150,000 acres were sold at an average price of $4 per acre, yielding $600,000 ; the seminary fund amounted to $35,000, making a total of $635,000. The state appropriated $300,000 for the erection of suit- able buildings ; and the site of 160 acres of land, on the hills at Berkeley, overlooking San Fran- cisco, was given by the College of California, which was merged in the university. The state appropriates for current expenses $50,000 a year in addition to the revenue of the endow- ment fund. In 1875. .lames Lick endowed the university with $7(10.000, to be expended in erecting and maintaining an observatory on Mt. Hamilton, in the coast range, 90 miles south of Berkeley. The departments, or colleges, fully organized are the college of letters, or the classical department, and the scientific school. Little has been done, as yet, towards organizing the agricult- ural college, or the colleges of mines or mechanics. The college of medicine is in San Francisco, un- der a separate faculty. It consists of the Toland medical colleges, nominally transferred to the university. The total number of students in De- cember, 1875, was 366, of whom 40 were young women. The first president of the institution was Henry Durant, the founder of the College of California, who died in 1874. He resigned his presidency in L872. and was succeeded by Pro- fessor I). C. Oilman of Yale College. CALISTHENICS ((Jr. Kak6c, beautiful, and a&evog, strength), a system of physical exercises for females, designed to promote strength and gracefulness of movement ; or, by assisting the natural and harmonious development of the muscular system, to improve the health, and add to the beauty of personal appearance. Calisthen- ic and gymnastic exercises are based on the same principle, — that exercise is essential to the proper development of the physical as well as mental faculties, and to the maintenance of their healthy condition ; and that, in education, it is requisite that suitable exercises should be system- atically employed. The only difference between calisthenics and gymnastics consists in the adapt- ation of the former to the physical education of girls ; and, of course, the exercises employed re- quire a less violent muscular action. These exercises may be practiced with or without ap- paratus. The latter, which should be employed first, consist in such movements as bring into regular and systematic operation all parts of the body. The movements are neither violent nor complicated, being in fact only such as are re- quired in the ordinary exercise of the limbs. Their advantage over those required in the common active sports of girls consists in their systematic regulation so as to ensure an equal and regidar action of the muscles ; while long continued sports of any particular kind, such as trundling the hoop, using the skipping-rope, etc., have the reverse effect. Calisthenic exercises should, how- ever, be so varied as to exhilarate the spirits as well as task the muscles, or they will lose much of their beneficial effect ; since while the body is exercised, the mind must be interested. The simplest apparatus used consists of wands or poles, dumb-bells, backboards, elastic bands with handles, light weights, etc. With such instru- ments, a great variety of beneficial, graceful, and interesting exercises can be performed ; and when ■whole classes are exercised simultaneously, there will necessarily be a healthful mental excitement mingled with the physical training, particularly when the movements are regulated by the rhythm of music, which is usually the case in modern schools. The utility of such exercises, when properly and judiciously employed cannot be doubted, especially after the age of 12 or 14 years, before which they should rarely, if ever, be resort- ed to. Numerous ailments to which females are peculiarly liable are due to the neglect of proper physical training, and may be prevented or cured by a judicious employment of calisthenic exer- cises. Many injurious practices, such as tight lacing, are necessarily precluded by the regular resort to such exercises. Ling, the celebrated Swedish author of kinesipathy or the movement- m CALISTHENICS CAMBRIDGE Mrs. Willard says, be learned chiefly ( Mlii-v advantages, tare, has written very enthusiastically upon the importance of free gymnastic exercises, as a means of promoting health as well as of curing disease. (See Die allgemeinen GrUnde der Gym- //us//'/,; published ;it Stockholm, in L840.) He founded the Central Institute at Stockholm, subsequently conducted by Prof. Branting. Many excellent manuals giving full practical di- rections to teachers, are now published. In social life, dancing is one of the most attractive and beneficial of calisthenic exercises, and were it dis- sociated from the fashionable dissipation with which it is too often allied, would meet with uni- versal favor. Some of the most eminent teachers of females have regarded this species of exercise as the best even for schools. '• The grace of motion must from instruction in dancing. besides that of a graceful carriage, might be derived from such instruction, if the lessons were judiciously timed. Exercise is needful to the health, and recreation to the cheerfulness and contentment of youth. Female youth should not be allowed to range unrestrained, to seek amusement for themselves. If it wereentirely prohibited, they would be driven to seek it by stealth: which would lead them to many im- proprieties of conduct, and would have a perni- cious effect upon their general character, by in- ducing a habit of treading forbidden paths. The alternative that remains is to provide them with proper recreation, which, after the confinement of the day. they might enjoy under the eye of their instructors. Dancing is exactly suited to this purpose, as also to that of exercise; for per- haps in no way can so much healthy exercise be taken in so short a time." Miss 0. E. Beecher, in Eihirtiiiomil lit'ininiscpucen, remarks, " When physical education takes the proper place in our schools, young girls will be trained in the class- rooms to move heads, hands, and arms gracefully; to sit, to stand, and to walk properly, and to pur- sue calisthenic exercises for physical development as a regular school duly as much as their studies. And these exercises, set to music, will besought as the most agreeable of school duties." In all such exercises, certain general rules and directions ate to be kept steadily in view. They should never be practiced immediately after meals, nor very near the time of eating, as diges- tion cannot be properly performed when the • ■m is in an exhausted condition. The best time for exercise is early in the morning or to- wards evening. In school, these exercises, being of a moderate character, may conic after the mind is wearied with protracted intellectual work, foi then they will prove a relief ; but in- tellectual efforts cannot effectively be put forth after the physical system has become jaded and jlled by protracted exercise. Calisthenic exercises should always lie commenced and tin ished gently; indeed, all abrupt transitions from getttk llO violent exertions, or the contrary. Should be avoided. It is by moderate and pro- longed OT repeated e\erci.-c that the physical organs are to be developed or improved, not by violent and fitful efforts. The weaker organs should receive the most attention, so that the whole system may receive a harmonious develop- ment. The dress should lie light and easy : and the department in which the exercises are taken should lie spacious, cool, and well-ventilated. All such exercises require to be practiced with many precautions, and with a due regard to the con- dition of the individual. Teachers may be the means of doing much injury by indiscriminately requiring all their pupils to go through the same amount of exercise. The effect upon every pupil should lie carefully watched: and. in some ca.-es. the advice of a careful physician should not be dispensed with. — See Catharine E. Bebcher, Physiology and Calisthenics (X. V.. 1856); and Educational Reminiscences (N.Y., 1874); Kjngs- t.Kv. Health and Education (Loud, and X. V.. L874) : Watson, Manual of Calisthenics (N.Y., 1864); Tkw.l. The Illustrated Family Gym- nasium iX.Y., 1857); Dio Lewis, New Gym- nastics | Boston, 1862); Basnet, The Gymnasium at Howie (N.Y., 1871). (See Gymnastics, and Physical EnucATioN.) CALISTHENIUM, a newly coined term, applied to an apartment or hall in which calis- thenic exercises are practiced ; formed after the analogy of gymnasium. CALLIGRAPHY. See Penmanship. CAMBRIDGE, University of, one of the oldest anil most famous institutions of learning in England. A school is said to have been founded at Cambridge, by a party of monks, as early as lid!); and, twenty years later. Alfred of Beverley, the historian, lodged in the town, and studied. The records of the university are preserved in the Tower, and show the university to have been in full operation in 1229. Edward I., in 1291, granted it the first formal charter of privileges, which was amplified by succeeding sovereigns. Edward II. obtained the first papal recognition of the university. Henry VI. founded Kings College ; and bis consort founded Queens', which obtained a second patroness in the con- sort of Edward IV. Henry VH1. consolidated and enriched earlier foundations to form Trinity College; but, from 1257, the date of the found- ing of St. Peters College, private munificence was, and still is. yet more active in endowing various foundations. A new era began with Queen Elizabeth, in the Kith year of whose reign, on the basis of existing charters, the Oni- versity of Cambridge was incorporated, under the title of " the < Chancellor, Masters, and Schol- ars of the University of Cambridge." Theuni- vcr-iiy is a federal republic of 17 colleges (or, with Cavendish College, L 8), maintained solely by the endowments of founders and benefactors. Each college is a lesser republic, with its own Statutes, but is Subject to university law. The present Statutes were confirmed, in 1858, by Queen Victoria. The legislative and executive bodies are composed of members of the coileg All master-, of arts and doctors in divinity, law, and physic, whose names are on the university register, have the right to vote in the senate. CAMBRIDGE n;> The electoral roll is a smaller body, consisting dt' all who have resided, during the preceding Tear, at the university, together with heads. officers, and examiners ; and by it many of the University officers are elected. The senate, in L876, numbered 5,816; the electoral roll, 318. Meetings of the senate [congregations) are held fortnightly during terms, for conferring degrees and transacting business. 'The council of the tic consists of the chancellor, and vice-chan- cellor. .■,..• officio, and L6 other members of the ■ it the electoral roll, chosen by the latter body. All resolutions for conferring degrees, etc. .must lie sanctioned by the council be- fore they are submitted to the senate. The ex- ecutive consists of the chancellor, who is the head of the university and non-resident (usually a prince or a nobleman); the vice i hancellor, always the head of a college, wielding the full powe] the chancellor. and. pro tern* a magistrate for the university, the town, and the county ; the high steward, the commissary, the sex viri, the as- - ir. all exercising judicial functions; the pub- lic orator, who is the mouth-piece of the senate ; the librarian: the registrary, for the registration of graces and the custody of records; two proctors and two pro-procb »rs, who maintain discipline and attend congregations to read graces ami register votes; the university marshals (constables) ; the esquire bedells; and the university counsel, solic- itor, moderators, and syndics, the last being members of special committees for specific duties. The university sends two members to parliament, elected by the senate, — a privilege first granted by James 1. — There are 33 professors: of divinity, four; of law, three; of physic, medicine, anatomy, comparative anatomy, Greek, Latin, Hebrew, Sanskrit, one each; of Arabic, mathematics, astronomy, two each; of natural experimental philosophy, experimental physics, botany, geol- tnineralogy, chemistry, moral theology or casuistry, modern history, political economy, music, archeology, fine arts, one each. The oldest, the Margaret professorship of divinity. dates from 1502. There are five regius profess- orships: divinity, civil law. physic. Greek, and I tebrew. Erasmus wasthe first professor of Greek, and the third Margaret professor. The stipends are from endowments, the university chest, and fees. A few are richly endowed. There are three terms: (1) Michaelmas, or October term (Oct. 1. to Dec. L6); (2) Lent, or January term (.fan. L3. to Friday before Palm-Sundayjj (3) Easter, or Midsummer term i Friday after Easter to Friday afi.r ( Jommencemenl day. which is the last Tins- day hut one in .June). An under-graduate must ■'■•side in the university two-thirds of each term, i. e., about six months during the year.— Mem- bers of colleges are classed .is follows: 1 1 | Meads of colleges, styled Master a1 Bang's, Provost; at Queens', President,!: ('_') PelloWB of colleges. ted by the Society from distinguished grad- uates — in one or two colleges, after examination —numbering in all about 400; (3) Noblemen graduates, doctors in the several faculties, bach- elors in divinity, masters of arts, and of law ; ( I) Bachelors of Arts, Law. and Physic; (;">) Fel- low commoners, usually younger sons of the nobility, or young men of fortune ; (6) Scholars, generally elected by competition, and placed on the foundation; (7) Pensioners (i. e., boarders), who form the great body of the students: and is) Sizars, who are students of limited means, and enjoy certain emoluments and immunities. — Degrees are conferred in arts, law. medicine, divinity, and music. The first degree is that of Bachelor (B.A.),for which there are three requisites: (1) a period of residence, (2) to be a member of a college, or a non-collegiati student, and (.'!) to pass examinations. 'I he honor examina- tions (triposes) nine in number, are held only once a year. Those who pass in these are ar- ranged in three classes according to merit, and, in the mathematical triposes, are styled, respect- ively, wranglers, senior op1Am.es, and junior op- times, the senior wrangler heading the list. The subjects of this tripos (•'!•"> are named in the schedule) embrace the whole range of pure mathematics, and mathematics applied to nat- ural philosophy. 'I he examination lasts nine days; and the publication of the list in the senate house, is the great excitement of the year. This tripos is the most ancient (the printed lists in the Calendar begin with 1747 — 8), and has given Cambridge its peculiar renown. The clas- sical tripos ranks next in fame, age (first held in 1824), and numbers. It lasts eight days. The moral sciences tripos, lasting 6 days, embraces moral, political, and mental philosophy, logic, and political economy. The natural sciences tripos includes (1) chemistry, and other branches of physics, (2) botany, (3) geology and palaeon- tology, (4) mineralogy, and (5) comparative ana- tomy, physiology, and zoology. Besidcsthese. there are the triposes of law, of history, and of theol- ogy. A pass in any of these triposes entitles to B. A., the holder of which may become M . A. after three years. The university, in 1858, in- stituted local examinations, conducted at various places. (See Examinations.) — The university is a body which holds public examinations, and confers degrees; the professors lecture, but hardly can be said to teach; the colleges train, lodge, and board the undergraduates. The most effect- ive teaching is done by private tutors (coaches). The names of the colleges, with the date of the foundation of each, are as follows: St. Peters, 1257; Clare, L326 ; Pembroke, 1347; Gonville and Cains. L348 ; Trinity Hall. 1350; Corpus Christi, L352; King's. 1441; Queens', L448; St. Catharine's, L473; Jesus, 1496; Chris 1505; St. John's, 1511; Magdalene, 1519; Trinity. L546 ; Emmanuel, L584; Sidney Sus- sex. L598; Downing. L800 ; Cavendish. L876. The whole number of under-graduates. in L876, was 2,175, the largest number (533) being in Trinity, and the next (359) in St. John's. Th were also 71 non-collegiate students. Cavendish College aims to give a less expensive education to students, and at an earlier age than the Others. — The university buildings are numerous: the senate house, adjoining which is the library, 116 CAMPE CARLETON COLLEGE rich in 1.000 manuscripts ami containing half a million of volumes; the geological museum; the observatory, in charge of Professor Adams: Ad- denbrooke's hospital, the Pitt Press, the botanic garden, the Fitzwilliatn Museum, etc. There are various societies in the university for promoting research: the Antiquarian, Philological, and Philosophical societies. The Union combines a reading-room, library, and debating club. It has a handsome and spacious building. — See Fuller, History of Cambridge from L066 to 1634; Car- ter, History of Cambridge (London, 1753); Dyer, History of < 'ambridge; ( 'ooper, . [nnals of Cambridge (Cambridge, L842 53); Cambridge Cm'rersi/j/ Commission Hi ■port (1852 — 3); Cam- briih/e Ci/irersi/i/ Calendar (annual) : Students' Guide to the University of Cambridge (1874); Bristed, Three Years in an English University, 3d edit. (N. Y., 1873) ; Everett, On the Cam (London, 1866). CAMPE, Joachim Heinrich, a prominent educational writer of ( Jermany, was born in 1 746, and died in 1818. Having studied theology at the university of Halle, he occupied for several years a position as minister. In I 777. he accepted from Prince Francis of Dessau the appointment of councilor of education {Ediicationsrath) to the Pkilantkropin, and became its president in place of Basedow, who had resigned in 1770. The institution made marked and rapid progress under his direction; but his personal relations to Basedow were so unpleasant, that he resigned after a few months. He then founded an edu- cational institution, similar to the Philanthropin, at TrittOW, near Hamburg, where he remained, \intil 1787, when Duke Charles of Brunswici called him to his capital, in order to reform, con- jointly with some other prominent educators. the school system of the duchy. The reformatory scheme of the duke could not, however, be car- ried out, in consequence of the opposition of the consistory and the diet. Campe was the most prominent representative of the principles 0D which the rhilanthrqpin was founded. He avoided the eccentricities of Basedow, and thus gained for the principles which they both repre- sented, a much larger number of friends. Hegave so <> real a prominence to utilitarian considera- tions that he declared he valued more highly the merits of the man who introduced the use of the potato, or invented thespinning-wheel.than those of the author of the Iliad. The educational ideas of Campe were set forth in two periodicals, the Braunschweigisches Journal (I vols., 1 788 91 1, and Altgemeine Revision des gesammten Schulr vmi Erziehungswesens (16 vols.. 17. s "> 91). In the ninth volume of the latter was published a translation of Locke's Thoughts on Education; and in volumes xu. to xv., Rousseau's Emile, both with copious notes. The works of Campe an very numerous, including many popular juvenile books. CANADA, The Dominion of, a federal union ill' provinces and territories, comprising, iu ls7<'>. all the British possessions in North America, except the island of Newfoundland. Its area is estimated at 3,513,325 sq. miles; and its population, according to the census of 1871, was 3,718,7 17. The imperial act under which, in 1867, the Dominion was established, imposed upon the several provincial legislatures the duty of providing for public education within their respective jurisdictions. Since that time, all the older provinces have revised their legislation upon this subject ; while the younger members of the confederation have laid the foundation of new systems of public instruction. A full account of t lie school system,- of the several provinces, which differ in essential points, will be found, in this work, under their respective titles. See Canada Educational Directory and Fear-Book, by Alexanoeb Marling (Toronto, 1876). CANE HILL COLLEGE, at Cane Hill, near Boonsboro, Washington county, Arkansas, was chartered in L852, and reorganized in 1868. It is under the control of the I lumberland Pres- byterian Church. The institution has prepara- tory and collegiate departments. In 1873 — f there were 3 instructors, and 68 preparatory and 18 collegiate students. The I lev. E. R. Earle, A. M.. is ( L876) the president. CAPITAL UNIVERSITY, at Columbus. Ohio, was organized in L850 by the Evangelical Lutheran synod of Ohio and the adjacent states, which, in L876, formed a part of the Synodical Conference. It includes a preparatory or gram- mar school, and collegiate and theological de- partments. It has a library of 2. 500 volumes, a faculty of C> professors, 2 of whom teach both in the collegiate and the theological de- partment, and 64 students, including those of theology. Much attention is given to the study of German, which extends through all the classes of the three departments, and is partly used as a means of instruction. The annual tuition fee in the grammar school is $25; in the college, $40. In the theological department, which, with a few brief intermissions, has been in successful operation since L830, no charge is made for tui- tlon;and indigent young men. possessing the nec- essary qualifications for the ministry, are sup- ported by the Synodical Education Society. The Kcv.'Dr. Win. V. I.ehmami IS (1876) the president of the institution. CARLETON COLLEGE, at NorthfieM, Minn., was organized in 1866, by ihe Congrega- tionalists. It hasa preparatory, a collegiate, and an English department, the latter embracing those pupils whose time or means will not allow them to secure a thorough classical education. The college department was not organized until Sept.. L870. Both sexes are instructed in the same classes, ami may take the same degrees. There were in L875, 216 students, of whom 13 belonged to the collegiate, 82 to the preparatory, and 111 to the English department. The corps of instructors numbered LO. The first board of trustees was elected by the stale conference of Evangelical churches, which now annually ap- points a visiting committee. The board of trustees is Belf perpetuating, but a majority of its members, according to the provisions of the or- carthac.k collkck CATECHISM 117 ganic act, must be Congregationalists. In L871, tin- college received $50,000 in cash from Wm. Carleton, of Charlestown, Mass.. ami the board of trustees voted to give liis name to the institu- tion, and tn hold his gift as an endowment. In 1875, the endowment fund had increased to about $80,000. The library, in L875, numbered 2,000 volumes. The Win. II. Dunning Cabinet, donated to the college in 1875, is a valuable col- lection of geological specimens. A museum of natural history lias been commenced. The col- lege has three buildings and a beautiful site of about twenty-live acres. The tuition fee in the collegiate department is $8 per term of 13 weeks. The president of the institution is (187(>) Rev. • lames Woodward Strong. I>. I). CARTHAGE COLLEGE, at < arthage. Ill- was founded in 1^ i0,by the Evangelical Lutheran Church (General Synod). It commenced as a classical school, and the college department was not organized until 1S73. It comprises two de- partments, the collegiate and the academic, the former embracing three different courses of study, the classical, the scientific, and the philosophical. The institution had, in 1875, !) instructors and 203 students, of whom 53 were females. It is supported partly from endowments, and partly by tuition fees. The endowments, amounted, in 1ST"), to about $40,000. The annual tuition fee is from .$24 to $28. The college library numbered about 3,000 volumes, and the two literary societies of the college, the Calileo and the Cicero, have also each commenced the forma- tion of a library. L. F. M. Easterday was the principal of the institution while it was a clas- sical school (1870 to 1873) ; and the Rev. I). L. Tressler was subsequently elected president of the college. CATECHETICAL METHOD, the method of instruction by question and answer, accord- ing to which the pupils are required to answer the questions of the teacher, so as to show what explanations they particularly need in order to obtain a correct knowdedge of the subject ; or sometimes they commit to memory and recite answers to set questions from a text-book. This was the method employed in teaching the truths of Christianity in the early churches, each re- sponse to the question being the formal state- ment or detinition of a dogmatic truth ; and when the object is to impart definite information in brief and precise language which the pupil is expected to commit to memory and recite verbatim, this method is of great value. There are but few subjects, however, which can be properly taught in this way; since, in training the intellectual faculties, the sequence of facts, thoughts, or ideas, is more important than their clear ap- prehension or expression singly and disconnect- edly. On this principle, there arc several objec- tions to the catechetical method as one of general application: (1) The pupil is deprived of a proper exercise of the expressive faculties, being required only to repeat what has been enunciat- ed in the language of others: (2) The logical relations of the facts learned arc apt to be un- | noticed by the pupils, from the absence of those intermediate connective words and phrases by which ordinarily those relations are indicated; (3) The pupil, by learning merely the answer to a question, fails to obtain a full idea, of the truth, a part of which, and sometimes the most essential part, is expressed in the question itself. Thus, if a pupil is asked. What is an island? and he answers. Land surrounded hi/ water, he does not entirely express the fact, but only a disjointed fragment of it. Many text-books constructed on the catechetical plan are liable to this objection ; others, however, obviate it by invariably making the answer a complete state- ment, the gist of the question being repeated. Thus, the answer to the question, What is an island? would lie. An island is land surround- edbywater. When the catechetical method is employed in giving oral instruction, the teacher should be careful to keep this principle in view. A skillful use of this method will always be found effective in opening up to the mind of the pupil the fundamental ideas and principles of a subject previous to its formal study by the pupil himself, or, when difficulties arise, in leading the pupil's mind, by an adroit series of inter- rogatories, to such an analysis of the statement or problem in question as will enable him to apprehend the elementary facts or principles in- volved, and thus to solve the difficulty without further aid. This, however, is not so much an application of the catechetical method as a skill- ful use of interrogation, one of the most valuable and indispensable means of imparting informa- tion. (See Interrogation-.) The Socratic method was an illustration of this, being employed to bring conviction to the learner's mind by obtain- ing, in answer to the questions asked, a series of admissions leading finally to his assent to the truth proposed. The catechetical method was formerly very popular in schools, and almost universally em- ployed ; but, in proportion as mechanical meth- ods of recitation and rote-teaching gave place to such as appealed directly to the pupil's intel- ligence and powers of expression, the mere question-and-answer system of instruction be- came discredited and was abandoned. In its place, the topical method is now in quite gen- eral use. This requires that the pupil shall give a connected statement, not simply as an answer to a question, but as logically expressing the knowledge which he has acquired in regard to the topic assigned bythe teacher. CATECHETICAL SCHOOL. See Alex- andrian School. CATECHISM (Or. Kar^ia^, instruction), an elementary work containing a summary of principles, especially of religious doctrine, re- duced to the form of questions and answers. The name catechism for religious works of this kind was probably first proposed by Luther, whose two famous catechisms appeared in 1529. Sum- maries of Christian doctrines, in the form of questions and answers, under other names, are, however, of much earlier origin, and can be 118 CATECHISM CATHEDRAL SCHOOLS traced to the eighth century. Among the early works of this class, those by Kero, a monk of St. Gall, and one probably written by Otfried of Weissenburg, were the must famous. Subse- quently, we find similar books in use among the Waldenses and Bohemian Brethren, These works oontained mostly the Apostles" Creed, the Lord's Prayer, and. since the fourteenth century, the Ten Commandments. Luther, who devoted special attention to the religious in- struction of children, published his first ele- mentary work on this subject in L520. A few years Later, Justus Jonas and Johann Auricula were commissioned to prepare a catechism em- bracing the entire creed of the Reformation, but subsequently Luther undertook the work him- self. Both of his catechisms were receive I by the Lutheran Church among the symbolical books. The mosl celebrated among the catechisms which originated in the Reformed Church were the Geneva catechisms, compiled in the French lan- guage by Calvin (the smaller in L 536, the larger in 1541), the Zurich catechism, which, in I 639, was ived as a symbolical I k. and especially Heidelberg catechism, compiled in 1563 by Order of the elector of the I 'alat iiiate. and gener- ally adopted by the German ami Dutch Re- formed Churches. In the Anglican Church, the Church Catechism, which, in 1552, was com- piled by John Poynet, sanctioned by Edward VI.. ami published in L 553, obtained a great author- ity. The Presbyterian Church has generally adopted the shorter Assembly Catechism, which was compiled by committeesof the Westminster Assembly, presented to the House of C mons in K)4T ami Mils, and in the latter year by resolution of Sept. 15., 1648, ordered to be printed "by authority," for public use. This catechism is also extensively used among the Independents and Oongregationalists in Great Britain and America. In the Wesleyan Church of England, the cathechisms in use have been ar- ranged by the Rev. Richard Watson. For the Methodisl Episcopal Church of the United State-. a series of three catechisms, prepared by Rev. Dr. Kidder, was adopted by the General Con- ference ")' 1852. In the Roman Catholic Church. the Tridentine Council ordered the compilation of a catechism " for the use of pastors." It was published in Rome, in L566, under the title of Catechismus Romanus. It was, originally, not in the shape of questions ami answers, though it has this form in later editions. Among the numerous catechisms prepared for the use of children, those by Canisius (1554 and L566), EJeUarmin (1603). and l5ossuet (lf>87)have had the largest circulation. The Vatican Council, in 1870, decreed the preparation of a common catechism for the whole Church, which is to be essentially that of liellarmin. In the Creek Church, the catechism prepared by MogilaS, metropolitan of Kief (1642), was recognized as tndard, in 1672, by a synod at Jerusalem. M.i n v other religious denominations, besides those mentioned, have also their denominational cat- echisms; and it may. therefore, be said that the im- I mense majority of the children of Christian parents receive their first instruction in the tenets of ( 'hristianity by means of catechisms. The ob- ject of a catechism is. more or less, not only to present to children, in the most lucid form, the tenets of the religious communion of which they are expected to become active members in after life, but to impress these doctrines indelibly upon their minds. CATECHUMEN (Gr. mtnixob/ievog, in- structed by word of mouth), the name given, in the early Christian church, to a convert who was receiving catechetical instruction preparatory to baptism. The catechumens were divided into dif- ferent grades or classes according to the degree of their proficiency, only those of the highest grade, who had been pronounced tit for baptism, being permitted to be present at the adminis- tration of the lord's Supper. This appellation was afterwards given to the younger meml of any Christian church who were undergoing instruction to prepare them for the rite of con- firmation, or for the ( lommunion, in which sense die term is still used. (See Catechism.) CATHEDRAL AND COLLEGIATE SCHOOLS (Ger. Bom- und SHftsschulen), a kind of schools founded in the middle apes in connection with cathedral ami collegiate churches. They are of considerable importance in the history of education, because they shared with the con- vent schools the honor of In i 1 1 o . for a lon<£ time, almost exclusively the nurseries of instruction ami education in Christian countries. They were originally intended chiefly for educat- ing the candidates for the priesthood, but af- forded also to others who regarded a pood edu- cation necessary for their social position, an op- portunity to acquire the knowledge needed. A few schools in connection with cathedra] churches appear to have existed even before the founda- tion of the Benedictine order; and the towns of Aries. Reims, ami Orleans are. in particular, mentioned as having possessed schools of this kind. In England, the episcopal school at York enjoyed a high reputation. The systematic or- ganization of these institutions as a special class of schools, in distinct ion from the coin cut schools. was due to Bishop Chrodegang of Metz (died 766). Me united the clergymen of his cathedral church tor a common life on the basis of a modi- fied ride of the Benedictine order, and thus be- came the founder of a class of religious orders known in church history as the Canons Regular. These orders, subsequently divided into a large number of different branches, regarded it as one of their foremost duties to establish schools sim- ilar in organization to those of the Benedictines. In the management of these schools, greater at- tention was paid to strict discipline than to excellence of instruction. One brother [frak of unblamable character, was charged, in each establishment of these orders, with the duty of superintending the scholars, and of enforcing strict discipline, in order that they might become able " t" rise to the dignities of the church, fitted out with ecclesiastical erudition and spiritual CKi'l I.IAN COLLKCK CENTRAL AMERICA 119 weapons." The Dumber of these schools vapidly tocreased, and they made the towns which con- tained them the centers of learning. Thesubjects of instruction embraced, besides theology, the reading of Latin and Greek classics, as Homer, Virgil, Sallust, Statins, Terence, Cicero, ami Seneca, the making of Latin and Greek verses, instruction in painting, calligraphy, church sing- ing, ami arithmetic. In the celebrated cathedral school of Paderbom, instruction was given in mathematics, physics, music, rhetoric, and dia- lectics. Special interest in the success of these .schools was taken by Charlemagne (see Chable- kagne), who, in very emphatic rescripts, urged all the bishops to establish schools of this kind. During the reign of his son, Louis le De- bonnaire, the synod of Aix-la-Chapelle, in 816, made the adoption of tin' rule of Chrodegang, involving the establishment of a school, com- pulsory for all cathedral (episcopal) churches. Many other synods urged the carrying out of this law. and demanded the establishment of schools, not tor the episcopal churches alone, but likewise for other large churches. The rapid spread of the Canons Regular, who no longer confined their religious communities to the capital of the diocese, but established numerous " collegiate " churches in smaller towns, greatly aided in the steady increase of schools. The col- legiate schools of the smaller towns resembled the town schools which arose during and after the crusades. They provided only for the teach- ing of the trivium ; while, in the episcopal city, the quadrivium as well as the trivium was taught, and the addition of the sacra pagina de- veloped the episcopal seminaries. With the de- cline of the Canons Regular, this class of schools also lost their reputation. The lower studies be- wail to be pursued at the parish schools : and for the higher branches the universities made much more ample provision than had ever been made by the cathedral and collegiate schools. — See Lai'xoii Descholis celebrioribus s. " Garolo M. s. j»,s/ eundem in Occidenie msiauraiis (Paris, 1672); Ozanam, La Civilisation ChreHenne ckez k& Francs (Paris, 1849). CECILIAN COLLEGE, situated near Eliz- abethtown, I lanlin county, Kentucky, was found- ed by Charles Cecil and sons, in L860. Though a private institution.it was chartered in L867, and confers degrees. It is under Roman Cath- olic influence. It comprises a commercial and a classical course. CENSUS, School. See School Census. CENTENARY COLLEGE, at Jackson, Louisiana, was established by the state in L825, and taken under the patronage of the Methodist Episcopal Church. South, in L845. It comprises a preparatory and a collegiate department, the latter having a classical and a. scientific course. The buildings arc healthfully situated in a grove o! pine, magnolia, oak. and beech. They consist of a commodious steward's hall, two brick dormi- tories, each containing twenty-four rooms, and a magnificent center building, which has been erected at an expense of over $60,000. It contains a chapel tor public exhibitions, large enough to scat over two thousand persons. The college possesses a. valuable set of philosophical, astronomical, and chemical apparatus, and also a well-selected mineralogkal and geographical cabinet. The value of the college properly, in L876, was about $100,000, and the income from productive funds $10,000. The college library contains about 2,000 volumes : those of the two literary societies, about L,600 each. The cost of tuition is silo a year in the collegiate, and $40 in the preparatory department Booms in the dormitories arc free of rent. In \X~'l — 7.'! there were ."> instructors, 1(10 preparatory and 24 col- legiate students, and 2(1!! alumni. The Rev. C. G. Andrews, A. M., is (1876) the president. CENTRAL AMERICA is a narrow and irregular strip of land which forms the southern part of North America. It comprises the five republics, Guatemala, Honduras. San Salvador, Nicaragua, and Costa Rica. Its total area is 175,000 sq. m., and its population, according to the census of L865, 2,665,000. Of these 1.34,000 are whites: 1,000,000 arc mestizos, or the off- spring of whites and Indians: 1,500,000 are aboriginal Indians: and the remainder are ne- groes, either pure or mixed. The country was conquered by the Spaniards in 1525, and re- mained subject to Spanish rule until L823, when the five colonies formed themselves into a federal republic, which lasted until 1839, when the federation was dissolved. There have been re- peated federations formed since, but the inhab- itants, like the country, are very unstable, and a speedy dissolution has in each case followed. For a long time, each of the republics has been going its own way in politics and also in education — a way which thus far has led only to anarchy. The great instrument of reform, in all these Spanish American republics, seems to have been to plunder the Church — a plan which thus far has borne no valuable fruit for public education. In Guatemala public instruction is still in the hands of the clergy, who, on account both of these repeated plundering^ and of the severe laws against them, are incapable of doing much. There are 26 primary schools in the capital (10 for boys and 1G for girls) and several private in- stitutions. These are .supported mainly by volun- tary offerings. For the higher education, there is a college hi old Guatemala, which formerly had a, fair reputation. New Guatemala has the colegio de la Trinidad, the colegio Iridentino, and a university besides. The latter is the most famous of the Central American schools and has many students from the other republics. The Sociedad patriMico-econdmica, founded in I7!'~>, also sup- ports a school for drawing, sculpture, and mathe- matics, and publishes a journal. Honduras possesses two institutions called universities, but they are such only in name. The public schools are scarcely worth mentioning, and education is at the lowest possible point. In L874, the number of public schools was IDT. which were attended, on an average, by 25 pupils each, showing about one pupil for 60 inhabitants. 120 CENTRAL COLLEGE CENTRE COLLEGE • San Sal null, r also possesses a university which has the reputation of being the second in Central America. Primary schools are few in number; nailing and reckoning are taught in them more or less indifferently; writing is a luxury in all these republics which everybody cannot afford. Nicaragua has a more demoralized popula- tion even than the other republics, owing to the former filibustering expeditions from abroad, and also to the many political revolutions and parti- san dissensions which have occurred. There are two universities in name, one in Leon and one in Granada. The first possesses a small library of 1500 volumes: the other has none. In 1873, the whole number of schools for males was 92, with an attendance of 3,871; and for females. !). with an attendance of 532. The whole number of children of school age (7 to 15) was 30,000 — males, 12,000, and females, L8.000. In Costa Rica, the schools are somewhat better attended, but both the amount and the manner of instruction given are pitiable. A. very short time suffices to forget what little has been learned. Moritz Wagner gives a rather gloomy picture of these schools, lie leads us into dark, damp rooms, in which teachers of unexampled igno- rance give instruction in reading, writing, and reckoning to some dozen of barefooted children. who are crowded closely together and full of im- patience to escape. There is a university as well as a Lyceum in San Jose, and another Ivcciun in Cartago. The university has six chairs, and the professors receive a salary of skid a year. Juris- prudence and theology are the chief studies. .Mathematics and a little Latin are taught, hut no Greek. There are about 100 students. The lyceums are no better. See Lk Roy in Sr/,,ni preparatory students, of whom 40 were preparing for the classical, and 35 for the scientific course. The Lev. I!. L. Breck, P. I>.. is (1876) the chancellor. CENTRE COLLEGE, at Danville, Ken- tucky, was first chartered in Is Lb and received an amended charter in 1824. It was originally a state institution, but was purchased bv the Presbyterian synod of Kentucky, which obtained complete control in L830. Upon the division of the synod in L866, the college was held by that part adhering to the General Assembly (North), It is supported by tuition fees and the income M the endowment, which amounts to SdHbOOO. The other property is valued at $75,000. Tuition in the college is S."l) a year ; but to the sons of clergymen and other young men of limited means and good character, it is free. The in- stitution comprises a preparatory and a collegiate department. Special attention is given to the German language. In L^Te 6, there were 8 in- structors, !'_'.") collegiate and 50 preparatory stu- dents, and about 7,500 volumes in the libraries. The number of alumni in L872 was 754. 'I he successive presidents have been as follows : the Rev. .lames Met 'hold, L820, who died before entering upon the duties of his office; the Kev. Samuel Finley, />/■<> I'm.. L822; the Rev. Jeremiah Chamberlain, I ».!>.. from L822 to L826 ; the Rev. I». C. Proctor. 1». P.. pro tern., L826^ CERTIFICATE CHARACTER 121 the Rev. Gideon Blackburn, D. !>., from 182*7 to L830; the Rev. John C.Young, D.D., from L830 to L857; the Rev. Lewis W. Green, D.D., from L857 to L863; the Rev. W. L Breckinridge, from L863fol868; and Ormond Beatty, LL.D., appointed in 1*72 and still (1876) in office. CERTIFICATE. See License, and Incen- tives, School. CHAPSAL, Charles Pierre, a French g rammarian , was burn in Paris in 17*7, and died in 1858. I If is chiefly noted for the grammar of which he was the joint author with Francis Joseph Noel. This work, entitled Nbuvette grammaire frctnpaise, avec exercises, was very popular, passing through as many as 40 editions between 1KUU and LS58, and is still in use, although to a great extent superseded by more recent publications. Chapsal realized from this book a large fortune, which he partly expended upon charitable objects. At his death, he left si i.di it l francs to the teachers in the outskirts of Paris. CHARACTER, Discernment of. The per- ception of the peculiarities of individual char- acter by its external manifestations constitutes an essential preliminary to all sound and judi- cious educational treatment. There is an endless diversity in the natural inclinations and capacities of children ; and, therefore, no system of educa- tion can claim to be scientific that fails tore- cognize this fact, and to supply (1) the principles and rules that should guide the educator in discerning these individual peculiarities, and (2) the practical methods of treatment best adapted to each. Generally, however, education is car- ried on with but little or no such discrimina- tions ; pupils, whatever may be their tempera- ment, physical condition, state of health, mental capacities, or moral proclivities, are treated according to the same system or plan. It is true, there is in every mind a kind of instinctive perception of the peculiarities of character, either the result of an inexplicable impression or prej- udice, formed with little observation, or a positive judgment derived almost unconsciously from an attention, more or less superficial, to the person's appearance, actions, and words on. different occasions. A systematic study of the external indications of character has not, how- ever, been generally, or usually, enjoined upon the teacher as a preparation for the work of training and instruction. Nevertheless, the most distinguished educators have fully recognized the principle. " I>et him that is skilled in teaching," Bays Quintilian, ••ascertain first of all when a boy is entrusted to him, his ability and disposi- tion .... When a tutor has observed these indi- cations of disposition and ability, let him next consider how the mind of his pupil is to be man- aged. Some boys are indolent, unless you stimu- late them; some are indignant at being com- manded ; fear restrains some, and unnerves others; continued labor forms some ; but with others hasty efforts succeed better. Ix-t the boy be given to me, whom praise stimulates. "whom honor delights, who weeps when he is un- successful. His powers must be cultivated under the influence of ambition; reproach will sting him to the quick : honor will incite him ; and in such a boy 1 shall never be apprehensive of in- difference.'' Here we have prescribed, in moral education at least, an adaptation of treatment to special traits; and few will deny that educa- tion is perfect in its plan and efficient in its results in proportion as its agencies and opera- tions are adapted to the peculiarities of the indi- vidual character which it is to form or unfold. When children are educated at home by private teachers, and, indeed, always in that part of edu- cation which belongs to the family or home circle, there is a wide scope for such discrimination; but when large masses of children are taught together, as in public schools, a discrimination of individual traits, and a corresponding adapta- tion of method and requirement becomes, except within quite narrow limits, impracticable; still, it has been questioned whether, in the organiza- tion of such schools, the classification of the children should not be based upon other con- siderations than merely their apparent profi- ciency in a few elementary branches of study. If to secure these intellectual acquirements be the exclusive end of the teaching to be given, the usual classification is, of course, proper; but, even then, it should be constantly corrected according as individual capacity unfolds itself. Some pu- pils will make much more rapid progress than, others ; and if these are kept back in order that the general or average progress of the class may be brought up to a given standard, their future progress will be greatly obstructed ; their mental activity and elasticity will be impaired by the want of due exercise ; and their interest in study will be more or less extinguished. Mereover, not finding the natural craving of their minds, for exercise gratified, their sensuous nature will be unduly developed, and they will be inclined to plunge into frivolous and idle amusements. In large schools, conducted almost entirely with- out any of the discrimination here referred to, the individual is sacrificed to the mass ; and many a bright youth loses not only the best hours of his life, but, by untoward habits and a want of due training, the very spring of his intellectual nature. The moral influence of such indiscriminate treat- ment is still worse ; since there is nothing that requires so delicate and careful a consideration as the proper methods of guiding, controlling, and training the dispositions of children. In the discernment of the character of chil- dren, a careful attention should be given to the temperaments ; indeed, a knowledge of tempera- mental distinctions is one of the most important of the teacher's accomplishments. Says an ex- perienced educator, •• If I know the temperament of a child, I know r how to approach him to ac- complish a given object, to what motives to appeal, what influences to bring to bear upon him. etc." The four great distinctions, of temperament, — nervous, sanguine, lymphatic, and hilious are strongly marked and easily discerned. In the Scientific I!<4, he issue 1 an edict requiring that the faithful should be taught the Lord's Prayer and the Apostles' Creed in German, and that no one should teach that God could only be worshiped in the Latin. Greek.or Hebrew tongues. In 802, he enjoined upon all priests, parents, and god- fathers to provide for the instruction of children committed to their care, in the tenets of the Christian faith and in the Lord's Prayer; and, in 804, he ordered that all those who did not know the Lord's Prayer and the Creed should be Bcourged, and required to fast until they had learned both. These efforts were zealously sup- ported by the bishops; and the councils held at Mayence, Reims, and Tours declared in favor of using the native tongues spoken in the em- pire, for the instruction of the people, in place of the Latin. Even the idea of organizing a system of public instruction began to be con- ceived at that time, as appears from a rescript ad Iressed by bishop Theodulf of Orleans to the priests of his diocese, admonishing them to keep ■ >i every-where (per villas est vicos), and to ask no pay, but only to receive gratuitous offer- ings in return for the service rendered. - See GrAiLLARD, Histoire de Charlemagne (I vols., 2d edit., Paris, 1819) ; Lorenz, Karl des Grossen Privatr und Hqfleben, in Raumer's llislor. Tasckenbueh, 1832); Hbppe, Das Sckulwesen des Mittelnlters (.Marburg, 18(i0); 1 Iai.i.am, En- during the middle ages; Schmidt, Gesch. <■oint of view. But the attention may be so readily arrested by its many easily recognized points of contact with the individual and society, in its numberless applications in the household, the shop, the farm, etc., as well as in the industrial processes on a grander scale, thai any value it may possess, as a purely disciplinary agent, may be overlooked, even by teachers of it, and it may be regarded too much, simply as a low utilitarian element in an educational course, however valu- able it may be admitted to be. It is, neverthe- less, true that, in recent years, much that had contributed a peculiar attractiveness to chemis- try as a branch of instruction, seemed inex- tricably involved in discussion. The perspicuity of its nomenclature, the precision of its state- ments, the simplicity and comparatively limited number of the laws involved in its most com- plex phenomena, were all apparently affected. But it has at last emerged from this formative condition, so changed to be sure, that many well educated in chemistry a few years ago may be obliged to recast their knowledge in new moulds, but with a system of philosophy which has much clearer and more comprehensive generalizations. It has, moreover, lost nothing of its peculiar character as perhaps the most sharply defined branch of physical science. The changes have not been so much those of abandonment of views formerly held, as of their expansion, to provide for the wonderful accumulation of facts since the science first took form about the beginning of the century. The old nomenclature survives only in a few general principles. The names, being out of accord with established and accepted facts, were too precise, and expressed too much. It may be felt that the New Chemistry is too elaborate and complex to permit of profitable introduction; but a closer examination will show that it still possesses its former peculiar sim- plicity and directness of statement, that its no- tation is as expressive as ever, that it requires no application of mathematical analysis hi work- ing out or stating its generalizations, that these are as easily reached from facts within the com- prehension of the pupil, as ever, and that they are just as susceptible of reproduction, for and by the pupil, with comparatively little ami in- expensive apparatus. No doubt, more depends now upon the faithfulness with which it is taught. There is more of a philosophy, as well as a larger body of facts, and the mind of the pupil must be led to discern the principles that under- lie the facts. A necessity for the conception of a threefold division of matter arises in the modern explanation of chemical phenomena. The indivisible, indestructible, insensible atoms of the old chemistry are accepted ; but the interpola- tion is required of equally insensible groups of atoms, called molecules, between the atoms and the sensible aggregations of matter called masses. The word molecule henceforth ceases to be used interchangeably with atom. Forces may act upon or within these molecules; and when they act within, a chemical change is said to occur. Thus, ice composed of molecules is converted into water by releasing these molecules, in a great measure, from cohesive attraction, and thus allow- ing them perfect freedom of motion among them- selves, apart from any directive force. By con- tinued heating, repulsive force predominates; and they separate, but still as molecules, the atoms as such being unaffected. The electrical current, whatever that may be, invades these molecules; dissects off atom from atom; demonstrates the molecules to be groups of hydrogen and oxygen atoms, held together by a force named chemical affinity or chemical attraction, or better still chemism. However chemical phenomena maybe influenced by physical conditions, they involve, essentially, only this play of the atomic foi'ce, between atoms, within molecules. This appar- ently restricted and sharply defined character of the field of chemistry is calculated to render it more easy of comprehension, as a whole, by the pupil, than most other branches of physical sci- ence; whilst it still retains, in a high degree, the advantages conceded to such branches as in- struments for the culture of the faculty of abstrac- tion and generalization, and for fostering a habit of careful, close inductive reasoning, in connection with that of cautious, patient observation, — habits that have so much to do with the formation of correct judgments in the affairs of every-day life. Although a fuller consideration of the purely disciplinary qualities of chemical studies might exhibit them in favorable comparison with some of the usual branches taught, there can be no doubt that it very properly holds its place, largely by reason of the character of the information it imparts. It may be regarded, therefore, as the chief aim of the teacher of chemistry, to make the pupil acquainted with the chemical proper- ties of matter, and with the leading processes by which comparatively worthless material has high value imparted to it. And yet the manner in which this information is acquired, to whatever extent the science may be taught, has far more to do with the subsequent practical value of the study than the amount; and a proper mode of im- parting the facts will also prove of high educa- tional value in other respects. It is only facts so connected, and so lodged in the mind that they readily suggest themselves when an occasion may demand them, that are fruitful. But chemistry has such a body of minute facts, that the text- books are necessarily constructed largely on a cyclopaedic plan ; masses of facts are classified as well as they can be, and are pigeon-holed away for reference rather than for a connected inductive study. Nothing is more natural for the pupil than to run into the vicious habit of simply memorizing. There is no tendency more decided in pupils with memories well trained by early studies. It will require very little encour- agement on the part of a teacher to have the pupil reproduce the numerical statements of a lesson, the specific gravities to the last dec- imal, the equivalents of elements, the melting 126 CHEMISTRY points, etc. Yet these form the very class of facte which scarcely survive the day of recitation, and for which the chemist would rely upon his ref- erence-book in case of need. This is also true of a large number of other facts of subordinate im- portance. Again, facts of the highest importance, assigned by a proper classification to one place, may find most forcible re-statement, in many other places, and in other connections. It rests with the teacher to direct the pupil continually in his study, by calling his attention to the most important facts, and by holding them up to view in all their relations, particularly in their practical bearing upon each other. A compar- atively few facts, thus exhaustively studied, will form a nucleus around which further chemical knowledge may accumulate, whilst the mind will be impressed with the interdependence of chem- ical processes. It is also apparent that the process by which these facts are accumulated is an educating process of the highest order. The pupil soon falls into the habit of considering all facts in their relation-, am 1 n fuses to he satisfied with uncorrelated facts: and he carries this habit into the consideration of all matters, and seeks a wider view i if every subject. In teaching chemistry, three methods readily suggest themselves: I By text-hooks: ('Jj By lectures, accompanied by experiments; and (3) By experiments or investigations performed by the pupil. These methods are so different in themselves and in the end to be accomplished, that they cannot be compared as to effectiveness; but they so fully supplement each other, that they should as far as possible accompany each other. The tendency, at the present rime, is to undervalue the text-book. Whilst there can he uo doubl that, by itself, it yields the least return for the time, attention, ami drudgery of both teacher and pupil, as an adjunct to either of the other methods, it not only imparts fullness to the knowledge, but also renders it more precise. An- other incidental advantage of the highest charac- ter consists in a certain facility for reference, which its Study imparts; and. in many cases, an ability to make use of the literature of the science, and. by means of it. to study up a subject, or investigate a particular case, may he of far more value than a memory thoroughly crammed with facts. Lectures accompanied by illustrative experi- ments are generally conceded to he valuable, and to some extent indispensable, aids iii teaching physical science. Text-boob study, however Faithful and earnest, must he supplemented by them. The facts formulated in words must he vitalized, ami re-enforced bj their objectivere- production. Presented thus directly to the senses, tiny not only become more intelligible, hut pos- sess a peculiar charm, that impresses them upon the memory, and renders the whole study more profitable, as well as more attractive. 1 Jm Lectures are more part icularl\ adapted to teach the gen- eral principles of the science, and to develop, to its fullest extent, the d iscipl inar\ value of the mode of reasoning employed in the investigation of the trutlis of nature, and also to cultivate the faculty of observation. They are, however, in no wise adapted to displace the text-hook. They arc feeble in teaching details. Simple statement and re-statement, and illustration com- bined, will not impress these upon the memory. If the pupil be required to take fall notes, or in- deed he allowed to take any notes at all. it will he at the lo>s of much that is peculiarly valuable ill such lectures. With the faculty of observation in the pupil generally untrained, any division of attention between writing, and listening, and ob- serving v\i!l greatly reduce the proper effect of the lecture. Great pains should hi' taken to ar- range the matter, and bring it before the pupil so that the salient points may impress themselves upon the memory: and the lecture should he tilled in from memory afterward, or it may he a still better plan, in many cases, to furnish, on the blackboard, a very brief syllabus of the lecture. But much of the effectiveness of a lecture is lost in attempting even incidentally to teach numerous details by means of it. It cannot be expected, nor is it at all necessary, to reproduce all, or in- deed a very large proportion, of the facts and processes of the text-book, in order that it may lie fully comprehended. There are many facts and processes in chemistry that possess a typical character, aiding directly in the comprehension of many others, and these are the ones most likely to be drawn upon by the lecturer. There is no branch of physical science that admits of a fuller illustration and verification of its tacts with comparatively limited and inexpensive ap- paratus, nor any in which the want of thorough practical knowledge and skill on the part of the experimenter is productive of less damage to the apparatus employed, dp to a very recent date, simple entertainment and amusement have been regarded, almost equallj with instruction, as the objects of such lectures. The most sen- sational experiments that the science and the means at command could afford, were impressed into service; ami these, too, often Loosely con- nected, or arranged in the order of the text-book. There is .-till unfortunately a residuum of expec- tation of something of this kind. The apparatus and experiments with it arc apt to he made the display features of the instruction. Whilst simple entertainment, or even amusement, may some- times legitimately accompany lectures on chem- istry, it should hi ly as a natural incident; and even then, should not occur too often, since it is apt to create an expectation of , if no1 a desire for. such features: and this will seriously divert the attention of the pupils from the line of thougbl which should always connect the experiments. Every experiment should come upon the seem like a well trained servant, just at the right point of time to add its proper effect to the total effect of the lecture: and, in no case. should it control the lecturer. An experiment without sucm a subordinate relation is as much out of place as a word without proper con- nection in a discourse. As the text hook is largely a compendium of details, its somewhat CHEMISTRY 127 arbitrary plan of arrangement, and its formal. systematic, didactic treatment must give way to the mora instructive, as well as more attract- ive. Baconian method of insinuating knowledge into the mind of the pupil ia the manner in which it was discovered. Topics should be taken up, discussed, and illustrated. The most familiar phenomena should be noticed, and the lecturer should place himself, with his appliances, in the position of an investigator,— an interrogator of nature, and an interpreter of her replies. The point of attack, and the line of investigation should be carefully determined upon and wrought out. so as to cm ike the most valuable information, and exhibit the logic of tacts inductively em- ployed. The pupil will readily follow the in- vestigator in his alternate inductions and deduc- tions, as he "guesses and checks his guesses." Be will thus not only learn the subject, but ac- quire, in a measure, the attitude of mind by which facts are discovered, judged, and arranged, and by which also they may be turned to prac- tical account. To take a very simple ease: car- bonic acid being selected as the subject, a burn- ing candle may suffice to start the inquiry which will lead up to it. and far beyond it. Then, out of the numerous questions that suggest them- selves, the chemist might ask whether, as the material of the candle evidently undergoes a radical change, the air surrounding it is affected? It is placed in a jar. and covered; it goes out. Is the air changed ? Test with lime-water. Yes. Will a splinter change it in the same way? Try. ^ • -. It is then allowable to guess that all burn- ing bodies affect the air in the same way. The guess may be checked by employing a wax taper; then an oil-lamp : then a gas-jet. The inference then becomes the very plausible hypothesis, that burning bodies invariably affect the air surround- ing them in such a way. that it will render lime- water turbid. All would be satisfied to stop at this conclusion ; but a jet of burning hydrogen is at hand, and on repeated trials, each time with greater care, it fails to give the result pre- dicted from the hypothesis. The many facts only led up to that degree of certainty; the one dis- cordant fact shakes the whole fabric. The case is now looked at anew. What have these bodies in common so as to produce this identical result in bimiing. which hydrogen has not? Carbon. A piece of charcoal is tried. It confirms the conjecture which led to the experiment with it. More cautiously than befc ire, the hypothesis would then be modified to suit the new fact. — bodies containing carbon in burning modify the atmos- phere in a certain way. From this point, all the leading properties of carbonic acid could be developed, with but little more apparatus than may be found in any household: its specific gravity, by pouring it from ordinary pitchers, or I running it off by means of a syphon, by weighing it in a paper bag on ordinary scales, etc.: its solu- bility in water, ami the solvent properties it im- parts to the water, by passing it through lime- water, until the precipitate is re-dissolved, then re-precipitating it by boiling the solution, etc. The other constituents of the atmosphere are. in a similar way. readily brought within the range of inquiry. Such a mode of treatment has for the pupils all the freshness of an original inves- tigation. It arouses a spirit of inquiry, and quickens observation; since they will be far more apt to observe closely when they are to discover what is to be seen, than if required simply to see what is described. There will, moreover, he a pleasing surprise at the evolution of clear general principles from apparently confused inquiries. In such lectures, a sensational experiment with- out a direct bearing upon the subject, would be entirely out of place. Humble and apparently trifling experiments are frequently found to pre- sent the truth in it.> simplest, clearest, most in- telligible form. In all cases the chemical notation should lie freely employed. All reactions should be expressed by symbols upon the blackboard. One fact, however, should he continually kept in mind in arranging such a. lecture, and bringing i the phenomena before the pupils; namely, that in pupils of all ages, without any previous train- ing in this direction, the power of observation is generally exceedingly feeble, and that they can follow the lecturer but slowly. They are very apt to overlook or mistake the feature to be observed, or to be misled by some unavoidably prominent accessory. An examination upon a lecture of the simplest character will reveal this fact. The most salient points, even, will often be found to be wanting. A great part of the value of the illustrations of scientific lectures in our higher institutions, and of the highly elaborated popular lectures is lost for the same reason. This dif- ficulty may be remedied in a great measure by adding the other method of teaching suggested : that is. by allowing the pupil, under the direction of the teacher, to perform the experiments and conduct the investigation, requiring him to keep accurate notes, and, in some cases, to reproduce the residts in the form of a lecture. Chemistry is peculiarly adapted to this mode of instruction. A few test-tubes, flasks, corks, etc.. and very little material will put it into the power of the pupil to reproduce the explanation of many facts. I le will learn more by a few failures than by a win »le scries of experiments successfully exhibited in a le.t ure, and will realize how much of care ami painstaking accuracy must be expended in the preparation of every successful experiment. Ih- will appreciate the importance of the most tr ifling essential condition, and will find that here no oversights, no mistakes, no negligence can be condoned: but that failure follows them as inexorably as effect follows cause, lie will be surprised to find how apparently trifling an over- sight often lay between him and success, and will learn to estimate conditions by other standards than their apparent magnitude or importance. He will thus form the habit of observing closely, and of noticing every thing exhibited in the course of lectures, and will carry this habit into all the affairs of life.— Sec Dai iu':nv (Prof . Charles G.B.), On !},<■ Study of < 'hemistrif us n llranch of Edu- cation, in Lectures on Education (Loud., 1855). 128 CHICAGO CHICAGO, the principal city of Illinois, the commercial metropolis of the North-western section of the Onion, and the fifth in population of the cities of the United States. Its population, according to the national census of 1870, was 298,977 ; but, according to the special census of 1874, was 395,408. 'This city was incor- porated March 1.. 1837 ; and the first census was taken in July of that year, when it was found to contain a population of 4,170. Its rapid growth is probably without a parallel in history. During the '-'<> years preceding the cen- SUS of 1874. its increase was nearly 579 per cent. The public schools of ( Ihicagowere first classified and graded by .John C. Dorr, the first superin- tendent, who served from May. L854, to March, 1851). when he was succeeded by William II. Wells, who continued in office till August, 1864, and was succeeded by Josiah L. Pickard, the present incumbent. The first public school building was erected in 1844, but there was no published school report till 185 I. School Statistics. — For the year ending August 31., 1875, the following statistics were reported : Number of schools 41 Number of pupils enrolled 49,121 Average daily attendance 32,999 Number of teachers 700 Number of months schools were open 10 Amount received from school tax fund $765,968.21 do do from state fund 109,044.40 do do from rents, interest, etc. 91,684.58 Total receipts $966,697.19 Amount paid for teachers' salaries $535,706.79 do do for school buildings 155,564.26 do do for school sites 9,769.98 do do for fuel and supplies 75,729.22 do do for other expenses 38,068.24 Total expenditure $814,838.49 The school age is from 6 to 21 ; and the num- ber of chih hen in the city between those ages was reported, in special census of Oct. 1., 1874, as 1 D'2.555, out of a total population of 395,408 ; of these 15,947 were reported as at work, and 33,547 as neither at work nor in school. The whole number of children reported as enrolled in the public schools was, at this date, only 36,416 ; and the number in private schools, 16.6 15. School System, — The system consists of a board of education of fifteen members, appointed by the mayor of the city, subject to the approval of the common council, 1 high school, 3 division high Bchools, 1 normal school, 21 district schools with grammar and primary departments, and L5 independent primary schools. The term of office of the men i hers of the board is three years, five members being appointed each year ; and at Least five years' previous residence is requisite for el i- gibility to appointment. Bythe"act to estab Gahand maintain a Bystemof free schools", which went into operation July 1., 1872, the board of education has power, "with the concurrence oi the city council". ( I i To erect or purchase build- ings suitable for Bchool houses, and keep the same in repair; (2J To buy or lease sites for school-houses with the necessary grounds; (3) To issue bonds for the purpose of building, fur- nishing, and repairing school-houses, for purchas- ing sites for the same, and to provide for the payment of said bonds; and to borrow money for school purposes upon the credit of the city. It is also empowered, (1) To furnish schools with the necessary fixtures, furniture, and apparatus ; (2) To maintain, support, and establish schools, and supply the inadequacy of the school fund for the salaries of teachers from school taxes; (3) To hire buildings or rooms for the use of the schools or the board ; (4) To appoint teachers and fix the amount of their compensation; (5) To prescribe the school-books to be used, and the studies to be pursued in the schools ; (6) To divide the city into school districts, and, from time to time, to alter the same, and create new ones as circumstances may require ; and (7) To enact such ordinances as may be necessary or ex- pedient for the proper management of the schools. The board of education is not per- mitted to increase the expenditures beyond the amount received from the state common school fund, the rental of school lands, and the amount annually appropriated for such purposes; nor can it levy or collect taxes, or demand that the city council shall levy any tax for school pur- poses, except on its concurrence. The officers of the board arc a president, vice-president, secre- tary, clerk, assistant clerk, school agent, and messenger; also a superintendent of schools and an assistant superintendent of schools, to tin- latter of whom is entrusted the more immediate supervision of the work of instruction and dis- cipline in the schools. There is also a building and supply agent, who has the immediate super- vision of all the buildings and grounds used for school purposes, and who attends to all repairs, and to the purchase of needed supplies. The course of study, below the high school, comprises eight grades, four of which are known as grammar grades, and four as primary grades; the grammar schools, however, embrace all the eight grades, instruction in the four lower grades being given in the primary departments. The high school course is arranged for four years, and affords instruction in the higher Knglish branches and in the modern languages, preparing for college such of its pupils as desire it. The division high schools are organized with a course of study for two years, excluding all foreign lan- guages, except German, which is an optional study. The studies prescribed for the primary schools are reading, the rudiments of arithmetic. spelling elementary geography, and writing; to these, in the grammar schools, arc added higher geography, English grammar and composition. and the history of the United States. Music and drawing are systematically taught throughout the course. To each grade some topics are as- signed for which no text-books are provided. These topics constitute the oral course, which includes various branches of science presented in a familiar way. and designed to develop the in- telligence of the pupils, as well as to impart CHICAGO UNIVERSITY 129 useful information. German is taught in 1") schools, besides t ho high schools, ami is super- vised by a special superintendent. There is a division high school in each division of the city ; and the studies taught are natural science, lan- guage, mathematics, history, and civil govern- ment. German, music, and drawing are op- tional. The establishment of these schools, with their brief and practical course of study, was dictated by the fact that more than fifty per cent of those who annually enter the High School, leave before the completion of the second year. Examination, Licensing, and Appointment of Teachers. -Candidates for teachers' certifi- cates are examined by a committee of the board of education, consisting of four members, and the superintendent. Those who pass the examina- tion receive, at first, partial certificates, testifying to their moral character and intellectual attain- ments. After trial, and upon the joint recom- mendation of the committee on the appointment of teachers and the committee on the school in which the teacher is employed, the board of education grants a full certificate, certifying to the competency of the holder in regard to all matters of instruction and discipline. No person is eligible to any position as a teacher who is not eighteen years of age. Teachers are appointed annually by the board of education, and at other times by a committee of the board, when vacan- cies occur. These latter appointments are sub- ject to confirmation by the board. Each teacher, in the four higher grades, is responsible for the instruction and discipline of 48 pupils, and in the lower grades for 62. About half the teach- ers hi the high and normal schools are males ; but in the other schools there are very few males. — only 21 out of a corps of 671. Salaries of Teachers. — Male teachers receive from SI, 000 to $3,000 per annum, according to position and experience. Female teachers re- ceive from $550 to $2,000. Certain salaries are attached to particular positions, and no distinc- tion as to sex is recognized in this regard. The private schools in Chicago are quite nu- merous, and many of a high degree of efficiency. The census of 1874 enumerated 144 such schools, including the various classes of parochial and denominational schools, female seminaries, select schools, kindergartens, etc. The number of pu- pils in these schools was reported as 28,251, — ■ 14,113 males, and 14,138 females. The whole number of teachers employed was 097, of whom 23'J were males, and 458 females. CHICAGO, University of, in Chicago, Illinois, was chartered in 1857 and opened in 1858. The building, a magnificent structure, costing over SI 1 7,000, is situated in the southern part of the city, in a beautiful grove of oaks. This site was donated by Stephen A. Douglas. The charter provides that the majority of trust- ees and the president of the university shall be Baptists, but otherwise no religious test or par- ticular religious profession is required for admis- sion to any department of the university, or for election to any professorship or other place of 9 honor or emolument in it. The institution em- braces a preparatory department, a collegiate department, a law department, and a med- ical department. The preparatory department comprises a classical course of four years and a scientific course of two years. Be- sides the regular preparatory department. Way- land Institute, at Heaver Dam, Wisconsin, for- merly Wayland University, is now conducted as a preparatory department of the university. The collegiate department comprises a classical course of four years ; a scientific course of four years ; a course in astronomy of two years ; and a course in practical chemistry of two or three years. Provision is made for students who de- sire to take only a partial course. Young women are admitted to the preparatory and collegiate classes on the same terms as young men. There is a museum with a valuable collection of speci- mens in human anatomy and physiology, zool- ogy, entomology, geology, numismatics, etc. The university also has valuable chemical and philo- sophical apparatus. The library contains about 20,000 volumes. In the rear of the uni versify building and attached to it, is Dearborn Observ- atory, established in 1805, which forms the astro- nomical department. It is designed not only to furnish instruction in astronomy, but also to make original researches in that science, and aid in its application to geography. This observato- ry contains a fine equatorial refracting telescope, of 23 feet focal length, and 18£ inches aperture, constructed by Alvan Clark in 1804, and a meridian circle of the first class constructed in Hamburg, with all the necessary appliances. It is under the direction of Prof. Truman H. Safford. The price of tuition in the university is $70 per annum ; room rent, $20. The uni- versity property is valued at $700,000, and there are scholarship funds to the amount of $48,000. The law department was organized in 1858. It is now also a department of the Northwestern Uni- versity (at Evanston, Illinois), and is known as the Union College of Law of the University of Chicago and the Northwestern University. The course of study is for two years. The Rush Medical College forms the medical department of the university. This college was chartered in 1843, and organized in 1844 ; it became con- nected with the university in 1874. The new college building is near the new county hos- pital. In 1874: — 5, there were, in the prepar- at i try and collegiate departments, 8 professors and 7 other instructors ; in the law department, 5 professors and 2 lecturers ; and in the medical department, 11 professors. The number of stu- dents was 011; namely, medical, 203; law, 103; Wayland institute, 96 ; preparatory, 100 ; col- legiate, 10!), of whom (allowing repetitions) 3 were resident graduates, 3 in astronomy, 7 in practical chemistry, 22 in partial courses, and "'.) in the regular classes. The Rev. John C. Bur- roughs, LL.D., was elected president in 1858 and remained in office 15 years, when he was succeeded by the present incumbent, the Rev. Lemuel Moss, D. D. 130 CHILDHOOD CHILI CHILDHOOD. See A.GB. CHILI, a republic of South America, having an area of 126,034 sq. in., and a population, in ~ls72, according to official calculation, of 2,003,346, exclusive of 70,400 independent Araucanians. [ This is one of the few flourishing states of South America. It has been almost entirely free from civil wars, and its progress in education, litera- ture, commerce, and general prosperity exceeds that of almost any other South American state. The government favors immigration from Eu- rope : and, in L865, the number of foreign born persons was 23,220, among whom there were :{,s76 Germans, 3,092 English, and 2,483 French. According to art. 5 of the constitution, the Cath- olic religion was permitted to the exclusion of all others; but, in L856, a treaty with England guaranteed full religious liberty to all English subjects; ami, in lsii."), an Act of Toleration was adopted as an amendment to the constitution, authorizing not only the exercise of non-Catholic religious worship, but also the establishment of non-Catholic schools. The number of Prot- estants is limited almost to the English and Ger- man immigrants and their descendants. Only a tew Protestant congregations have been estab- lished among the natives by missionaries from the United States. The national language is the Spanish. The Spanish conquest of the country began about L535; and, during the Spanish rule, Chili formed a viceroyalty under the name of Estre- madura. The war of independence began in 1 si o. and was virtually terminated in 1818. The in- dependence of the country, however, was not recognized by Spain until L84 1. Public instruct ion in Chili is under the direc- tion of the minister of justice and ecclesiastical and educational affairs. It is his duty to inspect all the schools and colleges supported by the national treasury, to appoint all the teachers and employes, to apply to congress for the necessary sums for their support, and to present every year a report on the condition and progress of education. The university of Chili regulates the studies and examinations which candidates for the different scientific courses are required to pass, examines and prescribes the text-books, makes out the programmes of examination, etc. The primary schools are, moreover, under the immediate direction of a general visitor of schools, who has deputies in all the provinces, and whose central office is at Santiago. It is his duty tu vi'm'i the schools constantly , and to receive detailed information regarding the number of pupils and the COndud of the teachers, as well ;is the tinan- cial condition. The municipalities of each prov- ince exercise a vigilanl inspection, and aid, ac- cording to theextenl of their local treasuries, in supporting the educational institutions. Primary Instruction. The tirst organization of primary instruction in Chili was due to the zeal ot Presidenl Montt, who regarded public schools as the firmest support of republican in- stitutions. He offered in 1853, a reward of It"" 1 pesos for the best treatise on the following three questions : (1) What influence has public instruction on manners, public morality, in- dustry, ami the development of public wealth? (2) What educational organization is the most appropriate in view of the national peculiarities of the country and of its inhabitants? (3) What is the best way to provide for the support of public instruction? The prize was awarded, in 1855, to Miguel Luis and Gregorio Victor Amunategui; and the views of the successful treatise were the basis on which the organization of public instruction was begun. According to this treatise, there were, in 1855, 39 I public primary schools for boys, with 15,707 pupils ; 95 schools for girls, with 4.297 pupils; total 489 schools and 20,004 pupils. The number of private primary schools was, for boys 194, with 5879 pupils, for girls 105, with 939 pupils; total 299 schools, with 6,818 pupils. The aggregate num- ber of public and private primary schools was 7*S. with 26,822 pupils. Eight years later, in L863, the number of schools had increased to 9S"> (5ss public, 397 private), with 47.717 pupils (35,4*0 in the public schools, and 12.247 in the private). Of the 197 new schools which had been opened, 150 were female schools: of the in- crease of 20,895 new pupils, 11,027 were girls. The school population, embracing the children from the 7th to the 15th year of age, numbered in L863, 167,409 hoys and L67.838 girls; which shows that, notwithstanding the great progress that had been made, nearly six-sevenths of all the children of school age were growing up without any instruction. In bringing these facts to the knowledge of the country, the minister of public instruction stated, that, to carry out the law of 1860, which prescribed the establishment of a primary school for every 2,000 inhabitants and of two schools of a higher grade in the chief town of each department, the sum of 970,000 pesos would be required, instead of 208,000 pro- \ ided for in the budget: also, to cany out the law of I860, it would be necessary to establish 1(>70 elementary and LOO higher schools, besides those previously established. As the government did not deem it advisable to raise the cost of pulilie. instruction to the amount thus demanded, it encouraged the formation of private associations for tin' promotion of public instruction, and also authorized the "Brothers of Christian Schools" to establish schools: but though much has been achieved in this way, the number of schools is still insufficient, and the number of children attend- ing school in proportion to the total population, was. in L872,only I to 25. The number of public Scl Is. in the same year, was la 1 ; of private schools 706; the aggregate number of children attending school (public and private) was 54,821, and the annual expense tor each scholar averaged 8.98 pesos. The number of schools for adults, which are designed to afford the advantages of education to those who have grown up illiterate, was. in L855, 10: and in 1863,30, of which 24 were supported bytJhestate. Two normal schools, one tor male ami one for female teachers, were established by President Montt. in L863. The CHILI CHINA 131 candidates for admission are required to be 18 years of age, and to furnish certificates of good behavior and good health. They are educated at the expense of the state, but engage to accept the position of teacher at the place assigned to them by the government, The smallest salary paid to a teacher is 300 pesos. The course of instruction in the normal schools is for .'{ years. The public primary schools are supported by the state, by municipalities, or by monastic organiza- tions. Elementary instruction embraces reading, writing, the elements of practical arithmetic, and legal weights and measures. The primary schools of a higher grade, which are gradually to be estab- lished in the capital of each department, but the number of which is as yet quite small, teach also Spanish grammar, higher arithmetic, draw- ing, an outline of the history of Chili, the con- stitution of Chili, and book-keeping. Secondarylnsiruclion. — The secondary schools of the republic embraced, in 1863, 13 state lyceums with 2,537 pupils, 4 episcopal seminaries supported by the state and, therefore, also re- garded as state institutions, 6 monastic colleges with 210 students, and 53 private colleges with 2868 students. The study of the classical lan- guages has of late, somewhat declined. Superior List ruction. — The highest institu- tion of the country is the Tnstituto national, comprising the university of Chili, a preparatory college, and a school of fine arts. The university, which embraces five faculties (plulosophy and philology, law and political science, natural sci- ence and mathematics, medicine, and theology) is entirely modeled after the best institutions of the kind in Europe, and a large number of the professors are distinguished scholars of Germany and France. The university is richly endowed, and possesses excellent collections. It has pub- lished a year-book, called Anodes de la Uni- !•• r&idad de Chile, by means of which it keeps up a communication with similar institutions in Europe and America. Among the institu- tions connected with the university, are an ob- servatory, a national museum, and a national library. Special Instruction. — Of special schools, there are, at Santiago, a national school of art and industry, a military academy, a school of agri- culture and veterinary science, with a model farm ; a school of midwifery, an institution for the deaf and dumb, and a conservatory of music. The most important schools in the provinces are a school of mining at ( lopiapo, a nautical school at Valparaiso, a mariners' school at Ancud, a school of tine arts and industry at Talca ; and commercial colleges at Valparaiso and Quillota. In accordance with the recommendations of the prize essay, the government makes an annual appropriation for the establishment of public libraries in connection with public schools; and a large number have already been established. — See Le Roy, in Schmid's Realencuclopddie, vol. ix, pp. 848 — 857; Anales de la tmiversidad de Chile; Amunategui, De la instruction primaria en Chile (Sautiago, 1856). CHINA Proper is a country of eastern Asia, extending from Ion. 98° E. to 123° E., and from lat. Is 1 -' V to 43° X. Its area is about L ,553,000 sq. miles, or nearly half that of all Europe. Inclusive of its dependencies, it has an extent estimated at 3,970,000 sq. miles. The population of China Proper is estimated at about 404,000,000, (see Behm, mid Wagner, BevGlke- rung der Eh'de, vol. in., Cotha. L875), while that of the vast dependencies, Mantchooria, Tibet, Mongolia, and Corea, is believed not to exceed 20,000,000. The traditions of the ( 'hincse point to an immigration from the west, and distinctly affirm the savage character of their ancestors. (See L'Histoire generate dr la Chine by Eere Mailla.) Unlike the civilizations of western Europe, which were all imposed from without, the Chinese civilization seems to have developed spontaneously from within. Stagnant though it be in many respects, the claim that < 'hinese civili- zation has remained stationary for thousands of years seetns unfounded. Civilization has had a peculiar development in China, but still it has made progress. There is an intense national pride among the people, wdiich is not altogether without justification; as there is scarcely a modern invention of any note, with the excep- tion of electricity and the steam-engine, which was not known to them many centuries ago. The mariner's compass, gunpowder, printing, porcelain, and paper were known to them soon after the Christian era. The chief religions are Confucianism, Buddhism, and Taonism; and the lack of religious elements in these systems has led to the charge that the Chinese nation is atheistic. Confucianism, for example, recognizes no personal Cod as an object of divine worship, while the other religious systems have grown into a farrago of jugglery, necromancy,, and devil worship. In all the empire, there is- but one temple consecrated to the worship of the Supreme Deity, and but one worshiper — the emperor — who celebrates the pageant once a year. This, however, is a degradation from an earlier and purer form of monotheism. The works of the ancient sages, and even the earlier w r orks of Confucius abound in passages showing a higher and purer conception of God than after- ward obtained. (See Life and teachings of Con- fucius, by Dr. Legge.) The language, like every thing else Chinese, is stri generis. It is neither Semitic, nor Aryan, nor Turanian. It is not, how- ever, a monosyllabic language, as is commonly said, this error being due to the form of the printed words, in which the syllables are sepa- rated, whereas they are not separated in meaning. The alphabet is also peculiar. Instead of employ- ing letters to represent sounds, they have letters to represent things and words. Hence, the lan- guage contains many thousand signs. A dic- tionary of the second century of our era contains 9,353 signs. The imperial dictionary of Kang- he, the most recent work of the class, gives 43.960. This makes the language one of extra- ordinary difficulty. The written language i- only mastered by a small percentage of the pop- 132 CHINA ulation, and even scholars do not by any means master the whole number of signs. A knowledge of ten or twelve thousand is sufficient to make an accomplished graduate ; and, with a knowl- edge of two or three thousand, one may make a very fair start as a literary man. The literature is said to be the most extensive in the world. The most prominent works are the so-called Classics, which are supposed to have been supervised by Confucius. They are five in num- ber, and are held in the highest reverence, being looked upon as a standard from which there is no appeal. They are the sacred books of Con- fucianism, and are replete with rules for daily conduct, public and private. Apart from these Classics, and the commentaries upon them, which are legion, the most important part of Chinese literature consists of the histories of the several dynasties. The historian of the western Han, which ended A. I>. 84, gives a catalogue of the works in the imperial library, comprising clas- sics, philosophy, poetry, military tactics, mathe- matics, and medicine. The literature probably suffered somewhat from the barbarism of ( 'hi- hwang-te.who attempted to immortalize himself, about 21(1 B. < '.. by destroying all the literature of the ages that preceded him. Education is held in the highest honor. No government provision, however, is made for pub- lic education. The government fosters it only by making it the road to distinction, and by sup- porting the various examinations. Knowledge centers in a mere acquaintance with the apho- risms of the Glassies. A scanty knowledge of reading, writing, and arithmetic is all but uni- versal; but, owing to the peculiar structure of the language, one may be able to read a little. without having any knowledge whatever of the rest. Not more than three males in a hundred can read the classical books with readiness, and not more than one woman in a thousand. The oidy course of instruction necessary to obtain a government position, is a classical and histor- ical one. The consequence is a disregard for all branches of study, which are not practical, and hence a most astonishing narrowness of all culture. The rights and duties of the government, and of the individual in his several social relations, form the chief subject of Chinese books and instruc- tion. Confucius, in his system, adopts the prin- ciples of dependence and subordination, ana the instruct ion of the schools aims to impress them carefully upon the student. The great end of all instruction in China is not so much to till the head with knowledge as to make quiet and orderly citizens. Any thing like general culture is entirely unknown, except where the Chinese have been Forced into contact with European nations. They have ttO ueed of science, for I he Classics contain all thai is worth knowing. and no need of geographical and historical knowledge beyond mat of their own people, for they are "celestials," and all outside are "barba- rians", female education is almost unknown. Girls are very seldom instructed in anything but ordinary house-work ; and yet a learned woman is held in honor. It is not thought right that parents should conduct the education of their own children, because the relation of parent and child is a holy one and would be disturbed by the necessary severities of the teacher. Chil- dren begin their studies with their sixth and seventh year. There is no compulsory educa- tion. School-teachers are not appointed by the state and need no official permission. Parents choose the teachers, who receive from $4f> to $90 a year with board. A teacher takes from twenty to thirty scholars. Public school-houses do not exist. The arrangement of the schools is very simple ; a teacher has a table and arm- chair, and every scholar has to provide himself with a desk and a chair. There is in every school-house a little altar dedicated to * onfucius and to Wun-tschong-ya. the God of Science. I'pon entering school, the boys receive their school names in place of their so-called " milk names." The first school-book is the Path to lie regions of classical and historical literature. It begins with the methods of instruction and their necessity, the importance of the duties of children and brothers: and then follows an over- sight of the different branches of knowledge : the great powers, heaven, earth, and man ; the four Beasons and the points of the compass ; the five elements, " metal, wood, water, fire, earth ;" the five cardinal virtues, •• love, justice, wisdom, cleverness, truth ;" the five kinds of grain, the six domestic animals, the seven passions, the eight notes of music, the nine grades of relation, the ten social duties. After this, follow rules for a course of academical study, with an index of the books to be used, a short account of the universal history of China, together with a list of the successive dynasties of the empire. The idea is, to take advantage of the receptivity of the memory at this period, to store it with tacts to be afterward digested. The method of learning to read is as follows : The book is open and the teacher begins to read ; the scholars have each a book, and with eyes upon the book pronounce word for word after the teacher. Only a line is read at a time, and this is repeated until the scholars have learned the pronunciation of every sign, and the line is then learned by heart. When this is learned, the scholar goes to the teacher, lays the book upon the table, turns his back to him. and recites it. Besides reading, writing is taught in all the primary BChools, but there is no instruction in reckoning, geog- raphy, universal history, natural history, foreign languages, or even in religion. This reading and writing, however, for the most part, is the mere ability to pronounce or make the signs, and does not imply an understanding of what is read or written; a> if one should read or write Latin or Greek words without any comprehension of their meaning. Those who wish to devote thein- Belvea to study receive a thorough exposition of the Classics, and write verses and essays. The written language is so difficult, that more time is consumed by the Chinese student in mastering it than is given in western countries to the ac- (MUX A 133 quiremenl of a libera] education; and the cele- brated literary examinations arc limited to the" inquiry whether the candidates can read and write with readiness and grace. This study is overseen by teachers who have passed an exam- ination. When one lias acquired some reputa- tion for learning, a number of young people gather around him to prepare themselves for examination under his instruction. Such private colleges arc numerous both in the city and coun- try. Lectures are given by the teacher upon the Classics, and essays and verses are written upon them once a week by the students. It is the custom of these students to learn a large num- ber of standard essays by heart, in order to ob- tain a finished and correct style. There are four literary degrees : The first corresponds to our B. A., the second is the degree of "licentiate," tin' third, that of doctor, and the fourth, the degree of "member of the imperial academy.'' Public examinations for the degrees have existed in China since the Tang- dynasty. There are three examinations for the first grade. The first is held by th3 mandarin of the district, and lasts several days. The candidate has to furnish seven essays and verses upon seven subjects, with- out a hook or other help. The second examina- tion is conducted by the prefect of the district, assisted by the literary chancellor of the province. The third examination is under the control of the chancellor, and is held twice in every three years. Whoever passes all three examinations receives the degree of "blooming talent," and although he has no claim to position, he is still a man above the common people. If he neglects his studies he may lose his rank; hence he must be present at the examinations up to his sixti- eth year. Thousands of men of this degree be- come school-teachers, doctors, letter-writers, ad- vocates, etc. The examinations for the second degree are held every three years, in the capital of each province, by two imperial examiners from Peking. The average number of applicants is twenty thousand, of whom about two hundred pass. Besides the imperial examiners from Peking, about sixty-five literary officers and a multitude of servants assist. When the candidates enter the apartment, they are searched for books and papers which might give them an unfair advantage ; they then receive the work, and are shut up in cells of about 12 sq. ft., and high enough to admit of their standing. The exami- nation hall contains about 7,500 of these, arranged around open courts; these are paraded by sol- diers to prevent any communication between the candidates or with the outer world. The exami- nation consists chiefly in the writing of themes, and is intended to last nine days and three nights. \\ hen the work is done, it is examined first by a subordinate commission, to see if the formalities have all been observed. No essay may have more than seven hundred signs, nor less than one hundred : and correction LB in no case allowed. The work is afterward laid before the imperial examiners, whogive the final judgment. It i.- considered an honor to attempt this cxami- I nation, and failure is never looked upon as a dis- grace. The licentiate is entitled to a position alter some years, and has the right to hoist a flag before his house. The examination for the degree Of doctor is held every three years at Peking, and only licentiates are allowed to Undergo it. This examination is the same as that for the degree of licentiate, except that the examiners are of higher rank. The names of the successful candidates are entered upon the civil Service list, and they receive the first vacant position. The examination for membership of the imperial academy takes place every three years at the imperial palace; this degree is equivalent to an office, since the members of the academy are maintained by the state. Contact with European nations is gradually breaking down the popular estimate of the Glas- sies, and gradually European education is being introduced. In L866, a mechanical workshop was opened in Shanghai, in which the imperial officers were commanded to study. In 18(>7. a polytechnic school was opened in the sea province Fu-tschien, for the instruction, by foreign teach- ers, of talented young Chinamen in machinery. In 1868, a university was opened at Peking; where the instruction was afterward on the European plan. This caused a good deal of ex- citement among the conservatives, but all to no avail. A great observatory has been built for the university, and many costly instruments ob- tained from Europe. The student in the uni- versity must (1) have taken a course in the classics ; (2) he must live in the university building, and be present from morning until evening; (3) he has to pass a monthly and semi-annual examination ; (4) after three years he has to pass an examination for dismissal ; (5)v he receives board and lodging free, and about $ I 5 a month pocket money. Those who pass the final examination are viewed as belonging to the higher classes of learned men. Besides scientific instruction, the " six fine arts " are also taught : (1) Society manners, (2) Music, (3) Arch- ery, (4) Carriage driving, (f>) Writing,( (i) Reckon- ing. Prince Kung, who was the chief mover in founding the university, complained bitterly of the decay of mathematics and astronomy, ow- ing to a monopoly of the mandarins, who had procured a law forbidding any one to study astronomy under heavy penalties. He viewed it as the greatest glory of the dynasty to have restored to his father-land the mathematical and astronomical studies. and whatever the Europeans have built upon them, as an old property of the nation. In this way he justified to the jealous Chinamen the introduction of foreign teachers and foreign inventions. The Roman Catholic Church, which had. in IsT'J.in China proper, 26 vicariates apostolic, and •'! prefectures apostolic, and. in the Chinese dependencies, .'{ vicariates, with a Cath- olic population of about 400,000, supports a large number of schools, some of which are of a high grade. The number of native priests is considerable; and most of them receive a Euro- pean education in the propaganda at Borne, and 134 CHRIST CROSS ROW CHRISTIANS in a Chinese missionary seminary at Naples. The Protestants, who have formed native con- gregations in the treaty ports, with an aggregate membership (in 1869) of :),l>24, have also some schools, and make considerable progress in cir- culating the Bible. In 1872, the Chinese govern- ment sent 30 students to the United States, and 30 more were to come each year for the succeed- ing four years; in all 130. — See Schmidt, Ge- schichte der P&dagogik ; Coircy, 1/ Empire >/" Milieu (Paris, 1867); Davis, Description of China mid it Inhabitants (2 vols., London, L857); Gutzlaff, China Opened (2 vols.. Ixni- don. 1838); Banspach, Reports, for the Years 1863 and 1864, of the Chinese Vernacular Schools (Hongkong, 1805); Hit, L' Empire Chi- nois (2 viilx. 4th edit., Paris, 1862); Williams, The Middle Kingdom (N. Y., 1848). CHRIST CROSS ROW, or Criss Cross Row, a familiar designation formerly applied to tlic first line, or row. of the alphabet, as arranged in the old horn-books, or primers. In these books, which consisted of only a single page, the letters were printed in the following manner: -f- A a b c d efghijkl m n o p q r f s t u v w x v z etc a e i o u A I! C I) E T (i II U K LM N O I' <> 8.8TD V W X V Z. The first line commencing with a cross was called the Christ frnss row, or briefly the cross row. The term was. however, frequently ap- plied to the whole alphabet. Thus, we read in Dove's Polydoron (1631), -of all the letters in the CTOSS rmr a "■ is the worst." "The cross was placed at the beginning," says Johnson, "to show that the end of learning is piety.'' This term is often referred to by the old writ- ers. In Shakspeare's Richard III., .allusion is made to it by Clarence when he says of the king : •■Hi' hearkens alter prophecies and dreams, Ami from the cross row pluck9 the letter <;.'' Cotgrave mentions "La croix de /»ir Then, or Ln cnii.r c, ami Primer.) CHRISTIAN BROTHERS, College of the, at St. Louis. Missouri, was established by Roman Catholics in 1855. It comprises 8 pre- paratory and a collegiate department, and has a library of 1.5,000 volumes, Its buildings, grounds, etc., are valued at 0150,000. In 1873 — 4, there were 30 instructors. 270 preparatory and 31 col- legiate students. The Kev. Brother James is (1876) the president. CHRISTIAN BROTHERS' COLLEGE, at Memphis. Tennessee, was opened in 1871. It is a Roman < 'atholic institution, having a col- legiate, a scientific, a commercial, and a prepar- atory department. The college possesses valuable philosophical apparatus and a library of about L,500 volumes. The value of the college prop- erty is $40,000. In 1874 — 5, there were 9 in- structors and 127 students, of whom 48 were of a collegiate grade. Brother Maurehan is (1876) the president. CHRISTIAN COLLEGE, at Monmouth, Oregon, is under the control of the Christians. It was formerly known as Monmouth University, but was chartered under its present name in L865. The value of its buildings and other prop- erty is estimated at $20,000 : the amount of its productive funds is about the same. The college has two separate coursesof study, the classical and the scientific; and there is also a preparatory course. Roth >e\es are admitted. A student may receive a certificate of graduation in any of the following departments: (1) sacred history, mental and moral sciences: (2) natural science; (3) mathematics; (4) classics. To obtain such certificate it is required that the candidate should have been a Student of Christian College at least one year, and that he should pass a satisfactory examination in all the prescribed studies of the department. In L873 — 1, there were '.' instruct- ors and 180 students. T. P. Campbell, A. M., is (b s 7iii the president. CHRISTIAN UNIVERSITY, at Canton, Missouri, was chartered in L853, and organized in 18f>(>. It was founded by the Christian de- nomination for the education of both sexes. Its buildings, grounds, etc., are valued at $100,000. In 1S72 — 3 it had 8 instructors and 166 students. W. 1 1. 1 lo|u»i. A.M.. is ( L876) the president. CHRISTIANS (sometimes, but improperly, pronounced Christ iansi, CHRISTIAN DENOMINA- TION, Christian Connection, and Christian Church, are name- chosen, in the United States, by organizations of Christians who -seek to unite the followers of Christ of every persuasion, bj the breaking down of party walls, party spirit, and sectarian feeling and practice, and by infusing into the minds and hearts of all lovers lit i he eon i nn m Saviour a liberal spirit, thereby in- ducing libera] practice." (See Wellons, Annual qf the Christian Church for L875, Suffolk, Va., L875.) They have no rule of faith and practice, save the Holy Scriptures, and the only test of fellowship agreed upon is Christian character. They believe that the right of private judgment and entire liberty of conscience, in reference to those points of doctrine and practice not con- sidered essential to sal vat ion.. should be accorded to, and enjoyed by, all; and that, therefore, all who believe in, and love and serve, the Lord •lesus Christ, ought to be received into the fel- lowship and communion of the Church. They CHRIST'S HOSPITAL CHURCH OF GOD 135 are generally Antitrinitarians and Baptists; they cherish prayer meetings, Sunday schools, and missionary enter) irises, and are congregational in church government, holding animal and state conferences, and a quadrennial general conven- tion. Tlie first organization of the kind was effected, and the name Christians, to the exclusion of all other names, adopted, through the influence of Rev. ••• 1 Kelly, in a conference held in Surry ( lounty, Va.. Aug. 4., 1794. The new organization consisted of seceders from the Methodist Episcopal Church. A similar organization was established, a tew years later, by seceders from the regular Baptists, in the New England States; and a third in I sud. in Kentucky and Tennessee, by a number of Presbyterians. Soon after, the three bodies met in general convention and were consolidated into one denomination. The war interrupted the connection of the Southern with the Northern conferences, and the former organized a Southern ■ral convention, which held its first session in L866, ami the fourth in IsTd. The main body had, in 1ST."). 1197 ordained and 210 un- ordaiae 1 ministers, and <>1),T01 members. The Southern branch had, in the same year, (i confer- ences. ~>T elders, 12 licentiates, and about 10,000 members. The main branch, according to the almanac published by the denominational publishing house at Dayton. Ohio [The ('lirixtiun Almanac fur \ 876), had, in 1ST"), the following educational institutions: Union Christian College, at Merom, Sullivan County, Indiana ; Starkey Seminary at Eddytown, Yates County, N. Y. ; Proctor Academy, Andover, N. H., and the Christian Biblical Institute, at Stanfordville, Dutchess County. N. Y. The latter institution was for- merly situated at Eddytown, N. Y., and was, in 18T2, removed to Stanfordville, where sixty acres of land had been bought for it, at a cost of 318,000. The Institute building and a student's home had been erected by the Hon. David (dark, of Hartford, Ct., at a cost stated to have been between 820.000 and §.'{0,000, and were present- ed to the convention as his free gift. It offers free tuition to worthy young men and women : also the free use of class-books and library, and to students without families the free occupancy of a lodging and study-room in the Students' Home. The Southern branch controls the Suffolk Ool- legiate Institute, at Suffolk, Va., and the Graham High School, at Graham, N. C. CHRIST'S HOSPITAL, or Tin: Blue-Coat School, one of the most famous charitable in- stitutions of London, incorporated by Edward VI., in 1553, as a hospital for orphans and found- lings. It derives its name, Blue-Coat School, from the costume of the boys, which has con- tinued from its foundation. This consists of a blue woolen gown or coat with a red leathern girdle, yellow breeches and stockings, and a black worsted cap. (diaries li. founded a mathemat- ical school in the hospital, in K;T2. the students "f which arc called King's boys. The age of ad- don is between seven and fifteen, except for die King's boys and the "Grecians," or boys of the highest class, of whom eight are annually sent to Oxford and Cambridge. The government of the institution is vested in the lord-mayor and aldermen of London, anil those who have con- tributed to the institution the sum of £400. The total income of the hospital is about £50,000. The old buildings, which were destroyed in the great fire of L666, were replaced by others erect- ed under the direction of Sir Christopher Wren. The present edifices were erected in 1825. It has ceased to be a charitable institution, and is now essentially a classical school. Latin and Greek form the basis of its course of study, but all the elementary branches, including drawing, the mod- ern languages, etc., arc also taught. In lti83, a preparatory school was built at Hertford, in which the hospital children are nursed and in- structed till they are old enough to enter the school. The girls remain permanently here. Many illustrious names are found in the list of its graduates, among whom may be mentioned, Camden, the historian, Bishop Stillingfleet, Richardson, the novelist, Coleridge, Lamb, and Leigh Hunt. CHRONOLOGY. See History. CHURCH OF GOD, a denomination of Baptists in the United States, organized in 1830 by the Rev. Mr. Winebrenner, formerly a minis- ter of the German Reformed Church. The pe- culiar name was adopted as being the most scrip- tural. Besides baptism and the Lord's Supper, they hold feet-washing to be a positive ordinance of perpetual standing in the church, and obliga- tory on all Christians. In church government, this denomination is Presbyterian. A number of congregations form an eldersliip, which meets annually. The General Eldership, consisting of delegates from annual elderships, meets trien- nially. ddiere were, in 1875, 13 elderships, about 400 churches, and about 25,000 members. Sev- eral efforts were made, between 1854 and 1866, to establish a denominational school, but they all failed. In 1872, the General Eldership was vis- ited by a delegate from the general conference of the Eree "Will Baptists (wdio, like the Church of God, are Arminian in theology) , wdio proposed on behalf of that body, that the Church of God should take an interest in Hillsdale College, a de- nominational school of the Eree Will Baptists at 1 Iillsdale, Michigan, by endowing a professorship and designating a professor. The offer was ac- cepted, a professor chosen, and a visiting com- mittee to the college appointed. The chair was to be endowed by the sale of scholarships. At the next General Eldership, in 18T5, the board of education were, however, compelled to report that the effort to raise an endowment fund of si n.ooo, had failed, no more than $200 having been obtained. In accordance with the request, the board of education was relieved from the charge of completing the arrangement with the authorities of Hillsdale College. At the same time, it was resolved to form a chartered or in- corporated society to take charge of the educa- tional interests of the church, and similar socie- ties in all the annual elderships. 136 CINCINNATI CINCINNATI, the metropolis of the state of Ohio, having a population, in 1870, of L'lG.'Jiiit. "Educational "History. — The first effort made in behalf of education was that of John Kidd, who, in 1818, devised $l,000per annum, charge- able upon the "ground rents of his estate,'' to be expended for the education of the poor children of the city. His title to his estate, however, prov- ing defective, his devise failed. The next bequest was that of Thomas Hughes, who. in 1824, left a tract of land the perpetual rent of which, amounting to $2,000, was to be applied to the same purpose. The following year, the legislature passed a general law applicable to the state, but making no special provision for education in the cities. Owing to inherent defects, however, this law became inoperative; and. in 1830, the city's representatives in the state Legislature procured the passage of a law by which an independent organization was given to the schools of Cincin- nati. This provided tor the appointment of a board of trustees and visitors, and directed the council to divide the city into ten districts, in each of which they were required, within ten years, to purchase a lot on which a building of brick or stone, two stories high, and containing two school rooms, should be erected; the cost of which was to be defrayed by taxation. Much opposition was encountered, however, by the trustees in carrying out these provisions, the ob- jection, on the pari of the people, to taxes lev ied for such a purpose being very strong. Want of means, and the unfriendliness of the city council, also, produced such delay, and the accommoda- tions provided for the pupils were 80 insufficient, that the sympathy of the people was in danger of permanent estrangement from thecauseof the schools. At this juncture, the friends of education resolved to place the benefits derived from the schools before the people. Annual examinations of the pupils were publicly held, to which emi- nent men. members of the press, and teachers from other states, wert' invited; and these were followed by imposing street parades of the school children, which were continued for several years. The result was a hearty endorsement of the pub- lic schools by the people, so that, in 1833, a model schoobhou.se was 1 milt, a nd, in 1 83 Iandl835,eigh1 public-school houses were erected the whole at an expense of $96,1 59.4 I, which was met by the issue of city bonds. The cause was furthered still more by the establishment, about this time, of the Western College of Teachers, and the open- ing of the Woodward Sigh School, which offered to receive annually, for gratuitous instruction. ten boys to be selected by the school board from the common schools. In 1 s .' { 7 , the constitution of the Bchool board was changed so as to consist of two members, instead of one, from each ward. In 1839, schools were established in orphan asylums; in 1840, the German language was in- troduced into the coi union schools; and. in 1842, oighl schools were opened. The harmony of the schools was disturbed, in L842, by a violent dis- cussion in regard to the use of the Bible in the Schools, which has been carried on with goal acrimony, at intervals, ever since. The Central High School, with a graded course, was estab- lished in L847 ; the Woodward High School and the Hughes High School, in 1851. In 1852, the Woodward and the I Inches funds were merged in the city-school fund, the whole being managed by a union board. In 1849, colored schools were established by law. and the study of the German language was authorized in some of the district schools. The organization of intermediate schools was begun in 1854, the object being the consoli- dation of pupils in such a manner that fewer teachers would be needed. In 18.">7. the first normal school was opened, the number of teach- ers at that time being 300. In L869, the Bible question was again discussed, and. in the legal struggle which resulted, it was excluded from the schools. In May, 1873, the legislature passed an act for the re-organization and maintenance of common schools, which is substantially the present law of the city. — The supervision of the schools was first provided for in 1850, the first general superintendent being Nathan Guilford, who was elected by popular vote, lie served two years, and was succeeded by Dr. Merrcll. who re- signed shortly after. In 1853, the law was changed, and the annual appointment of a super- intendent by the board was ordered. A.. 1. Rickoff being the first incumbent of the office under the new law; he was succeeded, in L866, by John Hancock, and, in L874,by Jno. B. Peaslee. School System. — The system, at present (1876), comprises 26 district.-! intermediate, ami 2 high schools, for whites; and 4 district schools, one intermediate, and one high school, for colored persons; in addition to which, there arc inter- mediate departments in 10 of the district schools. There are, also. ID district night schools, and one evening high school. The legal school age is from 6 to 21 years. Three courses of study have been adopted by the union board of high schools, denominated the classical, the technological, and the general; the first two intended as preparatory to kindred courses in the university, the last, for pupils whose education ends in the high school. The fund for the support of the schools is derived from a special three-mill tax on property, the state tax. the income of the Woodward and Hughes funds, tuition fees paid by non-residents, etc. The chief items of school statistics are : No. of children of Bchool age 7(5,477 " " " enrolled in public schools 28,999 •' " " In average daily attendance. .. .21,929 " " " attending private schools 1.6,464 " " " «' ' night schools 3, , . ) 7!> N'n. of teachers in public schools 54.5 Receipts (1876) $695,000 Expenditures (1870) $(i!U,700 Many other educational institutions exist in Cincinnati. The Catholic parochial schools edu- cate, it is estimated, about L 7, 000 children ; and different religious orders, male and female, annu- ally educate many children and young ladies in denominational and conventual schools. The University of Cincinnati, which is liberally en- dowed, took possession of its new building iu 1875, and is now in active operation. CINCINNATI, UNIVERSITY OF CLASS 137 CINCINNATI, University of, in Cincin- nati. Ohio, whs organized under the acl passed by the general assemblyof Ohio, April L6., L870, "to enable cities of the first class to aid and promote education." It consists of three depart- ments: the Academic, or Department of Litera- ture and Science; the School of Design ; and the Observatory. It is to be maintained by any funds either heretofore or hereafter given to the n't v. for the purpose of founding or aiding an institution for promoting free education. The statute' also authorizes any persons or bodies corporate, holding any estate or funds in trust for the promotion of education or any of the arts or sciences, to transfer the same to the city as a trustee for such purpose, thus affording a means of consolidating the various funds now existing which separately are of little or no avail for their intended purpose. The same statute, furthermore, authorizes an annual tax, by the city, of one-tenth of a mill, for the sup- port of such institutions. The endowment of the University of ( 'incinnati consisted, in 1876, of the estate devised to the city by the late Charles McMicken, in L857, the annual tax of one-tenth of a mill, and donations for special purposes, amounting, in the aggregate. to ss.si K5.S4, including $54,683.28 for build- ing purposes. The academic department was opened in 1873. Three courses, of four years each, have already been established ; namely, (1) The Classical Course; (2) The Scientific Course; (3) The Course in Civil Engineering. Besides these regular courses, provision is made for stu- dents desiring to pursue particular branches ex- clusively. The work during the first year is rig- idly prescribed ; but, after that, a large amount of option is allowed, except in the civil engineer- ing course. Candidates for the degree of B. A. or B. S. must choose at least one principal study in which to take a full course of three or four years. For the former, this may be either an- cient languages, modern languages, or some other literary branch ; for the latter, chemistry and physics, natural history, geology, mathematics, astronomy, or some other science. The re- mainder of the elective time may be devoted to other full or partial courses. Instruction is free to all who are bona fide residents of Cincinnati; but tuition fees are charged to non-residents. The course pursued in the city high schools constitutes the requirements for admission. The north wing of the university building was completed, and occupied by this department, in October, 1>7">. In 1S7(5, there were Id instructors and 51 students. II. T. Eddy, C. E., Ph. !>.. is (1876) dean of the faculty. The School of Design was established in connection with the Ohio Mechanics' Institute in L863, but they are now entirely separate. This school occupies rooms in the Cincinnati < 'ollege building; and there are day and evening sessions. It is designed especially for residents of ' 'incinnati, but others may be ad- mitted. The full course is for four years. In 1 876, there were 6 instructors and 402 students, of whom 242 were in the classes in drawing and design. 1.'!.'! in wood-carving, and 27 in modeling. The Observatory was established about LS44. The new site is on Mt. Lookout, li m. from the city, one of the highest points in Hamilton County. Besides an astronomical library, it is supplied with first class instruments, among them the Mitchel refractor of 12 inches aperture. It is (1876) un- der the direction of Ormond Stone, A. M. CIVIL GOVERNMENT. See Science of Government. CLAFLIN UNIVERSITY, at Orangeburg, South Carolina, under the auspices of the Meth- odist Episcopal Church, was chartered in 1869, and opened in 1870. It was established prima- rily for the education of colored youth of both sexes, but no one is excluded on account of race, color, or religious opinions. The buildings, grounds, etc., are valued at $40,000. In 1872, the state established its agricultural college and mechanics" institute in connection with the uni- versity. Three departments are now in opera- tion, namely : a common English department, a classical preparatory and higher English depart- ment, and an agricultural and scientific depart- ment. In 187-4 — 5, there were f) instructors and 188 students, of whom 151 were in the common English department, 37 in the higher English,. and 65 in the scientific and agricultural depart- ment. The agricultural college and mechanics' institute has a productive endowment of $18d,000. The Baker Theological Institute is connected with the university. The Rev. Ed- ward Cooke, D.D., is (1876) the president. CLASS (Lat. classis, from Gr. K/.aaic, from naTitiv, to call, because applied to an assembly of the people when called together), a number of pupils or students in a school or college, of the same grade of attainments, receiving the same in- struction, and pursuing the same studies. When large numbers of pupils are to be taught, a care- ful distribution of them into classes becomes requi- site; indeed, nothing is so important, previous, to the work of instruction, as an accurate classi- fication. Heterogeneous masses of children can- not be instructed simultaneously. They may be made to perform mechanically certain school ex- ercises, — may, perhaps, be taught to read, to spell, to write, and to cipher to some extent ; but it can only be by rote, without the due exercise of their intelligence, and, hence, without proper mental development. A poorly classified school can never be really efficient, whatever talent in teaching may be brought to bear upon it. Then is no doubt that individual teaching has many advantages over the teaching of classes; since there is a better opportunity to observe the pu- 138 CLASS pils' peculiar traits of character, and to adapt the instruction to them ; but class teaching approx- imates to individual teaching in proportion as the classification is so accurate as to bring to- gether under the influence of the teacher pu] tils of a like grade of attainments, and of similar disposition, temperament, and mental constitu- tion. Of course, such a degree of accuracy in classification is ordinarily impossible ; but this is the ideal standard to which the teacher shovdd always endeavor to approximate in organizing the classes of his school. A pi-oper limit as to the size of classes should be carefully observed. This is difficult to fix by the statement of any particular number, since the number of pupils that may be properly placed under the instruction of a single teacher will vary with the age and character of the pu- pils, the evenness of the grade, and the skill and experience of the teacher himself. When the number is between 50 and LOO, or over, as it sometimes is ill the large city schools, of course no proper result can be effected. "In a large class." says Eteid [Principles of Education), "each of whom seldom, and at best only for a short time, receives individually any attention from the teacher, the progress is slow, the facul- ties little develop,' Land the education altogether v.tv imperfect." The danger inseparably con- nect e 1 with the indiscriminate treatment of pu- pils of different characteristics has been often referred to by experienced educators. Thus, we find in a work designed to aid practical teachers, the following important admonitions : "In every class, however well graded, the pupils will differ much in age, health, mental capacity, and home advantages. A correct and judicious classifica- tion will reduce this inequality to a minimum ; but there will still remain a wide field for the exercise of discrimination, care, and caution on the part of the class-teacher. The lessons should, in all respects, be adapted to the average ability of the pupils of the class ; but, even beyond this, some allowance will often have to be made in th i case of pupils of quite inferior mental capacity or opportunities for ho stu lies :" ami further, " Teachers are especially admonished to be con- dderate toward pupils of a delicate constitution, an over-excitable brain and nervous system, or in temporary ill health. Many children of thiscla^s precocious hi mental activity and exceedingly ambitious to excel : ami the greatest care is re- quired to prevenl them from Injuring themselves by an inordinate devotion to books and study." (Sec How to Teach N. Y.. L873.) The < ipar- ative advantages and disadvantages of home (in- dividual) instruction, and school (class! instruc- tion are quite fully discussed in Isaac Taylor's I Inni'- Education. • \ principal and necessary distinction," he remarks, " between the two sys- tems is this, that while, in the one, all methods of instruction and modes of training are or may be, with more or less exactness, adapted to the faculties, tastes, and probable destination of the pupils singly, and may he accommodated to the individual ability oi each: in the other .system. that is to say at school, it is the mass of minds only, or some few general classes, at the best, that can be thought of Lad yet even this undistin- guishing mechanism, which is proper to a school, and which carries all before it with a sort of blind force, is in itself, in some respects, a good; and if some are the victims of it, to others it may be beneficial. There are children who are not to be advanced at all, except by the means of a mechanical momentum ; and such might well be sent from home to school, on this sole account, that they will then be carried round on the ir- resistible wheel-work of school order But al- though in a large school, even when broken up into classes, little regard can equitably lie paid to individual peculiarities of faculty or taste, the principle which is characteristic of home edu- cation, may readily be extended to schools not much exceeding the bounds of a numerous fam- ily. In fact.it is only the personal ability of the teacher, his tact, his intelligence, and his assi- duity, that can fix the limits within which the principle of adaptation may be made to take ef- fect." The number of pupils that should lie placed in a class is. therefore, a matter requiring the utmost exercise of good judgment, taking cognizance of all attending circu instances. What should constitute the basis of classifica- tion is also a matter requiring a careful consider- ation. The several grades of the course of study should, of course, be exactly defined, and all the Subjects, or parts of subjects, prescribed, should lie carefully adjusted. so that the various require- ments of the grade may be accomplished simul- taneously, and a due proficiency in each may constitute the basis of distribution or promotion at every reorganization of the classes. Still, let the adjustment be as nice as practicable, some diversity will be found at the end of each period of instruction. One pupil, for example, will have made good progress in arithmetic, but very little in reading, writing, grammar, etc. What, then, is to be done? If the average' progress is taken, pupils of such unequal attainments in particular studies may be broughl together, that the teacher will find it impossible to give instruc- tion to one portion of the class without neglect- ing the other, or will lie obliged to divide his class into Bub-grades, and thus .sacrifice much time in attending to each separately. This dif- ficulty is often. measurably, Obviated by selecting some one branch of instruction, as arithmetic, and basing the classification upon the pupils' at- tainments in this subject, working constantly thereafter to bring the pupils, as far as may he necessary, up to the same standard in other sub- jects. Whether a school is best taught by classes or by subjects, is a question that has received much attention from educators; that is to say. whether each teacher shall instruct a particular class in all the branches of study which the pupils are required to pursue: or whether each class shall be taughl in succession by Beveral teachers, each one taking a particular subject or class of sub- jects. The diversity of attainments, mental CLASSICAL STUDIES 139 tastes, and special skill among teachers, won Id seem to dictate the subject system rather than the class system ; since, were certain liranches as- sumed as a specialty to each teacher, there would be more time for the careful study by the teacher, not only of the liranches themselves, but of the proper methods of teaching them ; and, of course, better work would necessarily be done. Other considerations, however, seem partially or wholly to neutralize this apparent advantage. The success of a teacher, especially of young pu- pils, depends upon his thorough knowledge of their disposition, and also upon their familiarity with his characteristics; and this knowledge it would bedifficult to acquire if the teacher were required to spend but a short time with each class, and his means of acquiring it were dis- tributed over a number of classes. Some edu- cators, however, take a view directly opposed to this. " If the pupil," says Wickersham, "recite always to the same teacher, he may become fa- miliar with certain lines of thought, but he will most likely be confined to them. He might be Trained by a more unvaried discipline, but it is a discipline in one direction. He becomes im- bue 1 with his teachers peculiar opinions, ac- quires his manners, and is apt to create a little world in which his teacher is the reigning sover- eign and himself the most conspicuous citizen of the realm. It is much better for all pupils to have different teachers, with different tastes, tal- ents, and opinions ; but it is very important that this should be the case with advanced pupils." Nevertheless, it has generally been found that much better discipline. — a tinner control, prevails in schools conducted under the class-teaching plan than in those taught on the subject or de- partmental system ; and, consequently, the for- mer is the prevalent mode of organization in large public schools. In district or private schools consisting of but few pupils, and in insti- tutions of a higher grade, as high schools, col- leges, and universities, the other system is in- variably, and of course necessarily, employed. Instead of requiring all the members of a class to study the same branches, some schools are so organized that pupils recite different studies in different classes. This method has sometimes been denominated a loose classification. It en- courages unequal attainments, the pupil being stimulated to do his best in each study without any regard to his progress in other studies. This i-. of course, a great disadvantage. Besides, it requires a constant change of classes in the working of the school, and, consequently, makes the discipline more difficult. " 1 recommend," says Wickcrshani (School Economy), "a close classification, with such departures from it as overruling circumstances may make expedient.'' —See Wki.i.s. Graded Schools (N. Y„ 1862); Wickebsham, School Economy (Phil., 1864); Isaac Tavi.or, Home E'inrn/io// (London and K. Y., L836) ; Le Vaox, Science and Art of Teaching (Toronto. 1875). CLASSICAL STUDIES, a term denoting the study of the Latin and ( deck languages and literatures. The word classical is derived from the Latin word c/ussif/is, that is, relating to the classes of the Roman people, especially to the first class. The b-st authors known to the Romans, both Latin and Creek, were rated as classici, that is, of tJie first class, or classics. The expression is sometimes used to designate the standard authors of any nation, but it is chiefly applied, as it was originally, to the standard Latin and < ireek writers. The study of Latin and (ireek occupies a very prominent part in the educational history of the Christian and civilized world, and still constitutes a principal branch of instruction in institutions of the middle and higher grades. The Romanic countries. Italy, Spain, Portugal, and France, in which new languages gradually and slowly arose out of a mixture of the Latin and the native lan- guages, naturally retained the Latin as their exclusive literary language. In the Germanic world, a knowledge of Latin was no less indis- pensable, on account of the connection of the churches with the see of Rome. The Sacred Scriptures, and the ecclesiastical literature in general, were only accessible in Latin ; and, as none of the native languages had a literature, Latin was the only key to the scanty amount of information which, at that time, was attainable. In the cathedral, collegiate, and convent schools of the middle ages. Latin was not only a subject of study, but also the vehicle of instruction. ( 'harlemagne, in the schools founded by him, promoted the study not only of Latin, but also of (ireek. His example, however, found little imitation ; and, until the end of the fourteenth century, Greek was taught in but few of the schools of western Europe, and even the knowl- edge of Latin was quite rare. Though it was the official language of the Church, the acquaintance of the great majority of priests with it appears to have been very imperfect. The growing op- position to scholasticism awakened a new inter- est in the Latin classics ; and, from the beginning of the fourteenth century, when the learned Byzantine Emmanuel Chrysoloras taught Greek in Italy, the study of the Greek language and literature spread throughout western Europe. The Reformation, while it favored the tise of (lie native languages in preference to the Latin, for divine worship, encouraged the study of the Latin classics in opposition to the writings of the representatives of mediaeval scholasticism. At the same time, a great impulse was given to the study of Greek, since the Protestant churches urged a thorough study of the (ireek Testament, in preference to the Vulgate. In the Protestant as well as in the Roman Catholic countries, the Latin remained the usual medium of literary productions, and thus Latin classics continued to be a very important agent in the education of the European nations. The increas- ing interest in the natural sciences, and the Spread of Utilitarian tendencies, which found a distin- guished representative in the Philanikropin, led, Fn the second half of the eighteenth century. to a considerable restriction of Latin, in all 140 CLASSICAL STUD1KS schools of a lower grai le, and to a fierce con t r< >versy in regard to the propriety of classical studies, in general, in the course of instruction prescribed for schools of a higher grade. This controversy is not yet ended ; and the relative importance of these studies, as compared with other subjects of instruction, is still greatly disputed. The op- position to the prominence which was formerly accorded to classical studies in colleges, gymna- siums, and similar schools, has been so far suc- cessful, that the course of instruction in all schools of this grade, now embraces subjects formerly ex- cluded; and, moreover, institutions of a higher grade have been organized, in which classical studies are either entirely excluded, or reduced to a secondary or auxiliary position. A large Dumber of American colleges and universities have arranged, in addition to the full classical course, a scientific course, from which Greek is always and Latin generally excluded: and the large patronage which this arrangement has attracted presents, of course, a very strong in- ducement for all colleges to yield to what appears to be a general demand. In Germany, a sharp controversy is still pending on the question whether the state government should confer upon the real schools in which either Greek or classical studies, in general, are excluded, the right of conferring certificates of maturity for the university. On the part of those who de inand that classical studies should be retained as a prominent and essential part of a higher edu- cation, it is argued that the organic structure of the Latin and Greek languages is more nearly perfect than that of any other language, and that. by the great diversity of their inflections, they express re fully and exactly all the various and minute modifications of thought. The fact that they are no longer living languages, is urged as an advantage: because, being complete organ- isms, they afford a better means of mental dis- cipline than the modern languages, which arc continually undergoing important changes. The mutual relation of the two classical languages is represented as such that they supplement each other, the Latin being more artistic, rhetorical, and pathetic: while the Greek bears, to a greater extent, the impress of naturalness, refinement, and freedom. The literatures of Rome and I i recce are regarded as no less indispensable than their languages. Translations, it is claimed, will never succeed in reproducing all the excellencies of a literary masterpiece; and the standard works of classic literature are models of such perfection, that, like the ancient worksof plastic art, they are Sure to remain for all time the instrumentality for teaching those who aspire to a higher edu- cation. There is do country, in either Europe or America, which, tor its intellectual develop- ■ hi, n!, has not leaned on the pillars of the I aim and Greek classics, and a normal and continuous growth of our modern literatures is not conceiv- able, without an uninterrupted connection with the chief sources of our Intellectual life. This connection is necessary tor all branches of science : for some, as theology, philosophy, philology, law. and medicine, it will obviously appear so indis- pensable that no student of any of these sciences will ever think of disputing it. John Stuart Mill, in an address delivered in the university of St. Andrews, on his inaugura- tion as rector, strongly expressed his preference for classical studies as compared with modern languages. " The only languages," he says, "and the only literature to which I would allow a place in the regular curriculum, are those of the Greeks and the Romans, and to these I would preserve the position in it which they at present occupy." The superiority of the Latin and < Sreek languages over any other, ancient or modern, is thus explained by -Mr. Mill : "The principles and rules of grammar are the means by which the forms of language are made to correspond with the universal forms of thought. The distinctions between the various parts of speech, between die eases of nouns, the moods and tenses of verbs, the functions of particles, are distinctions in thought, not merely in words. Single nouns and verbs express objects and events, many of which can be cognized by the senses; but the modes of putting nouns and verbs together, express .the relations of objects and events which can be cognized only by the intellect: and each different mode corresponds to a different relation. The structure of every sentence is a lesson in logic. The various rules of syntax oblige us to dis- tinguish between the subject and predicate of a proposition, between the agent, the action, and the thing acted upon: to mark when an idea is intended to modify or qualify, or merely to unite with some other idea: what assertions are categorical, what only conditional ; whether the intention is to express similarity or contrast, to make a plurality of assertions conjunctively or disjunctively; what portions of a sentence, though grammatically complete with them- selves, are mere members or subordinate parts of the assertion made by the entire sentence. Such things form the subject-matter of universal grammar; and the languages which teach it best are those which have the most definite rules. and which provide distinct forms for the greatest number of distinctions in thought — BO that if we fail t<> attend precisely and accurately to any of these, we cannot avoid committing a solecism in language. In these qualities, the classical Ian- guaevs have an incomparable superiority over every modern language, and over all languages, dead or living, which have a literature worth be- ing generally studied." Mr. Mill also claims that "the pre-eminence of the ancients in purely liter- ary excellence in perfection of form -is not disputed, that their composition, like their sculp- ture, has been to the greatest artists an example, to he looked up to with hopeless admiration, luit of an inappreciable value, as a light on high, guiding their own endeavor." The I Ion. William E Gladstone, who as a clas- sical scholar has few.it' any, equals among the greal statesmen of the nineteenth century, strongly maintains the hereditary claims of clas- sical studies toe prominent position in a modern CLASSICAL STUDIES 141 curriculum for secondary and superior schools. Be denies the right of natural science, modem languages, modern history, or other studies, to a parallel or equal position. "Their true position," he says, " is ancillary, and as ancillary it ought to be limited Or restrained, without scruple, as much as a regard to the paramount matter of education may dictate The modern European civiliza- tion, from the middle ages downwards, is the compound of two great factors, the Christian re- ligion for the spirit of man, and the Creek (and in a secondary degree the Roman) discipline for his mind and intellect. St. Paid is the apostle of the Gentiles, and is, in his own person, a sym- bol of this great wedding. The place, for ex- ample, of Aristotle and Plato in Christian edu- cation is not arbitrary, nor in principle mutable. The materials of what we call classical training were prepared in order that it might become not a mere adjunct, but (in mathematical phrase) the complement of Christianity in its application to the culture of the human being, as a being formed both for this world and the vorld to come." In the conflict between the advocates of clas- sical studies in our higher schools and their opponents, the former generally take the ground that Latin and Greek, both the languages and tin' literatures, supplement each other. Where a comparison between the two is made, the pref- erence is generally given to the Latin, partly because the knowledge of Latin grammar is supposed to be of superior utility, and partly with a view to the fact, that Latin is not only the key to an understanding of the Latin clas- sics, but, for a long period, has been the universal language of Christendom ; and also because the Latin works, since the restoration of letters, are in themselves of considerable value for the knowledge of every kind which they afford, even to this day, many valuable works being published in that language. The Greek language, too, is by no means without its champions ; and, though none of them would venture to disparage the study of Latin, they regard the Greek as the superior representative of classic antiquity. (See Latin, and Greek.) The method of teaching and studying the clas- sical languages and literatures must, of course, vary according to the object or purpose for which they are taught or studied. In some schools, the study of these languages (particularly Latin) has been adopted tor the sole or chief purpose of showing their relation to the English language, and of giving a clear insight into the mean- ingot" English words derived from them. Where tliis is the exclusive object, a comparatively small amount of time will be found sufficient for this study. In classical schools, colleges, gymnasia, etc., classical studies are generally pursued for the purpose of cultivating and developing the mental faculties, and introducing the student to the literary treasures of which they are the keys. It is obviously of the greatest importance, that the teacher should be fully conscious of the pre- cise aim that is to be attained, and that the pu- pils themselves should, as soon as possible, be made to understand the objects and advantages of the study. The first reading exercises will, of course, serve chiefly to familiarize the pupil with the grammatical rules ; but, as soon as he under- stands the peculiar structure of the language, the teacher should strive to unveil, as much as pos- sible, what is beautiful and excellent in the clas- sic authors selected for study. Loth translation and explanation should aim not only at increas- ing a knowledge of the vocabulary and the gram- mar, but at the training of the mind to compre- hend, to appreciate, and to admire these beauties and excellencies. The finer parts of a classic author will, of course, require the greatest and most concentrated attention of the pupil; and, therefore, the greatest possible exclusion of mere grammatical explanations. It is evident that none but teachers of the best skill and attain- ments are competent to give this kind of instruc- tion. The college graduate' who has just com- pleted his course, however well he may have been taught, cannot be expected to make the impres- sion, and accomplish the success, by his teaching, which can only spring from a professor of ripe scholarship, cultivated taste, and experience in giving instruction. There is no doubt that clas- sical studies have suffered in repute as the agen- cies of a higher education, by the mechanical methods employed by teachers. The letter, and not the spirit, has been taught ; and the conse- quence has been, that the perusal of the sub- limest masterpieces of ancient history, oratory, and poetry has commonly degenerated into the study of petty grammatical subtleties, only puz- zling the mind of the student without informing or elevating it. Next in importance to the employ- ment of competent teachers, is the selection of proper text-books, in order to produce the best results in this department of instruction. The books at first needed by every pupil are a gram- mar, a dictionary, and books for translation. The grammars and dictionaries used should be those specially prepared for pupils; for the wants of pupils are different from those of teachers and scholars. As regards the editions of classic authors, some teachers prefer texts with notes, others those without notes. In the former case, the notes should be exclusively calculated to promote the pupil's knowledge of the language and a clear understanding of the writers mean- ing. The use of translations is generally dis- couraged by teachers; though all know, that •ponies" are great favorites with students. There are some educators who regard a judicious use of translations as not only not hurtful, but commendable. When a knowledge not only of the classic language, but also of its literature is desired, the use of the entire work of an author is preferable to that of selections, such as are found in reading-books. An introduction, giving the pupil information in regard to the author of the work, facilitates a correct understanding of the work itself, and increases the pupils interest. Ceographical and historical explanations should be given wherever they arc needed. The trans- 142 CLASSIC'S, CHRISTIAN lations should be at first literal, but should, in- variably, be converted into good English, and should reproduce, as much as possible, the excel- lencies, as weD as interpret the meaning, of the original. Of course, the pupil should not be dis- couraged by too harsh and minute a criticism of his i Minor faults should, at first, be passed over, and the pupil's mind gradually trained to facility, accuracy, and elegance of expression. See II. Babnabd, Studies and Conduct (Hart- ford, 1 873), gn ing the views of Byron, ( ihatham, Donaldson, Be Quincey, Froude, Gladstone, Her- schel, Hodgson, Locke Lowe, Macaulay, Marti- neau, Mill. Milton, Niebuhr, Southey, Temple, Tyndall, Vaughan, and Whewell, respecting clas- sical studies; Hodgson, Classical Instruction: Its Use and Abuse (London. L854); J. W. Donald- . Classical Scholarship and Classical L1 h ir I h lys was , >j >ei icd by order of the city council : and. in the following year, a department for girls was established in the same school. For two years, the new institution met with much op- position, it being ••maintained by some that it was illegal, by others that it was inexpedient", to levy taxes for the support of schools for higher education. The people, however, gave policy, and the follow- passed authorizing and their support to the ing year, a law was m CLEVELAND CLINTON requiring the city council to "establish and maintain a high school" Since that time, two other high schools have been established— the West ffigh School, in 1864; and the East High School, in L872. — The supervision i >t 'the schools was, in 1841, vested in an acting manager of the public schools, who was a member of the board, and its secretary. The office of superintendent of schools was created in 1853, and has been rilled as follows : Andrew Freese, 1853 — 61; Luther M. Oviatt. 1861—3; Anson Smyth, 1863 — 7; Andrew J. Kickoff, the present incumbent (1876), from 1867. This officer is elected by the board of education for a term of two years. There are, besides, three associate super- intendents, one (a female) specially for primary schools. — The chief duties of the superintend- ent are to supervise the work of instruction in all the schools of the city, visiting the schools as often as possible, noting detects, and recom- mending measures to remove them ; to inspect the school buildings, and report on their condi- tion; and to fix the time and mode of the examination of schools. Candidates for teach- ers' licenses are examined by a board of six examiners, appointed by the board of edu- cation. — The School System < sists of a normal school, 4 high schooLs, L9 grammar schools, and 15 primary schools, making a total of '■'>'■> schools. These schools receive all children six years of age and upward, without regard to color. There are four courses of study prescribed for the high schools : an English course, of 3 years; a German-English course, of 4 years; a Ixitin-English course, of 4 years; and a classical course, of 4 years. The course of study pre- scribed for the grammar and primary schools com- prises the branches usually taught in common schools, including music, drawing, and the ele- ments of natural science. German is taught in most of the schools (introduced in 1870). All the teachers of the primary and grammar schools, both principals and assistants, are females. School Statistics. — The following items are re- ported for the year 1876 : Number of children of school age 4G,990 Number of pupils enrolled 2o,771 Average daily attendance 14,069 Number of teachers, 326 Receipts (1876) 1497,174.67 Expenditures 1 1875) $366,096.24 Besides the public schools, there are private schools and seminaries in considerable number; also German and English schools, and de- nominational schools, the latter including several Roman Catholic institutions. The Cleveland Female Seminary is an institution for the supe- rior instruction of women, chartered in L853. St. Mary's Theological Seminary, a Roman < !ath- olic institution, was founded in 1849. The Ohio State and Onion Law College, founded in L856, in L 874, had I professors, and a library of 3,000 relumes. The Cleveland Medical College, founded iii L843, had, the same year, 15 in- structors, and 92 students; there is also a col- lege, connected with the homoeopathic hospital. CLINIQtTE (Gr. iMyti, a couch or bed), a French word used, in medical schools, to denote an examination or treatment of patients by medical or surgical professors in the presence of their pupils, for the purpose of giving practical in- struction ; hence the term clinical instruction or lectures, because originally given or delivered at the bedside of the sick. (See Medical I Schools.) CLINTON, De "Witt, one of the most il- j lustrious of American statesmen, of deserved celebrity, not only on account of his brilliant talents, high culture, and comprehensive views, but for his earnest philanthropy and his zealous efforts in behalf of popular education, lie was born at Little Britain, Orange Co., N. Y., March 2., 1769, and died in Albany, Feb. 11.. 1828. After graduating at Columbia College. Xew York, with great distinction, in 1786, he studied Jaw. and was admitted to the bar in 1788. lie also entered the field of politics, sustaining the interests and principles of the republican party. of which his uncle, George Clinton, was then the leader in the state of New York. After rilling various offices under the latter as governor of the state, he was elected to the legislature, serving successively in the assembly and in the senate, and at the age of 33 was appointed to a seat in the senate of the United States. This he resigned to assume the position of mayor of the city of Xew York, which he filled, at intervals, for ten years. He also served as lieutenant-governor of the state ; and his advocacy of the construction of the Erie and Champlain canals made him so popular, that, in 1816, he was elected governor of the state, virtually by the unanimous voice of the people ; and his administration was contin- ued, with the exception of an interval of two years, during a period of twelve years. 1 lis wise and comprehensive measures, particularly in be- half of internal improvements and common- school education in the state, gave him a wide popularity and fame; and, in L825, he partic- ipated in a grand popular celebration on the don of the completion of his greatest meas- ure, — the establishment of a water communi- cation between Lake Krie and the Hudson River. As he was borne in a barge along that magnifi- cent canal (called the (frond Erb< Canal) he was every-where saluted with the ringing of bells, the tiring of cannon, and other joyous dem- onstrations. It is not. however, intended to dwell here upon his brilliant career as a statesman and politician, bu1 to refer to his connection with the cause of education, and the mighty impulse which was given to it in the stale of New York by his genius and public-Spirited exertions. The foun- dation of the state school fund had already been Commenced; but nothing had been done for public education in the city of New York. In L805, Clinton, then mayor of tin' city, joined with several distinguished citizens in obtaining an act of incorporation for the Society for Estab- lishing a Free School in the city of New Fork, for the education of such poor children as donot CLINTON CO-EDUCATION 146 belong to, or are not provided for by, any re- Ugiotis society; and for a period of 21 years, from 1805 to l*'J out of 261 — a pain- ful example of 'the survival of the fittest'. Dur- ing the past year, eleven per cent of the under- graduates in VaSSar have been kept from college duties more than ten days on account of illness; while at Amherst, where the physical education of the young men is more carefully attended to than at any other college, the percentage was twenty- one" Professor Bosmer, of the University of Missouri, in a paper entitled Co-Education of the Sexe& in Universities, read before the National Educational Association in L874, cited many in- stall inexperience unfavorable to tin- en education of young men and women, and thus very forcibly illustrated the need of great vigi lane and caution in the management of institu- tions where the sexes are thus educated. Still he sums up the matter in (he following words: "The coeducation of the sexes in universities i- possible; even to Mime extent desirable, on ac- count of a certain good influence which the sexes may exert upon each other. That eo-education is a matter of no difficulty, we are not to belies 6] much less that it is to be accepted as the power which is to produce straightway a millennium of purity and good order." A s to the effect of such an education upon the after physical health and vigor, and the longevity, of the female students, the statistics are. proba- bly, insufficient to decide the question titherway. Those given in Adelia A. P. Johnston's essay on Oberlin College are very interesting and suggest- ive, and seem to disprove the danger which, some physicians have alleged, is attendant on such a system of co-education. Of the 620 women grad- uated, up to lb'73. at Oberlin College, some, she says, have been "teachers in our common schools and in our high schools, missionaries, both in the home and foreign field, professors in female medical colleges, founders of asylums ami homes of refuge, and Leaders in all benevolent enter- prises." The number of deaths among the alumni is stated to have amounted to a little over 10 per cent ; among the alumna, to 9.67 per cent. Twenty cases of alumnoe, the names of whom are taken in alphabetic ordir from the roll. are cited, to show how many.. seventeen years after their graduation, were leading lives of healthful vigor and activity: and the facts in regard to each afford additional testimony, in disproof cf the peril of "identical co-education" as regards the health of the students. In briet.it may justly be said, that the testimony of practical educators is greatly in favor of the eo-education of the sexes in the higher institutions of learning. I'lie recently established Boston University has been organized avowedly on the principle, that a "university should exist not for one sex merely, but equally for the two." " It welcomes," says the University Year Hook, vol. n., "woman not merely to the bench of the pupil, but also to the chair of the professor. It is the first institu- tion in tile Commonwealth of Massachusetts to admit the two sexes to common advantages in classical collegiate studies; the first in the world to open the entire circle of post-graduate profes- sional schools to men and women alike." In Europe, co-education is generally discour- aged; still, the principle seems to be gaining st length, in consequence of the results of the pro- visions made for the higher education of women. In Switzerland, women have been admitted to the various departments of the universities since L864. In the university of Zurich, many young Russian women have been educated; and in the university of Bern there were, in 1875,32 female students, pursuing their studies without any dis- crimination as tosex. Women are now welcomed to university instruction in Vienna, Paris. Home. I.eipsie. (iottiiigcn, Preslau. and some other European institutions Efforts have been made, unsuccessful as yet. under the leadership of Miss. lex Blake, to open to female students the university of Edinburgh; and. practically, co- education is sanctioned in connection with the "university examinations for women" in Eng- land, since the lectures Supplied by the Uni- versity of Cambridge, for the purpose of afford- a preparation for these examinations, are / mg COLBURN COLBY UNIVERSITY 149 Opeil to both sexes. (See EXAMINATIONS.) Til London, in 1st I . a college was opened under the name of College for Men and Women, which recently reported about 500 students. In Cambridge, the establishment <>t' Newuham Mall and Girton College for young women shows the growth, of public sentiment in favor of the higher education of women, and is a step toward coeducation in the University Plenum. Girton College holds simultaneous examinations with those of the university, and OSes the university examination questions. Ac- cording to the report of the National Union far Improving the Education of Women (1874), more than two-thirds of all the professional lectures of the University of Cambridge have been thrown open to women. Public sentiment in Great Britain is growing in favor of co-edu- cation. Some of the great leading journals have already commenced to advocate it. The Exam- iii' r declares. •■ We believe the separation of the sexes in the worlds of learning and thought to be simply evil. To allow young men and young women to meet together for amusement and frivolity, and strictly to part them when at work with any serious endeavor, is surely foolish." — ■ See E. H. Clarke, M. [>.. Sex in Education (Boston, 1873) ; and The Building <>f a Bruin (Boston. 1874); Anna C. Brackets, The Edu- cation of American Girls (N. V.. 1*74): E. B. Duffey, No Sex in Education (1'hila.. 1*74); Westminster Review, Oct. 1808, s. v. The Sup- prrsseif Sex, and Oct. 1873, s. v. The Educa- tion of Women in America; Boston Univer- sity Year Book, vols. i. and n. ; D. Beale, Uni- versity Examinations for Women (London, L875); Report of the Public Sri,,, oh of St. Louis, for 1869—70, and 1872—3: Report of the Com- missioner of Education (Washington, L875). COLBURN, Warren, one of the most emi- nent American mathematicians and teachers, was born at Dedham, Mass.. March 1., 1793, ami died at Lowell, Sept. 15., 1833. His parents were poor; and Warren, who was the eldest son of a large family, could attend the district school only a portion of the year, working during the remainder on his father's farm. Subsequently, he worked in the factories, till having turned his attention to machinery, he followed, for some time, the trade of a machinist. He had. how- ever, always been diligent in the improvement of his mind, manifesting an unusual talent for arithmetic; and, in his twenty-third year, he entered Harvard College, at which he graduated in L820. After leaving the college, he taught a private school in Boston; and in 1*21 published his First Lessons in Mental Arithmetic, the book which made him famous. The publication oi this wi irk. to a certain extent, revolutionized the method of teaching arithmetic then in vogue, substituting for the mechanical working-out of problems by rule, exercises in intellectual arith- metic, of a simple and progressive character, re- quiring not only calculation but analysis. In in- address on Teaching Arithmetic, delivered in 1830, before the American Institute of Instruc- tion, he compares what he called the old and the new system, thus describing the latter : " By the new system, the learner commences with practical examples, in which the numbers are so small that he can easily reason upon them; and the reference to sensible objects gives him an idea at once of the kind of result which he ought to pro- duce, and suggests to him the method of proceed- ing necessary to obtain it. By this he is thrown immediately upon his own resources, and is com- pelled to exert bis own powers. At the same time, he meets with no greater difficulty than he feels himself competent to overcome. In this way, every step is accompanied with complete demonstration. Every new example increases his powers and his confidence; and most scholars soon acquire such a habit of thinking and rea- soning for themselves, that they will not be satis- fied with anything which they do not under- stand, in any of their studies. Instead of study- ing rules in the book, the reason of which he does not understand, the scholar makes his own rules ; and his rules are a generalization of his own reasoning, and in a way agreeable to his own associations." The composition of this book was the result of Colburn's own teaching, and em- bodied his methods. "The pupils," he said, "while under tuition, made his arithmetic for him." The sale of tliis book was enormous, not only in the United State's, but in Great Britain, reach- ing, it is said, in the former 100,000 copies, and in the latter 50,000 copies, annually. It was also translated into most of the languages of Europe, as well as into some others. Its plan is that which was conceived by Pestalozzi, but Oolburn realized it, and adapted it to general use. George B. Emerson, in the Schoolmaster (1842), says of this work: "Colburn's First Lessojis is the only faultless school-book that we have. It has made a great change in the mode of teaching arithmetic, and is destined to make a still greater. It should be made the basis of all instruction in this department." Col- burn's career as a practical teacher was quite short, continuing only three years. The subse- quent part of his life was spent in the work of superintending a large manufacturing company, first at Waltham, afterwards at Lowell : but he delivered several courses of lectures on natural history and physics, published a Sequel to the First Lessons (1*24), compiled a school text- book on algebra, and also a series of reading- books, on an original plan. It was, however, his First Lessons that gave him his celebrity as an educator, and that will ever associate his name with the subject of oral or intellectual arithmetic. " Then' are few men," it has been remarked, " who. in so short and quiet a life, have done so much good, and rendered their names so familiar as W'anvu Colburn." — See Baenard, Educa- tional Biography (N. Y., 18(d). COLBY UNIVERSITY, at Watervffle, Maine, under the control of the Baptists, was Founded in 1*20. There are four fine college buildings. The value of the college property is $150,000, and the amount of productive funds. 150 COLLEGE 8200.000. Scholarships to the number of 60, yielding from $36 ti> Sf>0 per annum each, have been founded for the benefit of students needing aid. The charge for tuition, room-rent, and use of library is $41 per annum. The institution has a gymnasium, a cabinet of natural history, especially rich in the departments of conchology and ornithology, and a library of about 10,000 volumes. The two literary societies have libra- ries of about 3,000 volumes each. The Water- ville Classical Institute is under the control of the trusters of the university, and serves as a preparatory department. The regular university course is the ordinary four years' course of American colleges. Persons of suitable age and attainments are allowed to pursue a partial course for any length of time not less than one year, selecting such studies as they may desire. On leaving the institution, they are entitled to a certificate of their respective acquirements in the studies in which they have passed an exami- nation. The courses of study are DOW open to young women on the same terms as to young men. In 1873 — 4, there were 7 professors and 62 students, of whom 5 were females; namely, senior class. 7; junior, Ifi: sophomore, It: fresh- man, 25. The Rev. Henry E. Robins, D. D., is (1876) the president. COLLEGE (Latin collegium, originally mean- ing any kind of association) is a name given to large classes of educational institutions, especially in the United States, England, and France. The academic use of the word college began about the beginning of the L3th century, and originated in the following manner. The students who flocked to the university towns often came into collision with the citizens, and frequent brawls resulted. In order to protect the public peace. as well as to watch over the students, lodging- houses were provided in which the students were under the charge of a superior. These houses were called colleges; and this name was afterwards applied to any academic institution of a certain grade, whether connected with a university or not. Colleges appear to have first been estab- lished in Paris; and soon afterward in Oxford and Cambridge, in Bologna and Padua, and in Fragile and Vienna. They were richly en- dowed by popes and other dignitaries of the church, princes, and powerful families ; and. in some of the university towns just named, 1 1 i y became so numerous in the L5th century, that almost every studenl of the university was a member of some one of the colleges. France. In Paris, several monastic orders founded colleges to give to their younger mem- bers an opportunity to study theology and philos- ophy at the great Beats of learning; other colleges were founded in some of the French provinces and in several foreign countries. Among the oldest French colleges were the College of St. Thomas, the Danish College, College des Dix-huit,the Col lege Grec (founded in 1206), the College des Bans Enfants 1 1. 208), thai of the Premonstratensians (1252), the Sorbonne, founded in 1253 for 16 I r siu dents of theology, and subsequently one of the most famous of French colleges, the Col- lege de la Congregation de Glugny (1269), and the Colleijc , and subsequently increased to about LOO; many of these, however, were of little im- portance. From their origin, it is plain that colleges were not originally designed to give in- struction, but merely to look after the students, and also to help the poorer ones in their course at the university. The teaching, however, be- longed entirely to the university. This was gradually changed, and the colleges, from being j merely auxiliary to the university, became finally the centers of instruction. By limiting lectures and disputations to a single department, the colleges became so many distinct faculties; and the university assumed the character of a union of colleges. In modern times, the term college is. in France, the distinctive name for schools of sec lary instruction, corresponding to the gymnasiums of Germany and other coun- tries. The higher class of these schools arc called lyceums isee Lyceum), the lower, com- munal colleges [colleges communaux). In 1873, there were 78 lyceums and 236 communal col- leges; iiesides. a number of private institutions of a similar grade were called colleges libres. These colleges have the character either of Latin schools or real-schools. The former strive to emulate the lyceums, though consisting some- times of only a ivw of the lower classes, and frequently giving special prominence to a scien- tific course of instruction. The latter class of colleges generally exclude Latin, and are real- schools for pupils of the middle class, who intend to devote themselves to industry, commerce, arts, and agriculture. .Many of them prepare their pupils to enter the special schools. There is a great variety in the courses of instinct ion of these schools. Among the best schools of the kind is the College municipal Chaptaloi Paris, founded in lsii by the city. It consists of 6 classes. The subjects of instruction in the first or lower class are (1) Religion; (2) Arithmetic (decimal and common fractions; exercises in the metrical system : calculation of extension, sur- face, and solids | ; i .". i French and General <>' ram- mar ; ill German and English; (5) Geography; (6) General History: (7) Geometrical Drawing; (8) Free hand Drawing; (9) Singing. Ln the second class, the same subjects are taught, and. in ad- dition, the elements of geometry and mathemat- ical geography. Those of the third class, besides the studies of the preceding class, give instruction iii algebra, natural philosophy, chemistry, stere- ometry, mineralogy, and book-keeping. Those of the fourth class discontinue arithmetic. and take Up trigonometry, Latin. Italian or Spanish. mechanics, botany, and zoOlogy. In the /;/'/// class. the history of French literature, hygienics, and technology are added. In the sixth or highest class. are taught geology, Cosmography, industrial and political economy, and the history of France. COLLEGE 151 Tli.' subjects taught in all the six classes are religion, French (in the lower classes grammar, in the higher literature), German or English, history, drawing, and Hin ging . The College de "Prance, in Pans, is an institution of a higher grade than either the communal colleges or rjceums, presenting a system of instruction almost as comprehensive as that of a complete university. It was founded by Francis I., in 1530, and its professors have always borne the name of lecteurs royaux. It has counted among its prof essors some of the greatest scholars of France, and has at present 28 professors and several distinct courses, embracing all the different sci- ences, law. medicine, as well as classic, modern, European, and oriental literature. Qreat Britain and Ireland. — The colleges founded in England in connection with the uni- versities of Oxford and Cambridge, were not in- tended to afford instruction, but to aid students in passing through the university. The rich en- dowments which were conferred upon the col- leges, however, soon enabled them to give to their inmates instruction as well as aid, and so increased their reputation and importance, that the university, with its four faculties, gradually losl its hold of the students, and retained little more power than the conferring of degrees and other honors. The studies designed to prepare the students for the academic degrees, were chiefly pursued in the colleges, and it was espe- cially the lectures of the faculty of arts which were transferred to the colleges. " The colleges," said one of the speakers during the discussions upon the Cambridge bill, in the House of Com- mons, May 30., 1856, " have overshadowed and practically almost monopolized the teaching of the university." Every college is a corporation of its own, having its own statutes, and electing one of its members for the legislative and exec- • • • utive authorities of the university. The general name given to the heads of the colleges is Heads of Houses ; but there is a considerable diversity in the titles which the Heads of Houses have in different colleges. In some, the head is called Master, a. title which prevails in Cambridge ; in ■others. Provost, President, Procurator, Warden, /.'• ctor, Perpetual Rector, or Dean. Most of the 1 hails of Houses are Doctors of Divinity. Next to the Heads of House- are the Fellows, a num- ber of graduates who receive an income from the funds of the college, and are permitted to retain their positions for life, unless they inherit ttes of greater income, or marry. The num- ber of fellowships in Cambridge is 4,'5() ; in Ox- ford, f>4<». The Heads of Houses are elected for life by the Fellows. A portion of the under- graduates also derive an income from the funds of the colleges, and are called Foundation Mem- bers. Members not on the Foundation constitute a large number of graduates who continue their names on the lists of the college in order to have the right to take pari in the sittings of the sen- ate, and of independent under-graduates. who ac- cording to their rank and expenditures, are called "Noblemen, Gentlemen Commoners, Fellow Commoners, Commoners, or Pensioners (the terms used at the two universities not quite agreeing). The under-graduate. on entering col- lege, is assigned to a "tutor," who is to him in loco parentis, superintends his conduct, and provides for his instruction in the different stud- ies by the college lecturers or sub-lecturers. The latter instruct those students whom the lecturer cannot admit to his classes, either for the want of room, or for some other reason. The tutor may be, at the same time, a college lec- turer. The instruction in the college aims almost exclusively at preparing the student for the ex- aminations, which are partly college and partly university examinations. The college examina- tions are called collections, and take place at the end of every term, when each student has to answer in writing several questions relative to all the studies pursued by him. (For the uni- versity examinations, see University.) Oxford University contains 21 colleges and "> halls: Cambridge. 1 7 colleges or halls (the two terms in Cambridge meaning the same). Next to these most important institutions, Trinity College, Dublin, holds a high rank. The Queen's Uni- versity in Ireland consists of three colleges, lo- cated in Belfast, Cork, and Calway. Until about 1 830, dissenters' colleges were not allowed to grant degrees without requiring the graduates to sub- scribe to the ^drty-nine art ivies. This caused a great deal of political agitation, which resulted in granting the privilege to these institutions, and also in founding the University College, King's College, and the University of London, in which | the thirty-mine articles are not insisted upon as 1 a condition of admission. These institutions have also served to promote the study of the natural sciences ; Oxford and ( ambridge being still, in this respect, strongholds of conservatism. The '• great public schools," such as Eton and Rugby, are, in effect, colleges. Of these there are 17, some of which have also the name college; as Eton College, Dulwich College, Wellington College, and Winchester College. Some of the schools classed as grammar schools (see Gram- mar Schools) are also styled colleges. Besides these, there are many theological colleges, classi- fied as follows: Established, 11 ; Wesleyan, 7 ; < 'ongregationalist, 11; Roman Catholic, 11; Baptist, 9 ; Presbyterian. 3 ; Calvinist, '1: Meth- odist. 2 : Unitarian, 1 ; Free Religious Thought, 1. There were also, in 1875 (according to Wkittaker's Almanack for 1870), five "Ladies' ( olleges." United States. — The American colleges grant degrees in the arts, and give the ordinary course of under-graduate instruction. Some of the older colleges, as Vale and Harvard, add instruction in theology, law, and medicine, and thus approach to the rank of universities in tin- European sense of the word. Most of the so-called universities, however, furnish only collegiate instruction : and there is, as yet. no fixed distinction between the terms college and university in the United States. The institutions of this kind considerably differ in their mode of organization. On the one hand, 152 COLLEGE are those which, adhering to the old system, have fixed standards of admission and a curriculum strictly prescribed ; on the other, those which have no fixed standard of admission nor pre- scribed curriculum, their course of studies being arranged in schools, among which the student may select at will. Of the former (the prevailing system) Yale may be taken as a representative : of the latter, the University of Virginia. Be- tween these two extremes, are those that allow a greater or less freedom of choice to the student. Some, like I Iarvard and Yale, have distinct scien- tific departments ; others, like Cornell Univer- sity, have parallel courses in which greater atten- tion may be paid to science or to modern lan- guages than in the classical course. With some of the colleges, professional schools are connected. Of about 350 institutions in the United States, styled colleges or universities, and possessing the right to confer degrees, a large majority have preparatory, and some, inferior departments, which often, especially in the West and South, comprise the greater part of the students. I Iar- vard, Vale, and a few others have post-graduate courses of study. The principal degrees confer- red are as follows: undergraduate,- Bachelor of Arts, of Science, of Philosophy, of Literature, of Letters; post-graduate. — Master of Arts. I >octor of Philosophy, Doctor of Science; professional, — Civil Engineer, Mining Engineer, Bachelor of Laws, Bachelor of Divinity, Doctor of Medicine : honorary, — Doctor of Divinity. Doctor of Laws. The degree of Master ofAxts is ordinarily con- ferred, as of course, upon Bachelors of Arts of three years' standing; but, in some institutions.it implies a course of post-graduate study, and it is often honorary. Many details respecting the course of study will be given in the articles on the different institutions, and matters relating to professional and other special degrees will be noticed under the appropriate heads. Only the range of studies open to candidates for the degree of Bachelor of Arts will be noticed here, and, for this purpose, Harvard and Vale will be taken as examples. The term of study for this degree U, in almost every institution, four years ; the method of instruction is ordinarily a combi- nation of lectures, recitations, and written cx- aminat ions. In Harvard, the course of study includes I lebrew. Sanskrit, I ireek and I. at in (language and literature, including ecclesiastical Greek and the elements of Roman law). Anglo-Saxon, Knglish language and literature, German, French, Italian. Spanish, Romance philology, rhetoric, political economy, logic, metaphysics, ethics, history (in- cluding international law), mathematics (includ- ing the higher branches), physics (including mechanics, astronomy, optics, acoustics, electric- ity, etc.), chemistry [including mineralogy), nat- ural history (including physical geography, me- teoroli igy, ge< »logy, botany, zooli >gy, palaeontology, and comparative anatomy and physiology i, music, and the fine arts, in oaanj of these branches, several parallel courses are arranged. The pre- scribed studies occupy the whole of the fresh- man year, and about one third of the sophomore and junior years. For the senior year, oidy cer- tain written exercises are prescribed. The re- mainder of the time is occupied by elect ives, in the choice of which the student is limited only by his qualification to pursue them. The clas- sics or mathematics may be pursued through the entire four years. The requirements for admis- sion are embraced in two courses, distinguished by a preponderance of the classics and mat he- matics respectively. The first course embraces Latin grammar and composition, with the trans- lation of Latin prose at sight; Caesar, De Bello GaUico, Books I. — IV., inclusive ; Sallust, Cati- line; Ovid. 4.001) lines; Cicero, eight orations and Cato Major; Virgil, Bucolics, and d&neid, 1 Books I. — VI., inclusive; (ireek grammar and (composition; Goodwin and Allen's (ireek Reader, orXenophon's Anabasis, Books I. — IV., inclusive, with the Seventh Book of Herodotus; Homer's Iliad, Books 1. — IH., inclusive, omitting the catalogue of ships ; arithmetic, including the metric system of weights and measures, with the rudiments of logarithms: algebra, through quad- ratic equations; as much plane geometry as is contained in the first L5 chapters of I'circe's Geometry; ancient history and geography; mod- ern and physical geography; Knglish composi- tion ; the translation at sight of either easy French prose or easy German prose: and either elementary botany, rudiments of physics and of chemistry, or rudiments of physics and of descriptive astronomy. The second course em- braces Latin grammar; Caesar, De Bello Oallico, Books I. and II.; Cicero, six orations and Cato Major) Virgil, fflrufid, Hooks I. — VX, in- clusive ; (ireek grammar ; Goodwin and Allen's (ireek Header, first 111 pages, or Xenophon's Anabasis, Hooks I. — IV., inclusive: Homer's Iliad, Bonks Land 1 L. omitting the catalogue of ships: algebra, as much as is contained in the larger treatises of Greenleaf, etc.; solid geometry, as much as is contained in IVirce's ( ieometry ; plane trigonometry: elements of plane analytical geometry; with arithmetic, plane geometry, history, geography, Knglish composition, French or German, and physical science as in the first course. In Vale, tin ursc of instruction and the terms of admission are similar to those of the better class of colleges throughout the country. The course uf instruction includes the (ireek and Latin languages and literatures (three years), mathematics (two years), history, rhetoric, trench or German (two terms, junior yean, natural philosophy, logic, astronomy, physics, mental philosophy, political and social science, chemistry, natural theology and evidences of Christianity, moral philosophy, geology, anatomy and physi- ology, the history of philosophy, constitutional history, the constitution of the Dnited States, lan- guage and the study of language. In some of these subjects, the instruction is imparted Bimply by lectures. The course of in.-t nut ion is strictly prescribed, except that the differentia] and ill- tegral calculus may he substituted for (ireek COLLEGE 153 or Lathi during the first two terms of the junior year. The requirements for admission arc Latin grammar; sallust, Bettum Jugurthinum, or four books of Caesar; Cicero, aeven orations; Virgil, s-. (icon/ics. and the first six books of ih,' .Knrul; Arnold's Latin Prose Composition, first twelve chapters; Greek grammar; Xeno- phon's Anabasis, four books; Homer's Mad, tlu-ee books; Greek history ; higher arithmetic, including the metric system of weights and measures ; algebra ; Euclid, first two books ; English grammar and geography. In the post- graduate course, facilities are afforded for the study of Anglo-Saxon, the American Indian lan- guages (especially the dialects of the Algonquin family i, Sanskrit, the Chinese and Japanese languages, Hebrew, and some other branches not in the undergraduate course. According to the Report of the U. S. Com- missioner of Education for 1874, there were, in the I'nited States. ,'iU> universities and colleges, with 3,783 instructors' and 56,692 students, dis- tributed according to the following table : STATES and TERRITORIES. Alabama Arkansas California f Connecticut Delaware Georgia Illinois Indiana Iowa Kansas Kentucky Louisiana Maine Maryland Massachusetts Michigan Minnesota Mississippi Missouri Nebraska New Hampshire New Jersey New York North Carolina Ohio Oregon Pennsylvania Rhode Island South Carolina Tennessee Texas Vermont Virginia West Virginia Wisconsin District of Columbia Colorado Dtah Washington In the foregoing table, the colleges and nni- versities are placed together, but in such case only the collegiate department is to be under- stood. When there is a medical, law, or the- ological department, the statistics of the same are given elsewhere under the appropriate title. - ;o o No. in- structors No. stu- dents. 5 55 274 2 8 39 12 L3o 752. 3 .).) 855 l 6 45 ;. 35 574 •2:: 232 1,904 17 132 1,613 17 L38 829 7 42 206 12 7!) 802 7 56 82 3 32 355 7 77 477 7 132 1,517 7 '.in 817 3 38 167 6 46 271 17 175 1,358 3 19 55 1 20 265 4 61 645 26 410 3,010 6 31 267 34 258 2,430 7 30 180 27 256 2,238 1 15 253 s 33 287 10 130 757 12 64 691 3 20 161 K 72 L.284 3 23 171 It) s4 (Hit 5 54 144 2 7 15 L 4 — 2 3 56 Some aggregate statistics from the same re- port are given in the following table: No. volumes in college libraries 1,870,455 No. volumes in society libraries 406,144 Aggregate value of grounds, buildings, and apparatus $39,170,223 Amount of productive funds 28,080,309 Aggregate income therefrom 1,801,890 Receipts from tuition fees 1,768,929 Amount of scholarship funds 1,999,338 State appropriation for the preceding year 611,676 The denominational character of the colleges as nearly as can be ascertained was, in 1875, as follows: Baptist 36 Free Baptist 4 Seventh-day Baptist 2 Christian 9 Congregationalist lt> Cumberland Presbyterian 6 Evangelical Association 2 Friends 4 Lutheran 15 Masonic 1 Methodist Episcopal 47 Methodist Episcopal, South 9 Methodist Protestant 1 Moravian 1 Mormon 1 Presbyterian 24 Protestant Episcopal 19 Reformed 3 German Reformed 3 Roman Catholic 67 State 12 Swedenborgian 1 Unitarian 1 United Brethren 3 United Presbyterian 4 Universalist 4 Unsectarian 34 A few colleges are not contained in this enu- meration, it being uncertain to what denomination they belong. All the important institutions, however, are included. The presidents of nearly all the leading col- leges in the United States met at Hanover, N. H., in November 1874, and discussed, among other tilings, college athletics (boating etc.), the taxation of college property, optional studies and the comparative importance of classical and scientific studies, and the college and university system. It was resolved not to interfere in any way with regattas and boating. While the- influences attending these pastimes might some- what divert attention from study, and thus lower the standard of scholarship, the physical training and development secured thereby were deemed amply sufficient to compensate for any such un- favorable results. Some of the presidents took strong ground against the taxation of college property. President Kliot warmly argued in favor of optional studies, contending that the United States is the only country which com- pels a student to pursue prescribed branches after the age of 19. In the discussion on class- ical and scientific studies, each side had its advocates; but the genera] opinion was, that the languages and sciences should lie studied as means of mental discipline only, during tie freshman and sophomore years, and that the succeeding years— junior and senior — should be 154 COLLEGIATE SCHOOLS COLOMBIA devoted to philosophy, literature, and special sciences, leaving the languages and mathematics optional during the junior year. — See Noah Porter, The American Colleges and ike Amer- ican Public (N. Y., 1870); Jex-Blake, A Visit to some Aiivriain Schools and Colleges (Lond. and X. Y.): Oi.ix. College JAfe; Its Theory and Practice (X. Y., L867); P. Arnold, Oafordand Cambridge; their Colleges etc. (London). COLLEGIATE SCHOOLS. See Cathe- dral Schools. COLOMBIA, United States of, formerly \ w I rranada, a republic in the northern part of South America, formed of nine federal states, the combined area of which is variously esti- mated a! from 480,000 to 521,000 sq.m., and the population at about 2,900,000, composed of whites, negroes, Indians, and mixed races. The whites are mainly Spanish, cither by birth or by descent; they speak the Spanish language and generally profess the Catholic faith. The country was conquered by the Spaniards in L536 and L537, and was created a viceroyalty of Spain, under the title of New < rranada, in L718. Alter various insurrectionary attempts, the Spanish rule was finally thrown off in L819, and an allia ce was formed with Venezuela and Quito, under the name of the Republic of Co- lombia. The chronic anarchy which has always reigned among the South American republics, put an end to this union in L829, and the pres- ent republic was organized in L831. Under the Spanish rule, primary instruction was chiefly in the hands of the Church; and higher instruction was confined to the colleges. In the latter, a very superficial instruction was given in the classics, history, geography, and the elements of natural science; a smattering of theology was also included. A number of these colleges still exist, but are of little importance. The chief ones are the Colegio National de San Bartohmeo, in Bogota, and the colleges in Car- tagena, Popayan, Mompox, Tunja, and Cali. After the overthrow of the Spanish power. Bolivar aimed to set public instruction upon a firm footing. As a preliminary step, the church property was sold, and all cloisters \\ bich ha I leas than eight monks were Suppressed. The con- stitution of L821 limited the righl of voting to those citizens who could read and write; it also provided that the national congress should con- trol public education. Very considerable ad- vancement was made under Bolivar's administra- tion towards an ellicient school system ; but. un- fortunately, his dictatorial proceedings, together with the anarchical spirit of the people, produced such political contusion, that nothing resulted from it. I'ntil the year 1863, the only schools were the relics of the old church and cloister schools, a few private institutions. and some local Schools, supported by ihe muniei] ialit ies. Public instruction was ftrsl placed definitely under the direction of the national government by the con- stitution of L863. The law of .May 30., L868, determines the nd.it i >f ihe national govern- ment to the several states in the matter of edu- cation, prescribing the following as its duties : Besides managing the national university, it is required to maintain normal schools for both sexes ; also to establish primary schools, which shall serve as a standard for the establishment of similar schools by the several states. The found- ing of agricultural schools, together with the en- tire direction of what school books and apparatus shall be used, is entirely in the hands of the gov- ernment. The law also provides for a central normal school in the capital of the republic. This law remained a dead letter until November : 1., 1870, when a decree was issued upon the sub- j ject, providing for a national school board in Bo- gota, and a state school board for each of the states to which a national school officer is sent. The public schools are cither primary schools or higher schools, and are for both sexes. The primary school gives instruction in reading, writing, ami arithmetic, the rudiments of the Spanish language, the elements of physiologyand hygiene, singing, natural history, and the history of the nation. The higher schools add to these branches the elements of algebra and geometry, and an elementary knowledge of natural science and general geography. In the girls' schools, the same subjects are taught, though to a less ex- tent : and various feminine accomplishments, such as house-keeping etc., are added. The cen- tral normal school has a four years' course. The subjects studied are grammar, Spanish literature. the French and Rngliah languages, universal history, the national history, algebra, geometry, trigonometry, general geography, astronomy, in- dustrial physics and chemistry, mechanics and mechanical drawing, natural history and agricul- ture, anatomy, physiology, and hygiene, music, vocal and instrumental, and gymnastics. The law further provides for a normal school in the capital of each state, the expense of which is borne by that state. A teachers' association is connected with each of these normal schools. Schools are also provided for those small chil- dren whose parents are unable to provide them with the first rudiments of education. Every public school must have its own building, which includes the dwelling of the principal ; it also has a garden for the practical study of botany, gardening, etc. The law pros ides, too, that pub- lic instruction shall aim at moral culture, but the national govemmenl does not interfere with religious education. The course of instruction in the schools must, however, be so arranged that sufficient time may remain for religious in- struction by the pastors, Or such other per-ons as the parents may choose. Parents and guard- ians must either send their children and wards, between the ages of seven and fifteen, to the pub- lic schools, or provide other satisfactory instruc- tion for them. As yet. however, there is no penalty for a non-compliance with this provision, although there is a strong sentiment in favor of compulsory education. Besides these schools, the government has established schools in the military barracks, for tin" instruction of the sol- diers in the common branches of learning. COLOR 155 In Colombia, however, as elsewhere, tin' doc- trine of state rights lias been a troublesome ele- ment. No act of the national congress becomes a law in the several states, until it has been adopted by their respective legislatures; and there is not a single provision of the law per- taining to education which has not been fiercely disputed by the several states: but it has finally been adopted by all but Antioquia. A further disturbing element in carrying out the law, was Ultramontanism. The government called many prominent teachers from abroad, and especially from Germany, for the national normal schools, — a measure at which the clerical party took great offense. The exclusion of religious instruction from the schools also caused a great deal of op- position from the clergy : nevertheless, the system of national instruction has continually grown in favor with the people, and now seems to be as well established as the restless character of the people admits. A number of educational journals arc published, of which the following are the principal : La Escuela Normal, El Maestro de Es .'. La Escuela Primaria, El Monitor, and La Revista. COLOR, as a branch of object instruction, is of great interest and value ; since, at an early children take particular notice of colors, and, hence, lessons upon this subject furnish an excel- lent opportunity for training them to distinguish resemblances and differences, and for encouraging the formation of those habits of attention and comparison which are necessary to the successful study of other subjects. From the fact that many persons are found to be color-blind, it is of great importance that suitable lessons should be given children to enable teachers and parents to ascertain whether this defect exists in any under their care, before they become old enough to en- gage in any occupation in which color-blindness would be an insurmountable defect. Besides, by the early training of children to observe colors, much of the inability to distinguish them, which is commonly not discovered until later in life, may be overcome by education. Furthermore, a gen- eral knowledge of colore, and of their relations to each other, is of importance in nearly every avo- cation of life. This becomes especially apparent when it is remembered how much depends upon color in the manufacture of materials for dress. furniture, household decorations, in the work of artists, and in various other kinds of employment. Since a knowledge of color can be gained only through the sense of sight, the methods for teaching it in school should be so arranged that the pupils may have abundant exercise of this sense in distinguishing colors. For the first les- sons, place before the pupils the best colors that can be procured, in order that they may obtain cor- rect conceptions as to what are good reds, yel- lows, blues, greens, purples, etc. Commence with showing a single color, as red. and leading the pupils to compare red cards, paper, silk, worsted, etc.. with it. and thus to notice resem- blances and differences between the true red and the several objects compared with it. Give sim- ilar exercises, with each of the primary and sec- ondary colors, singly ; then place two of these colore before the pupils, and let them select ar- ticles t atch each of the given colors. Pro- ceed in a similar way with the other colore; and, finally, place several or all of them before the pupils at the same time, and require them not only to point out the colore as named, but to se- lect colored articles to match each. Frequent changes in the mode of giving these exercises on color will increase the interest of the children in the subject, and add to their knowl- edge of it, especially when each one has some- thing to do in the exercise. After the pupils have learned to know each of the six colore used in the previous lesson, fresh interest may be given to the subject by supplying each child with a piece of colored paper, taking care that those who sit side by side shall, as far as possible, hold different colore. When the papers have been distributed, the teacher may say, " Now. look at your paper, see what color you have, then fold your arms so as to hide your paper. Now, look at the color which I show you ; all who know that they have a like color may hold it up. — Right. — Now. look at this color, — all who have one like it. hold it up." Proceed in >he same manner with each color ; — to close the iJsson, re- quest one pupil to collect all the red papers, another all the blues, another the greens, etc. Similar lessons may be given for the purpose of teaching children to distinguish shades of colore, as dark and light reds, blues, greens, etc. If it be desired to continue these lessons, and teach that the six colors previously shown may be divided into two groups — primary and sec- ondary — procure artists' paints: red (carmine), yellow (chrome) , blue (ultramarine) ; also a small palette, and a palette knife. Place a little yel- low and blue on the palette, side by side, re- questing the pupils to notice what colore are used. Then, with the knife, mix these two colore together until green appears in place of the yellow and blue. Then ask the pupils what color has been produced by mixing the yellow and blue, Proceed in a similar manner to mix red and blue, to produce purple ; red and yellow, to produce orange. The teacher may now write on the blackboard for the pupils to learn : Mix- ing yellow and blue will produce green. Mixing red mill blue will produce purple. Mixing red and yellow will produce orange. Then pupils may select the two primary colors that will pro- duce given secondaries, also the secondary that may be made from two given primaries. Show the pupils also that light and dark colors maybe formed by mixing white or black with other colore. Provide exercises by which the pupils may do something to indicate that they know each fact taught. In order that children may understand Itar- mony of colors, they must be led to observe that to produce harmony, the three primary colors must be grouped together ; that if two of them exist in a given secondary, the other primary will harmonize with that secondary. To accom- 156 COLORADO plish this result by teaching, arrange colored paper, or other material, so that red and green, yellow and purple, blue and orange, pale green and violet, may be compared, and the sensation noticed. Request the pupils to tell what colore are compared in each instance; also whether the three primaries exist in each group; as well as to observe that the colore of these groups harmonize. Next, compare red and orange, blue and green, yellow and green, requiring the pupils to observe the effect on the sense of sight; also to state which primaries exist in each group, and to notice thai the colore of these groups do not harmonize. These lessons will be more or less useful in proportion to the amount of exercise which the pupils have in distinguishing and comparing colore, and in observing their relations. — See N. A. Cal- kins. Primary Object Lessons, L5th ed. (N. Y.. L871) : Burton, The Culture of the Observing Faculties (N.Y.,1865); Ci www.. Principles and Practice of Early and Infant School-Education (Bdin., 1857). (See also Senses.) COLORADO was organized as a territory Feb. 28., L861, From parts of Kansas, Nebraska, New Mexico, and Utah. The part which is situated north of the Arkansas river and east of the Rocky mountains, was included in Louisiana. purchased from Prance in L803; the remainder formed part of the territory ceded by Mexico to the United States in L848. In L870, the area of < 'olorado was reported as In t,500 sq. m., and its population as 39,864, which included 456 col- ored persons, 7 Chinese, and ISO Indians. The settlement of the territory, it may he said, was begun in •lane. L858, by a party of gold-seekers from Georgia, consisting of nine persons, under the leadership of W. G-. Mussel. The region se- lected by these for settlement was near the pres- ent city of Denver, then within the limits of Kansas. Previous to this time, however, there were a few Mexicans in the southern portion of tin- territory, engaged in stock-raising. Educational History. Among the acts passed by the first legislative assembly, which met Sept. !»., I si; 1 , was one that provided for the establish- nt of a system of public schools, to he under the supervision of a superintendent of public in- struction, county Superintendents, and district directors. At this time, the school population of the territory was very small ; hence, the law, although comprehensive and liberal, was of little practical use. At a subsequent session of the legislature, the office of superintendent of public instruction was practically abolished b)' making the territorial treasurer superintendent ex officio, with a -alary of 8100 per annum. Unlike most of the recently settled states and territories. Col- orado had for her pioneers not families, hut indi- viduals, not women and children, but gold-hunt- ing men and adventurous explorers, few of whom were to I"' found for two successive years in the same locality, *and in me of whom intended to re- main for a longer time than was required to gather a fortune. Hence bu1 little interest was manifested in BChools indeed, at that period, there was scarcely any necessity for their estab- lishment i. until about the year 1869, by which time the natural resources of the territory — agri- cultural, mineral, ami climatical — had been made manifest to such an extent, that railroads were projected, colonies were organized in the east, and those who had been here during the preced- ing years felt no desire to emigrate. The num- ber of school children increased rapidly, and the necessity for a permanent and liberal school sys- tem not only became apparent, but was demanded by the people. In 1870, the school law was re- vised; the office of superintendent of public in- struction was again created: and Wilbur < '. Loth top was appointed to till the office for two years, and re-appointed, in 1872, for a second term. Before the expiration of his second term, however, Mr. Lothrop resigned, and Horace M. 1 1 ale was appointed to till the vacancy, and re- appointed for the full term ending in Febru- ary. 1 876. School System. — The superintendent of public instruction is appointed by the governor and confirmed by the legislative council, holds the office tor two years, and receives an annual salary of $1200. He has a general supervision of the county superintendents and of the public schools. and is required to report biennially to the gov- ernor. 'I he county superintendents (25 in num- ber) are elected at the regular county election for two years; they receive five dollars for each day's service, are required to examine teachers. to grant certificates (valid for a period not ex- ceeding one year), to apportion the county fund, to visit the schools twice each term, and to make a report each year to the superintendent of public instruction. The district directors, consisting of a president^ treasurer, and a secretary, are elected on the first Monday of May in each year by the tax-paying voters of each district. The directors employ teachers, make all contracts for the main- tenance of the schools, and perform such special duties as may be delegated to them by the citi- zens at the time of their election, such as fixing the course of study, designating the kind of text- hooks to he used, specifying the time during which the schools shall be in session, levying spe- cial taxes for building and other purposes, etc. School districts are bodies corporate, formed from time to time by the county superintendent. They may. at a special election called for the purpose, vote to issue the bonds of the district for the purpose of building school-houses. Many of the incorporated towns have Special school laws differing somewhat from the general school law. The school fund is obtained from a county tax (not less than two mills on the dollar), from the proceeds of fines collected in the several counties for breaches of the penal laws, from all i leys arising from the sale of waits and est rays, and from a special tax levied in each district whenever the citizen voters so direct. The comity fund and penal fund are apportioned quarterly to the several districts, according the number of persons in each between the . of 5 and 21 years. There is no state. school tax. COLORADO COLLEGE COLORED SCHOOLS 157 It is provided that the Bible shall nut be ex- cluded from the .schools, but that no pupil shall be required to read it contrary to the wishes of his parents or guardian. Teachers' institutes are held in the several counties at the call of the county superintendents ; but there is no regularly organized teachers' association, nor state normal school. The school year begins I >ctober 1st. Educational Condition. — From the report of Sept. 30.. 1ST.">. it appeared that there were in the territory '.VI'.) school-districts, 280 public schools, and 172 school-houses. The number of children of school age — from 5 to 21 — was 23,274, and the number of pupils enrolled 10,185. The whole number of teachers employed was 377. of whom 172 were males, and 205 fe- males : and the average monthly salary paid to the male teachers was 860, and to the female teachers. $50. The whole amount of money ex- pended for school purposes during the preceding year, was $210,813.86 ; and the total value of the school houses and furniture was $414,008. The increase dining the preceding year was as follows: In number of school-districts, 16 per cent ; in schools, 18 per cent ; in school-houses, 16 per cent ; in school population, 16 per cent ; in value of school property, 23 per cent. Secondary andotker Instruction. — The High School of Denver was established in 1873, and will graduate its first class in 1877. There are also several private and denominational schools, including a school of mines, in Denver. There is also a school for deaf-mutes at Colorado Springs. A proposed state university has been chartered, and located at Boulder. Forty acres of ground have been set apart for its use, and $30,000 are now (1876) in the hands of the trustees to be appropriated to the erection of buildings. Col- orado College, at Colorado Springs, was estab- lished in 1874 by the Congregationalists ; and Evans University, at Evans, was chartered in 1874 by the Presbyterians. A school of mines has also been commenced, at Golden, as the fut- ure scientific school of the projected state uni- versity. COLORADO COLLEGE, at Colorado Springs, Colorado, was organized in 1874. It is under the control of ( loneresationalista. Pre- paratory and collegiate departments have been established. In 1873 — 4, it had 5 instructors, and 25 preparatory and 15 collegiate students. It admits both sexes. COLORED SCHOOLS, a class of schools designed for the instruction of colored children. Such schools are quite common in many parts of the United States, especially in the South, where the negro population is very large. Thus, in South Carolina, in 1874. the whole number of children of school age (6 to 16, inclusive) enumerated was 230,102, of whom 84,975 were white, and 14"). 127 colored children; and of a total enrollment of 100.710. the white children numbered 44,470, and the colored children 56,249. In all the old slave states, and in many of the northern states, the feeling of aversion to, or prejudice against, the negro race is so strong, that the public; school system can be made effect- ive only by the establishment of separate schools for colored children; since many white parents would refuse to permit their children to attend schools in which the " co-education of the races" was carried on. This feeling is sometimes strong even in new communities. Thus, in Montana, t lie legislative requirement of separate schools, ac- cording to the report of the superintendent for 1873, has practically excluded colored children from all opportunity to obtain an education; and he remarks, in this connection, that " prej- udice should not be permitted to stand in the path of justice." and urges, that the schools should be open to all children without regard to color. In some of the older and larger northern states, this distinction, of separate schools for white and colored children, is fast passing away. Thus, in Pennsylvania, in 1874, there were only 73 schools for colored children out of an aggregate number of schools of 16,641 ; and an attendance of only 2,500 pupils, out of about 440,000. In the state of New York, the whole expenditure for school purposes in 1874, was $12,298,729; and of this only $66,126 was expended for the support of colored schools in the state, those in the towns costing only $7,768, and those in the cities, $58,458, of the latter of which $46,676 was expended for the support of the colored schools of New York City. In that city, separate schools for colored children have existed since the establishment of the African Free School, in 1787, by the Society for promoting the manu- mission of slaves, incorporated in 1785. In 1838, the name African Schools was changed to Col- ored Schools, on the petition of the teachers. Pre- vious to this time, these schools had been trans- ferred to the Public School Society, which then had the charge of all the other common schools of the city. In 1835, the whole number of pupils enrolled in these schools was about 1608, with an average attendance of 757 ; and the annual report of the city superintendent for 1875 shows an enrollment of only 1958, and an average at- tendance of 872. Although, by the Civil Rights Bill, passed by the state legislature in 1873. all the schools were practically tin-own open to colored children, few have taken advantage of this, but have apparently preferred to remain in the separate schools provided for them, though their attendance is often at considerable incon- venience in consequence of the remoteness of their places of residence from the schools. In some of the states, the prescribing of sep- arate schools for colored children is a great hard- ship, since their numbers are not sufficient to warrant the establishment of good schools, if any at all. Thus, in the Ohio state report for 1873, it is stated that, " in many districts, colored chil- dren are practically deprived of school privileges and advantages, especially where the number by enumeration is less than twenty; and the separate schools established for them are sometimes con- tinued in session a less number of weeks than the schools for white children in the same district. It is a significant fact that, of the 23,020 colored 158 COLORED SCHOOLS COLUMBIA COLLEGE youth of school age in the state, only f),950 are under instruction." It has been claimed by some that the fourteenth amendment to the constitu- tion of the United States, winch denies the right of any state " to make or enforce any law which .shall abridge the privileges or immunities of citizens of the United states," prohibits the establishment of separate schools for colored children : hut decisions of the supreme courts in New York and Ohio have settled this question in favor of the separate schools, provided these schools afford their pupils advantages equal to those provided for white children. Such was also the decision of the superior court of Marion County. Indiana, in L874, which held that "the classification of scholars on the basis of race or color, and their education in separate schools in- volve questions of domestic policy which are within the legislative discretion and control, and do not amount to an exclusion of either class." Hence, the state law of May 13., L859 was sus- tained as constitutional : ami it was decided that. while it remained in force, colored children were "not entitled to admission into the common schools provided for the education of white children." The feeling in regard to mixed schools for white and colored children is very diverse in different localities. In some places, there is a most intense opposition to such schools ; while, in others, and sometimes in the same state, there is a complete acquiescence of all citizens in the arrangement. In L873, the school superintendent of Illinois issued a circular of inquiry, in regard to this subject, to the county superintendents, asking for facts and results; and out of 77 counties reporting, there were in LO, no persons of color to be educated; in 41, colored children attended the same schools as white children ; in 10, the colored children were in separate schools; in L6, some were in separate schools, while others attended the same as whites; in 30, no objections to the co-education of the races were reported; but in 27, trouble, of a more or less serious na- ture, was stated to have oeeiirred. Some of the superintendents were strongly in favor of co-edu- cation, while others, including some from coun- ties where the schools were mixed, expressed their opposition to it in the strongest terms. The opposition to the co-education of the races in the Southern states is. as might be expected. Very strong. This was made manifest in the public expression of opinion in regard to the Civil Rights Mill while it was pending in the tin- United States Senate, in L874. In Co- education of the While and Colored Races, by Rev. W. II. Etuffner, state superintendent of schools in Virginia, published in Scribner's Mm, thiii (May, 1874), the author said, "An act of <'oh equiring the south poles of all mag- nets to attract each other, would not beawhri more absurd than one requiring education to he conducted on a race mixture in the late sla\e states." "There a iv QOW," he said, "more than a million and a half of children, white and black. in the public Bchools of the fifteen ex-slave states;" | and he expressed the opinion, that the passage of any law enforcing co-education would have the effect to ruin the common school system in every one of those states. As long as this feeling of aversion to the co-education of whites and blacks exists, whether prejudice or not, it would seem to be the duty of legislators to respect it : and not to endeavor to force upon communities a school organization which they abominate, as long as the equal rights of all citizens are re- spected. At the same time, it must be borne in mind that experience seems to show that these lace distinctions disappear in time; but that this time may be prolonged by unwise violence. and haste. Probably, not in the present genera- tion will the existence of coloreil schools cease, at any rate in the Southern states: but that they will finally disappear, as a feature of American common-school systems, there are many that entertain no doubt. COLUMBIA COLLEGE, in the City of New York, was incorporated by royal charter iu L754, and was called King's College. It was sus- pended during the revolution, and reorganized, in 17S", under its present name. Columbia ( 'ollege. The college grounds comprise the block bounded by Madison and Fourth avenues, and 49th and 50th streets. The value of grounds, buildings, and apparatuses S7s 7, 70(1 ; the amount of productive funds. $4,581,700, on which the annual income is $205,000. These figures are exclusive of the medical school. Certain so- cieties and corporations, including each reli- gious den ination in the city of New York, may send students to be educated free of charge. fourteen scholarships have recently been estab- lished, of the annual value of SI III) each, and six fellowships (one in science and one iii litera- ture) of the annual value of $500 each. The fellowships are offered for competition to the senior class upon graduation, and arc tenable for three years. The fellows are required to continue their studies under the direction of the president of the college, but they may choose the place of study. The institution comprises the college proper, the school of mines, the law school, and the medical school. The college propel 1 has 8 professorships : ill Greek language and literature ; (2) German language and litera- ture; (3) chemistry; (4) mathematics; (•">) mathematics and astronomy; (6) moral and in- tellectual philosophy, and English literature; (7) mechanics and physics; (8) Latin language and literature. The course is the ordinary four years' course of American colleges, leading to the degree of Bachelor of Arts. The college has an aslro- nomical observatory, a herbarium, and valuable chemical and philosophical apparatus. The cost of tuition is $100 per annum, but it may be remitted to indigent students. The school of mines Was established in L864. It has 8 professorships: (I) mineralogy and metallurgy; (2) civil and mining engineering ; (3) analytical and applied chemistry ; (4) general chemistrj : (5) mechan- 6) mathematics; (7) physics: 8) geology and palaeontology. The system of instruction includes COLUMBIA COM KM US 159 five parallel courses of study; namely, (1) civil engineering; (2) mining engineering; (3) metal- lurgy: (4) geology and natural history ; (5) ana- lytical and applied chemistry. The course of in- struction occupies three years. Those who com- plete it receive the degree of Engineer of Mines, civil Engineer, or Bachelor of Philosophy. There is an advanced course for graduates of the Bchool for the degree of Doctor of Phi- losophy. For candidates not qualified to enter the first year, there is a preparatory year. Collections of specimens and models, illustrating all the subjects taught in the school, are access- ible to the students, including crystal models, natural crystals, pseudomorphs, ores and metal- lurgical products, models of furnaces, specimens illustrating applied chemistry, fossils, economic minerals, rocks, Olivier's models of descriptive geometry, models of mining machines, and models of mining tools. The cost of tuition is $200 per annum, hut it may be remitted to indigent students. The law school, now in Great Jones street, was opened in 1858. Under the direction of Theodore W. Dwight, LL. D., it has attained a high reputation. The ( 'ollege of Physicians and Surgeons, on the corner of 23d street and Fourth avenue, became the medical department of Columbia College in 1860, but the connection is little more than nominal. The number of in- structors, students, and volumes in the libraries, in 1875 — 6, was as follows : Departments. Instructors. Students. Volumes. College (proper) 13 172 17,500 School of Mines 23 220 6,000 Law School 6 573 4,000 Medical School 29 410 1,200 Total 71 1,375 28.700 According to the triennial catalogue of 1870, the total number of graduates of all the schools was 3,834, of whom 2,721 were living. There were 2,109 graduates in arts, 868 in medicine, 487 in law, 37 in mining, and 333 honorary grad- uates. The presidents have been as follows : the Rev. Dr. Samuel Johnson, 1754 — 63; Myles Cooper, LL. D., 1763 — 75; Benjamin Moore, A \[., pro tern., 1775 — 6; AVm. S. Johnson, LL.D., 17S7— 1800; the Rev. Dr. Charles H. Wharton (who probably did not act), 1801; the Rev. Benjamin Moore, P.D.. 1801—11; the Rev. Wm. Harris. D.D., 1811—29; Wm. A. Duer, LL. D., 1829 — 12 ; Nathaniel F. Moore, LL.D., 1842—9 ; Charles King, LL. D., 1849—64 ; the Rev. Frederick A. P. Barnard, LL.D., the present incumbent, appointed in 1864. COLUMBIA, District of. See District OF < loLUMBl \. COLUMBIAN UNIVERSITY, nearW a sh- ■ington, I>. ( '.. was chartered in 1821 as the Columbian College, and opened in 1822. In 1873, the name was changed by act of Congress to the Columbian University. A majority of the board of trustees and overseers are Baptists, but the institution is required by its charter to be un- sectarian. it comprises a preparatory depart- ment, a college department, a law department, and a medical department. The institution has not a large endowment, and is supported prin- cipals by tuition fees. The value of its real estate is about $500,000. The regular course of instruction (4 years) in the college department is comprised in seven schools, as follows: (1) School of English; (2) School of Greek; (3) School of Latin; (4) School of Modern Languages; (5) School of Mathematics: ((I) School of Natural Science; (7) School of Philosophy. Certificates of pro- ficiency are given to students who pass an exam- ination in certain prescribed studies in any school. A diploma of graduation is given to those who pass an examination in all the obligatory studies of any school. (1) The degree of Bachelor of Letters is conferred on students who obtain diplomas in the schools of English, Creek. Latin, Modern Languages, and Philosophy, and who receive a certificate of proficiency in the School of Mathematics or of N atural Science. (2) The degree of Bachelor of Science is conferred on students who obtain diplomas in the schools of English, Modern Languages. Mathematics, Nat- ural Science, and Philosophy. (3) The degree of Bachelor of Arts is conferred on students who obtain diplomas in any six schools, and who re- ceive a certificate of proficiency in the residuary school of the entire course. (4) The degree of Master of Arts is conferred on students who, after obtaining diplomas in all the schools of the college, sustain a final and satisfactory examination, in review of all the studies pre- scribed for this degree. The cost of tuition in the college is $60 a year, but it is remitted in favor of students intended for the ministry. The medical department, known as the National Medical College, is in the city of Washington. The law department (opened in 1826) is also in Washington. The college, in 1875 — 6, had 12 instructors, 103 preparatory and 48 collegiate students, and a library of 5,750 volumes ; the law school, 5 professors and 130 students; and the medical college, 11 instructors and 54 students. The presidents of the university have been as follows: the Rev. Win. Staughton, D.D., 1821—1827 ; the Rev. Stephen Chapin, D.D., 1828—1841; the Rev. Joel S. Bacon, D.D.,1843 —1854; the Rev. Joseph G. Benney, D.D., 1855 —1858 ; the Rev. Geo. W. Samson, D.D., 1859 — 1871; James C. Welling, LL.D., the present incumbent, appointed in 1871. COMENIUS, John Amos, the forerunner of Basedow and Pestalozzi, and one of the great- est educators of modern times, was born at Komna, in Moravia, March 28., 1592, and died Nov. 15., 1671. From his birthplace, he re- ceived the name Komensky, Latin Comenius, by which his family name was so fully sup- planted, that even his grandson. D. B. Jablon- sky, did not know it. Be studied in Berborn and Beidelbere, and taught for a time a school of the Bohemian Brethren in Prerau, Moravia. Be afterward became a preacher of this church at Fulneck, likewise in Moravia, assuming at the same time the direction of the school. In com- mon with the Protestants of Moravia and Bo- 160 COMENIUS hernia in general, he suffered great hardships at the hands of the Austrian government ; and the Thirty Fears' war also entailed upon him the most serious losses. At the sack of Fulneck by the Spaniards, he lost his library and manu- scripts, and the greater part of his property. In 1624, Protestant preachers were driven from the country, and Comenius was compelled to conceal himself. In 1628, he left Bohemia, and settled at Lissa, in Poland. Soon afterward he assumed the direction of the gymnasium of this town, and, while in this position, gained a European fame by the publication of his first great work (in 1631), the Janua linguarum reserata (Gate of Tongues unlocked), a new method of teaching languages, especially Latin. This book met with an extraordinary success, being translated into twelve European, and even into several Asiatic languages. At a syn<>l held in Lissa. in 1632, he was elected bishop of the Bohemian Brethren. In 1638, he received a call from Sweden, to re- form the educational system of that country, but lie did not accept it. He sent, however, to the Swedish government a Latin translation of the greatest of his pedagogical works, the Didactica magna seu omnes omnia docendi artiftci um . which lie had planned in Lissa as early as 1629, and had now completed in German. An extract from this work having been printed by some of his friends in England under the title Prodromus Pansophin' (London, 163!)), he receive I an invi- tation from England to reform public instruction there. In compliance with this invitation, he went, in I (ill, to London, but political troubles in Ireland prevented his accomplishing anything. In 1642, he was invited to Sweden to consult with Oxenstiern, the chancellor of the kingdom, on educational matters. Oxenstiern had read the Prodromus, audi recommended Comenius to pursue his undertaking, but first to care for the needs of the schools. The Swedish government established Comenius in the Prussian town of Elbing to compose a work upon his method. After laboring four years, he returned in L646 to Sweden. Three commissioners examined his work, and declared it proper for printing when Comenius should have finally revised it. He re- turned to Elbing to do this, and thence, in 164S, he went to Lissa. where, in the same year, he brought out his work, the Nbvissima linguarum methodus, which substantially brought to a close his literary labors in behalf of a reform of the methods of instruction. In the same year, the Bohemian Brethren elected him Senior Bishop and President of the Synod, a position which he retaine I to the end of his life. In 16,">o, upon an invitation from Prince Rakoczy, he went to Hungary and Transylvania, and remained there four years, during which time he organized a school at Patak (also called Saros Patak). Here Comenius wrote, among other works, his cel- ebrated Orbis Sensualium Pictus, w hich was pub- lished in L657 at Nuremberg, and. in various forms has continued a favorite Look for children down to the present time. In L654, Comenius re- turned to Lissa, where he remained until L656, in which year the Poles burned the city. He lost on this occasion his house, his books, and his manu- scripts, the labor of many years. He fled into Silesia, thence successively to Brandenburg, Stet- tin. andHamburg, and in August. 1656, to Am- sterdam, where lie remained until the end of his life, highly honored by all who knew him, and liberally supported by some wealthy merchants whose children he instructed. He printed his Opera Didactica (4 vols.), at Amsterdam. in 1 657, at the expense of Lorenzo de Geer, one of his patrons. Comenius's position in the history of pedagogy is chiefly that of a reformer. I lis dissatisfaction with the prevailing modes of teaching was, doubt- less, hugely increased by the neglect of his own early education. He did not go to a Latin school until his sixteenth year; and his mind was al- ready sufficiently developed to be dissatisfied with the artificial and worthless instruction there received. At that time, the study of the Latin language was the only means of culture: and the ability to read and write it. was regarded as all that was valuable in education. Comenius in- sisted upon a study of the mother-tongue as of greater importance than that of the Latin, and declared, moreover, the study of languages to be a means of knowledge, not an end. The aim of education, he asserted, is the development of complete men, and the profoundest knowledge possible of the world without and within. The ideal order of instruction in things, as opposed to instruction in language, is: (1) A Pmi- sophi'i, in which the sum of human knowledge should be treated in its relations to God, the world, and reason ; (2) A Panhistoria, which should be divided into six classes: biblical his- tory, natural history, history of inventions, dis- tinguished examples of virtue, history of dif- ferent religious customs. and the history of the world; (3) A Universal Do>/i>i• /'in/ai/nt/i/,- (translated in Laniard's German Teachers and Educators)', most of them are contained in the edition of the Opera Didactica, published by Comenius himself. A complete list of all his works, edu- cational as well as others, has been published by Palacky in the Jahrbucher 'As Hah mi when Museums, L829. German translations of the pedagogical works of ( 'omenius, with notes and biography, are published by Dr. Th. Lion, in Bibliothek padagogischer Classiker (Langen- sal/a. 1875), and by Beeger and Zoubek in Rich- ter's Pddagogische Bibliothek (Leipsic; of the translation of the Didactica Magna in this col- lection the .'Id edition appeared in L875). See also Lautbecher, Joh. Amos Comenius' Lehr- k>u/st (Leipsic, Ls.">3); Gindely, Ueber des J. A. Comenius' Leben mnl Wirksamkeit in der Wremde, in the proceedings of the Vienna, Acad- emy of Science (Vienna, is,").")); Qiick, fcssai/s on Educational Reformers (London and Cin- cinnati). COMMENCEMENT denotes, in the United States, the occasion on which degrees are con- ferred by colleges and universities upon their graduates. This takes place in June or July, and closes the scholastic year, so that the name in this respect appears to be a misnomer. The exercises connected with the connnencement sometimes begin on Sunday with a connnence- ment sermon to the graduating class. On the two or three following days, the literary societies among the students hold their annual meetings, and orations are delivered before the societies and before the alumni association. A general reunion of the alumni of previous years is held, and, frequently, also the graduates of a particidar class hold, by appointment, a special reunion. The board of trustees also holds its annual meet- ing, receives the report of the president of the institution for the past year, and makes the nec- essary regulations for the year ensuing. All these transactions precede " commencement day", on which the president of the institution, in the presence of the board of trustees, the fac- ulties, and as many friends and visitors as the occasion may bring together, confers upon the graduates the degrees (see Degrees) for which their special studies and examinations have pre- pared them. The conferring of the degrees is preceded by orations delivered by the members of the graduating class, the " valedictory" and "salutatory" addresses being assigned to the scholars holding the highest rank in the class. The Latin language is frequently used by the "salutatory" speaker, as well as by the president in conferring the degrees. For the students of colleges and universities, the commencement is an occasion of peculiar in- terest. The ambition to excel a, that time, acts as a powerful and most beneficial incentive to as- siduous study. The reunion of former graduates tends to nourish, in all the former students of these institutions, a spirit of devoted attachment to their Alma Mulcr, and thus secures to the cause of collegiate education a large and influen- 162 COMMERCIAL COLLEGES COMPANIONSHIP tial number of zealous friends and patrons. The large concourse of the relatives and friends of the pupils, as will as of the friends of education, and. in smaller towns, of the town population in general, diffuses among the people at large an acquaintance with these institutions and a care for their success, and gives them a pop- ularity which no other feature could secure. A glance at the reports, in American newspapers, of the commencement exercises during the months of June and July, reveals a national in- terest in collegiate institutions, which is hardly found to an equal extent in any other country ; and. if the wealthy citizens of the United States have acquired a world-wide reputation by their liberal donations for educational purposes, the popular commencement exercises may claim to have very largely contributed to this result. Commencement exercises may. therefore, be con- sidered a very potent agent in stimulating the zealot the students, and in fostering among all classes of the people a just appreciation of the value of higher education. COMMERCIAL COLLEGES. See Busi- ness Colleges. COMMISSIONER OF EDUCATION. See Bureau of Education. COMMON SCHOOLS, the name given in the United States to schools maintained at the public expense, and open to all. These schools are public elementary schools, although the com- mon-school system of any state or city often in- cludes schools of several grades, as primary, grammar, and high schools, besides normal schools for the special instruction and training of teachers. Common schools in the rural districts are called district schools, being under the super- vision and control of the officers of the school district; and for the same reason those situated in the wards of a city are sometimes called ward Schools. Common schools are established by legislative enactment, and arc supported by tun; Is derived from legislative appropriation, (See School Fund.) The expensive common-school systems of large cities arc. however, chiefly, if not wholly, supported by local taxation ; thus, in the city of New York, the amount received by apportionment from the state for the support of the common schools of the city is very much less than the amount of tax paid by the city for the support of the common-school system of the state. There is no uniform eommon-scl I system in the United States no national system of public instruction, the organization ami con- trol of the common schools being left to the in- dividual Btates; and. even in the states, the tend- ency is to almost exclusive local authority. The history and description of the C inon-school ■■in of each state is given, in this work, under the name of the state ; tor an account of public or popular education in general, see Public Schools, (See also National Education, and I kited States.) COMPANIONSHIP, as one of the neces- sary conditions of a child's life, is an important element in education : indeed, the influence of a child's companions, either for good or evil, is often far greater than any that can be exerted by parents or teachers. The social nature of a child is stronger than that of an adult; and. therefore, to educate it by itself, excluding it from all intercourse with children of its own age, would result not in a natural or normal development, but in a kind of monstrous distor- tion. The selfish principles of its nature would attain a disproportionate growth and strength; and it could have neither sympathy nor self- control. Hence, companionship is necessary for several reasons : ill To develop the social sym- pathies and affections of the child: (2) To cultivate properly its moral nature; (3) To bring into play its intellectual activities, and to accus- tom it to their ready exercise. Besides, without suitable and congenial playmates, it would not be properly or sufficiently stimulated to bodily exercise; and its physical growth and develop- ment would be incomplete. " How many young girls," says Schwarz, "have become diseased in body and in soul by reading! How many have lost their health by close application to orna- mental needle-work! They ought, therefore, to be directed, at all suitable times to engage in free bodily exercise, and even in some of the more quiet and gentle gymnastic exercises; they should enjoy frequent opportunities of appropri- ate amusement in the society of others of the same age." < 'ompaniouship. therefore, being in- dispensable, it is of the greatest importance that it should be of the right character. It is partic- ularly true of children, that "evil communications corrupt good manners;" and not only manners, but morals : indeed, the society of the debased will inevitably undermine the whole character, leaving it but an example of incorrigible deprav- ity. Nevertheless, a youth must gradually be accustomed to the exercise of considerable free- dom in selecting his or her associates ; since the circumstances of after life will necessitate this independence of choice. The great desideratum is. that the child's mind should be so impressed with right principles, that it will avoid the com- panionship of those whose conduct and language it perceives to be vicious. There is, however, al- ways need of great vigilance in order to prevent corrupting companionship, even when the greatest care has been exercised in the previous moral training of a youth : for the stronger will must always control the weaker will, when brought together, and children learn much faster from each other than from their elders. To influence a young person, SO 88 to form his character in a particular direction, or fully to control his ac- tions, it is requisite to cultivate a certain degree of companionship with him. Parents who pur- sue this course, -fathers making companions of their sins, and mothers, of their daughters, are the most successful in establishing the character of their children. To a limited extent, the same principle may he applied in school education. The austere teacher who never strives to culti- vate any other relation between himself and his pupil than that of authority, will never exert ( 'OMPKTITl VK FXA MTXATTOXS << IMPOSITION" 103 any considerable influence over his moral charac- ter; while, on the other hand, he who is easy and familiar, who cultivates the friendship, esteem, and confidence of his pupil, will find the latter always glad to be his companion, and will be able to control his conduct to an almost un- limited extent. COMPETITIVE EXAMINATIONS. See EX \M1\ VI'IONS. COMPOSITION, as the formal expression of thought, and as a branch of school exercise, has usually been confined to that which is writ- ten : but by some the signification of the term has been so extended as to embrace also the oral use of language in the expression of a logically connected scries of ideas. Thus, it has been saiil that "oral composition may be cultivated from a very early period, indeed from the be- ginning of the pupil's school education; and whatever degree of facility he attains in it will secure his more rapid advancement when he enters on the study of written composition ;" which is undoubtedly true. At the same time. as nothing is gained by extending the application of a terin beyond the limits of ordinary usage, it would seem best to restrict the word compo- sition to the written expression of thought; mora especially as this requires a somewhat diverse training from that which is needed in oral dis- course. Of course, the habit of using language correctly in all the oral school exercises, as well as in ordinary conversation, is not only useful hut essential as an antecedent preparation for written composition ; and in view of this, it is important that pupils should be accustomed, in all their recitations, to be accurate in expression, and not only to use the proper forms of words, but to construct complete sentences, instead of such fragmentary phrases as are very often made use of in answer to the questions of the teacher. Mnreover, in all recitations which do not abso- lutely require a verbatim repetition of the lan- guage of the text-book, the pupil should be ac- customed to use his own language as far as pos- sible, thus drawing upon the resources of his own vocabulary, and his constructive power in expres- sion. But all this is only auxiliary to written composition, which requires special anil peculiar exercises, beginning almost as soon as the pupil has learned to write simple words and sentences; indeed, rudiniental exercises in composition may constitute an essential part of object lessons, the teacher writing on the blackboard instead of requiring the pupils to write on the slate or on paper. For example, in the description of an object, the pupils observe and state each quality Successively, and the teacher writes each separate statement on the blackboard, observing strictly the rules for punctuation and the use of capitals; and then the pupils are required to put the whole into a connected statement, which the teacher also writes on the blackboard. Thus, suppose the object is a piece of glass. The pupils say, and the teacher writes, (this* is Intnl. dtuss is solid. Glass is brittle. Glass is transparent. Then the whole is formed into a connected statement ; and the teacher writes, Glass is hard, solid, brittle, and transparent. Such simple exercises are susceptible of a very great variety, and, con- sequently, may be made to afford a grea1 deal of valuable training both in thought and language. Reading also may be made available in training pupils in the ready and correct use of language, by. requiring them constantly to reproduce, in their own modes of expression, the substanceof the lessons read ; and, as scon as they have learned to write with sufficient fluency, to set down on paper, or on the slate, portions of these state- ments. Akin to this kind of exercise, is the reading of simple narratives by the tea* her, and requiring the pupils to give the substance of them in their own language. In all these cases, the pupils are trained chiefly in the use of words and the construction of sen- tences: but the teaching of composition requires, (1) a cultivation of thought ; and (2) a cultiva- tion of the faculty of expression. Thought im- plies ideas and their logical arrangement accord- ing to certain laws of association. The mind must recall all that it has learned upon the sub- ject under consideration. — ideas, facts, proposi- tions, opinions, etc., and arrange them into a symmetrical whole. To do this well requites not only maturity of mental culture, but much practice in the use of language, filling the memory not only with a vocabulary of words, but a large accumulation of phrases, and other forms of ex- pression, associated regularly with certain re- current ideas. The difficulty experienced by pu- pils in writing compositions is proverbial ; and to a considerable extent, it is to be hoped, obsolete; since modern methods of instruction have gone far towards eradicating many of the absurd educational practices of by-gone times one of which was to require young pupils to write formal compositions upon difficult abstract themes without any, or with very inadequate, ] ireliminary preparation and training. The ne- cessity of such training is now pretty generally recognized, and suitable graded exercises are employed; such as the following : (1) Conversa- tions upon familiar objects, such as usually engage the attention of children ; (2) Sentence- making, in various forms, and affording practice in the application of grammatical rules; (3) Formal descriptions of objects ; (4) Simple narra- tives; (5) Didactic essays, graduated from the simplest composition upon such subjects as a horse, <* cow, f sentences; it should include the practice of daily writing, for successive years; frequent exercises in the Logical arranging of thought tor the purposes of expression, and the adapting of the forms and character of expres sion to thought; and it should he accompanied by the dose study and critical analysis of the works of distinguished writers, with the view to acquire a perfect mastery over every form of style." — See William Russell, Intellectual Education, in Barnard's Auwricau Pedagogy; Ci brie, The Principles and Practice of Com- mnit - School Education (Edinburgh, 1872) ; WicKEBSHAM, Methods of Instruction (Phila., 1865). COMPULSORY EDUCATION, a term commonly used to designate the compulsion of parents by state law to provide an education for their children. We find the principle that the government of a state has the right, and that it is its duty, to watch over the education of all the children within its jurisdiction, for the first time expressed in the legislation of Athens and Sparta. Solon gave a law enjoining on parents to have their children instructed in music and gymnastics, and providing further, that no son was bound to Support bis father in old age. if the latter had neglected to have him instructed in some profit- able trade. In Sparta, according to the legisla- tion of Lycurgus, the state charged itself with the entire education of all male children, after they had attained their seventh year. In Kome. the state did not interest itself at all in the edu- cation of children, it being left to the care of the mothers. During the period which followed the downfall of the Roman empire, little provision was made, in any of the countries of Europe, for the education of children. Only the candidates for the priesthood and the children of noblemen and persons of affluence received instruction in the cathedral, collegiate, convent, or parochial schools; but the mass of the people grew up without any instruction. (See CATHEDRAL AND Collegiate Schools, Convent Sc ls, and Parochial Schools.) The capitularies of Charle- magne imposed upon all parents the obligation to semi their children to a convent or parochial school, to obtain the necessary instruction in re- ligion. These .schools were also required to teach reading, writing, arithmetic, grammar, and sing- ing; but no compulsion was to be imposed in regard to any of these subjects. A new interest in the cause of universal education was awakened by the revival of classical studies, in the fifteenth century. More than one of the educational writ- ers of that time demanded that the state govern- ment should recognize and enforce the principle, that parents should lie obliged to send their children to school. Luther said, that he regarded it as a "duty of the state authorities to compel their subjects to send their children to school ," in order that the community might have well- educated clergymen, jurists, physicians, teachers. ami other officers ; and the new church constitu- tion of Saxony, of L528, which was chiefly com- piled by Melanchthon, required that clergy- men should admonish the people to send their children to school. •• ill order that persons might lie educated so as to he competent to teach in the church. and to govern." The church constitution of Wurternberg, of L559, provided that the pastors should admonish their congregations at leasi twice a year, to send their children regular- ly to school. Similar provisions were made in other German states, without, however, adopting (OMIMLSOHY EDUCATION 165 the principle of compulsion ; but, in regard to instruction in the catechism, which was given in the church on Sundays and other holy-days, a punctual attendance was enforced; and lines were imposed upon the parents of children who, instead of being presenl to receive this religious instruc- tion were found running about in the streets. In 1640, the General Synod of Wurtemberg recog- nized the duty dt requiring all children to go to school, and resolved thai all parents should lie fined, whose children tailed to attend. It was, however, found extremely difficult to enforce this provision; and new rescripts were issued in L670, L672, and 1679, to remind the parents of their duties. The first law defining the school age of children, was given by the Duke of Brunswick- t Vile, w ho commanded the parents and guardians of children to send them to school from the sixth year of age. The movement in behalf of compul- sory education now made steady though slow progress in all the German states. Prussia intro- duced it in 17:!'_': Bavaria, which was one of the latest, in 1802. Compulsory education has. since the beginning of the nineteenth century, been the general rule in the German states ; and it is a remarkable fact. that, in all the fierce conflicts which have been caused by educational legislation, no party has made any serious op- position to the principle, that the state govern- ment may and ought to demand that parents should provide some kind of instruction for their children. This kind of legislation, in Austria, began in the eighteenth century with laws pro- viding that magistrates should send to school- teachers, twice a year, lists of all children entering the sixth year of age, and that the teachers should return monthly lists of absence. Although the school attendance steadily increased, the number of children growing up without education was still very large. After the disastrous war with Prussia, in 1866, the Austrian government has- tened to introduce a new educational law similar to that of Prussia, providing for the rigorous en- forcement of the principle of compulsory edu- cation. In some provinces, it was found ex- tremely difficult to provide for a sufficient num- ber of teachers and schools, and to compel the attendance of children. The statistics of school attendance show, however, a steady increase, and there is no systematic opposition to the principle, which is now being rapidly carried into effect. The cantons of Switzerland, with the single excep- tion of Geneva, and the Scandinavian kingdoms have enacted laws similar to those of Germany; and Denmark, in particular, has had a stringent law on compulsory education in operation sine 1814, and has thus effected a remarkably high average education of its entire population. In France, the pubhc-school system was, for the first time, regulated by the educational law of 1833, which embodied the ideas of Guizot and Cousin. Neither this law. however, nor the subsequent dations recognized the principle of compul- sory education : and the school attendance, espe- cially in many of the rural districts, continued to be very small. Louis Napoleon favored the principle of compulsion, and M. Duruy, his min- ister of public instruction from 1863 to 1869, wasone of its most zealous advocates: but the at- tempts made to introduce ii into the legislation of France had to he abandoned in consequence of the powerful Opposition which it met with. After the proclamation of the republic, iii L870, "tic of the must enthusiastic champions of com- pulsory education, Jules Simon, was appointed .Minister of Public Instruction ; and the new educational law proposed by him embodied the principle; but the National Assembly refused to adopt the law. 1.'! of the 15 bureaux voting against it. The principle is generally advocated in France by the Liberals, and opposed by the Catholic party. In England, public opinion has always been strongly adverse to a participation of the state government in school matters. An important advance toward the principle of com- pulsory education was. however, made in 1870, by the adoption of a bill brought in by William Edward Forster, according to which, within one year, provision was to be made for the education of every child in England and Wales. The ques- tion of compulsory attendance was very earnest- ly discussed in Parliament, and was finally left to the separate school boards, which have a certain discretionary power of enforcing attendance; but it seems that the advocates of compulsion do not mean to be content until its ultimate adoption. Liverpool, .Manchester. Oxford, and many other towns have passed by-laws, compelling the at- tendance of children in the public schools. The Italian Parliament, in 1871, adopted a new- school law according to which elementary in- struction is required to be given every-w here free of charge, and attendance at school is obligatory on all children. In Belgium and the Nether- lands, every commune is compelled by law to make provision for a public school ; and, in Belgium, indigent children receive, on the ap- plication of their parents, gratuitous instruction; but neither of these two states has, as yet, recog- nized the principle of compulsory education. In Russia, Peter the (Treat desired to make edu- cation obligatory; but the obstinate resistance of his subjects, who called education "their destruction," prevented him from carrying out his design ; and the consequence is, that Russia is still among the least educated countries of Europe, there being, in 1875, 1 scholar for about Si; inhabitants. Turkey, in 1869, promulgated a law providing for the establishment of a school in every locality, and requiring all children, both boys and eirls. to attend it : but no attempt of any kind to execute the law had been made up to the end of the year 1875. In Greece, communal schools were established by law. in 1834, on the German system, that is. on the system of compulsory education. By the 6th article of the law. all children between the ages of five and twelve years must attend the com- munal school. Parents are liable toafinefor each hour that the child is absent : but the pen- alty has fallen into disuse; ami it was found, at the census of 1870, that but 33 per cent of the 166 C< )M PULSORY EDUCATION grown-up men, and but 7 per cent of the grown- up women, were able to read and write. Spain and Portugal also have compulsory education acts, but they are not fully enforced. In America, the right of state authorities to require the attendance of all children at school was asserted at an early date by some of the English colonies. B. 0. Northrop, the secretary of tin- Connecticut state board of education, in his annual report for 1*71 , says, that Connecti- cut may justly claim to lie one of the first states in the world, that established the principle of compulsory education. Its code of laws, adopted in May L650, he says, contained stringent pro- visions for compulsory attendance: and these provisions, with some modifications chiefly de- signed to give them greater efficacy, continued in force until the revision of the code, in L810. Public opinion so heartily indorsed this principle, or rather so thoroughly believed in the necessity of universal education, that attendance lost its involuntary character. Outside of Connecticut, however, little appears to have been done in this direction; ami even in Connecticut, the diffi- culty in enforcing the law was clearly shown when the influx of immigration, in the nineteenth Century, gave fcO the state a considerable school population of foreign birth. In L869, a new law was. therefore, passed, forbidding manufacturers to employ minors under fourteen years of age, who have not attended any public school, for at least three months in each year. The school board appointed an agent to supervise the en- forcement of the compulsory attendance law, and the subsequent considerable increase of school attendance is partly ascribed to its en- forcement. This law makes it the duty of school visitors to examine into the condition of chil- dren employed in manufacturing establishments, and to report violations of the law to the grand jurors of the town. In Massachusetts, the first educational ordinance, in 1(542, enjoined the selectmen of every town to see "that their brethren and neighbors teach their chil- dren ami apprentices, by themselves or others, SO much Learning as may enable them to real the English tongue, and the capital laws, upon penalty of twenty shillings tor each neglect therein." In L834, children under fifteen years of age were prohibited from working in factories, unless they had attended school during three months of the preceding year. The present school law compels parents and guardians to semi children in their charge, between the age of eighl and fourteen, to scl 1 twenty weeks every year; andno person can be excluded from the public schools on account of race, color, or re- ligion. Towns and cities are required to provide f'U- the education of orphans and the children of drunken parents. In Maine, the school law of the state authorizes towns to make by laws for the enforcement "i attendance of scholars be- tween aix and seventeen yens of age, and to annex a suitable penalty, not exceeding twenty dollars, for any breach thereof. In New Hamp- shire, an ad of the Legislature, approved in July 1871, provides that all parents, guardians, or masters of a child, between the ages of 8 and 14. residing within two miles of a public school, shall send such child to school at least 12 weeks each year. Similar acts were passed in the same year by the legislatures of Michigan and Texas. Nevada passed a law in February 1873, which makes it obligatory on parents and guardians to send every child between the ages of 8 and 14 years to a public school for a period of at least sixteen weeks in each school-year, at least eight j of which must be consecutive, unless the child is being otherwise instructed, or is excused from attendance by the board of trustees for some satisfactory reason. The penalty, for non- compliance with this act is a tine of not less than $50, nor more than SI 01) for the first offense, and uot less than SI 00 nor more than $200 for each subsequent offense. In 1S74. compulsory laws were passed by the legislatures of Califor- nia. New .Jersey, and New York. The general features of these laws are similar to those of the state laws already referred to. The scliool age dining which every child is to be instructed is. in New Jersey, from 8 to 13, and in California and New York from 8 to I I. There is some diversity in the time of school attendance each year. New Jersey requires 12 weeks, of which 6 must be consecutive. New York 14 weeks in a day school, or 28 weeks in an evening school, and California, two-thirds of the time during which the public schools ale ki-pt.at least 12 Weeks of which must be consecutive. The New York law also specifies the subjects in which the child is to be instruct- ed : namely, spelling, reading, writing. English grammar, geography, and arithmetic. It also provides that no child of this age shall be em- ployed, unless the employer has a certificate that such instruction was given the child the previous year, the penalty for violating this law being a tine of S.Ml. In many other states, the passage of compulsory laws is strongly urged. In Indi- ana. Illinois. Kansas. Minnesota. Mississippi, Nebraska. Pennsylvania, and Khode Island, the state superintendents, in their annual reports, or the governois in their messages, have of late taken a decided stand in favor of such laws. The opinions of American educators and legis- lators, on the subject of compulsory education, continue, however, to be greatly divided. The lion. Edward Searing, state superintendent of public instruction in Wisconsin, in his annual report for 1874, expresses the opinion, that " the difficulties lying in the way of the successful work- ing of a general compulson law are numerous and nearly insuperable : so that there is an over- whelming probability of the failure of such a law to attain the ends desired." He believes that there is in such a law "something essentially Opposed to the genius of our free institutions, — something essentially un-American." He appre- hends no peril to the state from the mere fact. • that a small fractional part of its children do not obtain such primary instruction as the common schools afford :" and the idea that " crime is the direct result of illiteracy" is characterized by COMPULSORY EDUCATION CONCEPTION 167 him as a " fallacy quite commonly accepted as a truth.'' An enthusiastic defendant of compul* soiy education, the Hon. 11. I>. McCarty. state superintendent of public instruction in Kansas. in his annual report for l s T.'». thus replies to Borne of tlic common objections made to compul- sory attendance : " (1 ) ' Such a law would create a new crime.' I reply, it ought to. To bring up a child in ignorance is a crime, and should he treated as such. (2) ' It interferes with the liberty of parents.' I reply again, it ought to, when they are incapacitated by vice or other causes for the performance of essential duties as parents. (3) 'It arrogates new power by the government.' So do all the quarantine and hygienic regulations and laws for the abatement of nuisances in time of pestilence. Now. igno- rance is as noxious as the most offensive nuisance. and more destructive than bodily contagions. Self-protection is a fundamental law of society. (4) • It is un-American and unadapted to our free institutions.' To put the question in the most offensive form, it may be asked : ' Would you have a policeman drag your children to school'.''' I answer, yes. it' it will prevent his dragging them to jail a few years hence." While, thus, a wide difference of opinion exists in regard to the principle of compulsory educa- tion, there is an almost entire agreement between friends and opponents, as to the character of the existing laws. They are, on all sides, declared to be deficient. Many laws supply no means whatever for the enforcement of the compul- sory provisions; and, in such cases, the state superintendents must, of course, report, that the law has amounted to little or nothing. Thus, the state law of New York was pronounced de- fective and inefficient by the state association of school commissioners and superintendents, at a meeting held in Dec, 1874; and it was unani- mously resolved to ask the legislature to "so complete and perfect the act already passed, that it may better secure the results at which it aims." The American laws in favor of compul- sory education agree with those of Europe in de- signating a certain age, during which the state shall enforce the education of every child. A Ger- man writer. Riimelin (in Zeitschrift fur ui m) (in vee/;../,)- dashing, murmuring, Bear- gentle, violent, etc. cool, refreshing, cold, etc. Touch.. Such lessons admit of an endless variety, and maybe either entirely objective, that i-. given with the objects placed before the pupils. OT purely conceptive : such as tln.se above on the tree and the sea. Both kinds, however, have die same primary object in view. — to train the con- ceptive faculty in connection with expression. Observation is also greatly stimulated ami guided I. v such lessons. Thus, to take so familiar an object as the sky, of which every child must necessarily have a multitude of conceptions, although perhaps indefinite and almost useless, because imt associated with any names. I low much would his nal available knowledge be in- creased by an exercise enabling him to enumerate the various appearance- id the sky by proper designations, Thus: -The Sky may be sen stormy, -■/.•.,/•. overcast, misty, hazy, foggy, gloomy, lowering, bright, resplendent, brilliant, deep, >//. brazen, red, gray, azure, starry, dark, lurid, etc., etc. In a similar manner, the sensible properties of a great variety of familiar objects ma\ be recalled and named, and in this way the atteiitii.ii of the pupils to minute characters %/,/. CONCKRT TEACHING 160 may be cultivated, and their command of lan- guage much increased. The conceptions of the mind arc greatly in- fluenced byits feelings. An indifferent, apathetic mental mood will effectually preclude the forma- tion of any deep or durable impressions; on the contrary, the conceptions of objects and scenes with which the mind has been brought into con- j tact under circumstances causing deep emotion, either of pleasure or pain, arc ineffaceable. " The cherished ami imperishable recollections of child- hood, often as bright and clear at eighty as they were at twenty, are those treasures of the COn- ceptive faculty which have been consigned to its keeping tinder the influence of vivid pleasurable emotions." There is no principle which the teacher should more earnestly consider than this, prompting as it does to the effort, to associate with the scenes of the child's school life every possible objed which may excite its interest. awaken its delight, and lend a charm to its intel- lectual acquirements. — See Isaac Taylor, Ifome Education; Currte, Principles and Practice qf Early and Infant School-Education; Russell, Intellectual Education, in Barnard's American Pedagogy; Porter, The Human Intellect (N.T., L869). CONCERT TEACHING, a mode of in- struction in which the pupils memorize what is to be learned, by simultaneous repetition. It is thus a kind of rote-teaching, and is subject to all the disadvantages and liable to all the objections incident to that system. In large schools, in which very many pupils are taught together in a single class, this has been a common and favor- ite practice with teachers; because it has been found a ready way to fix in the memory of chil- dren the rudimentary principles of reading, spell- ing, arithmetic, etc., and to impart to the pupils the ability to repeat, in answer to set questions. what has been thus mechanically learned. The arbitrary associations established in this way are very strong and durable ; and. as some things are to be taught arbitrarily, and others to be asso- ciated in the mind so that they may be arbitrarily suggested, that is, recalled without any effort of reasoning or other mental process, the method of concert repetition, has a place in teaching that is usefid and important. For example, the mul- tiplication table would be of little value if it were so learned, that the pupil would require to reason out. or reckon up, the result of each re- quired combination : the associations must be of such a character, that thought is unnecessary to recall them, the process of simple suggestion be- ing alone required. Hence, in memorizing such things as arithmetical tables, grammatical de- clensions, conjugations, etc.. concert teaching is valuable, on the principles. (! i that all repetition is valuable in order to impress the mind; and (2) that, the sense of hearing being strongly appealed to. the mental impressions and their associations are more durable, and more easily recalled. Be- sides, by such exercises, the young pupils are constantly employed ; their minds are k< pt Btead- ih/upon their school work, and a strong social or collective sympathy is established, which would not lie possible by the exclusive employ- ment of individual exercises. In this connection, Currie says. ■• By this oft repeated simultai us- ness of thought, action, and emotion, the m becomes welded together, takes on one Stamp, breathes one spirit .... Such is the foundation of that simultaneous action with which, under the name of collective lessons or gaUery lessons, we arc so familiar in the infant school." So strongly is this writer impressed with its usefulness, that he styles it " the very essence of the infant-school system, springing immediately from the root of it. and embodying a first principle of its exist- ence." The exercise of intelligence is. however, to be considered the chief instrument of education; and this is so much an individual matter, that the limits within which concert or simultaneous repetition is proper, are quite narrow ; and the tendency with most teachers is to transcend them. Consequently, the intelligence of many pupils, instead of being properly addressed and exercised, is kept in a kind of stagnant condition, and is thus impaired rather than benefited. The teacher, in giving simultaneous instruction, must endeavor to prevent this. The pupils will have different temperaments and different degrees of mental power; and. consequently, cannot all perform the same work. The questions, when addressed to the whole class, will not be adapted to all the pupils ; and if the teacher should de- pend upon a mere simultaneous response, only a part of the class would lie benefited by the teach- ing. A show of hands is a ready and useful ten- tative means of ascertaining the condition of the class in this respect ; and thus the advantages of the simultaneous and individual plan of teaching may be combined, the teacher selecting from all who raise their hands those who are to answer, and, at the same time, observing carefully who do not raise their hands. Then, when the teacher wishes a certain answer to be repeated for the purpose of impressing it upon the pupils' minds, the class may be required to repeat it as often as may be necessary in concert. Tact and skill on the part of the teacher will make this method of elementary instruction very effective. In the simultaneous responses, the tones of the voice should be as natural as possible. ^ ithout greal care on the part of the teacher, concert exercises are very apt to degenerate into a sing- song monotonous drawl, which undermines or prevents all proper habits of reading and speak- ing The pupils, too. are very apt to pitch their voices too high, or to use a kind of shouting tone, which no intelligent teacher would, for a moment, permit. Under the limitations referred to, ami with all proper efforts to guard against the abuses to which this system of teaching is. peculiarly liable.it is of great value; but should never be employed, except when the common nature and common intelligence of the children are to be brought into play. See CURRIE, The Principles and Practice of Early and Infant School-Education (Edin. and Lond.). 170 CONCORD COLLEGE CONGREGATIONALISTS CONCORD COLLEGE, at New Liberty, Kentucky, was established in 1845, and chartered in I860. It is under the control of Baptists. Both sexes are admitted on the same terms. The institution comprises a classical course, leading to the degree of Bachelor of Arts, and a scientific course, leading to the degree of Bachelor of Sci- ence. In 1873 — 4, it had 3 instructors and 69 students. H. J. Green well is (1876) the pres- ident. CONCORDIA COLLEGE, at Fort Wayne, Indiana, was organized in 1839 and chartered in 1848. It is under the control of the Evangelical Lutheran < Ihurch. The value of its buildings, grounds, etc., is $150,000. The library contains 5,000 volumes. To students whose parents are members of the synod, tuition is free : others are required to pay $24 per annum. The college has a preparatory and a collegiate course. In 1873 — 1, there were 15 instructors and 255 preparatory and 133 collegiate students. Dr. W. Sihler is (i87l>i its president. CONGREGATION ALISTS. This denom- ination takes its name from the fact, that the church government is lodged with each local congregation or ecdesia. And yet, in this re- spect, the Congregationalists do not differ essen- tially from the Baptists, the (Jniversalists, andthe Unitarians. The Congregationalists of the Unit- ed Stales correspond, in general, with the Inde- pendents of England, and these names are used somewhat interchangeably on both sides of the water. The difference as far as there is a differ- ence, is found in this, that the word Independent has a stronger reference to the absolute and final power of the local church, while the word Con- gregational suggests more the comity, fellowship, interchange between churches that are, neverthe- less, independent. The word Congregational -and that which is peculiarly suggested by it, is rather growing in favor in England; but hither- to the English Independents have made less of councils, conferences, associations, than have the American Congregationalists. The general name in England embracing the Independents, is "The Congregational Union." The first Congregational church in America was planted at Plymouth in KJ20; and the second at Salem in L629. By the year 1 Too. the number of churches was about 130. The Pres- byterians and Congregationalists had been kin- dred in their history in the old world, and they early became kindred here. Until within times quite recent, it was the common sentiment, that a man who was a Congregationalist in New England, would be a Presbyterian in the Middle States, and vice versa. When the great wave of population began to set westward from the Atlantic shore, in the early part of the present century, these two denominations formed a "Plan of Union", by which they worked together in the founding of churches, schools, and colleges in the Middle and Western States. The great benevolent societies like the American Board, the American Some Missionary Society, the American Edu- cation Society, were union societies between these two denominations, untU within a few years. Because of this prevailing sentiment, the Con- gregationalists of New England did not, until the present century, attempt to found churches distinctly Congregational out of New England, and not till within the last forty years was any special influence put forth in this direction. But now the denomination, in the states and territo- ries, numbers 3,438 churches, of which 1,459 are in New England, and 1,979 out of New England. There are but 57 Congregational churches in the Southern States. The number of ministers be- longing to the denomination is 3.300. The system of common schools originated with the Congregationalists of New England in the early generations, and so thoroughly inwrought is this system with the whole history and habit of the denomination, that it would be an anomaly to find any number of Congregationalists any- where in this country, without public schools. From the first they built their institutions upon the principle of an educated ministry, and founded their colleges to this end. The rule has been with slight exceptions, from 1620 until now, that a Congregational church should have a minister, with a collegiate education. In Con- necticut, from 1635 — 1835, there were not far from 1,000 Congregational ministers, and not more than 30 of them were without an Knglish university education, or a collegiate education on these shores. What was true in that state will be found substantially true in all the New Eng- land states. Quite a number of the colleges and theological schools which the Congregationalists largely helped to build, under the Plan of Union, now belong to the Presbyterians. But aside from these, their colleges are as follows, with the date of their foundation: Harvard, Mass, (1638), now Unitarian; Yale, Ct. (1700); Dartmouth, N. 11. (1709); University of Yt. (1791); Williams, Mass. (1793); Middlebury, Yt. (1800); Bowdoin, Me. (1802); Amherst, Mass. (1821); Illinois. 111. (1830); Obcrlin, O. (1834); Beloit, Wis. (1847); Iowa, Io. (1847); Olivet, Mich. (1855); Pacific University, Oregon (1859); Washburn, Kan. (1865); Wheaton, 111. (1860); Ripon, AVis. (1863); Pisk University, Tenn. (1867), Carleton, Minn. (1867); Tabor,' Iowa (1866); Berea, Ky. (1858); Drury, .Mo. (1873); Thayer, Mo. (1868); Doane, Neb. (1872); Colorado, Col. (1874). The Congregational theological seminaries are, Andover, Mass. (1807) — the oldest theological school iii the country; Bangor, Me. (1817); New Haven, Ct. f 1822); Hartford, Ct. (1834);Oberlin, O. (1835); Chicago, 111. (1858); Pacific Theo. Sem., Cal. (1869). Of academics and female schools the list is too long to be enumerated. Some of the oldest and best-known academies to prepare boys for college, in New England, are Phillips Academy, Andover. Mass.; Phillips Academy. Exeter, N. II.; andWilliston Academy. Kasthanipton, Mass. Of female academies, there are Mt. Bolyoke Seminary. Iladley, Mass.; Abbott Academy, Andover, Mass.; Bradford Academy. Bradfordj cov;ki:<;atio\a lists CONNECTICUT 171 Mass.; Wheaton Academy. Norton. Mass. and Wellesley College, a1 Wellesley, Mass. Of Congregational colleges in England, some of the more conspicuous are, Rotherham Inde- pendent College (1756), with which Rev. F. J. [folding, D.D., and Rev. II. I!. Reynolds are prominently connected; Lancashire Independent College (1806), where Rev. J. G-. Rogers and Rev. J. Baldwin Brown, both London ministers, are employed as lecturers; New College, London (1850), having among its foremost professors, Bev.J.Stoughton, D .15., and Rev. R. BulleyJ)J).; Theological Hall of Congregational Churches of Scotland (1811), with which Rev. \V. L. Alexan- der is honorably associated, and several other institutions, with the same general character and aim. The American Education Society, organized, in L816, to assist young men in humble circum- stances, in obtaining an education for the Chris- tian ministry, has given aid, in the sixty years of its existence, to li. .'!!)'_' young men. It assists them only in the collegiate and theological courses, though, in the early years, it nave aid also in the preparatory departments. Its prin- ciple is not to support, but to help men to help themselves. It gives them si no, a year, each. The society is now giving its aid to 310 young men in thirty different colleges and theological schools. Two years since, this society was united with the College Society, so called, whose func- tion it was to assist young colleges at the West. Since the union, the name of the organization is "The American College and Education Society", and it has now the double duty of aiding young colleges, as well as young men. The denomination now carries on its benevo- lent work through six societies, which are dis- tinctively Congregational, namely: The American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions, raising and expending yearly about $475,000 ; The American Home Missionary Society ; The American Congregational Union (church-build- in^,: The American Missionary Association (work among the freedmen of the South); The American College and Education Society; and the Con- gregational Publishing Society. Besides these, the Congregational churches bear a part in the union societies, like the American Bible Society, American Sunday School Union, etc. The whole amount of the benevolent contributions of the denomination, last year, was $1,241,014.29. While the Congregational system of church government lodges the power with each local church, yet it makes much of the advisory power of councils. In the settlement and dismissals of ministers, — in the organization of new churches. — in cases of difficulty in any local church — it is customary to call upon sister churches for coun- sel and assistance. There has also grown up in the denomination a large system of interchange and fellowship, by means of associations, local and state conferences, andnow, at length, a trien- nial national council. From the circumstance, that the Congrega- tionalists so early founded their system of public ! schools and their colleges, it has come to pass, j that this denomination has furnished the educa- tors of the country, in the lower, and especially in the higher departments, far beyond any other religious denomination in the land. It lias sup- plied presidents of colleges, and professors in col- leges and theological schools in immense lium- ! bers. Anything like an enumeration of names. in this particular would require so much space, that we will not attempt it. But the tact will probably stand unchallenged by all intelligent and observing men. A few conspicuous names may be mentioned, for the most part belonging to by-gone generations. Such were Increase Mather. Edward Holyoke, John T. Kirkland, .lared Sparks, presidents of Harvard College; Thomas Clap, Ezra Stiles, Timothy Dwight, Jer- emiah Pay, presidents of Yale College: Eleazar Wheelock and Nathan Lord of Dartmouth Col- lege. The late Dr. Theron Baldwin, for nearly thirty years secretary of the College Society, by reason of his large organizing power in the depart- ment of education, fitly finds a place in this list. ( )f men still living, but \vh< >. 1 >y reason of age, have passed out of the offices they so long held, and may be reckoned as emeriti, we may name Mark Hopkins, of Williams College, and Theodore 1 hvight WoolseV) of Vale College. From the be- ginning until now, the presidents and professors in the Presbyterian institutions have been largely furnished by New England; and the same is true, in a lesser proportion, in the institutions of other denominations. A catalogue of presidents and professors in American colleges and theological seminaries, including only the men born and reared among the " Congregationalists," would embrace several hundred names. CONNECTICUT, one of the original thir- teen states of the American Union, having a population, in 1870, of 537,454, and an area of 4,750 sq. m., being the smallest of the present states except Bhode Island and Delaware. Educational History. — This topic may con- veniently be discussed under three heads : (I) The establishing of schools ; (II) The mode of maintaining them ; (HI) The mode of supervis- ing them. I. The earliest European immigrants to Con- necticut established schools very soon after their arrival. Two distinct colonies were originally planted within the present limits of the state, each consisting of several towns or plantations. Hartford (settled in L635) was the leading town in the Connecticut colony, and New Haven (settled in 1638), in the New Haven colony. At first, each town acted independently in establishing schools. The earliest records of I lartford are lost, but the oldest extant records show that a school existed there as early as lfi42. The records of New Haven speak of a school there in 1639 — 40, and two years later they contain a vote to provide means for a school. The action of these two leading towns no doubt indicates correctly the similar action of the other original towns. The first code of laws for the Connecticut colony, completed in 1650, required "the selectmen of 172 CONNECTICUT every town to have a vigilant eve over their brethren and neighbors, to see that none of them shall suffer so much barbarism in any of their Families as not to endeavor to teach, by them- selves or others, their children and apprentices so much learning as may enable them perfectly to read the English tongue, etc. - ' The same code required every town containing 50 families to • appoint one within their town to teach all such children as shall resort to him, to write and read;" and every town of 100 families, to " set up a grammar school, the masters thereof being able to instruct youths so far as they may be fitted for the university." The New Haven colony code, prepared in 1 655, was equally em- phatic in requiring the education of all children. The two colonies were united in 1665, and the Connecticut code became the law for the whole colony. In 1672, that code was revised, and the provision requiring a grammar school in every town of 100 families, was superseded by a new law requiring such a school to be maintained in the county town of each of the four counties that had then been. organized; namely. Hartford. New Haven, New London, and Fairfield. This law remained in force till 1798. In 1678, every town containing .'ill families (instead of "ill) was require 1 to maintain a school. A new revision of the code was prepared in 1700, and publishe I two years later. Under the revised code, every town of "o families, or more, was required to maintain a school eleven months of each year, and every town of less than 70 families, to have a school at least half of the year. In 1712, these requirements were extended to parishes or socie- ties, into which several towns of large extent were divi led, from time to time, for the con- venience of people in attending public worship. In 1766, each town, ami each parish, where there was more than one in a town, was authorized to divide itself into convenient districts, and main- tain within its limits as many schools as might be needed to accommodate its inhabitants. Pre- vious to this time, the law had required only one school in each town or society. The law of 1766 led, in time, to the "district. system" of establish- ing and maintaining schools. At first, however, the districts were merely subdivisions of towns or parishes. In 17!) I, their separate existence began to be recognized in legislation. They were authorized that year to locate new school- houses by a vote of two thirds of the citizens, t i lay taxes for the same, and to appoint collectors. In 1799, they were empowered to choose clerk; and treasurers ; and, finally, in L839, they were declared to be " bodies corporate," and were authorized to elect their own committees. In L795, L 798, and L799, laws were passed by which parishes or s icieties were invested with full con- trol over schools within their limits, an I n designated Wythe new name of "school societies." Such society mighl be an entire town, a part of a town, or parts of two or more towns ; bu1 all action concerning schools was taken by school icieties, and towns, as such, ha I no pari in school affairs. In 1856. school societies were abolished, and their powers and duties were trans- ferred to the towns. In 1865, the towns were authorized to consolidate all their districts, pro- vided a majority of the districts in a town con- sented. In 1866, the right to consolidate was given without that condition; and this law, with slight modifications, is still in force. Under this law, several towns have abolished their school districts and returned to the original "town system." II. There have been three principal sources of support for public schools: (1) Taxes; (2) Tui- tion fees, or rate bills ; '3) The income of per- manent funds. (1) Taxes. — The earliest schools in Hartford. New Haven, "Wethersfield, and, doubtless, in the other original towns, were supported in part by appropriations from the town treasuries. The code of 1650 (already mentioned) directed that the teachers should be paid "cither by the parents or masters of such children " as resorted to them, "or by the inhabitants in general by way of supply, as the major part of those who order the prudentials of the town shall appoint." The two methods here suggested,— taxes and tuition fees — were, doubtless, combined, as they had been be- fore that code was formed. In 1690, the general court d. c. legislature) of the colony granted 60 pounds yearly to each of the county grammar schools of Hartford and New ETaven,"30 pounds of it to We paid out of the county treasury, the other 30 to he paid in the school revenue given by particular persons, or to lie given for that use, s i tar as it will extend, the rest to be paid by the respective towns of Hartford and New Haven.'' In 1693,20 pounds was voted to each of the other two grammar schools. In the revised code of 1700 (previously referred to), an important change was made. The sum of 40 shillings on the thousand pounds was ordered to be paid from the colony treasury to those towns which maintained schools according to law. in propor- tion to their respective grand lists of taxable property and polls. This sum was assessed in addition to previous taxes, and was thus virtually a town tax for schools. If the amount thus re- ceived by any town was insufficient to maintain its school, the deficiency was to be " made up of such estate as hath been bequeathed by any for that use, and for want thereof, the one half to be paid by the town, and the other by the children that go to school, unless any town agree other- wise." In 1 712, parishes or societies were placed on the same footing as towns for maintaining schools. The law of 1700. as thus amended, re- mained in force, with slight modifications, till L820. The most important modifications were the following: In 1754, the rate of tax was diminished from 40 shillings to 10: in 1766, it was increased to 20; and in 1767, was restored to 10. The burdens of the Seven Years' war (1756 63), doubtless, caused the diminution of the tax. In L 820, the state school fund had be< so productive that a law was passed per- mitting the discontinuance of the tax whenever the yearly income of that fund should amount to COXXKCTICUT 173 • 2,000, which occurred the next year. In L854, the town school tax was restored, and it has since been repeatedly increased, till it now supplies fully half of the funds for the current expenses of public schools. In 1 839, school districts were authorized to tax themselves for current school expenses. This is now done most commonly by the more populous and wealthy districts. In (.871, there was appropriated from the state treasury 50 cents for each child between 4 and 16 years of age. The next year the sum was in- creased to one dollar and a half per child, which it now remains. (2) Tail inn Fees or Rate Bills. — These were a source of school income from the beginning till they were abolished in 1868. Where parents or guardians were too poor to pay them, they could be collected from the town or society. (3) Income of Permanent Funds. — A law al- ready quote 1. passed in 1690, refers to " school revenue given by particular persons." The quo- tation already given from the law of 1 TOO, con- tains similar language. In 1733, the public lands belonging to the colony, now constituting the north-western part of the state, were set apart to form a permanent school fund, and the avails of these lands, except certain reservations, were distributed among the towns then organized, in proportion to their tax lists ; parishes receiving their portions on the same basis. The money thus obtained now constitutes the greater part of the " school society funds" belonging to many of the former societies. A small part of these funds came from the " excise moneys" granted by the colony, in 1766, for the encouragement of schools, and another part from the donations and bequests of benevolent persons. The Connecticut School Fund was for more than half a century the main source of public school income. By the charter granted to Connecticut by Charles II. of England, in 1662, the colony extended west- ward to the Pacific, and from 41° to 42° 2' X. lat. The part of this territory now belonging to Pennsylvania, was yielded to that state after a bitter controversy, but the title of Con- necticut to the remainder, lying farther west, was confirmed. In 1786, this was ceded to the L • S., except a reservation extending 120 miles westward from the W. line of Pennsylvania, and known as the " Western Reserve," or sometimes as '• Xew Connecticut." This tract, except a | small part previously disposed of, was sold in L795 for ^1,200,000, which was the original capital of the Connecticut school fund. By ju- dicious management, particularly that of James Hillhouse. commissioner of the fund from L810 to 182."). and Seth I'. Beers, from 1 825 to 1 849, the capital was increased to over $2,000,000. The first dividend was paid in 1799. The fund now bears interest at 6 per cent, and in some cases more than that. The income, until 1820, was distributed to the school societies in propor- tion to their respective amounts of taxable prop- erty and polls; since that time it is divided ac- cording to the number of children between 4 and 16 years of age. — The Town Deposit Fund came t'n ,in the treasury of the U. S. In 1836, Congress directed that the "surplus revenue" then on hand should be divided among the states in pro- portion to their representation in both houses of Congress. Connecticut revived 87(14,670.60. Of tins sum $763,661.83 was divided among the towns according to their population al the census of 1830. Towns organized since that date have (with one exception! received their share of the town deposit fund which belonged to the towns from which they were formed. In theory, this money is merely deposited with the towns by the state (whence its name), and is liable to be recalled: but, practically, it belongs absolutely to the towns. At first, one half of the income was devoted by law to public schools; since 1 855, the entire income has been so devoted. III. For the first 60 or Til years in the history of Connecticut, there appears to have been no of- ficial supervision of the schools. The "selectmen" in each town were to " have a vigilant eye" over their townsmen to prevent the " barbarism " of ignorance; but nothing is recorded which indi- cates that schools were particularly under their care. A law of 1702 speaks of a "committee for schools" as existing in a part of the towns, and similar committees were afterward appointed in the parishes; but the duty of these committees, so far as appears, extended only to the financial affairs of the schools. In 1714, the civil author- ity and selectmen of every town were "directed and empowered, as visitors, to inspect the state of all such schools as are appointed in said town, from time to time, and particularly once in each quarter of the year and to inquire into the qualifications of the masters of such schools and their diligence in attending to the service of the said schools, together with the proficiency of the children under their care." They were also re- quired to give such directions as would render the schools most efficient for the purpose in- tended. This law remained in force till 1798, when each society — then called a school society — was required to " appoint a suitable number of persons, not exceeding nine, of competent skill and letters, to be overseers and visitors of schools," who were to examine and approve teachers, displace the incompetent and such as disregarded the " regulations by them adopted, superintend and direct the instruction of the youth in letters, religion, morals, and manners," and in other ways promote the efficiency of the schools. When the school societies were abolished, in L856, the appointment of "school visitors" was transferred to the towns. Xo state superintendent of schools was chosen in Connecticut till 1*38. In thai year, a board of commissioners of common schools was created, and authorized to appoint its own secretary, who was to- devote his whole time, if required, un- der the direction of the board, to ascertain the condition, increase the interest, and promote the usefulness, of the common schools." The board appointed as its secretary I bury Barnard, who served the state efficiently in that position till 1842, when the law creating the board was re- 174 CONNECTICUT pealed. In 1845, the commissioner of the school fund, Seth P. Beers, was appointed by the gen- eral assembly superintendent of common schools. In 1849, an act was passed establishing a normal school, the principal of which was to be, ex offi- cio, superintendent of common schools. Under this act, Henry Barnard became superintendent in September of that year, and continued to hold the office till January, 1855. John D. Philbrick succeeded him for two years, and David N. Camp was superintendent from Jan- uary, 1857, to August, 1865. In July, 18G5, the state board of education was constituted, and was required to appoint a secretary, who by the appointment was made superintendent of schools. The first secretary was I )aniel C. Gihnan, who filled the position from August, 1865, to Jan- uary, 1867. The present secretary, Birdsey G. Northrop, entered upon his duties January 1., 1867. A State Teachers' Association was formed April 7., 1846, which meets once a year. Teach- ers' Institutes are held in different parts of the state, every year. They are provided for by an appropriation of .$.'5,000 a year, from the state treasury. Associations of teachers for mutual improvement are formed from time to time in some towns. School Si/stem. — The general supervision and control of the educational interests of the state are entrusted to the state board of education, which consists of six persons, — the governor and lieutenant-governor of the state, ex officio, and one person from each of the four congressional districts, chosen by the general assembly for the term of four years, one going out of office each year, but re-eligible. The secretary ehosen by this board is superintendent of schools, as above stated. Towns are required to maintain schools for at least 30 weeks in each year, in every district containing 24 or more persons between 4 and 1 6 years of age, and for at least 24 weeks in other districts : but no school need be maintained in any district in which age attendance, the previous year, than 8. Kach town has a board visitors, either 3, 6 or 9 in number, chosen by ballot for three years, one Log out of office each year, but re-eligible. In choosing them, no voter may vote for more than half of the number to lie chosen when it is an even Dumber, nor for more than a bare majority when it is an odd number. The care of school funds and other school property belonging to the towns, is entrusted to selectmen, and the visitors have charge of strictly educational affairs. They examine and certificate teachers, rejecting those considered unfit or incompetent, prescribe rules and regulations for the management, studies, classification, and discipline of public schools, and direct what text-books shall be used. They approve sites ami plans for new schooMiouses, fill vacancies in district offices, make rules for the care and management of district libraries, and supervise high schools where such exist. They aunually assign to one or more of their the aver- was less of school who are third go- number, called acting visitors, the duty of visit- ing all public schools in the town at least twice in each term. They choose from their own num- ber a chairman arid secretary, make yearly re- turns of the number of children between 4 and 16 years of age, and draw all moneys from the state treasury. They also send to the secretary of the board of education such statistical re- turns as he may call for. As compensation, they, are entitled to receive 3 dollars a day. for the time necessarily spent in performing theirduties. Each town has power to form, alter, and dissolve school districts within its limits, and any two or more towns may form joint districts of adjoining parts of their territory. Each district is a body corporate, with all the powers necessary for building, purchasing, hiring, and repairing school-houses, employing and paying teachers, and raising moneys by tax or loan. The name or number, and the boundaries of every district are to be definitely ascertained and entered on its own records, as well as on those of the town or towns in which it is situated. Each district chooses yearly by ballot a committee of not. more' than 3 persons, a clerk, treasurer, and col- lector. Some large districts choose their com- mittees in the same Avay that school visitors are chosen, as already described. The committee of a district is its agent, employing its teacher or teachers, and taking charge of its affairs ; giving notice of district meetings, and calling special meetings when deemed necessary, or when one- tifth or ten of the voters in the district request it in writing. Any town may, at any annual meeting, abol- ish all the school districts and parts of districts within its limits, and constitute itself one district. Such town assumes all the property and debts of the former district, and chooses by ballot, as school visitors are chosen, a committee of 6, 9, or 12 male residents, who take the place and perforin the duties of both district officers and school visitors. They arrange for schools, of at least 30 weeks in the year, in the different parts of the town, and take charge of school buildings and other school property. All towns have authority to establish and maintain high schools, and to do what is requisite for that purpose. The siate makes yearly payments for procuring and replenishing libraries and apparatus, to such districts as comply with certain requirements. Teachers are required to be examined and ap- proved by the school visitors before commencing to teach, and to keep an accurate record of each scholar's attendance, in registers provided by the state for that purpose. An enumeration of all persons between 1 and 1 6 years of age is made yearly, in January, and the number is returned to the proper officer by February 5th. The dis- tribution of the school finance and state appro- priation is based on this enumeration. Educational Condition. — The number of school districts as returned in 1 876, is L ,493, of which In comprise each an entire town: about 200 are joint districts, lying in two or more towns, and about 1,280 are each a part of a town. The CONNKCTHTT 175 number of schools was 1,650; of departments, 2,499. The number of graded schools was 264 : i>t which 1 1 I had each two departments ; 39 had :: each; 37,4; 23, 5; 11. 6; L0, 7; 5,8; 5,9; 6, Hi: 1. 11; 7, 12; 3,13; 1, 19; 1,20; 1,21. The whole number of departments in the graded scIki. >ls was L,093. Hence about 1,406 of the public schools were ungraded. The support of schools (including the cost of building and repairing school-houses) was de- rived from several sources; namely. Bchool Fund $148,220.60 Town Deposit Fund 46,534.97 Other Funds 15,614.79 Total from funds $210,370.36 State Tax $202,1 L9.00 Town Tax 668,167.13 District Tax 463,775.19 Total from taxes $1,334,061.32 Voluntary Contributions 6,881.26 Other sources 41,545.17 Total from all sources $1,592,858. 1 1 The average wages per month of male teach- ers was $70.05; of female teachers, $37.35. The highest salary of any teacher is $3,000 a year. The course of instruction in graded schools varies so widely that no definite statement can be given. School Statistics (for the year ending August 31., 1875) :— Pupils enrolled (or registered): In the winter term 98,402 " " summer term 88,595 " " whole year 119,489 Average attendance, winter 71,935 " " summer 65,251 " " mean, for the year 68,593 Total Receipts $1,592,858.11 " Expenditures 1,552,583.85 The items of expenditure are as follows: — For Teachers' Wages $1,057,242.19 " Fuel and Incidentals 140,130.42 " New School-Houses 135,136.46 " Repairs of School- Houses 77,544.46 " Library and Apparatus 8,262.15 " other school purposes, including cost of supervision 134,269.17 Total $1,552,583.85 Number of Teachers : — In winter, males, 721; females, 1,910; total 2,631 "summer, " 272: " 2,324; " 2,596 Number of different teachers employed, at ieast, males, 704; females, 2,307; total, 3,011. Normal Instruction. — The state normal school, at Xew Britain, was established in 1849, and opened for pupils in 1850. It is supported by an appropriation of $12,000 a year from the state treasury. The number of students, in 1876, was 180; instructors, 7. The design of the school is strictly professional : that is, to instruct , its pupils in the best methods of organizing, governing, and instructing schools, as well as in the various branches pursued in the common schools of the state. Candidates for admission must be at least 1 6 years of age ; must declare their full attention to teach in the public schools of Connecticut, and must pass a satisfactory ex- amination in reading, writing, arithmetic, geog- raphy, English grammar, and the history of the United States. The course of study embraces, besides the branches usually taught in the schools, school laws, theory and art of teaching, English literature, vocal music, and drawing. The full course requires two years. This school has a library of about 500 volumes ; a collection of models, casts, and apparatus for free-hand drawing ; a chemical laboratory, and a philo- sophical cabinet and apparatus. Secondary Instruction. — Of this grade are the high schools and the academies. The ac- count already given of the public schools con- tains the facts in relation to the county grammar schools, which may be regarded as the high schools of Connecticut from 1672 to 1798. The Colony School in New Haven (1659 — 62) may be considered the prototype of these schools. In 179S. every school society was authorized to set up a high school; and, in 1856, each town re- ceived similar authority. But very few towns have permanently maintained such schools. In many of the larger villages, the highest depart- ment of a graded school serves as a high school. In 1658, Edward Hopkins, who had been gov- ernor of Connecticut, died in London, leaving by will a part of his estate to trustees in New Haven. Hartford, and Hadley, .Mass., to be used " to give some encouragement in those foreign plantations for the breeding up of hopeful youths, both at the grammar school and college, for the public service of the colony in future times." Xew Haven and Hartford received each a few hundred pounds from his estate, with which they laid the foundations of the Hopkins grammar schools. These schools date from 1660, though not actually begun till 1664 and 1665. The school at Hartford was united with the high school of that town in 1847. but the Hopkins Grammar School in New Haven has retained its separate existence, though most of its present endowment came from other sources than the Hopkins estate. In the later years of the 18th century, acade- mies began to be established, and a large number have been incorporated. A general law for their incorporation has been in force since 1838. At present, about 25 academies are in active exist- ence. In the early part of this century, the Plainfield Academy, the Staples Free School, at Easton, and Bacon Academy, at Colchester, were especially prominent, but they have since relatively declined. The most important are now the Episcopal Academy, at Cheshire, the Connecticut Literary Institute, at Suffield, the Norwich Free Academy, the Bulkeley School, at New Ixmdon, and the Morgan School, at Clinton. The last three named have large en- dowments. Bowen Academy, at Woodstock, Lewis Academy, Southington, the Guilford In- stitute. Guilford, and the academies at Durham and ( Jlastonbury are also valuable institutions. Besides the high schools and academies, there are numerous private schools, especially in the southern and western parts of the state. Many of these are boarding-schools which receive their pupils chiefly from New York and other largo cities. 176 CONNECTICUT Denominational and Parochial Schools. — There are but few schools of this kind except those established by the Roman Catholics in communities where citizens of that denomination are numerous. In two or three instances, schools thus established have been incorporated into the public school system. Superior Instruction. — Although no college was established in Connecticut till 1700, the founders of both the original colonies, and espe- cially of New Haven, were ardent friends of col- legiate education. But Harvard College for a long time needed and received their assistance. The Connecticut colony appropriated money to establish a fellowship there. In every town a committee was appointed to receive and forward contributions in aid of students at Cambridge. New Haven sent 40 bushels of wheat as one year's contribution. But the purpose to found a college at New Haven, was cherished from the outset, and was never abandoned. At a town meeting held early in Kits— less than 10 years ifter the first settlement — , the town directed a committee, appointed to dispose of vacant lots, to "consider and reserve what lot they shall see meet and most convenient for a college', which they desire maybe set up so soon as their ability shall reach thereunto." The subject was repeat- edly discussed both in meetings of the town and in the colonial legislature, but the want of means prevented the gratification of their desire. In 1659, a " colony school " was set up, in the h »pe that it might in time become a college, but it was continued only three years. At length, in 1699, a plan was devised for establishing the long desired college. The leaders in the move- ment were the clergymen of the colony. 'I'eu of these were selected to act in behalf of the whole number, to found, erect, and govern a col- lege. In 1700, they performed the duty assigned them, and the "collegiate school" was begun. The next year, the legislature bestowed on it a charter and an annual appropriation of 120 p< muds for its support. It was first located at Snybrook, but the president (then called rector) lived at Killingworth (now Clinton) a few miles distant, and the students pursued their studies then' under his direction till his death in 1707. Afterward, the senior class was instructed by his successor at Milford, the other classes re- maining at Saybrook, where the successive an- nual commencements were held. In 1716. the trustees decided to remove the school to New Haven, and after much contention this was accomplished the following year. One year filer (1718), a generous and timely gift from Elihu Yale induced the trustees to give the newly erected building the name of the present institution, Vale College. (See Yu.k College.) Trinity Coll ige, at Hartford, was chartered as Washington College, in L823 j ami instruction was begUD in L824. The name was changed iu L845. (See Trinity COLLEGE.) In addition to these, there is the Wesleyan University, at Middletown, which was founded in 1830; chart- ered in 1831. (See Wesleyan University.) Professional and Scietitific Instruction. — Un- jder this head are included Theological Schools, Law Schools, and Scientific Schools, of which the following is an enumeration : The Theological Department of Yale College was organized in 1822. For the year 1875 — 6, it had 99 students. The Theological Institute of Connecticut was founded at East Windsor, in 1834, and was re- moved to Hartford, in 1865. In 1876, the num- ber of students was 16. The Berkeley Divinity School was organized in 1851 as the Theological Department of Trinity College. In 1854. it was removed to Middletown, and was incorporated with its present designation. It had 39 students in 1876. In 1784, the Litchfield Law School was established by Judge Reeve, and it soon became the foremost in the U. S., having students from all parts of the country. It was continued about half a century. The Law Department of Yale College was separately organized in 1826, though no class was formally graduated till 1843. The number of students, in 1876, was 76. The Med- ical Department of Yale College was organized in 1813. The number of students, in 1876, was 50. The Sheffield Scientific School of Yale Col- lege was begun in 1846, as the Department of Philosophy and the Arts, and graduated its lirst class in 1852. Its rapid growth has been due mainly to the liberality of the gentleman whose name it bears. In 1863, the legislature granted to it the income (88,100) derived from lands given by Congress, the previous year, to provide colleges for the benefit of agriculture and the mechanic arts." The school had 224 students for the year 1875—6. The School of the Fine Arts in Yale College has been quite recently established, and has as yet but few pupils. Special Instruction. — The American Asylum for the Deaf and I >umb was established at Hart- ford in 1816, being the first of the kind on the Western Continent. It receives jut pi Is from all the New England States. The average number is usually about 225. The Whipple Home for Deaf- mutes, at Mystic River, makes a specialty of teaching the deaf and dumb to talk, in which it is remarkably successful. The State Reform School for Boys, at West Meriden, was established in 1 S51 , and opened in 1 854. It has received in all about 2,350 pupils, and has an average number of aboul 300. The Industrial School for Girls, at Middletown. was incorporated in 1868, and re- ceived its first pupil in January 1870. It has an average number of from 60 to 80 pupils, and re- ceives from the State $3 per week for each pupil. It is designed to be a reformatory institution. The Soldiers' Orphan Homes, two in number, were opened 10 or 12 years ago. at Darien and Mansfield. As the classof children for which they were designed is now mostly beyond school age, they can in >t be much longer continued on the original basis, but the school at Darien has already been somewhat transformed. The School for Im- beciles, at Lakeville, was incorporated in 1861, though it had been previously carried on as a private institution. It receives from the state treasury an annual appropriation of $7,000. conscience 177 Educational Literature. — The chief works on the schools of the state are the Report of 1 lenry Barnard, Superintendent of Common Schools, for L853, which contains a. carefully prepared history of education in Connecticut ; and histor- ical accounts of particular institutions which have been published front time "to time. Besides these, histories of Vale College have been prepared by Several persons; and a full account of Trinity College and the Berkeley Divinity School is con- tained in Dr. K. K. Beardsley's History of the Episcopal (Voire// in Connecticut. The educa- tional journals are very important. The Con- necticut Common School Journal was first issued by Henry Barnard, in August, 1838. Four volumes, Ito, were published in the next 4 years, and -1 vols, more, previous to 1854. From L854 to 1866, inclusive. 13 vols., 8vo, were issued, and after an interval of 4 years 1 vols, more (1871—74), the last two being Ito. The whole number of volumes issued is 2o. In January, 18";">, all the educational journals of New Eng- land were combined into the New England Journal of Education, published weekly in Bos- ton. The Journal of Education was begun by Henry Barnard, in 1855, and is still continued. The series comprises 27 large 8vo volumes. (See Barnard, I Ienry.) CONSCIENCE, Culture of. The feeling of moral obligation, the conviction that certain actions are right and others wrong, the sense of duty, the moral principle, or by whatever other phrase of similar signification we may define con- science, is the most important object of culture in every department and stage of moral educa- tion. The strength of this principle, as an active element of character, differs greatly in different individuals, whether children or adults. As a general fact, however, children are influenced but very slightly by a sense of right or duty ; they are acted upon by a different class of mo- tives. The desire of sensuous enjoyment, the love of approbation, emulation, self-will, the hope of reward, and the fear of punishment, are the usual means by which youthful minds are swayed, and their actions controlled. The appe- tites are strong; the moral sentiments, weak. Hence, to address the conscience of a child as a ruling principle would be a great error; perhaps, a disaster. Still, children should be treated as possessing at least the germ of conscience ; and they should early be habituated to scan their own conduct as well as that of others, and apply to it a certain standard of moral rectitude. 1 low- ever imperfect this standard in a child's mind may be, much will be gained when we have in- duced him to ask. in regard to any of his actions, ' "• Is it right?" The enlightenment of conscience is much easier than its development ; to one who ifi deeply impressed with a sense of duty, a knowledge of specific right and wrong will be very readily acquired. It should be borne in mind that, while the child is really restrained by the lower motives of conduct, such as those above enumerated, the conscience is to be steadily but carefully addressed. Thus, if a pupil, whose love 12 of approbation is strong, has learned a difficult lesson simply to please his teacher, it is right to accord him all the praise which he craves as the reward of his conduct : but let not the teacher fail to impress upon his mind, at the same time, that this praise is given because the action per- formed is good — is right; so that his mind may be drawn from his overweening desire for the approbation of others, and gradually led to ap- preciate more highly the approbation of his own conscience ; and so in respect to all the lower in- centives. If the child is punished for a fault by an angry teacher or parent, he will rather dread the anger than be impressed with the wrongful- ness of his conduct ; and, if sly and deceitful, the only result of the punishment will be to ren- der him more careful to conceal than to avoid similar wrong-doing in the future. Hence, the interposition of the teacher's personality in con- nection with either reward or punishment is an obstacle to the moral improvement of the pupil; because it diverts his attention from the charac- ter of his conduct, as good or bad in itself, to an exclusive consideration of its effects upon the mind of the teacher, as producing praise or cen- sure. Some thoughtless teachers punish their pupils for not telling of each other's offenses, when they should be glad to perceive an ex- hibition of such a sense of honor, and should rather encourage and commend it. Of course, if a pupil who is strenuous in his refusal to act the part of a tale-bearer, as mean and wrong, could be convinced that his duty demanded that he should make known the wrong-doer, he would at once yield ; but, after a simple statement of the case, he should be permitted to exercise his conscience, without any violence or threats being brought against it. A high standard of moral excellence in a child is just as striking an in- stance of precocity, as great intellectual power and attainments ; and is, perhaps, as much to be discouraged. " Be content," says Herbert Spen- cer, " with moderate measures and moderate re- sults. Constantly bear in mind the fact that a higher morality, like a higher intelligence, must be reached by a slow growth ; and you will then have more patience with those imperfections of nature whidh your child hourly displays. You will be less prone to that constant scolding, and threatening, and forbidding, by which many parents induce a chronic domestic irritation, in the foolish hope that they will thus make their children what they should be." The conscience is not to be cultivated by simply giving moral precepts. " Moral educa- tion." says Dymond, "should be directed, not so much to informing the young what they ought to do, as to inducing those moral dispositions and principles which will make them adhere to what they know to be right." The highest suc- cess in this is achieved when the pupil is seen to be willing to make self-sacrifice, to practice self-denial, in order to do what he feels to be right. This point of moral excellence having been reached, the individual may, with entire safety, be allowed to control his own actions, 178 CONSTITUTION OF U. S. CONVENT SCHOOLS with the assurance that lie will not, in any cir- cumstance of life, go far astray. The basis of moral rectitude has not here been considered; nor is it necessary to plunge into any speculations as to what constitutes that dis- criminative power between right and wrong which is a part of the original constitution of the human mind. It may undoubtedly be strengthened by religious training of a proper character: and hence, such training constitutes a very important agency in the culture of the con- science. " Parents," says Hartley." should Labor, from the earliest dawniugs of understanding and desire, to check the growing obstinacy of the will, curb all sallies of passion, impress the deepest, most amiable, reverential, and awful sentiments of God, a future state, and all sacred things. - ' (See Moral Education, and Religious Educa- tion'.) CONSTITUTION OF TJ. S., a branch of instruction forming part of the course of studies pursued in the common schools of many of the states of the Union. As the object of common- school education is chiefly to prepare for the du- ties of citizenship, it is usually deemed essential to impart a knowledge of the organic law of the nation, as the foundation of those acquirements in political science which every citizen needs in order to be able to discharge his duties with proper intelligence and discrimination. This in- struction, besides making the pupils familiar with the particular instrument studied, may be made the basis for much useful information in regard to the elementary principles of jurisprudence and governmental organization. An analysis of the various provisions pertaining to the three great departments of the government, .showing their respective powers and limitations of power. with an explanation of the underlying principles, cannot but prepare the youthful mind for more advanced studies of this kind, besides being the means of a particular culture of the reason and judgment, of very great value. The practical usefulness of the knowledge thus imparted, par- ticularly in boys' schools, is scarcely exceeded by that of any other branch of instruction usually included in a common -school course. Main valuable school text-books on this subject have been compiled ; besides which, those designed to teach the history of the United States generally comprehend also, as an appendix, the ( institution of the United States, arranged and adapted for school study. — See E. I >. Mansfield, American Education (N. Y., L851) ; and (as books of ref- ace) Stobt, On the Constitution of U. S. (N. Y.): Kknt. Commentaries on American Law (Boston); Mansfield, Political Manual (N. V.i: Nordhoff, Politics for Young Amer- icans (N. \ .); Pomerot, Constitution and Law (N. Yd; Shfppard, Constitutional Text-Book, and Firs/ Book of (he Constitution (Phila.) ; Stearns, Constitution of U.S., with Concord- ance and classified Index iV Y.) TOWNSEND, Analysis of Civil Government (N. Yd: An- drews, Manual of /he Constitution if the U. S. (<'in.. L874). CONVENT SCHOOLS. The convents of the Christian church were originally founded from ascetic and religious, not from literary and educational motives : and, for a considerable time after their first establishment, but little value appears to have been attributed by their inmates to literary culture and education. Basil of Caesarea was one of* the first who re- commended the reception of children into con- vents for the purpose of being educated. The recommendation was complied with by many Eastern convents. Chrysostom, as well as other bishops, expressly ordered that convent schools should be opened also to lay pupils, and admon- ished parents to send their children for ten or more years to convents, in order that they might be brought up in the principles of piety. Next to the East, the convents of southern Gaul, Ire- land. Scotland, and England became the seats of Christian scholarship. Lerinum, in southern Caul, had an ecclesiastical seminary from which, in the 5th and 6th centuries, many authors and scholars proceeded : and. in the British islands, many convent schools which imparted theological as well as other instruction, were especially famous for the number of missionaries whom they educated. A new period in the history of convent schools begins with the foundation of the Benedictine order. By introducing a strict monastic rule, Benedict not only developed the idea and organ- ization of monasticism, but also made monastic institutions one of the strong pillars of the church. When, therefore, Benedict and his or- der added the instruction of novices, as well as- of other scholars, to the regular work of the con- vent, he did more for the development of educa- tion among the new states emerging from the ruins of the Boman empire, than any other man up to the time of Charlemagne. (See BENE- DICTINES, SCHOOLS of THE, and CHARLEMAGNE.) From the Mh to the 11th century, the Bene- dictine sid Is. and their rivals, the cathedral and collegiate schools (see Cathedral lnd Col- LEGIATE Schools), were almost the exclusive re- presentatives of Christian education in western Europe. Some of these schools, especially in Germany, France, and England, attained a high degree of prosperity, and gave a powerful im- pulse to the progress of education by the revival of classical studies. At the time of < Iregory VII., the convent schools began to decline. The new- ideas set afloat by the crusades, found the course of instruction in the Benedictine schools too nar- row and onesided: Franciscans, Dominicans, and other mendicant Orders dislodged the IVnc- dictines in the affections of the lower classes of society, and, therefore, gathered in their schools a large Dumber Of scholars who otherwise would have flocked to the Benedictines; several popes, as Innocent III., ostentatiously evinced their preference for the cathedral schools; and. finally, the rise of the universities displaced the convent Schools from their rank as the highest class of educational institutions. Moreover, the town schools soon began to make a powerful compe- COXVKXT SCHOOLS CONVERSATION 179 tition for public favor, and created a demand for instruction in secular subjects, which led to the foundation of new religious orders; and these, like the Hieronymians, attempted a new depart- ure in the organization of convent schools. The success of the Protestant movement in Germany and in other European countries called forth, in the Roman ( !atholic church, new religious orders, which regarded the establishment of schools su- perior to those of the Protestants as the surest way to obtain a controlling influence over the rising generation, and thus to reconquer the ground which had been lost by the church. Among these orders, the Jesuits, the Piarists, the Ursulines, and the many congregations of school brothers and school sisters are the best known. In the eighteenth century, the convent schools lost ground in consequence of the greater influence winch the state governments exercised in the organization and supervision of schools. They were obliged to submit in many states to the legislation of the state government on school matters : and, by the suppression of the order of the Jesuits, were for a long time deprived of their most illustrious representatives. In the nineteenth century, the convents, though fiercely attacked in many states, and totally suppressed in some, have found for their schools a very large patronage. This is particularly the case with the female convent schools, which count among their pupils many thousands of Protestants. Convent school education is based on the prin- ciple that religion should have a predominating influence in the education of the child, and that a complete retirement from the world is condu- cive to the formation of a Christian character. The features which distinguish them as a class from other schools, consist chiefly in the peculiar methods of their management and administra- tion. The course of instruction presents no marked points of difference from that pursued in other schools of the same grade, comprising, in England and the United States, as the prospectus of these institutions generally informs the public, " all the usual branches of a sound English edu- cation," with French, to which a greater promi- nence is given than in the majority of other schools. Instrumental and vocal music, and draw- ing are carefully attended to as necessary accom- plishments; and, in many institutions, the pupils have also the •• advantage of the best masters for dancing." The superior of each of these schools is expected to exercise special care in the su- pervision of the deportment of the pupils, and the greatest possible attention is given to their religious and moral training. The religious atmosphere in which the students live, and the frequency of the devotional exercises, interwoven with the studies, are calculated to produce pro- found and lasting impressions; and it is but natural that a considerable proportion of Prot- estant pupils reared in < 'atholie convents. should, in after life, embrace a religion under the direct influence of which they received their early edu- cation. It is equally natural that Protestant churches should be greatly opposed to convent education, and should earnestly warn Protestant parents against placing their children in institu- tions which, in SO many cases, while affording a thorough secul r education, divert the minds of their pupils from the religious faith of their parents. CONVERSATION has many claims to con- sideration as an agency in education, both in an active and passive sense. The child may not only receive information by listening to the dis- course of his ciders and superiors, but is taught, through the imitative faculty, to think and speak in a correct, easy, familiar, and pleasing manner. The mere student of books cannot mingle in so- ciety with ease and grace : having been a recip- ient simply, he has no habit of dispensing infor- mation, lie is, as it were. an intellectual bank of deposit, but has no circulating medium. His ideas are either imperfect for the want of an interchange with those of other minds, or they are vague and misty for the want of that prac- tical definition which can alone result from cloth- ing them in familiar language. His views are one-sided and narrow, because they have not been corrected by contrast with those of others. "Conversation," says Bacon, "makesaready man;'' that is, the mind, by the constant use of its stores of knowledge, applies a practical rule in making its acquisitions, and selects that which is available and useful. It does not indulge in mystic specu- lation, but adapts itself to the demands of com- mon sense. The solitary philosopher may, in his seclusion, develop ingenious hypotheses and com- prehensive theories; but it is only wdien he comes forth and discourses with his fellows that his philosophy becomes of any practical use. Young persons should be constantly practiced in conver- sation with each other, or with their elders, upon the subjects of their studies, as well as the inci- dents of their experience ; they should be en- couraged to talk as well as to listen, both for the improvement of their power of ready expression and for the general culture of their minds. The mere reading of books, wdthout talking or writ- ing, may make a learned man, but will never produce a really useful one. Flippancy, cap- tiousness, conceitedness, and forwardness in ad- vancing opinions, or in disputing about them, should of course be repressed, and humility and modesty be cultivated ; candor shoidd always be encouraged, as the best guide to knowledge. In this way, conversation will be not only an important agent in intellectual culture, but one of the most effective means in social education, that is, in training the individual for useful ami agreeable intercourse with his fellows. E. D. Mansfield, in American Education, thus sums ii] > the advantages of conversation as a means of education: "(1) The rapidity and ease of con- versation enables an intelligent person to com- municate information, or suggest ideas, or direct attention, with a readiness and a velocity which it is impossible to do by reading ; (2) It may be done more fully and more accurately, beca there is an opportunity to ask questions, to ex- press different shadesof thought, and to illustrate 180 CONVERSATIONAL METHOD COOPER in different ways ; (3) Conversation suggests rapidly numerous ideas which can only be ex- pressed in a very limited manner by written in- struction : and (4) Such instruction may thus draw out a sympathy of minds, by which the pupil is enlivened, is led forward without labor, and ascends, enlarges thecircleof ideas, loves the pursuit of knowledge, and inquires into the reason of things, without ever suspecting that a task has been put upon him." Conversation brings into play a great variety of faculties, which without it are quite apt to rust from disuse ; but in order to exercise its beet influence, it must be spontaneous and un- restrained, except by a due regard to the amen- ities of social intercourse. It then becomes the genuine inspirer of wit, fancy, and sentiment, which find their best and truest exercise in the gladsome communion of congenial minds. But to have this effect, it must be an interchange, not a one-sided harangue; nor must it be permitted to degenerate into dogmatism or debate. The Hue art of conversation, apart from its intellect- ual requirements, corresponds with the art of politeness, the basic principle of which is, to try to please others by making them pleased with themselves. Hence, however much we may differ in opinion with others, we should still treat their opinions with respect; and if we are obliged to controvert them, we should do it rather by sug- gesting views and considerations in opposition, than by anything bordering on dogmatism or de- nunciation. ( 'andor, charity, and courtesy alike suggest this course, and will be much more apt to produce conviction than positive assertion or heated debate. Conversation has been compared to "a ball, which is thrown from player to player without being allowed to drop, and thus keeps each one in play." I arried on in this way. and upon this principle, it constitutes an educational instrumentality of peculiar value and impor- CONVERSATIONAL METHOD. This refers to the mode of giving instruction, in which the lessons, instead of being formal recitations, exercises, explanations, or lectures, consist of a familiar discourse by the teacher, interspersed with questions or remarks by the pupils ; that is to say. in which the lessons partake of the char- acter of conversations, both as to the manner of presenting the subject and the style of language employed. This mode of teaching is especially adapted to young children, because it affords the teacher a constant opportunity to appeal to their intelligence and experience, and to employ the simplest colloquial expressions. Besides, the utmost Freedom being given to the pupils, they are enabled to .-how by their questions and re- marks to what extent and in what respect they need special instruction and information. In order to arouse and sustain the pupils' interest, their attention is called to such facts in connec- tion with the subject as, although quite obvious when shown or explained, are usually overlooked by children, who are generally but superficial observers before beim,' trained to close attention and carefid investigation. In object teaching, the lessons should always be conversational, the teacher saying oidy enough to lead the pupils to observe, and to talk freely about what they notice. As examples of the conversational method we may refer to the beautiful colloquial lessons contained in some of the works of Dr. Aiken and Mrs. Barbauld. (See Evenings at Home, edited by Cecil Hartley.) That on Hie Leguminous Plants is an excellent example; although the .style is by no means so simple as that which would be used in an actual oral lesson. The lesson is given by the tutor to two pupils, George said Harry, and commences with an exclamation of the former, who has ap- proached a bean-held, and proceeds as follows: — G. What a delightful scent! H. Charming! It is sweeter than Mr. Essence's shop. T. Do you know whence it comes? G. O— it is lit .in the bean-field on the other side of the hedge, I suppose. T. It is. This is the month in which beans are in blossom. See— the stalks are full of their black and white flowers. H. I see peas in blossom, too, on the other side of the field. s;!.s ui.27. and the total expenditures on building and education to dan. 1., I87f>, The expenditures for carrying on $1,213,840.85. The course of instruction, as indicated above in the words of the founder, has been gradually and steadily developed ; and the Cooper Union, at present, takes a high position among the in- dustrial schools of thi' country. A thorough and practical course of mathematical and scientific studies in connection with all blanches of practi- cal engineering and chemistry, forms a cur- riculum of five veal's, which entitles the student to the diploma and the medal of the Cooper Union. This course is pursued in classes of free instruction given every evening of the week, ex- cept Sunday and Saturday. The course is open to both sexes. It is entirely free, as is all the in- struction given in every department of this in- stitution. The classes of the scientific depart- ment, are held in the evenings, when the young people who attend can get freedom from the daily occupations in which most of them are en- gaged. In all branches of study, however, both in the scientific and in the art departments, a cer- tificate of proficiency is given to any pupil who has made a certain degree of progress in any special branch of study, independently of the diploma given for proper attainments made in the whole course of studies that belong to the curriculum. The free classes in art are held both in the day-time and in the evening. The day classes are exclusively for women, and the young men attend only the evening classes. In these, may be studied, under careful and thorough in- struction, all those methods of construction and design that lie at the basis of most of the useful arts: — Perspective, mechanical, and architectural drawing, drawing from cast and life, and model- ing in clay. The practical application of these elementary arts of design, is not left entirely to the student ; but classes are organized also for drawing and engraving on wood, and in the vari- ous departments of photography, such as pen- and- ink drawings from which negatives are taken, the retouching of negatives, and painting or crayon drawing on positives. It is contemplated to introduce other applications as soon as practi- cable, so as to bring every department of element- ary instruction close to the practical life and re- munerative employment of each student, while he or she remains at school, or immediately on leaving it. The corps of instructors, hi 1K7">, numbered 20, of whom 3 were ladies, and the number of pupils was 2.S7S. a greater number than in any previous year. The trades and occu- pations most largely represented among the pupils of the Union were the clerks and book- keepers (369), machinists and iron-workers (."{(Hi), carvers and turners (293), engravers and lithog- raphers |2lil). teachers and students (140). The free reading room was visited during the year 1S74 1st.) I.v ,"isl,7!)s persons, a daily average of nearly 2.0011. In the library there are about L 6,000 volumes, and the books drawn by the 182 COOTE COPYING readers numbered 1 29,(»~>r>. The board of trust- ees have also established a department of consul- tation to assist the inventors and manufacturers of new processes; and, during- the year 1*7-4 to 187"), more than .'!;"><> persons applied for advice. As the popular lecture is now recognized in America as a standing institution, the trustees have provided that two courses of lectures, from six to twelve each, shall be annually given in the large hall of the Cooper Union, during the course of each six months, on subjects connected with social or physical science. -Men of a high class are selected as lecturers, who being distinguished in their several departments and well-known, draw large audiences, fully taxing the capacity of the hall, though it accommodates more than 2,000 people. Besides, there are several smaller halls in the building of the Cooper Union, in which free lectures are given by the several pro- fessors on chemistry, natural philosophy. English literature, elocution and rhetoric, art, and artistic economy. COOTE, Edward, a noted English teacher, and the author of the English School-Master, one of the most famous of school-books, first pub- lished in London, in Mi'_'7. A good idea of the character and contents of this quaint old hook may be obtained from the title-page, of which the following is a copy : The ENGLISH School-Master. Teaching all liis Scholars, of what age so ever, the most easy, short, and perfect order of distinct Beading, and true Writing our English-tongue, that hath ever yet been known or published by any. And further also teacheth a direct course, how many unskilful persons may easily both understand any hard English words, which they shall in Scriptures, Sermons, or else-where hear or read; and also be made able to use the same aptly themselves : and generally whatsoever is necessary to be known tor the English speech; bo that he which hath this book only needeth to buy DO other to make him lit from his Letters to the Grammar-School, for an Apprentice, or any other private ase, so far as concerneth English : And therefore it is made not only for * Children, though the first book be nicer childish for them, but also (brother) especially for those that are ignorant in the Latin Tongue. In the next page, the School- Master hangeth forth his Table to the view of all beholders, setting forth some oi the chief Commodities ot his profession. Devised for thy sake tint wantesi any part of this skill; by Edward Ooote, Master of the Free-School in S:i in t Edmund's- Bury. Perused and approved by publick Authority; and now tin 10 lime Imprinted: with certain Copies to write ''.v. at lite end of this Book, added. Printed by A.M. and It. K. for the company of Stationers IG80. The following verses, extracted from this hook, give a picturesque idea of Coote's mode of school management and discipline : THE Sr ,|ii i|.-\i\ -I I i: 10 111- S( lit >1. Alts. " My child and Bcbolar take good heed unto the worda that here are set, Aid aee i hou do ■ ■ ly , or else be sure thou si. ait b i neat. First, I command thee God to serve, then, to thy parents, duty yield ; Unto all men be courteous, and mannerly, in town and field. Your cloathe unbuttoned do not use, let not your hose ungartered be ; Have handkerchief in readiness, wash hands and face, or see not me. Lose not your books, ink-horns, or pens, nor girdle, garters, hat or baud, Let shoes l»- tyed. pin shirt-band dose, keep well your hands at any hand. If broken-hosed or shoe'd you go, or slovenly in your array. Without a girdle, or untrust, then you and I must have a fray. If that thou cry, or talk aloud. or books do read, or strike with knife ; Or laugh, or play unlawfully, then you and I must be at strife. If that you curse, miscall, or swear, if that you pick, filch, steal, or lye ; If you forget a scholar's part. then must you sure your points uutye. If that to school you do not go, when time doth call you to the same ; Or, if you loiter in the streets, when we do inert, then look for blame. Wherefore, my child, behave thyself, so decently, in all assays. That tlem may's! purchase parents' love, and eke obtain thy master's praise." Sec !?AK.v\Kn, /v I 'm; it it ,,i i il Biography, 8. t. Ezekiel Gheever. COPY-BOOKS. See PENMANSHIP. COPYING, in school education, has several applications: ill Writing or drawing ley imita- tion from tin original, which constitutes an es- sential part of primary instruction, since the eye must be trained to the observation of forms, as well as the hand to execute them. Hence, the first lessons in writing largely consist in practic- ing the pupil in copying ( 1 ) the elements of let- ters, — straight lines, curves, etc.; (2) letters; (3) words; and (4) sentences. In connection with this copying, much incidental instruction is required, all of which, however, is addressed to the faculty of imitation. (See PENMANSHIP.) Rudimentary instruction in drawing must be of a similar character, beginning with lines in various positions and relations to each other. then passing to simple figures, ami thence to more complex forms ; but. in till these, it is the eve that must be trained through the faculty of imitation, simultaneously with the gradual ac- quisition of manual skill by means of constant practice. (See Dr \\\ ing.) (II) The copying, from 1 ks, of selected pas- sages in prose and poetry is a very useful exer- cise, if properly and systematically performed. Of course, this belongs to a later stag.' of ele- mentary instruction, that is. after the pupil has learned to write with some degree of facility: and. when the utmost accuracy is insisted upon, it will be found an effective means of imparting habits of correct spelling, punctuation, and the use of capital letters: and will also have a very beneficial effect upon the pupil's style, impressing upon his memory a great variety of words and phrases, and thus aiding him to acquire fluency and accuracy of expression. It was on this principle that Demosthenes copied the history of fORPERTUS CORNELL UNIVERSITY 183 Thucydides so many times ; since he desired to ■catch the style of composition peculiar to that it writer. What is particularly necessary in the use of language, both oral and written, is practice; and, without superseding exercises in dictation and composition, both of which are in- dispensable, copying, as here described, should be treated as an essential part of the school work. (Ill) The term copying is also applied to the reprehensible practice, often found to exist in classes and schools that are imperfectly disci- plined, of one pupil's transcribing by stealth what has been written by another. Weak or idle pupils will, if they are permitted, in this way avail themselves of the work of their neigh- bors, thus failing to receive the benefits of the instruction given to the class, and. at the same time, deceiving the teacher. The effects of this practice are. therefore, bad intellectually and morally, and all necessary vigilance should be ezercis sdby the teacher to prevent or suppress it. CORDERIUS. Mathurin (/•>. Cordier), a celebrated Protestant school-teacher, born in France, in 1471), and died in 1504. One of his most distinguished pupils was Calvin, who ded- icated to him one of his works. He published several text-books for schools, among which the best known is CoUoquia Sckolastica (Scholastic Colloi»ii 'si, published in 1564. This work was long and extensively used in giving instruction in the Latin language ; and, indeed, is one of the most noted school-books ever published. CORNELL COLLEGE, at Mount Vernon, Iowa, under the auspices of the Methodist Epis- copal Church, was founded in 1857 for the edu- cation of both sexes. The institution has three spacious buildings. The college campus, em- bracing about twenty acres, is beautifully de- signed by nature, and commands one of the finest prospects in the country. The college pos- sesses one of the largest and best collections of minerals and fossils in the AVest, a chemical laboratory, and a library of over 4,000 volumes. The college property is valued at $65,000, and the productive funds amount to $40,000. Free tuition is given in the preparatory and collegiate departments to disabled soldiers and orphans of soldiers. Five scholarships, endowed with $500 each, have been founded for the purpose of edu- cating destitute young men preparing for the ministry. The beneficiaries are exempt from all charges of tuition and incidental fees. There are a preparatory department, with classical and scientific courses, and a collegiate department, with a classical course, leading to the degree of Bachelor of Arts; a scientific course, leading to the degree of Bachelor of Science; and a civil engineering course, leading to the degree of Bachelor of Civil Engineering. The young men are required to practice military drill under an officer of the army detailed by the secretary of war as professor of military science and tactics ; a system of light gymnastics has been provided for the young women. In 1873 — 4. there were 25 instructors, and 405 preparatory and 54 col- legiate students. The Rev. Win. F. King,P. D., is ( 1 876) the president. CORNELL UNIVERSITY, at Ithaca, N. Y.. was chartered in 1865, and opened in L868. It was named in honor of Ezra Cornell, of Ithaca, who gave for its establishment $500,000 and over 200 acres of land, to be used as a farm and as a site for the university buildings. He has since made other donations amounting to Several hundred thousand dollars. The state trans- ferred to the university its agricultural land-scrip, granted by Congress, representing D'.Mi.oon acres, the proceeds to form an endowment for general and industrial science and art. The grounds lie a short distance east of the village, nearly 400 feet above Cayuga Lake, and command a splen- did view. The principal buildings are the South Budding, North Bunding, McGraw Budding, Sibley College, laboratory Building, Cascadilla Place, University Chapel, and Sage College for women (the gift of Henry W. Sage, of Brook- lyn), who by the action of the trustees, in 1872, are admitted to the university on the same terms and conditions as men. The value of the build- ings, grounds, and apparatus is $700,000; the amount of productive funds, $1,153,999. The yearly income is $107,500. State students to the number of 1 28 (one from each assembly dis- trict of New York) may be admitted each year. These state students are selected, by yearly com- petitive examinations, from the various public schools and academies maintained by the people of New York. For state students, for students in agriculture, and for all resident graduates pur- suing post-graduate courses, there is no charge for tuition or for the use of the library and col- lections; but for all others the tuition fee is $20 a term, or SfiO a year. Some of the students sup- port themselves wholly, or in part, while pursuing their studies, by laboring on the farm, in the machine-shops, or in the printing establishment, for which they receive from the university the usual rate of wages. Skilled labor is mostly in demand. The points in which this university differs from most of the other institutions of learning in the United States may be summed up, in brief, as follows: (1) The addition to the ordinary govern- ing faculty of non-resident professors and lec- turers, some of whom deliver each year courses of lectures upon subjects in the investigation of which they have acquired a high reputation; (2) Liberty in the choice of studies ; (3) The prominence given to studies which are practically useful ; (4) The absence of a marking system determining the relative rank of each student in his class; (5) The non-sectarian character of the institution. The instruction is comprised in four great divisions : general courses, optional courses, spe- cial courses, and post-graduate courses. The general courses are four in number, namely: in arts, in literature, in science, in philosophy. The course in arts, leading to the degree of Bachelor of Arts, extends through four years. It includes the Greek and latin languages, and is similar to 184 CORNELL UNIVERSITY the usual academic course in the other colleges and universities of the United States. During the first year, no option is allowed in the choice of studies. Iii the second year, everything is op- tional, except Greek, Latin, and the exercises in elocution and rhetoric. During the third and fourth years, everything is optional, except the studies 'in the departments of philosophy and letters. During the first and second years, Lit in and < rreet are required four times a week each : and after that they may be pursued through the two remaining years so as to occupy twelve out of the fifteen hours of recitation per week. The course iu literature, leading to the degree of Bachelor of Literature, extends through four years. It differs from the course in arts in re- quiring no Greek, and is characterized by a lar- ger amount of attention to the modern languages and English literature. The course in science, leading to the degree of Bachelor of Science, ex- tends 'through four years, and includes five hours a week,during the last year,devoted to someone science as a specialty. Its peculiar features are the study of mathematics, of the French and German languages, and of the historical, phys- ical, moral, and political sciences. The course ill philosophy, also of four years, is designed to be a scientific course of a higher grade than the pre- ceding. Latin is required for admission, as in the courses in arts and literature. It leads to the degree of Bachelor of Philosophy. Optional courses are those which the student may & for himself. In do course is it necessary, for the attainment of a degree, that the studies should be followed exactly in the prescribed or- der; and, in the general courses, equivalents are accepted, in some cases, for the studies indi- cated, provided they are of the same general character. The special courses differ from the general courses, not only in the studies which they include, but also in the important fact, that while the general courses have chiefly in vi « the culture of the mind, the special courses aim rather to tit students more immediately for some oik' of the departments of productive industry. There are eleven special courses: namely, (I) agriculture, with a full course of four years. leading to the degree of Bachelor of Agriculture; 'J i architecture, with a full course of four years. Leading to the degree of Bachelor of Architecture: (3) chemistry and physics: il) civil engineer- ing, with a full course of four years, leading to the degree of Bachelor of Civil Engineering; (5) history and political science: (6) languages, uprising three schools of the ancient lan- guages, oi living Asiatic and oriental l ang u a ges, and of modern languages; (7) mathematics and astronomy; (8) mechanic arts, with a full course of four years, leading to the degree of Bachelor of Mechanical Engineering; (9] military science: (10) natural history, comprising the school of botany, the scl 1 of geologj and palaeontology, and the school of zoologj ; (11) philosophy and letters, with a school of philosophy and a school of letters, the latter having a department of Anglo-Saxon and English literature, and a de- partment of rhetoric and general literature. No regular post-graduate courses have been arranged. The degree of Bachelor of Veterinary Science is conferred on students who pursue a four years' course in that study in the agricultural depart- ment. The advanced degrees of Master of Arts. Master of Science, Doctor of Philosophy. Civil Engineer, Doctor of Veterinary Medicine, and Architect, are conferred on holders of correspond- ing graduate degrees upon fulfilling certain pre- scribed conditions, and passing an examination. The general faculty is divided into 13 special faculties. The special faculties are those of (1) agriculture, (2) architecture, (3) chemistry and physics, (4) civil engineering. (5) history and po- litical science, (6) ancient and Asiatic languages, (7) North European languages, i 1 - 1 South Euro- pean languages, (9) mathematics. (10) the me- chanic arts, (il) military science, (12) philosophy and letters, (13) natural history. There are professorships of history: South European lan- guages; moral and intellectual philosophy: North European languages; agricultural chemistry: com- parative anatomy and zoology; English litera- ture (non-resident); English history (non-resi- dent); veterinary medicine and surgery: constitu- tional law (non-resident); general, economic, and agricultural geology; botany, horticulture, and arboriculture; mechanical engineering and ma- chine construction: mechanics applied to agri- culture (non-resident): analytical chemistry and mineralogy; German literature (non-resident); organic cnemistry and chemistry applied to man- ufactures (non-resident); Latin language and literature: < '< reek language and literature: rhet- oric and general literature: architecture; Amer- ican history I non-resident | : Anglo-Saxon and English literature; physics and experimental mechanics; military science and tactics: Span- ish and Italian: mathematics; civil engineer- ing: living Asiatic languages: agriculture: and I lebrew and oriental literature and history (non- resident). In L875 — 6, there were 23 resident and 8 non-resident professors. 12 assistant profes- sors, and L0 instructors. The following is a summary of the students for that year: In science L9 I. literature 45, philosophy IT. arts 43, agriculture 1 7. architecture 32, chemistry D3, en- gineering 82, mechanic arts 56, natural history 17, resident graduates 12. In the fourth year, or senior studies, there were 81, in junior studies 110. in sophomore studies 135, in freshman studies 154. Total, deducting repetitions, 531. At the commencement in 1874, 7 - _' degrees were conferred, namely: B. A.. I ; B. Lit.. I ; B. Ph., 3; B. S.. 30; B. Agr., 2; B. Arch.. 6; It. 0. B., L5; B. M. E., 1 : M.S.. "J: C. E., 4; Ph. D.. 1; in L875 the number of graduates was 52. The whole number of alumni at the latter date was :t.V_\ The university library contains 17,000 volumes. The museums comprise valuable col- lections in the departments of agriculture, archi- tecture botany, geology and mineralogy, mili- tary science, zoology and physiology, and in the fine arts. Male candidates for admission must be at leasl sixteen, females seventeen year- oi CORPORAL PUNISHMENT 185 Bge, and must pass a. thoroughly satisfactory ex- amination in the following subjects : (1) geogra- phy. ■-! English grammar, including orthogra- phy and syntax, (3) arithmetic, and (4) algebra through quadratic equations. This general ex- amination will admit them to the university as optional students, or as students in the special courses of agriculture, chemistry, and physics. For other courses there are some additional re- quirements. Andrew D. White, LL.D., has been the president of the university since its opening. CORPORAL PUNISHMENT, or the in- fliction of physical pain as a means of discipline in the education of children, has the sanction of high authority and time-honored example; but in recent times has fallen considerably into dis- repute and disuse. Its necessity and propriety have been much discussed; and there are, prob- ably, but few subjects in connection with prac- tical education upon which more diverse opinions are entertained : some contending that a resort to corporal punishment, in families and schools, is legitimate and necessary, others, that it is a "relic of barbarism," and should never be em- ployed, but that children can be, and always should be, governed by the use of "moral sua- sion," — an appeal to their reason, their sensibil- ities, and their sense of right. Anciently, the propriety of this mode of educational coercion seems to have been scarcely questioned. Sol- omon is emphatic in his approval of it, in proof of which the following citations from the Book of Proverbs are often used : • "He that spareth his rod hateth liis son; but lie that loveth him, chasteneth him betimes." — xm, 24. "Foolishness is bound in the heart of a child ; but the rod of correction shall drive it far from him." — XXII, 15. " Withhold not correction from the child; for if thou beatest him with a rod, lie shall not die. Thou slialt beat him with a rod, and shalt deliver his soul from hell."— xxiii, 13, 14. "Correct thy son and he shall give thee rest, yea, he shall give delight unto thy soul." — xxix, 17. "Whom the Lord loveth he correcteth ; even as a father the son in whom he delighteth." — m, 12. " Chasten thy sou while there is hope, and let not thy soul spare for his crying." — xix, 18. " The rod and reproof give wisdom ; but a child left to himself bringeth his mother to shame." — xxix, 15. Whether the practice enjoined in these scrip- tural texts is to be considered as sanctioned thereby or not, its existence, if not its usefulness and necessity, has been recognized at all times and in all countries. Horace refers to it when he says, "Memini [carmina] quce plagosum mihi parvo Orbilium didare" (1 remember the verses which Orbilius, my flogging (or feruling) school- master, used to dictate to ine, when a boy). Juvenal speaks of this school discipline as a matter of course: El nos ergo manum ferulce mbdtucimus; or, as translate! 1 by Badham, "And we ourselves .nice snatch'd the hand away From prone descending rod, as well as they." St. Paul speaks in a similar manner of the use of the rod as a means of family discipline : '• Whom the Lord loveth he chasteneth, and seourgeth every son whom he receiveth ;" and again, - God dealeth with you as with sons ; for what son is lie whom the father chasteneth not?" (Hebrews, xii, 6, 7.) St. Augustine says, in his. Confessions, " Discipline is needful to overcome our puerile sloth, and this also is a part of tliy government over thy creatures, God, for the purpose of restraining our sinful impetuosity. Prom the ferules of masters to the trials of mar- tyrs, thy wholesome severities may be traced." Mehmclithon confessed that his teacher made him learn by using the rod. {Nihil patiebatur me omiitere; quoties errabam dabat plagas mihi.) And he remarks. " Thus he made me a gramma- rian. 1 le was the best of men ; he loved me like a son, and I loved him like a father, and I hope we shall both meet in heaven." Dr. Johnson uniformly testified in favor of corporal punish- ment in schools. To Langton he said on one oc- casion," My master whipped me very well; with- out that, sir, 1 should have done nothing. - ' Gold- smith said, " It is very probable that parents are told of some masters who never use the rod, and are, consequently, thought the properest instruct- ors for their el li Id ten ; but, though tenderness is a requisite quality in an instructor, yet there is often the truest tenderness in well-timed correc- tion." Ooleridg • s iys, " I had r.^e just flogging;'' the cause being that he told his preceptor, that he "hated the thought of being a clergyman," be- cause he was an infidel. "For this," says he, "Bowyer flogged me, — wisely, as I think, — soundly, as I know. Any whining and sermon- izing would have gratified my vanity, and con- firmed me in my absurdity." (See Coleridge's Table T,\ fierce Cruelties fair Hopes undoe. I 'nam not, that they who are to Learning slow, Will mend bj Arguments in I'irio. Who keeps the Golden Fleece, Oh, let him not A. Dragon be, tho' he tiara Tongues have got. Why can you not to Learning find the way, But thro' the Province of Severia t 'Twas Moderates, who taught Origen ; \ Youth which pro v. 1 one of the best of men. The Lads with Honour first, and Reason Bale; Blowes are but for the Refractory Fool." The abuses referred to, and especially the strong tendency to cruelty and excess in the in- fliction of corporal punishment, have led to the. most earnest and emphatic denunciation of it in every form, and the advocacy of its total aboli- tion. In some places, all resort to this kind of discipline is strictly prohibited, and expulsion substituted in its place. The opinions of educa- tors in regard to the expediency of this measure are very diverse. Lyman Cobb, an extreme and enthusiastic advocate of exclusive moral suasion, expresses the sentiment of probably the entire class of thinkers to which he belonged. "I con- scientiously believe thai corporal punishment, as a means of moral discipline, is adverse to the proper, full, and happy development of the social, moral, religious, and intellectual character of those who are flogged ; and beca use. also, I be- lieve it has a degrading and hardening influence on those who receive it, and on those who inflict it." Here, it will be perceived, the argument is twofold, (I) Corporal punishment is hurtful and degrading to those who receive it ; (2) It de- grades and hardens the sensibilities of those who inflict it. The lirst proposition cannot be main- tained as generally true: since there are in- numerable examples to prove that those who have been habitually .subjected to the severest discipline of this kind in their youth, have grown up to be men of the highest character for talent, benevolence, and worth. (Sec Busby.) The eases of Johnson, I 'oleridge. etc., already referred to, are instances of this. The .second point of the argument would seem to be pretty well established by the -history of the rod;" since we see persons who have been accustomed to in- flict pain upon others in this way become harsh, CORPORA I. PCMSHMKNT 187 tyrannical, and unfeeling. At any rate, if this is not the invariable rcsult.it appears to be quite generally the effect of an habitual administration of this kind of discipline. (Jeorge IS. Knicrson says, " The great objection to corporal punish- ment is the fact that it excites angry passions. not only in the child, but in the master, and more in the latter than in the former. My own experience teaches me that the effect is almost necessarily bad on the individual who inflicts the pain. It excites a horrible feeling in him — a reeling which we might conceive to belong to evil spirits." It must be borne in mind, how- ever, that school-masters, in the past, were en- trusted with an almost unlimited authority and power over their pupils; and few persons are so constituted as to be able to exeereise any such p >wer for a long period, without greatly abusing it. At the present time, no such authority ex- ists; and neither public opinion nor the law would permit teachers to commit with impunity the barbarities charged upon them in former times. Very many, perhaps nearly all. of the arguments against corporal punishment maybe shown to be objections to its abuse rather than to its legitimate use. Thus.it is stated that the punishment is often inflicted in anger, that it is frequently excessive, sometimes administer. 1 without proper care and discrimination, or in an improper manner, or with unsuitable instru- ments. All this is true : and, perhaps, it may be truthfully alleged, that where corporal punish- ment is permitted at all, these abuses are, to some extent, unavoidable. The only questions, however, to be discussed are, Is corporal punish- ment ever necessary as a means of discipline ; and. if necessary, in what cases, and under what restrictions, should it be permitted ? The first question being decided in the negative, the sec- ond would, of course, be disposed of ; since noth- ing but necessity can justify the infliction of physical pain upon others. Nor does the show- ing that corporal punishment is useful as a ] an >mpt and expeditious mode of punishing the offenses of children prove its necessity ; all will admit that its concomitants and tendencies are, in many respects, so much to be avoided, that any other effectual mode of discipline is to be preferred. In judging of its necessity, we are to consider il) the nature of the child to be gov- erned, (2) the circumstances under which school or family discipline is to be carried on, and (3) the agents by whom the child is to be instructed ami controlled. All sentimentalism is, of course, to be eliminated, ami the facts of experience alone are to be appealed to. We must take human nature as it is, and not as we would wish it to be. We must consider the selfishness, will- fulness, idleness, and spirit of mischief that must be controlled or exorcised before instruction can accomplish its purpose; and before concluding that corporal punishment is never necessary, we must be prepare 1 to say. that, under all circum- stances, and with all available instrumentalities. this control can be effected without any appeal to physical coercion. Are there not children so self-willed, so bent upon mischief, so determin- edly wayward, and at the same time so devoid of sensibility or moral sense, that there is no way of controlling them except through the fear of bodily pain? Most educators say, from their own experience, that there are. The average nature of children is of this character, though varying in degree. They are ruled by their pro- pensities, while the elements of moral restraint are undeveloped, and hence inoperative. Says Dr. Dwight. " The parents' will is the only law to the child; yet, being steadily regulated by parental affection, is probably more moderate. equitable, and pleasing to him. than any other human government, to any other subject. It re- sembles the divine government more than any other. Correction which is sometimes considered the whole of government, is usually the least part of it, a part indispensable indeed, and some- times efficacious, when all others have failed." .John Locke, an enemy to corporal punishment, admits that sometimes children are so obstinate, that they can be subdued by no other means. Mrs. WiHard, for many years principal of the Troy Female Seminary, said in 1847. "I believe that corporal punishment should always be re- ported to as soon as other modes of discipline tail, and I have known some young persons whose consciences were so weak, and who had so much of the animal in them, that the rod would be for them the most beneficial mode of punishment." D. P. Page, an educator of long experience, great moral force, and singular kind- liness of nature, fully admitted the necessity of corporal punishment as a last resort. " I do not hesitate," he says, " to teach that corporal inflic- tion is one of the justifiable means of establish- ing authority in the school-room. To this con- clusion I have come after a careful consideration of the subject, modified by the varied experience of nearly twenty years, and by a somewhat at- tentive observation of the workings of all the plans which have been devised to avoid its use or to supply its place." Horace Mann, one of the most enthusiastic advocates of moral suasion, yet recognized the necessity of corporal punish- ment in some cases. "Punishment," he says, "should never be inflicted except in cases of the extremest necessity : while the experiment of sympathy, confidence, persuasion, encourage- ment, should lie repeated forever and ever." ,\n English teacher says, •• It is necessary for a child to learn that the violation of law. whether of school, society, or Cod. brings inevitable suffer- ing. The sense of right is so imperfectly devel- oped in children, that one of the ways of im- pressing upon a child that right is right, and wrong is wrong, is by showing that suffering fol- lows from one. enjoyment and a sense of satis- faction from the other." ( The Educational Re- porter (Txmdon, .July 1.. 1*74.) Corporal pun- ishment is sanctioned by Kosenkranz in Peda- gogics as RPOR AL PUNISHMENT with obstinate carelessness, or with a really per- verted will, so long or so often as the higher per- ception is closed against appeal." Under pecu- liarly favorable circumstances. — a condition of things which may be considered ideal, that is. where the home training of the pupils of a school has been judicious and correct, where all have been taught, from their earliest years, to obey their elders and superiors: and this not by vio- lence and severity, but with gentleness and firm- ness ; and moreover, where the teacher or teach- ers of the school are gifted with the same talents for discipline, — under such circumstances, most educators would agree that a resort to corporal punishment would scarcely ever, if at all, be necessary. I hit such are not the circumstances under which children are instructed in school. This point is ably presented by Horace Mann. " The children who attend school," says he. "en- ter it from that vast variety of homes which exist in the state. From different households, where the widest diversity of parental and domestic influences prevails, the children enter the school room, where there must be compara- tive uniformity. At home some of these chil- dren have been indulged in every wish. Haltered and smiled upon for the energies of their low propensities, and even their freaks and whims enacted into household laws. Some have been so rigorously debarred from every in sent amusement and indulgence, that they have opened for themselves a way to gratification, through artifice, and treachery, and falsehood. Others, from vicious parental example, and the corrupting influences of vile associates, have been trained to bad habits, and contaminated with vicious principles, ever since they were born ; — some being taught that honor consists in whipping a boy larger than themselves; others, that the chief end of man is to own a box that cannot be opened, and to get money enough to fill it ; and others, again, have been taught, upon their fathers' knees, to shape their young lips to the utterance of oaths and blasphemy. All these." as hi' says. " must be made to obey the same general regulations, to pursue the same studies, and to aim at the same results." More- over, the teachers who are to control these diverse characters and dispositions, are persons of im- mature age ami experience, with little, if any, special preparation, ami often morally and temperamentally unfitted for the work; and, therefore, as he further says. "He who denies the necessity of resorting to punishmenl in our schools, virtually affirms two things: ( I | That this greal uumber of children, scraped up from all places, taken al all ages and in all conditions. Can he deterred from tin' wrong and attracted to the right without punishmenl ; and (2) That the teachers employed to keep their respective BChools, are in the present condition of things, able to accomplish so glorious a work. Neither ■ if these propositions I ;it presenl prepared to admit. He also prudently remarks, that "it is Useless, or worse than useless, to say. that such or such a thine can lie done, and done imme- diately, without pointing out the agents by whom it can be done." These considerations assume, that every avail- able agency has been employed before corporal punishment is resorted to : for all educators are agreed upon the point, that this kind of dis- cipline is only, if ever, justifiable as a dernier ressort; that is, after every possible substitute for corporal punishment has been used. There is then one. and only one, alternative, as far as school discipline is concerned, and that is expulsion. To this it is objected that to expel a pupil, and particularly from a public school, is to acknowledge the inadequacy of the means to restrain him. " The vicious and ig- norant scholar," says 1). P. Page, "is the very one who most needs the reforming influence of a good education. Sent away from the fountains of knowledge and virtue at this, the very time of need ! And what may we expect for him but utter ruin?" In the city of New York, corporal punishment has been prohibited in the public schools since L870, expulsion being substituted for it. In the superintendent's report for L873,the following statement is made : " There is a large class of hoys whom our schools do not and can- not restrain, and whom, therefore, they cannot, benefit, but must send adrift, to find their way inevitably to the reformatories and prisons, after having committed those injuries to the com- munity which our school system was designed to prevent." It is further stated. " There are pupils, the sons of widowed mothers, who cannot be restrained at all at home: and when these are turned from the school they are lost indeed. To these children the city owes an education, and in order to be able to bestow it, it is bound by every obligation of right and duty to govern them: and if its chosen officers expel them, they evade a most solemn responsibility." On the other hand, in Chicago, in which corpora] punish- ment, though not prohibited by positive law. has been abandoned for se\eral years, the superin- tendent states [Annual Report for L874 •• Suspensions for misconduct, the greal bugbear in the sight of apologists for the use of the rod. have been far less frequent than in the years when corporal punishment was in vogue. The most favorable year under the old regime gave US one suspension for each 22.0110 pupils in daily attendance. The past year shows but one suspen- sion for each 48,888 pupils in daily at tendance.'' He also states that "a greater good has been secured at less cost than by the old methods. The chief element of cost has been time spent in discipline:" and added to this, is " loss of school time li\ enforced absence." The superinten- dent of St. Louis {Annual Report for 1869 70) Bays " Corpora] punishmenl is still inflicted in the schools of our city, but I am glad to Say in fewer eases every succeeding year. . . . Ex- perienced teachers affirm that they think it im- possible to do without it." The Report of the same superintendent for 1873—4 says. "We have had but very few cases of corporal punish- ment, when compared with former years, but CORPORAL PUNISHMENT 189 still tlif cumber is quite large when brought together. .. .Our general average is now about 1,000 rases per quarter for j>5.lil)0 pupils. Six- teen years ago, there was one hundred times (his amount pro rata." The superintendent of Balti- more (Annual Report for L875) says, " The rules of the Hoard allow the infliction of corporal punishment by the principals in cases of necessity: hut, it must lie said to their credit, that they have used the power but seldom. .. .It is to be hoped that the day is not distant when corporal punishment will he with us a thing of the past." This kind of punishment still survives in most Americanand English schools; but the frequen- cy and severity with which it was formerly in- flicted would not be tolerated at the present time. The opinions of practical teachers are generally in its favor; but the tendency of public opinion is towards its abolition, notwithstanding all that may be said in its support as being, un- der proper regulations, a wholesome and neces- sary means of discipline. In Germany, corporal punishment is permitted in the public schools, for certain offenses, as resistance to the teacher's authority, obscenity, irreverence, etc.; but its in- fliction is limited by strict regulations. In the school law of Prussia, adopted in L845, it is pro- vided that no punishment shall be administered exceeding " the bounds of moderate parental dis- cipline." and that the teacher may be prosecuted fur inflicting any excessive .punishment. Another loeal ordinance provides that " corporal punish- ment may be inflicted, but only after the lessons are over, with parental moderation and a due re- gard to the physical condition of the child." Blows with the fist, or on the head, are strictly prohibited. Similar laws prevail in the cantons of Switzerland. In France, the law of 1850, which is still in force, prohibited all corporal punishment in the primary schools ; and the sub- stitutes for it are such punishments as bad murks, confinement, the imposition of tasks, placing the names of delinquents on a roll of dishonor, etc. In Russia, corporal punishment was prohibited in the primary schools at a very early date ; but, in 1820, was restored under cer- tain restrictions. In 1862, a statute was pro- posed for the government of the schools without corporal punishment ; and this statute was sub- nutted to ( ierman educators for their criticism and suggestions. Of the twenty-one who presented opinions, eleven opposed the abolition of corporal punishment, and two favored it. while eight ex- pressed no opinion on that part of the statute. The statute was finally so modified as to leave the decision of the question to the local boards. The school codes of the United States are gen- erally silent in regard to the right of teachers to inflict corpora] punishment; but there are nu- merous judicial decisions in favor of this light. By English and American law, a parent may correct his child in a reasonable manner, and the teacher is in loco parentis (see 2 Kent, 205; 1 Blackstone, 453 ; 9 Wendell's Reports, 355 ; 27 Maine, 280 ; 32 Vermont, 123 ; 2 Devereux and Battle, 365 ; 4 Gray, 37.) In the last deci- sion mentioned, the Supreme Court of Massa- chusetts held that & ferule is a proper instru- ment of school punishment. There are numerous decisions which support this authority even while the pupils are going to or returning from school. In a case reported in 'A'l Vermont, 1 L4, the judges of tin' Supreme Court unanimously held that "the supervision and control of the master over the scholar extends from the time he leaves home to go to school till he returns home from school." The decisions of many of the state superintend- ents have also sanctioned this doctrine. Pupils of all ages are equally amenable to such punish- ment. (See 27 Maine, 266.) As to the offenses for which corporal punish- ment should be inflicted, and the proper mode of inflicting it, the following suggestions (of a practical teacher) would probably meet with universal approval from those who claim that this mode of discipline is, in certain cases, indis- pensable: (1) It should be reserved for the baser faults. A child should never be struck for inadvertencies, for faidts of forgetfulness, for ir- ritability and carelessness, or for petty irregular- ities. It is a coarse remedy, and should be em- ployed upon the coarse sins of our animal nat- ure. (2) When employed at all, it should be ad- ministered in strong closes. The whole system of slaps, pinches, snappings, and irritating blows, is to be condemned. These petty disciplines tend to stir up anger, and rather encourage evil in the child than subdue it. (3) In administer- ing physical punishment to a child, the head should be left sacred from all violence. Pulling the hair or the ears, rapping the head with a thimble or with the knuckles, boxing the ears, slapping the cheeks or the mouth, are all brutal expedients. These irritating and annoying practices are far more likely to arouse malignant passions, than to alleviate them. (4) The temper with which you administer punishment will, generally, excite in the child a corresponding feeling. If you bring auger, anger will be excited ; if you bring affection and sorrow, you will find the child responding in sorrowful feelings ; if you bring moral feelings, the child's conscience will be excited. Anger and severity destroy all the benefit of punishment ; love and firmness will, if anything can, work penitence and a change of conduct. — See H. Mann, Lectures and An- nual Reports on Education, new edition (Boston, L872) ; Remarks on the Seventh Animal Report of the Hon. Harare Mian/. hy the Association of Masters of the Boston Public schools (Boston, L844) ; I!< ■/>/>/ to the same, by Horace Mann ( Bos- ton. L844) ; Penitential Tears (Boston, 1845); Lyman Cobb, The Evil Tendeney of Corporal Punishment [N. Y., 1847) ; Cooper, A History of tl/>' Hod (London); K \iu. Rosenkranz, Ped- agogics as a System, trans, by Anna C. Brackett (St. Louis, 1872) ; Hecker, Scientific Basis of Education (N. Y., 1868); CuRRTE, Principles aial Practice of Common-School Education Edinburgh) ; Pillans, Rationale of Discipline Kdinburgh, 1852). (See also Aphorisms, Edu- cational ; Authority ; and Discipline.) 190 CORVALLIS COLLEGE COURSE OE INSTRUCTION CORVALLIS COLLEGE (State Agri- cultural), at Corvallis, Benton county. Oregon, was founded by the Methodist Episcopal Church, in 1868, and is still under its control. The state agricultural college was made a department of it in 1872. The value of the college property is $10,000; the endowment consists of 90,000 acres of agricultural college land -ranted by Congress. The sum of $5,000 is annually re- ceived from the state. The institution embraces a primary department, a preparatory depart- ment, and a collegiate department. The last comprises the following schools: (1) School of Physics: (2) School of Mathematics; (3) School of Moral Science: (!) School of Language ; (5) School of History and Literature; (61 School of Engineering; (7) Special studies of Agriculture. In chemistry and mathematics there are three classes (junior, intermediate, and senior), and in Greek and Latin two (junior and senior). There are four degrees conferred in this institution : (1) The degree of A. M., conferred on all who complete the course in the study of physics, mathematics, moral philosophy, history, ami literature ami language; (2) The degree of A. B., on such as complete the course in the schools of physics, moral philosophy, mathematics, and ancient languages; (3) The degree of U.S.. on such as complete the course, in the schools of physics, mathematics, moral philosophy, engineering, and the special department of agriculture; (4) The degree of Graduate of a School, on such as com- plete the course in any school. The title Pro- ficient is granted to any candidate for degrees who passes two successful examinations, one of which must be final. Both sexes are entitled to the privileges of the college. The tuition varies from 8(> to $15 (gold) per term, the college year being divided into three terms. An extra fee of S."> is charged for each modern language. The law provides for the free tuition of sixty young men, over sixteen years old, who are known as */"/>• students. In 1ST.'! I, then' were <> in- structors and 134 students, of whom 32 were in the agricultural department. The Dumber grad- uating was I (B, S.); the whole number of alumni. Is. B. L. Arnold. A. M., is (187(5) the president. COURSE OF INSTRUCTION, or Course of Study, is a seriesof subjects E instruction or study, arranged in the order in which they should be pursued, and grouped or divided into les, each to be completed in a certain time. Such an arrangement of studies is sometimes called a graded course, and, especially in superior instruction, a curriculum. When these various subjects are arranged in the form of a daily or- der of exercises, showing the time, or the number of lessons, to be given to each Subject, it consti- tutes the school programme. In order that the objects of intellectual edu- cation may be fully attained, it is of tin greatest importance that the course of instruction should be judicious in respect to several points: (1) The tion of BUbjeCtS : (2) Their order 0T arrange- ment ; (3) The number prescribed for simultane- ous study ; (4) The division of the course into grades, with a definite time assigned for the com- pletion of each. The first of these considerations is of paramount importance; since the subjects of study constitute not only the basis of intel- lectual culture, but the source of necessary in- formation. Two points, consequently, are to be considered in this selection : (1) The value of the subjects as means of culture ; (2) Their importance as sources of information. In the early stages of education, the first of these con- siderations should, without doubt, have the preference; but, as education advances, the second claims an increasing degree of attention until, in the sphere of technical and professional edueation.it becomes almost the exclusive aim. We cannot, therefore, decide upon a course of instruction without considering the nature of the mind to be educated as well as the objects for which it is to be educated. In elementary or primary education, the necessary subjects of in- struction maybe grouped into the following: (1) Language, including reading and elocution, spelling, the analysis and definition of words, grammar, and composition; (2) Rudimentary Mathematics, including arithmetic, mental and written, algebra, and geometry: (3) Elementary Science, or a knowledge of thin;/*, graded from the simple perceptive facts of object instruction up to the rudiments of geography, natural histo- ry, physiology, physics, astronomy, etc.; (4) History; (5) Graphics, -writing, drawing, etc.; (6) Athletics, — gymnastics or calisthenics. To these may be added music, vocal or instrumental, which constitutes a part of esthetics. In addition to these branches of study, in some cases, the rudi- ments of a foreign language are also taught. The distinction between primary and secondary in- struction not being definitely fixed as to subjects, some of those mentioned above may be deemed (\elusively appropriate to the higher grade. For proper mental discipline, there must, how- ever, be instruction in things as well as words, — the perceptive and coiiccptive faculties must be trained as well as the expressive faculties, so that the mind may be stored with ideas and their representatives in language. A proper discrimination between primary and secondary instruction depends upon (1) the kind of in- struction, and (2) the subjects of instruction. Science taught in the high school is a very differ- ent thing from science in the primary school ; in the one case we address to a much greater extent the higher faculties, abstraction, general- ization, reasoning, etc. : in the other, chiefly the perceptive and coiiccptive faculties. The Sub- jects of elementary instruction have beenclassi- lieil by an eminent educator as follows: "(1) Reading • >/"/ Writing — the mastery of letters; (2) Arithmetic the mastery of numbers; (if) Geography the mastery over place; (4i Gram- mar the mastery over the word : (.">) History — the mastery over time." In schools of secondary instruction (high Bchools, academies, etc.), the course includes also language — the vernacular, and one or more COURSE OF INSTRUCTION 1!)1 modern languages, and also the rudiments of Latin and Greek, particularly in preparatory schools; mathematics, including algebra, geom- etry, trigonometry, mensuration, etc.; science (taught as such i. including physics and chemistry, astronomy (descriptive, at least), physiology, etc.; to which arc usually added English literature. rhetoric, the elements of mental and moral phi- losophy, etc. What properly belongs to a high school or academic course is, however, far from being settled ; indeed, to tix the line of demarca- tion between primary and secondary instruction has scarcely been attempted ; hence, what should constitute the course of study in schools of this grade is an open question, which is usually de- termined by the circumstances and special aim of the school. Thus, the course for a business college, for example, is very different from that of a collegiate or preparatory school. The theo- ry of the common-school system in the United States requires that the pupil should enter the high school with a good knowledge of the studies already mentioned : — at least, reading, writing, arithmetic, geography, English grammar, and the liistory of the United States ; but it is a great error to suppose that these subjects can be fully mastered by an immature mind. " Until all education." says a thoughtful teacher, "shall agree as to the precise culture power of each study, as well as to the exact value of its impart- ed information, and shall determine, to the satis- faction of all, what particular faculties each calls into activity, and just how the calling into action of these faculties educates a man. it will be im- possible to establish a course of study which all shall acknowledge as absolutely the best." In institutions for superior instruction (col- leges and universities), the courses of study are also various, but they all include the departments of classics, mathematics, scientific studies, litera- ture, philosophy, and modern languages. In the American colleges, elective courses have, within a few years, become quite general. (See Boston- University, and Colleges.) The courses of study prescribed in the different cities of the United States for the elementary public schools, differ considerably as to subjects, number of grades, and time assigned for the completion of the course. The states do not prescribe any uni- form course : in regard to which fact Mr. Francis Adams, in 7%e Free School System of the Ui>it>-f a course of instruction — at least to the extent of defining the subjects to be taught, would go far towards settling the principles of common-school education, and preventing the abusesof which complaint is sometimes made. Thus, Deputy State Superintendent Danforth of New York, in addressing the State Teachers' Association, at the convention of August, 1873, said, " Our courses of study, in too many instances, indicate a disposition for the display of ostentatious learning rather than useful cul- ture. The desire for showy acquirements, treat- ing the mind as a receptacle for the storing of facts, irrespective of their use in giving mental nourishment and cultivating power, is a perni- cious evil." The complaint that the courses of study prescribed for the common schools, particu- larly in many of the cities of the Northern States, are burdensome in their requirements, has frequently been made. In this connection, Mr. Francis Adams remarks, " Our [the English] elementary course is generally longer than the American ; and yet ours is nothing like so ambi- tious a course. There is another difference between the two courses. In England, our attention is pretty much confined to the 'three R's ; in Amer- ica, what we call ' special subjects' are taught all along the line. A foreign language is often commenced in the lowest grade of the primary school." In prescribing a course of instruction for elementary schools, the special province of such schools should be kept steadily in view, — to give to their pupils the keys of knowledge, reading, writing, etc., and, at the same time, to discipline their minds so that they will be able to acquire and use knowledge in discharging the duties of their after lives. The division of the Course of Instruction into grades is sometimes made by topics, and some- times by text-books; and each method has its advocates. The former, it is claimed, gives more freedom to the teacher — more scope for the ex- ercise of intelligent discrimination and original treatment ; the instruction proceeds to a greater extent from the living teacher, since there is less inducement to confine it to a mere hearing of recitations. The subject is the paramount con- sideration; the text-book, secondary. The teacher, and the pupil also as far as possible, is requi red to consult various books, to compare their state- ments, to correct their errors; and thus, while perhaps a particular text-book is used as a basis for the instruction, a more general knowledge of the subject is imparted than is contained in any single work. Thus, if the study is the history of the United States, to one grade is assigned the Colonial History ; to another, the period of the Rfptthition and the Establishment of the Federal (rorcrirmriit, etc.; while, if the division were by book, it would be necessary that all the schools should use the same, and a certain number of pages would be assigned to each grade. For ab- 192 COUSIN CRAMMING solute uniformity, of course, the second plan is preferable ; but some educators claim that uni- formity may be carried too far, constituting a Procrustean standard, and tending to deprive the instruction of one of its most essential qual- ities, — its adaptability to different minds. Evi- dently the topical system makes more demands upon the teacher; and this.it is claimed, con- stitutes its great advantage, since it necessitates better information, higher culture, and more real teaching ability. What kind of development, it is asked, can result from the mere hearing of rec- itations? And what kind of influence can be exerted by a teacher that never goes beyond the narrow scope of the school text-book? Not that the legitimate use of text-books is to be discour- aged, but only a servile dependence upon them: and it is claimed that the prescribing of topics rather than hooks, tends to prevent this. Says I ». I*. Page, in Theory and Practice of Teach- ing, " A teacher who is perfectly familiar with what is taught, has ten times the rivacityof one who is obliged to follow the very letter of the book." For the courses of instruction of com- mon schools in the different cities, see the titles of the same ; the courses in the higher institu- tions of learning are given each under its re- spective title. No attempt has been made here to show what in regard to moral and religious training properly belongs to a course of instruc- tion for public or private schools. The various considerations appertaining to these topics will be found under the titles .Moral Education, and Religious Education. — See How to Teach (X. Y., 1874); Wells, A Gh-aded Course of In- struction for Public Schools (N. Y., 18G2); Francis Adams, The Free School System of we United States (London, 1875); Thomas Hill, The True Order of Studies (N. Y., 187(5). COUSIN, Victor, a French philosopher, and the founder of systematic eclecticism in philos- ophy, was born Nov. 28, L792, and died Jan. L5, I 867. He distinguished himself as a student at the Li/fi'i' Churli'undjtw, and in 1*12, was made assistant Greek professor at the Ecole Nbrmale. I lis early studies were rather in the direction of belles-lettres, hut he soon turned his attention to philosophy. Roger Collard had already re- volted against the sensationalism of Locke as deprave. I by Oondillac, and had introduced the Scotch philosophy into Prance. For a while. Cousin was an ardent disciple of Reid ; and. in L815, he became an assistant professor of philos- ophy with Roger Collard, and lectured both at the Ecole Nbrmale sun/A at the Sorborvne. In L817, he visited Germany, and became acquainted with the Kantian philosophy, which badagreal influ- ence upon his later teachings. In L821, his lec- tures were suspected of a bad political tendency, .■ml were indefinitely suspended, in L824, he went to Germany again, .and was arrested in Dresden on the charge of belonging to the Car- bonari, and sent to Berlin, where he was im- prisoned for six months. During this stay in Germany, he became acquainted with Kegel, Bchleiermacher, and Scheuing. In 1820, he re- turned to Paris ; and, in 1827, he was appointed professor of philosophy at the Sorbonne. During this period of enforced silence, he published an edition of Proclus and Descartes, and also part of a translation of Plato, which was completed in 1840. After the revolution of 1830, he be- came a member of the Council of Public In- struction, and later a director of the Ecole Nbr- male. In 1840, he became minister of public instruction, which position he held for only a few months, owing to the unsettled condition of politics. He was friendly to the revolution of IMS, but never had any political importance under the empire. His eclecticism was based on the doctrine that philosophy has always been either sensualism, idealism, scepticism, or mysti- cism. I lis constant oscillation of opinion is due to the fact that each of these systems has some truth in it ; and the true philosophical method, doubtless, is to take from each of them the true, and reject the false. Without some standard of selection, the product must be a mere philosoph- ical medley ; and such was the result in this case. Still Cousin's eloquence and his exalted moral views combined to make his lectures very popular. The crowds at the Sorbonne recalled the days when William and Abelard.had dis- puted there. He reorganized the system of primary instruction in France, and arranged the course of studies for the normal school. He also published several very full and valuable reports upon public instruction in Prussia and Holland. These have been translated into English. Cousin was an ardent believer in religious education. Purely secular instruction he thought more likely to do mischief than good. A complete edition of his works is published in French : and trans- lations of his more important works have ap- peared in English. — See Ripley. Philosophical Miscellanies (Boston. 1838); 0. W. Wight, Translation of Cousin's Course of Modern Phi- losophy (N. V.. L855), and his Lech/res on the Trin', die Beautiful, a/idthe (>tiiid(S. Y„ 1857); Cousin's Report on the State if Education in Holland, translated by Homer (London, 1838); and Report on the stale of Public Instruction in Prussia; with Plans of School-Houses, trans- lated by Austin (London, 1834). CRAMMING, a term used in regard to edu- cation, to denote the fault of tilling the mind with facts, without allowing it sufficient time to arrange and generalize them, to compare them with its previous acquisitions, Or to determine their real significance, as related to general prin- ciples. It is thus a kind of mental stuffing, and, consequently, is opposed to the true object of education, which, as the word etymologically considered implies, is Dot to pour something into the mind, hut to bring out, by appropriate exercise, its latent faculties, in college phrase, Students are said to eram for an examination, when they make preparation with undue ha-te, impressing upon their memory, by repetition, a mass of things about which they expect to be questioned, hut which, when the examination is over, they immediately forget. Such a process CRECHE CRIME AND EDUCATION 193 is exceedingly injurious to the mind, since it is a misdirection of its powers, wasting them at a time when they should be all steadily employed in the formation of those habits of acquisition and thought, which constitute the basis of a sound intellectual character. In elementary education, cramming is. there- fore, especially pernicious : and it is at this Stage, that it is the most likely to occur. It may as- sume various forms, but chiefly the following: (1) Crowding the memory with verbal/brwiwfoe, — definitions, rules, statements of facts, names in geography, dates in history, etc. ; (2) Overtask- ing the powers of the mind with a multiplicity of studies, or with such as are not adapted to its immature condition, and, therefore, cannot be comprehended ; (3) Undue haste in instruction, so that the pupils are compelled to commit to memory what they have had no time properly to digest in their minds. Cramming may be the result cither of the ignorance of the teacher, or of circumstances which compel him to violate the correct principles of education for some special end, as the preparation of pupils for a public exhibition in which they may make an imposing display of their superficial acquire- ments. (See Exhibition.) Such a sad perver- sion of the teacher "s work as this implies is of too frequent occurrence ; for parents and patrons are too fond of witnessing such displays, and there are teachers whose eagerness for praise or patronage is sufficient to overcome their sense of the true object of their vocation. They seem to work more for their own petty ambition or pecuniary gain than for the true welfare of their pupils. The evil of this is not alone with the pupil, but is shared by the teacher himself ; for by merely cramming the minds which it is his duty to educate, he fails to realize in himself the best results of giving instruction ; since, while "he may have the exquisite pleasure of see- ing the growth of his pupils' minds, he may also have the higher satisfaction of feeling the growth of his own." — See Blackie, On Self -Culture (Edinburgh, 1875). CRECHE, a French word signifying a crib or manger, but used in France, Belgium, and some other countries in Europe to designate a kind of infant asylum (in remembrance of the manger of Bethlehem). These institutions are supported and managed by either private per- sons or corporations. One of the most noted, and a model of its class, is the famous Creche Marie-Henriette, at Antwerp, named after the queen of Belgium. This asylum originated in circumstances caused by the cholera, in 1866. The ravages of the epidemic were very great in Belgium, but especially in the city of Antwerp, causing extreme suffering and distress among the poorer classes of the population. Many children were deprived of one or both of their parents, and thus left helpless and destitute. Others suffered almost as much in consequence of the sudden destitution of their parents. In order to afford relief to these unfortunates, the creche was opened in January, 186 13 through the efforts of a number of philanthropic ladies ami gentlemen; and since that time has con- tinued to afford an asylum to hundreds of poor children, both boys and girls. When the parents arc living, a small charge is made for the sup- port of the child according to the amount of their earnings. The institution is not a hospital, sick and diseased children not being received. Every child aged 15 days, or at most 3 years, whose parents reside in the city, can be admitted to the cr&che. The utmost care is taken of the inmates, both as to their nurture and discipline. No corporal punishment is permitted ; and ten- der treatment is enforced by minute regulations, both sanitary and educational. Perhaps, the most important function of the creche is the care taken of young children during the day, while their parent or parents are engaged in their work. Thus, mothers may leave their in- fants in the morning, and take them away in the evening, at a charge of 5 centimes (about 1 cent) per day, or 25 centimes per week in case of pre- payment. This feature of the creche distin- guishes it particularly from other classes of infant and orphan asylums. CRIME AND EDUCATION. The rela- tion between crime and education has, of late, engaged the attention of philanthropists, educa- tors, and statisticians. The progress of statistical research, in modern times, seems to have estab- lished the fact that there is a much larger per- centage of illiterates among the criminal classes of society than in the total population of any country. Thus the criminal statistics of France, in 1870, show r ed that the educated criminals as compared with the entire educated population, were in the proportion of 1 to 9,291 ; while the illiterate criminals were as 1 to 41, compared with the whole number of illiterate persons ; thus proving the proportion of criminals in the uneducated classes to be 226 times as great as that of the educated classes. The facts thus far published on this subject are, however, still very incomplete ; but they invariably tend to prove that the uneducated constitute the class of so- ciety most prone to crime. It, therefore, fol- lows, that every advance made toward the re- moval of illiteracy must have a tendency to re- duce also the number of crimes. It is also evi- dent that the more complete the statistical in- formation which can be obtained of the criminal classes of all the countries of the world, the bet- ter will statesmen and educators be enabled to establish with certainty the true relation exist- ing between crime and education. There are still, unfortunately, countries in which it is thought that the government has discharged its duty with regard to the criminal classes, when it has enacted criminal laws for the punishment of crime, and erected prisons and penitentiaries. The criminal is treated more as an offender against society who deserves to be punished and restrained from doing any more harm, than as an unfortunate member of society who should be re- formed. Great progress, however, is of late no- ticeable in the legislation of almost every civil- 194 CRIME AND EDUCATION bed country. The intellectual and moral con- dition of criminals is more thoroughly studied than before ; the causes which lead to crimes are more earnestly investigated, and the agencies which are calculated to reform criminals are more eagerly employed. The improvement which has already been achieved is, to a great extent, due to the prison congresses held in the Dinted States, as well as in Europe. The first congress of this kind was proposed by the in- spector general of prisons in Belgium, Ducpe- tiaux, and was held in Frankfort on the Main. in 1845. The must important was the Inter- national Prison Congress, chiefly arranged by Dr. Wines of New York, and held in London, in 1872. A second international congress is to be held in Europe in LS77. A permanent com- mission for the promotion of penitentiary reform, organized by the congress of London, met in 1874, at Brussels, and in L875, at Bruchsal, in the grand-duchy of Baden, Germany. In the United States, national prison congresses were held in 1870 at Cincinnati, in 1872 in Balti- more, and in L874 in St. Louis. The labors of these congresses, while being chiefly devoted to the improvement of prisons and of prison life. have also shed a flood of light on the causes that product; crinics. Beltrani Scalia, one of the foremost prison-reformers of Italy of the presenl century, estimates the illiterates among the con- victs of Belgium, Denmark, the Netherlands. Italy. Saxony, and Sweden at about one half of the entire prison population of those countries. Recent official returns show that the percentage of those who could not read on entiling prison, was 56 in Austria. 49 in Belgium, 87 in France, 4 in Baden, 12 in Bavaria. 17 in Prussia, 60 to !>2 in the different provinces of Italy, about 10 in the Netherlands, and :5() in Switzerland. In Ireland, 22 per cent of males, and •• per cent, the veiy deficient. 85 per cent. According to the census of 1870, the number of illiterates above 10 yearsof age was, in New York and Pennsylvania, 4 per cent of the population; in the central states. Hi per cent ; in the western and Pacific states. .'! percent : and in the South. 22 per cent. A com- parison of these figures which give the total num- ber of illiterates, with the number of illiterate criminals, shows that the illiterate classes of the population furnish a disproportionately large con- tingent to the number of criminals. The causes of this fact are plain. Ignorance unfits a man. to a considerable extent, for earning bis daily bread, and. in most cases, dooms him to abject poverty : the want of intellectual culture is. moreover, gen- erally COUpled with a lack of the feeling of self- respect and moral responsibility, thus leaving the poor victim an easy prey to the many tempta- tions which society offers. That education is a force restraining vice and crime, appears to be clearly established by two very important facts: (1) Wherever education is diffused among the people, the ratio of the number of criminals to the whole population diminishes: and (2) In all countries, the criminal class is mainly fed by the ignorant class. The conviction that the absence of education tends to increase crime, has induced educators and statesmen to strive to prevent this evil by tin' introduction of compulsory education laws. (See Compulsory Education.] The friends of this policy charge such states as fail to require that all children should be educated, with pro- ducing the \ery crime for which the criminal is punished. Opinions differ, however, as to the effect of compulsory education in diminishing crime, and as to the responsibility of the state government for uneducated criminals. Alison, in the History of Europe, boldly asserts the whole doctrine to be a fallacy, and presents sta- tist ies to pro\ c that crimes are more numerous where education, that is. what is usually con- sidered education, is diffused. ■• Experience," he says. •• has now abundantly verified the melan- choly truth, that intellectual cultivation has no effect iii arresting the source- of evil in the human heart ; that it alters the direction of ciiinc. but docs not alter its amount." Herbert Spencer asserts, in Social Statics, that " we have no evidence that education, as commonly understood, is a preventive of crime." Fletcher, in Summary of the Moral Statistics of England and Wales, Says, that the comparison of the CRIME AND EDUCATION" CRUELTY 195 fT-iniiiial and educational returns of England and o&er countries of Europe, "lias afforded no sum nl statistical et tdencem favor of, and as little against, the moral effects associated with instruc- tion. as actually disseminated among the people." These are, undoubtedly, extreme views, and can- not be accepted in the light of more recent sta- tistical information. They present, however, a strong argument in favor of improving the qual- ity as well as the quantity of education diffused among the people, and especially of the impor- tance of moral training as well as intellectual in- struction. (See Moral EmJCATlOlT, National Education, and Public Schools.) While. every one must hope that the steadily increasing diffusion of education will be found a powerful aid in reducing the number of crimes, all prison-reformers of the present day agree in expecting a reformatory influence upon convicted criminals through the means provided for their instruction. The provisions made in this respect in the United States are still inadequate; but great progress has been made of late years. Li- braries are common, 33 prisons in 1873 reporting 50,603 volumes, being an average of 1,535 to each. In some prisons, the convicts have the benefit of schools, individual instruction in their cells, and lectures. Secular instruction is reg- ularly afforded in the prisons of California, Illi- nois, Indiana. Kansas. Kentucky, Massachusetts, New York, New Hampshire, Oregon, Pennsyl- vania, Rhode Island, and Wisconsin. In some of these states, a school is held once a week ; in others, two or five evenings a week. The prisons of most European countries are also generally provided with a school and a library. In the so-called houses of correction, which are intended for the treatment of those convicted of higher offenses, the educational element naturally occu- pies a more conspicuous place than in the state prisons. Still more is this the case in the institu- tions for the treatment of juvenile offenders. (See Reform Schools.) An important discovery recently made by sta- tistical science, has sometimes been quoted against those who hope that, as education increases, crime will decrease. It has been found that in the number of crimes committed in a country, the annual reports exhibit the same regularity, as in finances, commerce, and other departments of civilized life ; and the inference has been drawn from this fact, that, however valuable education may be, no notable influence there- from on the amount of crime need be expected ; since that is unalterably fixed. This steadiness in the amount of crime was observed by Madame de Stael, and is made much of by Buckle, in his History of Civilization. Statistically it was proved bythe great Belgian statistician Quetelet, who adduces an aiTay of figures, which appear to render his position impregnable. Some have garded this as a law of fatality: but Quetelet himself states, that this apparently invariable proportion depends upon the moral condition of society, and, that if this be changed, the appa- rency uniform proportion of crime will change in the same degree. — See Animal Reports of the l r . S. (hmiHissioner qf Education tor 1872,-3, l: Alison. History qf Europe, from 1815 to L851, vol. i., and Miscellaneous Essays, h. v. The Future; Buckle, History qf Civilization in EiKjhtud (London, 1857 — 61); Poktkr, T/ie Progress of the Nation (Lond., 183(5 — 43) ; Spencer, Social Statics (London, 1850) ; Quete- let, La Statistique Month-, in vol. xxi. of Mem. de I'Acad. de Belgique (Brussels, 1848). CRUELTY (to Animals)'is a prevailing trait in the characters of children who have not been specially trained to habits of kind, considerate, and humane feeling and conduct. The activity of a child's nature, its love of sport, and its un- developed sympathies predispose it to acts of in- considerate cruelty. Thus, Locke remarks. "Some children, when they have possession of any poor creature, are apt to use it ill ; they often torment and treat very roughly, young birds, butterflies, and such other poor animals as fall into their hands, and that with a seeming kind of pleasure. This should be watched in them, and if they in- cline to any such cruelty, they should be taught the contrary usage, for the custom of tormenting and killing beasts will by degrees harden their minds even towards men ; and they who delight in the suffering and destruction of inferior crea- tures, will not be apt to be very complacent or benign to those of their own kind." The neces- sity of cultivating in children the spirit of humanity, is inculcated by all who have written on the subject of moral training. Says one, " I am far from thinking that the early delight which children discover in tormenting flies, etc., is a mark of an innate cruelty of temper ; because this turn may be accounted for upon other prin- ciples. But most certainly, by being unrestrained in sports of this kind, they may acquire by habit what they never would have learned by nature, and grow up in a confirmed inattention to every kind of suffering but their own. Ac- cordingly, the supreme court of judicature at Athens thought an instance of this sort not be- low its cognizance, and punished a boy for put- ting out the eyes of a poor bird that had unhap- pily fallen into his hands." Hogarth in the series of paintings entitled Tlie Progress of < hruetty, illustrates this vice in its several stages of formation, the first picture showing children engaged in various barbarous di versions. The effect is heightened bythe contrast of a youth who intercedes to prevent cruel outrage to a poor dog, offering a book to the inhuman young tyrant. To this picture the following lines are annexed : — What various scenes of cruel sport Tlio infant race employ; What future baseness, must import The tyrant in the boy! Behold a youth of gentler look ; To save the creature's pain, "O tallay at 'prisoner's base, where he domineered over hs schoolmates, to the battle by which he gains or loses an empire— the murderer from spinning a cock-chafer, or taking a bird's nest, to the mo- ment when his hand is dyed in the blood of the heart he has stabbed, or the throat he has cut." The need of specially educating the sympa- thetic affections in order to counteract this strong tendency in youthful minds, is t bus clearly shown, and many methods of accomplishing this result are suggested by educators. Habitual training, not mere precepts, can alone effect this. Locke points out a number of ways of instilling such habits ; such as accustoming children to be gentle and considerate to their pets, to be kind to each other, and to treat servants and dependents with civility and consideration. "Children." says he, "should be accustomed from their cradles to lie tender to all sensible creatures, and to spoil and waste nothing." Especially should they be cor- rected in cruelly treating those animals whose ex- ternal appearance is repugnant. " Children,"" says Maria Edgeworth," should not be taught to confine their benevolence to those animals which are thought beautiful ; the fear and disgust which we express at the sight of certain unfori - unate animals, whom we are pleased to call ugly and shocking, are observed by children, and these associations lead to cruelty." Another writer, in this connection, remarks. " It might be of service in order to awaken, as early as possible, in children an extensive sense of humanity, to give them a view of several sorts of insects, as they may be magnified by the assistance of glasses, and to show them that the same evident marks of wisdom and goodness prevail in the formation of the minutest insect, as in that of the most enormous leviathan." In the same spirit are the strong lines of Cowper : — Ye, therefore, who Love mercy, teach your sons Tolovi It too. The sprin^-timo of our years In Boon dishonored and defiled In most By building ills, that .-isU a prudent hand To i bed them. But, alas ! none Booner shoots, If unrestrained, into luxuriant growth, Than Cruelty, most dev'lish of them all. (See -Moi: \i. Edi LTION.) CULTURE, a term used to denote the im- provement of the human character by means of discipline, training, or self-exertion. It is used in both an active and a passive sense; in the former, implying the use of all necessary means and agencies to cultivate the human faculties, and in the latter, the result of their operation. ! 'ulture comprehends both development and re- finement; that is. not simply bringing into active exercise the latent powers of the mind or 1 « ii ly, but adding thereto a nice and careful dis- crimination as to their proper or improper ex- ercise, with a due regard to the circumstances which require their employment. Thus a man of culture not only is able to express his thoughts in suitable and impressive language, but knows how to adapt his language to the persons, the place, and the occasions winch caD for this ex- pression ; nor does he give utterance to his thoughts except when it is proper to do so. Hence, culture, in its mature stage, not only im- plies power, but restraint, both belonging to the inner nature of the individual. There are as many kinds of culture as there are departments of human nature, or special faculties, to be cul- tivated and improved. Thus, culture may be I ihysieal, intellect via 1. nu >ral. si liritual. and esthetic, according as its scope is the improvement of the powers and susceptibilities of the body, the intellect, the moral sentiments, the soul, or the taste. General culture implies that everything constituting the character of the individual has been brought to as high a degree of improvement as is possible. Special culture has reference to a particular department of human nature, or to the development of power in a certain direction. Thus, the culture of the poet, the painter, the orator, the teacher, the lawyer, or the clergyman is special, developing faculties needed in the par- ticular vocation of each. Special culture, how- ever, does not exclude general culture ; for no man need be merely a practitioner, or worker in any narrow sphere of effort. The object of higher education is to give this general culture as a basis for that which is necessarily special, or technical. The real instrumentality, in a certain sense the only one, by which culture can be effected, is self-exertion. None of the faculties, whether of the spirit, mind, or body, can be cultivated ex- cept by exercise. Thus a person can never learn to compose by studying grammar and rhetoric, nor to think and reason by committing to mem- ory the rules of logic. If he would learn to write, or to think and reason, he must write and think and reason, on the same principle and in the same w-ay as a perfon learns to swim, or a child to walk. This exercise is the individual's own work; but the exercise may be unsuitable and injurious, and, therefore, needs, at first, the care- ful guidance of experience. Hence, the need of an educator, until the individual has acquired suiliciciit knowledge and experience indirect the exercise himself. This shows the relation of education and culture, the one being the handmaid of the other. The instruments of culture vary with its special scope. For those of physical Culture, we must learn what a knowledge of physiology and experience in gymnastics dictate; those of intellectual culture can be judiciously selected only by studying the laws which regulate the operations of the mind. But we are par- OU MBERLA NT) r \ I V ERSITY CURTIS 197 ticularly to be on our guard in supposing that intellectual culture can spring from the mere study of other persons' ideas. True culture of this kind can alone come from (I) a patient, laborious, and diligent acquisition of ideas of our own, by observation and reflection; and (2) the study of the experience of other minds, and its verification, as tar as possible, by that of our own. "The original and proper sources of knowledge," says Professor Blackie, "are not In inks, but life, experience, personal thinking, feeling, and acting." And again, "All knowl- edge which comes from books comes indirectly, by reflect ion. and by echo; true knowledge grows from a living root in the thinking soul: and whatever it may appropriate from without, it takes by living assimilation into a Living or- ganism, not by mere borrowing." (See Self- Gutture, Edinburgh, ls"5.) This is simply an emphatic and illustrative expansion of the gen- eral principle above stated ; namely, that to cul- tivate our faculties, we must properly exercise them. No moral culture can be secured by the study of ethics ; legitimate objects for the exer- cise of the moral feelings must be sought for and discovered; and. more especially, the will must be trained so that it will obey the voice of rea- son and conscience, even amid the mightiest tempest of passion and desire. Related to this. is the culture of the soul — a culture which is paramount to all, and to which every other spe- cies of culture is subservient ; and just as one can learn to walk only by walking, to think only by thinking, and to live nobly only by acting nobly on every occasion, so one can only advance in spiritual culture by communing, by prayer and contemplation, with the Great Spirit, the Father of mankind, and the Creator of the uni- verse. True Christian culture comprehends the development of a capacity to do right, and to be right, in every relation which we bear to each other, and to our .Maker, simply by applying the general principle herein enunciated, of active beneficence, based upon the simplest principles of moral and religious truth. (See Education.) CUMBERLAND UNIVERSITY, at Leb- anon, Tenn., was founded by the Cumberland Presbyterian Church in L842. The value of its buildings and grounds is $20,000. The institution comprises a business college and telegraph insti- tute (at Nashville) ; a preparatory school ; a col- legiate department, with a classical course of four years, leading to the degree of Bachelor of Arts, and a scientific course of three years, lead- ing to the degree of Bachelor of Science; a Bchool of civil engineering with a two years' course, leading to the degree of Civil Engineer; a law .'■school : and a theological school. The degrees of Master of Arts and Doctor of Philosophy are conferred upon graduates who pursue prescribed post-graduate courses of study. A plan has been adopted, by which non-resident students, through a system of correspondence and examinations, may receive the benefits of the college courses. In L874 — ">, there were 13 instructors and 391 students (deducting repetitions) ; namely, com- mercial. 127; telegraphic. 38; preparatory, (if, ; collegiate, 85; law, 70 ; theological, 28. The university library contains about 7,000 volumes. The presidents have been as follows : F. If. Cos- sitt, I). I).. L842— 4; J. C. Anderson, l>. I».. L844— 1866; B. W. McDonald, D. D„ LL D., L867— 1872; Nathan Green, A. M.. L. B. (chancellor), the present incumbent, appointed in 1872 . CURIOSITY, or the desire to know, is a very important clement of the mind, in its rela- tion to education. The basis of the success of the teacher is the attention of the pupil; and while many instructors may appeal to the sense of fear to compel attention, he only can make a beneficial and lasting impression upon the learn- er's mind, who arouses his attention by awaken- ing a genuine interest in the thing to be learned; that is, by stimulating his curiosity to know that of which lie has become sensible that he is ig- norant. This feeling is natural to children, as being the active principle of their minds. Nature has implanted it for many and wise reasons ; and, therefore, it should not be repressed, but, on the contrary, should be stimulated and en- couraged. This is strongly enjoined by Locke, in Tliomjlils an Education. "As children,'' he says, "should never be heard when they speak for any particular thing they worrld have, unless it first be proposed to them, so they should always be heard, and fairly arrd kindly answered, when they ask about anything they would know arrd desire to be informed about. Curiosity should be as carefully cherished in children, as other- appetites suppressed. - ' Many educators, both parents and teachers, often err in frowning upon children for asking questions, and thus, especially in the case of those who are timid and diffident, seriously impair a mental activity which could have been made an important means of edu- cation. Of course, curiosity should not be allowed to degenerate into inquisitiveness or forward- ness ; but should be kept within its natural and proper limits : that is. as Locke says. " whenever reason would speak, it should be hearkened to." CURRICULUM. See Course ok Instruc- tion. CURTIS, Joseph, a distinguished friend of education in the city of New York, was born in Newtown, Ct., in 1T82, and died in New York, April 12., 1856. He became a resident of that city at the age of 16, arrd early mani- fested a dispositiorr for active beneficence. He served for several years as the secretary of the Society for the Prevention of Pauperism, and was active in all the public charities of the day. As a member of the Manumission Society, he ardently cooperated with Peter A. day. Cadwal- lader ('olden. Isaac M. Kly, and others in secur- ing the state act of manumission, which was passed in 1817; and he was afterward one of the leading spirits in establishing the New York House of Refuge, of which he took charge for about a year-, thus initiating the then novel en- terprise of attempting to reform juvenile delin- quents (Us2.">). Crevious to this, in 1820, he 198 CT'RTIUS DAKOTA was instnimental in opening, at Flatbush, L. I., the first Sunday-school for free blacks. Mr. ( 'urtis was also one of the founders of the Pub- lic School Society of the city of New York, of which he continued to be ;nt active and devoted member until its dissolution in 1853, when he was chosen one of the fifteen members of that society who, for a time, were to represent it in the Board of Education. He had been a diligent and sagacious business man. and always eminently practical; but he suffered great losses through the effects of the war of 1 sl'2 — 15. Few lives have been marked so deeply and constantly with deeds of genuine philanthropy and Belf-sacrificing benevolence, as was that of Joseph < 'urtis. not onlj in his public life, but in the inner circle of domestic privacy. — See \V. ( >. Boi bne, History of the Public School Society (N. V.. 1870); It. K. Pbiece, A Half Century with Juvenih Delinquents (N. V.. 1869); Barnard's Journal of Education, vol. i.: < '. .M. Sedgwick, Memoir of Joseph Curtis, a Model Man i \. Y., 1858). CTJRTIUS, George, a German philologist and author of school hooks, was horn at Liiheck. in L820,and studied philologyal the universities of Berlin and Bonn. In L842, he was appointed teacher at Blochmann's Institute (see Bloch- manm at Dresden; in L845, he became lecturer at the university of Berlin ; in 1849, extraordi- nary, and in 1851, ordinary professor at the uni- versity of Prague ; in ls.">4. professor in Kiel; and in 1 S62, professor in Leipsic, where he also be- came one of the directors of the philological seminary. Curtius endeavored to use the results of comparative linguistics to a larger extent than had previously been done in the study of Latin and Greek, and was the first who wrote a gram- mar of the (neck language for schools from thi> stand-point. This work {(.rru'diiscltr Si-huhp'tim- maiik, Prague, L s ">2 : 11th edit.. 1875), is re- garded as one of the best text-books in the prov- ince of the classical languages, and has not only been extensively introduced into the German gymnasiums, but has been translated into many foreign languages. The principles which are carried out in this book, are elucidated in a spe- cial work, called Erlduterungen zu meiner grie- chischen Schulgrammaiik (2d ed.. Prague. L870), and in many essays of his Studien zur lateini- schen und griechischen Grammatik (8 vols., Leips., 1808 — 75). In another work. Grundziige der griechischen Etymologie (2 vols.. 4th ed., Leips., L873), he undertook to find a strictly scientific basis for < bvek Lexicography. He also wrote Zur Chronologie der i?idogerrnanischen Sprachforschung (2ded., Leips., 1873), and Das Verbum der griechischen Sprache (1st vol., Leips., 1873). DACIER, Andre, a noted French scholar, born at Oastres in 1651, died in Paris, in 1 7212. He published translations of several classic authors, among them, Plutarch's Lirrs. Aris- totle's Poetics, the (Ed i pus and Electra of Sophocles, the works of Horace, and some of Plato's dialogues. He was one of the 39 schol- ars selected to edit the celebrated series of the classics i« usum delphini, prepared by order of I. oiiis XI V.. for the instruction of the dauphin. To this scries he contributed an edition of Pom- ponitis Pestus and of Valerius Placcus. llewas appointed keeper of the library of the Louvre; and. iii L 7 13, became perpetual secretary of the I Vendi Academy. DACIER, Anne, wife of Andre Dacier.and illustrious for her extraordinary attainments in classical (especially Greek) scholarship, was born in L 654, and died in 1 7*Jo. Her father was the eminent scholar Tanneguy-I A'fevre, by whom she was educated. Her marriage. in L683, to Andre Dacier, who had been her fellow-pupil under her lather's instruction, was humorously styled the "mania-cut Greek and Latin." She, with her husband, assisted in preparing classics for the use of the dauphin, contributing editions of Floras, KutropiuS, \ melius V ictor, and s< >uic others. She published also translations of some of the plays of Plautus and Terence. Homer, Aristophanes, etc. In profound and accurate scholarship, and acuteness of mind, she is generally thought to have excelled her h ,IIM«' I llUshalld. DACTYLOLOGY (Gr. S&ktuKoc, a finger), a method of communicating ideas by means of signs made with the fingers, composing what is called the manual or finger alphabet, and em- ployed by the deaf and dumb. There are two alphabets of this kind: (1) the single-band al- phabet, the origin of which dates back to Bonet (q. v.), and which is used every-where except in • beat Britain, and is gaining ground there; and (2) the two hand alphabet, which was originally invented by I'algarno (<]. v.). The former Off these alphabets was brought to a high degree of perfection by the abbe de I'Epee and the abbe Sicard (q. v.). (See Deaf-Mdtes, and Pkk.t. IIakvkv P.) DAKOTA was organized as a territory March '_'.. L861, being formed from the terri- tories of Minnesota and Nebraska. In L868, a portion of the extensive territory of Dakota was taken to form the territory of Wyoming. All this region originally formed a part of Louisiana. purchased from Prance in L803. According to the census of L870, the area of Dakota comprises 1 .">(). 932 square miles: and its population, at that time, was L4,181. The first permanent white settlements were made in L859, in what are now the counties of Yankton, ('lay. and Union; but there was but little immigration into the territory until L866, Educational History. The first legislature met in March. 1862; but DO School law was en- acted until L867, when an act was passed by the DAKOTA 103 territorial assembly, providing for the appoint- ment of a superintendent of public instruction, county superintendents, district directors, and hoards of Bchool trustees. This law was ap- proved Jan. ;{.. L868. In L869, another law was passed, which directed the election of a territo- rial superintendent, who should report annually to the legislature, and county superintendents, who were to report annually by the loth of November. The immediate government of the Behool-district was intrusted to a district hoard. composed of a director, a clerk, and a treasurer. Annual school meetings were to be held in each district on the last Saturday in March. The district clerk made the annual enumeration of children; and no district that had not maintained a school three months during the year, was en- titled to any portion of the school fund. Politics and sectarianism were excluded from the schools. In 1870, a genera] improvement in the schools, and an increase in attendance, were remarked ; the number of children receiving instruction be- ing 1.1 11. out of a population of 14,181, and the tries of teachers ranging from $25 to $100 per month, .Much trouble, however, was caused by the want of uniformity in text-books. In 1871, the school law was repealed, and a new one en- acted. In 1873, this was amended, the number of schools iu the territory at that time being, by an approximate estimate, 100, and the number of children of school age being 5,31 2. of whom 2,006 were reported as enrolled in the schools. About $22,000 were raised that year for school pur- poses. The territorial superintendents have been, James S. Foster, 1869 — 71; J. M. Turner, 1871 —3; E. W. Miller, 1873—5; and J. J. Mcln- tyre. elected in 1875, and still in office (1876). School System. — The principal school officer under the present law is the superintendent of public instruction, who is elected biennially. He is permitted to choose a deputy who must reside in that portion of the territory north of the 46th parallel of latitude. His duties are to exercise a general supervision over the schools, and to hold, in connection with the county superin- tendents, annual teachers' institutes, attendance upon which is expected from all teachers ap- plying for certificates. To defray partially the expenses of these institutes, the sum of $100 is appropriated from the treasury. The territorial superintendent, also, grants teachers' certificates, fixes the grades of county certificates, prescribes the text-books to be used in the schools, and makes an annual report to the governor. < 'ounty superintendents are elected by the people bien- nially. They divide their counties into school- districts, examine teachers, grant certificates valid for 3 months or a year, apportion the school moneys, and report annually to the territorial superintendent. District-school boards, com- posed of three officers, a director, a clerk, and a treasurer, are elected annually. Deriving their au- thority directly from the people of the district by vote at the annual meetings, their power, within the law, i> supreme in everj thing that relates to the building, purchasing, or renting of school- houses, the supply of furniture or apparatus, the employment oil teachers, or the direct govern? ment of the schools of their districts. They are authorized to send scholars from their own dis- tricts to the graded or high schools of other dis- tricts within a reasonable distance, the tuition fee for which may be paid from the teachers' fund. The voters at the annual meeting, or at a special meeting called for the purpose, prescribe the lengl li of time the s< hools shall be k( | it open each year, and specify whether their portion of the school fund shall lie applied to the support of summer Or winter schools. No district is entitled to any portion of the public fund unless it shall have forwarded to the county superintendent its annual report, within 40 days of the time speci- fied for holding the annual meeting, nor unless it shall have kept open a school for 3 months during the previous year. Each district may raise annually by tax on taxable property a sum for school purposes, not to exceed one per cent of the valuation. County or town assessors are directed to tax every voter $1 annually for the support of the schools, to which is added an ad- ditional tax of 2 mills on the dollar. The schools are free to all children between the ages of 5 and 21 years, and the number of such children in each district is made the basis for the apportion- ment of the school fund. Educational Condi lion. — The number of or- ganized school districts, in 1875, was 2!)6 ; the number of schools, 172. The school revenue was as follows : From county tax $13,138.41 " district tax 15,512.49 " other sources . . 3,952.23 Total $32,603.13 The expenditures were as follows : For teachers' wages $18,045.88 " buildings, repairs, rent, etc. 9,985.01 " incidentals and furniture. . . 4,572.26 Total $32,603.13 The following are the principal items of school statistics for 1H75: Number of children of school age (5 to 21 years) 8,343 " " enrolled in the schools 4,428 Number of teachers, both sexes 208 Normal Instruction. — No school has yet been estabbshed for the training of teachers, the sparseness of the population not permitting it. An annual teachers' institute, however, is held, the legal session of winch is 10 days. Four such institutes have, thus far, been con- vened, with a general attendance, on the part of the teachers of the territory. The provisions made in Dakota for any thing further than elementary instruction are, of course, very limited, the smallnessof the population rend- ering all attempts in this direction, up to the present time, premature. Writing in 1876, the territorial superintendent says: "We have no regularly formed school associations, except in si Hue of the older counties, which are beginning to organize county teachers' associations." The only school of a higher grade than elementary, is an academy at Yankton. 200 DAI.C ARXO DAME SCHOOLS DALGAENO, George, an ingenious Brit- ish scholar, teacher, and writer, chiefly noted for his publications on the art of teaching deaf- mutes, lie was born at Aberdeen about 1627, and died at Oxford in L687. He was educated at the university of Aberdeen, and subsequently taught a school at Oxford for about 30 years. His two celebrated publications are Ars Signo- rum, vulgo Character Universalis et Lingua PhUosophica (London, L661), and Didascah- cophus,ot The Deaf-Mute's Tutor (Oxford, 1 081). The former of these was an ingenious attempt to construct a system for representing ideas by ar- bitrary signs, and presents a very full and quite accurate exposition of the principles of deaf- mute instruction ; the latter work was designed "to bring the way of teaching a deaf man to read and write, as near as possible to that of teaching young ones to speak and understand their mother-tongue." I >algarno also invented a two-hand alphabet, from which the one subse- quently adopted in England appears to have been derived. His collected works were re- printed in 1 vol. -Ito, in Edinburgh (1834). — See Chambers, Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen ; Edinburgh Review (July, 1835); Annals of the Deof and Dumb, vol. ex., in which Didascalocophus is reprinted. DAME SCHOOLS, the uame given in Eng- land to small elementary private schools kept by women, and attended by young children, both boys and girls. Schools of this kind formerly abounded, every village and hamlet having its dame school. Shenstone in the School-mistress gives a probably correct, although satirical de- scription of such a school and of the dame that presided over it. "In every village marked with little spire, Embowered In trees, and hardly known to fame, There dwells, in lowly shed, and mean attire, A matron old, whom we school-mistress name; Who boasts unruly brats with birch to tame: They grieven sore, in piteous durance pent. Awed by the power of this relentless dame; Ami oftentimes, on vagaries idly bent, For unkempt hair, or task um-onned, are sorely shent." Although, owing to the present ample provi- sion, in England, for better instruction through the national schools, the need of dame schools no longer exists, yet they still linger in large num- bers, and obstruct the proper working of the Education Act. In theSchool Board Chronicle of Feb. (I., L875, there is the following suggestive complain! : " It is within the power of a few il- literate old people to set the elementary educa- tion act at QOUght,by giving the name of schools to the miserable places in which it is their mis- fortune to dwell, and professing to impart in- struction to children whose parents are desirous of evading the school board's by-laws." This would seem to confirm the descriptions of these schools given by Dickens in some of his novels. of which the following is a specimen : "The pu- pils ate apples, and put straws down one an- other's backs, until Mr. Wbpsle's great aunt [the school-mistress, or dame] collected her energies, and made an indiscriminate totter at them with a birch rod. A tier receiving the charge with every form of derision, the pupils formed in line-, and buzzingly passed a ragged book from hand to hand. The book had an alphabet in it. some figures and tables, and a little spelling; that is to say — it had once. " This description gives an idea of the interior of one of these schools, and the following, from (rood Words, is intended to represent the exterior : •■ The less pretentious kind of Dame's School chiefly differs from the brass-plate kind in that it is less pre- tentious, otherwise they are pretty equal in their in- efficiency. The mistress of the humbler school is not called a governess, but "the missis," or "the old lady." The missis not uiifrequently keeps a shop as well as a school : the scrawl announcing that a school is "kept here," appearing in the window in conjunction with a pair of crossed " church-warden pipes," a couple of bottles of sweets, half a dozen high-dried herrings, and a box id' such sundries as thread, tape, and stay- laces, and her school is supported on the same ground as her shop— because it is " close handy." Their "handiness" is the strong point of these schools; if they ceased to be handy they might as well takedown their banner, and close their doors. Hence it comes that one or more of them is to be found in almost every street, of quarters inhabited by the industrious poor. The mothers in such quarters will tell you that they are glad to be rid of their children tor a few hoars in the day, and thankful to have a place to send them to, where they will be out of danger and out of mischief. So they "pack them oil'" to the old holy's." The existence of dame schools in England has recently been much complained of. inasmuch as parents can comply with the compulsory attend- ance law . or evade it.^ penalties, by sending their children irregularly to these schools; and large numbers of them (sometimes called private ad- venture schools) have sprung up, within the last two or three years, tor that express purpose. The evil is difficult to control without more stringenl penal legislation than public opinion in England is, as yet. fully prepared for. In the United Slates, the country district schools are generally taught by young' women ; but the law requires that they should be regu- larly certificated teachers. To one such the beautiful lines of Longfellow probably refer. which may. with interest, be contrasted with Shenstone's quaint description of the school dame of his time. "She dwells by e;reat Kanhawa's side, in valleys green and cool, And all her hope and all ber pride Are in her village school. Her soul, like the transparent air That robes the lulls above, Though not of earth, encircles there All things with arms of love. And thus she walks amid her airls. With praise and mild rebukes ; Subduing e'en rude \ lllage churls, Bj her angl lie looks." Some of the private or ■•select" schools of the in ies answer, to a certain extent, to the English dame schools, but are of much higher grade of efficiency. There is no doubt that, as education becomes more diffused among all classes of so- ciety in England, the possibility of •• illiterate old people" keeping a school with the chance of ob- taining any patronage whatever, will become en- tirely a thing of the past. DANA DANCING 201 DANA, James Dwight, an eminent Amer- ican scientist, teacher, and author, born at CJtica, N. V.. in 1813. He was educated at Y ale Col- lege, where he afterward served as an assistant tii Professor Silliman, and subsequently (1855) succeeded him as professor of chemistry. He published several works of importance in the de- partments of natural history, geology, and min- eralogy. His school text-books have been ex- tensively used : among which maybe particular- ly mentioned his System of Mineralogy, ">th ed. (1858), and M,nitir. \\ Ik clock, the first president, and was named after Lord Dartmouth, who subscribed to a fund for the school. The college is not by its charter under the control of any religious denomination, but a large majority of the trustees have usually been Orthodox Con- -re-ationalists. The buildings front on a line campus on an upland plain near the ( 'onnecticut river. The institution has extensive philosophical apparatus ; and an astronomical and meteorolog- ical observatory, with a telescope, made by Clark, of 9.4 inches aperture and 12 feet focal length; j a museum of geology and natural history: a chemical laboratory; and a gymnasium. The libraries contain 53,900 volumes. It is supported by tuition fees and the income of its endow- ments, which, in all the departments, amount to about 0525,000. The college comprises an aca- demic department, the Chandler Scientific de- partment, the New Hampshire college of Agri- culture and the Mechanic Arts, the Thayer .school of Civil Engineering, and a medical de- partment. Funds have recently been given to establish a law department. While the college adheres, in general, to the idea of a settled and well -balanced curriculum, it admits, to a certain extent, the elective principle. (1) There is a choice, as students enter, between the three UB- der-graduate departments, — academic, scien- tific, and agricultural (2) In each of these departments, a partial course may he taken, em- bracing two. at least, of the prescribed studies, and securing an appropriate testimonial. (3) In the scientific department, there is a choice in the last year, and in the agricultural department in the laSl tWO years, between different courses i fhere are, also, a number of options between particular studies. The course in the academic department is one of four years, and leads to the degree of Bachelor of Arts. The cost of tuition is S!)(l a year. Aid is afforded to indigent stu- dents chiefly in the form of scholarships, usually yielding 070 per annum, but in some cases Slot). Of these there are | 1876) more than 120. Tlie Chandler Scientific Department was established by a resolution of the trustees, in L852, in accep- tance of the sum of 050,000, bequeathed to them in trust by Abie! < 'handler for the establishment and support of a permanent department or school of instruction in the practical and useful arts of life, comprised chiefly in the branches of mechan- ics and civil engineering, architecture and draw- ing, the modern languages and English literature, together with book-keeping, &c. The course is of four years, and leads to the degree of Bache- lor of Science. In the last year, there are two courses, — the general course and the civil en- gineering course. The cost of tuition is 060 a year. At the session of the legislature of New Hampshire in L866, an act was passed establish- ing the New Hampshire College of Agriculture and the Mechanic Arts, on the basis of the con- gressional laud grant, and authorizing its location at Hanover, and its connection with Dartmouth College. The course of instruction embraces three years. During the first year, all the students pursue the same studies. At the beginning of the second year, they are required to select either the special course of agriculture or the course of mechanic arts. The degree of Bachelor of Sci- ence is conferred upon those who have completed the entire course of agriculture or mechanic arts and have passed the final examination. The cost of tuition is £.'50 a year. There are twelve free scholarships, covering the charge for tuition, one for each senatorial district, established in connection with the congressional grant. Several scholarships have also been established by the I Ion. John ( 'onant, one for each town in ( 'heshire County. There are other scholarships available to worthy applicants from any part of the state. There is an experimental farm of L65 acres in the immediate vicinity of the college buildings, which furnishes opportunity to the students for remunerative labor. The college has also re- cently purchased 200 acres of woodland adjoin- ing the farm. The Thayer School of Ci\il En- gineering was established in 1 870, in pursuance of a donation of 070,000 from the late Gen. Syl- vanus Thayer, for the establishment of a special course of instruction in civil engineering. It is essentially, though not formally, postgraduate. The course of study is of two years. The degree of Civil Engineer is conferred on those whose pro- ficiency is such as to secure a ivcominendat ion from the board of overseers. The cost of tuition is 060 a year. The medical department was founded in 1797, and was formerly known as the New Hampshire Medical College. It has mu- seums of anatomy, materia medica, and pathol- ogy. The degree of Doctor of Medicine is oon- Pi ii.d after examination. Every candidate must dayidsox collkck DEAF-MUTES 203 Number of Number of ins true-tors. students 17 284 17 76 14 29 3 6 9 84 in- twenty-one years of age. have attended two full courses of lectures at some regularly author- ised medical school, one of which must have been at this institution, ami must give satisfac- tory evidence thai he has devoted three full years to his professional studies, under the direc- tion of some regular practitioner, the time Bpenl at lectures being included. There is a lecture term as well as a recitation term. The fee for lectures is S77. and for recitations S-10. Tin 1 statistics for 1ST.") — arc ;us follows : Departments. Academic Scientific Agricultural Engineering .Medical Total (deducting repetitions) 35 479 According to the triennial catalogue of 1873, the whole numberof alumni was 3,907. of whom 2,077 were living. The following is the list of presidents : Eleazar Wheelock, D. I)., 1769 — 79; John Wheelock, LL. I)., 1779 — 1815; Francis Brown, D.D., 1815—20: Daniel Dana, D.D., 1820—21; Bennet Tyler, D. D., 1822— 28 ; Na- than Lord. D.D.. LL. D., 1828—63; and Asa D. Smith. D. D.. LL. D., the preseut inciuubeiit, appointed in 1863. In 1816, the state legislature vested the prop- erty of the college in a new corporation, and changed its title to Dartmouth University. This act led to the famous Dartmouth College case, in which Daniel Webster made his celebrated argument before the Supreme Court of the United States. That tribunal, in 1819, declared the action of the legislature void, as being in contravention of that clause of the constitution which prohibits any state from passing laws im- pairing the obligation of contracts. DAVIDSON COLLEGE is situated in Mecklenburg Co., N. C, on the line of the Atlantic, Tennessee, and Ohio Railroad, twenty- three miles north of Charlotte. The name of the post-office is Davidson College. It was chartered in 1838, and is under the control of the Presbyterians. Its buildings contain spa- cious chapels, society-halls, and lecture-rooms, to- gether with pleasant dormitories sufficient for a large number of students. Its libraries, cabinets, and apparatus are well provided for, and are constantly receiving accessions. The site of the college and of the adjacent village is remarkably healthy, being free from malaria and other local causes of sickness. The value of its grounds, buildings, aud apparatus is SI 50.000 ; the amount of its productive funds. $85,000; of scholarship funds, SI 0,000. The college year is divided into two tenns, and the cost of tuition is $30 for the first term, and Sin for the second. < andidates for the ministry are not required to pay for tuition while under the care of some Presbytery. The college has a classical course of four years, lead- ing to the degree of Bachelor of Arts, and a scientific course of three years, leading to the de- greed Uachelor of Science. Students not wish- ing to take a regular course, but to acquire a knowledge of particular branches are permitted to do so at the discretion of the faculty. In 1ST.! ^4, there were six professors, one adjunct professor. 1 17 students (classical. 9s ; scientific, 15; eclectic, I), 9,000 volumes in the libraries, and 351 alumni. The presidents have been as follows: the Rev. I!. II. Morrison. D. D., 1 years; the I lev. Saml. Williamson, D. 1)., 13 years ; the I lev. Drury Lacy, D. 1)., 6 years : the Rev. J. L. ELirkpatrick, D. D., 6 years; the Rev. O. W. Mcl'hail. D. D., LL. D.. 5 years. There is now (lsT(i) no president, Prof. John R. Rlake, M. A., having been chairman of the faculty since 1871. DAVIES, Charles, a noted American mathematician and teacher, born at Washing- ton, Ct., in 1798; died at Fishkill, X. V., in 1876. Lie graduated, in 1 815, at the West Point Academy, and subsequently filled, in the same, the positions of tutor, assistant professor, and professor of mathematics, the latter from 1823 to 1837. He afterward occupied a similar position iu Trinity College, J iartford, aud subsequently in the University of the city of New York, and in Columbia College, of the latter of which he was made emeritus professor. Prof. Pavies was chiefly known by his series of school and college text-books in the various departments of mathematical study, which have had a wide circulation. He also published Logic of Mathematics, and in connection with Prof, (jr. W. Peck, a Mathematical Dictionary ami Cyclopaedia of Mathematical Science (X. Y., 1855). DAY, Jeremiah, a noted American edu- cator and author, and the president of Yale Col- lege from 1817 to 1846. He was born in New Preston, Ct., Aug. 3., 1873, and died in New Haven Aug. 22., 1867. His chief publications were An Introduction to Algebra (1814), Men- suration of Siqierficies and Solids (1814), Plane Trigonometry (1815), and Navigation and Sur- veying (1817); also .4// Inquiry on the Self-De- termining Power of the Will, or Contingent Vol il ion (1838), and An Examination of Presi- dent Edwards's Inquiry as to the Freedom of the 117//(IS41). President Day was a close and vigorous thinker, and as a teacher was distin- guished for the clearness and simplicity of his methods of illustration. His kindness of heart and urbanity of demeanor secured the respect of all who knew him. both friends and pupils. An address commemorative of his life and services, was delivered in L867, by president Woolsey.his successor in Yale College. DEAF-MUTES, or Deaf and Dumb, a class of persons, scattered throughout every na- tion in a greater or less proportion, who cannot lieai- the sound of the human voice, and, conse- quently, lose that sympathetic association which exists between the organs of hearing and speech, so that the latter are rendered inactive. The decennial enumerations of the United States and Greal Britain, and the censuses of most of the countries of continental Europe, have supplied 204 DEAF-MUTES statistical information as to the number of deaf- mutes. The proportion to the population is quite diverse, varying in Europe from ,1 in l.nno to 1 in 2,000. In the United States, the average proportion is 1 in 2380; while in England it is about 1 in 2,000. Heme, it is obvious that the actual number of the deaf and dumb is quite large. According to the census of L870, the total number in the United States was L6.205, of whom 8,916 were males: and 7,289, females. The number between the ages of 5 and 20 was re- ported as 7,648. In many cases, they are deaf from birth; in others, the loss of hearing is caused by accident or disease at an early age. or in some cases, later in life; but deafness is almost always followed by a loss of speech, from disuse of the organs and a want of ability to modulate the voice. In the first few months of life, little difference can be perceived between the child who lias its hearing perfect, and the one born deaf. The effect of sound is not often thought of by the parents and friends, in some instances, till the child is two years of age : and, even when deafness is suspected, the means em- ployed to ascertain the fact are often such as to confound the nervous condition of the whole body with that of the portion solely connected with the ear. In former times, the little one was con- sidered as a doomed being, and sorrow took the place ot joy in the breast of the parents. Among some nations, deaf persons were regarded as be- ing under the curse of Heaven. Among some barbarous nations, they were called monsters, and put to death when three years old. or as soon as their deafness was satisfactorily ascertained. They were considered by the Romans and some contemporary nations. if not as positive idiots. yet as deficient in intellect, and, consequently, were abridged of their civil rights; as we find in the code of Justinian. Oondillac, at a compara- tively recent period, denied them the faculty of memory and the power of reasoning. Many parents, even at the present time, consider them- selves disgraced by having a deal and dumb child, ami studiously conceal the fact from the world. Such children have been, in almost every age, regarded as beings between man and the brute creation with respect to mental capacity and endowment ; but, if we reflect but a moment, we shall find that the result of being deaf and dumb, is to be ignorant, not to be weak, — ignorant of science, ignorant of history, of morality, and. above all. ignoranl of religion, and thus virtually "without God in the world.'' The limited circle of purely intellectual ideas which these unfortunates possess. i,> a natural consequence of their limited intercourse with those around them. They are shut out from communion with the world in things which in- terest others, from a knowledge of literature and history, and, in many cases, from all mean.-- of amusement, in some cases, it has happened that they h;i\e beeiiine idiots, consequent Upon the Qon-employmen1 of the natural powers of the mind. In other cases, they have become de- ranged by the indulgence of headstrong, impel uous passion, in the absence of a control of judg- ment : by fretful impatience at the dim percep- tion of unknown or unattainable excellence seen in others; by a total unfitness for nearly all the occupations of their fellow beings ; by an entire exclusion from the vast stores of knowledge dis- played to their view in books; or by an igno- rance of the truths of religion. All these causes operating upon a sensitive nature, may easily un- set tie the reason. Such was. and is. the sad condition of the un- educated deaf and dumb, and by many it was asserted to be irremediable. St. Augustine de- clared it was beyond the resources of art, and even the limits of possibility, to instruct the deaf and dumb; and. in proof of it, he quoted, Romans, x. IT. " Faith cometh by hearing, and hearing by the word of *■ Loquda per Gestum Digi- torum. This hook was first printed in L 532, and its plates showing the finger alphabet are prob- ably the earliest illustrations of dactylology in existence. Efforts were made in the early part of the 1 6th century, to imparl instruction to the deaf and dumb, but to only a limited number. The first .systematic attempt to educate deaf-mutes was that of Pedro I" se de Leon, at Ona, in Spain, about L 550, who taught two or three to read, write, and articulate. Later, Juan I'ablo Bonet, also in Spain, taught a few, and published, in L620, a treatise on the subject, with a manual alphabet, the same which is now used in Europe and America. (See Bonet.) Some learned men in Italy also taught single persons; as Cardan, who instructed the prince of Carignan, and I'ietro di Castro, who instructed the Prince oi Savoy. A number of works on the instruction ot the deaf and dumb were published in Spain. Italy, and Holland, before L650. In 1653, Dr. John Wallis instructed two deaf-mutes, and was the first practical instructor of the deaf and dumb in England. In L667, Van Belmont, a native of Holland, published a tract, entitled Alphabetum Natures, in which he explained the DEAE-MUTKS 205 process of reading from the lips. The two-hand alphabet, now used in England, was invented by Dalgarno, in L680. (See Dalgarno.) In L749, Rodriguez Pereira exhibited some pupils before the ieademyof Sciences, at Paris, who oould read and converse audibly; but lie kept his method secret, ami it perished with him. In L754, Samuel lleinicke taught one pupil suc- cessfully: and, in 1774. he opened a school at Leipsic, which was the first of the kind established by any civil government. This school still exists, and its success in teaching articulation led to the adoption of that system in most of the German in- siiiuti >ns. In 1755, the abbe Del'Epee, through a fortuitous circumstance, commenced his labors among the indigent deaf and dumb, in France, and founded a school in Paris, which, after a few vcars. became the Royal Institution of Prance. Be used the natural language of signs as the in- strument of instruction. He was succeeded by the abbe Sicai'd. one of whose pupils, Laurent < Here, accompanied Rev. Thomas 1 1. ( rallaudet to the United States, and aided him in establishing the American Asylum at Hartford. Ct., under the patronage of the New England states; and from that, institutions have sprung up in many of the United States. From these insti- tutions, many deaf-mutes have gone forth into the world, and have become eminent in various walks of life. In our own country, we may name Le ( derc, as a teacher ; Levi S. Backus, as an editor ; .i 1*70 1870 1872 1871 1874 CONTROL Directors Corporation . Directors.. . . State State State State State Trustees State Trustees State State Trustees Trustees Trustees Trustees State Trustees Trustees National State State R. Cath State National Trustees Association.. Private State Directors . . . State Municipal . . . School Board Private Private Regents State Trustees Private State 275 584 271 103 468 430 96 334 136 138 52 204 19 176 80 51 157 51 44 113 68 66 104 80 92 70 104 84 35 43 65 12 40 52 30 12 6 12 o —1 u a -*^ CO 104,000 50,000 17,000 81,000 72,000 40,000 70,000 28,000 40,000 14,500 33,000 52,000 35,000 8,500 22,000 31,000 15,000 10,000 88,000 1S,(I()() 36,000 26,000 16,500 30,000 33,000 h;, 111 in 2,000 6,000 525 25,000 10,000 5,000 .•*} a> 3 •522 .a 250,000 543,000 325,000 125,000 800,000 340,000 160,000 685,000 150,000 50,000 40,000 150,000 375,000 110,000 40,000 200,000 170,000 50,000 50,000 500,000 75,000 300,000 125,000 33,000 175,000 55,000 18,000 45,000 35,000 60,000 20,000 17,000 7,000 $175 per pupil from the New England States. 206 DEAF-MUTES DEBATING The first institution for the education of deaf- mutes in the United States was opened, as stated before, in Bartford, Ct., April 15., 1817, under the auspices of the Rev. 'I'll. EL Gallaudet. (See Gallaudet.] Associated with him was Laurent ( Mere, one of the most talented of Sicard's pupils, who had accompanied Mr. Gallaudet on his return to the united States after a visit to Europe, which he had made to acquire a knowl- edge of the methods of deaf mute instruction. At first, the Connecticut institution had only 7 pupils, but accessions during the year made the number 33. Congress, soon afterward, do- nated tu it a township of wild land, the proceeds of which now form a fund of $339,000. This gift led to its assuming the name of American Asylum. The New York Asylum was opened in 1818. The fundamental principles on which nearly all the American institutions are con- ducted, are those first introduced by De L'Epee, modified as shown to be necessary in order to facilitate the acquirement of language and an ad- vancement in knowledge. There are now about 2.">0 schools for (leaf-mutes in the world. In L850, there were 227 in Europe, and 23 in America. MMie greater Dumber in Europe teach articulation alone: while, in America, more dependence is placed upon acquiring the ability to use written language. MMie first regular school for deaf-mutes in Great Britain was that established near Edin- burgh by Thomas Braidwood, and from this have descended the present public institutions for deaf-mute instruction in Great Britain. (See Braidwood, and Peet, II. P.) Systems qf Instruction. — Two methods or systems of teaching are in use (with some molli- fications) in nearly all the institutions in the world. One is that of articulation and lip- reading (sometimes called the German method, because used in most of the German schools), the other that of writing, or the sign lan- guage. Both have their special advocates; and each it is claimed, possesses superior facilities, for educating the deaf and dumb. In teaching ar- ticulation, the pupil is placed before the teacher, who begins with the vowels, and requires the pupil to watch the motions he makes with his mouth, lips, and throat : he places the pupil's hand upon his own throat, so as to feel the dif- ferent movements, and then imitate them him- self. When he has succeeded in some degree, the consonants are introduced and practiced for a longer or shorter time, according to the ability or aptitude of the pupil. Simple words are then introduced, and their meaning illustrated liy pointing ou1 the object, action, etc.; and as prog- ress IS made ill this, qualities and actions are introduced. This course must be continued, and the lessons repeated, till the pupil can read the lips of the tcadicr. and communicate his own thoughts, in questions and answers, [leading must then be taught ; and the knowledge of lan- ge already acquired aids the pupil ill under- standing what he reads. It will be apparent that this 18 a work requiring much time and patience on the part of the teacher as well as of the pupil, merely to acquire the meaning of the words and their proper pronunciation. Most of the Institutions in the United States give more or less instruction in articulation, generally in special departments. The (Marke Institution, the Boston Day School, the X. Y. Institution for Improved Instruction, and Whipple's Home School make articulation a specialty. This mode of teaching is especially adapted to the condition of semi-niutes, who still retain some remnant of the ability to use spoken language. Experience has shown that children deprived of the sens, of hearing can learn by means of sight and feel- ing, to distinguish the various elements of speech, to read them from the speaker's lips, and to imitate them in articulation. The other method, writing and sign-making, is substantially taught in the following manner: An object is shown to the pupil, as for example, a cat. and the natural sign made for it. an out- line is then drawn on the slate, and c-a-t is writ- ten in the outline ; the same sign is applied to the name as was applied to the object and the outline: and the pupil thus learns the word. The object is removed and the outline rubbed out; the same sign is used for the word alone. and the pupil soon associates it with the object. Other objects are presented, and the same proc- ess repeated. MMie color of the cat is then taught: as, if black, that is joined to the name, and black nil is learned ; then action is represented, as black r,ii eats ; and then the object follows, 2>&zc& cat eats meat MMie phrases are lengthened as the pupil proceeds, and short stories are related by signs, and written down by the pupil, the proper distinctions being made at the time, so that the pupil, in a short time, is enabled to use language properly. An important feature of this method is. that the pupil begins at once to learn words which convey meaning, without the slow process of learning the alphabet, the single letters of which convey no ideas; and in this manner the mind is quickened, and incited to redoubled activity by the knowledge gained. As this proceeds, the pupil becomes familiar with the printed as well as the written characters, and soon understands short simple phrases; and then only a few months arc required to enable the pupil to understand elearly what is related to him. — See John Wallis, Letter to Thomas Beverley in the Philosophical Transactions (»ct.. L698); Joseph Watson, Instruction of the Deaf and Dumb (London. 1809); De YEvkk. La veritable maniere etc (Paris. [784), English translation (London, L801) ; American Annals of the Beaf and Dumb; Svi.i:. .1 Summary qf the Researches etc ., A. B., and B. L. A. A. B., Bachelor of Arts. A. L., Laureate of Arts. A. SI., Muster of Arts. A. s.. Sister of Arts. 1!. A.. Bachelor of Agriculture. B. Arch., Bachelor of Architecture, B. C. K.. Bachelor of Civil Engineering. B. L. A., Bachelor of Liberal Arts. B. M. E., Bachelor of Mining Engineering. C. E., Civil Engineer. C. & M. E.. Civil and Mining Engineer. D. B., Bachelor of Divinity. D. C. L., Doctor of Civil Laws. D. D., Doctor of Divinity. D. D. M., Doctor (A Dental Medicine* D. E., Dynamic Engineer. D. Sc, Doctor of Science. L. B. , Bachelor of Letters. LL. B., Bachelor of Laws. LL. D., Doctor of Laws. L. Sc. Laureate of Science. M. B., Bachelor of Medicine. M. D. Doctor of Medicine. M. E., Mining Engineer. M. E. L., Mistress of English Literature. M. L. A., Mistress of Liberal Arts. M. L. L., Mistress of Liberal Learning. M. Be, Mistress of Science. Mis. Mas., Mistress of Music. Mus. B., Bachelor of Music. Mas. D., Doctor of Music. Ph. B., Bachelor of Philosophy. Ph. D., Doctor of Philosophy. Sc. B., Bachelor of Science. Sc. M., Master of Science. S. T. I)., Sacrae Theologiae Doctor. As the title Doctor of Medicine, when con- ferred by a medical faculty, alone entitles its holder in some countries to practice, attempts have, in many cases, been made by incompetent persons to purchase it, and by dishonest persons to make money by selling it. The greatest noto- riety, in this respect, has been gained by a so- called faculty of medicine in Pennsylvania, which carried on the sale of the title of Doctor of Medicine for a considerable time, not ordy in the United States, but all over P]urope, until the legislature of Pennsylvania put a stop to this nefarious business. In Germany, an article by the historian Theodor Mommsen (in Preussische Jahrbucker xxxvn. 1.) severely censured several of the universities of the minor states for pro- moting absent candidates who had merely sent in a written dissertation, and prostituting the honor of German science for mercenary purposes. The article produced a profound impression, and, early in 1876, induced all the incriminated uni- versities to abolish the promotiones in absentia. Many writers, in modern times, have main- tained, that "degrees have always been. and must continue to be, utterly worthless." Among those who severely censured the way in which degrees formerly were and, in general, still are conferred, was Dr. Adam Smith, in his Wealth of Na- tions. The same writer more fully develops his views in a letter on Dr. Cullen, which is given in Dr. McCulloch's edition of that work. He con- tends that the value of a degree must always de- pend on the disinterested character of the parties 210 DELAWARE who confer it, and that, therefore, the system hitherto pursued in universities of having aca- demical distinctions awarded by the parties en- gaged in preparing the candidates to receive them, must be regarded as a wholly inadequate test of literary or scientific merit. A change in this system was inaugurated on the establish- ment of the London I Diversity (q. v.), in which the right of conferring degrees is vested in aboard from «rhich the professors are excluded. In Ger- many, a different reform has been proposed by Prof. Moiinnsen of Berlin, who, after severely denouncing tin- abuses existing in some of the German universities, urges in another essay [Preussische Jahrbucher, April 1876) the estab- lishment of strict uniformity in the conferring of academical degrees. The universities favor- able to reform are called noon to unite, and to request the governments either to recognize ex- clusively the degrees conferred by universities belonging to the union, or to abolish entirely the institution of academic degrees. In France, the right of conferring degrees was one of the mosl hotly contested points of the new law on superior education, adopted by the national assembly in 187;"). 'This [aw abolishes the monopoly of the state faculties in conferring degrees, and gives the right possessed by state faculties also to special juries consisting of professors partly of the state faculties, and partly of the free faculties author- ized by the new law. DELAWARE, one of the thirteen original states of the American Union, having an area of 2,120 sq. m., and a population, in L870, of 125,015, of whom 102,221 were whites, and 22,794, colons 1 persons. Educational History. — The original constitu- tion of the state contained a general provision for the encouragement of education; but, through want of specific enactments on the pari of the Legislature, it was for a long time of little prac- tical value. In L813, the secretary of state. Willard Hall, suggested to the legislature a svs- tem of popular education: bul no immediate action was taken. In L829, a bill providing for the establishment of free schools was passed, embodying substantially the views suggested by the secretary of state, who has always been re- garded as the founder of the present system. The law then enacted has remained, in all essen- tial respects, the school law of the state to the present day. slight modifications only having Been made from time to time. The constitution of the state, framed in 1 831, declares il to be the duty of the legislature to pro\ ide for " establish- ing schools, and promoting aits and scieni In L 837, the Scl I fund of the stale, established in L796, was increased by the additi< f the income of the United States surplus revenue fund. Dp io L852, the counties were divided into SChdbl-districtS, to each of which full power was granted to establish a school or not. accord- ing to its pleasure. In L852, the BChool law was revised by the legislature, bul was not materially changed. Educational interests were left to the voters in each school district, their action consisting in holding an annual meeting,, at which any number of voters constituted a quorum. Their business was to elect a school committee, consisting of a clerk and two com- missioners, and to decide, by a majority vote, what sum should be raised for a school-house, or a free school. The same year, an act was passed by the legislature for the benefit of the public schools in Wilmington, which, by this act, be- came permanently separated from the public school system of the state. In L855, the prop- erty of colored people in Wilmington was ex- empted from taxation for school purposes. In L861, a free-school act was passed, which author- ized the levy of a yearly tax in each district of the State. I'y an act passed March 2.").. 1875, the school system was remodeled, and, in its gen- eral features, assimilated to that existing in most of the other states. The first state super- intendent appointed was James II. Groves, in L875. School System. — The state board of education consists id' the secretary of state, the auditor, the president of Delaware College, and the state superintendent of five schools. It holds an an- nual meeting at which the president of Delaware College acts as chairman, and the auditor, as secretaiy. It designates what text-hooks shall be used in the schools, settles all controversies between the state superintendent and the school commissioners on the one hand, and subordinate officers on the other, and issues uniform blanks for the use of teachers. The state superintendent i- appointed annually by the governor. He visits each school once a year, examines and licenses teachers, keeps a full and accurate record of the schools, their condition, the num- ber of pupils attending them, tin 1 qualifications of the teachers, methods of instruction, discipline, and all other mat ters 'necessary to the making of an annual report to the governor. <'<>///i/>/ Superintendents, one for each county, are ap- pointed annually by the governor, their duties being, to correspond with school committees and teachers, "to aid them with .advice, to supply proper forms, to collect information, and tore- port to the general assembly the state of the districts, and such matters as they shall deem proper." Three school committeemen are elected in each of the districts, one each year, the term of office being three years. Their dutiis are, to assess and levy the annual school tax, to i the sites for school buildings, to build sd l-houses, to supply furniture ami fuel, to employ teachers, and to see that the schools are kept open as I' 'lie as the funds w ill permit. 'I he school c immittee levies in each district of New- castle Co. SI (III for the support of the schools: of kenl Co. $50; and of Sussex Co. $30, the maximum additional amount in each being, ac- cording to the law of 1861, $400 for general school purposes, and $500 for the building and repair of school-houses. The schools are open to all white children over five years of age. In 1875, provi* sion was made for the education of colored chil- dren, by the taxation of colored citizens, and the DELAWARE 211 establishment of separate schools, from the pro- ceeds of such taxation, by the Delaware Asso- ciation for the Education of Colored People. The permanent school fund, which consists of the share of the state in the surplus revenue distrib- ute! I by the general government among the sev- eral states, the proceeds arising from marriage and tavern licenses, and from various other sources, has yielded for several years an annual income of about $30,000. icational Condition. — The number of schools reported by the superintendent in L875, was 309. The school revenue was as follows: From local taxation $159,733.68 " permanent fund 33,001.37 Total $192,735.05 The expenditure per capita of average attend- ance was $9.64. The school statistics show the following : Xatuber of pupils enrolled 19,8S 1 " " teachers employed 430 average monthly salary of teachers $28.2 Normal Instruction. — Special training is given to teachers in the Wilmington Normal School, and at Delaware College. Newark, in which a course has been organized for the purpose. The graduates of the former find employment prin- cipally in the schools of the city. It employs .'! teachers, and holds its sessions in the eveniii", and on Saturdays. The course provided for the training of teachers in Delaware College, by act of the legislature, in 1873, is open, free of charge, to 10 students from each county, who shall bind themselves to teach, after graduation, not less than one year in the public schools of the state. The time required for the completion of this course is 3 years. The branches pursued are those included in the literary course of the college, ex- cept Latin and modern languages, with special instruction in methods of teaching. Candidates for admission to this course are appointed by the members of the legislature. They must be not less than 16 years of age, of good moral character, and of average proficiency in English studies. Diplomas are granted at the end of the 3 years' course ; while, for one year or more, but Less than 3 years, certificates are given indicative of the proficiency acquired. The Delaware State Normal University, at Wilmington, was incorpo- rated in ls(;7, for the purpose of supplying an advanced course to teachers. It was authorized to confer all degrees customary with universities. and to grant diplomas. The special degree of Bachelor of School Teaching was conferrable upon such students in the normal department as, upon examination, were found qualified, and the degree of Master of School Teaching upon such as had been actually engaged in teaching for 3 years after graduation. In L871, however, the charter of the university was repealed, but the students held a meeting shortly after, at which it was resolved to continue the institution without state aid. It is divided into 4 depart- ments : a primary school, a select school, a me- chanical and commercial school, and a high and normal school. — Teachers' Institutes have been almost exclusively confined to the city of Wil- mington. The new law, however, requires the state superintendent to hold one annually in each county for three days, all the teachers of the county being required to attend. The Delaware State Teachers' Association was organized in Wilmington, in December, L875. Secondary Instruction. — Graded schools exist in nearly all of the large towns of the state ; and, in the city of Wilmington all of the schools are of this character. 'I he course of study in the latter requires 3 years. The branches taught are those usually pursued in high schools, latin and German having been added to the studies of the course, in 1873, though the study of them is op- tional. Craded schools, also, are in existence in Dover, Smyrna, Frederica, Milford, Georgetown, and Milton. Between 35 and -II) private paro- chial, and charity schools and academies are known to exist in the state, many of which af- ford instruction usually classed as secondary. Superior) Instruction. — 1 he only institution which affords opportunities to males for a higher education is the Delaware College (q. v.), at Newark. The Wesleyan Female College, at Wilmington, was organized in 1839. It has two regular courses of study, of 4 years each, a pre- paratory and a collegiate, besides partial courses for special purposes. It has a library of 3,600 volumes, and. in 1873, reported 8 professors and instructors, and 137 students. Professional and Scientific Instruction. — The agricultural department of Delaware College furnishes instruction to such students as intend to devote themselves to the business of agricult- ure, while they, at the same, time attend to the studies that constitute a liberal education. The grant of 90,000 acres, made by Congress to the state for the founding of an agricultural college, has been given to this institution. It provides a scientific and an agricultural course, admission to which is granted to students of good moral character who are 14 years of age, and who suc- cessfully pass an examination in geography, arith- metic, the elements of algebra, English grammar, history of the United States, and "such branches as form the basis of a complete English educa- tion."' The time required for the completion of each course is 3 years, the instruction in the agri- cultural department being supplemented by practical exercise in farming, gardening, and the work of the nursery. The degree of Bachelor of Philosophy is conferred by the scientific depart- ment; that of Graduate in Agriculture, by the agricultural department. In 1872, the admission of females to the college classes was authorized. the conditions of admission being the same as in the case of males. The result is said to have been very satisfactory. No special provision is made by tin- state for the instruction of the deaf ami dumb, the blind or the imbecile; i eh con un- caring for its own. or the state bearing the ex- pense of their care in the institutions specially provided for the purpose by the neighboring state. Pennsylvania. 212 DELAWARE COLLEGE PEXMAKK DELAWARE COLLEGE, at Newark, Del., was chartered in 1h(>7 and opened in ls7u. It includes the state agricultural college, established by the congressional land grant. The value of its grounds, buildings, ami apparatus is $50,000; the amount of its productive funds, $83,000; the number of volumes in its libraries, 6,000. The farm of the professor of agriculture, embracing about 70 acres of well-improved land adjoining Newark, is used as an experimental farm. Agricultural students have the oppor- tunity of defraying a part of their expenses by labor. The cost of tuition in the institution is $24 for the first term of the year, $18 tor the second, an 1 $28 fur the third. Each county in the state is entitled, by a law passed in 1869, to have ten students educated at the college free of charge for tuition. The members of the legisla- ture are vested witli authority to make these appointments, each member having the right to make one nomination. In 1^7'_'. tin' trustees authorized the admission of females to the College classes upon the same conditions as male students. There are four courses : the classical, of four years, leading to the degree of Bachelor of Arts; the s %entific, includ- ing agriculture, of three years. Leading to the de- gree of Bachelor of Philosophy; the literary, of three years, leading to the degree of Bachelor of Literature; and the normal, of three years. Those not desiring to take any one of the regular courses may pursue selected studies. The lit- erary course is similar to the classical, but omits the higher mathematics, and substitutes one of tlie modern languages for Greek. It is specially designed for female students, but may be pursue I by all such as prefer it to any one of the other courses. The course of stu ly in the normal de- partment embraces all those branches of learn- ing which arc include 1 in the literary course, Willi tlie exception of Latin and the modern languages, for which is substituted instruction in the higher essentials of a thorough English educa- tion, and in the best and most approved methods of teaching. Students who obligate themselves to teach in tlie free schools of the state for not less than one year receive tuition free. In L874 — 5, there were 8 instructors and 5 I students in Dela- ware College. At the commencement in 1875,12 degrees were conferred ; namely, A. 13., 3 ; Ph. I'.. '.: B. I...:-. William II. I'uruell, LL. D., is ( L876) the president. DELPHIN CLASSICS, an edition of the Latin classics prepared for the use of the d auphin (in USU /' jihiiii) by older of Louis XIV., under the editorship of Bossuet and Buet, tu- tors to the dauphin. The compilers, 39 in num- ber, were selected by 1 1 net from the hot scholars of the time. The plan of the work comprises a continuous gloss in the margin, and copious foot-notes, explaining the text. The different works are edited with very unequal merit ; and. whole, the series has ceased to have any special \alue iii comparison with more recent and more accurate editions. See II M.I.AM. Literatur >•/ Europi . vol. n. DENISON UNIVERSITY, at Granville, Ohio, under the control of the Baptists, was founded in ls.'Jl. The buildings, three in num- ber, are situated on a hill, north of the town, less than 600 yards from the public square, the site containing 24 acres, nearly half of which is oc- cupied by a grove of old forest trees. The uni- versity and society libraries contain about 11.000 volumes. The cabinet contains a good collection of shells, and of specimens in geology, mineral' Ogy, zoology, and aiclueology. The value of its grounds, buildings, and apparatus is $90,000; the amount of its productive funds. $190,000. The university comprises a preparatory department and a collegiate department, the latter having a classical course of four years, leading to the de- gree of Bachelor of Arts, and a scientific course of three years, leading to the degree of Bachelor of Science. The cost of tuition in the college is Si:: for the fall term, and $10.50 each for the w inter and spring terms ; in the preparatory de- partment, it is $10 and $7 respectively. Students for the ministry may be received a- beneficiaries of the Ohio Baptist Educational Society, which Supplies them with from $80 to si. "ill per annum besides free tuition. In 1875 — li. there were !* in- structors, and 71 collegiate and S< I preparatory students. The number graduating in L875 was!). The Rev. E. Benjamin Andrews, A.M., is (1876) the president. DENMARK, a kingdom of Europe, has an area of L4,753 sip m.. and, in 1 874, had a popula- tion of 1 ,874,000. Almost the entire population (over 99 per cent) belongs to the established Lutheran Church ; and all public religious in- struction is. accordingly, based on the original Augsburg confession. — Few countries have un- dergone so many vicissitudes of fortune as Den- mark. During the middle ages, it was one of the most powerful empires ot northern Europe. Jutland and the Danish isles became the early home of a warlike Gothic tribe, the piratical Danes or Normans. King Gorm the Old sub- jected all the chieftains to his Sovereignty in the beginning of the 1 Ot li century. < 'anute the Great, after 1024, extended the Danish rule over Nor- way, Bouthem Sweden, and. for a short period, even over England. Under the two Walde- mars. in the I 2th and I 3th century. Mecklenburg, I lolstein, Pomerania.and the present Baltic prov- inces of Russia were added to the empire. During the civil wars following their reigns. many of these compicsts were lost. The so-called Calmar Union of L397, by which Queen Margaret united Denmark, Sweden, and Norway, was of short duration. Under Christian UL, in 1537, the Reformation was introduced. In 1 660, south- ern Sweden, and in ISllall Norway wa - reded to Sweden: and by the unfortunate war of 1864, against Austria and Prussia, after which the duchies of Bchleswig, I lolstein, and l.auen- hurg were re-united with Germany, the area of the kingdom was reduced to iis above-stated ex- tent (e elusive of Iceland, the Faroe isles, and the colonies). Owing to the new liberal eon- stiiittiou of 1849 (revised in L865), the industry, DENMARK '213 commerce, and finances, as weD as the literary and educational institutions of the country are at present in a flourishing condition. History of Public Instruction. — With the in- troduction of Christianity, in 965, convent and CAthedral schools Were opened: and, since the twelfth century, while Latin was the only written language of the time. •■ Latin schools" for clerics and laymen of the higher classes and trades, were established in Viborg, Ribe, Odense, Copenhagen (1(>40). ami other towns. These institutions were greatly improved by the church-reformers, after 1.V57. who instituted two grades of Latin schools, both under the supervision of the alergy, those of the lower grade being also thrown open to the children from the country. A third grade of schools forpoorboys and girls, the so-called "writ- ing-schools" [scholce vulgaris), excluding instruc- tion in Latin, were supported and controlled by the municipal authorities. In the rural districts, the only instruction imparted to youth con- sisted in teaching the catechism, in weekly les- sons, given in one of the largest residences, either by pupils of the highest class of the nearest Latin school, on Saturdays, for a remu- neration of free lodging and board, or by the sextons, or by students of theology. The 18th century is marked by a quick succession of im- portant stepstoward the perfection and extension of the system of instruction. Bishop Thestrup of Aalborg cause* 1 six parish schools to be established in < 'opeiihagen. King Frederick I V.i 1699— 1730) had '_'4U substantial school-houses built on the royal domains, each containing a school room and a dwelling for the teacher. A royal decree of 17'JL regulated the organization of these schools, fixing the salary of the teachers, making religion and reading obligatory, writing and arithmetic optional studies, and requiring the children to attend school, from their .1th to their 8th year, every day for 5 or 6' hours, and after this period, only half a day. The royal example was followed by many noblemen and landed proprietors, who established similar schools on their estates for the benefit of the children of their tenants. The supervision of all these schools was assigned to the clergy: but a general system of public in- struction was not introduced until 173'.), by a de- cree of Christian VI. (1730 — 174(1), ordaining the establishment of common or parish schools in every larger village, where religion, reading. writing, and arithmetic were to he taught by school-masters qualified before the clergyman. The schools were to be supported by a revenue fund, collections, fines, and a school tax. About •'in Latin schools, in the smaller towns, were abol- ished, and their funds appropriated for the com- mon-school fund. The general introduction of this new system was, however, thwarted by the Opposition of many landed proprietors, who maintained their territorial autonomy in school matters. A new and liberal era was inaugurated under Frederick VI., by the school law of July 29., L814, the principal features of which are still in force. It ordained the establishment of ele- mentary schools, each of two classes, in the coun- try in every neigborhood capable of supporting a school, and of two schools in all the larger villa of an elementary burgher school, and, if feasible, also of higher schools and evening classes for adults in every town. Attendance was made obligatory. Pour new seminaries for the edu- cation of qualified teachers were erected at Skaarup, Lyngbye, Jelling, and Ranum, in ad- dition to that of Joenstrup, which was founded in 1791. In 1828, gymnastics were introduced into all the schools of the country. A decree of 1838 created higher burgher schools in all the towns. In 1850, the gymnasia of Nyborg, Slagelse, Nakskow, Vorsingborg, and Klsinore were transformed into higher real-schools. The laws of 1850, ls(l4.and 1869 regulated the exam- inations for admission to the university of Copen- hagen, which received its fundamental statute as early as 1788. Primary Instruction. — The general super- vision of the primary schools is in the hands of the ministry of instruction and ecclesiastical af- fairs, while each one of the seven bishops super- intends the schools in his diocese. They appoint all teachers in the rural districts, while the school board of the Ami (a subdivision of a dio- cese) appoints the teachers in the cities. The ministry of instruction and ecclesiastical affairs consists of two departments, one for ecclesias- tical affairs, the primary schools, the normal schools, and the asylums for the blind and deaf- mutes ; and the other for the institutions for secondary, superior, and special instruction, the libraries, the scientific and art collections, the academy of fine arts, the royal theater, and the general administration of the ministry. A third department was organized temporarily, in 1855, for the elementary schools, but was abandoned again in 1866. 'I he immediate supervision of each school in the country is in the hands of the district school board, composed of the clergy- man and representatives elected from the parish. Above, this is the school board of the Amt. com- posed of the Amtmand (bailiff) and the clerical superintendent. In the cities, the immediate supervision is in the hands of a board consisting of the clergyman, the mayor, and a number of citizens elected to that position. 'I he duties of this board coincide with those of the district school board in the rural district, while the other au- thorities are common to both city and country. Education is compulsory according to the laws of May •_'., L855, and Sept. 30., 1864. Every child must attend school from the seventh year of age, and the parents are forced by fines to comply with this law : but no child is admitted under six years of age. After the thirteenth year, a child may be dismissed upon the wish of its parents, if. in the opinion of the school board, it has received a sufficient amount of education ; and. after the fifteenth year.it must be dismissed Upon the demand of its parents. The school hours are. in summer, from eight to eleven in the morning, and from one to four in the afternoon; and in winter, from nine to twelve in the morn- ing, and from one to four in the afternoon ; but 214 DENMARK few rules are laid down for the management of schools, and only very few schools have printed rules. For disrespect and disobedience, teach- ers may resort to corporal punishment, while laziness and truancy must be reported to the rector or principal of the school, who inflicts a proper punishment in such cases. School dia- ries have been introduced in all the classes ex- cept the highest. For every recitation the scholar receives a mark expressed by a number, 6 being the highest, and the lowest. At the end of every month, the marks are added up, and the standing for each ensuing month is thus determined. In the highest class, the daily marks are discontinued, and a monthly report is given instead. While the length of the school term is generally left to the separate school boards, the royal decree of Jan. 27., 1860, fixed 240 days in the year as the minimum for every school. A general model course of studies for the kingdom does not exist. Every teacher pre- pares his own course of studies, which must be approved by the school board. An equal free- dom prevails in regard to the choice of text- books, and in the methods of teaching used. In 1819, the monitorial or Lancasterian system was introduced into the military school in Copen- hagen, by a young officer who had observed it in France. The king took great interest in the ex- periment, and in 1822 the system was recom- mended for introduction into all elementary schools. It was, however, severely attacked by Diesterweg (see Diesterweg), and gradually feil into disuse, being greatly modified in those schools in which it still exists. Almost every town has, besides the elementary schools, at least one higher primary school, or burgher real school, in which a small fee is charged. The course of instruction in these schools embraces the following subjects: Danish language, religion, arithmetic, penmanship, book-keeping, the rudi- ments of algebra, geometry natural history, natural philosophy, Danish and general history, geography, either German, French, or English, and geometrical drawing, singing, and gymnas- tics. The number of primary schools in the country, in 1867, was 2,781, the number of male teachers 2,929, female teachers 59, the number of children of school age 200,761, the number of children attending public schools 194,198, and the number of children attending private schools 13,994, making the total number of children un- der instruction 208,192. The cities had, in 1867, 113 primary schools, with 422 male and 54 fe- male teachers, and 23,352 scholars, of whom 6,161 attended the burgher real schools. The salaries of the teachers in the cities differ con- siderably from those paid in the country; but both in city and country, they compare very favorably with the salaries paid in other parts of Europe. In the country, the remuneration con- sists of a fixed salary, paid partly in money and partly in grain, which is changed into money ac- cording to the average price of grain for the past ten years, which price is determined annually. Teachers also receive, for their services as sextons, the sum of three marks (1 rix-dollar @ 6 marks = $0.55.3), payable by every child; and there is an increase of salary, according to age, of from twenty-five to fifty rix-dollars. Every teacher has a house free, which must be kept in repair by the parish, and a certain amount of school land, and he receives fuel, and such provisions as eggs, milk, etc. Every ten years, the ministry deter- mines for each position the money value of all receipts, based on the average prices for the pre- ceding ten years. In 1867, the total amount thus determined was 1,370,914 rix-dollars, which, for 2, 5 (i(l teachers, gave an average salary of 534 rix-dollars. According to the law of 1856, one half of the teachers in every city receive, be- sides free lodging, not less than 300 rix-dollars and 50 tons of barley, while the other half re- ceive not less than 150 rix-dollars and 50 tons of barley, so that no teacher receives less than 300 rix-dollars, taking everything into account. The average salary of the teachers in the cities, in 1867, was 690 rix-dollars. Teachers throughout the kingdom are exempt from mili- tary duty. Denmark has five seminaries for teachers, — in Joenstrup, with 51 pupils ; in Skaarup, with 75 pupils ; in Lyngbye, with 31 pupils ; in Ranum, with 31 pupils ; and in Jel- ling, with 45 pupils ; making 233 pupils. Every seminary has three classes, the course of each class comprising one year. No pupfl is admitted to the lowest class under 17 years of age. The course of studies is as follows for all three classes: religion ; reading and the Danish language and O O OCT literature ; arithmetic and other branches of mathematics ; penmanship ; history and geog- raphy ; natural history; lessons on education and instruction ; music ; gymnastics; drawing ; catechisation. For some years past, there have been established, in various parts of the coun- try, Peasants' High Schools, which are attended by young farmers who come together at their own expense during the winter months. In these schools, lectures are delivered on the history and institutions of the kingdom, and the sciences relating to agriculture. The plan of instruction depends chiefly on the wishes of the pupils and the capacity of the teachers, who are generally graduates of the university. Of these schools, there were, in 1874, 49, with 2,132 male and 1,003 female pupils. — In Copenhagen, the pri- mary schools have three classes, the two sexes are instructed separately, and the course of studies is a little more extended than that in other cities. According to the law of 1844, modified by that of 1857, the schools are governed by a board of school directors, composed of the chief magistrate of the city, the burgomaster who has charge of school affairs, and a clergyman of the city ap- pointed by the minister of instruction. The im- mediate supervision is in the hands of a super- intendent, who has a seat but not a vote in the , board of directors. Every ward of the city and suburbs has, furthermore, its own school com- mittee of three members. The schools are partly free and partly pay schools. They are of two kinds, — those consisting of day classes in which DENMARK DENOMINATIONAL SCHOOLS 215 the school time is six hours per day, and half -day classes which are taught only four hours per day. On May 1., 1874, the aggregate number of pupils in the schools of Copenhagen was 22,747, while the number of children of school age was 27,275. Of the 4,428 children who attended no school, 4,286 received private instruction. At the close of 1873, there were 149 private schools, with 11,729 pupils. Of these schools, thirteen re- ceived aid from the state. School libraries have been introduced in all the schools. They are supported partly by the pupils, and partly by state aid, and are under the control of the teachers. Secondary Instruction. — By the church act of 1537, Latin schools, of from three to four classes, were founded in all the cities of Denmark. Owing to the different wars and from other causes, the condition of these schools was not very favoraU* . until, in 1739, Christian VI. considerably dimin- ished their number, and thus obtained the neces- sary means to improve the financial standing of those remaining. At the sanii' time, the course of instruction was extended, and the Danish lan- guage introduced as a study, and in some cases as the vehicle of instruction, while, up to that time, instruction had been given in the Latin language only. Under Christian YIL the course of studies was more definitely regulated, and instruction in the Danish language was introduced into all the schools. The schools then made steady improvement, until, in 1850, they received their present form. The institu- tions for secondary instruction now comprise gymnasia, fashioned after the German model, some of which also have real classes ; burgher schools, corresponding to the German real schools; and private schools. The eourse of in- struction embraces a period of nine years. Pu- pils upon entering must be at least ten years of age, and must pass a satisfactory examina- tion in various branches. The course of study in the gymnasia comprises, besides a continua- tion of the studies of the elementary schools, Latin and Greek, one or more modern lan- guages, natural history, and natural philosophy. The course of study in the burgher schools, com- prises Danish, French, German, English, history, geography, arithmetic, geometry, natural history. penmanship, and drawing. The total number of secondary schools at present is 26, of which 15 are gymnasia, 5 burgher schools, and 6 private schools. The number of teachers, in 1873, was 163 in the gymnasia, 6 in the burgher schools, and 145 in the private schools, making a total of 314. The number of pupils, in the same year, was 1629 in the gymnasia, 410 in the burgher schools, and 1437 in the private schools, making a total of 3,476. The amount paid for salaries of teachers, in 1871, was 249,151 rix-dollars. Among the oldest and wealthiest secondary schools of the kingdom, are those of Soroe and Herlufsholm. The school at Soroe was founded in 1580. In 1749, it was •changed into the Knights" Academy. After- wards, a classical school was added ; and, in 1849, the academy was discontinued, so that only the classical school remained, which, in 1870, had 160 scholars. The school at Herlufsholm was founded in 1565, and, in 1870, had 95 scholars. Superior Instruction. — The University of Copenhagen was founded in 1478 — 9 ; and at present comprises four facidties, — theology, law, medicine, and philosophy. It has a well equipped laboratory, a botanical and zoological garden, a museum of natural history, an astronomical ob- servatory, and a library of 250,000 volumes. In 1873, it had 51 professors and about 1200 students. Special Instruction. — The schools for special instruction are as follows : A royal veterinary and agricultural school, with 16 professors; a polytechnic school, with 13 professors; two academies of fine aits ; a technical school ; and Sunday improvement schools. Besides these in- stitutions, all of which are situated at or near the city of Copenhagen, there are eight schools of navigation at various places. Iceland, a dependency of Denmark, was first settled about 870; it became subject to Norway in the beginning of the twelfth century, and to Denmark in 1380. The first formal school was established upon the introduction of the Christian religion, near the end of the 10th century (981). At present, the instruction is altogether domestic; but as the clergymen are forbidden to solemnize the marriage of any female who is unable to read, very few natives of Iceland are found who can- not read or write. The only public school in Iceland is the college at lieikiavik, which has six teachers and a library. Latin, French, and German are taught in the college; and it also has a theological course. — See Schmid, Encyclo- jid'lie, vol. x.; Barnard, National Education, vol. II. DENOMINATIONAL SCHOOLS are schools either under the control of a particular religious denomination, or that give religious in- struction according to the dogmatic tenets of some particular church or sect. Denominational schools that are under the direction and super- vision of the church authorities of a parish, are called parochial schools (q.v.). The question whether the schools supported by the state should have a denominational character or not, is one of the most important educational controversies of the present age. in the United States as well as in almost every country of Europe. The public-school system has been developed in close connection with both church and state ; and, in Em-ope. until a recent period, it has been the general rule to give to the public school a de- nominational character. The course of instruc- tion of these schools includes instruction in the creed of a particular religious denomination, to which, moreover, all the teachers of the school must belong. The Catholic Church, especially, insists that every school, from the lowest primary up to the university, should bear a distinctively denominational character, and should provide for religious instruction as a part of the regular course. The orthodox and conservative Prot- estants in Germany and in other countries of the European continent, generally take the same view, but more in regard to the common 216 DENOMINATIONAL SCHOOLS schools than to secondary schools and univer- sities. Among the Liberal party, on the other hand, there is a growing demand for the ex- clusion of all instruction in the tenets of a partic- ular religion from the stair schools, and for the abolition of every religious distinction in the ap- pointment of teachers. They demand, in the place of the denominational schools (in Germany called Confessionssckulen)," communal" or "na- tional" schools ; but they differ among them- selves as to whether religious instruction is wholly to be excluded. Some desire that there should be instruction in the general principles of religion and morality, instead of instruction in a denomi- national creed, while others prefer the total exclu- sion of religious teaching. (See Diesterweg.) The Catholic cyclopedia of education by ltolfus and Pfister (Real-Encydopadie des AV- ziehungs- und Unlerricktswesen$,airt. t 'ommunal- sclnib'ii) adduces, among others, the following arguments in behalf of denominational schools. The public school is intended not merely to im- part instruction, but to take pari in the work of education. Its educational Function is not of a preparatory or continuing character, but it is to aid and to accompany borne education. The Litter i> based on religion, without which a good education is impossible. A school which does not provide for religious instruction and educa- tion, subjects a child to influences directly in conflict with the education received at borne. — Religious instruction is, more than any other branch, suited to initiate a child into an under- standing of abstract ideas. It offers the most interesting material for exercises in reading and writing, and for the development of the intel- lectual as well as the emotional faculties of the child. It is unquestionably better suited than mere exercises in reading, writing, and arith- metic, to establish a bond of affection between teacher and pupil. In the eyes of the im- mense majority of people, instruction in their own religion is the most important and the most desirable that can be given to their children ; and. hence, the authority of a teacher who is not permitted to give religious instruction, must be lowered in their estimation. The public Bel I is supported by those who have the right to demand that the subject to which they attach the greatest importance should not be excluded from the course of instruction. The strong con- victions of a teacher manifest themselves chiefly in his religious belief . Schools, therefore, which compel the teacher to repress everything that re- Sects his religious convictions, may be expected to have as teachers few persons of linn prin- ciples. Where state and chinch are allied iii the supervision of denominational schools, the state government fully knows what ideas of good and bad, of virtue, or of conscience arc taught; but where teachers are appointed without regard to their religious news, and where the church is excluded from superintending the instruction, it will be impossible to keep out of the schools the Boost destructive views of religion and morality, which teachers without religious principles will find it easy to inculcate indirectly on many oc- casions. When undenominational schools are the rule in a community, very many parents are dissatisfied, and private institutions, combining religious with other instruction, flourish. But it is not for the interest of the state that a large portion of the population should, in a demon- strative niiinner. express its want of confidence in state institutions, and patronize schools which have been organized for the express purpose of neutralizing the effect aimed at by the legislation of the state. The Protestant cyclopaedias of education edited by K. A. Schmid {EncyclopacHe des Er- ziehungswesens etc., and P&dagogisches Hand- buck, art. Confessions- tend Commimcdschu- A/'i. take the same view. The Padagogische Handbuch says: " Religious school instruction is specially a want of the evangelical child. The church of the Word builds itself up by the un- | derstanding and recognition of the Word ; there- fore her children must be supplied with religious knowledge; Bible history, the most beautiful sentences of the Bible, and the fundamental doctrines of the Gospel must be inculcated for belief and practice in life; the treasure of the songs of the church must be opened to them for edification; and they must Learn to join in the chorus of the congregation. The Catholic Church. with a form of worship which captivates the senses, with its religious ceremonies, into which even small children are introduced, and which are constantly practiced by its members. produces naturally a certain religious habit, which interweaves iiselt with the ideas and emo- tional tendencies, and thus proves a strong bond of union for the church. With us. the mind is chiefly addressed to impress religious convic- tions: and. hence, to exclude religious instruction from our schools must fatally injure the relig- ious, moral, and ideal life of our Protestant congregations." The advocates of denominational schools also point to the fact that the results llms far obtained by the undenominational school have failed to satisfy even the most zealous among its defenders. Cue of the leaders of the Liberal party of Prussia, Miquel, in a speech made in the Prussian house of deputies, March L2., L875, said : •• The system of undenominational schools in the Netherlands, which prohibits teachers from giving religious instruction, but provides that time and permission be given to the pupils to receive religious instruction from the clergy- men of the several denominations to which they belong, was introduced under the liberal ministry of Thorbecke. This great statesman subsequently saw and acknowledged to me, that the system, in- stead of promoting friendly relations between different religious denominations, had widened the breach. The pupils of the public schools either received no religious instruction at all, or being instructed by clergymen, became more at- tached to denominational differences, than would nave been the case, if the religious instruction had been given by the school-teacher.'' DENOMINATION A I, SCHOOLS 217 Hut although the fruits of the undenomina- tional school system in Holland and elsewhere have tailed to satisfy its friends, public opinion in Europe appears to be abandoning more and more the old system of denominational schools. The new school law of Austria, of the year 1S(1S, recognizes the principle of national or communal schools, though it authorizes the churches to establish their own denominational schools. In Bavaria, the new law of L873 gives to town coun- cils the power to consolidate the existing denomi- national schools, and thus to form undenomina- tional communal schools; and many towns have made haste to avail themselves of the privilege. The leaders in the great conflict of the state gov- ernmentsof Europe with the Catholic Church con- cerning the public school, all favor, more or less, the undenominational school. In England, where the traditional distrust of the government in mat- ters relating to the school is still very apparent in the actual condition of school matters, an immense majority of all the schools deriving support from the government, bear a strictly denominational character. The advocates of secularism in state education are. however, becoming more numerous and more powerful ; and even those who favor denominationalism are beginning to endorse the underlying principle of undenominational state education. Says Dr. Higg. in National Educa- tion, ■■ It must be admitted that, if the state is to interfere at all directly in the matter of popular education, its own function and responsibility should certainly be limited to that which is un- sectarian. and, if it were possible, would most conveniently be limited to that which is secular, in instruction and restdts. Here I find myself, in principle, pretty well agreed with the secular- ists. It is where they would forbid the co-ope- ration of ( 'luistian organizations and of Chris- tian teaching, otherwise provided, with the func- tions and work of the state in popidar education, that, in common with most others, I am obliged to differ." In the United States, the undenominational character of the public school has always been its most distinctive feature. The teaching of the doctrinal tenets of particidar denominations is every-where excluded from the course of instruc- tion. In many states, as in Arkansas, Illinois, Kansas, Kentucky, Massachusetts, Nevada, Ne- braska. New Jersey, New York, Ohio, South Carolina, and AYisconsin, the constitution of the state expressly forbids sectarian instruction and control. But even where the constitution of the state has not sanctioned the principle by a spe- cial provision, the practice is universally the same. The growth of the undenominational school was the natural fruit of the voluntary system which pervades all American institutions, and which, in particular, excluded the influence of the state from all religious matters. Although in the United States there is no state church, as in the states of Europe, a larger number of religious denominations than are found any- where else, live together in the possession of equal rights. The co-existence of various de- nominations in almost every one of the numer- ous small townships which do not need more than one school, would have made the estab- lishment of a number of schools a practical im- possibility. Moreover, the separation between church and state has caused Americans generally to look upon religion as upon something belong- ing exclusively to the family and to the church. The proper places to provide for religious in- struction appeared, therefore, to them to be the family and, especially, the Sunday-school. The only religious element which a very large portion of American educators desire to retain in the common schools, is the reading of a passage of the Bible, and the opening of the school by prayer. Among the Protestants of the United States, this view has still decidedly the ascend- ency ; and several state constitutions expressly provide that the Bible shall not be excluded from the public schools. (See Bible.) The most earnest and united opposition to the undenominational American school is made by the Roman Catholic Church. It disapproves the practice of having the Bible without note or comment, read by or to the pupils ; it complains of the reading of a Protestant version of the Bible to Catholic children as an injustice ; but it still more objects to any system of instruction which excludes the teaching; of religion from its regular course. It has, therefore, put forth the claim for a division of the school funds of the state anions; all religious denominations in a fair proportion, in order that it may be used by them for the support of denominational schools. This claim of the Roman Catholics has led to a pro- tracted and interesting controversy, which is not yet ended. The fundamental principle on which the claim is based, that, from an educational point of view, it is desirable to include religious teach- ing in the regular course of instruction, has been conceded by not a few of their opponents; and cases have not been wanting in which Protestant congregations have asked for the support of their denominational schools out of the public funds. Some eminent statesmen also, like Wm. H. Sew- ard, were disposed to recognize the Catholic de- mand as being, in the main, fair, and to concede it. Public opinion, however, in the progress of the controversy, has taken a very determined stand in opposition to the Catholic view and in favor of the undenominational school. The majority of the American people, at the present time, un- doubtedly hold that religion is a matter entirely voluntary and individual, which every person should regulate according to the dictates of Ms own conscience, and in which the public author- ities should in no way interfere ; that churches, in the eyes of the state, are only voluntary asso- ciations of families holding the same religious views; and that the rearing of children in any religious tenets whatever, should, therefore, be left wholly and exclusively to the families and the churches; that the families have it in their power to supply, in Sunday-schools, all the re- ligious instruction they desire their children to receive ; that the state has no right to tax people 218 DENOMINATIONAL SCHOOLS DETROIT for ecclesiastical objects ; and that the exclusive aim of schools supported by the public funds should be to tit their pupils for the discharge of their civil obligations. To the most interesting episodes of this conflict belongs the religious con- troversy in the city of New York from 1840 to 1842. During the absence of bishop Hughes in Europe, the Catholics of the city of New York, in L839, organized an opposition to the public- school system. On his return, bishop Hughes, in 1 840, himself took the lead, and drew up a peti- tion to the common council, praying thai seven parochial schools should be designated as "en- titled to participate in the common-school fund, Upon complying with the requirements of the law." I lis demand being rejected by the common council, the matter was brought before the legis- lature; and when he was baffled in his suit there also, he recommended the Catholics to nominate independenl candidates in the ensuing elections, thus commencing a movement which developed into considerable strength. The controversy was finally settled by the passage of the act of April 11., 1 s 4 2 . which provided that "no school shall be entitled to, Or receive, any portion of the school moneys, in which the religious doctrines or tenets of any particular Christian or other religious seel shall l>c taught, inculcated, or practiced, or in which any book or books containing compo- sitions favorable or prejudicial to the particular doctrines or tenets of any sect shall be used." The Catholic bishops have since taken the same ground as bishop Hughes ; and. in many cases. have adopted very decisive measures against the public schools. In some places, as in Pough- keepsie. N. V., a compromise has been effected between the common council and the represen- tatives of the Catholic congregations, by means of which thi' parochial schools have been placed under the supervision of the city superintendent. and thus enabled to participate in the school fund of the city ; but on the whole, public op- pinion appears to pronounce itself in favor of fully carrying out the principle of the undenomi- national school, without the slightest compromise. When the subject was agitated in Ohio, in the electoral campaign of 1ST I. the state conventions of both Republicans and Democrats formally de- dared in favor of the principle of the unsectarian school. The legislature of New York, in April L876, almost unanimously declared itself in favor of the same principle. President Grant, in his message of Dec 7, L875, thought it proper to bring this matter to the attend f Congress, and most earnestly recommended thai a constitu- tional amendment should be submitted to the Legislatures of the several slates for ratification, making it the duty of each of the states to establish and forever maintain free Bchools ade- quate to afford an elementary education to all the children within its limits, irrespective of Bex, color, birthplace, or religion, fori lidding the teach- ing, in said schools. of religious, atheist ic,or pagan tenets, and prohibiting the granting of any school funds, or school taxes, or any pari thereof. either DJ legislative, municipal, or Other authority, for the benefit or in aid, directly or indirectly, of any religious sect or denomination. — See S. S. Rax- n \i,i,. History of Common Schools of New York (N. Y.,1871); BoESE, Hi stun/ of the School System of the City of New IW.'lX. V.. IsC'.l :' IIas- SABD, Life of Archbishop Hughes (N. Y., 1866); Potter, Religion in Public Schools; The pro- posed substitution of sectarian for put, lie free schools (New Haven, 1848): Rigg, National Education in its Social Conditions and Aspects ( London, 1873); Mayo, Tlie Bible in the Public Schools (N. Y.. 1870); Bourne. History of the Public School Society (X. Y., 1870): Wimmer, Die Kirche und Schule in Nordamerika (Leips., L853); Dulon, Ueber Schule, deutsche Schule, amerikan isclie Seliulc und deutsch-amerikanische Schule (Leips., 1866); Rolfds, Wider die Com- munahchiden (Mayence. i -'■'■'■ ; Sickixger, Die Communal&chulen (Mayence. Is71 1; Becker, Der Streit zwischen Materialismus und Christen- thum in der Schule (3d edit., Heidelberg, l v 71). DENTISTRY, Schools of. See .Medical Schools. DEPARTMENTAL SYSTEM, or Sub- ject System, a method of school organization in which each department of instruction or sub- ject of study is assigned to a particular teacher, instead of requiring each teacher to give instruc- tion to a particular class in all the branches of study pursued. This system is rarely employed in schools for primary instruction; but, in those of a higher grade, is nearly universal. In regard to its advantages and disadvantages, as compared with the class system, many considerations are urged; and the experience of instructors seems to be quite diverse as to its success. The chief argument in its favor is, that it would narrow the range of subjects required to be mastered by a single teacher, and. in this way. improve the character of the instruction imparted. For other considerations in regard to this question, see Class. depravity. see moral education. DES MOINES, University of, at Des Moines. Iowa. was chartered in L865. It is under the control of the Baptists, and admits both sexes. It occupies a tine park Of five acres, and a four- story brick building on an eminence command- ing aline view 01 the city and vicinity. The library contains 2,000 volumes. The value of its building, grounds, and apparatus is $50,000 ; the amount of its productive funds $40,000. In L875 6, there were f> to 1816, is exceedingly meager. A so- i called common school was opened on the 10th of June, L816, by a Mr. Danforth of New England; and. in July following, he had 40 pupils. In 1817, the governor and judges passed an act to establish the "Catholepisteiniad. or University of Michigania". The energies of the projectors of I this formidable institution, however, appear to have been spent in the production of its name, and the passage of the act authorizing its estab- lishment, as no record of its existence can be found, though the result of the act, known as the ('atholepistemiad Act, was an increase of the public taxes by 15 percent, the establishment of a primary school, and the designation of read- ing, writing, arithmetic, and English grammar as the stui lies to be pursued in it. Instruction in the classical department of this primary school, was begun in 1818. The same year, a Lancas- terian school was established, which in 1823, was committed to the care of John Farmer, who had been specially designated for the work by the trustees of the University of Michigan, a branch of which had been established in Detroit. In 1 834, on the site now occupied by the city-hall was erected a building for a female seminary, which was continued till 1842. In 1836, AY. A. Bacon opened a select school on the site of the present cathedral, which he conducted for 38 years. In 1838, a public school was opened in the second ward; and, in 1841, the first separate coined school was opened, with 88 pupils. The unsatisfactory operation of the school law, however, led to the appointment, in 1841, of a ial committee of inspection, which reported that there were 27 schools in the city, furnishing instruction to 714 pupils, at a cost of $12,600; while there were 1,850 children without instruc- tion. The result of this examination was a rec- ommendation that the legislature be petitioned for an amendment of the city charter permitting the creation, by annual popular vote, of a board of education, and direct taxation for the support of the schools. The opponents of this proposition were numerous; but the measure was sustained by the people at an election ordered for the pur- pose, and was embodied in a law Feb. L8., 1842. ' nder this law, with a few amendments, the Schools were administered till 1868, when the present law was passed. The first board of edu- cation met March lf>. . L842, consisting of twelve members, including the mayor and recorder of the city, ex officio, the former as president. Two years afterward, the Bible question was intro- duced, and led to an exciting discussion which lasted a year, ending in a compromise which pro- vided that any school might be opened by read- ing a portion of the Bible without comment, such reading to be optional with the teacher, and at- tended with the penalty of removal in case of comment. In 1847, the number of children be- tween the ages of 5 and 17, was 2,239. The first graded school, known as the Old Capitol School, was opened in 1848. In L 852, the question of a sectarian division of the school fund was agitated; but the resulting election, in L853, expressed the will of a large majority of the people in opposi- tion to such division, and the question has not been revived. The first high school was estab- lished in 1858. The supervision of the schools was originally confined to the inspectors, and so continued till 1863, when J. M. B. Sill was ap- pointed to the office of superintendent. 1 lis suc- cessor, in 1865. was Duane Doty, who held the office until 1875, when Mr. Sill was re-appointed, and again appointed in 187(5, for 3 years. School System. — The care of the schools is in- trusted to a board of education, consisting of two inspectors from each ward, elected by the people biennially, one half going out of office each year. The mayor and recorder are members, ex officio, but without vote. The board appoints annually a superintendent, whose duties are those usually discharged by such officers. The schools are sup- ported by an annual city tax of not more than 5 mills on every dollar of real and personal prop- erty. The school year comprises a period of not less than 3 months. The school age is from 5 to 20 years. Connected with the system is a public library, the building for which was only recently begun. The schools are divided into three classes : primary, grammar, and high schools. The total' number of schools, in 1875, was 28, including 2 evening schools. The chief items of school statistics for the year are : Number of children of school age (5—20) 34,593 " " " enrolled 13,739 Average enrollment (number belonging) 9,294 " daily attendance 8,760 Number of teachers, mules 9 " " " females 212 Total 221 Receipts (1875) $211,690.23 Expenditures (1875) $169,503.69 Total valuation of school property $735,192.00 Besides the public schools, there are several Catholic schools, a German Lutheran school, a German-American seminary, and several public libraries containing aboul 40,000 volumes. For information in regard to institutions for higher, professional, and special instruction see Michigan. For details in relation to the early educational history of Detroit, see \V. I). Wilkins, Reminis- cences and Traditions of the Detroit Schools, published in the Twenty-eighth Aim mil Report of the Boardof Education (Detroit, 1871). 220 DKYKLOPfNU METHOD DEVELOPING METHOD is a term in- troduced into the science and practice of peda- fchrough the philosophy of Herhart, and popularized among Kurnpean teachers through its greatest followers, Beneke and Biesterweg. It means an education of the natural endowments of the individual according to the psychologic laws of human development, and to the exclusion of all purposes foreign to such development. The term, in some respects, is a misnomer, as it im- plies far more than it expresses. It means a system, realized in, or applicable to, a variety of educational methods, and based on the fundamen- tal principle, that human nature alone, as devel- oped and shown in its best products through a long historical period, should be the guiding star in all educational efforts. Herhart. who was the first among the German philosophers, in oppo- sition to the prevailing speculative philosophy, to apply the method of induction to philosophy, and who based his system on inductive psy- chology, and treated the latter mathematically, wrote as early as L806 a work on pedagogy, en- titled Vie aUgemeine Pcedagogik, dbgeleitet aus dem Zweck der ffli'ziehung, in which the new drift of educational ideas inaugurated by Rous- seau and Pestalozzi, was reduced to logical prin- ciples, lie was the first in history to render in- telligible the processes in the human soul which lead to memory, comparison, the distinct ion of im- pressions and their growth into mental images, notions, judgment and reason, disposition and will: and. in so doing, he reasoned from the established facts of consciousness, and develope I along scries of mathematical formulae, as evi- dences of his correctness in interpreting the facts. Beneke, more straightforward than I [erbart,gave, in his Lehrbuch der Psychologie ate Naturwissen- schaft (1833), and Erziehungs- und Unterrichts- lekre (1835), a very lucid and common-sense ex- position of this new system of psychology, in its application to pedagogy, which, through Diester- weg's practical treatises and school books, grew almost universally popular among the German teachers. What the evolution theory is in modern natural science - an explanation of natural effects from natural causes according to general laws that can be verified by the evidences of the senses and logical reasoning, that is the developing method with regard to mental facts and laws, in matters of education. The founders of this system did not go so far as to reach all the legiti- mate conclusions which may ultimately lie drawn from its principle, ami which were drawn by the succeeding generation of teachers. The system, aB now taught and practiced by men like hides and some of FroebeTs followers, has undergone a series of gradual improvements, and seems capable "t many more; since human nature itself is a subject that receives, through the constant im- provement of all the natural sciences, a daily increasing illustration. NOT is there, as yet, a tolerably full agreement among the foremost pedagogical writers upon what may be consid- ered the genuine development of human nature: but the principle itself, that tin' 8] taneous growth of all the faculties of the mind into the greatest possible harmony should be facil- itated according to the laws of normal devel- opment, not counteracted : guided, but not curbed; and all this in the order which is in- dicated by nature herself — this principle seems to be so well established, that, henceforth, only its interpretation can be doubtful. This new psychology sails clear of all the rocks of preconcerted systems and of the maelstrom of party strife ; it deals with none but demon- strable facts. Such facts are, that there is no beginning of mental action in the newborn child except by impressions from without; that the latter, called traces, cannot grow into distinct images without a grouping of the traces in an order corresponding to the outward objects; that we can verify by actual experiment, both with animals and men. the laws according to which equal traces strengthen each other, similar ones aggregate and form opposites to dissimilar groups of traces : that fugitive impressions have obscure traces, lasting or often repeated impres- sions, clear traces: that one trace or set of traces is for a time obscured by new ones, and that the consciousness of an image is the effect of either pleasure or pain of the mind in consequence of the impressions, etc., etc. The theory goes on to show that all the higher mental processes are re- petitions of the photographic action of the first traces, in a higher order, and follow with mathe- matical exactness their laws. A normal pedagogy is. therefore, possible, independent of philosoph- ical systems. Disputed questions of physiology and psychology concern only unimportant topics, and, therefore, may be ignored and left to the future development of science; but it is all-im- portant, in pedagogy, to demonstrate clearly all the conditions without which no mind can grow, whatever the nature of mind itself may be con- sidered to be. It is, therefore, of the first importance to cul- tivate the action of the senses, the gates to all mental development, in such a way as to render them self-active by their appropriate combina- tion with pleasure and pain: next, to offer to their self activity a succession of outward impressions which will leave distinct and. by repetition, lasting traces and the most complete images of objects, accompanied by sensations and impulses. The first consciousness being tliusawakened.it follows that a comparison and distinction of the representations once produced must lead to both clear notions of their single features and clear consciousness of the mind, without which the origin of self-consciousness would be retarded. and its growth stunted. The latter taking its start from the first efforts in speaking, language becomes the chief means Of education, audits proper use 00 the part of the educator, in con- nection with the objects designated, the way to the Subsequent normal development. The gap in this system left between this stage and the first school age was qoI filled until Froebel. Btarting from a somewhat different stand-point, invented his kindergarten play-. DEVELOPING MKTHOI) 221 (Jivat stress is, in this system, laid CO) tin- <^i;ulual progress of education, which, alter all. is little i v than instruction, a somewhat one-aided culture of the intellect, the imagination, ami the memory. The teacher is to proceed from the simple t<> the compound, from the concrete to the abstract, from perception to reflection in the pupil, from examples to rules, from/acts to laws. II is to be more a guide than a teacher ; he is not to tell his pupils any thing which they can be Jed to find out themselves. He is to present them just mental food enough. and no more, at a time, than can be fully digested ; and that food oindit to be adapted to the age and degree of development. Every kind of mental food ought to be so fully digested as to contribute to the in- crease of every mental faculty. The pupil is to be rendered his own teacher : his self-activity is to he fostered first, last, and at all times. The cultivation of the memory at the expense of observation and reflection, which, in all routine teaching, plays so prominent a part, is made un- i ssary by stimulating the mental appetite and digestive power of the pupil : whatever is fully un- derstood will forever remain mental property. All mechanical drill, and all moral preaching, is more hurtful than useful, because skill in the learner is to grow out of repeated self-appropriation con- nected with that pleasure which accompanies the satisfaction of every mental appetite; and b cause an appropriate mental food is conducive to moral power. Development means self devel- opment, guided by well-developed educators. It is evident that this new system exacts a far higher standard of abilities and attainments in the educator than ever before had been deemed necessary. This necessity led to a considerable improvement in the course of training of pupil- hers in the German and other normal schools. '• The teacher is the school,'' was the maxim in- culcated there. If he be the proper person destined by natural gifts and prepared for his calling by a careful study of mental phenomena and a long theoretic and practical training, he will make up for the short-comings of text-books, apparatus, and previous education. If he be full of enthusiasm for his sacred task of forming minds, and patient in all his laborious methods, he will mould his pupils' minds and morals by means of their self-development. The rational sobriety of this system w r as greatly aided by the marvelous spirit of self-devotion and educational enthusiasm which had been engendered in the teaching fraternity by Pestalozzi ; and it may be called a fact, that hardly ever, or anywhere, Was there done such intelligent and faithful work in thousands of schools, and for so scanty a remuneration, as in the develo/rhi., IH i 8; Jesse Truesdale Peck, D. D.. L848— 52; Charles Collins. D. D., L852 -60; Herman Merrills Johnson, D. D., L860— 7; Robert L Dashiell, D. 1».. L868 -72; and James A. McCauley, D. I>.. the present incumbent, ap- pointed in IST'J. DICTATION DICTIONARY 223 DICTATION, a school exercise in which the teacher reads or speaks (dictates) to the pupils what is to be written by the latter for practice in writing, spelling, etc. Such exercises are very useful, not only to give accuracy and expertness in writing words and sentences, but to train the ear to the read; apprehension of spoken language. In this respect, it supplements copying, which exclusively disciplines the eye. DICTIONARY, a book containing a list of all the words of a language, alphabetically ar- ranged, with information in regard to their derivation, meaning, and use. The Greek word lexicon is frequently used to designate a diction- ary of the words of a foreign language; the term glossary, to denote a collection of technical, obsolete, or other words requiring special de- finition or explanation. A dictionary of facts is entitled an eneycLypcedia, if it embraces the consideration of the full circle of sciences, and a cyclopaedia, if it treats of a special depart- ment of knowledge. These two terms are not, however, always used with this discrimination, but are often applied indifferently to any com- plete collection of facts, general or special, ar- ranged under alphabetical headings. To such collections the terms thesaurus and gazetteer are also applied, the latter exclusively to a geo- graphical dictionary. The first attempt at a complete collection of the words of the English language was the Uni- versal Etymological English Dictionary (Ixm- don. 1726), by Nathan Bailey, which subsequent- ly formed, in part, the basis upon which Dr. Johnson compiled his great work. Johnson's Dictionary appeared in 1755, after seven years of constant labor, and justly entitled its author to be considered the founder of English lexicog- raphy. It was greatly enlarged by Todd in the editions of 1814 and 1827. The most important dictionaries published in England since the time of Johnson are Walker's (1791), Enfield's (1807), Booth's (1835), Smart's (1836), and Richardson's (1837). The catalogue of works of this kind is, however, very extensive; but the most important is the elaborate work of Dr. Richardson, entitled a New Dictionary of the English Language (2 vols., 4to, London, 1835 — 7). Special atten- tion is given, in this work, to the etymology of words and their illustration by copious citations from standard writers; and the arrangement is in the alphabetical order of the primitives, be- neath each of which its derivatives are grouped. Of this work, Dean Trench remarks, " It is the only English dictionary in which etymology as- sumes the dignity of a science." The first dictionary of any importance published in the Dinted States was the firs! edition of Webster's American Dictionary of the English Language (2 vols.. 4to, X. V.,'l828). Of this work, revised and enlarged editions were published in 1840 and L843, during the life of the author; but in 1848, a new edition, revised and enlarged by Prof. Goodrich, was issued at Springfield, Mass., and in 1*(>4. a still larger edition was published in Springfield, with revised etymologies and much additional information of great value. This work is a large quarto, of 1840 pages, and contains about 1 1 1.0(1(1 words. The elaborate illustrated dictionary of Dr. Worcester, published in 1860, is also a work of nearly the same size as Webster's, and contains about 104,000 words. This work is more conservative in its orthography and pronunciation than that of Dr. Webster, and is generally followed in the New England states. The authority of Webster's Dictionary is. ho we via-, undisputed in most parts of the United States. A dictionary is strictly a work of reference, and is to be employed exclusively as such ; hence, its use as a school book is limited. It was for- merly, in some schools, the custom to require pupils to learn by rote the spelling and definition of words from abridged dictionaries and exposi- tors, the alphabetical arrangement of words be- ing followed in the assignment of lessons; but this absurd practice is now, probably, entirely obsolete. After a certain degree of advancement in learning to read, it is, without doubt, of im- portance that the pupils should be supplied with simple dictionaries, and encouraged to refer to them for information in regard to the meaning of the difficult words which they meet with in their reading books. This will serve to inculcate the habit of frequently consulting the dictionary in their subsequent studies, and will, in this way, lead to a more accurate knowledge of their lan- guage, more especially its orthoepy, in which most persons, even those of considerable culture otherwise, are apt to be quite faulty, in pur- suing this method, the following course of pro- cedure will be found beneficial : (1) The teacher assigns a certain portion of reading matter, or a certain number of selected words, which the pupil is to study critically by the use of the dic- tionary, as far as may be necessary ; (2) The pupil learns, from the dictionary, the meaning or definition of those which he does not under- stand, and next studies how to illustrate their application by using them in sentences, or by citations from standard authors ; (3) In an ai 1- vanced stage, the student gives more critical at- tention to the precise shades of meaning of the words usually deemed to be synonymous, and learns how to make a proper discrimination in the use of such words. For this purpose, such works as Roget's Thesaurus and Crabb's Syn- onyms will be found important auxiliaries to the una! nidged dictionary of either Webster to "Worcester. To the teacher, no acquisition is more impor- tant than a critical knowledge of the orthography. pronunciation, meaning, and proper use of words in his own language; and, hence, a good dic- tionary should always be at hand for the deter- mination of those doubtful points which, with even the besl scholar and the most experienced teacher, will sometimes arise. A. dictionary is, therefore, a part of the school apparatus, winch cannot be dispensed with. In the study of a foreign language, the diction- ary is needed at a niueli earlier stage than in the Study of the vernacular ; although modern edu- 224 DICTIONARY cators strongly advocate that the process of ac- quiring a foreign language should be made, as much as possible, to conform to the maimer in which the child learns to speak his native tongue. The number of words of the foreign language which can be learned in this way must, however, be always quite limited, and hence the constant need of consulting the dictionary. It is aim!.' worthy fact in this connection, that the science of lexicography has been developed by the need of dictionaries to facilitate the study of foreign languages, not the native tongue. Though the Greeks and Romans, and even some of the oriental nations before them, had vocabularies of the winds of their languages, arranged more or less in alphabetical order, the origin of complete dictionaries is no earlier than the time when the study of the classics was revived in Italy. The most famous, though not the first among these was Calepino (Latin lexicon, Reggio, l.">02),from whose name is derived the French word calepin (a commonplace-book). But the path in which modern lexicographers have gained so much dis- tinction was first opened in \')'.V1 by Robert Stephens (Fr. Etienne or Estienne) by the pub- lication of the Thesaurus Linguae Latinos and Henry Stephens's Thesaurus Lingual Groscoe, published in 1 572, in 5 volumes, but abridged by Scapula, who issued in 1579 Lexicon Grceco- Latinum norma. (See Stephens.) These works were the first notable attempts to develop the various meanings of every word, and to make scientific arrangement no less an essential feature than completeness of vocabulary. Among the most prominent of the succeeding lexicogra- phers, are Forcellini, Scheller, Freund, and Georges for the Latin, and Passow for the Greek. Forcellini was chiefly distinguished for illus- trating the meaning of every word by examples from classical authors, and the Germans just named developed this feature to a high degree of perfection. The first Latin-English dic- tionary was edited by Sir Thomas Llyot (Lon- don, 1538); the most famous was that of Ains- worth (q. v.). The work of Forcellini was the basis of the Latin-English dictionary of Leverett (Boston, L836), and that of Freund, of the Latin-English dictionary of E. A. Andrews (New York, L856). The Creek lexicon of Pas- sow is the basis of the Greek-English lexicon of Liddell & Scott (Oxford, L845J and its Ameri- can revision by Drisler (New York, L848). It is a noteworthy fact in the history of English and American education, thai until the present cen- tury the Greek language was studied through the medium of the Latin, and there were no Greek-Enghsh, but only Greek Latin lexicons. The < lermans,for a considerable time previously, had published lexicons in their own language, and the French had followed their example, The first Greek English lexicon announced (in L81 I) was thai of John Pickering, which was based on the ( Ireek-Latin dictionary of Schrevelius. Bui before Li was published (Boston, L826), a similar work, the Greek and English Lexicon of John Jones (London, 1823), appeared in England. The Lexicon of Donnegan (London, 1827) was pro- fessedly, in substance, a translation of Passow's work: and Dunbar's Greek and English Lexi- con (Edinburgh, 1843) was chiefly a reprint of the second edition (1829) of Pickering's work. Great improvements in the adaptation of the classical dictionary to school purposes were in- troduced by [ngerslev's Latin-German Lexicon (1st edit., 1852; 4th, 1876). Before him, it had been the aim of lexicographers in general to attain the greatest possible completeness of words and their different meanings; and the works of smaller compass were condensed abridgements, [ngerslev conceived the idea of a school dictionary in the strictest sense of the term. It was to be limited to those writers whose works are usually read in classical schools, and was designed to explain sufficiently every difficult passage occurring in any of this class of authors. Ry referring in succession to all the synonyms of a word, and only defining the dis- tinctive meaning of the word itself, the syno- nymic element of the language, as far as it is of value for the pupil of a Latin school, is explained in the smallest possible compass. The poetic, later, and ante-classic use or meaning of every word is pointed out by appropriate abbreviations: the remainder is classic. This plan has met with uuiversal approval among German scholars: and a number of other works have since been pub- lished, the most important of which are those by Georges flsl edit.. L864 ; 3d edit.. 1874), and lleinichcn ( Leips.. 1864), for the Latin: and by Benseler (4th edit., 1872), and Schenkl (3d edit., L867] for the (deck. The lexicon of In- gerslev is the basis of the Latin-English lexicon of Crooks and Schem (Philadelphia, lH-~>7). A Luge number of special dictionaries to classic authors, especially those read by beginners, have been prepared, but many educators disapprove of the use of books of tliis class. On the other hand, the compilation of an elementary diction- ary specially suited for the study of the Latin writers read by beginners has been recommended, and a good work of the kind has been edited by < leorges ( Laleinisch-deutsches Schulworlerbuch, Leipsic, 1870). The dictionaries of modern languages are either unilingual. intended for the natives of a country, or bilingual, intended for the study of a language other than the vernacular. The former more or less resemble in their history and scope the English works referred to above. Many works of the former class owe their origin to learned socie- ties. Among them is the celebrated Italian diction- ary deUa Orusca (Vocabidario degli accademici dill, i Orusca, first published in 1612). The fame of this work Ls, however, greater than its real merit. for it is, in fact, only a dictionary of the Tuscan dialect, and while regarding the 1 1th century as the Augustan age of Italian literature.it slighted the distinguished writers of the With century. It was subsequently enlarged and unproved (Flor- ence, 1729 -1738), and in this augmented form is still the standard authority for the Italian lan- guage. — Spain also owes its largest dictionary to DICTIONARY DIDACTICS 225 the Spanish Academy (6 vols., Madrid, 1726 — 1739), which became the absolute standard of Spanish orthography; it was. in the present cent- ury, revised and greatly enlarged by Salva who added more than 20,000 words (1st edit, L846). ■ — France is indebted for the first noteworthy dictionary of its language to Robeii Stephens, who published a French-Latin dictionary in L539. The dictionary of the French Academy was first published in L69 Land soon became the standard lexical authority of the French. It has been from time to time revised: and a seventh edition, under the editorship of Patin, was to be com- pleted in lSTl). The dictionary of the Academy was followed by a considerable number of other works, the most important of which, that of Littre (3 vols., Paris, 1863 — 1873), is regarded as being, in many respects,*even superior to the dictionary of the Academy, and entitled to a place among the very best products of lexical ace. — The history of German lexicography is traced to the 7th century. The first work of lasting value was the German-Latin dictionary of Frisch (Berlin, 1741). Adelung's dictionary (Leips., 1774 — 1781) was, for a time, a classical work; but the standard work of German litera- ture is the dictionary of the brothers Jacob and Wilhelm Grimm, begun in 1852,on a plan more extensive than any other dictionary of any mod- ern language. It is to include every word used in German works from Luther to Goethe. It was continued after the death of the authors by Moritz lleyne. Lutlolf Hildebrand, and Karl \Yeigand : and it is expected that the whole will be ready about 1890. Of other German dictionaries those of Sander's are highly valued and have found a large circulation ( Wijrterbtich tier deut- schen Sprache, 2 vols., Leips., 1859 — 1867 ; and Handworterbuch der denischen Sprache, Leips., 1869). — The standard dictionary of the Russian language has been prepared by the Russian Acad- emy (4 vols.', St. Petersburg, 1847). Most of the smaller nationalities of Europe have like- wise their national dictionaries, which, though inferior to the works of Grimm and Littre, are, in many cases, storedrouses of profound learning and indispensable for the philosophical study of the several languages. In the schools of all the countries referred to, the use of this class of dictionaries in the study of the native lan- guage is less frequent than in England. The bilingual dictionaries belong to the same class as the Greek and Latin lexicons, but there are some marked points of difference. The Greek or the Latin lexicon is chiefly, or almost exclusively, used for acquiring the ability to read the classic authors ; a speaking ami writing knowledge of either of these languages has been the object of study in only few cases, and, at present, even more rarely than formerly; therefore, the great majority of students use only the classic-modern dictionary, and but very few the modern-classic dictionary ; indeed, many distinguished educa- tors regard the latter as entirely superfluous. In the study of modern languages, on the contrary, the object of study is to speak and write as well 15 as to read ; and, hence, the native-foreign part of the dictionary is as much needed as the foreign- native, and almost wholly supersedes the latter as soon as a good knowledge of reading has been acquired. As modern languages are living and growing, while the classic languages are dead and fixed, the dictionaries of the former require more frequent revisions and larger additions than the classic lexicons, — a distinction which is of practical importance. The classic languages are studied for educational and scientific purposes only; the modern languages, in most cases, be- cause a knowledge of them is believed to be of practical advantage. As a general rule, a greater degree of scholarship may, therefore, be looked for in the classic lexicon, and a more practical arrangement in the modern dictionary. At- tempts to compile dictionaries containing the words of more than two languages, have not been wanting, but have met with but little favor. The alphabetical arrangement is the universal rule in all dictionaries ; all attempts to substitute any other having always failed. In classical dictionaries, however, for begin- ners the partial combination of the etymolog- ical with the alphabetical arrangement is re- garded by some educators as useful and con- venient. The dictionaries of oriental languages are, to a higher degree than either classical or modern dictionaries, written for the special use of scholars. The great progress of linguistics, and, espe- cially, of comparative linguistics, has made it possible for modern lexicographers to develop the etymological department of the dictionary in such a manner as to render works of an earlier date almost useless. There is, however, a great want of agreement as to the extent to which it is desirable to introduce this feature into school dictionaries. In the classical dictionary, it is the general rule, to give at least as much of ety- mological explanation as is of immediate prac- tical value to the pupil. Of the dictionaries of modern languages, some give etymological ex- planations, and some wholly omit them. As a very valuable fruit of the science of comparative linguistics may be mentioned the etymological diet i( diaries of whole families of languages. One of the best representatives of this class of works is the Etymologisch.es Wurterbuch dei- romani- schen Sjirachen by Diez. As in the study of languages, whether classical or modern, as well as in the native language, the dictionary is an important school book, the teacher should not omit to familiarize his pupils with the proper way of using it ; and it is there- fore, desirable, as a matter of convenience, that the pupils of a school should be all supplied with the same dictionary. For information re- garding the literature of dictionaries, see V.vit'.r.. LAteratur tier Grammatiken, Leocica und Wbr- tersammlungen aller Spracken der Erde (2d edit., revised by Julg, Berlin, 1847). DIDACTICS, the theory of instruction, as distinguished from that of education in its nar- rower sense, implying simply moral education. 226 DIDACTICS DIESTERWEG It is commonly treated under two heads : gen- eral didactics, which exhibits the philosophical principles of teaching, and the conditions of its success; and special didactics, or meihodics, which applies the general truths to the several branches of instruction, the different ages to be instructed, and the various individual characters and their treatment. The distinction 1m 'tween didactics and pedagogy in the narrower sense is made only for the sake of separate scientific treatment, as it is universally conceded that all instruction can be rendered a means of moral education, and that no instruction deserves the same, or can he truly successful, without a cor- responding development of moral power, [n any branch of instruction, the very first beginning presupposes attention on the pari of the pupil, while the progress made will depend on his self- activity, and his ultimate mastership on his full appropriation of all the moralpower inherent in I he branch of art or science concerned. On the part of the teacher, moral power, engendered by such mastership, must be presupposed, if he is to impart to his pupil attention, self-activity, and love for the subject. In regard to the age of the pupil, instruction and moral education bear to each other a changing proportion. During the first age, from earliest infancy up to the eighth or tenth year, the so-called formal pur- pose of education prevails in importance; the several functions of the youthful mind must be made self-active, and the material purpose of didactics, —the acquisition of knowledge or posi- tive learning,must be made a mere means to the former, so that no more of each concentric circle of facts be given to appropriate than can be di- gested for the benefit OI each function. The second age, which extends to the beginning of sexual maturity, is the one during which instruc- tion and education should be, as it were, in equi- poise; while, in the period after sexual maturity, the material purpose, that of the acquisition of knowledge and skill, may preponderate. In re- gard to the branches of instruction, general di- dactics shows which of these are adapted to the several stages of the mental and moral develop- ment of the three ages, and which concentric circle of facts and truths of every science and art may be introduced at the time when it can serve as wholesome mental and moral food. A mosl important distinction is made between the peda- led and the scientific treatment of every sub- ject of instruction, the latter being of necessity systematic and synthetic, while the former should be methodic and analytic first, synthetic last ; that is to say, should introduce every object of learning at BUch a time, and in BUCh a manner, that it luav he mentally and morally appropriated. Special didactics, commonly designated as me- tkodics, treats of the pedagogical means proper in each branch of instructional each age and 8 of development. An explanation of the l e important methods of didactics will be found under the titles of the various branches. In general, however, we maj state thai all promi- nent educators concur in holding that the teacher is every-where the best method, as he is in fact the school itself, if he be a true teacher. It would, however, be a dangerous error to sup- pose, on that account, that every teacher should be left free to invent his own methods, or could be expected to be successful without an acquain- tance with the best methods in use. This error will be avoided by those who, on the one hand, are so deeply imbued with the great responsi- bility of their (Jailing, as to feel that the wisdom of the preceding generations of great teachers cannot be neglected, and. therefore, that the methods devised and practiced by them should be made a subject of faithful and conscientious study: but who. on the other hand, realize the principle that the most approved methods can- not benefit a teacher who has not mentally so appropriated them as to reproduce them accord- ing to his own individuality, and to be able to adapt them to the peculiar wants of his pupils, as well as to all other circumstances in which he is placed. All teaching should be methodical in every aspect: it should be based on the thorough appropriation of a proper system of pedagogy; and it should be a natural outgrowth of the teacher's personality, if it is to perform its proper office in the work of real education. DIESTERWEG, Friedrich Adolf Wil- helm, one of the most distinguished educational writers of Germany, in the present century, was born at Siegen, Oct. 29., 1790, and died at Berlin, July 7.. L866. After studying, at the universities of fierborn and Tubingen, theology, philosophy, mathematics, and natural science, he became, in INK), a private tutor at Mannheim; in 1811, teacher at the secondary school of Worms, which at that time was French; in lNl.'], teacher at the model school of Frankfort; in 1818, second rector of the Latin school of Elherfcld: and, in 1820, first teacher and acting president of the seminary at MeUTS. While in the latter position, he gained a reputation both as a teacher and as an educational writer, which Spread through- Out ( u'l'inany. Be not Only compiled a huge num- ber of school books, many of which are still in extensive use. but also took an active part in all the educational controversies of the day. In I s •_» 7 . he founded the Rheinische Blatter fiir Unterricht und T2rziehung,a quarterly journal devoted to instruction and education, with special regard to elementary instruction. In 1832, he accepted a call as director of the teachers' semi- nary at Berlin, where, as an advocate of sweeping and radical reforms, he had to contend with m. difficulties. In L 836, the Prussian government sent Diesterweg to Denmark, to observe and re- porl on the monitorial system which prevailed in the schools of that country. Diesterwegs report, published under the title of Bemerkunycn und Ansichten auf einer pddaqogischen Reise nach niu,a, anything doubled, or folded), a term anciently given to a formal certificate of authority, because such documents were usually written on double or folded waxen tablets. In more modern times, the term was applied to a royal charter or to any governmental testimonial of authority, privilege, or dignity. (Hence the science of state documents is called diplomatics.) The term is now chiefly confined to a certificate given by a university, college, or other literary institution, as an evidence that the person upon whom it is conferred has at- tained a certain degree of scholarship ; or, in the case of professional schools, as a license to prac- tice a particular art. DISCIPLES OF CHRIST, or as they prefer to be named, " The Church of Christ, a body of Baptists, sometimes called by their opponents " Campbellites," after Thomas Camp- bell and his son Alexander Campbell, who gave the immediate origin and distinctive character to the denomination. The original purpose of Thomas Campbell, who came to the United States, in 1808, from Ireland, as the minister of a Presbyterian denomination known as the Seced- ers, was to unite the various denominations of Christians on the exclusive basis of the Bible. For a time, the congregations organized by the two Campbells attached themselves to a Baptist association: but. in L827, a distinct ecclesiastical organization ws begun. The disciples believe in "baptism for the remission of sins, ' and practice weekly communion. In church government, this denomination is congregational. In 1874, a committee of conference was appointed to confer with the Free Will Baptists on a union of the two denominations. The membership in the United States, chiefly in the Southern and 230 DISCIPLINE "Western states, is estimated at about 500.000 ; in the British Islands, they numbered, in 1874, 109 churches ; and congregations have also been established in Canada, the West Indies, and Australia. They have always taken a deep in- terest in education, and have a large number of academies and seminaries, as well as several col- leges of high standing. The must prominent among their literary institutions arc Bethany College, founded by Alexander Campbell, and presided over by him until his death ; Kentucky University, at Lexington, Ky.; the Northwes- tern Christian University, at Indianapolis. Ind.; Abingdon College, at Abingdon, 111.: Eureka College, at Eureka, 111.; and Hiram College, at Hiram, Ohio. Female colleges have been estab- lished at Columbia. Mo.. Versailles and Jlar- rodsburg, ky.aiid Bloomington, 111. Theological schools are connected with the Kentucky Uni- versity and Eureka College. A Bible school for colored ministers was established at Louisville, K\\. in 187 I. The number of Sunday-schools in 1874 was 2,450, with 253,000 scholars. For fuller information on the literary institutions of this denomination, sec the special articles on the colleges above mentioned. DISCIPLINE (Lat. disciplina, from discere, to learn), a term which, according to its literal acceptation, means the condition of a disciple, or learner; that is. subordination requiring strict obedience to certain directions or rules, or con- formity with a system of instruction, having for its object some kind of training. I tence the word discipline is sometimes used in an active sense as synonymous with training or culture, as in the expression intellectual or moved discipline. Some- times it is employed to denote school govern- ment ; and. frequently also punishment for the commission of offenses. The word, however, should, particularly in education, be confined to its strict meaning as above defined. Iii all teach- ing, there is need of attention and obedience on the part of the pupil ; and as an important aim of education is to instill certain habits as a basis for the formation of character, the learner must be required constantly and punctiliously to con- form to certain rules and general precepts; and the discipline of the teacher is good or bad in proportion as he succeeds in enforcing obedience to these oecessarj rules. In large schools, the system of regulations becomes more complicated, and a habitual ready attention to them on the ji.ni of tin' pupils produces whal is technically called order. (See Order.) This kind of dis- cipline assimilates to what is required in an army, with the special object of so unifying a large number of men that they may be moved as a single person. In militarv discipline, the indi- vidual is sacrificed to the genera) object to be attained l.y its enforcement : indeed, he has no claim to, consideration, excepl what is secondary and subordinate. The danger, in the manage- ment of large schools, is thai the same principle will be applied, the interests of the pupils as in- dividuals being lost sighl of in the endeavor to enforce mere discipline for the purpose of gen- eral management or show. In education, how- ever, the interests of the individual should never be disregarded. School machinery, — marching and countermarching, simultaneous movements, J the motionless gaze, or the dead silence of multi- | tudes of children, all perhaps trembling under restraint, certainly constitutes a kind of disci* pline. but a kind, if not absolutely pernicious, of lint little educational value. Order is indispen- sable to the proper working of a school ; but it has been well remarked that "good order involves impression rather than repression : it does not consist in a coercion from which result merely silence, and a vacant gaze of painful restraint; but it proceeds from the steady action of awakened and interested intellect. — the kindling of an earnest purpose and an ambition to excel." Hence, the discipline that is necessary to produce order in a school or class, is of secondary im- portance, in comparison with that which has for its object to train the intellectual and moral nat- ure of the pupils as individuals. "By discipline." says Currie, "we understand the application of the motives which prompt the pupil to diligent study and to good conduct ;" that is, such mo- tives as the desire of the approbation of teacher I or parent, emulation, or the desire of distinction, the hope of reward, and the fear of punishment. To what extent these motives should be resorted to, and their comparative efficacy in dealing with children of different temperaments and traits of character, constitute important subjects for careful discussion. (See Government, and Rewards.] All moral discipline must be directed to the training of the will : and it is in this connection that the consideration of motives becomes of primary importance. Educators are at con- siderable variance as to the proper methods of controlling the will of children. Some advocate, in all eases, an application of the law of kind- ness, and contend that physical force should never be brought in to coerce or restrain even the most self-willed pupil ; others are of the opinion, based on experience, as they claim, that, in some cases, physical punishment is indispen- sable. (See Corporal Punishment.) The best training is. without doubt, that which brings into play the pupils higher nature, and leaves him habitually actuated by motives derived from it. The child cannot be always restrained by fear, that is. the tear of immediate physical pain ; and. hence, the discipline to which he is to be subjected, should be such as will implant motives and principles of c luct that will be effective as a means of permanent self control. The mere subduing of the will of children is not sufficient ; indeed, it may be injurious. The aim of the teacher should he to bring the will into subjection to conscience and a sense of right; iii the words of a distinguished educator, "to dis- courage the child in the proper development ol its nature has a tendency to crush out the life of the child rather than to cultivate that life into better methods of thought and action." The motives brought to hear in the school-room DISPUTATIONS DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA 231 should, as far as possible, be those which will be Operative in after life. Special school incentives, such as merit marks etc., are useful and proper within certain limitations ; but the great aim should be to dispense with them, and substitute natural for artificial motives— motives that will cling to the child during his whole after life. Unnatural, overstrained discipline, that is, the exaction of a precise conformity with the minor regulations of a school, not only crushes out the individuality of the child for the time, but in its reaction engenders a feeling of resistance in his mind, which, having no outward demonstration, naturally results in a habit of deceit. Nothing is so baneful to the nature of a, child as an at- mosphere of tyranny and arbitrary power ; and any system of discipline that is founded exclu- sively upon it. must produce the worst effects possible. After all. the best discipline, even if the outward order should not be so exact, is that which is brought to bear upon the ] nipils through the consistent example, and the kindly heart tell sympathies of the living teacher, whose very presence is sunshine to his school, and who quells waywardness by the very sublimity of his pa- tience, firmness, and perfect self- control. (See Conscience, Ci'lti-re of.) DISPUTATIONS, the old form of rhetor- ical exercises in which candidates for degrees, in the universities, were formerly required to ex- hibit their powers. Hence the term wrangler as applied in the University of Cambridge, Eng- land, to those who have attained first-class honois in the public mathematical examinations. These disputations occupied a very prominent place in the college work when the formal .Aris- totelian or syllogistic logic (dialectics) was much in vogue, as being the most valuable of all ac- complishments, and the best test of educational progress. They were of two kinds : ordinary, or those performed privately in term time for practice ; and extraordinary, or those performed publicly as the necessary qualifications for a de- gree. The exercise finally became absurd and was held up to ridicule. The following gives a hu- morous description of the method of disputation at Oxford, England, in the last century : •• Tlic persons of this argumentative drama are three : namely, the opponent, the respondent, ami the moderator. Tie' opponent is the person who always begins the attack, ami is sure of losing the day. being always as they call it) on the wrong side of the ques- tion ; though oftentimes, that side is palpably the right side, according to our modern philosophy and discoveries. Tin' respondent Bits over against the op- ponent, and is prepared to deny whatever he affirms, and always comes off with flying colors, which must needs make him enter the lists with great fortitude and intrepidity. The moderator is the hero, or principal Character of the drama, and struts about between the two wordy champions during the time of action, to see that they do not wander from the question in de- bate; ami when he perceives them deviating from it, u them -hovt, and put them into the right road in; for which purpose he is provided with a great quantity of subtle terms and phrases of art ; such as, quoad hoc et quoad Mud, formaliter et materioMer, dicamentaliter et transcendentalUei; actualiter et nlialiter, directe et per se, reductive' et per ai 1 - eidens, entitativi et quidditative, etc. The same author characterizes the exercise, which was originally designed as a public proof of the student's progress in the art of reasoning, as "no more than a formal repetition of a set of syllogisms upon some ridiculous question in logic, which the students get by rote, or, perhaps, only read out of their caps, which lie before them with their notes in them.'' On which abuse he thus enlarges : " ■These commodious* sets of syllogisms are called strings, and descend from undergraduate to under- graduate, in a regular succession; so that, when any candidate for a degree is to exercise his talent in ar- gumentation, he has nothing else to do but to inquire among his friends for a string upon such or such a ques- tion, and to gel it by heart, or read it over in Jiis nap as aforesaid." For a long time the study of dialectics, or the art of logical disputation, occupied a prominent place in the university curriculum both in Eng- land and on the continent; and young men were allowed to waste their time and intellectual energies upon these useless subtleties. "In the German universities of the 14th and 15th cent- turies." Von Raumer says, "the lectures were accompanied with frequent disputations, in which teachers and scholars took part. The regular dis- putation day was Saturday. Sophismata and qua?sti< »><''*, after the fashion of theses, furnished the basis for the disputing. The purpose of them all seems to have been not so much to deal with the truth of the matter as with the form ; they were dialectic fencing with all the tricks of soph- istry, exhibitions of skill in arguing for and against the same proposition." As scholasticism declined, this learned trifling became obsolete; and where disputations are now required they are merely of a formal character. — See Knox, Liberal Education, vol. n. (11th ed., London, 1795); Von Raumer, Geschichle der Padagogik, vol. v., trans, in Barnard's German Universities (N. Y., 1859). DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA, the federal district in which the capital of the United States has been located since November, 1800. It orig- inally consisted of portions of territory ceded to the general government by Maryland and Virginia, and forming a square of 10 miles, and hence having an area of 100 sq. m., (i4 on the Maryland side, and .'5(1 on the Virginia side. It was organized in pursuance of an act of ( 'ongress, passed June 28., 1790, which accepted this "dis- trict of territory" for the " permanent seat of government of the United States." and provided that the government should be removed from Philadelphia to that place on the first Monday in November, 1800. The portion on the Virginia side of the Potomac was retroceded in 1846, leasing 64 sq. m. as the area of the District. (harters were subsequently granted to the cities of Washington and Georgetown, and the District was under the direct control of Congress; the people, however, having no representation therein and no voice in the election of the pres- ident of the U.S. In L871,a territorial govern- ment was organized, the charters of Washington and Georgetown were repealed, and the adminis- 232 DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA tration of the affairs of the District was com- mitted to a governor and legislative assembly. By ad of Congress, June 20., L874, the territo- rial government was abolished, and the adminis- tration was vested in three commissioners to be appointed by the President with the consent of the senate. Educational History. — The charter of the city of Washington, amended in 1804, first made provision for the ••establishment and superintend- ence of schools" in the District; and au act of the city council, the same year, required the appoint- ment of thirteen trustees to carry these provi- sions into effect. Six of these trustees were to be chosen by those persons who contributed to the support of the schools. Among the trustees elected by the contributors was Thomas Jefferson, who was made president of the firsl board convened. The first action taken by the new hoar. I contem- plated the establishment of schools, a college, and a university — the whole to constitute an institution ■in which every species of knowledge essential to the liberal education at' youth may eventually be acquired." As the result of this action, two schools were established, which, in L809, it was resolved to merge into one. About this time (1810), the citizens of < leorgetown applied to the corporation of their city. t<> set apart a lot on which suitable school buildings might be erected. Their application is supposed to have been suc- cessful, as eiidit months afterward the ollieers of the city attended the laying of tic corner-stone of a new school-house; ami. live months after that, a new school, organized upon the Lancas- terian plan, was opened. In L812, the sum of §1,000 was appropriated by the council for the purpose of building an addition in which the female pupils mighl receive separate instruction. The reputation of this school had extended >> far, that the committee of the Washington school board, on receipt of a letter from one of the teachers of the < leorgetown school, suggesting the establishment of a similar' school in Washington, acted immediately upon the suggestion, and pro- cured the passage of an order"thal there shall be one school in the city of Washington, as near as pracl icable in the center thereof, to he conduct, ■ 1 On the plan of, and as nearly correspondent as may be with the forms observed in, the Lan- casteriaii School." Congress, meantime, by a joint resolution, authorized the establishment of a lot- tery for raising $10,000 to be used in the organ- ization of two Lancasterian schools. These schools must have been established, as we find the board of trustees, in L813, electing officers and supervisor} committees tor the Eastern and Western schools, and for the Eastern and Western Lancasterian schools. In Is:;:!, the subject of five schools in the District appears to have engaged the attention of Congress, hut nothing decisive was done; and, on the 4th of Slay of that year, the city corporation applied $200 for the relief of the Georgetown school. The authorities of the three cities Washington. Georgetown, and Alexandria, in ls:;7. united iii an appeal to Congress for an appropriation for the endowment of a system of education that should embrace the whole District of Columbia. by which the children of all might equally enjoy the inestimable advantages of a liberal education. The effort, however, was of no avail, and the schools were provided for by private contributions and annual appropriations from the city treasury till 1842, when the corporation of the city or- dered that the schools should be -taken under the exclusive care of the corporate authority." To this end, aboard of guardians of the (ieorgetown school was appointed, with full powers to pro- vide for the keeping of said schools, and to man- age the same for the public interest. In 1844, the public-school system was re-organized by the abolition of the two ward boards, and the creation of a new board of twelve trustees with ample power for the complete supervision and control of the schools. These were to be open to all white children between 6 and 16 years of age, on prepayment of a tuition fee of not more than 50 cents a month, the pupils furnishing their own books, except in the case of children of in- digent parents, who were taught, and furnished with books five of < ust. 'I lie same act appropriated $3,650 for building two Bchool-houses, ami for renting rooms for school purposes. Between L845 and 1848, ten new primary schools were established, tuition fees were abolished, and a tax of SI was ordered to be annually levied on everywhite male citizen for the use of the schools. The changes during the next five years ( L849 to L853) were, the establishment of 13 new pri- mary schools, the buying of lots, and building ol new school - houses, the increase of teachers*' salaries, and an annual average appropriation of about $15,000. In 1857, an attempt was made to bring the public -school System more into conformity with the system which had been adopted with such success by some of the East< rn states, by creating the office of superintendent of public instruction, and making an assessment of lo cents on every $100 of taxable property, but it was not successful. In L860, the attempt to pass so much of the original act as related to taxation, was renewed, and with success. a tax of 10 cents on the $100 being ordered. Since that time, the progress of the schools has been marked. In 1m; I. the first school for colored children went into operation. The same year, Congress approved an act to organize public schools in the county of Washington, exclusive of the cities of Washington and Georgetown. 'I he first obstacle encountered in the carrying out of this law was a disagreement in the board of com- missioners in regard to the division of the scl I fund among the white ami colored schools. A decision was reached in -Inly: and. the same year, two scl Is were opened, affording instruction to loft pupils. The following Near, five schools were opened, and the few schools for colored children previously existing were incorporated into the public-School system. Since the creation of the hoard of guardians in Georgetown, in 1842, no changes except those incident to the ordinary routine of a successful school system ares DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA 233 recoided. The act of Congress which, in 1871, placed the District under ;i territorial form of government, led to changes in the form and com- position of the board of trustees, ami to many in the details * >t' the management of the schools; but the efficiency of the latter was in no way im- paired. In ls74. the srhool boards of Washing- ton, Georgetown, and the county were consoli- dated into one board of 19 trustees, of whom 11 were residents of Washington, 3 of Georgetown, and 5 of the county. In 1869, the office of super- intendent of public schools of Washington was created, Zalmon Richards being chosen to the position. The following year, he was succeded by J. (). Wilson, who has continued to discharge its duties to the present time. The present super- intendent of colored schools for the cities of Washington and Georgetown is G. F.T. Cook. School System.— The control of the schools throughout the District rests with the board of trustees already mentioned, who report directly to the triumvirate commission created, in 1874, for the government of the District, This com- mission appi tints a superintendent of white schools in Washington. Georgetown, and the county, and a superintendent of colored schools in Washing- ton atnl Georgetown. No permanent school fund exists, the schools being maintained either by special appropriations by Congress, or by direct taxation and voluntary contributions. The second method — that of direct taxation — has been most •effective, the amount of tax per dollar of aasessed property for the support of the white schools in the District and county having been, during the past year, 3. 1 1 mills for Washington, and 3.7£ mills for Georgetown ; the amount for the colored schools was 3.3 mills in the former, and 4 nulls in the latter. Tuition is free, the cost of books only being charged to scholars; but, in case of poverty, this charge is remitted. The legal school age is from 6 to 17 years. Educational Condition. — The principal items of school statistics, for the year 1874 — 5, are as follows: Number of edncable children, white. . 19, ISO colored 9,328 Total Number of children enrolled, white. . " " " colored 11,241 6,489 28,817 Total 16,730 Average daily attendance, white 8,520 " colored.. 3,924 it CC Total. Number of schools, white " colored 166 7.5 12,444 Total. 241 Average number of teachers, males, white.. . 9 " " " females "... 164 Total.. 173 Average number of teachers, males, colored 2 " " " " fpmulea " Rfi females 86 Total.. 88 Estimated enrollment in private and paro- chial schools for the year 6,837 | The school revenue for the year was: Loral taxation for white schools $361,156.99 All other sources " " 93,749.67 Total $454,906.66 Local taxation for colored Bchoola $103,003.92 All other sources for colored schools 71,454,12 $174,458.04 $334,547.36 Total Expenditures Normal instruction. — The normal school at Washington was organized in 187.'!, for the pur- pose of supplying the public schools of the city with teachers. The proportion of female teachers in the schools is so large — 95 per cent— that no provision has been made in the normal school for the education of males. The number of pupils is limited to 20. They must have been, before entering, pupils in the female grammar schools of the city, and at least 17 years of age. The course of study is oue year in duration. The number of pupils who received certificates last year was 20 ; the number who received diplomas, 11. At the normal department of Howard University, 7 students were graduated. Secondary Instruction. — Only one high school is in existence in Washington ; namely, that for colored children, in the north-western section of the city. About 120 private and denominational schools, and academies are reported in the Dis- trict, situated principally in the cities of Wash- ington and Georgetown. Of these schools, 110 are for white children, and 10 for colored. The Wash- ington Business College furnishes instruction to persons of all age and both sexes, who desire to enter mercantile life. Superior Instruction. — The colleges and uni- versities are as follows : NAME Location When found ed Denomi- nation Columbian University . . . Georgetown College Washington Georgetown Washington Washington 1822 1789 1858 1866 Baptist K. C. R. C. Non-sec. Professional and Scientific Instruction. — Schools of law, medicine, and theology exist in connection with colleges and universities; and scientific instruction, also, is to a certain extent given, but no special institution for the last exists. Instruction in theology is given to colored students preparing for the ministry by the Wayland Institute established by the colored Baptists. The National University Law School has 3 instructors, and 100 students. The National Col- lege of Pharmacy was organized in 1872. Special Instruction. — The Columbia Institu- tion for the Deaf and Dumb was founded by Amos Kendall, and was chartered by < Ymgress in 1857. Its sources of revenue are tuition fees, congressional appropriations, and voluntary con- tributions. In addition to the preparatory depart- ment, it has a collegiate department — the only college for deaf-mutes in the world. Its course extends over 11 years — 7 in the preparatory de- partment, and 1 in the college. 234 DISTRICT SCHOOLS DIVERSIONS DISTRICT SCHOOLS. See PlJBMC SCHOOLS. DITTES, Friedrich., a German educator, was born Sept. '2:5.. 1829, at Irfersgriin near Zwickau. After studying at the university of Leipsic and obtaining the degree of Doctor of Philosophy, he was appointed director of the teachers" seminary at Gotha, and at the same time " Schviratk " (school-councilor). In 1863, he accepted a call as director of the Pcedago- qium of Vienna, which had just been established by the municipal government of that city. In this position, he took a prominent part in the dis- cussion of all educational questions in Austria and Germany. In L873, the city of Vienna elected him a member of the lower house of the Aus- trian Reichsrath, in which he formed, with only four other members, the "democratic" (radical) party. Dittes is one of the chief representatives of the pedagogical viewsof Beneke (q. \ I, "which he explained and defended in a number of works. The most important are the Following: <<',->nn/- riss der Erziehungs- und Unterrichtslehre (4th edit., Leips., 1874); Methodik der Volksschuh (Leips., 1874); Lehrbuch der Psychohgie und Logik (Vienna, 1874); Geschichte der Erziehung unddes Unterrichts (4th edit., Leips., 1875); and Schule der Padagogik (Leips., iJ-wfi). These ii\ <• works present a complete view of the sci- ence of education and instruction. He has also edited the Padagogische Jdhresbericht. DIVERSIONS. An important part of the education of youth consists in affording them an opportunity for natural, unrestrained diversions. in which they may have free scope to exercise mind and body, particularly the latter, accord- ing to their inclinations. During the early period of childhood, no tasks can be or need be imposed to guide or accelerate the natural devel- opment of the mental and physical faculties ; the buds of humanity open of themselves, if their condition is normal, and their growth is not arrested by injudicious interference. At first, nature, as a wise educator, trains through the pleasurable emotions; for the impulses which she inspires are all to varied activity, and activity is delight when nerves and muscles have the spring of health and vital energy. A few lessons in conscious restraint are all that this period requires or admits. They are purely negative, checking the violence of natural im- pulse, not urging the child's activity in any par- ticular direction. This is the education of home and parents, when presided over by love and good sense, during the first years of the child's existence, a period of continous diversion. "A child, before its fifth year." says Isaac Taylor, ••and even later, if in perfect health, does not know that the day is long: for the infant mind glides down the stream of moments, conscious only of the present, ami altogether without thoughl of periods, intervals, and measured seasons of duration; the infant mind has no weariness nor disquietude connected with the slow numbering of hours, days, weeks, months." When the age for serious application begins, the season for tabor, or occupation under con- straint, the educator should strive to make the transition as easy and gentle as possible. Fre- quent diversions should be intermingled with formal exercises ; and much will be gained if those exercises be made to partake of the nature of diversions, by having the characteristics of novelty and variety, and by stimulating the child's curiosity. As the age of the child in- creases, passing into youth, the times for regular occupation and for recreation, or diversions, be- come more distinctly separated. The hoy or the girl is gradually led to feel that there are du- ties to be performed, as well as sports to be en- joyed; and that the pleasure received from the latter will be greatly increased by the feeling that it has been earned by a conscientious de- votion to the former. Hence, under no circum- stances, should youth be deprived of their op- portunities for free and innocent recreations, ex- cept as a penalty for misdoing or neglect of duty. The office of diversions is twofold, — re- creation and exercise. The former is absolutely essential after studious employment, to refresh the mind : and the latter is needed to give health and vigor to the body. Those sports arc the best, therefore, which combine cheerful relaxa- tion of the one with the due employment of the other. " Among the Jesuits," says Disraeli, "it was a Standing rule of the order, that after an application to study for two hours, the mind of the student should be unbent by some relaxation, however trifling." I Joys, if left to themselves, will take violent exercise, and thus develop their physical powers and promote their growth : and girls will select sports of a lighter character, — such as are adapted to their different physical constitution. It is a serious error on the part of parents to keep their boys under painful re- straint, and, from solicitude for their safety, to debar them the enjoyment of diversions com- mon to their age, because attended with some degree of danger. Excessive maternal tender- ness and care thus exercised must result in ren- dering hoys effeminate, and unfit to cope with the dangers and trials of subsequent life. The only need of restraint is to keep hoys from vicious actions, low company, petulance and a contentious spirit in their sports, and from too daring and perilous feats of agility and strength. Gymnastic exercises may also be made a recrea- 1 ion. and. when carried on with some system, they constitute an important part of a regular physical education. (See Gymnastics.) What may be called athletics,— rowing, swimming, riding, ball- playing, cricket, etc.. are greatly to be encour- aged in the maturer periods of youth, not only on account of their effect in developing physical vigor, hut because they keep those who actively engage in them from those vicious indulgences which constitute the great peril of that age. Cicero well said. Maxime Inn- cetas f L859, i> still the standard English work upon the subject of which it treats. In Varronianus (1846), he attempted to accomplish for Latin philology what the New Oratylus had done for Creek. His other publica- tions were editions of some of the classics, and several theological works— among the latter, Christian Orthodoxy (London, 1867). DRAWING has been defined as the expres- sion of thought by means of lines, or as a visible presentation upon a surface of our conception of a form. Hence its usefulness in every depart- ment of mechanical science or effort ; since each of these departments is based upon the Concep- tion of forms and their realization in material products. Drawing is thus supplementary to 236 DRAWING ordinary language, the function of which is to recall ideas to the mind by their abstract repre- sentatives in words: but words ean recall con- ceptions of form only to a very limited extent, and scarcely at all those of an irregular or com- plex character. On the contrary, drawing, by a combination of the simple elements of lines, of various kinds and in various relations to each other, can transfer from one mind to an- other the most complicated conception, whether it be that of an actual object, or the creation of the imagination. Thus the machinist has be- fore him an exact representation of the piece of mechanism which he is to construct ; the archi- tect delineates the elevations and plans of the edifice which the builder is to erect, and the industrial draughtsman represents the designs which are to embellish the varied fabrics of the loom. In short, the uses and applications of this beautiful and expressive form language are in- finite, stamping it as one of the most indispen- sable accomplishments of civilized man, and, con- sequently, one of the most important elements of Ins education. The value of drawing as a de- partment of general or popular education, has been pretty fully treated in the article on ART- EDUCATION, to which the reader is referred for information on this point. In the present article, it is designed to present a brief outline of the relation of drawing to the various grades of education, with practical suggestions as to the methods of teaching it. Drawing may lie divided into two distinct de- partments, instrumental and free-hand, the for- mer being principally employed in the mechan- ical, engineering, anil architectural branches of industry; the latter, by artists, designers, and others. The two divisions are sometimes re- ferred to as scientific and artistic, because the subjects coming under the first group, are based on scientific principles, and the results obtained are capable of demonstration by geometry; whilst tree-hand work, either in imitation or original design, employs the perceptive rather than the reasoning faculties, and its results have to be judged by the standard of taste, in all features which do not involve a question of fact. Instrumental Drawing. The group of sub- jects which come under this division may be classified as elementary or applied; the first teaching methods of obtaining accuracy of form, and its appearance under given conditions; the see I. applying this power of drawing to prac- tical purposes, in the arts of planning, construc- tion, ami design. The el mentary subjects are : (1) Plane g etrical drawing: (2) projection of solids, (a) radial or perspective, (6) parallel in- orthographic; (3) projection of shadows. (a) radial or perspective, (/') parallel or ortho graphic ami i8o metric— The applied subjects are: (1) Architectural drawing and building construction : (2) machine drawing, construction, and design; civil and military engineering; I.'!) Surveying and topographical drawing: and Hi ship draughting, and marine architecture. — The elementary subjects teach the student hoM to draw the forms of lines, planes, or solids, either as the eye sees them by perspective, or as they actually exist, by orthographic or isometric pro- jection. The forms usually employed in teach- ing, are regular geometric planes and solids, con- veying, by the instruction given, the principles of representation by lines, on planes of delineation, when the objects are seen in space, or in a de- fined position in relation to the eye. The study of the elements of instrumental drawing is ne- cessary, therefore, because by it we learn how to draw, as a science, which is obviously required before we can apply it to purposes involving a knowledge of the science. The elementary branches may thus be considered purely educa- tional, whilst the advanced or applied divisions may be described as industrial. — In the applied subjects, a knowledge of plane and solid geom- etry prepares the architectural draughtsman to make working drawings for the builder, the carpenter, the mason, and other mechanics em- ployed in the erection and construction of buildings; displaying, by geometrical drawings made to a regular scale, the true forms ami di- mensions of all parts of the fabric: enabling the builder to calculate exactly the quantity of materials required in its construction, and each artisan to prepare his share of the work, so that it shall truly fit its place. 'I he science of, projection and perspective is the basis of the lan- guage by which the architect expresses his de- sign for the whole structure, displaying his ar- rangement of the plan, his design for the eleva- tion, the true form of the building in its several aspects, and the appearance of the whole by means of a perspective view. — Again, in mechan- ical engineering, the designer of a machine must, be thoroughly acquainted with projection as a science, before he can express on paper his de: vices for securing the speed and power required for his purpose. Working drawings have then to be made of the several parts and details, to furnish accurate information to the model maker, by which he may make each part of the machine in wood, to the molder who has to east it in metal, and for the guidance of the fin- isher and fitter who complete the work and erect the machine. So. also, in surveying and topo- graphical drawing, the actual feature.-- of a coun- try or estate are ascertained through the appli- cation of plane and solid geometry, and reduced from the natural size to a plan which is. in all respects, like the true plan of the original. although on a different scale. By the use of such scale drawings, railways are planned and executed, cities and towns are laid out: ami. by civil and military engineers, who employ the Bame means of delineating their work, cities are drained, supplied with water, or fortified and protected, bridges are built to span the river, and piers made to encroach upon the sea, tunnels made to cut through hills and mountains, and embank- ments and viaducts to till the inequalities of val- leys.— The marine engineer or naval constructor is equally dependent upon his knowledge of proi jection, in laying out the lines of his ship or boat,, i>KA\vr\<; 2;37 iii displaying its capacity for freight and model- ing its shape for speed. All those features of his .1 sign are expressed by means of drawings, which arc the application of plane and solid geometry to a special industrial purpose. It will be evi- dent, therefore, that the constructive arts, which bear so important a relation to modern civiliza- tion, and employ so vast a number of persons, arc all dependent upon drawing for the initiation of their schemes. At the foundation of success- ful work, in any and all of their departments, lies a knowledge of elementary drawing, which, regarded as a language, is of such a character, thai it may be efficiently taught in the common schools of America, by the regular teachers em- ployed to give instruction in general subjects, as soon a< this practically useful subject forms a part of all normal-school education. Pure ge- ometry may be considered the study of all these sciences in the abstract, and this is successfully pursued in the schools and colleges ; scientific or instrumental drawing, under the headings called elementary subjects, would be the concrete ap- plication of geometry to the needs of practical education, to be applied at a future time to actual industry. /■',■ t-Hand Drawing. — As the name implies, this kind of drawing is the expression, by the unassisted hand, of what the eye perceives, or the mind, or imagination, conceives. Its results, therefore, are dependent upon the truthfulness of observation or power of conception possessed by the draughtsman, and, in some measure, upon his manipulative skill as a workman. As a rule, however, the power of drawing, or expression, is equal to the perceptive power, and imperfect or faulty work proceeds generally from a lack of clear understanding of the subject rather than want of hand skill. — As in instrumental draw- ing, free-hand drawing consists of two groups of subjects, — elementary and applied, the first being educational, and the second, industrial or pro- fessional. In the elementary division, are all those branches of study or exercises which develop the imitative faculties, embracing all kinds of copying from flat examples or round objects, including also the subjects of geometrical drawing and perspective, by which alone the truthfulness of expressed form can be tested. In applied drawing, the language of form is em- ployed to embody new ideas, either as original designs for industrial art and manufactures, or to express the ideal of fine art, the work of the imagination. It will be seen, therefore, that both scientific and artistic drawing, by instru- ments or by the free hand, have a common characteristic; they both involve a knowledge of, and skill in, drawing as a language, before the language can be employed for original purposes. To continue the analogy, and regarding drawing as the language of form, its alphabet consists of two letters, the straight line and the curve. Simple combinations of these, by elementary {)ractice, produce, as it were, words of one syll- able; the grouping of several objects in a drawing, may be described as a sentence ; and an original design is the same as a composition or essay on a given theme. The artist uses the expression "out of drawing" in precisely the same sense as a scholar employs the term " ungrammatical," and (other terms being substituted] the criticism which has been made on a poem or a work of fiction, might apply exactly to a historical picture or an ideal figure, possessing similar characteristics. A great change has occurred in the opinion of edu- cators, within the] iast quarter of a century (from 1850 to 187:")) on the question of the possibility and advisability of teaching drawing to all chil- dren. Before the beginning of that period, it was generally believed that the ability to draw was a rare endowment rather than a power which could be acquired by all intelligent persons; and the sort of picture making, of a nondescript kind, which was then called drawing, could only be es- timated, as it deserved, as a useless waste of time, that might have been wisely employed to better purpose. Experiments, in several European coun- tries, upon large classes of children, and even in whole grades of schools, demonstrated the proposition that every one who could learn to write could learn to draw. In the schools of the Society of Friends in England, drawing had long been taught to every child, before the above conclusion had been arrived at; and there was no more inequality of ability displayed by the children in that subject than in any other. In England, whose display of industrial art in 185] was little less than a national humiliation, the government, seeking after a remedy, took coun- sel of the teachers in the common schools, and requested some of them to try the experiment of teaching elementary drawing, in their classes, to pupils consisting entirely of the children of working men. After a years trial, a convention of school-masters in London, about the year 1852, recorded as their opinion that all children who could learn at all. could be taught to draw, giving as the basis of their conviction that, during their year of experiment, "half of the time previously given to writing had been given to drawing, with the result, that the writing had been better, and the power of drawing was a clear gain." From this time, aided by strong encouragement from the government, the subject came more and more into favor amongst educators, until it is now general in the schools. Concerning the possibility of teaching all persons to draw, an art master of long experience says, " There are but four classes of human beings whom it is not found practicable to instruct in drawing.- They are the blind, the idiotic, the lunatic, and the paralytic. Of the rest of mankind and woman- kind, exactly one hundred per cent can be taught to draw." (Art Education, Scholastic and Industrial; Boston, 1873.) The same opinion is held by those teachers who have tried the experiment in the public schools of Boston, Mass. — Where drawing may have failed as a subject of instruction in the common schools.it has probably been treated as a special subject. taught by special teachers to the older pupils only, in the last year or two of school life. AVhen 238 DRAWING regarded as one of the elementary subjects of general education, and taught by the regular teachers, it has never failed. To unsure success in teaching the subject in the public schools, the following conditions arc necessary : (1) Only those elementary 1 tranches should be taught which are educational in their influence, and the knowledge conveyed by them of general use (such as have been described as being at the foundation of all constructive industry!. (2) In- struction in drawing should begin with school life, and end only when school, college, or uni- versity education is completed. (3) At the, basis of all instruction is geometrical drawing, which illustrates the tacts of regular forms ; and perspective, which determines the appearance of those facts. (4) Original design, either element- ary or applied, should form a part of ' the reg- ular exercises required from pupils, alternating with other exercises, such as drawing from memory, and dictation, ill order to give variety to the study. (5) The principles of drawing, and of shades and shadows, should first be taught from regular forms, and with scientific method and accuracy, before the pupils are allowed to draw ami shale irregular forms, with no guide but their own observation. All practice should proceed from the simple to the complex, from the regular to the irregular, from the fact to its appearance. (6) The best preparation for truth and beauty of design, is an intimate acquaint- ance with the greatest works of the past and pres- ent, and a complete mastery of all the methods and vehicles of expression ; so that, on the foun- dation of knowledge and with unhindered skill, the draughtsman and artist, educated by study, and made powerful by practice, may impress on their works the stamp of originality. To illus- trate these propositions, programmes of instruc- tion in drawing are here riven in outline: Primary and Grammar Schools. lit year. — The names of geometric forms and lines ; drawing straight lines and their combinations into simple forms; also, the same terms from memory. (All work on the slate.) '2d year. — Dictation and memory drawing of geo- metric patterns ; simple designs composed of straight lines ami simple corves. (81ate work.) 3d year. — Practice on paper of what has been previously learned ; also in drawing, with readiness, from memory ami dictation, forms previously drawn from copy. Designing new combinations from copies. Uh year. Pree-hand outline design, geometrical drawing, model drawing ofboth curved forms and ob- jects bounded by righl lines. ."> bools. 1st year, -Lin pective bj the use of instru- ments, parallel: botanical lessons, with diagrams in ir, model drawing, ir solids, in light ami shade. hali-tint, cross-hatching and -tump. Lessons on archi- tectural style-, u ithout draw in 2d year. — Linear perspective, angular ; design in harmonious colors, from flowers and foliage : drawing from plants in outline : object drawing in one color, as fruits etc., from flat copies and from casts. 3d year. — Linear perspective, oblique ; painting from flowers and fruits ; study ot the human figure, in light and shade, from copies; drawing foliage from plaster casts ; applied design for manufactures, such as carpet-, iace. paper-hangings, potter} - , glass, fresco- ing, metal work, etc. 4/// year. — Lessons in painting landscapes, from nat- ure : drawing the human figure, from casts; lectures in architectural style-, and on schools of painting: also, on the history and practice oi industrial art; and on design applied to manufactures. The principle on which every course should be arranged is, that before attempting to draw anything, the pupil should be made to under- stand it : that is. to have as clear a conception of it as possible. Hence, in the first year, the young pupil is considerably occupied in simply learning the names of forms, in order to imp them upon his memory. When this principle is observed, thai the cultivation of the understand- ing should precede drawing, the latter will never be difficult or uninteresting. hni STRi ll- Draw ing Classes. f. Instrumental Drawing, embracing the following elementary branches : ( 1 ) plane geometrical drawing ; (2) projection ; (3] perspective : and the following ad- vanced subjects: (1) building, construction, and architectural drawing; (2) machine drawing. II. Free-hand Drawing, including the representa- tion of objects and ornament from both the Hut and the round, the study of light and shade, color, and original design. In each of these departments, some of the knowledge and practice found in the other, will be beneficial to the student. The following course will be proper for each : First Fear's Course. 1st Part. — (1) Freehand outline drawing from copies and blackboard, with exercises in elementary design; (2) plane geometrical drawing, from copies and blackboard. 2nd Part. — (1) Model and object drawing, from copy and solid ; (2) perspective drawing (for free- ham' I students) ; (.'!) projection (for instrumental students). Second Year's Course. I. Instrumental Drawing. — (1) Building construc- tion, including the following subjects: joints used in carpentry, deer and window training, construction of Boors, partitions, reel-, and staircases, bond in brick- work, stone-work, arches, fire-proof flooring, designs of plans, elevation-, working drawings, etc.; f 2; ma- chine drawing, including such detail-, as bolts and nut-, plumber-blocks, screws, wheels, etc. II. Free-Jiand Drawing. — (1) The drawing of orna- meiii iii outline, from large copies, ol foliage and the human figure; shading the same from copies in pen- cil, crayon, and Indian ink or sepia : designing in half- tint, or several tints ol one color, draw ing from mem- OH and dictation, etc.: (2) -hading gc trical solids, shading from the cast and natural objects, ap- plied design for industrial purposes and special sub- for particular branches of business, For a description of the necessary fittings and apparatus, see Smith, Art Education, Scholastic and Industrial (Boston, L873). See also Stet- son, Technical Education (Boston, 1876 ; Mod- ern Art Education, translated from the German di Lanql (Boston, L875); Buisson, Rapportsur rinstruction primaire etc (Paris, L875). DRILL DUPANLOUP 230 DRILL, a term used in education, particu- larly in school instruction, to denote the strict routine of exercises required either to train pu- pils to the ready performance of mental or phys- ical processes, or to impress upon their memory those arbitrary associations of facts or words which are required in many subjects of study. Thus, a certain amount of drill is required in teaching the arithmetical tables, the paradigms and rules of grammar, the spelling of words, and those facts of geography that pertain to the location of places (memorizing maps). Drill re- quires definite exercises and regular practice in them, continued a sufficient length of time, in order to impart a kind of automatic force to the recollection. Both mind and body, by repetition, acquire fixed habitudes, by means of which thought and muscular action may be accommo- dated to the performance of acts which at first might have seemed impossible. This is the foundation principle of drill. (See Rote- Teaching.) DRUEY COLLEGE, at Springfield, Mis- souri, under the control of the Congregationalism, was organized and chartered in 1ST.'!. It derives its name from S. F. Drury. of Olivet, Mich., who contributed liberally toward its foundation. It is under the patronage of the American Col- lege Society of Boston. The institution com- prises a collegiate department, with five cour- ses of four yeare each (classical, scientific. Greek scientific, Latin scientific, and ladies' course); a preparatory department, with classical and English courses of three years each ; a normal department of two years; a model school of three years ; and the Missouri Conservatory of Music, chartered in 1875. Both sexes are admitted to all the departments and courses on the same terms, except that the ladies' course (equivalent to that of the best female seminaries) is designed for such young ladies as do not desire to pursue the severer college courses. The library contains 2,000 volumes; the beginning of a cabinet of mineralogy and geology has been made, and a number of specimens of natural history have been secured. The college year is divided into three terms. The regular charge for tuition per term is §1") in the college classes. $12 in the prepara- tory classes, $8 in the model school, and $6 in the normal department. These charges are re- mitted in favor of the children of ministers of any denomination wdio are in active service, and some aid is extended to other deserving students. In 1ST.") — 6, there were 11 instructors; the students were distributed as follows : college classes, 35 ; normal class. 27 ; classical prepara- tory. 75 ; English preparatory, 74; music, draw- in-, and painting, 23; model school. 31 ; total, deducting repetitions. 220. There were 5 grad- uates at the commencemenl of L875. The Rev. Nathan J. Morrison, D. D.. has been the presi- dent from the commencement of the institution. DUBLIN UNIVERSITY. See Ireland. DULL SCHOLARS, or Dullards, a diss of pupils found in every school and class, whose perceptions are deficient in rapidity, and whose mental powers are sluggish. Such pupils need especially the spur of encouragement, and should never be Subjected to blame or derision on ac- count of their slowness. Many teachers often greatly err in dealing with this class of pupils, applying to them such epithets as blockhead, dolt, numbskull, simpleton, dunce, etc. They are, moreover, sometimes neglected by the teacher, who naturally prefers to give attention to those bright, precocious pupils who need but little in- struction. The best powers of the teacher, how- ever, are displayed in developing the latent ca- pacities of these dull scholars ; and very often it has been found that those who bore the character of dullness in school have risen to great eminence in after life. The great English poet and novelist, Sir Walter Scott, and the illustrious German chemist Liebig are often mentioned as examples of this fact. DUNCE, a term applied to a pupil who is dull, or slow in learning. The word is supposed to be a corruption of the name of Joannes 1 >uns Scotus, a very learned man, who lived in the latter part of the thirteenth century (died in 1308). From his keen, analytical intellect and acute logic, lie was styled doctor subtilis, the subtle doctor. The name of this great scholar. according to some, was applied to a dullard in derision, just as we often ironically call a stupid fellow a Solomon, or a bully a IL'iior. Trench, however, thinks it became a term of scorn ap- plied to the adherents of the old school-men by the disciples of the new learning, as the latter gained ground during the middle ages. Hence, the expression, "You are a Duns," was a reproach, as implying an advocate or supporter of obsolete and exploded opinions. Butler, in Hudibras thus puns on the word : " In school-divinity [he was] as able As he that hight Irrefragable ; A second Thomas, or, at once To name them all, another Du?)ce." DUPANLOUP, Felix Antoine Philippe, bishop of Orleans and the foremost Catholic writer of France, in the nineteenth century, on educational subjects, was born at St. Felix, Savoy, dan. 3., 1802. He was ordained priest in 1825, attached, for three years, as catechist to the parish of Assumption, appointed in 1837 superior of the diocesan seminary of Paris, and, in 184!', bishop of Orleans. His chief attention has ever since been devoted to the educational interests of the < 'atholic < Ihurch. The petit semi- naireoi ( Means entered into a lively competition with the state schools; in his own episcopal palace, he opened a new school , and he took an active pari in all the educational controversies of the time. He continued, with great energy, the defense of the " liberty of instruction," which the Catholics of France demanded in opposition to the 1 University, and in which he had zealously interested himself even before his appointment as bishop. Me disapproved of the agitation be- gun by Gaume (see Gai he) and others for ex- cluding the pagan classics from Christian schools isee Classics, Christian), and was, therefore violently attacked by the L'uivers. The con- 210 DURHAM DWICIIT troversy was, for some time, continued on both sides with considerable severity, untd, at length. the Pope imposed silence upon both parties, lie was consulted in the framing of the law of .March 15., 1850, concerning the reorganization of public instruction ; and, after the promulgation of the law, was appointed a member of the Con&eil de Vinstiruction publique. He withdrew from tin's position in 1852, In the National Assembly which met in 1871, after the proclamation of the third republic, he was the recognized leader of the opposition against the liberal views of Jules Simon, the minister of public instruction. The Assembly appointed him president of the com- mittee 3eJ scte 1 to examine and report on the bill in favor of compulsory primary instruction, which had been drafted by Simon: and he not only emphatically declared against the ministerial bill, but presented a counter-project in favor of the "free, religious, and gratuitous instruction of the poor." In 1875, he secured, in the National Assembly, the adoption of a bill in favor of the " freedom of superior instruction." the chief ob- ject of which was the establishment of free Cath- olic universities, in the subsequent organization of which he was the acknowledged leader of the bishops. [See France.) Having been elected, in 1854, a member of the French Academy, he re- peatedly prevented by his influence the election of several decided opponents of < latholic doctrines. When, in 1871, Little was admitted to the Academy in spite of his opposition, he resigned, on the ground that he was unwilling to belong to a society which admitted atheists; but Guizot and other friends prevailed upon him to with- draw his resignation. The most important edu- cational work of I hipanloup has been published under the title De I'Education (3 vols., L855 — 7). It treats of education in general, of authority and respect in education, and of superior in- struction. DURHAM, University of. See England. DURSCH, Martin Georg, a Roman Cath- olic writer on education, was born at Deggingen in the kingdom of Wiirtemberg, Nov. 11., I sot); studied philosophy and theology at the university of Tubingen, and oriental languages at Paris, became on his return prof essor at the gymnasium of ESbingen, and. in ls50, pastor and dean at Rottweil. I lis work on pedagogics or Christian education [Pddagogik oder Wissen- schqft tl'-r dirixUiflii-n Kriii'lnniij, 1851) is re- garded as one of the best on this subject from the Catholic point of view, lie advocate's the co operation of church ami slate iii the manage- ment of the public school, and asserts that, with- out this co-operation, the aim of the public school to improve and purify human society can never be attained. DURUY, Victor, a French historian, au- thor, and educationist, born in L811. lie was professor of history at Reims, and afterwards at Paris, in the Lyc4e NapolAon, In is;.;:, he i ived the degree of Doctor of letters. He successively served as inspector of the Academy of Paris, inspector general of secondary instruc- tion, and minister of public instruction (1863). In the latter position, which he filled till 1869, lie attempted many innovations which were much opposed ; he effected, however, some im- portant reforms. His chief historical publica- tions are Histoire des Grecs, 2 vols.. Histoiredes Remains, 4 vols.. Introduction generate a Fhis~ toire de France, 1 vol., Cours cthistoire, 7 vols., and Histoire de France, 3 vols. These works have been very popular, and have attained an extensive circulation. M. Duruy has also pub- lished valuable reports on the progress of litera- ture and science as shown in ths Exposition Vni- verselle of 1867. DWIGHT, Francis, noted for his efforts in behalf of popular education in the state of New York, and as the founder and editor of the District School Journal oi that state, was born in Springfield, Mass.. March 14.. 18(18, and died in Albany, N.Y.. Hec. 15.. Is -|5. For several years he acted as county superintendent of schools for the city and county of Albany, and was successively member of the school board of Albany, and of the executive committee for the care and government of the normal school in that city — the first in the state. The District School Journal was commenced in 1840, and edited by him till his death. This journal was aided by the patronage of the state, and was supplied, at the expense of the common-school fund, to every school district. Its tone and in- fluence were highly commended by the distin- guished educators of the time. It survived him, however, only a few years. — See Barnard, American Teachers and Educators. DWIGHT, Timothy, a celebrated Ameri- can theologian and scholar, was born in North- ampton, Mass.. May 14., 1752. and died in New Haven. Ct., Jan. 11.. 1817. His mother was the daughter of Jonathan Edwards. After grad- uating at Yale College, in 1769, he taught a grammar school in New Haven for two years, and. during the next six years, was a tutor in Yale College. During a part of the Revolution- ary war, he served as chaplain in the army, dis- tinguishing himself by the patriotic fervor of his addresses, and by the stirring songs which he composed. He, subsequently, performed the du- ties of pastor of the Congregational church and principal of an academy, in Greenfield, Ct. In 1795, he succeeded I >r. Stiles in the presidency of Yale College, which position he held till his death. He was a teacher of great ability, an impressive pulpit orator, and an excellent divine. His presence was commanding, and his manners affable and genial. J lis writings were numerous, bul confined to the departments of theology and genera] literature. One who had been connected with him as a student in Yale < !ollege,thus Wears testimony to his character as a teacher: " Alter the lapse of forty years, and after much oppor- tunity of associating with many eminent instruc- tor,. President Dwight is ever present to my mind as the Qreat nodel Teacher."- See 1>km- bon Olmsted, Timothy Dwight, as >i TeacJier, in I'. vi;\ vun's Ameriont Ihiv/wrs ami Educators. EAR 241 EAR, Cultivation of the. "Recent physi- ological researches appeal to leave but little rea- son to doubt that, at birth and for months after- ward, the organs of the special senses exist in only a rudimentary form, and that they owe their gradual development entirely to the ex- ternal influences exerted upon them by nature and society, ll is, therefore, not only probable. hut experimentally demonstrable, that the edu- cation of the senses is more or less efficient ac- cording to the time at which it begins after birth. In the light of modern experience, it is con- sider 1 by some extremely doubtful whether there is really any case of actual congenital blindness or deafness. The tendency to these defects, doubtless, often exists as an hereditary imper- fection, but is scarcely ever of such a nature as to be incurable, if discovered and treated properly soon after birth. Hence, except when an organic malformation exists, it follows that a systematic anil judicious training of the senses, from the earliest infancy, may remedy most, if not all, is of such defects as colorblindness, weakness of sight and hearing, etc. .Such indeed is the conclusion derived from the experience gained in infant asylums, kindergartens, and intelligent families. This is an important fact, since it serves to correct the notion, so generally enter- tained, that good speakers and singers must be born .such, and that there are but few persons thus naturally endowed. There is, without doubt, considerable diversity in the sensuous endow- ments of different individuals ; but, at the same time, it is. impossible to fix a limit to the im- provement of which every organ of sense is sus- ceptible by continuous and proper education, and particularly by a cultivation carried on through eral successive generations. As regards the ear. this may be considered as historically es- tablished ; since, but three centuries ago, there were but an exceptional few persons who showed an ability to appreciate, and a still smaller num- ber who were able to reproduce, musical melody ami harmony. Of all the ancient nations, the I ■neks alone seem to have been able to enjoy the diatonic scale (but not the chromatic), and to give it expression in their music, other nations never having any other than the scale of five notes (barbaric scale). The progress of musical art among modern civilized nations and partic- ' ularly the diffusion of musical taste among the ' people are striking illustrations of ear culture,; since this progress could not be effected without an organic as well as an esthetic improvement. The sense of hearing is the earliest to be devel- oped in infancy, and, at the approach of death. seems to be the last to be extinguished ; it is also the last to be overcome by sleep, and the first to : be aroused on awakening. In reaching objects at a distance, its power is next to that of sight. In the earliest stages of intellectual development, the sense of hearing performs a most important 16 office, since language, the most efficient means of all education, depends upon its exercise. Moral education, no doubt, also begins with the genial accents of the maternal voice, both in speech and song, as heard by the infant ; so that even the lullabies which soothe it to slumber constitute an agency in its development. While, therefore, loud and explosive noises may injure the physical organization of the ear of the child, harsh and . angry tones may affect injuriously the develop- ment of its affect ions and sentiments. All disagree- able sensuous impressions are deeper and more durable than those of an opposite character; and, hence, when often repeated, they tend to destroy the capacity of the ear for the appreciation of beautiful sounds. Otherwise, variety of sound is not detrimental to the infant's ear, but on the contrary, beneficial, especially when the source of each sound is, at the same time, presented to the sight, or touch, or both these senses. From the time the infant begins to understand simple lan- guage, — usually after the fourth month, espe- cially if the words are accompanied with mimicry or gesticulation, care should be taken to articulate distinctly. In families in which there is a negli- gence in tins respect, it will be found that the children either never, or with very great difficul- ty, acquire a distinct articulation. It is a great error, quite common in some families and com- munities, to repress the natural vociferations of children, and to insist on the constant use of low tones in speech. Nature dictates a great deal of crying, shouting, etc., in order that the lungs and vocal organs may be fully developed ; but, of course, all excess should be restrained, since the habit of yelling and shouting in the open air will not only injure the delicate organs of the voice, but will have a bad effect upon the moral development of the child, besides incapacitating him for the perception and appreciation of those delicate distinctions of sound upon which musical harmony and melody depend. To what an ex- tent this nice perception and discrimination of sound may be cultivated, appears from the fact that, in good kindergartens, a child will learn to distinguish blindfolded the voice of any one of a hundred comrades, to tell by what means any one of a hundred different noises is produced, and to estimate with tolerable accuracy the dis- tance of the source of any well-known sound. Very young children may also, by suitable exer- cises, readily acquire the ability to distinguish the intervals of musical notes, and their position . in the scale. By similar kindergarten exercises, even cases of constitutional difficulty in hearing may be considerably alleviated. Thus such a child may be shown how, by closing the mouth and nostrils, the air may be forced into the Eustachian tubes, until the well-known explosive sound of each tympanum follows. After every such exertion, the hearing will be found to be- come somewhat better, until, by frequent repeti- 242 EARLHAM COLLEGE ECUADOR tion, its improvement will be quite decided ; be- cause the fine blood-vessels of the organ, in which the circulation had become stagnant, are ren- dered active ; provided, of course, there is no mal- formation or incurable physical defect in the organ itself. (See Senses, Education of.) EARLHAM COLLEGE, at Richmond, bad., is controlled by aboard of managers ap- pointed by the Indiana Yearly Meeting of Friends (orthodox). It was chartered in 1857 ; but a hoarding-school for instruction in the higher branches had been in operation in the same building for several years previous. The college is supported by t he income from an endowment of $55,000, by tuition, and by the proceeds of a farm. There is a classical and a scientific course, each of four years. The preparatory school lias a course of two years. Students may pursue selected Studies at the discretion of the faculty, but no degree is given except on the completion of one or the other of the regular courses. The degrees are. A. I!, for the classical and B. S. for the scientific course. Graduates may receive the second degree A. M. or M. S. according to the previous course) either on continuing one year at the college in the satisfactory prosecution of post-graduate studies, or, in regular course, at the cud of three years on passing a successful examination in some selected studies, or on the presentation of a satisfactory thesis. The college has libraries containing over 4,000 volumes ; an observatory supplied with an equatorial telescope. a transit instrument, and an astronomical clock ; and a museum of zoology, a aparative anatomy, geology, archaeology, etc. There are from ten to twelve instructors, including six professors and a principal of the preparatory department. The number of students at present (1876) ranges from 220 to 230 per year, about one-third of whom are college students. The number of graduates, in 1^75, was "'.». The first president, Prof. Barnabas C. Hobbes, was appointed in L865; he held the office two years and was succeeded by the present incumbent, Joseph Moore, A. M. EAST TENNESSEE UNIVERSITY and State Industrial College, at Knoxyille. Tenn., non-sectarian, was chartered in L807. It received a granl of land from the United States through the State legislature, from which about •SI'*, 1)011 was derived; and a Further endowment was obtained from the property of P.lount Col- lege, which was merged in it on condition of its iblishmenl a1 Cnoxville. It was .suspended during the civil war. and the college property was occupied by the United States army, and itly damaged. Exercises were resumed, in 1866, in the Asylum for the I leaf and Dumb in l~ 19, the institution received the Congressional land granl to the state for the establishment of an agricultural and mechanical college, and the State Industrial College was organized. New college buildings have been erected, which stand on an eminence near the city. The college farm of 260 acres is about a mile from the buildings. The libraries contain about 1,000 volumes. The cabinets of geology, mineralogy, and zoSlogy have been recently commenced, and are constantly receiving accessions. A chemical laboratory has been established. The value of the grounds, build- ings, and apparatus is 8150,000; the amount of productive funds, $396,000. It has a pre- paratory and a collegiate department. The col- legiate studies extend over a period of four aca- demic years, of ten months each, and comprise three distinct courses, as follows: (1) The agri- cultural course, in which prominence is given to the sciences pertaining to agriculture; (2) The mechanical course, in which the principal stud- ies are those which relate to the mechanic arts ; (3) The classical course, in which the Latin and < deck languages are taught. Students completing, with credit, the classical course, receive the de- gree of Bachelor of Arts: those completing the agricultural or mechanical course, that of Bach- elor of Science The students are organized into a battalion ; and military drill and inspections, under the direction of the professor of military tactics, take place daily. The whole college is under military discipline. All able-bodied stu- dents must perform a small amount of labor; but this is principally required of the freshman and sophomore classes. Those who wish addi- tional labor, are, to a limited extent, furnished with work, for which they are remunerated. The cost of tuition is S.'iC a year in the college, and $30 in the preparatory department. Free tuition is given to students nominated by mem- bers of the state legislature, each senator haying the right to nominate two, and each represen- tative three. Free tuition is also given to young men who intend to prepare for the ministry, and who bring a certificate to that effect from some church organization. In 1874 — 5, there 18 instructors, and L01 collegiate and 214 preparatory students. The Rev. Thomas William flumes, S.T. D.,is I L876) the president. EAST TENNESSEE WESLEYAN UNIVERSITY, at Athens. Tenn.. under the control of the Methodist Episcopal Church, was chartered, in the winter of 1866 — 7, as the East Tennessee Wesleyan College. The name was changed at the next session of the legisla- ture. It was opened in September, 1867. The main college budding is a substantial brick struc- ture. 70 by 50 feet, and three stories high. The libraries contain about 1,500 volumes. There is an academic, a preparatory, and a collegiate department, the las! ha\ ing a classical and a scien- tific course. There are two terms iii the year, and the cost of tuition varies from S1s, 1 o be conducted 1 >y the Brothers of Christian Doctrine. The district councilors were empowered to raise in advance a part of the taxes for the support of these schools. At the .same time, an agreement was entered into between the government and the Society of Jesus, according to which the latter assumed the direction of a number of colegios. J low little education is valued, may be seen from the fact that the expenditure for public edu- cation, according to the annual budget, amounts to only about 20,000 pesos (1 peso=$0.96.5). Primary Instruction. — The schools are at- tended almost exclusively by the whites, the half- breeds, and the mulattoes; while the Indians, who compose the laboring classes in the cities, do not enjoy the advantage of any education at all. The number of public schools, in 1873, was 244, of private schools, 176; and the number of schools supported by corporations was 11, making the total number of primary schools 431. The num- ber of pupils in the public schools was 17,661, the number in private schools 3,966, and in schools supported by corporations 887, making the total number of pupils 22.464. The course of instruc- tion in the public schools comprises reading, writing, arithmetic, and religion. Secondary, Superior, and Special Instruction. — There were, in 1873, six colleges (colegios na- cionales) with 59 professors and 757 students, and one female college with 4 professors and 1 53 students. The University of Quito comprises four colegios, the Colegio de San Gregorio, founded in 1586 by the Society of Jesus, and invested with the privileges of Salamanca in 1621 ; the Colegio de Santo Tomas de Aquino, belonging to the Dominicans; the Colegio Mayor with which a seminary is connected, and the Co- legio de San /•' run ml.,. The revenue of the uni- versity amounts to from 4,000 to5,000 pesos, and tli'' salaries of the professors to 3,950 pesos. In the colegios, the course of study embraces Latin, and sometimes < Ireek, in addition to the branches taught in the primary schools. The university course comprises the Spanish language and liter- ature. T*atin, Creek, law. medicine, etc. Special Instruction is imparted in the following schools : schools of art and industry with 22 ] >r< lessors ; a polytechnic school, with L3 professors and 59 students; a military academy, with 5 professors and 2,'{ cadets; seven seminaries supported by the clergy, with 17 professors und 227 students; an academy of tine arts, with 2 professors and 22 students, and a conservatory of music, with 8 professors and 39 students. In 1872. a pro- spectus was issued ior a school of obstetrics, and also for one of sculpture, to be opened in Quito, under the direction of European professors. An academy of arts and sciences was also to be opened in Quito, and the advantages of the Guayaquil Normal School were to be extended to Indian children. — See Schmid, Encyclqpadie, vol. ix., art, Sudamerika; Wapp^us, Handbuch der Geographie mnl Statistik, vol. i; Report of U. S. Commissioner of Education tor L873. EDGEWOETH, * Maria, a gifted English authoress, noted for her educational writings, was born at Hare Hatch, near Reading. England, in ITiiT. ami died at Edgeworthstown, Ireland, in 1849. She was the daughter of Richard Lovell Edgeworth, who was quite celebrated both as an inventor and an author, and, to some extent, also as an educationist. He was the author, jointly with his daughter, of Practical Educa- tion (1798), and published Essays on Profes- sional Education (1809), and a continuation of Early Lessons (1815), published originally by his daughter in 1810. In 1822, Maria Edgeworth published Rosamond, a sequel to Early Lessons, which was followed by Harry and Lucy, the Parents' Assistant (a series of juvenile tales), and Frank ; subsequently also Orlandino, which appeared in Chambers's Library for Young People. It was, however, as a writer of fiction that .Miss Edgeworth gained her greatest fame. Her novels acquired a high degree of popularity, which, to a considerable extent, they still retain ; and they were widely circulated both in England and in the United States. They were greatly admired by her illustrious contemporaries Scott, Macaulay, and Jeffrey. The latter said. " It is impossible to read ten pages in any of her writ- ings, without feeling, that not only as a whole, but that, in every part, they were intended to do good."' " She is the author," said Edward Everett, " of works never to be forgotten ; of works which can never lose their standard value as English Classics." In 1820, she completed a Memoir of her father (commenced by him), who died in L817. There are several editions of her works, which still continue to be reprinted. EDINBURGH, University of. See Scot- land. EDUCATION (Lat. educatio), a general and comprehensive term, including in its signification every thing that pertains to the bringing up of children, and the operation of influences and agencies designed to stimulate and direct the de- velopment of the faculties of youth by training and instruction, and thus to control the forma- tion of their character. Hence, education has 244 EDUCATION been divided into several departments, according to the class of faculties to the development and improvement of which it is directed, including (1) Physical Education (q. v.). or the education of the bodily powers; (2) Intellectual Education (q. v.), that of the mind or intellect ; (3) Moral Education (q. v.), — of the propensities, senti- ments, will, and conscience; (4) Esthetic Educa- tion, — of the taste, musical, artistic, or literary, that is, comprehending the sphere of the imagi- nation (see Esthetic < /Ulture); and (5) Religious or Spiritual Education, — of the religious sentiments, the spiritual instincts; that is, those which concern only the soul as a spiritual and immortal essence, and its relations to the Creator, the Infinite Spirit. (See Religious Education.) Education is also distinguished into home or domestic rn (q. v.), and public or commonr School education (see PUBLIC SCHOOLS), OT, COn- sidere 1 as a means for the general enlightenment of the people, popular education; also into pri- vate education, that is, supported by private funds, and national education, — provided for by t lie state. (See National Education.) School education, generally called instruction, on account of the more limited character of its scope and the sphere of its operations, is distin- guished, according to its grade, into (1) primary instruction, that is. the instruction given in ele- mentary schools (such as the common schools, — the primary schools of cities representing only a lower subdivision of primary instruction); (2) sec- ondary instruction, — as given in academics. high schools (middle schools] ; (3) superior in- struction, — as given in colleges and universities ; , I) special instruction, — as of the blind, the deaf and dumb, and the imbecile; (5) 'professional a//'/ technical instruction,— -as in art schools, law schools, medical schools, military, naval or nau- fcical schools, theological seminaries, schools of architecture, etc., for information in regard to which see the respective titles. Education is to be carefully distinguished from instruction, the latter being only a subordinate part of the great scheme of controlling and guiding the development of a human being. To this department of education the term didactics (from the* iivek word SiS&aKStv, to teach) is often applied. (Sec Didactics and Instruction.) In- struction is addressed to the intellect or under- standing: while education comprehends the whole nature of man and the various agencies by means of which, in its formative state, i1 may be affected, [ts primary object is to form the character either bj stimulating its development in the normal direction, or correcting tendencies to m n-bid growth. In respect to the scientific principle, by which its practical operations should be guided, education is a science ; in relation to fch< proper mode of performing those operations so as to ren- der them as eff sctive as possible, it is an art. The science of education is a very complex one. inas- much a i its principles must be drawn from many different departments of Bcience; superadded to m hich,as its own peculiar spin re of mvestigat there is the great body of truths which concern the growth and development of mind and body, and which especially constitute the theory of education, or pedagogics, as sometimes called. This article will embrace oidy the general con- sideration of (I) the history of education, and (II) the theory of education, with a reference to sub-titles for fuller information in regard to sub- ordinate topics. I. History of Education. — The history of edu- cation is the history of the institutions, prin- ciples, and methods by means of which children and youth of both sexes have been educated, from the earliest period of historic times to the present day. It embraces within its scope an account of the peculiar character which edu- cation has assumed among the several nations of the globe, of the rise and development of the different methods of instruction, of the systems and labors of prominent educators, of the divi- sions and classes of schools, and of the rival and frequently conflicting claims of the family, the church, and the state to a share in the regulation of public instruction. Each of these subjects is treated of in this work under special titles; and the object of this general article can. there- fore, only be to present a brief general view, in outline, of the subject, SO as to show more clearly the relation of its several departments and topics. The earliest schools which have any claim to a place in a history of education are met with in ! gypt, China, India, and Persia. In all these countries, it was the aim of the instructor to train the young so that they might become homogeneous members of the community to which they be- Longed, the institutions of whii li were to be pre- served and continued by them unchanged. The claims of individuality were, at that early period, unknown: and the principle of blind and slavish submission to the constituted authorities was the basis of all education. There are. however, some marked points of difference. In China, the dis- tinctive features of education characterize it as family education, in India as caste education, in Persia as state education, and in Egypt as priest- ly education. In China, every child is reared in absolute obedience to the head of the family, and every family submits as a child to the com- mon father of all. the Emperor. The excessive veneration of ancestry makes the character of the people essentially stationary, and education assumes pre-eminently the character of mechanical training. In India, every child belongs by his birth to one particular caste: and the foremost aim of the instruction given is to teach him the rights and duties of the caste. The leading prin- ciple of Indian education is habit. In Persia, every kind of power and authority centers in king : the children belong more to the state than to their parent8, and the germs of a strictly na- tional education may. therefore, be found in the institutions of that country. In Egypt, the priest is the chief represent tive of education and the only teacher. (See ClUl l, 1 '.< YVT, INDIA, and PeRSI \.) The classic nations of the ancient world, Greece and Rome, began a new period in the F.nnwTiox 245 history of education. While the oriental child was taught to become a docile member of the family, the caste, the state, or the religion, Greece ami Rome conceived the ideaof individual educa- tion : man was n<>t merely expected to fi< himself for the place which the family, the caste, the state, or religion assigned to liiin. but lie was to choose bis own vocation, and by aspiring to the highest place of honor in political life, in art, or in sci- ence, to advance beyond his ancestors. Mechan- ical training failed to satisfy those who interested themselves in the cause of education ; the first theories of education were developed, and the harmonious development of the body and the mind was held up to the young as the worthiest aim of their youthful ambition. Lycurgus and .Solon as lawgivers, Pythagoras and Socrates as practical educators, and Plato and Aristotle as writers on education, propounded and brought in- to circulation a number of new ideas, with which not only did the older nations of the ancient world have nothing to compare, but which have remained among the most potent agencies in the progressive education of mankind. A beauti- ful individuality was, to the Greek, the aim of life, and the ideal of education was expressed by the word KctXoKaya&ia, the beautiful and the good. The Spartan system of education con- stituted, to a considerable degree, an exception to this general characteristic of Greek education. The Romans attention, from his early childhood, was directed to the affairs of a commonwealth which was constantly engaged in war, and those who reared him naturally designed to make him a practical man. The development of a practical individuality became the aim of Roman educa- tion. Less time was found for', and less interest felt in, the study of science and art ; but there was a notable progress in the appreciation of home education, involving a higher regard for marriage and for a more dignified and freer po- sition of woman in society. In every family, the mother was to begin and the father to con- tinue the work of education, which came to be looked upon as a part of parental duty. Both parents co-operated in nursing, in the minds of their children, the feeling of patriotism; and a part of the education which the young Roman received under the parental roof was the desire to Income a useful, honest, and illustrious citizen of the commonwealth. Qnder these influences, the will was more developed than either the emotional nature or the intellect. The only sci- ences which interested the Roj nans were almost exclusively those of a strongly utilitarian charac- ter, — rhetoric, Roman history, and military sci- ence; since every noble and talented youth aspired to become a leading politician or a great general. The characteristic virtue of the ancient Romans, before the decline of the Republic, was stern and inflexible integrity in political life ; but all their intellectual and moral aspirations were circumscribed by the narrow horizon of their own nationality, and a due regard for those outside of it appears to have been unknown to them. When an acquaintance with the institu- tions of conquered Greece revealed to the Ro- mans a progress in art, science, and literature, which they as yet had not even conceived, and thus awakened a thirst for higher literary culture, the political and social system of the republic had already entered upon the period of its de- cline. Higher instruction, often imparted by despised slaves, was an inadequate compensation for the decline of home education : and scientific and literary culture proved utterly unable to ar- rest the flood of corruption which finally over- whelmed the free institutions of Rome. The lines of Horace, so often quoted, have thus an impressive significance : Graecia capta ferum victorem cepit, et artes Intnlit agresti I.atio. Under the empire, the old landmarks of na- tional education were entirely swept away. ( J reek tutors, and Greek high schools, at Athens and Constantinople, were expected to supply the highest instruction ; but the enervated Roman was no longer able to grasp the ideal of a uni- versal higher education, and the Roman Empire of the West was destroyed by the barbarians without having developed any systems or forms of education. As Roman education, from the foundation of the city to the downfall of the empire, was of a predominantly utilitarian char- acter, Rome never produced any writers on edu- cation like Aristotle and Plato; yet the works of Cicero, and especially of Seneca and Quin- tilian, contain many suggestions of great prac- tical value. A peculiar position is occupied by the Hebrews, the only theocratic people of antiquity. Their children were to be educated, not for the family or caste, not for the state or for personal distinction in art and literature, but to be the obedient servants of the God of Israel. As Je- hovah was represented to the people as their sovereign, so he was their only teacher. Educa- tion was a corollary of religion. The head of a family was both its teacher and priest, and gave to the children a religious instruction ; reading and writing were learned only by the children of the wealthy. The first organized schools were the schools of the prophets for training expound- ers of the law of Jehovah ; after the exile, the rabbis organized a number of schools, to which children from their 5th year could be sent. The instruction was for a long time entirely oral, and at first also limited to the tenets of the Jew- ish religion ; but gradually the course of instruc- tion was enlarged, and. during the middle ages, many Jewish schools obtained a high reputation for the number of scholars whom they educated. The advent of Christianity was a great turn- ing-point in the history of education, no less than in the general history of mankind. For a considerable length of time this was far from being recognized. To the educated and wealthy Romans, especially to those holding a high rank in scholarship and literature, the ( 'hristians ap- peared as a humble, insignificant, and despised sect. The energies of the Christians themselves were so greatly absorbed in the effort to live up 246 EDUCATION" to the requirements of their religion, anrl to develop the constitution of their church, that but little attention seems to have been devoted to the cause of education. They had no literary institutions of their own, and, consequently, their children were often sent to pagan schools for sec- ular instruction. The tirst Christian schools were founded to instruct the catechumens in the doctrines of Christianity, and to enable them to vindicate their religion from the attacks of pagan philosophers. The most famous of these schools, thai of Alexandria (see Alexandrian School), gradually developed into the first school of Christian theology. Its great teachers, espe- cially ( 'lenient and Origcn. not only freed Chris- tianity from the charge, until then very common, of being the faith of the ignorant and illiterate. but, by conceiving the idea of demonstrating the agreement of Christian doctrines with Platonic philosophy, attempted to revive the educational ideas of the Greeks, the mosl advanced in ante- < Ihristian times, and to resume the work of e lu- cational development where the great masters of aneient Greece ha I left off. This attempt, how- ever, failed in consequence of the passionate op- position made to it by another school of Chris- tian theologians, who saw in the world outside of the Christian revelation nothing but darkness and sin, and did not believe that any good could be derived from the study of pagan literature. Tertullian rejected any connection between Christianity and philosophy with the harsh re- mark, "What have Athens and Jerusalem, the Academy ami the Church, in common ?" Sim- ilar views were expressed by Ireiueits, ( 'yprian, and Arnobius, while other writers, especially at Rome, endeavored to compromise between the Alexandrians and their opponents. When, three hundred years after its rise, Christianity sup- planted paganism as the official religion of Rome, the detestation of pagan learning was sufficiently predominant in the < Jhristian ( !hurch to cause the decline, and, subsequently, in the fifth century, the extinction, of the Alexandrian school. With it the study of the literature of ancient Creece ceased, and the treasures which are contained in the educational works of Plato and Aristotle, were for a long time hidden. The only schools to be met with at that time in the Christian world, were several schools of theology, like th ee of Antioch, Edessa, and Nisibis; and even these declined. . simultaneously with or soon after tin 1 closing of the school 01 Alexandria. The mass of the Christian people derived its entire edu- cation from the family and the church. I'pon this field, however. Christianity had produced wonderful results of regeneration. While pagan society was irresistibly collapsing, from vice and corruption, the Christian congregations excited the admiration of the world by the strength of their faith and the depth of their religious feel- ing. The organization of Christian schools Other than those of a theological character is chiefly due to the monastic orders. Both in the east and in the we-l provision was made for instructing doI only the candidates for monastic life, but also children who were sent there by their parents. In the East, the attention of the monks was, however, so completely absorbed in subtle metaphysical questions and controver- sies, that little was accomplished deserving a mention in the history of education. In the west, Benedict and his followers gave to monas- tic education a more practical basis, and com- bined agricultural and mechanical occupations with the study of theology. The importance of these convent schools (y the business man and mechanic, especially reading, writing, and arithmetic, the leading object of instruction. They were sometimes called writing- schools, as they aimed at lifting their pupils for writing letters and business compositions. These Bchools not only served to develop the idea of secular instruction in the place of merely ecelesiastieal education, but, when town mag- istrates were the patrons of the schools, led to the appointment of lay tea. -hers, and, gradually, caused teaching to be regarded as a special pro- fession. The beginning of this profession was sufficiently humble. Even at the close of the middle ages, special school-houses could be found in ouly a few towns. Instruction was generally given in some building used for ecclesiastical or municipal purposes, or in hired rooms. When magistrates had the control of a school, they en- gaged a school-master, generally for the term of one year. The school-master chose his own as- sistants, and. if his contract was not renewed, master and assistant traveled from town to town, until they found a new engagement. They were sometimes accompanied by crowds of boys and youths (see Bacchants), whose vagrant habits were, however, by no means calculated to in- crease the reputation of school education. — The greatest among the educational achievements of the Christian world, during the middle ages, was the establishment of the universities, in which every department of science was to be developed to its highest perfection. The plan of these institutions, which were to be the centers of the literary labors of the entire Christian world, and in which, therefore, the progress made in any one science was to benefit all, was in itself an immense progress. The development of the universities was greatly promoted by the revival of classical studies (q. v.), which began in Italy in the 1 1th century, and by the discov- ery of the art of printing in the 15th century, which greatly facilitated a general diffusion of even- kind of knowledge. The foremost rep- resentatives of this new period of intellectual activity were Erasmus, Reuchlin, and Melanch- thon. A striking feature in the educational history of Christian Europe, from the rise of I hristianity to the end of the middle ages, is the controlling influence of a universal church, with one visible head, the Pope, and one literary lan- guage, the Latin. In ancient Egypt, China, India, Persia, (Greece, Rome, and among the Jews, the aim of education had always a strictly national bearing, and the same word was gener- ally used to denote the ideas of foreign and hostile. ( 'hristianity, winch became the religion of the Roman state; at a time when the great empire had begun to shake to its very founda- tion, soon witnessed its destruction and the rise- of a number of independent states, and regarded it as a divine mission to unite these conflicting nations in a common submission to the supreme authority of the one true religion. Thus not only was secular education made subordinate to moral and religious education, but the submission of so many nations to one spiritual authority tended to develop ideas of universal rather than national education. The Eastern Empire had no part in the educational progress of western Europe, and was in a completely petrified and exhausted condition when it was destroyed, in the fifteenth century, by the Mohammedan Turks. Mohammedanism, at that time, had been in existence for about 800 years. It had become the predominant religion in a large portion of Asia and Africa, and, for several centuries, had ruled in Spain. Its influence upon the progress of education, at one time, appeared to be even more favorable than that of Christianity ; and the Mohammedan high schools of Spain not only attracted a large number of students from Chris- tian countries, but in many sciences, as mathe- matics, philosophy, and natural history, became the teachers of all Europe. In the twelfth cent- ury, these schools began to decline; and, from that time to the present, education in the entire Mohammedan world has been in a most depressed condition. At the close of the fifteenth and the beginning of the sixteenth century, a series of remarkable events indicated the entrance of mankind into a new period of its history. One of special im- portance in regard to the progress of education was the overthrow of the Catholic Church in a large portion of Europe. As Luther, Zwingli, < 'alvin. and other leaders of the religious move- ment appealed from the judgment of the Church which condemned them, to the Bible, it was their natural desire that every Christian family should he sufficiently instructed to be able to read the Bible. The governments of several Protestant States issued laws which were intended, after the example of Charlemagne, to bring the entire population under educational influences. In this way, education became more widely diffused than it had ever been in the middle ages ; and it remained, henceforth, to a higher degree than before, the subject of serious study for many Legislators; but there was no substantial change in the methods of instruction, and the subservi- ency of secular to theological education remained as complete as before. The desire to preserve the Catholic Church from further defection, and to recover the ground already lost, led to 248 EDUCATION the establishment of the order of the Jesuits, who tried, for this purpose, to obtain a control of the education of the higher classes. The schools of the .Jesuits (q. v.) attained a great celebrity, a large attendance, and the admiration of many of the must eminent Protestants. In consequence of the close connection between schools of every description and the church, all the great religious movements were reflected in education. Thus, when the German Pietists charged the Protestant Church of their time • with laying too great stress on a rigid orthodoxy, and with undervaluing the emotional element of religion, the schools influenced by them were so shaped as to aim more at the education of practical than orthodox Christians. Germany is indebted to these Pietists for one of its greatest philanthropists and most practical educators, A. IT. Krancke (q. v.). whose fame in the history of education rests more on the excellent institutions which were founded by him, than on any new- theory or literary work on education. A radical reform in education had. in the meantime, been introduced by Comenius (q. v.), a bishop of the Bohemian Brethren and one of the greatest educators of all time. Influenced by the inductive method of Bacon dp v.), and the works of Ratich (q. v.) on the necessity and importance of an independent art of teaching, Comenius conceived the idea of a harmonious development of all the faculties of man. and proposed a grand system of popular education which is still a linircl by all educators as a work of lasting value. The views of Comenius on vernacular schools, on the return from dead books to the live book of nature, on intuitional teaching and the value of analytico - synthetic methods met with general approbation and led to immediate reforms. The movemenl begun by Comenius was greatly strengthened by the writings of John Locke (q. v.). who applied Bacon's inductive method to the study of the human mind and became the founder of empir- ical psychology. Locke specially exceeded former writers in recognizing the importance of physical education: his ideas in regard to this subject have exercised a marked influence on modern school legislation. The new principles thusdevel oped were welcomed by the powerful opposition which, in the seventeenth century, arose in the literary world against the influence of both orthodox Protestantism and the < 'atholic < Ihurch upon society, and which had its chief represent- atives in the French Free-Thinkers, the English Deists, and the German Rationalists. It became the general tendency of the age to look upon education as one of the most important depart- ments of state administration, and. in most of the states, ministries of education, school boards, and school commissions were appointed. In Germany .and a number of other countries, coin pulsory education was introduced. The chief difference among the leading educators concerned die question whether instruction should chiefly aim at imparting positive and useful knowledge. or at exercisinc and traininc the mental faculties. The advocates of the latter principle, who were called the Humanists, attributed very great educational importance to the study of the clas- sical languages; while those of the former, called Realists, from their utilitarian point of view, thought more of natural sciences, modern lan- guage s. gi ■< igraphy, and history. Among the writ- ers on education in the eighteenth century, none became so famous as Rousseau, an enthusiastic idealist who looked upon the entire civilization of his age as an aberration from nature, and pro- posed to erect upon its ruins an entirely new society. The means by which he desired to effect this change was a radical reform in the system of public education. Neither he nor any of his ad- mirers was able to cany his radical theories into practice; but many of his ideas, especially on physical education and the cultivation of the in- tellect, are now accepted as correct by all edu- cators. He is regarded as the father of the an- thropological principle in education which insists that the educational functions of a teacher should begin with his study of the individual nature of his pupils. Basedow (q. v.) and other Philan- thropists (see Philanthropic), attempted to establish model boa rding- schools on the basis of the ideas of Comenius, Locke, and Rousseau. The great hopes which they raised were never realized ; but many of their pupils have risen to considerable eminence. The most famous and influential of modern educators was I'estaloz/.i. The eminent position which he occupies in the history of education is not BO much due to a perfect method of instruc- tion. to a superior talent of organization and man- agement, or to the foundation of great educational institutions, for in all these respects Pestalozzj has been excelled by other educators; hut he has secured the admiration of all time by his fervid enthusiasm in the cause of education, lie gave a greater impulse to the improvement of popular education than any of his predecessors; and it was his special merit to have called at- tention to the ethical and psychological founda- tion of education. The followers of I'estalozzi called into existence a number of practical re- forms, the most important of which is the kiu- dergarten (q. v.), founded by Froebel (q. v.), a System for the education of young children be- fore their admission to the primary school. Many of the en i incut philosophers of the eight- eenth and nineteenth centuries have discussed the great problems of pedagogy ; and conflicting as their views may be on many important ques- tions, the principle thai education should he a natural and harmonious development of inde- pendent individualities is generally recognized. Of special interest lor educators are the systems of Herbart, Beneke, and Herbert Spencer. I lerbart (q. v.) rejected the traditional "\ iew of a number of different powers constituting the human soul, which on the contrary is regarded by him as a simple entity and as not .subject to any change in its quality. Beneke (q. v.) pro- posed a system of education wholly based on psychology, to which he attributed the character KIH'CATION 249 of a wholly empirical science. 1 [erbert Spencer (q. v.) claimed for the developmenl of the soul an organic growth subject to the ordinary laws of organic development, and made psychology strict- ly a natural science. The development of educational ideas, as it has here been briefly traced, undoubtedly shows, that in every department of the subject a won- derful progress has been made in the course of the last three centuries. This progress is uni- versally recognized, and there is not at present a civilized state which does not reflect it in its school legislation. (Seethe articles on the several countries and states.) Official statistics prove that school attendance is becoming more and more general, that illiteracy is on the wane, and in some countries scarcely known, and that the diffusion of education tends to the diminution of crime. Still, on many great questions, there continues to exist a marked difference of opinion. Has the state government a right only to recom- mend and promote, or may it compel the educa- tion of children? (See Compulsory Education.) Should instruction in the state schools be gratui- tous ? i See Public Schools.) Are the two sexes to be educated in separate or in mixed schools? (See Co-education of the Sexes.) Is religious instruction to be given in or out of the state schools? (See Denominational Schools.) All these questions are fully treated of, in this work, in special articles. The outlines of a history of education are con- tained in the works on education in general by Bchwarz, Nierneyer, Grafe, and Rosenkranz. See literature at the end of this article.) Special works on the history of education have been written by Wohlfarth (Geschichte des gesamm- ten Erziehungs- >m<■/,, rs and Educators in Germany ; and the translation of the fourth volume, under the title, The German Univei'sities. A history of edu- cation before < hrist is given in Cramer, Ge- schichte der Erziehung und des Vhterrichts (2 vols.. 1832 and 183*1. II. Theory of Education. — The word educa- tion is derived from the T,atin verb educo which is properly used to designate the sustenance and care bestowed by a nurse on a child : and it is.no doubt, connected etymologically with the Latin verb educo, to lead out; but it never has this literal sense, and it is extremely unlikely that the Etomans connected the idea of drawing out with that of educatio. In order to get at a true idea of education, we must look at the circum- stances of the case. We proceed by way of analogy. We know in regard to the seed of a plant that it contains a peculiar and special power within it. Place it in the proper soil, with the proper temperature, and it will burst forth into active life. It will gather from earth and air the means of support and increase. It will fashion the elements which it lays hold of into a definite shape, and it will pass through various stages of progress until it withers away, leaving, however, behind it the means of con- tinuing the species. Within certain limits, the plant has a definite form of its own, and its mode of life is also uniform ; and, within these limits, there lies a perfect form and a perfect life for the plant, It may not be easy to say what is that perfect form and perfect life, but it is plain to every observer, that it, as it were, strives after an ideal form and an ideal progress, to which it approximates more or less closely. Man is like the plant, The living power within him strives to attain a particular form, and to go through a particular progress, and it continually strives to attain an ideal of these, within certain limits. The difference between the plant and the man is, that the limits of his condition and progress are much wider, and that he can consciously form an ideal for himself, and strive after it. Now education, in its proper sense, is the delib- erate effort on the part of one conscious being to clear the way so as to enable another to attain this perfect condition of life and this normal prog- ress. It is assumed that the man naturally strives after perfection. It is assumed that he must move in some direction, whether forward, or zig- zag, or backward ; and the educator endeavors to keep the movement in the right direction. The word education is used in a variety of senses, connected but not always compatible with the true idea. Thus man is viewed as being, in his earliest stage, a kind of compressed mass of faculties, and education is the drawing out of these faculties. Again, every thing that acts on man's nature is sometimes said to be educative, whether the result is beneficial or not. Other instances could be adduced of the use of the word in the vaguest manner : but by stating tin- true idea we oppose ourselves to the vague uses of the word. It is enough, therefore, to state first that man must be viewed, not as passive but as active, not as being drawn out, but as striving to act, and that no act is truly educative which does not help him to strive after actions that are becoming to his nature, or, to express it object- ively, to strive after what is good, beautiful, or true. But, in thus stating the work of education in a general proposition, we have done very little towards explaining its true nature. Education sets before it an ideal. How are we to form anything like an adequate conception of this 250 EDUCATION ideal ? Only by a minute and careful study of human nature ; and. therefore, every educator must necessarily devote a great deal of his atten- tion to the phenomena of body and mind, and to man, the combination of both. The ideal is a unity, but it is a composite unity, made up of the perfect accomplishment of endless detailed actions, and we must, therefore, examine all the < let ails before we can attain to a clear notion of the whole. The subject may be viewed in another light. Every portion of man is made or preformed for a special function or functions. Thus the eyes are made for seeing, the hands for grasping, the skin for touch. For what is the whole body made? For what is man. body and soul, made? It is the work of the educator to help him whom he educates to discharge the functions for which. as man, he has been made or preformed. Ac- lingly, most of the definitions of education which have been given, have been based on the answer to the question, what is the chief end — the summum bonum — the destiny of man? This was a question which occupied the atten- tion of the ancients much, and < 'lemens Alexan- drinus has gathered together a large number of the answers which ancienl philosophers gave to the inquiry. These; are interesting to the edu- cator, because they suggest different points of view from which to look at the problem. In more modem times, the form which the answer has most frequently taken is the statement thai it is the work of e Lucation to produce, as far .-is it can. an equable and harmonious developm of all the powers of man. Ilerbart and his school object to this way of expressing the aim of education. The term powers is apt to mis- lead. There are no separate and special faculties in man's mind. All the best psychologists admit that these faculties are fictions ; and, therefore, the aim of education must be defined apart from these. I let hait himself defined the aim of edu- cation to be morality; but he used the word in a truly philosophical sense, in which it is not un- derstood by the masses, and. therefore, he pre- ferred to state the object of education to be, to produce a well-balanced many-sidedness of in- terest. The emphasis laid on interest has been productive of much rich fruit in educational in- vestigation and experience; but, practically, Eerbart's definiti somes to the same as the other. Man is viewed as destined to a series of activities closely connected the one with the other. These activities may be in harmony with his nature, or his ideal nature, as we may call it, OT they may be more or less alienations from it. The business of the educator is to prevent the alienations, and to help those activities which are in harmony. Tims,- activities which are in harmony find their sphere in nature, in man. in God. It is important thai all these activities come into play. Man does not pursue his ideal course, if they do not come into play. Be must be fully developed. Bui if his activity comes into plaj on these subjects according to the right method, his interest in them is awakened and becomes stronger and stronger ; for all pleasure is the accompaniment of the vigorous discharge of some function, and all pain is the accompani- ment of the weak discharge or hindrance of some function. If the organ which discharges the function is exercised too powerfully, as may be the case with our bodily powers and lower mental energies, there is first intense pleasure; but the over-tension impairs the healthiness of the organ temporarily, or it may be permanent- ly, and then the impaired activity is followed by pain. And the pleasure that may arise, may arise from the exercise 1 of what we call lower functions, when higher are neglected. Thus the lazy man desires true pleasure, as far as it goes, from the vigorous exercise of his vital or vege- tative powers. J'ut whatever pleasure does exist, exists from the efficient discharge of function, or in other words from healthy activities of body or of mind. This pleasure may not be con- sciously before the mind, as in the highest intel- lectual operations when the student does not feel how intense has been his enjoyment, until the enjoyment is over.. This accompaniment of all our healthy actions is cumulative. It grows in degree, in proportion as the actions are repeated in a healthy or proper manner. And. hence. our interest increases with the healthy repetition of the activities on the objects. Berbart's defini- tion becomes, therefore, nearly synonymous with the other, but directs the attention to the ex- ternal sidi' of man's activity, to the objects on which the mind works. Both sides must be carefully considered by the educator: for, in the activity of man. they are invariably conjoined. The distinction between formal and material in education has to be made with great caution; and it has always to be remembered that form is impossible without matter, and matter impos- sible without form, that while there can be no righl activity, if the mind does not act in a right manner, it is equally true thai there can be no right activity, if that on which the action takes place is not a right object for the mind to act upon. After having thus generally discussed the aim of education, we should now enter minutely into particulars, for the general is of slight use with- out the particular; but this would be to write a treatise on the laws ( t the activity of the human mind, and the modes to be adopted by men to direct these activities aright in the young. W e must, therefore, confine Ourselves to hints which may suggest to the reader the subjects which de- serve his careful and minute examination. A chilil gazes at an apple on a tree. AYhat are the operations of the child's mind'.' First, we have the exercise of the bodily organ. Then the apple produces an impression on the child's mind. This impression we call a sensation. The child feels something. Some change has taken place within him. Cut.it' this is not thi' first impression which the apple has made on the child, we can observe that the sensation has at tained in its complexity to three phases: first. the child has the feeling of pleasure in seeing the apple; second, he sees that there is an object EDUCATION 251 before him which he rails an apple; and. third, if, on a previous occasion, he has tasted apples and enjoyed them, the recollection ol that enjoyment comes hack, a desire arises within him, and he is under an impulse to make an exertion to obtain the apple. In this one instance, we have the various phases of man's activities, lie is. first of all. a physical being; then he is capable of feeling, — has an emotional nature: then he is capable of perceiving, — has an intellectual nat- ure : and. finally, he is capable of desiring, of striving after, and. tht% has a practical and moral nature. Though we speak of him thus as if he had four natures, he really possesses but one. All the distinctions, except perhaps the first, are distinctions made by the mind, but the facts do not exist separately. The emotional, intellectual, and volitional are blended with each other in the actual human mind. The mind cannot exist without them. There can be no absolute separation of them : since they stand in the closest relation to each other. Vet it is es- sential to .separate these elements in our discus- sion of them : for they 'may blend with each other in different degrees. The one phase may predominate to the injury of the others. A man may have a clear head, but a hard heart and a Stubborn will. Another may be too emotional, ready to melt before the slightest distress, and yet possessing almost no capability or inclination to relieve the distress. The true aim of man is to bring out all the elements in harmonious pro- portion, and the work of the educator is to help each child to accomplish this difficult task for himself. First, then, there is physical education. The aim and end of physical education is to produce health, not strength in particular organs, but a general healthiness of all the organs. This aim is accomplished by a careful examination into the nature of the human body, an exposition of the laws of health which arise from this study, and the exhibition of the reasons which ought to lead us to give all due care to the body. This subject is treated under the head of physical education. Secondly, there is intellectual <' for virtue and love. When 252 EDUCATION" we pass from this general consideration to the par- ticular feelings, we find ourselves in a labyrinth. A feeling is a phase of mind which arises from the consciousness of having passed from one state into another; and, accordingly, no mental act can take place without a feeling. Hence we have feelings connected with the body, feelings connected with the intellectual operations, and feelings connected with the practical ami moral nature. Or we might speak of the feelings ac- cording to the objects which give rise to them; as those that arise in connection with nature, with one's own self, with man, with God. We select out of these, two classes of feelings that especially deserve the attention of the educator. The first class deserve attention principally be- cause they are in danger of being neglected, ow- ing to the character of the present age. The edu- cator should awaken and keep alive the feelings of admiration and mystery. A child naturally wonders and admires, and these feelings must not be allowed to die out. .Moreover, the sense of mystery, closely connected with these, will be a source of gnat blessing to him. The practical man is apt to look on all things as definite and fully known: but the fad is, that nothing is completely known. We know neither the be- ginning nor the end of any thing. The Smallest object and the largest are equally invisible to us. Our knowledge is limited by a boundary that lies far within the infinitesimally greal and the infin- itesinially small; and so all knowledge attained points to an infinite region the depths of which we have not sounded. A consciousness of this is closely connected with a humble spirit, and true humility generally allies itself with love. The second class of feelings is that which relates to the beautiful. The sense of the beautiful is the power to feel the loveliness of symmetry, of proportion, of harmony. This power is to be acquired only by the exercise of it. The sym- uii try and loveliness exist in nature. They are Calculated to produce an effect on the soul of man, but the soul of man must be brought into contact with them, before it can feel them. Therefore, in regard to the cultivation of th • feeling for the beautiful, the one essential condi- tion is. that beautiful objects be placed before the person in whom the sense is to he awakene I and strengthened, and that they be placed fre- quently ami at proper intervals: because the sense of the beautiful Lb awakened only by slow degrees, and it expands, passing from the external and simple to the harmonies which prevail amidst the grandest spheres of thought and intelligent ^y existences. But it can be broughl before the pupil in every form at an early stage, in beauti- ful pictures, in beautiful rooms, in beautiful landscapes, in order, in gentleness of tone, in noble action, and in many other ways, so as to induce within himself a love of all that is orderly, harmonious, and peaceful. Two cautions may be specially urged in con- nect i<>u with the cultivation of the feelings. The first is. that it is possible to render a human be- ing too sensitive, to give feeling too greal a pre- ponderance in the individuality of the person educated. Such a person becomes .sentimental. IS easily moved to joy or tears, is sympathetic in the highest degree, but the sympathy does not lead to action. The educator has to take care that every train of feeling be strengthened and guided aright by clear and well-reasoned convic- tions, and be followed by appropriate action. The second danger is, that the feeling of self may Income so strong as to harden every other. Naturally every one bestows a great deal of at- tention on himself, and there is a tendency to feel only when the circumstances relate to one's self. Here, again, what has to be done is, to prevent the mind's being occupied too much with self, and to interest it in the thoughts and circumstances of others. Both these cautions point to the next division of the sphere of edu- cation — that of the will or of the practical powers. The exercise of these is closely con- nected with the intellect and the feelings, and indeed ordinarily results from them. Man is naturally a striving or desiring being. lie is a force, and by a force we mean something that strives to exert itself. Accordingly man's first act is an effort. And the powers which he ;;t anytime possesses strive for spheres of action. But these spin res are in the main d t.rinined by the results of the action of his intellect and the motive power of the feelings. A child docs something which gives him pleasure. He has finished the action. He turns to something else. What remains of the piv\ ious action '.' A re< ol- leetion of something pleasant: but the recollec- tion of something that is pleasant excites the desire to enjoy it again. Thus arise desires in the mind: and as these desires arise again and again in connection with objects belonging to separate classes, groups of desires or inclina- tions arise, and we call these -roups by general nanus, such as the love of money, the love oi honor, the love of fame. These desires grow- in intensity according to the amount of time during which they are allowed to continue in the mind, ami the amount of spaCQ they are allowed to occupy in it. Add to this fact that we natu- rally put a value on the things which we desire. and' regard some as higher than others, and we enter the region of morals. Two or three func- tions of mind lie before us which we are able to discharge at the time. We weigh these func- tions in tiie balance. We pronounce one of a higher nature than the others. This is the one which we feel bound to perform. Thus the func- tion of the eye is a nobler one than that of the the nose or the taste: and, hence, the educator who trains the child to see is performing a nobler function than he who indulges a child's taste for sweets. All functions may b. necessary, hut each must have its own place in a well-arranged and systematic order of gradation. The first essential, then, to ;t good practical training is to impress on the pupil the true value of all actions and tilings. lie is enabled to at- tain to this only by having a (dear intellect and a right state of feeling, and. therefore, it cannot EDUCATION 253 be too strongly urged, that a thorough intellectual education is an important element in the at- tainment of a sound moral character. But, be- sides this, we learn to act by acting. There is a natural instinct to act. and this instinct must not be resisted or blunted. It is by one action that we rise to the power of doing a greater. I [ere the same kind of fiction as that which we have noticed in the case of the mental faculties is apt to mislead. Man is often spoken of as possessing a will ; but man has not one will, but many wills. The word will is used to denote the complicated power which man possesses, through his original faculties and the exercise of them, to will for the future. But, if this be the case, the strength of the power to will in any particular case depends upon the pre- vious exercise which the mind has had in will- in- similar actions; and so a man may have a rng will in one direction, and a weak will in another. Hence, the educator must take care to bring into activity the willing power of his pupil in as many directions as he can, without impair- ing his strength of will in the most important di- rect ions. Moreover, in action, we are influenced Btrongly by the action of others, just as in feel- ing by the feeling of others. The teacher who wishes to lead his pupils to action, must himself act first. The influence of example is all-power- ful in this matter. And, finally, as willing de- pends first upon fixing an appropriate aim, and, secondly, on selecting the right means, the pupil must be trained, in all cases, to use the right means. The clear insight into the true value of actions, that is, into the aims which should guide us, may be of comparatively little use, if we have not the good sense to employ the suitable means for our purposes. These are the general rules which regulate practical education. It woidd be impossible in an article like this to go into the particular phenomena which must be investigated before the educator can have a proper grasp of the subject. Just as in the case of the feelings, desires and inclinations arise in connection with all the activities of man, — with the physical, the intellectual, the emotional, and the practical forms of man's energy ; and they embrace the same extent of objects. They con- nect themselves with nature, with one's own self, with other men, with God. But, they have wider ramifications, and a more potent influence than the feelings, and open up, therefore, a wider field for investigation ; and, in this subject, the aber- rations demand the closest attention. The edu- cator has continually to guard against the forma- tion and the strengthening of inclinations which are dangerous to the well-being of the individual and the race. Lastly, there is religious education, embracing within it intellectual, emotional, and moral as- pects. Religion may be said to arise in a feel- ing. We feel our weakness and littleness. We feel that we are limited in power, in knowledge, in vital energy. We feel surrounded, on every hand, by powers that are stronger than we are, and hemmed in by irresistible forces. If this, how- ever, were the only feeling, despair would lay hold of us. But, we come to feel that the irresistible forces are not antagonistic to us, that we can come into harmonious relations with the super- natural, that, to use the Christian mode of thought, we can trust in a God of justice and love. It is when we gain this feeling of trust that we attain to a religion. But, a religion advances beyond the mere feeling; it sets down God or gods, as possessing a certain character, and, therefore, enjoining a certain kind of worship. Especially does the Christian religion present definite conceptions as to the character of God, and enjoin, as the first condition of worship and as the great law of life, love to God and love to man practically exhibited. The Christian religion thus brings into play the feelings as the foundation of religion, the intellectual powers in apprehending its great truths, and the inclina- tions and practical powers in carrying them out. 'Idie discussion of this subject belongs to the article on religious education. The subject of education is discussed in a great variety of treatises. The most satisfactory discussion, in our opinion, is contained in the works of Herbart and Beneke. Herbart 's edu- cational writings have been collected and pub- lished recently in two volumes (Leipsic, 1873 — 1875) under the editorship of Otto Will- mann. Beneke's great work on the subject is Erziehungs- und Unierrichtslehre (2 vols., third edition, Berlin, 1864). The first volume is de- voted to Education, the second to Instruction. Of the followers of Herbart, Ziller's wprks de- serve special mention; and of those of Beneke, the works of Dittos and Dressier. The educator will also derive much good from the study of the best works on psychology. Both Herbart and Beneke have written handbooks of psychology; and, in English, special mention may be made of the writings of Sir William Hamilton, Dr. Morell, Prof. Bain, and Mr. Herbert Spencer, the last of whom has a work specially devoted to edu- cation [Education : Intellectual, Moral, and Physical). See also Niemkyer, Grundsdlzeder Erziehung und des Unlerrichis (9th ed., 1845); Schwarz, Erziehungslehre (3 vols., 2d ed., 1829), and Lehrbuch der allgemeinen Pddagogik (2 vols., 4th ed., by Curtmann, 1843) ; Gr^efe, Allgemeine Pddagogik (2 vols., 1845); Palmer, Evangelische Pddagogik (3d ed., 1864); Bosen- kranz, Die Pddagogik als System (1848; En- glish translation by Anna C. Brackett, St. Louis, 1873); Dittes, Schule der Pddagogik (1876J. The most comprehensive cyclopaedia of edu- cation is the Encyclopddie des gesammten Er- ziehungs- mill Unterrichtswesens, by Schmid, (11 vols., 1857 — 77). A second edition, revised and enlarged, of the first volume was issued in 1876. A compendium of this work in 2 vols., under the title Padagogisches Hdndbuch, was begun by the same editor in 187"). The h'eal- Encyclopddie des Erziehungs- mnl Unterrichts- wesens, by Rolfus and Pei'ster (4 vols., 2d ed.. 1871 — 5), has been prepared from the Catholic point of view. 254 EDUCATION EGYPT EDUCATION, Female. See Female Edu- cation. EDUCATION AND CRIME. See Crime am> Education. EGYPT, a dependency of the Turkish em- pire, in N". B. Africa: having, with its recent con- quests, an area of >ii!i..'!.'i - J sq. in., and a popula- tion, in 1875, of 16,922,000. The area of Egypt proper is 212,60*7 sq. m.; and its population. 5,252.000. The principal races of people represented in Egypt, are Arabs or Bedouins, Turks, Armenians, Berbers or Nubians, .lews, tlic Copts, who are the recognized descendants of the ancient Egyptians. Europeans of different nationalities, and, in the newly conquered prov- inces, negroes. The religion of the large ma- jority of the inhabitants is Mohammedanism. There are, besides. 350,000 Copts or native ( 'hristians. and 250,000 others who profess < 'hris- tianity. Egypt was. in ancient times, the seat of a wonderful civilization, its history reaching farther back than thai oi any other nation. After having been ruled by a number of native dynasties, and having been part of the Persian ami Macedonian empires, it became, in 30 B.C., a Etonian province, and afterwards formed part of the Eastern Empire. Christianity was intro- duced during the first century; and Egypt, par- ticularly Alexandria, became a noted seat of theological Learning and institutions. In 683, if was conquered by the caliph Omar, who intro- duced Mohammedanism. In L517, it came under the rule of the Turks, under whom it has. actually or nominally, remained ever since. In 1806, Me- heinet Ali was appointed pasha and governor of Egypt. He made hims 'If virtually the absolute ruler of the country, and was prevented only by the European powers from proclaiming his entire independence of the Turkish sway. Under his successors, who continued . i pi iote the wel- fare of the country, and to effect reforms in the administration, the country prospered greatly. At the present time, its dependence upon Tur- key is merely nominal, and the complete sever- ance of the tie appears to lie only a question of time. Immense tracts of land in the south and BOUth-West have, of late, been annexed: BO that if it were an independent empire, ii would now | L876) rank as the seventh nation of the world in regard to area. Educational History. — This will be treated under two heads : (I) Ancient Egypt, (II) Mod- ern Egypt. I. Ancient Egypt. In respect to education. Egypl Ill-tore the Christian era occupied a pecu- liar position. With China. India, and Persia the articles on these countries), it was one oi the chief representatives of orientalism. While, in common with the other oriental nations, it aimed at a national not an individual education, it is to be considered as presenting a connecting link, in this respect, between the extreme eastern institutions and the educational systems of Greece and Rome. To a greater extenl than in any other oriental country, national education w.i under the controlling influence of the pi i hood. The priests and the warriors were privi- leged classes; but. in their education, the priests enjoyed several prerogatives over the warriors. There were schools for priests and warriors at Thebes. Memphis, and Ileliopolis. In these schools, there were two systems of instruction, — an exoteric course, for those who were not pre- pared for higher instruction, and an esoteric course, to which only those youths were admitted who belonged to the priestly caste. The instruc- tors in both classes of schools were priests. The subjects of instruction were language, mathemat- ics, geometry, astronomy, natural history, music, and religion. The princes were educated by the best instructors. and only with the sons of priests, who were twenty years of age, and noted for their good manners, so that the royal students might not come in contact with any thing im- pure. The education of other castes was of a very low order, as was that of females; but com- mon institutions of learning were not entirely wanting. Plato tells us that the children of the Egyptians learned to read, while Diodorus Sicu- lus says that they learned a little of reading and writing, but adds that all did not enjoy these ad- vantages, but chiefly those preparing for a pro- fession. The Common people, be says, received some kind of an education from their parents. In writing, the bark of the papyrus and black or red ink were used. In writing as well as in reading, there seems to have been a separation into castes, since of the three modes of writing, the demotic, hieratic, and hieroglyphic, the latter belonged to the priests only. Arithmetic and mathematics were studied throughout the country with great attention, and the methods employed in teaching these studies were ex- cellent. According to Diodorus, gymnastics and i. sic were not comprised in the general plan of education, because it was believed that the for- mer was dangerous to the youths, and that the latter was not only useless but hurtful. In Chemmis, however, considerable attention was given to gymnastics, as well as to music, the lat- ter being devoted to religious purposes. The Egyptians, even in the most remote ages.seein to ha\e had a great regard for the influence of edu- cation : for. according to Diodorus, the father of Scsostris had all the boys assembled who were born on the same day as his son, and arranged that all should receive the same education, in the belief that those who Were educated together, would prove the best friends and comrades in war. The physical training of children was very severe ; they were obliged to go barefooted and almost entirely naked, and were brought up with such economy, that the entire education of the child cost oily a small pittance. The educa- tional system of Egypl was entirely remodeled when Psammetichus (670 to 616 B. C.) under- took a thorough reform by introducing Greek and Phoenician elements into the institution- oi the country, and for that purpose formed alli- ances with the Athenians and other Greeks, ami afforded aid and encouragement to all foreigners who came into the country. He entrusted the EGYPT 2.V> education of Egyptian children to Carians and Ionians, by whom they were also instructed in the Greek language and fitted for the office of interpreters, otherwise, foreign languages were not taught in Egypt ; but the princes who ruled over different tribes seem to have understood their respective languages. Thus Cleopatra is said to have spoken Hebrew. Arabic, Ethiopic, Byriac,etc. Alexandria became, in course of time. the principal emporium of the ancient world, and subsequently also the center of learning and education, ruder the Ptolemies, a strong im- pulse was if i ven to the arts and sciences, espe- cially to those which had a practical application; as mathematics, astronomy, medicine, grammar, and history. Indeed, there is scarcely another period in the world's history in which science was held in greater honor than by the Ptolemies in Alexandria. The museum, a royal palace, formed the residence and seat of instruction for the learned men of Greece, who had emigrated to Egypt. This institution was founded in '-l'2'2 B. C, and was at the highest point of its celeb- rity from 232 to 30 B. 0. After Egypt be- came a Roman province (30 B. C), this school gradually declined. About the end of the sec- ond century. Alexandria became the birthplace of a new philosophical school, — that of neopkt- tonism, which cave a considerable impulse to philosophical and theological studies, without, however, exerting a direct influence upon the development of education. (See Alexandrian School.) With the introduction of Christian- ity as the state religion, the last remnants of the old civilization were destroyed. (See Schmidt, Geschichte der Pddagogik, vol. i.) II. Modern Egypt. — Since the establishment of Mohammedanism in Egypt, its educational history has been substantially the same as that of other Mohammedan countries. (See Arabian Schools.) Instruction of every grade was based on the Koran, and school and church have never been more intimately connected in any country. The strict Mohammedan has always believed, with the Prophet, that "every thing worth know- ing is contained in the Koran," and that " much investigation is heresy." The schools were ex- clusively intended for boys, and most of them were connected with the mosques ; in smaller places, private schools were frequently founded by fakihs, or jurists of the lowest rank. These schools were generally of the most rudimentary character, the only school book used being the Koran. Most of the high schools [medrissas), which were founded in the hrst years of the caliphate, and at which Mohammedan theology and law. philology, philosophy, logic, mathemat- ics, medicine and alchemy, astronomy, history. geography, and rhetoric were taught, have disap- peared in the course of time. At the beginning of the present century, Mehemet Ali attempted to reform the schools of the country, chiefly with the desire to have a better class of public officers. He founded about "><• primary schools, which were scattered over the country, and contained about 5,000 pupils. Secondary schools were founded at Cairo and Alexandria, and had. at one time, about '2.000 pupils, who were both in- structed and supported at the expense of the government. I le also founded a number of spe- cial schools, in which it was designed that Egyp- tian youth should be educated after European methods, and partly by European teachers. Of this class of schools were the medical school at Abu-Zabel, the cadet school at * rizeh,the marine school at Alexandria, the school of engineers at Khanke, the medical college of Kasrel-Ain. the artillery school of Turrah. the veterinary school, now at Kubbeh, and the musical school in the citadel of Cairo. A college for young Egyptians was also founded at Paris, but only a few of the young men who were educated there at the ex- pense of the government, subsequently devoted themselves to the cause of education. The most distinguished among them is Sheikh Refah, who was sent to Paris in 1826, and, after his return, endeavored for many years, both as a writer and as an educator, to make his countrymen ac- quainted with the intellectual and educational condition of Europe. Most of the schools which had been founded by Mehemet Ali, were abol- ished by his successors, Abbas Pasha (1849 — 1854), and Said Pasha (1854—1863). Under the government of Ismail Pasha, the present Khedive (1876), very praiseworthy efforts have been made to effect a radical reform in educa- tion, by the establishment of government schools. A council of instruction has been established at ( 'airo, which has the control of all the schools of the country. The course of instruction adopted for the new schools is a kind of compromise be- tween traditional Mohammedanism and modern civilization as developed in the Christian world. It has awakened among the friends of educa- tional progress great hopes for the future ; but, as yet, every thing depends on the favorable dis- position of the actual ruler. Only the establish- ment of a connection between the communes and these schools would be able to place the lat- ter on a firm basis. The new government schools embrace primary, secondary, and special instruction. They were first erected in 1868, since which time they have made rapid progress in the large cities. The number of pupils, in 1870, was about 4,000; in 1873,8,000. They received not only gratuitous instruction, but support, inclusive of clothing. Primary in- struction embraces the reading and writing of Arabic, arithmetic, drawing, and French or some other foreign language. From the primary classes the pupils pass into the secondary schools, which are composed of a preparatory school, em- bracing, in a three years' course, the study of Arabic, Turkish. English, French. German, mathematics, drawing, history, and geography; and the special schools, into which the pupils enter after finishing the above course. These special schools are the following : ill The Poly- technic School, the pupils of which, after finish- ing a course of tour years, may choose, as in France, between a civil and a military career; in the former case, they attend for two years the 256 EGYPT School of Administration, and then enter the Bervice of the state ; in the latter case, they en- ter the military academy of the Abassieh, at Cairo. (The former of these institutions, in L871, had 75 pupils ; the latter, 750. In 1871, the polytechnic school had 80 pupils.) (2) The Law School, embracing a course of four years, in which, besides the Mohammedan law, the Roman law and that of the Christian nations in general are taught; (3) The Philological and Arithmet- ical School, giving instruction in philology, mathematics, rhetoric, prosody, and drawing: ( 1 1 The School of Arts and Industry, in Balak, established by Mchetnet Ali, and greatly im- proved under Ismail Pacha (it has a course of three years, and had, in 1871, about LOO pupils); (5) The Medical School, with 75 pupils, in L871, to which is attached a school of midwifery (the only one in the East), with 65 pupils. (The Khedive, in 1871, offered the people of Syria to receive twenty-five students from that province into the Medical School, irrespective of race or religion. A large number of candidates pre- sented themselves, but there was not one Mo- hammedan among them, all being Christians.! (6) The Naval School, in Alexandria, with 85 pupils, in L871. In L871, the Egyptian govern- ment called to Cairo prof essor 1 1 enry Brugsch, of the university of < idttingen, to establish there an academy for archaeology, and, in particular, for Egyptological studies. The Khedive is also endeavoring to eradicate the prejudice existing against female education; and, for that purpose, has founded a girls" school at Cairo, in which, besides receiving an elementary education, Ihe pupils are instructed in sewing, washing, and dress-making. In L875, the Egyptian govern- ment resolved to establish a teacher's seminary alter the German model, and applied to the Prussian ministry of education for two teachers to take charge of the institution. The voluntary schools, in opposition to the government schools, arc annexed to the mosques, and intended for elementarj instruction. If the statistical reports can be relied upon, these contained, in L870, 60,000 pupils.and.in L873, 82,000 pupils, among whom were many adults. These figures would indicate a rapid progress since the time of Me- hemci Ali. when only one in a thousand of the entire population received instruction. From an official report on the voluntary school at Alex- andria, which was opened April 1., L868, under the protectorate of the heir apparent, Mehemet Tefvik Pasha, il appears that this school, on the opening of the adult classes in April, numbered 30 pupils; in dune, Tii; in July, 150 ; in No- vember, 240; of the latter of whom 59 were Egyptians, 52 Italians, 21 Frenchmen, 20 Greeks, 24 Englishmen,32 Syrians, etc. The elementary schools for children were opened in April L868 ; and, iii November, the number of pupils amounted to 269. The languages in which the instruction is Imparted, are Arabic, French, and Italian. Most of these schools are supported l>\ the mosques, some bj the divan of wakufs (re- ligious donations); some have property oi their ( >wn ; some receive aid from the ministry of finance, and some defray their expenses by means of subscriptions and by school money. The university of Cairo, called EUAshar (the blossom) after the name of the mosque with which it is connected, was once a really flourish- ing center of Arabic science and scholarship. At present, like the other famous mosque high schools of the East, at Damascus, Mecca, and Bagdad, it teaches little more than Mohammedan religion and law, grammar, arithmetic, logic, and rhetoric ; but it still preserves its former repu- tation throughout the East, and is visited by students from Turkey and Asia Minor, from dif- ferent parts of Africa, from Arabia, and even from India and the Sunda Islands. The number of students, in 1871, was reported as ;u'>i»s. In the preparatory classes, about 2,000 pupils are clothed and supported at the expense of the wa~ kufs ; instruction is given by 260 teachers or kattabs, of whom l(i<» are likewise supported from the revenue of the wakufs. The students in the higher classes are taught by about 40 pro- fessors, most of whom, beside-, hold some other ecclesiastical or legal office. The lectures are given gratuitously. At the time of its greatest prosperity, the university sometimes numbered more than 20,000 pupils. The first school for the blind was founded a few yen-.- ago by Moham- med Effendi Onsy, and is conducted by him at his own expense. It is doing a gnat amount of good, as a large number of persons lose the use of their eyes by the so-called Egyptian disi (a kind of ophthalmia). The annual examinations held in arithmetic, reading, and different kinds of handiwork, exhibit considerable proficiency on the part of the pupils. Missionary and Foreign Schools. — The num- ber of foreign residents, in 1872, was 79,696, of whom -I7..'il('» were inhabitants of Alexandria, and 19,120 of Cairo. As they are the wealthiest and best-educated class of the population, a number of schools have been established for the education of their children. The French School Brothers and Lazarists have day and boarding schools; and female schools are conducted by French Sisters of Mercy and other religious orders. With one of these institutions at Alex- andria, v Inch has from 400 to 500 pupils, an orphan house and a foundling institution are connected. Instruction in these schools is given in the French language. The Greek lyceum in Alexandria in 187.".. had 70 pupil-: and the Cottegio Italiano, L20 pupils. There are also several Greek, Italian, and Herman elementary schools. Presbyterian missionaries from the United States have established a number of mission schools. a8 well as an academy and a theological seminary, both at Sioot, the leading town in Upper Egypt, See Stephan, Das heu- tige Aegypten (Leips., l^T'Ji; Adams, The Land qf the '.V//c (London. 1 st 1 (; Reqny, Statistioua de VEgypte (fifth annual publication. Cairo. L875) ; I.mtiki:. Aegypten 1 s Neue Zeii (2 vols.. Leips.. L873) ; Dorr, L' 'Instruction Ptibliqw • Egypte (Paris, 1873). ELABORATLVE FACULTY EMERSON 257 ELABORATIVE FACULTY, a term often used, at the present time, to indicate that function of the mind by which it employs the materials supplied by sensation, perception, con- ception, and consciousness (or the inner sense), and builds them up into systems or chains of thought and reasoning. The different processes that, according to this nomenclature, are elabo- rative. are eotnparisi >n, abstraction, generalization, lodgment, and reasoning. To these particular processes the term thought is now often restricted, instead of being applied, as formerly, indifferently to every intellectual operation. Dr Hopkins, in An Outline Study of Man (N. Y., 1876), thus describes this faculty and its functions: '-The processes of the elaborative faculty hold the same relation to the materials brought into the mind that the processes of building and repair- ing hold to the materials which are brought into the body. The building and repairing systems take hold of that which is brought into the syst >m an 1 elaborate it; they transform it, and make of it another thing. The elaborative system does the same thing in the mind. It takes the material given by the presentative faculty [sensation, perception, etc.], and performs the operations of comparison, abstraction, etc." Dr. Porter, in The Human Intellect (N. Y., 18(59), thus defines the office of the elaborative faculty: "The thinking power has been treated as two- fold, and been subdivided into two : the elabora- tive faculty, as performing the processes, and the regulative, as furnishing the rules, or more prop- erly as prescribing the sphere and possibility of thought. These are named also the dianoetic and the noetic faculty. By some writers they are distinguished as the understanding and rea- «on, in a usage suggested by Kant, but deviating materially from his own. Milton and others call them the discursive and instinctive reason." (See Intellectual Education.) ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS, etymolog- ically, schools in which the elements of instruc- tion are taught. The name is used in Germany [Element/ irsckiden) sometimes as synonymous with public schools in general, but more fre- quently and correctly to designate the lower or primary departments of the public schools. Some writers think that the name elementary instruc- tion should be only applied to the lowest class of a school. \\\ Sweden, a peculiar meaning is given to the word, as it denotes institutions of a higher grade in opposition to the people's or lower schools. In England, according to the " New Code of Regulations*', 1876 (Art. 4), an element- ary school is a school, or a department of a school, in which elementary instruction is the principal part of the instruction given, and does not include any school or department in which the ordinary payment for tuition, from each pupil, exceeds nine pence a week. (See Pri- mary Education.) ELEMENTARY SCIENCE. See Sci- ence, Teaching of. ELLIS, WILLIAM, an eminent English writer and educationist, born in the vicinity of 17 London, in 1800. His labors have been specially given to the advancement of social science, which, through his efforts, was introduced as a luanch of elementary instruction in the London schools. His chief writings are Outlines of So- viitl Economy, Progressive Lessons in Social Science, Phenomena of Industrial Life, and Education as a Means of Preventing Destitu- tion (London, 1851). — See Knight's English Cyclo/xrdia. ELOCUTION, the utterance or expression of thought in reading and speaking, is an im- portant part of a scholastic education, because of the constant need of such vocal utterance in the ordinary circumstances of both private and public life. The departments into which this subject naturally divides itself are the following: (1) Articulation, or the proper and distinct enunciation of the elementary sounds as usually combined in words; (2) Pronunciation, as de- pendent upon a knowledge of the various sounds represented by letters and their diverse combi- nations in words, and upon accentuation ; (3) Emphasis, or the placing of a stress of the voice upon a particidar word or words of a sentence, so as to bring out the meaning fully, and to give life and spirit to the delivery ; (4) Yoice inflec- tions, — upward, downward, or waved, also as a means of giving a particular significance to words or sentences., and as auxiliary to emphasis ; (5) Tones, or those variations of the voice in pitch, force, and quality, by which it is mod- ulated to the expression of particular sentiments and emotions. (See Reading, and Voice, Cult- ure of.) ELPHINSTON, James, a noted Scottish teacher and grammarian, was born in Edinburgh in 1721, and died at Hammersmith, near London, in 1809. For many years, he was the principal of a school at Kensington, near London, and was an intimate associate of Dr. Johnson, by whom he was greatly esteemed. During his res- idence in Edinburgh, he superintended an edi- tion of the Rambler. His efforts to reform the orthography of the English language, by the in- troduction of phonetic spelling, made him noted, but brought upon him considerable ridicule. This system he carried out in a translation of Martial (1782), which Dr. Beattie called "a whole quarto of nonsense and gibberish ;" and a further explanation of the system was given in Propriety Ascertained in her Picture (1786), which was followed by English Orthography Epitomized (1788), and Fifty Years' Corre- spondence, Inglish, French, and Lattin, in Proze and Verse, between Geniusses ov booth Sexes < n> ' I James Elphinston (1794). He also published Education; a Poem (1763), and En- glish Grammar reduced to Analogy (1765). — See Chambers, Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen; Boswell, lAfe of Johnson. EMERSON, George Barrell, a distin- guished American educator, born Sept. 12., 1797, in what is now Kenncbunk, York Co., Me., then a part of the town of Wells. In 1817, he graduated at Harvard College ; but while pass- 258 EMINENCE COLLEGE EMORY COLLEGE ing through his college course, he employed some of his winter vacations in teaching district schools, in which he gained a great deal of prac- tical experience. After his graduation, he took charge of an academy in Lancaster, Mass.; and, from 1819 to ls'21, he was tutor in mathematics and natural philosophy in Harvard College. In this position he had unusual advantages for cult- ure, since he was associated with some of the most eminent scientific and literary men of that time, among whom may be mentioned Dr. Kirk- land, Prof. Farrar, and Edward Everett, then Eliot professor of Greek. In 1821, he was se- lected to take charge of the English High School for boys, then called the English Classical School, which was established that year by the town of Boston, lor the purpose of affording the means of a higher education to those who did not intend to pursue a college coins'. This was the first Rngliah high school established in the United States. Two years afterward. Mr. Emerson opened in Boston a private school tor girls ; an I of this he continued to take charge till L855, when In- retired from the profession of teaching. This school was eminently successful ; and Mr. Emerson showed, in the system of instruction which he pursued, the highest qualities of an earnest, conscientious, and skillful teacher. In 1830, he took an active part in the establishment of the American Institute of Instruction, before which he delivered, in L831,a lecture on Female Education : and, in I s 12, one on Moral Educa- tion. In 184;?, he wrote The ScJioolmaster, be- ing part second of The School "ml Schoolmaster, the first part being written by the Rev. Dr. Put- ter, afterwards bishop of Pennsylvania. This work was composed <>n the invitation of the benevolent dames W'adsworth. of I ieneseo, N. Y., who paid the expense of printing and distribut- ing gratuitously L5.000 copies of the work. Through means afforded by Mr. Brimmer, of Boston, a Copy of this hook was placed in each of the district schools of Massachusetts. The object of the work was to afford information of a practical character in regard to the various de- partments of elementary education, more partic- ularly in respect to the organization, discipline, instruct ion, ami management of common schools. The style in which it is written, its tone of sen- timent, and the wisdom of its suggestions are worthy of its distinguished authors. Mr. Emer- son served ha' two years in the School Commit- tee of Boston, and, from 1848 to L855, in the Massachusetts Hoard of Education. lie was also a prominent member of the Boston Society <>f Natural History, and was appointed by Gov. Everett chairman of the commission to whom was intrusted the making of a zoological and botanical survey of the state of Massachusetts. I le has published also a "Report <>n th Trees "ml Shrubs growing naturally in //>>■ Forests of Massachusetts (Boston, L 846), and a Manual of See B irnakd, Educational Biography i \. Y.. I 861 . EMINENCE COLLEGE, at Eminence, Ky., a lion sectarian institution, was founded in L857 for the education of both sexes. It is supported by tuition fees. The buildings stand upon an elevated site, and the grounds are tastefully laid out and ornamented with evergreens and forest trees. The libraries contain about 1.800 vol- umes. The institution has philosophical and chemical apparatus and the beginning of a min- eralogical and geological cabinet. There is a pre- paratory and a collegiate course, the latter com- prising six departments: namely, ancient lan- guages, mathematics, physics and chemistry, mental philosophy, Biblical literature, and mod- ern languages. When a student has under-one ] a satisfactory examination in any particular de- partment, he or she is entitled to a certificate of graduation in that department ; and the poss sion of certificates from the various departments of the curriculum entitles the holder to the de- gree of A. B. The degree of B. S. is conferred on those students who complete the scientific part of the course, and have a certificate to that effect. There is also a special course for females similar to that of female seminaries, upon the completion of which a diploma is granted. The regular charge for tuition is $25 in the collegiate, and $20 in the preparatory course of twenty weeks. The daughters of all regular preach and of widows of limited means, are received at a discount of thirty per cent. Voting men pre- paring for the ministry ;ue admitted free of tui- tion. In 1874 — 5, there were 7 instructors. \'1>\ matriculates (58 males and 68 females), and 125 alumni. The whole number of pupils, in 1875 — 6, was 190. S. G. Mullins was the president from September. 1857, to June. 1858, since which time \Y. S. ( riltner has been the president. EMORY COLLEGE, at Oxford, Newton county. Ga. under the control of the Methodist Episcopal Church, South, was founded in 1837. It is supported by tuition fees and an endow- ment of $20,000. The value of its grounds, buildings, and apparatus is $70,000. The in- stitution has an academic and a collegiate de- partment, the latter comprising a classical course of four years and a scientific course of three years. The degrees of Bachelor of Science ami of English Literature, of Bachelor of Arts and Master of Arts, are the regular degrees con- ferred by this institution. The cost of tuition in die college is $25 for the fall term and $35 fur the spring term : in the academic de- partment, it varies per term from §15 in the primary classes to $31 in the academic class There is a fund of five thousand dollars, the interest of which is used in paying the tuition, and, in some Cases, the hoard of young men of limited resources, who are preparing \>., LI, I)., isis to 1854; Rev. A. Means. I). D., LL.D., 1854 to L855; Rev. J. R. Thomas, D.D., 18j"> to 1867; Rev. Luther M. Smith. D. D., L867 to 1871; and Rev. 0. L. Smith, D.D., the present incumbent (1876), appointed in 1871. EMORY AND HENRY COLLEGE, at Emory. Washington Co., Va., founded in 1838, is antler the control of the Methodist Episcopal Church, South. It has no endow- ment, and is supported by tuition fees, which, in the collegiate course, are $30 per term of 20 weeks. The value of its grounds, buildings, an I apparatus is $125,000. The college library con- tains 4,580 volumes, and those of the two litera- ry societies 9.000. The college has collections of minerals and fossils, philosophical and chemical apparatus, etc. It comprises preparatory courses, the ordinary collegiate course, and a scientific an I a business course. In 1875 — 6, there were (i in- structors, 163 students (80 collegiate, an 1 83 scientific and preparatory), and 332 alumni. The presidents have been the Rev. Charles Collins, !>. 1)., 1838—52. and the Rev. Ephraim E. Wiley, D. D., appointed in 1852 and still (187(5) in office. EMOTIONS are those conditions of the mind in which the sensibility is excited, so as to ' act upon the will, and with the tendency to out- ward manifestation in bodily acts. The differ- ence between emotions and passions is rather quantitative than qualitative ; the former, while characterized by an intensity of feeling, still leave a considerable scope for the exercise of reason and judgment ; the latter, for the time beinu;, disturb the equilibrium of self-consciousness, and produce a condition in which the mind is over- mastered and controlled by the particular feel- ing, and is borne along by its force, helpless and suffering (hence the name passion, meaning suf- fering). Of this, we have illustrations in the effects of extreme anger, love, hatred, and re- venge. Emotions are also to be distinguished from sentiments, the latter being to a greater ex- tent based on mental discriminations, and more steady and durable in their nature. Thus, he who has cultivated the sentiment of patriotism, cannot but feel an emotion of joy at a victory gained by his country over her enemies. Emotions are likewise to be distinguished from feelings, or the immediate sensations of the physical organ- Ism, giving rise to mental perceptions, or to bodily pleasure or pain. The nature of children is more emotional than that of grown persons, msethe restraining principle of the mind is less active, and the sensibility more fresh and ■ acute. Tin's is particularly true of certain kinds of temperament and mental constitution. The office of education is to recognize every principle of the human being, and to employ it or appeal to it in the educative processes. An emotional nature should be cherished ; inasmuch as one who is deficient in this respect is apt to be cold, selfish, and unsocial. The emotions are not only compatible with, but necessary to, the best ele- ments of man's moral nature ;' and the educator should strive to connect them with moral mo- tives. Habit has much to do in laying the foun- dation of a rich emotional nature in the mind of a child ; but example, and the natural sym- pathy with the mind of an educator thus cul- tivated and enriched, has very much more. To cultivate the emotions there must lie means for their exercise. 'I he attempt to awaken emotion in the minds of children by mere sentimentality is futile and ridiculous. Stirring stones of hero- ism, endurance, patriotism, generosity, self denial, filial affection, etc. will awaken corresponding emotions; and when properly applied constitute a means of emotional culture ; but youth should, as far as possible.be permitted to yield to the natural emotions to which the ordinary circum- stances of their lives give rise; they should witness emotion in others, under restraint, but still expressed ; and by imitation, as well as in- stinctive impulse.be habituated to ardor in their feelings toward all that is beautiful, true, and good in natural objects, historical incidents, or the conduct of those with whom they meet in their daily lives. EMPIRICAL METHODS, those methods of instruction or education which are based not on theoretical principles, but on the effects of practical operations as learned by experience. Hence the term (from Gr. i/iTreipia, experience). When the application of scientific methods, or those derived from general principles, is possible, the use of empirical methods becomes a cause of reproach, and is to be condemned. The science of education is, however, too unsettled and in- complete to justify such condemnation, except to a limited extent. Methods that have stood the test of actual experiment, and have proved effective, are not to be discarded merely because the principle underlying them is not understood, or because they seem to contradict some favorite theory. Such experimental processes are the source of much valuable experience, and the facts thus obtained should be generalized so as to supply additional scientific principles, or cor- rect those already deduced. In this way, the practical experience of educators may be em- ployed to improve and extend the science of edu- cation. On the other hand, it is undoubtedly true that teachers are too apt to follow empirical methods blindly, without concernin$tffc themselves with principles. The complaint \7j^ often and justly made that education is not sci- entific; and. that, consequently old methods and processes are often employed, when the circum- stances render them entirely inapplicable. This would naturally be the result of adhering to em- pirical methods, since principles alone can guide to a just discrimination as to practical processes. The 'rule of thumb" may answer when the oper ator is confined to a very narrow sphere of his art. ami i- never obliged to depart from it; but is entirely inadequate to grapple with t he difficul- ties presented in a varied and enlarged sphere of 260 EMULATION practical effort, whatever the art or profession maybe. This is particularly true of education, since the elements with which it lias to deal are as innumerable in their combinations as the phases of human character. In proportion as education emerges from this condition of em- piricism, and assumes a settled scientific status, its practical operations will rise to the dignity of a profession, and those engaged in it will receive the consideration which appertains to the pro- fessional character. EMULATION (Lat. cemuiatio, from a&nulus, a rival), the desire to excel, is a principle of action which has had a very general application in practical education, being one of the most common incentives brought to bear upon chil- dren and youth to induce exertion in study. The various systems of merit marks, prizes, etc., are based upon this principle, inasmuch as they def- initely recognize and reward superiority or ex- cellence. Scarcely any subject has been more thoroughly discussed than the propriety of resorting to emu- lation as a school incentive. On the one hand, it has been held that the human mind, partic- ularly in its immature state, needs the stimulus of secondary motives to awaken its dormant energies, especially for the ac< iplishment of tasks in which it takes only an imperfect inter- Naturally, children are but little prone to v, their loudness being rather For act spurts and amusements ; and, hence, the awaken- ing of an interest in the Studies themselves, while an important object of the teacher's efforts, cannot be depended upon to incite the pupil to continuous industry. While there are BOme minds and temperaments that feel an almost in- nate desire for the acquisition of knowledge, and hence a love of study, on the other haul, the great majority of children have no such de until it is engendered by the force of secondary motives, that is, by holding out inducements to Study based upon the attainment of dungs in which they do take an interest. All children are, moiv or less prone to emulation ; they love to excel others, particularly in things that bring commendation and honor, in this respect re- sembling those of maturer years; for this prin- ciple of action has been recognized as leading to eminence in every department of human effort Thus ( 'icero llonos alit artes omnesquo incenduntur ad studia gloria, jacentque ea sem- per quae apud quosque improbantur." Hence, in schools and colleges, emulation is an impor- tant and valuable incentive which the educator by no means, cast aside. Of course, il is not to be allowed to degenerate into personal strife, animosity, or jealousy ; nor is it tobein- dulg I in such a manner as to obliterate the pu- pil's ■ ii interest in the study pursued. It is always to be impressed upon the student's mind thai he is working in b good cause, and thai he should Btrive to attain to the highest po i\r^ i ■ exc silence in ii . higher, it' he can, than that which he Bees has been attained by any of bJS fellow Students. Thus what oih ra a -ii becomes the measure of what can be done by him if he exerts himself to the utmost, and also the standard beyond which he is to go in order to obtain the prize of excellence. Whewell, in English University Education, remarks, "A combination of direct and indirect instruction appears to be desirable. The love of knowledge, and the love of distinction with the fear of dis- grace, are the two main springs of all education, and it does not appear wise or safe to try to dis- pense with either of them." Contention, per- sonal rivalry, and envy need not, it is said.be the offspring of a noble emulation : and no other emulation than this should be encouraged or permitted by the educator. On the other hand, an appeal to emulation as a school incentive, has been either wholly or partly condemned by a numerous class of educa- tors of the highest distinction. Dr. Dwighl said, "Emulation 1 condemn. I think it is a wicked passion, and the cause of great evil. I wish to see all actuated by this desire — to do the best they can for the glory of their Creator." But he also said, " On this subject I have often re- flected. I have attended to all the arguments; and, for aught 1 know, impartially. I would carefully avoid emulation : 1 would gel along without it as far as possible, and as long as 1 could : but how we can prevent its existence en- tirely I do not know.'' .Miss C. E. Beecher said, " Emulation always affects those the most, who I tast need excitement, and leaves unaffected those who most require it. Another evil is. that it renders those who come under the influence of this principle, less susceptible of better influence." Annals of Education, vol. in., p. 28.) This writer defines emulation as the " method of ex- citing others to exertion by rewards and punish- ments based on comparative excellence." or "giving rewards to those who are decided to be better than their companions, in any of tl particulars for which rewards arc offered. " S. \[. Hall, in Annals of Education, vol. n.. thus sums up the results of his experience in employing emulation as a school incentive : ■i I | A small part of the scholars applied them- selves to their lessons with great correctm They aimed to get the lessons for recitations, but thought little of learning them for the pur- pose of applying knowledge to the practical pur- s of life : (.'!) Efforts were relaxed whenever the prospect of ' beating ' became faint ; (4) Those near the head were usually jealous of each other, and not unfrequently exhibited envy ami ill-will; L'hose often obtained the prize, who were the least ing of it; (6) Those who had be- come considerably acquainted with a study had greatly the advantage of others in their cla who had enjoyed less opportunity; (7) Parents were frequently led to take the part of their children, and to believe they were treated un- fairly." Cowper, in Tirocinium, or a Review 7rds of the Committee of the Privy Coun- cil on Education. The object of the grant is not to make full provision for the support of schools, but to aid local exertion, under certain condi- tions, to maintain (1) elementary schools, and (2) training colleges for teachers. Public element- ary schools must be conducted according to the following legal regulations : (1) No religious ob- servances, or attendance at any church or Sunday- school, must be imposed as a condition of ad- mission to the school ; (2) Religious observances, and instruction in religious subjects, must be either at the beginning or at the end of the school session, and must not be compulsory ; (3) The school must be open at all times to the visits of the government inspectors ; but the lat- ter are not permitted to take any cognizance of religious instruction. Unless the school is con- ducted according to the legal provisions, it can- not obtain any portion of the parliamentary grant; and no grant is paid to any school, except on a report of an inspector. These inspectors are appointed by the ( 'rown, on the recommen- dation of the education department. In order to obtain participation in the grant, the school must be placed on the list for inspection, after application to the Department by the school board or other managers. The school premises are required to be "healthy, well-lighted, warmed] drained, ami ventilated, properly furnished, sup- plied with suitable offices, and to contain, in the principal school room, and classrooms, at least 80 cubical feet of internal space, and 8 square feet of area, for each child in average attendance." The principal teacher must lie certificated. If, on the inspector's report of any school, there ap- pears to be any serious objection, the grant may he withheld ; but a second inspection, by another inspector, is always made. There must be I Less than loo morning and afternoon sessions of tlie school during the year. The grant is based on the average attendance and the proficien- c\ of the pupils in Certain branches, that is, so much i I s.) for each pupil in attendance, and so much for each pass in reading, writing, arith- metic, geography, grammar, history, etc. \\ 1 let her the mode of examination shall lie oral or writ- ten, is left to the discretion of the inspector. The girls must be taught "plain needle-work and cutting out" as a regular branch in the day schools; and to show the proficiency acquire* I. specimens must be worked on the day of the in- spection. The evening schools must hold at least 1 5 sessions during the year, and are similarly inspected and paid for. Attendances must not be reckoned for any pupil in a day school, under 3 years of age or above 18 ; or, in an evening school, under 12 or above 21. The standards are six (from I., the lowest, to VI., the highest), and minutely prescribe the degrees of proficien- cy to be attained in reading, writing, arith- metic, grammar, geography, and English history. Reductions are made in the grants for various reasons, including an unfavorable report of the inspector, or the want of a sufficient number of pupil-teachers, who are prescribed as follows: for the first GO pupils, none ; for any number between 01 and 100, inclusive, one; between 101 and 140. two, etc. The recognized classes of teachers are three : (1) certificated teachers; (2) pupil-teachers ; (3) assistant teachers. Cer- tificates are obtained on examination, which is open to (1) students who have resided for at least one year in training colleges under inspec- tion, or (2) candidates who are upward of 21 years of age, and have either completed satis- factorily an engagement as pupil-teacher, ob- tained a favorable report from an inspector, or served as assistants, for at least six mouths, in schools under certificated teachers. These exam- inations are held, in 1 lecember of each year, at the several training colleges under inspection, and " at such centers as may be necessary": and the list of successful candidates is published. Each certificate records the relative proficiency of the candidate receiving it. Candidates must, after examination, serve as teachers under pro- bation, before receiving certificates. The certifi- cates are of three classes ; and no certificate above the second class is originally issued: the third (lowest) includes special certificates for teachers of infant classes. '««/ service alone entitles any teacher to a certificate of the first class. Those of the second class remain in force ten years. Pupil-teachers are boys or girls em- ployed to serve in a school, under certificated teachers. They must be ai least L3 years of age : and not more than four must be engaged for every certificated teacher. At the close of their engagement, these pupil-teachers may become assistants, or thej maybe examined for admis- sion into a training college, or be provisionally certificated for immediate service in small schools. — A training college includes both a "college 266 ENGLAND for boarding, lodging, .and instructing candidates I for the office of teacher in elementary schools," and a " practicing school, in which candidates may learn the i-xeicise of their profession". An- nual grants are made to these institutions on the same conditions as to public elementary schools. Each college is entitled to £100 for every master, and £70 for every mistress, who, after two years' training, completes the prescribed period of pro- bation, and becomes qualified to receive a teach- er 3 certificate, or who has completed a like period K)d service as an elementary teacher in the army, royal navy, or in the poor-law schools, cer- tified industrial schools, or certified reformatories. Examinations for admission are held annually. and are open, without restriction by the educa- tion department, to pupil-teachers, and others who intend band fide to adopt and follow the profession of teacher in elementary schools. All candidates, before a Imission, must be passed by the in ■ li'-al officer of the college, who must cer- tify that they are in good health and free from his bodily defect or deformity. If candidates are admitted in violation of the rules, the edu- cation department refuses to -rant them certifi- cates. -Pensions are granted to teachers in cer- tain cases, the maximum number and value ivable at > time, in England and Scotland together, being 270, as follows : 20 of £30 each: LI f £25 each: and L50 of £20 each: all of which, with special gratuities and donations, amount t > 66,500. Besides the schools that receive grant- of public money, according to the Code, there are iols thai are inspected, but receive no grant, and private schools, the latter, however, rapidly diminishing in number. The school boards, con- stituted under the ad of 1870, consist of not less than ."> nor more than I j members, elected, in the boroughs, by the persons on the burj. roll; in a parish, by the rate-payers, except in the metropolis. Every voter may give all his vote- to one candidate, or distribute them among the candidates as he thinks tit. Boroughs and par- ishes may be united by the education depart- ment so as to form a united school-district. The societies which have the charge of the inspected BCl Is, besides the school boards, are the fol- Iowing : (1) The British and Foreign School Society, supported by Christians of all denomi- nations; l-i The National Society fo] the edu- cation of the poor in the tenets and ob.-crv- ances of the established church: (3) Diocesan Boards of Education which, in connection with special dioceses, look after the education en in church schools ; (I) The Church of England Education Society, consisting of mem- bers of the Evangelical party, which gives aid to Bchools, but does aol establish any; (5) The < !om- mittee appointed by the Roman < latholics to watch over the education of the pour; (6) The era! Committee on Education, appointed h\ the VVealeyans, for the firsl time, in 1840. There are other societies of less note, such as the I loine and Colonial Society, the London RaggedSchool ' Inion, the London < lommittee of the British Jews, and the Voluntary Society. The educa- tion furnished by the school-board schools ap- pears to be the best, the reports showing, on the whole, a larger percentage of passes in the standards. The teachers of the board schools are better paid, and of superior efficiency. The income of all the schools, except the board schools, arises from the following sources: (1) voluntary subscriptions; (2) fees; (3) govern- ment grants according to the Code. In the board schools, instead of the voluntary subscriptions, there is the rate. Fees and government grants are common to all. — There are also schools for special classes: (1) Ragged Schools, (2) Indus- trial Schools, (3) Reformatories. Ragged schools are supported entirely by voluntary contribu- tions, and consist, as the name denotes, of neg- lected, but not criminal children. The industrial schools give both intellectual and moral training and instruction in the industrial arts. These schools are subsidized by the government. Re- formatprii s are Largely supported by the govern- ment , being intern Lei 1 f< »r juvenile offenders. There are also schools connected with work-houses. Schools for the children of soldiers, and training ships, in which boys are trained for marine ser- \ ice. -Special notice should also be taken of the Science and Art Department, which, under the fostering care of the Late Prince Albert, has done so much to spread a knowledge of science and art over the country. Art schools have been established in various cities, and prizes offered and awarded. Examinations in science maybe held iii any town in which a committee can be formed ; certificates arc granted to those who pass, and the teacher receives a sum of money for each pupil thai passes. Educational Statistics. — The following statis- tics, for the year 1ST"), show what progress has been made in national elementary instruction: Expenditure from Education Grants. (TABLE A — Classified according to Object of Grant. 1. Iii annual grants to elementary £ s. d. Bchools under the new cede, viz.: For day scholars 1,074,411 1 3 For evening scholars 1s,;ii;t 17 5 2. Grants to school boards 317 10 11 3. Toward the building and tarnish- ing of school premises 34,491 13 2 4. In grants to training colleges.... '.i-l,:>7ii i;> 4 ■. Unexpired pensions His i;, o 6. Administration: — £ b. d. For inspection. .79,527 L8 L0] For office and > contingencies, 16,613 11 7) 126,141 10 5 7. Organization of districts, etc 7, mil 11 11 Total 1,356,746 19 5 Table B) —Classified according to Denomination. On Bchools connected with Church £ s. d. of England 822,565 9 5 On British, Wesleyan, and other Bchools ". 235,887 6 6 On Roman Catholic Schools 7:s,ssl 19 , r . On Board Bchools 90,231 10 10 (in Parochial Union Schools 120 Administration (as in Table A) 126,141 10 5 Organization of districts, etc 7,601 11 11 Grants to School beards ;;i7 in 11 Total 1,356,746 19 5 ENGLAND 26T The number of certificated male teachers in the schools receiving grants was 1 0,1*2 1 ; of fe- male certificated teachers, 11,731; of male as- sistant teachers. 872 ; of female assistant teach- ers, l,i 549 ; of male pupil-teachers, L0,886; and of female pupil-teachers, 18.406. The number of schools actually inspected daring the year ending August 31., 1875, and the number of pupils, according to the denominations that edu- cate, are given in the following tables. NUMBER OF SCHOOLS. DENOMINATIONS I»a\ Schls. Night Schls. Total Schools <■( >i 1 1! c . ■ t . . 1 with National Society or Church of England. . British Wesleyan and other schools not connected with the School-Board Schools 9,449 2,034 598 1,136 17 52 4 9,466 2.0S6 598 1,140 Total 13.217 73 13,290 NUMBER OF PUPILS LN AVERAGE ATTENDANCE. DENOMINATIONS Schools connected with Na- tional Society or Church of England Brit. Wesl. and other Schools not connected with the Church of England Roman Catholic Schools School-Board Schools Total Day Schools Boys Girls Total 643,971 190,802 5 1,074 128,036 531,318 137,378 53.352 98.649 1,175,289 328,180 100,426 1,016,483 820,697 1,837,180 i . __ Night Schools Schools connected with Na- tional Society or Church of England Brit. Wesl. and other Schools not connected with the Church of England Roman Catholic Schools School-Board Schools Males Females Total 23,418 10,207 1,737 3,235 5,081 2,707 1,136 861 28,499 12,914 2,873 4,096 Total 38,597 9,785 148,382 The following table gives the number of pupils on the school registers, and the number of pupils for whom accommodation is provided at 80 cubic feet of internal space, and 8 square feet of area per pupil : DENOMINATIONS Schools connected with Na- tional Society or Church of England British Wesleyan and other schools not connected with Church of England. Roman Catholic Schools... School-Board Schools Scholars on the school registers Scholars that may be iccommodated 1,735,895 492.588 351,967 2,011,434 571.582 387,227 Total 2,744,300 | 3,159,47'.) _ Of the pupils, 64 percent attended the Na- tional Society schools; L8 per cent, the British Wesleyan schools; 5.5 percent. Roman Catholic schools; and 12.5 per cent, the Board schools. The pupils on the school registers were divided in regard to aye as follows : AGE No. of scholars Per cent 19.358 111,409 70 Between 3 and 4 years 4.06 4 •• 5 " .... 232,680 8.48 5 •' 6 « .... 297.1:; I 10.83 6 " 7 " 323.404 11.79 " 7 " 8 " 320, tl 2 11.68 " 8 " 9 •' 324.901 11.74 9 " 10 " 315.496 11.49 10 " 11 '• .... 292,72 1 10.67 11 " 12 •' .... 242,012 8.82 12 "13 " .... 172.449 6.28 13 "14 " .... 65,307 2.38 26,944 0.98 London School Board — Of all the school boards created by the act of 1870, that of the metropolis had the heaviest task imposed upon it; and it has, accordingly, accomplished the greatest results. The first board (elected Nov. 29., 1870) contained many eminent members, among them Prof. Huxley, and Dr. Elizabeth Garret-Anderson. r lhe School-Board district embraces a population of 3.400,000, out of 4,200,000 people inhabiting what is now called Greater London, which covers 698 square miles. The number of school districts is 10. which are represented in the board by 49 members, elected by ballot. The population of London, in 1871, was 3,265,005, of whom 681,107 were children between the ages of 3 and 13; and of these, it was estimated that more than 200,000 needed school provision. Up to November, 1875, the number of new schools opened by the board was 102, and 33 were in course of erection. There were, at that time, under the control of the board, 199 school-houses, in 436 departments, containing 112,901 pupils. The school-houses have been erected with great care, and upon the most approved principles of school architecture. (See Robson's School Architecture, 1875, and R. T. Smith's School Buddings and Fittings, 1875.) " The result of the School Board action," says Sir Charles Reed, the chairman of the Board, "has been to add over 60,000 children now (1875) in attendance at the board schools, and about 45,000, to the denominational schools." Teachers' Associations. — The teachers of England have formed various associations at dif- ferent times, of which the most effective is the College of Preceptors (see Preceptors, Col- lege of), which holds meel ings and examinations, gives diplomas, and more recently, has instituted a professorship of education. Since 1870, the elementary teachers have formed an association called the National Union of P^lementary Teachers, which is increasing in influence. Secondary Education.- — The schools for second- ary education in England comprise the great endowed or foundation schools, including the nine so-called public schools ; the proprietary schools; and the Ladies' Colleges. The public schools* or colleges, nine in num- ber, are Eton, Winchester, Westminster, - Caul's School, Merchant Taylors' School, Char- terhouse, 1 1 arrow, Rugby, and Shrewsbury. Iu 268 ENGLAND 18G1, the government appointed a commission to inquire into the revenues and management of these schools ; and the results of the inquiry were published in four volumes (1864) ; and, in 1868, a Public Schools Art was passed, giving the commission power to frame statutes and .illations for these schools. They were accord- ingly remodeled, upon a new and uniform plan. The chief features are here presented. — (1) Man- agement IV tore the appointment of the com- mission bodies quite different in character were the managers. Tims, at Eton, the managers were the provost and fellows of the college ; at Win- chester, the warden and fellows; but the head- master had nearly absolute control. The Court of Assistants to the Mercers' Company were the governors of St. Paul's; and the Courl of As- sistants to the Merchant Taylors, of the school of that name. Harrow. Rugby, and Shrewsbury were governed by trustees. The new statutes of tin: commission have established something like a system in the mode of electing the various governing bodies, without entirely removing the peculiarities of each school. Thus, the govern- ing body of Eton is now composed of (1) the provost of Eton, (2) the provost of King's * !ol- iege Cambridge, (3) (me member to he elected by the hebdomadal council of < Ixford ' Imversity, 1 1 oii'\ by the council of the senate of Cam- bridge, (5] one. by the council of the Royal Society, (6 one to he nominated by the Lord Chief -1 list ice. 7 on,' to be i lected by the head. lower, and assistant masters, (8) not less than two. nor more than four, to he elected by the governing body it-elf. The governing bodies of the other schools are constituted in a similar manner, having regard to the peculiarities of each locality. These managers have entire control over the endowments, make regula- tions iii regard to the buildings, and elect and dismiss the head-master. They are subject to no supervision excepl that ol the Visitor, who i- always a person of great eminence. — 2 '/' tchers. The head-master appoints all the masters and other persons engaged in teaching in the school, and all hold their positions during his pleasure. The exercise of the power of dis- missa] by the head-master has. however, given rise to several disturbances. The masters, in these Schools, occupy a peculiar position. They ari' keepers of boarding-houses, as well as teachers : and their incomes are mainly derived from the former. The expenses at the various BCl Is dif- fer. Those at Barrow are given asa specimen: d and Bcho '1 charges (per annum), : private tuition ( per annum), £15 : board, washing, etc., nt head-master's boarding-house (per annum), v.- ; entrance fees, £12. The other board- e divided into two cilassea, — large /e<«s< s. in « liieli the annual charge for board etc. i- £90, and small houses, in which are received private boarders :it in .iiiiiu il rli irge of £135. Instruction. Classical instruction has al- ways I' sen the pi- incut Feature of these schools. • Mh.T branches, such as mathematics, geography . history, and modem languages were formerly more or less neglected. The methods of teach in- were had. The tone of feeling prevalent discountenanced study. The boy who wished to gain the respect of his fellows, was compelled to distinguish himself in the cricket field, or in other athletic sports. If he tailed in thi success in study brought him into contempt, instead of respect. The Public Schools Act has introduced greal changes, and an ap- proach to a uniform system. The following subjects are prescribed by the statutes for Eton: religion, classics, writing, arithmetic, mathe- matics, history, geography, and English; French, for hoys who have attained the middle division a/ tin ft Hi form, but German or Italian may he taken instead: natural science, for all after en- tering the middle division /»r Remove) II Remove, consisting of (1) Upper Remove, ami (2) Lower Remove] (III) Fifth, consisting of (1) Lower Division, (2) Middle Division, and (3) Upper Division (the lower and middle divisions being each subdivided into a lower and upper remove) ; (IV) Sixth. Before the commission sat, there was a great diversity in the numbers allowable in a division. At present, the statutes strictly limit this. In Eton, there must be not less than one classical master to every LOO hoys in the school. In Rugby, there is to be at hast one master for i vei\ 'jn hoys, including the head-master, and no class of hoys under inst met ion. except the Sixth furm. musl exceed 32 in nuiuhcr. with- out permission of the governing body. — Annual examinations of these schools are con- ducted by examiners appointed by the govern- ing bodies. In all these schools, the pupils are divided into two classes,—; foundationers ami non-foundationers. The former, as the name implies, in sonic schools, receive their education gratuitously; in others, both their education and maintenance. * tften, they have to gain admission to a foundation by a competitive examination. The Others arc hoarded with the master, and sometimes, as tit Harrow and Rugby, they re- side with their parents. In the masters' houses, the masters act as tutors. Fagging (q. v.) is a custom peculiar to these schools ; hut the right to fag belongs, in most schools, to onl\ a .-mall Dumber of seniors. At present, this custom is not w holly condemned. Indeed, the commission, after a strict investigation, reported that, "on the whole, it is a popular institution." ENGLAND 269 The location and date of foundation of each of these schools are here given: NAME Location London Eton opp. Windsor) Harrow-ou-the-Hill Charterhouse Ktoii Harrow Merchant Taylors' London Rugby Rugby St. Paul's London Shrewsbury Shrewsbury Westminster Westminster Winchester Wincliester \\ hen founded Hill 1440 1571 1501 1507 1512 1551 1500 1378 Other endowed schools are Christ's Hospital (q. v.), Dulwich College, at Dulwich, a suburb of London, founded in 1619; Queen Eliza- beth's School, at Ipswich (1565); the Free Grammar School at .Manchester, founded in the reign of Henry VIII.; St! Andrew's College, at Bradfield, near Reading; the Tonbridge Free Grammar School (1552) ; Repton School (1557); King Kdward's School, Birmingham (1552) ; Wellington College, near Wokingham, Berk- shire, founded by public subscription, in honor of the duke of Wellington, for the education of the sons of deceased military officers ; and the City of London School, incorporated in 1834. — According to the Grammar Schools Act, gram- mar schools include all endowed schools main- tained for the purpose of teaching Latin ami Greek, whether the instruction be limited to these, or extended to other blanches, either of lit- erature or science. The purpose of these schools, as stated, is to give "an education higher than the rudiments, conducted under religious influences, within the reach of all classes, but with an especial preference for the poor boy who is apt to learn, and frequently also for some particular locality." The amount of endowment of the schools ranges from that of Christ's Hospital, the largest (over £42,000 a year), to some consisting simply of a rent charge of about £5 a year. Usually, the school possesses a school-house, a master's house, and an annual income. There are 15 grammar schools which have net incomes ex- ceeding £2,000 a year; 13, at least £1,000 a year; 55, at least £500 ; 222, at least £100; and the rest are under £100 a year. The date of the oldest of the existing endowed schools is 1216 A. D. The endowed collegiate and gram- mar schools are 782 in number ; and other en- dowed schools number 2,559 ; but, including those that have small endowments, the total is given at 4.021. The Endowed Schools Act (1869) intrusted to a commission the task of re- organizing these schools, chiefly in the direction of extending the benefits of the endowments. — The proprietary colleges and schools arc of the same grade and character, as educational institu- tions, as the public schools. The most important are the following: Marlborough College, Chel- tenham College, Haileybury College, Clifton College, Brighton College, Lexington College, and Rossall School, near Fleetwood, Iancashire. Besides these, there are King's College School and the University College School, at London, which are partly preparatory schools. The gram- mar schools in the Metropolis are quite numer- ous, and some of old foundation, as the Mercers' Company's School, founded in L542; St. Sa- viour's, Southwark, in 1562; and the Brewers' Company's School, in 1687. Ladies* < 'oUeges. — Queen's ( lollege, Harley St., London, incorporated by royal charter in L853, was instituted for the general education of ladies, and for granting certificates of knowledge. Queen's College School, for children from 5 to 14 years of age, is attached to the college. — Bed- ford College, London, was founded in 1st!), and incorporated in 1869. The affairs are adminis- tered by a council of management, and the lady president; and the members of the college (26 male, and 32 female) include many eminent educationists. — North London Collegiate School, established in 1850, is endowed by a grant from the estate of Alderman Richard Piatt. It pur- sues the course of study preparatory for the uni- versity examinations tor women. The Camden School for Girls, established in 1871, is under the same governorship. — The ( heltenhain Ladies' College was established in 1854, and now num- bers 320 pupils. The object of the institution is "to provide for the daughters of gentlemen a sound and religious education of the highest order, and on moderate terms.'' — Girton Col- lege, Cambridge (incorporated in 1872), was opened at llitchin. in 1869 ; and, in 1873, entered on the occupation of the present buildings, which had been erected by public subscription. The capital fund is now above £20,000. The college is designed to hold, in relation to girls' schools and home teaching, a position analogous to that occupied by univer- sities toward the public schools for boys; and the promoters seek to obtain for the students admission to the examination for degrees of the University of Cambridge, and to place the col- lege in connection with that university. The course occupies about three years, half of each year being spent in the college. — The Ladies' College, Southampton, was established by the Ilampkin Association for promoting female education, with the view of raising the tone of female education in the south of England. Superior Instruction. — The universities of Oxford and ( 'ambridge long stood alone as university representatives of higher education. (See Cambridge and Oxford.) The growing wealth and importance of the provinces how- ever, and the increasing demand on the part of the prosperous middle classes for the more advanced education, from which they were practically shut out by the cxehisivencss and cxpensiveness of the great seats of learning, have led to the establishment of colleges in dif- ferent parts of the country. Indeed, the old universities have begun to recognize the neces- sity for an extension of their own influence and usefulness. In 1873, the Cambridge senate organ- ized a scheme of local lectures ; and. at the end of 1873. and again at the beginning of 1874,* session of twelve weeks was held in Nottingham, Derby, and Leicester ; — the subjects taught be- 270 ENGLAND ing political economy, physical science, constitu- tional history, ami English literature, and the Dumber of students ranging from 30 to 500. In L874, the scheme was extended to Bradford, Halifax, Keighley. and Leeds; and, in 1874 — 5, applications were received from Derby, Not- tingham, Leeds. Bradford, Halifax. Keighley. Liverpool. Birkenhead, New Brighton, Leicester, Burslem, Hanley, Newcastle-under-Lyne, and Stoke-upon-Trent. Three conditions were in- sisted on : (1; a standard of excellence to give definiteness an 1 thoroughness to study ; (2) - ttlar and systematic class teaching ; and (3) a system of examination, regulating the granting of certificates. The reports of the examiners were highly satisfactory. The University of Durham was instituted in L 832, under an act of parliament empowering the dean and chapter of Durham to appropriate an estate at South Shields for the establishment and maintenance of a university in connection with the cathedral. The management was in- trusted, under the bishop as Visitor, and the •lean and chapter as Governors, to the warden, a senate, and a convocation, -the senal • being composed of the ward m. the professors of ( Ireek, mathematics, ami divinity, the two proctors, and live other members of the convocation. The convocation originally consisted of gradu- ates of Oxford and Cambridge, who arc now re- inforced by the graduates of the university it- self. The office of warden is permanently an- nexed to the deanery of Durham; and a can- oncy in the cathedral to each of the professors in divinity and Greek. University College was formed, at the opening of the university, for tli • purpose of uniting a system of domestic disci- pline with academical instruction. The Castle of Durham is held in trust for the University, its hall being used as a college hall, ami its chapel as a college chapel. To extend the !'n Gits of residence to persons of limited means, Bishop Hatfield's Hall was founded in 1846 ; and Bishop Cosin's Hall, in L851 ; the students of the latter, however, were transferred to the former in L864. The general academical in- struction is similar to thai of Oxford and Cam- bridge : and the l'». A. degree examination is held at the end of two years, of 26 weeks each. There is a special course of theological study, and a License in Theology, granted on examination; and in the theological faculty alone is there any isl or subscription. In ls7o, the ' le up mi - Tyne < lollege of Medicine (founde linl851 bet ame the Durham University •'"II ■- ■ of Me licine, and its Btudents arc mem- fa s of the University. To obtain a license in medicin • in surgery a student must spend four years at some approved medical school, '. at this college), and | two prof sional examinations. The College of Physical Science, Newcastle-upon-Tyne, was foun led in 1871 . and incorporated with the I niversity of Durham, in L87 I. The endowment of the college was provided partly by the uni- ity. and partly by the leading landed proprie- tors, employers of skilled labor, etc. in the North of England. There are chairs of pure and applied mathematics, chemistry, physical and experimental philosophy, geology, and biology and physiology ; and lectureships in (lassies. French, German, English literature, and mechanical drawing. The course lasts two years, and successful students graduate as associates in physical science. The general government is in the hands of 17 members, partly ex officio, and partly elected : and the ordinary administrators are a council of 15, elected out of, and by, the governors. In L875, Codrington College, Bar- bados, was affiliated to the University.— Owens College, -Manchester, opened in 1851. (See OWENS COLLEGE.) The Yorkshire College of Science was established in 1*7-1. to supply in- struction in those sciences which are applicable to the manufactures, engineering, mining, etc. — The University of London was chartered in 1836. (Sec London, Untvebsity op.) There is aboard of governors, life, elected, and representa- tive; and a council of '21 members, elected from and by them, for the administration of the college affairs. 'I here are (hairs of mathematics and ex- perimental physics, chemistry, geology and min- ing, biology, and civil and mechanical engineer- ing; and an instructor in textile industries. The title of Associate in Physical Science is conferred on students who attend (lasses, in not less than three departments, for each of two entire sessions, and who pass a special examination in each class at the end of their course. These departments are mathematics, physics, chemistry, geology, bi- ology, and civil and mechanical engineering. In the session of] 875- (i. there were 85 day students (of whom 28 were students of chemistry belong- ing to the Leeds School of Medicine), and 246 evening and occasional students. — University College, Bristol, was instituted, in 1876, to sup- ply, lor persons of both sexes above the ordinary school age, the means of continuing their studies in science', languages, history, and literature, and more particularly to afford appropriate in- struction in those branches of applied science which are employed in the arts and manufact- ures. There are both dav and evening lectures and classes: and medical education IS provided by the Bristol Medical School, which is affiliated t > the college. Professional and & >■ nlific Instruction. The institutions for theological instruction are very numerous including those of the various denomi- nations : 1 1 : Church of England, as follows: St. Aidan's College, Birkenhead (founded in 184 the Missionary College of St. Augustine, Canter- bury (founded as an abbey in 605 A. D., sup- prosed in 1538, restored in 1848); Chichester Theological ' lollege I I 839); < 'uddesdon 'I heol ical College, Wneatley, Oxfordshire (1854); Lon- don College of Divinity, St. John's Hall, High- burj i 1863); Lichfield Theological College (181 Gloucester Theological College (1869 ; St. Bees ( lollege, ( umbel-land (181 6) : Salisbury Theoli ical College I L860 ; Wells Theological College (1840); St. David's College, Lampeter (1822; ENGLAND 271 chartered, 1828), which prepares for the civil service and other professions, as well as holy orders; The Queen's ( tollege, Birmingham (facul- ty of theology, founded in 1852) ; and Church Missionary College, Islington. (2) We&leyan; Wesleyan Theological Institution, near Manches- ter I 1 - 34); Wesleyan Theological Institution, Leeds (1868); Richmond College (1843), for training missionary students; Primitive Method- ist Theological Institute. Sunderland (1868); and United Methodist Free Church Theological In- stitute (lsT2). (3) Congregational: Hackney College (1803); The Countess of Huntington's College, Cheshunt, Berts (1768); Spring Bill i lollege, Birmingham (1 831 ); Rotherham College, Yorkshire (1756); New College, London, founded in 1850 by the union of several other Colleges : Lancashire Independent College, near Manchester (181 •'•); and Bala Independent College, founded in 1842. (4) Roman Catholic: College of St. Peter and Paul, Bath (1867), designed to furnish a liberal education for the higher classes, based on the principles of the R. C. Church, its course in philosophy and theology embracing 5 years; St. Mary's College, Birmingham (1793), which affords a classical education, as well as professional instruction; and St. Bruno's College, St. Asaph, designed exclusively to prepare candi- dates for the priesthood. (5) Baptist: New Col- lege, London (1810) ; North \Yales Baptist Col- lege, Llangollen (1802) ; Baptist Theological In- stitute. Pontypool, Monmouth (1807); The Bap- tist College, Haverford-west (1839) ; Pastor's College, instituted at Camberwell in 1856, re- moved to Metropolitan Tabernacle, in 1861 ; Bristol Baptist College (1770) ; General Baptist College, Chilwell, near Nottingham (1797) : and Rawdon College, near Leeds (1804). (6) Pres- byterian: Carmarthen Presbyterian College (1719) ; and Theological College, London (1844). (7) Unitarian: The Unitarian Home Mission- ary Board, Manchester (1854). (8) Calmnistic Methodist: Trevecca College, near Talgarth, Wales; (9) Free Religious Thought: Manchester New College (1786). There are four Inns of Court, qualified to call students to the Bar : (1) Lincoln's Inn, (2) the Middle Temple, (3) the Inner Temple, and (4) Gray's Inn. Each of these nominates two benchers, and the eight benchers constitute the Council of Legal Education. The council appoints five readers, who deliver lectures in each term, and guide the professional studies of young men preparing for the Bar. — There are medical schools connected with the universities ; also the Royal College of Physicians, the Royal College of Sur- geons, the Society of Apothecaries; Metropolitan 'hospitals and schools of medicine: St. Barthol- omew's, Charing Cross, City's. King's College, Middlesex, St. George's, St. Mary's. St. Thomas's, I niversity College; and the following provin- cial schools: Queen's College, Birmingham ; Bris- tol Medical School; Cambridge Medical School; Leeds School ; Liverpool Royal Infirmary and School; Manchester Royal School; Newcastle- upon-Tyne (Durham) ; and Sheffield Medical School. — Scientific instruction is given in the Science and Art Department of the Committee of Council, South Kensington, which administers a sum of money voted annually by parliament to promote instruction in science, especially among the industrial classes. Science schools or classes may be formed in any locality under the management of a local committee. The aid is given in the form of (1) public examinations, held annually, in which Queen's prizes of books and instruments are awarded; (2) payments (from £1 to C4 per student) to teachers or com- mittees, on the result of the examinations; (3) Scholarships and exhibitions; (4) building grants; and (5) grants toward the purchase -of fittings, apparatus etc. 'I he science schools ex- amined in May, 1876, numbered as follows : in England, 1,206; in Scotland. 113; and in Ireland, 165; having an aggregate of 4,559 classes, and 52,330 students. The schools of art in the United Kingdom, in 1^75, numbered L36, with 23,381 students; and the night classes. 57!) (in England alone, 543), with 21,601 students. Other scientific schools are the following : (1 ) the Agricultural College, ( !irencester, founded in 1842, which has a farm of 500 acres. The teaching staff comprises professors of agricult- ure, chemistry, veterinary surgery, natural his- tory, mathematics and surveying, and drawing. (2) The Royal School of Mines, founded in 1851, having grown out of the Geological Survey of the United Kingdom, commenced in lb34, by the late Sir Henry de la Beche. its first professors being the officers of the Survey. There are vari- ous exhibitions, scholarships, and free admissions attached to the school. (3) The Royal Academy of Arts, founded in 1768, removed to the Na- tional Gallery, in 1838, and to Burlington Home, in 1869. (4) The Royal Academy of Music, founded in 1822, receives an annual parliament- ary grant. (5) The Royal Military Academy, at Woolwich, founded in 1745, and the Royal Mili- tary College, at Sandhurst, in 1799. also the Royal Military Staff College. (6) The Royal Naval College at Greenwich, founded in 1873, and (7) Eastman's Royal Naval Academy. South- sea, founded in 1851. — See Sir J. K. Shuttle- WORTH, Public Education, 3 vols. (1853) ; Four Periods of Public Education (1862) ; and Thoughts and Suggestions on Certain Soda/ Problems (1873) ; Ernest Wagner, Vblksschul- in sen in England (1864); Donaldson, Lectures on Ed mutant in Prussia and England (1874). In regard to secondary instruction, see Report of Her Majesty's Commissioners appointed to inquire into the Revenues and Management of certain Colleges and Schools, etc, 1 vols. (1864); Return- -Public Schools (statutes, etc.), printed by order of the Bouse of Commons (1876); Demooest and Montdcoi, De lenseignement se- condaireen Angleterreeten 11 • - I Paris, 186 Staunton, The Great Schools of England 1 1 8651; Maxwell, -1 History of Eton College (1875); Turner, Educational Legislation (bond.. 1876); Pascoe, .1 Handbook to the Schools of England (Lond., 1 877). (See also Cambridge, and Oxford.) 272 ENGLAND ENGLISH ENGLAND, Church of. See Episcopal Church. ENGLISH, The Study of. The mother- tongue has peculiar relations to education. Lan- guage baa a twofold nature, — on the one side, Voice, on the other, thought. Early thought is almost all stimulated, guided and supported by the mother-tongue. All early acquisition of knowledge may be regarded as the study of the mother-tongue; and, even in civilized nations, few persons ever advance beyond the knowledge store I up for them in their native speech. The mother ■■•li is also tli ■ means of communicating with others, and of influencing them; so that the study of it as an art includes the study of rhet- oric and oratory, and of the art of poetry. It would seem then that there are four chief direct uses in studying English : (1) To under- stand what is spoken or written in that langu (2) To speak it well; (3) To write it well ; an 1 ( I To master English literature. And there are three remoter ends : (I) To master the languag i ntifically; (2) To acquire the knowledge of language in general ; an I (3) General culture. Early study, in infant Softools, kindergartens, and primary schools. — The me ming of wor Is istb thing children learn of languages. Tha nam ss of a few familiar objects and acts are re- peated in connection with the objects and themselves bo often, that the infant's thought passes promptly from the sound to the thing. Thus papa, mamma, kiss, laugh, make the child think of the person or act before it can speak any words. Many words are also attached to thoughts by being often hear I connected with other wor Is in discourse. Such knowledge, caughl by the child rather than taught to it, is for th ■ in >i n an I Object Teaching.) Pot children of •■i larger growth, we have a great Dumber of lers and Definer8, and small dictionaries which teach the meaning of English words. The latter should be constantly used. The Btudyof meanings in such manuals is, however, of little worth, unless supplemented by object teaching on the one hand, and by the study of discourse on the other. Manuals of object teaching arranged for the purpose are wanting. Object teachers often contrast the study of words with the study of things, and condemn the study of words, instead of teaching them through their exercises. There are many bonks made up of progressive selections of dis- course, intended to introduce young pupils to words. Most Primers and Readers attempt- something in this way, and some are skillfully preparel with notes and exercises for this pur- pose. (See Primer, and Reading.) To speak well requires a knowledge of the meanings of words and of the combinations in which they are actually used, of the meanings and uses of grammatical prefixes and suffixes, and of the exact sounds which are made by good speakers. Speaking must go on at a certain speed : and, therefore, thoughts, Avoids, and the movements of the vocal organs must be closely associated, so as to follow one another without effort and with great rapidity. Much practice in speaking is necessary in order to speak well ; and, in general, practice in the very kind of -peaking in which the excellence is desired. In the early stages of education, this must be almost wholly imitative practice. Children catch and w^v the sounds and forms which make the live- liest impression on them, ami which they hear oftenest ; to use a form or sound once, makes it most likely to occur to the mind again. Teachers should, therefore, train by inducing imitation of their own speech. Exercises may be used in i. peating after the teacher the elementary sounds, and afterwards difficult words, and then familiar dialogues, and finally passages of poetry, or elevated prose, which the teacher likes and can repeat with feeling. Incorrect articulation and bad grammar should be constantly corre< ted, not by repeating and caricaturing what is faulty but by substituting the correct expression. Chil- dren should also be encouraged to talk, at proper times, to repeat the explanations of the teacher, not verbatim throughout, but yet with a con- stant, close, and correct use of the technical terms or important words ; nor is it unscientific to commit to memory formulas of permanent importance, to be fully comprehended afterwards; such as the multiplication table, catechisms of moral and religious truth, and noble utterances which it does men good to haw fast in the memory. The youth should be led on by lan- guage faster and farther than his own thoughts could have gone alone. Practice of this kind Mill naturally go along with reading. Learning t<> read should begin early. The monstrous spelling of the English language makes this much more difficult than to learn to read German; and teaching the names of the letter, and (he sounds of the syllables as if made up of them, has a mischievous effect on the reason of the learners. Several methods arc used in our schools to overcome (lie difficulties. The word- method (a. v.) is one. In this, children are taught to recognize words as wholes before learning the letters. In skillfully prepared books, with pic- English 273 torial illustrations, children learn to read very rapidly by this method, l>ut not so accurately; and it is very hard to teach them to spell. Skill- ful teachers will use a judicious combination of the two methods. Books are also prepared with an alphabet in which each letter has always the Bame sound, a proper phonetic alphabet, and with classified examples of words, and reading extracts, spelt in the phonetic alphabet wholly at first, and gradually passing to our standard spelling. These have been used for some years in Xew York. Boston, St Louis, and elsewhere, and are reported to save one half of the time usually de- voted to Learning to read. There isnowanactive movement for the reform of our spelling which it may be hoped will save the next generation much time and toil. (See Orthography, and Phonetics.) Books of this kind are Leigh's edition of various elementary reading-books; also Davis's American Primer, Douai's Rational Phonetic Primer, Loxgley's America n Phonetic Primer. Sheldon's Xew Phonetic Primer, Shearer's Combination Speller, Vickroy's Pho- iii tie First Reader. Primary cards and charts to aid in this early instruction are to be had in 1 variety. Practice in writing is one of the best aids in learning to read and spell, and hence, copying choice extracts, and then writing them down from memory, is quite useful. Soon after lessons in penmanship begin, grammar should be taken up. Grammar is often used as a name for the whole science of language and the art of using it ; but by masters of the science of language, it is now confined to the classification of words into parts of speech, according to their uses in discourse, the description and exposition of the changes of form called inflections, and the uses of these in the correct construction of sentences. There woidd be some advantage in dropping the old traditional definitions, which lead teachers and pupils to expect that the study of English grammar will make them able to speak and write the English language correctly. It is only one of the helps to correctness in speaking and writing. The attempt by makers of school grammars and by teachers to do too much is one reason wdiy the study is so much neglected and abused. Descrip- tive grammar consists of definitions of the parts of speech, paradigms, and rules of syntax. With children, a careful selection of simple and typ- ical matter should be made, just as in botany or in any other science. This matter should consist of definitions and rules, stated in accurate sci- entific language, but simply and briefly ; and of selections of words and sentences, also simple and clear, and suited to illustrate the definitions and rules. This matter should be managed by the teacher so as to use mere verbal memory as little as possible, and to train the pupil to see. hear, and think as much as possible. The definitions and the rules should be learned like rules in arithmetic, but the main work should be the ap- plication of them to examples. The scholar should every day hand in written grammar Work on the slate or on paper, like sums in 18 arithmetic; and the preparation and explanation of this work should be the main grammar lesson in the early years. This method needs some system ot notation by which any sentence may be put on paper or on the blackboard with its words SO designated by signs, or by an arrange- ment in diagrams, that the analysis and parsing of it may be made plain to the eye. Such systems are found in several books. A considerable Dum- ber of our best teachers use substantially this method, many of them, without a book, dictat- ing, day by day, definitions which the pupils are to remember, and giving out words and sentences to be classified and analyzed, also proposing trials in collecting and inventing words and sentences of the kind to be studied. Looks are often whol- ly condemned by these teachers, who collect, year by year, in their own note-books, or memories, a store of happy questions and examples, as well as carefully considered definitions and rules ; and it would obviously be a great help to young teachers, as well as to pupils, to get a good note- book of tliis kind, neatly printed, and there are some books for beginners which are, in substance, such note-books; we mention A Parser ami Analyzer for Beginners with diagrams and suggestive pictures, by F. A. March (New York), and Greene's Analysis (Phila.). (See A nalysis, Grammatical.) Advanced Study in High Schools and Colleges. — Students entering the high school should have been taught general descriptive grammar thoroughly, so as to be able to apply its definitions and rules promptly and accurately to sentences wdiich they understand, and which have no strange idioms. They should also have mastered some system of notation to set forth their grammatical knowledge in writing. They should have also been trained in articulation and in the idioms of common conversation, and should have had some practice in writing compositions. The study of English will now be directed to acquire skill in speaking and in writing, and a mastery of English literature, and the philos- ophy of speech. Each of these demands special study and practice. I. Skill in Speaking. — This should be cul- tivated in various ways : (1) By free conversa- tion on topics at set times, when the teacher may act as a model and censor; (2) By the declamation of selections from standard authors ; (3) By trans- lating from foreign languages, the student being required to give the thought of the author in his own English with the common rapidity and in- flections of his own discourse ; (4) By recitations by topics. (In all studies which admit of it, the scholar should be made to stand up, face his audience, and speak to them on the topic on which he is to recite. This is probably the most efficient means of giving power of connected dis- course.) (5) By debates on assigned topics ; (6) By the study of grammar. Some larger gram- mar which gives a minute exposition of all the idioms of the language should be taken up. A historical and scientific grammar is the best. But for immediate use in speaking, correct and clearly 274 ENGLISH stated generalizations of the facts of the language are what is wanted. A knowledge of these is necessary to correct speaking. It is a great stake to suppose that if one never heard 1 tad English, lie would always speak correctly. In the mother-tongue, every one generalizes instinct- ively. The child makes all its plurals in s, and says mouses fur mice, mans for men : so it says buyed for bought, and the like, making its in- stinctive and incorrecl generalizations continu- ally. This process is active with every speaker until accurate generalizations, i. e., grammatical knowledge, are substituted for the instinctive work of association. The subject usually pre- cedes a verb; hence, the instinctive talker uses who for whom before the verb. The object usually follows a verb; the instinctive generalization suggests it is me, for it is /. In the households of educated people, a continual correction of the young folks is kepi up, until they learn the most common words and phrases pretty thoroughly ; but. in the less common literary style, in which abridged constructions, tropical expressions, and relics of obsolescent forms occur continually, no one ever speaks with uniform correctness, un- less he studies grammar carefully. The greatest feniuses are qo exceptions. < !haucer, Ben Jbnson, lilton, and Addison for example, were careful students of grammar. The text of Shakespeare's plays has to be corrected like a school boy's theme. Moreover, all of us bear much bad English, and need carefully and intelligently to Study the laws of the language, in order to dis- tinguish the good from the bad. This kind of study should he constantly applied in the criticism of the speech and writing of pupils at school, and of printed matter. A knowledge of descriptive grammar is also needed for intelligent conversa- tion upon the meaning of obscure sentences. Anion-' the many g 1 descriptive grammars of modern English, we may mention Brown's, Bul- lion's. Butlers, Clark's, Oovell's, I'Ywsniith's, Greene's, Mart's, Kerl's, Murray's. Pinneo's, Weld's. Quackenbos's, Viekroy's, and Whitney's. We shall mention, farther on, works in which a historical view of English grammar is presented. II. Skill in writing demands practice in writ- ing. Prom the time of entering the high school the Student should write often and carefully. To study without pen in hand is to dream. I'>c- ~\'l' the writing of grammatical exercises as ■. e described, those who have their future oc- cupation decided, should he trained in the writ- ing needed in that occupation. Future business men should practice the writing of imaginary business Letters, answers to advertisements in the newspapers, and the like. Any student may keep a journal, may write descriptions of build- ings, machines, scenery, persons, meetings, con- versations, 1 b ' prepare reports on such matters examined l>\ committees forpri- vate corporations, or public meetings. They should also write in connection with their stud- ies, preparing careful statements upon assigned topics, notes of lectures, written examinations on general SUbjeCta, and the like. Then there are more elaborate, ornate, rhetorical perform- ances, and elegant essays, and metrical compo- sition. Two periods may be mentioned in the mastery of language. In the first, the ruling idea is imitative, the writer seeks to fashion his speech after that of the authors or persons whom he admires. 1 le aims to have every expression bear the current stamp, and will reject every phrase not familiar in good books. Most writers never pass out of this stage. The source and model of good writing to them is an intimate acquaint- ance with literature. But great writers, original thinkers, learn that the current phrases do not convey their peculiar thoughts, and they advance to invention according to their own ideals. Vital signs should not be neglected even in school days; it is by following these that the most per- teet mastery of the language is to be attained: hut school work will lie mostly in the first stage. Active and careful practice in writing is generally the hot stimulus and help to the thorough study of English. Imitative work has its value. Fix in the memory the thought of an admirable pa- in a classic author, then write it as well as pos- sible, and compare the result with the original. There are some good books prepared as aids to the young writer: Abbot & Seelev's English Lessons (X. Y.) : Swinton's Language Lessons i X. Y.i: A bbot's Bow to Write clearly | Boston); Crosby & Li dlow's First Lessons; Day's Young Composer, English Composition, and other works (X. Y.i : Parker's Aids to Coiujuisition (X". Y.); Quackenbos's First Lessons in Compo- sition (X. Y.), and other works by Cox. Drew, Frost, Harper, Hart. Kerb Pinneo, Sprague. These lead on to rhetorics, like those of Bain, Blair, Day, Spencer's Philosophy if Style, Shedd, Wnately, and the like. A great part of the writing should, however, be the record of thought and research in the study of English literature. III. The philological study of English is the study of the language as used in literature, i. <■., as shaped by the idea of the beautiful. The lan- guage of literature is an ideal language of men of genius. It is to he studied in their writings. The main object of the study is to rethink their thoughts. Every classic language contains in its literature the record of the noble thoughts ami acts of thousands of years, expressed in thousands of happy and harmonious phrases, the invention of thousands of men of genius. This is the richest inheritance of a cultured race. Youth who, if they had no classic speech, could (\o nothing better than watch birds and hugs, to snare and kill them. can. by means of speech, rise, almost in childhood, to the bighesi thoughts of all thi' ageS before them. The Studj of these masterpieces of literature may be carried on by two methods. One is rapid reading, enjoying ami emphasizing special Beauties, and making ional esthetic and explanatory criticism, but avoiding all minutq researches, especially all grammatical and scientific labor, which might rive a distaste tor the lesx m and the author. ENGLISH 275 The Other method is that of giving minute and profound study, linguistic and philosophic, to the representative passages of representative works. The first method gives a delightful occupation to sympathetic pupils, and proves especially valuable in the education of women. Tlic un- sympathetic and hard-headed are unaffected hy it; and it is, at its best, but an introduction to the authors, leaving the real philological mastery of them yet to lie attained. 'This comes, if it come at all. from long dwelling, and much study, line by line, word by word, such as is bestowed on the noble passages of Greek or Latin writers. In studying the literature of the mother-tongue, it is hard to get this concentrated and prolonged attention. The familiar words slip rapidly through the mind, and delude the young student with the impression that he thoroughly under- stands them. There is a fatal facility in extem- porizing the lessons. This difficulty is overcome by making the text the foundation of further study, and by requiring written papers. What- ever is necessary to comprehend all the thoughts and allusions, matters of history, biography, mythology, geography, physics, metaphysics, theology, and the like, will, of course, be care- fully looked up. The history of the book which is being studied, should also be learned, both as to its growth in the mind of the author, and its reception and influence. The character of the author and his life and times should be studied, as essential to a comprehension of his work and speech, so as to see the man as a representative man. and the work as a representative work. The rhetorical laws, and the principles of poetic, epic, and dramatic art should be applied word by word, line by line. Then there is the study of the words, their exact meaning and associations in the mind of the writer, to be learned partly by gathering up his different uses of them, an easy and delightful labor in those authors for whom a concordance has been made, as Shake- speare, Milton. Pope, Tennyson ; it implies also a study of the general usage of the time of the writer. The study of synonyms also comes in, and of derivations, as a guide and aid in fixing the exact meaning of words. Written analyses, derivation papers, synonym papers, and tables of rhetorical figures, will make sure that the work is done. Happy phrases and notable sentences may be learned by heart; and by studying many works, the knowledge of English as a record of culture may be attained, which is the purpose of classical philological study. rv. Comparative philology, as the science of language is often called, Buggeste still further © Op study. It sets before us English as a member of a great family of languages, having a history, and laws of growth, and made up 01 words and phrases, each of which has its own history, to be Understood in view of the laws of thought and voice. It calls for the study of the physiology of the organs of speech as the basis of the classifica- tion of the vocal sounds made in English, and for the study of psychology to explain the meanings of the sounds. The English speech, as far as its grammatical forms are concerned, is a develop- ment of the Anglo-Saxon; in its vocabulary, it is a mixed language, made up originally of Anglo- Saxon and Norman-French, and later enriched by contributions from Latin, Greek, and many ot her languages. The languages which are nearest of kin, and throw most light on it, are Friesic, Gothic. Icelandic, and High German on the one side : French and Latin, leading on to I neck and Sanskrit, on the other. Phonology gives a history and exposition of the sounds of English. It shows that the present sounds of most words are changed from earlier ones, and it seeks the laws which govern the changes. It also points out and explains the re- lations of these sounds to those in other lan- guages. The fullest discussion of historic pho- nology in any available text-books for schools is in .March's Comparative Grammar of the Anglo- Saxon. Ellis's Early English Pronunciation (London), still incomplete, is the gnat store- house of facts. Sweet's History of English Sounds (London), and the historical grammars mentioned below, are also worthy of study. Grammatical etymology seeks to explain the origin of all the inflections. In modern English, cases and tenses, and the like, seem to be formed by adding letters, or changing vowels at pleas- ure ; we add s to form the possessive John's, d to form the past loved; we change a to e to form the plural men, o to e to form the past held. When we follow these words back to Anglo-Saxon, we find that our monosyllables are there polysyllables, and many of them obvious compounds, whose meaning we see at once ; lorn/, is there a trisyllable, compounded of love and did. But many words are not soluble in Anglo- Saxon, and we turn to other languages for aid. Gothic is the first great source of light. Anglo- Saxon is of the 9th century, but in Gothic we have the forms of the 4th century of a nearly kindred speech, and the gain is great : held, which is an obscure monosyllable in Anglo- Saxon, in Gothic shows haihald, a reduplicated root. The Gothic, however, often fails to solve the problem, but it generally serves to identify the forms with some like form in Latin and Greek, which may, perhaps, give the key, or, if not, lead us on to the Sanskrit, where so large a number of inflection forms and affixes of deri- vation, are seen to be compound words, that the philologist works on the theory that they all are, and thus makes large progress in their solution. These languages. — Anglo-Saxon. Gothic, Latin, Greek, and Sanskrit, have been most laboriously studied; and excellent manuals of comparative grammar and ety logical dictionaries of each are at band, at least to the German scholar, for the titles of which see the articles on these lan- guages. Icelandic, or Old Norse, is also of great. aid in Studying the forms of English, especially in the transition period from Early Anglo Saxon. All these the earnest scholar may study. The High German also has been much worked over, and Strengthens the inductions made from mw nearer kin, occasionally throwing light on a doubt • 276 ENGLISH ful point. The comparative study of derivation, syntax, and prosody leads through the same historical course. Parallel with tin- external his- tory of the forms, runs a history of their mean- ing, a history of thought, and its laws of change and progress in connection with language. The science of language does not stop with the Indo- European family, but for a perfect understanding of English compares it with the other great lan- guages of the world, — with the Semitic, the Chinese, and the aboriginal tongues of America. It seeks to determine its relations to all lan- guages, and to an ideal form of speech. How much of this study should lie attempted in our schools and colleges, and in what method, an- ted questions with educators. Germany has. heretofore, been the chief seat of this learn- ing, and it has been given in lectures to select classes in the universities. It is gradually work- ing its way. through our best grammars and teachers, especially of Greek, into the common stock of linguistic knowledge and teaching. A considerable Dumber of the American colleges give a few lectures on the subject in the senior year, or study Whitney's Language mnl !],<■ Study of Language. In L855, a department of tin' Knglish language and comparative philology was established in Lafayette College, and an ar- rangement of all the linguistic studies of the college attempted, by which the topics of com- parative philology might be gradually introduced to the students, in connection with the recitations, in reading the classic authors of each language. Phonology is taken up the first term, lessons in the pronunciation oi Latin, (J reek, or other lan- guages, are given, with the history of the sound,-, and the laws of letterchange. Then. at tin' daily Lesson in reading, attention is called to such illus- trations of these laws as occur in the text, and the facts of each language are compared with English. A special examination in these mat- ters is held at the end of the term. In suc- ive terms, the etymology of the verb and the noun, derivation, syntax, and prosody, are taken up in the same way, from the point of view of comparative philology, with daily application to the text. The languages are studied, in the clas- meal course, in the following order: Latin and Greek, French, German, Anglo-Saxon, English. In the scientific course, the early work is through a comparison of words in English, French, and German; then come Anglo-Saxon and higher English. It goes on ii nection with a literary and critical .study of the authors, and ends with a 8J OOptical general course, including, in one tern i. tin- science of language, and in another a sum- mary of English literature. This course has been eery successful at Lafayette College, and has been introduced, in its application to Anglo Saxon and lish, into some other i nst it ut ions, and has at- tracted interest and eotiiineiidat ion in Europe. Perhaps no study, certainly no linguistic study, has grown more rapidly, within i he last 15 years, than that of English. Previous to that time, there was |1„. i, hardly an attempt at the scientific his- torical study of it in England or America. There. were no text-books, — historical grammars or other histories of the language, nor good etymo- logical or historical dictionaries, nor editions of classic English authors with philological ap- paratus for study. Now, all our good colleges and universities, and many of our best high schools and academies, attempt a course of En- glish, and a fair supply of textdbooks of every kind is to be had. Of these the following is a summary: Method of Philological Study of the English Language, by Francis A. March, New York, 1865). This gives minute directions for carrying out a course of study like that al » >\ described. It begins with Bunyan, and sets forth topics for an introductory essay on his life and works, with bibliographical references. Then it gives an extract from The Pilgrim's Progress, and references to parts of the grammar to be stud- ied, accompanied by questions applying the mat- ter to the text. given in full, like a verbatim report of a recitation, six pages of questions on twelve lines of text. Synoptical questions and topics for essays follow. Milton comes next, and then foil »w Shakespeare, Spenser, and ( 'haucer. treatei 1 in the same way, but with a progressive series of grammatical and philological topics. This method has been used in several high schools and col- leges with good success. The work is also to be had bound in one volume with Fowler's ( '> ram- mar, to which frequent references are made. Spragoe's Masterpieces of English Literature i New York) is prepared for the same kind of study; it contains selections from Chaucer. Spen- ser, Bacon, Shakespeare, Milton, and Bunyan, with notes for progressive grammatical, phil- ological, and rhetorical study, beginning with phonetics in connection with Chaucer, and end- ing with comparative philology in connection with Bunyan. Day's Introduction to English Literature (New York) is of similar content and method. Craik's English of Shakespeare [London and Boston) consists of the text of Julius Ca>sar, prepared with copious notes on philological matters suggested by the text, and other apparatus for thorough study, — an excellent book. To these maybe added Greer's Studies in (he English of Bunyan (Phila.); and Car- penter's English of the XIV. Century (Boston). From American editors, we have the following series of classics pre] tared for school use, with more or less annotation: Boyd's Series (New Yorki. including Cowper's Task, Milton's Para- dise Lost, PoSok's Course of Time, Thomson's Seasons, Young's Ntght Thoughts, and Bacon's Essays; Hudson's Series (Boston) a valuable one; the note- and other apparatus are. in the main, directly explanatory or critical, primarily for rapid reading; it includes plays of Sfiake- speare; A Textbook of Poetry, consisting of selections from Wordsworth. Coleridge, Burns, Beattie, Goldsmith, and Thomson; .1 Text-book Prose, containing selections from Burke, Webster, and Bacon ; Rolfe's Series, New York, including Shakespeare's Merchant of Venice, The Tempest, Henry VIII., and Julius Co?sar; and Goldsmith. (Sec Enqlish Literati re.) BNGUSB KX4JIJSII LITERATURE 277' From the Clarendon Press, Oxford, England, are issued for students of Bngliflh, Chaucer, by \V~. W. Skeat; Specimens of Early English,by ]{. Morris and W. W". Skeat; 77/ c \'isiau Second, and Macbeth; Bacon, — Advancement of Learning, and Essays; Mi Hon, — Poems; parts of Dryden, Bunyan, Pope, Johnson, Burke, and Gowper. Grammars, Historical and Comparative, for the earliest period are: .March's Comparative Grammar (New York) (see Anglo-Saxon); Hadley's Brief History of the English Lan- guage (Springfield); Compendium of ike Com- parative Grammar of the Indo-European Lan- guages, Sanskrit, Greek, and Latin, by A. Schleicher, translated by H. Bexdale (London); A Comparative Grammar of the Teutonic Lan- guages, by J. Helfenstein (London); Historical Outlines of English Accidence, by R. Morris, (London): Elementary Lessons in Historical En- ih Grammar, by R. Morris (London); ^1 Shakespearian Grammar, An Attempt to illus- trate some of the differences between Elizabethan and Modern English, by Rev. E. A. Abbott. (London): Handbook of the English Tongue,by J. Angus | London); Latham's English Language (London and New York); Fowler's English Language (New York); IFaldeman's English Arfi /•»>■ 1 1 'hi la.) The great German-English gram- mars are M.etzner's, now translated in London, and Kocu's, fur which see Anglo-Saxon. Dictionaries. — Webster's Unaiiridged Dic- tionary of ///c English Language (Springfield, 1 865 . : Wi mm ester's Dictionary (Boston); Shake- speare-Lexicon, by I>r. Alexander Schmidt Berlin and London, 1875); Halliwei.l's Diction- ary of \. Irchaicand Provincial Words ( London); .1 Dictionary of the Old English Language, I2th—15lh Centuries, by V. II. Stratmann (2d ■ i.. London, L873); .1 Dictionary of English ■ Etymology, by H. Wedgwood (2ded., London, L872); Etymologisches Wbrterbuch der engli- schen Sprache,by Ed. Mueller (Kothen, L865); Jamieson's Dictionary of the Scottish Language, ed. by Lonomuir (Edinburgh, L867); Bartlett's Dictionary of Americanisms ( Boston). Further aids are: Lectures on the English Language (New York); and Lectures on the Origin and History if the English Lan- guage, by G. P. Marsh (New York): Eladley's Essays, Philological and Critical" (Ken Fork); \\ hitm-'.y's Oriental anil Linguistic studies (New York): Muller's /.rehires on die Science of Language, and Chips froma German Work- shop (1 don and New Fork); Shepherd's* History of the English Language (New York); De Vere's Studies in English (New Fork); Gould's Good English (New York); Swinton's Rambles in Words (N ew York): Select Gloss- anj of English Words used formerly in Senses different from the present, by R. C. Trench (London); ThePhilotogy of die English Tongue, I iv •!. Earle (London); On, the Study of Words, and English fast and Present,by R. (/.Trench: alford's Queen's English (Lond. and N. Y.L and Moon's Dean's Emjlisli (Lond. and X. Y.), and Bad English (Lond.); White's Words and their Uses (N. Y.); Outlines of the History of the English Language, by G. L. Craik (London); Sources of Standard English, byOLiPHANT (Lon- don): Changes in the Emjlisli Language be- tween the publication of Wiclifs Bible and that of the authorized Version, A. D. 140(1 to A. D. 1600, by H. T. W. Wood (London); English Writers, by H. Morley (London); History of English Sounds, by II. Sweet (London). ENGLISH LITERATURE. To know the writings and the lives of the best English authors, to learn what past or foreign literature influenced their minds and culture, to be able to trace a certain development of thought and style from the period of the Beowulf down to the time of Tennyson and Browning, to know a writer's place among his contemporaries, to be able to give the period and even the author of a passage seen for the first time, — to have in one's head, in short, some kind of historical view of the whole of our great literature, is a large ambition, which — like many other ambitions — has a strong tendency to "overleap itself." But, if wisely begun at school, and followed out with zeal at the university, it is found to be a kind of knowledge as solid as most others, and far ex- celling many in its sources of delight, inspiration. and strength. But the subject is an enormously large one for school purposes; indeed, its very magnitude would seem to shut it out from the list of school subjects. The whole cycle of liter- ature is no more to be known by one person than the whole circle of the sciences, still less by young people at school. The impossibility of achieving the whole task being seen, two ques- tions at once arise : (1) What shall we teach and what leave untaught'.' and (2) How shall we teach it '! In attempting to answer the first of these questions, we can find some guidance from an- alogy ; and the school subject which appears, in its vast size and the enormous contents of its wealth, to have the closest resemblance to liter- ature is the subject of geograjih)/. Now, in geography, we do not burden the attention and overload the memory of our pupils with the in- finite number of names of small towns, insignifi- cant rivers, diminutive lakes, and unimportant 278 ENGLISH LITERATURE headlands ; but we take only the most prominent and. as it were, the central features of the world, and round these we group the knowledge which is intended to abide with the pupil, and to serve as a nucleus for his subsequent accumulations. In the same way. there are certain nanus which the sifting of time has caused to stand out with always increasing clearness: there arc certain books which have been, and which continue to be, forces in the development of civilized humanity; and it is with these authors and with these books that the teacher should make the pupil acquainted. Thus stated, the path seems to be plain -so plain thai no good teacher can miss it. Bui there arc two dangers — two besetting sins, which await the teacher in bis attempts toward the systematic treatment of a subject BO large; and these are the vices of encyclopcedism and abridgment. Looked at more closely, both these vices arc seen to be only two sides of the same central error- an error which pervades all kinds of teaching, and w hich is. indeed, the most prevalent educational error of the present day. By encyclopa?dism,is meant the desire to include too many tacts - and. in the present instance. too many authors -within the ranee of the pupil's mental vision; and the consequence is a pressure which results in an abridgment of the closest kind— an abridgment in which nothing is said of no tacts aiv given about -the author, but when he was horn, and when he died, and the name of his best-known hook. It is plain that such knowledge is no knowledge al all. and is of no more value than an acquaintance with the street directory. The desire to teach too much ends in achieving too little; the attempt to learn everything results in nothing. He- sides, the pupil must have a living and in- terior knowledge of English literature, and not a dead and external acquaintance with its mere busk, appendages, and circumstances, lie must be trained to know -and that is to love- Chaucer and Spenser, Dryden and 1 'ope. Words- worth and Coleridge; and the question which presses upon the teacher is therefore : How is this to be done.' Before answering this question, the teacher must have Settled with himself wJlOtis to be done. (I) Let us suppose that, seeing the impossibil- ity of embracing all the details of so large a field, he has resolved upon making a selection of the besl writers in prose and verse in each epoch. Round each of these he will then collect the most able of his contemporaries, and explain to bis class their relations and the influence which each had upon the other, and winch the requirements and spirit of the period had upon them all. The teacher will then, probably, select Chaucer as the type of the chivalric period of English Liter- atim 1/ udeviUe as the "Father of English Spenser as the richest poet of the Elizabethan era; Shakespeare as the greatest dramatist of the period when the drama was al its highest; Hooker as the type of the ornate and elaborate prose style of the sixteenth century; B con as the most compact ami thoughtful English essayist; Milton — as the poet of the Reformation, and the master of the most sublime rhythms in the language, and in his prose works the most elaborate of sentence-makers; Butler lin parts) — as the antipode of Milton; Jeremy Taylor — as the sweetest prose-writer of the seventeenth century ; Dryden — as the herald of a new and more " popular'' style : Pope — as the culmination of the most polished, clear-cut, and t sparkling English; Swift — as the most powerful intellect of his time; Johnson — as the representa- tive of the massive common-sense of his coun- try, too ponderously, though characteristically. expressed; Goldsmith — as the most charming writer of his generation: Burke- as the most brilliant rhetorician that the modern world has seen: Cowper — as the transition and the link between the age of I 'ope and the nineteenth century- Wordsworth— as the dawn and the bright shining of the new day of English liter- ature, and De Quincey, as the most wonderful prose-writer of the nineteenth century. 2) Bui it is evident that all the works of these writers cannot be read in school; and a selection from them is, therefore, necessary. Here again common repute comes to our aid and maps out our course for us. in Chaucer, we should probably find it sufficient to read the Prologue, or the KniglUes '/'"A.orthe Mmi qfLawes Tale; in Mandeville, a few chapters of his True in Spenser, a hook or two of the Eaeru Queene; in Shakespeare, one or two plays, such as the Merchant of Venice or King Lear (Hamlet is too difficult and super-subtle, while the subject of Othello must always keep it out of schools) ; in Hooker, the first Book of his Ecclesiastical Polity; in Bacon, twenty of his best h'ssm/s, such as those on Envy, Great Place, or Travatle; in Milton, the Lycidas, the Gomus, the Hymn t<> the Nativity, and his other minor works, with perhaps one book of the Paradise Lost; in Butler, one or two Cantos of the Hudibras; in Jeremy Taylor, a few chapters of the Holy Liv- ing and perhaps a Sermon ; in Dryden, the ^1A- S'llum and Achitophel and the Mac Flechno\ : in Pope, the Rape of the Lock and the Essay en Criticism; in Dr. Johnson, two or three of bis Lives of the Poets and the Prefaa to the Dictionary, with perhaps Rasselas; in Gold- smith, the Vicar ■., with a sketch of American literature, by ILT. Tuckerman (X.Y., L867) ; Morell, Biographical History of En- glish Literature, full of lessons useful to young ns: Collier, .1 History of English Liter- ati//^ (N.Y., 1867), a brief and useful manual; 280 ENTHUSIASM EPISCOPAL CHURCH Cleveland, -4 < 1 i>/n/><',i,Iimn of English Liter- at>in>. from Mandcville to Cowper (Phila., L848), and English Literature of the Nineteenth Cent- ury (Phil.. L852}, also 'Compendium of Amer- ican TAterature (Phila., L859) ; Underwood, .1 Hand-Bpok of English Literature — British . I athors i l>oston, 1871), and Amerirmi . I uthors (Boston, 1872); Duyckinck, Cydopcedia of American Literature (2 vols., N. Y., 1856). Of series, t lie following may be mentioned: The Clarendon Press Series, one of the best pub- lished, is edited by men who know the En- glish language and understand their subject ; Chaucer, by It. Morris, is one of the most care- fully edited books in any language ; the Shake- speare Plays are also well done. Starr's .S'c/vVs is also excellent : many of the books are edited by teachers, who understand best where pupils are liable to meet with difficulty. Of the London Series, only one book has. as yet, appeared — Bacon's Essays, edited by K. A. Abbott. This is, however, a model of its kind, showing how a work like the Essays, full of weighty thoughts and precious English, ought to be edited. — Sec also .M \i;sn. The Origin and History of the English Language (N. V„ L862); and Reed, Lectures on English Literature ( Phila., L855). ENTHUSIASM is an emotion of so strong a kind as to beget Belf-forgetfulness, and to awaken the most powerful energies of the mind. When made to rest 11)11,11 an admiration of the good, the tine, and the heant il'ul. it becomes an educational stimulus of a very useful and effect- ive character: it. must not. however, be per- mitted to supersede the exercise of conscience, or the sense of what is right, and thus de- generate into moral weakness. Earnestness, rather than enthusiasm, should be the qual- ity inspired by the educator; and this is to be effected I hrough the force of example, because the sympathetic influence of the true teacher upon the mind of his pupil is almost without limit. Especially should that spurious kind of enthusi- asm be repressed which is characterized by a habitual excitement about every thing thai is new, and which tends to destroy every thing that is rational and stable in the character. En- thusiasm is an exceedingly important quality in the teacher as well as in the pupil: indeed, a teacher can scarcely meet with any true success in his profession vJ,,, j s not enthusiastic in his devotion to it. While this is true of those en- gaged in any vocation, it is peculiarly the case with the educator; since the effectiveness of his work depends so largely upon his personal zeal. The best results, perhaps, of his labors are those which he accomplishes by what has been aptly called unconscious tuition, EPEE, Charles Michel, Abbe de 1', a noted French teacher of deaf-mutes, and the founder oi the Bystem of instructing the deaf and dumb by means of a language of signs, was born at Versailles, Nov. 25., 1712, and died in Paris, Dec. 23., 1789. lie was at first an ecclesiastic. but was suspended from the priesthood in conse- quence of his .lanseni.-t opinions. While living a life of literary leisure in Paris, he, in 17.">.V chanced upon two deaf-mute sisters whose edu-' cation had been commenced by Pere Yanin. but who were then, in consequence of his death, without the means of instruction. I>e I'Epee took so great an interest in their condition, that he determined to undertake the task of teaching them. lie at first continued the method of Yanin. that of pictures, and then tried articula- tion ; but being dissatisfied with these methods. he conceived the idea of using a system of signs. lie succeeded so well that he took others under his instruction, and soon organized a school which he continued, at his own expense, till Iris death. It is said that, even in his 7almyra.\\Io., 1848; Racine College, Racine, Wise., L852; St. Stephen's College Anandale, N. Y., 1858. Ne- braska College, Nebraska City, Nebr., 1865 ; Lehigh University, S. Bethlehem, Pa., L866; Mis- sionary College of St. Augustine, Benicia, Cal., 1868; University of the South, Suwanee, Tenn., 1868. Columbia College, N. Y., which is enumer- ated in this list, has not, however, a strictly de- nominational character, as different religious de- nominations are represented in the board of trustees ; but the majority of the board and the presidents of the institution have always belonge I to the Protestant Episcopal Church. Beside these institutions. 14 schools for the superior instruction of women are classified as Protestant Episcopal, with a considerable number of academies and seminaries. The oldest theological school of the church is the General Theological Seminary of New- York City, which was organized in I and is under the immediate control of the ' ieneral Convention. The board of trustees consists of all the bishops of the Protestant Episcopal ( 'hureh, of Olie trustee from each diocese, of one additional for every eight clergymen, of one more trustee for every $2,000 contributed, until the ne amounts to $10,000; and one for every additional $10,000 < tributed. Since then. 9 other schools of tl logy have been organized. The Sunday Si hools of the church had. in L875, 235,943 scholars taughl by 23,4 18 teachers. The denominational societies for educational purpo ee arc (1) The P. E. Society for the Promotion of Evangelical Knowledge; (2) The P. B. Evan ical Education Society; (3) The General P. E. Sunday-School Union and Church Hook Society. The General Convention, at its triennial meet- ings, regularly appoints a joint committee on Christian education. EPISCOPAL METHODIST COLLEGE, at I-ewistown, 111., an institution for the edu- cation of both sexes, is under the control of the Methodist Episcopal Church, South. It was opened in 1873, and incorporated in 1875. It has a preparatory, an academic, and a collegiate course. Instruction is given in French. German, music, drawing, painting, and book-keeping, for which, except the last, an extra charge is made. The regular tuition fee varies from $20 to $50 per year. For the special business course, pur- sued separately, the fee is 840 a year. In L874 ■ — 5, there were 6 instructors and 89 students preparatory. 27 academic, 13 collegiate, and I 1 in special branches). W. S. McKinney is (1876) the president. EQUATION. Sec Algebra. ERASMUS, Desiderius, was bom in Rot- terdam, Holland, ( let. 28., 1467, and died in Basel, duly 12., 1536. His original name, Gerard, he translated into its supposed Latin and Greek equivalents, Desiderius and 'Epdauwg; these he united to form the new name which he after- wards assumed. In the convent school of Deven- ter, \\ here he was educated, he distinguished him- self so much, that even then it was predicted that he would become the most learned man of the age. After the death of his parents, his tutors sent him to a school at Bois-le-Duc to prepare himself for the priesthood; and. in L486, a friend persuaded him to enter a convent near Gouda. In 1492, the bishop of Cambray took him into his service, and he was ordained to the priesthood. Five years later, he left for the University of Paris; and thenceforward, he lived in France, England, the Netherlands, and Italy, for the most part independent, or supported by distinguished patrons, lie acted as a private teacher here and there, and was for a short time professor of theol- ogy and Greek at Cambridge; but he soon re- signed, and avoided after that any fixed position. The fame of his learning spread throughout the civilized world, and honorary degrees were con- ferred upon him by several universities. Hi' bold- ly attacked Scholastic theology, and worked most powerfully to revive classical learning. This he did as well by the clearness of his own style and by his classical knowledge as by the satire and rid- icule which he directed against the Scholastics. For a long time the Reformers regarded him as in sympathy with them, but he soon separated from them and was even involved in a literary conflict with Luther. In personal character, he was egotistic, timid, and undecided, — faults which became especially prominent at that period of the Reformation. He contributed little to the profound tint. king of his time, but was a critic and a scholar rather than a phi- losopher : nevertheless, his unbounded powers of satire served to wrench men violently out of their accustomed mode of thinking, and. in this way, he acted as a powerful ferment, especially in the revival of classical studies. His great ERASMUS 'ERIGENA 283 acquaintance with classical authors and his mastery of the Latin language made his ridicule t In- most effective possible against the dense ignorance of his opponents. His two moat famous works in this direction were his MoriCE Encomium (Praiseqf Fotty), published in L512, and the Couoquia Puerilia (Children's Talks), in 1518. The former derided the dialectical labyrinth in which the theologians had lost themselves, the syllogisms of the Scholastics) and the zeal with which they persecuted and condemned every opinion which differed from their own. The latter contains conversations upon almost every thing, but, at the same time, is full of satires upon the monks, a cloister life, pilgrim- ages, etc. 'This book was condemned by the Sorbonne, forbidden in Prance, burned in Spain, and prohibited in Rome to all Christendom: nevertheless, both works exerted a tremendous influence. In 1516, Erasmus published an edi- tion of the Greek New Testament with a Latin translation, which worked powerfully in the in- terests of the Reformation. Of his educational works, the most important are: Adagia (The Adages , published in L500; De Ratione Studii (Of the Order of Studies), in L512; the trans- lation of Theodore Gaza's Greek grammar; and Instiiutio Principis GhrisUani (Education of a Christian prince) in 1516. In 1526, he pub- lished a book upon Christian matrimony, the last section of which treats of family culture. Erasmus divides education into four parts: (li Religious-ethical culture; (2) Intellectual culture: (3) Material culture; (4) Formal cult- ure. By the third division is meant cleverness or skill in our daily labors ; and. by the fourth, a knowledge of the amenities of cultured society. This division, however, was not very strictly ob- served by him. He regarded the institution of marriage as of the highest importance for the proper culture of children. He gives many rules, partly medical and partly moral, upon the way in which matrons should live in order to secure the Inst results for their children. The greatest car. he asserted, should be taken with young children to prevent vanity and vice from spring- ing up. Good birth is much, but good education is nmre. In the weight which he placed upon edu- cation in comparison with inherited tendencies, Erasmus incurred the charge of Pelagianism. Indeed, in his work 1)*' Pueris statim ac liberaliter instituendis, he expressly refers the chief part of so-called original sin. to temptation and bad example. Instruction proper should no1 begin before the seventh year. Upon the subject of teachers and school-houses. Erasmus is never tired of pouring out a flood of ridicule. The greatest care should be taken in the selection of teachers ; and if possible, instruction should be private. The contagion of great schools oughl to be guarded against. A clear pronunciation, as well as facility in reading and writing, is an absolute necessity for all classes. Rich parents, however, should not fail to teach their children some trade. The study of language Should precede the study of things, as a knowledge of things can be reached only through language. The first thing to study is Greek and Latin grammar, for nearly every thing worth knowing is found in these languages. They should also be studied together, as their near relationship lightens the labor of acquiring them. The grammatical rules must be as i'i'\\ and precise as possible; and the study of language should be carried on rather by leading than by learning rules by heart. As soon as anyone has a. fair foundation in the languages, he should proceed to study things. The best sources for this study are the Greek authors. Care should be taken to strengthen the memory, and the best means are a right understanding of the subject, a proper order of thought, and careful distinction. The notion that all Latinity must be Ciceronian filled him with incredible disgust. The study of Latin ought to include all the authors, and those pretended Ciceronians who will hear of nobody but ('ieero were in- tolerable. The pseudo-classical enthusiasm which could find nothing valuable in any other litera- ture also came in for condemnation. Above ami before all else, is religious instruction important. The minds of children must be so oiled with the great facts of the Christian religion, that it shall seem to them the greatest reality of life. The world and life must always be spoken of as under the immediate control of God. If good seed be sown in this way. the best fruit may be looked for ; still the most important means of teaching morality is by example. Erasmus insisted also upon similar instruction for girls. It is sufficient according to many, he says, to keep a girl shut up and away from men until she is married, while often enough she is more injured by shallow women than by an as- sociation with men. Chastity must of course be maintained ; but she alone is chaste who knows what chastity is, and how to maintain it. Inno- cence suffers chiefly from bad example ; and parents ought to be careful to do nothing unbe- coming in the presence of even their youngest daughters. He also inveighs severely against love songs and romances, lascivious dances and pictures. Girls, too. ought to receive a liberal education. The multitude holds it to be folly, but wise men know that nothing is more advantageous to the morals of women than ex- tended knowledge. An edition of the works of Erasmus was published, after his death, by Uheiianus. at P>asel (9 vols.. 1540 — 11): a more complete edition was published by Le Clerc, in Leyden (1<» vols., fob. 17(13 — 6). Biographies of Erasmus haw been published in English by Jortin, Knight. Charles Butler, and lb B. Drummond (2 vols., London. 1 873 I. ERIGENA, John Scotus, one of the great- est philosophers and scholars of the middle ages, was born in the beginning of the 9th century in One of the British Islands (probably Ireland), and died about SMI. Charles the Laid appointed him head-master to the court school of Paris, which under his direction made so great progress, that it was no Longer called schola PalcUii, but Palatium 284 ERNESTI ESTHETIC CULTURE pi T sckolce. His instruction, which was confined chiefly to philosophy and the classics, (fare a great impulse to the progress of philosophical studies. As his own philosophical views re- sembled, in some respects, those held by the Neoplatonista of Alexandria, he has been called the fast of that school : at the same time, he is rded as (he first forerunner of the Scholas- tics. Special works on Erigena have been written by Staudenmaier (1H34), Taillandier (1843), and Huber (1861). ERNESTI, John August, a German ihilologist ami educator, horn August 4., 1707, in ennstiidt, Thuringiajdied September LI., 1781. In 1731, lie became connected with the Thomas School at Leipsic; and. in 1 711*. he was made professor at the university of the same city, in which position he remained until his death. His chief fame rests upon bis philological studies and writings. He edited a great many classical works, and was a most enthusiastic Humanist. His work on the interpretation of the New Testa- ment [InstitvMo Tnterpretis Nbvi TestamenH, 3d edit.. 17"."): English translation by ( '. II. Perrot, Edinburgh, 2 vols.. L833 13) opened the way to a freer exegesis of the Scriptures, and is regarded as a forerunner of the later rationalistic criticism. The sum of all culture lay. for him. in the classics. "They unite beauty of conl with beauty of form : and out of them one wins political sagacity, practical wisdom, and moral culture." According to his method, less weight is placed upon grai atical rules than upon diligenl reading, which he thoughl th ■ best way to learn to read and write Latin fluently. This reading, too, should be rapid, taking in whole hooks in a short time; thishethoughl a betterwayof acquir- ing the spirit of a language than spending weeks upon single sentences with grammar and diction- ary. Literal translation he banished, and in- sisted upon an acquaintance with the public life of the ancients, in order to understand them rightly. Besides his classical works. Ernesti published a book upon tin' elements of various studies (Initio Doctrince Solidioris). It treats of arithmetic, geometry, and the elements of philosophy. These are divided into five parts : 1 1 ) Metaphysics, embracing ontology, psychology, ami natural theology; (2) Dialectics; (3) Morals, embracing ethics and the law of nature: ill Politics ; (5) Physics. The high estimation in which Ernest] was held in Saxony, is shown by the fact that his system was adopted by the state Latin schools in 1 77.".. and remained almost entirely unchanged until I 835. ERSKINE COLLEGE, at Due West. Ab- beville Co., S. C, under the control of the Re- formed Presbyterians (the Associate Reformed Synod of the South), was founded in L839. It has large and commodious buildings ; libraries, containing 12,500 volumes; a well selected ological cabinet ; a philosophical and chemical apparatus: together with an excellent equatorial, refracting telescope, mounted in an observatory which affords a magnificenl view of the heavens. The amount of its productive funds i.- $45,000. There is a preparatory course of two years, and a collegiate course of four years. In 1874 — 5, there were ■ > professors. 77 students (56 collegiate, 13 preparatory, and 8 irregular), and 356 alumni. The Lev. W. M. Grier, 1>. P.. is i I 876) the president. ESTHETIC CULTURE. Esthetics (Gr. al education. How- ever well the intellect, the will, or the conscience of an individual may have been trained, if es- thetic culture is wanting, he must continue rude and unrefined; ami. hence, in a comparison of nations which are esthetically cultivated with such as are deficient in this respect, we find a marked difference in the degree as well as in the general character of the civilization which they respectively present. The esthetic element. how- ever, cannot lie wholly wanting. Even the rud- est nations or the most barbarous tribes manifest delight in those objects which satisfy their nat- ural sense of the beautiful. Like children, they fci| an intense fondness for showy ornaments, uncouth pictures and images, harsh and dis- cordant music, and grotesque dances. The love of these things BpringS from the esthetic prin- ciple in their minds, in its uncultivated and partly undeveloped condition. Their percep- tions of the beautiful are. like their thoughts and their reasonings, processes unregulated and mis- directed. They have, also, the moral sense- the sense of right and wrong, but not knowing how to distinguish right from wrong, thev often eon- Bcientiously perform acts which, judged by a proper standard of rectitude, are reprehensible in the highest degree; for conscience is only the general impression that a distinction between right and wrong exists, not a power to discrim- inate between specific right ana wrong. In the Same manner, the esthetic principle is the sense by which the mind, in a general way. distin- guishes between what is beautiful and w hat is ugly; but ii does not teach specifically what ob- jects tire beautiful. Hence, however advanced pel-sons may he in esthetic culture, they will still differ to some extent iii this specific discrimina- tion. This difference we attribute to a diversity of taste, the word taste being used to designate the esthetic principle or faculty of the mind. We find, also, the same diversity in the exercise ot the moral sense, in the absence of a settled standard, some persons regarding as worthy of approbation the same act that others look upon as decidedly sinful. The aim of esthetic education must, therefore. be to cultivate the sense of the beautiful, i. e.,the taste, 1 1 i by Bhowing what the elements of beau- ty are, and thus establishing in the mind a proper standard of the beautiful: (2) by presenting to the mind simple forms of beauty, tor the purpose ESTHETIC CULTURE 285 of illustrating this analysis of the elements, ami also impressing tliein deeply upon the mind, as the Foundation of esthetic culture; and (3) by practice in criticism, so that the mind may be trained to judge whether in any complex object, either of nature or art. the elementary principles of beauty are present, and in their normal or proper combination. The elements of beauty are to lie sought for in the constitution of the human mind; and. therefore, our knowledge of what they are and how they are to be combined must lie derived from experience and observation, upon the results of which esthetics as a science must be based. The educator must, antecedent- ly to the exercise of his professional skill, have acquired a knowledge of this, just as the teacher of mathematics or of physics must be versed in those branches, b fore lie learns how to teach them : but with this difference, that in esthetical culture, it is the faculty that is immediately ad- dressed, the primary object being disciplinary ; while in most other departments of instruction, discipline is a secondary object, the primary aim being to impart a knowledge of the subject taught. To illustrate, we do not, in elementary schools, teach esthetics as such ; but we strive to cultivate the esthetic faculty by instruction in drawing, painting, music, etc. (See Art-Educa- tion. Drawing, and Music.) In this department of teaching, the practical value of the subjects themselves is a consideration of great importance, but the development of the pupil's taste is in- dispensable to any true progress, and, therefore, during the earlier stages at least, must be the pri- mary aim of the educator. When the mind has become enriched with varied forms of beauty, the mechanical skill will soon advance to the degree requisite to give them expression. This work commences in the kindergarten, and is continued in the object lessons of the primary school, by means of varied exercises in form (q. v.) or color (q. v.) The most rudimental exercises in drawing should have a strict reference to this principle; that is to say, the pupils should be re- quired to delineate not uncouth figures, but simple forms of beauty. The hand and the eye may be trained, it is true, by practice in drawing any forms, whether beautiful or not ; but the taste is to be developed and cultivated as well ; and, therefore, only such forms as appeal to the esthetic sense should lie, at first, presented. The elementary forms of the script letters are illus- trative of the esthetic principle ; and, hence, writing is a means of esthetic culture. The let- ters themselves being, however, complex forms, it is held that rudimentary drawing should pre- cede writing. "The experience of many good teachers," says Wickersham, " seems to prove that pupils should receive instruction in the ele- ments of drawing before they begin to write, and that such lessons are better calculated than any others to aid the pupil in attaining the power of conceiving forms correctly." Esthetics is not only concerned in the beauty of forms; it embraces the objects of every bodily sense, and also of what may be called the inner sense, a discriminative consciousness of the beautiful ill thought and action, which the rhet- orician, the poet, and the orator recognize and address in their several spheres of activity. That pari of esthetics which depends upon the ob- jects of hearing is cultivated by means of music, which is the expression of the beautiful in sound. The same guiding principle is appli- cable to instruction in this as to the teaching of form. Simple melodious combinations, regular and beautiful in themselves, should be constantly employed; all that is harsh and dissonant should be avoided. (See Music] The beauty of com- position, that is, rhetorical beauty, depending up- on subtler principles, requires a more careful treatment in education. Habit and association, however, play an important part in this branch of esthetic culture; and, therefore, the child, even from its earliest years, should be accus- tomed to hear only chaste, pure expressions; and the most familiar colloquialisms should be en- tirely tree from what is coarse and vulgar, and especially from slang. The esthetic element in poetry cannot be addressed until an advanced stage of culture has been reached. Poetiy is the expression of the beautiful by means of words ; it embraces rhetorical beauty, and the beauty of thought and action, as well as of ex- ternal forms. From what has been said, it will be quite ob- vious that teachers themselves should possess esthetic culture, and should fully understand the peculiar function of this department of educa- tion in a harmonious development of the human mind. Nothing with which the young pupil i;- brought in contact should be of such a character as to offend the finest taste. What may be called the esthetics of the school-room should re- ceive the most careful attention. There are, in every school-room, resources for producing pleas- ant impressions. The furniture should be neat and tasteful, and should be kept in precise order; the apartment should be scrupulously clean; and. as far as possible, should be embellished with pleasing natural objects, such as flowers, plants, shells, etc.; as well as with simple works of art, — pietures, busts, etc. Maps, globes, and other school apparatus, kept in good order, and ar- ranged in the school-room in a proper maimer and ready for use, will have a pleasing and happy effect on the minds of the pupils. The following are. the observations of a practical teacher who has evidently learned to apply the esthetic culture of her own mind to the simple purposes of district school instruction: "Much can be done toward making a room pleasant by a skill- ful seating of pupils. There are harmonies of proportion and color to be observed. A girls' school always seems brighter than a boys' school. The colors of the dress of girls give warmth to the room in winter, and the light clothing of summer gives an air of freshness and coolness. The eye requires that the pupils shall be graded from rear to front according to size. A hap- hazard arrangement in this regard is never satis- factory But, after all, the soul of the teacher 28<» ETIEXXE EVENING SCHOOLS has greatly to do -with the beauty of the school. A light clows in the face of the conscientious, gentle, sympathetic teacher, which illuminates all the room with its brightness. In the reflec- tion of her own character, she sees in the Beats truthfulness, confidence, respect, and love: and so the spiritual beauty sanctities and glorifies all the beauty secured by ornamentation, by any and everydevice in material things." Among the foremost writers on esthetics, are Baumgarten, who first established the claims of esthetics to he classed as a separate science, I le- gel, Schiller, Vischer, Carriere, in Germany; < krasin, Jouffroy, and Taine, in France : Dugald Stewart. Bntchison, Alison, Jeffrey, and Payne Knight, in England; and Henry N. Day (Tlie Science of Esthetics, New Haven, L872) and Bascom [Lectureson Esthetics, New York, L872), in the United States. A critical history of esthetics, from Plato to the present times, has been written by Schuster [Eritische Geschichte d( r Aesthetik, Berlin, L872). ETIENNE, or Estienne, Henry and Robert. Sec Stephens. ETON COLLEGE. See England. ETYMOLOGY (Gr. hvfioXayia, from irv- fiov,ihe true meaning of a word), a depart- ment of philological science which explains the derivation of words and their literal meaning. 'This is historical etymology. (See English, Study of.) The term etymology is also ap- plied to that part of grammar which relates to the classification of words as parts of a sen- tence, and their various inflections, used to in- dicate their relations to one ; fcher, or modifi- cations of the general ideas which they express. This is grammatical etymology. (See Grammar.) Asa branch of elementary instruction, it teaches the component parts of words.— root, prefix, and suffix, and by explaining the primitive meaning of these parts in the language from which they are derived, shows the exact literal meaning of the words. (See WORDS, ANALYSIS OP.) EUREKA COLLEGE, at Eureka, Wood- ford county, 111., under the control of the Church of the Disciples, was founded as an academy in L849, and chartered as a college in L855. The college campus is in a spacious grove of forest trees. There are two substantial brick buildings. The endowment fund is Dearly 850,000, only about half of which is now avail able. The institution has libraries containing 2,500 volumes, apparatus for the illustration oi the physical sciences, and a museum of geology and natural history. It comprises live depart- ments; namely, college, Bible (preparatory to the ministry), normal, business, and music The college department comprises a preparatory, a ■ ■a laureate (similar to the ordinary colic-.' COm ieniitie. and an academic course. The scientific course differs from the baccalaure- ate in omitting the Greek and one half of the Latin. The academic course omits the Greek, one half of the Latin, two terms in algebra, an- alytical ge !trj and the calculus, and adds French or German. French or German may be substituted for the Latin of the scientific and the academic course. The college year is divided into three terms, and the tuition fee per term is as follows : preparatory course, $8 ; Bible, free: college, 810: normal. $10. In 1-7 I — 5, there were (i professors, 215 students in the College department. 27 in the Bible de- partment. 68 in«he commercial department, and 47 in the music department; total, deducting rep- etitions, 234, of whom 146 were males and 88 females: the number of alumni was 71. The presidents have been as follows: W'm.M. Brown, George Callender, C. L. Loos, B. W. Johnson, H. \\ . Everest, A. M. Weston, and B. J. Bad- ford, the present incumbent. EVANGELICAL ASSOCIATION, a re- ligious denomination in the United States, which took its rise in Pennsylvania in 1800, through the labors of the Rev. Jacob Albright, who desired to reform the German churches in eastern Penn- sylvania. 'I he confession of faith and the polity of this church are so similar to that of the Meth- odist Episcopal Church, that it has sometimes been called the German Methodist Church. Like the Methodists, it has annual conferences and a general conference, which meetsevery four years. The form of government is episcopal, but its bishops are elected only for a term of four years, not. as among the Methodists, for life. For 25 years, the church had to struggle against violent opposition : hut since then it has made rapid progress ; so that, in 1875, it had 1 9 annual con- ferences with 836 itinerant preachers, 519 local preachers, 95,253 members, and L ,233 churches. The church arose among the Germans, and has remained to a large extent a German-speaking body. Two of the annual conferences are out- side of the United States, the one in Canada, and the ot her in Germany. The first college of the church, the Noort h-ucstem College, was or- ganizedal Plainfield, Will Co.. 111., in L861,and received a charter in L865. In 1870, the coll was removed to Naperville. I >u Page Co.. 111., and has now an endowment fund of 9100,000. rts annual expenditures amount to about SI 4.000. (See North-western College.) A theological school, The Union Biblical Institute, has bees established in connection with the college, at the same place, having an endowment fund of $30,000. Other educational institutions under the control of the church are the Union Semi- nary, at New Berlin, Pa., and the Ebenezer Orphan Institution, at Flatrock, Ohio. Great attention is given to the Sunday-school cause. The Dumber of schools of this class was re- ported, at the General Conference of L875, as 1,509, with 16,875 officers and teachers and 90,090 scholars. EVENING SCHOOLS, or Night Schools, have been established in many count ric-. gener- ally in large cities, as a part of the public-scl 1 Bystem, for two purposes: (I) to give to those of (he school population w ho cannot avail them- selves of the advantages of the day school, an op- portunity to obtain an elementary education: and. i '.' i to enable adults who have finished the EVENING SCHOOLS 287 oonrse of instruction in the public flay school, to acquire additional knowledge, especially on sub- jects relating to their particular occupations or professions. In England, France, Italy, and Germany, there are elementary evening schools for children employed in factories; in the United States, a large portion of the pupils of evening schools consists of persons who have passed the school age. In most cases, the school regulations exclude all children below a certain age, and also provide that no pupils shall be ad- mitted who are not engaged in a useful occupa- tion during the day. In those countries where edu- cation has been made compulsory, the evening schools are almost exclusively schools for adults, being chiefly intended to give to young apprentices, mechanics, clerks, or peasants an opportunity to continue their school education. (See Adults, Schools for.) In Germany, the Sunday-schools inn- served for this purpose, as the keeping of evening schools on week-days is of com- paratively recent origin. But wherever even- ing schools have been established, they are pre- ferred by a large number of pupils. In some countries, the Sunday school and the evening school are combined, the pupils being taught in some subjects, such as drawing, on Sundays, and in others on the evenings of the week days. Even- ing high schools, which offer instruction in the higher 1 (ranches of study, or afford technical in- struction to artisans and others, are compara- tively rare. Such are the Evening High School and the schools of the Cooper Union (q. v.), of the City of New York, the Maryland Institute Art Night Schools in Baltimore, and the O'Fal- lon Polytechnic Institute of St. Louis. In some of the large cities of the United States, foreigners derive very great benefit from the evening scho< >ls, in the instruction afforded in the English lan- guage by teachers who speak the language of the students. Free evening drawing schools are quite numerous in many parts of the United States as well as in some of the countries of Europe. For statistics in regard to the evening schools in the different cities, see their respective titles, hi England, according to the " New Code of Regulations," of 1876, the managers of an evening school which has held not less than forty- five sessions in the course of a year, may claim a government grant. Special provisions regulate the examination of each of these schools. The number of night schools in England, in 1875, was ~:>, with 38,597 male pupils, and 8,785 females. In Wurtemberg, local magistrates are authorized to enforce the statutes by which all mechanics who have attained the 16th year are required to attend the technical complementary evening schools, thus making evening school in- struction compulsory, fn the city of St. Louis, evening school pupils are rewarded for regular and punctual attendance, good behavior, and at- tention to study, by a years free membership in the public library. More than L,000 of these pupils have obtained this award during a single term by attending sixty evenings out of the sixty- four. In the organization and management of even- ing schools, great care should lie taken to adapt the subjects and processes of instruction to the age, character, and circumstances of the pupils. Those methods which are particularly appropri- ate for the education of children, and most of the machinery of school-keeping which is associated with childhood should be discarded as distasteful to the more mature years and more serious pur- pose of evening school students. The studies pursued should be practical, and, as far as pos- sible, should have an immediate reference to the pursuits and occupations of the students. The usefulness of the knowledge imparted inthisclass of scl Is, is paramount, to any consideration of mental discipline, the latter being of secondary importance. On this principle, drawing, book- keeping, penmanship, and phonography, have proved eminently popular branches of study. The same principle should guide in the selection of teachers, none but those of superior tact, ex- perience, and skill being appointed to this work. They should also be of mature years and char- acter. A young man or a young woman who attends school with an earnest desire for self- improvement, is not willing to submit to trivial, perfunctory, or formal school-teaching ; and the very seriousness of the student's purpose renders his judgment of the teacher extremely critical and severe. Mere amateurs in teaching should never be allowed to trifle with the time of evening school students. When the teaching is of a right character, the discipline will take care of itself, provided the organization of the school is correct, and the rules proper and judi- cious. None but those who are zealous in study should be permitted to attend these schools. Evening schools cannot be efficient reformatory institutions unless especially organized for that purpose. In the Report of tho Superintendent of Schools of the City of New York for 1871, there is found an enumeration of the difficulties experienced in conducting the evening schools of that city, probably experienced also in most other places. These are, briefly, as follows : (1) The difficulty in obtaining for these schools teachers of the requisite capability (the super- intendent remarking, that "teachers of mature judgment, extensive general information, tact in management, and, above all, an earnest spirit, are especially needed ; (2) The imperfect organ- ization of these schools, owing to the haste with which pupils are admitted, and the consequent inaccuracy of their classification ; (3) Pupils are admitted at too early an age; very young boys and girls (under 12) do great injury to the school, being generally in a, physically exhausted con- dition, and so unlit for any mental exercise as to be often found asleep at their desks ; besides, the older pupils are disgusted and repelled by being classed with these young children ; (4) The exercises are dull and uninteresting to that large class of fche pupils who. feeling deeply t he neei I of elementary education, are willing to devi themselves lal loriously, during the winter even- in--, to obtain it ; (5) The absence of instructive 288 EVERETT EXAMINATIONS and interesting lectures, calculated to make a deep impression upon the minds of the pupils, enkindling an ambition for excellence and a love of rectitude and truth. This statement of defi- ciencies may very well serve to show what con- ditions and characteristics are requisite to insure efficiency in this class of schools. There can be no doubt that such schools constitute an essen- tial part of every common-school system, partic- ularly in large communities, in which many chil- dren are obliged to leave the day school before they have acquired even the rudiments of an education. The office of technical schools, while different, is no less important, since an increase of skilled labor in any community is one of the hk >ih' tails, particularly if the latter is dif- fident and timid: (2) The questions cannot be carefully prepared, and hence may be quite im- perfect tests: and (•'!) The candidate has no time for proper deliberation, and therefore must often fail to show what his real attainments are. <>n the other hand, the advantages of a written ex- amination are the following: ill The same questions are given to each candidate, and, con- sequently, the test is even: (2) The candidates are left entirely to themselves, without sugges- tion or aid from the examiner; (3) Thequestions can be more carefully prepared; i li The candi- date has more time for deliberation in answer- ing; and (5 The examiner has a better oppor- tunity to consider the answers, and to form a just conclusion as to the merits of the candidates. The question of written or viva voce examina- tions in universities has been much discussed in England; and the superior value of the latter has been particularly urged by various eminent professors in the University ot Cambridge. In this connection, Todhunter remarks. "1 will acknowledge thai if only two or three candidates have to be examined, and we have the command EXAMINATIO? S EXAMPLE 291 of unlimited time and of adequate examining force, then whatever may be the subject of ex- amination, the viva voce method may be not on- ly allowed bu1 strongly recommended. We may ascertain with reaped to each candidate both what lit' knows ana what he does not know, and whether he shows evidence of independent power." Still, mi the whole, considering the subjects of the examinations and the circum- stances under which they occur, he strongly prefers the written method, which is favored by most authorities both in theory and practice. (3) The remarks already made afford sufficient materials for a judgment as to the comparative importance of competitive and qualifying exami- nations. The aim of the examination may or may not necessitate any comparison of the merits of different candidates ; but when such a com- parison is necessary, there is no doubt that a written examination by entirely equal tests should be exclusively employed. For such a purpose, however, the construction of the exami- nation questions should be such as to bring out more than the mere accuracy of the knowledge of the candidate. There should be considerable diversity, some of the questions requiring only brief statements of facts ; while others, of a topical character, necessitate fuller expositions, showing the relations of facts to each other and to principles, and tints giving scope for the dem- onstration, by the student, of his power of reasoning and analysis, as well as of expression. The general requisites for a set of examination questions are (1) that they should be free from ambiguity, (2) that they should strictly refer to what the candidate may be expected to know, (3) that they should be judiciously arranged (difficult questions, for example, not being placed first), and (4) that they should not require more time than is to be given to the particular ex- ercise, so as to make the candidate feel hurried and nervous. (4) The manner of estimating and marking tin' results of written examinations requires a careful consideration. The value of each ques- tion as a test should be exactly estimated, and the character of the answer given marked ac- cordingly. Any scale may be adopted, but that of 1 00 is the most convenient and the most gen- erally chosen. Whatever number may be an- nexed to each question as its specific value, the result can be readily reduced to a per cent, which will thus show the absolute, as well as relative, value of every paper. The system of negative marks is advocated by Todhunter ; that is, to give marks for correct work, and to subtract marks for errors. The justice of this method h'' illustrates as follows: "Suppose that one candidate has solved twenty questions all cor- rectly; and suppose that another has also solved twenty questions all correctly, and has attempted four more and failed completely in them : then, assuming that the questions are. on an average, of equal value, the two candidates would lie pronounced equal on our actual method. Yet, it may happen that the four failures betray such ignorance and incapacity as to demand some mine decisive condemnation than simple want of notice." This method would probably be found impracticable, and the tendency would be to in- justice: DOT does it seem necessary if the ques- tions are properly weighted, since the omission to answer, or the failure in answering, a difficult question would cause the loss of a large number of marks, and negative mark.- would be duplicat- ing this loss.— See W hewell, English Univer- sity Education (London, 1838) ; von Raumer, German Universities, English trans., edited by Barnard (X. V.. L859); Todhi nter, The Conflict of Studies etc.,&. v. Competitive Examinations (London, isT.T) ; Beale, University Examina- tions for Women (London. L875 EXAMPLE, the Influence of. This de- pends upon imitation and sympathy, two prin- ciples of action which are exceedingly potent in the minds of all persons, but particularly in those of children. Its influence among men is shown by the existence of national customs, prejudices, vices, fashions, etc., and by the use of language, which would be scarcely possible without the force of imitation or example. In infancy and early childhood, this principle is the almost ex- clusive means of education, and the impressions which it makes are so strong and durable, that they are hardly ever obliterated in after life. I 'ar- ents very rarely appear to realize that they are, by a kind of " unconscious tuition," educating their children simply by what they say and do in their presence. Locke says, "He that will have his son have a respect for him, and his orders, must himself have a great reverence for his son. Max- ima debetur pueris revere////". You must do nothing before him, which you would not have him imitate;" and also, " Of all the ways where- by children are to be instructed, and their man- ners formed, the plainest, easiest, and most effi- cacious, is to set before their eyes the examples of those things which you would have them do, or avoid. . . . The beauty or uncomelinessof many things, in good and ill breeding, will be better learnt, and make deeper impressions on them, in the examples of others, than from any rules or instructions that can be given about them.'' (See Thoughts Concerning Education.) The power of example has an important application in the education of the intellect ; since, in giving instruction in any department of science or art, the illustrative power of the teacher, in showing to the pupil what it is desired that he should ac- i plisn, has great efficacy in sti mu lating his efforts, and more especially in fixing in his mind. a definite standard to the attai cut of which he may direct his aim. Indeed, in every branch of instruction, imitation is one of the most im- portant principles for the teacher to recognia and employ. I!ut it is in moral education thai the force of example has its chief sphere of activity. In it is comprehended all that we mean by the personal influenceoi the instructor. I lis manners, his modes of action and speech, tin expression of his countenance, and the tones of his voice, all are constituent elements of this in- employe 1 in Froebel's nursery education, and is very properly accompanied by singing, because the sense of hearing, having an earlier develop- ment, is well adapted to excite the action of sight. After the second or third month, when the infant can wield its hands and arms, the sense of touch should be called into activity in order to correct the impressions made on the eye. Various contrivances may lie resorted to for this purpose, among them the suspende 1 wooden globe and colored balls which Froebel sii-- sts for use at this stage of education. As the chill learns the meaning of simple language fully one or two years before it is able to repeat the words, it is safe to let it hear the names of the things which it sees an 1 handles, but always in connection with the objects themselves. Thus language fixes, at the age of infancy, the various impressions of the senses, which impart a definite me ining t i every word, and thus secure the proper expressions when the child begins to speak. When language has been acquired to some ex- tent, the teacher shoul 1. by means of skillful questioning, attract the child. s attention to those visible properties and peculiarities of things which, without a trained observation, are gener- ally passed by without notice. It is surprising how much may be instantaneously perceived by a train • 1 eye, and how delicate and far reaching sense of sight may become, under circuni- Btances requiring its constant exercise. Thus the practiced astronomer is able to notice the most minute points of light, which the ordinary observer utterly fails to detect. On the other band, the eye is, of all our organs of sense-per- ception, th- most delusive if it is permitted habitually to gaze at objects without any com- Erehensn ; or discriminative view of their pecu- arities and less obvious details. It is on this accounl,, that Froebel invented that well-arranged system of kinder-art en occupations, by which the free self-activity of the child, stimulated by agreeable intercourse with those of his own a learns how to employ his sense of sight in an endless variety of pleasurable work, that never ceases to educate both mentally and morally. (See Kindergarten, and Object Teaching.) Without any special or technical aid. the t aeher may readily discover whether any of his pupils are color-blind, by a proper use of color- charts or color-tablets. Every child that cannot select from among the tablets the exact color which is pointed out on the chart is, of course, more or less color-blind, and should have the benefit of frequent exercises with (1) the three primary colors, and (2) with their double and triple combinations. By using very strong and brilliant colors alternately with those comple- mentary to them, this kind of defect in sight may be. in part at least, removed. (See < !oLOR.) Teachers should not permit their pupils to stoop while engaged in reading, writing, or draw- ing; since this tends to injure the sight. It is also advisable to accustom the pupils to use their eyes, at changing distances of the object, with an equal degree of perfection especially in reading, writing, and drawing. Then, if the eye be tired at a given angle of sight, it may continue its work, without injury or dis- comfort, at a smaller or larger angle, and thus be enabled to do more work without detri- ment to the sight. Many of the ordinary school arrangements are more or less injurious to the organ of sight. '■Short-sightedness." says I.ieb- reich {School L ife in its Influence on Siglit, Lon- don, 1872), '-is developed almost exclusively during school life; rarely afterwards, and very rarely before that time. Is this coincidence of time accidental, — i. e., does the short-sightedness arise at the period about which children go to school, or has school life caused the short-sighted- ness''' Statistical inquiries prove the latter to lie the case, and have shown, at the same time, that the percentage of short-sighted children is greater in schools where unfavorable optical con- ditions prevail." There are. according to this writer, three changes in the functions of the eve, which are immediately developed under the in- fluence of school life : (1) Decrease of the range of vision — short-sightedness [myopia), (2) De- crease of the acuteness of vision (amblyopia). and (3) Decrease of tic endurance of vision {astheno- pia). Thes ■ are chiefly caused by such arrange- ments as afford cither insufficient light, or admit it in an improper manner. The following is an important practical direction in this respect: •• The light must be sufficiently strong, and must fall on tin' table from the left-hand side. and. as far as possible, from above. The children ought to sit straight, and not have the book nearer to the eye than ten inches at the least. Besides this, the book ought to be raised 20° for writing, and about 10° for reading. -SeeFAHRNER, '/' Child and the Desk. (See Hygiene, School, and Senses, Education ok.) 294 FACTORY SCHOOLS FACTORY SCHOOLS are, as the name indicates, elementary schools for the instruction of children employed in factories. They are established in the factory buildings, and gener- ally supported by the owners of the factories. In proportion as legislators, in modern times, have become desirous to extend the benefit of edu- cation to all the children of the state the school- ing of factory children has attracted their atten- tion; and the question, what can and should be done to secure to these children the benefits of education, now often engages the attention of the legislatures of civilized states. With the recent development of the factory Bystem, the employment of children in fa stori ss has assumed large dimensions. They have been found to be useful helpmates in many mechanical proa in some even indispensable ; and th y hav i employed to a large extent in house industries, mining, pottery, agriculture, as well as in all kinds of factories: and aowhere more than in Great Britain, where formerly children, som young as six yearsof age, were severely empl sometimes for 1 -. If. I 6, or 1 8 hours a day, or, by a relay system, during all the night, and frequent- ly at very exhaustive work, under unwholesome con litions and in morally dangerous surround- ings, while no time for school or home education was granted. The inhumanity and the dangerous effects of this practice began to lie publicly dis- cussed more than a century ago ; but it led to no concerted action, until the abolition of the conspiracy laws against the coalition of laborers in England, in 1813. The first efforts to counter- act these baneful influences were made by asso- ciations of English laborers, and by their repeated petitions to Parliament, which led (1S1!') to enactments regulating children's factory labor. These were, however, entirely disregarded, no agency being ordained for their enforcement. a-ainst the greed of profit on the part of em- ployers, and the necessities of poor families. A. constantly repeated agitation by the workmen brought aboul a parliamentary commission of inquiry and the enactment of the law of L833. This related only to factories in a very nai -.-. confine I the work-lay within the houi LM. and 9j P. M., and the working time of ons from 13 to L 8 years of age to 12 hours, liildren from 9 to L 3 years of age to 8 hours. and allowed the employment of children of than 9 years in exceptional cases only. The latter two classes of children were to be employed only mi ler the condition that they could show by some certificate, thai they had enjoyed or were enjoy- ing bcI 1 advantages amounting to 150 hours in the year. This latter clause was illusory, and could be easily circumvented like the rest of the law : \et it vvas stricken out in a new enact- ment (Sept. lo.. |s it;, win,!, allowed only Hi honi \ork day for children above I.'!, and ■ '.i hours for those below I '■'• years vi age. rin-, law v, ain have remaine 1 a dead letter but for the appointment of factory inspectors, with very restricted powers, among whom was a man of extraordinary merit, Leonard Horner (1833 — 59), who. together with the trade unions and some few philanthropists. worked with untiring energy, to accumulate, in his reports to Parliament, a huge mass of evidence in relation to the abuses of the factory system, and especially its direful influences on women and children. Later legislation gradually ex- tended the benefit of the factory laws to chil- dren employed in most kinds of industry, and slightly restricted their laboring time, chiefly by confining il within the hours of the day (Chil- dren's Employment Act of L867J ; but thefactory schools, being dependent on the school fees of parents, voluntary private donations, and denom- inational Sunday-Schools, continued to be of the ; inadequate character down to the new scl 1 act of I 870 ; and this still left much to be red in respect to working children. The legislation of all the other countries in which modern industry is largely developed, is, more or less, a copy of the English, with hardly a sir are of improvement upon the latter a- regards the restriction of children's employ- ment, and with tin; disadvantage that there is r no board of factory inspectors provided, or where there is, or was (in Prance it has been abolished), that the inspection is of no value. In Germany, Switzerland, and Belgium, however, a Bufficieni provision exists for schools which are accessible to. or even compulsory on. every facto- ry child, thus affording a s< hoofing facility which extends from the earliest childhood up to the adult age. or is about being so far extended. Prussia was the second state to regulate the hours of children's labor in factories, with the view to afford opportunity for school attendance. The laws of 1839, mere copies of the English act (if 1833, were, in L853, SO far improved as to ex- clude from factories all children below 1 '_' years of age, permitting those below 1 l to work only 6 hours in each half day. tinder the condition of ."hours' attendance at school. The law of tin' new German Empire (Nov. 10., 1871) is. in all ntials, th" same. France followed Pru with a law (March 22., 1841 which entirely ex- cluded children below eighl years and required ::H below I ■> to prove some attendance at school : hut the law. having no enforcing clauses, was altogether disregarded. The Austrian factory law approves of the labor of children above lo years or age; and thence up to I I. it allows an ascending scale from six to l (| hours, and be- tween I l and 16 years. 12 hours; exceptionally. I I hours. The legislature of the Netherlands adopted, in 1875, a law akin to the modern En- glish law, bu1 without any enforcing provisions. In Belgium, there were, according to the latest reports, 900 factory schools, comprising 158,060 children of all ages, and schools e iceted with i rerj factory in which young children, to the FACULTY FALK 205 Bomber of 33,878, were instructed. The law reg- ulates tlif attendance at school, but does nol es- sentially restrict tlif maximum time of employ- ment. An attempt, made in L855, by the city council of Berlin to establish four factory schools, failed, as the school had to lie discontinued after one year's existence. Belgium is the only coun- try in which the state law has made provision for the establishment of factory schools. In Massachusetts (General Statutes, 1863, eh. 12), the law ordains: " No child under the age of 12 years shall be employed in any manu- facturing establishment more than 10 hours in a day." The official labor statistics of that state show that the law is, almost every- where, a dead letter. The law of New Jersey (March II.. L855)says: "No children under 10 years shall be admitted in any factory, and no minor tor more than 10 hours a day." The Re- vised Statutes of Rhode Island (1857, eh. .'ill) say: " No minor who has attained the age of L2 years and is under the age of 15 shall be em- ployed more than 1 1 hours, nor before 5 A. M., nor aftei 7. •'!() P.M." The enactments of ether states are similar; but there is nowhere an effi- cient provision for the enforcement of the laws. The legislation of most other states only requires that factory children should attend school for a specified length of time. It is easy to see, and is generally admitted, that factory children are not so situated that they can avail themselves of the public schools. Their attendance at the day schools will always be irregular and of short duration. The larger children may, to some ex- tent, enjoy the advantage of evening schools and Sunday-schools ; but, as long as children are em- ployed in factories, they will have to obtain their education in schools especially adapted to their wants. Many schools of this class have been established by the proprietors of large factories, of which the best known, in Europe, are those connected with the Krupp establishment in Essen, with that of I )olf uss in Miilhausen, Alsace, ami that of Greg, Co. of Chester, England. The latter is a fair example of most of the schools. The proprietors of the factories assume the entire care of the children, chiefly orphans and poor- house pupils, clothe, feed. and lodge them, and edu- cate them in special schools. — See Vox Pi.kxer, The English Factory Legislation, English trans., with I nt rod. by A. J. Mundella ( London); HuBEK, Reis briefe aus England im Sommer (1854). FACULTY (Lat. facultas), a term originally applied to a body of men to whom any partic- ular privilege! or right is granted ; hence, in a college or university, the faculty consists of those upon whom has been conferred the right of i aching as professors of specific subjects \faculr tas prqfilendi et docendi.) The faculties of a university are subordinate corporations, each consisting of a body of teachers, or professors, in some particular department of knowledge. At first the European university (that of Paris) comprised but two faculties, -that of arts (q. v.) and that of theology, to which, in the L3th cent- ury, those of canon ami civil law and of medi- cine were added. The division into four facul- ties was transferred from the Pniversity of Paris to the German universities; the faculty of arts was afterwards named the philosophical faculty. Many changes have been introduced in this part of university organization since that time. In American universities and colleges, the faculty consists of the body of professors, with the presi- dent at its head, and has the power of conferring degrees. FAGGING, a peculiar custom which has existed, from the earliest times, in the great public schools of England — Eton, Harrow. Rug- by, etc., according to which boys of the Lower forms (classes) perform certain personal services. for those of the higher. These services are either due to a particular student- the special master — or to the whole higher class. The former are such as carrying the master's messages, preparing his breakfast, waiting upon him at dinner, stok- ing his fire, etc.; and the general duties are to attend at the games, in cricket, for example, standing behind the wickets to catch the balls, and other such minor services. While many of these services appear to be of a menial character, they are not considered such, inasmuch as, with- out a fag, the boy would be obliged to perform them for himself. The system of fagging, like pennalism, in the German universities, has been the means of great abuse and tyranny exercised upon the younger students, yet 'it has strenuous defenders, as being, on the whole, beneficial. (See England.) FALK, Johann Daniel, a German educator and philanthropist, born in Dantzic, in 1770, and died in 1826. After studying at the university of Halle.. he distinguished himself as the author of several satirical poems, and was introduced by Wieland into the literary circles of Weimar. He founded, in that city, a children's aid society and the first German house of refuge. He had great faith in the efficacy of music and labor as educational agencies, and was very anxious to foster in the minds of his pupils a spirit of cheer- fulness. At the request of the Pedagogical So- ciety of Leipsic, of which he was a member, he wrote an essay on common schools ( Ueber die Gtrenzen der Vblks- und Gelehrtenschule, 1821), which is still highly valued. In an appeal to the diet of Saxe-Weimar and the entire German people [Aufrvf zundchsi mi die Landstdnde des Grossherzogthums Weimar >'/<■.. L819), he warned the German people against confounding popular education with popular instruction. His institu- tion (Falkisches Jnslitut) was carried on after his death by his widow, until 1829, when the state government took charge of it. — See A. W \i;xi'.H, Fit///* Liebe, Leben, und Leiden in Gott (1818). FALK, Paul Ludwig Adalbert, Prussian Secretary of State for the Department of Edu- cational, Ecclesiastical, .and Medical affairs, born An-. H».. L827, at -Metschkau. Province of Sile- sia, Prussia, is the son of a Protestant clergy- man, lie received his first educational Schweid nitz and Landshut, attended the Friedrich's- 296 FALK Gymnasium at Breslau, and. after graduation, studied for the legal professional t lie university at . the same city, also paying great attention to history and natural philosophy. Be entered the Prussian state service in 1847, received the de- gree of LL. I ».. in the same year, and, after having abandoned his original intention of preparing himself for a professorship in laws, and passed through the intermediate stations of liis career, he obtained, successively, the appointment of istant state attorney at Breslau. and (1853) that of state attorney at Lyk. In 1858, he was elected to the Prussian Chamber of Deputies and acted as a member of the Committee on Petitions, Budget, and Military affairs during the legislative period of L858 — 61. In L861, he was appointed state attorney at the Kammerge- riihi in Berlin, and, iii the following year ( L862), councilor of the court of appeals in Glogau, Silesia. During this time, he took part, with other eminent jurists in the edition of several standard works on law. Although not engaged in practical polities, which he studiously- avoided in consideration of his judicial office, he was elected (1867) to represent the district of Glogau (Sile- sia) in the provisional Parliament of the North German Union, but peremptorily declined a re- election. In L868, he was appointed privy councilor of justice [Geheimer Justiz-Raih) and Referent in the state ministry of justice, in which position he took a very important part in the new codification of laws for the North German Union, and, subsequently, for the German Em- pire. In L871, King William appointed Falkone of the representatives of Prussia in the Federal < louncil i Bundesrath,OT Upper I [ouse of the Ger- man Parliament), where headed as chairman of the committee of justice, in which capacity he ren- dered very important services in the re-organiza- tion of the system of legal proceedings, adapted to the new order of things in Germany. In January, L872, Von Muhler, the Secretary of State for Ecclesiastical, Educational, and Medical affairs, resigned his office, and Falk was ap- pointed his successor by ting William. From the \ei\ beginning of his administration, a fresh and energetic spirit seemed to be imparted to the management of this important branch of the state government. The new minister found himself the inheritor of all the difficulties which, at that time, beset his department, arising from the differences between the authorityof the state ami the church in regard to the supervision of the schools, public and private, a conflict which had already Btrongly manifested itself during the administration of his predecessor in office. In February, L872, Minister Falk introduced a law, which w I March 1 1 . of the same year, according to which the supervision of all schools was declared to be the exclusive prerogative of the state. This law was carried against the united efforts ol the Catholic and Conservative Protestant panics of the Prussian parliament. It provided that the supervision of all educa- tional institutions, public or private, in opposi- tion to the laws of some of the provinces of the kingdom, should be the sole prerogative of the state : that all officials or corporations charged with such supervision should be considered as- state commissioners; and, finally, that this law should not affect the co-operation in the super- vision of such institutions, on the part of com- munities ami their constitutional organs, as authorized by statute. In a rescript, dated March 13., 1872, and pub- lished in the official Gentralblatt fur die Vnier- riehlsverwattung, Falk explained the radical change which the new law effected in the rela- tion of the public schools to the state churches. " 1 leretofore." the minister says, " the inspection of schools was immediately vested in the church officers, the pastors of the united Evangelical Church and of the Roman Catholic Church, these being inspectors of schools, in virtue of their offices. By the operation of the new law. the right of inspecting schools belongs exclusively to the state: and all authorities and officers to whom this inspection is entrusted, act in the name of the state." The new law vacated nearly all the offices of school inspectors in towns ami •• circles '* (subdiv idotis of provinces): but. to guard against interruption, all the incumbents were to con- tinue provisionally the discharge of their former duties. 'The minister declared, however, that no person would be allowed to remain in this office, or would be appointed to it. who was not known to be faithfully devoted to the interests of the state. The inspectors in the Polish districts of the state were. Inoivov er. expected to take special care that the teaching of the German language was not neglected. This law has since been gradually carried into practice, and the number of lay school inspectors who take the place of clergymen has steadily increased. The Catholic bishops made a determined op- position to the new policy of the government. In a joint pastoral letter to the clergy, they in- structed them not to lay down their offices as school inspectors without previously consuH the diocesan bishop : and. in a memorial ad- dressed to tin' government, they solemnly de- clared that they regarded this law as an incroach- nient upon the inalienable, holy right of the Church as to the public schools, and that they expected from it disastrous consequences both to church ami state, balk, however, continued, by a number of measures, to assert the exclusive right of the state to legislate in all school affairs. A rescript of June L5., 1 8 72, excluded members of ecclesiastical orders and congregations from holding positions in the public schools: a decree dated .Inly I., abolished the so called Mariauie congregations, ami forbade the pupils of state institutions to participate in them. In January, L873, Minister Falk proposed and defended an ad in relation to the scientific re- quirements exacted by the state for the admis- sion of candidates to ministerial functions, re- quiring an examination of maturity from a gv ui- Qashim, an academic triclinium, and a scientific state examination of candidates, with proper ex- emptions ; also conferring upon the state the FAU.MEirs COLLEGE FEAB 207 right of supervising Catholic seminaries, and of appiw ing appointments to office by the bishops. The acl was passed by both houses of the Prus- sian Parliament, and became a law by nival sanction, May 11.. L873. It is the first of the famous May laws. Other difficulties arose in the province of Posen, where a large proportion of the inhabitants are of Polish nationality ami profess the Catholic religion. A decree of the state ministry prescribe! I that, in all higher educa- tional institutions in which the German language was ordinarily used, religious instruction should likewise be imparted in German. Archbishop Ixdochowski of Posen instructed his subordi- nates to disregard this decree, and to use the Polish language exclusively in religious instruc- tion. The government, at first, did not proceed against the prelate directly, but suspended a number of Catholic clergymen and instructors who obeyed the archiepiscopal ordinance in pref- erence to the ministerial decree. The persistent opposition of the archbishop led to further measures against him, and, ultimately, to his being sentenced to imprisonment for two years (Febr. 3., 1874). Before the year 1873 ended, the Prussian government found itself involved in similar proceedings against the other bishops of the kingdom, all of whom, without exception, refused obedience to the so-called May laws. These proceedings terminated in the same way: and the bishops who next followed the Areh- ■ bishop of Posen into prison were the Bishop of Treves and the Archbishop of Cologne. Other re measures followed, and the Archbishop of Posen was deposed (April 15., 1874). In May, L874, the Prussian chambers passed a law regu- lating the administration of all Catholic bishop- rics which may be vacated by incumbents thri >ugh legal decisions. The contest between the state and church authorities is. however, not yet ended (1876). While substituting for the former co-operation of state and church, in the inspection of the public schools, the sole right of the state, Fa Ik also conceived the plan of a total re-organization of the school system. Twenty prominent men, representing all the different parties, were called to Berlin to discuss a draft which had been pre- pared by the minister. The conference lasted from June 11. to dune 20., 1872 ; and, on the basis of its deliberations, the minister, Oct. 1.").. L872, issued general regulations concerning the public schools and teachers' seminaries. These regulations were intended as a forerunner to a new school law; and they were regarded as modifying, in very many essential points, the principles on which the former school regulations oi Prussia were base I, and as requiring a return to the educational principles advocated and practiced by Pestalozzi. FARMERS' COLLEGE, at College Hill, Hamilton Co., Ohio, near Cincinnati, was char- tered in 1846. It is supported by the interest of a fund of about .S of their number directors to manage the college. The college has a preparatory and a collegiate depart- ment, the latter having a classical and a special course. Facilities are afforded for instruction in drawing and music. Both sexes are admitted. Libraries of over 2,000 volumes are connected with the institution. The cost of tuition is $10 per term of 20 weeks. In L875 — 6, there were 8 instructors and "•'> students (38 male and 38 female). of whom "J 1 were in the collegiate depart- ment. The presidents of the college have been as follows: Freeman G. Cary, 1847 — 53; Isaac I. Allen, 18f>3 — 6; Freeman G. Cary. jn-o tern., 1856 — 7; the Lev. Dr. Charles N. Mattoon, L857— 60 : Jacob Tuckerman, 1860—6 ; Charles Curtis. L866 — 70; J. S. Lowe, the present in- cumbent (1870), elected in 1873. During 1870 — 73, rival boards of directors were at law, and the college was closed. FEAR, a sense of danger, the apprehension of coming injury, or the anticipation of pain, is ;;n emotion of the mind which the educator often finds it necessary to excite, in order to con- trol the actions of his pupil, but which lie should address with extreme care and only after other means of persuasion have failed. There are two kinds of government. — that of influi i and that of force ; and the former should always be preferred to the latter, because it addn the inner nature and produces a permanent effect upon the character, while the latter can be only temporary. By the one. the will of a child is trained, and a self-controlling power is fixed in the mind; by the other the misdirected, per- verted will is still left a prey to vicious propen- sities, the operation of which is checked only as long as the external restraint continues. Some dispositions, however, need to be restrained by a sense of fear before other influences can be brought to bear upon them. Many children are inconsiderate, rash, and impulsive, and accord- ingly yield at once to their propensities. Phys- ical punishment seems to be needed in order to produce any conscientious observation of their own conduct ; but, without great care on the part of the educator, in inflicting pain for this purpose, much injury may lie done to the child. Unless the educator's personality in this inflic- tion can be subordinated, in the child's mind, to the sense of deserved punishment for wrong- doing, he will antagonize the child, and destroy all means of controlling him by personal influ- ence. -'The moment a child's mind is strongly affected by fear." says Horace Mann, •• it flies in- stinctively away, and hides itself in the deepest recesses it can find, often in the recesses of dis- ingenuousness and perfidy and falsehood. In- stead of exhibiting to you his whole conscious- ness, hi' conceals from you as much of it as he can ; or he deceptively presents to you some Counterfeit of it, instead of the genuine. No frighted water fowl whose plumage the bullet of the sportsman has just grazed, dives quicker be- 298 FELBIGER neath the surface than a child's spirit darts from your eye when you have filled it with the senti- ment of tear.'' This is especially true of certain dispositions; and, hence, this appeal to fear should not be made without very careful dis- crimination. Becker, in the Scientific Basis of Education fN. Y., 1868), says, " If cautiousness is too large, seek to influence the child through his affections. Fear will paralyze such a mind. To make this faculty useful where it is pre- dominant, the teacher must get the affections of the child, and he can then, by proper direction, make fear an intelligent restraint." Formerly, the idea of school government was identical with that of absolute tyranny, — arbitrary power in the teacher, and unthinking obedience in the pupil, enforced bythe greatest severity of punish- ment. Dr. Johnson, in the defens • of the school- master I lastie, said. " ( !hildren being not reason- able, can be governed only by fear ;" hut educa- tors do nor And all children without reason and conscience, and. therefore, the proposition was too sweeping. When Boswell repealed toJohn- son the following sentence of a speech of Lord Mansfield: ' My Lords, severity is not the way to govern either hoys or men." he replied. •■ Nay. it is the way to govern them. I know not whether it be the way to mend them." Bui no school government can be approved that is not intended to amend as well as to control. Chil- dren should be made to fear to do wrong ; and this should be brought about as much as possible by what Berber! Spencer calls the method of nature, tih&i is, by making punishment the neces- sary consequence of the wrongful act, on the principle involve I in the maxim, "The burnt child dreads the fire." This eliminates the per- sonal element in the fear implanted in the mind of the child He does not tear the teacher, but he fears to offend,— to do wrong. The same consideration excludes from discipline, all threat- ening, scolding, and harsh words, for the purpose of engendering fear, and, especially excludes anger in punishment. 'The fear to be excited in the mind of the chilli should not be an apprehension of personal safety, leading to meanness, cunning, and deception as a means of self protection, but should be akin to that feeling which Solomon referred to when he said, •• The fear of the Lord is the beginning of wisdom." This is not incon- sistent with a constant appeal to the higher motives and finer feelings of human nature, but may be made a means of their development, which is the true end of all moral education. FELBIGER, Johann Ignaz von, one of the fore al reformers of the public-school sys- tem of Austria. W as Worn in L724, at GrOSB- glogau in Silesia, and died at Presburg, Hungary, i' 1 1788. \tier studying Catholic theology, he entered th • order of St. Augustine, and. in L758, became abb 't of the house of his order in Sagan, Silesia. In this position, it was his duty to superintend the churches and schools of Sagan .and some of the neighboring villages. The wretched Condition in which he found th,' schools, induced 1 to risil Berlin secretly, in order to acquainl himself with the new real school of that city and the tabular and literal method of Uiihn (q. v.). As the result of this visit was entirely satisfactory to him. he not only repeated it several times. but sent a number of young men there to be edu- cated as school-masters. After the end of the Seven Years' war, he displayed great activity in founding: new schools, some of which were organ- ized as model schools: he also drew up several courses of instruction, and prepared a number of school books, "which were printed at his own printing establishment, and obtained a very large circulation. Halm's method became, through his efforts, predominant in all Silesia, and was often called after him Felbiger's or the Sagan method. In 1774. he was appointed by the Empress Maria Theresa chief director (Ober- director) of the German schools: and. Dec. 6., 1774. thi' empress sanctioned the general regula- tion tor tin' German model, head, ami trivial schools which had been drawn up by Felbiger. This regulation marks the beginning of a new period in the history of Austrian schools. It be- gins with the following significant sentence : ••The education of youth of both sexes is the mosl important basis of the true happiness of nations." Though it did not make education compulsory, it expressed the expectation that all Children of both sexes who did Hot receive pri- \ate instruction, would attend the German school for six or seven years, beginning with the Bixth year of age. Public education was treated as a state affair : the methods of instruction and discipline and the course of instruction wen' regulated, a proper classification introduced, and provision made for the erection of school-houses. for cheap and good schoohbooks. and for the better education and compensation of teachers. In regard to salaries, the provisions were, how- ever, far from being satisfactory, as may be in- ferred from the fact that the regulation expressly allows teachers to work in their leisure hours as book-binders, joiners, shoe-makers, tailors, and weavers. They were, however, absolutely for- bidden to keep taverns. In order to elevate the school-teachers to a higher social position, the regulation assigned to them a comparatively high rank among public functionaries. As re- gards the different clashes of the common schools, i town, market - town, and parish was to receive a trivial school, which had only one teacher, and imparted instruction in reading. writing, arithmetic, and the elements of agri- culture. In each circle, at least one head school (Hatiptschule) was to be established, which should have three classes, three teachers, and a director, and teach, besides the subjects of the trivial school, German composition, drawing. surveying, history, and geography (especially of the native country), and also the elements of the Latin language. Wherever circumstances would allow it. female schools were established, besides the head schools for boys. Every province waa to have at least one normal school, which was to combine the character of a model school and of a teachers' seminary. The course of instruc- FELBIGER FEMALE EDFC/ATION 299 Soon after an end to of military rejected by tion embraced all the subjects of the head school, and. besides, natural Bcience and physics, Latin, the history of arts and trades, architecture, and mechanics. The establishment of a German school book publishing office, in connection with the Vienna Normal School, gave a powerful impulse to educational literature. The empress. in 1777, induced Felbiger to relinquish alto- gether his citizenship in Prussia, and. at the game time, appointed him provost at Presburg. this, the death of the empress put his educational labors. The plan schools, which he had drawn up, was Joseph 1 1.. and he was removed from the chief direction of the Vienna Normal School. He was directed to remain at Presburg,and labor for the improvement of public instruction in Hungary. He was, however, unable to accom- plish much, and died almost forgotten. Felbiger wrote a number of school books, and a manual explaining his method of instruction to teachers (Eigenschaften, Wissenschqften, und Bezeigen iffener Schulleute). The best biography of Felbiger is found in Helfert, Die ostreichi- Volfcsschule, vol. i. FELLENBERG, Philipp Emanuel von, a Swiss educator and philanthropist, was burn in Bern, June 27., 1771, and died there. Nov. 21., 1844. J lis father being a friend of Pestalozzi, he early conceived the idea that society can be protected against revolution only by an im- proved system of education. He believed that he had discovered the basis of a radical reform in the connection of education with agriculture. He bought, in 179D. a large estate near Bern, the Wylhof, called by him Hofwyl, and there founded, in 1804, his first school, for the purpose of educating poor boys, and even convicts, as agriculturists. Fellenberg endeavored to make tins school self-supporting, and to cause instruc- tion to be regarded by the pupils as a recreation. His institution proved a great success. All the visitors were struck with the cheerfulness and the eagerness to learn which were shown by the pupils generally ; and a number of the pupils subsequently distinguished themselves as edu- cators and teachers. Fellenberg also believed that his institutions fully supported themselves by the labor of the pupils: although, as liberal contributions were received all the time from friends of education, this has been doubted by many. Twice (in 1804 and 1.817), Pestalozzi was, for a short time connected with the institu- tions of Fellenberg. but they found it impossible to agree. Fellenberg, being descended from a noble family ami having himself filled high posi- tions in the state, was accustomed to rule and had dictatorial manners: while Pestalozzi. who as a practical educator was greatly his superior, to act as a subordinate to him in matters. The fame of the school of Hofwyl was. to a large extent, due to Wehrli (q. V.), wild became connected with it, in L810. In the mean time, several new institutions for poor children had been established by Fellenberg. In 1807, he opened, in buildings which the govern- was unwilling educational mentof Bern had presented to him. a special school of aio-icult urc. with which. in \H{)H,ap//ilnnlhropin for children of wealthy parents was connected. This school, in L825, had eighty pupils, taught by twenty-two teachers. Among those who suc- cessively taughl in the institutions of Fellenberg, were some of the foremost educatorsof Germany, as llcrbart (q. v.) An institution for females, which was subsequently added, under the man- agement of the wife and daughtersof Fellenberg, was. like the original school of Hofwyl, chiefly in- tended for the i r. In 1830, a real school, de- signed tor the education of the children of the middle classes, was established, and still later an infant school. As the education of teachers had been sadly neglected in the canton of Pern, Fel- lenberg, with the approval of the government, called forty teachers to Hofwyl for a three months' normal course. The next year, the government denied i(s consent, as it feared that Fellenberg would obtain, in this way, too great an influence in the affairs of the canton. In 1833, the government again arranged for holding a teachers' institute in Hofwyl: but. as the arrangements were not entirely satisfactory to Fellenberg. he opened another normal course for one hundred teachers at his own expense. The institutions of Fellenberg were celebrated throughout Europe, and were even visited by some of the reigning princes. A number of other institutions were f< utnded after their m< >i lei. After Fellenberg's death, the institutions were for a time continued by his son. Wilhehn Aon Fel- lenberg, but were afterward abandoned. In his religious views, Fellenberg shared the rational- istic principles which at that time were pre- dominant in Germany and .Switzerland; but, unlike most of the Philanthropists, he attributed great importance to the religious element of instruction, and devotional exercises were strictly and solemnly observed in all his institutions. — See W. Hamm, Fellenberg's Leben und Wirken (Bern, 1845b American Annals of Education, vol. i. (1831). An interesting account of the school of Hofwyl may also be found in the auto- biography of one of its American pupils, Bobert Dale Owen (Threading My Way, N. Y., 1874). (See also Hofwyl.) FEMALE EDUCATION. This subject will be treated in two sections: (I) The history of female education, and (II) the discussion of its principles, or theory. I. History. — The history of education in the an- cient world almost exclusively refers to the educa- tion of the male sex. In the ancient monarchies of Asia and Africa, no provision was made for the instruction of girls in educational institutions. In China, the daughter, after the 10th year of age, was confined to the house. There she was taught to behave modestly and politely, to listen and to obey. She had to sew and to weave in hemp and silk, and to learn how to prepare the meals. At the age of fifteen, when she was betrothed, she received the ornament of the head-needle; and. at the age of twenty, she was married. In education, as well as in all other departments of 300 FEMALE EDUCATION life, China has remained stationary: and the education of girls is now substantially the same it was thousands of years ago. While the instruction of boys is quite general, nine-tenths of all the women can neither read nor write: and it is only the daughters of the wealthiest families thai receive even a meager education. In India, the instruction of the female sex was also totally negleeteil. An exception was made only in the case of public dancers, or bayaderes. The latter are daughters of poor parents, and. in ehildhood, are kept for the service of the temple. The priests teach them to read and write, and have them carefully taught music, dancing, singing, and all the ways of female coquetry, in Persia, which had a system of national schools, the girls were generally excluded from public instruction. Still there seem to have been exceptions ; for the plot of a Persian novel is base 1 upon the love pf two persons, which is represented as beginning at school. In Egypt, the female sex occupied a more dignified and independent position than in the other oriental nations, attending to the business of the market ami to commerce: hut no provision was made for their instruction. Cleopatra is, however, reported to have been one of the most accomplished women of antiquity, ami to have spoken Hebrew, Arabic, Ethiopic, Syriac, and other languages. The legislation of Sparta excelled, in this respect, not only every oriental country, lmt also every other Hellenic state. The Spartans hell a very high opinion of the dignity of the family, and the wife and mother was the center of family life. 'Hie wife was held in especially high esteem ; she was called dearroiva, mistress, ami exerted a consider- able influence over her husband. This social position of woman required that her education should be similar to that of the other sex. 'I he Spartans thought that free, noble men could only spring from noble, well-formed, healthy mothers; ami the gills, therefore, participated, though w ith some modifications, in the peculiarities of Spartan education. They were to he inspired with feel- ingsof morality ami patriotism no less than men. The society of experienced matrons was one of the chief means of their education; ami exercises ill singing, the stilly of the poets, and the learning of choruses were used to pr ote their general culture. They practiced gymnastic exercises, on arenas specially provided for them, ami grace- ful mimetic dances. At certain festivals, they and danced in public. Young men were usually presenl at these exhibitions ; and females attended those given by the males. Thus a rivalry arose 1> 'tween the two sexes, which hail a beneficenl influence upon the education of both. \s the result of this education, the young women of Sparta manifested a bodily vigor and beauty, and a national pride, which were admired by all foreigners. The school of Pythagoras which, like the Spartans, represents the peculiar development of the Doric tribes, produced several female writers on education (Theano, Phintys, Periktione), whose writings are by far the best that can he found on the subject in the literature of the ancient world. The Dorians re- garded piety as the basis of self-control, and music and gymnastics as means for attaining it. This and a due harmony between the intellect and the will were viewed by them as the chief results of all sound female education. In Athens, female education was not so well provided for as in Sparta, and the elevated position which the Spartans conceded to their wives was derided by the Athenians as gynocracy, or female govern- ment. With them, the wife was not the deonoiva, or mistress, but, in fact, the servant of the house. Only in exceptional cases, did the daughters of a family receive instruction ex- tending beyond the usual domestic duties : female schools were unknown. Women appeared in public only at public festivals, and it was only the educated keta?ra that the intelligent Athe- nian could meet in society. The Romans had a very exalted idea of the dignity of family life and the position of woman. In no nation of antiquity was monogamy so strictly observed as in Rome, The kings, according to popular tradition, and afterward the decemvirs, were expelled from power on account of attacks made upon female virtue. The mother of the family [mater familias) presided over domestic affairs as a venerable priestess, and regarded the education of all her children, boys a.- well as girls, as her most sacred and most important duty. Thus the girls received an excellent home education: and it would seem that they also attended schools, for we read that Virginia was seized by order of the decem- vir Appius Claudius as she was going to school. The influence of Christianity upon female education shows itself, for several centuries. only in the regeneration of family life. The firsl places in Christian countries in which in- struction was provided for girls, outside of their families, were the convents. The nuns, as we see from the correspondence of Boniface, not only copied the Biblical books, lmt also taught secular sciences. The number of girls w ho were < ducat- ed in these schools was, however, small in com- parison with that of hoys. The daughters and sisters of Charlemagne, as appears from their cor- respondence with Alcuin. took an active part in the learned studies which distinguished the court of that great emperor: and their example was sub- sequently followed by several other princesses and nuns: still no steps were taken toward a general provision for female instruction, during the first part of the middle ages. The development of knighthood organized a system of instruction for a small but very influential portion of female youths, the daughters of the nobility. No special institutions were founded for them : but it was conn iiou to have a number of tin in brought up together iii the castle of a count or other nobleman. The pupils, in this case, inhabited 111 e. iion a separate part of the building, were placed under a common -ov ermss. and received instruction from a priest, sometimes also from traveling artists, singers, and poets. Reading and writing were the principal part of this in- struction, and the young ladies were called upon, FEMALE EDUCATION 301 En the long winter evenings, to read to the family or to a select company new songs, Legends, and stork's. Sometimes they also acquired a knowl- tedge of foreign languages, especially of French and Latin. They were also instructed in singing, and playing upon musical instruments. When the towns -rcw strong, in their struggles against Icings and nobles, important progress was made by the establishment of female schools. In Brussels, we find, at the beginning of the fourteenth century J a school for small girls, with four female teachers ; and boys and girls who were brothers and sisters were often allowed to attend the same school. Similar schools were found in some of the other cities, hut only in a limited number. In the convents, only those girls received instruction in reading and writing who intended to enter the on lei. In some of the towns, the girls were allowed to attend boys' schools. The r impulse which was given to the extension of female, schools by the Reformation, in the 16th century, is generally recognized, even by Catholic writers. Luther, in his appeal to the magistrates of the German towns, urged them to establish schools, not for boys only, but also for girls. All the church and school regulatii >i is which ! were issued during this period recognized the need of establishing female schools. The chief reason adduced for the demand was the duty of women as well as of men to read the Scriptures. The greatest zeal for the establishment of female schools was displayed by Bugenhagen (q. v.), who demanded these schools not only for the towns hut also for villages. The course of instruction embraced reading, writing, arithmetic, catechism. Bible history, and singing. Although the ideas of the reformers were not carried out to their full extent, the number of schools for the in- struction of girls, established at the time of the Reformation, was very large. They were partly parish schools which were attended by both boys and girls, and partly schools for girls exclusively, which aimed to impart a higher education than could be found in the parish schools. Little progress was, however, made in the second half of the Kith and in the 17th century*; and, after the devastations of the Thirty Years' War, female schools were, in Germany and other countries of the European continent, in a less flourishing condition than at the time of the Reformation. The work was resumed in the 18th century; but, , at first, withonlyslow progress. (Gradually, how- ever, the adoption of the principle of compulsory education (q. v.) prepared the way for the univer- sal education of female youth in public elementary schools. In some of those countries of Europe where the principle of compulsory education has not yet been adopted or carried out, a largo portion of the female youth still grow up with- out any instruction. Among the most backward countries in this respect, is Russia. While, in 1874, the number of boys attending school in proportion to the entire school population varied in the nine school-districts into which the empire is divided from 1:1..") (in Dorpat) to 1:10.5 (in Moscow); the proportion of girls attending school was as follows: Dorpat, 1:2.1: Warsaw. 1:6; St. Petersburg, L:19; Odessa, 1:2:!: Wilna, L:51; Kharkof. L:5l; LCasan, 1 :•'{.'{; Kief, L: 65.8; .Mos- cow, 1:49.4. Among the seventeen provinces into which Austria proper is divided, there were, in 1874, four (Lower Austria. Upper Austria, Salzburg, and Vorarlberg) in which the number of girls attending the public schools exceeded that of boys, seven in which the number of girls was a little inferior to that of boys, and six in which it fell considerably below that of boys; namely, Triest, boys 6,188, girls i.'M'l; Goritz and Gradisca, boys 8,183, girls 6,4 1 1 ; [stria, boys 7,961, girls, 4,146; Galicia, boys, !).'!. 756, girls, 60,193; Bukovina, boys. 6,858, girls, 2,957 ; Dal- matia, boys, 8,436, girts, 1,898. Other statistics of this class may be found in the articles on the several countries of Europe. The need of schools providing a higher than elementary education for girls was very generally and deeply felt, especially when England, France, and ( Germany entered successively into the golden age of their national literature. An excellent institution of the kind was founded by A. H. Francke (q. v.), but there was a great diversity of opinion in regard to the course of instruction to be prescribed for the higher education of females. The large majority of the schools of this class have ever since been private institutions ; but, in Germany and several other European countries, the state governments as well as the municipal authorities have, in the nineteenth century, begun to establish female schools of a higher grade. In England, the education of the daughters of wealthy parents at home by governesses is more general than in any other country of the Christian world ; but, recently, considerable progress has been made iu the establishment of female schools of a higher grade. (See England.) — In Catholic countries, a very great majority of the female schools of a higher than elementary grade have been under the control of female religious orders. The number of these schools has largely in- creased since the beginning of the 16th century. When the Cardinal Archbishop, Carlo Borromeo, of Milan, died, in 1584, there were, in his diocese alone, 600 Ursuline nuns, in 11 houses, who devoted themselves to the instruction of girls. During the last three centuries, a number of new religious orders have been formed for the purpose of affording girls a higher education. There are. at present, more than 30 orders of this class, with several thousand members; and their schools are not only attended by < 'atholic, but also by large numbers of Protestant girls. (See Roman ( 'vru- oi.ns.) For statistics relating to female schools in Europe, see the articles on the several coun- tries. — The U. S. Commissioner of Education, in his report for 187 1. enumerates 214 institutions for the superior instruction of women, of which 1 1 4 were authorized by law to confer degrees. These are in part styled colleges, and in part semi- naries, iits/it»J<'s, etc. The oldest of these institu- tions is the Bradford Academy, at Bradford. Mass.. chartered in 1K04; the oldest having the title of Coll'ye&re the Maine Wesleyan Seminary 302 FEMALE EDTJ CATION ami Female College, at Kent's Hill, Me., and the i rranville Female < !ollege,at < rranville, * >hio,char- teredin L821 and L834, respectively. The progress of the higher education of women is illustrated by the following tacts: in 1870, the number of these institutions in the United States reporting to the Bureau of Education was •"!■'!. the number of in- structors 378, and the number of students 5,337 ; while in L874, the number of institutions is re- ported at 209; the number of instructors. 2,285, and the number of students. 23,445. These institutions commonly comprise a primary, a preparatory, and a collegiate department. The Last extends through a course of three or four years, and embraces the higher English branches, with the addition generally of Latin and French, frequently of < rerman, and sometimes of < Ireek, Spanish, and Italian. Facilities are afforded, in most if not in all cases, for instruction in vocal and instrumental music, drawing and painting, etc. The principal degrees conferred by female colleges are Graduate in Arts (A. BA Graduate in Science (B. Sc), Sister of Arts I A. S.), .Mistress of Liberal Arts (M. L A..), Mistress of liberal Learning (M. L. L.), Mistress of Science (M. Sc. . Mistress of English Literature (M. E. L.), and Mistress of Music .Mis. Mus.). In some of the higher co-educative institutions, there is a separate course for females [Ladies' Course) similar to that of most female colleges ; in others, there is no distinction, females being admitted to the same classes, and on the same terms, as males. Among higher institutions for females exclusive- ly. Vassar College q.v.),a1 Poughkeepsie, \. V.. Smith College, a1 Northampton. Mas-, (organized in L875), ami Wellesley College, at Wellesley, Mass. (organized in 1 875), hold a high rank. II. Theory of Female Education. — This is a subject which, especially in recent years, has very greatly engaged the attention of practical educa- tors, scientific educationists, physicians, and all others who have either written or spoken on questions concerning the present condition and future prospects of human society and human welfare. The proper education of woman has been recognized as an important, perhaps the chief, factor of social progress, fn former times, both ancient and modern, as we have seen, woman in general, occupied a secluded state; and it was only in the extreme privacy of the home circle thai she exerted the potent influence inseparable from her sex. whether as daughter, wife, or mother. The Roman matron, within this narrow limit, was an educator of her daughters always, and sometimes chiefly of her sons, as in the case of Cornelia, only illustrious as the " mother of 'lie Gracchi." Ancient history affords many t women who, breaking through the barriers of social custom, became illustrious for their learning ami eloquence. Such were Aspasia of Athens, and I Ivpatia of Alexandria. The Career of such women illustrated the intellectual capacity ot their sex under circumstances permitting oren- coin culture. Female education, however, has always been viewed as radically distinct from that of males, — as presenting entirely different aims, and requiring different processes of train- ing and instruction, and a widely different cur- riculum of study. Much has been said and done in recent years to modify very greatly this view; but it is still generally entertained, and is. at the present time, the principle on which most schemes for the education of females are based. "A system of education," saysMaudsley, "adapted to women should have regard to the peculiarities of their constitution, to the special function in life for which they are destined, and to the range and kind of practical activity, mental and bodily. to which they would seem foreshadowed by their sexual organization of body and mind."' " From the beginning of the eighth year." says Schwarz, "the two sexes require, in almost every reap a different education." "The culture of girls," Bays Vim Raumer, commonly requires a process of instruction entirely different from that of boys.'* Alonzo Potter, in the School and the SchoolmasU r I X. V.. L842), emphasizes this prin- ciple: "One cannot look at the female — with less muscular vigor and more nervous sensibility than the other sex; with more timidity and gentleness; with deeper affections and more acute sensitiveness — without perceiving, that she has been appointed to a sphere very different from that of man. Her appropriate empire is over the family, where she not only lays the foundation, during childhood, of individual char- acter, but where she ever exerts, through her ac- quaintance, and especially through her husband and children, a humanizing influence over the world." " Hence." he armies, "there should be, in the education of females, a special reference to their sex and condition of life." "The best educational (raining for a boy," says Dr. Clarke, in Seat in Education (Boston, lb"H). "is no! the best for a girl, nor that for a girl best for a boy." Such are the views upon which the education of females has been based. Ar- ranged, as it has been by the other sex. the only considerations that have dictated its meth- ods and processes have been the average phys- ical weakness of women as compared with men, and the accomplishments they nii.uht need as wives and matrons. It is not difficult to per- ceive that were the education of men arranged by the other sex from an analogous stand-point.it would also be narrowed in its scope and proc- esses. During the last few years, the questions pertaining to female education have been vig- orously discussed by writers of both sexes ; and much experience lias been gathered, which appeal's to show that the necessity tor a modified system of education for females is by no means real as has been supposed and asserted. (See Co-Education ok the Sf.xk.s.) We say modified System of education, because just as it is necessary to adapt the educational processes to individual traits, so is it equally necessary, upon the same principle, to adjust the training and teaching processes to male and female, as far as they severally present peculiar characteristics. In home education, these proper discriminations must naturally be made. The girl is treated as FEMALE EDUCATION :\u:\ a girlj ami the boy as a boy in manners, habits, amusements, and accomplishments. Over the Conner the mother exercises a peculiar care. The ueed of this all educators recognize. "tin-Is." says Schwarz, "require chiefly the guidance of the maternal hand, in order that their tender nature may 1 1> >t lie rudely handled, their purity not invaded, and the appropriately female direc- tion of their development not interfered with. Their understanding and their feelings should be exposed to no rude touch, that, like the rosebud, they may develop themselves purely from with- in, and like the chaste mimosa, shrink from even the least contact." Such accomplishments are taught as are properly feminine; such as Bewing, embroidery, the methods of household management, which every woman should under- stand, to which may be added music and dancing. In every thing- thus taught, the future destiny of the girl, as a member 01 society, should be kept in view ; not, as has been usually advocated, that her education is to be exclusively such as will fit her to perforin the duties of wife and mother, but such as will enable her to live in- dependently of these relations, should such be her destiny. " As the general rule," says Miss 0. E. Beecher, -every true woman would prefer to be a wife, mother, and housekeeper, could her ideal be fully met. But in multitudes of cases this can never he. and so every woman should prepare herself not only for the ordinary duties of the family state, but also for some profession to secure an independent livelihood." In public elementary instruction, as shown in the article on Co-MIucation of (lie Sexes (q. v.), girls and boys are frequently instructed not only in the same schools, but in the same classes. There are, however, numerous private female seminaries, many of which are boarding-schools. In such institutions, the discipline, instruction, and studies are all specially adapted to impart that culture and confer those accomplishments which an' deemed to be proper for the female sex. The benefits of this one-sided training have been much called in question; many contending that the sexes should never be entirely separated in education. In this connection Mrs. Willard, an experienced educator of females, says : "Feminine delicacy requires that girls should be educated chiefly by their own sex. This is apparent from considerations that regard their health and con- veniences, the propriety of their dress and manners, and their domestic accomplishments." In her Address in the Public (1819) in relation to female education, she discussed very ably and fully its defects, and thus enumerated in particular those of boarding-schools for girls: (1) A want of suitable accommodations, as well as of neces- sary apparatus for instruction; (2) Incompetency of instructors, those who keep these schools being unable, and sometimes unwilling to pay for properly trained and cultured teachers; (3) Imperfection of organization; (4) Tendency to teach showy accomplishments rather than such as are solid and useful, the immediate and soli- object being profit, and hence a wish to gratify the caprices and vanity of ill-judging parents, female seminaries of all kinds have especially been subject to the latter reproach; but the Circumstances that have given occasion to it were due. in great part, to the false system ,,f female education so long prevalent. Hannah More, in this connection, remarked: "Not a few of the evils of tin- present day arise from a new and perverted application of terms; among these, perhaps, there is not one more abused, misunder- stood, or misapplied, than the term accomplish- ments. This word, in its original meaning, signifies completeness, perfection ; but I may safely appeal to the observation of mankind, whether they do not meet with swarms of youth- ful females, issuing from our hoarding-schools, as well as emerging from the more private scenes of domestic education, who are introduced into the world under the broad and universal title of accomplished young ladies, of all of whom it cannot very truly and correctly be pronounced, that they illustrate the definition by a complete- ness which leaves nothing to be added, and a perfection which leaves nothing to be desired." I Jut at the period in which this was written, women of scholastic or professional attainments or 1 i t < -r; uy ability were quite exceptional. Once, the chief social employment of young ladies was a kind of fancy embroidery or needle-work, which con- sumed, or wasted, a vast amount of time. Of this, Miss Edgeworth, in Practical Education, says, "Our great-grandmothers distinguished themselves by truly substantial tent-work chairs and carpets, by needle-work pictures of Solomon and the queen of Sheba. These were admirable in their day, but their day is over ; and these useful, ingenious, and laborious specimens of fe- male talents are consigned to the garret, or pro- duced but as curiosities to excite wonder at the strange patience and miserable destiny of former generations." As late as 1873, Rev. S. Van Bok- kelen remarked, " I think we may venture the opinion that all over the United States the academic education of young women is mul- tifarious and desultory. It is comprehensive, embracing a little of every thing, but accurate in almost nothing. This is because it has no well- defined purpose. When our young women, in- stead of closing their books at 17, aim to prepare themselves for a college course, their shams will give place to realities, and the public exercises of our own best seminaries for girls will present a more substantial programme than music and senti- mental essays, and have a higher purpose than to display the skill of the mantua-makers." (The Education of Women, a paper read before the N". Y. State Teachers' Association, duly. lS7.'i.) The subject of the higher education of women has been chiefly discussed with reference to the question of their physical ability to undergo the continuous labor required to pursue a full college or university course of study. (See ( !o-Education OF THE Sexes.) The objections on this account, it may probably be said, have all Leu answered either by actual experience, or by the cogent reasoning of such writers as Anna C. Brackett 304 FEMALE EDUCATION FEMALE TEACHERS (Education of American Girls), Caroline H. I)all (The Other Side), Mary P. Jacobi, M. D. (Mental Action and Physical Health), Mis. E. B. Duffey (No Sex in Education) , and many others. The ability of young women to compete with the other sex, as university students, and without physical injury, appears to be pretty fully established ; and, hence, the doors of universities and other higher institutions of learning are grad- ually being thrown open to women. This has been done only after the most strenuous opposition, and by stemming the adverse current of public opinion. Tn 1802, Mr. Grote strongly advocated that the University of London should admit women to degrees. "In refusing degrees," he ar- gued, "the Senate was called upon to say. ' We consider our studies laudable and deserving en- couragement oidy for men ; they are not laudal >le, and we intend to discountenance them for women. We cannot grant academical honors and advant- ages which will tend to encourage what is a bad and wrong type of education for women.' I maintain this is an answer which the Senate is not warranted in returning. This would be to usurp the right of determining by authority a point which individuals have a full discretion to determine by themselves. I contend that every woman has a right to choose for herself among the various types of education; if among these she prefers that which coincides with our cur- riculum, we ought to be the last to discredit her for so doing.'' The Senate of the university, how- ever, positively refused to grant degrees to wom- en, on the ground that the strain necessary for passing the examination would be injurious to their health. To encourage women to compete for degrees, it was stated, is to invite them to self-destruction. Actual experience in the United States disproves the latter assertion. (See Co- Education of the Sexes.) In that country about fifty institutions for superior instruction are open to both sexes, besides which there is a large number for females exclusively. The progress already made in the complete education of women, as well as that which is promised in the future by the continued opera- tion of the same causes that have worked so great a change in the past, cannot but redound to the benefit of our race, and shed a genial in- lluence on modern civilization. "Already.'' says \ an Bokkelen, "an impulse has been given to society by the education of women ; yet no truly womanly duty has been neglected, nor are wom- en less disposed to accept the cares of domestic life, or yield to the claims of conjugal or maternal affection." "Will woman's smiles,'' he asks, "cease to be attractive when they are brightened by intelligence ? Will her conversation lose its power when strengthened by words of wisdom i W ill her beauty of form and feature vanish amid metrical and metaphysical problems? Will her kingdom be circumscribed as her knowledge is enlarged? Will her companionship be less valued as her ability to counsel w is.lv and control judi- ciously is increased?'' "Girls too." said Krasmus, •' ought to receive a liberal education. The mul- titude hold it to be folly, but wise men know that nothing is more advantageous to the morals of women than extended knowledge." "Educate all the men of a generation," says G. B. Emerson, "and leave the women uneducated, and every child under their influence begins his public edu- cation with all the disadvantages of his father. Educate all the females, and you will give a per- manent impulse to the onward movement of the race, which it can never lose. Each individual begins his progress from a higher level, and, with equal exertion, will bequeath a richer inheritance of knowledge and wisdom to his successors." — Fenelon, Trade de V education desfilles (1687) ; Beaudoux, La Science Maternelle (Paris, 1844) ; Schwabz, Erziekungslehre (Leipsic, 1829) ; H. More, Strictures on the Modern System of Female Education (1799) ; Edgeworth, Prac- tical Education (London, 1798), and Lettei-s on Female Education (London, 1832); H.I. Schmidt, History of Education, part u. (X. Y., 1842) ; Geo. B. Emerson*, On the Education of Females. a lecture delivered before the American Institute of Instruction, August, 1831 ; Emma Willard, An Address to the Public, proposing a Plan for improving Female Education (1819), re- printed in Proceedings of N. Y. University Convocation (1870) ; Emily Davies, Higher Education of Women (London, 1867); Barnard, Studies and Conduct, s. v. Education of Girls (Hartford, 1873); E. 1>. Mansfield, American Education (N. V., 1851); C. E. Beeciier, Educa- t ion nl Reminiscences (X.Y.,1874); Omos, Libe)'- al Education of Women (X.Y., 1874); Markby, Practical Essays on Education, s. v. The Educa- tion of Women (London, 1868) ; Brackett, Tlie Education of American Girls (X. Y., 1874) . Beale, University Examinations forWomen, a paper read before the Social Science Association (London, L875); Report of the U. S. Commis- sioner of Education for 1874. FEMALE TEACHERS. As long as female education continued to be neglected, the work of instructing pupils in schools devolved upon the other sex ; but inasmuch as girls were taught only in the household, these schools were com- posed exclusively of boys. A woman capable of teaching was an intellectual and social phenom- enon; for the posit ion of females rendered the ac- quisition of learning unnecessary. A writer of the 13th century enumerated, as the end and aim of female education, " the knowing how to pray to I iod. to love man, and to knit and sew." In pro- portion, however, as women were set free from the social bonds that prevented their receiving tin- due culture of their faculties, it was perceived that they were well fitted to take a due share in the work of elementary education. In the United States, the number of female teachers by far exceeds that of male teachers. According to the census of 1870, out of 169,577 teachers, 126,822, or about 74 percent, were females. In the Xew England states the excess of female teachers over males is very great. Thus, in Massachusetts, during L874 — 5, the number of female teachers employed in the public schools was 8,047 out of FEMALE TEACHERS FENELOK 30. r > an aggregate of 0.21 (i, or nearly 88 per oeni ; in Maine, the proportion, in summer, is about !)T per cent, in winter, only 55 per cenl ; in Con- aecticut, the proportion is nearly as great ; in Vermont, in 1< S 7.'>. out of 4,406 teachers. '.i,~'M, or nearly 90 per cent, were females. In the state of New York, about 67 percent of all the teachers employed are females; in the city of New Fork, out of .'5.14(1 teachers employed in the public schools, in 1ST"), 2,842, or nunc than 90 per cent were females. In the other large cities of the Union, the preponderance of female over male teachers is very great. In lite city of Boston, for example, out of 1,289 teachers em- ployed in 1874, L,091, or about 85 per cent, were females. In most of the western states, there is a smaller percentage of female teachers. Tims, in Ohio, in IsT.'i, the number of female teachers was 12.110 out of 21,899; in Missouri, Ken- tucky. Tennessee, and Kansas, the number of li, ale teachers is in excess of that of female teachers. In some of the European countries, the number of female teachers shows a similar preponderance : hut. as a, rule, the male teachers are in a majority. Especially is this the ease in most of the German states. Thus in the public elementary schools of Prussia, there were, in 1 857, 31 ,4(17 male and only 1,523 female teachers. The reasons given for employing' a large num- ber of female teachers are chiefly the following : (1) The peculiar fitness of women for the work of instructing children; (2) The limited number of employments in which women can engage ; \ {'■'<< the superior compensation paid to female teachers, in comparison with that paid in other occupations, such as sewing, copying, etc.; (4) The fact that men of talent and enterprise can obtain a larger compensation in other fields of labor, in- duces most to quit the work of teaching at an early age ; (5) Women are often preferred to men by superintendents and school officers on account of their being more tractable, and more willing to comply with the regulations and to carry out the policy of special systems ; and (l>) Considerations of economy, the salaries paid to female teachers being considerably smaller than those paid to males. The last mentioned reason, though generally very influential, in a few cases does not exist. The question of equal compen- sation for equal service has been much discussed, but has rarely been decided in favor of the female claimants for equal salary. The city of St. Louis makes no discrimination between male and female teachers in fixing their salaries. The California legislature of L873 enacted that "females employed as teachers in the public schools of the state should, in all eases, receive! the same compensa- tion as is allowed to male teachers for like services, when holding certificates of the same grade.'' -Much has been said, in addition, as to the com- parative value of the services of male and female teachers; and there is a wide difference of opinion on this point. Many contend that it is "woman's Bpecial mission" to' teach, and that, therefore, the whole field should be left open to her without any competition from the other sex ; and some 20 of the School systems of the states and cities of the I'nion have been based, wholly or in part, upon this principle. In some of the city systems. all those regularly engaged in teaching are women, male principals being employed only for executive duty in the general management. These schools arc however, mainly or wholly, elementary schools. It is the opini if most educators that the masculine clement should bave as effect- ive scope in education as the feminine. A writer in the Massachusetts Teacher (April, ls?4) ex- pressed this principle in the following manner : "Ass i as our youth have passed beyond the primary stage of instruction, their minds should come systematically ii! contact with teachers of both sexes, to such an extent that the teaching. character, and influences of one sex shall fairly supplement and qualify those of the other.'' A number of German educators, as '■. I! mil GrundzUge (/>■/• Elrziehungslehre), Palmer, Evangelische Pddagogik), and Beneke [Erzie- kungslehre),axe generally opposed to the appoint- ment of female teachers; but their views have not prevailed, and in Germany as we'll as in most of the other European countries, the scale on which female teachers are employed is steadily enlarging, and the number of training schools for female teachers correspondingly increasing. (See Training Schools). It is sometimes said that female teachers are more earnest and devoted than male teachers, and consequently that their work is more successful. This might be antici- pated from the fact that women pursue teaching more as a steady employment : while there are but few young men engaged in elementary schools, who are not looking forward to more lucrative ami more influential occupations. In this con- nection, Adams, in The Free s,-hf>t>I System of llf United States (1875), remarks: '"The large preponderance of female teachers in the States will always render the occupation of teacher more or less a temporary one. As a matter quite of course, women do not look to teaching as a lifelong career. In England, scarcely one in twenty of the female teachers reaches her tenth year of service. Of the female teachers trained at Bishop's Stortford, it has been ascertained that their average school life was under five years. The proportion of female teachers in America is ten times greater than in England. Female teachers may have other advantages over males, and in the United States are generally conceded to have, but the length of their school life is not one of them.'' FENELON, Francois de Salignac de la Mothe, a celebrated French educator and prel- ate, was born Aug. (i., L651 ; died .Ian. 7., 1715. lie was, in KiT I, ordai 1 a priest, and four years later appointed aumonier of a society of French ladies for instructing Protestant girls in the Catholic faith. His experience in this posi- tion induced him to write a work on female education, one of the first systematic winks written on the subject. When the Duke of Beauvilliers was appointed governor of the royal princes, he procured the appointment of 300 FERULE FICTION Fenelon as one of their educators. The results of his labors in this position gained for him a reputation as one of the most successful educators of princes that ever lived. The oldest of the princes, the Duke Louis of Burgundy, who when Fenelon was appointed was only seven years old, hut already noted for a propensity to violent anger and stubbornness, became, under the in- struction of Fenelon, the model of a meek, docile young prince, and was enthusiastically attached lis teacher. In l(i'J.">, the king appointed him Archbishop of Cambray ; but, two years later, he fell iut<> disfavorwith the kin- in consequence of theological controversies with Bossuet, and was removed from his position of educator. His famous work, Les Aventures de Telemaque, is an educational novel, the chief object of which is to develop the principles thai guided Fenelon in the education of the three princes. It was completed about the time his personal intercourse with the princes ceased. It was published against his wish, the manuscript having been 3tolen by a servant. The best edition of his educational works is that of Didot (Paris, 1850) ; the besl English translation of TeUmaque is that of Hawkesworth (4to, Ixnidoii, 17(is, and 12mo, New York, 1859). — Sec also De Bausset, Histoire de F&niUm i Paris, 1808). PEB.TJLE (Lat./er^,from/erire, to strike), an instrument used in inflicting corporal punish- ment in schools. Allusion is made to it by Hor- ace and Juvenal; by the latter in the remark, nimt a in ferulaz subduximus. Among the Ro- mans, this was the instrument tor the lightest kind of punishment; of a much severer kind were the sruticu, made of twisted strips of parch- ment, and the terrible fiageUurn, a w hip consist- ing of thongs of hard ox-hide. 'The exact form of the ferula as used by the Romans is not known; in modern tiines.it was a Hat piece of wood, narrow at the handle, generally with a small hole in the middle of its broad part, for the purpose of raising a blister on the offender's hand. Sometimes, it was a broad leather strap, about ten inches long, and at its broad part about four or five inches wide, fastened to a, wooden handle. The Scotch ferule, called the taws, was a leather strap with one end cul into Strips and hardened in the tire. Sec COOPER, History of the Rod. (See also Coki'or.yl IYx- ISIIMI FESTIVALS, SCHOOL. See School Fes- i IV \l.-. FICHTE, Johann Gottlieb, one of Ger- many's greatest philosophers, ami one of the most noted writers on the Bubjed of national educa- tion, was born May L9., L762, and died Jan. 28., L814. Be was, for some time, professor of phi- losophy at Jena; hut being charged with athe- ism by some persons who had completely mis understood him. he let! that university, and went to Berlin, w here he afterward became a professor. Eiis philosophy is a development oi that of Kant, and rests ei 1 1 iivlv upon the notion that the mind constructs its objects by an internal necessity . All activity, as well a the condition of the existence of all things, depends upon the ego. Very many profound remarks and line psychological anal- yses occur in his philosophical writings. His bent of mind was strongly ethical; he viewed nature as valueless except as a means for devel- oping the moral character of the individual. Like Kant he had the greatest abhorrence of all utilitarian ethics, and would not sanction any at- tempt to reduce the moral law to a means of gaining either happiness or heaven. His ad- dresses to the German nation, delivered while Napoleon was in Berlin, are full of this ethical rigor, and are so stirring, that it is a wonder that Napoleon suffered him to deliver them. I lis connection with pedagogy consists in his emphatic enunciation of the doctrine that edu- cation must be an unfolding of the whole nature, moral as well as mental. The mere acquisition of knowledge he viewed as the smallest part of education. The great aim of instruction is to make good men ; or, since will was the man with him, to develop a will to do right. His hatred of selfishness — which was probably much in- creased by the political events of his time — brought him into sharp antagonism with the pre- vailing theories both of education and of religion. He complained that the aim of the schools was simply to make men knowing, and that they were utterly indifferent to their moral develop- ment. Religion itself, he said, as taught, ministers toselfishnessliy its theory of rewards and punish- ments. Selfishness was. for him, the root of all evil, and tainted the old methods in church, school, and state. The new education, therefore, must aim to produce complete and unselfish men. This demand for unselfishness led I'iehte, in his Addresses i<> the German Nation (the hook which contains his leading utterances on educa- tion) to lay down a theory of state or national education, in which the rights of the individual do not receive proper recognition. This was a necessary revolt from the individualism of the previous century, but it W8S no less one-sided, and prepared the way for the opposite theory of Ih i hart. Concerning i'iehte as an educator, see Schmidt, Qeschichte der Pddagogik; and Stbuempell, Die Pddagogik der rhilosophen Kant, F-ichte, Herbart (1843). See also Fichte's Leben und Briefwechsel, edited bj his son, J. II. Fichte (2 vols., 1830 31); and Dittes, Schida der Pddagogik (Leipsic, h s 7<'>). FICTION, Works of, constitute an import- ant part of the literature used in the education of children. The young mind delights in inter- esting tales, and receives impressions therefrom, deeper and mole durahle perhaps ilian those derived from any other source. W bile it instim -' tively perceives what is fictitious in the scenes and incidents of the story, it imbibes as true the characters of the personages and their relations; that is, it feds that such characters and relations may, possiblj or actually, exist in real life. Hence, the awe with which children listen to supernatural narratives is due nol only to the. excited condition of their imagination, hut to tbo feeling that had such things never existed they FICTION 307 would not have formed part of the story; for Btoriee are felt to be senseless and idle thai till of things entirely impossible. Tin's principle may serve to guide the educator in selecting or reject- ing works of fiction for the young. They must be looked upon as powerful instruments in either benefiting or corrupting the minds of children. The writings of Mrs. Barbauld, Miss Edgeworth, Berquin, and in part those of Bans Andersen, are- illustrative of this principle. Some of the stories of the latter must be classed among the impossible, and hence are much less instructive and interesting to children. Nor do children take any real interest, in those stories usually found in Sunday-school books, which are designed to improve their moral and religious nature by presenting examples of juvenile virtue and goodness, such as they never behold in real life, and which they, therefore, look upon as senti- mental and of no account. "There is. " said Margaret Fuller, - too much amongst us of the French way of palming off false accounts of things on children, 'to do them good', and show- ing nature to them in a magic lantern, 'purified for the use of childhood', and telling stories of sweet little girls and brave little boys, — O, all so good, so bad ! and, above all, so Utile, and every thing about them so little ! Children accustomed to move in full-sized apartments, and to converse with full-grown men and women, do not need so much of this babydiouse style of literature. They like, or would like if they could get them, better things much more. They like the Arabian Nights, and Pilgrim's Progress, and Bunyan's Emblems, and Shakespeare, and the Iliad and Odyssey, — at least, they used to like them : and if they do not now, it is because their taste has been injured by so many sugar-plums." In the same spirit, Rosenkranz says, "The purest stories of literature designed for the amusement of children from their seventh to their fourteenth year, consist always of those which were honored by nations and the world at large. One has only to notice in how many thousand forms the stories of Ulysses are reproduced by the writers of children's tales. Becker's Tales of Ancient Time*. Gustav Schwab's most admirable Sagas of Antiquity, Karl Grimm's Tales of Olden Times, ko,. — what were they without the well- talking, wily favorite of Pallas, and the divine swineherd? And just as indestructible are the stories of the old Testament up to the separation Of Judah and Israel. These patriarchs with their wives and children, these judges and prophets, these kings and priests,are by no means ideals of virtue in the notion of our modern lifeless moral- ity, which would smooth outof its pattern stories for tin 'dear children' every thing that is hard and uncouth." By means of suitable works of fiction, the minds of children and youth may be cultivated in several respects : (1) By imparting vivid con- ceptions of persons and things: (2) By impress- ing upon them sentiments of virtue, courage, and patriotism; (3) By developing and training the imagination and the taste. Such were the reasons which prompted Fenelon to write Tilemaque, and probably Xenophon in the composition of the Cyropo>dia; and this office of fiction as a vehicle of instruction and moral elevation has been recognized by most, if not all,grea1 educa- tors. Pestalozzi selected it as the most effective means of reaching the popular mind. In his Leonard and Gertrude (1784), he laid the foundation lor a national pedagogical literature. ••As real history," said Lord Bacon, in The Ad- vancement of Learning f /)■ Augmentis Scienli- arum), "disguste as w ith a familiar and constant similitude of things, fiction relieves us by unex- pected turns and changes, and thus not only de- lights, hut inculcates morality and nobleness of soul. It raises the mind by accommodating the image of things to our desires, and not, like his- tory and reason, subjecting the mind to things." There are. however, dangers to be avoided in us- ing fiction as an educational agent, which we may thus briefly summarize : (1 ) By its exciting character, it may so occupy or intoxicate the mind, as to destroy the taste for more solid and useful reading. Such is uniformly the result of permitting children to read the wild, romantic, and startling stories, with which some of the juvenile periodicals of the day are filled. The constant perusal of such narratives is baneful ; like ardent spirits, it intoxicates but does not nourish. (2) In the case of narratives which present instances of suffering, the sympathies are expended upon fictitious objects, and pity thus becomes habitually a mere sentiment, instead of prompting to active beneficence. "In the healthy state of the moral feelings,'' says Aber- crombie, "the emotion of sympathy excited by a tale of sorrow ought to be followed by some ef- forts for the relief of the sufferer. When such relations in real life are listened to from time to time without any such efforts, the emotion gradu- ally becomes weakened, and that moral condition is produced which we call selfishness, or hardness of heart." (3) By presenting to the young mind fictitious scenes of immorality, vice, or crime, it becomes familiar with their associations, and is thus depraved. (4) By impressing upon the mind false conceptions of the enjoyments, duties, and objects of life, itmay be the means of pro- ducing a kind of infatuation, unfitting for every sphere of useful employment. Johnson, in Rus- selas well describes this mental condition : "The mind dances from scene to scene, unites all pleas- ures in all combinations, and riots in delights, which nature and tort line, with all their bounty, cannot bestow. In time, some particular train of ideas fixes the attention; all other intellect- ual gratifications are rejected: the mind, in weariness or leisure, recurs constantly to the favorite conception, and tea-Is on the luscious falsehood whenever she is offended with the bit- terness of truth. By degrees the reign of fancy is confirmed ; she grows imperious, and in time despotic. Then fictions begin to operate as re alities, false opinions fasten upon the mind, and life passes in dreams of rapture or of anguish.' Sec Imagination, Culture ok.) 308 FINE AIM'S FINLAND FINE ARTS, a term which lias, of late, undergone considerable modification. Formerly, it was the collective name of all those arts which, through the power of invention or imitation, arc designed to produce pleasure in the mind ; Buch as poetry, music, etc. Pine arts, in the widest sense of the word, constitute an important agency in every complete system of education; tor the clement of beauty, which exists in the human mind and should be trained no less than the intellect, the will, or the conscience, depends for its development, to a great extent, on the proper application of the arts of poetry, music. and drawing. (See Esthetic Ciltuee, and Akt- Education). More recently, the meaning of the term Fine Arts has been restricted to painting, sculpture, engraving, ami architecture, which influence us through the eye. In a still narrower sense, it is somtinies applied to painting and sculpture exclusively. Special art schools may he divided into two large classes,— schools of a lower grade, chiefly intended for industrial purposes, and embracing instruction in drawing, modeling, and design ; and schools of higher grade, specially intended h>r the instruction of young artists in the line arts, according to the mure restricted thai term. The former class has been fully treated of under the head of art-education (q.v.). The scIkmiIs of the latter class have generally been designated by the name Aca lemies of Art. In ancient times and in the middle ages, sch of this kind were unknown; and the young artist was educated in the atelier of his master. by being trained to take an immediate and active pari in the master's work. The first institution which hears a similarity to our present academies of art, was founded at Padua by Squarcione, who, by his collection of antique works of ari and by encouraging a thorough study of antique art. exerted a powerful influence upon the Italian artists of the L5th century. The school which w;is opened by Leonardo da Vinci at Milan. is designated by the name of academy, and even at thai early period contained the principal features of the modern academy of art, the persona] element of the atelier being enlarged by general instruction. The entire separation of the academy of art from the atelier began in the Bchool of Bologna, founded by Lodovico Caracci, and soon met with general approbation. The influences proceeding from Louis XIV., sly attached ;irt to the r,y;d courts, and con- verted the academies of art, to a large extent. into court institutions. Among the most Famous institutions Of this kind, were the scl Is of Paris, founded in Hi is, of Berlin, in L694, Men. in L697, and Vienna, in L726. The n \ i\al of the line arts, in modern times, caused dso a revival of the academies of art and raised them to a higher standard. It. moreover, re- established the close connection which formerly existed between instruction and the work of the ateliers. Great celebrity, in modern times, has been attained bj the schools of Munich and Dnaseldorf. In Great Britain and Ireland, ' there are also schools for artists, located in London. Edinburgh, and Dublin. France has 3 schools of tine Arts; and Italy, 25 academies and institutes. Russia has imperial academies of ari at St. Petersburg and Warsaw, and a School of painting and sculpture at Moscow. The schools for artists in the United States have already been mentioned in the article on Art- Education. FINLAND, a grand duchy in the north- western pari of the Russian Empire, having an ana of II L258 square miles, and a population, in 1st - -', of 1,835,138. Of this number, about five-sixths are Finns ; and of the remainder aboul 30,000 are Swedes, and 4,000 Russians. The great majority of the inhabitants belong to the Lutheran Church, very few of the native Linns having joined the < rreek church. Less is known of the early history of Finland than of any other country of Europe. It was originally governed by independent kings; but, in the middle ol the 12th century, it became subject to the kings of Sweden, who introduced Christian- ity, and retained their hold upon it up to 1809, when it was ceded to Russia. The Swedish language had taken such a deep root, however, that the Russians have not been able to eradicate it up to the present day. Very little was done for education in Finland up to the 17th century. In 1826, a gymnasium was founded in Abo, the pupils of which were educated to serve as clergy- men : but, in their learning and manners, they were not much better than the great mass of the people. In 1640, Abo obtained a university : but the great obstacle to the spread of education. was the want of books. In 1642, a Finnish Bible was published at the expense of the government; and, by the efforts. of the governor, Peter Brahe, the schools were greatly improved. Duringthe northern war, which lasted up to 1721, Finland suffered very much; but. after the conclusion of peace, education was revived, both in the Swed- ish and Russian parts of the country: and insti- tutions of learning were every-where established. At the present lime, education is well cared for, ami the Finnish language, which had been neglected under the Swedish rule, is encouraged by the Russian government. A large number Of native Finns were sent to Germany and Switzerland, in order to study the educational .systems of those countries, and to become ac- quainted with them, both theoretically and practically. Among them, one of the most prominent was L no < 'yguaus. who. on his return. advocated manual labor as a meansof education; and, in his proposition for the organization of a public-School system for Finland, he embodied this idea. In L863, he was intrusted with the organization of a Finnish seminary for public- Bchool teachers in .1 \ \ :bk\ lib This met with so much BUCCeSS, that in L871, two more were inized for Swedes, one at Ekeniis for female teachers, and the other at Ny-Karleby for male teacher8. According to the latest accounts, there weri' 71 elementary schools, with about 9,000 scholars. Secondary instruction is im- FISK CTNIVERSITT FLORIDA 309 parted in 6 gymnasia ; and, for superior instruc- tion, there is one university at Helsingfors, with 48 professors. Special instruction is provided tor in the following schools: one cadet corps al Frederikshamn r three navigation schools, three technological schools, three commercial schools, one institute for rural economy, at Mustiala. ten agricultural schools, six industrial schools for girls, ami one female academy, or high school, at Helsingfors. — See Bosch, BeUrdge zur Ge- schickte und Statistic des Kirchen- und Schul- wesens des Grossfiirstenikums Finnland {1814 |. FISK UNIVERSITY, at Nashville. Tenn., was established by the American Missionary Association in 1866. The name was given in honor of Gen. Clinton B. Fisk. then chief of t!i" Preedmen's Bureau for Tennessee, who aided in its establishment. It was known as the Fisk School till 1867, when it was incorporated as a university. It makes no distinction of race or sex, but the institution was especially designed for colored youth, and the students are mainly colored. It has received some aid from the Freedmen's Bureau and the Peabody Fund, and ,-i gift of between three and four acres of land from the United States: but its support is chiefly derived from the Association. In 1871, a number of the students were organized as a, singing; band, known as the " Jubilee Singers." These and their successors, by concerts in the Northern states and in England, earned cleat' of expenses $130,000, which was devoted to the purchase of a permanent site for the University, comprising 25 acres, in a beautiful situation in the suburbs of the city, and to the erection of a fine building (dedicated Jan, 1., 1876), called Jubilee Hall. The singers are now (1876) in England, engaged in the effort to raise an en- dowment of $100,000 for the institution. The prop Tiy of the university is valued at $176,000; its library contains 1,300 volumes ; audit has chemical and philosophical apparatus, and a col- lection of over 3,000 specimens in natural history, geology, and zoology. Six courses of study have been organized; namely, a collegiate, a college pre- paratory, a higher normal, a theological, a nor- mal, and a primary course. Other courses, in- cluding law and medicine, are to be added as soon as they are required. The first college class, con- sisting of I students, graduated in 1875. In 1875 — 6, there were 14 instructors. The number of students was as follows : in th ■ college course. 1 1 ; in the college preparatory, 38 ; higher normal. I •'>; theological, 13; normal, 93; primary, 63; total, deducting repetitions. '2\2. The tuition fees vary from $9 to $13 per year. Prof. John Ogden was principal of the institution from L866 to L870; and Prof. A. K. Spence, M. A., from L870 to 1875. In 1st:,, the Rev. E. M. Cravath, M. A., was elected president. FLATTICH, Johann. Friedrich, a Ger- man educator of the Pietistic School, was born October 30., L713, at Baihingen. near Ludwigs- burg. He was successively garrison chaplain at Uohenasperg, and pastoral Metterzimmern and at Munchingen, at the latter of which places he died, June 1.. 17!)7. lie was generally regarded in Germany as one of the most successful educa- tors in the country: and there were always, at his parsonage, classes of pupils of all ages and various grades of advancement, lie seemed to prefer as pupils those children whose parents were unable to manage them, or who seemed defective in mind or maimers. He Bought to avoid severity in discipline, and to govern by love. He objected to the use of the rod. not. he said, because it was not necessary with many, hut because it was difficult to use it aright, lie believed that the methods of instruction should he adapted to each child, according to his special disposition and endowments, the circumstances of his age. his bodily and mental strength, his disposition, his family condition, and tlie calling to which In wa> destined. Progress in instruc- tion should he made by slow steps, beginning with teaching of a simple character, and grad- ually building up the understanding, and strength- ening the mental powers. Flattich's fame rests not so much on his actual work as a teacher, on the distinction attained by any of his pupils, or even on his written works, as on the pithy maxims in which he expressed his views on education. These maxims are often quoted in Protestant works on the subject, and have had considerable influence in molding the theory of teachers. See Ledderiiose. Leben und Schriften des M. Johann Friedrich Flattieh (4th edit., Heidel- berg, 1859) : Scilf.fki;. Flattieh "ml sein pdda- gogisches System (Frankfort, L871). FLORIDA w;h ceded to the United States by Spain, by a treaty concluded in Washington in 1819, but not ratified till 1820. In 1821, the United States authorities took formal possession of its new dominions: and in L822, President .Mon- roe appointed William Duval of Kentucky gov- ernor of the territory. It was admitted into the Union as a state, .March .'!.. 1845. Its pop- ulation, in 1830, was reported to he 34,730, of whom 15,501 were slaves; in 1870, according to the census of that year, the population was 187,748, of whom 91,689 were tree colored per- sons. The number of inhabitants, of all races, lo veais old and upward, unable to write, was 71,803. Of these 18,904 were whites, ot whom 5,083 were from 10 to 15 years old. and 1,345 from 15 to 21. Of the colored inhabitants 52,894 were reported as illiterate. The area of the state is 59,268 square miles. Educational History.— As early as 1839, a provision was inserted into the proposed consti- tution that the lands received for •'the Use of schools and seminaries of learning" should be held inviolate: hut there was no efficient Com- mon school system in the state previous to 1869. In is pi. live years before the admission of Flor- ida into tin 1 nion, there were L 8 academies and grammar schools, with 732 students, and 51 com- mon and primary schools, with 925 pupils. Ac- cording to the census report of I Sad. there w 1(1 academies and 69 common or public schools. In I860, the census report gave Florida 1*7 pub- lic schools, widi 2,032 pupils; and 138 acade- 310 FLORIDA lilies and other schools, with 4,486 pupils. The whole educational income was $75,412, of which $2,045 was from endowments. The constitution of 18G5 contained a provision designed to secure for the benefit of the schools of the state the in- come derived from the school lands: but little was done to promote the cause of education till the passage of the school law, Jan. 30., L869, on which the present school system is based. State Superintendents. — The first state super- intendent of public instruction was C. Thurston Chase, appointed Aug. 13., L868, under whose advice and direction the school law of the fol- lowing year was enacted, lie held the office until his death Sept. 22., 1870 ; and Rev. Charles Beecher was appointed tosucceed him March L8., 1871, who served until -Ian. 23., 1873, when, a new administration coming into possession of the state government,he was superseded by Jonathan C. Gibbs. The latter held the office till his death, which occurred Aug. LI., L874. William Watkin Hicks, the present incumbent, was ap- pointed March I .. L875. School System. The school lawprovides for the establishment of a uniform system of public instruction tree to all children between the ages of (i and i'l years. The officers of the depart- ment of public instruction consist of a superin- tendent, a state hoard of education, a board of public instruction for each county, a superin- tendent of schools for each county, local school trustees, treasurers, and agents. Each county hoard of public instruction consists of not more than five members, appointed by the state board of education. 'The hoard of education consists of the superintendent of public instruction, the secretary of state, and the attorney general, the superintendent being the president of the hoard. Its duties are. to take charge of and control the sale or rental of all lands granted to, or held by, the state for educational purposes; to have charge and direct the use of all educational funds of the state: to audit the accounts of the superintendent ; to decide questions and appeals referred to them by the superintendent ; to re- move subordinate Officers for cause ; and to keep in view the establishment of a university, the object of which shall he to impart instruction in the professions of teaching, medicine, and law, in natural science, the theory an I practice of agriculture, horticulture, mining, engineering, and the mechanic arts ; also in the ancient and modern languages, higher mathematics, literature. ami in such useful ami ornamental branches as are not taught in the common schools. The superintendent holds office four years, ami is re- quired to have the oversight, management, and '■liar-.- ..i ill matters pertaining to public lands, school buildings, grounds, furniture, libraries, i>m t ks, and apparatus ; to furnish all school officers with the necessary blanks tor official re- turns, ami information regarding the proper dis charge of their duties; to provide plans ami specifications for the construction and furnish iug of school buildings; to call meetings of counts superintendents and othei officers for the purpose of advising and instructing them as to their duties : to grant certificates to successful teachers, and to fix the grades and standards of qualification of teachers in general ; toapportion the interest of the school fund and that raised by the one-mill tax among the counties in pro- portion to the number of children residing there- in between the ages of 6 and 21 ; to decide questions and appeals arising under the school act, or to refer the same to the hoard of education ; to collect and preserve useful educational and historical documents, and specimens of natural history. Each county board is constituted a corporate body, and may take and hold real and personal property for educational purposes, lis duties are to have charge of all educational prop- erty in the county: to locate and maintain -el Is where needed, so as to accommodate all the children of school age in the county, not less than three months of each year: to examine candidates for teachers' licenses, and grant certif- icates to those found competent : ami to keep a record of its official proceedings. The county superintendent is secretary ex officio of the hoard of public instruction : and. in addition to keeping the records, he is required to make him- self acquainted withal! parts of the county, and to keep himself informed of the needs and wishes of the people in regard to schools; to visit each school at least once in each term, and t< nfer with and direct the teachers in their work; to exercise a supervision over the trustees, the gen- eral management of the schools, and do all in his power to awaken an increased interest in parent.-, trustees, and teachers, in regard to every thine pertaining to the welfare of the schools ; also to select persons for trustees, whose characters, qualifications, and sympathy with education specially commend them for such positions; to decide questions in dispute, or refer them to the hoard of public instruction : to keep a record of the name, description, and locality of every school established : and to perform the duties, as far as may he necessary, of the hoard of public instruction, in case such a body should not be organized, or should fail without good cause to perform its duties. The school trustees are re- quired to take special charge of the schools in their respective localities, to see to 'he construc- tion and .-ate keeping of the school buildings and other property, to co-operate with the teachers in maintaining order and discipline, to suspend or expel pupils for misconduct : and to make a quarterly report to the county superintendent. Certificates of qualification to teach, valid for one year, may be granted by the county hoards of public instruction, also hy the .-late superintendent to graduates of the Department of Teaching, and to eminently successful teach- ers, valid in any part of the state during the time specified. These certificates are of three grades, the standard for each being fixed by the state superintendent. A certificate may he an- nulled by the authority which issued it. tor any cause which would disqualify a candidate for a License. FLORIDA FOREIGN EDUCATION 111 Teachers are specially directed to labor ear- nestly and faithfully for the advancement of the pupils in their studies, and to inculcate by pre cepl and example the principles of truth, hon- esty, patriotism, and the practice of every chris- tian virtue; to require the pupils to observe personal cleanliness, order, and good manners, to cultivate in them habits of industry and economy, a regard for the rights and feelings of others and for their own responsibilities and duties as citizens ; to see that the buildings and furniture are not unnecessarily defaced or injured: toenforce needful discipline, avoiding unnecessary severity and measures degrading in their tendency; to suspend pupils from school for ten days for gross immorality, misconduct, or persistent violation of the school regulations ; and to hold a public examination each term. The leading of the Bible and short devotional exercises of a non- seetarian character, at the opening of the school, are not to be prohibited; but no pupil is to be required to engage in them against his conscience, or contrary to the wishes of his parents or guardian. A school day is defined to consist of six hours exclusive of recesses; a school month, of twenty- two days, exclusive of the first and last day of each week: a school term, of three months ; and a school year, of three terms. School Finn I. — The school fund consists of the Kith section of the various townships set apart by act of Congress for common-school purposes, the original amount of which, in Florida, was 704,692 acres, of which 115,184 have been sold 1 1 875) : state bonds amounting to $205,252,63 ; and various donations by individuals for educa- tional purposes. Besides the income from these sources, there are appropriations by the state ; the proceeds of all property granted to the state, when the purpose of the grant is not specified ; all moneys which may be paid for exemption from military duty ; all fines collected under the penal laws of the state ; such portion of the per capita tax as may be prescribed by law for ed- ucational purposes; twenty-five per cent of the proceeds of the sales of public lands which are now or may hereafter be owned by the state : a m ial tax of not less than one mill on the dollar upon all taxable property in the state, to be levied and apportioned annually for the suppun of common schools : a comity tax to be raised by each county, annually producing a sum not less than one-half of the amount apportioned to each county from the income of the common school fund. The seminary lands were granted by ( longress for the support of two seminaries, one to be located east, and the other west of the Suwanee River, and amounted originally to 85,714 acres. Of these about 38,000 acres remain unsold. The sum realized by the sale of these lands has amounted to aboul $100,000; and the estimated value of the remainder is about $75,000. In addition to this, there are Florida 6,7, and 8 per vent bonds, amounting to $81,492.45. There is uo uniform course of instruction established as yet in the state. In the high schools, the usual higher English and classical studies are pursued; also the modern languages. The salaries of teachers, in the high schools, range from $75 to $17:") a month : and. in the common and primary schools, from $20 to $60 a month, according to the number of pupils and the qualifications of the teachers. Educational Condition. — There are three grades of schools. — high, common, and primary, in tin' principal towns: in the country schools no grading is at present possible. The whole number of schools, in 1874, was f>.~>7, all of which were common or primary except H high schools, located as follows: in Jacksonville, 2, — Duval High School and Staunton Institute: in I'ensacola, 1; in Key West, 1 ; in Monticello, 1 ; and at Fort Reid, 1. The following are the principal items of the school statistics for 1*7 I : Number of pupils enrolled 21,196 Average daily attendance lo.s'.i? Number of teachers, male and female 650 Receipts from all sources $103,774.53* Total expenditures $139,870.61 There are no city -school systems proper in this state, the management of all the schools in each county being in the hands of the county board of public instruction. Seminaries. — The Middle Florida Seminary, located at Gainesville, and the West Florida Seminary, at Tallahassee, are supported by the special funds above mentioned. They are free to all the youth of the counties in which they are situated, and to those of the adjoining counties. The course of study includes common and higher English branches, with the classics and the modern languages. There are also several private and denominational schools in various parts of the state. Superior Instruction. — There is no institution for superior instruction in Florida ; but a state agricultural college has been planned and provided for by law, and was to have been inaugurated some time ago ; but this has been delayed by pend- ing litigation in regard to the constitutionality of the state bonds in which the college funds had been invested. Of this college when estab- lished the state superintendent of public instruc- tion will be ex officio the president. Educational Literature. — The Femandina Observer is the official organ of the state educa- tional department. FOREIGN EDUCATION. By this is meant the education of children in foreign coun- tries. Parents in the I'nited Stales sometimes send their children to France or Germany to be educated, in preference to having them instructed in i he scl Is of their native country. The custom also exists to some extent in Great Britain. The motive which prompts this course is the desire that their children shall have the best means of instruction, and the impression thai this is af- forded by the teachers and schools of Europe. * Including $8,000 from the Peabody fund. 312 FOREIGN EDUCATION FORM Very frequently, liowevcr.it arises from the wish on the part of parents to accomplish their children in foreign languages, particularly French and German. "Some parents." says Von Raumer. ■ who think no attainment valuable in compar- ison with a facility in speaking French, send their daughters to French or Swiss schools, where they can hear and speak nothing but French. In such a foreign atmosphere they too often become estranged from their native home and country.'' "For our youth," says B. G. Northrop, "Ameri- can schools are better than European. To send our boys and girls away to a foreign boarding- school is a great mistake, or rather one of the fashionable follies which is just now having its day." Parents who adopt this course, seem t<> lose sight of the important fact that the school is not the only educator, nay, is not generally the most effective means of education. The influences that cluster around the home-circle, and that emanate from the peculiar laws, customs, man- ners, and institutions of the country in which the child lives, leave their indelible impress upon the plastic character of youth; ami these influences shoidd be such as to form a character in har- mony with the life of the nation of which the child when grown up is to form a part. Lin- guistic ami esthetic training cannot he a satisfac- tory substitute fortius national culture. It is of little use that young men or women know howto speak fluently and correctly French, German, Italian, or any other foreign language, or excel in either judging or executing works of art. if they are ignorant of, or indifferent to, the lan- guage and institutions of their own country. ( hildren gro\i ing up in a foreign land must nee essarily imbibe a predilection for foreign man- ners, customs, and sentiments, because these are inseparably associated with the most delightful part of their existence. Every one reverts with pleasure to the scenes of childhood, consecrated in the mind, as they are, by the memory of the enjoyments peculiar to that age. It is this that renders the foreign education of children so dan- gerous, as tending to unlit them for the duties of Special citizenship. I low often do we hear the most unfavorable criticism pronounced upon the institutions and customs of the native country by those whose notions, associations, and mo of thought have been formed by a, foreign educa- tion! " The experience of American colleges." says B. G. Northrop, "is believed to be nearly uniform, a to the superiority in the qualifica- tion of candidates trained at home o\er our youth prepare I for college abroa I. The number <>f the latter class is relatively small ; but the instances of eminent success, cither in col' studies or practical life on the pari of American boys chiefly educated abroad, are rare and excep- tional." These objections, of course, do not apply to the practice of sending abroad young men and women of more mature age, either t<> finish their education in foreign Bchools or universities, or to acquire a knowledge of some special arts in tech- nical schools, because the national character hav- ing been once fully formed, is not easily affected by later influences and conversations. Young men. among the Romans, particularly in the later periods of the republic, were often sent to Greece and other countries to finish their scholastic or literary education. Thus Cicero addresses his De officii* to his son Marcus, then a young man of 2\, who had been for some time pursuing his studies in the schools of Athens. In the same manner and with equal propriety, a young man may be sent from the United States to any of the great European universities, either in (Jreat Britain or on the continent, to pursue linguistic, scientific, technical, artistic, or other studies, for which those institutions are able to afford greater facilities than are offered at home. Foreign travel constitutes an important part of a complete education, and is not at all subject to the objections which are urged against a foreign elementary education. Nothing more enlarges the mind than the observation of the manners, institutions, etc., of foreign countries. New and vivid ideas are impressed upon it; narrow prejudices are removed; and a founda- tion is la ill for just and liberal thought. This, however, should occur at a comparatively mature age. and should be preceded by sufficient educa- tion to fit for the observation of things abroad. .. Foreign travel." says Bishop Watson (cited in Knox on lAbernl Eiluaitioii), "is of great use when it is undertaken by men who have learned to bring their passions under the control of reason and religion ; who have had some experi- ence in life, acquired some knowledge of the manufactures, policy, revenues, and resources of their own country." — See Northbop, Education of Americans abroad (New York). FORM, one of the most important branches of object teaching, since, from the lirst dawn of intellect, the endless variety of forms presented to the child's sight constitutes perhaps the most effective means of awakening and exercising its perceptive faculties. The first comparison which the young child makes between the objects of its perception must be based upon their resemblam the conscious perception of differences occurring somewhat later. 'I his arises from its need of forming general ideas as preliminary to the exer- cise of its thinking powers. (See Int. Ed'n.) The diversity of forms, like that of color, as seen by the child, very greatly interests it and attracts its attention ; and, hence, when formal education begins, the child has already accumulated in its mind, in a rude and indefinite way. many materials which the expert teacher will use, in guiding his pupil to more exact knowledge. The untaught child's vocabulary of terms to denote the various forms which it has seen is Very meager; and, hence, its conceptions are too indefinite to form the materials for conscious thought. They are, as it were, only embryotic thoughts, to lie developed by the power of language. Hence, an important office ^>^ the in- structor is to teach the proper term, or word, by which each particular object of the child's atten- tion is to be designated, and in this way clearly FORM FOUNDLING ASYLUMS 313 individualized. For example, a young child intuitively perceives the difference between the form of a round object and a square cue: bul before the terms round and square have been learned as the names of these forms, tbey cannot be used by the mind in any process of thought. Besides, the young mind, in the exercise of its unaided powers, is chiefly occupied with the observation of resemblances and analogies, and only after the guidance of the teacher, comes to recognize clearly points of difference, the sense of analogy, as it has been called, taking the lead in the firsl stages of mental development. In making use ui/hrm as a basis for training the observing faculties the teacher should be guided by the following principles: (1) Resem- blances are perceived before differences; (2) The concrete precedes the abstract; (.'5) Every object is perceived as a whole before its component parts are noticed : (4) Every idea must have its pro[>er verbal designation to be clearly and permanently fixed in the mind. The teacher should, therefore, begin with simple regular forms, such as the cube, prism, parallelopiped, pyramid, sphere, cone, and cylinder. These, at first, should be all alike in material ami color, and about the same in size, so that the teacher may clearly develop the idea of form, as the rudimental step in the instruction. At first the process should be very slow. Tims the teacher holds up to the view of the pupils a cubical block of wood [one fof the box: of solids usually employed in such lessons], and asks. •• What is this." And the children probably reply, "A piece of wood." Then the teacher presents successively the sphere, cone, cylinder, etc., asking the same question and obtaining the same answer. The teacher then says. "Each of these is a piece of wood; are they all alike ? " To which the children answer. "No." "Do they differ in color?" -No. " "In size?" "No." This leads the teacher to show, in a very general way, not by giving names at first, but by directing the pupils' attention, that the objects differ inform ; that is, each has its own peculiar form. The teacher may then go back to the cube, and ask the pupils to men- tion any other things they have seen which have the same form as the block of wood ; and so on with the other forms. This exercise being a perfectly natural one will awaken interest, besides familiarizing the children with the par- ticular forms presented. The next step will be to lead the children to observe the points of difference between these forms: and. in order to do this, the analytic process must begin. Thus, the teacher develops the idea, of side ox face, and the pupils perceive that the <■,,]„■ lias six faces; the edges, < orners, and equality of faces and edges may then be observed. When the pupil hits perceived the distinctive characteristics of the form, its name, as cube, prism, etc., may be taught. This method requires the teacher to begin with solids (as the concrete) and to deduce from the observation of them the ideas of sur- face, line, and point (as the abstract), in accord- ance with the principle (2). After these ideas have been thus developed, and the method of representing lines and figures on the blackboard shown to the pupil, he is prepared for varied slate and blackboard exercises on the positions and combinations of lines both straight ami curved, to lie followed by similar exercises on plane figures. '1 he study of form thus pat into that of drawing, in connection with which inventive exercises of a simple character may be employed, the children being shown how to combine lines and figures into simple patterns or designs. Of a similar but more elementary character are Mock combinations, which will serve to interest and instruct very young children. Boxes of blocks made tor this purpose, with de- signs for construction, can be readily obtained. < harts containing diagrams of plane figures will also be found very useful in giving lessons on form. These lessons should be systematic. U01 desultory, but regularly arranged, with the under- lying principle kepi steadily in view. Especially should the teacher guard against requiring pupils to commit to memory formal geometrical definitions, the chief point to be attained being the discipline of the observing faculties. — See ( !urrie, Principle s and Practice of Early School Education (Edin. and Lond.) ; Hailman, Out- lines of Object -Teaching (N. Y., 1867); Calkins, Primary Object Lessons (X. T., lttTJj ; How to Teach (N. T., 1874). FORT WAYNE COLLEGE, at Fort Wayne, Ind., founded in 1846, is under the patronage of the North and North- West Indiana Conferences of the Methodist Episcopal Church. It is situated in the most pleasant part of the city, and occupies a large and commodious edi- fice. It comprises six departments : the college (with a classical and a scientific course), the normal, commercial, and academic departments, and those of music and art. It is supported by tuition fees, and both sexes are admitted. In 1875 — 6, there were 11 instructors and 132 students. The Rev. Reuben D. Robinson, D., D., is the president of the college (18TG). FOUNDLING ASYLUMS are institutions in which children are received who have been abandoned by their parents. The Christian Church, in the earliest period of its history, pro- vided for foundlings; and, as early as the sixth century, a foundling asylum is said to have ex- isted in Treves. Hut the first institution of this kind of which we have any authentic informa- tion is that of .Milan, founded in T>7. Others followed in course of time, and they spread rapidly. Later, they disappear from the Ger- manic countries, and principally from those in which the Protestant faith prevailed: while they continued to spread in the Catholic and Romanic countries. Particularly have they in- creased in France, and wherever French influence has predominated. Thus in France the number of foundlings received in asylums increased from 40,000, in L784, to 129,700 in L834. In Austria proper, there were, in 1872, 15 foundling asylums, taking care of 13,725 children in the institutions, and 12,460 outside. The number of 314 FOURIER FRANCE foundlings annually received in Rome is esti- 1 mated at 3,000; in Naples, at 2,000; and in Tus- ' cany, at about 12,000. Spain had, in lsfiO, 149 asylums, with 53,464 foundlings. Portugal had, in tin same year, 21 asylums, with 33,500 found- ' lings. L 6,000 being received annually. England has foundling asylums in London and Wanstead. The institution in London, in 1870, maintained 504 children. The only asylum in Dublin was closed in L835. Norway lias several institutions of this kind, and the number of foundlings has, for some years, been more than 9 per cent of the total number of births. Sweden has also an asylum at Stockholm. There are but few foundling asylums in the I 'nited States, the children being generally brought to the alms-houses. In New York, a Catholic asylum was founded in 1869, which re- ceived considerable aid, in money and grants of land, from the state. Resides this institution, there are several others in the same city, all. how- ever, established and controlled by private char- ity. The Nursery and Child's Hospital, founded in 185 1, has, however, a school, which is partly sup- ported from the state sehoul fund. This asylum has a country branch on the north shore of Staten Island. Nowhere, in the United States, has the government taken any further part in the erec- tion of foundling asylums, than to aid them with money ami giants of land. Considerable differ- ence of opinion exists as to the utility of found- ling asylums. One of the chief objections raised a ga i list them is the excessive mortality of the chil- dren : hut this has been greatly reduced by Bend- ing the children into the country, and boarding them out in private families. Very little has I ii done for the education of foundlings, at least in the asylums, as they are sent to other in- stitutions for instruction, and continued there Up to their thirteenth or fourteenth year, after which they are provided with places of employ- ment, generally as apprentices to fanners and others. In Koine, a large number of the chil- dren are educated in families. The hoys that return to the asylum, are sent to the foundling asylum in Viterbo, where they learn trades up to their twenty-first year, when they are dismis- sed with a present of 1(1 SClldi. If they remain in the families, they are educated ill the same manner, and. when of age, receive a similar present. The girls are kept in the families or in the asylum until they marry, when they receive a dowry of loo scudi. In Russia, foundlings are e Lucated for a trade or profession ; and those who show particular talents are sent to the uni- versity. Mere also the children are hoarded in private families as much as possible. In Russia and Prance, agricultural colonies have also Keen established, where the hoys are brought upas farmers. See Hueqel, Die Findelh&user »«98, with Alice I.e (leie and other nuns, he formed an educational institution for girls. In 1603, he obtained a papal bull for the organization of the society of Ifbtre Dame de Lorraine, of which Alice Le Clerc was the first abbess: and this society was confirmed by Raul V.. in 1616. The order spread rapidly and has. at present, flourish- ing establishments in France, Hungary. Canada, the New England States, and ( hili. with its ri ntral house for America in Montreal. He also reformed the canons of the order of Prhnoniri, who bound themselves to the education of christian youths. In 1632, he was elected superior general of the new society, which called itself St. Sauveur ill' Lorraine. He was beatified -Ian. '_".».. 1*730, ami is generally styled the Blessed Peter Fourier.— bee Ritter, Der selige P. Fourier (Lin/.. 1855). FRACTIONS. See ARITHMETIC. FRANCE, one of the principal countries of Europe, having an area of 204,090 sq. m., and a population, according to the census of l>>7'2,of 36,102,921. Formerly France had immense pos- sessions in America, far exceeding those of ( Ireat Britain; but of these she. at present, retains but a very small part. During the present century, however. French rule has been extended over considerable territories in northern Africa. Far- ther India, and the insular world in the Pacific. The total area of the French colonies and de- pendencies, inclusive of Algeria, was estimated, in 1875, at about 373,000 sq. m., having a popu- lation of about 6,600,000. Including its colonies and dependencies, France occupied, in 1876, the fifth rank among the nations of the earth in regard to population, and the twelfth in point of territorial extent. The people of France proper are remarkably homogeneous in language and religion, Almost the entire population speak the French language, and more than 98 per cent are actually or nominally connected with the Catholic Church. 'I lms France is the chief re- presentative, among the countries of the earth, of what is sometimes called the latin race: and its language is foremost among Romanic lan- guages, as it- people are chief among the supporters of the Catholic Church. — 'I he present territory ol France, in the earliest historic times, was in- habited by the Cauls, a Celtic tribe. The country became a Roman province 58 51 B.C. During the 5th century A. D., it was conquered by the Franks, a German tribe, who built up an empire. which, under Charlemagne, reached its greatest territorial extent, embracing, besides modern France, a large portion of Germany and Italy. With the division of this empire, in 843, by the treat] of Verdun, begins the separate bistorj w France and Germany. The kingdom of Prance. slowly consolidating itself by the absorption of FRAMT. 315 the territories of numerous petty princes, at- tained the summit iof its glory under l>mis XIV. (1643 — 171")); but. tired at last of the long-con- tinued oppression of the kings and the priv- ileged classes, the people, in 1789, rose in a mighty insurrection, proclaimed the republic in L792, and executed King Louis XVI. in 17915. The republic was overthrown by Napoleon I.. who made himself emperor of France, in 1 804, and established the greatest empire of modern times, subjecting to his direct or indirect rule all Europe except England and Russia. With his final dethronement, in L815, this empire came to an end ; and the re-instated Bourbons only ruled within the former limits of the king- dom of France. In 1848. a second republic was proclaimed, and Louis Napoleon was elected president, who. in 1852, proclaimed himself em- peror under the title of Napoleon III. His de- feat, in 1870, by the united German states led to the deposition of bis dynasty and the proclama- tion of the third French republic. Educational History. — Little is known of the state of education among the Celts of ancient Gaul; but < !sesar says of the Druids that they 'held a great many discourses about the stars and their motions, about the extent of the universe' and of various countries, about the nature of things, and the power of the immortal gods," and "transmitted their opinions and knowledge to the young." In the flourishing Greek colony at Marseilles, a school was estab- lished long before the time of Caesar, which at- tracted a large number of pupils. Under the rule of the Romans, the cause of education made considerable progress. Lyons, Narbonne, Bor- deaux, Toulouse, Aries, Besancon, Treves, and other centers of population, had both public and private schools, in which the Greek and Roman classics were read. The teachers of these schools enjoyed many privileges. They drew their salaries from the imperial treasury, and, before entering upon their office, had to undergo a public com- petitive examination. The scholars were divided into three classes: externi, living outside the institution, convictores, boarders, and alimen- tarii, those supported in the institution by pub- lic or private stipends. When, in the course of the- 5th century, the education and civilization of pagan Rome gradually decayed, and finally disappeared before the advance of Christianity. Christian schools sprung up in connection with many monasteries, and France soon t < >< >k: aprom- inent part in the establishment of cathedral, collegiate, and convent schools. Among the cathedral schools, those at Aries, Bourges, Clermont, Le Mans, Paris, Poitiers, and Vienne, and among the convent schools, those of Luxence, and of St. Vaudville. in Normandy, were espe- cially famous. During the 7th century, dense igno- rance prevailed ; but Charlemagne infused new- life into the existing schools, and founded many new ones. Through the efforts of Alcuin, the court school (schola palaHna), in which the sons of nobles were educated, became a model school for all ecclesiastical institutions. The reign of Louis le Debonnaire was not favorable to this school, but its prosperity revived under Charles the Bald, when it counted John Scotua Erigena among its teachers. After the death of I harles the Laid, the efficiency of the school departed lor ever, and theological seminaries and convent schools were the only institutions in which an education could be obtained. The feudal wars which followed entirely prostrated all educational institutions. In the llth and L2th centuries, the reformatory movements among the clergy favorably reacted upon education, and many of the clerical schools regained new luster. Fan's became the great center of learning, and many were the distinguished teachers who added to the reputation of the Parisian schools. The most illustrious among all the French teachers of this period was A belaid (q. v.). Besides the episcopal schools of Notre Dame and Genevieve, in Paris, those of Reims and Chartres. and the convent school of Bee, in Normandy, were especially famous. In 1200, a royal decree which exempted the teachers of Paris, the students and their servants, from the jurisdiction of the city. prepared the way for a corporate organization of teachers and students, and. consequently, for the establishment of the Paris university, which, after animated controversies with the chancellor of the chapter of Notre Dame, in 1203, had its independence recognized and permanently secured by Papal privileges. The reputation and influence of the new university increased with marvelous ra j iklity, and attracted thousands of students from all parts of Europe. In 1233, another university was established at Toulouse, which received from Gregory IX. privileges equal to those of Paris. A third university was founded at Montpelher, where, probably, the scholarship of the Arabian schools in the neigh- boring Spain were exerting a favorable influence. In the natural course of development, these in- stitutions became the only seats of the higher studies, while cathedral and convent schools re- mained almost exclusively training schools of candidates for the priesthood. The controversy of the university of Paris with the powerful orders of the Franciscans and Dominicans led to the organization of the theological faculty, which was gradually succeeded by the division of the entire university into four faculties. As the example of Paris was followed in most countries of Europe, the establishment of distinct faculties marks a new departure in the history of the European universities. (See University.) Another educational movement of great impor- tance was begun in I'aris by the establishment of colleges in connection with the university. These institutions were, at first, intended 1o give to students from the French provinces, and from foreign countries, lodging and hoard, and s c of them were founded even before the establish- ment of the university. But their character as preparatory and auxiliary schools was only de- veloped in connection with the universii Among the oldest and most renowned Parisian colleges, were those of St. Thomas, the Danish 316 FRANCE College, the College of the Dix-huil, the Greek ( lollege ( 1206), and the Sorbonne (1253). Besides these colleges, which, however, were numerous only in Paris, the universities conducted also independent middle schools to meet the growing demand of large classes of the population for in- struction. Pans, at this time, had even a system of parochial or elementary schools, under the Grand Chanter, or master of singing. In L380, the male and female teachers oi Paris held a general meeting, from the proceedings of which it appears that there were, at that time, in Paris at least 41 male, and -'2 female teachers. Of the former, many had the degree of bachelier or mailre-es-arts. In the course of the L4th and 1 5th centuries, the desire for knowledge and edu- cation became quite general among the nobility and the population of the towns. The number of students rapidly increased in all parts of the country. New universities arose at Orleans, Cahors, Perpignan, Angers, .\i\. Caen, Poitiers, Valence, Nantes, Bourges, and Bordeaux. The kings recognized their importance, conferred upon them many favors, and by gradually with- drawing them from papal and placing them unil.T royal jurisdiction, substantially changed their character. Strict, conformity with the teaching of the church was no longer, to the same degree as before, the highest aim kept in view, and amor 1 position was accorded to i lie foremost representatives of the high schools in both church and state. Among the grandest triumphs of the university was the leading part which it was called upon to take in the termination of the papal si hism. The trans- fer of the lectures from the hails of the univer- sity to the colleges was an innovation which has not proved conducive to the progress of edu- cation. By making the colleges the centers of university instruction, instead oi pn paral and auxiliary schools, ii retarded the sharp dis- tinction between secondary and superior instruc- tion, w bich has greatly promoted the educational development of other European countries. The ecclesiastical seminaries and convent schools greatly suffered, toward the close of the middle ages, from t he disorders prevailing in the church; but the pelites icoles, or small Latin schools, which were conducted by clergymen in all the larger towns, attained a high degree of prosper- dnder Louis XI. (I id -] 1.-:;,, the sub- ion of all the non clerical schools to the supreme jurisdiction of the stale government was completed. In L529, Francis 1. founded the i School tor the study of the humanities, which were too muchm glected by the university. The new school flourished in spite of all opposition, and attained a very honorable position among the high schools of trance. The university . on the other hand, lost, to a great ex- tent, ii^ i irmer influence and prestige, while im- morality made alarming progress among the students, especially between L548 and 1" 18. The governmenl took occasion, from the deplor- able condition of the university, to curtail its privil I ■ ctor, instead of being the head of an independent organization, became an officer of the king. After the conversion of the universities into state institutions had been com- pleted, the government deemed it expedient to extend their educational influence, and. to that end, conferred upon them the exclusive privilege of preparing students for the academic degrees and for the state examinations. The powerful competition which existed between the schools of the Jesuits and the universities, was an effi- cient spur for the latter, but, when Louis XIV. took the Jesuits under his special protection, their influence upon the educational institutions of the country became, for a time, all-powerful. Another religious order, the Oratorians, were active and zealous in the management of town schools, while primary education, in the rural districts, appears to have been, on the whole, in a very unsatisfactory condition. After the ex- ample of the Jesuits and Oratorians, a number of other religious orders devoted their chief or even exclusive attention to teaching schools of different grades; and no other country of the World showed itself SO prolific in the formation of new congregations of school brothers and school sisters as fiance. (See KOMAN CATHOLKJ Church.) The philosophy of Descartes emanci- pated the French high schools to a considerable extent from the rule of scholasticism, w hich until then had been generally prevalent, and through the petL i of Port Loyal, its influence Sied even the primary schools. The petiies ecoles oi Port Loyal wen; not of lone,- duration, but their school books were continued in use for along time. Rollin, the celebrated Lector of the Paris University, followed closely in the steps of Port Royal, and France is indebted to him for several important reforms, 'i he rigid centralization which, under Louis XTV., began to be established in all departments of public life, was also applied to the educational institu- tions. A closer connection was established anion-- the colleges, a general course of studies was draw n up, new studies were introduced, and the training of teachers was improved. Many distinguished educators found, however, in the educational methods of the French schools too much of a mechanical formalism : and Rousseau violently attacked the pedagogy of his time as lifeless and weak, perverse and inefficient.- 1 he influence of the great revolution of L789 showed itself first iu an attempt to introduce the prin- ciples of the revolution into all the schools of the country. Several plans were tried, but with- out satisfactory results. Talleyrand, in L791, submitted an elaborate and c prehensive plan of national education, but. the Constituent As- sembly confined itself to sanctioning two prin- ciples: I public instruction shall he estab- lished common to every citizen, and gratuitous in respect to those branches which are necessary lo all, and its establishments will be grad- ually arranged in accordance with the divisions of the kingdom; and (2) national holidays will be appointed. In L792, the philosopher Con- dorcet submitted another elaborate plan to the; FRANCE 317 Legislative Assembly, which, however, was like- wise prevented, by the gravity of political events, from completing the reconstruction of public education. In September of the same year, the Convention pronounced the abolition of all the colleges, and of the faculties, turning instruction over to private enterprise. As the consequences of this measure proved to be very injurious, the Convention founded, in L794, the Ecole Centrale, subsequently named Ecole Polytechnique ; and, in 1 7!C>, the Ecole Nbrmcde, which was aban- doned after three months, and one hundred cen- tral schools, a kind of real gymnasia, which likewise did not prove a success. A general nation- al school law was likewise proclaimed in 1795, but it never took effect. Real progress in re- construction was made by the Consulate, which, in L800, established tour large colleges called prytaneums,sA Paris, Versailles, Fontainebleau, and St. Germain, to which were afterwards added one at Brussels, and one at Compiegue, the latter for mechanical arts and navigation. A general revival of education began in 1802, and in L805, Prance again possessed 30 lyceums and 250 communal colleges. At the same time, the government restricted the absolute freedom of teaching, and subjected the entire educational Bystem to a stricl supervision. In 1808, Napo- leon abolished the old provincial institutions, and united all the teaching forces of the country into one educational corporation, which he called Universite de France. Be comprised in this one organization all the educational insti- tutions, from the primary school to the uni- versity. The chief peculiarity of this organ- ization was that the university alone possessed the right of teaching, and that in this way every body was forced to receive its teaching. The supreme direction was placed in the hands of a Grand .Master, and a Council of the University. In 1815, after the overthrow of the Empire, this grand master and the council of the university were abolished, ami their powers wen; transferred to a royal commission acting under the authority of the minister of the interior. The commission was, in 1820, changed into a royal council of public instruction, the president of which again received,in 1822, the title of Grand .Master of the University, and in IS'24, that of Minister of Public Instruction and Ecclesiastical Affairs. The Gharte of 1830 promise 1 a new educational law, as well as a law on freedom of instruction ; these provisions were, however, only carried out in part. In 1833, a new law on primary instruction appeared, which introduced important reforms. Sir. Guizot, the minister of public instruction, addressed, in connection with this law, a circular letter to the primary teachers, which was trans- lated into all the languages of Europe, and gained for its author hosts of warm admirers. The bishops regarded the existing school legis- lation, and especially the privileges of the uni- versity, as detrimental to the interests of the < 'atholic Church. and accordingly began a vigorous agitation for freedom of instruction. In 1845, the minister of public instruction, Salvandy, consented to a change in the composition of the Council of Studies, by appointing, in addition to the life members of which it was formerly composed, some members for a term of years. In April 1847, Salvandy drew up this drafl of a new law which substituted for the I louncil of the University a Superior < louncil of Public Instruc- tion, which was to contain, beside the members Of the University, representatives of the state government, of the bishops, of the Protestant consistories, of the Jewish and of the private schools. Only a few provisions of this law had been carried into practice, when the revolution of 1848 interrupted its further execution. In 1850, a new law was passed which substantially granted the demands of the Catholic party as to the composition of the superior council. This body was henceforth to be composed of arch- bishops, bishops. Protestant clergymen, council- ors of state, and members of the Institute of France, all elected by the free suffrage of their colleagues; Under the second empire, this mode of election was abolished; and the government claimed the right of appointing all the members. In making the appointments, the government showed itself, however, anxious to give no offense to the church. Bythe law of L854, sixteen acad- emies were established, to which one was added afterward. These academies were subdivisions of the University, and comprised all the insti- tutions of a district, faculties, lyceums. colleges, and primary schools. For each academy a coun- cil was appointed, composed of the inspectors, the deans of the faculties, a bishop, two clergy- men, two magistrates, and two other state officers of the academic district, the seven last being ap- pointed by the ministry. After the overthrow of the second empire, Jules Simon, one of the most distinguished educational writers of France. became minister of public instruction. The chief aim of the new minister was to make primary instruction as general as possible, and to raise the French schools of all grades to a level with the best in any country of the world. I?y a law of 1873, the council of public instruc- tion was again made elective. As the majority of the legislative assembly were favorable to the demands of the < hnrch, superior instruction was. in 1875, so regulated as to make it possible for the Catholic Church to establish free Catholic universities. In L876, the chamber of deputies passed a bill to restore to the university the sole right of conferring degrees, but it was not con- curred in by tin' senate. Primary Instruction, — The policy of estab- lishing public primary schools under the control of the state, in which all children might receive instruction, was not incorporated into the legis- lation of France until after the law of dune 28., 1833, under the administration of M.Cui/.ot as minister of public instruction. The attempts made during tin- revolutionary period, and un- der the empire, to provide a national system of instruction, had lasting results only for secondary and superior instruction, but not for primary schools. One of the great scholars of that time, 318 FRANCE M. Cuvier, made an extensive tour through Holland, Germany, and Italy, to study the edu- cational systems of those countries: and his re- port, published in L811, which specially com- mended the elementary schools of Holland for their sound practical organization, excited a lively interest, and led to regretful comparisons, but not to any real improvement. M. Guizot, in a brief review of the educational history of Prance, commends the heads of the educational department under the Restoration for their good intentions; hut of the educational condition of the country, from L814 to L830, he can only state : " It cannot be said thai elementary in- struction did not suffer from political attacks ; hut still it did not completely perish in the dan- gerous contact." The government of L830 proved itself, from its commencement, highly favorable to elementary instruction. The exec- utive government and the chambers vied with each other in the promotion of this object. In Is.'! I. .M. Cousin, one of the ablest scholars of France, was sent to Germany to study the edu- cational system of that country; and. in the report published on his return, he carefully dis- cussed all questions which the new law on primary education, then in preparation, was to settle. M. (biizot, who was appointed minister of public instruction, in 1832, was supported in the preparation of the new law. by a number of eminent men, among whom, besides M. Cousin, may 1"- especially mentioned .M. Yillemain, M. Thenard, and M. Rendu, on account of their reputation as scholars or educational writers. The conscientious care with which the law of L833 had been prepared, is now recognized on all sides, as is also the beneficent influence which it has exerted upon the progress of pri- mary ediicat ion. In L826, there were I 1.009 com- munities which had no elementary schools ; and. in L 832, there were in Paris 30,000, among the To.ooo children of school age, who received no instruction. Pour years alter the promulga- tion of the law of L837, as many as 29,613, of 35,280 communities in the country, had their own school houses. On the basis of the new law. the primary-school system was iv fully developed by the law of March 1.").. L850, the organic decree of March '.»., L852, and the law of .Ian. II., L854. These laws supplement each other, and contain the chief principles which arc still in force The primary schools of each commune are under a local board, consisting of the mayor, the parish priest, and a few citizens elected by the ollicelS of the , / rm,,i I ' is.-i'ii/rii I '. This board superintends both public and private primary 3chools. It cannot appoint teachers: but. in case of a vacancy, it can decide whether a lay teacher or a member of a religious congrega- tion shall be appointed, In urgent cases, the mayor has the power to remove teachers, but he must give immediate notice to the inspecteur pri- maire. The inspectors are generally experienced teachers; and it is their duty to visit and ex- amine the Bchools, and to attend the examina- tions of candidate. They make annual reports ! to the inspector of the academy. The highest : school authorities in a department are the rector [ of the academy and the prefect. The former supervises tin- instruction, has charge of the normal schools and of the examinations of teach- ers, and has all this done through his inspectors, of whom he has one tor every department in the academic district. He makes an annual report on the condition of the primary schools in his district, both public and private, to the minister of education. The prefect has charge of the entire external administration of the schools, lie sees to the erection of the school- houses, has charge of the finances, can appoint, remove, or reprimand teachers, and is assisted in these duties by the inspector of the academy of his department. Four inspecteurs gen&raux are appointed by the supreme council of public in- struction, to superintend the primary institutions of the entire country. Besides these, there are six inspecteurs generaux for the lyceums and colleges, and eight for the faculties. Any French citizen, twenty years of age or over, may give primary instruction in public or private schools, provided he has the necessary certificate. The salaries of the French teachers are very .-mall, though they have been raised seven times since L833. The lowest class of teachers, in IS.'!."}, re- ceived 200 francs: 250 francs, in 1844 ; '2 75. in L847; 454, in L849; and (loo, in 1867. Accord- ing to a law of July 19., 1875, the salaries of the teachers are regulated as follows: .Male teachers are divided into four classes, according to their term of service, and the size of the cities. The first class receive 1,200 francs: the second. 1,100; the third. 1.000; and the fourth. 900. Female teachers are divided into three classes, and receive !>oo. Mid. and 700 francs. respectively. Tin' course of studies comprises religion, read- ing, writing, grammar, arithmetic, the elements of French history, and geography. Teachers may add to these studies the elements of natural history, natural philosophy, agriculture, hygiene, singing, and gymnastics. Only in recent years have reforms been introduced ill the methods of teaching. As late as L843, there were still 6,484 primal v schools pursuing the so-called individual method [mode individuel), each child being called to the desk, and instructed separately. This method, as well as the monitorial system, which found many admirers in Prance, is now abolished. The method most generally employed at the present time, is the simultaneous method. by which the children are divided into three divisions, all the pupils of one division receiving instruction at once Those who are not able to take part in anv of the three divisions, are placed under the charge of the best pupil in the school. The total number of schools, in L875, was 53,350, with 3,477,542 pupils, of whom L ,366,360 wi five scholars. Of the' Schools, 19,044 were for boys, and 6,399, tor girls, besides which there were I 6,570 mixed schools. The number of pupils in the lay schools vva- •_'..'! 10..'! I I . of whom 704,028 were tree scholars. ( >f the convent schools. 1.970 were for boys, 8,322, for girls, and 1,099 were im: wii: 319 mixed schools. The number of pupils in tin- convent schools, was 1 .1:57.1 9S, of whom 662,352 wen- free scholars. Infant asylums and schools were firs! established in L808, bui met with little success. In 1827. they began to increase and flourish, until, in I860, there were 3,517, of which. 1 .OSS were private. The public asylums were attended by 344,381 children; the private, by 74,380; in all, 118,761. Of these. 307,556 pay no fees : ami "J. tilts asylums, private and public. with 323,460 children, were directed by religions orders. The instruction given, consists of the first principles of religion, of reading, mental arithmetic and linear drawing; manual occu- pations, and other exercises appropriate to the age of the pupils; the singing of hymns, and moral and physical training. The decree of 1864 placed them under the patronage of the empress, and created, in the ministry of educa- tion, a central committee of patronage, for the increase and superintendence of these schools In every academy, there is an inspectress, paid by the government, to inspect all the public and private asylums. Besides, there are two delegates connected with the central committee, wdio go wherever they are called. — As soon as primary instruction had made some progress in France, it was found necessary to open schools for adults, in order to complete the instruction of some, and to begin that of others. The first school for adults was opened by M. Delakaye in Paris, in 1 820. An evening school was opened by the Christian Brothers, in 1830. In 1833, M. Guizot, minister of public instruction, alluded to them in an order of the department ; and, in 1835, they were formally recognized and aided by the government, but were not incorporated into the public-school system of the country until 1867. During the winter of 1865 — 6, there were 24,686 courses for adults, in 22,947 communes. They were attended by 42,567 women and 552,939 men. — The first normal school in France was founded in 1810, in Strasbourg. Under Napo- leon I. and the Restoration, they greatly flour- ished; but soon, objections were raised against them, and, after the promulgation of the law of 1850, its authors considered normal schools not only unnecessary, but even dangerous. It was. consequently, proposed to abandon the normal schooLs, and to recruit the ranks of the teachers from a certain number of pupil-teachers, who were to receive their training in the best com- munal schools. This plan, however, proved a failure, and the pupil-teacher schools were grad- ually abandoned, and normal schools again came into favor. Their number, in 1875, was 81, of which that of Xancy is considered the best. •Recently, efforts have been made to connect a library with every school, particularly in the country. The system was first organized by a decree of M. Rouland, in 1*02. The books. which are of two classes, — classics, reading-books, and arithmetics, and books of general reading — are the property of the commune, and are placed under the charge of the teachers. France (ex- clusive of the department of the Seine), in 1875, had 15,623 libraries connected with schools, com- prising 1,474,637 vol ni ih's. The number of books loaned, in 1873, was 925,35s. Secondary Instruction. — Secondary instruc- tion is imparted in the lyceums and communal colleges [colleges communaux). The lyceums are composed of eight classes, and correspond to the German gymnasia. Classes 8 and 7 compose the elementary division ; 6, 5, and 4, the grt iar division; and .'!. '_', lb. and la, the superior division, to which is added, in some lyceums, a mathematical school. The studies taught in the elementary division are French, Latin, Biblical history, geography, arithmetic, linear drawing, and penmanship. In the grammar division, Greek is added to the above studies. In the superior division, the system of bifurcation has been introduced, so that it comprises two courses, — the literary and the scientific. The studies of the literary course are Latin, Greek, geome- try and stereometry, natural philosophy, chem- istry, natural history, and logic. The scientific course comprises arithmetic, algebra, geometry, trigonometry, natural history, natural philos- ophy, chemistry, and plane and linear drawing. Common to both are the French language, history, geography, and German or English. Most of the lyceums are also boarding-schools. The censeur is the head of the boarding-school. Corporal punishment is not allowed, and re- proofs are required to be administered without harshness. The communal colleges were estab- lished in 1802. They are founded and sustained by the towns, with the approbation of the govern- ment. Most of them have a boarding-school at- tached. Some of them comprise the lowest classes of the lyceums; others, the lowest and middle classes; and still others, besides these, one or two of the higher classes. In addition to these public schools, there are many private secondary institutions [etablissements Hbres), partly of a classical, and partly of a realistic, or scientific, character. Included in this class of institutions are the so called peiits s&minaires, or the ecoles secondaires ecclesiastiques (ecclesiastical insti- tutions), which are superintended and conducted by the bishops, and, in many respects, resemble the lyceums. The number of secondary schools of each class, with the number of students in each, as given by BracheUi [Die Staaten Eu- ropa's, L876), is as follows: Schools. Students. Lyceum, (1872) 80 36,756 Communal colleges (1872)... .244 32,744 Private institutions (1865) 935 74,585 Total 1,259 144; A superior normal school for the education of teacher- of secondary schools has been estab- lished in Paris. It is composed of twodepart- mentS, a literary and a scientific, each compris- ing a three years' course. Superior Instruction. Prance has. at present, five classes of faculties; namely, for theoloj law. medicine, mathematics and natural science [facuttes de sciences), and literature or philo- sophical, historical, and philological science 320 FRANCE \ (facutte des lettres). These faculties, which are state institutions, arc DOt, as in other countries, united into complete universities, but each is an isolated and independent institution. Among the schools of superior instruction, arc also counted the high schools for pharmacy, and the schools for medicine and pharmacy. The organi- zation of medical faculties was begun in lT'.U: of law faculties, in 1804; and the others, in 1808. There were, in 1876, six faculties of theology (Paris, Bordeaux, Lyons, Aix, Rouen, and Montauban, the 5 former being Catholic, the latter Reformed); L2 for law (Paris, Bordeaux, Lyons, Nancy, Aix, Caen, Dijon, Grenoble, Poitiers, Reniies. Toulouse, and Douai); U for medicine (Paris, Bordeaux, Lyons, Nancy, Montpellier, and Lille); 15 for sci< nee (Paris, Bordeaux, Lyons, Nancy, Caen, Dijon, Grenoble, Poitiers, Rennes, Toulouse, Montpel- lier, Clermont, Besangon, Lille, and Marseilles); I 5 tor lettres (Paris. Bordeaux, Lynns. Nancy, Aix. Caen, Dijon. Grenoble, Poitiers, Rennes, Toulouse, Montpellier, Douai, Clermont, and sancon); •''■ higher schools tor pharmacy I Paris, Nancy, and Montpellier); and 2 higher schools for medicine and pharmacy. The medical facul- ties a1 Bordeaux, Lyons, and Lille are also in- tended lor pharmacy. Inclusive of preparatory scl Is for medicine and pharmacy, and ! pre- paratory schools for instruction in science, these institutions for superior instruction, were, in L 8 72, attended by I L572 students: and the ag- gregate number of professors and teachers was 121. -The law of .luly 2ii.. \^~'k authorized the establishment, by private citizens or associations, of iVee institutions for higher instruction (free faculties), which, if three of them are united. may assume the name of free universities. At the beginning of 1876, the bishops of France founded three free Catholic universities, at Paris, Angers, ami Lyons. — The Cottege de France, which provides for lectures on many of the university studies, and the Practical School for Higher Studies, which, in five different ctions, prepares its students for the higher study of mathematics, physics, chemistry, natural history, the historical sciences, ami philology. are also institutions of this grade. Special and Professional Instruction. — The Polytechnic School, at Paris, is an institution having a military organization, and prepares its pupils for the higher technical institutions, both tary and civil. The latter class comprises the ntrale des arts et manufactures, for the education of civil engineers, and of directors of -works and factories, the Ecole des ]><>„/* if ckaussees, for the education of road engineers, and the Conservatoire des arts et mdtiers, all in Paris. The Polytechnic School, in 1st;'., had 19 professors and teachers, 20 assistants, and 426 pupils. Roman Catholic theology is taught in i he diocesan seminaries, which are established in i he principal town of every French diocese. The numerous religious orders for males have gen- erally theological schools of their own for the in- struction of their novices. The Lutheran Church has a seminary at Paris ; and. in the same city, there is a Free Theological School, founded by the Live Evangelical Church. The Ecole des ckartes, at Paris, educates paleographists and archivists. I'm- technical instruction, there are 12 ecolespro- fessionneUes, 3 icoles des arts et metiers, at Aix. Angers, and Chalons sur Maine ; schools for watch-makers, at Pluses, in Upper Savoy, and at Besancon, a school for manufacturers of tobacco,-' and a higher commercial school, at Paris, many lower commercial schools, 42 hydrographic schools for educating seamen for the mercantile marine, ami many other schools and courses of study. Agriculture is taught in .1 high schools, at Grignon, near Versailles, Grandjouan, in Loire- [nferieure, and Montpellier, and in I.'! fermier- s, or agricultural schools of a lower grade: besides these, there is a school of forestry at Nancy. The principal mining school is the Na- tional School of -Mines, at Paris, besides which there are mining schools at St. Etienne and Alais. For instruction in the fine arts, there are .'! na- tional schools of fine arts,— at Paris. Lyons, and Dijon, the National Conservatory of Music and Declamation, at Paris, and many other institu- tions. Military instruction is imparted in the Staff-school, at Paris, the School or Artillery and -Military Engineering, formerly at Met/, now at Pontainebleau, the Special .Military School at St. Cyr, near Versailles, the schools of artillery at Valence and Nimes, the school of infantry at the Camp d'Avor, the naval school at Brest, the school of military medicine and pharmacy in Paris, the school of cavalry at Saumur. the Mili- tary Pyrotechnic School, at Bourges, the Normal School for Gymnastics, at Vincennes, the Prac- tical School of .Maritime Engineering, at Cher- bourg. — There are ,'>1 I orphan asylums, in which 15,745 orphans were educated. The salles cFasi- les, of which there were 2,950 (2,068 public and 882 private), were attended by 307,000 children, and bad an annual budget of about 2,000,000 francs. Moreover. f'T.'l ouvroirs give almost gral uitously an industrial education to 1,27 7 hoy - and L8,695 girls. See Si hmtd, Ehicyclopadie,art. Franhreich (by Dr. Bucheler); Barnard, Na- tional Edvcation,v6Lii.\ Thebt, HistoiredeYidu- cation en "France l Paris, 1858,2 vols.); Jules Si- uon,L'Ecole (8th edit.,1874); Annuaire deVin- struction publique (Paris). Among the school journals, the Revue de Yinstruction publique tablished in L842) is regarded as the most impor- tant for secondary, and the Manuel gen&ral detin- struction primaire, as the foremost for primary instruction. A complete collection of all the laws and regulations which have been issued in Prance relative to primary instruction from 1 789 i" 1-7 1 has been published by Greard, La legis- lation de Yinstruction primaire < n Francedepuis L789 jusqu'a nos jours (3 vols., Paris, 1874). The history of primary-school inspection is given in Broi \i;i> and Defodon, Inspection de& tea primaires I Paris, 1874). A very full account of the primary schoools of Paris and of the Depar- tement de la Seine is given in Greard, Yinstruc- tion primaire d Paris en l s 7."> (Paris. 1876). FRANCISCAN COLLI* J K FRANCKE 321 FRANCISCAN COLLEGE, a Roman Catholic institution at Santa Barbara, Cal., was founded in ISliS. It is conducted by the Fathers of the Order of St. Francis. Iii 1st:! t, it had 15 instructors, 75 students, ami a library of 2,500 volumes. The Rev. J. J. O'Keefe, 0. S. P., is (1876) the president. FRANCKE, August Hermann, a distin- guished German educator whose name is insepa- rably associated with a cluster of orphan houses and schools at Halle, and with the development of pietism as an educational influence, was born at Liibeck, Match 22., L 663, and died June 8., L727. After studying, with great success, theology and the oriental languages, at the universities of Er- furt and Kiel, he fell under the intluenee of Spener, then court-chaplain at Dresden, and re- ceived from him impressions which largely affect- ed the motives and character of his future life. He began his labors as an educator in L687, by opening an infant school at Hamburg. Realizing the importance and difficulty of teaching children, he resolved to devote himself to the improvement of schools and methods of instruction. The results of his experience he afterwards embodied in a work which he published under the title. Upon the ntioii of children to piety and christian wis- dom. In 1 692, he became professor of the Greek and oriental languages in the university of Halle, and pastor of the Glaucha church. Here he re- niaine 1 till his death, July 8., 1727, highly respected, but removed from the sympathy of his colleagues on account of his religious views. His orphan and charity schools originated in connec- tion with his pastorate. The poor of the parish came to the j >arsonage on Thursdays for bread. He called them in, taught thern religious doctrines, anl prayed with them. He formed the children into a class, and hung out a poor-box for contribu- te >ns. Fiiii ling seven florins in the box one morn- ing, he decided to found a permanent school. He soon had to enlarge the school; and circumstances led to the further development of his enterprises, and the organization of other institutions, until there grew up under his charge the Orphan House, the Pcedagogium, the Burgher School, the Insti- tution tor Women, the Bookstore and Printing Office, the Apothecary's Shop (established with a legacy left by one Burgstaller),the Canstein Bible House (the fruit of a gift by the Baron von Can- stein for the purpose of printing one hundred thousand copies of the Bible), and the Mission Institute. At the time of Francke's death, these institutions comprised the following : The Pceda- gogium, having 82 scholars and 7(> teachers; the Latin school of the Orphan House, .'} inspectors. 32 teachers. LOO scholars and 10 servants ; the < >Vr- luan Burgher School. -1 inspectors. 98 teachers. 8 t. male teachers, L728 hoys and girls; the Or- phan House. 100 boys, 34 girls, ten overseers; the Free Table. 255 students. .'Jlill poor scholars; the household of the Apothecary's Shop and Bookseller's Shop. 53 persons; the Institution for Women and < J iris, with 1 5 persons in the girls' department, 8 in the boarding-house for young women, and 6 widows. In 1876, they included 21 nine schools with three boarding-houses and an orphanage, and with property valued at 313,266 thalers. Since their foundation. 1(1,000 teachers and more than 200,000 children have been taught in them. In the orphanage proper, more than 70011 orphans have been cared for. These in- stitutions furnished the model after which those of a similar character were founded in other parts of Germany. They were carried on after Francke's death by his son. Gottlieb August Fiancke. The governing ideas, in Francke's work and teaching, were trust in God, and the cultivation of the love of God in the heart. He built his institutions upon trust, relied upon prayer as his strong support, and regarded the help and gifts which he received as direct bounties from the hand of the Almighty. He regarded piety as the chief thing needful ; without it. till knowledge, wisdom, and worldly culture were more harmful than useful. He taught that, in bringing up children, the teacher should first look to the im- provement of the heart and the removal of faults. While paying due regard to the peculiarities of the child's nature, he should seek to banish whatever interferes with the higher development. The inculcation of godliness was likewise Francke's predominant object in discipline. On this subject, he observed. (1) that system must be followed in discipline, and (2) that chastisement must be administered not in anger, but in love. The schools, in all their departments. were characterized by the prevalence of religious zeal. Prayer was faithfully observed in what was done outside the school as well its within it. The Scriptures and religion received precedence in arranging the courses of instruction. With all this, the ordinary studies had their allotted place in each school according to its grade. The course of the higher Latin school included reading, writing, arithmetic, Greek (chiefly of the New Testament), Hebrew, mathematics, history, geography, music, physics, anatomy, oratory, and logic. The Pcedagogium had at- tached to it a botanical garden, a cabinet of natural history, philosophical apparatus, a labo- ratory, conveniences for anatomical dissections, turning-lathes, and ^lass-cutting machinery. The evidences of Christianity, Latin, Greek, Hebrew, and French were taught in it. The system of classification in the schools allowed the pupils to be graded according to their advancement in particular studies. so as to occupy different ranks in the several classes. The number of regular teachers employed was relatively small ; because, for the most part, the teaching was done by select- ed pupils. The teachers lived with the scholars. and Francke himself exercised a constant super- vision over all. Besides Zinzendorf, Francke's best known pupilsweic the two Ficylinghausens : namely. John A nastasius. Francke's son-in-law. and his son, Gottlieb Anastashis; J. G. Knapp; Joachim Lange ; Jacob Rambach ; II. Frever ; G. Sarganeck ; Johann Julius 1 [ecker, who founded the famous Berlin real school: and Anton Bu- sching. Francke is regarded by some as ih, 322 FRANKLIN COLLEGE FREE SCHOOLS greatest practical educator that ever lived, and even those who are opposed to the religious basis of his educational theories do not hesitate to hold him up as a model for all time. I lewas the author of the orphan and charily schools of I'rotestant Germany; and his ideas on superintendence, inspection, and examination exerted great influ- ence upon the development of the public-school system in Germany. The flourishing institutions of the Moravians (q. v.), whose founder, Count Zinzendorf, had been educated by Francke, were for a long time conducted in accordance with Francke's principles. About 1770, the institu- tions began to decline; but the entrance of A. II. Niemeyer. a great-grandson of Francke, into the directory, ushered in a new period of prosperity, which still (1876) continues. -See Guericke, A. II. Francke (Halle. L827) ; Eckstein, Die Gestaltung . I».. Silas Bailey, l>. I>., and the Rev. W. T. Stott, I >. I>.. the present incumbent ( 1 876 ). FRANKLIN COLLEGE, at New Athens, Harrison Co., Ohio, was chartered in IS'_'.">. It ■ out (if the Allna \eademy. which had been conducted for some time under the auspices of the Rev. John Walker, a Presbyterian minister. The college was early involved in the anti-slavery controversy, and, in I 8 10, became distinctively an anti-slavery institution. It comprises a prepara- tory and a collegiate department, the latter having a classical and a scientific course. Both Bexes are admitted. The library contains 3,000 volumes. In 1-7 : — I. there were s instructors and 148 students (21 collegiate and 12] unclassified). In I B75, there were -il '.' alumni. The presidents i A the college have been as follows: The Rev. Dr. Wm. McMillan, L825 32; the Rev. Richard Campbell. L832— 5; the Rev. Johnson Welsh 1835—6; the Rev. Dr. Joseph Smith. L837— 8; the Rev. Jacob Coon, pro tern., L838 — !' ; the Rev. Mr. Burnett, 1839 — 10; the Rev. Edwin H. Xevin. 1840 — 5; the Rev. Dr. Alexander I), dark. L845 -61 : the Rev. R. G. Campbell. 18fi7 — 71 : and A. F. Ross, LL. !».. the present incumbent (1876), appointed in 1871. During the civil war, there was qo regular president. FRANKLIN AND MARSHALL COL- LEGE, at Lancaster, I'a.. is under the control of the Reformed (German) Church. This insti- tution was founded in 1853, by the consolidation of two older institutions. - Franklin College, established in 17. s 7.at Lancaster, mainly through the exertions of Benjamin Franklin, who also contributed liberally to its endowment, and Marshall College, founded in L836, and trans- lated for the purpose of this union from its former location at ^Iercersburg, Franklin Co. It has an endowment fund of a little over $100,000. The cost of tuition is $39 per annum, but most of the students receive tuition free on Standing scholarships. The curriculum is the ordinary four years' classical course of American colleges. There are no optional courses of study, in which the Student is allowed to choose for himself what he shall learn. The college receives no irregular students, as they are called, and has no provisional or mixed classes. The college and society libra- ries contain about 11,000 volumes. Connected with the college are the Franklin and Marshall Academy and the Theological Seminary of the Reformed Church. The academy is designed as a training school for those who desire to prepare for college, and also to furnish a complete aca- demical course tor those who do not propose to take a full collegiate course of study. The full course is six years. The full course in the Theo- logical Seminary is three years. Tuition is tree. The library comprises from 7,0(10 to 8,000 vol- umes. In 1875 — (i, there were I "J instructors (college. 7 : academy. 'J: seminary. 3), and 135 students (college, 07: academy, 36; seminary, 32). The Qumber of alumni of Marshall college was 182: of Franklin and Marshall College 35H ; total 540. The tirst president of Franklin ami Marshall ('ollege was the Rev. Finnianuel V. Gerhart, D. D., appointed in 1855. lie continued in office till 1866, when he was succeeded by the Rev. John W. Nevin, l». D., Id,. I>.. the present incumbent ( L876). FREDERICK COLLEGE, at Frederick, Md., was organized in 1 7 '. » T . It has a valuable mineralogies! cabinet, philosophical and chemical apparatus, and a library of 3,000 volumes. There are three departments : The classical department, • including the Latin and Greek languages, also the German, with related subjects: The math- ematical and higher English departments; and the elementary department. The cost ol tuition in these departments is. respectively, $60, $40, and $25; but there is an extra charge of $20 per annum for German. G. C, Deaver, A. M., i- I v 7ic the president. FREE SCHOOLS. See Public Schools. FRKEDMEXS SCHOOLS FREEWILL BAPTISTS 323 FREEDMEN'S SCHOOLS. A proclama- tion issued by Presidenl Lincoln, Jan. L, L863, abolished slavery in the United States, and the colored people Bet tree by the proclamation re- ceived the name of freedmen. As nearly the whole of this population was illiterate, various charitable and religious organizations of the North began at once to exert themselves to aid in establishing schools and employing teachers for them. * hi March 3., 1865, an act of Congress was passed establishing a special "Bureau of Ref- ogees, Freedmen, and Abandoned Lands." after- wards known as the •• Freedmen's Bureau." It remained in operation until Dec. 31., 1868, when its functions ceased, with the exception of the educational department, which continued until July L. L870. After the organization of the Bu- reau, the schools already existing were taken in charge by it. and in some stales were carried on entirely by aid of its fund and under its provisions. A. number of benevolent and religious societies continued to co-operate with the Bureau in the establishment of schools, and most of the Amer- ican churches expressly included the care of the freedmen's schools among the objects of their home missionary societies, or of special Freed- men's Aid Societies or Committees. A general superintendent, appointed by the commissioner of the Bureau, traveled through most of the Southern states, and provided for the establish- ment and supervision of their schools. The fol- lowing table gives the number of day and night schools from which regular reports were received by the Bureau during the years stated ; besides which there were many Sunday-schools, industrial schools, and day and night schools, that made only occasional reports to the Bureau. Year Day & Night Schools Teachers Pupils Total number of pupils B66-... 1867.. .. 1868.... 1869.... 1870.... 975 1,839 1,831 2,118 2,039 1,405 2,0s? 2,296 2,455 2,563 90,778 111,442 104,327 114,522 114,516 150,000 238,342 241,819 250,000 247,333 Of the schools reported in 1 870, 1 ,324 were sus- tained wholly or partly by freedmen, who owned 592 school buildings; 74 schools, with 8,147 pupils, were high or normal schools. Of the teachers, 1,251 were white, and 1 ,312 colored. The whole number of schools, of all kinds, was 4,239, with 9,307 teachers; of these. l.."i(i'2 were Sunday- schools, with O.tlOT teachers and 97,752 pupils, and 61 industrial schools, with 1,750 pupils. The whole amount expended for educational purpose-, to Aug. 3] ., 1.^71 , was 83,71 1 ,26 I. the iter portion of which was for the erection and renting of school buildings. The Freedmen's Bureau also aided in the establishment of a con- siderable number of schools of a higher grade for the colored population, in some cases co-operating for this [impose with one of the religious denom- inations. Among the institutions thus found- ed, were Howard University, Washington, I». C. (unsectarian) ; Atlanta University, Atlanta, Ga. (unsectarian); Claflin University, Orangeburg, S.C. (Method. Episc.); Straighl University, New Orleans. La. (Congregational) ; Fisk University (Method. Epis.), and Central Tennessee College (unsectarian), both at Nashville, Tenn.; Wayland Seminary (Baptist Theological), Washington, l>. C; and the Hampton Normal and Agricultural Institute, at Hampton, \ a. All these institu- tions still exisi (1876). Since the abolition of the Freedmen's Bureau, efforts for maintaining and enlarging these Bchools have chiefly I made by the American churches, nearly all of which support churches as well as schools for the benefit of the colored population. The impor- tance of a good education tor a population which numbers several millions, and which, although only just emerging from a c lition of absolute illiteracy, has been invested with all the rights and duties of citizenship, is now fully recognized by all parties in the country, though there may be considerable difference of opinion as to the best means to reach this aim. (See COLORED Schools.) None of the American churi lies ha.s carried on operations in behalf of the freedmen's schools on so large a basis, as the .Methodist Epis- copal Church. At the anniversary of the Freed- men's Aid Society of the M. E. Church, held in Dec. 1875, it was reported that the total disburse- ments of that society, during the eight years of its operations, had been $523,000. The receipts of the last financial year (ending May 31., 1875) were $86,000. The Society has aided in the establishment and support of fourteen institutions of a higher grade in the Southern states. It has also aided in the support of many common schools. It is claimed that fifty thousand children have been taught in its day schools, and a still larger number in its Sunday-schools ; that more than a hundred ministers, and over a thousand teach- ers, have been instructed in the institutions it has established and sustained, and that upward of forty thousand children have been taught by persons whom it has trained. Besides receiving this aid from the several American churches, the schools for freedmen have had considerable sup- port from tin' Peabody fund. (See Peabody.) FREEWILL BAPTISTS, a section of Baptists, which commenced in North America in L780. The name was reproachfully given by their calvinistic brethren to Benjamin Randall ami a, few other Baptist ministers who gave spe- cial prominence to the doctrine of the freedom of the will in the work of salvation. Randall and those who agreed with him accepted the distinc- tive name, and used it alter the separation from their brethren had taken place. At present, they are in opposition to the Regular Baptists chiefly on the Communion question, the Freewill Bap- tists being Open Communionists. (See Baptists.) A number of churches, conveniently located. unit< as an association, and hold a meeting bj delega- tion four times a year, which is called a Quarterly Meeting. Several Quarterly Meetings, similarly situated, unite and meet annually; und this as- sociation is called a Yearly Meeting. All th( Yearly Meetings Send representatives to the General Conference, which meets once in threi 32 l FRENCH LANGUAGE years. They agree almost wholly in doctrine with the GeneraJ Baptists in England. Inlsll. oearly the whole body of another Baptist de- aomination,the Free < lommunion Baptists, chiefly belonging to the state of New York, united with them; while, on the other hand, their congregations in North Carolina left them, and rai thousands of Baptists ill Kentucky and other Southern states, who agreed with them on doctrinal points, were refused admission to their communion in consequence of the very de- cided position which the church assumed against slave-holding. More recently. negotiations have been begun to bring about a union with the Church of God (q.v.),as the two churches are essentially one in principle: bul from a report made to the Freewill Baptist General Confer- ence in L874, it appears that the Church of God is unwilling to give up its present name. The Freewill Baptists reported, in L875, 38 yearly meetings, L,399 churches, L,185 ordained preach- ers, and 72,128 members. Of the yearly m ings, one is in British America and one in India: the others are in the United States. The Free ! -a pt ists of New Brunswick and Nova Scotia are in full agreement, though not in organic union, with the Freewill ! aptists;the former, in L875, had L38, the latter, 30 churches. The Freewill Baptists have 2 1 literary instit utions for second- ary or higher instruction, six of which are col leges; namely, Hillsdale College, at Hillsdale. IVfich. (organized in L855); Bate College, at Lewiston, Me. (1863); Ridgeville College, Ridgeville, Ind. (1867); West Virginia College, at Flemington, W. Va. (1."" Storer College, at Harper's Ferry, W. Va. ; and Wolsey College, at Peach Grove, Tenn. Theological schools are connected with Hills- dale and Bates colleges. The Freewill Baptist Education Society has invested funds to the amount of $45,000, the interest on which is chiefly devoted to sustaining theological instruc- tion in Hates and Hillsdale colleges, it makes liberal provision in aid of young men preparing for the ministry. This denomination, from the beginning of the anti-slavery Btruggle, main- tamed an unwavering and strenuous opposition to slavery, and is still doing good service for the tier. linen, especially in the Shenandoah and Mis- sissippj valleys. Among the newspapers issued by the denomination, are two Sabbath-school papers, which. Iiy alternating with each other, furnish a weekly issue, It.» Sabbath-school work i-. pursued with much interest and vigor. FRENCH LANGUAGE. 'Hie French language is universally recognized as standing, w ith the English and < ieriuan. at the head of the languages of the civilized world. Where^ knowledge of any other than the native lan- guage is valued, French is sun' to have its claims considered. I fence, in the schools of the English- speaking world.ii usually occupies, with the Ger- man language, a place in the course of instruct ion. W hatever should be said of the study of modern foreign languages ingenerahand especiallj of the languages of great nations, like those of France and Germany, is reserved for the .article Modem Languages, this article treating only of what be- longs to the French language exclusively. This language is one of the so-called Romanic languages (q. v.!. which, after the destruction of the Western Roman empire, sprang from the development of the provincial dialects of the empire, and from the Latin colloquial language [lingua Romuna rustica), which continued to exist by the side of the refined language [sermo urban us), and was carried by the victorious armies into south-western Europe. In Gaul, the Latin colloquial language, in consequence of the conquest of the country by the German tribes, soon became the only medium of conversation between the people of the various tongues ; and. by the close of the Tth century, displaced all the other languages, except in a small district of the north-west, apart of Brittany, where a Celtic lan- :••. like that of primitive Gaul, maintained it- self. Tin- name French language, which is derived from the Franks, a < Vi-man tribe, w ho established i" Ives in Gaul, in the 5th century, did not come into general use. until the language of the Franks (which, for a considerable length of time. co-existed with the latin provincial dialects in the northern and eastern parts of the country became extinct. The dialects which could lie dis- tiished in the language thus formed grouped themselves into two classes, the South French [roman provenpal, langue d'oc) and the North French [roman wallon, langue doilor d'oui). Both d iveloped a literature, chiefly poetical ; but gradually die South French, in which the Latin element had a more thorough predominance, lost ground, and the North French, which was more largely mixed with German elements, be- came the language of the entire country. In the L6th century, Francis 1. made it. in place of the Latin, the language of public transactions, and thus elevated it to the position of a national language. The first work in genuine French was published in the 1 Ith century. Since the With century, the development of the language made rapid progress. Richelieu etablished the acade- mie frangaisi for regulating all questions relative to the national language; anil under Louis X 1 V .. it attained a high scholastic authority. Even in the middle ages, the French language was known and spoken far beyond the boundaries of its native country. It was the court language of England and Scotland, was generally understood in south- ern Italy and by the German uobility, and was also the chief language of the merchants in the Last. At the peace of Nimemien (16<8), it was. f,,r the first time, used as the language of European diplomacy; and this position it has maintained to the present day. It is the national language in all France, and in most of the French Colonies, as well as in south-western Switzerland, and also in llayti. In Belgium, though spoken by only about one half of theentire population, it is the prevailing language. It is also spoken as a native language by most of the inhabitants of the pio\ ineeoi Quebec, and. other parts of the I domin- ion of Canada; and in a part of Lorraine which. FRENCH LANGUAGE 325 in 1st I . was ceded tot lermany. It has, to extent, maintained itself in that part of the United States, which formerly belonged to France, especially in Louisiana and Missouri ; hut there it has gradually receded before the a Ivance of the English language, and will doubtless soon be ex- tinct. The inhabitants of the English Channel islands speak mostly ;i Franco-Norman dialect; the upper classes, however, use pure French. About twenty different dialects and patois of tlu' French language are still distinguished. Even at present, no language is probably studied to so great an extent by foreigners as the French : ami. therefore, travelers find the knowledge of French more useful than that of any other modern language; although, in this respect, it is at present far le.-.s important, as com- pared with the English ami German languages, than it \vas a hundred years ago. The instances are also now very rare in which distinguished writers ami scientists, like Leibnitz, Humboldt, Frederick the Great, Gibbon, Beckford, and Sir William .Ions, write their works in the French language, in preference to their vernacular, either a- a niancr of taste or to insure to their writings a wider circulation. There is a sufficient number of literary docu- ments extant of every period of the French lan- guage, by which its gradual growth may he traced from its first formation to the present time. It has been a general opinion with philologists, cially classical scholars, that the origin of the French, as well as the other Romanic languages, is to be found in the gradual corruption of the Latin language, which was finally shattered to pieces by the German conquest : ami tint, when these frag- ments were used for the building of new lan- guages, the French withdrew farthest from the Latin source. More recently, the researches of comparative linguistics have shown, in the growth of the French and other Romanic languages, tlie working of the great natural laws which reg- ulate the formation and development of new languages; and, in the light of these researches, much that formerly was looked upon as a deteri- oration, now appears as a development and an improvement. If we see, for instance, that from Latin word kora, the new French language formed a Ion-' seriesof words, as or, tors, des-lors, •s, lorsque, incur", dorenuvant, desormais, heure,keures, horaire, each with a different idea : it is obvious that, in the origin of the French language, there was not only the decay of the I«it- Ul, but the creative power of new idea-;. The abundance of simple words in French, where the English and Germans have to use compounds, is orally couce led to be an advantage; as French, pommier, vigne; English, apple-tree, vineyard. Am commendable qu uities of the French language, are generally enumerated its logical precision, neat i ss, and perspicuity ; while. on the other hand, the monotony of accentuating the final syllables, and the frequent occurrence of the nasal sound mak euphonious and rhyth- mical than other Romanic languages. Its excel- lencies, therefore, appear to greater advantage in prose than in poetry.and it is also admirably suite! for conversation. In common with most other Romanic languages, it has introduced from the Teutonic languages the use of auxiliary verbs with personal pronouns in the place of the Latin inflections; asj'aiaime (German, ick h- ge- '. for amavi, I have loved; also the use of two articles. a definiteand an indefinite, the material • >f Loth being taken from the Latin (A . /,/ from Vie, iUa; mi, une from unus, una); as lepere.the father, lamere, the mother; un pere,a father.; une mere, a mother; for (Latin) patm-, father.; mater, mother (German, der Voter, die Mutterj ein Voter, eine Mutter). Like its Romanic sisters, it appears less inllected than any Teutonic lan- guage, l>y the entire loss of case-endings in nouns, as du pere, the father's (German, des Voters,; Latin, patris). The French language is studied in most of the secondary and higher schools of English-speaking nations, besides being taught by a host of private teachers. In a huge number of schools, it is still the only modern language studied; in many others, in which provision is also made for Ger- \ man and other modern languages, special promi- nence is assigned to French. Especially is this the ease in female colleges, seminaries, and acad- emies, both in England and in the United States ; and in these institutions particular stress is usu- ally laid, in the prospectus, on the opportunity af- forded to obtain a thorough knowledge of French. The German language is. however, competing with the French. a\u\ now frequently holds a place by the side of it in many institutions in which formerly, dining many generations, the latter was exclusively pursued. As the secondary and higher institutions of Loth England and the United States are not regulated by a central government, but are more or less independent in the arrangement of their courses of instruction, the study of French is not pursued, in any large class of institutions, according to a uniform plan : but its regulation has been, to a very great extent, influenced by habit and fashion. As French is pre-eminently looked upon as the language of a refined people, ami is the favorite foreign language of the upper classes in mosl civilized c luntries, principals of schools are in luce I, more than iii the case of anj oth ir foreign language, to embody it in the couise of studies merely as a means of eomnieii b'ng their scho Is to favor and patronage. In such s bools, the time and attention given to this study are generally insufficient t" cure any progress of importance, and, cona quently in great part, wasted. Where the study of French is dictated bypropi r motives, the mistak frequ< ntlymadein providing for it a course of only one. two. or i bree years, sometimes with only one recitation a. week ; and in discontinuing it in the higher classes. The aim in all these institutions. without doubt, should he to impart, besides the correct foreign pronunciation. a knowledge of the principles of the language, with a constant refi t ence to the English, and to furnish the key for the understanding of its truly magnificent liter- ature. It is desirable to use the French, as far 326 FRENCH LANGUAGE as possible, in the recitations, in order to famili- arize the ear of the student with the spoken language, and also to afford him some practice in speaking it. The ability to speak the French language, however, cannot be acquired in school except within very narrow limits. To discontinue the study after a fair knowledge of grammar and reading has been acquired, is a serious educational error. Where the Study is introduceil.it should be continued without interruption until the com- pletion of the school course. When it is intended to teach pupils. to Speak French fluently, a course of instruction of at least four years should be provided, with daily exercise, and constant inter- course with a French teacher. The French, in this respect, does not differ from any other mod- ern Iangage. (See Modern Languagi Instruction in French, as in every other foreign language, begins with the acquisition of a correct pronunciation. Next to English, French is the least phonetic of all languages; and. there- fore, a large number of rules must be learned before the pupil is able to pronounce ordinary words. It is important that this pronunciation should be learned, partly at least, by means of an imitation of the teacher's pronunciation. Memoriz- ing lessons, before the correct pronunciation has been acquired ispositively injurious. The French grammar offers mil few peculiarities and difficul- ties. The absence of case-endings and of many other inflections, and the paucity of simple tenses and of changes in the radical part of irregular verbs, facilitate the reading of a French author at a very earh stage of instruction. The chief peculiar- ities, such as the interrogative .and negative form of sentences, ought to be frequently practiced. Attention should be called to the relationship ■which the Latin and the Norman elements of the English language b'ar to both English and French. Simple exercises in etymology rnaygreat- ly facilitate the early acquisition of a sufficient number of words, to enable the pupil to read easy writers without a too frequeni use ot the dic- tionary. If French is studied by pupils who pos- sesa some knowledge of Latin, this knowledge can be used togreaf advantage in etymological illus- tration, and in giving a clear view of the peculiar character of the Romanic languages. The under- standing of French authors can be made quite easy for mOSl pupils, who soon find that the majority of the wor Is have equivalents from th ■ same roots in their own language. The reading should, therefore, he rapid and not too much inter- rupted by grammatical or literary remarks. The aim. at first, should lie to make the langC familiar to the pupil : as he advances, it will lie easy, without any sacrifice of time, to call at- t ntion to the rhetorical excellencies of the I I inch classics. < 'lassie prose should precede poetry, and should be read to a much larger ex- tent. The great prose writers of the 1 7th and lsih centuries have some claims to the privilege Of being lead firSl ; at all event-, they should ma be neglected. French literature is exceedingly rich in works suited, in every respeel , for beginners : and there is no reason why modern writers should deprive Fenelon's Telemaque and Voltaire's Charles XII oi the deserved popularity which they have so long enjoyed. In selecting modern writers, teachers should exercise the greatest care to avoid all works the contents of which are ob- jectionable. In general, the reading of foreign authors who in a marked manner reflect the national peculiarities of their country, is to be preferred; but whenever there is reason to apprehend that the impressions thus made upon the pupil's mind may weaken his patri- otic sentiments, there will be need of the ex- er ise of caution. — There is. generally, too little time in English and American institutions for the study of French literature. In most cases, the time devoted to it maybe more profitably spent in improving the pupil's technical knowl- edge of the language. Of course, advanced pupils should become acquainted with the most celebrated authors as well as a rudimentary out- line of the literary history of France ; but most of this can best be learned as an introduction to the reading of the standard writers. Good French reading -books, with literary introductions to the different authors, may he used for this purpose, es- pecially iii advanced classes, with great advantage. Tlie reading of selections which would make the pupil acquainted with the peculiar style ami ex- cellencies of ( orncille. Racine, Moliere, Boileau, Fenelon, etc. of the age of Louis XIV. : of Vol- taire. Rousseau, Montesquieu, Florian, &c, of the philosophical century; of Chateaubriand, Be- ranger, Lamartine, V. Hugo, 6. Sand, Guizot, Thiers. Michelet, Ac, of modern times, is prefer- able to the exclusive reading of one or two entire works of French literature. — When colloquial ex- ercises constitute the chief part of French instruc- tion. and to acquire fluency of speech is the chief aim. caiv should be exercised that the command of the language thus obtained may give to the pupil something more than a collection of trivial phrases and unmeaning expressions of politeness. Eminent educators have often called attention to the dangerous influence which a knowledge, so exclusively formal and without substance, may exercise upon the pupil's mind. The first grammar of the French language was written by an English author. Palsgrave i/As- clai'cissement de lalangnejranpoyse, Loud. ,1530; new edit, by ( renin, Paris, 1 852). It was followed by another grammar likew ise for English persons, ly in. Boniface, I. t llier and l.aroiissc Among the grammat- ical works on the French language written by foreigners, the works by Matzner, (Syntax der n ufranzdsischen Sprache, 2 vols. Berlin, L843 — FRIENDS 327 1845, and Franz&sische Grammatik, Berlin,] 856) ate especially esteemed by French scholars. -The first noteworthy dictionary of the French language was published by Robert Stephens | Dictionnaire franpais-latin, 1539). It went through many editions, and received additions from several authors, the most prominent of whom was .lean Nicot (1573). The dictionary by Richelet (Ge- neva, L680) embraced etymology within its scope, and gave quotations from French authors. 'I be Dictionnaire universel by Antoine Furetiere (Hague. l(i!MI) was a kind of general encyclopae- dia. A revision of this work, made by the Jesuits, became celebrated under the name Dictionnaire de Jrevoux (1704), but was declared by the French Academy a plagiarism. The first edition of the Dictionnaire de YAcademie FYancaise appeared in L698, and was at once accepted by the country as the standard lexical authority. The 6th edition appeared in 1835; supplements to this edition were published by Raymond (1836), Landais i L837), Barre, 18 L2, and others; a 7th edi- tion, to be completed in 2 vols., was in progress in l-s7(i. It is edited by Patin, with whom de Sacy, Sandeau, C. Doucet, and Mignet are associated. On the basis of the dictionary of the French Academy, numerous smaller works have been constructed, the most noted of which are those by Boiste (1801), Landais, Bescherelle (2 vols., 1851), Poitevin (1854), Dochez (1860), Larousse i L865). The new work by Littre (3 vols., Paris, L863 — 73) is regarded as the best of all diction- aries of the French language. A historical die- tionary of the French language, on a grand scale, lias been begun by the French Academy, The first volume, published in 1858, contains only the articles from A to Abu. — -Dictionaries merely etymological have been published by Menage, Borel, du Fresne, Pongens, Roquefort (1829), Noel and Carpentier 1831), Charrasin (1842), Mazure (18(53), Scheler (1862).— The best works en the history of the French language are those by Wey [Histoire des revolutions du langage en France. Paris, 1848), Genin (Des variations du langage frangais depuis le \1me siecle, Paris, Is l.")).and Littre ( Histoire de la languefranpaise 3 vols.. Paris, 1863). — The standard works on French synonyms are those by Girard (1736), Beauzee il7ti!i). Roubaud (1785), and Guizot (1809 — 22). — Complete histories of French literature have been published byNisard (4 vols. L846 —HI i. Demogeot (3vols.,1857),andGeruzez ('-' vols.. 1852). — In connection with the other Romanic languages, the French has been, gram- matically and lexically, treated in the standard works of Diez on these languages. [Grammatik professors. The university, in 1*71 -5, had •"> professors. ."> I stu- dents, and Tit alumni. The Rev. James < !. I 'ur- man, D.D., has been the presiding officer of the institution since its opening. FURNITURE, SCHOOL. See School Furniture. GALESVILLE UNIVERSITY, at Gales- ville. Wis., chartered in L859, is under the con- trol of the -Methodist Episcopal Church. Both se\es are admitted. It is supported by tuition fees and an endowment of $15,000. It has a library of over 4,000 volumes, a cabinet of natural history, and apparatus for the illustration of nat- ural philosophy, chemistry, and astronomy. It has a preparatory anil a collegiate department with a classical and a scientific course, and a course in modern languages and in music. The cost of tuition in the preparatory department is 8-1 per year. and. in the collegiate department. 827. In 1874 — ;"i. there were 7 instructors; and the num- ber of students was as follows: in the collegiate department. '!'.>■. in the preparatory, 96; in music. "J~: total, deducting repetitions, 135. The Hon. George (ode. LL. 1).. was the president of the university from !*.">!» to 18(14, when the Rev. Harrison Gilliland, D.D., the present incumbent 76), was elected. GALL, Franz Joseph, a German physician ami the founder of phrenology, was born at Tiefenbronn, in Baden, March 9., 1758, and died at Montrouge, near Paris, Aug. 22., 1828. The first impulse to his phrenological inves- tigations was given by tin' observation made by him. when a boy, that all pupils who excelled in committing pieces to memory had prominent eyes. Gradually proceeding in his observations, he thought he perceived in the human head external marks of other intellectual and moral faculties: and. after twenty years of uninterrupt- ed study, he believed that he hail discovered about twenty organs of different faculties, in 179(i. he began to lecture on his peculiar theory in Vienna : but, in 1*0'.!, the Austrian govern- ment interdicted his lectures on the ground that they were dangerous to religion. This charge, which has since been often repeated, against the phrenologists, was stoutly denied by Gall, who, on the contrary, contended that training in early youth could overcome a vicious disposi- tion, and that, therefore, a knowledge of phre- nology, which revealed better than any other means of observation, the good and bad disposi- tions of men, was of great importance to every educator. Gall had many followers, the most noted of whom was Spurzheim, the author of A View of tin' Elementary Principles of Edu- cation I l-'.din, 1821 ), and other important works. GALLAUDET, Thomas Hopkins, a noted teacher and philanthropist, was born in Phila- delphia, Dec. Id., 17*7, and died in Hartford, Ct., Sep. 9., 1851. He graduated at rale College in 1805, entered the theological seminary at Andover, in 1*11. and was licensed to preach in 1*14; bulj, becoming interested in the instruction of deaf-mutes, he turned his attention almost entirely to that subject. Soon after, lie was appointed superintendent of an institution founded for the purpose at Hartford, and in L815, visited Europe in its behalf. Finding that the accomplishment of his purpose to enter the London Asylum as a pupil would lie de- layed, and a similar purpose for the institution at Edinburgh entirely thwarted, he sought an introduction to the abbe Sicard, then in Lon- don, and was invited by him to visit Paris, where every facility was afforded him to study the system of deaf-mute instruction there in vogue. In July 1816, he returned to this country with Mr. Laurent Clerc, one of the ablesi pupils and assistants of the abbe Sicard. ami founded, with a class of seven pupils, the Amer- ican Asylum at Hartford — the first institution of the kind in this country. After thirteen years' superintendence, he resigned, in 1830, his position as principal, on account of failing health. From that time till his death, in L851, be gave his attention liberally to all educational ami benevolent pursuits, speaking and writing more particularly on female education, and the treat- ment of the insane. His most important works are. Child's Book on the Soul, Mother's Primer, Defining Dictionary, Practical Spelling-Book, The Ercrii-Thiji Christian. Letters of a Father, and Public Schools, Public Blessings.- See Barnard, American Teachers and Educators ; and Tribute la GaUaudet (Hartford, L852) ; H. Humphrey, Life of T. II. GaUaudet; North American Review for October. 1858. GAMES are formal methods of sport or diversion, which constitute, in an especial man- ner and degree, the peculiar life of childhood. Play may he regarded as a pari of that spon- taneous exercise of the bodily organs of an animal, which pr OteS its growth and adapts it to its surroundings : and games, as convention- ally established modes of play. These games may he more or less in harmony with the nat- ural wants of those who engage in them : but it 330 GAMES GAUME •will be found that the more nearly they agree ■with these natural wants, the more generally they have prevailed in every period of the his- tory of mankind. Thus modern research has shown that the best games, both of children and of adults, were practiced, with certain variations occasioned by differences of climate, soil, and national character, thousands of years ago. With the progress of civilization, these games Undergo certain modifications' so as to be adapted to the age : and thus, like language, become the characteristics or exponents of special degrees anil kinds of national culture. Children's games arc, in part, imitations of those of adults; and, indeed, sometimes, in an imaginative way. of the serious occupations of the latter. Thus the child "plays school" with other children as scholars, or assumes the functions of the head of the household, or of the lawyer, the doctor, the mechanic, etc., this disposition resulting from the activity of the coneeptive faculty peculiar to children, [t has been asserted that the educator should not meddle with the plays and games of children, at least not in a positive manner ; be- cause to be really interesting they should be spontaneous. This principle is undoubtedly cor- rect in regard to play in general, as far as it is not prejudicial to mental or physical health, or Unsuited to the age of those engaged in it : but parents, and other educators, can exert very it influence over their children or pupils l>\ joining in their games: and. in this way. they may regulate the games themselves, and thus make them an instrument of training and in- struction. The principle which should limit all interference is obvious: the self-activity of the child's powers should be fostered and directed, so that amusement may he not only the means of stimulating their growth, but aiso a result of that growth. In what way this may be done. from the earliest childhood, by means of plays and games, such as have been employed forages, has been demonstrated by Froebel, and by thoss who have practiced his method in the household or the kindergarten. The latter, however, ap- proaches perfection chiefly through the surpris- ing ability of the children, when stimulated by that method, to invent an endless variety of beautiful plays and games for t hemselves. an ability which not only interests and amuses them as children, but prepares them for many spheres of useful activity in afterlife. Experi- ments to adapt froebel s means of occupation, and his games, to pupils from the seventh Or eighth year upward, are now being made in a number of schools in Germany and the United Mates. These comprise a great variety of ball games, gardening occupations, light gymnastics, and movement games; as well as those of a more mental character, such as charades, puzzles, and rebuses ; an. I also construction games by means ot geometrical solids, cutting, weaving, folding, and twining, w ith paper, leather, etc. The peculiar charm connected with these amusing occupations tuusl ten. I to keep children from rough. boisterous. and dan ports, and will also obviate the need of purchasing costly and elaborate toys, in which children take but a transient interest. More particularly will it dissuade from supplying children with contrivances for such games of chance as tend to foster the spirit of gain and gambling. Children should be led to make their own toys, and to contrive their own games and plays as much as possible. The importance of games in the education of children was recognized by Plato and Aristotle. The former proposed that the children, assembled in the temples, should be trained, under female direction, to imitate actual life in their plays, and thus to develop a taste or inclination tor particular vocations. Aristotle praised games as the means of exercise, and as preventing or counteracting idleness: but he based them too exclusively on the principle of recreation. Quin- tilian also recognized the developing power of certain games. In tin- middle ages, only the knights appear to have appreciated the value of games for physical and social culture. Luther was favorable to the games of children: fait the schools of the Kith and 17th centuries are. in general, noted for their gloomy neglect of this i beerful clement in the education ot youth. The schools of the Jesuits were, in this respect, conducted on more reasonable principles than most others. Montaigne advocated games for children, and ComeniuS likewise favored them. Locke commended them, bul particularly enjoined that children should be required as far as possible to make their own playthings. "All the plays and diversions of children.'" he says. "should be directed towards good and useful habits. or else they will introduce ill ones. What- ever they do leaves some impression on that ten- der age. and from them they receive a tendency to good or evil ; and whatever hath such an in- fluence ought not to be neglected." Rousseau showed himself unable to appreciate the value of children's games. In the L9th century, no one has done so much to call attention to their importance as Froebel : and. at the present time. no educational system can be considered complete which docs m it embrace a consideration of every thing pertaining to the rational amusement of children as well as what belongs to their formal instruction. A Large number of books in the English language bave been published, contain- ing a full description of every variety of games and amusements tor both boys ami girls, and much labor and ingenuity have been expended in inventing interesting and instructive in-door games for children, and in constructing material f..r them. For a thoroughly exhaustive treat- ment of this subject, from an educational point of view see Sen \u.ri;. Das Spiel mul die Spiele | I 861 I. (See I hvri;sio\s.) GAUME, Jean Joseph., a French ecclesi- astic and author, especially noted for his earnest opposition to the use of the pagan clashes in education, was born in L 802, and died in L869. Me received holy orders at an early age. and. in I >'JT. was appointed professor of theology ill the seminary of Ne vers, of which institution he was GEDIKE (.'("XIUS :;:;i afterwards the director. Subsequently, he be- came canon of the cathedra] and vicar-general. In his Le ver rongeur des sncii ; f< : .< modernes — The Canker-worm <>f Modern Society (Paris, L851), he endeavored to show that all the so- cial evils of the last four centuries could be traced to tin revival of pagan art and literature. The publication of this hook gave rise to an ex- Citing controversy in which Bishop Dupanloup strongly opposed the views of Gaume. (See Dopanloi i'.) In 1852, Qaume published LeUres a .1/'//'. Dupanloup sur le paganisme dans riducation, contending that only expurgated editions of Latin and Greek authors anterior to the 4th century A. I). should be read in the schools. In order to carry out this idea, he issued Bi/>lio/hi' j ' des classiques chre'tiens, l<<- tn<« et grecs (30 vols., Paris. 1 852 — 5) and Poetes ii prosateurs profanes completement <:r/>>frt/t : s (2 vols.. 1 S ."> 7 ) . In 1841, he was made a knight of Sylvester by Gregory XV I., and, in 1854, a prothonotary apostolic by Pius IX. (See Clas- sics, Christi in.) GEDIKE, Friedrich, a Herman educator, horn in 1755, died in L803. lie studied at the university of Frankfort on the Oder, was appointed sub-rector of the Friedrichswerder Gymnasium in Berlin, in 177(>, and director of that institution, in 1779. His success in this position was very great; and the organization which he introduced into his gymnasium, became a model for all similar institutions in Prussia. His principal reform is described by himself as follows: •• As it frequently happens that a young man does not make equal progress in all his studies, but advances more rapidly in some than in others, it would be unreasonable to let him attend to all the studies in the same class. Our plan is. therefore, arranged in such a manner that a scholar can attend one lesson in a higher, and another in a lower class, without missing a study otherwise necessary." In his position as chief school councilor ( Oberschn I rath) , to which he was appointed in 1787, he also showed great talents as .in organizer. The creation of the Supreme School Board (Oberschidcollegium) and the in- troduction of the examination of candidates for luation in the gymnasia I Abtturientenexamen i were chiefly his work. In 1767, he established a teacher's seminary for the instruction of teachers of classical schools, the direction of which he retained until his death, lie published a collec- tion of his Schul&cliriften (Educational Work- in two volumes (1789-05). GENETIC METHOD, in instruction, is hut another name for what is more frequently called the developing method. The term genetic implies that the mind of the pupil is to be guide. 1 by the teacher in such a way that it will be able to perceive the genesis of the truths communi- cated, that is. their development from fundamen- tal principles ; or that it will be led to construct for itself general principles from observed facts as antecedents. This method recognizes the need of a genesis, or development, of actual concep- tions in the mind of the pupil, as tin- hasis for every other educational process. (See Develop- ing Method.) GENEVA COLLEGE, at West Geneva, Logan Co.. Ohio, under the control of the Re- formed Presbyterian Church, was organized in 1 849, and chartered in 1853. It includes a pre- paratory and a collegiate department. In 1*7.'5 — 4, there woe 7 instructors and 170 students (100 males ami (II females). The cost of tuition for preparatory and scientific studies i> si'i per year; tin' classical studies, $30. The Rev. II. ELGeorge, !>.!».. is (1876) the president, having held this position since L872. GENIUS (Lat. genius, innate power or capacity, from gignexe, to produce), as used in modern times, has been variously defined by many writers, who. though differing widely as to its essential quality, are agreed as to its out- ward, distinguishing manifestation : namely, un- usual mental ability coupled always with great intuitional or creative power. Absolute creative power cannot, of course, be claimed for it. since it does not create the elements with which it works ; but that it is creative in the sense of re- combining these, and discovering new and subtle relations between them, which we instinctively recognize as both real and novel, and hence view with admiration and delight, is generally ad- mitted. Originality is its distinctive feature. In whatever held of human inquiry, therefore, it is exerted, its action and results are always the same, — it masters intuitively, or by a study so rapid as to seem intuitive, all that is known in that particular field, and, leaving talent by the wayside, reaches out into the great unknown which surrounds us on every side, rescues some- thing from that shadowy realm, and adds it to the domain of positive knowledge. Thus, with Beethoven, it listens as if to celestial harmonies, and transcribes them for mortal ears; with Newton, it follows the falling apple till worlds and atoms proclaim the same immutable and unerring law ; it broods with Xapoleon over the camp fire, and, scorning experience as its guide, gathers sudden and overwhelming victory from the veiy held of disaster : it paints the heroic past with the simplicity and grandeur of nature herself, as in Homer, or probes, as in Shakespeare. the mysteries of the human heart with a power and vividness which ages cannot antiquate. Tran- scending thus all contemporaneous effort, it is always a, lawgiver; while talent deduces from its works the rules by which alone excellence may be attained. Disdaining all present attainment. and living too exclusively in the future, it quite often happens, however, that the man of genius falls out of harmony with the age in which he lives. And here the duty of the educa- tor towards him must be considered. Our first question, therefore, is, How far can the teacher influence genius 1 If genius he. as many think. only an abnormal development of one faculty at the expense of the others as the ear becomes exquisitely acute by the loss of sight — the method to he adopted by the teacher IS plain : namely, a repression of the abnormal faculty and 332 GENIUS <;i;;. the earth, and eiv, to write) has in its own name a concise yet comprehensive definition. Strictly speak' ing, modern scientific geography necessarily in- cludes a great part of the results and many of the details of the several natural and physical sciences. We must look to astronomy for an ex- planation of the phenomena of day and night and of the seasons: and for the means of determining the true form of the earth, its magnitude, and the relative position of places upon its surface. Geology must explain the phenomena of eleva- tion and contour, and their incessant though slow mutations. Physics only, can enable us tn con- sider intelligently the conditions of climate, the origin of the wind and ocean currents, the rain- fall, the relations of temperature to elevation. and the mysteries of terrestrial magnetism. And. t'u ally, biology, in its various departments, must help us to comprehend the geographical distribution of plants and animals, and to un- derstand the nature and origin of those impor- tant factors in modern civilization,— petroleum and mineral coal. Geography combines con- ations from all these and many other depart- ments of human knowledge, and subordinates them to its own chief purpose.- a knowledge of mankind, and of their distribution, of the pecu- liarities of the countries which they inhabit, and he effects of their physical environment up- on their social development and their condition; also a knowledge of their resources, industries, and government : and of the commercial rela- tions of nations. It is evident that a subject s. vasi and comprehensive cannot he exhaus- tively treated in any ordinary school course of - ady. As in the science of arithmetic there are very many things which cannot possibly be included in an elementary or " practical " busi- ness course, so iii the study of geography, a very Large part of the entire subject must oecessarilj he omitted, partly because of tin' immaturity 01 the pupils mind, and partly because <'t the pres- sure of other Subjects upon his time and atten- tion. The contents of the modem daily news- paper furnish, perhaps, the besl general indica- tion of what should constitute a proper course in geography tor ordinary schools. \\ ith most persons, the newspaper furnishes by tar the h r pari of their reading, and is the chief, it not the only, source of their stock of general in- formation. None can safely dispense with it; and. in the not distant future, with the general increase of the number of intelligent readers through improved systems of instruction, daily journal must become more and more the GEOGRAPHY 333 medium for spreading a knowledge of the things which every one should know." Its telegrams, editorials, and communications, as well as the ad- vertisements, relate to every great human inter- est, political ami commercial, social and religious. They arc from every part of the world; ami those of chief interest involve geographical knowledge which the editor must necessarily as- sume to he already possessed by the reader. In order to be truly practical, a proper course of study in geography should recognize the fact that, after reading, writing, and elementary arithmetic, a knowledge of no other subject studied in school, perhaps not of all others taken together, is so frequently called into practical as a knowledge of geography. In view of the limited time that can usually be given to the subject in school, it is obvious that, if a text-book be used, it should be clear and concise, and should chiefly direct the atten- tion of the pupil to those matters which will afterwards be most needed. All unimportant details should be omitted. It is a matter of no consequence that the pupil should know the de- tails of Arctic geography, or lie able to describe minutely, and by long formulas, the courses of rivers, the precise boundaries of countries, or the exact location of a large number of towns and cities of the third and fourth orders. Gen- eral but substantially correct ideas are all that are here necessary ; and, in nearly every case, these will be nearly all that will remain in the pupil's mind, after all the labor and time ex- pended upon details. A knowledge of local geog- raphy is indispensable as a basis for the proper study of the more important descriptive geog- raphy ; but great care should be taken to make it no mere than a well-selected outline, such as the average mind is likely to retain. When judiciously pursued in the school room, geography becomes a lifelong study, full of pleasure and profit; badly taught, it is perhaps more than any other subject, "stale, flat, and unprofitable." Geography, like all other subjects, cannot be taught by any one who is not specially prepared to teach it. The teacher should know a great deal more about it than the brief statements of the t. xt-book. lie should have a fund of illustra- tion from books on history, travel, commerce, and other collateral subjects, so as to fill up and en- liven the simple outline of the book. There are few more common or more distressing illustra- tions of incompetency in the school room than that of the misnamed "teacher," with his eyes fastened upon the book, now following with his finger the printed question, and then doubtfully poring over the map, or over the printed answer in the descriptive text, to sec if the pupil "knows his lesson." Pupils arc ipiick to estimate such a teacher at his proper value. Geography is. comparatively speaking, a mod- ern science. The Phoenicians, the Egyptians, the Greeks, and the Carthaginians, in the prog- - of their commercial enterprises, made a tew discoveries, principally confined to the shores of the Mediterranean Sea : and the great mili- tary expeditions of Alexander, in the Ith century B. < '.. added somewhat to this knowledge, which Eratosthenes (aboul 200 B. C.) first reduced to a scientific form. The treatises of Strabo and Ptolemy contained nearly all the geographical information possessed by mankind for centuries. \\ hen Columbus embarked on his daring voyage, little addition had been made to geographical knowledge, excepl what had been gamed during the 1 5th century,by the voyages of the I Portuguese alongthecoast of Africa, stimulated by that noble prince, Henry of Portugal, surnamed the Navi- gator. The first attempt at a de& riptiOD of the earth, subsequent to this, was thai of Sebastian Franckf Welibuoch,! 554). The workB of Sebastian Minister. Ortelius. < iluver, Meiian. and others fol- lowed. J.Bergmann(died L787) was the founder of physical. A. P. Busching 1 1 754), of politico-statis- tical geography. It was. however, the labors of Karl Bitter, that first gave geography a truly scientific character. A new and important era of geographical discovery began just before the middle of the 19th century, and is still in prog- ress. The geographical society of Paris was founded in 182] : that of Merlin, in 1828 : the Royal Geographical Society of London, in 1830; and the American < ieographical Society, in 1852. There are now (1876), at least thirty-four such societies, differing, of course, in extent, activity, and importance. W ithin a 1 >rief period, and under their advice, direction, or encouragement, pro- digious results have been accomplished. A few years ago, more than one-half of the map of Africa was a blank : and of the 17 millions of sq. m. of Asia, more than 12 millions was either entirely unknown, or wholly cut off from all intercourse with mankind. Twenty-five years ago, a geographer wrote of Australia, "a corner of this huge mass of land is all that is known." Besides the newly opened empires of China and Japan and the recent vast conquests of the Rus- sians, nearly every other country of Asia has been visited by scientific explorers, eager to notice every fact relating to physical or political geography, ethnology, geology, botany, or zoology, and to discover the various agricultural, mineral, and other physical resources, developed or undeveloped, which play so important a part in modern civilization. In the same spirit, the limits of the unexplored regions of Africa and Australia have been greatly reduced : the Arctic Ocean has been penetrated nearly to the 83rd, and the Antarctic to the 77th. degree of latitude : and the vast and almost unknown regions in the heart of South America have been visited, again and again, by enthusiastic observers. Twenty- five or thirty years ago, the greater part of the area of the United States, more than '1 millions of square miles, was inhabited only by savages. and was almost unknown: now, although a great part yet remains unexamined, the admiration of the world is fixed upon "its great mountain ranges, extraordinary canons, wonderful geysers, and prehistoric ruins; upon its lakes, rivers, majestic cataracts, and broad areas of culturable land : its untold mineral treasures of even' kind 334 GEOGRAPHY and the rapidity with which its ancient solitudes are becoming the homes of an advanced civili- zation." (President Daly's Annual Address, 1876.) The study of geography in schools is, compar- atively speaking, of recent introduction. The first text-books appear to have been modeled in part upon the extensive descriptions of Strabo. and in part upon the briefer work of Ptolemy, much of which consists essentially of mere lists of places. Until the latter part of the last cent- ury, nothing had been done in the United States to popularize the subject and adapt it to school instruction. The first text-book on the subject published in that country was a small 18mo manual by Jedidiah Morse, issued in L784. This work Avas of little use beyond affording a means of giving some slight geographical informa- tion to the pupils of elementary schools ; but. pre- vious to the publication of the work of William 0. Woodbridge and Mrs. Emma Willard as joint- authors (77/'' Woodbridge and Willard Geog- raphies and Atlases, 1822), it continued to be the chief text-book in use on the subject. "Up to this period," says l>r. Aleott. in his biography of William * '. Woodbridge, "geography as a science had received but little attention in the public schools of New England ; with the excep- tion of a few of the more favored of the larger schools, spelling, reading, ami writing were nearly all the branches that received special attention. As for geography, some few schools studied Morse ; a few others used as a sort of reading- book, Nathaniel Dwight's System of Geography, which was arranged in the form of question and answer. The vast majority, however, paid no attention to the subject." Mrs. Willard thus de- scribes the method of teaching geography in L814, and for some years subsequently: "In geography, the eye was not made the sole or the chief me- dium of teaching the signs of external things, as the forms, proportions, and situation of countries, rivers, etc.; for though maps existed, yet they were not required to be used ; but the boundary was learned by the words of the book, and the latitude by numbers there set down." This pre- sents a very striking illustration of the error, once so prevalent, of addressing the mere mem- ory (and generally the memory of words), with- out any endeavor to develop the intelligence. The attempt to teach the situation of places (topography) by mere verbal description was perhaps the mosl absurd error which the historj Lucation presents. William < !. Woodbridge, who had been fur some time engaged in leaching • deaf-mutes, and Mrs. Willard. of the 1 1 ■ >> Female Seminary, appear to have been simultaneously impressed with the absurdity of the method in use, and with the need of reform in teaching geography; and both proposed to publish texi books on the subject, and on plans substantially identical. This led to the union of authorship already referred to. The application of a principle of scientific generalization to geog- raphy, whether apprehended by them flr not, was not introduced into their text -books; nor was it in the work published about the same time by Sidney E. Morse LW/r System of Mod- em Geography, 8vo,1823;. nor in the subsequent editions of that work, which had a wide and Long-continued circulation. The improvements of Woodbridge and Willard, adopted and added toby Morse, Olney, Smith, and many other au- thors, obliged the pupil to make the maps the< hief study, and to describe in his own language, though by given formulas, the boundaries of countries, the courses of rivers, the situation of towns, etc., lists of which were furnished for this purpose. Although nearly all of the text- books then, and subsequently, contained a de- scriptive text relating to matters not represented on the map : such as the soil, climate, and pro- ductions of countries: yet the prominence given to the map studies, and their greater relative convenience for recitation and home study, veiy generally led to a practical neglect of the de- scriptive text. In some works, as that of Hart, which was in extensive use in American schools for many years, all exercises but those upon the maps, and a few preliminary definitions, were omitted as not strictly belonging to the subject. The evils of such a method of instruction must be obvious. When the convenient plan of print- ing maps and text in one volume was adopted, the pages opposite the maps were largely, and in some cases exclusively, given up to map exercises, chiefly consisting of lists of islands, capes, rivers, etc.; this, though convenient for map study, was very apt to be abused. In L849, Arnold Guyot (<[. v.) published a small volume of lectures, en- titled Earth and Man, which was the first presentation to the American public, in a pop- ular form, of the geographical labors of Ritter and Humboldt. This work gave a powerful stimulus, in the United States, to the study of geography as a science, and led to many changes in school text books on the subject, as well as more rational methods of presenting it in the class room. Geographical study in one of its most interesting departments, hydrography, was stim- ulated by the researches of M. F.Maury, the results of which he published in Physical Geography of !//-' Sea. (N.x.,1 856) ; also by the famous wind and current charts, constructed by him. The labors of Hitter and Humboldt have influenced the treat- ment of the subject in European schools, partic- ularly in those of Germany. An outline of geog- raphy, however imperfect . early formed a part of the studies, in some at least of the schools of that country. In 1590, we find The Cosmography, probably that of Sebastian M ii lister, recommended as a useful reader in certain schools of llesse- Darmstadt. The school regulations for Saxe- Gotha, in L680, provide for a simple geographical outline, in schools where there were more than one teacher. In L763, the school regulations for Prussia, drawn up by Becker, furnish a brief outline of geography, and order its ust'. Similar provisions were made in Silesia and some other countries. The method followed in all appears to have been that of oral instruction by means of a few outline maps, beginning with the native <"N CKOtiKAL'lIY 335 village and province. Yet notwithstanding these directions and pn>\ isions, I >i tics says [Sckule der P&dagogik, Leipsic, lsT(i). "As late as the be- ginning of the L 9th century, there was still, in schools, scarcely any geographical instruct ion : and when it was given, it was confined to a tew lessons on the continents, the principal countries. and their capitals. Even in the higher schools. but little geography was learned. " — Notwith- standing all that has been done to facilitate this study, and the costly geographies, richly adorned with maps and pictorial illustrations, which are supplied to the pupils, teachers quite generally complain that the results of teaching it are very unsatisfactory. The vast multitude of tacts which it embraces, imperfectly generalized, or not at all. and bound together by no obvious relations, drop from the pupil's memory almost as soon as Committed to it. Candidates for admission into colleges and universities, it is said, stand much lower in this branch than in any other; although none receives so much attention in the element- ary schools, except reading, spelling, and arith- metic. To what causes this is to be attributed has been already in part considered and will be further noticed as we proceed. In treating of geography as a branch of elementary instruction (for such it exclusively is at the present time), we shall consider (I) what are the faculties which are specially 5 exercised in studying it ; (II) the different stages into which the instruction should be divided, and what is proper to each; (III) the age at which the study should be commenced ; and (IV) the proper methods of teaching it. I. Geography seeks to present to the mind conceptions of countries and peoples that we have never visited, analogous to those which we have acquired in relation to regions which we have actually seen. It further seeks to com- bine and generalize these conceptions into a systematic view of the earth as a whole, and as the abode of mankind. — The fundamental con- ceptions, therefore, which are to be thus ampli- fied, combined, or otherwise modified, must be based upon objective presentation. A landscape, the more varied the better, or in default of this, a good pictorial representation, as its nearest equivalent, must furnish most of the basic ele- ments. The first, though limited, steps must, therefore, be made through an appeal to the per- ceptive faculties. The second stage must consist in an exercise of the conceplive faculties in vividly recalling and combining the impressions which the objective presentation has made upon the mind. The pupil must be trained to recall the image of the mountain, the island, the forest, the placid hike, the verdant plain, or the flowing river ; to see again, as it were, the tossing ocean and to hear the roar of its waves as they break upon the beach ; and to picture to himself in season of the year the aspect of nature in an- other. These and other analogous impressions, already obtained from physical phenomena, must furnish the indispensable basis for any true prog- ress in geographical knowledge. — Hut all this training is not the teaching of geography, hut only the necessary preparation for it. These con- ceptions are to geography hut as the syllables to language, or as the gamut to melody. Through- out the teaching of geography, another menial faculty, the imagination of the pupil, must be broughl into exercise. These conceptions of phenomena and of regions that he has actually seen must now be modified, amplified, and com bined. to form conceptions of phenomena and regions that he has not seen. The conception of the rivulet must be expanded to that of the mighty river; the little lake or pond must had the mind to the broad ocean; anil the little hills. to mountain ranges. The low sun and snowy fields of winter must be modified into an antic- land- scape; ami the verdant meadow, into the bound- less prairie. If this is properly done, and especially if pictorial representation is properly employed. the name of the Amazon will not recall to the pupil the conception of a long and crooked black mark, widening towards the right-hand side of his map; but his imagination will at once picture the broad surface and turbid waters of that vast river, its hot and humid climate, and its limit- less forest solitudes with their tangle of giant vines, and their troops of chattering monkeys. When, at the proper stage, the study of maps is introduced, the discipline of the memory is ad- ded to that of the perceptive, conceptive, and imaginative faculties, as in remembering the location of mountains, islands, rivers, and towns, and the various facts associated with them ; while an appeal is also made, with increasing frequency, to tins judgment, in tracing the neces- sary relation of the location of cities to rivers and coast-lines, and in connecting the general course of a river with the elevations and slopes of the country wdiich it drains. II. The successive stages of geographical in- struction have been already, in part, indicated. The conceptions and distinctions of mainland and island ; of mountain, hill, and table-land ; of lake, river, basin, valley, peninsula, and cape ; of climate, vegetation, race, and other geographical elements, should first be fixed, and then the terms wdiich embody them should be described by the pupil himself. Too much stress is usually placed upon the precise and formal definitions of these terms. Some of them, such as sea. gulf. hay. and lake, as actually used, defy all sharp differentia- tion ; and Others, such as continent and water- shed, are variously used by standard authorities. It must he home in mind that the definitions in geography have a totally distincl function from those of mathematics, grammar, and other logic- al or deductive sciences. In these, the cornet conception OI a term, such as parallelogram or adjective, is to he obtained from its definition; whereas, in geography, the definition, if required, musl he developed from a correct conception ot the ohjeet defined. The formal definitions ot geographical terms have, indeed, their place ; but this is not in the first stage of the subject. The geographical terms and their association should be followed by ideas of direction or relative position, that is, a knowledge of the cardinal 336 GEOGRAPHY points; after this, the construction and inter- pretation of a simple map of limited and known localities, beginning perhaps with a plan or map of the school room itself , followed by a map of the immediate neighbor!) L, then by thai of the county as it would appear if seen from a balloon. When the pupil has been thoroughly trained to understand the symbols of the map. and readily to picture to himself the things thai are symbolized by the various lines, dots, and other marks, he is in possession of all the elementary ideas essential to the subject. — Either of two opposite courses may now be pursued in giving the outline of geography itself which is usually included in a primary or elementary course for beginners. One of these plans, known as the synthetic, begins with the study of a map of the locality of the pupil's home or neighborhood; it takes next the map of the county, then of the state or district, and. finally, of the whole country in which the pupil resides. Alter this, follows the study of the simple outlines of the continent of which the country forms a part : then the outlines of the other continents or grand divisions, in some pre- ferred order, and finally a general review, which completes and combines all that has preceded it into a brief view of the world as a w hole. The other, or analytic system, pursues, at least in its early stages, an exactly reverse course. From the consideration of certain common phenomena and other well-known facts, the pupil IS first led to form a conception of the earth as a gigantic globe Or ball ; then of the primary divisions of its surface into land and water; and then of the leading subdivisions of these primary ele- ments. After learning the climatic division of the earth into zones, the pupil studies the conti- nents, each in its turn, as in the other system. Both of these systems have their strong points, both have been successfully followed, and both have earnest advocates. Excepting in their in- itial and terminal stages they have much in com- mon. One great advantage of the analytic system is, that it more readily admits the early intro- duction of the terrestrial globe, and requires its frequenl use throughout. In no other way can certain serious misconceptions be thoroughly prevented. The use of maps of different scales. together with the inherent faults of projection, leads to erroneous ideas in regard to the relative size of countries, and to wrong conceptions of their relative positions. These first impressions are hard to correct, and, in the majority of cases, are never corrected. The globe should have tin' leading place in teaching elementary geog- raphy. It should be used to fix the idea of the Bpherical shape of the earth, its dimensions, and the division of its surf ace into land and water. It should give the fire! view of its division into continents, oceans, islands etc.. and just concep- tions of their relative position and magnitude. By no other means can the astronomic elemi <'f primary geography be <,, simply and correctly Jit ; such as the causes of day and night, and ins, the /dues, the nature of Latitude and longitude and the need of these measurements. The final statre of geography, as a branch of ele- mentary instruct ion. is much more comprehensive than the preceding Stages, and makes more fre- quent appeals to the judgment and the memory. The outline already given is to be reviewed and tilled up. Political or social geography is then to be more fully and systematically taught; and the whole subject of the peculiarities and resources, together with the commercial and other relations! of all the most important countries of the globe, is to be more fully shown. < :eoeraphical definitions are now desirable. These should be followed by a review of the outlines of astronomical geog- raphy, and then by a thorough training in the outlines of comparative physical geography as furnishing the only scientific basis, ami the only line principles of scientific generalization, for the facts of political geography .This training should include, at first, well-arranged exercises i »n simple physical maps of the hemispheres, great care being taken, at this stage, to furnish only so much of topography as is necessary tor the lessons on descriptive comparative physical geography, which should immediately follow. These descriptive lessons should be brief and clear, and should sub- stantially include the following points in their proper order: (1) a comparison of the continents or grand divisions of the land in regard to posi- tion, form, size, and principal horizontal projec- tions; (2) the comparison and classification of islands, the chief mountain systems, table-lands, and lowland plains; (3) the oceans and ocean currents, and the great rivers and lakes; (4) cli- mate as affected by latitude, by elevation, and by winds and ocean currents; and (5) the genera] distribution of characteristic plants and animals, and of the races of mankind. All. or nearly all. of these may be profitably taught simply as physical \',ir\s to lie known by observation. The study of tin' explanatory theories belo to a higher stage of geographical knowledge. Each of the six grand divisions should now he considered in turn : first, in relation to the lead- in- facts of its physical geography, including its surface, drainage, climate, and characteristic plants and animals, indigenous or exotic: and secondly, on the basis of these physical facts, in relation to the separate political Subdivisions) their inhabitants, towns and cities, resources. commerce, industrial development, government, ami general social condition. Finally, a brief but comprehensive general review should bring out, in strong relief, the various interrelations of the different countries in regard to commerce, gov- ernment, race, language, ami religion. 111. As a general rule, the pupil should not begin the study of geography, at least, not what maybe called map geography, until ten or eleven years of age. There are, however, geographical lessons, of a very simple character, which may be profitably given to younger children. Thi should, according to the principles already stated, be pictorial and di scriptive. approximat- ing to object-lessons, in being designed to develop ideas rather than to impart knowledge. In rela- tion to this Btage of the instruction. < 'urrie says, GEOGRAPHY :;:;7 in Principles qf Early School Education, " The j igraphy of the infant school is a scries of ob- ject-lessons connected by a geographical link. It but prepares materials tor the formal study of geography. It may he thought that the use of the map would facilitate this instruction; but it is quite immaterial whether the map be in the Bchool or not. It is the business of the next stage of progress to localize all that has been learnt: which it does by going regularly over the map, and fixing down in position the coun- tries, which as yet are only names to the children. The utmost use of the map that should lie made in the infant school is to go over with the elder infants, if time permit, at the end of their course. on a physical map of the world, distinctly out- lined so as to show the features of districts, the general outline of what they have learnt." If it were not for the early period at which most children leave school, the regular study of g raphy might he profitably deferred considerably longer. The prevalent practice of thrusting the study of maps upon the time and attention of very young children has much to do with the general disgust of both pupils and teachers with the usual D st results of its study. The introductory course should occupy from a year to a year and a half; the subsequent course, from two and a half to three yen-. IV. The principles which should guide in the selection of methods of teaching this subject, have already been explained, and the difference between the synthetic and analytic systems has been defined. The following suggestive hints will prove valuable to practical teachers : (1) the memorizing of the details of maps without suffi- cient descriptive matter, will leave no permanent impression on the mind; hence, (2) let the study of the map be subordinated to that of the other important facts, such as soil, climate, productions, etc., relating to the separate countries ; and (3) let these facts be presented and studied in a uniform order, so that the pupil's mind will always have a guide, both for investigation and oral description. A special order of topics for this purpose has already b^en suggested. It must always be borne in mind, that in proportion as the pupil becomes interested in the particular country studied, he will desire to know more of its geographical details, and will remember them longer. I ience, the exhaustive study of the map should not precede all other lessons. After fully locating the country to be studied, by means of its boundaries, etc., the teacher may proceed with a description of some of its most striking features, passing from these to the more minute details of topography, as tiny are brought out by this description, until all the topographical and descriptive details are sufficiently learned. In considering the methods to be pursued in the study of geography, reference must also be male to the necessary appliances. For the first stages of the study a simple terrestrial globe and good wall-maps are indispensable. Relief maps and relief glohes, as now constructed and used, are of great value in giving correct ideas of the 22 superficial configuration of differenl countries. If a text-booi is used, it should be chiefly a well-illus- trated reading-1 k. using the simplest language the subject will allow, with very brief map exercises designed to. sum up and locate the substance of the reading lessons. As far as possiUe.eaeh locality should have some associated idea interesting to the pupils. Whateveris taught should he frequently and systematically reviewed by careful question- ing, so that the impressions made may he definite and lasting. In the fust stage of geographical study, the teacher is obliged to do a large part of the work: in the later Stage, the pupil should he trained to do as much as possible tor himself. This subject, when properly taught, furnishes an excellent and necessary discipline for the memory. The illustrations of the text-hook should be supplemented, if necessary, from other sources. Hooks of travel may be made one of the most powerful of auxiliaries in teaching geography. If the school possesses a cyclopaedia or gazetteer, it should be used for illustration or additional facts. No element in the successful teaching of geog- raphy is of greater importance than thorough re- views. These may take any one or more of a variety of forms too well known to need de- scription. Cartography, or the drawing of neat and minutely accurate maps, is esteemed by many experienced teachers as a valuable adjunct in geographical teaching ; yet it is at least questionable whether the large expenditure of time required is fairly repaid by the value of the results. The necessary topography may be much more effectively memorized and reviewed by spirited exercises in drawing, or rapidly sketch- ing, outline maps from memory. Of systems of map-drawing, for this purpose, there is a con- siderable variety, all having more or less merit ; but the great desideratum in this part of the in- struction is, that the relative sizes of countries and distances of places should, by means of it, be per- manently impressed upon the memory. This constitutes what is sometimes called the con- structive metltod of teaching geography ; upon which much dependence isplaced in the German systems of instruction. For the aid of the pupil various devices are resorted to, some using the square, others a series of triangulations. and still others a combination of these, in connection w ith arbitrary measures. — See Catechism on Methods of Teaching, translated from Diesterweo's Almanac for L855- 6, in Barnard's Journal qf Education] Gotsmuths, Versuch einer Metho- dik des geogropliiscl/en l'nt< rric/its- h'sso// on Methodical Instruction in deoi/ro/ih)/ (1845) ; Diesterweg, Anleitung m einem methodischen Vhterricht in tin- Geography — Introduction to Methodical Instruction in Geography (1833) ; Raumer, Geschichte der P&dagogik; Dittks. Schuleder P&dagogik (1876) : Hi isso\. Rapport sur ^instruction primaire a V exposition univer- selle ite Vic n nc en l.sT.'i (Paris. 1 *~:V), containing information both as to methods ami appliances in present use ; Currie, Principles ana Practice qf Common-School Education (Edin.and bond. ; WlCEERSHAM, Methods of Instruction ( Phil.,1865 • 338 oeolo<;y GEOLOGY (Or. yrj, the earth, and 'K&yoq, a discourse), the science- which treats of the history of the earth. Mure exactly, it consists of a group of sciences which treat of the materials of which the earth is composed, and of the arrange- ment of these materials, whether superficial or deep-seated, and of their relations to one another: of the changes which the earth is undergoing at present, and of the series of changes through which it has heretofore passed. Nay more, the inorganic changes that have, in the course of time, resulted in the present physical geography and in- ternal condition of the globe, have been accom- panied, through the latter part of the series, by a corresp ling series of appearances and mollifi- cations of organic forms ; and these two sets of phenomena, organic and inorganic, have been SO interdependent,. that it is impossible to separate thv history of the earth from the history of the life it supports. It will thus be seen, (1) that geology is intimately connected, both by the facts of its own genesis as a science and by the light it throws, in return, on the origin of existing con- ditions, with physical geography ; and, (2) that. while in its branches, mineralogy, Ethology, and pal&ontology, it has its descriptive and classi- ficatory elements, these are. in fact, only subor- dinate to that element, which, by the aid of dynamical {/''>?<>:///. weaves the material facts in- to a web of cause and effect, — a continuous his- torical argument. It is important to observe here that the part of geology which treats only of the material conditions, without regard to the reasoning which connects them into historical sequence, is recognized as 'jrotjnosy,* term, how- ever, that is hut little used by English or Amer- ican writers. Palaeontology is really a natural- history science, bearing much the same relation to zoology, that geology does to physical geog- raphy, (ieology, however, cannot be read with- out its aid: and it might perhaps be well to re- suscitate the term oryctology for this application of palaeontology to geological interpretation If the highesl aim of man. in the acquisition of material knowledge, is to obtain the fullest attainable insight into his true position in the great scheme or existence, and into the respon- sibilities which that position implies, assuredly, geologj must be one of the fields ill which he may hope to gain most important information: as the (ruths of this science, in throwing light upon the history of his surroundings and their antecedents, of the earth which supports him. ami of the life of which he is a part, must in- evitably throw light upon the history and rela- tionships of man himself. A science so com- pletely underlying all the tacts of our existence, aev< loping ro multifariously our dependence up- on all put- of die scheme of which We seem t I be the temporary culmination, should surely COn inl itself to the educator. should be beyond ' be its important e a I as an tor in the problem of universal edu- cation. Fet, as a matter of fact, the simplest teaching ot geology, even to-day, is generally looked up,, ii a- supererogatory. Whether the world ia six thousand years old, or of incalcu- lable antiquity ; whether it always has been as it is at this moment, or whether it has passed through a vast series of changes: whether life has or has not had its progress: whether the facts that are taught us by every pebble and every rain-storm are not worth thinking upon, or whether they lead to conclusions more wonder-' fill than the strangest dreams of the ancients. implying mote power than the boldest myths ever imagined, and illustrating the rule of law so universally that even the minutest -rain of sand proclaims its control ; — these arc questions on which most parents and teachers have thought it scarcely worth while to enlighten the minds of the children placed in their charge. Since the answer will aid the purpose of this article, it is impor- tant to ask. why this neglect of so important a science'.'' In the first place, the reply comes, geology is a young science, begotten in the last century. and brought forth in the commencement of the present, an offspring of the second -rear Reformation, the reformation not of creeds but of philosophy. Secondly, geology has had to fight its way a- an intruder, as a disturber ot old received notions, of deeply ingrained prejudices: its claims in the realm of thought were seen to be stupendous, and the possible consequences of their admission beyond all calculation. Thirdly, although, as in all reform movements, it has derived genuine strength from persecution by its foes, its progress has been all alone greatly impeded by the too hasty zeal of many of its \otaries. i For the history of the gradual devel- opment of geology, until, by Playfair's Illustra- tions of Hutton, and the patient researches of William Smith, the clues were given by which its accumulated facts could be systematized into a scientific form, see a concise account in the i\vs\ four chapters of I .yell's Principles of Geol- ogy.) Excluding the almost invincible vis iner- tice of ancient prejudice, t he third cause has. per- haps, been the most potent in retarding the ac- ceptance of geological discoveries; because some hypotheses, which had been accepted by numer- ous and. perhaps, influential geologists, were ultimately proved to be untenable, therefore the significance of truths that wen- incontrovertible was unfairly belittled. It is. even to this day. a frequent argument against geology, that there is SO ii inch in connect ion with it that is uncertain : but those who make t his object ion are unwilling to admit -will not allow themselves to realize, how much of proven truth there is in the science, and how thoroughly it is founded upon fa which need only the proof of observation. Per- haps, the best way in which, in this brief article, the fundamental ideas upon which geology is based may be presented, will be to put them in- to the form of simple siateiuents. or axioms, which, though incapable of proof, it would be absurd to deny, because their truth may h.' seen at a -lance: (I i It is a matter of observa- tion, that wherever on the surface of the earth there is moisture, there, under the influence of changes of temperature, will be chemical and GEOLOGY 839 mechanical changes in progress, in the rocks ex- posed to its action. In other words, thai rocks exposed a1 or ni ar the Burface arc forever under- going destruction by the action of moisture in the atmosphere, of running water, waves, frost, moving ice, etc. (2) The results of this destruc- tion, in tin' form of gravel, sand, and finer part- icles, of day or of calcareous rocks, are continu- ally moved onwards by this same agent water from higher to lower levels, until they finally sink to rest in the quiet depths of the ocean. If this process of the degradation of the dry land were continued a sufficienl Length of time, it would result in the ultimate destruction of every island and every continent. and in the fill- ing up, in part, of the depressions in the bed of the ocean ; unless some counteracting ag sney be at work re-elevating the deposits thus accumu- lating beneath the sea level. (4) A large part of existing dry lands are formed of conglomerates, sandstones, clays, and limestones, the very con- stitution of which shows that they were origi- nally sediments deposited from water; a fact that is siill more clearly evidenced by the shells and other organic remains which they contain ; and they thus show that continents have either been elevated out of the water, or that water has been withdrawn from over them. (5) Careful and extended examination has shown that altera- tions in the relative level of sea and land are die rule, and not exceptional cases, along coast- lines ; that these movements are not necessarily connected, directly at least, with volcanic phe- nomena; that they are exceedingly gradual; and, finally, the undoubted existence of move- ments of elevation and depression in opposite directions, in adjoining areas, at the same time, proves conclusively that these are movements of the crust of the earth, and not apparent oscil- lations due to the rising- and falling of the sur- rounding waters. (6) As, moreover, we meet with many series of sedimentary rocks, overlying one another, in the same continent, we see that tln> same region must have been repeatedly sub- merged, and that the dry land has thus been gradually built up by successive additions. We have also clear evidence that intervals of sub- aerial elevation intervened between the submer- gencies — as the older deposits had evidently been partially denuded before the later sedi- ments were laid upon them. (7) We have thus evidence of a force at work within the earth, capable of elevating the sediments resulting a i!i ■ destruction of one continent, so that a new continent shall he formed from them : and our existing lands are in fact built up of the debris of older and destroyed continents, up- heaved by this subterranean power. (8) Prom the observation of volcanoes and the volcanic phe- nomena of hot spring3,and of the temperature of mines and deep borings, we hive evidence of the existence either of a highly heated interior of our globe, or of local areas of elevated tem- perature at a greater or less depth below the Burface. (9) From the constant presence of water iii volcanic phenomena. from the character of the various phenomena themselves, and from the uature of many volcanic rocks, we are n resist ililv I'll to inter that water b an active agent in developing these phenomena. (10) In addition to rocks undoubtedly of volcanic origin, we find others thai appear to have resulted from the metamorphism of sedimentary rocks. Such rocks i mechanical us well as a logical scit nee. No more mischievous mistake can be made than to underrate the problems of geometry; nevertheless this is not an Uncommon practice With teacher-. While some teachers permit the pupil to omit these problems in construction altogether, others allow him the almost equally pernicious habit of des ribing the construction without actually performing the work according to the description. Thus, they allow him to tell how an angle is bisected without requiring him actually to bisect a given allele: they accept a Clumsy descrip- tion of the process of inscribing a circle jn a triangle, illustrated bj a tree hand caricature of the thing itself, instead of requiring a neat and (JKDMKTHV :;i:; Accurate construction upon correct geometrical principles. Now, this is geometry with the ac- tual geometry lift out. Nor is it simply that the mere mechanical part (not an inconsiderable or unimportant part) is left out : but any critical examination of sttch pupils will usually show that the logical part is also omitted; in short, that the pupil neither comprehends the nature of the process and the reasons for its several steps, nor IS actually able to execute it. While it is possible for a person to have the mechanical faculty in a high degree, and tolerably well cultivated, and yet. being deficient in the Logical faculty, to fail of being a good geometrician, it is equally possible, and, as the subject is too commonly taught it is quite common, to find those who have fair Logical power-, or who have learned the for- mulas of logic, so destitute of mechanical ability or culture, that they utterly fail to appreciate the real spirit of geometry, even though they may know, and be able to demonstrate, its chief propositions. Nor are. the skill and taste requi- site to effect neat and accurate geometrical con- structions, attainments to be despised in secur- ing an education. Shall we study the science of form, and not cultivate taste, eye, or hand in rence to form? Shall w r e call a person pro- ficient in the science of extension and form, who cannot construct a parallelogram, and whose taste and eye are so completely uneducated, that he cannot discriminate between a right angle and an angle of 85 or 95 degrees, and who cannot, with any degree of precision, construct either? .Moreover, the zest which the construction of neat and accurate figures adds to the study, and the clearness of perception which is thus induced, are most helpful. In the course here recommend- ed, a student will never be called upon to demoli- sh a e a proposition in plane geometry, the figure for which he cannot construct upon geometrical principles; nor, in any well-conducted class, will the pupils pass any proposition, the figures for which they have not so constructed, it is not intended that every figure used for the purpose of demonstration should be thus constructed; but it is urged that th • pupil should be able to construct every figure thus, and that he should frequently be required to do this : and, moreover, it is claim d that there is a positive power to in- vestigate geometrical truth begotten of this method. Who that has ever attained any pro- ficiency in geometrical investigation does not know the value of an accurately constructed figure? This is. generally, the very first step in an original investigation, the construction itself often suggesting the entire line of thought. HI. But, passing from preliminaries, suppose the student ready to commence the study of the body of geometrical propositions which make up the Elements of Geometry, and to Learn how to demonstrate them. What should he find pr 'sented to him ? .Most assuredly, a well clas- sified arrangement of the subject matter is a prime requi.-ite in a branch of study which en- joys the distinction of being the mosl perfect of the s dences. It is. however, a singular fact, that UO SUCh classification has been con inly found in our text-books. The sole principle of the ar- rangement in Euclid, which has prevailed for so many centuries, is to demonstrate at first such propositions as arc elementary, and hence of essentia] use in subsequent demonstrations. Of course, such an order of sequence as this is a ne- cessity : but is there not that in the nature of the subject matter which calls tor a more scien- tific arrangement ? We venture to suggest tin' fol- lowing: (I) The concepts of plane geometrj are the straight line, the circumference of the circle, and the angle; (2) The two fundamental inquiries are concerning magnitude and form, the latter of which results from position. Bearing these statements in mind we shall commence with the simplest concept, the straight Line. But shall our first inquiry be concerning magnitude, or concerning form or position? There are two ways of measuring a straight line, (1) the direct way, by applying one. line to another.and (2) the indirect way, as in trigonometry, when, having two sides and an included angle of a triangle given, we determine the third side. etc. Now. in the first, there is little or no science, and the second is not elementary. Hence, we dismiss the question of magnitude, and turn to the ques- tion of position, which gives rise to form. 1 lere we at once find legitimate objects of inquiry, and the relative position of two straight lines will be the first section. The subdivisions will be of perpendiculars, of oblique lines, of paral- lels. As these are all the positions that straight lines can occupy with reference to each other, we have exhausted this line of thought. Pass- ing to the circumference, we dispose of the ques- tion of magnitude in exactly the same manner as we did in the case of the straight line. The direct measurement by the application of an arc in- volves no science ; and the indirect, as when we determine the circumference from the radius, is a remote inquiry. Hence, the question of posi- tion recurs. Comparing the straight line and the circumference as to relative position, we find the elementary properties of chords, secants, and tangents. Comparing two circumferences ;is to relative position, we have external tangency. in- tersection, internal tangency, or one wholly in- terior to the other; and thus we exhaust this line of inquiry. Reaching the angle, we find that the elementary method of measuring an angle (by an arc) is the fundamental object, while the relative position of angles is an unim- portant inquiry. Hence, we treat the measure- ment of an angle by an arc; and have the elementary propositions concerning the angle n similarity, since these ideas are the basis of the thought in many pro- positions where they do not constitute the main subject, or purpose. In fact, it will be found that nearly one-half of the propositions of geometry involve one or the other of these notions [equality and similarity) as the basis of thought. Again he may be set to select and study the proposi- tions relating to form, and then those in which magnitude is the object of inquiry; these two ideas dividing between them the whole domain of geometrical truth. — Finally it is of the high- est importance, that, from first to last, the pupil be trained in the practical application of the ab- stract tin! lis as fast as they are learned. No truth is well learned until it can be applied : and it would be quite incredible to one who has no1 had large observation, how fully one may appear io onderstand a geometrical truth, and vet be totally unable to apply it. The writer has ex- amined in geometry hundreds of Btudents desir- ing to enter college in '-advanced standing," and has made this a matter of careful observation. Forexample, he has usually asked such students. ••How do you find the area of a spherical tri- angle?" General]] the answer has been promptly given," By multiplying the spherical excess by the tri rectangular triangle;" and. quite generally, the Candidate has been found able to demonstrate GEOMETRY GEORGETOWN COLLEGE 345 the proposition. But in no instance has the examiner ever found a student, who had oo1 been trained in the practical application of the state- ment, able to compute the area of a triangle the angles of which are. say L10°, 9 ( . and 87 , on a sphere, the radius of which is 2 feet. In fact, they could toll what a tri-rectangular triangle is. what part of the sphere it is. ami what the spherical excess is; but not one could actually find the number of square inches in the area of the tri- angle. A student may appear to have thoroughly mastered solid geometry, and yet bo totally unable to solve such a problem as, To find how many bar- rels of water a cistern in the form of the frustum of a cone will contain. It is obvious, therefore, that the teacher of geometry should never allow his pupils to omit the practical examples. V. Geometrical Invention. — This term is used to designate the power to discover demonstra- tions of propositions or the solution of prob- lems. Many excellent teachers quite overrate the ordinary student's power in this direction. Some have even thought, that, from the first, a ] >upil can be led to discover the demonstrations of all the propositions. New classes may. indeed, make com- mendable progress in geometry, and have put into their hands only the mere statement of prop- ositions ; but it will be found that they do no! originate the demonstrations which they brim'- into the class; they simply look them up in other text-books, and thus learn them. After a pupil has acquired a considerable stock of geometrical knowledge, any real test will show that original demonstrations are but slowly evolved, even of the simplest propositions. Many students have little or no capacity in this direction: and, therefore, t > make it the staple of geometrical teaching would be supreme folly. Some exercise of this kind may, and should, be given from an early stage of the study; and students may be stimulated and helped in the work, so that all the ability for such exer- cise, which really exists in the class, may be brought out; but. after all, there is no reasonable ground to expect that any large amount of such ability can be developed in the majority of students of elementary geometry. Certainly, this is not the purpose for which geometry holds its eminent place in the curriculum of our colleges. It is, that students may learn what a logical argument is and how to frame it. from the study of such arguments, carefully elaborated and expressed by tlie ripest culture. What but the most clumsy work can bo expected from the tyro in framing such arguments, if he has not had much study of the besl models? To put a demonstration in good form, as well as to evolve it. is the ripest fruit of scholarship, not the daily work of begin- ners; the ability to do either is to be acquired, in the first instance, by a protracted and careful study of the work of masters. It is not the pur- pose of these remarks to discourage all attempts to secure original demonstrations, but to guard against a serious error into which enthusiastic and ambitious teachers are in danger of falling: and the conclusion is, that, for the most pail. pupils must be furnished with the demonstrations of elementary geometry, either by a text-1 k. or by the hints of a competent and judicious teacher ; and that it is best that it should he so. Bui let not this topic of geometrical invention lie confounded with that of practical exercise in applying the truths learned. 'I he latter is, as has been said, essential for all, hut especially im- portant for those who are dull of apprehension. VI. Lastly, it is to be remarked that a great change has come about, within the hist century, in reference to the kind of demonstration which is admissible in geometry. Formerly, geometricians were totally averse to admitting any conception of motion or time into a geometrical argument. These were rigidly excluded as foreign to the subject and as defiling its purity. Both are now freely admitted. Again, the infinitesimal meth- od was formerly as rigidly excluded, but is now coming to be admitted. These methods greatly ! facilitate geometrical inquiry, and arc now free- ly used by the best writers and teachers. (See Mathematics.) GEORGETOWN COLLEGE, at George- } town, 1). C, was founded in L789, but was not chartered until 1815. It is a Roman Catholic institution, under the direction of members of the Society of Jesus; and is supported by fees from students. In the classical department, the , entire course, including the preparatory clas is of seven years, the last four of which corre- spond generally with the classical course of d American colleges. The institution has a well- equipped astronomical observatory, philosophical and chemical apparatus. an< 1 a cabinet of minei shells, etc. The college library contains 30,000 volumes, amongst which there are many rare and curious works. One hundred of these volumes were printed between the years 1460 and 1520; three manuscripts are anterior to the year 1 100, and many others are of aknost as early a date. The society libraries contain about 3,0.00 volumes. The charge for tuition, hoard, lodging, etc.. is S.'!2."> a year ; the regular charge for day scholars is $60 a year. In Washington, there is a medical department, established in 1851, and also a law department, established in 1*^70. In I sTA 6. there were, in the classical department, l'.» instructors and 21.") students, of whom •"> I were of the col- legiate grade ; in the medical department, there were 13 instructors and 80 students; in the law department.-! instructors and .'i'.) students. At the commencement in L876, the degree of A. I!, was conferred on 7 graduates. The presidents of the college with the date of appointment, have been as follows : the Rev. Robert Plunket, 1791-3; the Rev. Robert Molyneux, 1793 6; the Rev. Louis W. Dubourg, 1796 '.' : the Rev. Leonard Neale, L799 1806 ; the Rev. Robin Molyneux, L806-8; the Rev. Win. Matthews, 1808 10; the Rev. Francis Neale, 1810 12; the Re\ John Grassi, 1812 17; the Rev. Benedict J. Fenwick, L817 L8j the Rev. Anthony Kohltnann. 1818 20; the Rev. Enoch Fenwick, 1820 22 ; the Rev.Benedict .1. Fenwick, 1822-25; the Stephen Dubuisson, L825-6 ; the Rev. William Feiner, 1826 9; the Rev. John G. 346 GEORCKTOWX COLLEGE GEORGIA Beschter, March, L829 Sep.,29; the Rev. Thomas Mulledy, L829 37; the Rev. William McSherry, L837 9; the Rev. Joseph A. Lopez, Jan. L840 April is Hi: the Rev. James Ryder, L840-45; the Rev. Samuel Mulledy, Jan., 1845-Aug., 45 ; the Rev. Thomas Mulledy, L845 8; the Rev. .lames Ryder, L848 51; the Rev. Charles B. Stonestreet, L851 2; the Rev. Bernard A. Maguire, L852 B; the Rev. John Early, 1858-66; the Rev.Bernard A. Manure, 1S(W;-T0: tin- Rev. John Early, L870 T.'i: the Rev. P. F. Healy, appointed in L873 and still ( 1 876) in office. GEORGETOWN COLLEGE, at George- town, Scott Co., Ky.. chartered in L829, is under tli • control of the Baptists. It is supported by tuition tees and the income of an endowment of nearly $75,000. The veal estate of the college is valued at about $75,000. The library contains between 5,000 and 6,000 volumes. The institution has good philosophical and chemical apparatus, a cabinet 01 minerals, fossils, and shells, and a mu- ii of curiosities. It comprises an academic or preparatory course and a collegiate course. The curriculum is distributed into the follow ing depart- ments of study: (1) English; (2) Latin; (3) Greek; (4) Modern languages: 5) Mathematics; (6) Physical Sciences ; (7) History and Political Economy; (8) Mental and Moral Philosophy. Any student who completes the course in any one de- partment receives i he title of Prqficientin that department, other degrees are Bachelor of Sciences for the full English course: Bachelor of Arts, if Latin and Greet be aide): Master of Arts for the complete course. The Western Bap- tist Theological Institute is connected with the college. The cost of tuition in the collegiate course is $50 per year, and in the academic course $ pi. Candidates for the ministry receive instruction free, and nee ly students who intend to teach are given credit for tuition until they are able to pay. In 1 876, t here were 8 instructors and I 07 students (84 collegiate and '_'.'! preparatory). The presi- dents of the college, with date of appointment, have been as follows: Wm. Staughton, D. D., L829; Joel S. Bacon, D. !>., L830; B. F. Farns- worth, L836; Rockwood Giddings, D. I».. L838; Howard Malcom, l>. I>., L840; J. L Reynolds, D. I>.. L850; Duncan R. Campbell, 1>. 1»..' L852 ; V M. Crawford. I >. D., 1865; B. Manly, dr.. 1>. !>., \-~i\ (the present incumbent, L876). GEORGIA, one of the thirteen original states of the American union, was first settled at Savannah, by colonists from England, under Gen. Ji is Oglethorpe, in L733. Its present -area is 58,000 sip m. : and its population, accord- in- to the census of L870, was 1,184,109, included in wlii.l, u.iv 545,142 colored persons. Ill In- dians, and 1 Chinaman. According to its entire population, it ranked as the L2th among the states : and. as to colored population, as the 1st. tta gain in population, during the ten years preceding, was I 2 per cent. / lucationnl History. The original const it u tiou of thi, -tate. adopted in L777, contained a provision requiring scl Is to be "erected in each county, and SUpporte 1 at the general expense of the state" : but this was omitted in the revision of 1789, educational affairs being left to the regulation of the general assembly. In ITsiJ. the assembly donated 1,000 acres of land to each county for the support of free schools: and. in IT- I. 40,000 acres were given for the endow- ment of a state university, which was chartered in IT^e. In L792,an act was passed appropriat- ing 1 .0011 acres for the endowment of an academy in each county of the state. In L 81 7, the sum of $250,000 was appropriated for the support of schools for the poor. According to the census of 1860, there were in the state 32 colleges and high schools, with 3,302 students; and 1T">2 public schools, containing 56,087 pupils, the total income for the support of which was $449,966. Georgia was quite celebrated for tin 1 number and excellence of her female seminaries. There was. however, no regularly organized system of com- mon schools, supported by public taxation, and Open to all classes: although efforts were made in L 845, and again in L856, to establish such a system. In L849, a law existed giving $20,000, to be divided among the several counties of the state to support schools for poor children : hut such was the general apathy in regard to educa- tion, that '■'•'! counties failed to make any return so as to obtain their portion of the endowment. In 1850, there were 213,903 native white adults in the state, of whom 'JO per cent were unable to lead and write. In I860, the number of illiterates had been reduced to 18 per cent. The state constitution of L868 provided for the establish- ment of "a thorough system of general education, to be foreverfree to all children of the state." and created the office of state school commissioner, to be appointed by the governor, with the consent of the senate, and to hold his otlicc for the same term as the governor. An act establishing such a system of public instruction was passed Oct IT, 1870, under which many schools were put in operation, under the supervision of the first school commissioner, J. It. Lewis. His report, made in 1871, showed that there were enrolled in the Bchools 42,914 white pupils, and 6,664 colored, making a total of 49,578. Very great mismanagement and imprudence, however, char- acterized the operations of those who had the direction of the school system during thai year: the school fund was diverted from its legitimate object, a large debl was contracted, and many defects were found to c\i>t in the scl llaw. From these causes, the schools were closed dur- ing the year I . S T'_'. In that year. < iusta\ us .1 . ( >rr was appointed scl 1 commissioner; and under his ach ice, a new law was passed (Jan. 1 '.'.. 1 s ~-). in pursuance of which the system as it exists at present was organized. The year L873 opened with brighter pros] fcs. The school funds which had been accumulating from the regular bout had been faithfully kept : and the law providing for the payment of the debt of 1871 had yielded si 7 l.ooo. which sum was apportioned among the counties, ami faithfully disbursed. The regular school fond had accumulated to the amount ot $250,000, which also was properly apportioned. GEORGIA 3 1 7 Under these circumstances, the schools thai year made considerable progress. The annual reporl of Commissioner Orr, for 1873, showed thai there were in attendance .-it the schools 83,677 pupils, of whom 63,922 were white children, and 19,755 were colored. During the nexl year, the attendance increased to L35.541, whites, 93,170, colored, T_\.'i71. The amount of school funds apportioned in L874, was $265,000. The report for the year 1875 showed a still further increase, the aggregate attendance being L.56,349, — whites, 105,990 ; colored, 50,359. During L874, five school laws were enacted; hut no important change was made in the system, except the re- quirement that the enumeration of the school population should he ma le every four years in- stead of every year, as formerly. School System. — The common-school system of Georgia is under the direction of the following officers: ( 1 ) A state school commissioner appointed by the governor, with the consent of the senate. for four years, who is charged with the adminis- tration of the school laws and the general super- vision of all the public schools of the state, as well as the apportionment of the, school revenue; (L'i A state board of education, comprising the governor, secretary of state, attorney-general, comptroller-general, and school commissioner. This is an advisory body, with whom the school commissioner has the right to consult in regard to any of his official duties ; and appeals may be made to it from his decisions touching- the proper construction or administration of the school laws: ;.;, ( 'ounty ha irds iff >■ location, each consisting of five freehol lers, elected for four years by the grand jury, whose duties are to form school dis- tricts, establish schools, purchase grounds, build school-houses, prescribe text-books (all of which must be unsectarian), grant licenses to teachers, on the recommendation of the county school commissioners, ami have a general supervision of all the schools in their respective counties; also to determine local controversies referred to them by appeal, subject to a still further appeal to the State commissioner ; (4) County school com- missioners, elected by the county boards of educa- tion, who examine applicants for licenses to teach, and revoke licenses for immorality, incom- petency, or cruelty to pupils, subject, however. to an appeal to the county boards of education. The county school commissioner is also required to visit each school in his county at least twice a year, to make an annual census of the children of school age (between 6 and 18), to apportion the school fund of the county ai long the sub-dis- tricts in proportion to the number of such children in each, to make such reports to the state com- missioner as he may require, and to act generally as the medium of communication between the state commissioner and the subordinate school officers. The county boards of education may establish ning schools for youths over L 2 years of age, who are unable to attend the day schools; and. under the direction of the state hoard, they may also establish ■ taming manualldbor schools. No county is entitled to a participation in the state school fund unless its board of education has provided, by taxati >r otherwise, for keep- ing primary schools in operation at least three months hi the year, or two months in the ca.se of ambulatory schools, which may lie organized in sparsely inhabited districts. Separate schools are prescribed for colored children, but these schools must afford equal advantages with those for whites. The law prohibits the exclusion of the Bible from the public schools, but does not per- mit any books of a sectarian character to be used. Public school sites and buildings, ami the furniture of the latter, are exempt from taxation and from sale on execution. The school revenue a1 present consists of the proceeds of the poll tax and of special taxes on shows and exhibitions, and on the sale of spiritu- ous and malt liquors, endowments, devises, gifts, and bequests made to the state for educational purposes, all educational funds and revenues due the state university, and one half of the rental of the Western and Atlantic railroad. From these resources there were received during the year ending June30., L875 : poll tax, $3,729.83; tax on shows and exhibitions, $2,069.50; and half rental of W. and A. railroad. SI .30,000; making a total of $155,799.33. This fund is apportioned among the several counties in proportion to the number of children front to L8 years of age. and of confederate soldiers under 30 years of age res- ident in each. In four counties. — Bibb, Chatham, Glynn, and Richmond, and in three cities, — At- lanta, Columbia, and Griffin, the school systems are organized under local laws. Educational Condition. — According to the re- port of the state commissioner for 187"), there wen ■ belonging to the general common-school system 3,6(59 schools, of which 2,790 were for white and 879 for colored pupils, all the counties in the state having common schools, except Early. Besides these, there were, in the counties and cities under special systems, 128 elementary schools and 9 high schools. 58 of the former be- ing graded and 70 ungraded schools. There were also" reported 820 private elementary schools. The studies pursued in the COmi schools are reading, orthography, writing, arithmetic, geog- raphy, and English grammar. The following are the principal items of the common-school statistics for ls7.>: Number of pupils admitted, Whites. ..114,648 Colored. . 55,^08 Total. .169,916 Average daily attendance 106,700 No. of children of school age, Whites. .218,733 •■ Colored. 175 ,304 Total.. :wt,037 For the private elementary schools the follow- ing statistics were given in the report for the same year : Number of Schools 820 "Teachers 903 ■• Pupils taught, Whites 21,275 " Colored 4,170 Total. .!!.'., I.. 1 Average moat lily cost of tuition $1.88. :j;s GEORGIA The whole amount of money received and ex- pended for the support of public schools, in L875, was $435,319. Of this, $291,319 was supplied by the state: and $144,000, raised by local tax- ation. The amount apportioned to the several counties was $151,304. The Peabody Fund contributed $6,900 to the support of schools in Georgia, during the year. Normal Instruciion.^'So provision has been made in this state for the special training of teachers. In his annual report for 1875, State < lommissioner I Mr said. ■•The want of well-quali- fied teachers for our white schools has been much felt. The want of the white schools in this respect, however, is small in comparison with that of the colored schools. It has been impracti- cable to put colored schools in operation at all. in some places, in consequence of the lack of com- petent instructors." I le, therefore, recommended that an •annual appropriation of SI I), HOI) lie made for establishing two normal schools for whites, one to be located in the northern, and thi' other in the southern portion of the state; and that the law making an appropriation of $8,000 to the Atlanta I 'niversity he repealed, and that, in lieu thereof, $10,000 he annually appro- priated for establishing a normal school for colored pupils." Bowdon College has a normal class: ami the Atlanta University (q. v.), a higher and a lower normal department, the former embrac- ing a four years' course, and the latter a shorter one for primary school teachers. And. besides these, there is the Haven Normal School, at Waynesboro, which, in L874, had L62 students. The s'ate appropriation to the Atlanta I rniversity is designed to encourage the training of colored teachers in that institut ion. Secondary Tnstructi..'!7'.l students, of whom 3,087 were males, ami 2,292 females. The studies pursued in these schools included the usual English, classical, mathematical, and scien- tific branches; and the average monthly cost of tuition was $3.13 per pupil, ranging from $5 to $1.15. There are also several business colleges. Superior Instruction. The rniversity of Georgia (q. v.), at Athens, is the principal in- stitution of this grade in the state. Others are contained in the following table, according to the annual report of the state, imissioner for L875: NAME 1 ition denomii University ,>i i . ■ - . . > -_r i ; i .... Atlanta i rniversity Mercer Qnh ersity N.GeorgiaAgr.r one year, mcluding the whole twelve months. The Medical College of Georgia, located at Augusta, constitutes the medical de- partment of the University of Georgia; the value of its grounds, buildings, and apparatus is estimated at $60,000, ami its lilnaiy contains 5,000 volumes. Besides this, there are the At Ian ia Medical I lollege, founded in 1854, which, in 1st I. had a cups of II instructors, and 11" students ; and the Savannah Medical Colli founded in 1838. which, in I874,had I '_' instruct- ors, ami a graduating class of L6 Btudents. GEORGIA, UNIVERSITY OF GERMAN-AMERICAN SCHOOLS :M!> GEORGIA, University of, ;it Athens. Georgia, was chartered in L785, receiving 40,000 acres i>t' wild land, granted in I 78 1 l>y the legis- lature, for the endowment of a college, or semi- nary of learning. It did not go into operation for some years, [n 1801, the first building was nvrted. and, in I so I . the first class graduated. The institution was suspended, from September L863 to January L866, in consequence of the civil war. The funds of the university, in 1 .S7(i, amounted to 8373,170; the value of its build- ings and apparatus at Athens was $183,000. The campus contains 37 acres, and there is an ex- perimental farm of L6 acres. The college and society libraries contain about 20,000 volumes. The medical department has a library of about 5,000 volumes. The university com) irises an academic department (known as Franklin Col- lege), the Georgia State College of Agriculture and the Mechanic Arts, a law department (established in 1860), a medical department (the Medical College of Georgia, at Augusta, estab- lished in L830), and the North Georgia Agri- cultural College (at Dahlonega). The State College and the North Georgia College were established in L872, with the proceeds of the congressional land grant to Georgia. The Medical College became a department of the university in L873. The following schools are embraced in the academic department: (1) Latin language and literature; (2) Greek language and literature: (3) modern languages; (4) belles- lettres, including rhetoric, criticism, and esthet- ics ; (5) metaphysics and ethics ; (6) mathe- matics ; (7) natural philosophy and astronomy; (8) chemistry, geology, and mineralogy; (9) his- tory and political science ; (10) English liter- ature. These separate schools are so arranged as to be combined into several departments, which thus offer systematic courses of educa- tion of different types of culture. Three degrees are conferred in this department : Bachelor of Philosophy, Bachelor of Arts, and Bachelor of Science. The State College has three de- partments : agriculture, engineering, and applied chemistry. Four degrees are conferred : Master of Agriculture, Bachelor of Agriculture, Bachelor of Engineering, and Bachelor of Science. There are rive university degrees ; namely, Master of Arts (requiring certificates of proficiency in all the academic schools except the last). Civil Engineer, Civil and Mining Engineer, Bachelor of Law, and Doctor of Medicine. The cost of tuition in the academic department is $75 a year; in the State College, $40. Fifty young men of limited means, residents of Georgia, arc admitted to the academic department free of tuition, in return for which they are expected to teach school in the state for a term of years equal to the time they have enjoyed the advantages of the university. Needy students intending to en- ter the ministry also receive tuition free. In the State College, state scholarships, exempting from tuition fees, are granted to as many students, residents of the state, as there arc members of the House of Representatives and senators in Number of Nil ml), r oJ instructors. students. 12 mi 8 93 4 i; 5 245 12 m the General Assembly. The North Georgia Agricultural College occupies the former United States mint, donated by Congress. It admits both sexes, and has a collegiate and an inferior department. Many of its students have become teachers. Tuition is tree. --In Ist.'i (i. the num- ber of instructors and students in the different departments of the university was as follows: Departments. Academic St;iii> College Law North Georgia College Medical Total (deducting repefitions) 33 672 At the commencement in L875, 72 degrees were conferred. The whole number of alumni of the university, at that date, was 1 ,388 (of whom 980 were hving), including 1,153 bachelors of arts, 141 of law, -1 1 doctors of medicine, and 53 recipients of other degrees. The heads of the university bore the title of president till L860; but since that time they have been styled chan- cellor. Their names are as follows: Josiah Meigs, LL.I)., 1801-11 ; the Rev. John Brown, D. D., 1811-16; the Lev. Robert Finley, 1».1>.. L816 17; the Rev. Moses Waddell, D. D., 1819-29 ; the Rev. Alonzo Church, D.D., 1829-59; the Rev. Andrew A. Lipscomb, D. D., LL. I)., 1860- 74; and the Rev. Henry H. Tucker, D. !>.. appointed in 1874 and still in office (1876). GERANDO, Joseph Marie de. Baron, bom in Lyons, Feb. 21)., 1772, died in Paris. Nov. 11.. 1842. Educated originally for the priesthood, he changed his purpose, and entered the army. with which he visited Germany, Switzerland. and Italy. While in garrison at Colmar, the Institute proposed the question, "What is the influence of signs on the formation of ideas?" Be Gerando's dissertation on this subject took the prize, and caused his invitation by Lucien Bonaparte to Paris, where he entered the ministry of the interior. After filling various civil and military positions in France, Tuscany, and the Pa .pal States, and lecturing in Paris before tin- faculty of law, he was. in 1837, raised to the peerage. His principal educational and philo- sophical works are : — Des signes et de Vari . See Morel, Essai sarin vie de •/. M. Baron de Gerando (1846) ; North Anicriciii prricir for April, 1861. GERMAN - AMERICAN SCHOOLS, a large class of schools in the Cnited States, in which a part or most of the instruction is given 350 GERMAN COLLEGE GERMAN LANGUAGE in the German language. They consist of several (I) The earliest and still the most numerous among these schools are the denomina- tional schools, connected with the German churches. These schools are chiefly supported from the wish to establish the greatest harmony between school, church, andfamiry, and to induce the children of German church members to con nect themselves with the congregations to which their parents belong. The gi it st zeal for the thlishment of den iriational German-Amer- ican sch ioIs bas been shown by the German Catholics and the German Lutherans. The schools of the former were, in 1869, attended by about 157,000 children. The Lutherans have about 3,000 German congregations, the majority of which support German- American schools, number of private schools, in most cases consist i ui;- of only one or two classes, are patronized by parents, mostly Germans, bul to some extent also by others, who regard the ability to speak German as ;i valuable acquisition from a business point of view. (3) Since 1848, a number of German- American schoolsof a higher grade have been founded, partly by societies. Tlusc arc designed not only to teach their pupils to speak German fluently, bul to transplant to American soil the developing method oi instruc- tion, which prevails in Germany, and to realize the ideal of a German real school. With a num- berof these schools, kindergartens are connected. Schoolsof this kind have been founded in Mil- waukee (1853), New York (1854), Brooklyn, Hoboken, Detroit, Baltimore, Philadelphia, St. Louis, ami sonic other places. GERMAN COLLEGE, at Mount Pleasant, Iowa, under the control of the Methodist Epis- copal Church, was incorporated in 1873. It is designed to be the theological institution of tin' German Methodists in the west, North-west, and South-west. It is intimately connected with the Iowa Wesleyan University, though independent in finances ami control. Ail German students become members of German College ; and all nut German, of the I Ihiversity. The students of the liege are admitted free to all the classes of the dversity, in which most of the collegiate instruc- tion is givem The college has an endowment of $25,000. It includes a preparatory ami a theolog- ical department. Instruction is given in music, ami facilities are afforded for Americans to learn German. In L875 -6, there were •'* in- structors ami 50 students. The Rev. II. Lahr- maiiii is (1876) the acting president. GERMAN LANGUAGE. The German inks, \\ [tli the English ami French, in value ami importance, above all the other lan- if i be civilized world. It is \ ery ezten udied in the literary institutions of every '■i\ ilized country, ami as a department of school andcollegi instruction, continues to assume, from year to year, greater prominence. The height to which German literature ami science have at- tained in every department, and the great ami rapi I pi : man scholarship, are univer- . recognized. Thomas de Quincej in hie I ters to a Young Mai, thus refers to the compre- hensiveness ami extent of German literature: •'Dr. Johnson was accustomed to say of the French literature, that he valued it chiefly for this reason, that it had a hook upon every subject. How far this might be a reasonable opinion fifty years ago, ami understood, as Dr. Johnson must have meant it. of the French literature as com- pare t with the F.nglish of the same period, I will not preto nd to say. It has certainly ceased to he true, even under these restrictions, ami i- in flagrant opposition to the truth, if extended to the French in its relation to the German. Un- doubtedly, the French literature holds out to the student some peculiar advantages, hut all these are advantages of the French only in relation to the English, and not to the German literature, which, tie- \asi compass, variety, ami extent, far exceeds all other.- as a depository for the current accumulation o.' knowledge. The mere numl i r of books published annually in Germany, com- pared with the annual product of France and England, is alone a satisfactory evidence of this assertion." The authors of the great educational ideas and reforms which, during the last two hundred years, have led to the creation of the modern systems of education, were nearly all Germans; and. at the proem time, German liter- ature, in every branch of educational science and art, is so much more copious ami instructive than any other literature of the world, that the supe- rior advantages of German over other foreign languages for every one connected with educa- tional labors are. at the present time, hardly disputed. The progress of comparative linguistics has shown that a knowledge of the German grammar ami of its history otters greater advan- tages for the complete understanding I if the struc- ture and laws of the cognate English language than the study of any other language, ancient or modern. The influence which considerations like these have had upon the admission of German into the course oi instruction of many English institutions from which it was formerly excluded, has been more recently strengthened by the restoration of a powerful German empire, and the steadily rising influence of this new empire in the commercial affairs of the world. In the United States, the presence of a numerous Cer- man-speaking population, numbering, according to the smallest estimate, no less than live millions. has caused German to be looked upon by laa classes of the population as an acquisition of great practical value. In the United State.-. therefore, German is now studied to a much larger extent than French. In some of the small- er countries, near or adjacent to Germany, and inhabited by kindred races, as Sweden, Norway. Denmark, and Holland, the study "i German begins early. and receives so much attention, that the educated classes "t these countries are gener- ally able to speak the language with fluency. In France, thestudy of < lerman has greatly increased during the present century, ami has generally been favoredby the men who have dune most t.ir the educational progress of the country. CoU- GERMAN' LANGUAGE 85 1 sin, Jules Simon, and Waddington, were among its warmest meads. For so much of the study of German as it lias in common with French and other modern languages, we refer to the article Modern Languages, as we present under this head, exclusively, what is to be said of German ami its value as a branch of instruction. The language of modern Germany is oneof a cluster of languages which, collectively , are called the Germanic or Teutonic languages. Thevem- brace, of living languages, the modern German, the Swedish. Danish. Icelandic. English, Dutch and Flemish, and the Friesic; and. of the languages now extinct, the Gothic and Anglo-Saxon; and they constitute one of the branches of the Cndo- Germanic or Indo-European group. Long before Germany had a literature, the divergence of the original Teutonic tongue into Low German and High German had begun. The language of modern Germany is the only one that sprung from the latter: all the others were the offspring of the former. The following table will fully illustrate the relation of the Teutonic languages to each other : Germanic or Teutonic languages Low German High German Scandinavian — Low German — Gut.uc I I Icelandic — Swedish — Danish | Old Friesic — Saxon Modern Friesic . I , „ ^ , Old High German Anglo-Saxon — Middle Dutch — Old Saxon „ I I I Middle HighGerman English Dutch-Flemish Plattdeutsch Modern German. The most educated among the German tribes were the Goths. They showed themselves recep- tive of Greek and Roman art and science ; and, in the third century, adopted the ( 'hristian religion. They had. at that time, a number of heroic sono-s and sententious poems, but no written alphabet. In the tth century, bishop Dlfilas translated the Latin Bible into the Gothic language, adjusting with great skill the Greek alphabet to the sounds of the Gothic words, and supplementing it with Latin and Runic characters. The Gothic Bible was the beginning of an interesting Gothic liter- ature, consisting of theological, historical, and geographical writings. Unfortunately, the larger portion of this literature, in which all' the nations of the English, German, Dutch, and Scandinavian tongues are equally interested, has perished. All that is extant, embracing considerable portions 'ot the New Testament, some portions of the old Testament, and a fragment of a paraphrased Gos- pel harmony, are given in the edition of Olfilasby Gabelentzand Lobe (2 vols., 1843 -1846), as also in those of Stamm (1858) and Bernhardt (1875 ; litions contain a grammar and a diction- ary; a Gothic glossary has also hem published by Schulze (1848). Though few, the fragments of the Gothic language and literature suffice to give us a clear idea of their many excellencies. The language appears endowed with the luxuriant abundance oi a primitive language, having a fullness of roots and a considerable but well regulated variety of inflections, derivations, and compositions. The short, original vowelsa, /.and u still predominate, and the other vowel and. consonantal sounds have mostly been preserved in unalloyed puri Special case-endings distinguish the nominative, accusative, and vocative; there are differenl forms for dual and plural, and inflections for the pass- ive. Like all the other Germanic languages, the Gothic has only two simple tensesTthe present and the preterit, but, as a kind of compensation, a wonderful, euphonious and well regulated sys- tem of vowel modifications, which not only con- trols the strong conjugation, but pervades all the inflections and derivations. It already has. like the other Germanic languages, the weak inflec- tion in nouns, adjectives, and verbs, which, in the High German, has been extended to larg i classes of words. A pliant readiness to receive foreign words, a weakness common to all Ger- manic languages, appeal's also in the Gothic, which admitted a number of words from the languages of the Huns, Slaves, Greeks, and Ro- mans, with whom they became acquainted during their migrations. Simultaneously with the Goths, others of the principal German tribes invaded the provinces of the decaying Roman empire, which finally succumbed to them; and on its ruins they established a number of new kingdoms in the south-western part of P^urope. They, in turn, found it necessary to recognize the superiority of Roman education; and as, after their conversion to < hristianity.the Latin became the language of the churches and schools, their own native tongues gradually gave way to the Latin, not, however, without leaving conspicuous marks in the new Romanic languages (q. v.), which were gradually developed in all these countries. The Anglo- Saxons alone among all the tribes which, at that time, set out from their native land for foreign conquests.preserved their language. Outside of tin's newly conquered territory, the further develop- ment of the German language was chiefly con- fined to the countries which, at the time when the migration of nations began, were inhabited by Germanic races. The languages of all these countries gradually developed into literary lan- guages; and all of them are of interest to the English student, not only because they furnish the key to valuable literatures, but especially be- cause they illustrate the growth of the English as a cognate language, and thus lead to a more comprehensive knowledge of it. By far the most important of them is the German. In Germany proper, the Low German and the High German co-existed side by side, but as a literary language the HighGerman soon secured an ascendency which was generally recognized. In the develop- ment of this language, three great periods are distinguished: (1) of the Old High German, ex- tending to the l Ith century, in which the inflec- tional rullnessof the language, in comparison with the Indo < ;, rinanic languages of antiquity, and 352 GERMAN LANGUAGE even with the Gothic, visibly declined; the voca- tive case, the dual number, and the inflected pas- sive voice disappeared; and the variety of vowel sounds increased ; (2) of the Middle High Ger- man, extending to the beginning of the Kith cent- ury, in which the decline of the inflections con- tinued, the full vowel-endings were generally weakened into e, and the auxiliary verbs, the article, and the umlaut (modification of the vowel) were introduced: (3) of the New High German, in which the predominance of the vowel e in the final syllables was completed, and the quantity of words accordingly changed. The translation of the Bible by Luther introduced this period, and established the exclusive use of the High German as the literary language of all Germany. Opitz (about L 630), several linguistic societies, and < rottsched labout 1 I'M)) contributed much to the further development of the language, which, in the writings of Leasing and Goethe, fully attained its present form. By the side of I figh German as a literary lan- guage, the bow German i Plattdeutsch) has main- tained itself as the language of a considerable portion of the people even to the presentday. It is not altogether without a literature; and, in the L6th century, even translations of the Bible into Low German were deemed necessary, in order to give to the entire population access in the Sacred Scriptures. The last edition of the Low German Bible appeared in L622, show- ing that thereafter the entire German nation were sufficiently acquainted with the High Ger- man to regard it as the only literary medium of the country. In modern times, a literary culti- vation of the bow German has Keen attempted, chiefly in poems and novels, in order to reflect, by using the people's own language, in the most natural and impressive way. the sentiments of the Low German people. — The Germans have.no national academy of science, such as exists in France, possessing supreme authority in deciding questions relating to their language. There is. therefore, in < lerman,as in English, a considerable difference in the mode of writing a large number nt' words and classes of words; and the authority of standard grammarians and lexicographers is appealed to in doubtful questions. As,moreover, the desire f or a thorough revision of the entire German orthography has lone been expressed on many sides, the Prussian government, in Jan., L876, assembled a conference of L5 prominent German philologists to propose general rules, which are to be introduced, by order of the government, into the schools. The foundation of German philology was laid, BOOH after the wars against Napoleon, by Beiieeke. the brothers Grimm, and Liehmann. Benecke established the philological knowledge of the Middle High German; though his chief work, the [fittelhochdeutsche Wbrterbuch (3 \o|s.. Leips., L847 L864). was only a sketch which was subsequently filled up by W. Midler, jointly with Xarneke. The brothers Jakob and Wil- hehn Grimm comprehended within the scope of their researches the whole of German philol- ogv. Tn accordance with the principles of com- parative linguistics, which at the same time were applied by Bopptothe Indo-Germanic languag in general. -lakob Grimm gave, in his German grammar [Deutsche GrammatUc, I vols., 1810 — I 837 i a history of the changes of < Jet-man words and of the simple sentence, through every period. in all the Germanic languages. The history of the German language [Geschichte der deutschen Sprache, '1 vols.. 1848) supplements the above work, and shows the relationship existing be- tween the different Germanic languages. The German dictionary by the two brothers Grimm h utsches W&rterbuch) was begun in L852; it has been continued by Heyne, Hildebrand, and Wei- gand, but will not be finished until about 1890. It is, in point of scholarship, unsurpassed by any other work in the entire literature of dic- tionaries. Lachmann applied the principles of philological criticism, as they were in use in clas- sical philology, to the study of German, restored the pure text of the master works of the Mid- dle High German, and shed entirely new light on the history of German prosody. On the foundation laid by l'lcnecke. the Grimms, and Lachmann, numerous hands have reared the edifice of German philology, which is now the admiration of the literary world, and has served as a model for similar labors in every other literature, particularly in the English. (See En- gish, Study ok.) We can mention only a few of the immense number of valuable works relat- ing to the German language which German scholarship has produced. A dictionary of the Old High German has been written by Graff [Althochdeutscher Sprachschatz, 6 vols.. ls.'54 — L842); a dictionary of the Middle High German, besides by Benecke, Midler, and Zarneke. who have already been mentioned, by Ziemann i Mittelhochdeutsches Worterbuch, L837); diction- aries of New High German (the present German language)) besides by the Grimms, by San- ders! W&rterbuch der deutschen Sprache,2vd\s.. I860- L865, besides several smaller works), and by Weigand (Deutsches W&rterbuch, •'{ vols.. L857 — L865) ; grammars, besides by the Grimms, by K- W. L. Heyse {Aus/uhrliches Lehrbuch der deutschen Sprache, - vols., 1838 — L849); Rumpelt, Deutsche Grammatik, I860); Heyne (Kurze Grammatik der altgermanischen Sprachstamme); Becker (Ausfiihrliche deutsche Grammatik, 3 parts, 1836—1839). The latter, \ iew mg language as an organism regulated accor- ding to strictly logical laws, attempted to lay a new foundation for grammatical science, and found a number of followers, but also a very de- termined Opposition to some of his ideas by the historical school. Periodicals devoted to < lerman philology, are Haupt's Zeitschrift fur deutsclies AUerthum (established in 1841, continued by M iillenhoff and Steinmyer); Pfeiffer's G< rmania established in 1856, continued by Bartsch); and the Zeitschrift fur Philologie by Hopfnerand /aches (established in 1*70). Grammars of the old High German and the Middle High Ger- man for the use of schools, embodying the GERMAN LANGUAGE 353 results of the philological researches, have been written by Ilalm [AUhochdeutsche Gram- matik, 4th edit., 1875; and Mittelhochdeutsche Grammatik, 'M edit.. 1875). A bibliography of German grammars, from the earliest times to 1836, is given in Hoffmann's (von Fallersleben) Die deutsche PhUologieim Grundrisse (1836). Outlines of the history of the entire German literature, have been written by Koberstein undriss der deutschen IfationaRiteratur, L827); Vilmar [Vbrlesungen 'vber die Geschichte der deutschen NationaUiteratur, 1847); Wacker- nagel, i Geschichte der deutschen Literatur, 185] ), The history of German Literature by Kurz. ichichte der deutschen Literatur, 4 vols.. L851 — L872) gives well-selected specimens from all the prominent German writers. The German language is the mother-tongue of about 92 per cent of the population of the German empire (in L871, 37, 800,000), the re- maining B per cent being Slaves. Danes, and French. In Switzerland, 1 I out of 22 cantons exclusively German ; in the large canton of Bern, they are in a great majority (83 per cent); and of the entire population of Switzerland, about 69 per cent speak < ierman as their mother- tongue. In Austria proper, German is the ruling Language, although it is the m ol only 35 per cent of the population. In tl of the Hungarian crown, German is spoken by about 11 percent. Russia has a German-speak- ing population of about 700,000; in the three Baltic provinces, the entire aristocracy are Ger- mans; and the ( ierman 1 tnguage, although spoken by only a small minority of the population, also prevails in the churches and schools, as well as in the literature. The two small German states of Luxemburg and Lichtenstein also speak Ger- nian. England still owns the German speaking island of Heligoland. In the United States of America, a population, estimated at from 5 to 6 millions, to a great extent consisting of actual emigrants during the present century and of their children, and the remainder the descen- dants of emigrants of the 18th century, speak (ierman as the family language, either equally with. or in preference to, English; but the use of German as the mother-tongue is steadily reced- ing before the advance of the English. The en- tire population of the world speaking German a- tlii> mother-tongue may be estimated at about li" millions, the (iennan being, in respect to the number of those who speak it, only inferior, among the languages of civilized nations, to the English. The method of studying German, in English and American universities, colleges, seminaries, and academies is about the same as that pursued in the study of French. The statements made in the articles French Language and Modern Languages are. more or Less, applicable to the German, in regard to the place which ii occu- pies in the course of instruction, and to the mistakes which in this respect, are very fre- quently committed. The most important feature which broadly distinguishes the German lan- 23 guage from the French, and which an intelligent teacher will always keep in view from the mi- firal Lesson he gives, is the close resemblance '" tween German and English words, especially those used in common life. English philologists have calculated that the English Language, as commonly spoken and written, consists, to the extenl of five-eighths, of Anglo-Saxon words, and that among these are found nearly all the terms of common life. Many of these words are spelled exactly alike; large classes of other words show so slight a modification, that the pupils recognize them at once (as Voter, Mutter, jBruder, Buck, Haws), and still others present changes made according to certain laws which are easily understood, even at the earliest sti of instruction, and by the most youthful be ginner (as zehn, ten; Zinn, tin; Tag, day: ./. say). By a skillful use of this exten- sive resemblance of the two Languages, the in- telligent teacher has it in his power to give to the beginner, in a few lessons, the command of a very large number of words. The strange letters which seem to surround the first lessons in German with considerable difficulty, are quite easily learned by the aid of words which are substantially the same in German as in En- Whole German sentences can. in thi be at once understood; and when trans- lation forms a prominent object of the study, the pupil should begin to translate from German into English, as soon as he knows the letters. For exercise in the declensions and conji tions, the selection of cognate words for the paradigms likewise facilitates the progress of the pupils. In this part of the grammar, (iennan at once seems to the beginner to be more com- plicated than English, and presents to him the greatest difficulties he has to surmount ; among which may be enumerated the following: (1) The noun in German has four cases, and the plural is formed in four different ways as far as its termination is concerned, besides modifying the radical vowel: (2) Adjectives anil adjective pronouns are declined in three different ways; (A) The past participle generally adds the prefix ge, and, in compound verbs, this prefix, in many cases, is placed between the verb and the particle with which it is compounded. or the particle is detached and placed at the close of even along sentence. In constructing exercises for the study of these differences, it will again be found a help to choose for the par- adigms words similar to English words, or such as are common to both languages, so that the attention of the pupil may be concentrated upon the Learning of tJae inflectional peculiarities. It is. however, not only the resemblance of (iennan and English words, but also other points of similarity, in the etymology of the two languages, that Should be made use of. Thus the possessive ease of English nouns may be made to illustrate not only the (iennan genitive, but the entire de clension, of which the English possessive is a remnant. A reference to the plural forms men, women, feet, geese, mice, will explain the modi- n;,i GERMAN LANGUAGE fication of a large number of German nouns in the plural; as will also such foi is as children, brethren and pence. The fad thai the division of verbs into Strang and weak is the same in both languages, thai the formation of the principal ■Dart* of both i similar (see, saw, seen — seh-en, sah, ge-sehen ; love, loved, loved lieb-en, liebte, and that even, as a general rule the oe verbs belong, in b tli languages, to 1 1 1 1 - one or to the other conjugation, is easily compre- hended even by beginners, and greatly assists them to understand the structure of the language. The comparison of the German language with tlic English should not be limited to the points just mentioned; but all the peculiar features of German should be noticed. In the study of any foreign language, a clear understanding of the most conspicuous characteristics helps to fix in the mind a clear conception of the language. Among the features of the German grammar to which special attention should be called, when they are nut with tor the first time, are the following : (1) The gender of nouns is arbitrary, and many nouns that are neuter in Bnglish are either mas- culine or f iminine in < terman : (2) < me or more long qualifying adjuncts may intervene between the article and its noun; i.'!) The order of se- quence of auxiliary verbs is entirely reversed in subjunctive propositions; (I) Prepositions and verbs govern three different cases of the noun ; The object precedes the verb more frequ snt- ly than in English. The correct pronunciation of German, as of every foreign tongue, must be learned by imitat- ing the teacher. Tin's is especially the ease with tin' sounds that have no equivalent in En glish , as 8, /'.'•//. the guttural q, short o, r, and the com- binations of sp and st Their number is compara- tively small : and. if they are steadily practiced, it will require only a short time to learn to enunciate them correctly. After a rudimentary knowledge of the language has been attained, special atten- tion should begiven to the laws according to which derivatives and compounds are formed. The < rer- man has greater freedom in forming compounds thanalmosl any of the other modern languages; and. as this is liberallv used by many writers, no dictionary is so complete as to contain all the com- pounds to be met with in modern < Jen nan writers. As the radical and component parts of i hese words however, easily recognized, and, as hut feu of the words in nn iii use are of foreign ori- 8 v for students of I > < - 1 1 1 1 ; 1 1 i to under- stand all such derivatives and compounds. Tin's is still easier, when, as is the case with most compound verbs, each of the component parts has an equivalent in English; as abhalten, to poff; ausgehen, to go out. etc. [f we con- sider that, for a conversation on everyday Sub- jects, a knowledge of Bome 600 or 700 words is generally found to be sufficient, the close resem- blance of roots, derivatives, and compounds, in German and English, will be seen to afford ad- vantages for proficiency in German conversation of which no teacher can tail to make use. I 'rogress in reading the language will also be greatly pro- moted, if the teacher, besides calling attention to the large number of common roots, derivatives. and compounds, traces words which appear to the beginner as entirely strange, to English words of the same loot. Thus, if students learn that j{ /" /• is etymologically related to yon, Knabe to knave, schon to shii<<-. Blume to bloom, Hvnd to hound, though they translate them by that, boy, beautiful, flower, dog, they will remember their meaning more easily, and, by means of every new word of this class, get a clearer view of the near kinship between the two languages. It is sate to say, that the importance of an ety- mological comparison of German ami English is not yet sufficiently appreciated by teachers "t German, and that greater attention should bi paid to it in German classes of all grades. The rich and charming juvenile literature of Germany affords an abundance of suitable read- me; lessons, as soon as the pupil has sufficiently advanced in the knowledge of words and gram- matical forms, to take up a First German Reader. Anecdotes, fables, tales, and pieces of didactic poetry present the smallest difficulties to beginners. The readers published by Com- fort, Worman, Schlegel, Ileum and others, con- tain a large number of selections adapted to tho wants of beginners. The attentive teacher will, however, find it necessary to select, especially during the fiist months, exercises with short sen- tences only : since the length of the sentences in many, even of the juvenile writers of Germany, presents difficulties which. at an early stage of the instruction, should be avoided. 'I here are scarce- ly any German books which, like Telemaque and Charles XII in French, can be put into the hands of beginners; bwt Ft rxt Readers, containing selections from a number of writers, are for this purpose in general use. Advanced students should either use a fuller German reader, prepared for advanced classes, or take up the work of one of the classic writers. In the latter case. Schil- ler and Goethe are. for good reasons, invariably preferred. Annotated editions of some of the plays Of both these poetS have been specially prepared for the use of American and English schools. Special dictionaries for one or more plays are nol only superfluous ; but, when a stu- dent has access to a general dictionary, the use of the latter is much to be preferred. When students are able to read authors like Schiller and Goethe, the teacher may properly use the leading lessons not only to improve the student's knowledge of the language, but also as an intro- duction to the history of German literature. The German readers for advanced classes might advantageously be so arranged as to afford to the teacher an opportunity to acquaint the pu- pils with the foremost writers in the different departments of German literature. In this n sped there is room for meat improvement in the readers now published. In the United States, G< rman is not only gen- erally taught in universities, colleges, seminaries, and academies, but more recently the study I GERMAN LANGUAGE been introduced to a great extent into the pub- lic schools, in some extending to the lowest primary class. This is due to the fact thai a large pari of the population consists of Germans who are generally desirous that their children should be taught the German as well as the RngHsh language, besides to the desire of man] school boards, to draw this class of chil- dren, as largely as possible, from private into public schools. This practice has been gradu- ally extended until, in L876, a majority of the large cities of the Union, among them New Vnrk, Rochester, Jersey City, Pittsburgh, Cin- cinnati, Cleveland, Chicago, Milwaukee. St. Louis, Louisville, and a uumber of smaller ones, had made provision for it. In thai year, the mayor of Brooklyn, in his message to the city council. strongb recommended the introduction of German ;us a branch of instruction in the public schools of that city. The greatest variety thus far exists in the courses of instruction that have been adopted for this study. In sonic places, especially in the smaller towns where the German-speaking people constitute a majority of the entire population, it has been made a part of the regular course, in which all children must take part. Inmost places.it is optional with the children to pursue this study or not. In some cities (Cleveland, Cincinnati. St. Louis, and others), the school boards have arranged different courses for children who come to the public school with a speaking knowledge of the German language, and for those who have not this knowl- edge. The instruction of the former begins in the lowest class of the primary department, the time in the primary classes being equally divided between the two languages. Very many Amer- ican educators advocate the study of < Serman by Anglo- American children of the common schools, on the ground that the elements of English grammar will in this way be learned more easily and more thoroughly. That, from practical considerations, many parents desire an opportu- nity for their children to learn this language, seems to be proved by the large proportion of children who pursue the study, even when it is entirely optional The testimony of some of the superintendents of schools in which this in- struction has beeu given for years is quite em- phatic in its favor. Thus, in his Annual Report, for L874, the city superintendent of New York said: " No other consideration than its useful- ness as a branch of American education should have, in my judgment, any weight in continuing or extending German instruction; and, within tins limit, I believe sufficient reasons exist, not only to justify, but to recommend it strongly as a part of our course. In the schools in which it has received the most earnest attention, and in which, consequently, the besl progress has been made, no indication has been presented that this branch of study ill retarded the progress of the pupils in their English studies, hut that it has rather facilitated intelligent advancement in English grammar and composition, increasing the pupils* fluency of expression by giving them a more precise kn >wledge of the meaning of thi words (it then-,,, language, and aiding, in an important manner, in weir mental training and development." A coii "t the board of edu- cation of the city of New York, in Dec, 1^71 remarked, in their report of that daw- : "The more effective this department of instruction is made, the more successful will OUT System be ill this respect, and the more nearly shall we ap- proach to that desirable consummation oi bring ing under the influence of our common schools the children of all classes of our people, as will as of every nationality and creed. The impor- tance of this consideration will he obvious in view of the fact that at Least L1,000 German pupils are in daily attendance at the ( 'atholic I'a rochial, Lutheran. and German private schools." The superintendent of the public schools in Cleveland, in a special report, dated Feb. 22., 1875, said : -The study of German was intro- duced into (lie grammar and primary s< hools of Cleveland in the. spring of L870, since which time the number of pupils pursuing the study has increased from 600 to 5,000. Nor has this rapid increase in the study of German had any effect to ' retard the general course of study.' or. in other words, the progress of the pupils in reading, writing, arithmetic, geography, and the other English branches, as they arc sometimes called." And he further remarked, that " the chances for promotion" were found to be equal among the pupils pursuing exclusively English studies and those who studied German as well, and added, •• If now we take into account the fact that the latter goes from the school pos- sessed of a good knowledge of a language that opens to him the literature and scientific re2- ords of a great people, who can doubt but thi; the advantage lies on the side of the study of German?" In St. Louis, the study of the German language was introduced in 1864, on the report oi' a committee of the board of edu- cation, who recommended its introduction on the following grounds: (I) "That by such intro- duction a homogeneousness of feeling would be created between the native and foreign born;'' (2) " That the study of < 'erinan would naturally assist the study of the English language;" (3) -That the knowledge of the German lan- guage pecuniarily benefits those who speak it.' During the ten years preceding the last report of the schools of that city (1874- 5), the num- ber of pupils pursuing the study of German had increased from bid to 1.7,197, of whom 5,670 were Anglo-Americans. This was 7.'! per cent of all the pupils attending the public schools. In regard to this, the superintendent of schools, in his report tor L873 1. stated, "A perfect mingling of the different classes of population in OUT schools has In en the result, and the fact that one-third of the entire number who have taken up the study of German are Anglo- American children [i. e., children of Irish or na- tive American parents), shows how completely this feeling of caste has been broken down. The population has. in fact, homogeiu B 356 GERMAN WALLACE COLLEGE GERMANY during ili ■ pasl eighl years by means of the in- troduction of German into our public schools." On the other band, the admission of German into the public schools has been opposed on the ground that the public school should exclusively teach the national language, and that the exclusion of all others will tend t<> promote the consolidation of all the people of the United States into one compact American nationality. In some of the large cities, the difference of opinion on this sub- ject, on the part of school officers, has led to vehement and protracted di.-cu-sions, as well as to considerable vacillation in the school legisla- tion regarding it. In some of the western stafc s, as i )hio and Indiana, the state law provides that, when in a school district a certain number of parents desire the introduction of German into the course of study, it must he introduced. A considerable portion of the German-speaking population still prefer to send their children to tools in which the German language is eh the exclusive medium of instruction, or shi this position with the English. (See German- American Schools.) GERMAN WALLACE COLLEGE, at Berea, Ohio, under the control of the Metho Episcopal Chinch, was founded in L863. The pro'. iv all n ins, i ducated at i si ruction is given in German, 't is patronized by many Americans for instruction in German. By agreement, the students have free access to all the classes of Baldwin University. The college is supported by tuition fees and partly by the interest of an endowment fund of $38,982. 'The scholarship funds amount to $19,455. The tuition fees vary from $13.50 to $27 per year, [t has a pre] a lory and a collegiate department, with a cla sical and a scientific course, a theological course, and special courses in English for Germans, and in German for Americans. In L875 6, there were 1 professors and 117 Students (103 males and 1 I females), of whom 17 were in the pre- paratory department. The Rev. William Nast, D. D., has been the president from the opening of the college. GERMANY. Anterior to 843 A. D., Ger- many was a part of the great Prankish empire of Charlemagne and his immediate successor; but in that year, by virtue of the treaty of Verdun, it was separated from the remain- der of the greal Prankish dominions, and was given to Jjudwig (Louis), surnamed the German, a grandson of Charlemagne. Until L806, Ger- many was an elective monarchy with the official title of the "I Inly IJomaii Empire of the < rerman Nation" [das Heilige Romi&che Reich deuischer Nation). The French subjugation of the greater pan of Germany put an end to the first Ger- man empire After the dethronement of Napo- leon 1 1 81 5), the < longress of Vienna re established Germany a- a loose conglomeration of sovereign states [Deutscher Buna), under the permanent presidency of Austria in the federal diet. This feeble urn if the German states was dissolved by the war, in I866,between Prussia and Austria and their allies, which ended with the complete discomfiture of Austria and her withdrawal from the Germanic confederation. Prussia then united all the states north of the .Main river into a close political union, the North German Union, and formed treaties of alliance with the three state- of southern Germany, by virtue of which the kin-- of Prussia had supreme command of the united armies of all Germany in case of war. lie,-i. lis the permanent presidency in tin- federal councils of the North German Union. The successful war against France, in L870 — 71. led to the formation of the present German empire. The south German states joined the North German Union, and the King of Prussia, as per- manent and hereditary president of the whole ( rerman confederation in all federal affairs and as supreme commander in cbi< E of all the state con- tingents in time of war. at the request of all the German princes and free towns, assumed the title of German Emperor. The official name of the confederation is the German Empire. The several states composing the confederation retain their autonomy in all internal civil affairs not regulated by federal legislation. Federal affair- are: Army and navy, foreign diplomacy and political representation, the tarif, the postal ice, the mint, weights and measures, and the supreme commercial court (at Leipsic). Rail- Is, telegraphs, legal proceedings, and edu- cational interests, it i< contemplated, will also brought under the federal government, the measure being now under consideration (1876 . Bavaria, however, has retained certain prei tives in regard to her army, her postal service, and her internal taxation. The federal parliament Consists of two houses,- the upper house: the ral council [Bundesrath), consisting of the federal commissioners appointed by the several state governments : and the lower house ( Reichu- tag), consisting of Ms:; members, elected by the direct Suffrage of the people. In the federal council Prussia caste 17 votes, Bavaria f>. Saxony 1, Wurtemberg -I. Baden 3, Hesse 3, Mecklen- burg-Schwerin 2. Brunswick 2, and each of the lesser states! vote: 58, in ;dl. The chancellor of the empire is the chief executive and re- sponsible officer of the confederation. The em- peror is required to convene the parliament at least once every year. The German empire comprises '-'<; states; namely, 1 kingdoms, Prussia, Bavaria, Saxony, and Wurtemberg; C> grand duchies. Baden, Oldenburg, Mecklen- burg -Schwerin, Mecklenburg- Strehtz, I [esse- Darmstadt, and Saxe-Weimar; 5 duchies, Brunswick, Anhalt, Saxe-Altenburg, Saxe-Co- burg-t lotha, ami Saxe-Meinineen-Hildbuighau- scn: 7 principalities. Lippe, Schaumburg-Lippe, Waldeck, 2 Schwarzburgs, and 2 Reusses; 3 free towns, Hamburg, Bremen, and Lubeck ; and I federal district,- Alsace Lorraine. The empire has an aggregate area of 208,745 square miles, and a population of 12,757,812, according to the census of Dec. l ., L875. Educational History. — Germany, which for several ecu, rations has held a very high, if i GERMA w 357 the leading, rank among all the civilized nations of the world in regard to public education ha risen to its present high standard from an ex- ceedingly rude condition, and can refer to a long and intricate history of the developmenl of its educational institutions, extending over a period of more than a thousand years before the present time. The German tribes dwelling within the limits of the present German empire were successively converted to Christianity, from the 6th to the 9th century, irrespective of spo- radic conversions anterior to the beginning of that epoch, the Franks being the first, the Ale- mannians and Bavarians the next, followed bythe Frisians. Hessians. Thuringians, and the Saxons, who were the last to adopt the Christian faith. Beyond the Elbe river, in a region inhabited at that time by Slavic tribes, now thoroughly tier- man. Christianity did not gain a foot hold pre- vious to the 9th and 1 Oth centuries, and in some districts I Lithuania, for example), not until a still later period, — from the 11th and 12th to the end of the 14th and the beginning of the 15th century. Charlemagne, the mighty Frank- ish king, who had converted the sturdy Sax ons to Christianity, by the aid of tire and sword, was the first to sow the seeds of education in < Jermany; and although without early instruction, manifested the greatest interest and energy in the establishment and furtherance of educational institutions within the limits of his empire, re- maining faithful to his purpose until his death, in 814. With the assistance of Alcuin,whom he had invited from England, he established the first school in his empire, the Schola Palatina, or court school, chiefly intended for the education of tin- royal children, of whom Charlemagne had fourteen: and the great monarch himself was not ashamed to acquire, in his ripe years, what had been neglected in his earlier education. The great monarch spoke Latin, understood some Greek, and preferred social intercourse with the circle of learned men whom he had assem- ble I at his court.to every other. lie also evinced much interest in the introduction of the arts of architect are and music, and invited talented men, especially from Italy to take up their residence in Germany near the imperial court. Other schools were established after the plan of the Schola Pa- laiina; and the artes liberates, divided into a trivium (grammar, rhetoric, and dialectics), and a quadrivium (geometry, arithmetic, music, and astronomy), constituted the principal subjects taught. Besi les these, there were schools of a lower rank, in which the curriculum of study comprised only reading, writing arithmetic, gram- mar, and music. Very soon a -distinction between ecclesiastical and secular schools was established, although Charlemagne endeavored to obliterate all difference; of rank in educational matters. Those pupils who wished to study for the priest- hood, studied (hefrivium and the quadrivium, in scholis inirariis, seu claustris (convent schools), while the same studies were pursued by all othei in scholis eocterioribus,seu canonicis. 'I he driest formalism was a characteristic feature of all these Mils. The convents and the cities, as they sprung into existence all over the empire, be ( ame the originators of educational insl itutions ; the former being the bunders of convent and cathedral schools: the latter. of latin and city schools. [See Cathedral Schools, and Convent Schools.) Prominent among the convent schools. was the one founded by the famous Abbol Rhfl banns Maurus at Fulda, 813, which is still i,i existence as a gymnasium. Its founder was called primus pr&ceptor Germanio?. lie was a pro found scholar, and his name is handed down to posterity as one of the greatesl educators of his age. His successor was the equally renowned Walafried Strabus. These si hools, however, did not maintain their high standard (f excellence for along time, partly because their prosperity de- pended in too great a, measure upon the imme- diate influence and energy of their founders, and partly because the pure and apostolic ardor of the earlier Christian church, from which they had received their life-breath, gradually relaxed and declined. Deprived of the strict ami imme- diate supervision of the bishops, monastic learn- ing and discipline soon deteriorated; and, although ilk' mendicant orders of the Franciscans ami Dominicans largely increased the number of convent schools, their educational work did not, compare favorably with the standard previously maintained. Secular Latin schools were estab- lished by the municipal authorities in cities at a somewhat later period; but. at first, they had to encounter many difficulties, arising from the op- position of the clergy, who claimed the sole right of establishing and conducting schools of a higher order, — those in which more than the mere rudi- ments of education was taught. Still, by pi rsever- ance, a number of cities succeeded in founding their own schools of a higher order, independent, of the immediate supervision of the church. Among the oldest of these city I atin schools, may be enumerated those at Breslau (Silesia), which were founded in 1267 and 1293, and which still flourish as Gymnasia. As a matter of course. the teachers could only be taken from the ranks of the clergy: and the convent schools furnished, in general, the models for their course of studies and general government. These city schools were placed under the direction of a scholasticus, usually a clergyman, whose appointment was gen- erally for the term of one year, hut could be re newed. The scholasticus was assisted by a number of baccalaurei of his own appoint- ment. The course of studies consisted chiefly of Latin grammar, music, and. to a limited i stent, rhetoric, dialectics, and scholastic philosophy. It is obvious that these city schools, as well as the convent and cathedral schools, wii e under the direct influence of the clergy, and thai the stud- ies therein pursued had the closest relation to the im hate purposesof the church. Although Latin, ami in some schools < rreek also, was stud- ied with the greatest zeal, these studies did not disclose to the .scholars the ever fresh and hu- manizing spirit of the Roman and Grecian clas Bics; but. under the driest conceivable formalism 358 GERMANY of instruction. merely served, especially the Ijitin, as the aid and support of a scholasticism, which, notwithstanding its depth and speculative in- genuity, was of little value, being unproductive of the best results of education, according to its true meaning. School education in Germany was so firmly held in subjection to church interests that its working was confined to a blending of dry scho- lasticism and religious mysticism, and devoid of all practical philosophy and true pedagogical principles. The conquest of the Byzantine em- pire by the Turks, the subsequent exodus of many Greek scholars from the centers of learn- ing in the Orient to the west, their infusion of new views and ideas into the decaying system of European scholasticism, revived the study of the ancient classics, and a just appreci- ation of their ever true and youthful spirit. Italy, first of all, received these fresh germs for the development of free and humanistic concep- tions, tin- further advance of which to western and northern Europe laid the first foundation for the subsequent reformation of the Church. This is especially true of Germany. The Netherlands, at that time a part of the bodj politic of the German empire, by means of the greater activity in political lite, which brought the best minds of the people in conflict with one another, partly on political, partly on church questions, became the nursery, so to say. of a new era in education. Gerard Groot (1340 L384) became the founderof a new school. Having studied scholastic philosophy for several years at Paris, and become deeply imbued with the ad vanced ideas in matters of education, he gathered around himself a number of spirited men, whose aim was to combine with correct religious prin- ciples a practical and scientific activity. Of Groot's followers the most noted were Florence Radewin, the celebrated Thomas a ELempis, and Johann Wessel. They were the founders of the so-called Bruder-Hau&er (brothers' houses), in which tlry taught, besides the traditional religious scholastic subjects, sciences and languages accor I ing to the new Italian plan. The new sel 1 spread its principles over the Netherlands and northern Germany generally. Rudolph Lange, more especially, became a reformer of the pre- vail] aiional system. He established orre- modeled existing schools, after the plan of those of I teventerand Amsterdam, throughout northern and north-western Germany. Other reformers in the same work were Count Moritz Spiegel- i. Rudolph Agricola, Ludwig Dringenberg, Ludwig Wimpfeling, Conrad Celtes, Johann von Dalber bul above all Johann Reuchlin 1 1 15 1522) and Erasmus of Rotterdam(l 1 * - T 1536). The study of Greek and Hebrew was particular ly a I by Reuchlin, while that of Latin founds Btanch supporter in Erasmus ; and their efforts prepare 1 the educated classes of < Germany ive an I ripen the germs of the great reformation of the Church which was inau- gurated at thai time. The Reformation im- parted a new and vigorous spirit to educa- tion. The great reformers advocated strongly the study of classic antiquity, not only for the development of rhetoric and a taste for scientific subjects generally, but also, and princi- pally, as important aids in the establishment of true evangelical faith. The necessity of founding Schools for the maintenance and propagation of the new faith was strongly pressed by Luther in several of his writings. The course of instruc- tion followed in these Latin schools comprised, mainly: reading, writing, vocal music. Latin, dialectics, rhetoric, and religion. These schools were generally divided into three classes, in which the gradation of studies was as follows : reading, learning of Latin vocaibles, and reading of Donatus and Cato's Senlentice, in the lowest class; religion, grammar, prosody, music, and selections from ^LVop. Mosellan's Pcedohyiu. Erasmus's Colloquia, Terence. Plautus, and the Holy Scriptures, in the second class; Virgil, < hid. Cicero's De Officiis and Episiola adfami- liares, metrics, dialectics, and rhetoric, in the highest class. J atin composition and colloquial exercises formed an essential pari of the curricu- lum of the higher grades. The school hours were. on every week-day. from 5 orfi o'clock to 9 o'clock in the forenoon, and from noon to 3 o'clock in the afternoon. Christian catechism was taught twice a wei'k during week-days, and every Sun- day. The maxim Repeiitio mater studiorum was exacted Avith great rigidity. The singing classes of these schools were obliged to sing, under the direction of the music-teacher, before the houses of wealthy citizens on high church days, for the purpose oi collecting alms. The city schools. at the timeof the Reformation, were either of a lower or a higher order; the latter were, however, almost exclusively in the more important cities of the country. Reading, writ- ing, Latin, and religion formed the principal subjects of instruction in the former, to which were added Greek, Ilelirew. mathematics, and philosophy in the latter, or higher order of city schools. Loth orders of schools commenced on die same basis, the principal difference between them consisting in extra courses for special studies, introduced in the higher order of tb ools, which besides the studies enumerated above, also taught rhetoric, logic, and, as a matter of course, music. In some schools, Hebrew, and mathematics were omitted in the course of studies. These higher city schools, and a con- siderable number of convent and cathedral schools, the latter especially during the period of the Reformation, were transformed into mm ailed Gymnasia. The Gymnasium consisted origi- nally of tour classes, which number was subse- quently increased t<> five, and in some in s t ances even to eighl classes. The number of school houi - varied from 20 to 22 DOT week. Some of these institutions, in course of time, rose to the dignity of universities. We find, throughout the middle ages, in most Of the city Schools, four hours of daily instruc- tion. However, there were some schools with five, some with three (Spires, 1 1th century) GERMANY 359 one with only two (Halle, 1526) ; while, on lli ■ other hand, we find as many as eight hours per . the edu- cation of scholars of noble birth and others. The so-called knights' academies {Ritterakademien) were established, in which pupils were instructed in history , genealogy , and heraldry, and in which dancing and courtly maimers were special .branches of instruction. Other studies, such as ' military and civil engineering, astronomy, botany, and theoretical and practical philosophy, found their way into the regular curriculum. Generally Speaking, there was. however, no true advance- ment in the educational standard; on the con- trary, the selection of studies manifested great arbitrariness on the part of the patrons and directors of schools of an advanced order. In some of the < rerman states, the special interest of highly cultured princes in matters of educa- tion tended to elevate the standard by not only groundimj.- the scholars well in the mechanism of tiie classic languages, according to the old maxim of dry scholasticism, but also by making them thoroughly acquainted with the spirit of classic authors. The study of the Greek classics was rehabilitated, together with Hebrew-, and other more liberal kinds of culture. I hike Ernes! of Got ha 1 1 675) took a leading part in this refor- mation of the higher schools, and his example found many imitators in other German states. Still, there prevailed a greal diversity in educa- tional principles throughout the country. Hu- manism, rigid formalism, and rationalism con- tended with each other, and were each fostered, and advocated, according to local and personal influences. At this time. Locke's ideas on education commenced to exert a. greal influ- ence on educational principles in Germany. Mis maxim of imparting knowledge mainlj through the senses, in opposition to idealism. although not always carried out consistently. Opened a new view of the principles of ration- al education. (See Locke.) Another system wa founded bj An-nst Hermann Francke (q. I lis principal aim was to implant true piety in the hearts of the \oiing. K ramie is the founder of the renowned institutions at Halle, in which a most decided realistic tendency became appar- ent, from the very beginning, in opposition to one-sided formalism. Anion-- the studies pursued at Halle were chronology, astronomy, music, painting, anatomy, botany, and even the rudiments of medicine, together with other 3C1 ences properly belonging to technical schools. Greek ami French were much neglected. Real- ism was the foundation of the whole educational structure. The so-called Pcedagogium al Halle became a model school for the whole of Germany. It possessed a botanic garden, a museum of nat- ural history, philosophical apparatus, a chemical laboratory, and a dissecting room. It was con sidered a, normal school for the education of teachers: and its pupils subsequently became the propagators of realistic principles throughout the country. Francke's system laid the foundation to the so-called real schools. .1. S. Sender, ill Halle, was the first who used this term in an- nouncing his establishment of "a mechanical and mathematical real school" in 1706, which, however, was of short existence. John Julius Hecker, also a, disciple of the Halle school, established a real school in Berlin (1747), which, properly speaking, consisted -of three different departments; namely, a German, a Latin, and a. real school, but with arrangements to allow pupils of the two former to participate in the studies of the hitter department. In many respects this real school carried its aims too far by taking up purely technical studies : however, it became the model for many similar insti- tutions. The Pcedagogium, or Latin school, was afterwards completely separated from the real school, and still exists under the name of Friedrich WUhelm's Gymnasium. The demor- alizing effects of the Thirty Years' War upon the national spirit of the German people were not effaced for a Ion- period of time. 'I he higher classes of society had, to a remarkable de- gree, lost all national individuality. They imi- tated foreign, mostly French, models, aiming at outward polish ami elegance, but losing ali ap- preciation of thoroughness, breadth, and har- inoii\ of culture, while the lower < -lasses devoted their attention almost exclusive!} to the prac tical affairs of life and to useful knowl- edge. Pedantry on the part of the teachers, and immorality on the part of the students; Superficiality On the one hand, and one-sided utilitarianism on the other, in educational prill ciples, were the characteristics of the time. New pedagogical principles were propagated bj Bi dow- i 1 7'-'-'! 90) and his followers, of whom Salzmann and Campe are the most noted, who are known io the educational world as school of the i Philanthropists. Their principal aim was to educate a youth to become a man in the besl sense of the word.-- to guide the natural im md the will by reason. Some of the sch i 36-2 GEE MA XV established by the Philanthropists attained con- siderable renown, more especially the one founded by Salzmann at Schnepfenthal, near Gotha, which is still in a flourishing condition. The method of the Philanthropists, however, soon fell into disuse, owing principally to their dis- regard for the classic authors, whose educational value they underrated, and in the study of whom they were completely outstripped by rival schools. Although the general current of the time favored utilitarianism, a tendency encouraged by Frederick the Great, still there remained in the German nation ton much la- tent love for the ideal to allow the realistic school to become all-absorbing. Just then, the first dawn of the great golden eraof German classic literature broke upon the nation, and re- vived the love for ancient classic beauty. Winckelmann and Leasing revealed the splendor of ancient art ami the eternal laws of the beau- tiful. They were followed by hosts of others. The love of the ancient classics, which was awakened even in the masses of the people by excellent translations of ancient authors into German, inaugurated by •'. 1 1. Voss's admi- rable translation of Homer's works, and the de- velopment of the German language, which had been greatly neglected for ages, during the fol- lowing classic period of national literature, were brought into happy barmony, and their union became fruitful of the best results in the whole Intellectual, moral, and esthetical life of the nation. As a matter of course, the cans education also participated in the general ad- vancement of tic mental and moral culture of tic nation; its aims became broader and loftier. 'The new philosophical school of modern human- ists, in the sphere of education, comprehended many names thankfully remembered bj subse- quent generations. J. M. Gesner (lti'.tl —1761 1, rector of the Thomas School in Leipsic, and sub- sequently professor of ancient literature and founder of the philological seminary at Gottin- - became a stanch supporter and propagator of the new humanistic school. .). A. Ernesti I |, at Leipsic, and < !. G. Ileyne (1812), at < lottingen, were also enthusiastic a Ivocatesof the study of the ancient cla They, and many others, intro luce 1 their students to the beauties of the classics without wearving them with dry grammatical study, as had been the custom be- The chief representatives of the human- istic school arc Friedrich A.ugus1 Wolf. A.ugust Bockh, Gottfried Hermann, Karl Reissig, and Karl Otfried MuMler. At first, a close connec- ■ between tic study of the ancient classics and of German literature was strictly observed; hut. subsequently, when the latter had gained suffi- ci lit strength and classic character, this connec- tion was gradually loosened. Uthougb one- sided Latinisin repeatedly asserted its opposi- tion to the studv of the German language and literal me. ii could never regain its former undisputed prerogative; while, on the other hand. Greek had recovered all the territorj for merly lost. Wolf, Hermann, and Bockh form I a triumvirate of educators who knew how to awaken a deep interest in the study of the an- cients, — to introduce their scholars to the beau- ties of classic philosophy and literature, each according to his own individual predilections] without losing sight of the special requirements of their own time, or of the general harmony in the purposes of a really Liberal education. In elementary education, the principles of Pestalozzi 1 (1746—1827), commenced to he more widely known and appreciated in Germany, where the peat educator's aim to elevate the lower classes of the people through a well-adapted domestic education, and his invention of a rational system of primary instruction, founded upon teaching from the object, and upon a gradual progres- sion from the simple to the complicated, were rapidly adopted, and whence great numbers of teachers Mocked to IVstaloz/i's home to acquaint themselves more thoroughly with his methods. The downfall of the < hrmaii nation before the notorious arms of the French emperor, in the beginning of the present century, far from curb- in-' the national ambition, gave a new impetus to national life, which, in its turn, awakened the Spirit of the nation to new exertions in the cause of education. New universities, gymnasia, and Innumerable elementary schools were estab- lished. Though under the sway of a foreign op- pressor. Germany doubled her efforts to elevate her educational institutions. The philosopher I'ichte (1807—8), in his Addresses to the < man Nation i Reden mi die deutsche Nation) demanded a thorough reconstruction of the schools, and a universal public education of the nation. A fresh breath of life was inspired in- to the whole intellectual and moral being of the nation: and, in the darkest hours of her misfor- tunes and humiliation. Germany sowed tic seed of future greatness, mainly by elevating the na- tional spirit through her institutions of educa- tion, by the reformation of the old, and by the establishment of new schools, in which earnest- ness of purpose, thoroughness, morality, and harmony in the general development of mind and heart became, and are to this day, charac- teristic traits. During the first half oi the pres- ent century, a constant extension,! ombined with greater depth, in the treatment of all the sciences, became every-where perceptible. In former centuries, the schools of a higher order had almost exclusively served the interests of the church. The Bible and the ancient languages, as far as they could be used as handmaids in the service of the church, had formed the most important elements of education. Everj thins was brought into close relation to theology and its auxiliaries. When, in the course of time, tin' development of intellectual freedom gained ground and strength, and when pur. In religious instruction lost its supremacy and was limited to its proper sphere, Other sciences could raise their ( [aims to lie admitted as important educa- tional elements. The proper classification od studies to attain a complete humanistic, and. at the same time, scientific, education of the rising GERMAN? 3G3 is a difficult problem, which still awaits a satis- factory solution. Of noted representatives of more modern German pedagogy, mention should .be made of Johann M. Sailer, who gained con- siderable influence in the Catholic districts of < rermany, of F. A. W. 1 tiesterweg (q. v.), and of Friedrich Froebel (q. v.). Primary Instruction. — The development of purely elementary instruction by means of pub- lic schools, in Germany, is. comparatively, of recent date. Elementary schools in cities [Deut- sche SchtUen) are traceable to a very remote period, their foundation being contemporaneous wiih the establishment of the earliest city Latin schools. These schools were quite nu- merous. In Hesse alone, there were, in the 13th century, 14 cities, which supported their own ele- mentary schools. All official documents relating to elementary education, which have come down to our time, make reference to city schools only. In the country, in villages or hamlets, schools for elementary e Lucation, worthy of the name, were almost unknown. The sextons of country churches were required, in a general way, to instruct the children in the catechism; and it is from this primitive foundation that public elementary edu- cation has been built up to its present condition. in the electorate of Brandenburg, the first regular country schools, for children of both sexes, were established after the Thirty Years' War, in the 17th century, under the reign of the Great Elector. Frederick William: but we know very little of the condition of these schools. With the aggrandizement of the electorate, denominational differences commenced to manifest themselves. Thus we find, at an early period, a recognize 1 distinction between Lutheran and Reforme I schools. At Wesel, we find, as early as L687, a s 'miliary for the education of school-masters. — An ordinance, emanating from the church authorities in Pomerania, in 1563, relating to elementary instruction, makes no mention-at all of village schools, but has reference to city schools only, subordinating them in every respect to the authority of the Church, and prescribing especially the study of reading, writing, and arithmetic, besides the catechism and choral singing. — The general condition of elementary i i i-t ruction throughout the majority of the German states was about the same. — Even in the electorate of Brandenburg, a school ordi- nance of 1658 plainly shows that village schools, although their establishment was strongly urged, had not as yet become a living reality. When, in the beginning of the 18th century, the elect- orate of Brandenburg and the duchy of Prussia became a kingdom, feeble attempts were again made to establish public elementary schools throughout the royal dominions: but, as there was no supply of trained teachers, and the efforts where neither persistent, nor well directed, the iral condition of elementary education in the rural districts remained pretty nearly unchanged. I'h'' elementary teachers, in those times, were generally forlorn and discarded students of the higher schools; and in villages, mostly me- chanics, dismissed servants of noble families, or invalid and discharged soldiers. King Frederick William I., the second king of Prussia, paid especial attention to elementary schools for the mass of his people, with the design of educat- ing them to a strict obedience to secular and church authority, and to habits of industry and frugality. He is reported to have established within his states about 1,800 elementary schools. Frederick William I. was the protector of the pietistic school of educators, at Halle; and. through the exertions of Francke and his fol- lowers, Prussia, received the first trained pro- fessional instructors. Teaching, for the first time. became a recognized science: and the theory of pedagogy, and practical methods of instruction, were made indispensable requirements for the office of a public teacher. A royal decree, regu- lating educational affairs in the monarchy, and relating to institutions of all grades -in fact, the first general school law for the Prussian mon- archy — was issued October, 171.*!. A fewyears afterward, in a number of royal decrees, the first initiatory steps were taken toward obli- gatory education throughout the kingdom. The directing and supervising power was placed en- tirely in the hands of the church authorities. The founding of teachers' seminaries by the state was not then thought of. By private enter- prise, a teachers' seminary was established in Stettin, Pomerania. in 1735; and. in the fol- lowing year, another was founded, by order of the king, at the convent of Bergen, near Magde- burg. — Although the number of schools increased very considerably during the reign of the ener- getic second king of Prussia, still, the qualifica- tions of the teachers and the general condition of the elementary schools remained in quite a primitive state; and the only important progress made was the gradual development of the idea. among all classes of the people, that education, to some extent, had become an absolute neces- sity. — Frederick II. (the Great), although him- self a highly cultured monarch, had very little time to devote to the advancement of elementary education, until after the close of the Seven fears' War, when he promulgated a code of •general school regulations", which contained all the leading features of the later Prus- sian school laws, prescribing the general obliga- tion to attend school, fixing the obligator} school age of the pupils, the payment of school money, and tines for non-attendance, anil char- ging the church authorities with the duty of supervising public schools. This code of schuo! regtdaiions emanated from the pen of Johann Julius Meeker (q. v.); and the king, after mam consultations with other recognized authorities, gave it his sanction. The execution of these laws, however, met with many serious difficulties in several parts of the monarchy, partly on account of religious differences between Catholics and Protestants, in regard to the supervisory author- ity intrusted to the church: partly on account the obstinacy of the peasantry in refusing the pay- ment of school money: partly from various other m GERMANY causes arising from local differences, which, in the end, necessitated many modifications of the original general plan, for certain districts of the kingdom. Soon afterward, the necessity was fell of regulating the system of city school edu- cation in a manner similar to that prescribed for the country schools. The exceedingly meager remuneration of teachers throughout the country was one of the greatest obstacles to the securing of well-qualified instructors, and led to the establishment of a state-aid fund, from the interest of which a small subsidy was grante 1 to meritorious teachers. The king never re- laxed his interest in common-school education. The newly acquired province of Silesia, with its majority of Catholic inhabitants, enjoyed his special care. A Catholic teachers' seminary was founded at Breslau, in 1765 ; where, two years afterward, a Protestant teachers' seminary was also founded, the latter dependent mainly upon private support. Under the reign of Frederick William 1 1., the successor of Frederick the Great, the care of the government for popular educa- tion was undiminished. —In 17*7. an Ober-Schul- 'legium (High School Commission), consisting of professional members only, was establishe 1 at Berlin, for the examinati E teachers, with the design of appointing only well-qualified persons as teachers, without, on the other hand, interfering with the established rights of school patrons to till vacancies. In the Prussian ('nm- mon Law of L794, all educational institutions, including universities, were declared state insti- tution- ; and a foundation was laid for a legally- recognized educational system for the entire mon- archy, which, in its fundamental principles, has remained intact t<> the present day. During the first years of the reign of Frederick William III., no material changes were made in the elementary school system of the kingdom. Great difficulties, however, impeded the general progress of ele- mentary school education throughout the kins- dom; and the education of females was even more backward than that of males. Ernestine von Krosiek was the lirst who had sufficient courage t" establish a seminar; lor female teach- ers, in Berlin, in 1804. The great national ca- lamity which befell I 'russia, and < lermany in gen- eral, shortly afterward, brought all the various efforts for the advancement of public education to a stand-still for some time. King Frederick William III., however, declared, "although we have lost territory, power, and prestige, still we must strive to regain what we have lost by ac- quiring intellectual and moral power: and. there- fore, ii is my earnest desire and will, to rehabil- itate th ■ 1 1 . i ' ion by de> ost earnest at- tention to the education of the masses of my people.'' National education, which had, hither- to, been in I to 1 be care of a subordinate committee, under the state ministrj of justice, became a distinct and important branch of the ite administration, as a separate department <>f the ministry of the interior, and bo remained until the close of 1811, under the immediate charge of the celebrated VVilhelra von Humboldt; afterward, until 1S17, under Von Schuckmann, who was very efficiently assisted by Nicolovius and Siivern. The law.- regulating national and popular education, hitherto a dead letter in many respects, became, for the first time, a reality, and commenced to show their beneficial influence upon the advancement of national culture. Re- newed and energetic efforts were made to edu- cate teachers in accordance with the most ap- proved system of the time. Many instructors were invited from other states to accept engag incuts in Prussia: others were trained under the immediate supervision of Pestalozzi. A new spirit commenced to pervade all classes of the people, now a homogeneous nation. In 1818, Von Alteiistein was appointed to the newly established ministry of educational affairs, be- ing still assisted by Nicolovius and Siivern. National education soon attained a high degree of development, considering the scanty appropria- tions, both state and municipal, for the support of educational institutions of all grades. At the time of Altenstein's death, there were. in Prussia (including then only the eight old. provinces), 6 universities, 1 20 colleges, and a .-till larger number of realsel Is. .'is teachers' seminaries, and about 30,000 public schools, in a tolerably flourishing condition. Every sixth inhabitant of the king- dom was attending school. In 1840, Minister Eichhorn was appointed to the department of educational affair,-. Two decrees of this minister especially stigmatize his administration, the closing of the I'rote.-tant seminary at Breslau, and the discharge of Diesterweg (q.v.); hut the revolutionary year 1848 swept away Eichhorn and his system. It is the merit of Priedrieh Stiehl, a i lified Pestalozzian, who entered the state ministry of educational affairs as a col- laborator, not only to have maintained the Olig; inal greal principles of national education, but to have developed the same under the adminis- trations of all the successors of Eichhorn, down to Vim Miihler. At the close of L861, there were, in the eight old Prussian provinces, with a population oi I8,47fr,500 (of whom 3,090,294 Mere within the obligatory school age, from 6 to I I years), 2,875,836 children actually attending school. 'I he number of schools was •_' 1,763 (2,! in cities. 21,828 in villages, etc.). with 36,783 classes (10,290 in city schools. 26,493 in coun- try schools), and •'!•">. '•'•>'- teachers (33,615 males and L,755 females). Two-thirds ol these schools L6.540) were Protestant; about one third 8,082 . Catholic, and 141, Jewish, of licensed private schools, there were, in 1861, L.434, with *_! . t • 1 1 classes and 84,021 pupils. Thus the aggregate of registered elementary-school children, in L861, amounted to 2,959,857, leaving 130,437, who. either received no education at all. or were com- prised in the number of pupils attending higher educational inst itul ions. ( If the children attending public schools, there were, in 1861 Protestants, 1,775,888; Catholics. 1,063,805; .lew's. 30,053 : miscellaneous, 6,090. The sum total of public elementary-school teachers' salaries, in 1861, amounted to 7,449,224 thalers [Ithaler, GERMANY = $0,714) (excluding the principality of EJohen- zollern. which had an independent school budget), wliuh sum was raised as follows: 2,320,968 thalers, school money paid by pupils; 1,799,958 ikalers, raised by the communities; 328,298 thalers, state appropriation. Other re- quirements of public elementary school education demanded a further disbursement of 2,453,472 thalers, swelling the aggregate of expenditures for the eight old provinces of Prussia, in 1861, to 9,902,696 thalers. The little principality of Eohen- zollern had a separate budget of 66,462 llorins (1 florin $0,385). Thus, of the total expenditure for public elementary education, in Prussia, 31.16 percent was raised from the pupils : 64,44 per cent, by the taxation of communities, and only I. lo per cent, by appropriations on the pari of the state. The prevailing principle, at pres- ent, in Prussia, for the support of public schools. is. that all the schools must lie made, as far as possible, self sustaining, by the payment of school money, and by local taxation, the state granting aid only in cases of the inability of communities to maintain the schools in the legally-prescribed manner. The city of Berlin, with a free-school ■in. in L874, supported 77 common element- ary schools, with an aggregate of 950 <■! !8 for hoys, with !M male and 4 female teach- ers ; and 462 classes for girls, with 284 male ami L78 female teachers). The whole force of teach- ers, including assistant and special teachers, amounted to 1.27'.). The average number of classes to eachschool was 1 1; the average number of pupils to each class, 51 ; to a school, 640. The average number of pupils in free schools was 18,420 : besides 10,500 children in corporate or private institutions aided by the city; making- a grand total of 59,000 children enjoying free ele- mentary education at the expense of the city. The cost of elementary free schools supported by the city amounted to 860,000 thalers; whereas the aid granted to higher city schools, besides the school money paid by pupils, required an extra expense of 2.") thalers per pupil. The aver- age yearly salary of a principal of a common ele- mentary school, in Berlin, is 1,180 thalers : of a cl a ss teacher, 74."> thalers; of a female teacher, 4.S7 that< j rs ; of female teachers of needle-work, ID!) thalers. — In Prussia, a fund has been es- tablished for the pensioning of teachers' widows and orphans, which, in 1861, amounted to 1,682,158 thalers, with a yearly revenue of 139,331 thalers, from which 6,017 teachers, or their widows and orphans, were pensioned. Sim- ilar pensioning funds for teachers and their willows and orphans are founded in all the Ger- man states. — The following are the principal items of school statistics for the other German states: Bavaria,in 1874, supported 7,016 public elementary schools (4,893 Catholic, 1,938 Prot- estant, I 'J I Jewish, 61 miscellaneous), with 9,431 male and SOU female teachers. Total number of pupils, 632,599 (310,713 male. 321, H80 female; 138,945 Catholic, 187,387 Protestant, 5*883 •Jewish, 384 miscellaneous). I »f the 7,016 public elementary schools, 5,7'<4 levied school money on their pupils, amounting to 1,025,443 Qorinsa year. Baaen, in L874, had 1 .7r>."> elementary public schools, with an attendance of 213,278 pupils (109,860 malesaud 103,418 females). The min imum salary of teachers ranged from 920 to 1 ,380 marks {I mark- $0,238), with dwelling-house, or extra, compensation instead. Hesse Darmstadt employed 6, 160 public elementary teachers. Saxe Weimar employed 7o| teachers, who instructed 46,683 pupils. The kingdom of Saxtmy, in 1871, supported '-'.1 13 elementary schools, with 1 067 teachers and 429,679 pupils. The Saxon schools are reckoned among the very besl inGermany. The kingdom of Wurtemberg maintained 2,240 common elementary schools, with about 285,000 pi i pi Is, of whom one-third were Roman < latholic— for the entire* lerman Empire.we find the follow- ing ics (1872): Total number of public oentary schools (estimated) about 60,000; teachers, about 110,000; pupils, about 6,500,000, or, more than 1 o per cent of the entire popula- tion. The proportion of pupils to the entire pop- ulation, in the several German states, varies as follows: of every 1000 of the population, there are school attendants, in Saxony. 184, in Prus- sia, 155, in Wurtemberg, 132, in Bavaria, L26, in Mecklenburg, L20 ; while in Brunswick, An- halt, Oldenburg, and the Thuringian principal- ities, the proportion varies from 160 to 184. School Administration.— Prussia. — All edu- cational institutions of the monarchy are govern- ed, primarily, by the state ministry of ecclesias- tical, educational, and medical affairs, in Berlin. Every province has its own provincial school commission for the general administration of schools, and a scientific commission, with proper subdivisions, for the examination of teachers. The provincial state school authorities are as- sisted, in the larger cities, by committees elected for this purpose by the administrative bodies of the municipalities [SchulrDepulationen); and in villages, by other ollicials. The law of March 1 1., 1 s7'2, confers the right of supervising all educa- tional institutions, public and private, upon the state. Consequently, all supervisory power is derived from the state, and exercised under its authority. The co-operation of local authorities, as established by law. is recognized by the state. In Bavaria, educational institutions are subordi- nate to the ministry of the interior, through the del tartment of church and school affairs ( Oberster Schul-Bath) and a. committee for examinations, appointed annually. Saxony, Wurtemberg, and the minor German states, administer their school affairs in a similar manner. A federal school commission has lately been established in Berlin. Secondary Instruction. Secondary school in- struction, in Germany,aims to give a sound basis for general scientific and literary education. This grade of education is directed to two clearly distinct ends, that of a general philosophical and liberal education, as represented in the gymnasium or pro-gymnasium ; and that of a more practical education, as represented in the real schools, of the first orsecond order, and the higher burgher schools. A complete gymnasium 3G6 GERMANY has at least six grades [sexta being the lowest, ' prima, the highest). The upper grades, from the third to ill ■ first, are mostly subdivided into two divisions a lower ami a higher. The course of instruction comprises 9 years, of which the low aeraily require one year each; the higher, one year for each division. A pro-gym- nasium comprises the gymnasium classes from the lowest to the third or second grade of a full gymnasium, with a course of five or six years. A complete real school of the first order has six grades and a nine years' course ; one of the second order, six grades and a seven years' cnurse. The higher burgher schools have only the five lower classes of a real school. With most of these secondary schools, preparatory de- partments, comprising one. two, or more grades, are connected. Candidates for the lowest class of secondary institutions are generally required to have completed their 9th year of age, and to pass a satisfactory examination in the elementary branches of a common-school education. — In Bavaria, there are Strulien-Anstalten, or clas- sical gymnasia, with '.' grades and a course of !) years, the 5 lower of which constitute the Latin school, and the 1 higher, the gymnasium proper. The so-called Latin schools are frequently sepa- rated from the higher grades, and form distinct institutions. Real gymnasia, which, in Bavaria, consist of a real school and a gymnasium, have a six years' course of instruction. In Wurtemberg, there are full gymnasia, founded upon nearly the same oasis as those in Prussia; or lyceums, anal- ogous to the Prussian pro-gymnasia; or Latin schools, as preparatory schools for institutions of a higher order. iaSaxany, Baden, and the other ( lerman states, secondary institutions of learning are generally established upon the same basis as in Prussia. 'The following schedule presents, in a general way, the course of study followed in a Prussian gymnasium (I. designating the highest grade ; VX, the lowest) : Number of Weekly Recitations in each Grade. Studies. VI, [on 3 German 9 Latin 10 Greet — French — History and Geog- raphy. 3 Georn trj and Arith- I Lo i Lea — ral history 2 ing 2 Penmanship 3 V. :j ■i 10 3 2 3 IV. 2 •j 10 6 ■> :i 3 III. 2 2 10 6 2 3 3 2 II. o 2 10 G 2 .1... 28 ;;o ait :id :in 30 This does not include Hebrew, singing, or gym- nastics ! Tumen), these being taught out of the regular school-hours. In L874, there were in Germany, 547 gym- i. pro-gymnasia, and real-gymnasia, with 6,75] instructors and t08,212 pupils; and 426 real and higher burgher schools, with 1,422 in- structors and 79,828 pupils. In the (ierinan Empire, one pupil in every 377 of the aggregate population receives a classical, and one in every I 68, a Qon-classical, secondary education. For the higher education of females, there were in Germany (in L873) 278 schools of the secondary order.— in Prussia and Al-aee-l.orrainc. 207; Bavaria. T: Saxony, lu. geometry (2 h.), natural sci- ence (4 h.), geography (2 h.i, history (2 h.i. mu- sic (5 h.), drawing (2 h.i. penmanship (2 h. in the lowest. 1 h. in the middle class), gymnastic exereises (2 h.), either French or Latin, accord- ing to the option of the pupils (3 h.). The course of studies in the highest class drops pen- manship, and devotes the same amount of time to pedagogics, history, music, and gymnastic ex- ercises, but reduces the time allowed for other subjects (religion, 2 h. ; mother-tongue, 2 h. ; arithmetic and geometry, 1 h.: natural science. 2 h.: geography, I h.; drawing, 1 h.; French or Latin, 2 h.). In some of these subjects, the course of studies is now more comprehensive than formerly. Thus, the instruction required in pedagogics, is henceforth, to embrace the most important points of psychology. Instruction in German must illustrate the divisions of lyric, epic, didactic, and dramatic poetry. The pri- vate reading of the pupils must especially be devoted to the classic writers of the last three centuries. In addition to the history of Ger- many and Prussia, the pupils receive a course of Greek and Roman history. — The course of in- struction in the seminaries, in the other German states (also in Austria), is, substantially, the same. In the kingdom of Saxony, a new course of studies was introduced in 1874, which makes the stu ly of Latin a part of the regular course. The other German states provide for no in- struction in a foreign language; and Austria provides for French only. — The number of teachers' seminaries, iii L875, was (according to Brachelli, Die Staaien Europa's, 1875), in Prussia, 101, and in the other states, 73. The total number of pupils in the Prussian semi- naries, in May, 1875, was 6,456, being 1,670 more than in 1*74. The Universities. — The following list gives the namesof all the universities of ( rermany, and of the German part of Austria, arranged ac- cording to the chronological order of their foun- dation: Prague (1348), Vienna (1365), Eeidel- _ (1386), Cologne (1388, discontinued in 1798), Erfurt (1392 -1816), Leipsic (1 t09), Ro- le 1 1 U9),Greifswald(l 156), Freiburg (1 157), [ngolstadl (1472, transferred to Landshut, in L802, and to .Munich, in 1826), Treves (1472 —1798), Tubingen .1177:. Mayence (1477— 1790), Wittenberg L 502, transferred to Halle, in 1817), Frankfort on the Oder (1506, transferred to Breslau, in L81 1 I, Marburg | L527), Konigal (1544), Dillingen 1 15-19— 1804), Jena (15J EJehnstadt (1576 — L809), Altorf, near Nurem berg L809),Olmute(1581 L85! A\ iirtz- burgl L582 ,Herboru(1584 L817),Gratz(1586), Giessen (1601 . Paderborn L615 L803), Stadt- hagen (1619 21), Rinteln (1621 L810), Salz- burg (1622 L811), Osnabriick (1630 L63 Miinsto r i L631 . in L818 transferred to Bon Bamberg (1648—1804), Duisburg (1655—1802 Kiel (1665), fnnspruck (1672), Lingen (1685 L819), Halle (1694), Breslau (1702), Fulda (1734 —1805), Gbttingen (1737), Erlangen (1743 . Biitzow (1760- Berlin (1809), Bonn L818), Munich (1826), Strasbourg (1872). The early history of the German universities in its essential features, with that of the uni- versities of other nations. (See I 'm\m. lty.) At first, a papal decree was regarded as indispen- sable for their establishment; but, later, they were established upon imperial authority, with or without papal sanction; and. in 1495, the emperor Maximilian granted to every elector the right to establish one in his dominions. The original classification of the students was according to nationalities, each of which elected a procurator; but. simultaneously, there existed an organization according to the four facul- ties. The rector of the university was. at first, elected from the philosophical faculty, but. soon after, in turn from each of the four faculties. Every faculty elected a dean fr the lecturing magistri, who, in their turn, formed the faculty council. — The students of Germany, like those of other countries, for- merly gave a great deal of trouble by their riot- ous and immoral conduct, as well as by some abuses to which the younger students wen subjected by the older. The student was intro- duced to university life by a singula] i eremony, called the beania, or deposition, which con- sisted of a series of painful castigations. This habit gave way to the still more absurd penned- ism, which kept the freshman in a state of hu- miliating servitude to the senior students. The final suppression of pennolism and of the large students' associations, by the united action of the universities and governments, was attended with considerable public disturbances, and led to the formation of secret orders or associations [Landsmannschaften or Corps), which tried to perpetuate pennalism, or the dependence ol the younger upon the older students in a modified form. Each association elected, for the term of one year, a senior, and the convention of seniors [Seniorenconvent) represented the common in- terests of these associations. A strong esprit corps was. in this way. created and fostered among the students, and many habits peculiar to these German institutions were developed. Among the worst of these habits was dueling, which, in spiie of all the laws against it. has main- tained itself, though not to the same extern formerly, to the present day. The awakening of the German people, which attended and followed the national war against Napoleon. led. in 1815, to the establishment of the Ilnrschenschqft, an as- GERMANY sociation of students, for promoting the moral and intellectual condition of their country. The modem German universities have main- tained many of the characteristics of the earlier limes, at least iii their general organization and administration, while, as a matter of course, the number and quality of the studies pursued widely differ from the original .standard. The leading characteristics of a larger German uni- versity an> represented in the following account. A university consists of the corporation of ordi- nary and extraordinary professors, licensed pri- vate lecturers [PrivalrDocenten), and the im- matriculated students, besides the necessary officials and their adjuncts. The studies pur- sued are generally classified into four grand sub- divisions, or faculties: the theological, the juris- tical, the medical, and the philosophical : the last embracing, besides mental philosophy, mathemat- ics, the natural sciences, philology, history, and cameralistics, or political and international econ- omy. Bach faculty forms an independent sub- division of the university. The general adminis- tration of a university is intrusted to a select body of professors, called the Senate, presided over by the rector. The relative rank of the professors is determined according to seniority in office, like that of an ordinary professor at any university. The several faculties are officially repres snte I by the body of ordinary professors of each discipline. In a wid •. the extra- ordinary pi and prlvatim docentes are also considered members of their respective faculties. The faculties are obliged to exercise a certain supervision over the attendance and conduct of the students inscribed upon their respective faculty rolls. Each faculty is respon- sible for the completeness of the instruction offered to students, within the limits of the faculty studies, inasmuch as three (for students of medicine, four) years must comprise a full curriculum of the main studies pertaining to each discipline. — -Each faculty annually elects a dean for the administration of LtS special affairs. The dean is the president and chief executive officer of his faculty. The rector and the senate are elected annually by a plenum (full meeting) of the ordinary professors. The senate usually consists of the rector, his im- mediate predecessor in office, the faculty dean.-, and five members elected from the number of ordinary professors. This body, under the pres idency of the rector, exercises supreme author- ity in all matters concerning the university as a whole, and the highest disciplinary powerrel- ative to students. The rector is the highesl functionary, and the foremosl representative, of a university in all its external relations. In the discharge of academic jurisdiction, a syndic is added to the senate, who has the rank of an ordinary professor. The syndic is the professional adviser to rector and senate in all questions relating to statute law or tO the state constitution. Academic jurisdiction is vested in the rector, the Byndic, or the full meet ing of the Benate, according to the character of the offense. Students are admitted to the uni- versity and academic rights by the act of matric- ulation. If a native, the student must produce a certificate of graduation from a gymnasium; if he is a foreigner, a certificate is required tes- tifying to his good moral character. By the act of matriculation, the student acquires all the academic rights and privileges granted to stu- dents by statute law. Disciplinary measures and punishments, according to the nature of the offense, are a private reprimand by the rector, a public reprimand before the senate, incarcera- tion, warning of the consilium abeundi (advice to leave), the consilium abeundi proper (tem- porary removal, mostly for one term, or six months), and, lastly, the relegatio (expulsion), or the relegatio cum infamia (dishonorable expul- sion). Students expelled cum infamia cannot be admitted to any other university. The right to lecture is granted only to the appointed pro! ors, ordinary or extraordinary, and authorized private lecturers (Privat-Docenten), who must have attained the degree of Doctor; or, in the theological faculty, the degree of Licentiate. All are carefully excluded from the privilege. of hearing lectures, who have not attained the necessary degree of mental or moral maturity, more especially under-graduates of gymnasia, and all who have forfeited their matriculation. 1 i ures for the succeeding semes! publicly announced before the termination of the current semester. The first cours ares commei in the fall of the year, at about the middle of < tctober. and terminates towards the latter part of .March: the second course commences in beginning of April, and terminates in the latter part of August. At the beginning of IsTT. the German Empire had 20 compute universities, of which 9 were in Prussia, 3, in Bavaria, '2 in Baden, 1 each in Saxony. Wurtemberg, lb Mecklenburg, Saxe Weimar. and Alsace- Lorraine. The number of professors and students at each of these universities, in L876, was as follows: NAME Berlin Prussia] , Bonn •■ rii slau " Erlangen Bavaria Freiburg Baden < liessen I [esse , Ingen Prussia ( . ri Ifswald ■• HaUe •• i [eidelberg Baden sa\,- Weimar Prussia I I migsberg (Prussia) i .eipsic Saxonj i Marburg Prussia) M unich Bavaria) Rostock Mecklenburg Strasbourg Usace-Lorralne). WUrtemberg Wurtzburg Bavaria Prod Students incl. of nou- matrii ulated hearers) 107 4,106 100 107 1.111 64 428 :,:; 294 54 359 116 1.006 57 469 96 888 488 7:t Gl 215 83 C15 166 3.032 66 411 in; 1 .232 89 153 90 707 84 07 1,019 Each of these universities has the four time- honored faculties. Bonn, Breslau, and Tubingen have each two theological faculties, one Catholic and one Protestant. Munich, "Wurtzburg, and GERMANY 369 Freiburg have only a faculty of Catholic theol ogy; and each of the others, one of Protestant theology. In addition to the four usual faculties, thciv is. in Munich, Wurtzburg, and Tubingen, one of political economy; and in Tubingen, one of natural sciences. The academy of Minister, which lias only two faculties (Catholic theology and philosophy) is also classed among the uni- versities. At the Swiss universities of Bern, Basel, and Zurich, at the Russian university of Dorpat, and at the Austrian universities of Czernowitz, Grata, Innspruck, Prague, and Vienna. the German language is exclusively or predominantly in use. Professional and Technical Instruction. — In 18".*), there were, in Germany, 10 technical, or polytechnic, high schools; namely, (1) Berlin, the Bau-Akademie (high school for architecture); (2) Berlin, the Gewerbe-Akademie (departments of machines and engineering, chemistry, mining, and naval construction) ; (3) Hanover, prepara- tory and polytechnic school, with 24 ordinary. .'! extraordinary instructors, 6 assistants, and 633 students); (4) Aix-kt-Chapelle, general prepara- tory school and special departments of architect- ure, engineering, machines and mechanical tech- nics, chemical technics, and mining, with 20 or- dinary, 2 extraordinary, 15 assistant instructors, and 467 students; (5) Munich, general introduc- tory school, and departments for engineering, architecture, mechanical technics, chemical tech- nics, and agriculture, with 21 ordinary, 5 extra- ordinary, 32 assistant instructors, 9 private lect- urers, and 1053 students; (6) Dresden, general in- troductory school; departments of engineering, mechanics, architecture; chemical technics, math- ematics, and natural sciences, with 20 ordinary, 5 extraordinary, 9 assistant instructors, 3 private lecturers, and 3GG students ; (7) Stuttgart, de- partments of architecture, engineering, machine building, chemical technics, mathematics, natural sciences, with 23 ordinary, 25 assistant, 11 private instructors, and 537 students; (8) Carter uhe, de- partments of mathematics, engineering, machine building mechanical technics, architecture, chem- istry and chemical technics, and forestry, with 35 ordinary, 1 extraordinary, 10 assistant in- structors, L private lecturer, and G10 students: (!)) Darmstadt, a general preparatory school and departments of architecture, engineering, ma- chine building, chemical technics, mathematics, and natural sciences, with 28 ordinary and 4 as- sistant instructors, and L79 students; (10) Bruns- wick, a general preparatory school of arts and sci- ences; departments of architecture, engineering, machine building, chemical technics, pharmacy, and forestry, with 2 1 ordinary and 5 assistant instructors. and 1 53 st udents. There are also tech- nical academies at Cassel, Nienburg, and other places. ( >f technical schools, there were, in 1 875, in Prussia, 32 provincial technical schools (Gewerbe- Schulen) ; in Bavaria, 36 (including commercial and agricultural schools); in Saxony, 9j and in Saxe Coburg-Gotha, 3. Scientific Instruction. — Military Academies. — There are schools of military science, especially 21 for the education of general-staff officers, at Ber- lin and Munich; the imperial naval academy and school at Kiel; and, for the education of army officers, the combined artillery and military en gineering schools at Berlin and Munich, the war schools at Potsdam, Erfurt, Neisse, Engers,< lassel, Hanover. Anclani, Met/., and Munich, and tin' several cadet corps in different states: also the military surgical institute, and veterinary school at Berlin. There are numerous military schools for non-commissioned officers throughout the Ger- man states. — Veterinary academies are estab- lished at Berlin, Munich, and Hanover; acad- emies of forestry, at Neustadt-Eberswalde, Mu- nich, Tharandt, Hohenheim, and Aschaffenburg; mining academies, at Freibergand Clausthal sides departments for mining engineering at the polytechnic schools at Berlin and Aix-la-( Ihapelle; agricultural academies, at Berlin, Bofgeisberg, Gottingen, Eldena (near Greifswald), Proskau (near Oppeln), Poppelsdorf (near Bonn), Tha- randt, Hohenheim (near Stuttgart), and Weiben- stephan ; and pomological institute* at Proskau and Geisenheim. Schools of navigation exist at Memel, Pillau, Dantaic, Grabow (Stettin), Barth, I Stralsund, Altona, Flensburg, Apenrade, Geeste- nxiind, Leer, Papenburg, Emden, and Timmel; also 7 preparatory nautical schools. There are con- servatories of music, at Berlin. Munich, and nu- merous other cities; and commercial colleges ( 1 5 at Dantzic, Berlin, Breslau, Dresden, Leipsic (2), I hemnitz, Zwickau, Gera, Liibcck, Osnabriick, Hildeshcim, Hanover, Munich, and Nuremberg. — The institutions for special instruction arc the following: (1) for the deaf and dumb; in Prus- sia, 37; Bavaria, 12; Saxony, 3: Wurtemberg, 1: Baden, 2 ; Hesse, 2; Mecklenburg, Oldenburg. Saxe Weimar, Anhalt, Brunswick, Saxe < loburg- Gotha, Saxe Meiningen, Reuss, and Hamburg, each 1; (2) for the blind: in Prussia. 1 5; Bavaria, 3; Saxony, 2 ; Wurtemberg, 2; Baden, Hesse, Mecklenburg, each 1; other states, G; in all, 31. Educational J' uhlicatic.-is. — In 1873, there were published in the German empire 84 papers devoted to education (Prussia. 41 ; other German states, 43). — See Sciimih. Encyclopddie, articles Preussen, Baueru, Sachscu, Wurtemberg, Han- nover, Baden, etc.; Rauher, Geschichie der Pddagogik (Engl, trans, by Barnard); Schmidt, Geschicnte der Pddagogik] Barnard, National Education, vol. I.; Circulars of Information of the Bureau of Education, No. 2 (Washington. L874); Wdsse, Verordnungen una Gesetzefur die hd'hern Schulen in Preussen. The Pada- gogischer Jahresbericht, edited by Dittes (vol. xxviii.. Leipsic. 1876, embracing the year 1875 . and the Ghronik des Volksschulwesens, edited by Seypfarth (vol. xi., Gotha, 1876, embracing the year 1875), give, from year to year, a very full account of the progress of education in all the German states. The fullest statistical account of secondary instruction is given in MusHACKE, Deutscher Schul-Kalender (vol. sxv., Leipsic, 1 376; edited by .Icnnei: and the fullest account of the German universities, in Deutsches akade- misches Jala-buck (vol. in, Leips., lb7G). 370 GESNER GIFTS GESNER, Johann Matthias, a German educator, born April !•.. L691 ; died A.ug. 3., 1761. Ilf studied at Jena, and after holding several minor positions, became, in L730, rector of the celebrated Thomas School, in Leipsie. This lie found in a very low condition, both in respect to studies and discipline; but, in a few- years, he succeeded in restoring its former repu- tation. In L734, he accepted a call to the new university of Gottingen, where, in the position of professor of ancient literature, lie exerted great influence upon the progress of philosophy in Germany, and contributed to a thorough reform of tlie literary institutions of a higher grade, lie was intrusted with the establishment of the first philological seminary, and was appointed in- spector of all the Hanoverian schools.- two offices for which his former labors eminently fitted him. In 1 7")". he drew up the new school - illations, in which he embodied the experience-, ol his life as a teacher, and the results of a mature study of the proper organization of classical schools. He favored the views of Ratich (4. v.), Comenius (q. v.), and Locke (q.v.), as to the best method of facilitating the study of languages and making it attractive. Notwithstanding his great official industry, he wrote a large number of important works on pedagogy and philology, besides publishing valuable editions of the clas- sics. — See J. .M. Gesner, Educational Views in Barnard's Journal of Educ iii<>n. GIFTS, Kindergarten, the term used by I'Yoehel to designate the apparatus devised by him for kindergarten instruction, inasmuch as they are not used by the teacher but given to the children, as the material for interesting and in- structive occupation, by the manipulation of which their faculties are unfolded in accordance with the developing method (q.v.). These gifts are grouped in sets, numbered from 1 to 20, and include the following, of which, however, Nos. 8 to 20 did not originate with Froebel directly: il 1 Six soft balls of various colors, the object of the use of which is to teach color 'primary and secondary Land direction | foiw -inland backward. right and left, up and down): also to train the eye. and to exercise the hands, arms, and feel in various plays. (2) SpJiere, cube, and cylinder, designed to teach form, by directing the atten- tion of the child to resemblances and differ- ences in objects. This is done by pointing out. explaining, and counting the sides, edges, and corners of the cube, and by showing how it dif- fers, in these respects, from the sphere and cylin- der. The manipulation by the child should of COUr3e. precede this demonstration by the teacher. The child's self-activity will prompl it to place 1I1 -c forms in various positions and combina- tions, so as to realize in its conceptions every thing that is analogous or dissimilar in them. (3) \ large cube dn ided into eighl equal cubes, the ob- ject being to teach both form and number, also ivea rudimental idea of fractions. (4) A large cube divided into eight oblong blocks, designed to teach number and a simple variety of form (cube and parallelopipi >) \ large cube divided into 27 equal cubes, three of the latter being subdivided into half cubes, and three others into quarter cubes (forming triangular prisms). This is a further continuation and complement of (3), but affording much ampler means of combination both as to form and number. (6) A. large cube so divided as to consist of IS w hole oblong blocks, three similar blocks divided lengthwise, and six divided breadthwise. — a still further continuation of the ideas involved in (3). (7) Triangular and quadrangular tablets of polished wood, affording the means of further exercise in reversing the position of tonus and combining them ; and presenting, in addition. illustrations of plane surfaces, instead of solids, as in the previous gifts. 'I his arrangement, placing the surfaces after the solids, recognizes an important principle of education, that we should pass from the concrete to the abstract - Form), the square being a side of the cube, and a triangle deduced from the prism. (8) Sticks forlaying, — wooden sticks about 13 inches long, to be (ait into various lengths by the teacher or pupil, as occasion may require. These sticks. like most of the previous gifts, are designed to teach numerical proportions. The multiplication table may be practically learned by means of this gift. The forms of the letters of the alpha- bet, and the Roman and Arabic numerals, may also be learned. (9) Rings fur ring-laying, consisting of whole ami half rings of various sizes, in wire, for forming figures; designed to develop further ideas of form, also to afford a means for developing the constructiveness of the pupils, and practice in composing simple de- signs. (10) Drawing slates and paper, consist- ing of slates ruled in squares, and paper ruled in squares, for the purpose of enabling the pupil to draw or copy simple figures, in a methodical manner, the ruling aiding them in the adjustment of proportions. (Ill Perforat- ing paper, ruled in squares on one side only, with perforating needles, affording more ad- vanced practice in producing forms, and execut- ing simple designs. | L2 Embroidering material, io lie used for transferring the designs executed on the perforating paper, by embroidering them with colored worsted or silk on card board. (13) Paper for cutting: squares of paper arc folded, «ut according to certain rules. and formed into 6gUres. The child's inclination for using the scissors is thus ingeniously turned to account. and made to produce very gratifying results. II Weaving paper: strips of colored paper are, by means of a steel or wooden needle of peculiar construction, woven into a differently colore. I sheet of paper, w hich is cut into Strips throughout its entire surface. except a margin at each end to keep the strips in their places. A very great variety of figures is thus produced. and the inventive powers of the child are con- stantly broughl into requisition. (15) Plaiting material, including sets of Bats for interlacing so as 1.1 form geometrical and fancy figures. (16) Jointed slats (gonigraphs), for forming angles and geometrical figures. (See Com.,!, vph). (JIUARD GLOIJK 37] (17) Paper for intertwining: paper strips of various colors, eight or i>'ii inches long, folded lengthwise, used to represent a variety of geo- metrical and fancy figures, by plaiting them ac- cording to certain rules. (18) Paper for fold- ing, consisting of Bquare, rectangular, and tri- angular pieces, with which variously shaped ob- jects may be formed. (19) Material for peas work, consisting of wires of various lengths pointed at the ends, which are passed through peas, that have been soaked in water for six or eight hours; these are then used to imitate various objects and geometrical figures. Cork cubes are sometimes used instead of the peas, as being more convenient. (20) Material for modeling: modeling knives, of wood, and model- ing boards, by means of which various forms are modeled in bees-wax, clay, putty, or some other soft substance. -These gifts thus represent every kind of technical activity, from the mere collec- tion of the raw material to the delicate processes of design as well as plastic art. They are designed to develop not only the constructive ability of the pupil, through his natural impulse to activ- ity, and by the exercise of the faculty of con- ception, so characteristic of childhood, but by their countless combinations of color and form to lay the foundation for a complete develop- ment of the esthetic nature. They address, at once, his intellect, his emotions, and his physical activities ; while, as the child works out the re- sults himself, he gains confidence in his own ability to surmount obstacles, and thus learns an enduring lesson of self-reliance. Kindergarten gifts and occupation material suitable for schools or families, are put up in sets and sold in boxes, convenient, for use. — See A. Dor.vi, Tlie Kindergarten (Xew York); E. P. Peabody, Kindergarten Guide (New York, 1869) ; H. Hoffmann. Kindergarten Toys, and how to use them (New York) ; Arc;. Kceuler, Der Kinder- garten in seinem Wesen dargesteUt (X. Y.); and Die Praxis des Kindergartens (Weimar) : M. II. Kriege, Friedrich Froebel (X. Y., 1876). GIRARD, Gregoire, a Swiss educator, born Dec. 17., 1763; died March 6., 1850. lie entered the Franciscan order in his .sixteenth year, studied theology in Wurtzburg, and after b iug ordained as priest, held several positions as a teacher. He paid special attention to the common-school system, which in his native canton of Fribourg was in a poor condition; and he drew up a plan for the re-organization of the pnlilic-school system of all Switzerland, which, however, was not adopted by the federal authori- ties. In 1804, he returned to Fribourg to take Hiarge of the schools of that city. He remained in that position up to I su:5, when he resigned in consequence of a quarrel with the church authorities. From 1827 to L834, he was pro- ior of philosophy in Lucerne; but, after the jatterdate,he lived in retirement in his monastery in Fribourg. His administration of the schools of Fribourg attracted the attention of many of die friends of education throughout Europe, lie paid particular attention to the teaching of re- ligion and language. In the former, he ignored the docti particular denominations, and favored general instruction in the fundamental principles of the < bxistian religion. I!i views on this subject are laid down in the Premieres notions de religion, which be declared was not a catechism, but an introduction to a catechism. He also embraced Pestalozzi's views on the teaching of languages, making the study of the mother tongue the basis of all instruction. Father Girard favored very much the system of mutual instruction as practiced by Dr. Bell (q. v.) and Joseph Lancaster (q. v.) ; indeed, he is regarded as the founder of that system in Switzerland. As an illustration of its efficacy, be said that ••when he met with difficulty in explaining anj word or subject to a child, he often called in a boy more advanced to aid him, and usually found him to succeed entirely, even when all his own efforts had failed." Set- Xavii.i.k. Notice biogra- phique surle I'. Girard (< Seneva, 1850); < Iir \i;i>. The Mother Tongue, Engl, trans, i Lond., 1847). GIRLS, Education of. See Female Em - CATION. GLOBE, Artificial (Latin, globus), a hol- low sphere, made of metal, plaster, or pasteboard, used as a model of the earth, and having deline- ated upon it all the various natural and political divisions of the terrestrial surface, together with the circles, etc., used in mathematical geography. Through its center, runs an iron axis the two ends of which project, and are fastened to a circle. or ring, of brass, within which the globe can be turned around. This ring, called the bra meridian, is graduated so as to indicate degrees of latitude, and by rotating the globe can be made to represent the meridian of any place. The artificial globe is also usually surrounded with a broad horizontal ring of wood, called the wooden horizon, which has two slots in which the meridian. and with it the globe move, so that either pole may be elevated or depressed, and the horizon adapted to any place. The upp< r surface of the wooden horizon is divided into several concentric circles, representing degrees of .ampli- tude and azimuth, signs of the zodiac, the points of the compass, the divisions of the year into months and days, etc. Such a globe is called a terrestrial globe. A celestial globe differs from it in representing the appearance of the starry heavens, constellations, etc., as if seen from the center of the globe. Globes of much simpler construction are made tor elementary instruction. The artificial globe is supposed to have been invented by Anaximander, about 580 I!. C. Rules for the use of the terrestrial globe were first given by Ptolemy, L50 A. I). 'I he two old- est globes now extant (both celestial globes] are of Arabic construction. One made in L225, is preserved in the museum of Cardinal Borgia at Velletri; the other, made in L289, is preserved in die mathematical hall of Dresden. In die L5tb century, the use of globes in schools rapidly in- creased, and among those who distinguished themselves in their construction, are mentioned Martin Belicius, Gerhard Mercator, and Tj 372 GLOBE GOETHE Brahe. The most celebrated globe is the so-called Go ttorp globe, which was constructed, by order of the duke of Holstein-Gottorp, by Olearius and Busch, in 1664. ; t was 11 feel in diameter, and was at first set up in Gottorp, near Schleswig, whence it was, in L713, transferred to St. Peters- burg. The national library in Paris has two globes over II feel in diameter; and the Mazann library and the museum of the Louvre have each side by side. against a wall, an I contrasted with hemisphere maps, suspended above. Globes without any auxiliary appendages, such as stand, meridian, etc. arc often constructed so as to rest on brackets, and thus form pari of the esthetic decoration of the school room, when not in use. Globes having a black slate surface - slated globes — are \er\ useful formany kinds of instruction. In using these globes, the pupil draws the circles merit] ians, equator, and parallels, and delineates the countries, etc, with chalk, either from a map or from memory. The knowledge of gebgraphj thus acquired is more practical, and is more per- manently based on the intelligent conceptions of the pupil. These globes are of greal use in the study of advanced geography, as well as in that ot spherical geometry, trigonometry, navigation, etc. Excellent globes, of every pattern and de Bcription, are made bj Schedler, of New Fork, who has invented a method of manufacture, which renders them quite cheap and exceedingly durable. Thej arc also remarkable for the scien- tific accuracy of their delineations. The globe has many advantages over the map. as an apparatus for teaching geography, because (1) it represents the earth in its natural form, an 1 how clear!} the relation of each and e\cry part of its surface to the whole : hence, its use should always precede that of the map; (2) it affords a 1 letter means of explaining those points and mathematical lines a clear conception of the use of which forms the very groundwork of geo- graphical science ; (•'!) by means of it the teacher can illustrate the earth's motions, the causes of the seasons, day and night, etc. ; and (4) many useful problems may be solved by means of it. as finding the longitude and latitude of places. the difference of time, the time of sunrise and sunset, and the length of the day at particular places, etc. Pupils in geography and astronomy should be thoroughly practiced in the working out of these problems on the globe, sii.ee they not only gain thereby much useful information, but acquire clear and durable conceptions of the elementary principles involved. GOETHE, Johann Wolfgang- von, an illustrious German poet, critic, and thinker, horn in Frankfort on the Main. Aug. 28., L749; died in Weimar. March 22., 1832. lie was educated at the universities of Leipsic and Strasburg, and, in I 77"), at the solicitation of the < Jrand Duke of Saxe-Weimar, whose interest in him had been aroused by his novel. The Sorrows qfWerther, he visited Weimar, which he afterwards made his permanent residence. Philosophy, history, sci- ence, art, almost every subject of inquiry, in fact, claimed his attention, and led to frequent publica- tions in the shape of novels, histories, plays, and poems. It is to ( Joethe that botany owes one of its fundamental conceptions, now generally admitted, that the various parts of a flower are modified leaves. With regard toeducation, Goethe's idea was. that its great.aim should be the development and preservation of individuality. Every child is different fromeverj other, and has special powers of its own: and the value of education consists in maintaining and developing these individual differences, and not in producing a dead level of character. The necessity of education lies in the fact that the child is undeveloped; and educa- tional efforts must all be based on the principle that the germs of knowledge are in tin' soul. I bin e. all true development must lie from within outward. Education is not a pouring of knowl- edge into the mind, as into an empty vessel, hut the development of faculties which are already there, as the growth of a plant from the seed. 'I his development, too, must be general, in all directions. To cultivate any one faculty at the expense of others, produces monsters, not men. Nothing was more repulsive to Goethe than the mechanical, atheist ie conception of the world. He insisted upon finding an ever-present Divinity in both nature and life. The recogni- tion of this constitutes religion, and should be the aim of all education. This feeling should be SO cultivated, that no circumstances can disturb in us a conscious sense of the Divine. Religious tea< h- ing should begin in the earliest childhood: not, however, by means of the catechism, or anj other form of dogmatic instruction: but the child's imagination must be made familiar with the conception of a Divine Spirit underlying and GONHM! MM I GOVERNMENT 373 interfusing every form of life. Ethics refer to moral conduct; hence, ethical culture must chiefly consist in practicing the good. Merely forbidding tlic bad ts useless. Activity is a condition of moral as well asof physical health. Of all schools of morals and religion, the family is the most important. A low groveling home life will render all other teaching worthless. Next to the Bible, familiarity with the history of the great and good is tho must important moans of moral ami religious culture. Instruction in the narrower sense <>f imparting knowledge must be rather synthetic than analytic Building tip teaches more than tearing down. Classical study is practically worthless so long as it is conducted solely by grammar and dictionary. We must work ourselves into the life of classical times in order to understand them. The study of Greek literature he regarded as far superior, for purposes of culture, to Latin literature ; beeaus ■ the Greeks were far broader men. They saw nature and life in all their aspects; while the Romans saw only man ; and him they regarded only as a warrior or a slave. Goethe did nothing for the systematic development of pedagogy. His views in regard to teaching are scattered through his works, ami consist of hints rather than formulated rules. The great endeavor of his philosophy is to mediate between individual- ism and the stern necessities of society. — See Schmidt, Geschichte der Pddagogik. GONIGRAPH (Gr. yuvia, an angle, and iv, to write), an instrument used in kinder- garten exercises and in object-teaching, to illus- trate the nature and formation of angles and polygons. It consists of a series of narrow jointed slats of equal length, by the different combinations of which, figures of various shapes may be formed. The number of slats, or links, varies from .'5 to as many as 1(>, or even more. As a piece of kindergarten apparatus {gift), the gonigraph may be made the means of much instructive entertainment to a young child, who from its manipulation will acquire ideas of a great variety of figures. In the more advanced object-teaching, in connection with the subject oiform, it will be found very useful, as well as attractive. Gonigraphs are usually sold in sets as a part of the apparatus necessary for kinder- garten work. (See ( rIFTS.) GONZAGA COLLEGE, at Washington, D. ('.. was incorporated in 1858. It was for- merly known as the Washington Seminary. It is conducted by the Fath rs of the Society of Jesus. The college is intended for day scholars only, irrespective of creed or religious profession. The entire course covers seven years, comprising a preparatory and a collegiate department, with "a classical and a non-classical course of study. In 1ST") — (i. there were 5 instructors and L07 students. 'Hi. library contains 10,000 volumes. The cost of tuition is $10 per quarter in either course. The Rev. Charles 1\. Jenkins, S. J., is I B76) the president. GOODRICH, Samuel Griswold, better known as /' principal edu- cational works are Fireside Education (1841 land Illustrated Natural History of the Animal King- dom (Isj!)). in 1 85J, he was appointed United States ( 'onsul at Paris. GOVERNESS, or Governante (I'r. Gour vernante), a woman employed as a resident tutoress in a family, to conduct the education of children or young women. The employment of governesses began in the second half of the 17th century, when the French language and manners came into use among the upper classes of sot ietj throughout Europe. When a young lady who was not able to speak French fluently, and was not fully conversant with Paris fashions, came to be looked upon as lacking in refinement, it was natural that mothers should he anxious to secure the services of French teachers, especially Paris- ians, to ejve to their daughters the requisite training. The practice of employing governesses became, in a short time, equally common in England, Germany, and Russia. When this mode of educating young girls became popular, governesses were no longer exclusively taken from France, especially after the social ascend- ency of the French, in consequence of the revolu- tion, had begun to decline. Then native gover- nesses came into demand: and Germany and Switzerland began to compete with France in the sending of young women of education to England and Russia to seek a livelihood in this manner. The development which female educa- tion has since reached, has very considerably diminished the number and influence of gover- nesses in Germany, and to some extent, also in Russia, since in both countries a steadily increasing number of girls and young women receive their education in seminaries and high schools estab- lished for the purpose. In France itself, where a governess is usually called instilulrice, the cum- ber of governesses has always been comparatively smaller than in England, Germany, or Russia. In the United States, a larger proportion of young women than in any European country, finish their education in female academies and high schools, and move recently in colleges to which both sexes are admitted. ( >nly iii England has the employ- ment of governesses, to any considerable extent. been maintained. Governesses are generally pro- fessional teachers who have received their educa- tion in burning schools ; ami in French Switzer- land, there are special schools for the instruction of governesses, GOVERNMENT, School, like the govern- ment of a state, must be based upon the est :;71 GOVERNMENT Jiahment of authority (q. v.), which includes not only the right to make laws, but the power, as well as the right, to execute them. These powerSj in every civilized state and community, are dis- tributed among different persons, so as to pre- vent centralized authority leading to despotism ; but, in the little community of the school room, i hey must, td a greater or less extent, be possessed by one person. General rules for the manage- ment of a school, it is true, may be prescribed by the school officers to whom the teacher is ame- nable : hut the actual government of the school, that which converts it from a chaotic, disorder- ly crowd of children into a regular organization, under control and discipline, must be exclusively the work of the teacher, hence called the school- master. Formerly, the powers of a .school-master were much less limited than they are at present : i tdeed, they were almost absolute, the law, as in the case of parental government, only stepping in to protect the child from injury to lire or limb. At the present time, the teacher's author- it] is carefully hedged around not only by the law. hut by the rides of school boards and super intendents, so that the complaint is sometimes made by the teacher that he has scarcely enough authority let; to enable him to govern his school. The policy of circumscribing the authority teacher to so great an extent is an unwise one, and endangers not only the efficiency of the school as an organization, bu1 destroys its effi- cacy as an instrument of education. Besides, it implies that the teacher is unlit to exercise authority, either by lack of competency or of i' Hiscjeiitiousness, which is equivalent to pro- n Mincing him unfit to he a teacher at all. The character of the school government de- p ■nds upon the manner a- well as the degree in which the teacher's authority is established : and til/ influence of the school upon the intellectual . I moral character of its pupils will depend upon the kind of government maintained. No School can be efficient without order (q. v.), and order can only result from judicious and effect ive »ver ent. The latter must, in all cases. depend Mir the rules or requirements laid down, (2) the manner in which they are enforced. Government is often impaired by unwise l< I it ion unwise in the kind of laws enacted, or in ir number. The rules made for the govern- iit of a school should lie as tew and as simple possible. A multiplicity of set regulations - the pupils, and tends to multiply offenses. Besides, the children, bj the habit of aplying with a kind of written law. arc apt to think every thing right that is not Bpecificallj forbidden, and thus fail to exercise their con science; that is. in their attention to the mala prohibits, they lose sighl of the mala per se. ■ If a school," says D. P. Page, "is to be governed by a code of laws, the pupils will act upon the principle that whatever is not proscribed i> admissible. Consequently, without inquiring whether an acl is right, their only inquiry will be, is il forbidden? Now, no teacher was ever ye1 is to make la everj case ; the consequence is, he is daily perplexed with un- foreseen troubles,or with some ingenious evasions of his inflexible code. In all this matter, the , worst feature is the fact that the child judges I of his acts by the law of the teacher rather than by the law of his conscience, and is thus in danger of perverting and blunting the moral sense." Government by positive enactments is, therefore, to he dispensed with as much as possilile : hut such rules as are made should be strictly and uniformly enforced. These rules con- stitute what may lie called school legislation, and arc not to lie confounded with requirements of a less formal character, which the pupil's own intelligence and sense of right are to be trained to recognize without particular enunciation, nor with those moral precepts which arc addressed rather to the pupil as an individual, and there- fore do not directly concern the organization of the school. We here treat of school govern- ment in the strict sense of the term. In the enforcement of school legislation, however, we- ar.- to keep in view the good of the pupil as well as the good of the school, hut primarily the latter. The principle is this: The school is an organization designed to he the means of affording an education to a large numbe of pupils, and the school laws are made t.> protect that organization, and render it effective in the carrying out of its proper object : hence. the Welfare of the school must he paiailloUllt to that of any individual pupil. The violation of a rule may, indeed, be sometimes overlooked without injury to the offender, perhaps to his beuefit; but, as such a course tends to weaken or destroy the school government, the law must he uniformly enforced. Xo enforcement of law- can he accomplished without the punishment of the offender; hence, the kind of school punish- ments that are suitable under the various cir- cumstances that arise becomes a matter for the careful consideration of the teacher. Whether in enforcing obedience to wholesome regulations, corporal punishment should In- resorted to. and. if so. to what extent and in what manner, forms an important part of the general discussion ol school government. (See Corporal Pi msh- mext.) hut there must he prevention as well as correction rewards, as incentives to obedience and good conduct, as well as punishments to chastise the wrong-doer, and deter others from wrong-doing. A system of rewards has a very important bearing upon school government when they are dispensed with uniformity and equity. Under this head are included merit marks. certif- icates and diplomas of proficiency and good con- duct, and prizes. Many questions arise in connec- tion with the ad mit list rati »f school government in this respect. (See Prizes.) The general efficacy and propriety of rewards cannot he doubted. They appeal to a principle of human nature uni- versally operative. "Whatever," says Jewell, "maj be possible in the mature man. iii the line of that sublime abstraction, 'Virtue is its own reward. the child is neither equal to such abstractions, nor are they demanded >>f him." (See Rewarj GOVERNMENT GRADED schools 375 The efficacy of school government must depend very much on the manner in which the teacher exercises the authority conferred upon him in virtue of his office. U he bases it upon force, it' the language he addresses to his pupils be uni- formly that 'if command, threatening, or angry rebuke, there will be engendered in their minds a feeling of antagonism, from which will result disobedience, and occasionally open rebellion. < hi the other hand, it' he IS kind and considerate, but at the same time firm and resolute, he will gain first the respect of his pupils and then their affection. When that is accomplished, the government of his school will be quite easy. (See Authority.) The following are wis; suggestions in regard to the proper course ot the teacher in [ring and preserving the control of his school: "i 1 i Endeavor to convince your scholars that you are their friend. — that you aim at their improvement, and desire their good. It will not take lou- to satisfy them of this, if you are so in reality. (2) Never give a command which you are not resolved to see obeyed. (3) Try to create throughout the school a popular senti- ment in favor of order and virtue. It is next to impossible to carry into effect, for any length of time, a regulation, however important, which is opposed to public opinion." Felleriberg strongly insists upon this as the most efficient means of school government. " The pupil." he says. " can seldom resist the force of truth when he finds himself condemned by the common voice of his companions, and is often more humbled by censure from his equals, than by any of the ad- monitions of his superiors." To the above im- portant injunctions for the teacher should lie added the following: Observe in your conduct toward your pupils a strict impartiality. Chil- dren are keen observers, and at once detect the slightest indications of favoritism; and nothing more effectually than this destroys their respect for the teacher, and undermines his authority. Tact and self-control will enable the teacher to dispense, to a very great extent, with any decided demonstration of authority. "There is." says Page, "such a thing as keeping a sehool too still by over-government. A man of firm nerve can, by keeping up a constant constraint both in him- and pupils, force a death-like .silence upon his school. You can hear a pin drop at anytime, and the figure of every child is as if moulded in cast-iron. But be it remembered, this is the stillness of constraint, not the stillness of activity. Tli.re should he silence in school, a serene and soothing quiet; but it should, if possible, be the quiet of cheerfulness and agreeable devo- tion to study, rather than the 'palsy of fear.'" • Fear.) One of the most important means of effective school government is to keep the pu- pils constantly busy, to awaken in their minds an interest in their studies, to vary the exercises so as to prevent tedious monotony, to have spe- cial methods of relief, after their minds have be- come wearied by close attention. For this pur- pose, in primary schools, in which \ xyyoung children are taught, movement e- of a simple character may be resorted to ; and. in all sel Is, VOCal music, which always exerts the most pleasing ami satisfactory influence. Calis- thenics and gymnastics may he employed with good effect, in short, if the school is conducted in such a way as to recognize the peculiar nature. disposition, and wants of children, the school government will be found to involve Imt little difficulty. —See Jewell, School Government (New York. L866); Page, Theory and Practice of Teaching (N.Y.j 1847); Wickeksham, School Economy il'hila.. 1864); Dunn, The School- Teacher's Manual (Hartford. L839) ; Nortiiknp, The Teacher's Assistant (Boston, L859 ; Mor- rison, Manual of School Management (I ondon); Le Vaux, The Science and Art of Teaching (Toronto, L875). GRADE (Lat. gradus, a step), the relative standing of schools, classes, or pupils, in a system of education. Thus education, or instruction, is designated, according to its grade, primary or elementary, secondary, and superior or higher. A course of study is divided into grades for convenience in classification, all the pupils in each class being supposed to be nearly of the same degree of proficiency. The number of grades into which a course of study should be divided is dictated by considerations of expedi- ency and convenience. The grades, however, should be arranged so as to assign proper pro- portions of work for the several portions of time into which the school year, or the period of the entire curriculum, is divided. The arrangement of grades is also beneficial in definitely marking the progress of the pupil, and thus affording him encouragement to proceed by regular promotion from grade to grade. (See < lass.) GRADED SCHOOLS are usually defined as schools in which the pupils are classified according to their progress in scholarship as compared with a course of study divided into grades, pupils of the same or a similar degree of proficiency being placed in the same class. An ungraded school, on the other hand, is one in which the pupils are taught individually, each one being advanced as far. and as fast, as circum- stances permit, without regard to the progress of other pupils. The graded system is thus based upon classification; and its efficacy as a system i depend very greatly upon the accuracy with which the classification has been made. Grades, however, are not to be confounded with classes; the former are divisions of the course of Study based upon various considerations, the r are dfc isions of thesi hool based upon uni- formity of attainments. In a small school, the same number of grades may be needed as in a large school, the course of study being the same. and the promotions being made with equalfrc- quency; hence, as the number of classes must be smaller, it will be necessary that each class should pursue two or more grades simultaneous- ly or in succession ; thai is to say. the promo- tions front grade to grade will be more frequent than from class to class. On the other hand, in a large school, the number of cl bo 376 GRADKU SCHOOLS greater than that of the grades, which will ne- sitate the forming of two or more classes, un- der separate teachers, in the same grade. In the management of a large school, this will be found to be better than a subdivision of the grades, re- quiring either an extension of the time for com- pleting the course, or greater frequency in the promotions. In the small district schoolsof the United States, the ungraded system prevails, be- cause each school is taught by a single teacher, and sometimes there is a want of uniformity in text-books: but in the cities the graded system prevails. The advantages of the graded system have been thus enumerated : (1) They economize the labor of instruction ; (2) They reduce the cost of instruction, since a smaller number of teachers are required for effective work in a clas- sified or graded school ; (.'{) They make the in- struction more effective, inasmuch as the teacher can more readily hear the lessons of an entire class than of the pupils separately, and thus there will be better opportunity for actual teaching, explanation, drill, etc.; (4) They facilitate good government and discipline, because all the pu- pils are kept constantly under the direct con- trol and instruction of the teacher, and, besides, are kept constantly busy ; (5) They afford a better means of inciting pupils to industry, by promoting their ambition to excel, inasmuch as there is a constant competition ; ug the pu- pils of a class, which cannot exist when the pu- pils are instructed separately. On the other hand, many objections have been urged against the system of graded schools, chief among which is, that the interests of the individual pupil are often sacrificed to those of the many, the indi- vidual being merged in the mass. •• As a mech- anism," says I'l. E. White, in Problems in Graded School Management, a paper read before the National Educational Association, A.ug. 4., 1874, " it [the graded system] demands that pupils ol tin- same grade attend school with regularity, and that they possess equal attainments, equal mental capacity, equal vigor, equal home assist- ance and opportunity, and that they be instructed by teachers possessing equal ability and skill. Bui this uniformity does not exist. Teachers possess unequal skill and power. Pupils do noi enter school at the same age; some attend onl\ a portion of each year: others attend irregularly; ami the members of the same class possess un- equal ability, and have unequal assistance and opportunity. This want of uniformity in con- ditions makes the mechanical operation <>) the system imperfect, and hence, its tendency is to force uniformity, thus sacrificing its true function as a means of education to its perfect action as a mechanism." There is no doubt thai this diffi- culty is inherent in the system, and thai DO ad- ministration, however excellent, can whollj dim inate it. Various methods of procedure bave, however, been suggested to diminish its injurious effects. Thai proposed by Superintendent W. T. Harris, oi St. bonis, and carried out in the public schools of that citj is frequent discrimi- native promotions. 'I 'he following are the points on which the system is based : (1) The different rate of progress in study on the pari of pupils of the same class, due to a difference ill age, capacity, regularity of attendance, and op- portunity: and (2) The continual diminution of the size of classes, particularly of the higher grades. "Provision," he says. •• must be made for this difference in rates of progress by fre- quenl reclassification ; otherwise the school will become a lifeless machine." This arrangement, however, was a reaction against the system of annual promotions, which necessarily require wide grades and unfreqiteiit changes in clas- sification. The other extreme, according to the views of many educators experienced in school management and supervision, was approached in the recommendation by Superintendent Har- ris to require promotions as often as every ten weeks, and, besides that, to permit pupils " to move forward as fast as their abilities might permit." The objections to incidental discrim- inative promotion are the following : (1) It en- courages precocity in the pupils; (2) It pro- duces a tendency in the teacher to give an exclusive attention to the bright, intelligent pupils to the ueglect of the dull ones, because in this way promotions arc secured, which re- dound to (he teachers credit; (3) It deprives the pupils thus promoted out of theregular course, of the means of properly pursuing certain grades or parts of grades, inasmuch as. if placed from a lower grade into a class of pupils already ad- vanced in the next higher one. they must take up the studies of that grade at the advanced point, without acquaintance with the preceding pari of the grade, thus confusing the classification and embarrassing the teacher. Semi-annual pro- motions seem to be approved by the majority of educators, with such an adjustment of the Dum- ber of the grades of the course of study and the requirements of each, as will enable pupils of an average capacity to complete the amount of Study prescribed in the half year. There is an- other danger connected with the graded-school system, as sometimes administered, to which al- lusion is often made. It prescribes too much, leaving to the tea ber too little scope for the ex- ercise of individual skill, judgment, and intel- ligence. " It is not important," says Mr. White, "that the several teachers accomplish the same result day by day. or week by week. Nothing is more ridiculous than the attempt to parcel out primary instruction, and tie it up in daily or weekly prescriptions, like a doctor's doses. This week the class is to take certain facts in geography ; to count by twos to fifty (to sixtj would be a fearful sin.): to draw the vertical lines of a cube : to learn to respect the aged, tic.!' This, however, with many other objections which are urged againsl the system of graded schools, is only a fault in administration. A system of this kind requires intelligent, earnest, and judicious direction and supervision; with this, ably sec led by well trained and expe rienced teaehers.it will approximate to individ- ual teaching, and, in the powerful and whole- GRADUATE okamm \i: 1 1 some stimulus which it constantly applies to the pupil, prove much more effective. Graded schools are far more numerous in the United States than in England, or in mosl of the countries of continental Europe. The system is. however, beginning to be introduced. "The plan of teaching classes or grades in separate school- rooms lias been adopted," says Adams [Free School System of the United States, L875),"in some of the Birmingham Board schools, and also in London, 1 believe, and has given great satis- faction." So essentia] has it been considered in the United States to the efficiency of a school that it should he graded, that no aid is given from the Pcabody Fund except to graded schools. — See Wki.i.s. The Graded School (New York. L862) ; Wickersham, School Economy I Phil., L868); Kiddu:. etc., How to Teach (X.Y.. L87 1 1. (See also Class, and Grade.) GRADUATE (Lat. graduare, from gradus, a step or degree), to confer an academic degree, thus advancing to a higher rank in scholarship ; also, to receive a degree from a college or uni- versity. A person is said to graduate when he takes a degree, and the college or university is said to graduate a student when it admits him to an honorable standing as a, scholar by con- ferring a degree. The person who thus takes a degree, is called a graduate. (See Degrees.) GRAEFE, Heinrich, a German educa- tor, born .March 3., 1802 ; die I July 22., 1860. lie was successively rector of the real school and professor at the university of Jena, rector of the burgher school in Cassel, principal of an educational institution at Geneva, and director of the industrial school at Bremen. He was also an influential writer upon educational topics. 1 lis discussions of the methods of ( rerman public- school instruction are his most important pro- ductions. His general theory of education is similar to that of Graser. Like him, he was strongly opposed to merely general culture, he- cause the idea of education is not only to develop the faculties, but to fit one for the duties of life. The true end of man, according to Graefe, is self-surrender to the Divine will ; and the aim of education is to bring the individual into active and conscious self-abnegation. Not to develop ourselves, hut to do the will of God by filling the place in society which belongs to us. this is the end of our being. Graefe made very valuable suggestions for the modification of public-school instruction in the direction of securing a more natural arrangement of study. and better physical culture. See Schmidt, (!<>- Bchichte Tew York, in Isl 1. She was the wife of Dr. John Graham, an army surgeon, after whose death, in the Wesi Indies, in 1 77 I. she taught school in Paisley and in Edinburgh. In 1 789, she came to New York, and opened a seminary for young ladies. Jler active, benevolent disposition liinl shown itself in her native country in the formal ion of the Penny Society, now the Socil I \ for the Relief of Destitute Sick. In New York mainly through her efforts, woe established the Society tor the Relief of Tour Widows, the Orphan Asylum Society, the Society for Pro- moting industry among the Poor,and a Sunday School tor [gnoranl Adults,- the first of its kind in the United States. Her benevolent labors in almost every field of philanthropic enterprise were very extensive. I lei- memoirs were published by Dr. Mason (1816), ami her correspondence, by her daughter, Mrs. Bethune, mother of G. W. Bethune, D. D. (1838). GRAMMAR (Gr. ypdfifia, that which is craven or written, a written character, a letter) means, in the widest sense of the word, the science of language in general, and specially an exposi- tion of the organism of language and the laws of its structure. 'I he first scientific investigations in language are met with in the writings of the (■'reek philosophers; they are. however, not of a strictly grammatical nature, hut discuss the rela- tion of thinking to speaking, and the origin of language. Such speculations are found in Plato, Aristotle, and the Stoics. 'The first attempt to construct a grammar, in the present sense of the word, was made in the second century, !'». < '.. at Alexandria. The Greek grammarians, at that time, explained the works of the classic authors, and such explanations embraced the definition and analysis of words. Dionysius Thrax divided grammar into six parts : delivery, explanation of the contents of the classics, definitions, etymology, analogy, and criticism. The Roman grammarians explained the works both of Latin and Greek authors, paying special attention to the expla- nation of archaic and obscure expressions: but they made no real progress in the development of grammatical science. Nothing at all was done during the middle-ages, the schools content- ing themselves with teaching Latin from the works of the later Roman grammarians. The revival of classical studies and the Reformation, in the sixteenth century, led to a more thorough study of the Latin and Greek languages, and en- larged the views of grammarians by adding the knowledge of Hebrew to their stock of linguistic attainments, which wen- formerly limited to Latin and Greek. Several latin. Greek, and He- brew grammars were published, ami a beginning was made in the preparation of grammatical works on some of the modern languages. The tirst attempts at general and comparative gram- mars were made in the 17th century. A Dew impulse was given to grammatical studies, after the Sanskrit language and literature had become more generally known among philologists. A solid basis tor comparative grammar was laid by Bopp, who. in his tirst comparative work (1816) on the [ndo- European languages, com- pared the inflections of Sanskrit words with those of the < Sreek, Latin. Persian, and < !erman ic languages; ami. in the great work of his life, tin" ( 'on i pa rati vet J ram mar of Sanskrit, Zend. < deck. Latin. Lithuanian. Old Slavic Gothic, and tier- 378 GRAMMAR man (Vergleichende Grammatik, 5 vols., 1833 — 52; 3d ed., 1868 — 71; translated into English and French) traced back the Indo-European lan- guages to their origin, and pointed out their pres- ent relations to each other. The idea of a historical grammar was fully developed by Grimm in his German Grammar (Di'utxi-ln' (frummatik,4 vols., 1819 — 37), which traces the history of all gram- matical forms in the Germanic dialects through the different periods of the language. Other mas- ter-works in the literature of comparative gram- mars are those by Diez on the Romanic languages (Vergleichende Grammatik der romanischen 'achen, ,'i vols., 1836 — 12), by Miklosich on the Slavic languages | Vergleichende Grammatik der slavischen Sprachen, L852 —71), and by Schleicher, on the Indo-Germanic languages ndium der vergleichenden Grammatik, 3d ed., 1871). Comparative grammars on Indo- European Languages by English authors are: Clark, Students Handbook of Comparative Grammar, applied to the Sanskrit, Zend, Gi Latin, Gothic, Anglo-Saxon, and English Lan- f/iini/es (London, 1N(>2) ; Ferrae, Grammar of Sanskrit, Greek, and Latin (vol. i.. Lond., I - Helfenstein, .1 Comparative Grammar of me Teutonic Languages (London, 1870); Beames, Comparative Grammar of the Modern Aryan Languages of India; March, .1 C ttive Grammar of the Anglo-Saxon Language N.Y.. L871 i. Bui few comparative grammarshave a been written on other than Indo-European lan- guages. The more important ofthemare: Bleek, I Comparative Grammar of the South African I. !./>/n, i;/rs (vol.i., London, 1869) ; Caldwell, Comparative Grammar of the Dravidian Lan- guages (London, L861); Pimentel, Cuadro de- •iptivoy comparativo de las lenguas indige- nas de Mexico — Descriptive and comparative table of the native languages of Mexico (Mexico, L874) ; and Epstein, Cuadro sinoptico de las lenguas indigenas de Mexico (Mexico. L874). The most important work on the philosophy of language is still the classic work by WUhelm von Humboldt, Ueber die Verschie- '■ if des menschlichen Sprachbaues (1836), which originally appeared as an introduction to his work on the Kavi language. Among other important works for the study of gen- eral grammar, are: Heyse, System der Sprach- wissenschoft (Berlin. 1856), an I Steinthal, racteristik der hauptsdchlichsten Typen des ichbaues (2d edit., L860) ; also, for an excel- lent and familiar exposition of linguistic science and history, M w Mueller, Lectures on the Language (2 vols., London, 1861 I .• and Whitney, The Life and Growth of Lan- guage i New York 1876). -The study of gram- mar now constitutes, in every civilized country, an essentia] pari of the learning of languaj both the vernacular and foreign. Opinions, however, still widely differ as to the place which grammar should occupy in the studj of language, the method by which it should be _ r ht. the poinl Of time at which it should I' begun, and the amount <>f time which Bhould be devoted to it. There is at present a more general agreement aiming educators than at any previous time, that not only is a grammatical knowledge necessary for a good command of any language,bu1 that thorough training in the rules of grammar is one of the best means to develop the faculties of the mind, and is especially calculated to promote correct and logical thinking. (See Grammar, English ; English, Study of; Clas- sical Studies ; Modern Languages; and the spe- cial articles on Greek, Latin. Hebrew, French, German, etc.) GRAMMAR. English, has for its special function, an exposition of the specific organism and the structural peculiarities of the English language. There are certain relations existing between thought and language which must un- derlie every form of human speech: these consti- tute the basis of general grammar. Every lan- guage has its peculiarities ol (1) literal represen- tation and combination Metiers and words — orthography), (2) inflectional tonus (etymology), 3) sentential structure (syntax), and (4) vocal utterance (prosody). These peculiarities it is the office i >f specific grammar to explain, SO that they may not only 1> i grasped by the understanding but worked into the habitual use of the language, in speaking and writing. English grammar has been defined as " the art of speaking and writing the English language correctly;" and as an art, doubtless, this states correctly its practical ob- ject, for it can have no other. 'This was the view taken by the early grammarians. ••The principal design of a grammar of any language." says Bishop l.owtii. "is to teach usto express our selves with propriety in that language; and to enable us to judge of every phrase ami form of construction, whether it be nghl or not." Those who teach grammar, as well as those who com- pile grammatical text-books, should constantly keep this practical aim in view, eliminating from their systems of instruction every thing that does not directly hear upon it. •■ To explain." says Mulligan (Grammatical Structure of the English Language, N.Y.. 1852), "the laws of artificial language is the particular province of him who proposes to teach the sciena of gram- mar; to guide to the proper use of the signs of artificial language, and to the correct interpreta- tion of the thoughts of others embodied in lan- guage, so far as this can be effected by reference bo the /•'"•sand usages of language, is the prov- ince of him who proposes to teach grammar as an art." I 'rocessesof analysis and rules of syntax are entirely useless, exec) it SO faras they contrib- ute to this end. Viewed from this stand-point. very much of the machinery of English grammar, so called, as taughl in scl Is. is of no practical value to the pupil, but, on the contrary, serves to waste his time and intellectual energies. This has arisen from the application of a traditional nomenclature and system of definitions and rules to the English language, which belonged to the Latin. "The manuals, by which grammar was first taughl in English," says Goola Brown, v. ere not properly Kn imnars. They were GRAMMAR • > - (, translations of the Latin accidence; and were designed to aid British youth in acquiring ;i knowledge of the Latin language, rather than accuracy in the use of their own. The two lan- guages were often combined in one book, for tin- purpose of teaching sometimes both together, and sometimes one through the medium of the other." Richard Grant White, in Words andtheir Uses (N. Y .. 1870), also says, in this connection, "It was not until English had east itself firmly and sharply into its present simple mould that scholars undertookto furnish it with a grammar, the nomenclature and the rules of which they took from a language -the Latin — with which it had no formal likeness, and by the laws of which it could not be bound, except so far as they were the universal laws of thought." This circumstance, it has been frequently asserted, has led to a complexity in English grammar which is not found in the language itself ; and hence also it has been claimed that the practical results of teaching English grammar can be reached by a much shorter and more effective process. Without doubt, according to the modes of instruction long prevalent, too much time has i given to impressing upon the memory mere theory, — technical definitions and rules, without a corresponding amount of practice in the actual use of language. This also has been traditional, emanating from the practice of teaching Latin. The more recent methods adopted by practical teachers, as well as embodied in text-books, have introduced considerable reform in this respect. English, the Study of.) The first attempt at an English grammar was Paul's Accidence, an English introduction to lily's Lain grammar, written by Dr. John < 'olet, doan of St. Paul's, for the use of the school founded by him, and dedicated to William Lily (q. v.), the first high master of that school (1510). Lily's grammar was the exclusive grammatical standard in England for more than 300years, hav- ing received the sanction of royal authority ; but the first book exclusively treating of English grammar was that of William Bullokar (.1 Bref Grammar for English, London. 1586). This was followed by John Stockwood's TUnglish Ac- cidence (4to, London, 1590). During the next century, several works of the kind appeared, anion-' which may be mentioned, Ben Jonson's English Grammar for the benefit of all strangers, out of his observation of the English Language, now spoken and in use (London, 16i Charles Butler's English Grammar ( lto. Ox- ford. L 633), which we find quoted by In-. .John- son in the Introduction to his Dictionary; and the Rev. Alex. Gill's English grammar written in Latin (Logonomia Anglica Grammaticalis, London, L619 — 21); also an English grammar written in Latin for the use of foreigners, by Rev. John Wallis, l». D. (London. 1653), from which, it is said, Johnson and Lowth borrowed most of their rules. The Treatise of English Particles (1684), by William Walker, the preceptor of Sir Isaac Newton, was a work of great learning and merit. This was also written in Latin. Besides these, there were several others of lesser note. [hiring the 18th century, many grammars ap- peared previous to the more noted onesof Lowth and Murray. The latter enumerates, as the authors to whom he was chiefly indebted in the compilation of his work. Barris, Johnson, Lowth, Priestley, Beattie, Sheridan, Walker, and Coote. Many of these writers appreciated the grammat- ical simplicity of the English language, and to someextenl adapted their grammars to it. Bish- op Lowth remarked in his preface, "the con- struction of this language is so easy and obvious, that our grammarians have thought it hardly worth while to give us any thing like a regular and systematic syntax. The English grammar, which hath been late presented to the public, and by the person [Dr. Johnson] best qualified to have given us a perfect one. comprises the whole syntax in ten lines,- -tor this reason: 'because our language has so little inflection, thai its con- struct ion neither requires nor admits many rules.'" Brightland's Grammar of the English Ton with the Arts of Logick, Ehetorick, Poetry, etc. (London. I Til), was a valuable and celebrated work, said to have been composed by some of the most prominent literary men of Queen Anne's reign. !t was not, however, extensively adopted. Bishop Lowth's Short Introduction to English Grammar was published in 1758. "It was cal- culated," he states in his preface, "for the use of the learner, even of the lov s"; and for fuller information he refers to the Hermes (.1 Philosophical Inquiry concerning Language and Universal Grammar, 1751) of James Harris, which he styles " the most beautiful and perfect example of analysis, that has been exhibited since the days of Aristotle." The learned Dr. Priest- ley's Rudiments of English Grammar (London. 1762) was designed only as a brief introduction to the subject; indeed, he considered that the forms and usages of the language were not sufficiently settled and uniform to admit of a complete grammar of the language. Lindley Murray published his firsl Grammar in 1795 [English Grammar, York), soon followed by various other auxiliary works, all of which, al- most immediately, secured an introduction into schools. Ofthe Abridgment (12mo, L797), verj many editions have been issued, Loth in England and the United States. The annual sale ol the Look in England has been estimated at 50,000 copies. The most valuable pari of the materials of which this work is composed, was taken from Lowth, as well as its general plan. Dr. Cheever (in X. Amer. Rev., xxxi., 377) calls it "an en- larged copy of Lowth." and says of the latter. '■ Although Lowth's treatise was written so early as the year 1758, yet we doubt whether there is al the present da\ a single work of equal excel- lence ill the same COmpaS3." Murray also copied extensively from Priestley; "with several of the English Grammars published previously to his own." says < foold Brown, "he appears to have been totally unacquainted." This laborious writer who. in his Grammar of English Grammars , fork, 1851), so mercilessly reviews and 580 GEAMMAR criticises the works of his predecessors and con- temporaries in grammatical authorship, expos is and condemns with unmeasured severity the plagiarism and defects of Murray's grammar. "There is do part of the volume," he Bays, "more accurate than that which he literally copied from Lowth. To the Short Introduction alone, he was indebted tor more than a hundred and twenty paragraphs; and even in these there are many things obviously erroneous. Many of the best practical notes were taken from Priestley, etc." (Gram, of Eng. Gram.,ch.m.) And. in the same critical invective, he pronounces the following wholesale condemnation : " It might easily he shown that almost every rule laid down in the book for the observance of the learner. was repeatedly violated by the hand of the mas- ter. Nor is there among all who have since abridged or modified the wort an abler gramma- rian than he who compiled it." But whatever the merits or demerits of .Murray's grammar, and whatever may lie the source of its materials, it doubtless owed its extraordinary success as a school hook to its practical adaptation to the purposes of school instruct ion. and to the demand which previous publications had created for such a work-. Since its publication, the number of English grammars published is "legion," among which those of ( loold Brown may. w ithoul doubt, claim precedence for popularity and extensive- i icss of sale in the United States. This author laid down a canon in regard to grammatical authorship which, while it is perhaps alleging too much to say that he has strictly obeyed it. it is to lie wished, might receive a more general atten- tion : "lie who makes a new grammar does nothing for the advancement of learning, unless his performance excel all earlier ones designed for the same purpose : and nothing lor his own honor, unless such excellence result from the exercise of his own ingenuity and taste." The earliest of Brown's grammars was TJie Institutes of English Grammar (New York. L823, revised ed., 1854), which was followed, the same year. by The First Lines of English Grammar, an abridgment of the former. These hooks have had an immense circulation, and are si ill (1876) very extensively used in all parts of the United States. The Grammar of English Grammars, the most comprehensive work on the subject jei published, was completed in L851. Many other 1 ksupon English grammar, of great merit. have been published both in England and this country, for the titles of which, see English, the Sri nv OP. Tli.' methods of instruction embodied in Mui- and Crown's grammars, and in those of most of their competitors for public favor, con- sisted mainly in e nil I in- lo memory defini- tions and rules, in applying these, I'm- the pur] of practice, to various styles of composition by parsing, and in the correction of false syntax. Most oi the later gr; ars vary or precede these exercises with the analysis of sentences, afford- ing practice in the principles of general grammar, as preliminary to special rules. - . Lnalysis, Grammatical.) Still more recently, a different class of elementary grammatical text-books have appeared, under the name of Language Lessons, the special design of which appears to he. to sup- ply considerable practice in the actual use of language, as a substitute, to some extent, for anal- ysis and parsing. Probably, there is no subject that has been taught with so great a disregard of the fundamental principles of teaching as English -laminar: and there is certainly none that has so imperfectly attained its practical aim — cor- rectness in the use of language. This lias arisen from two errors of procedure: (1) an attempt to teach definitions without developing in the minds of the pupils the ideas underlying them, and rules previous to an illustration of their ne- cessity ; and (2) confining the instruction to merely theoretical and critical work, without sufficient practice in the application of principles and rules to the actual use of language. The int re- duction of analysis was the result of an effort t'> reform the first of theseerrors; and the language- lesson system, a reaction against the second. Grammar being, distinctively, the science of ///<> sciitciirc. the preliminary step in all grammatical instruction must be. to give to the pupil a clear and correct idea of what constitutes a sentence. I>\ presenting for his examination ami analysis iiples of sentences of a simple structure, by analyzing which he will easily be made to what principal parts must enter into their com- position, and how dlicr parts are used as ad- juncts, i See Analysis, Grammatical.) r i li- - outline of a complete scheme of teaching gram- mar in all its stags is presented in the following points: (T) Principles, definitions, and rules should be progressively taught by requiring the pupil to analyze, and also to construct, classified sentences commencing with those of the simplest. construction, and passing gradually to such as are of the most complex structure ; (2) No defi- nition or rule should be committed to memory and formally recited until the pupil, by sufficient practice, has obtained a clear conception of the office of the word defined, and the nature of the usage which the rule is intended to guide. Fof example, it is absurd to try to teach a child the; meaning of a participle or a relative pronoun at an elementary stage of the instruction, because the structures in which alone they can occur am too complex to be understood at that Stage. And it is equally absurd to require a child to commit to memory the rule, "A verbmusl agreewithita subject or nominative in person and number," until by the comparison of a number of sentences illustrating this usage, he is made to understand what is meant by agreement in grammar, and how expressions may be incorrect by a failure to observe this rule. According to this method, the pupil is first made a. d with the distinc tion of subject and predicate, as being the essen- tial parts of every sentence. Thisfornis the basis for teaching him the two parts of speech- the verb and the noun. From this point, the sentence may be complicated by the successive insertion <>i' modifying words, phrases, or claus • to GRAMMAR 38] illustrate not only the nature and use of eai h of the parts of speech, but every peculiar struct- ure. This may be illustrated by the following example of a sentence thus expanded : (1) Boys learn. (2) The boys learn. (3) The studious boys learn. (4) 'The studious buys learn rap- idly. (5) The studious boys learn their lessons. (6) 'The BtudioUS boys learn their lessons in school. (7) The boys awe? girls learn. (8) The boys learn, but the girls do not learn. (9) The boys who study will Learn. Of course, each sentence here given is only a specimen of what may be used at each step : and when these s ■vera] steps have been taken, the pupil will have acquired a knowledge of the functions of the different parts of speech. Thus, in (1), he learns the noun and the verb; in {'!). the article is added; in (3), the adjective: in (4), the ad- verb ; in (5), the pronoun ; in (<>), the preposi- tion; in (7), the conjunction, as a connective of words: in (8), the conjunction, as a connective of sentences; in (9), the relative pronoun. After much preliminary oral instruction of this kind. the pupil may be required to learn simple defi- nitions. Underlying the whole process, it will hi' perceived, is the analysis of the sentence, parsing coming in at a later stage, as the appli- cation to particular sentences, according to a given praa^S.ofthe definitions and rules learned. This is the method recommended by prominent educators of the present day. " The analysis of a sentence," says Wickersham, " consists in find- ing its elements, or in reducing it to the parts of speech, of which it is composed. Parsing con- sists in finding out these parts of speech and de- termining their properties and relations. Both should be combined, as is the case in similar operations in other sciences. The botanist ana- lyzes a plant, and then names ami describes its several parts. The anatomist dissects a subject, and then characterizes the organs thus brought to his notice Grammar can be studied success- fully in no other way. Parsing, without a pre- ceding analysis, can lead but to a very imperfect knowledge of the organic structure of sentences." To the value of the analytical method, Prof. Whitney thus bears witness: "Give me a man who can. with full intelligence, take to pieces an English sentence, brief and not too complicated even, and 1 will welcome him as better prepared for further study in other languages than if he had read both Ca'sar and Virgll.an 1 could parse them in the routine style in which they are often parsed." Parsing should not be made a routine : when it becomes such, it is worse than useless. The constant application of complicated defini- tions ami rules derived from a language of in- flections, to English words and sentences having scarcely an inflection, is to the pupil a senseless process, and must only tend to dull, instead of cultivating and sharpening, his intellectual fac- ulties. It makes him. as has been said, a " pars ing machine." The definitions and rules of En- ghsh grammar should be simplified, recognizing tli 'fact that English is not an inflectional lan- guage, except in a very few particulars; and hence, that the principles of agreement and gov- ernvu nt have scarcely any application. The mul- tiplying of rules that regulate nothing is idle. Thus. of what use is it to cause a child to repeat, in parsing, twenty times perhaps in a single les- son, the SO-Called syntactical rule. •• Adject ives relate to nouns and pronouns." when he has al- ready learned as a definition that " Adjective- are words added to nouns and pronouns ''." The editor of the last edition of Brown's Institutes of English Grammar remarks, in an Observation on the treatment of Syntax iii that work. " Nearly one half of the twenty-six rules of syntax laid down in this work are rather a rep- etition of the definitions comprehended in ety- mology than separate rules necessary to guide us in the construct ion of sentences": and the same may probably be said of most grammars. All such needless machinery should be eliminated. The application of the terms case, gender, per- son, and all other designations of inflectional variations of words, should be kept within the narrow limits prescribed by the simplicity of tin language. In most systems of grammar, how- ever, we find these terms used in so ambiguous a way as almost hopelessly to obscure the sub- ject and perplex the learner. Sometimes, for example, case is used to indicate a form or in- flection, at others, a mere relation without change of form: while the fact to be taught is. that where there is no inflection there is no case. The rule that "a noun which is the subject of a verb must be in the nominative case " is. in En- glish, useless and absurd. The senseless machin- ery of English grammar, as it has been generally taught, has brougb.1 thewdiole subject under rep- robation, as being useless in an elementary school curriculum, and as superseded in that of the high school and college, by the study of Latin : while there is no doubt that college graduates, in the United States, are generally in nothing so deficient as in a practical and critical knowledge of their own language. While it is very true that the use of every language is a matter of habit rather than of rule: every writer and speaker knows, that there are myriads of in- stances in which the ear and the memory, how- ever trained by habit, will not serve as a guide, and that a knowledge of the principles and usages of language in regard to nice points of construct ion. is indispensable. "Since language' savs ( 'unie. •• is the instrument of all thought, a more commanding knowledge of it than habit alone can give must be deemed a necessity of education, ami particularly of all education which pretends to cultivate the mind." — See Currie, Principles <>n11 Barronnes and Freeholders that arc of substance put their eldest sonnea ami aires to tic >chule- Ira they lie sex or nine wires (if age, ami liil they remain at the Grammar Schulea qahill they be competentiie (bunded ami have perfect Latine". Grammar schools, in the United States, were originally of the same character as in England and Scotland. "By free school and free gram- mar school," says Barnard, "in the early records both of towns and of the General Court of Con- necticut and Massachusetts, was not intended the common or public school, as afterwards devel- oped, particularly in Massachusetts, supported by tax and free of all charge to all scholars rich and poor : neither was it a charity scl 1. exclusively for tin/ poor. The term was applied here, as well as in the early acts of Virginia and other states. in the same sense in which it was used in England, at the same and much earlier dates, to characterize a grammar school unrestricted as to a class of children or scholars specified in the instrument by which it was founded, and so supported as not to depend on the fluctuating attendance and tuition of scholars for the maintenance of a master. In every instance in which we have traced their history, the free schools of New England were endowed by grants of land, by gifts and bequests of individuals, or by 'allow- ance out of the common stock of the tow n". were designed especially for instruction iu Latin and Greek, and were supported in pari by payments of tuition or rates by parents. These schools were the well-springs of classical education ill this country, and were the predecessors of the incorporated academies, which do not appear under that name until a comparatively recent period." The gradual development of the com- mon-school system in the United States, joined with the partial decline of latin and Greek as instruments of education, and the demand for Studies of a more practical character, that is, more in demand as a preparation for the ordinary duties of life, have led to a different application of the term grammar schools. The study of English grammar having taken the place of Latin grammar in schools of an elementary grade, such schools came to be designated grammar schoi s, and the former grammar or classical schools re- ceived the name of high schools atacadt mies. In most of the public school systems of the cities of the L nion, grammar schools areBchools of a gi between the primary schools in which the first rudiments of instruction are imparted, and the high schools. Some of the grammar schools called, have a primary, tin intermediate, and a grammar department. In these cases, the term grammar schools has been used with no definite idea of its propriety, except as designating a Bomewhal higher grade of schools than those in which the simplest rudiments of an English edu- cation are afforded ; since even in these English grammar is taught in only the higher grades i r classes. See Barnard, Education in Europe; and American Biography, s. v. Ezekiel Ch& GRASER GREECE 383 GRASER, Johann Baptist, a Catholic priest and educator, bora in Eltmann, Germany, in L766;died in L841. He aroused consider- able opposition, especially among the Catholic clergy, by his educational theories. He insisted that education should not aim at general culture, but at a preparation for life. Class education was particularly favored in his doctrine. His general theory of e lucation was derived from Schillings philosophy. The essence of man is reason ; and the aim of reason is to reproduce the divine likeness. A knowledge of human life, in its re- lation to nature and God, is necessary to every one : and no power should deprive any one of it. The aim of this general culture should be to proline,' a feeling of solidarity. Every one should be made to feel that he lives not for or in himself alum.'. Specific education must individual, since it aims to prepare each one for his future position in life. The idea of general culture i- contradictory to nature, and is dan- gerous withal. It is apt to produce restless, dis- Batisned people, rather than useful members of society. With Graser, as with Caesar, men who think too much were consi 1 -red dangerous, in im- parting knowledge, the teacher should strive to develop thestudent's powers. All teachers of what- ever subject, should consider themselves as teachers of religion, for no knowledge is complete until its object is seen in its relation to God. Graser 's theory, like that of Fichte, subordinates the in- dividual to the state in so despotic a fashion as to reduce the former to a mere tool. It was largely a reaction, in the interest of government, from the individualism which was at that time leavening all Europe. It was due, therefore, less to an insight into human nature than to the political exigencies of his time. His polemic against general culture is due to the same cause. I lis class education fits well in a despotic system of government, but overlooks the fact that man is, first of all, called to he a man, and not a tradesman or a mechanic. His leading idea, though by no means originating with him. was, that edu- cation is properly a self-culture, — an unfolding from within. His philosophy had a marked effect upon his theory of religious views. As a follower of Schelling, he believed in an im- manent God, and was impatient, therefore, of catechetical instruction in religion. God must be found every-where, according to him. — in man. in the world, ami not alone outside of them. Catechism he considered as having a. tendency to irreligion and rationalism. A one sided mys- ticism characterizes his theory, which gave rise to the charges of heterodoxy, which were brought against him. — See Schmidt, Geschichie der Padagogik, vol. iv. GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND, the United Kingdom of. This is the official title of the British empire, Great Britain being properly the name of the island which comprises England, Scotland, and Wales. In current language, however, the name Great J > Britain alone is generally used to designate the whole imperial power. At present, the British empire, in point of extent, is the largest in the world, its area being estimated at 8,700,000 sq. in. Its aggregate population exceeds 283,000,000. This work contains special articles on ENGLAND, Scotland, [rel and, also on each of the provinces of British North America, on British India, and on the Australasian Colonies (qq.v.). GREECE, a country of. south eastern Europe, Laving an area of I '.;.:;.'>.'! sip m.,and, according to the census of L870, 1,457,894 inhabitants, nearly allot whom speak the Greek language, and are connected with the Greek Church. The number of those who speak other languages is only 68,000,and the number belonging to other relig- ious denominations, only 12,600. Greece, an- ciently called Hellas, is the earliest of all the European countries, thai appear upon the stage of the world's history: and though the Greek states have, for many centuries, ceased to exist, the language and literature of the Greek nation have, in uninterrupted continuation, been instru- ments in the education of mankind. The limits of ancient Greece were not well defined, as the northern boundary line considerably varied at different periods. Of territories now subject to Turkish rule, the Sporades, Crete, Rhodes, and parts of Thessaly and Epirus are generally in- cluded in ancient Greece, and are inhabited by Greeks at the present day. Numerous and flourishing colonies were established by the an- cient Greeks, or Hellenes, in many countries, especially in Sicily, southern Italy, and Asia Minor. and. for a longtime, took an active part in tlie literary and educational development of the race. In 14<> B. C, Greece became a Roman province ; and for more than four centuries the I lellenic nation remained subject to foreign rule. The division of the Roman Empire, in 395, cre- ated the Greek Empire, of which Constantinople was the capital, and which embraced, for a long time, not only theGreek territory now belonging to the kingdom of Greece, but both the European and Asiatic portions of the Turkish empire. The empire was destroyed, in 1453, by the Ottomans, or Turks : and the (decks continued for centuries without national sovereignty, until, in 1829, the establishment of the kingdom of Greece restored to them a place among the independent nations of the earth. "We shall treat, in this article, of (1) Ancient Greece, (II) the Greek Empire, and (111) Modern ( rreece. I. Ancient Greece. — In the history of edu- cation, the ancient Greeks hold a more promi- nent position than any other people of antiquity. They attained a far higher degree of intellectual development than existed in' the Asiatic or African monarchies which preceded them ; or in the Roman republic, the Roman empire, and the rising monarchies of the middle ages, which came alter them. It needed the revival of clas- sical learning, in the L 5th century, to raise the intellectual culture of Kurope again to the lew I of ancient ( Greece. Since t hen. the < dvek language and literature have had a prominent part in the development of modern civization. The progress of modern literature, especially of history, mat he- 384 GREECE matics, philosophy, the fine arts, natural science, and geography, is largely due to the writings of the Greek scholars who were the first notable teachers of these subjects, and who. during the last four centuries, have been studied by so large a number of the young students of the civilized world. The great orators of ancient Greece have not yet ceased to be admired ; and the greatest poets of t lie English language and of other modern tongues have not only derived from the master- pieces of the Greeks, inspiration and the laws of literary composition of every kind, but in many cases, modern poets have borrowed from them even the Subjects of their poems. The earliest feature of education in ancient Greece, as we infer from the Homeric poems and other writings of that period, was the im- planting of a strongly filial attachment in the minds of children, and the ennobling influence of parental discipline and example. Reverence and obedience toward parents, respect for old age. and habits.of modesty, chastity, and silence in the presence Of elders and superiors were re- garded as the chief ornaments of children. The principle was generally recognized, that lie who is to be called upon to command, mus1 first learn to obey. Plainly and artlessly, sons and daughters were brought up to be the images of their par- ents. The son found in his father his model and his teacher, who instructed him in the use of arms, in gymnastic exercises, and in the wor- ship and fear of the gods. The daughter was expected to grow up, under the watchful in- struction of the mother, a skillful, prudent, and virtuous woman. However uncertain the his- torical background of the heroic age may be, we know that the ideal of a hero in ancient Greece, which was held up to the rising youth to be copied, awakened more lofty aspirations, and exerted an educational influence far supe- rior to anything that is to be met with in the early history of the oriental monarchies. A re liance on self-activity, a longing for fame, an earnest effort to subject physical nature to the rule of the mind : and a devotion to music and gymnastics, are s e of the features which fore- shadowed the eminent position which Greece \v;is to attain in the annals of education. In the historic age of the Greek republics, we notice a passionate ambition, on the pari of the noblesl minds, for distinction in political life, in art. ami in science. A nobler view was taken, than ever before, of the functions of the state ; and educa- tion was recognized as the mosl important sub- ject to which state legislation could be directed. The good of the state was an object constantly held in view, and the individual and private interests of the pupils were subjects of secondary consideration. No other country ever had an educational legislation like thai which is ascribed to Lycurgus (q. v.), and Solon (q.v.); and no- where do we find Buch attempts to develop and test new educational ideas, as those made by Socrates. Pythagoras, Plato, Aristotle. Xeno- phon, Epicurus, Zeno, and a host of others. \ characteristic feature of the educational system of the Greeks, from the earliest period of their history to the downfall of their country, is the attempt at a harmonious development of the powers of the mind as well as of the body- G '>/»/- nasties ( Epicu- rism, Stoicism, in later times, was the symbol of an austere morality. While Greece proper, al this time, presented more and more a picture of i tinual decay, the ('durational institutions of Athens and Sparta perishing with the total loss of their independence, the city of Alexandria, in Egypt, became the scat of Greek science and literature, and its teachers and schools obtained a world-wide reputation. (See Alexandrian School.) After the rise of Christianity, the Alexandrian school of philosophers developed the system of Neoplatonism, which endeavored to harmonize oriental theology with Creek dialec- tics, and to dislodge Christianity by a new uni- versal philosophy. The fame of the Greek hers in Alexandria also gave rise to the for- mation of the first school of Christian theolo- gians, some of whom endeavored to keep alive in the church an intimate acqui intance with the ttesl representatives of ancient Greek litera- ture. These efforts, however, were not success- ful ; but the fact that the earliest literature of tile Christian church is. like the New Testament itself, written in the language of ancient Greece, has secured to the latter, at all times, an impor- tant educational influence in the ( !hristian world. — See Grote, History of Greece; Hochhebjer, System der griechischen Erziehung (1785) ; Goess, Die Erziehungswissenschqft nach Grundsdtzen '{<•/• Griechen und Ho'mer (1808); Krause, Geschichte r Erziehung und des Unterrichts i> Krzii'hung der Griechen zur Siillichkeit, in vol. m. of his I r ermischte Schriften, commenced in 1 833 ; trans, by Pelton, in Classical Studies, by Sears, Fel- Tox.and Edwards (1843). Aselection of maxims on education from the Greek classics is given in Niemeyer, OriginalsteUen griechischer />//1 primary schools for boys, and 1st; schools for girls, with 1713 male and 560 female teachers, and 73,580 pupils, of whom 61,885 were boys, and Ll,695, girls. In 1874, there where l'J'J7 schools, with 81,449 pupils. Secondary Instruction. — Secondary instruc- tion is imparted in the Hellenic schools and the gymnasia. The Hellenic schools correspond to what in Germany are called Latin schools, and also to the higher burgher schools, as they are intended not only to prepare boys for the gym- nasia, but also to provide a higher education for those who intend to follow a business or trade. The gymnasia correspond to the higher classes of the German gymnasia, and prepare those for the university who look forward to a learned profession. Fach one of the eparchies is required to have, at least, one Hellenic school ; and each one of the nomarchies, a gymnasium. The secondary schools are governed by the royal ordinance of L837. In order to receive support from the state, they must have no denomina- tional character. The Hellenic schools of each province are under the supervision of the prin- cipal of the nearest gymnasium, who visits them and reports on their condition annually. The Hellenic schools comprise three, and the gym- nasia, four annual classes. The course of study in the Hellenic schools is as follows: religion and penmanship (2 hours each per week in all three classes), history and mathematics (.'! hours each), French language (4 hours), the Creek language (12 hours), geography (3 hours in the first class, and 2 in each of the othersj, and Latin (3 hours, in the third class only). In the gym- nasia, the course of study is as follows: religion and natural philosophy (2 hours each in all four classes), mathematics, history, and French (each 3 hours), Latin (5 hours;. Greek (9 hours), geog- raphy (•'! hours in the first two classes, ami "_' in the two highest classes); the elements of philos- ophy are taught 2 hours per week. Religious instruction is given in the Hellenic schools by lone of the teachers, and in the gymnasia by :;ss GREECE GREEK CHURCH regularly appointed priests. In the Hellenic schools, chrestomathies arc used : and the classic authors in Greek and Latin arc generally read in the gymnasia. Text-books have been pre- pared top all the various branches of study, and have steadily improved. The system of clas teachers prevails in Ihe I [ellenic schools ; but, in the gymnasia, all the branches, with the excep- tion of Greek, geography, and history, are taught by special professors. The law also provides for a library for the use of the teachersand students in each Hellenic school and gymnasium; bul very little lias, as yet, been accomplished in tins direction. The final examination is conducted by the professors of die gymnasium, in the pres- ence of theephory ami is both oral and written. The instructors ai i ttyled professors, tutors, and assistants. The title of professor is given to those only who teach the above-mentioned branch the gymnasia; all others who hold permanent positions as instructors in the gymnasia and Hellenic schools, are styled tutors; bul those who are not permanently eng id arc called assistants. The royal ordinance of L850 makes it obligatory on a candidate for a position as acher in a Hellenic school to have attended. besides a full course in the gymnasium, at least two years the philosophical and philological course in the university, an I ! taken pari in the exercises of the philological seminary. En the Hellenic schools, the teachers arc divided into three classes in regard to salaries, receiving respectively LOO, L30, and 150 drachmas per month: while the principals receive 2(>o drach- mas. In the gymnasia, the principal receives 300 drachma-, and the professors 250. These salaries may be increased -fifth after five years' service. Hellenic schools and gymnasia may also be established by private persons, upon re- ceiving permission from the government. Higher schools for girls have been established in the larger cities ; bul they arc, with one exception. private institutions The course of study in the private institutions is of three years, and does not differ from that pursued in the Hellenic schools, except that French and English arc taught instead of Latin. Instruction is given by both male and female teachers : hut there must he. in all C8 a female principal. These schools arc Subject to governmental Bupen ision, under a special ephory. The exception mentioned above is the Central School of the Sociciy nf i he l-'rieuds of Education, at Athens. This school, which is specially in- tended to train female teachers, has four cla-.-c-. The fourth class is obligatory for those only who wish to become teachers in the higher schools. In L870, there were L 5 gymnasia, and III Hel- lenic schools, with 7780 pupils ; and '_'.'! private institutions, with 1589 pupils of both sexes. The number of gymnasia, in L872,was IT. According to the late-i account-, the number of higher Bchools for girls was L0, withaboul 900 pupil.-; and the < eutral Scl 1 has over LOO pupils. Superior Instruction. The Otho University, in Athens, was founded in L837,and is organized on the plan of the German universities. It has made rapid progress during the short period of its existence. From •';"> students that entered at the time of its foundation, it has risen to I. !:••."> stu- dents, in L869. The total number of students that attended from L837 to 1869 was 5,245. The num- ber of professors, in L874,was43; thai of student.-, I .''>')'!. it is cot;.]-- I of four faculties.- theol- ogy, law and political economy, medicine and pharmacy, and philosophy. Each faculty elects its own rei tor and a representative ; and tin se, with president appointed by the king, constitute the academic council. The professors elect a repre- sentative to the national legislature. A philo- logical and pedagogical seminary for the training of professors and teachers for the gymnasia and special schools, is connected with the uni- versity. There are also connected with the uni- versity a Library, a botanical garden, a museum of natural history, an observatory, a collection of coins and antiquities, and a hospital for prac- tice and demonstration in medicine and phar- Lhstruction is free, the salaries of the professors being paid by the government. The endowments, of which there arc quite a largo number, are used for in ! expenses. The university of Corfu was • I in L865. rial Instruction. - - The following special schools were in operation in l*7_: live com- mercial schools, four theological schools, four nautical schools, one polytechnic school, and one school of agriculture. Of the theological school.,. three were "fa lower,and one of a higher grade. The course of study in the lower schools, which arc intended to educate villag , S, i.- essen- tially the same as that pursued in the Hellenic schools, the principal difference being, that the writings of the church fathers arc u.-ed in con- nection with the pagan classics. These three schools had about 80 students. The higher sem- inary, known as the Khizarian School, was established, about L845, by endowments from two brothers, named Rhizaris. It has five an- nual classes, in which the students receive a thorough theological training ; and, upon gradu- ating, they are eligible to all the church offices. It has about to students. Orphan asylums were not established until quite recently. There two in Athens, — one founded by Queen \melia. for girls; and another, by two liberal Greeks, for hoys. A third one. in Syra. is sup- ported by the parish. These three asylums had. in L869, L58 pupils. SeeScHMiD, Encyclopa< vol. in: Barnard, National Education in Eu- rope. Vol. ]|. GREEK CHURCH (also called Greek Catholic, Orthodox Greek, and Eastern Church,i is the name generally used iii English to designate that part of the Christian Church which recognizes only the first seven of the so- called oecumenical councils, and. in addition to them, the so-called Quini-sexium vi Constanti- nople, held in 692, and the council of Constanti- nople, held uinlcr Photius in 879 and 880. The chief dogmatic difference between the Greek Church and the Roman Catholic church relate! the doctrine concerning the procession ot the GREEK LANGUAGE 389 Holy Chost. the former charging the latter with altering the faith of tin- undivided churcb on this subject, as i1 had been denned by one of the oecumenical councils. This church is the state church in Russia, Greece, Montenegro, Servia, and Roumania; and it predominates in European Turkey, and in the Servian and Roumanian dis- tricts of Hungary. The population connected with the church numbers about TO millions. The church organizations in the countries named are all. in point of government, independent of each other: though honorary primacy is con- ceded to the see of Constantinople. The virtual separation of the Greek < 'hurch from the churches of western Europe began in the 9th century, under Patriarch Photius, and was fully con- summated in the 11th. As the state church of the Eastern or Greek Empire, this church had a controlling influence upon the educational affairs of south-eastern Europe (see Greece); and since, through its instrumentality, the larger por- tion of the Slavic race were converted to Chris- tianity, it has been no less influential in the edu- cational history of Russia and other Slavic countries. The lethargy into which the Greek Church appears to have sunk, is reflected in the slowness of educational progress in all the coun- tries of the Greek faith. This lethargy is now on the wane. An active intercourse has,for some time, existed between Greek and Anglican the- ologians, and at union conferences held at Bonn, in 1*71 and 1875, between prominent represen- tatives of the Creek. Anglican, an 1 Old-Catholic communions, the unity of these three churches in all essential doctrines was declared.. The strenuous efforts which, for some time, have been made, in all the countries of the Greek faith, to bring their educational systems to the highest stare of perfection, will be greatly strengthened by these church movements. Already, the church has theological faculties, modeled after those in Germany, connected with all the universities of Russia (except Dorpal |, Greece, Servia, and Rou- mania, as well as with the Austrian university of Ozernowitz. The condition of the ecclesiastical seminaries has likewise greatly improved. Many of the theological professors have received their education at the German universities; and their efforts to raise the educational standard of the young clergy have met with consi lerable success. As tin' institutions for secondary and primary instruction, in all the countries professing the Greek religion, have a denominational character, religious instruction being either given or super- intended by the Clergy, the improvement of /logical education exert- an influence upon the schools of every grade, and greatly aids the progress of education in general. _ GREEK LANGUAGE, one of the two clas- sical languages, which, as su< h, constitute an im- portant part of the COUrse of study in all the higher literary institutions of the civilized world. As tli iginal language of the New Testament, and of the early fathers of the Christian church, it has a special importance for Christian theologi- ans, and for all who desire to study the Script- ures in the original tongue. In the middle., the Greek language was but rarely studied: although Bede, Alcuin, Erigena, Abelard, and many other scholars are said to have understood it. Toward the close of the I 1th century, several Greek scholars, who came as fugitives to Italy, awakened in the learned institutions an interesl in their language. Florence and Rome were the first centers of the new study ; hut. in Italy, the study of the Latin classics gradually Super- seded, to some extent, that of the Creek lan- guage, which found its most enthusiastic admir- ers andstudents in ( rermany and the Netherlands. Erasmus, Reucblin, and Melanchthon were the greatest Creek scholars in western Europe; and they also introduced the study of the Creek classics, though to a limited extent, into many of the institutions of learning. The appeal of the reformed churches from the Latin Vulgate to the Creek original of the New Testament greatly increase'! the demand for a knowledge of the Creek. In the lTlh century, there was a general decline of the study throughout Europe ; but, in the 18th cciitury.it was resumed with new vigor; and it was especially the Dutch school of Bem- sterhuis and Yalekenaer that promoted the philosophical study of the language. At the be- ginning of the L 9th century, Gottfried Hermann greatly improved the method of teaching Greek; and. more recently, the study of Greek, like that of Latin and all the modern languages, has been greatly b nefited by the result of comparative philology. Creek is one of the most important branches of the Indo-European languages, li^ relation to the other branches of this family has not yet been definitely determined: and o2>in- ions still differ as to whether Greek and Latin (particularly the latter) are entirely indepen- dent branches, or whether they spring from a single branch, now lost, which was co-ordinate with the Sanskrit, the German, the Slavic, and other branches. Greekwas probably spoken as long ago as fifteen centuries before the Christian era. and appears, in the most ancient traces which are left of it. split into a number of dia- lects, the two principal of which were the I>oric and the Ionic. The largest and most important portion of Greek literature was written in the Ionic dialect, in the history of which different periods may he distinguished: the old Ionic or epic dialect, which appears in the poems of Homer, and remained the dialect of epic poetry: new Ionic, in which the history of Herod- otus is written: and the Attic, which is the language of the larger portion of Grecian liter- ature Greek was spoken, in the earliest times to which we can trace it. in Greece as well as in parts of Asia Minor: subsequently, the establish- ment of ( deck colonies carried it as a living lan- guage to Sicily, southern Italy, and southern Gaul. Through the conquests of Philip and Alexander of Macedon. the languages of (.'recce and Macedon gradually mingled : and new dia- lects were produced, the most important of which was that spoken at Alexandria, and used in the Greek translation of the Old Testament, 390 GREEK LANGUAGE in the New Testament, and in the early litera- ture of the Christian Church. During the first three centuries of the Christian era. Greek held ;i position similar to that subsequently occupied Eor a long time in Europe by the French lan- guage, being the favorite language of literature and of the e lucated classes. It continued to exist as a spoken language in southern Prance during several centuries after the introduction of Christianity; and in Sicily ami southern Italy, until the 11th century. Through the influence of the Romans, anil subsequently of other nations that conquered south-eastern Europe, the Greek language, as spoken by the people, was consider- ably modified ; and gradually the modern Greek, or Romaic, arose, at present the language of the entire population of the kingdom of Greece, and of the numerous Greek population of Turkey. The Greek alphabet was derived from the Phoenicians, though the time when, and the' manner in which, it was introduced, are still sub- jects of learned controversies. Accentuation, as well as the signs of aspiration, are supposed by many to have been invented by Aristophanes of Byzantium, and to have been introduced about 200 B. < '.. for the purpose of teaching the lan- guage to foreigners. The pronunciation of an- cient < Ireek is still a matter of discussion. The tireek scholars who revived the study of the lan- guage in western Europe, pronounced it like the modern (ireek of their time; ami this system is called iotacism, or ReucMinism, after Reuchlin, who was its chief advocate in western Europe. In opposition to it. Erasmus maintained that each vowel and diphthong had its own proper sound. a like the Italian a, like the Italian i, i like the French ", < and ;/ like the Italian long and short e, respectively, and that ■>, ;. 6, f, r, -, and \ had respectively the sounds of the German b,g, , and c//. This system was called etacism. The Controversy between the two systems is not yet ended, but distinguished scholars, like < Hadstone, Eichthal, Groves, and Felton, recommend the introduction of the modern (ireek pronunciation into the Bngliah, French, and American schools. The development of the < Ireek language has been of an exclusively national character, no influence having been exerted upon it b\ any foreign lan- v. lii. h b receive. I from any foreign language i Persian), it thoroughly similated w ith its own. It is rich in radical words, and in compounds and derivatives. It also pos- sesses an abundance of grammatical fol though, in this respect . it is inferior to som< the older branches of the Indo-European family. he Sanskrit and the Zend. But it is not ex- ceeded by any language in the number of its par- ticles, and in the ability to i sprees, by mean them, the mosl varied relations and modifications of ideas. It is also distinguished for its euphony; ami neither the Latin nor any modern langu can compare with it in regard to rhythmical b.-auty. "More than any of itt sister languages," j Curtius, "the Greek language must be re carded as a work of art, on account of its sense t >r symmetry and perfection of sounds, for clear- ness of form, for law and organism. Its syntax has never been equaled by that of any language in the world." — Ever since the introduction of the study of Greek into classical schools, it has been a general rule to begin it later than Latin. Robert and Henry Stephens strongly advised the opposite course ; and many of the most dis- tinguished scholars, as Hemsterhuis, Buhnkea, Gedike, Herbart. and I 'assow. expressed a con- currence in these views. The vast majority of educators have, however, been so decidedly in favor of Latin as the first classical language to be studied, that only in exceptional eases has a practical attempt to begin with (ireek been made. As a general rule, less time also is devoted to (ireek than to Latin : though some distinguished educators, like Raumer (in his Gfeschichfe der Pddagogik), who do not dispute the claim of Latin to be taken up first, demand an equal or a superior position for (ireek in the hie her clas- ses of classical schools. In the animated conflict concerning the claim of the classical studies to a place in all educational institutions of a higher grade, (ireek has had to bear the brunt of the battle. On many sides concessions have been made to Latin, because of its closer affinity with modern languages, and particularly on ac- count of its importance for an etymological knowledge of these languages ; and a readiness has been expressed to provide instruction for it even where (ireek has been entirely excluded. Thus we find that, in the United States, in con- sequence of the progress of optional studies in our colleges and universities, ami with the ad- vancing establishment of scientific and other Courses differing from the classical, the study of Greek has been dropped in a great many canoe, while the Latin has been retained. In Germany, where the opponents of the predominance of classical studies have concentrated their strength in organizing real schools in opposition to the classic gy mnasia, the existence of a large number of "real schools with Latin" is sufficient to indi- cate the different estimate in which thetwodas- . ical languages are held by the opponents of their present ascendency. In regard to the method to he pursued in teaching (ireek, there is a greater agreement among leading educators, than in respect to many other studies. It is generally admitted that the s difficulty of (ireek grammar, even t its first or etymological part, makes it desir- able that all ducation is to comprehend a knowledge of this language, should begin the I tudy at an early age. when the vigor of memory :!l Eresh, and its function still prevails in the ■ : instruction. Hamilton's and Jacotot'a hods find UOW-a-dayS few followers in the teaching of (ireek; and the study of gra mm a r , with translation from (ireek into English and English into ( ireek. i hielly occupies the attention of the beginner. It has been proposed, and some- times attempted, to begin the teaching of the lan- guage, in accordance with the development of ( ireek literature, with the Study of the epic and old Ionic dial old practice to make GREEK LANGUAGE 391 tin- Attic dialect the basis has rictoriouslj main- tained its traditional ascendency. Exercises in translating from the Dative language into Greek should not be omitted, as is frequently done; though it is well understood that, or account of the greater difficulties presented by the Greek, and the shorter time allowed for the study of it, the same proficiency in writing Greek is hardly ever or anywhere attained as in Latin. The first exercises in translating Greek into English, or any other native tongue, are now generally pro- vided in the grammars. Where grammars are used which exclude exercises in translation, the use nt a Greek leader is at once begun. In general, the use of a reader before the taking up of a particular author, is continued Longer in Greek than in La 1 .in, because of the longer time required to obtain a good knowledge of the grammatical rules in the former. When the pupil is far enough advanced to take up the reading of Greek authors, the teacher, in making the selection, should not oidy lie careful to proceed from the easier to the more difficult writers, and to prefer the classic authors, but also to read enough of the selected work to give to the students an adequate idea of the spirit of Greek literature. The orations, philosophical dialogues, and dramas are particularly suited for advanced classes in < Ireek. Of course, instruction in Greek is not considered complete without the reading of. at least, one of the Homeric poems; and it is fortunate that the easy flow of the language of these poems lits them for an early stage of classic reading. Among the Greek historians, Xenophon and Herodotus fully deserve the favor of teach- ers and students, which they have enjoyed for centuries. In regard to Herodotus it is, however, desirable to wait until the pupils are well grounded in the Attic dialect. To include Thu- cydides in a regular course appeal's to many classical scholars objectionable, as the language is too difficult for the majority of college stu- dents, and as tha gloomy period which he de- scribes is not calculated to increase the students' interest in ancient < ireece. Of the dramatic poets, vLsehylus and Aristophanes are not suited for schools; and, therefore, only Sophocles and Euripides can he recommended. The beginning of a grammatical treatment of the language can be traced back to the Sophists, Plato, and Aristotle. Considerable progress is visible in the works of the Stoics, who created most of the technical terms used in Greek gram- mar. The idea of a systematic grammar was developed by the Alexandrian school of gram- marians, some of whom wrote upon the subject of grain mar in the most limited sense ; others. upon different specific topics included in it, as syntax, meter, dialects, and the like. As the author of the first systematic grammar. Dionysius the Thracian is mentioned, whose work remained a standard for a long time. The first lexico- graphic attempts were likewise made at Alex- andria. The central seat of Greek philology was, at a later period, transferred from Alexandria to Constantinople, where a number of scholars dis- tinguished themselves as authors of dictionaries of Greek literature, while their grammatical la- bors consisted chiefly of commentaries upon the work of Dionysius. The first grammar in western Europe, in which Greek type was used, was that by Constantine Lascaris; it was published in Milan in 1470, and remained for centuries the basis of all other grammatical works. A. new epoch in the history of Greek grammars dates from Hermann's classical work De emendan- Grammatik der Griechischen Sprache (2 vols., 1 834 , revised ed., 1 869-1 871); Westphal (2 vols., 1870 — 72) ; Curtius, Schulgrammatih (1852, 11th ed., 1875); English trans', by Smith. The grammar of Curtius, which numerous trans- lations have extensively introduced into the learned institutions of the countries of Europe and America, has, to a larger extent than any of its predecessors, made use of the results of com- parative philology, and adopted a number of the technical terms which have first been brought into use by Grimm's German grammar. In England and the United States, Greek grammars have been published, among others, by Anthon, Boise, Brooks, Bullions, Crosby, Eisk, Goodrich, Green- wood. Hadley, Jelf, Jones, Kendrick, M'( 'lintock, Mayor, Moore, Morris, Popkin, Silber, Smith, Sophocles, Taylor, Yalpy. Waddcll. Wettenhall, Wordsworth, and Wright. Some of these works are only primers for beginners. Among the lat- est and best of the complete grammars, is that by Hadley [Greek grammar, I860; chiefly based on the ( lerman work of ( fortius). The basis of all ' rreek lexicons in modern times is Henry Stephens's Thesaurus Linguce (Intecce (I ."72: a new edition, embodying all the Creek learning of the age, Avas brought out by Flaae, I, and \V. Dindorf, 8 vols.. Paris, 1831-63), The first real improvement over Stephens was made by Passow, whose work {Handw&rterbuch der Griechischen Sprache, 2 vols.. 1819 — 24) ap- peared, at first, asa revised edition of Schneider's Greek Dictionary ; but, in the 4th edit. (2 vols., L831), as his own work. The plan of Passow was. in each successive edition, to make the lex- icon complete for the interpretation of some additional authors, until it should become a fidl thesaurus of the Greek language. After the death 392 GREEK LANGUAGE GRIMM off Passow, a new edition, carrying out the plan nf the author, was prepared by the joint labors of l.'ust. Palm, Kreussler, Kett, Peter, and Ben- seler (2 vols., L841— 57). The work of Pas- sow was the basis of the Greek-English lexicon of Liddell and Scott (Oxford, 1845; New York, edited by Benry Dnsler, 1848; large 4to ed., London, L870.). Other large Greek dictionaries have been edited by Jacobitz and Setter |2 vols.. 1839 46), and Pape (3 vols., 1850 63; the 3d vol., containing proper names, by Benseler). School dictionaries have been prepared by Rost, Benseler. Schenkl, Liddell ami Scott, ami others. Among English ami American authors, who have brought out Greek dictionaries, besides Tim.-:' already mentioned, are Jones, Pickering, Oliver. < rroves, Donnegan, and Dunbar. (See Dictionary.) There is also a very rich literature of special lexicons for those Greek authors who are com- monly read in schools. A comparative grammar ofGreekand Latin was written by Leo Meyer (2 vols., Berlin, L861— 5), and an etymological root-dictionary on the basis of comparative phi- lology by Benfey (Griechisches Wurzellexicon, 2 vols., 1839 12). Among the Greek readers which afford selec- tions from all. nr nearly all. the authors who are suited for school reading, none have been so ex- tensively used as those of Jacobs and Dal/.el. The work of Jac mentarbuch */'■>• Griechi- schen Sprache, begun in L824) consists of four parts, the first ol which is designed for beginners, the second gives extracts from historians or ora- tors relating to the history of Athens, the third is composed of philosophical, and the fourth of poetical, extracts. Several American translati of parts of this work have been published our by Prof. Anthon i, and have been used by many American schools. Dalzel's two readers [Col- lectanea Graeca Minora,&u& Collectanea Graeca Majora) first appeared in Edinburgh (1789), where the author was professor of Greek in the university. New editions were broughl oul in England by Dunbar and 0. J. Bloomfield, and in the United States by Popkin and Wheeler. Other Greek readers have been published by VMiott. Arnold. Boise, Colton, Pelton, Good- win, Merry, and Wyttenbach. Of late, the use of readers has. (,, some extent . >/i\ m place to the works of particular authors, of which many an- notated editions have appeared. Thus there are editions of works of ^Eschines, by Champlin and Simcox; of /Eschylus, by Drake, Edwards, Pelton, Sachtleben, Weale.and Woolsey; of Aris- totle, by Poste; of Aristophanes, by Felton, Greene, and Weale; of De sthenes, by Champ- lin, D'Ooge, Drake, Heslop, Holmes, kemlrick. Simcox, Smead, and Tyler; of Euripides, by Al- len. Weal.', ami Woolsey: of Homer, by Lnthon, Boise, Pelton. Mayor, Merry, Owen, Searing, and Smith: of Herodotus, by Johnson, Mather, and Weale; of Isoerates. by Pelton; of l.ncian. l»y Weale: of Lysias, by Huntingdon, Stephens, and W hiton : ,,f Pindar, by Myers; of Plato, by Tyler, Wagner, Weale. White, and Woolsey; of Plutarch, by Hacketl and Tyler; of Sophocles, by Campbell, Crosby, J'ebb, Jones, Smead, White, W'eale. and Woolsey; of Theocritus, by Snow: of Theophrastus, by Jebb; of Thucydides, by Bigg, Frost, Owen, and W'eale: of Xenophon, by Anthon, Boise, Crosby, Kendrick, Owen, Phil- potts, Robbins, and "Weale. Histories of Greek literature have been written by Bernhardy, K.O. Midler (2 vols., with continuation by Donald- son), Mure l.l critical history of (he language and literature of ancient Greece, 5 vols.), Munk, (2 vols.. 1849—50), Nicolai (2 vols.. 1 866- 7 Burnouf i Histoire delalitteraturegrecque,2 vols.. 1869), Bergk (vol. i.. 1872). The standard gram- matical work on the (deck language 01 the New Testament is Winer ( Grammatik des neu- testamen&ichen Sprachidioms, Engl, trans, by Stuart and Robinson) ; and other grammars have been written by Greene and Stuart. Lexicons to the Greek New Testament have been published by Wahl (1822), translated by Robinson; Bretschneider (1824); Wttke (1841); and a second -work by the same author il.-."- : Schirlitz 1 1851 i ; Robinson i Greek and English Lexicon of the New Testament, 1836); Grimm (1868). — For an account of the Greek Church writers, see CLASSICS, CHRISTIAN. GREENEVILLE AND TUSCTJLUM COI/LEGE, at I Ionic. Greene Co., Tenn., near Greenevttle, was organized in 1868, by the union of Greenevttle College and Tusculum College. founded iii 1T!»1 and 1847, respectively. under Presbyterian control. It has a primary, a preparatory, and a collegiate department, with a classical and a scientific course. The libraries contain 7,000 volumes. In 1874 5,therewere ( .i instructors and L12 students (senior class. 'J : regular course, C> : scientific course, 24; primary department, 1 1 1. Both sexes are admitted, 'i be co-t of tuition in the preparatory department is $20 per year ; in the collegiate department. $30. The Rev. W. S. Doak, A. M., is (1876) the president. GRIMM, Jakob Ludwig, the greatest of all German .philologists, was born at Hanau, Jan. I.. L785, and died in Berlin, Sept. 20., 1863. lie w.i- appointed, in 1816, second librarian al Cassel, and in 1830 professor and librarian at the university of Gottmgen. He was deposed, in L837, for having signed, with six other professors, a protest againsl the abolition of the etate con- stitution by the king. In 1841, the Prussian government called him to Berlin as profi —or and member of the Academy, which position he re- tained until his death. In 1846 and 1847, he presided over the meetings of the German phi- lologists, who universally recognized him as their chief. His work on German grammar (Deutsche Grammatik, 3 vols., 1819 37] established a ii. w branch of literature, that of historical gram- mar: and while it has called forth a number of similar works in other languages, it is still unsur- passed. The German dictionary, which he began, in 1852, jointly with his brother Wilhehn, occu- pies an equally high rank in the history of dic- tionaries (Deutsches Wbrterhuch, 1st vol.. 1852; l th vol . L874). This work was designed hy him GRIMM GUIZOT 393 to contain every * lerman Avon I from the time of Luther tot loethe; and the volumes which he pub- lished exceeded, in comprehensiveness of plan, even other modern dictionary. The continuation of the work has been intrusted to M. Heyne, I!. Hildebrand, and K. Weigand; but it is not ex- • pected thai it will be completed until L890. The historical treatment of the vernacular tongue, which t rrimm's German grammar and dictionary have introduced into the literature of modern languages, has also greatly improved the method of teaching modern languages, both foreign and vernacular. The more extensive and accurate knowledge of the growth and structure of lan- guages, which is now generally possessed by in- telligent teachers, is reflected in the instruction of millions of children ; and the vast superiority of recent school grammars, reading hooks, etc. is. to a considerable extent, due to the influence which has been exerted by the works of Grimm. GRIMM, Wilhelm Karl, a brother of Jakob Grimm, and like him, a prominent German phi- lologist, was born at Hanau, Feb. '-'4.. 1786, and died at Berlin, Dec. 16., 1859. In his life and literary labors, he was very intimately associated with his brother. Like him, he was librarian at tassel (1 sl 4— 30), librarian (1830) and professor (1835) at Gottingen; and, finally, after having lost his offices in Gottingen for joining the pro- I against the abolition of the state constitu- tion, he accompanied his brother, in 1841, to Berlin. Besides writing a large number of works ; on the earlier literature of Germany, he was the co-editor, with his brother, of the German dictionary. GRISCOM, John, an American educator, born at Hancock's Bridge, N. J., Sept. '27., 1 77 I; died at Burlington, N. J., Feb. 26., 1852. Be was of Quaker extraction, and. for a time, studied at the Friends' Academy in Philadelphia. Afterwards, he took charge of the Friends' Monthly Meeting School, at Burlington, lie removed to New York in 1807, where he taught for twenty-five years, during which time he as- sisted in founding the Society for the Prevention of Pauperism, and established a private semi- nary, called the New York High School. In 1823, he published A Year in /:'>>>■<>/»' (2 vols.), the result of his travels and visits to the prin- cipal institutions of learning and charity, prisons, factories, etc.. on the European continent. From 1831 to L 835, he was principal of a boarding- school in Providence, R. [., after which he re- moved to Burlington. One of his last acts was the reorganization of the common-school system of New Jersey. His son. John li. Griscom, published his biography (New York. 1859). GRISCOM, John Haskins, a physician, son of the preceding, born in New York, Aug. L3., L809;died there April 28., L874. In L833, lie was appointed assistant physician to the New i ork dispensary, and, in L834, chief physician. He was also professor of chemistry in the New York College of Pharmacy, from 1836 to L840. In L843, he was appointed physician to the New YYjrk Hospital, where he remained till 18G7. I lis principal works relate to physiology; hygiene and ventilation; hut some ot them have an im- portant bearing on education, and others have been extensively used for school instruction. The\ include: Animal Mechanism and Physi- ology i L839); Sanitary Condition of the Laboring Glasses of New York (1844); Uses and Abuses qfAir,andthe Means for tlve Ventilation of Buildings (1850); Hospital Hygiene (1853); First Lessons in Physiology, with Brief Rules of Health, for the Use of Schools (I860); Sani- tary Legislation, past, present, and future (1861). Dr. Griscom also rendered an important service to education by his lectures on physiology. GROOT, Gerard. See IIikkonvmiaxs. GROUNDS, School. See School Grounds. GUATEMALA. See ( 'kntiiai, America. GUIZOT, Francois Pierre Guillaume, a French statesman, who. as prime minister and minister of public instruction, exerted a con- siderable influence upon the progress of educa- tion in France, was horn Oct. 4.. L787, and died Sept. L3., L874. He was of Huguenot descent; and after the death of his father, an eminent lawyer of Paris, who perished by the guillotine • luring the Reign of Terror, he was educated by his mother at Geneva, where his whole nature became permeated with the spirit and influence of John Calvin, whom he accepted as his master and model until his dying day. Having returned to Paris, at the age of eighteen, he was, for a time, tutor in a distinguished family; but he soon became connected with the periodical press and the literary circles of Paris, and, in 1812, received the appointment of professor of modern history in the Sorbonne. ilis political career began immediately after the fall of Napoleon I.; and, from that time until the overthrow of royalty, in 1848, his influence in the government of France was quite marked. He drew up, in L830, the protest of the deputies, which led to the dethronement of Charles X.; and. after the success of the revolution, was appointed pro- visional minister of public instruction. He ex- changed this position, after a few days, with that of minister of the interior, but resumed it in L832, when he entered the new cabinet under the presidency of Soult. He prepared an ex- cellent code of laws for promoting primary edu- cation, and attended personally to their enforce- ment. En the cabinet of L836, under the pres- ident Mole, he resumed the same post; hut. lie- coming dissatisfied with the plans of his col- Leagues, he abandoned it in 1837. From 1840 .... to L847, he was minister of foreign affairs, and from L847 tit is IS, president of the French min- istry. After the revolution of L848, he retired from public life, and devoted himself wholly to literary labors, lie was a member of the Acad- emy of Moral and Political Sciences, of the Academy of Inscriptions and Belles-Lettres, and of the French Academy- Though a zealous Protestant, he knew how to gain the esteem of the Roman Catholics, even as minister of public instruction. His indefatigable zeal and his great merits in behalf of the promotion and 394 GUTSMUTHS GYMNASIUM organization of primary instruction in France, were generally recognized. Guizot was one of the most prolific writers of France during the present century. Most of his works have been translated into English; and the more important of them, into nearly all the languages of Europe. Some of them, especially the History qf Civiliza- tion in Europe, have been extensively intro- duced as text-books into very many institutions of learning. GUTSMUTHS, Johann Christoph Fried- rich, celebrated for his efforts in behalf of physical education, and particularly as one of the founders of the German system of gymnastic training [Turnunterrichi), was born in Quedlin- burg, a town of Prussian Saxony, in 1759, and died at [benhain, near Schnepfentbal, in L839. lie studied theology at Halle for three years, after which he, was employed to superintend the gymnastic exercises at Salzmann's Institute. at Schnepfentbal (1786). Here he devoted him- self to the stnly and elaboration of gymnastics as a branch of e lucation, and was the means of Introducing it into many other institutions of Germany. lie alsowrote Beveral works on gym- nastics, among which his Gymnastik fur \ ^gassiz, Guyot, and Desor.the firsl volume of which was printed in Paris in L848. Be emigrated to the I nited States in L848, and took up his residence at Cambridge. Mass. In the winter of Is Is 9, he delivered, in Boston, a course of lectures on the science of physical geography, which were afterwards translated by Prof. I'elton. and collected into a volume, which was published under the title of Earth and Man. This work introduced important improvements in the methods of studying and teaching geog- raphy in the schools of the United States, as well as in the construction of school textdiooks on that subject. Prof. Guyot was employed, for some time, by the Massachusetts board of edu- cation to deliver lectures in the normal schools of the state and before the teachers' institutes. In 1855, he accepted the appointment of pro- fessor of physical geography in the College of New . Jersey, at Princeton, which position he still continues to occupy. His school series of geographies, the first volume of which was pub- lished in L866 [The Earth and its Inhabitants; Common-School Geography), has attained a high degree of popularity. Its distinguishing feature is the prominence given to physical geog- raphy, and the treatment of the v. hole subject on the basis of a scientific generalization. 'I he un- derlying principle he thus expressed in the pre- liminary section of the above work, on Geo- graphical Teaching: " It was not until the iirst quarter of the present century, when Bitter's great mind made its power fell in his remark- able generalizations on the facts given to the world by Humboldt, that it began to be sus- pected that geographical facts could be reduced to a science, in which hold good the same laws of mutual dependence of cause and effect that prevail in all the other physical sciences." The introduction of tins philosophical method of teaching geography, the principle of which has been adopted by most other authors of school text-books on this subject, has exerted an im- portant influence Upon the general methods of instruction in schools: and. in this way. Prof. Guyot has done an important service to the cause of education. (See Geography.) GYMNASIUM (Gr. yvH viaun >, ;i place for bodily exercises, from yvpvfc, naked i, a term applied, in ancient Greece and Rome, to schools for physical education, but in modern Germany and some other countries of continental Europe, to a class of secondary schools which hold a middle place between elementary schools and the universities. In England and the United States, in which the colleges correspond to die German gymnasia, the term gymnasium is lim- ited to places for physical exercises. We treat here 1 1 1 of the ancient gymnasium of the < ireeks and Romans, and (2) of the schools designated b\ this name in Germany and other parts of continental Europe. 1 1 Gymnasia were first introduced in Sparta and Crete; they afterwards became common in the Greek cities, and were, to a limited > stent, adopted among the Romans. In the most an- cient times, the gymnasia were leveled and in- closed places, with divisions for the several games. For the purpose of shale, rows of plane- GYMNASIUM 395 trees were planted, to which afterwards porti- coes with sitting rooms (ki-idpai), having stone benches around the walls, were added. At last, the gymnasia consisted of several buildings,which were joined together, and thus often formed very spacious structures, capable of holding many thousand persons. A detailed description of the ancient gymnasium is given by Vitruviua Hie free youths were instructed in gymnastics, by a paidotribes (iraid&rp >'vi, while the pro- fessional athletes were trained by a gymnast The whole institution was super intended by the gymnasiarck (yvuvaoidpxiK)- While, originally, gymnasia were only places for bodily exercises, they were afterwards used by philosophers, rhetoricians, and teachers of various sciences as places for instructing their pupils. Thus Plato taught in the Academy and Aristotle in the Lyceum of Athens. — The Roman republic had no special buildings which could be com- pared with the Greek gymnasia ; during the reign of the emperors, the public baths (thermae) served for the same purpose, and may be said to have gradually absorbed the gymnasia. (See Petersen, Das Gymnasium derGr/irbrtt, ls.">s.) (2) In modern times, the name gymnasium has been commonly applied in Germany, since the time of J. A. Wolf, to those schools which prepare students for the universities. Some of these institutions, while holding the rank of a gymnasium, have different names, as poeda- gogium, lyceum, Gelehrienschule, Landesschule, Fwrstenschule. This class of schools has gradu- ally developed from the cathedral and consent tnnasia-c schools (q. v.) of the middle ages, which werejju«nt ^hftr tl designed to impart to the youth of the country the highest instruction accessible, in those times, especially that needed for the priesthood. After the establishment of the universities, the cath- edral and convent school assumed the character of preparatory schools. Their number increased rapidly, and the course of studies was steadily enlarged. In addition to the schools attached to cathedral chapters and convents, a number of schools of a similar rank were founded by the municipal authorities of many of the larger towns, as well as by many princes. The revival of classical studies, in the 15th century, greatly added to the reputation and social position of these schools. At the time of the Reformation, Melanchthon introduced more exalted views of classical studies as the basis of the classical school; and the educational efforts made by the •Jesuits provoked a rivalry which, in many re- spects, had a beneficent influence. The civii wars ainl religious conflicts of the 1 7th and 1 8th centuries caused a stand-still for a time, and progress was not resumed until the end of the 18th century. A. IT. Francke (q. v.) the founder of the celebrated institutions at Salle, favored, like all the 1'ietists. the realistic, in preference to the humanistic, studies and secured the in- troduction of geography and history as branches of instruction, and the appointment of special teachers of mathematics. But Gesner (q. v.), Heyne, (q. v.), and other champions of classical studies, fully secured their preponderance. The opposition made to the classics l>y the Philan- thropists Strengthened rather than weakened their position. At the beginning of the 19th century, a thorough reform of the gymnasia was inaugurated in Prussia, and gradually carried into effect in all the German states. The new arrangement sanctioned the predominance of classical studies, but. at the same time, provided for an improved plan of teaching the realistic branches; such as the natural sciences, geography, and mathematics. The supervisory right of the churches was restricted to religious instruction ; and the supreme control of all the institutions of learning passed into the hands of the state government. The gymnasia now hold in the Ger- man states a privileged position, since no young man can be matriculated for any faculty of the university without having passed a final examina- tion at the gymnasium. Violent attacks have lie/n made upon this privileged position, and specially upon the important place which the course of studies of the gymnasia assigns to the classical languages; and, in some countries, the government has so far yielded to the growing opposition as to organize real gymnasia, in which the Greek lan- guage is altogether dropped, and the Latin at least greatly reduced. (See Real Schools.) But the organization of the real gymnasia is far from be- ing completed, and governments and legislatures appear to be inclined to uphold, in the main, the rights of the A»ieal gymnasium. The defenders of the course or instruction as pursued in the gvinnasia^clu^iK rest their pleas upon the argu- nt course, in its entirety, is lie |tei best suiie*d"^r efe'rate the pupils of these institu- tionTto the level of our modern civilization, and to fit them to become intelligent members of modern society. The superintendence of the gym- nasia is exercised either by the ministry of educational and ecclesiastical affairs, or, in some states, by a supreme educational council. They are, at stated times, examined by school coun- cilors. At the head of a gymnasium, is a rector, or director, and the number of teachers varies with the number of the classes. No one can be appointed a teacher who has not studied at a university, and passed an examination before a commission appointed by the government. In Prussia, a gymnasium is generally divided into six classes, called prima, s< cunda, tertia, quarta, quinta, and sexta. The three higher classes are generally subdivided into two divisions, the upper and the lower. The time usually spent in a class, or in a division of one of the higher classes, is one year; and. a full course, at a I 'russian gym- nasium, generally requires nine years. In Bava- ria, a gymnasium has four classes, and a prepar- atory school (called a Latin school), which com- prises five classes. In Austria, the gymnasia wet,- thoroughly reorganized in L849, and now resemble, in their essentia] features, in Austria proper as well as in Hungary, the institutions of Germany. In Denmark, Sweden, and Norway, the gymnasia have the same characteristics as those of Germany. In Italy, the gymnasium 396 GYMNASTICS consists of five classes which correspond to the lower classes of a German gymnasium. It serves as a preparatory school to the lyceum, which has three classes. In Russia, the gymnasium has seven classes, besides a preparatory class. The German gymnasia resemble the Scotch grammar ami mgh schools, and only differ from the RWiglish public schools for the upper and middle classes in being day schools, instead of the centers of large boarding establishments. The literature relating to gymnasiums is very numerous. — Sec on the German gymnasium, the model of the others, Wiss, Encyclopadie und Methodolo der Grymnasiatetudien (1830); Both, Gymna- sicilrPcLdagogik (18<>.*>); Laas. Gymnasium und Realschule (1875) ; Barnard, Public Education in Enron'' f L854). GYMNASTICS ((Jr. • vfivaoTiicfi, from ; vuvdg, naked), a system of bodily exercises designed to develop muscular strength, and to promote general physical culture and health. In the article on Calisthenics, this subject has already been treated as far as it comprehends those light physical exercises which arc especially adapted for females, although frequently used in the education of persons of the other sex. 'I'hi' term gymnastics was anciently used to denote the bodilj exercises exclusively of boys and men, because those who performed them, ill public or in private, were either entirely naked, or only wore a short tunic, called x.trfav. Among the an- cients, particularly the Greeks, gymnastics con- stituted the most essential part of education; and there was not a Greek town of any impor- tance (hat did not have its gymnasium, or place for the regular physical training of youth, which was supplied with baths, accommodations for athletic contests, and conveniences also for the philosophers, sophists, and teach srs, with their pupils, and all others who attended for intellect- ual instruction or amusement The laws of Solon regulated the management of these gym- nasia among the Athenians. One of these laws forbade all adults to enter a gymnasium while the boys were engaged in their exercises: but it was the practice tor adults to attend for exercise at other times of the day. or in other portions of the building, specially set apart for men. Un- til boys reached the age of sixteen, gymnastics constituted but apart of their education; but. from sixteen to eighteen, it seems to have ab- sorb • 1 nearly their whole attention. At Athens, ami in all the Ionian state-, females wen' never permitted to attend the gymnasium ; but at Sparta, and in some of the other Doric states, unmarried women attended, and took part in, the exercises, dressed in the ^rwv. Instruction was given b\ regular teachers who were supposed to understand the physiological effects of each exei I thus to be able to assign tO SI cry youth Such were befit suited to his particular case. Gymnastics, at Hist, compre- hended agonistics (the exercises of the public games) and athletics, or professional gymnastics a- practiced by the athletes; but. in later times, these were entirely separated; ami the gymnasia became places exclusively for physical education and training. (See Athens and Gymnasium.) There was almost entire uniformity in the exer- cises of the different gymnasia in various parts of Greece : the Dorians, however, made the hard- ening of the body, as a preparation for militarj life, a paramount aim : while the Athenians, and the Ionians in general, sought to impart grace and beauty, as well as strength, to the body and its movements, and to make physical health the basis of a sound and vigorous mind. These exercises partook largely of the nature of games among which we rind mentioned (1) that of the ball (odaiptmc), played in various ways : 1 2) that of the rope, a boy holding each end. and one trying to pidl the other across a line : (3) that of the top, played very much as in our own time : (4) the game of five stones {TrevT&Af&og), like the jack- stones of our day; (5) that of a rope drawn over a post on the opposite sides of which two boys stood and tried to pull each other up off the ground. Besides these, the more important exercises were swimming, riding, throwing the quoit and javelin, jumping and leaping, wrest- ling, boxing, running, ami dancing. Among the Greeks, gymnastics was closely allied to the med- ical art, because systematic bodily exercise was considered to constitute not only an important means of preserving health, but a certain cure for a large clas.s of diseases. They thus recog- nized the principle on which Ling has based system of kinesipathy, or movement-cure. To the curative effects of exercise, Galen, t'clsiis, ami some other ancient physicians refer in works still extant. — In the middle ages, there was no use of gymnastics, strictly speaking; the exer- cises employed in education partaking rather of the nature of athletics, and being almost ex- clusively for military training or drill, or the knightly amusement of the tournament. Among the lower orders, archery, footracing, wrestling, the u>e of the quarter staff, etc., were common athletic sports; but there was no such thing as a systematic scries of exercises for muscular development, until Basedow (q. v.) introduced gymnastics, as a part of education, in the Phi- lanthropin at Dessau; and subsequently (1784) Salzmann adopted the same system for bis in- stitute. Gutsmuths extensively introduced the practice of gymnastics into Prussian schools, and wrote several works on the subject [Gymnastik fur die Jugend, IT'.'.'i: ami Turnbuch/ilr or 40 years, been very popular, particularly in the English universities. Boat-racing, in particular, both in British and American universities and colleges. has absorbed very much of the attention of the stu- dents, and excited much inter-collegiate rivalry. These -ports have been, for some time, encouraged as favorable to physical culture; but their desir- ability has been recently called in question, and many educators are, at present, strongly disposed to repress all such inter-collegiate contests. ( 1 ) as leading to many vices, such as drinking, betting, gambling, etc.; (2) as dangerous to health, in consequence of the excessive strain upon the physical strength which they require: (3) as making mere bodily strength and its triumphs almost exclusively the aim of the college student. or, at any rate, secondary to intellectual and moral culture; and (4) as absorbing too much of the time, attention, and efforts of the students, and thus preventing the successful prosecution of their studies. Of course, all these evils result from that excessive spirit of rivalry or emulation, which is too often encouraged by injudicious parents and teachers, by unduly exaggerating the value of success in these athletic contests. Let these exercises be commended and encour- aged as of intrinsic value, not as the means of attaining a useless, barren victory in a boat-race or other contest, but as the necessary means of cultivating those powers and virtues which are to enable the student to run a brave, manly, and Christian course through life, meeting all its emergencies not only with coinage but physical endurance, and no objection can possibly be made to them. — See Markby, Practical Essays on Education, s. v. Athletics (London, 1868); Sohkeber, Kinesiatrih (Leipsic, 1852); Nahl, Instructions in Gymnastic* (San Francisco, 1863) ; Wood, Manual of Physical Exercises (N. Y., 1867); Ravenstein and Hulley, Gym- nastics and Athletics (London, 1867). (See also I Ulisthenics.) HABIT, a tendency to repeat the same action, more or less unconsciously, or an inclina- tion for the pursuits, occupations, or states to which the body or the mind has become familiar by use. Habit, as an automatic tendency, takes a wide range, not only extending over all our mental and bodily acts, but including likewise our moods of mind, our sources of indulgence, pleasure, ease, and recreation, and comprehend- ing also, either by improvement or debasement, our entire moral and spiritual nature. The singular facility which is acquired by repeated action, in accomplishing what at first was either difficult or impossible, has never been satisfac- torily explained. The fact, however, is univer- sally recognized in the old saying, " Habit is second nature," as also in the useful educa- tional maxim, " Practice makes perfect." "It conditions," says Rosenkranz {Pedagogics as a System), "formally all progress ; for that which is not yet become habit, but which we perform with design and an exercise of OUT will, is not yet a pari of ourselves." Physiologists profess to find a reason for this power of habit, in the sym- pathetic nerves; and some psychologists trace mental habits to the association of ideas. The 398 HABIT extent to which habit influences the daily life of ry one — even the youngest child, can scarcely be realized. Consciously or unconsciously, it enters, in some shape, into every effort at con- tinuous action, physical or mental, and more or less controls it. FrCm the dawn of intelligence, when the child first takes cognizance of material things, all through the period of self-education, which precedes systematic instruction, it is form- ing, of itself, habits of observation, comparison, and generalization, which are to constitute the basis of all subsequent intellectual activity- So is it also forming those, habits which, taken to- gether, make up what is called disposition, tem- per, etc. It is this tendency to contract habits which gives such plasticity to the minds and characters of youth, and which really underlies the power and office of education; for what we call training is nothing more than guiding and regulating the formation of habit. This relation of habit to education has never been more clearly or forcibly illustrated than by Dr. Johnson in his beautiful allegory called the Vision of Theo- dore: " As Education led her troop up the mountain, nothing was more observable than that she was frequently giving them cautions to beware of Habits; and was calling out to one or another at every step, that a Habit was en- snaring them ; that they would be un ler the dominion of Habit before they perceived their danger; and that those whom Habit should once subdue, had little hope of regaining their liber- ty." While it is the period of formal education, at which the child especially needs to he pro- tected from the influence of habit, to some ex- tent ami in some respects, the watchful care of the educator is required even from the earliest infancy to prevent the formation of injurious and almost ineradicable habits; indeed, there is scarcely a child who, on being sent to school for the first time, will not be found to have con- tracted habits, both physical and mental, which the teach. a' will find it necessary to strive to correct. One of his most important functions will be to detect and eradicate bad habits, as a kind of morbid growth : for. like weeds, these habits not only cumber the ground themselves, but tender it sterile for any other productions. For example, what can be done with that most troublesome of all cases, a "spoiled child," un- til the habits of self-indulgence, self-will, way- ward caprice, and despotic control of others, which characterize it. are eradicated, or super seded by other dispositions? So. too. with habits of deceit, falsehood. Cruelty, and many Others that are apt to spring up in even very young minds. In regard to the intellect, the sa principle holds true; tor that natural de- velopment which precedes formal instruction may. ind I. be luxuriant . but cannot be regular. The mind of fche most active child, under cir- cumstances that present the very best Opportu- nities for development, if il has been left entirely to itself, w ill be found to have acquired settled ways of observing, thinking, and speaking which it will be necessary to correct ; ami. besides, it I will generally have become impulsive, impatient of any continuous attention, and prone to pass rapidly from one thing to another, in obedience to a mere momentary fancy or impulse. It will, therefore, be generally found that children, on being firsl subjected to regular instruction, need to have habits of attention formed, in place of those of inattention, which have been implanted by tluir own unconscious and unregulated activ- ity. (See ATTENTION.) There are others, how- ever, of a less e'eneral character which will de- mand special effort. As an instance, one of the earliest of these objectionable habits, and per- haps one of the most common. is the unconscious substitution in the child's mind of the symbol for the thine- symbolized. This will be mani- fested by most children when shown, for exam- ple, the picture of a horse, and asked to state what it is. Usually the answer will be, " It is a horse;" from the habit of confounding things with their representatives. Hence, the unre- sisting facility with which children yield their minds to mere memorizing and rote-learning, the effect of which is to confirm the bad habit referred to, and, in its final result, to extinguish intelligence and destroy mental activity. While some of the habits which demand the teacher's attention at this early stage, are common to all children, in a greater or a less degree, there are others of great variety, dependent upon either peculiar traits of character or peculiar circum- stances of early life. The law of the formation of habit is repetition or exercise. This is recog- nized in many departments of instruction, as an indispensable means of imparting facility, readi- ness, and promptitude. without which certain ac- complishments could not be made, or if made, would be comparatively useless. For example, of what value would the multiplication table be if its use required a conscious effort of mind at every application of any of its details? The same principle is illustrated by the playing of a musical instrument, by the use of language in speaking and writing, and by the varied bodily movements needed in daily life. Good habits should be formed at as early a period as possible; because experience shows that, when thoroughly established in childhood or youth, they generally continue, with more or less strength, through life. Hence the importance of making those qualities and observances habitual, which con- stitute the elements of practical success in every walk of life; such as punctuality, older, regular- ity, and perseverance; to which may be added neatness, courtesy, attention to the wants of Others, forbearance, and sell Control. For the same reason, bad habits should be eradicated be- fore they have reached that mat lire state, after which they scarcely ever entirely disappear. It is. indeed, rarely the case that thoroughly fixed habits are wholly removed - ; hence, the teacher should strive to counteract their evil influence, or neutralize their activity, by implanting those of a contrary nature. In dealing with the bad habits of children, the teacher should appreciate, and make due allowance for. the force of habit. I1ADLKV HALF-TIME SCHOOLS 399 He cannot uproot them at once and by violence. As time is an important element in their forma- tion.so is it also in their eradication ; and, there- fore, the child is to be led along a divergent path which, by degrees, will conduct him away from tlic virions impulse which, all the while, tends to overpower his best resolutions. " Either we should not attempt the conquest of habit," Bays Miss Edge worth, in Practiced Education, "or we should persist till we have vanquished. The confidence which the sense of success will give the pupil will probably, in his own opinion, be thought well worthy of the price. Neither his reason nor his will was in fault; all he wanted was strength to break the diminutive chains of habit, which, it seems, have power to enfeeble the captives exactly in proportion to the length of time they are worn." Whatever force or coercion may be found necessary for this purpose should be gradually relaxed, till the child has formed, to some extent the habit of self- control: which will become the foundation of most other good habits. The implanting of particular habits must not, however, be deemed the whole of moral training; there must be the culture of conscientiousness, of intelligence, of self-respect, of a constant impression and recog- nition of the Divine presence, and of all the other principles of human nature, by means of which it rises to the higher plane of moral re- sponsibility, consciously exercising its own facul- ties, not blindly obeying habitual tendencies re- ceived from others. Properly educated, the human being, in the exercise of his own will and conscience, enlists the power of habit in support of his own moral conclusions, making a useful servant of that by which so many others are hopelessly enslaved. In this connection, Rosen- kranz says. •• Education must procure for the pupil the power of being able to free himself from one habit and to adopt another. Through his freedom, he must be able not only to re- nounce any habit formed, but to form a new- one ; and he must so govern his system of habits that it shall exhibit a constant progress of de- velopment into greater freedom. We must dis- cipline ourselves, as a means toward the ever- ehanging realization of the good in us, constantly to form and to break habits."' And it is in the attainment of this grand object of self-culture, that habit may render the important aid referred to, in making the exercise of self-criticism, con- scientious watchfulness of our own conduct, and obedience to the dictates of reason and religion, easy and continuous by becoming habitual. Thus it is that the man for whom education has done all that it can do, within the utmost scope of its power, truly finds habit not his master but his most useful servant and friend. HADLEY, James, a distinguished American scholar and educator, was horn in Fairfield, Herkimer I V. N. V.. March 30.. 1821. and die 1 in New Haven, Ct.. Nov. 1 1.. 1872. At the age of 21, he graduated at Yale College, at the head of his class : and in 1 8 15, completed a course of study at the Theological Seminary in New i laven. The same year, he commenced his career as a teacher of the Greek language in Yale College, filling successively the positions of tutor, assistant professor, and. in L851, professor, succeeding President Woolsey in the latter position, lie was a man of profound and varied scholarship, including linguistic, philological, and mathemat- ical attainments. He was versed not only in the classic; J languages, hut in most of the oriental, including Sanskrit, Hebrew, Arabic and Ar- menian: also in the Gothic, and in many of the modern languages. Hewasa leading mem- ber of the American Oriental Society, and during the last two years of his life, its president. Be umte the History of t!f English Language for the introduction of Webster's Dictionary, and published a Gr< < kgrammar 1 1 86C l-and Eli m> nls if tin 1 Greek "Language (1869j His essay on the Greek accents was translated into German, and republished in Curtius's Studien zur ijri>- chischen und laleinischen Grammatik. He was also the author of Lectures on Roman Law, and Essays Philological and Critical, which were edited by Prof. W. D. "Whitney, and published after his 'death (1873). HAEHN, Johann Friedrich, a German educator, born in 1710; died in 1789. After being for a time teacher and inspector of the school connected with the monastery at Bergen, he went to Berlin, where he became acquainted with Hecker (q. v.), and, in 1753, was appointed in- spector of the latter's real school, in which posi- tion he perfected his method of instruction. He wrote, besides other text-books for his pupils, a compendium of geometry, trigonometry, and military art, in synopses. In the arrangement of these synopses, lies the peculiarity of his meth- od, called the tabular or literal method, accord- ing to which the first letters of the principal subjects of instruction -were written on the board, with the principal sentences contained in the lesson, which were put down in tabular form. By these means, he designed to facilitate not only the memorizing of the Itssons. but to produce thoroughness and thoughtfulness in the study of each subject. In every lesson, he illustrated his instruction as much as possible by means of ob- jects, of which he had a large collection. His method was copied and perfected by Felbiger (q. v.), but gradually fell into disuse as being sowewhat impracticable. In the latter part of his life, he was appointed director of the gym- nasium in Aurich, which position he retained until his death. HALF-TIME SCHOOLS, a class of schools which, as the name denotes, hold their scs.-i. i s during only one half of cadi day. thus affording an opportunity to a numerous class of children, employed in workshops, factories, stores, etc., to attend school wit hunt giving up their employ- ments. They are thus kindred, in object, with evening schools, which in a certain sense, may be considered as half-time schools. The half-time system is encouraged in England by a special government grant, and is said to work well ; espe- cially where, by the co-operation of the employers, 400 HALL HAMILTON COLLEGE the pupils (half-timers) are made to attend school with regularity. These half-time schools are ex- amined according to the same standards as full- time schools; but the amount paid for half-time regular attendance is only half of that paid for full time. In other parts of Europe, and in some of the cities of the United States, the half-time system is said to have met with encouraging results. This plan originates in the effort to adapt the public schools to1 he circumstances and needs of all classes of the community; and thus. in a measure at least, supersedes the necessity of compulsory laws. The principle, however, ad- mits of an application without the organization of separate schools, which might be objectionable in American communities, as establishing a class system of education. The same object may be carried out, it has been suggested, by a half- time course of study, with grades and subjects adapted to the purpose of giving the half-time pupils a good elementary education in a reduced time. Of course, some degree of uniformity would be sacrificed by such an arrangement; but it is claimed that no real efficiency would be lost in the actual working of the school system, or in the education received. On the contrary, it is urged that the union of labor and schooling has many advantages, the one assisting the other ; and that the half-time pupils prove, as a rule, as apt scholars as their full-time da-s mates, if not SO far advanced. Besides, it affords an encouragement to manual labor, and gives it an honorable rec- ognition, which is of great importance in every inutility, especially where the boj who lias had even an ordinary school education is prone to look down upon all mechanical trades and artisanship as unworthy, fixing his ambition rather up icivantile or literary pursuits. The true interests of a community depend in a great measure upon the productive industry of edu- cated, skillful, and Self-respecting artisans: and if the halt-time system can foster, in any degree, this important class of occupations, it deserves the attention and support of Statesmen and educators. HALL, Samuel Read, a noted American teacher, the first principal of the first teachers' seminary established in the United States, was Lorn in' Croydon, \. EL, Oct. 27., L795. His Iiarents having removed to Vermont, he received us early education in that state; hut subse- quently attended an academy in \'ew Hamp- shire. Mi' afterwards studied theology, and entered the ministry, during the whole time. however, teaching school. In L823, he opened a .seminary, the special object of which w;i educate teachers. This scl 1 was composed chiefly of advanced students, but a class of younger pupils was formed to serve as a model iol. Be wrote and delivered a course of Lectures on ScJioolrkeeping, and compiled, in L827, the Geography asteroids ami '1 variable stars have been discovered, by its director, Dr. C. II. V. Peters. The college and society libraries contain 1.2,090 volumes. The cost of tuition is S75 per year. There are 20 permanent scholar- ships of from $60 to $100 a year for the benefit of needy ami deserving students. The interest of beneficiary funds, amounting to about $3000 a year, is also distributed among needy students. The curriculum is the ordinary four years' course of American colleges. A law department was opened in 1855. In 1875 — 6, there were con- nected with the college, L2 instructors and 171 students (20 law, 150 collegiate, ami 1 special). The whole number of dtumni was L,532, of whom 1,054 were living; of graduates of the law school, 97. The presidents of the college have been as follows : the Rev. A/el Backus, S.T I)., 1812—16; the Rev. Henry Davis. S.T.I )., 1817—33; the Rev. Sereno Edwards Dwight, S. T. 1».. \>~:\:\— 5; the Rev. Joseph Penney, S. T. I)., is;}.-)—!); the Rev. Simeon North, LL. D., S. T. !>.. 18:!!)— 57: the Rev. Samuel Ware Tidier. S. T. D., LL. D., 1858— (>i> ; and the Rev. Samuel Oilman Brown, S.T. 1)., LL. D., the present incumbent, appointed in 1866. HAMILTONIAN METHOD. See Ham- ilton. James. HAMPDEN SIDNEY COLLEGE, in Prince Edward Co.. Va.,7 miles south of Farm- ville, founded in 1776. is under Presbyterian con- trol. The name of the post-office is the same as that of the institution. The college is supported by tuition fees and the interest on an endow- ment of 805,000. It adheres to the old college curriculum. The cost of tuition is ^60 per year, with French, German, and civil engineering as extras. In 1875 — 6, there were 5 instructors and 77 students. The libraries contain about 7,000 volumes. The presidents have been as fol- lows : the Rev. Stanhope Smith, D. D., 1776 — 9; the Rev. J. Blair Smith, D. D., 1779—89 ; the Rev. Dury Lacy, 1789 — 97 ; the Rev. Archibald Alexander. 1797— 1806; the Rev. Wm. S. Reid, 1806; the Lev. Moses Hoge, 1807 — 20; Jo- nathan P. Cushing, A. M., 1821—35; the Rev. Geo. Baxter, D. 1)., 1835—6 ; the Rev. D. L. I airoll, D. D., 1836—8; the Hon. Wm. Max- well, 1838—44; the Rev. P. J. Sparrow, D. I)., 1845—7; the Rev. S. B. Wilson, D. D., 1847 —8; the Rev. L. W.Green, D. D„ 1848 — 56; the Rev. A. L. llolladay, 1856; and the Rev. J. If. I\ Atkinson. D. D., the present incumbent, appointed in L857. HANNIBAL COLLEGE, at Hannibal, Mo., under the control of the .Methodist Episcopal Church, South, was founded, in 186!). for the education of both sexes. It has an endowment I of 35 acres of land, and possesses chemical, I physiological, astronomical, and other scientific and philosophical apparatus. It is supported by i tuition fees. The college is divided into 3 depart- ments : preparatory, high-school, and collegiate. These three departments are sub-divided into six 26 | schools, as follows: (1) School of English litera- ture; (2) School of physics; (3) School of lan- guages, including Bebrew, Greek, Latin, German, and French, togel her with lecture.- on comparative philology; (1) School of mathematics; (5) School of metaphysics ; and (6) School of fine arts, in- cluding vocal and instrumental music, painting, drawing, wax-work, and worsted work. A com- mercial course and an evening school have been organized. The cost of tuition, in the preparatory department, is $10.50 per quarter; in the aca- demic and collegiate, $12.50. In 1875 — 6, there were 11 instructors and 140 students. The Rev. J.F.Hamilton was president from 1869 — 71. when the Rev. Leo Baier was appointed. The college is at present suspended (1877). HANOVER COLLEGE, at Hanover, Ind.. organized in li-^7. and chartered in 1833, is tmder the control of the Presbyterians. It has a campus of 16 acres and a fine college build- ing. Its entire grounds embrace over 200 acres. The libraries contain about 7,500 volumes. The value of its buildings, grounds, and apparatus is $145,000; the amount of its productive funds. $100,000. Tuition is free. The institution has a preparatory and a collegiate department, the latter comprising a classical and a scientific course. In 1875 — 6, there were 10 instructors and 135 students (74 collegiate and 61 preparatory). The Rev. Geo. C. Hickman, D. D., is (1876) the pres- ident. HARMONY in Development, as regards both the mental and bodily faculties, is now viewed by educationists as the most important aim of education. " One part of instruction," says Dittes (Schule der Pddagogik, 1876), "must not contradict another ; nothing should be neg- lected, nothing exaggerated ; all the faculties of the pupil should be cultivated as much as pos- sible, and all the different objects and depart- ments of education should receive attention, without interruption, and in due proportion. The intellect should not be favored at the ex- pense of the moral and physical nature; and hygienic considerations should not be left out of view. 1'he teacher should be especially careful not to accord too much time and attention to favorite branches of study." The latter is a very important admonition. Every course of study should be arranged with a view to the average condition of the growing mind and its needs : and. therefore, should comprise such a variety of subjects as will call into exercise the different mental powers, and thus become instruments in their culture and development. The scientific teacher will, however, watch for decided peculi- arities of character, special aptitudes, traits of genius, etc., and will modify his course of pro- ceeding so as, while giving scope for the unfold- ing of these particular powers, or talents, not to permit them to repress the growth of other indispensable faculties. Thus, a pupil may show a special inclination and talent for drawing, which may very properly be allowed its full development ; but, in doing this, the educator is not to permit all other mental or manual oc- 402 HARMONY HARMS! II conations to be neglected, Indeed, this special gift may be kept in abeyance, and stimulus ap- plied, for a time at least, to penmanship, ami to the study of language, science, or other impor- tant subjects. Some pupils, as a further example, may be tun prone to the exercise of the imagina- tion : in which case, they should be required in study science or mathematics. Others may show an almost exclusive bent for calculation or mathematical reasoning, which must, of course, be corrected by the pursuit "f studies calling into exercise other powers of the mind : Such as history, general literature, mental philosophy, Know lei lev is sometimes called the food of the mind, by the assimilation of which its various powers arc nourished; hence, to continue the metaphor, there should be a due variety of this food, and the different kinds should be selected with a view to the particular condition and needs of the system which is to be supplied with nutriment. As in physical education, if a pupil manifests any signs of abnormal development or morbid growth, such, for example, as distortion of the limbs Or curvature of the spine, continu- ous exercises and postures are prescribed to correct this tendency: so. in every department of education, a harmonious development can only result from a, discriminative application of those agencies which call into active ami habitual exercise the powers of mjnd and body. Such a development implies, too, a full recognition of all the relations and powers of ihe human being, embracing nol only the cultivation of those capacities which concern him as an individual, luit also those on which his happiness and use- fulness as a social ami moral being depend. How miserable is the mere student, the solitary genius, cut off from the exercise of the social sympathies and deprived Of SOCial enjoyments by a one-sided development! It is no answer to this, that the world may he benefited by his brilliant thoughts ami his deep intuitions : for the interests of the individual, as such, claim consideration : ami be- sides that, the best creations of genius have been often impaired or marred by the effects of this morbid development, of this Byron, Shelley, ami Toe are examples. The educator must recognize thai there is a body, a mind, and a .vmiI to be addressed and cultivated ; and that man has social, i 'al. and religious faculties. without the harmonious development of which he cannot properly fulfil his destiny, nor attain happiness. The special claims of particular ve- ins, it is said, demand one-sided culture. Of this there is no doubt ; but preceding it. and hence underlying it, there should be such gene- ral culture as the circumstances of man. as nxin, require. Profession or business comprehends, in general, but one relation; ami unfortunate, therefore, is he who can meet the demands of only that relation, unable to perform aright the domestic, social, political, ami religious duties which are inseparably oected with the posi- tion of every person in this lite. In order to perform these duties, even person is endowed with special faculties, which, by the want of proper cultivation in early life, or by disuse, may be so enfeebled as to be unfit for exercise : and the harmonious development of these is the only true aim of education. If all these (acui- ties do not. at an early age, receive their due share of training, self-education, at a later period, cannot, but within very narrow limits, supply the deficiency. The individual will always find himself more or less crippled, because no self-cult- ure can entirely supply the place of early habits. To the doctrine of harmonious development, it has been objected that s] ei ial innate endow- ments cannot be repressed by education; and to address other faculties will only result in bestow- ■ ing superficial accomplishments of no practical value. Thus a youth of decided mathematical genius could never become more than an im- perfect linguist : and one with special talent for language would be likely to make but indifferent attainments in science. Barmonious develop- ment, however, dots not require the repression of special endowments, but the cultivation of what may be (ailed the general powers, in such a vay as to give support to each particular endowment. A wise educational training, com- menced at the earliest childhood, and continued through each successive period of the formative state of human character, will not only fit for any particular vocation for which there may be a special bent, but will also prepare the individual tor general usefulness, and render him able to enjoy the wonders of science, and the beauties ot nature and art. as well as to participate in all ether pleasures incident to his existc in e as a social ami rational being. (See < iEK tl HARNISCH. Christian Wilhelm, a Ger- man educator and writer, born Aug. 28., L786, died Aug. L8., 1866. After studying at the uni- versities of I lalle and Frankfort on the ( tiler, and acquainting himself, in Berlin, with Pestalozzi's method, he was appointed, in L812, teacher in the training school of Breslau ; ami. in L822, director of the training school of Weissenfels. In 1847, he became pastor of a church in a small town, ami remained in that position until 1861, Soon afterwards, he was seized with insanity, from which he never recovered. In his writings, as well as iii all his teachings, he gave a promm< nt place to religion, and to bodilj exercises, such as bathing, gymnastics, etc. He also took great interest in the education of deaf-mutes. The influence which he exerted on the development of the common-school system of Prussia, was very considerable. Among his most important works arc. Die deutschen Volksschulen (1812), which appeared in a revised form under the title of Handbuchfur das deutsche Volksschulwesen (1820, It li edit.. 1839); Darstellung m,sn, preussischen VoOcsschulwesens (1844), ami Die kunftige Stellung der Schtde, rorzilg/icJi der Volksschule, zu Kirche, Staal »///< Wanders Husbandry, in 1652; and, probably, our own time may trace a direct indebtedness to him. inasmuch as the germ of the modern agricultural college may be found in his Pro- positions for erecting a College of Husbandry (London, 1651). Notwithstanding his unselfish life and great public services, acknowledged by the annuity above mentioned, he is thought to have died in want. — See Barnard's Journal of Education, vols. xi. and xn. HARTSVILLE UNIVERSITY, at Harts- ville. Ind.. under the control of the United Brethren in Christ, Avas chartered in 1851. It grew out of the Hartsville Academy, which was transferred by its trustees to the church, in 1848. It is supported chiefly by donations and tuition fees. The available endowment amounts to 120,000 : the entire endowment is $54,000. The college has a good achromatic telescope, philosoph- ical and chemical apparatus, and an increas- ing cabinet. The library contains between 700 ami sin) volumes. The regular tuition fees vary from SI 5 to $21 per year. It has a preparatory and a collegiate department, with a classical and a scientific course : also a theological department. Facilities are afforded for instruction in the com- mercial branches and in music. In 1874 — 5, there were !» instructors and 15!) students, of whom 71 were of the collegiate grade. The principals and presidents have been as follows: James Mc. D. Miller, 1849—52; David Shuck. 1852—64; John W. Scribner, 1804— 7:5; David Shuck, L873 — 1 : and the Rev. William J. Pruner, the present incumbent, appointed in 1874. HARVARD, John, an English non-con- formist divine, who graduated at the university of Cambridge,™ 1631, and emigrated to Charles- town. Mass., where he died Sept. 24.. L638. l\'\v particulars of his fife are known. Be appears, however, to have been active outside of his pro- ion, as we find him appointed, in 1638, "to consider of some things tending toward a body of laws." At his death, he bequeathed £700 anil about 300 volumes for the founding of a college, tin' present Harvard University of Cambridge. The alumni of the university, in 1828, erected a granite monument to his memory in the burial ground of Charlestown. The address on this oc- casion was delivered by Edward Everett, wdio was afterwards president of the university. (See 1 1 arvakd University.) HARVARD UNIVERSITY, the oldest institution of learning in the United States.com- prehends Harvard College, tin- Divinity School, i lie Law School, the Medical School, the Dental School, tl'c l" t Vtr;^Jj l ii J ilti l ti l - School, the BuS- sey Inslitufioii (a school of agriculture and horti culture), the Observatory, the Botanic Garden and Herbarium, the Library, the Peabody Museum if American Archaeology and Ethnol- ogy (a constituent part of the University , though its relations to it are affected by certain peculiar provisions), and the Museum if Comparative Zod'logy. These arc all in < Cambridge, .Massachu- setts, except the Medical School, which is on North Grove street, Boston; the Dental School. at No. 50 Allen street, boston ; and the Bussey Institution, at Jamaica Plain, now within the limits of Boston. The Episcopal Theological School at Cambridge appears in the catalogue, but has no connection with the University. Stu- dents in regular standing in any one department cf the University are admitted free to the in- struction given in any other department, with tin' exception of exercises earned on in the spe- cial laboratories. No one is excluded from any department on account of color. In 1636, the colonial legislature agreed to give £400 toward a school or college, but whether this sum was ever actually paid is doubtful. In 1639.it was "ordered, that the colledge agreed upon for- merly to bee built at Cambridg shal bee called Harvard Colledge."' in honor of the Rev. John Harvard of Charlestown, who. dying in 1638, had left to the institution about £700 and a library i 't over 300 volumes. The college was opened in 1638, and the first class ('.)) graduated in 1 (112. The same year a board of overseers was constituted: and. in 1650, a charter was granted, under which the institution became a corporation, with the title of the "President and Fellows of Harvard Collegi In early times, it received much legislative aid. and was intimately connected with the govern- ment, but its connection with the Commonwealth! was dissolved in 1865. The corporation ( sists of the president, five fellows, and the treasurer, who. subject to the confirmation of the overs, fill their own vacancies. The board of overseers is composed of the president and treasurer, eat officio, and 30 members, elected by the graduate s of five years'. stain line, and holding of lice six yea is. five being chosen each year. The corporation nominates the professors and other officers of in- struction constituting the different faculties of the University, who must be continued by tin- board of overseers. The Medical School was established in 17.^2. the Botanic Garden in 1807, the Law School in 1817, the Divinity School in 1 si!), and the Observatory in L839. The Law- rence Scientific School was founded, in lS17.lv Abbott Lawrence, by a gift of $50,000, subse- quently increased. The .Museum of Comparative Zoology was established, in 1 S.V.I, by a grant from. the state and the gifts of individuals through the influence of Agassiz, who was its director till hi- 404 JIAUVAUD UNIVERSITY death, and whose invaluable collections are here deposited. The Peabody .Museum was founded by George Peabody, who gave 8150,000 in L866. The Dental School was organized in 1868. The Bussey Institution was endowed by the will of Benjamin Bussey, in 1842. The lands belonging to the University in Cambridge, comprise about (ill acres. The college yard contains about 22 acres, tastefully laid out ami adorned with many stately elms. In the yard, arc 2] buildings, in- cluding the president's house, four professors' bouses, the chapel, library, law school, and seven dormitories, the remaining six buildings being used tor offices, recitation rooms, laboratories, The oldest of these is Massachusetts Hall, erected in 1720, and occupied by Continental troopsin 177")— (i. Adjac'iit to the yard, are two other dormitories, the < lymnasium, .Memorial 1 [all, and the Lawrence Scientific school. A little north, and near each oilier, are the Museum of Comparative Zoology and the I h'viuity School; andaDOUt three fourths of a mile N. \\'..and also near each other, the Observatory, and the Botanic Garden and Herbarium. The mosl magnificenl building is Hi- Memorial Hall, ei i of $420,000 by the alumni and friend-' of the college in com- memoration of the students and if the University who died in the national service dur- ing the civil war of L861 —5. It is built of red ami black brick, with copings and window tracery of Nova Scotia stone, and is 310 ft. long by L15 ft. wide. 'I'll.' interior comprises three grand apart- ments : a dining hall. Kit by (JO ft., and 80 ft. high, capable of seating 1 0110 persons: memorial ves- tibule. I L2 by 30 ft., and 1b.J (7) Libraries in the Lawrence Scientific School, 3,000 \ i •hillips Library at the Observatory, 3.000 vols. There are also L5,000 or 20.000 volumes in the Bociety libraries of the students. There are two physical and three chemical laboratories, azoolog- ical, a physiological, and a geological ami palaeon- tological laboratory at the Museum of Com- parative Zoology, a. mineralogies! collection in Boylston Hall, and extensive natural history col- lections at the Museum of < 'oniparative Zoology. Th" large collections of the Peabody Museum are exhibited in Boylston Hall. The Gray collec- tion of engravings in Gore Hall holds a 1 rank. The Observatory is admirably equipped with astronomical instruments, including one of the be.-t equatorials in the world. The instruc- tion of the ( lollege and Scientific School, in prac- tical astronomy and geodesy, is given at the Ob- servatory; in Botany, at the Botanic Harden; and in zoology, geology, and palaeontology, at the Museum of Comparative Zoology. The course of in the College leads to the degree of Bachelor of Arts, and covets fouryears. The cur- riculum is extended and varied, being so arranged that the old prescribed college course may be pursued, or other courses, according to the taste or purposes of the student. The studies of the freshman year are prescribed. The prescribed studies of the sophomore year fill four hours a Dry and rhetoric; ami those of the junior year, two hours a week in philosophy, be- sides certain written exercises. In the senior year only certain written exercises are prescribed; sophomores are required to take ten hours a week of elective studies: and juniors and seni twelve hours. The attendance by seniors upon recitations is voluntary. Several of the fresh- man studies may be anticipated at the entrance examination : and the prescribed sophomore and junior studies maj be anticipated at the same tini". or by examinations at the beginning of the respective years. Written examinations form a marked feature of the method of instruction, oc- curring frequently, during term time, in the dif- ferent branches, ami at the close of each year. in the studies of the year. Special honors are given at graduation for excellence in the following departments: ancient languages, clas- sics, modern languages, philosophy, history, math- ematics, physics, chemistry, natural history, music. For honors in modern languages, the candidate must presenl himself for examination in Italian, Spanish, or English, as well as in French and German. One of the ancient languages must lie Hebrew or Sanskrit, in addition to latin and Greek. A. grade of second-year honors in clas- sics ami mathematics has been est abb shed, open to Sophomores and juniors, and to seniors who intend to be candidates for final honors after graduation. For final honors in ancient lan- guages and classic8. second year honors in classics must have been taken : and. for final honors in mathematics, second-year honors in the same department. The requisitions for admission at I [arvard arc higher than in any other college in the country. Instead of passing the entire en- trance examination at the time of admission to IIAUVAKD UNIVERSITY 405 college, candidates for the freshman class may be examined upon five or more subjects the year pre\ ious, thus dividing the cxa initial ion into two. lu L876, the system was inaugurated <>f holding an examination For admission in Cincinnati, con- temporaneously with the examination in Cam- bridge, to accommodate Western students. In 1 s 7 « > 7. tin' elective courses were thrown open to students 21 years old and upward, not candi- dates for the degree of A. B., who are not re- quired to pass the general entrance examination, but must satisfy the faculty of their fitness to pursue the particular courses which they elect. A certificate of proficiency will be given to such as pursue their studies for a year, and pass satis- factory examinations. (For additional details respecting the requisitions for admission and the curriculum, see College.) — The cost of tuition iu the college is 8150 per year. One hundre I and four scholarships have been established, varying in annual income from $40 to $300, for the aid of nee ly and deserving students. There are also beneficiary funds having an annual in- c ime of about $750, which is usually distributed in gratuities of from $50 to $100 : a loan fund, the interest of which, amounting to more than $2,000 annually, is lent in sums of from -Sot) to $150 : monitorships &c, amounting to about 10 a year: and a number of prizes. Accord- to the University catalogue, " the experien< e of the past warrants the statement that good scholars of high character but slender means are seldom or never oblige I to leave college for want of money." In the Lawrence Scientific School, five regular courses, of l ye us each, are offered : civil and topographical engineering, leading to the degree of Civil Engineer; mining engin er- ing. of which the first three years are identical with the first three years of the preceding course, leading to the degree of .Mining Engineer; chem- istry. Bachelor of Science; natural history, S. 1!.; mathematics, physics, and astronomy. S. B. Can- didates for these courses are required to pass an entrance examination, and the degrees are con- ferred only after examination. There is a one year's course in the elements of natural history, chemis- try, and physics, for teachers. The cost of tuition is Si 50 per year. Four scholarships, of the annual value of $150 each, have been established. The School of Mining and Practical ( reology, founded by Samuel Hooper in L865by the gift of $50,000, was, in L874— 5, merged in the Lawrence Scien- tific School. The Bussey Institution his a superb estate of 360 acres, containing a fine building, a farm, greenhouses, propagating-houses, etc. The Arnold Arboretum, founded by James Arnold of New Bedford, is established h xe. The institu- tion is designed to give thorough instruction in agriculture, us iful and ornamental gardening, and ck-raising, and to this end affords courses in phvsical g :ography, meteorology, g lology, chemis- try, physics, Wotany. zoology, entomology, French, an 1 German. Instruction is given by lectures and recitations, and by practical exercises in the labo- ratory, greenhouse, and field. Frequenl examina- tions are held. The regular course for a decree occupies three years; the instruction of the first year is given at the Lawrence Scientific School. Candidates for admission to this course are re- quired to pass.au examination. Special courses may. however, be taken by persons qualified to pursue them. The regular tuition fee is $150, but all tuition fees are freely remitted to poor and meritorious students. Harvard is the pioneer among American institutions in raising the standard of professional education, in reforming the methods ol instruction and in requiring ex- aminations for admission in law and medicine. The full course in the Divinity School is three years. Candidates not Bachelors of Arts arere- quired to pass an examination for admission to this course. Its satisfactory completion entitles the student to the degree of Bachelor of Divinity. Students may be admitted to partial courses without examination. The cost of tuition is $50 per year. Nine scholarships have been established, varying in annual income from $125 to $260; and there are other funds for the assistance of needy students. The course in the Law School is three years, upon the completion of which and the pass- ing of - > examinations, the degree of Bachelor of Laws is conferred. In 1877 — Sand thereafter, candidates for admission not Bachelors of Arts will be required to pass an examination, though persons not candidates for a degree will be admitted without examination. The cost of tuition is $150 per year, fc ight scholarships, of the annual value of $150 each, have been established. The plan of study in the .Medical School was rad- ically changed, in L871, from that previously pre- vailing there and still pursued in other medical institutions in this country. Instruction is now given by lectures, recitations, clinical teaching. and practical exercises uniformly distributed through- out the academic year. The regular course ex- tends over three years, through which written examinations on all the main subjects of medical instruction arc distributed. Upon the completion of this course and upon passing satisfactorily the required examinations, the degree of Doctor of Medicine is ((inferred. In 1877 — Sand thereafter. candidates for admission to the regular course must present a degree in letters or science from a recognized college or scientific school, or pass an examination ; but persons not candidates for a degree may be admitted to partial courses without examination. The Massachusetts < leneral Hospital, adjacent to the School, and the City Hospital, with other similar institutions in or near Boston, afford admirable advantages for clinical instruction, for the study of practical anatomy, and for witnessing operative surgery. Thecosl "i tuition is $200 peryear. Four scholar- ships, of the annual value ol $200 each, have been established. Instruction in the Dental School is given by lectures, recitations, clinical teaching, and praet ical exercises, uniformly distributed through- out the academic year. The regular course is of two years, and examinations are held at the close Of each. The degree of Doctor of Dental Medi- cine is conferred upon candidates '21 years old and upward, who have studied medicine or den- 406 HARVARD UNIVERSITY tistry throe full years (at least one continuous year at this school), upon presenting a satisfac- tory thesis, and passing the required examinations. The infirmary, a department of the Massachusetts General Hospital, affords opportunity for prac- tical instruction. The cost of tuition is $200 for I be lirst yar. Si 50 for the second, and $50 for any subsequent year. The degrees of Master of Arts. Doctor of Philosophy, and Doctor of Science. imply a post-graduate course of study, and are conferred upon examination only. The degree of .V. M. was conferred in course without examina- tion for the last time in L872. The degree of I loctor of Science is open to Bachelors of Science or Philosophy, who are required to reside at least two years at the University and pursue, during three years, a course of scientific study, embra- cingat Least two subjects, and pass an examination in the same. The other two degrees are open to Bachelors of Arts. Candidates for the degree of Master of Artsare required to pursue, for at least «me year at the Uuiversity, an approved course of liberal study, and pass an examination in the .same. Candidates for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy arc required to pursue, at the Uni- versity for two years, a course of liberalstudy (and pass ail examination in the same) in one of the following departments; namely, philology, philosophy, history, political science, mathemat- ics, physics, Datura! history, or music. The degree Master of Arts is also conferred upon candi- dates who pursue, al the University, al least one year after taking the degree of Bachelor of Laws, Bachelor or Divinity, or Doctor of Medi- cine in Harvard University, an approved course of study in law, theology, or medicine, and passan examination in the same. Post-graduate courses of study have, accordingly, been established in the three professional schools, as well as in the College and Scientific School. The fees for these courses range from S.~>0 to si.Mt p, T year. which, however, are remitted to needy and meri- torious students. The examination fees, $30 for A. M. and $60 for each of the other two degrees, not remitted. Six fellowships have been es- tablished, with an annual income of from $600 to $1000 each, to aid graduates of the Ohiversity in pursuing a post graduate course of liberal .study. Summer courses of instruction, especially igned for teachers, are given in chemistry and mineralogy, botany, and geology. The firs! is given in Boylston Hall. The course in pheno- lic botan] is given at the Botanic Garden; that in cryptogamic botany, at some point on the hore; and thai in geology, at present, al Cum- berland Gap, Ky.. in connection with the state logical Burvey. The fee for the geological course is $50; for the others $25. In L875, these courses were attended by 98 persons, as follows: chemistry 10 ; botany, 27 ; geology 31. Among those in chemistry and botany were women, who are excluded from the regular courses in the va- rious departments of the University. In 1874, examinations for women wen' established, of two \ general or preliminary examination tor young women not [est than IT years of age, in English, French, physical geography, elemen- tary botany or elementary physics, arithmetic, algebra through quadratic equations, plane geom- etry, history, and German, Latin, or Greek; (2) An advanced examination for young women, ool Less than 18 years old, who have passed the preceding, in one or more of the following depart- ments : languages, natural science, mathematics, history, and philosophy. ( 'ertificates are granted to those who pass satisfactorily. The fee for the preliminary examination is $15; for the advanced. SHI. Two preliminary and three advanced cer- tificates were granted in 1ST."). — In 1875 — 6, In sides 26 proctors, librarians, and other officers there were 128 teachers of various grades as fol- lows : -3 o C fc V VI c r - % Departments. 1 O 1 i 2 c < >- (J O - o J- m C strators assista O H College is 8 13 4 — 10 2 3 1 6 44 Scientific School. . . 21 Bussey Institution. . 2 4 — — 4 3 13 I Mvmitv School. . . . 6 6 ■1 1 — — — — ■) Medical School. . . . 11 :: 1 — 17 2 :;t Dental School I I 1 — 2 3 14 Museum of Compar- ative Zodlogy. . . . 2 — — — — 9 11 '-' 2 Total, deducting repetitions 19 21 2 11 27 18 [28 In the College, there are professorships of L ,263, distributed as follows: Number. Dep rtments. Number Resident Graduates 54 Scientifio School :'\ ( ollege Students 77<> Divinity School 19 Law " 161 Medical " L92 Dental " 33 v Institution 5 Of the resident graduates. .'i. r > were candidates for higher degrees, and 6, holders of fellowships ; of the college undergraduates, 1 18 were seniors, 194 junior.-.. 182 sophomores, and 252 fresh- men. The following degrees were conferred at the commencement in 1876: A.M., L36; S. I'. C. I-'... I ; l». M. I'.. L0; M. 1». 36; LI.. B., I ; D. I:.. 5; A. M., T: PL D., 5 ; *. \\. 1 : accord- HA FY HAWAIIAN [SLANDS 407 doctors dental medicine, ing to the triennial catalogue of 1875, the whole number of alumni of the college was 8,741, of whom 3,298 were living; of bachelors ant of medicine. 2.1 2S ; doctors of ">7 ; bachelors of laws. 1,857; bachelors of science, 196 ; alumni of the Divinity School. 439. The presidents of the University have been as fol- lows: Henry Dunster, 1(140 — 54; Charles Chauncy, 1654 — 72 ; Leonard Hoar. 1(172 — 5; Uriah Cakes. 1 f Education. (See also Blind, Edu- cation OF Til K.J HAVEN, Erastus Otis, an American clergyman and educator, born in Boston, .Mass., Nov. L, 1820. After graduating a1 Wesleyan, University, Middletown, Ct., in 1842, he taught for sonic years in Ameiiia Seminary, New York; after which he entered the ministry of the Meth- odist Episcopal Church, and was pastor several years in New York. In 1853, he was appointed professor of Greek and Latin iii the University of Michigan : but. in 1856, assumed the editor- ship of Ziotis Herald in Boston, where he re- sided until 1863. 1 tilling this period, he served as a member of the Massachusetts board of edu- cation: and. in other respects, took an active in- terest in education. In 1863, he became presi- dent of the University of Michigan, which under his administration greatly increased in numbers, resources, and efficiency, in 1869, he accepted the presidency of the North-western University, at Evanston, 111.; and, in 1872, was elected first corresponding secretary of the Methodist Epis- copal board of education. In June, 1874, he was appointed chancellor of the Syracuse Uni- versity, in New York. II is chief publications are The Young Man Advised (N.Y., 1855), Pil- lars of Truth (1860), and Rhetoric, a Text-Book for School* (1869). HAVERFORD COLLEGE, in Montgom- ery Co., Pa., 9 miles from Philadelphia, was founded in 1832, and is under the control of the Society of Friends. The name of the post-office is the same as that of the institution. It is sup- ported by tuition fees, contributions, and an en- dowment fund of about 81 20,000. It has fine college buildings and grounds. The libraries contain about 11,000 volumes. It includes a full collegiate course and a scientific course. In 1874 — 5. there were 5 instructors and 49 stu- dents. The president of the college is Thomas Chase (1876). HAWAIIAN ISLANDS, or Sandwich. Islands, a group of islands in the Pacific ocean, forming an independent kingdom; area 7,629 sq. miles; population, in 1872, 56,877. Of these, 49,044 were natives; 889, Americans; 2,521, Eu- ropeans ; 2,485, half -breeids ; and 1,938, Chinese. The total ( 'atholic population, in 1873, was about 23,000; the remainder were Protestants. The native race is rapidly dying out, having been estimated, in 1822, as high as 142,000. These islands were known to the Spaniards about a century before their discovery by Captain Cook, in 177s. Towards the close of the last century, they wen' united, by conquest, under one king. and have thus remained ever since. The first schools on these islands were established between the years 1823 and 1827, by the native chiefs, who. through the persuasive power of the Amer- ican missionaries, were induced to place them- selves under instruction. In the course of time, the accomplishment of reading became so popular, that the adherents of the chiefs were sent to every island of the group for the jiurpo.se of introduc- ing it. The schools grew rapidly, being at one time 900 in number, with about 52,000 pupils, most of whom were adults. Besides reading and 408 HAWAIIAN ISLANDS HAZIXG writing, arithmetic and geography -were taught, of which two studies the Hawaiians are very fond. The instruction, however, was necessarily of a very primitive character. The American Board (if Foreign Missions sustained, from L830 to Is m. schools at each of their stal ions, intended as models for the native schools. When, in 1 839, the French Roman Catholic mission had been firmly settled, it established its own schools. which, although not so oumerousas the others, have always been prominent in the educational history of these islands. The first written con- stitution and laws were promulgated in L840; and among the latter was one for the establish- ment of schools, which was amended in Is II. This law had for its model the school law of Massachusetts. In 1846, a minister of public in- struction was appointed, which office was after- wards changed to thai of president of the board of education. In 1865, a new school law was promulgated, which, with few changes, is in operation at the present tim School System. — There is a hoard of edu- cation of five ii ited by the king. The duties of the former minister of public instruction, which were transferred to the pres- ident of the hoar,; i iation, are exercised by the inspector general. This of£ ppointed by the board, and is required to visit all the schools, to direct what studies are to be pursued, to grant certificates of qualification to I and to revoke the sam ■ for proper cause. No cle man of any denomination can hold this position. The board appoints a school agent in each of the twenty-five districts into which the islands divided, who is the local executive officer of the board. The agent, the district judge, and an elective member, yearly balloted for by the parents of the district, together form a disl Scl 1 board. This hoard has the power to ap- point and remove teachers, subjeel to an appeal to the hoard of education. The school sessions are held from 9 A.M. to 2 P. M.. with two inter- missions.one of 15 minutes and the other of 30 minutes. Every teacher is required to have a certificate of competency from the inspector general, and must attend the quarterly teachers' institutes, of which there are three in Hawaii, and one in each of the other islands. There is no normal school, hnt most of the teachers receive their education in the Lahaina luna seminary. The usual salary of teachers is 50 cents a day. The Hawaiian language is the only medium of instruction in the schools, in which tuition is free, with the exception of the Onion school at llilo. which is the arsl attempt at a gra led school on the islands. English is taught in thi- school in the higher classes. All children between the ages of 6 and I I are re quired to attend school. This law is enforced by tni' > ami oi her penalties. School Statistics. — The statistics for L872 arc a- follows: Common schools. 202, with .''...">7l !"'•,- and 2,700 L'irls: government boarding 3, with 205 boys; government daj schools aided by the government, 9, with 1 70 boys and P>7 girls; day schools aided by the government, 8, with Wis hoys and 106 girls ; independent boarding-schools 4, with is hoys and 7s girls; and independent day schools L4, with 312 boys 267 girls ; making a total of 245 schools, with 4,791 hoys, and 3,496 girls; or. in 811,8,287 pupils. The Lahainaluna seminary, in Lahaina, is a col- for native males. It was founded, in 1831, by the American mission : hut is. at present, supported and controlled directly by the govern- ment. Like the American colleges, its course of study embraces a period of tour years. It had. in 1872, 103 students. The Oahu college, near Honolulu, was founded in 1841, by American missionaries, for their own children, and was chartered in 1849. It is the principal institution toi- English-speaking youths of both sexes, and has, at present, 75 pupils. There are six female seminaries, with 358 pupils. These schools re- ceive a small portion of their support from the government. — See Lyons, Education in the Hawaiian Islands, in the Report cf the /'. S. Commissioner of Education, IS72 : Nordhoff, Northern California, Oregon, mnl the Sand- wich HAYTI, a Negro republic in the West 'li- lts area is about 9,232 square miles, and its population, about 572,000, of whom the great majority are of negro extraction. The prevail- ing religion is the Roman Catholic, hut other sects are tolerated. 'I be language of the country is French. The island of Bayti was discovered by Columbus on Dec. 5., 1492. The western part of this island was. in L697, formally annexed by France; hut the eastern part remained, for a long time, a dependency of Spain. See Santo Po- mingo.) In L791, the negroes of Hayti rose against the French rule. and. after assassinating all the whites, proclaimed their independence in 1804. Under the French rule, nothing was done to educate the negroes. 'I he constitutions of 1816 ami L846 contained educational provisions. which were never carried into effect Private schools were established in a few places: hut it was not until President Geffrard came into power, in 1859, that any thing was done by the government, to promote the cause of education. Under this president, the schools rapidly in- creased. According to the latest accounts, there .ire about 235 national schools, with ahoiit 15.0IKI pupils. Port-au-Prince has a school of navigation, a law school, a scl 1 of physicians and surgeons, a music scl I. with about l pupils, a drawing school, a school of arts and sciences, a lyceum, and a high school for L;iids. A high school for females was also founded by Geffrard at Cape EJaytien. See Delitsch, Wesl- Tndien mul suppress the III. ART HEBREW LANGUAGE 409 custom, as being shameful, barbarous, and utterly demoralizing to those participating in it. In the naval and military academies of the United States, this custom was. a short time ago, ob- Berved in the must revolting manner, often vio- lating tlic rules of common decency, and some- times inflicting severe bodily injuries. In L871, a number of cadets at the West Point Academy were dismissed from the U. S. service for being engaged in acts of outrage of this character ; and at the Naval Academy, at Annapolis, several midshipmen had their names dropped from the roll for what was designated "coarse, cruel, and oppressive conduct toward other members of the institution." In issuing the order, the Secretary of the Navy remarked, that "youthful vivacity and mischief" might sometimes be overlooked, but that "persistent blackguardism" could not he tolerated. In most of the better class of American colleges, this demoralizing practice has been partly or wholly suppi-essed; but nothing- but severe and persistent measures, supported by strong public opinion, will banish it entirely. In mixed colleges, in which male and female students are instructed, it has almost wholly disappeared ; and. as an illustration of the difference between male and female college students, the following account of the reception of new-comers at Vassar College is cited : "Upon a certain evening, a few days after the opening of the session, the mem- of the sophomore class receive their sisters who have just entered, with flowers, music, and a delightful, though inexpensive, entertainment". How much better this than the ruffianism of hazing/ HEART, Education of. See Moral Edu- cation. HEBREW LANGUAGE, the language in which the Sa i aei 1 Scri ptures of the Old Testament were written, is on that account of special impor- tance both for the Hebrew people and for ( Ihris- tians. more especially theologians, who desire to read the Scriptures in the original. Etisoneofthe Semitic languages, so called because chiefly spoken by nations mentioned in Scripture as among the descendants of Shem, and embracing, besides, the Arabic, Syriac, Chaldee, and Ethiopic as its principal branches. It is the only one among the Semitic languages which, in countries of the Indo-European world, is extensively studied; and thus always serves as the portal through which Indo-European students are introduced to an acquaintance with a family of languages different from their own. [ts great antiquity is acknowl- edged on all sides: and theologians have often claimed for it an age coeval with the earliest hwtory of mankind. After the captivity in Babylon, it gradually became mixed with Chal- dee, by which it was finally supplanted as the national language. The knowledge of the Old Hebrew language was, however, preserved by the priests and scribes, who used it for literary and educational purposes. From the 2d to the 6th century of the Christian era, Hebrew literature shows an independent development ; from the 8th to the 11th it was stationary and iieglecte 1 ; from the 1 1th century to I he present lime, a lieu Hebrew literary language, formed on the basis of the old Hebrew, and enriched by many new formations, technical terms, particles, and foreign words, lias been extensively used by learned Hebrews in all branches of literature. -The alphabet now used in the Old Testament Script- ures is supposed to have been introduced by or soon after Ezra. It is called by the Jewish doctors Assyrian. and is generally admitted to he of Aramean origin. Another alphabet, the rab- binical or mediaeval, is chiefly used in Hebrew commentaries and in notes to the Old Testament : and a third alphabet, the cursive, is used in writ- ing. A fierce controversy was carried on, for a long time, as to the origin and authority of the punctuation by which the vowel sounds are in- dicated. The learned Buxtorff believed that tin- vowel points are coeval with the Hebrew lan- guage, and apprehended from the opposite opin- ion, which was chiefly advocated by Cappel, the most dangerous consequences to the Christian religion. At present, the view of Cappel, that. the vowel points were introduced about the 7th century of the Christian era. for the purpose of preserving as far as possible the true pronuncia- tion of the language, is generally acq d in. Like all the' Semitic' languages, with the sole ex- ception of Ethiopic, the Hebrew is read from right to left. The scientific study of the Hebrew language did net begin, even among the Jews themselves, until about the 9th century. Among the Church Fathers, Origen and Jerome devoted themselves, with much zeal, to the study of Hebrew, and Jerome, especially, became proficient in all that his Jewish masters could teach him : but, from the entire literature of this period which has been left to us, it appears that both .lews and Chris- tians had but an imperfect knowledge of the ancient Hebrew language. Toward the end of were stimulated by the 9th century, the .lews the example of the Arabians to bestow careful study upon ancient Hebrew: but. unlike the Arabians, they compared in their studies the whole of the Semitic languages. Among the many who distinguished themselves by writing grammatical or lexicographical Murks, the most, noted are Saadia Gaon (died 942), Jehuda Cha- jug (about I <>."><>). Abraham ben-Esra (about 1150), and David Kimchi (about L190 to L200). Among the Christians, the Hebrew language was Studied only to a limited extent during the middle ages: although Pope Clement V.. at the Council of Vienna, held in I ill I .ordered the appointment at each university, of six professors of the Hebrew-. Chaldee, and Arabic languages. The revival of classical studies, in the Loth cen- tury, gave an impulse also to the study of He- brew: and Wessel, Picusof Mirandola, and Agric- ola are mentioned among those who promoted the study of Hebrew, which was especially culti- vatedal the university of Tubingen. The real founder of a scientific study of Hebrew at the European high schools was Keuchlin. whose grammar and lexicon appeared in 1506, and 410 UKRRIAV LANGUAGE closely followed the methods, and traditions of the dcwisli grammarians. Lather and Melanchthon strongly recommended the study of Bebrewto the 1'rotestant theologians; and several Protest- ant states of Germany, accordingly, received it in- to the course of instruction of the learned institu- tions, though generally as an optional study. In the Roman Catholic Church, the principal works were the grammar (1526) and dictionary (1529) of Sautes Pagnini, a Dominican; and, somewhat later (1 ;")TS). a greatly improved grammar by the Jesuit Bellarmin, who was professor of Hebrew at the university of Louvain. In the Protestant schools, the grammars and lexicons of the older Buxtorff were, for many years, the principal aids to the study of Hebrew. A new school of He- brew philology arose under the leading of Alting and Dauz, in the second half of the 1 7th century, which endeavored to show thai the phenomena which the Hebrew exhibited, in a grammatical point of view. — the inflect ions, etc., bad their basis in the essential properties of the language, and could be rationally evolved from definite prin- ciples. Great advancement was made, in the beginning of the 18th century, by the almost simultaneous rise of the two rival schools of Schultens.in 1 lolland.and M Ichaelis, in * rermany. In the former, the predominating tendency was toward the almost exclusive use of the Arabic for the illustration of Hebrew grammar and lexicog raphy. To this school belong Schroder, professor at Groningen, and Robertson, professor at Edin- burgh [GrammcUica Heft., 2d edit., L783). The principle adopted by the school founded by the M ichaelis family, was to combine the use of all the sources of elucidation for the I lelnvw, the cognate dialects, especially the Aramaic, the ver- sions, the rabbinical writings, etymology, and the Hebrew itself, as exhibited in the sacred writ- ings. Prom this school, to which the majority of recenl German I [ebraists belong, proceeded Ge- senius, whose grammars (Lekrgebaude, 2 vols.. 1817 : Grammatik, L813; 21st ed., 1872), reader (1814, Llthed., Is::'.), and dictionaries [Hand- w&rterbuch, 1810 12; 7th ed., L868; latin tranal., 2d ed., 1846, English trans, by Edward Robinson and by Tregelles ; Thesaurus, 3 vols., 1829 58) have been more extensively used than any other works of the same kind. I lis grammar was translated into English by Moses Stuart (1826) and by Cunaut (1839) ; his shorter dic- tionary, U Gibbs (1824), and Robinson (1836); and both have been extensively used in Ajner ican schools. The greatest rival of Gesenius for the headship in Hebrew philology is Ewald itische Grammatik, L827, 8th ed., L870; Sprachlehrefur Anf&nger, Ith ed., 1875), who, Btarting tV the principles first developed by Alting and Danz, treated the Hebrew language as an organic whole, accordineto historico-aenet- teal principles, making at the same time a \ery extensive use of the cognate dialects. Among ili • 1 1 in nen his other 1 1 el new grammars published in Germany, those by Hupfeldl Grammatik,l8 1 1 and Niigelsbach [Grammatik, 3d ed., 1870) are highly valued. In England and in the United States, grammars have, among others, been pub- lished by Lee (3d ed., L844), Greene, and Jones. Of the numerous Jewish scholars who have written grammatical and lexicographical works on the Hebrew language, none is valued so highly as burst {Handw&rttrb licit. 2 vols.. ls.">7). who illustrates the Hebrew not only from cognate tongues, but also from those of the tndo-Ger- manie class, and endeavors, on philosophic grounds, to separate the accidental from the essential, the radical from the ramified, the root from the stem, the stem from the branches, so as to arrive at the laws which actually rule the lan- guage. Among the Hebrew grammars published in Kngland and in the Tinted States by Jewish scholars, are those by llorwitz (London, 183")), Nordheimer (2 vols.. New York. 1838 — 42), kalidi (London, L863), .Mayer, and Felsenthal (Chicago. 1875). As the study of Hebrew, among Christians, generally is not begun until the students have obtained a good knowledge, not only of their native tongue, hut also of Latin and Greek, the teacher will find it expedient to pursue a method very different from that observed in teaching young pupils the elements of Latin and Greek. The mastering of the chief rules of grammar may lie expected to consume compar- atively little time. As tin' chief purpose of nearly all students of Hebrew is to lie enabled In read the Bible, it is natural that teachers should generally conform their method to that special aim. 'I he study of the Hebrew Lible is, therefore, begun as soon as possible, and most of the grammatical peculiarities are explained in connection with reading. Translations from the native tongue are rarely made ; though many scholars strongly recommend them, on the ground that every foreign language, to be com- pletely understood, requires exercises in written composition. In most Christian countries, the study of 1 lebrew is optional tor ( hristian theo- logians. In Germany, the state governments de- mand of all the Protestant as well as Catholic theologians a knowledge of this language; and it is included in the subjects in which all the theologians of those churches have u> pass an ext ruination. To that end. the course of in- struction in the gymnasia embraces, for the higher classes, the study of Hebrew; and the lectures given in the theological faculties of the universities and in the theological seminal ii ^ex- plain the Hebrew text no LeSS than the theo- logical meaning. The Study of the Hebrew lan- guage is of special interest to the Jews, whose total number is estimated at from six to seven millions. As the reading of the Hebrew script- ures is a prominent part of religioufl worship, the study of the Hebrew language is not only obligatory for all rabbis ana readers, but is generally pursued in all Jewish BChools. (See Hebrews, Education imong tiik.i The history of the lb bicw language has been written by Gesenius [Geschichte der hebraischen Sprache, 1 1 si ."n : and by Kin \x ( Histtrire <■/ systeme >/• s I mgues sfrnitiquea, Ith ed.. L864). The method HEBREWS 411 of tfat'liiiiLr Hebrew is treated of in Kxingek stkin. />>/• Unterridht im Hebrdischen (1861). The complete literature relating to the Hebrew language up to l s -"><> is found in Steinschnei- der, Bibliographisches Handbuch fv/r hebra- ische Sprachkunde (1859). HEBREWS, Education among- the. This subject will be treated under the following heads: (1) Ancient Hebrews; (II) Hebrew education in the middle ages : (111) In modern times. 1. Ancient Hebrews. — Notwithstanding the accessibility and abundance of the earliest records of the lite and labors of the Hebrews, scarcely anything is known of their educational status until after the termination of Biblical history. From the sacred records we simply learn that the Law made it the duty of parents to teach their children its precepts and principles. — During the Egyptian bondage, the Hebrews probably enjoyed some educational advantages, but to what extent it does not clearly appear from the records. Moses himself had been carefully trained, and was competent not only to lead but also to instruct the people of God, during their wanderings in the wilderness. At that time, the Hebrews must have been more or less subject to mental as well as to religions training. They must have been able to read and write; for they were commanded of God to write the precepts of the Law upon their door- posts and gates : and tiny were, moreover, re- quired to write the injunctions upon great stones ••very plainly '. immediately upon crossing the Jordan, so that they might easily be read by every Israelite. The end and aim of all mental training among the ancient Hebrews, up to the Babylonish cap- tivity, was to develop most prominently the re- ligious tendency, in the child, in order to rear obedient servants of the true Elohim. Being a peculiar people — the only theocratic people of antiquity — engaged almost exclusively in pastoral and agricultural pursuits, their system of education aimed to secure the energetic as- sertion of a nationality whose essence consisted in the principle of faithfulness to the covenant of God. Hebrew education, therefore, was, previous to the captivity, nothing more nor less than a corollary of religion: and teaching was necessarily, in the main, if not altogether, relig- ious. It involved instruction in the Law. the customs, and the symbolical observances of the nation, as well as the narration of its history in illustration of these subjects. We should bear in mind, moreover, that the understanding of the sacred oracles was not the peculiar prerogative of the priestly order, but was enjoined upon 3very Israelite. This makes it self-evident that the knowledge of reading and writing must have formed a prominent part in the education of all children. For the same reason, too. arithmetic mil.-; have been taughl ; as the days of the week, the months, the festivals, etc.. were not designated by proper names, but by numerals. In fact.everj art or science which is alluded to in the Old lestament. and upon a knowledge of which depended the understanding of the Scriptures, must, to some extent, have formed a part of the strictly religious Jewish education. Now. when we consider that the education of the Hebrew children depended upon the parents, it becomes sell-evident that the Hebrews must have been, while residents of Canaan, a universally edu- cated people. Of course, so long as the education of the child devolved upon the parent, there could not very well have been much room iar schools. There are, however, eases on record (previous to the Baby- lonish captivity) in which professional teachers were resorted to. This was probably the case when parents found themselves incapacitated or too much engaged otherwise. Thus David tells us that he had many teachers. In the days of the .Judges we read of a Kirj(t/h-8epher,1foe "city of books ", a name which seems to indicate the seat of some scholastic establishment that had been founded by the * 'anaanites. But to what ex- tent the people availed themselves of such helps we do not know. In the days of Samuel, again, and down through the prophetical age. thei^e are indications of collegiate settlements in several parts of the country, as Bethel, Jericho, Gilgal, Kama, and Mt. Carmel, where the students, under the name of b'ney hannebiim "sons of the prophets" lived a kind of monastic or rather Pythagorean life (not as celibates), in great num- bers and at common cost, and where the severer study of the theocratic laws and institutions was accompanied with that of poetry and music. But these schools of the prophets fell into decay a long time before the captivity. During the Exile, the Hebrews became very neglectful of the education of their children. The Law was not so carefully observed as in Canaan, their vernacular language was to a great extent forgotten, and there was even much amalgama- tion with the heathen nations. Yet the Baby- lonish residence was not without its benefits. The intercourse with the Chaldean people enlarged the Hebrew's held of knowledge, and gave to superior intellectual capacity a stimulus for its speculative exercise. The wonderful development of their Babylonish schools for centuries proves thai they, even then, enjoyed that remarkable fertilitj of resource that has preserved the He- brews to our day a peculiar people, though riven and broken, and scattered in every clime. — With the restoration of the Hebrews to their own country, a brilliant page opens in their in* tcllectual history. True, when Ezra, the priest. first came to Jerusalem to re-establish Mosaism in all its former glory, he did not find as' many competent for the task of instructing the youth, as there had been previous to the captivity, but he found enough of highly cultured Hebrews to form the nucleus of a college. By the co- operation of the most enlightened and learned of the HebrewBi he formed a synod, or rather a college, commonly called the Great Synagogue [keneseih haggedolah) composed altogether, it is said, of one hundred and twenty : and, wisely organized these scholars into a distinct order. 4 1 2 BBBREWS continued, in a succession of about as many years, the work of public instruction in Jerusalem. From this capital, teachers were senl throughout country of Palestine; and all Israel again enjoyed the training it bad been accustomed to before the Exile, only with manifold improve- ments, obtained by the contact of theirwise men with foreign nations. Not merely was the study of the Law re-established, but the study of other languages besides the Hebrew was intro- duced, and, in consequence, the critical examina- tion of other religious systems, as well as of philosophical speculation. It need not then be a matter of surprise that the Hebrews Boon came to be noted as scholars, that, in 260 I!. C, Ptolemy Philadelphia paid seventy Jewish scribes 2,500,000 dollars for the septuagint ion of the Bible, prepared by them at Alex- andria at his request, or that the greatest light of aeoplatonic philosophy was none other than Philo "the -lew" (A. D. 20). — After the ex- tinction of the Great Synagogue, its place was supplied by the sanhedrim, the president of that body, who was called " prince" [nasi) and arbiter and authority in the whole sphere of morals ami education, exercising a rectoral office in the scholastic institutions of the land. Besides, many of (lie members of tin' : Jreal < louncil actively en [in the wo; ' instruction itself. One of the brightest lights in the historj of ancient Hebrew pedago Simon ben Sqetach, who took a wider ran. thought and speculation than any of his pred- 3ors. He introduced high schools in many places and did much to ! the standard of . scholarship. S le lived about 80 15. < '• At that time, schools nourished throughout the gth and breadth of Palestine, and education had been made compulsory. Every Judean town containing a certain number of inhabitants was bound to maintain a primary school, the ckazan, or reader of the Bynagogue, usually being the teaclar. Schools of a higher grade were presided over by the rabbins, and a certain portion of the publi revenue was set apart for the support of these institutions. While there is not a single term for school to be found before the Exile, we now meet with alioitt a. dozen iii common use. The etymologies of some of these words, and the signification of others,give us. in a very striking manner, the progressive history of Jewish educa- tion, and tell us that foreign elements had largely and favorably impressed Hebrew pedagogy. Some idea may be formed of the paramount importance which public instruction had assumed, in the life of the nation, from the innumerable popular sayings of the period: "Jerusalem was destroyed because the instruction of the youi neglected. " " The world is onlj saved by the breath of the school children." " Even for the rebuilding of the Temple the schools must be interrupted." " Study is more meritorious than sacrifice." ■■ \ scholar is greater than a prophet." " You should revere the teacher even ie than your father. The latter only brought you into this world, the former indicates the way into the next. But blessed is the son who has learnt from his father: he shall revere him both as his father and as his master; and blessed is the father who has instructed his son. " — The character of the schools may be besi inferred from the laws by which their founding and management were controlled. For elementary instruction a school or teacher was required for every 25 children; when a community had 40 children, they might have one master and an assistant. Schools could not be established in the most densely crowded part of the town, nor near a river which had to be crossed by an insecure bridge, so as to endanger the health or lives of the children. The proper school age for a boy was six years, until men the father be- ing his instructor. Great care was taken in the selection of text hooks, and that the lessons taught were in harmony with the capacity and inclination of the chili I. were practical, few at a time but weighty. "The parents must never cease to watch that their children are in school at the proper time." \Yh. n the power of the Hebrews was broken anew at Jerusalem, and their temple again de- stroyed, the sense of their com i noii danger, misery, and want bound than only mole clo-ely (o om another. No sooner had the war terminated than, in place of the temple, the synagogue ap- ed, and what at firsl the priesl had guided. rabbi novi controlled. The dispersion of the Hebrews and the destruction of the temple and ol at Jerusalem, therefore, did not longinter- w ilh their enjoyment of that peculiar nation- . which they have now maintained for nearly nteen centuries. A citi/eii of the world, hav- ing no country he could call his o\\ n, the I lehrew. nevertheless, lived within certain well-defined limits, beyond which, to him. there was no world. Thus, though scattered abroad, the Israelites had not ceased to be a nation: nor .lid any nation feel its oneness and integrity so truly as they. Jerusalem, indeed, had ceased to be their capital; hut the school and the synagogue, and not a !.e\itical hierarchy, now became their impreg- nable citadel, and the Law their palladium. The old men. schooled in sorrows, rallied the manhood that remained, and the infancy that multiplied, resolving that they would transmit a knowledge of their mission to future gen- erations. They founded schools as well as syn- agogues, ami developed a grade of scholarship the ability of which IS attested L\ the writing of a code of laws only second to that of Mums — a system of traditionary principles, precepts, and customs, intended to keep alive forever the pe- culiar spirit ot Judaism. The high school de- stroyed at the holy city, was supplanted by the College at Tiberias; and that place, changed into a kind of Jerusalem, where instead of building in wood and stone, they employed workmen in rearing another edifice, which, even to this day. continues to proclaim the greatness of the people after their dispersion. This was the Mishna and the < ;■■!!!■ tr. i, better know n as the Babylonian Tal- mud, the SO-Called Oral Law reduced to writing. HEBREWS 413 arranged, commented upon, and explained; un- til it became, in the course of a few centuries, a complete digest of the law . the religion, and the nationality of the .lews. The greatest complete- ness was given to their means of public in- struction by the establishment, in many places, of high schools like that ai Tiberias. And not only was this done in Palestine and Babylon, but in all countries where the -lew had found an asylum. Thus, the college at Alexandria, in pt. became as celebrated as the colleges at Sora. Pumbadita, and Nahardea. The most noted schools of this period were, besides those just mentioned, the colleges at Akbara, Bethira, Usesarea, Chammatha, Lydda, Jabneh, Magdala, Maohuza, Mares, Sepphoris, Selki, Shaken-Zib, and Ushach.— At first, the organization of these high schools was very simple. Besides the pres- ident, who was the chief teacher, and an assist- ant, there were no offices or ranks. Gradually, however, superior and subordinate ranks were established. The president or rector, who was elected by the students from the rank of profess- ors, was called resh meikibiha. Xext in rank stood the resh kalla, or ••dean." the chief of ///-' assembly, whose office it was to expound or simplify to the students, for the first three weeks of the session, the theme of the rectors forth- coming lectures: and so arduous became the task, as the number of disciples increased, that, in time, no less than seven "deans'' had to be ap- pointed. Their colleagues, or the graduates who were eligible to that dignity, were called chaberim (companions), and corresponded somewhat to the English " fellows." The mode of instruction was chiefly catechetical. After the resh had delivered his exposition, for which the "dean" had prepared the students, and the chaberim hal followed with their comments, the disciples questioned the teachers. Now all became life, movement, and debate; question was met by counter-question, answers were given wrapped up in allegories or parables, until the inquirer was brought to deduce the questionable point for himself by analogy, when a memorandum was ma le of the conclusions reached. The cur- riculum of study was quite varied, as much so as in any modem university. All manner of sub- jects were brought forward in these Hebrew colleges. Theology, philosophy, jurisprudence, astronomy, astrology, medicine, botany, g raphy, arithmetic, architecture, were all themes which alternately occupied the attention of mas- ters and disciples. In fact, the Talmud, which is the repository of these discussions, is nothing less than an encyclopaedia of all the sciences of that time, and shows that, in many departments of science, these Jewish teachers anticipated some of the modern discoveries. See 1 1 uiBCEGER,i2ea/- Encyklop&die fur Hi'"'/ und Talmud (Hamb., 1866 — 74). The principal subjects of study were, of course. Biblical, including herincneuties. or scripture interpretation ; halaka, OT the con- stitutions of the traditional law ; popular ethics, legendary history, sacred poetry, ami the science of the calendar. Etiquette received very great attention, as it was regarded by the Hebrew sages an essential pari of education. The most minute directions were given as to the behavior of students toward their parents, their teachers, their superiors in age or rank. Perhaps the stran- gest feature of 1 iebrew education was the training of every student in some trade. Consequently, most Hebrew "doctors" were but humble me- chanics. They were tent-makers, sandal-makers. weavers, carpenters, tanners, bakers, cooks. Piety and learning only r< i eived their proper estimation when they where joined to healthy bodily work. One of the greatest Hebrew sages. Rabbi Gama- liel, declares. " learning, no matter of what kind, if unaccompanied by a trade, ends in nothing, and leads to sin." — The high schools had two sessions in the year: the summer semester be- ginning with nisan (new moon of April), and end- ing with ehd (new moon of September) ; and the winter semester, beginning with tishri (new moon of October), and ending with adar (new moon of March). In the concluding month of each half year, the studies of the session were re- viewed. Gn these occasions, there were academic disputations which created extensive interest. and were attended by thousands of hearers. The academical degree of chaber was conferred by the resit, who laid his hand on the head of the candidate, with the words, "Be thou chaberl" As such he was entitled to a seat in the schools as commentator and judge on questions in dis- pute, his opinion possessing a certain value or authority. He then also dropped his simple personal name, and took the briefer but more honorable designation of "the son of" (ben); e. g., Joshua, the son of Bethira, called himself Ben Bethira. The higher degree was that of rab or rabbi; in Babylon, mar. It was given in the same form as the cliaber, with the be- stowment of a key. symbolizing that there was now conveyed to the recipient a power of open- ing the law by authoritative exposition, and of locking up or releasing the consciences of men. Unmarried men and women were not allowed to be teachers of boys. — As to girls, we have but little account in Scripture regarding their edu- cational advantages. Needle-work formed the chief, but by no means the only, subject of in- struction imparted to females. The 31st chapter of Proverbs is. probably, a pretty full descrip- tion <>f what was the education of a woman and house-wife in the Old Testament period among the 1 lebrews ; but. aside from this, the fact that mothers had to take part in the education of their children, would of itself show that their education must have been attended to. It is certainly clear that the prophetical schools in- cluded within their scope the instruction of females, who were occasionally invested with authority similar to that of the prophets them- selves. It will he remembered also, that, in con- tradistinction to other oriental people, many female poets and learned women figure in the history of the ancient Jews. II. The establishment of the Mohammedan power opens a new epoch hi Hebrew education. 4U HEBREWS The severe treatment of the Romans had been superseded by a milder government at the hand of the Abbassides ; but the Hebrew found con- siderate masters firsl in the Mohammedan ruins from Arabia. For centuries, the external con- dition of the Hebrews, under the eastern caliph- ate, was undisturbed by any great vicissitudes; and, from the 7th to the I lth century, their schools reached the height of prosperity. Thou- ls of students repaired to those fountains of instruction, not a few of whom came from distant parts of Europe and Africa, to carry back the means of promoting the cause of edu- cation in their adopted countries. In the 1 lth i urv. however, a less tolerant spirit ruled the eastern caliphates; and. in consequence, we with a dec-line in lit !, which, hal It not been for the humane policy of the western or white caliphates, would have resulted in an entire ion of literary activity ai ig die Jews. So far was the intolerance of the eastern caliphs carried, that, by the middle of the 1 lth century the schools of Palestine and Babylon were shorn of all their ancienl splendor, and Spain al • ■ las the world's representative of Hebrew scholarship. Iu the Iberian peninsula theHebrew had had representatives from time immemorial; but. up to the close of the H'tli century, the Jews there, though numerous and wealthy, were atly behind their eastern brethren in intel- lectual development. No schools of any account are met with among them until the intolerance of the Eastern caliphs drove over to Spain some of the most renowned 1 1 el ire w scholars the Ea could then boasl of. It was thus that Hebrew Science receive;! so decisive an impulse in the peninsula, as to inaugurate a new era in Jewish intellectual progress. Indeed, the periodfrom the opening of the Llth to the close of the L5th century, may well be denominated the golden period of mediaeval Hebrew Learning. The same spirit of broad tolerance which had prevailed for over three centuries in the East, now marked the rule of the "white" Or Western caliphs. Schools. colleges, and libraries were multiplied in the great centers of the population. The Learned of other countries were invited to take positions munificently endowed, and ere Long the univer- sitiesof Spain became the resort of students from the Last and the West. Among both stud and teacher-;, the dews counted Largely; and the fountains of knowledge which sent forth th Lr streams from the Arabian universities of Cor- dova and 'I'oli do. were fed ly dews as freely as by ( 'hi'isl ians and Saracens. (See ARABIAN ScHOOl Besides freely entering th iramon as well as literary walks of life, and contesting with the other religionists the differenl avenues thus liberallj opened to them, the dews maintained ihool System very much akin to that of the tern countries in the preceding period. They not onlysoughl to influence the training of their children iii the earliest youth, bul founded many collegiate establishments of their own, where a Liberal education could be prosecuted by Hebrew young men and women under rabbinical in- fluence. Such schools arose in Aragon. Castile. Catalonia, and Navarre, and in the towns of Barcelona, Alcala, Burgos, Cordova. Saragossa, Toledo, Tarazona, and Lucena. In these institu- tions, under the care of some of the most eminent scholars of the age, a multitude of men were trained whose works have been ever held in esti- mation not only ly Israelites, but by the learned of the Christian world as well. (See Ticknor, History of Spanish Literature, 3d ed., vol. i.) d'he principal of each college bore the title of nagidor prince, equivalent to that of resh tkibiha in the eastern s< hools. Of course, rabbin- ical learning was made the basis of other forms of instruction, The Hebrew professors of these schools very naturally wished the minds of their students to be preoccupied with their own na- tional doctrines and traditions, dims a ///, SalomO ibn Adrath, went so far as to enact that "gentile" philosophy should not be studied till the age of 24 years. (It should be added, how- ever, that this proposition divided Hebrew scholars, and gave rise to a troublesome contro- versy.) There was a tendency in the Spanish- Hebrew youth to forsake the distinctively Jew- ish schools, and. to avail themselves of the greater benefits of the more extensive educa- tional movements which were displaying them- selves around them. The rabbins, of course, saw. or thought they saw. imminent danger to Judaism, or ra! her to rabbinisni; and hence their activity in educational movements. On the whole, this fear, though, as it now appears, ungrounded, was productive of much good to Hebrew learn- ing : for it stimulated to a healthy exertion, and resulted in perfecting Judaism in Spain and in Portugal, until it rivaled that uprooted in the East. To facilitate talmudical studies, the works of I [ebrew tradition were translated into the then vernacular Arabic; and thus the rabbinical insti- tutes acquired a, status in modern literature. The critical study of the I [ebrew was encouraged, and a, Bystem of Hebrew grammar developed which maintains its hold t<> this day. Besides, the use of the I [ebrew in composition and the en- largement of the Hebrew ritual were encouraged, and thus a large number of students, in the west- ern peninsula, Learned to write as freely the Hebrew, as their forefathers had written it in Jerusalem's most glorious d y. In all these ways, the Hebrew sages domiciled in Spain and Por- tugal cherished national and ancestral feelings iii i he minds of the rising generation. The result of all this labor was a vigorous religious life in the social condition of the people, and an age of literary activity such as had not been known in 1 [ebrew literature since the dispersion. Numbers of eminent Hebrew scholars, theologians, poet-. linguists, and physicians were brought into gen- eral public notice; and, besides, many works were Composed, treating Of every species of science. including law. medicine, astronomy, language. and the line arts. In philology, rose I 'avid Kimchi; in philosophy, Moses Vlaimonides, of whom it is sail by some that he has only been excelled in wisdom and learning by -Moses the HEBREWS 415 prophet: in poetry , Jehuda ben Levi, pronounced by some the rival of king Solomon; iii astron- omy, Alton Ezra and tbn Tibbon. Bui these are only a few lights in tin' much-illuminated fir- mament. In philosophy and astronomy, the Hebrew sages of that day excelled the Moham- medans. See Guedemann, Das judiscke Unter- richtswesen wcfftrendder spanischrarab. Periode (Vienna. 1ST-'!) ; Zunz, Literaturgeschickte der synagogalen Poesie (Berlin, L865); Kayserling, GeschicJUe der Juden in Spanien und Portugal; Li\i><>. History oftlve Jews of Spain and Portugal. Hebrew learning and institutions of learning, however, flourished thus not only in the Iberian peninsula, but in many parts of the continent also, especially in France and [taly, where a hu- mane policy prevailed for centuries. In the former country, colleges flourished at Montpellier, Xar- bonne, Lunel, and Marseilles, besides many schools of inferior grade, all of which were con- ducted after the Spanish model. In Italy, the colleges at Mantua, Lucca, Otranto,and Bari not- only enjoyed considerable reputation, hut had the support of princes and of the pontiff at Rome. In the eternal city, the Hebrews supported an academy which boasts as its presidents the most renowned literati of the middle ages. One of them, Nathan ben Jechiel, who presided about the close of the 11th century, is said peritus omnis generis scientiarum fuisse. III. The general spirit of persecution which prevailed against the Jews in Europe, from the 13th to the 17th century, largely stifled their liter- ary activity; and the educational history of that period is very meager. When the religious zeal of Isabella ami the covetous heart of Ferdinand close! the doors of Spain against all Hebrews who decided to remain faithful to the dictates of their conscience, many Israelites went to Holland, Germany, and Poland, and there established schools, which flourished for centuries. But these schools were almost exclu- sively devoted to talmudic study. No such sys- tem as prevailed in Spain and on the continent previous to the persecutions by the Inquisition, has ever been re-introduced; nor could such a system have been maintained previous to the present century. The baneful spirit of those dark ages had closed the doors of the schools, common or academic, against the -lew; and thus the liberal professions being made inaccessible to him, he could not well develop the scholarship of which his forefathers had boasted, lint as the Hebrews labored for centuries under such dis- advantages, and yet maintained among them- selvesa high moral culture, and did not sink into that state of degradation and crime which would "have probably been the lot of other nations, a high estimate must be placed upon the culture and accomplishments resulting from the spirit of Mosaism ; and it mighl as well be confessed that the theocratic institutions of the Hebrews and the foundation of their politics and ethics on their religion has produced abetter culture, mental and moral, in literature, than that of any other non-Christian people. Their ancient educa- tion was far in advance of the Chinese and the Hindoos; for. in every lesson taughl the Hebrew youth, were inculcated the sublimest virtues, among which may be enumerated charity, grati- tude, obedience and respeel to tin.' commands oi parents, politeiuss and cleanliness, all coupled with extreme reverence for the Almighty. In short, the aim of Hebrew education seems to e been the moral perfection of the individ- ual, as well as the welfare of soeiety.- -from the establishment of the American republic, the modern .lew dates his liberation from bondage, not only in this country but all over the continent of Europe. His enjoyment of freedom was not instantaneous in all these countries, but the dawn of the new epoch began with the ad- vance of republican principles in America and in France, [n Germany, where, of all the enlightened countries, the -lew had to wait Longest tor his emancipation, the close of the last century is par- ticularly noted for his literary advance. Both Moses Mendelssohn, the philosopher, and llart- wig Wessely, the philologist, deserve to be named as the founders of the first Hebrew free school at the Prussian capital (1778). Indeed, the latter scholar was really the ablest advo- cate of the modern method of education among the Hebrews. Thus, he not only exerted himself at Berlin, but also at Vienna, and elsewhere in the Austrian dominions, to prevent all opposition to the legislative recognition of the equality of the .lews with the Christians and their rights to admission to the state schools. After these. David Friedlander,apupilof Mendelssohn. exerted him- self for the further improvement of the Hebrew schools. Wherever, in Germany or Poland, he heard of schools barbarously deficient in the ele- ments of useful secular knowledge, he labored for the introduction of the progressive system. An- other noted philanthropist of the period is Israel Jacobson (born in 1768, died in 1828), who ex- pended his large fortune for the education of his coreligionists. At Seesen, he founded, in 1801, a school at an expense of 100,000 thalers; and later, he labored at Cassel and in Berlin in the same direction. In more recent times, t he German scholar, Leopold Zunz, still living, figures as tin' ablest ami most successful advocate of Hebrew culture. Next to him in rank, Abraham Geiger of Prussia, and S. L. Rappaport of Cali- cia, in Austria, deserve a place. In Italy S. D. Luzzato has done more in this direction than all his contemporaries. In France, the place of honor belongs to Salomon Munk and -I. i Salvador. — There arc. at the present time, good schools, both public and private, pretty widely distributed in Germany, Austria. Hen- mark. France, and even in Russia and Poland, where efficient elementary instruction is afforded to Hebrew children. Usually, these schools are under the care of the state, and supported in part by it, and in part by the forced contribu- tions of the Hebrews who reside where the schools are located. In some of the larger cities where many Jews reside, the Hebrew schools [Hi a ide separate training for the sexes, those for 41(3 HEP. HEWS 1IECEER girls giving special attention to needle-work and other female accomplishments; those for boys giving sufficienl classical training to admit them to the 5th or 6th year's course of the gymnasia. where the course extends over a period of tin years. Since L873, the German government has also supported several Hebrew theological chairs at the Berlin university, and afforded aid to a "seminary'' (normal school) for the training of teachers to be employed solely in schools for lie- brews. The Hebrew normal schools at Berlin and Breslau are regarded as among the besl institu- tions of the kim I in < Jet-many. Hundreds of teach- ers are annually trained there. The Hebrews also support two greatly noted seminaries for theological training; the one (founded in L8 17). at Breslau, Prussia; the other (founded in L828),at Padua, Italy. At the Berlin university, Hebrew students in theology enjoy (since L874) not only the training of their co-religionists bul of all the prof essors employed in that institution. — In Eng- land, much has been done, in recent times, for the education of pool- Hebrews, who are mostly of ii. In the country, the schools main- tained by Hebrewsare intended simply for relig- ious instruction. In London, a number of Hebrew private schools existrand several for the educa- tion of ] ■ children. The most noted of I institutions is the .lews' Infant School, where the gutter children of Spitalfields and White- chapel, from the age of 2 to 7. are taught to speak, read, and write in English, and to recite their Hebrew prayers, in addition to other ele- mentary instruction. From 750 to 1000 children now find admission there. The governmenl has the supervision : ami it is pronounced by the Earl of < larlisle " one of the I'm land." The Free School, in the same city, is of a more advanced grade. It admits tho e who desire instruction after leaving the infant School. This Free School is pronounced the largest scholastic institution in England, if not in Europe. About 2,500 children are here in- .struct i • I. 1 lie sexes separately; the branches in the higher classes being beyond the range of element- ary Btudy. The teaching staff is made up of '.Ml masters ami mistresses. This school also is under government inspection, ami is supported mainly by voluntary contributions. It has re- ceived several munificent legacies, amounting thus far to over £50,000. Another noteworthy Hebrew school is the London -lews' College, founded to afford good education at a moderate charge to the children of the mill lie clu Many of its pupils arc trained tor university degrees ami in some instances for the Jew- ish ministry. There is also a society calle 1 The Jewish Association for the Diffusion of Religious Knowledge which supports schools ami synagogues, and circulates publications, aim- ing, in all these ways, "to impress upon the Jewish mind proper notions of the principles ami observances, the spirit ami mission of Juda- ism, ami, by appeals to the reason rather than to sentiment, to develop ami foster a most fervent conviction of the truths of their re- ligion. But notwithstanding these institutions. it is claimed for London that it is probably the only city in which illiterate Hebrews reside. But for the degraded condition in which the very poor Hebrews in this city exist, it might safely he asserted that the Hebrews everywhere are educated : and that, though belonging to all na- tionalities, and scattered promiscuously all over the face of the earth, no Israelites can be found who cannot read or write, if not in the domicil- iary language, certainly in the Hebrew. -In the United States, the Jews have always occupied a most honorable position. Recognizing the value of the political and social fabric of that country, they have no; only maintained institutions tor the training of their children, but have sup- ported education in the public schools. Sunday- schools are now maintained in the cities for ih" religious training of Hebrew youth: and where no such facilities are provided, the rabbi or chazan (public reader of the synagogue) usually assumes the task. At Philadelphia, where there are several distinctively Hebrew schools for general mental training, the Mai- monides College was founded, in 1868; and. for a, few years, it struggled in vain to secure stu- dents, though its facilities were superior, and the president one of the ablest educators and scholars in the country. In 1872, a movement was set on foot for the union of all American Israelites; and. supported principally by congre- gations in the Western States as a Union of American Hebrew Congregations, a college was started, in 1875, "with Dr. 1. M. Wise as president. There are reported to be 17 stud in the institution, which is located at Cincinnati. Ohio. Thus far, the instruction is confined to the Hebrew language ami literature. In May. b s 7<'«, the congregation of New Fork, supported by many of the congregations in Philadelphia, Baltimore, < hicago, and other cities, held a convention in New Fork, ami determined to found a Hebrew Theological Seminary, for the education of Hebrew preachers ami teachers first, and for general culture afterwards. The is high school will probably be pre- ceded by the founding of schools for instruc- tion in the rudiments of the Hebrew language andin Jewish history. — See (Ik my. Geschi der Juden, vol. in. — xi.; Jost, Oesckichte desJu- denlhums; Beer, v n einer Oesckichte der Erziehung unddes Unierrichts bet den Israeliten (1832); Ethrtdqe, History qf Hebrew Liter- (revised and enlarged byWorman and I'ick. N. V., 1S7(>) ; \\'ki;i:i; and HoLTZMANN, GeschicJite der Israeliten; Salvador, Histoire des institutions de MoXse et du Peuple Ji&br (1828); Schmidt, GeschicJite der PcLdagogik,\., 451; Knrn. Biblical Cyclopaedia, sit. Hebrews; J. H. WoRMAN, Jews, in McClintock and Strong's Cyclopaedia qfBibl. Theol. and Eccles. Literature. HECKER, Johann Julius, an eminent < ; en nan educator of the L8th century, died June 24., L768. He was one of the foremost followers of A. II. Eraneke (q. v.), with whom he became HKDDINC COLLEGE IIEGIUS 41' acquainted while studying at the university of Halle. I If was ap| minted, in 1 735, inspector of the orphan house at Potsdam, and, in L739, pastor of the church of the Trinity, in Berlin : and. at the same time, became instructor of the German schools belonging to the parish, lie at once dis- played the greatesl zeal to increase the number of the schools. In May. L739, the first of ins schools was opened with six teachers; and a num- ber of free schools followed in rapid succession, until almost every street had its own free school. In L 746 and 1717, he enlarged his institutions. by adding to the course of instruction drawing, geometry, mechanics, architecture, agriculture, and the natural sciences. 1 le now called his school Realsckule, the first institution of this name. (See Real School). In L748, the school was definitely organized as the Royal Ileal School of Berlin, and consisted of three schools. — a Latin school (Pcedagogium), a German school, and a real school. A teachers' seminary was connected with it in the same year. The school gained great renown under Becker and Halm (q. v.), his assistant. Hecker also paid great attention to the new phonic method of reading as opposed to the spelling method. He was also the author of the Prussian school law, promulgated by Frederick the < rreat, in 1763, which made instruc- tion compulsory for all children from the fifth to th" thirteenth year of age. — See Dtttf.s, Sclm!*' der Pddagogik (Leipsic, 1870) ; and Barnard, (r, run i, i Educational Reformers, and Journal of Education. HEDDING COLLEGE, at Abington, 111., founded in L854, is under the control of the Methodist Episcopal Church. It admits both -. in 1st.'!— 4, it had ( J instructors, 200 pre- paratory and L8 collegiate students, and 1,200 volumes in its libraries. The value of its build- ings, grounds and apparatus was $50,000. The Rev. J. G. Evans. A. M., was the president. HEDGE-SCHOOL, the name originally given, in Ireland, to a school held in the open air, beside a hedge ; hence applied to any tem- porary school in the country, whether literally a bedge-school or not. In some parts of the United States, such schools are called ambulatory schools. For an amusing description of a hedge-school and its teacher, see William Carleton's Traits and Sloriesofthe Irish Peasantry (Dublin 1830—32). The hedge-schoolmasters resembled somewhat the German bacchants (schn/nn's vagantes), ami were often men of quite respectable attain- ments in scholarship. The popular novelist Carleton, whose work is referred to above, was partly educated, near the beginning of the pres- ent century, in a hedge-school. HEGEL, Georg- Wilhelm. Friedrich, one of Germany's most distinguished philosophers, wa> horn in Stuttgart. Aug. 27., L 770, and died in Berlin, Nov. 14., 1831. In 1801, he was ap- pointed privat-docent, and. in 1806, extraordinary professor of philosophy, at Jena. In 1807, he was professor at the gymnasium in Nuremberg; in 1816, professor in Heidelberg; and, in 1 Hi S. pro- fessor in Berlin. Though his life was chielly 97 devoted to the elaboration of a new system of philosophy, he exerted considerable influence on the educational system of Germany. While at Nuremberg, he received from the Bavarian government (1S13) the appointment of school councilor; and. in L820, the Prussian govern- ment appointed him a member of the scientific commission of education. Three years later, he was commissioned to report on the study of philosophy in the Prussian gymnasia, lie, more- over, exerted, for a long time, a powerful influence over the ministry of public instruction in Prus- sia. He did but little, however, directly for the science of education : but the philosophical prin- ciples which he enunciated have been, through the exertions of his followers, the means of intro- ducing many important modifications, both in educational theory and practice. In his own works, pedagogics appears only in the form of applied psychology and ethics ; and as, according to his system, development is incomplete until it assumes an ethical form, practical education is simply the art of making men moral. The child is the offspring of nature ; and. to become truly human, it must be, as it were, reborn — must pass from the natural into the self-conscious and spiritual condition. To aid this transition is education. Flegel attributed great importance to the institution of the family and of the state. The former he deemed the chief factor in edu- cation ; and both together, the great nurse and teacher of humanity. He also placed great stress upon authority in the instruction of children. The attempt to develop the reasoning faculties at too early an age he reprehended as baneful ; but the child should not be kept too long in the bondage of the senses, but should be early ac- customed to think of supersensual things. He insisted strongly upon classical studies as the source of an indispensable culture. In general, however, 11 (gel himself elaborated no theory of education; but the essential principles of his philosophical system constitute the basis for such a theory, upon which his followers have, in part, worked. Among the noted educational writers who are followers of IK gel. we mention Rosen- kranz, Thaulow, and Kapp. — See Rosenkranz, Hegel's LebenQ 84 1); Kapp, Hegel als Gfymnasial' director ( 1 835); Thaulow, HegeVs . [nsichtenwber Wrziehung und Vhterricht, (3 vols., 1853 — 4); IIavm. Hegel und seine Zeti (1857); Schmjdt, Geschichte der Padagogik, vol. iv. HEGITJS, Alexander, one of the greatest German teachers in the second half of the 15th century, was born at lleck, in Westphalia, between 1430 and 14-10, and died at Deventer. in L498. His name, after the fashion of those times, was derived from his birthplace, lie was educated by the famous Thomas a, KempLs. in the school of the llieronyiniaiis (q. v.) at Zwolle. A iter conducting schools at Basel and Emmerich, he opened another at Deventer, which, under his able management, became one of the most cele- brated schools of that age. Among his pupils were Erasmus (q. v.) and Pope Adrian VI. Hegius greatly encouraged the study of the Greek lau- 418 HEIDELBERG COLLEGE HERBART guage, and was one of the chief promoters of a better method of teaching the Latin classics. A collection of his works was published at Deventer. They are enumerated in Erhard, Geschichte des Wiederaufblil hens w issen sch a/flicker Bildung in Deutsckland, vol. i. (See also Netherlands.) HEIDELBERG COLLEGE, at Tiffin, Ohio, was founded in 1850, under the auspices of the Reformed Church in the United States, for the education of both sexes. It has an en- dowment of about $80,000. The college and society libraries, with that of the theological seminary, contain about 5,000 volumes. The institution comprises a collegiate department, with a classical course of four years, and a sci- entific course of three years, and an academy or preparatory department, with a classical and an English course. Special facilities are afforded for the study of German. Heidelberg Theolog- ical Seminary, though under a separate board of trustees, is intimately connected with the col- lege. The cost of tuition in the classical course is $26 per annum : in the scientific course, $21 ; and in the academy, $17. In the theological seminary, it is free, in 1875 — 6, the college had 6 professors, and the theological seminary, 2. The number of students was 189 ; namely, col- lege, 90 ; academy, 75 ; theological seminary, 24. The whole number of the < tin mat of the college was 138 ; of the theological seminary. 112. The president of the college is Rev. George W. Wil- liard. D. D. (1876). HEINICKE, Samuel, a German educator and teacher of deaf-mutes, born April 10., 1 729. died April 30., 1790. Having grown up without education, he joined the army, when twenty-one years old, and by a careful use of his leisure hours acquired some knowledge by self-instruc- tion. In 1760. he became, through the recom- mendation of Klopstock, tutor in the family of Count Schimmelmann, and, in 1768, teacher in Eppendorf. Finding here a deaf-mute, he tried a new method for the instruction of that class of people. Differing from the abbe de l'Epee (q. v.), who taught deaf-mutes to ex- press themselves by means of signs and panto- mimic gestures, and in writing, lleinicke strove to teach them to speak in the common language of articulate sounds, so that they might under- stand, and be understood by, every body. The sign language he considered only as a means toan end, not as the end itself. 1 [is chief aim was to practice the deaf in the same forms of expression, as are used by those that can hear. As he was quite successful, a number of deaf-mutes were sent to him from different countries for educa- tion. In 177N, at the request of the elector of Saxony, he returned to his native country ; and, in the same year, founded, at Leipsic, the first German institution for the instruction of deaf- mutes. But lleinicke was an excellent educator generally. He did much to improve the wretched condition of the common schools, and zealously advocated the substitution of the phonic method of spelling. — See H. E. Stcetzner, Samuel Hei- niclce, sein Leben und Wirke/t (1870). HENDERSON COLLEGE, at Henderson. Tex., was founded by the Methodist Episcopal Church as Fowler Institute, in 1840, and contin- ued under Methodist control till 1870, when it was rechartered as Henderson College, and be- came non-sectarian. It is supported by tuition and incidental fees. There is a fund of $10,000, but not yet available. Both sexes are admitted. It has, besides the collegiate department, a prepar- atory and an inferior department. In 1874—5, there were 6 instructors and 200 students. Oscar II. Cooper has been the president since the or- ganization of the college. HENRY, Joseph, a distinguished American physicist, born in Albany, N. Y., Dec. 17., 1797. He was appointed professor of mathematics in the Albany Academy in 1826; and, shortly after, began a series of experiments in electricity, which led to the theoretical invention of the magnetic telegraph, several years before its practical estab- lishment by Prof. Morse. He was appointed professor of natural philosophy in the College of New Jersey, at Princeton, in 1832, and has con- tinued up to the present time his experiments and researches, not only in electro-magnetism, but in other departments of physics. He is the author of Contributions to Electricity and Mag- netism (1839), and has been a frequent con- tributor to the American Philosophical Trans- actions, Silliman's Journal, Journal of the Franklin Institute, etc. On the organization of the Smithsonian Institution, at AYashington, in 1846, Prof. Henry was appointed its secretary, which position he still holds. HERBART, Johann Friedrich, a distin- | guished philosopher of Germany who made pedagogics the great end and aim of philosoph- ical study, was born in Oldenburg, May 4., 1776, died in Gottingen, August 14., 1841. After studying at the university of Jena, where he at- tended the lectures of Fichte, he became, in 1797, i a tutor in the family of a citizen of Bern, and at once began to elaborate a system of pedagogy. His pedagogical studies led to an intimate acquaintance with I'estalozzi. who, at that time, was teaching at Burgdorf in the canton of Bern. In 1800. he went to Bremen, where he delivered pedagogical lectures, and, in 1802, he became a privat-docent (lecturer) at the university of Gottingen. In 1805, he was promoted to an ex- traordinary professorship ; in 1809, he received a call as ordinary professor to Konigsberg ; and. in 1833. he returned to Gottingen. In all these academic positions, he lectured on pedagogics as well as on philosophy, and gathered around him- self a number of young men thoroughly imbued with his ideas. At Konigsberg, he also founded, in 1810. a pedagogical seminary in which young teachers, under his immediate direction, were to instruct a select number of boys according to his educational principles. Herbart says, that his in- vestigations were chiefly due to the settled con- viction that very many of the tremendous gaps in our pedagogical knowledge are attributable to defects in our psychology, and that these must be remedied before a science of education is pos HERBART HERDER 419 sible. His educational principles flow directly from his philosophy. His psychology recognizes no predetermined capacities in the soid which direct its future development. The soul, in it- self, contains only the power of reacting against external influences. Such reaction constitutes perception; and the mind, as a conscious intelli- gence, resembles a machine constructed of these perceptions. If impressions from without are not guided, the result must be disorderly and worthless. Hence the necessity of systematic education, in order to give form and direction to the indefinite activity of the soul. In proportion, then, to the extent and regularity with which perceptions are called forth in the soul, will be the breadth and value of the mental organism which the soul creates out of its perceptions. The whole of Herbart's system is an indirect polemic against all theories which place the aim of education without the individual subject. Neither family, nor state, nor humanity, is the end of education, but the development of the individual himself. Every thing but the indi- vidual is an abstraction, and valueless except as it serves to advance his interests. Pedagogics, therefore, with Herbart is a department of ethics, or rather the method by which ethics secures its aim ; namely, the perfection of the individual. The work of education has three parts: discipline, instruction, and training. The child has no control of himself. He is the prey of whatever lawless inclination may claim him. To overcome this is the office of discipline. Society and the family furnish a part <>f the needed discipline, but not enough ; it must be supplemented by the systematic discipline of the school. Discipline, however, must not be con- tinued any longer than is necessary, but care must also be taken not to relax it too soon. In- struction must not be limited to the acquire- ment of knowledge, or of technical skill. Its chief aim is the culture of the will ; that is, to impart an insight into ethical relations and the ability to realize ethical ideas. Discipline and instruction must be united, in order to bring forth many-sidedness in knowledge and in character. Training aims to fix the moral les- sons into abiding forms of character, and to bring the student to a point where he can un- dertake the work of self-cidture. It follows from Herbart's psychology, that he would not be con- tent with unrelated knowledge. According to him, the so-called faculties are produced and developed purely by the association of ideas. Mental vigor, therefore, can be secured oidy by a habit of looking at things in their relations ; hence, the true order of teaching is to begin as soon as possible to give not merely the facts, but their bearings and connections. In this way, knowledge acquires an intellectual interest for the student, and a moral interest also; for the most important relations are ethical ones ; and the highest aim of instruction is to enable one to see all things in their ethical relations, and to act accordingly. These points are con- stantly repeated by Herbart, and illustrated at considerable length and with great energy. To a certain extent also, he viewed statesmanship as a branch of pedagogics. The chief educational works of Herbart are : AUgemeine Pada- gogik (1806), and Umriss pddagogischer Vor- lesungen (1835 ; 2d edit., 1841). Among the numerous smaller works, the Aphorismen zur Padagogik is of special importance for teachers. A full understanding of the edu- cational principles of Herbart is, however, scarcely possible without a knowledge of his philosophical system, which is chiefly explained in his two principal works, Psychologie (2 vols., 1824 — 5), and AUgemeine Metaphysik (2 vols., 1828 — 0). His complete works were published by Hartenstein (12 vols., 1850 — 52). An edi- tion of his educational writings, in chronological order, with introductions, notes, and a compara- tive register, was published by Willmann (Her- bart's Pddagogm ■// e Schrifien, 2 vols., 1S73 — 5). A large number of educators have more fully de- veloped the views of Herbart; prominent among these, are Mager, Waitz, Stoy, and Ziller. A biography of Herbart was published by Harten- stein (in an edition of the smaller philosophical writings of Herbart, 3 vols., 1842 — 3). — See also Schmidt, Geschichte der Padagogik, iv., trans- lated in the Journal of Speculative Philosophy, April, 1876. In May, 1876, his native city cele- brated, with great solemnity, his centennial birth- day, and erected a monument to him. HERDER, Johann Gottfried von, one of Germany's most distinguished theologians, authors, and teachers, was born at Mohrungen, Aug. 25., 17-11, and died in Weimar, Dec. 18., 1803. He early distinguished himself by his progress in scholarship ; and his literary attain- ment gained him the friendship of a Russian physician, by whom he was induced to commence medical studies. But he soon renounced these, and resolved to devote himself to theology. In 1764, he was appointed teacher, and afterwards preacher, at the cathedral school in Riga; and while there, he attracted much attention by his writings.as well as by the brilliancy and cloquence- of his preaching. In 1769, he left Riga to travel in Germany, Erance, and Italy; and while at Strasburg was intimately associated with Goe- the. In 1776, he became court preacher, general superintendent, and counselor of the Upper Consistory at Weimar, where he passed the re- mainder of his life, in constant communion with the most gifted minds of that brilliant period of German literary history. Here, too, he labored for the improvement of the schools. In 1783, he drew up a plan for their management, and secured an increase of salary to the teachers. A teachers' seminary was established in 1787,. through his influence. In the lower schools he? introduced the Pestalozzian method as far as it was practicable under the circumstances. Her- der's views on education present many points of interest and value. His leading principle was, that the aim of education is to develop human- ity. First and foremost, he says, we are re- quired to be men ; and any educational system 420 HERMANN BEYNB which aims at less than the full culture of all the powers of manhood is treason toward God and humanity. It is only the purest and most gifted persons that should be teachers ; for the teacher must not only know what the pupil is to learn, but he must be what he aims to have his pupil become. I lis connection with his pupils must be of the most intimate character. His intellectual instruction must be given with all the freshness of original discovery ; and his moral teaching must have all the fervor of conviction, and the authority of absolute truth. In teaching science and history, it is noi isolated facts that must be presented, but their relations and their aggregate logical significance. Especially should the student's self-activity be thoroughly aroused ; and, hence, he favored the Socratic method of leading the pupil's mind to develop truth for itself from fundamental principles. The whole of education must be permeated with the spirit of humanity and with a fervent piety. Notwithstanding his enlarged views and derp insight, he was quite conservative, lie condemned in unmeas- ured terms the raw ami presumptuous reformers of his day; and the Philanthropinists did not entirely escape his censure. In one of his ad- dresses, he remarks that "instead of the ■ old word school, a fashion has been introduced of using new and more showy terms, such as Educational Institution, and Philanthrqpinum ; and that much is said of 'genius', 'original genius', which docs every thing for itself, and has mi need of any other instructor; and of wonderful self-development by one's own powers." lie strongly opposed a "French edu- cation", instead of teaching in the native lan- guage. He also advocated that the lower classes of real schools should train useful citi- zens, and thai the upper ones should form a scientific gymnasium. 1 lis views on the teaching of language were eminently sound and practical. "Grammar," he said, "must be learned from the language, and not the language from gram mar; style, from speaking, and noi Bpeaking from an artificially formed style." Be was, in every respect, a practical educator, and was proud to be considered such. •• In my nineteenth year," he said, " I began teaching in the highest of an academical institution, and from that time to this I have never been free from the responsibilities of a teacher, or else of a school Officer." The complete edition of his works (45 vols., L805 22) contains a large number of addresses and essays on educational subjects. See Schmidt, Geschichte der P&da- _ grammatical (ImH ), and in his learned notes to Viger's Depratcipuis Grcecce dictionis idiotismis (1802; 4th ed., 18 His endeavors to elucidate the intellectual life of the ancient world chiefly through an accurate knowledge of the language and of the metrical form, involved him in literary controversies with Bockh, K. <>. .Midler, and Greuzer. Bis editions of the tragic (ireek poets and of other (Ireek writers are still highly valued. Memoirs of his life and works have been published by 0. Jahn (1849), and Kochly (1874). HESPERIAN COLLEGE, at Woodland, OaL, under the control of the Christian denom- ination, was founded in 1869. It admits both sexes. In L875 -(i. it had 10 instructors, L50 students, and productive funds to the amount of $50,000. The value of its buildings, grounds, and apparatus is $30,000. ,;. |[. Smith, LL.D. is (1876) the president. HESSUS, Eobanus, one of the foremost German educators of the time of the Refor- mation, born in 1 188, died in 1540, lie was ap- pointed, in 1516, prof essor at the university of Erfurt : accepted, in L525, a call to the newly established gymnasium of Nuremberg, returned in 1534 to i'.rfurt. and. in 1 536, became profes- sor of history at the university of Marburg. He was an intimate friend of Lcuchlin. Me- lanchthon, and other eminent men of the;; and his reputation as a teacher was so great, that, as professor at Erfurt, he is said to have had at one time 1500 hearers. He was on.' of the best modern Latin poets ; and, as author no less than as teacher, largely contributed to a better knowledge of Latin and (ireek. Special works on the life of Hessus have been written by Camerarius (1553), Lossius (1797), Her/. (1860), and Schwertzell (1873). An interesting aCCOUnl Of Hessus is also given in the work ot II. P. Strauss on llutten (2d edit, 1871}. HEYNE, Christian Gottlob, a German scholar and educator, born Sept. '-'•">.. 1729, died July 11., 1812 lie studied iii the university HIERONYMIANS HIGH SCHOOLS 421 of Leipsic, and after holding several minor posi dons, received, in L 763, a call to the university of Gottingen, where, besides his position as academic teacher, he also held those of director of the philological seminary, librarian in chief of the university library, and inspector of the peed- agogium in Qefeld. In his philological semi- nary, he educated a large number of efficient teachers; and as librarian, he succeeded in raising the university library to one of the largesl and best arranged in Europe. As an organizer, lie showed great talent in the p&dagogium in lle- feld as well as in the schools of Gottingen and Hanover, which, through his reforms, attained great celebrity throughout < lennany. 1 levne is re- corded as one of the greatest German philologists of the 18th century. Besides editing several Latin and Greek classics, he wrote numerous works on classic antiquity. His life was written by Beeren (1813). — Bee also Kajemmel, in SciiMrn's Encyclop&die. HIERONYMIANS, or Brethren of the Common Life, a religious order, which did much for education in the Netherlands and north- ern Germany during the 1 4th, 15th, and Kith centuries. It was founded by < Herard Groot (also written Groote or Grote), a native of Deventer. lie was born in 1 .140. and studied in Paris from 1355 to L358, where he gave his attention to magic, astrology, and necromancy; but he re- nounced these arts and was chosen a canon in Aix- la-Chapelle and in Cologne. In the latter ]>! he preached in his native language, — a thing un- heard of and bitterly opposed at that time. Urge. I by his friends and supporters, he founded an in- stitution devoted to instruction and purity of life. Many friends joined him in this undertaking, and soon a society was formed, the members of which, without taking m< mastic vows, devoted their lives to piety, charity, and the education of the people. They depended for their subsistence on their own labor, ami on property donated by the members on entering the order. The first house of the order was founded at Deventer, in 1384. Branch houses soon followed in many other cities of the Netherlands; and in many parts of northern Germany. Female associations were also formed, with similar objects. "Where they had no insti- tutions of their own, they taught in the existing schools. Thus, by the end of tie 15th century, they had spread from the Scheldt to the Vistula. They regarded Hieronymus (St. Jerome) and St. Gregory (the Great) as their patron-saints, and hence called themselves Hieronymicens, or Qregorians. Gerard only lived long enough to see the commencement of the work of the order, as he died in L384. He appointed as his suc- cessor Florentius Radewin, who was born in 1350, studied at Prague, and became canon at Utrecht. As .-< >< »n as he hail heart I of < rerard's in- fluential career at Deventer. he had given up his position in Utrecht, and had gone to Deventer as a vicar, where he soon became an intimate friend of Gerard. I [e died, after a life of great useful- ness, in the year L400. It was he who proposed the living in common, which led to the order's be- ing called Brethren of the Common Ldfe. Among its other distinguished members, were Gerard Zerbolt, com |y styled Gerard of Zutphen, Thomas a Kempis, Johann Wessel. ami the cele- brated cardinal. N icolaus < 'usantts. Some of their pupils attained great celebrity in after life, among whom were Erasmus, Agricola, and Hermann Busche. They reached their greatest efficiency in the 16th century ;. and their last union was established at Cambrai. in L505. After the Ref- ormation, man; of their number embraced the new faith, while the remainder were absorbed by the -Jesuits. Although they cared for the edu- cation of all the people, they were particularly distinguished for their zeal in receiving the poor children of both sexes, and educating them. They laid particular stress on the religious ele- ment. The plan pursued in their instruction was simple in the extreme, and may be gathered from the following words of the founder : "Spend no time either on geometry, arithmetic, rhetoric, logic, grammar, poetry, or judicial astrology. All these branches Seneca rejects: 1 x >w much more, then, should a spiritua lly-mii ided Christian pass them by. since they subserve in no respect the life of faith. Of the sciences of the Pagans, their ethics may not be so scrupu- lously shunned; since this was the special held of the wisest among them, as Socrates and Plato. That which does not improve a man, or at least does not reclaim him from evil, is positively hurtful. Neither ought we to read pagan books, nor. indeed, the Holy Scriptures in order merely to penetrate into the mysteries of nature by that means." They, however, endeavored to promote the study of the Bible by the common people; and to their efforts in that direction is attributed the foundation of Christian popular education; since to study the Bible, the people must be instructed in reading, which led neces- sarily to writing; and thus the seeds of intel- lectual progress were sown, which sprang up and bore fruit in the Reformation. Because of their activity in promoting education, the brethren were sometimes called the Scholastic fraternity (fratres scholares); and, indeed. they devoted themselves not merely to the elementary instruction of the people, but to the higher branches of education, as is obvious from the many distinguished scholars found in their schools. — See 1! a f.\i ER,( }eSChichtederPadagogik\ translated in Barnard's German Educators; Delprat, Over de Broederschap run G. Qrote (1836; German translation!)}- Mohnikb, L840). HIGH SCHOOLS, generally schools of sec- ondary or academic instruction, corresponding, to the lower grades of the German gymnasia, but sometimes partaking rather of the character of real schools. Public high schools exist in most of the states of the Union, forming a part of the public-school system, being the connecting link between the elementary district, common, or grammar schools, and the state university, for which they perforin the office of preparatory schools. Some of these schools are so organized as to comprise academic, normal, and commer- 422 HIGH SCHOOLS cial departments. In small cities and towns, high-school classes or departments, taught in the same building with the grammar .schools, take the place of separate high schools. There is a great want of uniformity in the grade and char- acter of these schools in different states and in different cities of the same state. Home are Bimply of a higher grade than the grammar schools; that is, they give instruction in more advanced studies; while others strictly forma a part of a graded system which includes a complete representation of primary, secondary, and superior instruction. En some of the large cities, as Boston, Philadelphia, Baltimore, Chi- cago, Cincinnati, Detroit, and St. Louis, the high school assumes large proportions, and per- forms a very important function, both as regards elementary and superior or university education. stimulating the one and supporting the other. The establishment of public nigh schools in the 1'nited States is of quite recent date ; although, in Massachusetts, as early as 1 797, the academies were virtually incorporated into the system of public schools, by receiving endowments of land from the state. In 1834, an act of the New York legislature required the regents of the university to apply the Surplus income of the literature fund, beyond the sum of $12,000, to the education of common-school teachers, by distributing i1 to such a ies as should un- dertake their instruction. Until L837, when the Philadelphia High School was established, there was no institution of the kind in the United States outside of Massachusetts. Balti- more organized a high school in L839 ; Cincin- nati, in L850 ; and Chicago, in 1856. In the city of New York, as early as L826, effortswere made to establish a high school "for instruction in the higher branches of an English education, and in Latin and Greek ;" but the plan was not realized until tin' organization of the New York free Academy, in L849, in pursuance of an act of the legislature, and a subsequent popular vote, the resull of which was, L9,404 in favor of the measure, and 3,409 against it. This institu- tion is now thi' College of the City of Nev. York. Boston had no high school for girls until 1853; ami the city of New York, no public in- utioD tor the higher education of until the establishment of the Female Normal College, in L870. It is thus within a peri< less than twenty-five years U em, now so extensive, of public high schools has grown up in the 1'nited States. In some of the states, the system is much better organized than in others, as to the gradation of the course of study, both in its relation to the elementary schools below and the university above. In .some cases, i he graduates of the high school are admitted ipso facto into the university. In Michigan, there is an arrangement by which high scl Is ih.it desire a recognition from the university are visited and examined by ;i com- mittee of the facility; and. if approved, have their graduates admitted to the university with out further examination. This plan appears to have worked well, especially in its effect upon the high .schools themselves, as subjecting them to good scholastic supervision, and placing them in proper organic connection with the university. This is substantially the arrangement existing in a few other states, and is strongly advocated in some of the states in which it does not exist. [n many places, however, much opposition has been made to the establishment of public high schools, as transcending the scope of state edu- cation, which, it has been contended, should be confined strictly to primary instruction. In sup- port of this position, the small proportion of pupils attending these schools, as compared with the school population, has been urged to demon- strate the injustice, as alleged, of taxing the en- tire community for the higher education, and, therefore, the particular benefit, of so small a portion of it. On the other hand, it is urged that, although only a few directly enjoy the ad- vantages afforded by these schools, the whole community is greatly benefited by their influence, independently of their elevating and stimulating effect upon the elementary schools. "I will thank any person." says Everett, "to show why it is expedient and beneficial in a community to e public provision for teaching the elements of learning, and not expedient nor beneficial to make similar provision to aid the learner's progress toward the mastery of the most difficult i hes of science and i he choicest refinement of literature." 'I he specific grounds on which higher education at the public expense is advo- I and defended are the following; ill High schools serve to give increased efficiency to the elementary schools below them. ('2) The high school and the state university, to which it is preparatory, constitute the best preservative of republican equality, and, therefore, a preventive of social caste; inasmuch as they afford the means for all, of whatever social grade, to enjoy the benefits of all the education which they have the capacity to receive. (3) High-school education is the means of discovering and devel- oping genius and talent, by the cultivation of which the political, social, and industrial inter- ests of the community are greatly advanced. il forces in ev< ry community center in its leaders, political, social, and religious; of the greatest importance that those gifted minds and those em rgetic charact that, with or without culture, always make then Felt in a free community, should have, regardless of wealth or social grade, full opportunity of receiving such an education as will render the power they must ine\ itablj wield, beneficent to society at large. "No system of public education." says Huxley, " is worthy the name of national. unl( ss it crea it edu- cational ladder with one end in the gutter, and the otherin the university." '• Experience has proved," says ITas. Adams (in Free School System of '///'■ United States, London, L87 "that elementary education tlourishes most, where the provision for higher education is most ample. If the elementary schools of Germany ITIOII SCHOOLS HISTORY 423 are the best in the world, it is owing, in a great measure, to the fact, thai the higher schools are accessible to all classes. In England, not only hare the aims of the elementary schools been educationally low and narrow, but an impass- able unit' has separated the people's schools from the higher schools of the country. In the United States, the common schools have always E reduced the best results where the means of igher education have been the most plentiful." Superintendent Philbrick, of Boston, in his an- nual report for L87 l. said. " The common school is always feeble and inefficient when high schools, academies, and colleges are wanting. Educational science teaches that educational improvement works from the top downward, and not from the bottom upward. Harvard College was, for a long period, the mainspring of the success of the common schools of .Massachusetts." In L874, the citizens of Kalamazoo, Mich., brought a case before the circuit court in order to test the right of a school board to establish and maintain a high school as a part of the public school system of the state. Against the right, it was argued that the law contemplated, in the free schools, only primary instruction in the element- ary English studies, that, therefore, the estab- lishment of a high school, with a curriculum embracing higher mathematics, languages, etc., was a transgression of the law; and that, conse- quently, taxation to support such an institution might be legally resisted by the people. The ■court, however, ruled against this point, — that tin; law providing for primary schools did not prohibit the establishment of other schools ; that the enumeration of branches for a teachers ■examination was only prescribing a minimum of qualification; that the legal direction, " all instruction shall be in the English language,'' must be held to refer to the medium for com- municating knowledge, not to any subject of in- struction ; that, accordingly the teaching of Greek, Latin, German, French, etc., was not ex- cluded ; and that, as the school in question came fairly within the provided system of public schools, it might, like others, be sustained by a reasonable district taxation. High schools should not be needlessly multi- plied, ami should be carefully prevented from trenching upon the sphere of the elementary schools. Since their value depends greatly on their influence upon the elementary schools, the requirements for admission should lie such as to incite the latter to accurate and thorough scholarship within their sphere, and stimulate their pupils to faithful and earnest study. When the number of high schools or high-school de- partments is excessive, the tendency is to weaken this influence by reducing the standard for ad- mission, or relaxing the strictness of the exami- nations. Insomeof thecitiesof the Union — New T i 'ork, Boston, St. Louis, and others, the high ■school has been introduced as a part of the evening-school system. Besides the public high schools, there is a large class of private institu- tions of a similar grade, which differ only in name from seminaries, academics, classical schools, etc. In England, the gnat public schools, such as Eton, Harrow, etc.. belong to the same class, as secondary or middle schools ; and the High School of Edinburgh is a repre- sentative of the same class. (Sec Skconuary Instruction.) HIGHER EDUCATION. See High Schools, Skconuary Instruction, and Superior Instruc- tion. HIGHLAND UNIVERSITY, at High- land, Kan., under the control of the Presbyterians, was chartered in 1858. It has productive funds to the amount of $25,000. The cost of tuition is $33 per year, it has a preparatory and a col- legiate department, to which both sexes are ad- mitted, and there is a special course for young ladies. The library contains 5,000 volumes. In 1872 — 3, there were (> instructors, and 145 pre- paratory, and 25 collegiate students. HILLSDALE COLLEGE, at Hillsdale, Mich., under the control of the Freewill Baptists, was established at Spring Arbor in 1844, and (bartered as Michigan Central College in 1845. It was removed to its present site and rechar- tered as 'Hillsdale College', in 1 855. Both sexes are a< tmitted. < >ver $25,000 have been subscribed to the endowment. Tuition fees are nominal. The library contains 4,000 volumes. The college has a preparatory and a collegiate department, with a classical and a scientific course, and also a theological and a commercial course, and courses in art and music. In 1872 — 3, there were 21 in- structors and 579 students, of whom 197 were in the college classes, 273 in the preparatory depart- ments, and 1 3 in the theological course. HIRAM COLLEGE, at Hiram, Portage Co., Ohio, is under the control of the Disciples. It took its present title in 1867, growing out of the Western Reserve Eclectic Institute, founded in 1850. It is supported by tuition fees and an endowment of about $60,000. The libraries contain about 2,500 volumes. The collegiate department comprises (1) a classical course, (2) a Latin and scientific course, (3) a scientific course, and (4) a ladies' course. It has also a prepara- tory, a normal, a commercial, and an elementary course. Considerable attention is given to pre- paring yung men for the ministry. Many of the best known and most useful Disciple minis- ters have studied in this college. In 1874 — 5, there were 9 instructors and 233 students (126 males and 107 females), of whom 30 were of the collegiate grade. The president of the college is Burke A. Hinsdale. A.M. (1876). HISTORY, as a branch of instruction, pre- sents very many important points of inquiry for the educator. The vast field which it oc- cupies as a realm of facts, the great difficulty in classifying these facts, and deducing from them any general principles or laws, or even in asso- ciating them so that they may be presented to tb" mind of the learner in groups bound together by some common relation, — these character- istics of history make it perhaps the most dif- ficult which the educator has to deal with. This 424 HISTORY will account for the diversity of opinion as to the proper method of teaching it. as well as for the many obvious errors of method that exist. Some, indeed, have condemned it as a school study; on the ground that the mere facts of history, without the general laws which they teach, arc of no account, while the study of the philosophy of history is too deep for immature minds. » >n this account, Prof. Bain contends that it is a subject proper only for the university. John Locke said. "As nothing teaches, so nothing delights, more than history. The firsl of these recommends it to the study of the grown man; the latter makes me think it fittest for a young lad". These extreme opinions arise from viewing the subject from different stand- points. There is no doubt that the study of history, like that of geography, botany, astron- omy, and other school subjects may be presented to tlu- mind of the child in such a manner as not only to be useless and distasteful, but actually injurious. As in every other subject, the edu- cator is to consider the nature of the mind to be addressed, and the character of the study itself. Primarily, history is a narrative; and there is nothing which pleases children BO much as narratives con<3erning things in which they take ail interest, or with which they are familiar. If children, therefore, are to study history, they must first be interested in the persons and things that it refers to. Thus American children will be eager to learn about the discovery of Amer- ica by Columbus, because it concerns the coun- try in which they live: and they will be scarcely satisfied with any amount of detail in regard to the particular facts connected with that event. < lolumbus as a great personage will then loom up in their imagination, and their curiosity will be exerted to know- something about him. This will interest them in Isabella, the good queen of Spain; and BOmething may he said of her. and of the country to which she belonged. In this desultory way. and without any special effort to show the relations of events as to time or cause and effect, the coneeptive faculty of quite young children may be addressed in teaching his- tory, and thus their minds will be prepared fol- ds regular study, by receiving those underlying Conceptions which are constantly needed to make formal historical narratives interesting or even understood. "The fact", says Emerson, "must correspond to something in me to be credible or intelligible". It is in reference to this principle that Wickersham remarks, "H concerns us little to know the lineage of lungs and queens, the intrigues of courts, or the plans of campaigns; but it would interesl us much to be told how people in past times built their houses, worked their fields, or educated their children what style of dress they wore, what kind of food they ea'- w hat I ks they read." The latter . of facts are not, however, more interesting in themselves. Imt hecause they are more nearly related to our individual experience. Different persons will not he interested in the bs class of historical facts. The soldier will attend to the military history of a country: the statesman and politician, to the political: the agriculturist, to tlie methods of husbandry in use ; and to a numerous class of minds the dynastic history — ■ the "lineage of kines and queens", will possess supreme fascination. All departments of historj ate useful in their special applications: and are of interest to those who desire to know the facts which they severally comprehend. In arranging history for educational purposes, we must con- sider the decree of development of the pupils mind: and in this respect historical study may be divided into three stages: (lj The introductory, in which the mind of the young child has to be prepared for the study, as above indicated ; (2) The intermediate, at which the formal study of history commences, dealing principally with facts and their obvious relations ; and (.*{) The advanced, in which the higher forms of general- ization are presented, constituting what has been styled the philosophy of history. In the first stage, what has been called the " fragments of history", that is. brief and interesting narratives, biographical sketches. &c, clothed in a simple picturesque style, should constitute the subject matter of the instruction. This may be pre- sented iua desultory manner, without any spe< ial regard to Logical or chronological order, the great object being to interest the learner by filling his - mind with vivid conceptions of certain events and personages. Of course, this preliminary in- struction may take a wide range, embracing the most prominent persons and events in the history of the world, ami thus constituting a valuable outline, on which to base the subsequent study. but this is not so important as that, in every thine' that is taught, the young pupil's experience and imagination should be addressed : that is. the facts presented to be learned should be con- crete facts, not mere abstractions. Epitomes oi history are valueless for this purpose, because they attempt to cover the whole ground. As has been well said by a celebrated educationist, the use of an epitome is like giving a child an •• index to learn by heart ". In the .second Stage, while the same principle should be steadily kept in view, the study should become more formal and systematic. It is here that tin' most important questions arise for con- Siderat ion. The first of these concerns the choice between a compendium of history and a series of historical text books on different nations. The System of .special national text-hooks mew up at a lime when, from national patriotism, each country considered its own history as foremost and hence, all others as of secondary importance : and it has been fostered, in the advance of historic learning, bya system of abridgments of large standard works, or by school books based. in method of treatment, upon them. Bui sin h treatment is not adapted to conditions for which the originals were nol intended. Each of these special works presupposes the existence of all the others, and thus virtually depends on them for its general stand-point, and for that knowl- edge which is indispensable to render the nana- HISTORY !•_'.. five intelligible; and. hence, for school purposes, the abridgments are of little use. because this general knowledge cannot be supposed to exist. Besides that, the large standard works are too exclusively philosophical in their character and arrangement to admit of an abridgment for school purposes. Narrowing the field <>t' view for the purpose of scientific investigation, such works naturally adopt largely the consecutive narrative form : but consecutive narrative is not essential when only general leading facts are to be presented, and narrative detail is unsuited to the treatment required for school instruction. There can be no perspective in such a mode of treatment. Leading facts rank side by side with subordinate ones, and the history assumes the form of dry annals. Excessive detail in historical text-books is always a fruitful source of vexation to both teacher and pupil. What is needed. f< r this stage of instruction, is a skillful grouping of facts, which, while it departs but little from the chronological order, shows the proper rela- tion of events — how one brought about the other. In the history of the world, as of each separate country, and of every great event, as. for example, the Reformation, the Thirty Years' War. the Revolution in England, the American Revolution, the French Revolution, the great Civil War in the United States, there are cer- tain conspicuous stand-points, or centers of in- terest, around which other events should be grouped, as dependent upon them. '1 he same principle is opposed, in the teaching of general history, to confining the attention of the pupil exclusively to each nation ill succession, through- out its entire history [ethnographic method). It is a well-defined feature of every historic move- ment that, in many of its epochs, it is carried along by some particular nation as the represen- tative. f( >r the time being, of some controlling idea or principle, other nations playing a subordinate part. This should be clearly brought out in the arrangement of the subject ( grouping method |. It is not always possible, however, to distinguish a single nation as holding such an undisputed prominence ; but, where this question is in doubt, there is always a movement, more or less general, to which the contemporaneous nations are subject, and to which, therefore, the history of the separate nations should have a distinct ref- erence. In the period of the Reformation, for example, it is desirable to present the nations collectively in their relation to it, the events which concern their separate existence being kept in the background. A system of instruction which presents, in succession and at widely sep- arated intervals, the share of each particular nation in such a great movement as the Refor- mation, cannot possibly impress the mind of the pupil properly in regard to it. In the compi- lation of a compendium of history suitable for school use, a compromise is requisite between the plan of teaching the history of each nation by itself [ethnographic method | and that of teaching by periods or epochs, the history of each nation coming iu where it belongs in the period (syn- chronistic method). The latter method, by short periods, centuries for instance, is useless for be- ginners, as it gives only a, confused picture of tlie whole. Iii ancienl history, it has but a limited application ; because the nations of an- tiquity were essentially separate, coming on the Stage at successive periods, and rarely blended, to any extent, in any general movement. The ethnographic method is, therefore, the best for this department of history, but may be departed from in certain portions of it. as, for example, in the history of the states of tireece. For be- ginners, the ethnographic method seems to be best, at least until a (rood general outline has been fixed in the mind, after which the grouping method ought to be steadily pursued, but still with a constant regard to the mental advance- ment and maturity of the student. The chrono- logical method must, however, lead in every scheme of elementary historical teaching. The pupil must, above all things, attend to the order of time ; or his subsequent reading and study will be greatly embarrassed. This method has been used in Germany from time immemorial, with modifications such as have been referred to, for adaptation to the purposes of elementary, burgher and real schools, and gymnasia. These modifications consist chiefly in the relative prom- inence given to the synchronistic and ethno- graphic principles. Stiehl's Der vaterldndische Geschichtsunterricht in misern Elementarschu- len — The history of our Country in ///<■ Ele- mentary Schools (Coblenz, 1842), and Haupt's Wdtgeschichte nach Pestalozzi's Grundsdtzen — General History on the Principles of Pestalozzi (1841), were attempts to introduce the grouping method. Many of the school text-books on history, published in Great Britain and the United States, are based on the same system; but teachers have generally favored the ethnographic system, as less fragmentary and disjointed. For a field so vast as that of general history, it is of the highest impoi'tance that the idea of both unity and sequence should be impressed upon the pupil's mind. In the chronologic method, the perspective view which this unification of the broader parts demands, is not dependent on the special notions of any teacher or compiler, but gro\Vs up in the mind from the study of the facts themselves. In the treatment of antiq- uity, thi' history of the eastern nations precedes that of the Greeks, and the Greeks the Romans; and while teaching each in chronologic order, the other contemporaneous nations should be brought in. as episodes, at such periods and in such connections, as will best illustrate the history of the great nation which, for the time being, is controlling the affairs of the world. Egypt, Assyria, Babylon, Persia, Greece, Rome (republic and empire), may. in succession, he made the leading nation; and all the others will cnine in at certain periods. In the middle ag the treatment should be analogous; there is at every period, a great tribe or nation, whether the Franks, the Saracens, the Normans, or the Ger- mans, the history of whom, treated in its chrono- \ 426 HISTORY logic order, will absorb the remainder, except what may come in episodically. In modern history. the ethnographic principle must at first have prominence, before the pupil can study the great European movements, such as the Reformation and the Thirty Years' War. with any real sat- isfaction or benefit. As Ranke remarks, "it i> only on the side of the activity that the events can be judged." In the early part of the Kith century, the policy of Charles v., in the latter part, the Protestant development in Holland, France, and England controls the Bcene. In the 1 Till, alternately, the advance of the .Jesuits, the Thirty Years' War, and the reign of Louis XI V.. claim an absorbing attention. In the 18th, the England of Walpole, the Prussia of Frederick, and the French Revolution, successively give the stand-point for understanding European history. Chiefly as episodes, in mediaeval and modern history, coin 'in certain great topic3 ; such as the Saracenic civilization, the Byzantine culture, the Turkish ascendency, the maritime discoveries of Portugal and Spain, the Italian Renaissance, the struggle of the Dutch Republic, the rise of Sweden and Russia, etc. Whatever method may be used, synchronistic exercises will be con- stantly requisite to a full understanding of the relations of events. These may take the form of lists of sovereigns grouped into centuries ami arranged, side by side in perpendicular culm mis; or leading events arranged in the same way. Alter tin' history of any nation or period has bi H stu lie 1 in the chroi 1 order, various inci ho Is of arrangement may be adopted for the {iurpose of review, varying the sequence which tas been followed in the regular lessons. Thus, the pupil may be required to state all the events connected with a particular place, or a particular individual, which he has previously learned in a strictly chronologic order, or in connection with the national history. The topical method of recitation will be found the most effective. DOi only lor the attainment of the besl results as far as history itself is concerned, bul for col- lateral culture, particularly of expression. On account of the latter, accuracy in langu should, as much as possible be insisted upon: and the pupils should be required to use their own language, instead of memorizing that oi the text-book. Brief written sketches of events, ges, periods, etc., will be of great us- in making this collateral culture effective, and will ■ afford much useful practice in other re- Bpects. A Bevere ami Bustaine 1 drill on a. single manual is of great use lor the strong landmarks it leaves in the pupil's mind ; but, to he thor- oughly effective as an educational process, it ought to In' accompanied with the reading, to BOme extent, of auxiliary books giving interesting detail in regard to prominent points. Such a system of independent reading by the different members of a class, properly utilized, will lead to the acquisition of much interesting infor- mation, each pupil bringing his own contri- bution, lo In- offered in connection with the class ex© Children, at an early age, with a taste for reading, will devour solid books of history, when not under compulsion ; especially if they have a strong frame-work fixed in their minds for the separate facts to attach themselves to: and such reading will constitute a very im- portant part of mental culture. — Dates are to some extent needed, hut only in connection with the general narrative. To memorize the dates of isolated events is worse than useless. The dates of certain great events, marking epochs, should be carefully fixed in the mind. As already said, the method pursued should be such as to keep the stream of time constantly in view ; and this will render the memorizing of many dates unnecessary. " I »ates ", says the < rerman writer Abbenrode, "are the most simple monitors of memory, and can never be entirely omitted, though they ought to be limited for children, and sometimes to be made round numbers, for the sake of memory ; nay, a sensible arrangement of them often aids the understanding of related events better than could be done by long ex- positions. " Chronological relations may be better taught by means of historical charts, rep- resenting the exact position in time of every nation and event, just as a map represents coun- tries, cities, etc., iii space. 'I hese should be large enough to show clearly to the eye what is rep- resented : and the different nations should be marked out in strong colors. Of such charts, Labberton's and Halsey's arc examples. Pro- gressive maps, showing the states and countries, and their extent at different periods, are indis- pensable. American school manuals, such as Anderson's General History, Swinton's Outlines of History, and Thalheimer's manuals of ancient and modern history, are copiously supplied with maps of this kind. Those of Freeman's Old "English History (London, 1869) are also good examples of such maps; as are also those of Labberton's IIistnrir.il Alias (Phila.,1872). Th progressive maps illustrate the relation of geog- raphy and history, and afford an indication of the extent to which geographical study is needed in connection with that of history. It is. how- ever, desirable that all the places mentioned in the history should be at least pointed out on the map. Good historical lecturesare eminently benefi- cial, in connection with regular lessons, or re-in- forced by suitable class exercises. The taking of notes by the pupils is of little value: because such notes can concern only definite and disconnected facts which should lie impressed upon the mind by the study of a compendium or by class drill; while the lecture is designed to give broad, gen- eral views of events, in their relations, and in their bearing on some great historical movement. 'flic taking of notes l>y young pupils must licccs- Barily interrupt the current of their thought, and thus mar the effed of the lecture. It is,however, in the third or advanced stage of historical study that lectures have their special place. 'flic class of fads — the kind of material — to be selected for the elementary study of history is another important consideration for the HISTORY 42T teacher, as well as for the compiler (if a school compendium. There is a great diversity in this respect. In some text-books, undue prominence is given to the political and military history. every thing pertaining to social life being left out. This deprives the study of much of its strongest and best interest. The condition and progress of the people in the elements of civili- zation. the industrial and fine arts, literature, education, social culture, manners, customs, etc, should be graphically sketched, in connection with the political history, which must, of course, constitute the frame-work of the whole. The office of history as a school study, is not only to give information in regard to the events of the past, but it is to discipline the mind by cultivat- ing and improving (I) the memory, (2) the im- agination, (3) the judgment, (4) the power of expression, and (5) the moral and emotional nature. The pupil, when properly instructed, has his sympathies aroused : he applauds the noble, the patriotic, and the virtuous ; he con- demns the mean, the selfish, and the wicked. Every lesson teaches him by example, for it con- fronts him with either human virtue or human wickedness. The false tinsel of glory must not be permitted to conceal the selfishness, cruelty, and wrong of the ambitious tyrant or conqueror; and the nobleness of the martyr will not be de- based because he pines in a dungeon or dies on the scaffold. Treated in the right spirit, history thus becomes a great moral teacher for pupils of every class and grade. In the third stage, that of superior instruc- tion, history has strong claims to attention. Whatever the sphere of life in which the stu- dent is to engage, he should possess himself of the key to the records of the past history of mankind. History may peculiarly be called a 'diving study," since it draws its interest at once from the slow but certain movement of human forces, among which self-interest, will, and pas- sion play a great part. The field is so vast, that the untrained student will be lost in the maze, and will wander about aimless and bewildered. Tt is the office of education to show that the elements are really simple, and to impart a system to the vasl crowd of facts, by which they may become useful, by being co-ordinated. It is here, then, that history assumes whatever scientific phase it may be capable of. What has been called the philosophy of history is, in an especial manner and degree, suitable for college study, as it brings into play the higher faculties of the mind, — generalization, reason, and judgment. At this stage, we do not rest satisfied with a simple narrative of events, but we attempt to trace them to their real causes, and deduce from them those general laws on which political and social science must be based. "The true science of history," says Bossuet, "is to observe the latent tendencies which have prepared great changes, and the important conjunctures which have brought them into fact." Those latent tendencies are to be looked for in the principles "1 human nature as constituting one factor ; while the in- fluences which constitute the other factors are neither obvious, nor established in the general convictions of mankind. This gives rise to various theories; as the materialistic theory, which sup- poses the co-ordinate factor in bringing about the changes in history to be the forces of material nature, acting on human character and human will; the spiritualistic theory which attributes to the soul of man a certain freedom of purpose and will, acting independently of its material sur- roundings; and the theistic theory, which attrib- ute's great movements and changes in the world's history to the special interposition of an over- ruling Providence, a Divine will, and thus makes "God in history" the supreme source of all the great events that have marked the intellectual, social, and moral progress of mankind. These theories may, however, be called the metaphysics of history ; they are not essential to the inves- tigation of the laws which constitute its philos- ophy ; inasmuch as the generalizations upon which these laws are based, are chiefly independ- ent of them, the course of human events, like the course of nature, being controlled only by general laws. What has already been suggested has exclu- sive reference to facts, or statements of facts, accepted as such ; but there is another depart- ment of history which concerns the sources of history, their nature and credibility ; and this has an indisputable claim upon the attention of those who teach, and those who study history in its advanced stages. Two objects will be sub- served by this : (1) The mind will acquire the useful habit of withholding its assent from all statements that are not supported by suffi- cient testimony; and (2) The judgment and critical faculty will receive a practical culture which must prove of great service in the further prosecution of study, and in the affairs of daily life. In the prosecution of this historical criti- cism, the student is invariably to consider (1) the writer or writers from whom the narration pro- ceeds, (2) their means of information, (3) their character for sagacity and discernment, (4) their interests, assoi iations and affections. All these inevitably color the narrative, and hence consti- tute an important element to be considered in the kind and degree of credibility to which it is entitled. — In the struggle, for some time in prog- ress, between the friends of classical and of Scientific studies, history as a branch of educa- tion holds a Strong and prominent posil ion. While it is a record of the past, it is, in fact, the science of the future ; and one only has to imagine the condition of the world, were all its annals destroyed, to appreciate the practical value of this science. The studies pertaining to matter and force claim supreme consideration with many; and those pertaining to the mere linguis- tic expression Of thought, often obsolete and valueless, with many others; but history deals with the facts of human intelligence and will, illustrates the principles which control the prog- ress of mankind in all the elements of civiliza- tion, and hence assumes an office and agency in 428 BIWASSEE COLLEGE UOFWYL connection with human education, without which it must be measurably ineffective and imper- fect.— See Wickersham, Methods of Instruction il'hila.. L865); Oi rrie, Principles and Practice of CommonScln ml Education (Edinburgh and London); Vox Raumer, Geschichte der Pada- gogik, trans, in Barnard's Journal of Educa- tion, No. \x.: also, in the same, Catechism on Methods of Teaching, s. v. History, by Abben- rode, in which will be found a list of valuable works for consultation on the met hods of teach- ing this subject. HIWASSEE COLLEGE, in Monroe Co., Trim.. 7 miles from Sweetwater, was founded in L849, under the auspices of the -Methodist Epis- copal Church, South. The name of the post- omce is the same as thai of the institution. It is supported by tuition lees, and has a prepara- tory and a collegiate department. The library contains about L ,500 volumes. The tuition Fee for live months is $12.50 for primary studies, $15 for intermediate, and $12 for collegiate. A law department has been organized, but it has made little progress. In L875 -6, the coD had 5 instructors and 186 students. John II. Brunner, .V. M.. i< the president of the institu- tion (1876). HOBART COLLEGE, at Geneva, N". V.. was chartered in 1825, growing out of an academy and divinity school established by Bishop Bobari of the Protestant Episcopal Church, in L821. Its entire endowment is something over $300,000, of which, perhaps, $60,000 is repre- sented by land and buildings, while one consider- able portion is in the shape of free scholarships, of which there are twenty-six, leaving less than $21,000 of annual income from endowment for the support and maintenance of the college. A considerable portion of the entire sum ($ 1,200) is in the shape of annuities, contributed from New York City. The library contains .about 13,000 \nl nines. There are two courses, a classical of tour years, and a scientific of two years. The tuition fee is $50 a year. The scholarships are primarily designed for students intended tor the ministry. In Is7."i — 6, there were 7 instructors and 29 students. The presidents have been as follows: the Rev. Jasper Adams. D. D., 1826— 28 ; the Rev. Richard S. Mason, l». I».. L830— 35; the Rev. Benj. Hale. 1>. D., L836 57; the Rev. \l>- ner Jackson D. D., LL. D., 1858 68; the Rev. •lames Kent Stone, l». I>.. L869 70; the Rev. James Rankine, l>. I>., L870 7:: ; the Rev. Maunsell Van Rensselaer, l>. D., LL. D., L873 — 76 : and the Rev. William Stevens Perry, I >. I>.. LL. D., the present incumbent, appointed in 1876. HOFWYL, Schools of, a group of educa- tional institutions established by Pellenberg, which very widely attracted attention, and at- tained a high reputation for the excellence of the theorj "ti which they were based, and for their practical success. Hofwyl, originally called Wylhof.was a large estate, aboul six miles from Bern, Switzerland, which was purchased by Fel- lenberg, in 1799, lor the purpose of enabling him to carry out his peculiar educational views. Deeply impressed with the need of ameliorating the condition of the poorer classes by affording them the means of a practical education. he was also convinced that the education received by the higher classes in the universities and middle schools, very greatly needed reform. He de- signed, therefore, to establish "an institution for both classes, in which they should be so separated, as to prevent confusion, and yet so connected, that each might observe the other, and that oc- casion might be given to establish, on a < 'hristian basis, the character of each."' Agriculture he believed best adapted, as an occupation, to de- velop the powers of both mind and body in their proper harmony. Hence, he conceived that an agricultural school would form the best basis In j for the carrying out of his proposed plans. In 1 829, I Iofwy! was described as a village of about 300 inhabitants, comprising (1) A farm, of about 600 acres; (2) Workshops, for the fabrication and repair of agricultural implements, and of clothing for the inhabitants- (3) A litho- graphic establishment in which music and other things needed in the institution were printed ; (4) A Literary Institution fur the education of the higher classes : (5) A Practical Institution for those who were destined for trade, or whose. circumstances did not permit a more complete education: and (6) An Agricultural Institution for the education of the laboring classes. The secluded situation of Hofwyl. at a convenient distance from a Large town, and surrounded by Some of the most beautiful objects of Swiss scenery, particularly commended it to Fellen- berg. The first <<\ the schools was commenced in 1804; but. in L829, the writer of a series of letters, published in the American Annals of Education, for L831, thus described the institu- tions of I lofwyl : "On entering Hofwyl from Bern, the traveler finds liiniselt in an extensive courl or play-ground, furnished with instruments for gymnastic exercises, ami a hillocs of clean sand, in « hich the younger b< exercise their ingenuity in digging cai es nnd building castles, Burrounded en three >iilcs by the building de- voted t<> the literary institutions, ami sheltered mi the west by a little WOOd, Composed Ol a variety of trees. which serve at (nice as a place for botanical observa- tions, ami as a retreat during the heat of summer. Ill pleasanl weather, the les>on> are net iiiilrei|ueiitly given here, iii arbors furnished w ith seat- for this pur- pose. The principal building mi the east ol this court, is inhabited by 80 pupils, under the constant snj>er- intendenoe of Fellenberg ami four of his children. The basement Btorj i> occupied by the kitchen and store-rooms. The first floor is divided into four sec- by halls which traverse the building in its length and breath. One ol these Bectiona i- occupied by the superintendents; another, by the dining hall and music room; a third and fourth, by the chapel and three large and lofty rooms for study. The Becond Horn' is devoted to the class rooms, the library, and the col- lection of oasts. The third and attic Btories contain the dormitories of the pupils, and chambers for the superintendents. The Bize, airiness, and neatness of every part of the building areverj striking; and a well-arranged system of stoves en the Russian plan, maintain- a mild and uniform temperature during ilie- winter, which ia net to he found in climates far i severe, w here the methods of employing fuel are I perfect in tin- institution, Pellenberg proposes to 1IOFWYL HOUMMtok 429 .1 c < m 1 1 1 > I o t e education preparatory to professional studies. Between '-'<> and 80 instructors are employed in this establishment, most of whom reside in another building, and have no connection with the pupils, ex- cept during the hours of instruction. Two small build- ings, which shelter the oourl on the north and south, contain a large warm bath for winter, the store-room for the gardening tools oi the pupils, a cabinet-maker's shop, in which those who have the disposition are taught this art, the book-bindery of the institution, and several rooms which are devoted to exercises in instrumental music, fencing, and dancing, which would interfere with the tranquillity necessary in the prin- cipal building. Bej 1 the Literary Institution is a second court, furnished, like the firsts with frames and poles for gymnastic exercises. On the east side of this court, and at the entrance of the first court, are garden spot-, assigned to the pupils as a means of amusement and exercise ; and, at a little distance on the side of the hill, a circular cold bath of hewn stone, 90 feet in diameter, and 10 feet deep, in which they arc taught to swim, with a neat bathing-house in the Gothic sty],-. On the west side of the court is the chateau, or family mansion, in which Mrs. Fellenberg resides with her younger children. It also contains the bureau, or counting-house, of the establishment, in which strangers are received, and the business of the institution transacted, by a person devoted to this object. It Likewise serves as a depot for the little articles which the pupils have occasion to purchase, in the garden of the chateau, is the school for peas- ant girls, under the immediate direction of Mrs. Fel- lenberg, and one of her daughters. In the rear of the chateau, are two buildings occupied by 20 or 30 pupils of the Practical Institution. These are lodged and fed in a more simple manner than the pupils in the Liter- ary Institution, and are permitted to avail themselves of its lessons, and to partake of the labors of the farm, or the counting-house, according to their necessities and destination. — In the rear of these buildings, is a second cold bath of hewn stone, only 2 feet in depth, designed for the use ol the younger pupils. Adjoin- ing this is a building 150 feet long, the lower part of which tonus a large sheltered arena for riding and gym- nastic exercises in unpleasant weather. The upper stories are occupied by the class rooms and dormi- tories of the Agricultural Institution, in which children of the laboring classes are taught the practical part of agriculture, and receive three or four hours of in- struction daily in reading, writing, arithmetic, and other useful branches Vn interesting branch of the Institution of Hofwyl is the colony of Meykirk, at the distance of live or six miles. It consists of 8 or 10 poor boys who were placed under the direction of a teacher on a spot of uncultivated ground, from which they were expected to obtain the means of subsist- ence. It is designed as an experiment on the prac- ticability of providing for the support and education of friendless children, without any further expense than that of the soil which they cultivate. Several hours are devoted daily to intellectual and religious instruction, and thus the children advance in cultiva- tion and knowledge, as well as in hardihood and in- dustry." It was a ruling principle with Fellenberg, in the management of Hofwyl, thai "gradual prog- ress is the only sure progress." Ami he care- fully avoided bringing together a large number of children of various characters, to be subjected to a kind of discipline entirely new to them. He commenced with introducing two or three boys into his own family ; and afterwards he would receive only a few pupils at once into his school, so that they ought fall insensibly into the prevailing habits and discipline. Wehrli, who distinguished himself so highly as an assistant of Fellenberg, was tlius taken into his family ; and the active benevolent spirit was so rapidly and strongly developed in him. that, before the end of the year, lie requested to be placed with three pupils, gathered from the highways and heiloes. in tin- farm-house of the establishment. Mere Wehrli partook of their straw beds ami vegetable diet, became their fellow laborer and companion, as well as their teacher, and thus Laid the foundation of the Agricultural Institu- tion, in L808. The Normal School, or Seminary for Teachers, was an important addition to the institution. The iirst year, gratuitous instruc- tion in the art of teaching was given to 42 teachers from the Canton of Bern. Subsequently a number of young Russians, of the highest class, were sent by the emperor Alexander to be instructed ; but the Russian government after- wards withdrew its patronage, being jealous of the liberalizing influence of Hofwyl. Other Euro] lean states entertained the same feeling. Many English and Swiss pupils were instructed in this school. Jn 1823, a building was erected in the garden of the mansion, to accommodate a school for poor girls. All the schools at Hofwyl were conducted on the soundest and most approved principles of education, and with a devotion, on the part of the instructors, that could not but be followed by success. In 1813, a commission, at the head of which was M. Ringger, one of the most dis- tinguished patriots of Switzerland, was appointed to examine the Agricultural School. The report of this commission (published at Paris, 1815) is a most interesting document. Six days were spent in the examination, which embraced all the details of the labors, studies, and religious exercises of the pupils, their food, dress, and ac- commodations. The approval of the commission was full and emphatic. Of the noble Wehrli the report expressed great admiration: "From the dawn of day," it remarked, "he seems to have no thought nor time except for his pupils. When he came among them, amidst their labors or amusements, he appeared rather like an elder luother than an instructor." The school at that time comprised 2.'5 boys, from the lowest and often the most vicious families — some of them abandoned children — and, literally, taken from the highways and hedges; and yet they lived, under a mild system of government, in perfect peace and harmony. Such was the effect of the sound principles, wise administration, and de- voted labors of Fellenberg and his co-laborers, in this most interesting institution. It still re- mains under the control of the descendants of Fellenberg, and was advertised by them to be re-opened. after thorough renovation and repairs, on Sept. 23., 1871), under the management of Mr. A. Fr. Andresen, the successor of Dr. Ed- ward -M tiller. For a full account of Fellenberg 's system, see ..\u>> m-nn A/Oials cf EduCClHon, vol. i.. passim. (See also Fellenberg.) HOLBROOK, Josiah, distinguished for his labors in behalf of science teaching in common schools and the diffusion of useful knowledge among all classes, was bom in Derby, Ct, in L788, and died near Lynchburg, Ya., in 1851. 430 IIOLIJROOK HOME EDUCATION It was while pursuing his studios in Yale Col- lege, that, under the instruction of Prof. Silli- inan, he imbibed that fondness for natural science, particularly chemistry and geology, which gave direction to his future life. For some time after graduating, in 1810, he gave his attention to agriculture, managing his father's farm at Derby. There he took part in the establishment of an agricultural school, in which he delivered lectures on his favorite sciences. In L826, he published his plan for an Association of Adults for Mutual Instruction, and organized the Millbury Lyceum, as ;t branch of the pro- jected American Lyceum, which he designed to consist of affiliated Lyceums, or associations for mutual improvement, in every state of the Union. Tims the town Lyceums wore, by dele- gates, to constitute a county board of education. the county boards, in a similar manner, a state board; and the state boards were to he repre- sented in a grand national convention. the object being to promote general education and the spread of intelligence among all classes. Hun- dreds of these lyeeuins were established in vari- ous parts of the United States, through the in- defatigable labors of Mr. Bolbrook, who gave his whole time to the delivery of scientific lectures, the distribution of circulars ami tracts, and the personal visitation of schools. In L825, he began the manufacture of cheap and simple Bchool apparatus for illustrating geology, natural philosophy, and geometry; which, in L829, in connection with Timothy Claxton, of Huston, he greatly extended, into what was afterwards known as the Holbrook School Apparatus. In L842, he undertook the organization of a system of school exchanges, the object of which was an interchange, among schools in different parts of the country and in foreign countries, of speci- mens of pupils' work ; such as. maps, draw- ings, geometrical solids, collections of minerals, etc. In this way, he conceived, the intellectual activity of the pupils would be stimulated ; and, besides, bj becoming acquainted with the prod- ucts of each other's labor, their standard of excellence would he elevated, and their desire for improvement increased. This scheme met with considerable favor in many parts of the country, particularly in the city of New York. and lor a time was successfully carried on. The . I merican Lyceum also, tor a w hile, greatly nour- ished. In L828, a public meeting was held in Ho 'on to pro ie its objects, at which Daniel Webster presided, and George B. Emerson acted as so -retary : and resolutions were adopted com- mending the Lyceum to public favor and sup- port. At other meetings, Edward Everett took pari in the proceedings; and subsequently, out of this movement, in favor of popular education, grew the Boston Society for the Diffusion of I se- Knowledge, followed soonafterby the Boston Lyceum', and, partly as the result of the same awakening, the American Institute of Instruc- tion was established in 1830; and the next year. the Florida Education Society was organized at Tallahassee. The American Lyceum held its first national convention, May 4., 1831, in New York, and adopted a constitution. There were presenl delegates from Maine. Massachusetts, New York. Pennsylvania. Yale College, the city of Washington, and other places; and Stephen Van Rensselaer was elected its first president. A general meeting was held each succeeding year till 1839, when a special conven- tion, held in Philadelphia November '2'!.. termi- nated the public proceedings of the Lyceum. — Mr. Holbrook continued in his favorite enter- prises of philanthropy until the close of his life. While on ;t visit to Virginia, near Lynchburg, he went out for geological exploration, and was not again seen until his body was found at the foot of a cliff, from which it was supposed he had fallen. Few lives have been so earnest, unselfish, and philanthropic; and to very few has it been given to be the means of stimulating the intellect- ual activity of so many thousands. — See Baenaed's Journal of Education, vols. viu.. and xrv.; and American Educators, vo1.il; Amer- ican Annals of Education; Bodkne, History of the Public School Society (N. Y.. 1870). HOLIDAY. See School Festtvaia HOLLAND. See NETHERLANDS. HOLY ANGELS' COLLEGE, at Van- couver, Washington Ter.. under Itoman Cath- olic control, was founded in I860. It is sup- ported by tuition fees and voluntary contri- butions. In 187(*>. it had T(i pupils. Its presidents have been as follows: the Kev. J. I!. Brouillet, 1860—62; the Rev. P. Means, 1862— 72 ; the Rev. I'. Bylebos, 1872— 3; and the Rev. Louis . O'Hagan, S. J., is 1 876) the president. HOME EDUCATION is that which is car- ried on in the home circle, or family, as con- trasted with that which is afforded by the school. Op to a certain age. and within a cer- HOME EDUCATION 431 tain sphere, homo education, or its equivalent, is not only indispensable but inevitable. The parents are the first teachers, especially the mother: and the educative influences of the nursery not only precede in time, but exceed in power, those of the school. Bere the foundation is laid on which the school-teacher must sub- sequently build : and, comparatively speaking, more is accomplished in the period of earliest childhood, both in storing the mind and in forming the disposition and character, than dur- ing any equal number of subsequent years. " A child gains more ideas," says Lord Brougham, '• in the first four years of his life than ever afterward." Early home education consists pe- culiarly in what has been called unconscious tuition, by means of which the plastic nature of the young child is insensibly moulded by the agencies which environ it. The mother chiefly controls these agencies, which may be enumer- ated as follows : (1) The affectionate tenderness which she displays, in ministering to the wants and gratifying the desires of the child, and in sympathizing with and alleviating its distresses ; (2) Her behavior, as being delicate and refined. or coarse and rude. — showing self-restraint and dignity, or manifesting impulsiveness and pas- sion ; (3) The tones of her voice — sweet and tender, or harsh and dissonant, firm and decisive, or weak and yielding; (4) The expression of her face, implying similar traits ; (5) The force of her will, under the intelligent guidance of educational principles and the restraints of con- science. Such are the elements of a mother's educative power, — a power the exercise of which results in forming in the child traits of character that no succeeding agency of circumstance, edu- cation, or self -discipline can entirely efface. It will be seen, from this enumeration, that the mother's influence is rather moral than intellec- tual ; indeed, the special period of its exercise supersedes the necessity of any formal cultiva- tion of the knowing faculties. The child, dur- ing the first few years of its existence needs little direction in this respect. Natural curios- ity and innate activity constantly stimulate the growth of the mind, and fill it with those ideas which are to constitute, in succeeding years, the materials of thought. It is just as absurd to subject a very young child to formal instruction as it would be to attempt the development of its physical powers by gymnastic exercises. Watch- fulness is, however, constantly required to check the formation of bad habits, which have just as strong a tendency to Bpring up in the young mind as rank weeds in a virgin soil. (See Habit.) The period of exclusive home educa- tion here referred to bring so decisive of the future character of the child, and the mother being the first and most effective of all educa- tors, it will be apparent that the science of edu- cation, in its most comprehensive sense, should constitute an essential part of the curriculum of every female seminary or college. Particu- larly should the future mother be taught to ap- preciate the character of the influence, in all its phases, which she is to exert; as well as to un- derstand, how to render it effectual in contribut- ing to the future welfare of her child. The father, at a somewhat later period, but in a similar manner, is a powerful educator within the circle of home. I loth by precept and ex- ample, but especially by the latter, he makes life-long impressions. In vain are precepts, however, if they are not fully supported by ex- ample. What a terrible indictment is brought by Quintilian against the home education of his time in the following suggestive statement: " \\ ould that we ourselves did not corrupt the morals of our children! We are delighted if they utter any thing immodest. Expressions which would not be tolerated even from the effeminate youths of Alexandria, we hear from them with a smile and a kiss. Nor is this won- derful; we have taught them ; they have heard such language from ourselves. They see our mistresses, our male objects of affection; every dining-room rings with impure .songs; things shameful to be told are objects of sight. From such practices springs habit, and afterwards nat- ure. The unfortunate children learn these vices before they know that they are vices ; and hence, rendered luxurious and effeminate, they do not imbibe immorality from the schools, but carry it themselves into the schools." While contemplat- ing so shocking a picture as this, not of home education but of home corruption, no one can wonder at the degree of degeneracy which the political and social system of the Romans finally reached. While, in the grade of society to which the above quotation refers, no child, in the state of society of our times, could be subjected to such contaminating influences; yet, even at present, the impressions, both intellectual and moral, received by children in very many of the home circles of what are considered the bet- ter classes of society, are rather debasing than elevating. The complaint is often made by teachers that the children placed under their care are so depraved by bad home training, or in consequence of absolute neglect, that their efforts to discipline and instruct these pupils are almost useless. 1 his is the more to be regretted, as school education can. in most cases, only sup- plement that of home; and because the influ- ences that center in the latter are always more potent than those wielded by the former, chiefly because school education is primarily intellectual; whereas that of home is primarily moral. At any rate, such is the fact generally. After the period of formal instruction has ar- rived, the question arises in the minds of many parents, whether it is better to detain the cliild at home to be instructed by private tutors or to submit it to the discipline and instruction of the school. This question has been much discussed by educators. Quintilian, in regard to this point, said, in favor of school education, that "it had the sanction of those by whom the polity of the most eminent states was settled, as well as that of the most illustrious authors." The fol- io wing arguments are generally adduced to prove 432 HOME EDUCATION HOME LESSONS that the education acquired in school is to be preferred to any that is possible by private tutors at home: (1) The intellectual training is more effective; since the boy or girl coming in com- petition with those of the same age is stimulated to greater exertions than would be possible in any system of home instruction. As Quintilian says. "At home, the boy can learn only what is taught himself: at school, he will also learn what is taught to others. Be will hear many things approved; many others, corrected. The reproof of a fellow pupil's idleness will be a good lesson to him; as will, likewise, the praise of his neigh- bor's industry, lie will think it disgraceful to yield to his equals in age, and great honor to ex- cel his seniors. All these matters amuse the powers of the mind; and if ambition be an evil, it is often the parent of virtue." The child educated at home can never, realize the full ex- tent of his own powers, having no standard by which to measure them. Bence, he is satisfied with meager results, at the same time that he is likely to be filled with self-conceit. It is, how- ever, scarcely disputed that the school, as a mimic world, presents a variety of incentives which a home education could never afford : and that it is favorable to rapid mental growth. Bui it is its influence on the moral nature that has been chiefly called in question. Home has been de- picted as the abode of purity and it cence, — of kindness, gentleness, and affection, — of court- esy and refinement, — of morality and religious influence ; and such it ought to be. and it is to be hoped, often is. From such an atmosphere, the home-bred child is at once introduced into a new . and to him utterly unknown, world. Instead of sympathy, he finds, among his school-mates, in- difference; instead of courtesy and kindness, a thoughtless disregard of all weakness, cither of mind or body, except, indeed, to turn it into ridicule. Be finds that, if he is not mindful of himself, and sufficiently self-assertive, he will be borne down in the mass. 'There is an antag- onism — an aggressiveness in those around him that begets caution and resistance; there is a sense of danger that cultivates courage, and a matter-of-fact spirit that crushes out egotism and sensitiveness. Thus the boy, in the little world of the school, is prepared for the greater School beyond. Probably, no better illustration of this fact is afforded anywhere than in the great Public Schools of England. Eton has 1 d especially noted for the rough discipline to which its pupils subject each other: and yet we find the following cogent testimony as in the favor able effects of thai system upon the boys' char- acters, from an entirely reliable source: " I think it cannol be denied that the tendency of the Eton system is to make a boy generous and firm- minded, to exercise his common Bense early, to make him habitually feel a moral responsibility, to act not under the impulse of tear, but of generous shame and generous emulation, to be willing and determined to keep trust because he is trusted: in a WOld, to make him a manly DOJ and a gentleman." (Public School Education, by Sir J. T. Coleridge, London, 1860.) It has been well said in regard to the corrupting influ- ence of school, ■• School indeed brings the knowl- edge of evil, but the innocence of childhood is but the innocence of ignorance : by home edu- cation it cannot be much prolonged, and when knowledge comes at last, it finds less force of character and less strength of principle to coun- teract its poison." Better, therefore, it would aj>-. pear, is it to unite the education of a good Bchool with that of a properly ordered family. in which combination the evils of school life will be neu- tralized by the stronger and purer influences of home. Not home or school, but home and school, constitutes the proper agency for the education of children, whether hoys or girls. It is the opinion of some, however, that admitting the advantages, in general, of a school education. that of home generates certain peculiar traits and excellencies of character which are essential to the welfare of society. This is the argument of Isaac Taylor, in Home Education, who says, - the school-bred man is of one sort — the home- bred man is of another: and the community has need of both; nor, as I think, could any meas- ures be much more to be deprecated, nor any tyranny of fashion more to be resisted, than such as should render a public education, from first to last, compulsory and universal." HOME LESSONS, or Home Studies. The question whether home lessons, or home studies. should be a part of the system of instruction iii schools of different grades, and if so, to what extent they should be permitted, and in what manner they should be pursued and super- vised by the teacher, is one of considerable im- portance, which is still extensively discussed by writers on education. The need of home lessons for pupils of secondary and higher schools has never been disputed. In regard to the schools of a lower grade, many physicians have strongly objected to any kind of home lessons, as long as the children are required to spend from 4 to 5 hours a day in the school loom. Their arguments are. however, chiefly directed against the length of the school sessions. From an educational point of riew, it has justly been urged by recent writers, that the regulation of this matter must chiefly depend on the question, for what purpose should home lessons be given. I In this point, educators, at the present i nee, are much more nearly agreed than formerly. No \\ riter of note will, nowadays, maintain that home lessons should be for the mere purpose of preventing idleness — of keeping the children busy, or as a punishment for delinquencies ; but it is agreed that all home studies should aim at training the pupils to self-exertion, at giving them the ability to depend upon their ovi d efforts as students, and by degrees, to dispense with the aid of a teacher. If this principle is accepted. several corollaries are self-evident. Home lessons should not begin at too early an age. Young children need the supervision of a teacher to a much greater extent than those of a more ad- vanced age, and are much Less fitted to spend IIOMK LESSONS ITORX-ROOK 43; their time profitably without direct guidance. Moreover, while the school sessions for young children are as long as for older ones, the medical warning not to overwork the brain, applies with much greater force to the home lessons of the former than to those of the latter. Special care should be taken that all the children fully un- derstand the work which they are required to perform at home, and that they are compe- tent to do it. No child of good standing in the class should feel it uecessary to apply to his par- rents or adult friends for help. It is especially this point that is so apt to be disregarded by teachers. Parents have a right to object to any home lesson or exercise which requires, in the case of diligent pupils, any help in addition to that of the teacher. All exercises of this kind prove a torment, and are absolutely injurious. •■The school", says Diesterweg, "must teach the method of home studies. It is not enough that the home lesson be appropriate in itself ; the pupil must be enabled to prepare it in a proper manner. How often poor children tor- ment themselves where this is not taught! The teacher should show them how to memorize, how to prepare or review a lesson, how to write a composition, by previously memorizing, pre- paring, reviewing etc., with them at school. Thus the teacher becomes the pupil's friend, and this is more than to be his master." Moreover, when pupils are required to write exercises at home, the teacher should faithfully correct them. The failure to do this fosters habits of carelessness. Many teachers greatly err in this regard, burdening children with the task of writing pages of exercises, and correcting but few, or none, of them. Certainly, no teacher who is guilty of so serious a mistake, can be regarded as understanding the work either of instruction or of discipline. Home lessons are, in general, more frequent in European than in American schools. The opinion is entertained by many European writers, especially German (as Rol- tus and Pfister, Realencyclopadie, vol. i., art. Aufgabe), that home lessons are entirely un- known in American schools. Of course, this is not correct: but the views strenuously advocated by the best American educators, that home lea- s' ms should not begin early, and that they should occupy only a small portion of the childrens 1 time out of school are fully concurred in by the best educational writers of Germany. "Under the guidance of the teacher", says Diesterweg, •' the attentive pupil will be able to learn at school, in one tenth of the time, what he is Bometimes required to learn, when distracted and fatigued, at home. Thousands of pupils and parents become disgusted with the school, on account of the annoyance which they receive from the home lessons heedlessly assigned by the teachers ; home lessons should, therefore, be re- stricted to the smallest possible amount ; and I he teacher, before assigning such a lesson, should ponder well the question whether just this les- son cannot be dispensed with, or be made un- necessary." Dittos {Schule der Padagogik) 28 is of opinion that the best arrangement for a common school is to confine all the learning of Lessons to the school room, and to set apart special hours for study, under the direct super- vision of the teacher. This, of course, is an extreme view ; but it serves to illustrate the depth of the conviction that home lessons, as usually assigned, do not promote the real prog- ress of the pupil. "The effect of poorly learning a lesson", says I). P. Page [Theory ami Practice of Teaching), " is most ruinous to the mind of a child. He, by the habit of missing, comes to think it a small thing to fail at recitation. He loses his self-respect. He loses all regard for his reputation as a scholar. Besides, the attempt to acquire an unreasonable lesson, induces a superficial habit of study, — a skimming over the surface of things. The motto of the wise teacher should be, not ho wmuch, but how well He should always ask, is it possible that the child can master this lesson, and probable that he will" HOPE. See Incentives, Prizes, and Re- wards. HOPE COLLEGE, at Holland, Mich., was established in 1851, by the Reformed Dutch ( hurch, as the Holland Academy. It was organized as a college in 1863, and incorporated in 18 G 6. Its especial design was to furnish a suitably educated ministry. It has an endow- ment of about $60,000. The library contains about 1,200 volumes. Three departments have been organized : (1) preparatory, (2) academic In or collegiate, and (3) theological. In 1874 — D, there were 9 instructors and 111 students. Rev. Philip Phelps, Jr., has been the president since the organization of the college. HOPKINS, Mark, a noted American scholar and teacher, born in Stockbridge, Mass.. Feb. 4., 1802. After graduating at Williams ( ollege, and serving as tutor in that institution for two years, he commenced the practice of medicine in New York; but, in 1830, returned to Williams College to fill the position of pro- fessor of moral philosophy and rhetoric, and, in 1 s.'! 6, succeeded Dr. Griffin as president of the College, in which position he remained until 1872, when he resigned to resume the duties of professor of mental and moral philosophy. He has published a number of works, all of which evince high intellectual and moral culture, as well as literary ability. Among them, that which illustrates best his peculiarly lucid mode of teaching difficult subjects is An Outline Stud// of Man (New Fork, 1ST,'!), which is a model of the developing method as applied to intellectual science, as well as of blackboard illustration. HORN-BOOK, a book consisting of a single page, formerly used to teach children the alpha- bet and other simple rudiments. It was, in fact. the first page of the primer, pasted on a thin board, which terminated in a handle, and having, fastened over the printed matter, a thin plate of transparent horn, to protect it from being soiled or torn by the young learner. Usually there was a hole in the handle for a string, by which the 434 HOUSE OF REFUGE HOWE apparatus was slung to the scholar's girdle. Hence, in a View of the Beau Monde (1731), we find a lady described as "dressed like a child, in a bodice coat and leading-strings, with a horn- book tied to her side". Sometimes, instead of being mounted on a board, the printed page was pasted on the back of the horn only. The horn- book was in use in England from the time of queen Elizabeth to the close of the eighteenth century ; it was also used in some of the Amer- ican colonies until about the same time. The oldest specimens contain the alphabet, in small letters and capitals — in black-letter or in Roman — commencing with a cross, which serves to designate the first row. This is followed by the vowels, and their simplest combination with the consonants, the Lords' Prayer, and the Roman numerals. (See Curist Cross Row). Be- fore the horn-book was invented, it is thought, a cast-leaden plate was used in England, having on its face the alphabet in raised letters; as ancient carved stones have been discovered which appear to have served as moulds for cast- ing such plates. There are many allusions in English literature to this little implement of elementary education. Shenstone in his quaint poem, the Schoolmistress (1741), thus refers to it: "Eftsoons the urchins to their tasks repair ; Their books, of stature small, they take in hand, Which with pellucid horn secured are, To save from finger wet the letters fair." Cowper, in Tirocinium, or a Review of Schools, (1784), thus describes it: Neatly secured from being soiled or torn Beueath a pane of thin translucent horn, A book to please us at a tender age, 'Tis called a book, though but a single page) Presents the prayer the Saviour deigned to teach, Which children use, and parsons — when they preach." Locke, in Thoughts on Education, mentions the horn-book and primer as the "on Unary road"' to Learning to read in his time. (See Primer.) HOUSE OF REFUGE. See Reform Schools. HOWARD COLLEGE, at Marion, Ala., was founded by the .Missionary Baptists, in 1843. It has a library of about 2000 volumes, geological and mineralogical cabinets, and chem- ical, mathematical, and philosophical apparatus. The cost of tuition, board, etc. in the college de- partment is $226 per annum. Theological stu- dents receive tuition free. The course of study is divided into the fallowing distinet schools: !l) School of Latin; (2) School of Greek; School of i Lern languages ; (I) School of English ; (5) School of moral science and theol- ogy; (6) School of mathematics; (7) School of chemistry, geology, and mineralogy; (8) School Of natural philosophy and applied inatheinat ICS : School of civil engineering; (10) Business school There is. also. a preparatory department. The degrees conferred are B. S., A. B., M. A., ami ('. B., each of which requires proficiency in sev- eral schools. In L874 ."'.there were 5 instruc- tors and L 02 students. The presidents have been as follows :S.S.Sherman,LL.D.,H.W.Talbird,D.D., .1. L M.( vu-ry. Id,. l>.. S. It. Freeman, D.D.,and J.T.Murfee,LL.D.,the present incumbent(1876). HOWARD UNIVERSITY, at "Washing- ton, D. C, was chartered by Congress in 18G7, and named after Gen. O. O. Howard, one of its founders. It occupies a commanding and beautiful site at the head of Seventh street, north of and just beyond the city limits, and has several fine buildings. Though the institution was es- pecially designed for colored youth, every depart- ment is open to all, without distinction of race or sex ; and both white and colored persons of both sexes are found among its instructors and stu- dents. The univeisity is supported by contri- butions and tuition fees. It has libraries con- taining over 8,000 volumes, a mineral cabinet, and a museum. The departments of instruction in connection with it are as follows : (I) Academical branch, consisting of (1) Normal department, with a model school ; (2) Preparatory depart- ment; (3) College department. (II) Professional /•notch, (1) Medical department; (2) Law de- partment ; (3) Theological department. The normal department was, at first, supported by what was known as the Miner Fund. The medical students have the advantage of the Freedmen*s General Hospital and Asylum, situated within the grounds of the institution. The theological department is open to students of every Chris- tian denomination. The cost of tuition in the law department is $50 a year (or $40, when paid in advance) ; in the medical and theological de- partments, it is free; in the other departments, SI 2 per year. The number of instructors and students, in 1875 — C, was as follows : Departments. Instructors. Students. Normal \ 34 Model school ( 1n 141 Preparatory f 39 College ) 33 Medical 8 24 I ,u 2 13 Theological 3 2.5 Total 23 309 Gen. Howard was president of the University till Iy7i5, when he was succeded by John M, Langston, LL D., as vice-president. In 187">. the Rev. Edward P. Smith was chosen president; and continued in ollice till his death, in 1876. HOWE, Samuel Gridley, a distinguished American educator and philanthropist, partic- ularly noted for his zeal and success as a teacher of the blind and the imbecile, was born in Boston, in L801, and died in that city, in 1876. After graduating at Brown Univeisity. in L821, he studied medicine for a time ; but. becoming interested ill the cause of the Greek patriots, he entered the revolutionary army, in which he served as surgeon till L827. About this time. Dr. John D. Fisher, who while pursuing his medical studies in Paris, had become acquainted with the abbe* Baiiy's institution for the blind, proposed the establishment of a similar institu- tion in Boston. I>r. Bowe. who had returned to the United States for the purpose of soliciting contributions for the cause of the struggling Greeks, was invited to take charge of the pro- posed institution; and having accepted, he imme- diately embarked for Europe to visit the asylums HUARTE HUNGARY 435 for the blind in England, France, and Germany. On his return, the institution was organized, under the name of the Perkins Intitution for the Blind, with Dr. Howe at its head (1832). Id are the education of Laura Bridgman (q. v.), a blind deaf-mute, under his personal instruc- tion, attracted general attention, and placed Dr. Howe in the front rank of teachers; since only the most anient zeal, and the most consummate skill, tact, ami patience cotdd have accomplished so difficult a task. He was also much interested in the education of the imbecile : and the ex- perimental school for their training, which he helped to found, resulted, in L851, in the Mas- sachusetts School tor Idiotic and Feeble-Minded Youth, in South Boston. I Te was the author of a Reader for the Blind (1839) and a Histor- ical Sketch of die Greek Revolt// ion (ls28). HUARTE, Juan, a Spanish physician and philosopher, was born inXavarre, about 1535, and died about 1600. He gave great attention to psychology, and particularly to the external physiological indications of character ; and at- tempted to show the practical value of his system in education and otherwise, in his great work Exdmen de Ingenios para Sciencias {Test of Minds for the learn ing of the Sch m < \es) , published about 1580, in which he gave directions for dis- covering the special talents of individuals for the aecpusitiou of particular sciences. This book became very famous, and was translated into various languages. The English version was en- titled the Trial of Wits. It taught that every person is endowed with a talent for some specialty, which should be discovered and cultivated; since whatever attention he might give to other pur- suits, he could never rise above mediocrity in them. As a means of ascertaining this special gift, he laid great stress upon an examination of the form of the head, thus, to some extent anticipating the doctrine of Gall and Spurz- lieim. — See Tickxor, History of Spanish Liter- ature. HTJET, Pierre Daniel, a noted French scholar, born at Caen, Feb. 8., 1630, died at Paris, Jan. 26., 1721. He was a pupil of Des- cartes and Bochart, accompanying the latter to Sweden, in 1652. He also visited Holland, but returned to Caen and gave himself up entirely to study. He became Doctor of Laws, in 1670. and soon after, was summoned to Paris, where he was appointed sub-preceptor, under Bossuet, of the Dauphin. He directed, for his royal pupil, the preparation of the Delphin edition of the classics. In 1G85, he was made bishop of Sois- sons, but was transferred to the see of Avran- ches, in 1692, which position he resigned in 1699, on account of ill health, nis complete works were published in 1856, in 6 vols. HUMANITIES (bat. hwmaniora or literce Juiniaitiori's), those branches of education or study, which are included in what is called po- lite or elegant learning, as languages, grammar, rhetoric, philology, and poetry, with all that per- tains to what is called polite literature, includ- ing the ancient classics. The name implies that the study of these branches, in opposition to the physical sciences, which especially develop the intellectual faculties, has a tendency to human man,- — to cultivate particularly those faculties which distinguish him as man, in all his rela- tions, social and moral; that is, which make him a truly cultured man. In the older systems of education, the humanities took the lead ; in the new, they have been, to a considerable extent, superseded by studies deemed more practical, from a utilitarian point of view. The contest between the humanities and the so-called prac- tical studies, as branches of higher education, is still rite. The humanities are, at present, more commonly designated belles-lettres (q. v.). HUMBOLDT, Karl Wilhelm von, a dis- tinguished German statesman, philologist, and, e< lucator, 1 ir< it her of the great scientist, Alexam ler von Humboldt, was born June 22., 1767, died Aprils., L835. He studied at the universities of Frankfort on the Oder and Gottingen, and after holding several positions in the Prussian diplomatic and state service, was appointed, in January, 1809, chief of the educational depart- ment in the ministry of the interior, in which position he remained until April, 1810. This short period was fruitful of reforms in the edu- cational affairs of Prussia ; but it was especially in the fields of higher education that Humboldt's influence was felt. 1 Ie prepared the way for, and thus became the real founder of, the University of Berlin, and also laid the foundation of the future greatness of the Prussian gymnasia. His reforms in the study of languages, in the schools of Prussia, exerted a far-reaching influence. His own linguistic works were of great importance, especially that upon Kavi, the language of an- cient Javanese literature ( Ueber die Kawispraehe auf der Insel Java, 3 vols., 1836 — 40), still re- garded as a classic on the philosophy of language. The introduction, which treats of the differences of languages and their influence upon the de- velopment of the human race, appeared in a separate volume [Ueber die Verschiedenheit des menschlichen Sprachbaves, etc.). — See Steix- tiial, Die Sprachwissi'iischaft TF. ran Humboldt's (1848); Heym, Wiflielm von Humboldt (18.*>6). HUMBOLDT COLLEGE, at Humboldt, Iowa, was founded in 1869, by the Rev. Stephen 1 1. Taft, but was not opened until 1872. It is non-sectarian, and is supported by voluntary contributions. Tuition is free to students to the number of 100. The college building is a beautiful marble edifice, erected at a cost of over ^40,000. The library contains 1,300 volumes. It includes an English, a preparatory, and a- collegiate course. In 1*71 — 5, there were I instructors, and 97 students, of both sexes. Rev. Stephen H. Taft has been the president since the commencement of the institution. HUNGARY, one of the principal divisions of the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy, is composed of Hungary proper, the former kingdom of Croatia, which, besides sending delegates to the Hungarian diet, has a provincial diet of its own,' and the free city of Fiume. Its entire area is 436 iicxcary 125,045 sq. m., and its population, which, ac- cording to tin ■ census of 1869, was 15,509,455, was estimated, in L875, at L5.993.196. The population of Hungary is made up of a number of different races, no single race having an ab- solute majority. These races differ not only in language, but also in dress and customs. Accord- in:;' to estimates by Austrian statisticians, the races are divided nearly as follows: Germans, 1,780,000, forming J 1.4 per cent of the total population : Slaves, 1,74<>.000, or 30.6 per cent ; (nearly Hi per cent being Servians or Croats, and 12 per cent Slovacks); Italians and Rouma- nians 2,673,000, or 17.fi percent: .lews. 553.7(10, or 3.5 per cent; Magyars, 5,553,700, or 35.7 percent; and various other tribes amounting to about 199,000, or 1.2 per cent of the total population. The Magyars, though constituting considerably less than one-half of the population, are the ruling race, and are making strenuous efforts to introduce the study of their language into all the schools of i he country. The former kingdom of Croatia and Slavonia, in which 94 per cent of the people belong to the Slavic race, preserves a certain degree of administrative independence; and the Croatian language is used in all the public schools. In L869, the different religious denominations were repre- sented as follows : Roman Catholics, 7,600,000; United Greeks, L,600,000; United Armenians, 5,200; Protestants of the Augsburg Confession, 1 .1 1 1,000 ; and of the Helvetian Confession, 2,031,000; Oriental Greeks, 2,590,000; Grego- rian Armenians, 650; Unitarians, 55,000 ; other < Ihristian denominations, 2,600 ; -lews, 553,700 ; other non-Christians, and persons of no relig- ion, 220. The ruling race of the country. the Magyars, were a Mongolian tribe, that took possession of Hungary in 894. Christianity was introduced under Duke Geysa (972 — 98), whose son Stephen was crowned king by the Pope. In L526,a pari of the country was conquered by the Turks, and the remainder was annexed to A ustria, with which country it has been connected ever since. In 1849, it was deprived of its ancient constitution, and converted into a crown land or province of the Austrian empire; but, in L867, its constitutional independence was re- stored ; and, since that time.it bas formed one of the two main divisions of the A ustro- 1 1 un- itarian Monarchy, in consequence of the numer- ous civil wars, the oppression by foreign barba- rians, and the conflicting tendencies of the rival races and religions, the progress of education in Hungary bas been slow. The numerous German tlements of the L 2th and I :; ih centuries, even in tfa ' -t hours, never failed to make provi- sion for the education of their children; and when the majoritj of these settlements, in the Kith century, joined the Augsburg confession, their schools were benefited by then closer connection with the states of Germany. It was thus that the Cronstadl gymnasium was founded in the latter part of the |(iih century, thai gradually the city schools in various places were raised to the rank of gymnasia, and that scarcely a com- munity of the Augsburg confession was without a common school. The same was also true of most of the communities of the Reformed Church. The elementary education of the Cath- olics in the German settlements, was not so well cared for : but numerous gymnasia were founded by the Jesuits in the Hungarian countries, which grew quite rapidly. Very little was done for the { cause of education by the government, until Maria Theresa appointed a commission on schools and studies, in 1774. The whole country was divided into nine districts. The provincial director, who presided over a district, had charge of all the schools, with the exception of the national university, the gymnasium of Buda, and the episcopal lyceums. In 177^. the in- spectors of the Catholic common schools met in Buda, and consulted on a plan, called the pro- jectum Budense, to organize these schools. In accordance with this plan, a normal school was immediately established in every district, and common schools were to be erected as soon as possible in every parish. In the village schools. instruction was to be confined to reading, writ- ing, and arithmetic, with German, if desired; while, in the city schools, a knowledge of Ger- man was considered necessary for all the scholars. The schools of non-Catholics were to be grad- ually incorporated with the system. In 1780, the empress gave to the schools the property of the Jesuits, amounting to about L0,000,000 florins ; but, ovi ing to the peculiar circumstances which existed under Joseph II.. this huge sum did not immediately produce the expected result. Joseph I [.attempted a number of radical reforms; but most of them had to be abandoned, even before his death. A commission, however, ap- pointed by the Reichstag, drafted a new law. which was adopted in 1806. According to this law, every Catholic community was to have a national school, with one or two teachers; while 7.'! cities were to have upper schools, with three or four teachers. The ten normal schools were to serve at the same time as schools for teachers. The (ill gymnasia were divided into 51 full gymnasia, with six classes, and se languages must be employed. All cities of more than 5,000 inhabitants must establish at least a higher people's school ; and, if their means suffice, a burgher school. In these schools, boys and girls must be instructed separately, and in their own language. The course of study comprises religion, penmanship, and drawing, the mother-tongue, the Hungarian language, where it is not the medium of instruction, mathematics, natural history and natural philosophy, geog- raphy and history, the elements of agriculture, constitutional history, book-keeping, gymnastics, and singing. In the s ihools for girls, agriculture, constitutional history, and gymnastics are omit- I I. needle-work beeing taught instead of them. In the burgher schools, the boys' course com- prises six years: and the girls' course, four year.;. in addition to the stu lies pursued in the higher people's schools, chemistry, statistics, and the elements of law are taught in the burgher 1 T Bchools. Iii some of the larger schools, Latin, French, music and other branches are taught as Optional studies. The course in the normal schools comprises three years. A model training school is connected with every normal school. The schools are under the direct authority of the communities, each one of which elects a committee of. at least, nine members. The whole country is divided into school districts. for each one of which the ministry appoints an inspector, who must superintend all the schools in his district, and visit them, at least, once a year. He sees that the laws are properly en- forced, and makes an annual report Oil the con- dition of the si hools in his charge. Subordinate to the inspector is a school councilor. Teachers. are appointed, cither upon graduating from a normal school, or upon passing a proper exam- ination. A school law for Croatia was passed by the Croatian diet, in 1874, of which the principal provisions are as follows: The state has the control of the entire school system. School attendance is compulsory and free. In- struction is imparted in the < 'roatian language ; but other languages may be used as the medium of instruction, where they are spoken by the inhabitants, if the community supports its own school, and the inhabitants are ignorant of the < roatian language. In all such schools, the study of the Croatian language is obligatory. The school age extends from the eighth to the twelfth year inclusive. Female teachers may be ap- pointed in lower classes of the common school in case of need. Burgher schools for both sexes are substituted in place of the real schools which formerly existed in connection with the head schools. Pupils may enter the teachers' seminal y upon completing their fifteenth year. The course of instruction comprises three years. In 1873, there were, in all the lands of the Hungarian crown, 15,445 schools, of which 1,542 were communal schools, and 13.903. denom- inational schools. In the same year, there were 801 communities without any school at all. and the children of which could not even attend neighboring schools, on account of distance. The day schools were attended by 1,174,427 children (637,193 boys and 537,234 girls), the review schools by 231.530 (123,512 boys and 108,018 girls), the higher people's schools by 10,104 (6,243 boys and 3.861 girls), and the private schools by 23,534 (10,905 boys and 12,629 girls), and the intermediate schools by 13,671 hoys. making a total of 1,443,266 children receiving instruction. On the other hand. 678,154 (318,420 boys and 359,734 girls), or nearly 40 per cent of the children of school age, received no instruc- tion. The total number of teachers in the same year was 19,598, of whom 15,149 were licensed. The number of normal schools was 57 : of which 15 were state and 32 denominational schools for male teachers, and I state and li denominational schools for female teachers. These schools were attended by 2,371 students (1>77 males and 494 females. The number of teachers was 510. and the total number of classes 151. In 1875, there were higher people's schools for boys, with agri- cultural courses: 1 with a course of gardening and grape culture, 1 with a carving school, and 1 with a trades' school ; it for both sexes, 2!> burgher schools for boys, and 8 for girls. A higher female school iii Buda-Pesth, and two state seminaries for female teachers, in Buda- -l:;s HUNGARY HYGIENE Pesth and in Raab, were established in 1875. Buda-Pesth., the capital of Hungary, had, in 1>7.'!, Til communal. 2 government, 18 denomi- national, and 49 private schools. The school population was 51,532. The day schools were attended by 27,864, and the review schools by 4,726 pupils, making in all about 7!) per cent of the school population. The courses for adults were attended by 1,922 pupils, and the trade school, by 1,510 pupils. Secondary Instruction. — Secondary instruc- tion is imparted in gymnasia and real schools, which correspond to the institutions of the Bame name in Germany. In 1872, there were 147 gymnasia, with 1,842 teachers and 27,360 stu- dents. Of these. 20,775 were -Magyars. 2,418 Germans, 2,195 Roumanians, and 1,863 Slaves. The number of real schools, in the same year, was HI. with 315 instructors and 5,803 students, of whom 3,815 were Magyars, L,530 Germans, 326 Slaves, and 115 Roumanians. The Hungarian language is taught in all these schools. In Hun- gary proper, it is the medium of instinct ion in all secondary schools; though in some, one or more other languages are also used for some branches of instruction. In Transylvania, the medium of instruction is German in the Roman Catholic gymnasia of Qermannstadt and Cron- stadt, and in all schools belonging to the Evan- gelical Church; Roumanian, in the gymnasia of the Greek Church; and the Hungarian language, iii all other schools. Superior Instruction. — There are three uni- versities in Hungary: in Buda-Pesth, in Klau- senburg (founded in 1872). and in Agram (founded in L874). The university of Buda- Pesth had. in the winter term of 1875 — 6,150 professors and 2,630 students. Klausenburghad, in the same year, 61 professors and 417 students. In the University of Agram, 270 students were admitted, upon its opening, in 1871: but, in L875 6, the number of students was 319, and that of professors, 31. The universities of Hun- gary have substantially the same organization as those of Germany and of Austria proper. Special Instruction. Hungary had the fol- lowing special schools in L875: A royal poly- technic institute, in Buda-Pesth, with 57 profess- ors and 862 students: 9 royal. and I evangelical law academies, a commercial high-school, in Buda- Pesth, a royal agricultural academy, in Alten- burg, I other agricultural academies, in Debrec- Zin, Keszthely, Kaschau, and l\ lauseiiburg. the royal academy of forestry, in Schemnitz, the Croatian school of agriculture and forestry, in kreii/,. ."> lower agricultural schools. .'! ad Is of vine-culture, a royal mining academy, in Schem- nitz, 2 lower milling schools, an academy of music, in Buda-Pesth, a royal school for the edu- cation of officers of the landwehr cavalry, in Jaszbereny, the Ludovica Academy in Buda- Pesth, for the landwehr, a preparatory school, in Gilnz, and a naval academy in Finnic. See Scumio, Encyclopctdie, vol. v., s. v. Austria; Ki.i s. Statistik von Oesterreich-Ungarn (1876); Brachelli, Statistische Skizze der Staaten Eu- ropds (1875) ; and Statistische Skizze der oster- reichischrungarischen Monarchic (1874), being a supplement to Steix and Wapp^eus, Handbuch der Geographie und Statistik. HYGIENE, School, has reference to that department of school administration, which per- tains to the preservation of physical health. This is to be distinguished from physical educa- tion, which looks rather to the special training or developing of the body; while hygienic prin- ciples and rides have for their ol iject to preserve that condition of health in which all pupils are supposed to enter school, and. by their constant though unobtrusive influence, to make that con- dition permanent. The value of the maintenance of physical health will hardly be questioned by any thoughtful person, certainly not by any educa- tor ; for while the mind does sometimes, indeed, appear to act independently of the body, there are numerous instances on record which show that not only intellectual inefficiency is directly traceable to ill health, but moral obliquity also. If the effect of positive disease, therefore, be- comes so evident in specific instances as to reveal this direct connection, the cases in which that connection is obscure, and the effect apparent only in a general way. must be numerous. Il- lustrations of this are not wanting in the experi- ence of every observing person. So well estab- lished has this connection become) and so im- portant, consequently, has the subject of physical health in education been deemed, that no prom- inent educational writer has failed to notice it. 'I he subject of the preservation and promotion of physical health in the school involves the fol- lowing considerations : (1) the character of the site on which the school building is erected; (II) the mode of constructing the building, as well as the location and construction of the out- buildings. — water-closets, etc.; (Ill) the con- struction and arrangement of the class-rooms; (IV) the size, number, and distribution of the windows for the admission of light; (V) the mode of ventilation : | VI) the manner of heat- ing the rooms, and the average temperature preserved in them by artificial heat: (VII) the adaptation of the school furniture to the physical wants and condition of the children : ( \ 1 1 1 ) the kind of discipline employed, in regard to hygi- enic principles; (IX] the degree of attention gn en to the personal condition of the pupils, so as to preserve cleanliness and prevent the com- munication of disease : and i\i the means af- forded for physical exercise. Each of these will be considered in its order, according to the above enumeration, I. Site. — Mod. in sanhary science, fortunately, has given such particular attention to the sub- jects of site and exposure, and has impressed the public mind so thoroughly with the necessity of their bealthfulness, thai only willful ignorance Or obstinacy will, in our day, permit a building designed for human occupancy to be placed in a manifestlj unhealthy location. The healthful- lless of a school site depends Upon ( 1 I the char- ade]' of the soil ; (2) its elevation; (,'5j the cir- HYGIENE 439 cnmstances which facilitate or obstruct proper drainage; (4) its remoteness from any stagnant water, or marshy ground, liable to produce mal- arial fevers: (5) its remoteness from any factory or establishment poisoning the air by the issue of deleterious and offensive gases : to which may be added (6) the amount of space it affords for play-grounds, so as to facilitate physical exercise. While no school board or committee would err so far as to place a school-house in a situa- tion decidedly unfavorable in regard to any of these considerations, there exist between this and a decidedly healthy location, all manner of intermediate situations, which call for the exer- cise of good judgment, and even a knowledge of medical and sanitary science, in deciding upon their fitness as sites for schools. In the country, the difficulty is usually simplified by the greater opportunities for choice, and the undisturbed, natural condition of the ground. In cities, how- ever, the choice is necessarily restricted; and the best judgment will often be at fault in regard to the nature of the ground, this being frequently ••made ground", /. >■.. ground formed by bringing earth from a distance, and depositing it over spots originally low and swampy ; or the filling itself may be composed of refuse and garbage which are destructive of health. A scientific test of such ground will ordinarily show a slow oozing up, through the soil, of poisonous gases. .Modern examinations, also, as to the distribu- tion of diphtheria, fever and ague, and some other diseases, show that these usually follow the lines of old water-courses. The leakage of -ewers and gas-pipes is another insidious foe which the dwellers in cities have to encounter. The choice of location, therefore, should always be such as to avoid these influences so hostile to health. The soil should be, if possible, light or sandy, or a coarse gravel, since clayey soil holds the rain, and soon causes wet feet, with all their accompanying diseases; while the vegetable mat- ter, decomposed by the sun and standing water, frequently gives rise to consumption, and fevers of various kinds. If such a soil must be used, there should be a sloping surface, or, if unavoid- ably level, nothing short of the most thorough draining should be tolerated. II. Construction of School Building. — The con- struction of the school building will depend on the number of pupils to be accommodated ; the kind of school, as regards the sexes; and the grade, — whether primary, grammar, or high school. (See Sttioot. Hocsk.) In regard to water-closets and urinals, it is hardly necessary to say, that they should, for convenience, be as near the school-house as possible, without being near enough to allow the perception of any odor. The approaches from the school-house should be under cover, the ventilation and the supply of light should be ample. They should also be en- ■ lo d from observation. III. Construction n,i'l Arrangement of Class 1! »»ns. — This varies with the conditions under which the school-house is built. The rooms, how- ever, should always be constructed so as to allow at least 108 cubic feet of air space to each pupil, and 9 square feet of floor-space. The height of ceiling recommended by the best authorities is a minimum of 12 feet and a maximum of 15 feet, if the room is not very large. These pro- visions are absolutely necessary to furnish to each pupil the amount of air necessary for health. (See VENTILATION.) IV. The Size, Number, and Distribution of the Windows. — On this subject, Currie, in School Education, remarks : " The provision for lighting a school should have two ends in view : (1) a proper amount of light, and (2) its just distribution. The effect either of an excess or a deficiency of light is to strain the eye and cause a depression of spirits, especially as the day advances. In regard to distribution, all the parts of the school should be equally lighted, which may be more easily done with a few ju- diciously placed windows of respectable size than with a number of smaller, straggling apertures. Good ways of lighting a school are these : (1) Perhaps, the best of all is when the light is admitted from the roof, as it is then steady, equable, and free from shadow. (2) The win- dows may be placed in the ends of the school room, or in two adjacent sides, so as to admit the light from the pupil's left. Where there are windows in front of the classes, they should be at some distance from them, and in every case they should be at such height in the walls as to remove all danger from drafts when they are opened. School windows should be of the same shape as ordinary house windows ; at any rate, lattice windows, with numerous, small, lozenge- shaped panes of glass should be avoided, as the light transmitted through them is so broken as to be extremely fatiguing to the eye. (3) Each window should be fitted with blinds to moder- ate the intensity of light, when necessary, par- ticularly to exclude the direct rays of the sun. If the windows are used for ventilation as well as lighting, the difficulty of using the blinds in such a case may be obviated by having a fixed Venetian blind outside the window at the top, and hanging the inside blind on a level with the bottom of it. (4) The tint of the school walls should neither be too dull, so as to absorb the light unduly, nor too glaring, so as to dazzle the eye by reflection. Of the colors commonly em- ployed ; namely, the white, the ocher, the stone color, and the lightish-brown, the last two are obviously to be preferred." If the lighting of the school room is from the roof, care should be taken that the windows or sky-lights should not slope to the south or west, as the heat and sun- light will be intolerable in hot weather, and their regulation by blinds will be difficult. If the fighting, on the other hand, is by side win- dows, "the height of the window sills from the floor,'' says Robson, "should always be con- siderable, and the heads near the ceiling. ^luch of the cheerfulness of a school room, especially in a town, depends on the amount of sky which can be seen from the windows. The height of the sills from the floor, therefore, should never ■Mil HYGIENE be less than five feet, and may be even nunc wrath advantage. This will enable the top or bead to be placed Dearly, if do! quite, up to the ceiling, and then the upper stratum of vitiated . it- can lie more readily removed." The impor- tance of this subject in regard to health is very great. Liebreieh, in his report to the College of Preceptors of London (July, L872), attributes vera! diseases of the eye to this cause alone ; and I>r. Cohn asserts that of 410 students ex- amined by him, only one-third possessed good eye-sight, the remaining two-thirds having had their sight injured, in his opinion, by the de- ficient lighting of the school rooms in which they studied. A rough calculation, from researches made on the subject, gives 200 square indies of window glass as the proper number for each scholar. In the above remarks by Currie, the left side has been designated as the one from which the light should come, because this en- sures the fullest illumination of the page, with the least inconvenience, and the least injury to the eye. When light is admitted through the front of the room, the glare is directly in the face cither of teacher or pupils, they being sup- posed to face e.eli other. If it falls from be- hind, the shadow of the head is thrown directly upon the page; if from the right side, the shadows of the arm and hand, in the act of writ ing, equally obscure it. The light, therefore. should fall from the left side, and. as far as pos- sible, from above. In evening schools, the light- ing should be, as nearly as possible, equal to that by day. If gas is used, the glass cylinder with a reflecting shade is recommended, for the purpose of steadying the light and making it stronger and whiter. Ground glass shades are now generally discountenanced, their effect being to diffuse the light. For general illuminating purposes they are desirable, as in die parlor or concert room ; but are out of place in the school room, or in any room where the object is to concentrate light upon a particular spot. V. '/'/%■ Mode of Ventilation. See Venti- i, ■ r;o.v. VI. Mode of Heating, f the errors, under the head of school management, which affect health may be mentioned those which arise from 1 1 ) the length of the daily school session. These crrots are frequently due to the fact thatcouTses of Study are laid down first, with the view of ac- complishing a certain result, and the pupils' powers arc made to coii form to them. Ity this inversion of the natural method, sessions of h'\ ■ and six hours, with only slight intermissions, ate sometimes ordered; this can result only in physical injury. The reversal of this. i.e. .11 study of the child's physical necessities first, and a school course based on them, will insure the adop- tion of the only sale and reasonable method con- sistent with health. This should be so arranged. by a judicious alternation of sedentary occupa- tions, physical exercises, ami recesses, that no "violation of the primary laws of physiology ". as Prof. Owen terms it. maybe possible. In a room Supplied with proper hygienic facilities, four hours per day is thought to be the maximum for \ ery young pupils, and five hours tor older 01 /'//'■ number, length, <<>"! distribution of ises must vary with the different ages of th 1 children to such an extent, that the onlv practi- cable guide for their regulation must be found in the discretion Of the teacher, it may be said, in general, however, that the weariness of the pupil. which is shown by his restlessness and want of attention, furnishes the best indication of the time when t he ordinal v text book studies should be superseded by physical c xercist >, ,,r by the ab- solute recreation of the play-ground. In tropical Climates, the middle of the day, lor exercise 1 HYGIENE 441 any kind, should be avoided. Nature, however, ha* pointed this out so unmistakably, thai there is little liability to error. (3) The number, length, and distribution of vacations arc in a general way. governed by the same consideration that prescribes the number, Length, and distribution of recesses; namely, the freshness, both mental and physical, of the pupil, with such modifications as may be suggested by climate, prevailing con- tagious diseases, or other conditions. The ten- dency, of late years, in the I nited States, has been to begin the school session about the first of September, and to continue it uninterruptedl) — with a slight intermission of a week during the holidays — till the following June or July. By this arrangement, a Long, continuous vacation is insured during the warmest season of the year, when, it is claimed, rest is most needed. It has been objected to this, and perhaps with reason, that the heat of the summer months renders them unfavorable for that outdoor exercise which is most needed for the recuperation of the system. and that the health of pupils would be promoted rather by confining them indoors. As long, however, as the summer heats are avoided by a flight to the sea-shore or the mountains, this practice will probably prevail ; and though it may be said that the poor of cities, who are by far the largest patrons of the public schools, can- not afford to leave the city for summer retreats. it must be remembered, on the other hand, that , the greater prevalence of fatal diseases in cities. during the summer months, renders a vacation desirable even in their ease. (4) The regulations of the school may. by their severity, seriously interfere with bodily health, by checking or entirely repressing that activity which is so marked a characteristic of childhood and youth. Reid, in his Principles of Education, says,'' There is nothing in which parents are often more tyrannical and unreasonable than in expecting children to be quiet and good, and give them little trouble, when they will not put themselves to the least trouble to find suitable occupation for the active and restless faculties of their children. The trouble that a child gives to those in charge of it, should very often be viewed as an effort of nature to recall them to their neg- lected duty." The degree and kind of restraint, exercised over pupils, therefore deserve careful isideration. In this connection must be con- demned all those restrictions which repress, for any considerable time, that innate activity which is a necessity of the child's very being, and the repression of which, though not Immediately and actively productive of disease, becomes passively so by the condition of atrophy which it tends to produce. Want of exercise is frequently as in- imical to health as excess of it. The number and length of lessons, also, by their excess may become physically injurious. "With young chil- dren," Currie says, "a lesson should not average in duration more than a quarter of an hour, and on no account exceed twenty minutes. It is hard enough to sustain the attention, even for this period j and no child will be able to retain more than we can tell him within it. The teacher should subdivide his lesson rather than trespass beyond this limit. Lessons of different kinds, i. e., occupying different senses, should follow each other ; this is a great relief. It is absurd to speak of these frequent changes as causing loss of time". Excitement and overwork, also, should be avoided. The same general directions, however, given in regard to the number ami Length of recesses, are applicable here. The les- sons assigned by the teacher and studied in his presence may be easily directed ; but those which are pursued at home should receive equal atten- tion. (See I Lome Lessons.) I X. Personal < Condition of Pupils. — (1) Clean- liness, being a necessary condition of health, should be strcnously insisted upon. Cleanliness of the person will sometimes be found, especially in schools among the very poor, to be neglected. The danger of the outbreak of disease, or of its communication from this source, is always great in large schools; and, therefore, the frequent use of the lavatory, in such cases, is necessary. Cleanliness of clothing is no less necessary to prevent the communication of disease. Realizing the neglect of a proper care of the clothing, natural to children through thoughtlessness, many school boards have made the daily dusting and brushing of clothes by the pupils a part of the school routine. In Germany, this is often in- sisted upon, and the necessary provision made at, the expense of the school. < lleanliness of In tills is a no less essential condition of good health, and should be watched, as far as may be, and enforced with a view to the prevention of ill health. (2) It frequently happens that diseases, more or less contagious in their nature, break out in schools, and lead to the closing of the schools for a time, with sometimes more serious results. In many cases, these could have been prevented, or confined to the original ease, by a proper pre- caution on the part of the teacher. Ophthalmia, hooping-cough, scrofula, scarlet fever, small-pox, and skin diseases, whether of the head or the body, are cases of this kind. A slight knowledge of the symptoms should apprise an intelligent teacher of the danger at once, and .secure the re- moval of the case to the home or the hospital* (.'{) Vaccination, as a preventive of small-pox, should receive attention. The efficacy of this is now so thoroughly established, that a, majority of public schools do not hesitate to employ it. not- withstanding the objections often urged. When the disease becomes epidemic, if the pupil has never been vaccinated, the operation should take place at once; if he has, proof should be required, eil her in the shape of marks, or a certificate, which should establish three facts: that the operation was performed by a competent and responsible person, that it was effective, and that it was done recently enough to insure its efficacy in averting disease at the time the proof is re- quired. X. Physical Exercise. — That this is one of the most effective of all agencies in preventing dis- ease, is now generally admitted, though the ex- 442 IDAHO cess to which it is often carried in our day has, for .some time, been creating a reaction against it. The phase of the question which calls for atten- tion here, is its use not so much as a means of development, as in promoting health. On this account, one of the most important acces- sories of the school-house is the play-ground. Whether this is used as a place for continuing the discipline of the school room, or simply as a spot where children may be absolutely free to pursue their games, its size, location, and exposure should be carefully considered. If the plot on which the school-house stands is large, but en- tirely, or almost entirely, surrounded by other buildings, the planting of shade trees around the limits of the enclosure is recommended, in order to give seclusion. These should never stand, how- ever, so near the building as to exclude light, or cause dampness. Robson says in regard to this. "The play-ground should not be of a straggling. inconvenient form, but compact and without re- c sms or places where children can remain long out of sight. A northerly or easterly as| >ect sin >uli 1 n.'ver be wantonly provided when a southerly or westerly one could have been as easily obtained by no other outlay than that of a little common sense. A portion should be covered, so that in wet weather the children may not be compelled to play in their school rooms. In the case of in- fant schools, this covered portion is absolutely in- dispensable, as already shown, because marching forms so important an element in their prepar- atory instruction. It can generally be obtained in the form of a light shed open on one side; but. in some cases, and where land is dear, it may be convenient to raise the boys' and girls' schools on a low story of eight to nine feet high, and thus to obtain some portion of the covered play- ground underneath. In such cases, care will be required to prevent a cold, drafty result. As to the size of play-grounds for different schools, it is difficult to be precise. <>n account of their more active out-dour games, requiring space, the boys should undoubtedly have the lion's share, While the infants — too young to develop all the uses of a play-ground — will be happy in one much more limited. Perhaps, a space of about twice the size Of the school room and class rooms is necessary for the latter. Where land is dear. and in consequence limited, one play-ground may suffice both for the girls' school and the in- f ants', an arrangement being made by the respec- tive mistresses for its use at separate times. Without such arrangement, there is risk of dis- order, no one being responsible for the discipline of (ill. if there are two infant schools or depart- ments on the same site, the girls should be pro- vided with a separate play-ground, because then the numbers are sure to be too great for one." By what means these play -grounds should be separated, is still a matter of discussion, different methods being employed in different places, with, thus far, equally satisfactory results. In dismissing the subject of school hygiene, it may be said that the influence of school life on physical health, if properly managed, is not only not injurious, but positively beneficial. This might be inferred, a priori,bom the fundament- al law of existence. Jt is amply confirmed, how- ever, by actual statistics. Efforts to prove the contrary have been made by inferences drawn from false premises based on over-exertion, and many erroneous theories prejudicial to the cause of education have thereby become prevalent. The interaction of mind and b >dy. hi >wever. is not only an established, but a conceded fact : and just as surely as the body, by proper exercise, contrib- utes to the efficiency of the mind, so surely does the mind, by duly regulated action, contribute to that of the body. The annals of medical science confirm this in the most unmistakable man- ner. The difficulty is to assign to each its proper a mi unit of exercise. On this point, differences will probably always exist ; but the foundation has been carefully and substantially laid ; and. each year, by increased interest, refinement of processes , and patient investigation, something IS added to our knowledge of this most important subject, and the probability of our possession of a school course capable of accomplishing the gnat desideratum of modern life — a true educa- tion- is more assured. — See CuRRTJE, Principles andPractice of Common-School Education | Kdin. and Lond.); Robson, School Architecture (Lond., L874) ; P utkmikim. Handbuch der Sanitdts- Polizei, nach eigenen Qntersuchungeu bearbeitet (2 vols.. Berlin, L858— 9); Seegel, Die Schule und ihr Einfluss an/ >■ (f'csuui/heil (1868); Passavant, Ueber Schidunterricht ram drzt- lichen Standpunkte (1SG8). IDAHO was organized as a territory March ! 3., L863, being formed from portions of Dakota, Nebraska, and Washington territories, and in- 1 eluding then the present territory of Montana and nearly all of Wyoming. Its present area is 86,294 sq. m.: and its population, in 1870, was L4,999. Educational History.— Soon after the organ- ization of the territory, provision was made foi the support of public schools, and a school system was established. In 1866, the Dumber of pupils enrolled m the schools of eight counties was re- ported as -I'M, out of a school population of T'J- children, between five and eighteen years of age. The whole number of children of school age in the territory was estimated at that time ;is l.MMl. Up to 1870, little progress had been made, the census returns showing only 466 pupils attend- ing the schools of the territory. The whole number of school children in the territory, be- tween the aces of live and twentv-one. in 1871, was L.596; 'in 1872, L.909 ; in 1873, 3,473; and in L874, 4,010. School System. — The school law has been re- peatedly changed. That at present (1876) in IDAHO IDIOTS 443 force was passed in January, 1875. Its leading provisions are the following : — The territorial controller is. ex officio, territo- rial superintendent of public instruction; and his duties are. tn exercise a general supervision over the public schools of the territory, to pre- pare blanks for reports of county superintend- ents, trustees, teachers, etc.; to apportion tin- school fund: and to make a detailed report to the legislative assembly at each of its regular sessions; also to present such suggestions as he may deem necessary, in relation to the construc- tion of school-houses, the management and sup- port of the schools, the qualifications of teachers, and the promotion of the general interests of education throughout the territory. The other officers who perforin duties directly connected with education are the county superintendents and the trustees of schools. The auditor of each county is. e.c officio, county superintendent, whose duties are, to apportion the public school money among the school districts, on the first Monday in March, and quarterly thereafter ; to distribute, on behalf of the territorial superin- tendent, blanks, reports, etc., for the use of the school trustees, census marshals, and teachers; to keep on rile reports from school trustees etc.; and to make an annual report to the territorial super- intendent, stating the number of school-houses in each district of his county, the number of children of school age, the number of pupils at- tending school, the number of libraries and books therein, the school books used, the amount of money paid for teachers' salaries and other school purposes ; to appoint trustees to fill va- cancies, and to organize new school districts on the application of the inhabitants of the same ; also to modify the boundaries of school districts ; and to receive and file all school election returns. Three trustees of schools are elected annually in each district, who hold office for the term of one year. Their powers and duties are to employ and remove teachers, and to fix the salaries of the same ; to visit the schools as often as once in each month ; to take charge of all the school- property in their respective districts ; by vote of the district, to convey by deed any school house or site, also to purchase real estate for the use of the schools; to call meetings of the in- habitants to decide upon the levy of any special tax that may be required in order to defray the expenses of the schools ; to examine and license teachers ; and to appoint a census marshal to make the enumeration of the children in the dis- t rict . No books, papers, tracts, or documents, of a political, sectarian, or denominational character are permitted to be used in any of the schools. — Teachers, before receiving a certificate of license from the trustees, must pass an examination in orthography, reading, writing, arithmetic, geog- raphy, English grammar, and the history of the 1 nited States. — The legal school age is from five to eighteen years. School Statistics. — In 1874. the whole Dumber of school-districts in the territory was 77: and the number of school- houses, 53. There were 3 libraries, containing 198 volumes. The num- ber of children, between five and twenty-one was •1,1110; and the school attendance was 2.030. The whole amount of money received was $31,064.33; and the amount expended, 921,789. School Fund. — All moneys accruing from the sale of lands given by Congress for school pur- poses, and all moneys appropriated by Congress for school purposes in the territory, are to be devoted to the establishment of a university or other high school. Moneys obtained by Legacy, donation, escheats, etc., constitute an ir- reducible and indivisible general school fund, the interest of which is apportioned among the counties. The county school fund is obtained by a tax of not less than two, or more than five, mills on each dollar of taxable property in every county. All moneys arising from fines for a breach of the penal laws of the territory are set apart by the county treasurer as a part of the county school fund. Measures were taken in July, 1874, to estab- lish in Boise City a university, to be known as the Idaho University. Provision has been made for this institution in the new school law. IDIOTS, Education of. The term idiots is applied to those who, in different degrees, are deficient in intellectual power and activity. A more general designation, however, of this class of unfortunates is that of ///<■ imherife, or feeble- iii inded persons; since idiocy is usually employed to denote an extreme degree of mental deficiency. The first attempt, so far as is known, to in- struct idiots was made by St. Vincent de Paul in the 17th centmy, and by the philosopher Itard, the friend and disciple of Condillac, at the close of the 18th century; but the efforts of both were limited to a few isolated cases, and did not lead to the establishment of any perma- nent school for idiots. Dr. Itard committed the facts which he had gathered to his pupil Dr. Se- guin, who made the study of idiocy a specialty. The subject had, in the mean time, been discussed by a number of physicians, and the establish- ment of special schools for idiots had been re- commended by Dr. Pool of Edinburgh (1819), and Dr. Belhomme of Paris (1824). Practical attempts, on a small scale, had also been made at Salzburg in Austria (1816), at the American asylum for the deaf and dumb in Hartford, Ct. (1818) ; at the Bicetre, one of the large insane hospitals in Paris (l8'_'s) : at the Salpe- triere, another insane hospital at Paris (1833); by Dr. Voisin, who organized a school for idiots at Paris, in 1833, and by other philanthropists. But all these attempts were of short duration, and a firm basis was not gained until the establish- ment of the school of Dr. Seguin. In 1*4*, Dr. Seguin settled in the United States, where he assisted in tin' organization and improvement of several institutions for idiot instruction. In 1874, there were three schools for idiots in France, — at the Bicetre and the Salpetriere at Paris, and at Clermont, with an aggregate number of 85 in- mates. In Belgium, institutions for the instruction of idiots are connected with the insane asylums 444 IDIOTS at Gheel and Bruges. The Netherlands have one school for idiots, at the Hague, founded in 1855, with which, three years later, a medical asylum was connected. In Switzerland, l>r. < ruggenbuhl opened, in L842, a school specially intended for cretins, on theAbendberg, in the canton of Hern. His pretended ability to cure cretins attracted for a time great attention, but was, afterwards generally denounced as a fraud. In 187 1, Switzer- land had two private schools for idiots, in the cantons of Bern and Basel, with an aggregate number of 27 inmates. There are similar schools in the canton of Thurgau and in the city of Ziirich. In the German provinces of Austria, an attempt to establish a school for idiots was made, as early as 1816, at Salzburg, by the teacher GuggenmoOS. A few years later, twelve cretin children were received at the monastery of Admont, in Salzburg. From 1835 to 1 is4T. Haldenwang, a clergyman of Wiirtemberg, main- tained at Wildberg a private institution for idiot children. The governments of several of the < Ser- man states granted the means for establishing idiot asylums; and Dr. Kern, who had already, in 1 8 12, begun to experiment in Eisenach, succeeded in effecting remarkable partial cures, and was placed by the Saxon government at the head of an excellent asylum in Gohlis, uear Leipsic ; while Sui/r,-/ in Berlin (1844), Krause in Halle (1840), Glascheva Hubertsburg (1846), and Dr. KiiSCh, in Wurtelllberg, were DO less SUCCeSSful. In 1*71. Prussia had ten idiot asylums, s private, and some maintained by the state. Sweden had. in L874, three schools, and Rus- sia, school for idiots. In England, the firsl efforts for the instruction of idjot children were made by some benevolent ladies, in Lancas- ter. Bath, Ipswich, and Brighton. A movement for establishing idiot asylums on a large scale began in L847. The institution at Earlswood, near Uedhill. Surrey, had. in L874, 700 inmates; other institutions are the Eastern County Asylum, Essex I lall. * 'olehester, the Western Counties Asylum, at Starcross, near Exeter, the Midland Counties Asylum, at Knowle. anl the Royal Albert Asylum, uear Lancaster. A private institution of Dr. Langdon Down, at Xonnansiielil. near London, is only designed for the wealthy. All these institutions have train- ing schools connected with them. Scotland has ;i national institution lor the education of imbecile children, at Lasbert, Stirlingshire, with !M> pupils. There are also schools for idiots iii Inland, ('ana la. ami New South Wales. In the United States, the earliest efforts t<> instruct idiot children were made, as has already been 'i I. in the I la ill or. 1 asylum tor the deaf and dumb. Similar attempts, but only in isolated cases, were subsequently (1838 or 1839) made in the Perkins Institution for the Blind in Boston, and in the New fork Deaf and Dumb Institution. The first impulse to the establishment of special Bchoolfl lor idiots ua- given I 8 b"i| by the letters of George Sumner, describing his visit to the Paris BCl Is. Among the first and foremost pro tersoi i he cau.se in the United States, were Dr. S. B. "Woodward, superintendent of the hospital for the insane, at Worcester, Mass.. and Dr. Frederick K. Backus, of Rochester, X. Y. The legislatures of Massachusetts and New York at once took action in the matter, in New York. Dr. Backus, who had been elected a member of the state senate, reported, in 1846, a bill for the establishment of an idiot institution: and, in Massachusetts, the legislature appointed a com- mission to investigate the condition of idiots and report suitable measures for their instruc- tion. In accordance with the report of the commission, an experimental school was estab- lished at South Boston, in ( tat. 18 I*, which was. in 1850, incorporated as the Massachusetts School for Idiotic and Feeble-Minded Youth. It was, trom its foundation until I876,underthe direction of Dr. Howe, whose death occurred in that year. The state makes an annual appropriation of $16,500 for its support, and poor children are admitted without chargi The states of Maine, New I lanipshire.Ycrinont.and Rhode Island each support a few pupils in this institution. In New York, the establishment of the first school for idi- ots, which, in 1 846, had been favorably reported by Dr. Backus, was delayed until 1851, when an ex- perimental scl 1 was opened at Albany, which was subsequently, as a permanent state institu- tion, transferred to Syracuse, where a large edifice Avas erected for its aceonmiodat ion at a cost of nearly $90,000, with facilities for the instruction and care of 1 ."<> pupils. Since then, it has been enlarged. The school has been, from the first, under the direction of Dr. H. B. Wilbur, who previously, from 1848 to 1851, had con- ducted a private school for idiots at Barre, Mass.. which, after he had accepted the call to Albany, was carried on by Dr. George Brown. The Pennsylvania Training School for Feeble- Minded Children, originated as a private school, in 1 852, at ( icrniantowu.but was. in the following year, incorporated under its present name: and in 1857, after receiving a grant from the state. transferred to its present location at Media. Del- aware Co. The Ohio State Asylum for the Education of Idiotic and Imbecile Youth, which is w holly supported by the state, was organized at Columbus, in 1857, as an experimental school. It was permanently established in L864, when a site, about 2 miles from the city, was purchased, and a building erected, in 1868, affording ac- commodation tor 250 inmates, but subsequently enlarged. In Kentucky, the Institution for the Education of Feeble-Minded Children and Idiots was established in I860, at Frankfort; and in I llinois a similar institution, in 1865, at Jacksonville. The Connecticut School for imbe- ciles was established at I akcville. in 1858. 'I he city of New York opened, in 1867, a school t-i idiots in connection with the idiot asylum on Randall's Island. A private school, which limits the number of its pupils to 12. was opened in |s;i ;,t bavville, Worcester Co.. Mass. The report of the U. S. Commissioner of Education for I874,gives the following statistics of these institutions : IDIOTS ILLINOIS 445 NAMES. Connecticut School for Imbeciles Illinois Institution for the Education of Feeble-Minded Children Kentucky Institution for the Education of Feeble Minded Children Private Institution for the Education of Feeble-Minded Youth at Barre, Mass Massachusetts School for Idiotic and Feeble-Minded Youth Hillside School for Backward and Peculiar Children, at Payville, Mass New York Asylum for Idiots, at Syracuse, N. Y Ohio State Asylum for Idiots Pennsylvania Training School for Feeble - Minded Children E3" 3 3 u 12 24 14 50 16 7 to 9 49 T4 05 Number of inmates s 45 GO 50 52 71 5 110 217 123 34 37 40 23 47 3 89 143 101 o H 103 99 75 118 199 300 224 T*. — n a b o c 104 254 213 190 630 14 691 014 733 $24,500 7,500* 22.GG9 41,186 70,283 59,898 a V a, x $24,500 40,000 23,045 40,902 03,433 03,594 * Also $150 per capita allowed by the state. The first efforts for the instruct ion of idiots were made upon no definite plan, or simply with the view to subject some philosophical theory to a practical test. Since the establishment of special schools for idiots, idiocy is generally viewed as a prolonged infancy : and, in all efforts for the development either of their physical powers or their mental faculties, it is deemed essential to proceed according to the principles of physiol- ogy, and to conform, as strictly as possible, to the teachings of nature. The physical education will, of course, vary according to the deficiencies of individuals; and the instruction will always, to a large extent, be conditioned by the health of the pupils and the progress of their medical treatment. It is self-evident, therefore, that medical and educational skill must go hand in hand in the management of schools for idiots. — It has been found that Froebels kinder- garten occupations may easily be so modified as gradually to enliven the nervous action of idiot children, and that, in general, playful occu- pations must be resorted to, so as to make at the beginning deep and lasting impressions on their listless minds. Experience also shows that, under proper treatment, about one-third of all idiot children (if the cure be early begun) may be ad- vanced to nearly average usefulness ; another tliird.to the lower grades of intelligence: and the rest, to a condition in which they cease to be a mere burden on the family or on society. The largest of the American schools, that of Media, Pa., reports that, up to July 1., 1872, the improvement of its inmates had been as follows: taught to speak. 53; articulation im- proved, 253 : taught to read. 254, to write, 146, to feed themselves, 61, to dress themselves. 9 1, to walk. 5 ; gait improved, 286 : reformed from bad habits, 164, from destructive habits, 302; accustomed to some employment, 241 ; epilepsy cured, 23; epilepsy improved, 78. According to the last census, the number of idi- ots in the United States was 24,527 : in England and Wales, 29,452 : in Norway, 2,039. In Scot- land, the number was estimated at 3,000; in Ire- land, at 7.000; in the Netherlands, at about 3,000; in Switzerland, including the cretins, at 3,800. In many countries, no official enumeration of idiots is made. "Where the census has been taken. the figures are believed to be too low, as there are many cases of idiocy which are not recognized by parents and relatives. The views of Dr. Seguin on the education of idiots are laid down in the works, Traitement moral, hygiene et education des idiots (Paris. 1846) ; Idiocy and its Treatment by the Physio- logical Method (New York, 1866), and New Fads and Remarks concerning Idiocy (New York, 1870). See also Dr. Avuks. Report on the Education, of Imbecile and Idiotic Children, (in vol. xiii. of the Transactions of the American Medical Association. 1862); Dr. Cheyne Brady. The Training of Idiotic and Feeble-Minded Children (Dublin, 1864) ; and Dr. Kern's essay on the subject, in Allgemeine Zeitschrift fur Psychiatrie, 1857 ; and Dr. L. P. Brockett, in Barnard's Journal of Education, vol. I. — A statistical account of all European institutions for idiots may be found in Eulenmeyer, Ueber- sicht der SffenUichen und privaten liven- und Idioten-Anstalten allcr oiropdischer Staaten, (1863). Sec also Seguin, Report on Education at the Vienna Exhibition ("Wash., 1875). ILLINOIS. This state formed a part of the North-west Territory, organized in pursuance of the ordinance of -Inly 13., 178", and including the whole of the public domain situated north of the Ohio river. Out of this territory were successively formed, and admitted into the Amer- ican Union, the states of Ohio (1802), Indiana (1816), and Illinois (1818) : subsequently, Mich- igan (1837), and Wisconsin (1848). According to the census of 1820. Illinois had a population of 55, 21 1 : in 1870, its population was reported as 2,51.1,096 giving it the fourth rank among the states of the Union. Its area is 55,410 square miles. The number of illiterates 10 years of ace and upward was, at that time, 8,38 per cent 446 ILLINOIS of the whole population ; and the proportion of illiterates among adults was 7.16 per cent of the males, and 8.59 per cent of the females. Educational History. — A law was passed providing for the establishment of public schools in the state as early as L823 ; and, the census of 1840 reported the number of common Bchoolfl as 1241 . with •''> t,876 pupils. In 1850, the num- ber of schools had increased to 2. 64] . and the number of pupils, to 132.324. The school fund, at that time was $ ( .)3!),7!)!), derived from the s;de of public lands, and the surplus revenue of the United States. On the formation of the state, one section in each township was appro- priated for the support of schools, and after- wards an additional income of 3 per cent on the actual proceeds from the sales of public lands within the state. One-sixth of these proceeds was appropriated for the support of colleges. The office of superintendent of education was not created till L854; and. the next year, a bill was passed, providing that the educational affairs of the state should be administered by the state superintendent, a school commissioner for each county, and a board of education for each town- ship. State funds were to be distributed only among those schools which had, for at least six months in the year, offered equal and free instruction to all children of the legal school age. The first state sn/H'rinte/n/fi/1 was Xinian Edwards who was elected in 1854 and served till L856; W. II. Powell served from 1856 to L858 : and again from L862 to 1864 ; the system was administered by Newton Bateman, as state superintendent from L858 to L862, and aBec 1 term from 1864 to 1874, when he was succ led by S. .M. Etter, the present incumbent (1876). The system, as at present constituted, was adopted in 1872. An outline is given below. In L874, a law was passed prohibiting all school officers from excluding any children from the schools on account of color. The school law was further amended so as to abolish the provisional teachers' certificate. A bill providing for com- pulsory education was passed by the House, hut defeated in the Senate. School System. — Public education is ad- ministered by the following school officers: (I) A state superintendent of public instruc- tion: (2) County superintendents of schools; (3) Boards of township school trustees; | h Boards of distrid scl I directors. The state super- intendent is chosen by popular vote, at a general election, and holds office for the term of four years, lie is the executive head of the system. lie is under I Is ($25,000) for the faithful discharge of his ollicial duties; and is required to keep an office ai the Beat of government, and i" receive, arrange, preserve, and file all official documents, and bold the same in readiness to be exhibited to the governor or to any committee ol the legislature, lie has the general Buper- \ ision Of the schools, and is authorized to make such rules as may lie requisite for carrying the school 1,-iw into effect. He has appellate juris- diction in all controversies arising under the school law. where original jurisdiction is vested in the county superintendents. He is authorized to grant state certificates authorizing the holders to teach without further examination, in every county and school district in the state, and valid until revoked for cause. He is, e.r officio, a member of the state board of education, to which is intrusted the management of the State Normal University, the condition and expendi- tures of which he is required to report to each session of the legislature; and he is also, ex officio, a member of the board of trustees of the State Industrial I 'niversity. - ( 'ounty superintt ndents are elected every four years. They have the custody of and distribute the school moneys to the several townships, visit and inspect the schools in the county at least once in each year, and report their condition to the state super- intendent. They are the official advisers of all the subordinate school officers and teachers of their respective counties, and the channel of official communication between the state depart- ment of education and all local township and district school officers. They are. also, required to assist in the management of teachers' insti- tutes. They, morever, examine and license teachers. At least four public examinations are required to be held every year in each county : and the examination may be conducted either by the county superintendent in person, or by a board of examiners appointed by him. Sets of questions are furnished, from time to time, by the state superintendent, for the pur- pose of these examinations, with general instruc- tions as to the conditions upon which certificates of each grade should be granted. In this way. a uniform standard of qualifications is preserved. No teacher can lawfully be employed in any common school in the state without a certificate of qualification ; and no county certificate can be granted except upon "due examination" of the candidate by the county superintendent. After a certificate has been granted, it maybe renewed, at expiration, by the county super- intendent, or he may require the teacher to sub- mit to another examination. County super- intendents are also vested with power to revoke certificates, at any time, for immorality, incom- petency, or any other sufficient cause. The compensation of county superintendents is S."> a day for services actually rendered, and 3 per cent upon the amount of sales of school lauds, and upon real estate taken for debt, for their services in making such sales: and a further commission of 2 per cent upon the amount of all sums distributed, paid, or loaned out. by them. — A board of trustees, consisting of three members, is elected in each township, for a term of three years, one member retiring annually. The trustees determine the number of school districts into which the township is to be divided, and apportion and distribute, semi-annually, the public school moneys among the districts of their respective townships. They are invested, in their corporate capacity, with the title of all school-houses and sites, and may sell the same ILLINOIS 44T when it is deemed expedient. — School directors are elected, in the same manner as trustees; .and each board of directors consists of three mem- bers, holding office for three years, one new member being elected annually. They levy taxes, and are required to establish and keep in oper- ation, for at least six months in each year, and longer if practicable, a sufficient number of free schools for the proper accommodation of all the children in the district over the age of six and under twenty-one years. They may adopt and enforce all necessary rules and regulations for the management of the schools, and must visit and inspect the same as often as practicable. They appoint the teachers and fix their salaries, and may dismiss them for incompetency, cruelty. negligence, or immorality. They direct whai branches are to be taught, and what text-book;; must be used. — The branches required to bo taught are orthography, reading, penmanship, arithmetic, English grammar, geography, and the history of the United States; the law, how- ever, provides that other and higher branches may be taught than those enumerated. Tins permissory provision has led to the establishment of one or more advanced schools in nearly every county of the state, " the vitalizing influence of which ", said Supt. Bateman, in 1868, "is felt through all the subordinate grades of schools. " The school age is from 6 to 21 years, and all bona fide residents of a school district, of the proper age. have the right to attend, free of cost, the public schools of that district. Pupils resi- dent in one district cannot attend school in another without the written consent of the di- rectors of both districts. School Fund. — Public educational revenues are derived from the iullowing sources : (1) The school fund proper ; consisting of three per cent of the net proceeds of the sales of the public lands in the state, one-sixth part excepted ; amounting to about $665,000. (2) The surplus revenue fund, consisting of a portion of the money which was received by the state from the general government, under an act of Congress, providing for the distribution of the surplus revenue of the United States, and by law of March 1.. 1^>7, made a part of the common- school fund of the state. (3) The college or university fund, consisting of one-sixth of the three per cent, or school fund proper. (4) The seminary fund, consisting of the proceeds of the sales of the "seminary lands", donated to the state by the U. S. government, for the purpose of founding and maintaining a seminary for the education of the children of the state ; all of which lands that remained unsold in L861, were donated, by an act of the legislature, to the Illinois Agricultural College. This fund amounts to about |60,000. These constitute the per- manent state school fund, the principal of which is loaned to the state, which pays interest there- on at the rate of six per cent. Besides these sources of revenue, thereare (5) the county school fund, consisting of surplus moneys in the hands of the county school commissioner ; (6) the township fund, derived from the proceeds of the sale of the sixteenth section in each congressional district — said section (040 acres) having been donated to each township for school purposes, by act of Congress; (7) the stale tax fund, for- merly obtained by an assessment of two mills ml valorem upon all the taxable property of the state: in lieu of which, by act of 1874, it was provided that one million dollars should be annually appropriated out of the state school fund ; (8) the district tax fund, from which the largest amount of revenue is derived, consisting of such variable supplementary or special amounts as may be levied, from time to time, by the re- spective local boards of school directors, the school directors of every district being required by law to levy annually such a tax as will, when added to the public funds, be sufficient to maintain a free school for at least six months in each year. Pesides these, there is finally (9) a fund derived from fines, forfeitures, mnl penal- ties, imposed by, or incurred before, courts of record, or justices of the peace. Teachers' Certificates. — Every teacher must hold a regular certificate either of the first or second grade. Certificates of the first grade are valid for two years, and certify that the holders are qualified to teach orthography, reading in English, penmanship, arithmetic, English gram- mar, modern geography, the elements of the natural sciences, the history of the United States, physiology, and the laws of health. Those of the second grade are valid for one year, and certify to an ability to teach the same branches, excepting the natural sciences, physiology, and the lawsof health. The county superintendent has discretionary authority to renew such certifi- cates at the expiration of the time for which they were granted, by his endorsement thereon ; and may revoke the same, at any time, for im- morality, incompetency, or other proper cause. Educational Condition. — The number of school districts in the state, in 1874, was 11,285, in all of which except 157, schools were sustained for 5 months or more ; the whole number of free public schools was 11,646, and the number of graded schools, 7;">4. The other important statis- tical items are the following : Number of persons of school age, 938,878 Number of pupils enrolled, unties, 3,'>0,082 females, 321,693 Total of pupils enrolled, 671,775 Average daily attendance, 383,334 Number of teachers, males, 9,036 females, 12,093 Total, 21,129 Receipts, from state tax, $1,021,971 " " local tax, 5,658,183 Interest of school fund, etc. 1,213,437 Total, * $7,893,591 Expenditures, for tuition, 1 1 ,63 1 ,622 Sites and Iniildings, 1,009,960 Other purposes, 2,221,100 Total, " $7,865,682 ( !i ist per unit of school population, $5.60 " " of enrollment, 7.82 " " of average attendance, 13.73 448 ILLINOIS Normal Instruction. — Professional instruction and training are afforded to teachers in the State Normal University, at Normal, and in the Southern Illinois Normal University, at < 'arbon- dale. The former was organized in 1857 : it in- cludes both an academic and a normal depart- ment. Students in the latter are required to sign a pledge to bi'eome teachers in the schools of the state; and. on this condition, their tuition is afforded gratuitously. .Male students must be, at least, 17 years of age; and female students. 1 6. Auxiliary to the normal department, is the Model School, designed to furnish an opportu- nity for observation and practice to those prepar- ing to be teachers. The academic department consists of the High School, which furnishes a thorough preparation for admission into the university or for business. The High School is a department of the Model School, which com- prises also a Grammar School and a Primary School. From the time of its organization to 1875, this institution had given instruction to 3,258 persons, of whom 241 had completed the course and received diplomas of graduation. I hiring the same period, the Model School in its several grades, had received about 2,930 pupils, of whom '22 were graduates of the High School. About 2.*) per cent of the pupils of the Model School became teachers. The Southern Illinois Normal University was opened in L874. It oc- cupies one of the finest school edifices in the United States. It includes, besides a normal department proper, a preparatory department and a model school. The model school is of an elementary grade, giving instruction in the branches usually taught in the common schools; the preparatory department is of the grade of a high school, with a course of study of three years. The normal course, of tour years, embraces two courses, -a classical and a scientific course; both, however, make the study of the English language and literature quite prominent. I hiring the last year, opportunity for practice is afforded in the preparatory and model schools. Besides these two State institutions, there are two county normal schools,— the Cook County Normal School, at ISaglewood, near I Ihicago, and the Peoria < 'ounty Normal School, at Peoria. Each of these has an organization similar to that of the state normal schools. There is also a normal school at < Ihicago, and a noimal department in Eureka College, al Eureka. Teachers' institutes constitute an impor- tant agency lor the professional improvement ol those actually engaged in teaching. Of these, in L 874, there were held in different parts of the state L84, which continued in the aggregate 828 days, and were attended by 6,713 teachers. notary Instruction. — In 1874, there were Mr, public high schools in the state. These] 1 law provides that, on a petition of 50 voters in an\ school township, an election for or against a high school may lie held at tin' next ensuing election of trustees, and if a majority of the votes he found to lie in favor of a high Bchool, the trustees shall establish it. There are very many private seminaries for secondary instruc- tion in the state, including a large number of preparatory schools, and several business colleges. I if the latter, in L874, there were 1(J. Superior Instruction. — There is a large num- ber of universities and colleges in the state, besides several colleges for women. The name of most of the former are given in the following table: NAM I Abingdon Pax ton carlinville (ai'thage Chicago Lureka Abingdon Jacksonville Abingdon College Augustaua College Blackburn University .... ( 'arthage College ( !hicag< i University Lureka College Hedding College Illinois CoUege Illinois Wesleyan I'niv... . Knox College, Lincoln Oniveraity Lombard University McKenuree College Monmouth College Monmouth Northwestern College. ... Naperville Northwestern University. Evanston Shurtleff College St. Ignatius CoUege Sit. Joseph's Eccles. Coll st. \ iator's College Westfield College ■\Vneaton College Location W hen found ed keligious denomina- tion 1853 Disciples 1863 Lutheran i-i;t Presb. 1870 Lutheran 1857 liaptist L855 Disciples ]s:>4 M. Epis. 1829 Non-sect. Bloomington 1850 Mi th. Galesburg 1841 iTsb.&Cg. 1867 Cumb.Pr. 1857 Universal. 1828 M. Epis. 1858 L. Presb. 1861 Evang. is:,:, m. Epis. 1835 Baptist 1870 K. C. 1861 B. C. 1869 K. C. 1865 f. Breth. ( ongreg. Lincoln Galesburg Lebanon Altou I hirago Teutopolis Bourb .Grove w. stfli Id Wheaton Technical mul Professional Instruction. — The principal institution for scientific ami tech- nical instruction is the Illinois Industrial Uni- versity, at Urbana, chartered in 1867. It has a corps of 25 instructors, including professors, lecturers, and assistants ; ami. in 1875, the at- tendance of pupils was over 400. It compri four colleges, of (1) Agriculture; (2) Engineer- ing, including a school of architecture ; (3) Nat- ural Science: (1) Literature and Science. Th colleges embrace L2 subordinate schools and courses of instruction, including a school of domestic science ami art, a school of commerce, and a school of military science ; also a school of wood engraving, printing, telegraphing, photo- o-raiihino', and designimr. < 'andidates tor admix- Hon to the university must hi' at least 1"> years of age, of go id moral character, and able to pass an examination in English grammar, geography, arithmetic, algebra, history of the United State.-, and natural science, 'litis institution is endowed with the national land grant, and the amount of its productive funds is about $320,000. The Value of its grounds, buildings, etc.. is about $640,000. It is well supplied with apparatus, ami has a library of over 10,000 volumes. The Dlinois Agricultural College, at Lrvington "was organized in 1866. The chief theological schools are the following : \ \MI. Location ions denomination Theol. Dept Shurtleff Col. Alton Baptist do. do. Blackburn l ' ni\ i raity Carlinville ( Ihicago Presb. Union Theol. Seminar] , . Baptist Chicago Theol. Seminary. Chioago i long. Theol. Bern, of Nortlrw est. ( ihicago 1'rcsb. Biblical Dept. Eureka Col. Eureka Christian Evanston Meth. Epis. \\ ;u tborg Seminary Mendota Lutheran Augustaua Theol. Bern... . Pazton Lutheran ILLINOIS COLLI..;! ILLITERACY 449 In these various institutions, in 1874, there were 19 instructors, L8 endowed professorships, and 290 students. The total amounl of product- ive funds was aboul $775,000; and the libra- ries contained, in the aggregate, nearly 30,000 volumes. The law schools consist of the law departments of Illinois Wesleyan I niversity. and McKendree College, and the Union College of Law. at Chicago. The medical schools comprise the Chicago Medical College (a department of North- western University), Lush Medical College, the Woman's Hospital Medical College, and the Hahnemann Medical College . at Chicago. Special Instruction. —The Illinois Institution for the Education of the Deaf and Dumb, at Jacksonville, is one of the most extensive and important institutions for deaf-mute instruction in the United States. It comprises departments for instruction in the sign language, as well as in articulation, or visible speech, and in draw- ing: also domestic and industrial departments. In 1874, there were nearly 400 pupils on the rolls of the institution, and a corps of ^instruct- ors. The Illinois Institution for the Education of Feeble-Minded Children, at Jacksonville, is also a large and important institution, founded in 1865. Its efficiency is thoroughly attested, th-' children being instructed successfully in most of the simple elementary branches of knowledge. besides being taught important matters connected with domest ic econi »my and practical occupations. Educational Associations. — The State Teach- ers' Association, established in 1853, holds its con- vention annually, and is well sustained; besides which there are many other local associations, in more or less active operation. A state asso- ciation of county superintendents was organized about twelve years ago, for the purpose of pro- moting the efficiency of county school supervision, and securing a more uniform compliance with the requirements of the school law. ILLINOIS COLLEGE, at Jacksonville. 111., chartered in 1835, is non-sectarian. The value of its buildings, grounds, and apparatus is $190,000 : the amount of its productive funds, §135,000. Tt has a classical and a scientific course, libraries containing 11,000 volumes, and a corps of 9 instructors. The cost of tuition is per year. Connected with the college are the Whipple Academy and the Jacksonville Business College. The number of students, in 1875 6, was as follows: in the college. 60; acade- my, 76 ; business college, 221. The Rev. Julian M. Sturtevant, I). I)., LL. D., is (1870) the pres- ident of the college. ILLINOIS WESLEY AN UNIVERSITY, at Bloomington, 111., founded in 1850, is under Mfethodisl Episcopal control. It has a fine cam- pus of 10 acres, libraries containing 2,400 vol- umes, and productive funds aim muting to S!)< ». • »00. I he value of its buildings, grounds, and apparatus is $150,000. Both sexes are admit till. A law department was organized in 1*74. In 1875 — 6, there were 15 instructors and 77(J students (546 preparatory and 2.'?0 collegiate). 29 ILLITERACY (from the Latin iUiteratus, unlettered, i. ••.. ignorant of letters or books) is a term used at present to denote the in- ability to read and write. The mere fact as to how many persons in any community arc unable to read and write is not, in itself, of very great value; but, in its relations to ignorance and knowledge, it is highly important, as marking the dividing line on one side of which maybe placed all those who are hopelessly consigned to a total ignorance of books, and are, therefore, deprived of all the advantages to be derived from their study or perusal : and, on the other, all who, by means of such knowledge and such sources of information 1 ! have been placed on the high road to thrift, skill, intelligence, culture, virtue, and every other element of the highest civilization. To the individual, illiteracy is a most deplorable misfortune : to the community, in proportion to its extent, it isan acknowledged bane. The principle of free schools is derived from a consideration of the numerous evils which pi ipular ignorance entails upon a community: and of this ignorance illiteracy is the exponent. On the same principle is based all legislation for compulsory attendance at schools. These prin- ciples have, however, been called in question; but very rarely. "Parents'', it has been said, "can- not justly be forced to give their children a certain amount of education, unless it is assumed that this education is as necessary for the mind as food and clothing are for the body".; and, of course, this is an assumption that cannot be maintained. But national systems of education have regard to the good of the community, not merely, or chiefly, to that of the individual. The want of literary education is the source of nu- merous ills to the body politic, which legisla- tion should strive to remove. The statistics of illiteracy are. thus, of the greatest value, as indicating the progress or retrogression of a nation in the most important elements of well- being. (See Crime and Education.) A full view of this subject requires that the attention should be given to (I) the sources of in- formation — what they are. and how reliable they can be made ; (II) the general facts obtained by an investigation into the condition of the people in the different countries of the world, which, for this purpose, may be distributed into various groups, comprehending the totally igno- rant barbarous tribes, the extremely illiterate p< >p- ulations of the old despotisms of Europe, Asia, and Africa, and those in which only a modified degree of illiteracy is still found to exist, — the highly favored states of Europe and North Amer- ica; (III) some special facts regarding the compar- ative illiteracy of (1 ) males and females. (2) adults and youth, (3) the general population and crimi- nals, and (4) the general population and con- scripts : (IVJ the relations of illiteracy to (1) su- perior knowledge, (2) common labor, (3) skilled labor. I I j national power, 1 5) pauperism, (6) crime. (7) honie and its influences, (8) higher civilization and religion; (V) the causes of illiteracy; I V I ) remedies, and the prospects of improve- 450 ILLITERACY ment by the operation of various influences pecu- liar to modern civilization. I. As the chief sources of information, depend- ence must be placed upon (1) ce?isus reports, some of which, especially such as those of Italy for 1861 and 1871, are replete with instruction on this subject ; but those of the United States are the most valuable of all. embracing, as they do, four periods, 1840, 1850, L860, andl^Tu. The later ones are of especial importance, as they afford particular statistics of various classes. — native and foreign, white and colored, adults and youths, males and females. All the facts presented in the census reports for 1840, -50, -60, are brought together and digested in a paper on Jllilfravif published in the Annual Report of the U. S. Commissioner <>f Education for 1870, in Avhich the census returns of these three periods are compared. The results of the census of 1870, in this regard, are tabulated and compared in the AnnualReport of 1871. ('!) Government reports on education, such as those of the U. S. Bureau of Education for 1870 — 4, and the special Cir- culars of Information issued by the Rureau, contain a large amount of information on this subject, derived from various sources, especially the papers on Education and Labor, Educa- tion and Crime, and Education and Pauperism. (3) Import ant facts are obtained from special official reports, on Criminals, Conscripts, and Marriages, bysomeofthe Europeangovernments. II. The first group, that of wholly illiterate savage or barbarous tribes, needs only to be re- ferred to, without any enumeration. Having no books and no written language, their total igno- rance reacts upon their barbarism, and perpetu- ates the degradation which has caused it. Pass- ing to those nations that have written languages and hooks, there appears, first, a group consist- ing of those which, descended from ancient des- potisms, have been enveloped in thick clouds of Ignorance from which some of them are only just emerging, -Turkey. Egypt, Persia, Russia, and (not long since) Greece, Poland, Italy (till her late revival, and even now in her southern prov- inces), Spain and (doubtless) Portugal, with their American colonies. In all these, to a greater or less extent, popular ignorance, or illiteracy, has prevailed up to the present time. The government has neither provided for nor fos- tered universal education ; and the political and religious .-tat us of the pa >\ ie baa afforded no in- citements to any efforts of their own in this direction. Even in the Spanish and Portuguese oies, the old spirit and habits inherited bj the people have been stronger than the desire for liberty, intelligence, and progress. To the group ibove referred to, Hungary, nol long ago, belonged ; hut. of late, the people, by their energy and enthusiasm, have made wonderful progress in the march of intelligence; but, even now. she remains, side liy side, with her sister state Austria, in which, despite the influence of her intelligent and progressive German popula- tion, one naif of the inhabitants remain in a con- dition of illiteracy, Bj the side of this group, but with a history, and under conditions, wide- ly different, stands India, one of the most be- nighted of nations, having 90 per cent of her males, and 95 per cent of her whole population (for letters are religiously and socially forbidden to females) wholly illiterate : and this, notwith- standing that she still possesses the wonderful literature of her early days, in the hands of the Brahman caste, still devoted to learning, with her wealthy Parsees fostering education, and the influence of her princely Mohammedan conquer- ors still remaining in the religious schools con- nected with the mosques. This fact shows to what an extent outcast and ignorant masses tend to depress and degrade the general condition of a people. The case of the Mohammedan coun- tries — Turkey, Persia, Egypt, is quite peculiar. These people are the successors of the Saracens, whose learning and culture shone so brightly. while Europe was enveloped in the darkness of the middle ages, and who contributed so largely to the sources of modern civilization, and gave to it such an impetus.- — China maybe referred to, as presenting a somewhat singular phase of illiteracy, her political system holding out the strongest inducements to education and learning to the males, while the females are very generally kept in a condition of illiteracy. (See China.) This is one of the results of Confucianism, which, while it accords to the matron the highest re- spect, has treated the subject of female education (instruction in letters and books) with entire in- difference. China, therefore, as far as the free- dom of her male population from illiteracy is concerned, would take a high rank among edu- cated nations : but. as her women are untaught, she must be placed with those who are half in darkness. — Japan would come in here, side by side with China, whose religion and philosophy, sacred hooks, with their language anil literature. and peculiar alphabetic characters, she adopted long ago, introduced into her schools, and taught to the masses of her people. But she has done more than China, she has added a simpler (syl- labic) writing of her own [Jcalakana); and. what is far more, she has taughl her women as well as her men. The Japanese cannot be considered an illiterate nation. The number of persons, who cannot read or write, is comparatively small, even the most degraded classes being often able to write the kalakana, and to read the books printed in that style; so that her illit- erate population is set down a1 no more than 10 percent. (See Japan.) In a distinct group may be placed Prance, Belgium, England, and Ire- land, about one third of their people being un- able to read or write. The proportion in Ire- land may be somewhat larger; but, in that country, the people have received from the priesthood some instruction in letters beyond what the government has provided for them, lu these four countries, the spirit of progreSB has had to contend against many of the saiua influences that have kept down the people of tha more benighted countries of Europe already con- sidered. Next in order of advance, comes t ha ILLITERACY 451 American Union, with its 20 per cent of illiter- ates. — The Netherlands, Germany proper, Den- mark, Norway and Sweden, and perhaps Switzer- land, are entitled to the distinction of showing the smallest amount of illiteracy. (See Table.) III. The diversity of social customs and na- tional institutions leads to corresponding differ- ences in the condition of various classes; and the degree of illiteracy found to exist in these, respectively, presents a basis for very important considerations in relation to the expediency of particular legislative measures. Hence, the im- portance of ascertaining the comparative illiter- acy of youth and adults, males and females (sex illiteracy), white and colored (race illiteracy), etc. The statistical facts in regard to those points are very imperfect ; but many, that are quite reliable, are exceedingly instructive. Thus, ac- cording to the U. S. census of 1870, of every ] ,000 persons of the population, 10 years old and upward, 14f> were illiterate; of adults, 94; of youth (from 10 to 21 years of age), 52. In Ger- many, the census of 1871 reports 91 per cent of men, and 1~> per cent of women, unable to read and write. In Scotland, 11 per cent of men, and 21 per cent of women could not read or write at marriage. In Bavaria, only 7 per cent of the recruits were illiterate ; in Germany, how r ever, the mass of the illiteracy is in the north-eastern provinces of Posen and Prussia proper, among a people foreign to the language and institutions of the German nation; while, in most of the Ger- man states, the percentage of illiteracy is very small — in some, less than one per cent. In France, the census of 1872 showed 27 per cent of illiterate males and 33 per cent of illiterate females; while the census of Spain (1SG0) showed 69 per cent of males and 91 per cent of females. Italy, in 1861, was reported as having GO per cent of illiterate male adults and 68 per cent of il- literate male youths (from 12 to 18 years of age). In the city of Xew York, the census of 1870 re- ported, out of the total population of 942,292, 14,974 male adults and 36,810 female adults, as unable to write; while of male youths (from 10 to 21), there were only 3,088, aud of female youths, 4,929, unable to write. This close correspond- ence in the one case, with the large discrepancy in the other, is a very suggestive fact, pointing as it does to the effect of foreign immigration, on the one hand, and to the influence of a great common-school system, on the other. The aver- age of illiterates in Belgium is 30 per cent ; and in Great Britain and France, it is considerably below 50 per cent; while, in Belgium, the percentage of illiterate criminals (1855) was 57 per cent, in France (1871) it was 41 per cent. A comparison, based on full and accurate sta- tistics, of the percentage of illiteracy among the adults of a population, with the percentage of illiteracy among adult criminals, would demon- strate, with great force and clearness, the effect of education upon crime. (See Chimb and Edu- cation*.) The percentage of illiteracy among con- scripts, in any country, affords a means of as- certaining the general condition of a people in this respect, inasmuch as inquiries in regard to it ■ are generally conducted with considerable care. IV. The various points considered in this di- vision of the subject cannot be treated upon a basis of statistics; but, theoretically, or by apri- ' ori reasoning, it may be satisfactorily shown that the advancement of a people in every de- partment of learning, science, art. artistic and industrial labor, depends on the diffusion of in- telligence, and the means of intelligence — read- ing and writing, among all classes of the com- munity. Illiteracy is an exponent of ignorance ; and " what bodily disease," says commissioner Eaton [Report gfU. S. Bureau of Education, 1871), ''has ever wrought the terrible evils to society that come from ignorance, whose children are destitution and crime? The children whom society, the church, and the school fail to educate, learn in the streets, and from countless teachers of vice, aided by those grim masters, hunger and want, the malign arts that render the property of our households, the virtue of our women, and the health and happiness of our people insecure." Y. The causes of illiteracy, in nations that have already reached the condition of civilization, are various ; among them may be mentioned (1) absolutism, in government, basing itself up- on the principle of "divine right" instead of the will of the people, or in religion, depriving the people of all freedom of thought ; as is shown by the fact that a people controlled by a despotic power — monarchy or hierarchy — are, usually, largely illiterate, the riding class, as in the case of the priests in Egypt, and the Druids of Britain, engrossing all knowdedge, and shutting up its avenues against the people; (2) caste, aris- tocracy, or class distinctions fixed as institutions, must necessarily promote illiteracy, for a similar reason ; as must also (3) restrictions upon ' the right of suffrage, shutting out any large class of the community from its exercise; and, even when the institutions of society are free, and public schools are abundant, frequently, legisla- tive compulsion may be required, as an inter- mediate step to promote the acceptance, on the part of ignorant or vicious parents, of the ad- vantages of education for their children ; and therefore, (4) the absence of compulsory attend- ance lairs may be a cause of illiteracy. (See ( 'omitlsory Education.) A' I. Improvement in regard to the diffusion of learning must come from the operation of ju- dicious measures designed to remove the causes of illiteracy above referred to. The general ac- ceptance by civilized nations, at the present time,, of the principle of popular or state education, as the only stable foundation of national prosperi- ty, with the vast augmentation of the means of communication, through the varied applications of steam and electricity, must gradually but surely diminish among every people the ratio of illiteracy. Evidence of a strong tendency in this direction is shown by every succeeding census in the great and progressive nations of the world. The following tables present the statistics of illiteracy in different countries. 452 ILLITERACY Table I. Ratio of Illiteracy to Population. [Countries marked * are nearly free from illiteracy ; in those marked f , the ratio of "illiteracy is very large but not delinitely ascertained.] Cotntries Argentine Republic Austria conscripts Bavaria " Belgium Brazil China Denmark Egypt England France Germany Greece Hawaii Hungary [ndia Ireland (criminals) Italy Japan Mexico Netherlands conscripts) . Norway Poland Portugal Russia Scotland (criminals; Spain Sweden Switzerland Turkey ,. United States Percent of Illiteracy Earlier date 8 42 55 99 78 23 99 88 23 Recent statistics 83 49 7 30 5 f * t 33 33 12 82 * 61 95 46 73 10 93 18 * 91 t 91 21 80 * * Table II. — Illiteracy in the United States. [Censuses of 1840, -50, and -60 reported those who could not read and write; that of ls;o, those who could not read and those who could nd write.] [r means cannot read ; «*, cannot write.] 1 1 n ■ Per Race Age of census Numbers cent ' 20 and over 1840 1,650.478 22 ■ 1 tt u I860 ; 901 23 tt fl If 1860 8,012 280 20 All Classes -j 21 " 1870 3,716,196 20w 10 " " " 6,658,144 20it> 14 tt If tt 4.:. '.'8, 084 16,- . 10 to 21.... tt 1,942,948 20to ' 20 and over 1840 679,316 9 •• •• " 1860 1,112,019 11 Whites 4 U tt it I860 1,181,918 9 21 " " 1870 L.894,688 12io . 10 to 21.... II 957,228 llw ' 20 and over 1840 1,071,162 100 (i tt tt I860 1,485,882 92 Colored < tt n tt I860 1,830,412 92 21 " L870 1,820,608 82w 10 to 21.... II 986,726 76m Foreign-born 1 most of i 20 and over u .. .. 1850 I860 204,753 973 15 16 them whites) 21 " «' 10 " 1870 tt 677,600 777,873 15w I 20 and over 1850 2,293,148 24 Native-born -i *t it a 1860 2,649,367 •Jl White and •ji •• 1870 8,037,696 22m colored) ' 10 " " 4,880,271 21w | 20 and over 1850 808,024 10 Native White 1860 810...4 1 8 1 21 •• " 1870 1,217 lOw Table III. Illiteracy as compared with various Degrees of Education. u Countries O France '• military " (civil, males " civil, females] " (adults minors, 6— 20 years). Spain men " women both United States ,aged 10 i: over ' Belgium 1851 1856 1859 1861 1867 1868 1869 1864 1867 Germany 1851—52 Italy.... 1869 Netherlands 1846—58 1859—62 1868—69 1870 France . Date of census or report 1866 II II II 1872 ■I 1860 II 1870 Switzerland Appenzell Int. read " writ.- .. . Ext. read *' " write Basel all read fluently . . " write Bern read " (write) Soleure (write 1 ZUrich u rite f Belgium . England & Wales ma " '* •' females " (both . .. Ireland males (females) (both) Scotland (males " females " (both France r. c '.V u Italy i'gaUey-slavt-s (prisoners- males " females both) Conde'd minors males . . . " •• females;. " " both) " lyr.or more (males ' females " " " " both ... Minors in custody (males . " •• •• females] «« •' " both . .. United States 5SSB£ Per cent 1850 1855 1871—72 1872 1871—72 1868 1861 1 862 1868 1871 1871 (adult> .. (minors (adults . (minors N.T. news boys 1854—66 1867—70 1871— 75 1850—59 ■I I860 -tv.< II 1829—74 1866—76 3 3 2 1 55 57 31 39 :;4 89 57 46 20 24 ■-•1 14 39 40 :is 41 66 39 53 4:; 41 58 44 74 67 69 16 8 18 1841- 17 24 81 16 24 17 ■J 4 •JO 17 2S 11 9 10 13 10 13 4 5 5 4 11 9 7 7 5 6 6 3 2 20 4 2 2 2 39 36 4 6 11 18 17 29 26 64 59 63 14 21 17 63 63 61 39 44 45 42 41 12 15 27 16 7 14 8 1 1 38 Is 36 19 15 18 7 15 19 13 16 16 28 IMACI NATION 453 IMAGINATION, Culture of. Imagina- tion is the power by which conceptions, origi- nally formed from the perception of Datura] ob- jects or their representatives, are reproduced in a fictitious combination which resembles the natural. This faculty, existing as it does, in a greater or less degree, in every mind, and enter- ing to some extent into almost every mental act, must be placed among the few great powers of the mind which demand careful cultivation. The influence of the imagination is equally felt in moral and intellectual action. By its aid, the man of science, recombinine the elements gath- ered by an observation of the visible world around him. projects his thought into the unseen universe, and determines the existence of condi- tions which knowledge alone could never detect, but which observation serves only to confirm. Through the influence of imagination alone, the record of the past becomes a guide and a warn- ing to the present. Thus, the hand of charity is opened to relieve necessities which the active exercise of this faculty picture's to us as existing in the homes of want and misery. The every- day thought of the boor, and the rare flight of the man of genius are alike indebted to its aid. The universality of its presence, therefore, and the danger attending its unregulated develop- ment, constitute its peculiar claim to attention at the hands of the educator. Notwithstanding this, however, the need of a systematic cultiva- tion of the imaginative faculty seldom receives practical recognition. This is owing somewhat to the fact that the want which would be pro- duce 1 by its total neglect, is partly met byits in- direct and irregular cultivation in the studies of any ordinary school course; but more to the hidden nature of its action, and the want of that subtle discernment necessary in the teacher to detect its influence in the mental operations of the pupil. A knowledge of its power and of the consequent need of its cultivation is de- rived almost entirely from our own experience. The extent, therefore, to which it influences or controls the judgment, is appreciable only in our own case, and in that only approximately ; and, hence, an analysis of its effect on the thought or actions of others becomes a matter of extreme difficulty. The neglect of its cultivation in the ordinary school curriculum is productive of re- sults hardly less pernicious than its abuse by un- due stimulation; for, while by the latter the judgment and reason are subordinated, and the mind is turned from tire consideration of the practical, ami concentrated too exclusively upon the ideal, thus enveloping the daily concerns of life in a kind of mental mirage, which results in disappointment and discouragement when the cloud is dispersed ; by the former, the dull, mat- ter-of-fact phase of existence acquires undue prominence, to the suppression of all sentiment and that love of the beautiful which cheers and helps us to find, even in the commonest aspects and the least fortunate circumstances of life, reason for admiration and gratitude. These con- siderations should secure for it careful attention. The development of the imaginative faculty begins at a very early period. The conscious- ness, on the part of the child, of objects ex- ternal to itself, constitutes perception. This is very soon followed by conception, which con- in taking from the object perceived a men- tal picture capable of reproduction at pleasure, in the absence of the original. This latter may be called the first act of the imagination — the Storing of the mind with materials for future use. Simultaneously with this, or only shortly after, occurs the naming of these materials — the association of thoughts with words, with a view to their expression as language. (Set' [IN- TELLECT! al Em cation.) Thus far, the action of the imagination depends upon the percep- tion of actual objects. It now remains for the imagination to use the materials already pro- vided, by discarding the actual object, and form- ing partly by the aid of words as symbols of general ideas, aii ideal picture; or, independ- ently of words, and by its own act. creating for itself scenes and images not less vivid than their tangible representatives. The. work of the imagination, therefore, is complementary to that of observation. The order is, (1) perception, (2) conception, (."') imagination. The action of the latter is presupposed by that of the two former. Knowledge alone — the mere storing of the mind with facts and conceptions — would be of little value without the vivifying power of imagination. Its function is to lift the mind from the contemplation of the actual, and cany it beyond the field of mere observation, into those ideal regions where the tangible has no existence, or where its existence cannot be actually verified. — In the cultivation of the fac- ulty of imagination, several methods are open to the teacher, the most common of which are pictures, oral narratives, and reading, or combi- nations of these. In all, the attention is the principal object to be secured ; since thus only can a vivid mental picture be formed, and any other is worst; than useless. The picture is, of course, the surest instrument for accomplishing this result, since it is a direct appeal to the eye — the earliest and most powerful agent by which knowledge is obtained. It is desirable, there- fore, that the picture should be clearly drawn or painted, and in as simple or elementary a form as is consistent with the idea of completeness. A few salient features, therefore, are all that are necessary for this purpose ; since fine gradations of color or shading can be observed only at the expense of the general impression. In oral nar- rative, the degree to which the clearness of the general impression is produced, depends entirely upon tip- teacher. A warm, sympathetic nat- ure is here the only qualification. By it, he is enabled to place himself on the pupil's level, to enter into his thoughts, and by the use of figures and illustrations familiar to youthful minds, to produce a correct and precise mental image. Any other disposition than this is a decided dis- qualification for the cultivation of the imagina- tion by this method. Where the picture and 454 IMAGINATION IMITATION the oral narrative are used together, the former should not be exhibited till after the description. It should then be produced to re-inforce the de- scription and give it greater clearness; but, if it is exhibited before that time, the attention is drawn to it at once, to the neglect of the nar- rative. Pictures which are to be used for the purpose of illustration, should, if possible, be new to the pupil in order to produce their best effect. * >f the methods mentioned, however, for the cultivation of the imaginative faculty, read- ing is not only the most common, but is, in most cases, indispensable. The requisites in this ease. however, are still the same. The object being always to fix the attention ;is powerfully as pos- sible upon a mental picture, the style should be simple and clear, but graphic and forcible, abounding in concrete terms, not in abstract phrases, and appealing to the experience of the pupil, ami awakening his sympathies. An ex- cellent test of the clearness of the mental picture formed is that of recalling at the end of the ling, the scenes, inei lenls, and actors in the order of their introduction or occurrence. Al- most every branch pursued in the ordinary school or college course affords some opportunity for the cultivation of the imaginative faculty. but special fields for its most active exercise are found in geography, history, and poetry. S e departments of natural science may also afford ision for its activity. The condition of the eartli in prehistoric time, its chemical, geolog- ical, and meteorological constitution, the plants and animals that grew or moved upon its sur- face, together with its relation past, present, and future, with other worlds, afford Bcope for the ex- ercise of the most lively imagination. The his- tory of the human race, also, is tilled with scenes and incidents of which, if skillfully presented. the mind of the pupil will never tire. Even in the teaching of subjects usually considered dry and uninteresting, there is field for the exercise of this faculty. Grammar, mathematics, polit- ical economy, and logic, if illustrated by a teacher of active fancy, can be freed, in large measure, from the abstract nature which is supposed to be essential to them, and which renders them ordinarily so uninviting. In regard to the use of fiction as an agent in the cultiva- tion of the imagination, much discussion has arisen, the objection usually urged being that its effecl 18 to Stimulate this faculty unduly. This is probably true of one class only; namely, tho B in whose mimls the imaginative faculty exists by nature in an abnormal degree. Where this power is deficient, it will hardly be said that the perusal Of works of fiction can do more than to develop the faculty, so as to bring it into pro- portion with the other mental powers; while the probability is, that the result will fall short of this. In the remaining class, those in w hoin this faculty exists in a normal proportion, the evil result of stimulation produced by the read- i ig of works of action, has, perhaps, been over rated. The reading alone can only Berve to fill the mind with high ideals— the harm result has probably been produced by neglecting to provide the necessary means or occasions for an active exercise of the high and generous sen- timents and resolves thus aroused. If we read continually of suffering, but never give alms, habit soon causes us to accommodate ourselves to this condition as the natural one, and the mental excitement ceases to seek any outward, active expression. This, probably, is the explanation of the anomaly sometimes noticed in the his- tories of eminent writers, that their works are tilled with sentiment and tenderness, while their lives were mean and despicable. The result here is owing to that half education which rouses the sympathies, and then neglects to provide for their exercise. But this abuse of the true method can hardly be considered a condemna- tion of the method itself. An experienced edu- cator says on the subject of the general culture of the imagination: "1 much fear, neither teachers nor scholars are sufficiently impressed with the importance of a proper training of this faculty. Some there may be who despise it al- together, as bavins to do with fiction rather than with fact, and of no value to the severe Student who wishes to acquire exact knowledge. But this is not the case. It is a well known fact that the highest class of scientific men have be< a led to their most important discoveries by the quickening power of a suggestive imagination, of this tlie poet Goethe's original observations in botany and 03teology may serve as an apt illustration. Imagination, therefore, is the enemy of science only when it acts without reason, that is, arbitrarily and whimsically; with reason, it is often the best and most indispensable of allies." (See Fiction.) IMITATION. The possession of this im- portant faculty, and the desire to exercise it, constitute two essential elements of all human progress, from childhood to maturity, and even beyond — as long, indeed, as the effort at self improvement is kept up — a vast majority of the human race are employed merely in imitat- ing the models that have been set up by individ- ual genius, or by the accumulated wisdom and taste of ages ; and their success in life is greater or according to the accuracy of their imitation. Especially during childhood and youth, is this faculty brought into active play. It is the nec- essary accompaniment and basis of instruction, the Btepping-stone to all excellence. I leing of so great importance, therefore, in nearly every de- partment of education, it should receive the ial attention of the teacher.- The conditions of success in imitation are chiefly two : (1) ac- curate observation, and (2) a retentive memory. Probably few have noticed how slightly the faculty of observation 18 usually exercised. This. however, may lie easily illustrated. Of twenty persons listening to a speaker whose voice has some peculiar tone or inflection, it will probably be found that only half a dozen or perhaps even I as will notice it. unless it is very marked; and of these, only two or three v\ill be able to re- produce it with any degree of accuracy. J low INCENTIVES INDIA 455 often do men differ as to the form or color of some feature in the face of an acquaintance! For example) let a draughtsman, whose attention has not previously been specially called to the object, he asked to draw a rose-leaf. The prob- ability is. that he will confess his inability to do so, though he would recognize a rose-bush with- out difficulty. Instances might be multiplied of the loose, general way in which this faculty is used, the result of which is, that only an indef- inite impression is left on the mind, instead of an accurate picture. (See Attention.) If it be granted then, that mere imitation, when uncultivated, cannot be depended on, it will probably not be denied that a good memory, and, in most cases, a certain degree of mechan- ical skill, are necessary, when it is cultivated, to produce the best results. It only remains, therefore, to point out a few of the studies and pursuits in which imitation is the chief in- strument, and to indicate some of the methods by which it may be made most efficient. Among the first, may be enumerated writing, map-draw- ing, as now generally used in teaching geography, and nearly all the arts ; among them, drawing, with all the professions that immediately depend upon it. as surveying, civil engineering, mechan- ics, architecture, together with all the natural sciences in the teaching of which, sensible objects are to be represented. In learning to speak a foreign language, also, a direct appeal is made to the faculty of imitation. Among the methods used for producing efficiency in imitation, the kindergarten system is of great value for insur- ing steadiness of hand and accuracy of eye. (See Kindergarten'.) The usual school exercises of reading, declamation, dialogues, etc., are more or less successful, according to the closeness with which the feelings and expressions of imaginary persons are imitated. Proficiency in classical ■composition, also, is promoted, in many colleges and universities, by placing before students orig- inal models for imitation. The value of this faculty, in moral education, can hardly be over- stated, that most powerfid of all educators — ■example — depending to a great extent on imita- tion for its efficiency. (See Example.) INCENTIVES, School, consist of rewards of various kinds, offered to pupils for progress in study and good behavior; such as "good tickets", certificates of merit, books, and other things awarded as premiums for excellence ■either in proficiency or conduct. Besides these, various expedients arc resorted to for the pur- pose of exciting emulation, which are also to be classed among school incentives ; such as giving public praise, awarding merit marks, putting the names of meritorious pupils upon a roU of honor, which is suitably embellished and framed, and hung in a conspicuous place in the school- room. The dismissal of pupils from school previous to the usual time is also to be placed among the same class of incentives. To this, however, strong objection has been made, inas- much as it seems to imply that attendance at school is burdensome and grievous, whereas it should be made pleasant and attractive. The efficacy of this incentive as every teacher knows, is very great, because it appeals to the natural activity of the child, upon which the confinement of school cannot but operate as a restraint, how- ever well it may be administered; and experience has demonstrated that an occasional relief from this confinement does not, on the whole, weaken the pupil's attachment to school. All such in- centives, it must be borne in mind, are of a secondary nature; and the educator should al- ways exercise care that their influence should not be so exerted as to impair the force of higher and more enduring motives to good conduct. (Sec Rewards.) INDIA, a country in Asia, at present under British rule, with the exception of a few French and Portuguese colonies. r l he term India is sometimes also applied in a wider sense, embra- cing those countries known by the name of Hindoostan and Farther India. In this article, we treat of that part only which is known as British In ilia. '1 he area of the country under the direct rule of the British government is 904,049 square miles, with a population of 1 90,563,048. The native states, which, although governed by native princes, are still more or less subject to British influence, have an area of 546,695 square miles, and a population of -ls,2(>7,910, making the total area of British In- dia 1,450,744 square miles, and the aggregate population 238,830,958. The principal religions in British India (as far as it is directly under British rule), according to the last census (com- pleted in 1872), were represented as follows: Hindoos, 139,248,000; Mohammedans, 40,883,- 000 ; Buddhists, 2,833,000 ; Christians, 897,000 ; Sikhs, 1,174.000; other creeds, 5,102,000; of unknown religion, 425,000. The number of Chris- tians, according to missionary reports, is how- ever, considerably larger. The Protestants claim a native population of more than 250,000 ; and the Roman Catholics, according to a statement prepared in 1870 for the Vatican Council, 1, 070,000. The Parsees are one of the least numerous sects, but they constitute one of the most intelligent portions of the native popula- tion. The best known among the sects of recent origin is the Brahmo-Samaj, founded about L830. It is a kind of rationalistic development of Brahman and Christian doctrines, and admits into its canon of sacred books such portions of the Vedas and the Bible, as are merely theistic and not miraculous. It chiefly exists in the large cities, and its members take an active interest in all educational movements. But little is known of the early history of In- dia. It was, in the 6th century 1!. ( '., invaded by the Persian king Darius, and in the 4th by Alex- ander the Great; but the connection thus es- tablished with the countries of western Asia and Europe soon ceased, and India relapsed into its secluded position. The invasion of the country by Mohammedans began in the 8th century A. D., and, since that time, large portions of India con- tinued under Mohammedan rule, until finally 456 INDIA oompelled to yield to the advancing power of some of tin' European nations. The first of these who obtained territorial possessions in India, were the Portuguese, who, early in the 16th century, established their rule by seizing some of the forts on the western coast. The English East India Company, after obtaining permission from the Mogul emperor, established its first factory in L613, and gradually extended its power, until at last nearly the whole of India was united under its rule. In L858, the East India Company trans- ferred all its possessions to the British Crown; and, in 1876, the queen of England assumed the official title of Empress of India. I. Ancient India. — India, like China, Persia, and Egypt, possesses one of the most ancient of civilizations. The education of children consisted chiefly in training them as members of one of the castes into which the people were divided. There were four principal castes: the Brahmans or priests, the Kshatrivas or warriors, the Vais- yas or merchants, and the Sudras or laborers, composed mainly of the conquered people. Be- low th,' Sudras was a still more degraded class. known as Pariahs or outcasts. Every native of India bel mge 1 to one or other of these castes, and all children were brought up Btrictly within their own. The tirst instruction embraced teachings and warnings bh I by the necessities of daily life, in order thus to teach the children to imitate the good. < hi the subs qu nt education the priests had the most powerful influence. They were the sole teachers. Women and the fourth caste were excluded from all education. Elementary instruction embraced only reading. writing, and arithmetic. A teacher with a staff and with an assistant holding the switch, gave ■ © © instruction to boys sitting around him under the trees. In arithmetic, only the elements were taught : while writing, which was closely con- nected with instruction in reading, was first prac- ticed in the sam I. then on palm leaves with an iron pencil, and finally on platane leaves with ink. One child showed it to another, and one heard the other recite. Particular attention was paid to the higher schools of the Brahmans; and the educational laws, which are treated quite ex- haustively in the law books, have reference al- most exclusively to the Brahmans. In the learned schools in Benares, in Trizioon, an 1 in the Nud deah, the exoterics, to whom also members of the second and third caste belonged, were in- structed in grammar, prosody, and mathematics; and the esoterics, in poetry, history, philosophy, astronomy, medicine, and law. The pupil was for live years only a hearer; after that time he Was permitted to express his thoughts and doubte to the teacher, and to take part in the disputations. The whole course comprised from 12 to 20 years, during which time the scholar lived with the teacher. No regular compensa- tion was received by the teacher, as to doso Would he considered shameful, hut presents were given as a reinuiieratiim. The reading of the \ edas was considered the highest instruction of the Brahmans, and was connected with various ceremonies. India possesses no theory of peda : but, instead of the dry. prosaic collection of rules of the < Ihinese.we find here some deep ped- agogical sayings in the pleasing garb of poetry, and particularly in the form of failles. The old- est of the collections of fables, the Pantchatan- tra, was written in the 5th century of out- present era. and has been translated into almost every modern language. It contains numerous, short sayings, extolling the advantages of educa- tion. — A new religion, Buddhism, sprung from Brahmanism; but although it had its origin in © © India, it was forced to retreat before the old relig- ion, and spread particularly over China, Farther India. .Mongolia. Japan, and other countries of eastern Asia. The chief aim of the Buddhists is to improve the moral life. For this purpose ten commandments have been laid down, containing, besides some excellent moral principles, rules for good behavior. Buddhism ignores the cases. though it does not absolutely prohibit them. The clergy wen' made the basis of Buddhistic society; whereas, in other creeds, the laity were the basis on which the hierarchy reposed. Though this creed has always been one of the most extensive in the number of its followcrs.it ha.- contributed little to the progress of education. On education in ancient India, see Schmidt, Geschichte der Padagogik, vol. i. II. Modern India. — Doth the Catholic and the Protestant missionaries who went to India. established schools for tin education of the na- tives, but they reached only a small portion of the native population. By the natives them- selves nothing was done to improve the system of education and instruction. The bast India Company had not founded a single school until I T'.'.'i. In that year, Wilberforce moved, in the I louse of Commons, to send schoolteachers to India, in order to superintend the instruction of the people: hut the India House denounced the plan as detrimental to the continuance of their rule. In L81 3, parliament granted $10,000 an- nually for educational purposes; hut the money was spent for the promotion of literary studies, rather than for education. In 1848, the lieu- tenant governor of Agra brought forward a Scheme to give a school to every village of at least one hundred families. After three years' discussion the court of directors of the East India < 'onipany accepted the groundwork of the plan; and orders were issued that a school should he provided for every circle of Tillages, called Huttcabundee, and that the teachers should he paid by a tax of two per cent on the land revenue, 'the plan has been gradually developed; and government schools now exist, in regular gradation, from those which give the humbli elementary instruction to the highest colleges; and the best pupils of one grade are able to pass through the other grades by means of scholar- ships. To complete the system, a university was established, in ISeT.at each of the three pn dency capitals, ' lalcutta, Bombay, and Madras. on the model of the London I'llivei-sity. for holding examinations and conferring degrees. The gov- INDIA INDIANA 467 eminent institutions are intended to serve as models, to be gradually superseded by schools supported on the grant-in-aid-system — a system based on the principle of perfecl religious neu- trality, and i»n regular rules adapted to the cir- oumstances of each province. Normal schools exist in each province tor the training of teachers. The medium of education, in the elementary schools for the masses, is the vernacular lan- guages, into which are translated the best ele- mentary English treatises. The study of the clas- sical languages of India is, however, still main- tained. The English language is taught in the Anglo-vernacular schools and colleges for the education of the upper and middle classes of society. The governing agency of this system consists of a director of public instruction in each province, aided by a staff of inspectors. The following table gives the number of schools and colleges belonging to, aided or maintained by, the government in British India, with the average number of pupils attending them, the amount expended by the government, and the gross expenditure on account of instruction dur- ing the years 1862, 1867, and 1871 : Year Number of educational institutions Average attend- ance Amouni ex- pended by the gov't total ex- penditures from all sources 1862 13,219 .r.0,762 £248,330 £2s4,07G 1867 2H.I-: 658,834 401,378 T.")5,518 lsTl 25,147 799,622 C4U.724 1,019,418 Counting in the indigenous schools, the whole number of schools of British India (exclusive of the native states and Burma) amounted, in 1872, to 40,700 ; and the number of scholars, to 1,280,914. The schools which have been improved up to the government standard are divided as fol- lows : Lower-class schools, middle-class schools, high schools, normal schools, special schools, col- leges, anil universities. — The number of middle- class schools, in 1871. was 2,873 (for boys 2,740, for girls 133), with 158,728 pupils (boys 151,656; girls 7.072). The number of high schools was 273. with 47.572 pupils; of these only one school was for girls. The number of normal schools was 104 (S7 for males, 17 for females) with 4,346 students (4.080 male and 266 female). The number of general colleges, in 1 871 , was 4 1. of which 24 were government colleges, and 20 private and aided colleges. The number of stu- dents in the government colleges was 1,854; and in the private colleges, 2,1 40. making a total of 44 colleges, with 3,994 students. Besides the gen- eral colleges, there were 10 law colleges, with 684 students; 5 colleges of medicine, with 893 Students; 4 colleges of civil engineering, with 549 students. Of other special schools, there were .'! schools of design and decorative art : one at Cal- cutta (with 50 students); one at Madras ; and one at Bombay (with 90 students), besides the David Sassoon Industrial .School at Bombay, with 101 students. The progress of the three universities at Calcutta, Madras, and Bombay, from the time of their foundation, in 1857, to 1871, is shown by the following table : e \ I e I IT A MADRAS BOMBAT Year dates Candi- dates i ' Candi- dates Passed 1857 I860 1866 IsTI 214 808 1,350 2,877 1(12 414 629 1,(101 4 1(1 1,701 8 93 564 41 52 555 1,153 36 229 231 Female education, which had been almost en- tirely neglected, according to the custom of the country, received a strong impulse, in 1866, from an English Unitarian lady, Miss Carpenter, who arrived in Bombay in that year. After making a tour of Guzerat, and holding several meetings in Surat, she proceeded to Madras, where she enlisted the warm sympathy and co- operation of Lord Napier, the lieutenant gov- ernor of that province. Upon arriving in Cal- cutta she convened a large meeting, which was attended by most of the prominent government officials. She succeeded in awakening an inter- est in female education ; and. under her direc- tion, a number of female schools, and also ragged schools, were established. For an account of the progress of education in India, see the official Statement of tie Moral and Material Progress of India, published annually; also the several volumes of the Annual American Cyclopaedia; and the Report of the U. S. Commissioner* of Education, for 1873. INDIANA, at first a part of the North-west Territory, afterwards formed a part of Indiana Territory, organized July 4., 1800. In 1805, Michigan was set off from it; and, in 1809, Illi- nois, leaving the territorial limits the same as those of the state at present. Indiana was ad- mitted into the Union as a state, Dec. 11., 18] (i. Its area is 33,809 square miles; and its popula- tion, in Im7<>. was 1,680,637, giving it the sixth rank among the United States. Educational History. — The duty of the state to educate its children was early recognized in Indiana. The constitution adopted in 1816 declared the general diffusion of learning and knowledge through a community to be essential to the preservation of a free government, and made it the duty of the general assembly, at the earliest practicable moment, to provide a law for a general system of education. It was not until the adoption of the new constitution, in 1851, which made it the duty of the genera] assembly to "encourage, by all suitable means, moral, intellectual, scientific, and agricultural improvement, and to provide by law for a general and uniform system of common schools, wherein tuition shall be without charge and equally open to all," and which provided for the election of a state 1 superintendent of public in- struction, that we have any permanent record of the condition and progress of the public schools. The act to provide for a " general and uniform system of common schools" was passed dune 14., 1 S">2 ; but. although in force after its publication and distribution, it did not become practically operative until the first Monday of April, 1853. This was owing to a discrepancy 458 INDIANA between the school law and the township law, so that no school officers for the township could be elected until the time for the regular election of the township trustees, in April. This law provided for the consolidation and equalization of the school funds, and for the organization of school corporations by civil townships instead of by districts, and also gave the people the power to assess special township tuxes, for the build- ing of school-houses and for the continuance of schools after the public funds were expended. "William C. Larrabee was the first person elected to fill the office of superintendent of public in- struction. He inaugurated the system, and at this time served two years from November 8., ] 852. Caleb Mills took the office November 8., 1854, and served until February, 1857. He distributed the libraries bought with the pro- ceeds of the tax levied for that purpose, among the townships of the state. He was succeeded by William ('. Larrabee, who was again elected superintendent, and served for two years, from the second Tuesday of February, 1857. During his administration, he made many important recommendations to the legislature, in regard to the time of receiving reports and of apportion- ing the revenue. Samuel L. Rugg, his successor, served two years, from the second Monday of February, 1859. In his term of office, he in- vestigated the condition of the school funds, and considered plans for their more profitable man- agement. Miles J. Fletcher took the office of state superintendent, February 1 1.. L861. In the Spring of 1862, he was killed in a railway ac- cident, and Samuel K. lloshour, D.D., by ex- ecutive appointment, filled the vacancy from May 29., 1872 until his successor was elected and qualified. Samuel L. Rugg was again elected for a term of two years, commencing November 21., 1862; but, owing to an amend- ment in the school law, changing the time of as- suming the duties of the office, he held over until March 15., 1865. George W. I loss succeeded, March 12., 1865, serving for a term of two years. lie administered the new school law, and replen- ished the township libraries. Deing elected for a second term, he held office until October, 1868, when, by reason of his resignation, the newly tleeted officer, Barnabas ( 1 . llobbs was appointed to fill out the term. I hiring the term of office of Mr. llobbs, the Normal School was opened, January 6., L870. Milton B. Hopkins took the office, March 15., 1871, for a term of two years. Through his instrumentality, a law was pa abolishing the office of county examiner and creating that of county superintendent. Mr. Sop- kins entered upon the duties of a second term, March 15., 1873, bu1 did not live out this term. He died in August, L874; and his son. Alexander 0. Hopkins, by executive appointment, tilled the vacancy, from August 20., i.874, until March 15., 1875, when dames II. Smart, the present incum- bent, entered upon the duties of the office. Six of these superintendents are now living. School System. The school officers oi the state are the directors of the districts into which the townships are divided, the trustees of townships, members of boards of school trustees in incor- porated towns and cities, county superintendents, members of the state board of education, and the state superintendent of public instruction. The directors of school districts act under the authority of the township trustees, and exercise quite limited powers. They preside at school meetings, take charge of the school property, and perform other duties under the direction of the trustees. Voters at school meetings may designate other branches than those required by the school law. which they wish to be taught in their respective districts. They may request a trustee to remove a teacher, and they may peti- tion him in regard to the repairing or removal of a school-house. Township trustees are elected by the people biennially and are the school trustees for their respective townships. It is their duty to take charge of the schools, employ teachers, build school houses, provide furniture, apparatus, etc., take the enumeration of the school children, and to cause to be held, month- ly, township institutes for the instruction of the teachers. They may also provide township graded schools and arrange for admission into them from the other departments. The school boards of cities and towns consist of three mem- bers in each. Those in cities are appointed by the common council, for three years, one mem- ber being appointed annually, in dune. Those in towns are appointed by the civil trustees of the town, in the same manner as the city trustees are ajipointed. School matters in cities and towns are more exclusively in the hands of school trustees, than in townships, inasmuch as the law does not provide for school meetings in the former. The law permits school boards of cities and towns to employ superintendents for their respective corporations. The county superin- tendent is appointed by the township trustees, biennially, in June ; and he must have had two years' successful experience in teaching. It is his duty to examine all applicants for license to teach. These examinations are held on the last Saturday of each month. The branches required by law are orthography, read- ing, writing, arithmetic, geography, English grammar, physiology, and United States history. It is his duty to visit the schools of the county at least once each year, to attend township institutes at least once each month, to hold a county institute annually, and to receive reports from school trustees ami collate the same, and forward them to the superintendent of public instruction, lie may also hear and determine appeals from the decisions of township trustees, in sundry minor matters; ami finally, he has the general superintendence of the schools in his county, except in cities and towns in which superintendents may have been employed. The state board of education consists of the state superintendent, who is, ex officio, president; the governor; the presidents of the state university, the normal School, and Purdue I'niversity; and the superintendents of the three largest INDIANA 459 cities of the state. The board meets as often as occasion may require. It appoints the trustees of the state university and the official visitors of the normal school. It prepares printed lists of questions which are sent out to the county superintendents monthly, and which are by them submitted to the teachers who apply for licenses. The state board is also empowered to grant to teachers of high character and standing, state licenses which are valid for life. The board takes cognizance of such other educational mat- ters as may properly come before it, and makes such recommendations to subordinate officers and to the legislature as it may deem advisable. The state superintendent of public instruction is elected by the qualified voters of the state, at a general election, for a term of two years. lie is charged with the administration of the system of public instruction and with the general super- intendence of the business relating to the com- mon schools of the state, and of the school funds and revenues appropriated for their support. It is his duty to render an opinion, in writing, to any school officer so desiring, in regard to the administration or construction of the school law. He must also visit every county in the state and examine the auditor's books and records, relative to the school funds, revenues, etc. He must confer with the school officers, and make public- addresses as occasion may require. School Fund. — There are two sources of rev- enue for the support of the public schools : (1) the interest on the school funds, and (2) the proceeds of the tax levied by the state and by local authorities. The school funds are divided into two classes : (1) The common-school fund, the sources of which are the surplus revenue fund, the saline fund, the bank tax fund, the county seminary funds, fines assessed for breaches of the penal laws of the state, all forfeitures which may accrue, all escheated lands and es- tates, the proceeds of the sales of the swamp lauds, granted to the state of Indiana by the act of Congress of 1850, and the fund arising from the 114th section of the charter of the State Bank of Indiana; (2) The congressional town- ship fund, which is derived from the sale of the 1 6th section, in each township, set apart to the townships, by Congress, for school purposes. The common-school fund amounts to $0,313,247, and the congressional township fund amounts to $2,398,072, making the total school fund of the state -'-.711,319. These funds can never be diminished, and the proceeds of them must be used for tuition purposes only. School Taxes. — The state levies annually a tax of 16 cents on each one hundred dollars, which, with the proceeds of the common-school fund, is apportioned to the various school dis- tricts, in proportion to the number of children between the ages of 6 and 21 in each. The local authorities have also the right to levy a local school tax of 25 cents on each one hundred dol- lars, which must be expended in the township, town, or city, in which it is levied. They have also the right to levy a local tax of 50 cents on each one hundred dollars, to be used in purchas- ing grounds, building school-houses, and supply- ing t lie necessary furniture and apparatus. In addition to all this, tin- civil authorities in cities and towns have the right to issue bonds to pro- vide for the payment of debts contracted in the purchase of grounds and the erection of build- ings thereon by school authorities. There can be only $50,000 worth of these bonds in cir- culation at any one time; and, when issued, it is the duty of the civil authorities to pro- vide for their payment, by the levy of a spe- cial tax therefor, provided that said tax shall not exceed, in any one year, more than 50 cents on each one hundred dollars. The total amount of school tax possible in cities and towns, in any one year, under the law of the state, is as follows : State tax on each $100 $0.10; on each poll, $0.50 Local tuition tax oneach $100 0.25 " " 0.50 " special " " " 0.50 " " 1.00 " bond " " " 0.50 " " 1.00 Total amount SI. 11 $3.00 In townships the limit is $1.16. Educational Condition. — The total number of district schools in the state is 9,230 ; of city systems, 40 ; of town systems, 202 ; and the number of school-houses is 9,307. The number of township and district graded schools is 390 ; of ungraded schools, 8,940. The estimated value of school property is $10,870,338. The follow- ing are additional items of the school statistics for 1875—0 : School population, white males, 310,514 white females, 317,434 Total white, 657,945 colored males, 4,940 colored females, 4,S48 Total colored, 9,788 Total school population. . . . 6G7,73I AX A INDIANA ASBURY UNIVERSITY high schools of the state, and designed to pre- pare teachers for employment in these schools. In the latter course, special prominence is given to the study of languages, especially French and and German. The Northern Indiana Normal School, at Valparaiso, organized in 1873, is a private institution. — Teachers' institutes con- stitute, in this state, a very important instru- mentality for the professional instruction of teachers. The several county superintendents are required to hold a county teachers' institute at least once a year in each county; besides which, at least one Saturday in each month, while the public schools are in session, is re- quired to be devoted to township institutes. In 1875, the number of county institutes held was 91 ; and of township institutes, 4,080. Secondary Instruction. — The number of pu- pils in the 21 approved high schools in the state was reported, in 1874, as 13,342 ; the number of teachers employed was 350, of whom 223 were males, and L27 females. These schools are so organized as to be preparatory schools to the state university. No uniform course of study is prescribe! 1 ; but the candidates for admission to the university, in 1871. were examined in geography, English grammar and sentential analysis, geometry, and Latin, including Caesar and Virgil. In a table appended to the state report for 1874, 9 private or denominational in- stitutions for secondary instruction are enumer- ated, having, in the aggregate, 810 students in the academic classes, and 547 in the preparatory departments. Several private schools and acad- emies of this grade reported to the U. S. Bu- reau of Education, in 1871. There were, at that time, also, 10 business colleges, with 31 teachers and 1,097 pupils. The courses of study in these schools ranged from 6 months to 5 years. Superior Instruction. — First among the insti- tutions of this grade, stands the Indiana Uni- versity (q. v.), at Bloomington, which is closely connected with the school systems of the state by an arrangement which admits to the fresh- man class, without further examination, all graduates of high schools approved by the state board of education, who present certificates that they have passed a satisfactory examination in the preparatory course of study. Other institu- tions for superior instruction are given in the following table : When Religious NAME Location found- deni imita- ed tion Concordia College. . .. Fori Wayne 1839 F.v. Lnth. Richmond is;, 7 Friends Ft. Wayne I Wayne 1846 M. Epis. Franklin College tin 1844 tist Sanover 1837 Presb. HartavUle University Harts 1 I860 i Bretta. Indiana Anbury i'ni\ . i hreencast Le 1833 M . Epis, Moore b n Moore's Kill M 1 pis. N. W. ('Ill'; [ndianapolia 1 367 ChritUan Ki.l;;r\ llle 1867 F. w. Bap. aventure's Coll, Terre Haute 1873 it. c. st. Bfelnrad's i St. Mfiurad 1861 R. C. Union < ihrlatlan < loll Blerom Christian I'niv. of N"t re Dame, Notre Dame 184 2 K. C. I'rawfurdsville 1832 Presb. Professional and Scientific Instruction. — Purdue University, at Lafayette, is an industrial university, and embraces schools of agriculture, mechanics, mining and engineering, industrial art, and military science ; besides this, there is the Terre Haute School of Industrial Science, at Terre Haute. The schools of law are the law department of the Indiana University, and the law school of the North western Christian Uni- versity ; and the medical schools are the College of Physicians and Surgeons of Indiana, the In- diana Medical College, connected with the In- diana University, and the Medical College of Evansville. Special Instruction. — This department of edu- cation is represented by the Indiana Institution for Educating the Deaf and Dumb, at Indianap- olis, which, in 1874, had 15 instructors and 333 students; and the Indiana Institute for the Blind, at Indianapolis, which, in K^74 — 5. had 109 pupils, and a corps of instructors including a superintendent, 5 teachers in the literary de- partment. 3 in the industrial, and 3 in the mu- sical, besides 4 household officers. Educational Libraries. — The total number of volumes in the various educational libraries of the state is reported as 357,545 ; of which the township libraries contained 253,545 volumes. the city libraries were estimated to contain 50,000 volumes, and the college libraries. 54,000 volumes. The law does not. at present, provide for a general tax for the support of public libra- ries ; but it permits the founding of binary as- sociations, and authorizes the common councils of cities to take stock in such associations, and levy the annual tax of 2 cents on each §100 in support of the same. Educational Journals. — The only educational journal published in the state is The Indian. i School Journal, the official organ of the state superintendent of public instruction. Tlie Northern Indiana Teacher was formerly pub- lished at South Bend. INDIANA ASBURY UNIVERSITY, at (ireencastle, Ind., commenced in 1832, and chartered in L837, is under Methodist Episcopal control. The first class graduated in 1840. It has an endowment of 8180,000, and property to the value of ^150,000. Tuition is free. The li- braries contain about 10,000 vol nines. The institu- tion has philosophical and chemical apparatus and a cabinet of minerals and fossils. Both St are admitted. The regular courses are the clas- sical and philosophical, but an elective eon may be pursued. Opportunity is afforded for normal instruction. ami there is a Biblical course tor theological students. Indiana Medical » 'ol- lege is, by recent action of the proper author- ities, made the medical department of Asbury University. The medical Bchool is located at Indianapolis, and has !• professors and (> lect- urers. There is also a preparatory department In L875 6, there were 12 instructors, 509 stu- dents (256 collegiate and 253 preparatory), and 565 alumni. The presidents of the university have been as follows: Bishop Matthew Simpson, INDIANA UNIVERSITY INDIANS llil D.D.,1839 I-; the Elev. LucienW. Deny, D.D., L849 -54; the Rev.Danie] Cuny.D.D., 1854—7) Bishop Thomas Bowman, D.D.. LL.D., 1858—72; the Rev. Reuben Andrus, D. D.. L872 — 5; and the Rev. Alexander Martin. D. D.. the present in- cumbent, appointed in L875. INDIANA UNIVERSITY, at Blooming- ton. 1 in L. was chartered as a college in I si's, and as a university, in L839. It is non-sectarian, being under state control. It has two tine buildings, a library of over 6,000 volumes, a chemical laboratory, a museum containing fos- sils, minerals, zoological specimens, etc., and pro- ductive funds to the amount of #1 1 iUHH>; besides which it receives annual appropriations from the state. The value of its buildings, grounds, and ap- paratus is $200,000. Both sexes are admitted. I tesides the preparatory and the collegiate depart- ment, the latter having a classical and a scien- tific course, there is a department for the study of law. The medical department was discon- tinued in L876. The number of instructors and students in the various departments of the in- stitution, in 1876, was as follows: Departments Instructors Students Preparatory 4 142 10 132 Collegiate Law 36 Total 16 310 The Rev. Lemuel Moss, D. D., is (1876) the president. INDIANS, American. The earliest at- tempt at the civilization of the American In- dians was made by the Spanish government, in Mexico and South America, at the time of their conquest, when the sons of chiefs and princes in Mexico and Pern were educated, and endowed with the rank of Spanish nobles. Many families in Spain, to this day, boast of their Mexican or Peruvian descent. Their further education was conducted through the agency of missions, the most celebrated of which were those of Paraguay. The education of the North American Indians was begun, also, by Catholic missionaries in Canada and Louisiana, Florida. Mexico, and California. It has been participated in gradually by other denominations, and has followed the line of the frontier to the present time — the religious character of the instruction imparted being gradually eliminated as the sepa- ration of church and state approached com- pletion. The Puritans, at an early date, estab- lished missions at Nantucket and Martha's Vineyard, at Newtown and Plymouth, Mass.. and in Connecticut, the laborers principally be- ing the Mayhews, Eliot, Cotton, and Sargeant. The famous Indian Bible of Eliol was prepared by him for the instruction of converts. The In- dian School of Dr. Wheelock, now Dartmouth College, and Harvard University, at the time of Hs foundation, gave instruction to Indians, the latter with the intention of using them as teachers of their own race. Only one Indian, however, has ever graduated then Caleb < 'heeshahteau- muck, in 1665. The Brainerds, who labored in Xew Jersey and Pennsylvania, the Moravians, among the Delawares,and the Society of Friends, have all produced results more or less important. Nearly all of the large Protestant denominations have labored in this field, either separately or through associations organized for this special purpose. The Episcopalians established an Oneida mission ; and, the Methodists, in 1819, founded missions among the Wyandots, Iroquois, Creeks, Ottawas, Shawnees, Dakotas, and the Indians of Oregon. The Southern Methodists, the Presbyterians, in 1837, the American Missionary Association, American Indian Missionary Association, Baptist Home Missionary Society, and the Southern Baptists have also established missions and done effective work. The Catholics, also, have not been be- hindhand in their efforts to educate the savages of North America. Their missionaries, Le Jeune, Lalemant, Brebgeuf, and Marquette were pioneers in the work; and their labors, extending from Canada along the frontier to Texas, form an exciting story of devotion and self-sacrifice. In the United States, the Indians may be divided into three classes, according to their surroundings and consequent mode of life; namely, (1) those who are closely and entirely surrounded by whites ; (2) the wild Indians of the plains, who still adhere to their nomadic mode of life ; and (3) an intermediate class having the whites on one side and the wild tribes on the other. It is in this last class only that the experiment of civil- ization is operative, the reclaiming of the first class being considered accomplished, and that of the second class, impracticable. The following figures are taken from the report of the United States Commissioner of Education for 1874: Number of Indians in the United States, ex- clusive of those in Alaska . . 275,003 Number of school buildings upon Indian res- ervations . . 232 Number of schools upon Indian reservations 345 Number of scholars: males 5,707; females 5,161 10,95s Number of teachers 407 Number of Indians who can read: adults, 1 ,392, youths 2,616 4,00S Number of Indians who have learned to read during the year 961 It will be seen from the foregoing, that the proportion of scholars, among the Indians, is about 1 in every 2G. Of those in New York, I I lH.outof a total of 5,1 L0, attend school. These Indians, of course, being few in number and every-where surrounded by civilization, have un- usual advantages over their brethren of the Far West. The total number of Indians east of the Mississippi, excluding those of New York, is 1 8,505 ; scholars, 2,599, or about 1 in 7. It is in the Indian Territory, however, that the most ex- tensive and interesting attempts at education have been made. (See Indian Territory.) The prospect of the education and final civilization of the Indians brought under the charge of the agencies, is considered promising; though the want of funds, and the difficulty the Indians have to encounter in learning a strange language. have thus far retarded their progress. The 462 INDIAN TERRITORY INDIVIDUALITY number of Indians in British America is esti- mated at 150,000. For information in regard to them, see the articles on the several British provinces of North America. INDIAN TERRITORY, an unorganized portion of the United States, embracing an area of 68,901 square miles. In 1870, the population was stated at 68,152, of whom 2,409 were whites, 6,378 colored, and 59,367 Indians; of the latter, 24,967 were living on reservations, the nomadic Indians being estimated at 34.400. Indian Territory was set apart by the act of Congress, passed June 30., 1 834, for the regula- tion of trade and intercourse with the Indians. This act declared that "all that part of the United States west of the Mississippi and not within the states of Missouri and Louisiana, or the territory of Arkansas", should for the pur- poses of the act be considered the Indian country. This vast tract formed a considerable portion of the Louisiana purchase of 1 803 ; but the Indian territory has been greatly reduced by the for- mation of states and territories out of it ; so that, at present, it is comparatively of small extent. Educational Condition. — Indian Territory comprises six agencies and thirty-six different nations and tribes, numbering (according to the report of the U. S. Commissioner of Education for 1874) over 76,000 persons. The total num- ber of schools, in 1874, was 1 72, with 177 build- ings, 189 teachers, and 4.727 pupils. The four principal nations of the territory (under the care of the Union Agency) are the Cherokees, re- ported as numbering 17,217 persons (including 1,300 colored) , the Seminoles, 2,433; the Creeks, about 13,000 (including 2,000 colored) ; and the ( 'hoctaws and ( 'hickasaws (confederated), 22,000. These nations occupy a territory that has, in the aggregate, an area of 28,000,000 acres, of which about L 50,000 are under cultivation. Bach na- tions has its own school system, including .super- intendents, school board, etc. The Cherokees are the most advanced. Their system embraces a superintendent of public instruction, elected by the national council for a term of two years; and a board of education, consisting of four members including the superintendent, who is a member ex officio. It is empowered to establish rules and regulation* for the management of the schools, and to prescribe the text books to be used. The common schools are divided into three grades: primary, intermediate, and gram- mar schools. The school year consists of nine months and a half. Commencing On the lirst Monday in March, and is divided into two terms of twenty weeks each. The regular school day i- -i\ hours; but for pupils under eight years of age, it is only four hours. The school age is from 6 to is. All teachers are required to be examined and licensed by the board of education. There are '.'< school districts, each having 8 BChool commissioner, who has the general management and Supervision of all the schools in his district ; but an appeal from his decisions may be taken to the board of education. In L874, there were in the Cherokee nation, 68 schools, taught ] chiefly by natives, in their vernacular, but also learning English. The number cf pupils enrolled : in these schools was estimated at 2,500 ; and the | average attendance, at 2,000. The school fund amounted to §2,909,113, upon which the annual interest was SI 61.889. — The Choctaws and Chickasaws, numbering about 22,000, in 1874, had 67 day schools, chiefly boarding-schools, at which the estimated attendance was 1.650. The < neks had 31 schools, with 750 pupils; and the Seminoles. 5 schools, with about 120 pupils. — The Cherokees maintain a female seminary, with about 70 pupils ; also an orphan asylum, pro- viding for about 100 children. Mission schools are supported in the other agencies, as follows : Quapaw Agency, 3 mission schools (on the in- dustrial plan) and one day school, with a total enrollment of 232 pupils ; Sac and Fox Agency, a manual-labor school, with 28 pupils, and the Shawnee day school, with 20 pupils ; Osage Agency, a manual labor school, with 90 pu- pils, a mission school, with 35 pupils, a day school for the Kaws, with 54 pupils, and a boarding-school ; Wichita Agency, 2 schools, one a day school, and the other a boarding-school, whole attendance 111 pupils ; Kiowa Agency, 2 boarding-schools, having 84 pupils. — See Report of U. S. Commissioner of Education for 1-74. INDIVIDUALITY, that distinction of character which is produced by mental or moral peculiarities. The value of this element of character, in the affairs of life, can hardly be overestimated. Coethe considered that its pres- ervation and development should be the sole end of a true education ; and Mill declares that it is the great want of our time. Its rarity, however, is a necessary consequence of the lev- eling tendency of the age in which we live. The average experience of the world at any period, is embodied in the prevailing customs of that period. In that sphere, the great bulk of the world's activities move with unthinking regu- larity, — the force of education making it natural, and absorption in the struggle tor existence allowing no time tor any thought of change. The increase of facilities for the spread of knowledge, also, adds directly to the coercive power of public opinion by extending its sway : and, while it enlarges the sphere of custom renders its influence more uniform and more difficult to be opposed. Vet its boundaries must be steadily extended, or life degenerates into mere routine. To the man of individuality, whether as artist, poet, preacher, philosopher, or thinker of any kind, is committed the task of enlarging that sphere, and setting up new ideals. In daily lite also, a thousand emergencies arise, demand- ing instant ad ion tor w Inch experience furnishes no guide. The ordinary mind is paralyzed, and turns instinctively to the man of genius, or exceptional power, for guidance. Individuality thus becomes the pioneer of progress. When we remember, further, that individuality fur- nishes the common ground on which genius and insanity meet and that its cultivation, according INDIVIDUALITY 463 as it is proper or improper, may minister in a hundred ways to the happiness and well-being of the individual and the race, or to untold misery for the one. and loss to the other, its claim for consideration in any educational scheme will not probably he denied. Unfortunately, however, the difficulty of properly treating it is com- mensurate with its importance, the consider- ation of it going, as it does, to the very root of every system of education. All educational plans presuppose uniformity in the minds of the children to be subjected to their influence. Their fundamental principles, being only conclusions drawn from the observation of a large number of individual instances, necessarily employ them- selves with the resemblances to be found among those instances, to the exclusion of the differ- ences. The question always is, "Under given circumstances, how would a majority of minds act ?". little attention being paid to the minority. And the larger the majority, the more readily is the conclusion drawn from their uniform action accepted as a rule, and the less likelihood is there that any attention will be paid to the in- significant minority. Yet it is in this minority, that the minds possessed of decided individuality will be found. In many cases, no doubt, private instruction would produce more satisfactory re- sults in developing exceptional powers; but cir- cumstances frequently do not admit of this, and the teacher, in that case, must endeavor to sup- ply the deficiency, as far as possible, by special attention. For that highest from of individuality, called genius, the ordinary school system can, probably, do little in the way of direction, its very nature leading it to reject all external guidance ; it is a law unto itself. (See Genius.) But for that great army of thinkers and work- ers whose peculiar fitness for special pursuits is early manifested, and whose earnestness and patient labor, in a thousand varied ways, are daily enlarging the domain of knowledge, the advantage of a well-digested course of study and moral training can hardly be questioned. One of the most effective aids for resisting the tend- ency to reduce all minds to uniformity, and for giving to individuality its due prominence, con- sists in keeping constantly in mind the mod- ern idea of education ; namely, that it is a development from within of capacities there existing. The mind is not a vessel into which knowledge is to be poured till it is full, but a plant on which education is to act, as the sun and rain act. drawing out and expanding it into leaf, flower, and fruit, according to the plan mi which it is constructed. And just as the gar- dener places different plants in different soils. and subjects them to varying amounts of sun- shine and moisture, expecting diversity of results, and recognizing in that diversity his success, so the teacher, while subjecting all to the sa general treatment, as the gardener does, should seek to vary his methods, in order to accom- modate them to the peculiarities of the pupils under his care. The first step to this end must be a determination of what those peculiarities are. In this search, many circumstances may temporarily mislead him. In his first day's ac- quaintance with a pupil, for instance, he may fancy he discovers in him a natural aptitude for a particular study; which a longer acquaintance will show to be due to some slight previous training in that study — in which case the apt- itude will entirely disappear as soon as he has reached the end of his fortuitous knowledge; or he may discover, toward some particular branch, a disinclination which is only the natural disgust or reaction of the mind on account of the too early presentment of that branch to his immature powers; or, in a third case, an incli- nation may be shown, which is produced solely by some poetical aspect of the study, due to early experience or association, and has no con- nection with the essential nature of that study. A boy, in this way, for instance, might show a quasi-love for botany from having been brought up among flowers, the forms and colors of which appealed powerfully to his love of beauty ; or a similar love of astronomy or microscopy from having had the run of an observatory or an opti- cian's shop. But no teacher of discernment will long be deceived by such superficial knowledge or inclination, if opportunities for examination are afforded him. A more dangerous misap- prehension, however, exists frequently in regard to moral powers. This often happens in cases of what may be called negative individuality — cases in which the faculties necessary for the future well-being, instead of being abnormally developed, seem to be entirely wanting. These mistakes, unfortunately, are common, and are attended with the gravest consequences. An obtrusive show of virtue rouses suspicion at once, and leads to detection; but the want of it is, in many cases, easy of concealment, and, escaping notice, escapes, also, correction, and the error appears later in life, bringing disgrace and ruin. 1 Hshonesty, both in word and deed, is one of the commonest of these defects of character. Tyrannical government in childhood and early youth is the fruitful parent of this evil. Self- preservation, the strongest instinct of its nature, leads the child to the use of deception as a shield from punishment ; and it uses it the more readily because it cannot understand the base- ness of it. Having determined the pupil's distinguish- ing trait, the treatment should lie a partial cul- tivation of the prominent faculty, with a special cultivation of the others. An entire suppression of this ruling faculty would result in disgust with the enforced attention given to the others; while an exclusive cultivation of it — which is almost always the result, when the pupil is allowed to '■follow his inclination" — would end only in one-sidedness, or want of balance. As the constant disposition of the pupil, under the treatment here prescribed, would be to neglect the distasteful studies for the favored one, the efforts of the teacher should be exerted to make the former as attractive as possible, by con- stant references to the latter by way of illustra- 464 INDO-GERMANIC LANGUAGES tion. By a skillful teacher, this may be done to a greater extent than might at first appear. A judicious system of rewards, also, might be de- vised, to favor proficiency in the Studies likely to be neglected. In the elaboration of the plan, specific rules will be of little use. The highly developed faculties, mental and moral, exist in such varied combination, and the daily circumstances and influences surround and govern in such a way, as to make of each case, a complicated problem, requiring special study. The general plan, therefore, can only be indi- cated, and its fulfillment committed to the discretion of the teacher. In it, he will find ample field for the exercise of his skill and in- genuity. His genius for teaching will be no- where more apparent. - In addition to the case of negative individuality, there is another, which may be called that of general negative individuality, in which the faculties are evenly developed, but are all below the average. This condition is equivalent, in its results, to that of a mind with faculties of normal strength, too evenly developed, the resulting character, in both cases, being one of mediocrity, which mani- fests itself in a general want of decision or in- firmity of purpose. Such characters are never them in the presence of a superior mind. Their negative virtue becomes as injurious as positive vice; for. as all men are compelled con- stantly, under stress of daily circumstances, to act, the action of such persons is never their own, but is merely a reflection of that of the more powerful minds by whom they are surrounded. The demagogue and the quack find in such characters their pliant instruments. This result, therefore, should be carefully guarded against, in every country especially, where political power in the hands of the masses ifl great or increasing. The teacher's duty, in this case, is perhaps the most difficult of all. it being nothing less than the creation of individuality. This object, how- ever, is worthy of his highest efforts, since the element he is endeavoring to evoke is the most valuable of all the products of a true education — the personal quality whose moral aspect is Self-respect, as well as self-reliance, and which constitutes the surest basis for a, correct lite, whether as an individual or a citizen. (See < 'll LB UTTER, I )I8CERNMKNT OF.) INDO-GERMANIC LANGUAGES. The name Tndo- Germanic is applied to a large num- ber of languages which comparative philology has proved t<» he of a common origin. It was chosen t . » indicate what was believed to he the eastern (India) and the west em (t lermany) bound- ary of the extent of these languages. Since thi' < 'chic has been recognized as belonging to the family, the name is no longer adequate, and other names, as Aryan. Indo-European, Japhetic, Banskritic, have been proposed and sometimes used instead of it; but still fndo-Germanic is the name generally preferred by writers on the Bubject. 'The Indo-Germanic languages, accord- ing to the common consent of all prominent Writers on the subject, embrace the following branches : ( 1 ) < iermanic or Teutonic ; (2) Slavic : f3) LithuaniC; (1; Celtic (Irish etc); (5) Italic i Latin etc.) : (6) Greek; (7) Iranian or Persian; Sanskritic or Indian. Some writers add an Illvrian branch, of which the modern Albanian is regarded as a relic : others divide somewhat differently, regarding the Slavic and Lithuanian not as two different branches, but as only one branch; but they all agree as to the affinity of the eight branches which have been enumerated. From the time when Cyrus founded the Persian empire until the present day, nearly all the lead- ing civilized nations of the globe have spoken [ndo-Germanic languages, and to-day these lan- guage's are the vehicle of thought for nearly all Europe (the only exceptions being the Turk- ish, the Hungarian, the Finnish, and the Basque languages), for the entire civilized population of America and Australia, and for the larger por- tion of Asia. The comparative study of the [ndo-Germanic languages has casta great deal of light upon all the languages which are taught in the English-speaking world — the vernacular, the classical, and the foreign. Not only does this study convey a clearer view than was for- merly attainable ot the peculiar kinship existing between all these languages, but. especially by the aid of the Sanskrit, explains many points which were formerly obscure, and enables the student to trace the origin and gradual growth of mostof the grammatical forms. Theinfiuence is most apparent in the Latin and the Greek, the relations of which to the family have been best set forth by Corssen [Laieinische Sprat and G. Curtius (Griechische Etymologie). The standard grammars of these languages, especially those written during the last twenty years, have generally been benefited by the results of com- parative philology; and teachers who understand the chief Indo-Germanic languages find it easy. without any need of additional time, to com- bine with instruction in Latin and Greek, a rudimentary knowledge of the lndo-( iennanic system. And it is safe to say. that, henceforth, it will he impossible for any grammarian to Surpass, or even to equal, the best Latin and Greek grammars now in use. unless lie possesses a good know ledge of the relation of the Classic to other lndo-< lei-manic languages, and especially to Sanskrit. — The study of English in the lower grades of instruction has been indirectly benefited by the progress of these researches, because to them we are largely indebted lot a more intelligent class of teachers, and a much superior class of text books. In the more ad- vanced grades of instruction, the course of studio can be so arranged — and notable at- tempts have recently been made in this direc- tion as to embrace an introduction of the stu- dent to a rudimentary acquaintance with some of the chid' results ot I ndo-( iermanic philology. (See English, Stud's op.) Mote detailed infor- mation on this subject may be found in .Max Midler's, anil in \V. I >. Whitney's Lectures mi Languages. Comparative grammars of the Indo-Germanic languages have been written by INDUCTIVE METHOD INDUSTRIAL SCHOOLS 4G5 Bopp, Schleicher, and Rapp ; a dictionary, by Fick. A collection of comparative grammars on the eight branches of the [ndo-Germanic lan- guages was begun in 1876 (Bibliothek indo- germanischer ( i n nnmatiken, Leipsic), and will embrace (1) Indian Grammar, by Whitney; (2) Iranian Grammar, by Iliibschmann ; (3) Greek Grammar, by Meyer; (4) Italic Grammar (embracing Latin, etc.) by Biicheler ; (6) German Grammar, by Sievers; (6) Irish (Celtic) Grammar, by Windish ; (7) Lithuanian Grammar, by Leskien ; (8) Slavic Grammar, by Leskien. An introductory volume by E. Sievers contains the Outlines of Phonetic Physiology {Qrundsiige der Lautphysiologie) as an intro- duction to the study of the phonology of the Lido-Germanic languages. INDUCTIVE METHOD, in education, is but another name for the developing method (q. v.). It is so called because it is based upon the principle of logical induction, or the process of deriving general principles from an observa- tion and comparison of individual facts. Instead of teaching definitions, principles, and rules ar- bitrarily, and illustrating them by facts, the teacher who uses the inductive method, calls the attention of the pupil to a sufficient number of the facts to enable him to find the principle or rule for himself. The learning of the definition, which, in the deductive method, is the first thing to be done, in the inductive method, is the last step in the process. Most text-book 6 * follow the deductive method ; but the most effective ele- mentary instruction is inductive. INDUSTRIAL SCHOOLS. The term industrial education is used to designate the training of pupils, not only in the common branches of instruction, but in certain industrial or business pursuits. An industrial school, in the widest sense of the word, denotes any school for teaching one or several branches of industry ; but the special schools of this kind, and, in par- ticular, those of a higher grade, are more gener- ally comprised under the name of technical schools (see Technical Education); and the name industrial school is usually restricted to a school for neglected children, in which training in manual labor or industrial pursuits constitutes a prominent feature of the plan of education. The common schools, however, sometimes have classes, in which children are instructed in cer- tain industrial pursuits. The idea of providing for the instruction of children in manual labor appears to have originated in the desire to enable poor children to earn as early as possible their daily bread. In England, Chief Justice Hale rec- ommended, about 1676, to parliament to estab- lish in every parish an industrial school. In 1 705, Locke laid before the English parliament a plan to counteract the spread of pauperism, and to this end, proposed the establishment, in each parish, of labor schools in which the children of tin- poor, from 3 to 14 years of age, were to find lodging, board, support, and occupation. Parlia- ment, however, rejected the bill which embodied this idea, and a similar attempt made, in 1796, by 30 Pitt, equally failed. In Italy, canon Odescalchi founded, in 1686, a great charitable institution under the name Ospizio apostolico di San Michele, which, besides other departments, con- tained an industrial school for both boys and girls. The girls were instructed in needle-work ; and a number of workshops were fitted up for the boys, among which they were at liberty to choose. This example was followed by many other institutions, and the instruction of girls in house- work and needle-work, and of the boys in some mechanical trade, became a general feature of the Italian orphan and foundling asylums. The first practical attempt, in Germany, was made by A. H. Francke, who introduced in his pceda- gogium instruction in turning and glass-grinding. An attempt made by Hecker,the founder of the first real school, to train his pupils in the cultiva- tion of mulberry-trees and the rearing of silk- worms, was abandoned soon after his death. The Austrian educator Kmdermann conceived the idea of introducing industrial instruction into the common school, and succeeded, hi the course of a few years, in organizing industrial schools in more than 200 places. The proposition that all children should receive at school instruction in manual labor, as well as in book learning, found an influential supporter in the philoso- pher Kant, and the scheme of national educa- tion proposed by Fichte likewise combined learning with labor. Pestalozzi also endeavored to train his pupils in various industrial arts as well as in books ; and his ideas were more fully carried out by Fellenberg, and especially by Wehrli. Salzmann, in the famous insti- tution of Schnepfenthal, gave to his pupils, outside of the regular school hours, manual work in the garden and field — exercises in turn- ing and planing, in basket-making, and other oc- cupations of a similar character. In Wurteni- berg, the government took great interest in the labor school, and ordered that schools of this kind shoidd be organized in connection with every common school, and that all the girls should be instructed, during three or four hours a week, in needle-work. In several other states of Germany, as well as in Sweden, Belgium, and other countries, courses in industrial education have been arranged on a large scale, in close connection with the common schools; and the children are trained not only for the common pursuits of life, but for the special branches of industry prevailing in their particular locality. The idea that the pupils of common schools should be trained in industrial occupations was also conceived by Froebel, the founder of the Kindergarten ; and one of his most enthusiastic adherents, Georgens, endeavored to develop this idea theoretically, as well as practically. The German teachers' convocation to which an elab- orate plan for embodying manual labor with the course of instruction in common schools was submitted, refused to commit itself in favor of any such scheme ; but it adopted a declaration that the question, what kinds of labor shoidd be admitted into the course of instruction, how they 46 G INDUSTRIAL SCHOOLS should be organized, and in what order they should follow one another, is one of the great educational questions of the day. — One branch of industrial pursuits, needle-work, has at prest at been almost universally introduced into the common schools of Germany and other coun- ii ies. Two afternoons In each week are set apart for the instruction of uiils, by a competent per- son, in the art of sewing, the pupils beginning as early as six years of age, at first using paper. They are also taught to knit, eaeli girl furnishing her own material and beeping the product of her labor. When they have learned to hem, the next step is mending. From plain sewing, mending, and knitting, the pupil ad- vances to fine needle-work, tatting, and crochet- ing. Some of the tapestry work of the older pupils is often so beautiful in design and so artistic in execution as to challenge general ad- miration. " (See J. F. Myers, in the Report <;/' the U.S. Commissioner of Education, L873.) In England, before any grant is made to an elementary school, the educational department must be satisfied that the girls in the day school are taught plain needle-work and cutting out, as a part of the ordinary course of instruction. Plain needle-work is understood to inclu le darn- ing, mending, marking, and knitting; but no ■y work of any kind can be done in school hours. In the United States. .Massachusetts has given the greatest attention to this subject. A report of the committee on industrial schools, made to the board of education, in L873, recom- mends that sewing, which is now taught in three classes of the girls' grammar schools.be carried forward into all the classes, by a gradual and progressive change, which is not to interfere with the pupils' intellectual culture and training. Tli y proposed, also, that, as instruction in e ing was thus extended in the number of cla to which it was imparted, it should be enlarged in the h er and practical value of th • work performed, and that, certainly in the first and second, and perhaps in the third clas instruction should be given in cutting, shap- ing, fitting, and completely making girls' and ladies' garments, the requisite materials for this instruction to be furnished by the city, under the supervision of the committee on Hints. The city superinten lenl of l'i dence, R. L, stated in his report for L873 —1874, I ipartment in the schools of ity was producing the happiest results. Nearly COO children, he reported, were tan-lit every week to use skillfully their needle, and more than 100 girls who received, in the public usively, instruction in the use of the lie, wei |, earning from $ I to %\ 2 a week. Iii private female institutions, needle- work as a branch of instruction, has been quite rally introduced, and has come to be looked upon as an indispensable requisite in the course of instruction. As regards the male departments, of public schools, the introduction of industrial drawing into all schools is now Btrongly urged by many educators. The legislatures of Massa- chusetts and New York have taken the lead in this question, and ordered its introduction into all the common schools of the respective states. i See Ain-KnrcATioN, and DRAWING.) Special attention to industrial occupations is given in most of the orphan asylums, and in re- formatory and charitable schools. These schools must not only give to their pupils the instruction w Inch other children receive at school, but they are expected to furnish, at the same time, a substitute for home education, and to prepare their pupils, in the best possible way, to earn their daily bread when the time of their discharge from the school arrives. It is. therefore, not only desir- able but indispensable for a school of this kind to provide for industrial instruction. It is grati- fying to learn, from the annual reports of the r. S. Commissioner of Education, that the number of orphan asylums which have opened, or have arranged to open, an industrial de- partment, is increasing. The importance of this subject cannot be too strongly urged upon the attention of all who found, support, patronize, superintend. or conduct institutions of this kind. For the girls, house work and sewing commend themselves, at first sight, as the most appropriate branches; for the boys, the instruction should consist in preparing them for some industrial occupation in life. The extent and the variety of this instruction will, of course, depend on the resources of the institution. The most extensive industrial training given in any charitable insti- tution, as far as is known, is in Girard College Philadelphia. In 1864, a chair of industrial science was established, embracing the practical and theoretic teaching of various handicrafts. The branches of labor in the work room thus pro- vided for were type-setting, printing, bookbind- ing, type-founding, stereotyping, turning, car- pentering, daguerreotyping, photography, elec- trotyping, electroplating, and practical instruc- tion in the operation of the electric telegraph. Shoe-making has been taughl and successfully carried on since 1871. (See Orphan Asylums, and Reform Schools.) The great importance of industrial education in evening schools is too evident to need any discussion. The technical instruction which the immense majority of mechanics receive is insufficient : and their success in life depends, to a greal extent. on their subsequent self education. Any aid which can be given to them iii their efforts to improve their education, is. therefore, of incalculable benefit. How well this is under- stood and appreciated by them is clearly indi- cated by the large atteinlai.ee at such evening schools as afford the desired instruction. (See Evening Schools.) On the industrial schools of Germany, see Scbmidun, Oeffentliche Kino TndustrieanstaUen (1824). The principal works in which this union of industrial classes with common schools is urged, are by Fkikhkiui, Die Erziehung eur Arbeit (1852), and Geor- oen8, Oeqenwartder VoBcsschule (1857). See also Dot u, Kindergarten und VbUcsschule (1876); 0. B. Stetson, Technical Edttccdion (Boston, 1876), INDUSTRY INSTRUCTION 4G7 INDUSTRY is a quality or hain't upon the value of which it is scarcely requisite to insist in an educational work ; since its absolute neces- sity as a condition of success in every walk of life is almost undisputed. For though there have been eminent men. who might declare, as Montaigne did, that laziness was oneof the ruling qualities of their minds, it will he found, proba- bly, on examination, that their want of exert ion was supplemented by great natural parts, which, in a measure, rendered that exertion unneces- sary. It will, probably, he granted also that, witli more continuous application, theii success would have been far great r. The number of such men, moreover, is exceedingly small, and they were never the champions of the cause they adopted. On the other hand, we have the con- current testimony of men eminent in ev( ry de- partment of knowledge, and in all ages, as to the exceeding importance of industry both as an in- tellectual and a moral agent. The definition of the word, in fact, as it is commonly used, is its own best recommendation, i. e., the disposition to keep one's self employed in some useful work. Industry is thus nearly synonymous with dili- gence (q. v.); but the latter is rather dependent upon the feelings, the former, upon the con- nce. The great importance of industry be- ing acknowledged, it only remains to consider the method by which an industrious habit may be fostered. Though industry is frequently a matter of temperament, or merely an indica- tion of bodily health, there are many cases in which the want of it cannot be explained by reference to either of these causes. Usually. children are active enough; though, during their earliest years, their activity takes tin form of play. Nature seems to have pointed this out as the most promising avenue through which the mentally indolent child may be approached, so as to direct its energies into the right channel. By associating with it, in its recreations, sug- ting new ones which involve some pleasing mental exercise, and thus bridging over the gap which separates play from work, and making it narrower or less abrupt, the judicious teacher may rouse the dormant faculties and implant industrious habits, where, at first, this might have seemed impossible. This is the key to the kindergarten system. It must never be forgotten that an indolent habit of mind is sometimes the lit of discouragement arising from a too early p m of mental pursuits to faculties not yet sufficiently d I to undertake th im. Frequently the child falls into an indolent habit from the fact that it cannot choose out of many things which one to do. or. doing a little only of iplishes nothing of consequence— a condition equivalent to indolence. The method here should 1>- a daily routine, in which the teacher shoul 1 work with the pupil, giving thus the powerful stimulus of his example, to instill into the pupil's mind ideas of order, method, and constancy of exertion. In forming the indus- trious habit, the school room has immense ad- vantages over the home circle as it usually exists, from the fact that no distracting cause can prop- erly be allowed to enter; and because, too, all its exercises, lessons, and tasks imply the need of continuous application ami exertion, without regard to the momentary inclinations of the pupil. The implanting of (his single habit. firmly in the pupil's mind is, doubtless, one of the most important results of both home train- ing and school education. INFANT SCHOOLS. See Kixdkkgartkn. INSPECTION, School. See Supervision. INSTITUTES, Teachers'. See Teachers' Institutes. INSTRUCTION (Lat. instructio) is the com- munication of knowledge. Education trains the powers of the individual, in order that he may attain to the perfection of his being; in- struction supplies him with something that is objective or external. Instruction has specially to do with the intellectual development of the child, and is an instrument in the hands of the educator, which he can wield -with the greatest precision and in the most skillful manner. He may attempt to act on the feelings and the vo- litions ; but so obscure are the operations of the soul in these regions, that he may produce ex- actly the opposite effect to that which he in- tended, hut when he communicates knowledge, he knows that, if the pupil is capable and atten- tive, he will receive exactly that which it is in- tended he should receive. Moreover, knowledge stands in close relation to the feelings and voli- tions ; and, accordingly, the teacher enrploys it for the purpose of influencing and directing these. Thus, it comes to pass that instruction occupies the largest part in the work of educa- tion, and constitutes that portion which can be undertaken and provided for by a community, since it can be delegated by a parent to a regu- larly trained teacher with the best results. In- struction is putting something into the mind ; education is strengthening and developing the powers of the mind. Tt is plain that a teacher should put nothing into the mind which does not train and develop its powers ; but as it is possible to do so, and as this frequently takes place, instruction is to be divided into educative and non-educative ; and one of the most impor- tant questions which a teacher can investigate, is the nature of educative instruction. There are three qualities which attach to all educative instruction: (1) Instruction, to be educative, must follow the natural laws of the intellectual development of man. Man's intellectual life be- gins in tin' exercise of the senses, lie accumu- lates a large number of individual observations In these observations, like gathers to like. A child looks at a tree; and the \nv produces an impression on his mind. The next day. he » another tree; and the resemblances in this tree strike his mind, and recall the former impression. The two impressions thus unite, and form a stronger impression than either separately. ( >ther impressions of a similar nature unite, un- til the child forms a definite notion of a tree. The child is thus gathering into unities the 468 INSTRUCTION various impressions which he is continually forming ; and this process continues. He learns the individual first, and groups his observations. Thus instruction, to be educative, must always proceed from the individual to the general, from the concrete to the abstract. There is no re- versal of this process in education ; but the process is often reversed in instruction with baneful effect. To the teacher, the general truth contains the sum of all the particulars, and he thinks he gives to the child this general truth with all its contents, when he urges it upon him, makes him commit it to memory, and frequently recalls it to his mind ; but the fact is, that the child learns the general truth without the con- tents, lie has the shell without the kernel. The result is, either that the truth lies dormant until experience gives him the particulars, and he may then recall the truth, or that the child is lulled into the belief that he has learned something when he really knows nothing, and his mind is prevented from stepping forward in that direction, by the belief that he knows the truth already. Furthermore, this non-educative instruction loses a great opportunity. If the child is allowed tune, and is supplied with a sufficient number of individual instances, he is sure to make the generalization himself. Noth- ing imprints the truth more permanently than the discovery of it for himself, and nothing brings into play all the powers of the soul more healthily than the discovery of a truth. The teacher must, therefore, always proceed from the concrete to the abstract ; but, in employ- ing this method, he must exercise very great patience. Generalization is a slow process, somewhat uncertain in time. The child seems to be just reaching the truth, but he turns away with a bound, and he may take sonic time more to master it completely. Or he may, one day, have a glimpse of it. and the next, it has vat - ished. Hut, however slow or uncertain the process may be, it is the only tndy educative mode of giving instruction. The teacher, like Socrates, is a maieutic artist, and lie must watch carefully over the birth of a truth, not forcing nature, but giving nature every help that she will willingly receive. (2) Educative instruc- tion arrests the attention and awaken* the inter- est of the pupil. The rule implied in this state- ment may be expressed in the words, that the teacher must attach the new matter to the old by a natural conned ion. that he must pass from the known to the unknown. The subject of at- tention is one that cannot, be discussed here. W c can note only how it is to be secured. The PUpil must be on good terms with his teacher. Where there is antagonism, there can be no satisfactory attention. The pupil may, indeed, attend through fear; but fear is a weakening force ; and the result is, to associate in his mind, with the subject comprehended, feelings of dis- like and disgUBt, so that, at the end, there is no interest in the subject, but, on the contrary, a wish that be may never have to do with it again. Then, the teacher must carefully consider the state of the pupil's mind, when he commences. Probably, he has come from the play-ground. His mind is occupied with some occurrence thai has taken place there, and his mind will remain occupied with it the whole hour, if the teacher does not employ means to displace it. Some little time should be given to the pupil to calm down; and then, when he is prepared to listen. the teacher should start with something that the pupil knows well and feels an interest in, and from that gradually work his way to the new matter which he has to communicate. There- suit of his teaching should be, that the child has a stronger interest in the subject than he had before. To rouse this interest, the teacher has to remember that every intellectual activity is closely connected with corresponding feelings and exertions, and the teacher succeeds when he makes his intellectual propositions awaken the appropriate feelings and exertions. (3) Educa- tive instruction always keeps in view the prin- cipal aim and end of education. It always works for a purpose. The object is not to cram the pupil with a certain amount of knowledge, to give him an hour's dose of information, with- out regard to his whole being. It deliberately asks whether the information which is to be imparted, will fit into the harmonious devel- opment of the child's powers. It will, therefore, proportion the amount given to the healthy evolution of the child's nature. It will not look to the greatest success in the particular depart- ment, but to the greatest success compatible with the healthy action of all the child's powers. It is not necessary, in an article like this, to go further into the questions to which the sub- ject of instruction gives rise. They are treated in separate articles. We may, however, take a general view of them: (1) We should have to treat of the subjects of instruction. These may be divided into those that relate to nature, those that relate to man, and those that relate to God. The first gives us the natural sciences, — a knowl- edge of the earth in its present state, geology, botany, zoology . physics, including astronomy and chemistry. Then come the abstract Bubjecte arising out of these: the science of numbers and of magnitude, arithmetic, algebra, and g - etry. Nexl follows the knowledge that relates toman: physiology, psychology, and sociology; but the latter sciences cannot he taught scientif- ically to children. The main facts arc made known concretely in literature, and therefore the pupil learns languages. — his own. modern languages, and ancient languages. Education insists i hat these should ultimately, and as soon as possible, pass from being mere studies of words to he a means of acquainting the pupil with the feelings, thoughts, and desires of great and good men. past and present. Closely connected with languages is the study of history ; and allied to history end intermediate between the first and Second Classes of study, is geography,— a knowl- edge of the earth as it has influenced man and been used by him. The third class of subjects relate to religion; but this is closely allied to the INTELLECTUAL EDUCATION 469 second, and, indeed, falls properly under it ; f< >r it is the knowledge of man's relations to God, (2) We should have to inquire into the educative value of all these studies, but this inquiry belongs to the special articles. Bere it has to bo remarked, that none of the subjects must be entirely omit- ted. The mind of man must not be deliberately made one-sided. The multiplication of interest is one of the great objects of education. (3) We should have to inquire into the methods of edu- cation ; and (4) into the organization, private and public, necessary to render instruction effec- tive. All these subjects are discussed in the ordinary manuals on instruction. Educative instruction has been made the subject of special investigation by T. Ziller, in his Gfrundfegung zur Lehre ram erziehenden Unterricht. Nam Hirer u'issenschaftlichen und praktisch-reforma- torischen Seite eniwickell (Leipsic, 1865). — See also Rosenkranz, Pedagogics as a System, trans, by A. C. Bracket* (St. Louis, 1872). INTELLECTUAL EDUCATION. The term intellect (Latin, intellectus, from inter, be- tween, and legere, to gather, or collect) is used to denote the faculty or faculties by which man knows, in distinction from those of sensibility and will. In the formation of the human character, the culture of the intellect is of sub- ordinate importance to that of the other two mental functions, — the proper order in this regard being (1) will, (2) sensibility, (3) intellect ; for the intellect is only an instrument, the use of which must depend upon the natural strength and educational training of the other elements of human character. There is, however, without doubt, a reflex action of sound intellectual cult- ure, by means of which the propensities and tastes of an individual are ennobled, and lus moral sense strengthened. In order to direct the education of the intellect, it is necessaiy to understand its operations and the mode of its growth from infancy to mature age ; the processes by which its powers may be guided, stimulated, and improved, and the agencies by means of which this improvement, or culture, is to be ef- fected. The human mind acts, as it were, by separate faculties ; it appears to possess distinct powers. These faculties, or powers, are without doubt, intimately associated. They are but functions of a single agent ; but they are func- tions distinct, both in their mode of operation and in the objects upon which fchey arc exercised. To form an idea from a present object of sen- sation is obviously distinct from recalling that idea when the object is no longer present. This again differs essentially from the suggestion of one idea by the presence of another in some way associated with it. Again, to create from the simple impressions derived from natural objects an original picture, or series of pictures, such as those of Hogarth on canvas, or of Bunyan, in written composition, is certainly a very different process from the selection and combination of elementaiy propositions so as to derive from them an original principle, or truth. The mind Js, nevertheless, a unit; and all its operations, of however diverse a character, may be conceived to depend, directly or indirectly, upon some rudimenta! process ; but nothing would be gained practically by such a procedure ; and, therefore, we may properly conform to the common usage in this regard, ami consider the intellect as com- prehending many distinct faculties, wdiich. of course, cannot be cultivated and strengthened by the teacher without a sufficient knowledge of their respective spheres of action, their modes of operation, and the objects upon which they are specially exercised. These have been conveniently classified and designated as follows: (1) The acquisitive faculties, including consciousness and sense-perception ; (2) The representative/acuities, including conception, association, memory, and imagination; (3) The elaboraiive faculties, in- cluding, comparison, abstraction, generalization, judgment, and reason. — The senses, those avenues of communication with the external world, are first to be considered, since probably ideas, at first, spring from sensation, which appears to be the primitive stimulus of activity in the whole animal kingdom. (See Senses.) It is, however, in no other way connected w T ith the mind than as the means of supplying the material upon which the first mental operations are performed ; and when this material is afforded, the mind, as an entirely independent agent, may or may not act upon it, this act being controlled by what is called attention (q. v.), which is only a condition of activity assumed by the mind in regard to any of the objects of sensation or consciousness. When sensation and attention exist simultaneously, there must result what is called perception, sen- sation being simply the effect produced by ex- ternal objects upon the bodily organs, and per- ception the act of the mind in becoming cog- nizant of it as preceding from some cause ex- traneous to itself. The product of these two acts, constituting what is called sense-perception, would be only momentary, or would last only during the presence of the object perceived, but for the existence of a faculty by which the mind retains impressions thus made, recalls them, voluntarily or involuntarily, and thus is enabled to make them the subject of independent mental action. These impressions, and in an especial manner those made through the medium of sight, become in this way a part of the mind; they are imprinted upon its very texture, as it were, like pictures upon the photographic glass. Hence the name ideas (from the Creek word Idelv, to see). This faculty is called conception (q. v.). It requires the most careful cultivation in childhood and youth ; since it alone enables the mind to store up the materials of knowledge and thought in its wonderful and mysterious repository. The intellect of childhood is chiefly employed in the exercise of it — in storing up ideas, and gathering materials out of which to produce its subsequent creations, whether these are the fantastic pictures of fancy, the more regular combinations of imagination, or the sequences of ratiocination. Whatever, therefore, hinders tins process, shrivels the mind and stunts 470 INTELLECTUAL EDUCATION' '.') it would be powerless to control the which the conceptions would presenl its growth. Its vitality dies out fur want of ex- ercise, and torpor takes the place of elasticity and vigorous life. This is, therefore, one of the first faculties to be addressed in education. Its activity is to be fostered by supplying it with abundant food — - objects on which it may be exercised, and lan that affords so much employ- ment to its mind, or that affects 7 it with more pleasurable emotions. This is particularly the with the relation of analogy when found to exist between objects quite dissimilar. The facil- ity and readiness with which very young chil- dren discern resemblances, whether they are founded upon form, color, or structure, indicate a natural aptitude of the mind to perceive the varieties of these qualities in different objects, — of these qualities especially, because they are addressed to the sight, which of all the senses gives rise to the most vivid conceptions. The varieties of color (tints), form. etc.. generally have no designations in the child's mind — no symbols in language ; and. therefore, cannot be made distinct objects of conception or id' con- SCiousneSS ; and. in the earliest stages of mental development, this is not required to enable the mind to carry on its rudiniental processes. Very young children can learn to classify objects with respect to their resemblances in form, color, etc ; and to require them to do this, is one of the best exercises that can be employed to aid the devel- opment of their minds. The readiness with which children apply the same name to objects having only a general resemblance to each other in form, color, or structure, is another proof of this characteristic of the human mind. " Chil- dren," says Aristotle, "at first call every man father, and every woman mother, but afterwards they distinguish one person from another." The perception of resemblance is. thus, prior to that of difference, and, apparently, for a very good reason : since, if the reverse were the ease, the mind, instead of requiring immediately words as the representatives of classes, would need a word for every object of perception, and thus could make no advancement in developing the higher facidties. This was the doctrine of Pestalozzi, and a basic principle of his system. There is no doubt that very great diversities in objects ex- cite the attention more readily than correspond- ing resemblances, just as rapid transitions from one color to another, from intense darkness to a brilliant illumination, etc., produce activity in the perceptive faculties ; and hence, the employ- ment of such processes in the education of those mentally deficient ; but where any two objects are placed before a child, of which the points of resemblance and of difference are equally ob- vious to the developed and mature mind, the child will intuitively notice the former before he will the latter. The constitution of the mind seems to necessitate this. Objects which are very unlike may, indeed, have some points of resemblance which escape the notice of a child, and which, therefore, the teacher will need to point out so as to assist in their discovery, and, in this way, to cultivate the habit of observa- tion. The whole structure of the intellect as a thinking and reasoning apparatus seems to be based on the ready recognition of likeness and analogy in the various objects presented to the s. Isaac Taylor remarks, in Home Educa- cation: -The sense of resemblance runs before the power of discriminating or designating dif- : hence, it happens that by the infant and the savage the names of individuals are ex- tended to species, and the names of species to genera." '-Thus,'" as Manse! remarks, -by the ail of language, our first abstractions are, in fact, given to us already made; as we learn to give the same name to various individuals pre- sented to us under slight, and at first unnoticed circumstances of distinction. The name is thus applied to different objects long before we learn to analyze the growing powers of speech and thought, to ask What we mean by each several instance of its application, and to cor- rect and fix the significance of words at firsts 4?2 INTELLECTUAL EDUCATION used vaguely and obscurely." The association of the conceptions as dependent upon an obser- vation of resemblance, has been called intuitive generalization ; since it does not consciously follow any process of abstraction, because, from the failure of the undeveloped mind to notice distinctions and differences, no such process is needed for the purpose. For example, a child sees a book for the first time, and learns its name, book; now, on seeing another book, how- ever different from the first in size, color, etc.. he invariably applies to it the term book, by the perception of analogy leading on to intuitive generalization. Common names are, therefore, first learned, and particular or proper nanus only given to such objects as are constantly pre- sented to the mind ; since, by being thus more intimately known, their distinctive peculiarities are more clearly discerned, this discernment leading to an individualization, as the next Btep in the growth or development of the mind. The operation of the sense of analogy is seen in the use of figurative, or more definitely, tropical language ; and its rudimental character is illus- trated by the fact that children and savages are particularly prone to the use of this language. Indeed, as before remarked, it is one of the most intense mental pleasures of the child to trace analogies in objects of considerable diversity in general appearance, and to apply such meta- phorical terms as will forcibly express them. This again adds very greatly to a child's power of expression, since, without the perception of these analogies in objects, every variation would require some specific term, metaphorical names ceasing to have any meaning whatever. This characteristic of a chilli's mind gives to the in- telligent teacher considerable resources for il- lustration, particularly in the use of words and their application to the objects which they rep- resent. Thus, the term cape would be much better understood if its exact literal import were explained, and the analogy exhibited between the head and a cape, or headland. It is unfort- unate that SO few compound or derivative words in English are formed from the simple words of the language itself, and that recourse has been had to BO great an extent to the LatlH and Greek languages for a supply of such roots: since, in consequence of this, most of the words of the language are necessarily taught as arbi- tr.iiy terms, which, otherwise, would be the means of stimulating mental activity in the Learner. A striking contrast has very often been made, in this respect, between the English and German languages, such terms as Regenschirm (umbrella), Sonnenschirm (parasol), aandschuh (glove), Fingerhui (thimble), rinsinigeti (absorb), afurchsichtig (transparent), etc., illustrating very clearly the tact referred to. This peculiarity of a language, in drawing almost exclusively from its own primitive words the materials for the construction of complex epithets, is also \er\ prominent in the < Ireek language, and constitutes one of its excellencies. Where it exists, it must afford great facility in education, and must form the basis for processes which are impracticable where a language, such as the English, is to be employed, which derives nearly all of itsabstract and scientific terms from languages not merely foreign but entirely out of use. The growth of mind in its relation to language has been here dwelt upon at some length because of its im- portance as a source of practical knowledge to every teacher who makes the study of mind the basis of his operations. Arbitrary rules may be laid down, and applied ; but the scientific teacher who investigates the foundation of these rules in the principles of intellectual science will best know how to adopt his methods to the diversified exigencies of his work. Association as an ele- mentary function of mind, is dependent upon a variety of circumstances other than those enu- merated; as time, place, cause and effect, and design. These are, however, of secondary im- portance for the study of the educator. — The peculiar functions of the representative faculties, memory and imagination should receive a care- ful study, since they underlie many of the most important processes which he is called upon to direct. (See Imagination, and Memory.) The elab- orative faculties, comparison, abstraction, and generalization, have already been referred to in illation to the rudimental stage of their opera- tion; in the higher grades of instruction, they find constant exercise in the studies of mathematics and natural science, which form a part of the cur- riculum of eveiy high school, college, and univer- sity. Judgment and reason pass through a grada- tion of development from the most elementary to the highest stages of education. — Such is the field which a discussion of the principles of intellectual education embraces. In the practical application of these principles, the teacher is to be guided not only by a knowledge of the general functions of mind and their development, but by all the pecu- liarities of individual endowment which he may be able to discern. (See I Hakai her, Discernment ■ I . He is to permit the mind to expand by its i>\\ n intrinsic activities, only interposing restrain- ing or stimulating agencies when and where he finds a tendency to abnormal or morbid growth. There are, however, special methods of opera- tion in intellectual education, partaking more of a positive character, by means of which the teacher is directly to impart knowledge — to communicate information ; and, thus, is opened up a consideration nol only of the mind to be cultivated, but of the branches of knowledge to be taught, in relation to the several faculties which they tend to cultivate. (See [nsTBUCTION.) In this connection, and by the use of the Same guiding principles, the proper order of presenting these studies must be considered and ascertained, this order being correlated with the natural order in which the intellectual faculties are developed. (See Ooubsb of Instruction.) The final result of this department of education should be. to enable the individual, in all the circumstances of life, to exercise with efficiency and address the various intellectual faculties with which he hafl been endowed. (See OuLTUBE.) INTEREST IOWA 473 INTEREST. To awaken an interest on the part of the pupils in the subjects of instruc- tion should always In- a prominent object of the teacher's efforts, since it is an indispensable con- dition of all true success. Antecedently, the TOUng pupil feels QO interest in the school studies: he neither appreciates their importance nor has any desire to acquire a knowledge of the subjects of which they treat. But the skillful teacher knows how to stimulate curiosity, and to impress Upon the mind of the pupil the idea that he is acquiring knowledge, and thus to awaken an interest in the processes of instruction. When these processes are appropriate and natural, the pupil's interest is easily sustained ; and it will be generally found that a flagging interest is due either to previous defective training or to the endeavor to teach subjects for which the pupil's mind is not prepared. It is a psychological axiom that the mind has no less appetite for knowledge of the right kind, than exists physic- ally for proper food to nourish the body. It is, therefore, the office of educational science to de- termine the kind of mental food proper for every age. and how it should be prepared so as to stimulate, while it satisfies, the mental appetite. There should also be individual adaptation, the teacher giving whatever attention may be neces- sary to the special inclinations, tastes, and capaci- ties of his pupils. (See Attention.) INTERMEDIATE SCHOOLS are schools 'of a grade between primary schools and grammar schools, or between elementary schools and high schools. Such schools generally constitute an important part of the graded school system. Schools of a grade between elementary schools (in German. Elementarschide), and colleges and universities, are often called middle schools (Ger- man. Mittelschule). INTERROGATION, or the Interrogative Method, is an indispensable means of conducting most processes of instruction, particularly those of an elementary grade. Its office is either (1) tentative, or (2) illustrative. As a tentative process, the teacher uses it to determine the quantity and the quality of the knowledge which the pupil has attained. Thus, in hearing recita- tions, the teacher, by means of questions, ascer- tains how much of the lesson previously assigned, the pupil has learned, and with what accuracy it has been learned ; and on the kind of questions asked, as well as on the manner of asking them, depends the degree of skill and effectiveness of this important part of the teacher's work. The same is true, also, of the conducting of exami- nations by school inspectors or superintendents. The process of questioning is also tentative when used as preliminary to a course of instruction, in order to determine the amount of information, or the kind of ideas, already acquired by the pupil, either directly relating to the subject or remotely connected with it, and constituting the elementary conceptions upon which it is to be based. Instruction on every subject needs such preliminary questioning. — Interrogation is illus- trative when it is used as a direct means of in- struction, in order to induce the pupil to combine his ideas in such a way that he may be led to a clear conception of the truth. This was the proc- ess used by Socrates in giving instruction : and heiiee.it is often called theSocratie method. Great skill can be exercised by the teacher in the use of interrogation for this purpose : indeed, the art of questioning (catechetics) becomes a special de- partment of the work of teaching, and has been so treated. Rules can scarcely be given for its attainment ; but it may briefly be said that it depends upon (1) a thorough training of the analytic faculty of the teacher, (2) such a minute and accurate knowledge of the subject to be taught as will enable him to resolve it into its elementary principles, (3) a full appreciation of the pupils condition of mind, both as to ca- pacity and degree of attainment, and (4) sufficient practice in interrogation to produce facility in framing questions of every kind and form. Where these conditions exist, the questions asked will be an effective means of making every subject clear to the learner's mind. (See Catechetical Method.) INTUITIVE METHOD. See Object Teaching, and Pestalozzi. IOWA, originally a part of the vast Louisiana purchase of 1803, was included in the territory of Iowa, organized in 1838, which extended math from the state of Missouri to the British line, and was bounded on the east and west, respectively, by the Mississippi and Missouri rivers. It was admitted into the Union, with its present limits, in 1846. Its area is 55,045 square miles ; and its population, in 1870. was 1.194,020; but, in 1873, it was reported as 1,251,333. Educational History. — In 1833, the date of the first permanent settlement of Dubuque, a school-house was built in that towm, which, it is claimed, was the first built in the state. It was erected by funds contributed by the enterprising lead-miners. During the next six years, other schools were opened in various parts of the state. In 1839, the territorial legislature passed a law for the establishment of public schools, provid- ing that "there shall be established a common school, or schools, in each of the counties of the territory, which shall be open and free for every class of white citizens between the ages of 5 and 21 years." It also provided for the formation of school districts, each to be governed by a board of three trustees, whose duties were to ex- amine and employ teachers, superintend the schools, and collect and disburse the school I moneys. In 1840, the legislative assembly en- i acted a much more comprehensive law for the establishment of a common-school system, mak- ing ample provision for free public schools. In the U.S. census of 1840, very few schools, either private or public, were reported : an academy, in Scott county, with 25 pupils, and 03 common schools, with 1,500 pupils. In Jan., 1841, the office of superintendent of public instruction was created ; and Dr. William Reynolds, a teacher at Iowa City, was appointed to the place. The, 474 IOWA office was, however, abolished Febr. 17., 1842 ; but, by the first constitution of Iowa, the general assembly was required to provide for the election of a superintendent of public instruction, who should hold office for three years. Since that time, the office has been filled successively by the following state superintendents:— 3 axae& Har- lan, from 18-47 — 8 ; Thomas H. Benton, Jr., from 1848 — 54; James D. Kails, from 1854 — 7; Joseph C. Stone, for one month ; Maturin L. Fisher, from June 1857 to Dec. 1858, when the state board of education abolished the office, assigning its duties to the secretary of the board. Thomas H. Benton, Jr., was elected secretary, and served till 1863, when he resigned to enter the U. S. military service. During a portion of that year, the duties of the office were performed by H. A. W iltse, who was succeeded, in 1863, by Oran Faville. The office of superintendent of public instruction was revived March 23., L864, and Oran Faville was elected to th • position, in which he remained till March 1.. L867. His suc- cessors were D. Franklin Wells, from March, ] 867, till his decease, in Nov. 1868; Abraham S. Kissed, from Jan. L869 to Jan. 1., 1872; and Alonzo Abernethy, from Jan. 1., 1872 to the present time (1876). When Iowa was admitted into the Union, it contained about 400 school districts. The number, however, rapidly imreas- e 1, amounting, in 1 8 19, to 1,000, and in 1850, to 1.200. In 1857, the state board of education as- sumed control of the educational interests of the state. The number of school districts, at that time, had increased to 3,265; but, difficulties having arisen in the practical working of the system, an act was passed in 1858, by which the school districts were made co-extensive witli the civil townships, and "each incorporated city or town, including the territory annexed thereto for school purposes, and which contains not less than L000 inhabitants," was created a separate school district. The number of districts was thus reduced to less than '.'00. By this arrange- ment, although it met with considerable opposi- tions, the system was rendered less complex, and there was a saving of 831,000 in the expendi- tures. In 1858, a law was enacted, providing that any city or incorporated town, including th • territory annexed thereto for school purpo might constitute a school district, by vote of a majority of the electors residing (herein. In 1860, this was extended to unincorporated towns and villages of not less than 300 inhabitants ; and, in L866, to any city or sub-district contain- ing not less than 200. Xoi withstanding the dissatisfaction caused by the sub-district system, ■which led to special legislation in 1867 and 1872, the system was not abandoned; and. cording to tic report of State Superintendent Abernethy, for 1ST."., from April, 1^72. to Sept. L5., 1st:;, L19 district townships, containing 901 sub-districts, were reported as having completed ii I 'pendent organizations. From Sept., L873,to a., L875, about L 60 additional district town- ships adopted the independent district system. thus increasing the number of independent dis- tricts by more than 1,000. The state board of education, provided for by the constitution adopted Sept., Ib57, consisted of the governor, lieutenant governor, and one member elected from each judicial district in the state. The term of office was four years, and the lieutenant gov- ernor was the president of the board. To this body were committed the entire interests of the common school system. The first board was elected Oct 12., 1858. In 1864, the General As- sembly abolished the board, and reorganized the school system. Subsequent legislation also modi- fied it in some particulars. School System. — The system, at present, is ad- ministered by the following officers : (1) a stute superintendent, elected for two years; (2) county superintendents, also elected for two years; (3) township boards of directors, con- sisting of three or more sub-directors for each township, who have the management of the township school fund; and {■[) a sub-director for each sub-district, for the local management of the school. By the school law of 1874, the county superintendent is required to visit each school in the county at least once in each term, spending one half day at each visit. In order to systematize and preserve the results of these visitations, the state superintendent furnishes each county superintendent with a blank con- taining the subjects most important to be in- quired into; and these blanks when filled af- ford information to be incorporated in the state superintendents annual report. These subjects are. (1 ) the condition of the Bchool-houses, furni- ture, and out-buildings ; (2) the discipline and classification of the school, and the mode of con- ducting recitations; and (3) the form and mode of keeping the daily register. The county super- intendent is empowered to examine applicants for teachers' certificates and to issue the same to those found qualified to teach orthography, read- ing, writing, arithmetic, geography, and English grammar, upon satisfactory evidence of their -^oil moral character. The number of applicants thus examined in 1875, was 20,195; and the number of certificates awarded was 16.452; of which 4,797 were of the 1st grade ; 7,959, of the second : 3,333, of the 3rd; and 363, professional certificates. The school - is derived from several sources: (I) A teachers' fund ; (11) A school- house found ; (III) A contingent fund. — 1. The hers' fund is derived from. (1) the interest on the permanent school fund of the state, ac- cruing from the sale of school lands appropriated by Congress for this purpose; (2) a county school tax of not less than one mill nor more than three mills on the dollar, levied by the board of supervisors on the taxable property of the county; (3) such additional tax on the property of the district, determined by the boards of directors, as may be needed to support the schools for six months or longer, if so determined. II. The school-house fund is derived from a tax for the purpose of purchasing sites and erecting school houses. 111. The contingent fund is ob- IOWA 475 tained by a tax, determined by the board of direc- I tors, sufficient to provide for pent, fuel, repairs, and all other current expenses required to keep the school in operation. The permanent school fund is derived from the following sources: (1) Five percent upon the net proceeds of the public lands of the state; (2 1 The proceeds of the sales of 500,000 acres of land granted by act of Congress, Sept. -I.. 1841; (3) The pro- ceeds of all sales of intestate estates, which escheat to the state; (4) The proceeds of the sales of the sixteenth section in each township, or lands selected in lieu thereof. The aggregate amount of the permanent fund, in L875, was $3,098,497. The school moneys are distributed among the districts in proportion to the number of children of school age — between 5 and 2L years tv-i ling therein. Educational Condition. — According to the report of the state superintendent for 1874—5, there were in the state 1,134 district townships, comprising 7,062 sub-districts; and 2,536 inde- p indent districts, thus making, in all, 3,(170 school districts in the state. The whole number of common schools was 0,610, of which only 407 were graded schools. The average time of keep- ing school during the year was 6.8 months. Other items of statistics are given below : No. of children of school age, males, 274,849 females, 258,722 Number of children enrolled, Average daily attendance, Number of teachers, Total, males, (5,500 females, 11,645 ;,, n ,:;,;,7i 3S4,012 225,415 Total, 18,145 Average monthly compensation, males, $36.68 females, $'2<.:;t Receipts, $5,035,497.65 Expenditures, for tuition, £2,o98,439.81 " other purposes, 2,007,309.58 Total, $4,C>0.->, 749.39 Normal Instruction. — The establishment of schools for the instruction of teachers has not met, as yet. with the success attained inmost other states. In 1848, a law was passed by which three normal schools were to be estab- lish' 1 in different parts of the state, which was divided into three districts for that purpose. For each district, a board of seven trustees was ap- pointed, with power to provide suitable build- ings, employ teachers, and exercise a general supervision over the schools. The sum of $500 was appropriated annually, to each school for the payment of teachers, the purchase of apparatus, etc., provided the people in each district should subscribe an equal sum for the erection of the buildings. Theexpected pecuniary ail. however, not being furnished, the schools which had been commenced were, in a short time, discontinued. In 1858, a normal department was established in the state university, ami continued until 1872, when it was consolidated, in the main, with the academic department. Since then, a chair of didactics has been maintained in the university for the purpose of affording special instruction to those who may design to become teachers. There is also a normal department in Whittier College, Salem. Normal institutes constitute the chief instru- mentality for the professional improvement of teachers in this state. In 1874, the General As- sembly enacted a law providing for the instruc- tion of teachers by the annual holding of an institute in each county. The provision for the regular instruci ion of teachers ha\ bag thus taken definite shape, and the necessity of uniformity in that instruction having become apparent, a course of study with a daily order of exercises, was prepared by the state superintendent, and was adopted at once. The general interest aroused by these meetings is illustrated by the following statement. In the year 1 ^74, institutes were held in 89 counties ; 35 continued in ses- sion 4 weeks ; 2C>, 3 weeks : 'JO. 2 weeks ; and 8, one week. Although attention on the part of teachers was voluntary, the number present amounted to 7,000. In 1875. it was still larger. The funds requisite to defray the expenses of these institutes are, in the main, contributed by the teachers themselves, being derived, (1) from the fee of one dollar paid by each person on receiving a teacher's certificate, (2) from the reg- istration fee of one dollar at the institute, and (3) from the state appropriation of $50 for each institute. The sum obtained from these sources has, in some cases, been augmented by limited county appropriations. Secondary Instruction. — In 1858, a law was passed, providing that the board of presidents of school districts in any county might determine wdiether a county high school should be estab- lished, and required them, if they determined to establish such school, to elect nine trustees who, together with the county superintendent, should constitute a board of high- school trustees, with power to lease or erect a building, and take entire charge of it ; also to draw from the county treasury $3000 a year for six years, and $1000 annually thereafter, for the maintenance of such school. This provision, however, though earnestly advocated by some, was not taken ad- vantage of, the majority considering it prema- ture in respect to both the wants of the state and its financial ability. Only one school, that at Albion, was established under this law. 'lie's was continued about two years, when the funds expected from the state treasury not being sup- plied, it was discontinued, and the building was sold. Two attempts have since been made to re-enact this law in its essential features, but without success. In 1*74. the people of Guthrie county decided to establish a high school, and this, according to the present state superintend- ent (1876), will soon be ill operation. In the state superintendent's report for 1875, there are included returns from 112 private academies, seminaries, high schools, business col- leges, select schools, etc.. which show an enroll- ment of 10,757 pupils, taught by '<1 i instructors. In the preparatory schools of the various colleges of the state, there are about 3,000 students, pur- 476 IOWA IOWA STATE UNIVERSITY suing the usual branches assigned for secondary institutions. Superior Instruction. — The Iowa State Uni- versity (q-v.), at Iowa City, is the principal in- stitution for superior instruction, endowed or aided by the state. Other institutions of this grade and character are included in the follow- ing table : NAME Location When found ed Religious [enomina- tion Burlington University... Central Univ. of Iowa Burlington Mt. Vernon PeUa Mt. Pleasant Humboldt (iriunell Mt. Pleasant Decorah Oskaloosa Oskaloosa Indianola Tabor Fayette Des Moines Salem West. Coll. 1852 1867 1854 1873 lSC'.l 1848 1855 1861 1856 1873 Baptist M. Epis. Baptist M. Epis. Iowa Wesleyan University Norwegian Lutheran Coll. Penn College Non-sect. Congreg. M. Epis. Lutheran Christian Friends Simpson Centenary Coll. . Tabor College Upper Iowa University. . . University of Des Moines Whittier College 1867 |M. Epis. 1866 'Cougreg. 1855 M. Epis. 1866 Baptist 1868 Friends 1856 U. Breth. Technical and Professional Instruction. — The State Agricultural ( 'ollege, at Ames, is en- dowed with the proceeds of the congressional land grant. Two experiments have been made in this institution, and are considered success- ful: the union of manual labor with intellectual development, and the co-education of the sexes. The course of instruction is for four years, and comprises civil, mechanical, and mining en- gineering, agriculture, horticulture, stock raising. architecture, military tactics. and general science and literature. The institutions of this class, for theological instruction, are the Theological Department of Iowa Wesleyan University, the German Presbyterian Theological School of the North-west, and the Swedish Lutheran Mission Institute. The law schools of the state consist of the law departments, respectively, of the state university, the Iowa Wesleyan University, and Simpson Centenary College. The chief medical schools are the medical department of the state university, and the < 'ollege of Physicians and Surgeons, at Keokuk. Special Instruction. — The chief institutions for special instruction are the Iowa Institution for the Education of the Deaf and Dumb,a1 I 'ouncil Bluffs, and the Iowa Stale < 'ollege tor the Blind. at Vinton. Besides these, there are two state reform schools, one at Kldora and the other at Salem. At Davenport and at Cedar Palls, there is a state soldiers' orphan home. "Educational Journals. - The first publica- tion in Iowa devoted to the interests of schools w;ls a monthly, commenced at Dubuque, in January, L853, under the title of the District School journal of Education for the State of Iowa. This name was afterwards changed to The Iowa Journal of Education. It was sus- pendedinl856. In January, L857, a monthly entitled The Voice of Iowa was commenced at C,il; ir Rapids, and was made the organ of t In- state teachers' association. It was, however, soon suspended. The Literary Advertiser and Public School Advocate was published from May. Is59, to October, 1860. In July of the latter year. The Iowa School Journals monthly of 16 pages. was started at I >es Moines, and has been continued up to the present time (1876). An important in- fluence is attributed to it in connection with the schools and educational system of the state. The Iowa Instructor was commenced in ls5!) ; after- wards united with the Journal, and. in 1872, consolidated with The Manual, a monthly, com- menced August 1., 1871. In January. 1S74, Tlie Common School was started at Davenport, but in 1875, it was united with the Iowa School Journal. IOWA COLLEGE, at Grinnell, Iowa, was established at Davenport, in 1847, and was re- moved to Grinnell in 1860. It was founded by Congregationalists and Presbyterians (who with- drew in 1852), but is without any sectarian or ec- clesiastical control. Its productive funds amount to about $90,000. It has libraries containing about 6,000 volumes, a museum of natural his- tory, chemical, philosophical, and astronomical apparatus, etc The cost of tuition ranges from $15 to $22 per year, with music, drawing, and painting as extras. Aid is furnished to needy students. The studies are arranged in the follow- ing departments: (1) Normal and Knglish de- partment, furnishing all " English studies." or preparation for teaching; (2) Academy course, of two years, preparatory to the College and Ladies' courses ; (3) Ladies' course, of four years, chiefly consisting of college studies, like that of the best Eastern seminaries; (1) College course, of four, years, for both sexes. This is either classical orsci- entitic.each including modern languages, and the latter, some post graduate studies. — In L875- 6, there were IT instructors and 4 lecturers (in all the dej >a ft ments) , and H37 students : post-gradu- ate 4; college course. 45 : ladies' course, 40 : acad- emy course, 1^8; normal and English depart- lneiit. 171. Seventeen states and forty count ic- of Iowa were represented by its students in 1-75, and there is an increasing attendance from the eastern and middle states. The Rev. George P. Magoun, D.D., the present incumbent, appointed in i 862, has been the only president. IOWA, State "University of, at Iowa City, was chartered in L857,and organized in I860. It is noti sectarian. It has productive funds to the amount of Sl'L'O.OOO : and the value of its build* ings, grounds, and apparatus is 8250,000. Bi- ennial appropriations are made by the legislature. It has an astronomical observatory, laboratory, and cabinets. The college library contains be- tween 6,000 and 7,000 volumes ; the law library, 2, 500 volumes. The academical department, he- sides preparatory classes, has four regular courses; namely, classical, leading to the degree of Bach- elor of Arts: philosophical and scientific, leading to the degree of Uachelorof Philosophy: and/-/ Schools (District and Minor), which are wholly built and supported by parliament, are under the exclusive management of the board, ami are intended to promote united edu- cation, to exhibit the most improved methods of instruction, and to educate young persons for the office of teacher; Agricultural Schools, with farms and gardens, which are devoted to the illustration and introduction of the most ap- proved systems of husbandry and tillage, and which are divided into four classes: (I) First Class Agricultural Schools, subdivided into (1) those under the management of the board, and (2) those under local management; (II) Or- dinary Schools, subdivided into (3) those with farms, and (1) those with gardens; Cont Schools, which receive aid as Non- Vested Scho (la, and in which the members of the com- munity may a t as literary teachers; Work-ho Schools, an 1 Schools ait i tied to prisons, asylums, etc. School houses are not to be employed as the Stated places of divine worship of any relig- ious community, nor for the transaction of any political business ; and no emblems of dei - mational ch ir i iter are to be exhibited in them during the h >ura of united instruction, [n Vested Schools, such pastors or other persons as shall be approved of by the guardians of the children, shall have access to them in the school room for the purpose of giving them instruction there: in Non-Vested Schools, it is for the patrons and managers to determine what religious Instruc- tion Email he given in the school room. The Eat ions and managers of all National Schools ave the rigtri to permit the Holy Scriptures (either in the authorized or in the Pouay version) to be read at the times set apart for religious in- struction. — The local government of the schools is vested in local patrons or managers, who can appoint and dismiss teachers, under certain re- strictions. Inspectors visit their schools at least three times a year, communicate to the local managers their criticisms and suggestions, and report fully the results of their inspection to the Hoard. All National-School teachers are divided into the following classes : principals, assistants, junior literary assistants, work-mistresses, and teachers of industrial departments. There an; also three classes of Monitors, whose term of service is three years, and whose rate of compi li- gation ranees from £4 to £18 per annum. — 'I he only training establishment for teachers hi con- nection with the Board is the Institution, in .Marlborough Street. Dublin, which was opened January L5., 1838. It is capable of accommodat- ing about 100 masters and 75 mistresses, who are divided into three classes : (1) the Cencral or Ordinary Class, composed of teachers of National Schools, who have been recommended by the in- spectors ; (2) the Special or Extra Training (lass composed chiefly of teachers who have been selected from the General Class for additional training; and (3) the Extra Class, composed of a limited number of respectable and well-informed young persons who wish to qualify themselves to ing are allowed their traveling expenses, are provided with free board and lodging, receive a small weekly gratuity, and also their class salary subject to a deduction of £15 per annum for a substitute. Teachers are classified of the 1st, 2d, and 3d class, and promotion from one to the other is regulated partly by examination, and partly by the efficiency of their schools. Male teachers of the 1st class receive £58 a year: of the 3d class, £32. Female teachers of the 1st receive £48; and of the 3d class, £25. The National School Teachers Act (1875) was de- signed to supplement the incomes of the teach- ers by granting state aid corresponding to local contributions. The latter, however, only amount- ed to £32,055 instead of £60,000, as was con- templated. National teachers receive, in addition to their class salaries, the total amount of results' fees earned in the schools, which are paid accord- ing to a fixed programme. Thus for children i I to 6 years of age) who know the alphabet, and can spell and read words of two letters, the fee is 3s. each; for reading in the First Class, 2s^ etc. The whole number of classes is six. besides the infants' class. These classes arc Dumbei I from I upward to 6, the 5th and 6th being each divided into a first and a second stage. The com- mon branches of instruction, including grammar, rraphy, and needle-work, are taught. Educational Condition (National System). — ■ On the elst of December, L875, there were 7,267 National Schools in operation (Ulster, 2.7.'i~ ; Munster, 1,822; Leinster, L,551 ; Connaught, 1,157). The Vested Schools numbered 2,105; the Non-Vested, 5,162. The number of chil- dren who attended sonic part of the year ]H7.">, IRELAND 4TU was 1.011,700; the number on the rolls, on the Last day of the month immediately preceding the animal examination, was 577,54] ; and the average daily attendance was 389,961. Of the children taught during the year. 79.2 per cent were Roman Catholic children. The Model Softools, in operation during' L875, were 29: in Dublin, 3; and. in other parts of the coun- try. 2(>. The average attendance of pupils was 8,229, out of an enrollment of 16,601, in- cluding 4,989 Catholics, 4,7-17 Presbyterians, 5,673 Episcopalians, and 1,282 of other persua- sions. The number of Work-house Schools un- der the board was L 56, with L3.835 pupils en- rolled, and an average daily attendance of 7,14.'!. The total number of students admitted into the Training Establishment was 294, of whom 150 completed their training within the year. — The number of teachers under the board was as fol- lows : principals, 7,067 (males, 4,371; females, 12 .»'»'. 1 1 1 j ; assistants, 3,037 (males, 713; females, 2,324) ; junior literary and industrial assistants, 177 : work-mistresses, 325. The total amount of payments to teachers of every kind made from all sources during the year ending March 31., 1870, was £491.00 1.4s. The entire sum locally contrib- uted for education, in 1875, was £H4,8G0, 4s. 9d. In 1875, there were 21 First-Class Agricultural Schools, under the exclusive management of the board, and 11 under local management. The num- ber of school farms was 228. — In 1874 — 5, the evening schools numbered 138, with 10,343 pu- pils on the rolls, and 4,250 in average attendance. There were 22 industrial schools, with 1,565 pu- pils enrolled, and 1,307 in average attendance. Other Educational Agencies. — The Church Education Society, founded in Dublin, in 1839, as a protest against the National School Board, for a time gathered in a large number of pupils. In 1867, it had 1,451 schools, with 63,549 pupils. Since then, these numbers have declined ; many of its schools have been transferred to Diocesan Educational Boards. The Kildare- Place training and model schools are usually attended by about 50 students, males and females. — The lustitute of Christian Brothers (It. C.) founded in Water- ford, in 1802, for the education of poor children, in 1876, had 291 schools, and 31,878 pupils en- rolled. The Incorporated Society in Dublin for promoting English Protestant schools in Ireland holds a large amount of landed and other prop- erty, having an income of £8,000 a year. It has 8 boarding institutions, G for boys and 2 for girls, besides 10 day schools. — The other classes of schools named in the Commissioners' Report of 1868 are: Irish Church Mission, attended by 1,726 pupils; Island and Coast Society, by L59; Wesleyan, by 720; Presbyterian, by 409; Society of Friends, by 117; Religious Orders of .Mens •ols, by 706; Miscellaneous, by 954. The total number of private schools was 1,165, of which 690 were assisted by endowments. — The Sunday School Society for Inland was founded in 1809. On the 1st of January, L876, there were, in connection with it, 2,342 schools, attended by 184,580 scholars, and 10,500 gratuitous teachers. Secondary and Superior Instruction. — The chief educational institution is the University of Trinity College, in Dublin, founded in 1501. In. its original charter, Queen Elizabeth nominated a provost, three fellows, and three scholars, to constitute, with their successors a body corpo- rate. The number of members has since then been increased; and, in 1876, consisted of a provost. 7 senior fellows, 26 junior fellows, and 70 scholars. The system of instruction is super- intended by the fellows, together with a number of professors (35, in 1876). Students, after an examination in Creek, Latin, arithmetic, English composition, history, and geography, are ad- mitted as fellow commoners, pensioners, or sizars, which last class is limited to 30. and is partially maintained out of the college funds. The courso of instruction extends over four years. A med- ical school is attached to the university, to which lias lately been added a school of engineering. The college has a library of 160,000 volumes; and its income, in 1873, was £01.321. The average number of students on the books of Trinity * 'ollege is 1 ,100.— In 1845, an act was passed by Parliament for establishing new col- leges in Ireland, and three colleges, called Queen's Colleges were, in 1849, established under t Iii.-i act, — at Belfast, Cork, and Calway. In 1850, the Queen's University in Ireland was founded at Dublin, with power to confer degrees on the students of the three Queen's Colleges. The number of students attending the colleges, iu ls74 — 5, was 783. — The Roman Catholic uni- versity of Dublin was organized by the Catholic bishops of Ireland, in 185-4, and depends for its maintenance wholly upon the voluntary con- tributions of the Roman Catholic people of Ireland. It has five faculties, — theology, law, medicine, philosophy and science, and letters. A number of Catholic colleges have been affiliated with the university. — A Presbyterian institu- tion, Magee College, was opened in Londonderry, in 18G5 ; a Methodist College, in Belfast, in 1868. Special ami Professional Instruction. — The Royal College of Science for Ireland was estab- lished in 1867, and is intended to supply a com- plete course of instruction in mining, agriculture, engineering, and manufactures. — Maynooth < 'ol- lege, a Catholic seminary for candidates for the 1 hood, was founded in 1705. .Ml Hallows College, near Dublin, is intended to train mis- sionaries for tin; Catholic Church. The Pres- | : I ©logical school (the Ceneral ■iubly's Colic; i elfast. — The higher edu- m of women, in Ireland, has been neglected; but recently, amongst otl Following Ld tutions have been established: The Queen's In- stitute, Dublin, opened, in 1861, "for the employ- ment of educated women." the educational classes being modeled on those of Cheltenham < 'ollege: Alexandra College. Dublin, on the plan of Queen's College, London; and the Ladies' Col- legiate School, Belfast, opened in 1850. Trinity College, Dublin, and Queen's C diversity hold examinations for girls aud women. 480 ITALIAN LANGUAGE ITALIAN LANGUAGE. The Italian language has no claims commensurate with those of the German or the French, to a place in any regular course of instruction the object of which is general culture, and which, to that end, embraces the study of one or two modern languages. Its value for this purpose has not, however, been without advocates. Thus L. Gantter, the author of the article on the Italian language, in Schmid's Encyclopadie (vol. in.) , in discussing the relative importance of the principal modern languages for the German gymnasia, from an educational point of view, assigns the first place to English, the second to Italian, and the third to French ; and he appeals to Goethe, Niebuhr, Raumer, Gregorovius, and many other celebrities, to prove that the educational impulse which may reason- ably be expected from a study of the Italian language and literature, would prove stronger and more conducive to a general development of the mental faculties than that received from the study of French. This view, however, has found but few adherents ; and, except in Aus- tria, where, from practical and business consii 1< r- ations, the study of Italian is more extensively pursued than in any other country, precedence in the study of modern languages is given to English, German, and French. Italian has, how- ever, special importance for all students of music, vocal and instrumental, as well as for students of the fine arts. Music, in every country of the world, uses to a large extent technical expres- sions borrowed from the Italian; the Italian opera is exceedingly popular in every large city of the civilized world, and there is no student of the fine arts who is not anxious to complete his study of art in Italy. These considerations have not only created a demand for instruction in Italian, but they are sufficiently important to recom- mend to students of music and of the fine arts a much more general study of this beautiful language than is to be met with at present ; and it is to be regretted that universities, colleges, acai lei nies, and especially female institutions of a higher grade, do not, more frequently than is the case at present, afford to their pupils an op- portunity to learn this language. The Italian language is one of the so-called Romanic languages (q. v.), and arose fi-om the Latin in a way similar to that of the French. The new language was designated, to distinguish it from the Latin, lingua vulgaris [vdlgan i.and fri at ly varied in different parts of the country. tante, in his work De vulgnri eloquio, enumer- ated fourteen dialects, all of which, the Floren- tine not excepted, he declared to l>e ansuited for the literature of Italy. The written language was in the main fixed, as it now is, by Dante, Petrarch, and Boccaccio,— all Tuscans and Flor- entines; and Italian literature attained its golden age at an earlier period than any other literature 01 i lern Europe. The Italian language is spoken by almost the entire population 01 the kingdom of [taly, in the two little states of Mo- naco and San Marino, on the island of Corsica, in the Swiss canton of Ticino, and several com- munes of the cantons Grisons and Yalais, in the southern part of the Tyrol, in Triest and other cit- ies of Istria and Dalmatia, and in the Hungarian free city of Fiume. The entire territory in which the language is spoken contains, probably, a pop- ulation of about 28 millions. The Italian language is celebrated for its eu- phony, though many linguists prefer the Span- ish in this respect. 1 he smooth and melodious character of the former is due, to a large extent, to an extraordinary predominance of vowels, every indigenous word of the language, with the excep- tion of only five (il,in, am. -non, per) , ending in a vowel sound. This euphony is somewhat marred by the exuberance of the vowel i, which, in the ter- mination of Italian words, has outgrown all just proportions — as much so as the German e. The pronunciation is very simple, as almost every sound is represented by only one letter or combi- nation of letters. It has no silent letters, and each of the vowels has only one sound, long or short ; these sounds, in the main, correspond to those of the German vowels. The letters k, w, y, and x are not found in the Italian alphabet ; and for the ph and th, occurring in the words of Greek origin, it has substituted the letters/" and t. Like the French, it has lost the case-endings in the declension of nouns, and has introduced from the language of the Teutonic conquerors the def- inite article, the use of the personal pronoun be- fore the verb, and the auxiliary verb. It exceeds the French in the richness of its augmentatives and diminutives, in the greater varieties of the accents which may affect one of the last four syl- lables of the word, in its greater freedom of in- version, and in its freer and bolder phraseology. In a lexical point of view, the Italian bears a more striking resemblance, than either French, Spanish, or Portuguese, to the common mother of these languages, the Latin. The special motives which, in a majority of cases, led to a study of this language, naturally Buggest a method of instruction different from that pursued in the teaching of French and Ger- man. The beauty of the language, which is re- jected in its structure and pronunciation, and which is so intimately connected with the lofty position which Italian art has attained in the history of civilization, should be pointed out with special care. Exercises in grammar and translation will require comparatively little at- tention; for not only is the structure of the language unusually simple and easy, but its st'.dv is hardly ever begun until, in addition to the vernacular, the knowledge of some other language has been acquired. All the greater prominence, on the other hand, should be given to the practice of conversation ; for only in this way will the pupil fully realize the superiority of the language in point of beauty and eu- phony, and prepare himself for a visit to the country which, more than any other, captivates the affections of every artist. The literature of Italy scarcely admits of a comparison with thai of Germany or France; but the golden age of Italian literature presents names which ITALIAN LANGUAGE ITALY -isi will never fail to recommend the study of the Italian language to advanced scholars. Dante ranks wit li Homer, Virgil, Milton, and Goethe, as one of the greatest poets of the world, whom all civilized nations will always ad- mire ; and Italian would be studied, if it were only to read the Hi rum Commedia. And l>ante is by no means the only great represent- ative of Italian literature. Jn the middle ages. Italy stood for a time at the head of modern civilization (see Italy) : and, though it has been unable to maintain this place, the literary world will never cease to admire Petrarch, Boccaccio Ariosto, Tasso, and Maechiavelli. As the ability to read this language is acquired by most students in a comparatively short time, and as the interest tlfey take in Italian literature will chiefly center in the great names just men- tioned, the intelligent teacher will, as soon as it is practicable, begin with the reading of one of these authors. As the poets use a great many licenses in the alteration, addition, and omission of sounds, and also a multitude of exclusively poetic words, it is best for the student to be- gin with a prose writer; and Maechiavelli s II Principe or Istorie Florentine, in which the style is as elegant as it is plain, will rarely fail to interest and satisfy him. In the more recent periods of Italian literature, the writers Goldoni, Gozzi. Alfieri, Foscolo, Manzoni, Leopardi, Sil- vio Pellico, Xiccolini have gained a well-deserved celebrity: and especially Manzoni's I Promessi Sposi, and Pellico's Le mie Prigioni have become favorite books of Italian students. The Italians are greatly behind many other nations in the philological study of their lan- guage. Buomniattei's grammar Delhi lingua toscana (1648), which was adopted by the Aeca- demiu della Crusca, only treats of letters, nouns, and articles. The first complete and systematic grammar, which has served as the basis of nearly all modern works, is the Regale ed osservazioni, by Corticelli (1785). In Germany, a good his- torical mammar of the Italian language has been written by Blanc (1844); and, in Italy, Fesavento has recently published a valuable comparative view of Latin and Italian, under the titles Melodo Comparative). In the English language, gram- mars of, and guides to, the Italian language have been published according to Alms, Monteith's, and Ollendorff's methods, and by Biaggi, Cuore, Fontana, Foresti, Sauer, Thiimn, Toscani, Ver- gani, Weale, and others. — Tins lexical literature began with the meager dictionary of Minerbi (1535). The first edition of the famous Vooa- irio degli Accademici della Crusca, limited to the Tuscan dialect, appeared in 1602; the fifth revised edition was begun in 1843. The first dictionary embracing within its scope all the Italian dialects was by Alberti (6 vols., 1797 — 180.")). Other dictionaries of this kind are the Jjizionario della lingua italiana, published at Fologua (7 vols., 1819—26); the works by Mortara, Bellini, Codagni, and Mai- nardi (8 vols., 1845— 56) ; those by Tommaseo and Bellini (1864) ; Carena (12 vols., 1851—3) ; 31 and Trinchera (2 vols., 1864). Italian-English dictionaries have been published by Gragiia, James and Grassi, Meadows, Millhonse, Robert, Weale, Wessely, and others. — There are Italian readers for English-speaking students by Foresti, Roemer, and others.— The principal historians of Italian literature are Tirabosehi (14 vols., 1772 — 83, and many editions since); Guinguene (1811—19); Maffei (1834); Cimoprelli (1845); Emiliano Giudici (1851); Malpaga (1855). ITALY, a kingdom of Europe, having an area of 114,409 square miles, and a population, in 1 870, of 26,801 ,1 54. Almost the entire pop- ulation speak the Italian language, and belong to the Catholic Church. From the downfall of the I Ionian Empire, until 1870, when the annexa- tion of the remnant of the Fa pal dominions completed the modern kingdom of Italy, the country was but rarely, and only for a short time, united under one ruler. Generally, it was broken up into a number of small states, only connected with each other by the bond of a com- mon language. In the congress of Vienna, in 1815, Italy was divided into the kingdoms of Sardinia and the Two Sicilies, the grand-duchy of Tuscany, the duchies of Parma, Modena, and Lucca, the Papal States, and the Lombardo- Yenetian kingdom, the latter remaining with Austria. In 1859, all these states, with the ex- ception of apart of the Fapal States and Venetia, were annexed by the king of Sardinia, who then assumed the title of king of Italy. Venetia was added in 1866, and the Fapal States in 1870. United Italy now occupies the tenth place among the nations of the earth, in regard to population, and the thirtieth in regard to area. Educational History. — After the destruction of the Roman Empire by Odoacer, in 476, edu- cation in Italy was for a long time at a low ebb. The Ostrogoths, who, in 493, overthrew the rule i >f ( kloacer, were the most intelligent among the < Herman tribes, and showed themselves receptive of literary impulses ; but, unfortunately, their rule did not last long enough to test their pro- ductive power in the field of education. Their king, Theodoric the Great, who is said to have spoken four languages, placed at the head of his government one of the greatest scholars of the age, Cassiodorus, who founded a theological school, which was to connect the remnants of the civilization of the 1 tomans and Greeks with ( 'hristian theology, and which served as a model for the theological schools of the middle ages. Having, at the age of 70, retired to the monastery which he had founded, he not only taught the monks to devote themselves to the copying of an- cient manuscripts, but, by arranging the branches of a liberal education into the trivium and //urofessors of normal and secondary schools; it may propose new educational laws to the minister ; it examines text-books, passes judgment on students suspended by their rectors, and presents every five years a report to the minister of instruction, on the condition of all the branches of education. By the law of 1859. three general inspectors were appointed, — one for superior, one for secondary, 484 ITALY and one for primary, Bpecial, and normal in- struction. Each one of the 69 provinces of the kingdom has, for its highest school authority, a school board, consisting of the prefect a- presi- dent, the superintendent as vice-president, and six councilors, two of whom are appointed by the ministry, two by the provincial deputation, and two by the magistrate of the principal city. The members appointed by the elective councils hold their office for three years, but can be re- appointed. They depend upon the prefed who is entrusted with the general direction of all the schools, public as well as private, and upon tbe superintendent of the province, who has the care of all the schools in bis district; while the school hoard enforces the laws and rules relative to the primary, secondary, and normal schools of the province. The board also orders extraordinary inspections of the schools: and. in urgent cases, has the power to close them, but must immedi- ately notify the minister of the fact. Primary Instruction. — Primary instruction is compulsory throughout Italy. according to the law of L859. The school age is from 6 to 14 years; and all parents neglecting to send their children between these ages to school, are liable to a fine. The course oi instruction comprises four years. The schools are composed of a lower and a higher grade, each of two classes. In the former are taught, religion, reading, writing, ill mentary arithmetic, the elements of the metrical ■in. and the Italian language. In the higher grade, in addition to the studies of the lower,are taught composition, penmanship, book-keeping, elementary geography, the national history, and elementary science. Schools of the lower grade, one for boys and one for girls, must be main- tained by every commune. although the minister may give permission for two communes to unite. if they are too poor to support separate schools. Schools of the higher grade must be established in all towns with more than HUM) inhabitants. Communes of less than 500 inhabitants must provide a mixed school for both sexes, if there are 50 children of school age. The school term extends from Oct l"». to Aug. 15. Examina- tlOns both oral and written are held every six months, and are directed by the municipal super- intendent, unless state ollicials interpose. Cer- tificates are granted promoting the candidate-, and prizes are given to the most deserving. The iiersons conducting the examinations are. for the OWer classes, the teachers of the classes, and for the next higher, as well as for the highest grades, the class teachers and two other teachers of the sam< or a lower grade. Religious examinations arc ci mil in -ted by the clergy, but are obligatory for B an < 'atholie children only. Every examiner can add ten marks to the results of the written and oral examinations, on account of the con- duct of the pupil during the year. Six marks con- stitute the standard of approbation. Male teachers musl l" eighteen, and female teachers seventeen year- old. Having passed the necessary exami- nation, they are appointed for three years, and Unless notified six months before the expiration of their term, are considered re-appointed. Teach- er- may punish their scholars by admonition, a note of censure in the school registers, separa- tion from their comrades, or suspension, of which the parents must be informed. Harsh and of- fensive words, corporal punishment, and extra lessons as penalties are forbidden. Suspension for a week or expulsion can be inflicted by the municipal superintendent : but each case of ex- pulsion must be brought to the notice of the mayor, and must be approved by him. The min- imum salaries paid to teachers in cities are 900 and 7(H) lire (! lira = $0.19.3) for the higher and lower grades respectively, and 600 and 500 lire in the country. A fund to provide pen- aions for teachers in their old age has been estab- lished, to which teachers contribute two and one- half percent of their salaries, and from which pensions equal to their salaries, are paid to all who have reached the age of fifty-live, and have taught for thirty years. A pension equal to one- third of their salaries is granted to those who are incapacitated after fifteen years of service. Widows of teachers receive pensions as long as they remain unmarried. A private school may be kept by any citizen who possesses the neces- sary diploma and a certificate of good morals. A written request fur permission to open such a Bchool must be presented toa district school in- spector, who may refuse it. if he sees fit. He has also the power to visit and inspect all pri vat e schools, and make such changes in their arrange- ment as may seem necessary. In urgent cases he can close the schools. No text-books are pre- scribed for pri\ ate schools, but the government can prohibit Buch books as it may deem offensive. Besides the public and private day schools t! are also evening schools for adults of both sexes. and Sunday improvement schools. The number of public day schools, in 1872, was 34,213; of which L 8,243 were for boys : l'_'.T.'!li, for girls; and 3,238, with mixed classes. In addition to these there were 9,167 private day schools, mak- ing the total number of primary schools 43,380. These scl Is are distributed very unequally in the northern and southern portions of Italy. Thus, in the northern province of Novara, there is a school for every 368 inhabitants, and in Tin in one for every 355 inhabitants; while the southern province of Basilicata has only one school for 1,304 inhabitants, and Calabria, one for 1,400. The number of evening schools w;us, in tin same year. 9,809, and of the Sunday im- provement schools, 1,743. Adding these to the 43,380 schools as above, we have about 58,000 Bchools affording primary instruction. The num- ber of pupils in the day Bchools, in the school year lsTI —2, was L ,745,467, of whom 1,553,389 were in the public school-, and 192,078 in the private bc! Is. This number, L,745<476, re- presents the largest attendance during the year, which generally occurs in the beginning of win- ter : during the summer months, the attendance fell off to [,242,053. The number of pupils in the evening schools for adults was 375,947, and in the Sunday improvement schools 153,585. ITALY 485 The Dumber of teachers in the primary Bchools, in L872, was 23,479 males and 20,028 females, making a total of 43,507. In L873, there were 42,1 L8 schools (34,781 public, 7,337 private) with 44,430 teachers (of whom 9,329 wen' priests) and L,797,596 scholars (993,120 boys, and 804,476 girls). In L874, there were 12,920 schools (35,583 public, 7,337 private), with 45,596 teachers (8,927 priests), and 1,836,381 pupils (1,009,020 boysand 827,361 girjs). In 1874, the government spent, for elementary instruction, 232,1 \.2lire; the prov- inces, 129,665 lire; the communes, 22,067,133 lire: and other bodies, 61 1,727 lire. The normal schools are governed by the laws of June 24., L860, and Nov.'.).. L861, and the course of study comprises three years. The first two years are devoted to a preparation for teaching in the lower grades; and. in the last year, the teacher is pre- pared for the higher grades. The course of study comprises religion and morality, pedagogy, the Italian language, exercises in composition, arith- metic. geometry, and book-keeping, the rudiments of natural history and natural philosophy, pen- manship, drawing, music, and the principles of hygiene. For admission to the normal school, boys must have completed their sixteenth, and girls their fifteenth year. A model primary school is connected with almost every normal school, in which on certain days the students of the normal schools are permitted to teach under the direction of the professor of pedagogy. Nor- mal schools are of three classes: those supported (1) by the government, (2) by the provinces, and (3) by private persons. The number of normal schools, in 1872, was L25, of which 48 (23 for boysand 25 for girls) were supported by the state, 21 (11 for boys, 10 for girls), by the provinces, and 56 (13 for boys and 43 for girls) were private institutions. The number of students in the same year was 6,130, and the number of teachers 845. A higher school for girls was founded in 1861 in Milan; as it was found that a large number of girls attended the normal schools without any in- tention of becoming teachers, but with the sole object of receiving a higher education. The favor with which this school was received, and the suc- cess which it met, induced other cities to provide similar schools. The course of study comprises ethics, the Italian language and literature, hy- giene, the natural sciences, geography, history, the French lanirua<>e and literature, arithmetic, book- keeping, penmanship, gymnastics, and needle- work. Besides these studies, which are obligatory for all the schools, some have also introduced the study of German and English. The course of in- struction comprises three years in all the schools except in Milan, where it is four years, in order that more attention may be paid to natural science. The school in .Milan was for a time free; but, as it was seen in other cities that a fee could be required without detriment to the school, a charge of 50 /in- was made, which is the usual fee in the other cities. The conditions of admission are an age of 12 years, graduation from the primary schools, and the passing of an examination. The number of schools, in 1872, was 8; ami the average number of pupils, 50, The largest number (12 1 ) of pupils was in \l ilan, and the lowest number (33), in Padua. Besides these schools, there are other high schools for girls, which hoard either all or a part of their pupils. These schools may he divided into five elapses: (I) Those schools which depend im- mediately upon the government. These are six iii number and board all their pupils. Thecourse of study comprises, besides the studies pursued in the high schools for girls, music, dancing, for- eign languages, etc. (2) Those schools, which are under the direction of the government, but do not receive any aid from it. These are similar to those of the tirst class. (3) The schools [conser- VOtori) of Tuscany. These were founded by U'opold I., towards the end of the 18th cent- ury, who endowed them with the properly of supressed monasteries, and who gave the instruc- tion into tlu' hands of lay sisters (an association of pious ladies who have an organization similar to that of convents), with whom it still remains. (4) The schools of St. Mary, in Sicily, which were founded in 1 72(1, and received the canonical institution in 1735; they were thus recognized as ecclesiastical corporations. Towards the close of the century, however, several of these institutions were reorganized by the state as lay corpora- tions. (5) The schools connected with convents, which, after the suppression of the convents, continued to exist under the general association law. The total number of schools of these five classes was, in 1872, 570 with 2,723 teachers, and 17jl 58 boarding and 12,937 day scholars. The expenses amounted to 1,285,514 lire. Secondary instruction. — Secondary instruction in Italy is of two distinct kinds. — classical and technical. The former is provided for in the gymnasia and the lyceums, and the latter in the technical schools. The classical course comprises eight years, of which the first five belong to the gymnasium, and the last three to the lyceum. The course of study in the gymnasia is as fol- lows : Latin is taught 10 hours per week in the three lower, and 6 hours in the two higher classes; Italian, 7 hours in the three lower classes, 5 in the fourth, and 5 in the fifth class; geography, 3 hours in the three lower classes; arithmetic, 1 hour in the three lower, and 3 in the fourth and fifth classes; (ireek, 5 hours : and history, 4 hours in the fourth and fifth classes. Every gymnasium has six ordinary professors; that is, each one of the five classes has one professor for the literary instruction, while the sixth professor teaches mathematics only. The instruction in the lyceums is divided among seven professors, and 'comprises the following studies : Italian, 6 hours in the tirst. and 4 in the second class; Latin and (ireek, 5 hours in all three classes ; history, ~\ hours in the tirst. and -L. in the second class; mathematics, 6 hours in the tirst and second, and 2 j hours in the third class; philos- ophy, 4 } hours in the second and third classes; natural philosophy and physical geography, 5, and natural philosophy, 9 hours in the third class. The programme and the course of study are de- 486 ITALY termined by the ministry of education, and are adapted by the faculty to inch individual gynv nasium and lyceum. After finishing the course in the gymnasium or in the lyceum, the pupil must pass an examination for graduation. The provincial gymnasia and lyceums may conduct their nun examinations for graduation, if they conform in their course of studies to that of the royal schools; while the private institutions of this class must send their pupils to the royal schools to be examined for graduation. The gym- nasia arc governed by a director, and the lyceums by a president. The only provinces not having any secondary schools are Pesaro ami (Jrosseto, while Milan and Venice have three. In 1ST I — 5, there were, supported by th ■ state. L03 gymnasia. with 9,296 pupils ; and 80 lyceums, with 5,132 pupils. Technical instruction in Lombardy was pro- vided for by the Austrian law of 1818; but it was not given until L851, when the scuolerecdi were founded, each consisting of six classes, of which three formed the lower, and three the higher course. In the other provinces of Italy, with the exception of Piedmont, there were no guch schools previous to the unification. There were, however, similar schools supported by the municipalities, or private schools governed by different laws. There arc at the present time, technical sohools in all the provinces of the kiagdom, in some, belonging bo the state, and in others, to the towns. The government has its own schools in [Jpper Italy, the Marches, Umbria, Rome, and Sicily, in which provinces, however, there are also schools belonging to the tow ns; while in Kinilia. Tuscany, and Naples, they belong exclusively to the towns. One half of the expenses of the stale technical schools, with the exception of those in Sicily, is borne by the com- munes. In the technical schools belonging to the towns, the government has the right of in- ep sction only. In consequence of the two grades into which the real schools of Piedmont and Lombardy were divided, the law of 1859 pro- vided tor the erection of two schools of different grades, each Comprising three years' instruction, (vhich the lower school is called sc uola tecnica, and the higher istituto tecnico. By a decree of No 28., L861 . the supervision of the technical institutes was transferred from the ministry of education to that of agriculture. commerce, and industry. The course of instruc- tion in the technical schools comprises the Italian language, French, drawing, penmanship, the rudiments of history and geography, algebra, geometry, commercial arithmetic, and book-ke p ing. A supplementary course of one year was a Ided in 1871, in which only such subjects were t Lughi as were deemed requisite to supply the knowledge accessary in difrerenl vocations. This .a tempi succeeded admirably, wherever it was i ilro luce I. The technical schools are under the b 'i ity of a director, w bos ! annual sale 2,000 lire; while the professors receive from L,100 t . 'J. oiii) Ure each, according to the cla is ami the grade they teach. For several years instruction in the technical schools was free, as they were particularly intended to benefit the poorer classes; but as the better classes also sent xheir children to these schools, the same fees were introduced as in the gymnasia. The number of state tech- nical schools, in 1869, was 55, with 5,571 stu- dents and "2!»7 hearers. The number of com- munal schools that are managed in strict accord- ance' with rules governing the state institutions was 72, with 4,594 students and hearers; and the communal schools directed in systems differ- ent from that of the state were 138 in number, with 1,409 students and hearers. In 1874 — 5, there were 63 royal technical schools, with 6,498 students. The technical institutes, which were first established in Turin. Venice, and Milan, were originally reorganizations of the technical schools in those cin'cs: but. in consequence of their use- fulness, i hey rapidly increased. According to the course of study of 1872, they are composed of five divisions: the physical and mathematical, tlu' industrial, the commercial, the agricultural, ami the administrative. To be admitted to a technical institute, the student must possess a certificate of graduation from a technical school, i r show that he is proficient in the studies taught there, and must pass an examination in various branches. The number of institutes, in L872,was 72, of which .'!'.» belonged to the state, and 33 to the provinces, communes, or private persons. The number of teachers, including the presidents and the professors, was 881 ; and thi' number of .students and hearers. 4,562. The number of in- stitutes, in 1875, was 74. In order to promote secondary instruction and to accommodate such families as have QO schools in their own towns, tiie government supports 26 institutes in which the students arc boarded. Superior Instruction. — There are. at present, 17 universities supported by the state, of which 8 (in Bologna, Naples. Padua. Palermo. Pavia, Pisa, Rome, and Turin) are first-class, and 9 (in Cagliari, Catania. Genoa, Macerata, Sassari, Sienna. Messina, Modena.and Parma i are second- class, universities. Besides these, there were 4 universities fin Camerino, Ferrara, Perugia, and Qrbino), which are supported by the respective pro* bices. In order to be admitted as a student i a university, an examination is necessary.be- sides a certificate of graduation from a lyceum. In addition to the regular students, there are hearers, who do not require an examination, but only a certificate from a lyceum. The number ot professors, and students, including hearers, in 1874 5, was as follows : Bologna, 81 profesBOiB and 557 students; Padua, 52 prof essors and 1,217 students: Palermo, 78 professors and 34 o stu- dents: Pavia, 51 professors and 619 students; Pisa. < "• T professors and 532 students: Pome, 81 professors and 470 students ; Turin, 74 profess- ors and 1 :2'X2 students : Cagliari, 40 professors ami id students; Catania, 10 professors and ll'l students: Genoa, 19 professors and 112 students; Macerata. 15 professors and L06 Btudents; Mes- sina. 15 professors and 94 students: Modena. '>•'* professors and 278 students ; Parma. 12 profess- JACOBS JACOTOT 487 >>rs iii nl 205 students: Sassari, 25 professors ami students; and Siena, 28 professors and L13 students; for Naples, which has L18 profes- sors, it is difficult to estimate the number of stu- dents, as any oatiye of the Neapolitan provinces may attend the university, upon obtaining per- mission from t lie rector. The Dumber of stu- dents examined in 1869, was 1,775. The num- ber of students in the four provincial universi- ties, in 1874 5, was 264. The largest of these, IVrrara, had 88, and the smallest, ( 'amerino. .'51 students. In addition to the universities, there is an institute for higher studies [Isiituto di stiidi supervtri pratici e di perfezionamento) in Florence, which comprises three sections, — the philosophical and philological, the medico-surgic- al, and that of natural sciences. It was founded as a university in 1348, and, in 1S74 — 5, had 4 (J teachers and 176 students. Special Instruction. — Besides the engineers' schools established in connection with the uni- versities of Rome, Padua, and Palermo, there were the following technical high schools in 1 875: The engineers' school in Naples, with L5 teach- ers and 222 students : the higher technical in- stitute in Milan, with .'57 teachers and 189 stu- dents ; the engineers' school and the industrial museum in Turin, with IS teachers and 185 stu- dents, and 5 teachers and 128 students, respect- ively. Other special schools are as follows : The Seminario vaticano, the Collegio rornano, the CoUegio urbano, for missionaries, ami the Col- legio di San Tommaso d 'Aquino, for Dominican monks, in Rome; the literary academy, in Milan, with 1 5 professors and 41 students (1875); a higher school in San Marino; numerous Catholic theological seminaries and colleges, a theological school, for the Waldensians, in Turin ; Jewish theological schools, in Leghorn and Padua ; three schools of veterinary science ; two an haeological schools, in Pompeii and Home: L 3 law schools, besides those established in connection with the universities; the commercial school in Venice ; 23 nautical schools; the higher royal agricult- ural schools in Milan ami Portici, the provin- cial agricultural institutes in Caserta and Man- tua, the agricultural courses in nine universities, ami the school of forestry near Florence; the mining schools in Caltanisetta and Agordo, and the special school for the production ami treat- ment of marble in Carrara; 25 schools of tine arts ; numerous conservatories, schools, and in- stitutes of music ; the military schools in Turin, Modena. Naples. Milan. Florence, Farina, and Pinerolo, and the naval school, with two di- visions, in Naples and Spezia. — See Mai.fatti, Italien fin Sohmto, Encychpadie, vol. x.) ; for full statistical information, see the official publi- cation of the Ministry of Fducation,and the offi- cial work, Italia economica (Rome, 1873). JACOBS, Christian Friedrich. Wilhelm, an eminent Greek scholar of Uermany, born at < totha, Oct. 6., 1 764; died March 30.. J 847. He •was appointed professor in the gymnasium of Gotha, in 1785 ; and, in ls07, accepted a call to Munich to take the place of professor of ancient literature in the lyceum.and member of the Acad- emy of Science, in 1810, he returned to Gotha, where he was appointed librarian in chief. Jacobs is the author of several popular Greek and Latin readers, which are still extensively used, and have been frequently imitated and translated into a number of other languages ( Elementarbuch del- griechischen Sprache, vol. i.. 1805; 21st edition, revised by J. Classen, 1875 ; vol. 4., 1811 ; La- teinisches Elementarbuch, 1815, in .'! vols., also revised by J. Classen). With Post he founded the Bibliotheca Qraeca, a collective edition of Creek authors with Latin notes (1826, seq.). ■Jacobs was one of the most enthusiastic admirers ■of Greek civilization, and, in a large number of essays and popular works, endeavored to awaken among the educated classes of Germany an un- derstanding of. ami an interest in, the spirit of Greek antiquity. He published a collection of his addresses and essays under the name Vcr- migchte Schriften (8 vols., 1823—44). His fa- mous address Ueberdie Et'ziehung der Gviechen zur Sittlichkeit (translated into English by Pres- ident Felton), which he delivered in Munich in 1808, is still in high repute as a brilliant essay on education among the ancient Q reeks. JACOTOT, Joseph, a French educator, born in Dijon, March 4., 1770; died in Paris, July 30., 1840. He was made professor of Latin and Greek, at Dijon, about 1789, and, in 1790, was appointed by Napoleon to the chair of mathe- matics in the normal school, and shortly after- wards became secretary to the minister of war and director oPthe polytechnic school. In 1792, he joined the army as captain of artillery, and as such participated in the Belgian campaign. He afterwards returned to his native place, where he was at first professor of mathematics, and afterwards of Roman law. 11 is espousal of the cause of Napoleon compelled him, upon the restoration of the Bourbons, to leave France, which he did in 1815. taking refuge in Belgium, where he supported himself for a time by private teaching. In 1818, he was appointed lecturer on French literature in the University of Lou- vain, and afterwards director of the Military Normal School. He returned to France in 1830, passed seven years in Valenciennes, and, in 1838, went to Paris, where he died in comparative Deglect. It was during his residence in Belgium, while attempting to teach, in French, classes the members of which spoke only Flemish and Dutch, that the novel idea of overcoming this and simi- lar difficulties, by a method peculiarly his own, first dawned upon him— a method which he afterwards expanded, and applied successfully to all studies. The central idea of the universal method, as it has been called, rests upon the in- 488 JACOTOT JAPAN timate correlation of all knowledge. In other words, a single fact, known thoroughly, at first by careful observation, and, afterwards, by long and repeated contemplation, becomes the spur, if not the actual key. t<> the acquisition of other facts. In this way. starting from a single truth as a center, the mind is led to extend, in many ways, the circle of its conquests, till the whole domain of knowle Ige is included. It will lie seen at once that this system requires un- usually close attention and concentration of mind on the part of the pupil — two elements which can only be secured by a very great de- gree of enthusiasm and magnetic influence on the part of the teacher. The cause of the won- derful success achieved by it, in Jacotot's prac- tice, was, that it compels the pupil to exercise his own powers thoroughly —in other words, that it is in entire accordance with the essential nature of all education, i. e., the developing of in- nate power. His method of procedure in in- structing his class at Louvain in the French language was to provide each pupil with a copy of I'Vneli >n's TelSmaque, having the French on one page and the I ditch translation on the other. \\ itli no aid from the teacher, the pupil was re- quired to puzzle out the meaning of the text. ami to recite it in French, no matter how bar- barous the translation, at first, might lie. This method is almost identical with that of Hamil- ton. (See Hamilton, James.) It has also the de- fects of the I [amiltonian method, the know ledge of a language so acquired being enough for prac- tical purposes, but not sufficient for a critical or scholarly acquaintance with it. His method of teaching reading was the following: The teacher takes a book, and opening it at any place. points out the tirst word, pronouncing it. and requiring the class to repeat it. The next word is then pronounced with the tirst. the class re- peating as before; then the third word, in the same manner, and so on. In this way. when each word in a sentence has. by frequent repeti- tion, become known by sight, the pupil is re- quired to find these words wherever they occur on the page. The words of the sentence are then divided up into syllables, and these syllables are searched for on the page by the pupil, a- the words were before. Ihe same is done with the letters. When the pupil has become perfectly familiar with the sentence, he is taught to write by placing before him the same sentence in script, and requiring him to copy it. His attention is then directed to each word separate- ly, that he may note in just what respect the copy differs from the original, and correct it. The tea, ■her corrects nothing himself, but by his questions calls special attention to the poinl needing correction, and requires the pupil to change it. In this way, by constanl repetition ami sell help, the pupil educates himself. The great Buccess achieved by Jacotot, led t<> his enunciation of several maxims which took the shape of startling paradoxes, reflecting rather the exultation of an enthusiastic nature over a great discovery, than the calm, dispassionate spirit of the careful annunciator of a new truth. These maxims arc: ••All human beings are equally capable of learning:" "Every one can teach : and, moreover, can teach that which he does not know himself;" and'* All is in all," bach of these maxims, while contradictory on its face, contains a germ of truth, which, only by the aid of robust imaginative power and spe- cial pleading, may be so amplified as to cover the broad tield comprehended by the text. In the practical application of his system. .Jacotot's directions are : Learn some one thing thorough- ly, mill refer • very thing to that. To this end. the pupil must repeat, reflect, and verify. Jaco- tot's chief educational works are Enseignement universel: Langue matemelle (Louvain. \^l'l) : Musique, dessin et peinture (1 .^24) : Mathima- tiques (1828); and various articles in t$ie Journal de I 'emancipation inteUectueUe, a periodical es- tablished by himself for the advocacy of his peculiar views. — See Quick, Essays . After nine centuries of propagation, it became the popular religion, which it still is. There are nine great, and over twenty subordinate sects. 'I he census of L872 reported 98,914 temples and monasteries. 75,925 priests and monks. and 9,621 nuns : in till *_M 1 ,846 religieux of both sexes, in- cluding students and families of bonzes. ( hristi- anitv max also be considered one of the relig- 10ns of Japan. There are now (1876) ten native churches, with over 1,000 members, a theological seminary, day and Sunday schools for both sexes, and an incipient Christian literature. Japan was anciently inhabited, in the southern part, by a mixed race sprung tii on the waifs brought by the Kuro Shiwo from southern Asia and the Malay Archipelago. The Ainos occupied the central and northern portions. Neither of these races e\ ei possessed any writing or rcci in Is. so far as is known. In 660 B. ('..a conquering race landed in south-eastern Kiushiu, and advancing northward, subdued the natives, and tixed their capital near Kioto, in central Japan. In the seventh century of the Christian era. in a great battle near Morioka the Hast- ings of Japan the Ainos were entirely defeated. The remnant tied across the straits ox Tsugaru JAPAN and have remained in a state of pure savagery. By the fusion of the aboriginal and conquering races, with the occasional addition of Malay. Oorean, and Chinese blood, the modern coufc- posite Japanese race has been produced. The national history is mainly thai ofeduca- tionaiul development. The conquerors knew the use of metals ami agriculture, and composed odes, prayers, ami poetic sentiments, but had m> letters or writings. The ancient political system was feudalism, the mikado being suzerain, and the lands being held on the tenure of military service. In 285 A. 1).. after the conquest of southern Corea, by the empress-regent Jingu, Wani, a Corean, came to the Japanese court, and taught the heir apparent Chinese letters, and, probably, the Con- fucian ethics. In 552, Corean missionaries in- troduced books, the writing of the Chinese clas- sics, and the Buddhist images, sutras, and canon. This is the greatest educational event in Jap- anese history. The nobles and officials learned to read and write; and government records, his- tories, and literature began to be compiled. The Official propagation of the new faith through the erection of temples, monasteries, and pagodas, and the location of the bonzes in each province, near and remote, opened a field for the school- master, creating a limited, but for those days a large, reading class. Henceforward, the his- tory of Japanese education is that of Japanese Buddhism. The most illustrious name of all the priest-pedagogues is Kobo (774 — 835), a scholar in Pali. Sanskrit, Chinese, and his own vernacular, and the inventor of the Japanese syllabary, or alphabet. This consists of 47 char- acters, abbreviated from Chinese ideographs. It has two forms : the '• grass,"' script or running hand, and the square or " printing" form. He laid the foundation of the national success of Buddhism, by propounding a theological system in which Buddhism absorbs Shinto, and by declar- ing that the ancient anil indigenous deities were but various manifestations of Buddha to Japan. After Kobo. Sugawara Michizane, who died 903 A. D., better known as Tenjin, an accomplished scholar, did much for the native literature and education. Until the twelfth century, the mikado ruled supreme from Xara to Kioto, both of which were famous educational as well as political cen- ters. In 1192. Yoritomo was created Sei-i Tai Skogun (the officer styled Ti/coon by foreign- ers, from 1853 to 1868), and fixed the military capital at Kamakura (about 35 miles from the modern Tokio) . 1 lenceforward, the governmei 1 1 of Japan was virtually a duarchy, having two rulers, two capitals, and two centers of authority. Eastern Japan now became more and more civil- ized, and education spread apace. In general, only the bonzes and court nobles in Kioto con- stituted the learned class, the soldiers and farm- ers being totally illiterate. The bonzes were the scribes in camp, palace, and town, and almost the only teachers down to the Tokugawa period (1604—1868). During the Hojo rule (1219— 1333) learning flourished. A fine library and school existed at Kanazawa, near Kamakura, i besides the ancient seats in Kioto and Xara. The missionary tours and labors of Shinran and Ni- chireu. in the north ami east of Japan, during thia time tended powerfully to spread Buddhism, and with it letters ami writing, and to create priests and monastic schools. The revival of Buddhistic studies and the founding of new sects produced much intellectual activity. The Ashikaga period (1335 L573) was one of civil war and the ' growth of feudalism. Education and learning languished during this time: ami ignorance, ex- cept in the palace and monastery, was univer- sal. Under Nobunaga (1532 82), the relentless persecutor of the Buddhist bonzes, their power was in every way greatly curtailed, and the Jesuits then in Japan were greatly favored. The era of Hideyoshi (Taiko) was brilliant and emi- nently favorable to learning and education, con- siderable stimulus being given by his enterprise and improvements tending to tranquilize the country. The invasion of Corea (1592 8) was followed by a new tide of influences, which, to- gether with those received by contact with Kuro- peans, gave fresh impulses to the intellectual life of the nation. The accession of lyeyasu, in 1604, to the shogunate, the founding of the « • i t \ of Yedo, the centralization of the feudal system and military power there, and most of all, the profound peace enjoyed for two centuries ami a half, mark the period from 1604 to 1868, as the only one in which education in .Tapan has been general among all classes, and over nearly the entire empire. Next to the essentials or tools of an education- — reading, writing, and reckoning on the abacus, the ( 'hinese classics of Confucius and Mencius constitute the basis of culture. The very voluminous and — in the depart- ments of history and classic fiction, at least, — valuable, native literature has also been largely studied. Before the opening of the country to foreigners, in 1854, it is probable that seven- tenths of the people could read and write. In most of the daimios' capitals were military, gym- nastic, and literary training schools; and in Yedo. Kioto, and Mito (Ibaraki) were schools of great learning, or universities. In every city, town, village, or even hamlet, lived one or more teachers or writing-masters who kept private schools. Many of the bonzes also taught classes of lay youth, or neophytes, in the monasteries. Sanskrit and Chinese were the sacred languages of the Buddhist ritual, while the Yamato or ancient classic Japanese was used by the Shintoists. About the time of the opium war in China, an impulse was developed to study European litera- ture and science through the medium of the Dutch language. A few Holland merchants living at Heshima. near Nagasaki, and the annual Dutch trading ships served Japan as a loop-hole whence to survey the world. It must be borne in mind that the policy of closing the ports of Japan, thereby secluding her from the world, was more a part of the Tokugawa usurpers' scheme of holding the actual power than the wish of the nation. After Perry's arrival, in 1853, the study of En- glish superseded that of Dutch, and the tastes of 490 JAPAN JEFFERSON COLLEGE the samurai, or educated armed classes, inclined * }n-iu to favor modern science to the neglect of the Chinese. In L868, a revolutionary storm, the elements of which had long been gathering, broke at the battle of Fushimi, when the duareliy, and the shogunate were overthrown, and the toku- (imrn were reduced to their proper place as vas- sals of the mikado, who was restored to supreme power, as before A.l>. L192. The seat of govern- ment also was removed to Yedo (bay-door), which was thereafter called Tokio (eastern capital). Enterprises were now organized on a national scale, among them the present system of edu- cation, the scheme of which was promulgated in 1872. According to this, the empire is divide 1 into eight educational divisions, in each of which (here is a university or dai gakko, with thirty- two middle schools, colleges or gymnasia; besides which there are two hundred and ten grammar schools, or academies, in the whole empire. In all these schools, foreign languages and the sciences are to be taught. The vernacular schools will number about f>4,00(). or about one for every six hundred of the population. According to tin- latest statistics, there are 30,000 public schools in operation, with very nearly 2,000,000 pupils, and 45,000 teachers. There are also seven normal schools, the principal one being in Tokio, with teachers in course of training from every prov- ince in the empire. Both sexes enjoy equal privileges of education, from the primary to the normal school. The department of education ( Mom I!" Sho) is one of the ten ministries of the imperial government. The present head (1876) is Fujimaro Tanaka, the foreign adviser being Dr. David Murray, formerly of Rutgers College, New I Srunswick, X. •! . The universities and technical schools are under the direct con- trol of the central government, while the public vernacular schools are under the care of the local or ken authorities. They are sustained in part by the central government, partly by special taxation in each ken, and partly by the contributions of the nobles, the rich, and the common people. Each of the 72 kens has a bureau of inspection, ■while examiners and supervisors are regularly sent out from Tokio, for the express purpose of k< 'ping up and improving the standard of edu- cation. In addition to the schools under the Mom r.u Sho, nearly every government depart- ment has its special and technical schools. Medi- cine, law, and military, naval, engineering, agri- Cultur 1 1, ami optical science have each its schools, some of which are splendid colleges, well equipped •with foreign instructors and apparatus. In elementary instruction, the Japanese have suc- cessfully introduced the kindergarten system and object teaching. The general plan and dis- cipline of American schools prevail ; and such appliances as tables and chairs, blackboards and chalk, slates and pencils, phonetic and ideo- graphic charts, colored representations and soliil models of objects, are used all these being new ideas in Japanese pedagogics. The children n to read and write the script and square hana syllabary, and are then taught the sound and sense of the most common Chinese characters. They also learn abacus reckoning, the use of the Arabic numerals, and our system of arith- metic. A large number of American and other elementary text-books have been translated, and the common-places of physical science are now taught to Japanese youth. The vernacular is also studied by the help of standard reading- books, grammar (a new thing), declamation, and the committing to memory of choice passages from the Japanese classics. The Chinese ethics still holds its place; but the moral ideas, sen- timents, and narratives of Christendom seem to be radically influencing the rising mind of the nation. In the next grade of schools, foreign lan- guages are begun, and ( hinese writing and read- ing are continued. In the middle schools, the studies are wholly in English, or some other elected foreign language, the text-books being those used in America or Europe, while the course of studies common to an American high school or academy is gone through with, 'litis period covers four years. In the dai gakko, or univer- sity, the full standard of which it is expected to reach in the future, the students are actually car- ried through the curriculum of the average Amer- ican college, excepting in latin and Greek, the place of these being tilled by English and Chinese. At present, there is but one university in Japan the KaiSei Gakko, in Tokio. which litis a corps of about twenty American and English instructors, and 350 students, while the school of foreign lan- guages of Tokio has double this number of pu- pils, all under foreign instructors. Nearly two hundred foreigners are employed in the edu- cational service of Japan. Both students and native teachers, as a rule, wear the foreign costume; and. all over the empire, the general method of school order, discipline, equipment, and architecture approaches more closely to for- eign models, year by year. Private schools are also very numerous, and exert a healthful spirit of rivalry with the government establishments. The newspaper press, publishers of books, and government issues of tracts of information on various subjects, also tend powerfully to elevate the intellectual status of the people. There are no educational journals in Japan, but the minister of public instruct ion issues a yearly re- port. — See Gbiffxs, The Mikado's Empire | New York, I 876) ; Education in Japan, No. 2 of the Circulars of Information of the CJ. S. Bureau of Education (Washington, b s 7">); An Outline History of Japanese Education, prepared by the Japanese Dept. of Education (N. Y., ls7(>). JEFFERSON COLLEGE, a 1 Ionian Cath- olic institution at St. .lames. La., under the management of the Marist Fathers, was char- tered in L861, and organized in 1864 It has g I philosophical and chemical apparatus, and a library of 5,000 volumes. It has a collegiate course of 6 years, including preparatory studies; a commercial course; and a preparatory, or primary, course. The regular charge for board, tuition, etc.. is $300 a year. German, Bpanish, drawing, and music are extras. In l, v 7"> — 6, JERSEY CITY 491 there were 12 instructors and 65 students. Tin- Very Rev. J. J*. Bigot, S. ML, is (1876) the president. JERSEY CITY, one of the chief cities ft the state of New Jersey, embraces pari of the ancient Dutch town of Bergen, from which ii was set off by an act of the legislature, January 28., 1820, containing at that time less than 1,000 inhabitants. It has since been increased by the annexation of other municipalities, also parts of Bergen; so that its present territory reaches from the Hudson river westerly to the Ilacken- sack liver, a distance of nearly four miles, and from north to south, six miles. The population, according to the state census of 187"), was 116,883; and the number of children of school age, that is, between 5 and IS, was 38,068. Educational History. — Probably, the first school of any kind that ever existed in New Jersey was located on the site of the school- house now known as School No. 11, in Bergen Square. It is remarkable that the first charter of Bergen, dated September 22., 1GG8, granted by Sir Philip Cartaret, governor of the then province of New Jersey, in the sixth article thereof, stipulated, "that all persons should con- tribute, according to their estates and propor- tions of land./v)/' thi' keeping of a free school for the education of youth." This stipulation was rigidly enforced, notwithstanding the objection and strong opposition, at various times, of certain persons of the baser sort, who groaned, both in body and spirit, when called on to pay a school tax The Dutch may thus claim equal praise with the Puritans of New England for making provision for the education of their children in the first organization of their towns. History has preserved the name of the first school-master. Engelbert Steenhnysen, a tailor by trade, came from Westphalia in 1659, was licensed as teacher in 1662, and taught for 250 florins a year, pay- able in sea stores. His school-house was built of logs. — The first board of education in Jersey City was organized in March, 1852. Previous to that time, the school (for there was but one) was managed by a committee of the board of aldermen. Joseph McCoy was the first super- intendent, and held the office from 1852 to 1 854, and afterward from 1862 till his death, in 18G9. A. S. Jewell held the office from 1855 to 1862 ; A. rr. W'allis, a part of 1862 ; and S. B. Bevans, a part of 1 869 and 1870. Up to this time, the office of superintendent was an unsalaried one. Merchants and other business men held it, and were not expected to devote much time to its duties. E. (). Chapman was the first superin- t sndent who received a salary. He held the office one year, from 1870 to 1871. Wm. 1.. Dickin- son was chosen assistant superintendent in May, 1867, in which position he continued until \fft I , when he was elected superintendent, which office he yet (1876) retains. — From the organization of the first board of education to 1871, — a pe- riod of nineteen years, the office of superintend- ent was tilled annually by vote of the people at the charter elections; since that time, the duty of filling the office has devolved upon the hoard of education, and the term of office has been ex- tended to three years. School System. The school law under which the schools are now managed, was enacted in 1873. It provides that the hoard of directors of education shall consist of twelve members, two from each aldermanic district, who shall hold office two years, one half going out everv year. They have power, and it is their duty, to provide, for the free education of children in the city between the ages of 5 and 18, every thing necessary in their opinion, except the purchase of lands, the erection of buildings, and the mak- ing of repairs the cost of which shall exceed $500, the latter devolving upon the hoard of public works. The hoard of education is also em- powered to expend annually $1,000, to establish and maintain a free library for the use of teach- ers etc., and to provide a normal .school, high school, and evening schools. — The entire city is embraced in one district, known as District No. 13, Hudson Co. Parents are permitted to exercise their judgment in selecting a public school in any part of the city for the education of their children. There are four grades of schools : primary, grammar, high, and normal schools. There are 20 primary schools; ] ! gram- mar schools; 1 high school; and 1 normal school (held on SaUirdays) . The 14 grammar schools have each a primary department which is counted as one of the primary schools. In all of the larger schools, the principal is relieved of the work of teaching a class, and is confined to that of supervision and the training of the younger and more inexperienced teachers. One city su- perintendent, holding office for three years, gives all of his time to the work of supervision. There is no city school fund ; but the state school fund yielded to the city, in 1874, $10,738. The two-mill tax collected by the state and as- sessed upon the property , but distributed to each school district in proportion to the number of children between the ages of 5 and 18, yielded ©131,602.56. The balance was raised by special tax. Male principals of the grammar schools receive a uniform salary of $2,316; of female principals of primary and grammar departments the salary is $1,200. No male assistants are employed, except in the high schools. The sal- aries of female assistants vary, according to their positions, fro, i ! I to $360. The course of study in the primary schools is divided into six grades, and embraces reading, spelling, element- ary arithmetic (through the fundamental rules and U. S. money), geography, writing, and draw- ing. Object-teaching is prescribed for each grade. The course in the grammar schools is divided into five grades, and includes, besides advanced instruction in the same studies, Knglish gram- mar, etymology, history and constitution of the United States, physical geography, algebra, nat- ural philosophy, and elementary science, the Litter in each grade. The course in the high school is divided into an English and a classical course, each extending over three years. 492 •IKS UITS School Statistics. — The following items are reported for the year 1875 : Number ol |>ii|>ils enrolled 18,737 Average register Dumber 10.678 Average attendance 9.583 Nnmber oi teachers, males 16 " " " females 247 Total 2C3 Number of pupils per teacher, primary schools 56 " " " grammar " 30 Expenditures: Salaries $210,361.53 Rents 2,2(111.00 Books and stationery.... 13,133.61 Repairs and furniture.... 10,613.64 Fuel and incid. expenses. 26,001.59 Total .... $2fi2,310..'!7 Besides the public schools, there are but few others of any great importance, with the excep- tion of tlic denominational schools supported by the Roman Catholics. These schools are largely attended. JESUITS, or the Society of Jesus, a celebrated religious order of the < latholic < 'hurch. It was founded by [gnatius Loyola in the begin- oing of the L 6th century, and spread with great rapidity over the entire Christian world. It ob- tained an influence unparalleled in the history of religious orders and, perhaps, in the history of societies of any kind, li was abolished, in 177;?, by Pope Clement XIV., bul restored, in L814,by Pope Pius VII, and has since then borne the brunt of battle in the severe conflicl which has hem raging b tween the Catholic Church and many of the present stale governments, both ( latholic and Protestant. The -lesuits regarded it. as a special mission of their society to arrest the progress of the Reformation, and to regain for the church as much of the lost ground as possible. In order to fulfill this mission, they endeavore I to obtain control of the instruction of the ris- ing generation. Their efforts to establish well- patronized, well-attended, and influential schools, met with complete success; and though the opin- ions which have been expressed of the merits of the Bel Is of the .lesuits greatly vary, according to the sympathy or dislike of writers in regard to the order, the powerful influence which the •lesuits. through their schools, have exerted upon the history of many countries is admitted by all. In order to appreciate .justly the e lucational principl ss of the •lesuits. it may be well to not ice, iirst. the plan according to which the members of the order were, and still are, traine I themselves as teachers. The candidates tor the priesthood are, during the two first years, novitii scholas- tici; thru, by binding themselves to the order by means of simple VOWS, they hceonie SCholostid approbcUi. Devoting themselves, fur several years. to classical and philosophical studies, they art', for bo time, employed as teachers and educators in the colleges, until fchej lie-in the study of theology, which lasts for four years. As all the member8 were thUB trained as practical teachers. the ..ider u;is. soon after its foundation, enabled wherever a favorable opportunity offered, to call into existence 1 an astonishing number of literary institutions. All the educational institutions of the Jesuits are governed in accordance with the official course of instruction entitled ratio et ii<*tihitio studiorum societatis Jesu, ami well known in history under the shorter name ratio studiorum. It was drawn up under the direction of the fifth general of the order, Acquaviva, who, im- mediately after his election, in L581, was com- missioned by the 4th General Congregation to appoint for this purpose a committee of six fathers. In L584, the committee in which Spain, Portugal, France, Austria. Germany, and Koine were represented, were presented to the Pope. Their work was revised by another committee of twelve members, subsequently submitted for revision and approbation to the 5th and 6th General Congregations and to the Pope, and finally printed in L599, in the printing office of the Collegium Romanian. A new edition, with additions sanctioned by the 7th General Con- gregation, appeared in Koine in 1616. After the restoration of the order, the 20th General Congregation, held in 1820. and the 21st, held in 1 829, recommended a revision of the course of studies; and the general of the older, father Roothan, appointed, therefore, in L830 a com- mittee of live fathers, representing the five prov- inces of the order Italy. Sicily, Fiance, Ger- many.and Spain. In L831 .the revised en use. after having received the approbation of the general and his assistants, was sent to all the members of the order. The changes made in the old course chiefly relate to theology, philosophy, oriental languages, mathematics, and physics. Instruc- tion in theology and philosophy is not to he based, to the same extent as before, on Thomas Aquinas and Aristotle: and. in mathematics and the natural sciences, proper attention is to be given to the recent progress made in those. branches. In the lower classes of their institu- tions, new provisions are made for learning mod- ern languages, both the vernacular and foreign, and for the study of history. The course of studies is divided into twenty sections, and embraces rules for the provincial, the rector, the prefects of studies, the professors, the scholastics, and the students. 'I he general of this order is the supreme head of till its schools and educational institutions: he superintends all of them, and he alone authorizes the establishment of new ones. When, in the present century, the government of Austria transferred to the Society of Jesus several gymnasia ami the theological faculty of one of the state Ulli VelMt ies |l lilisplUck) . the general of the order, father Beckx, explicitly in- sisted that the superiors of the order must be at full liberty " to appoint members of the order, without a previous examination by state boards. directors, rectors, prefects of studies, and pro- ors, and to remove them and appoint Others in their stead, as he may deem best in the Sight Of Cod." The head of a province of the order is called a "provincial"; and the first section of the ratio studiorum recommends to him the care of the schools, the appointment of competent pre- fects of studies and professors, and the enforce- JKSriTS 493 ment of a strict observance of the entire course of studies. At the bead of single houses or col- leges, is the "rector." who dors not give instruc- tion himself, but is generally chosen from ai ■ the older teachers. I le is appointed for a term of three years by the general or his representative ; and. atter this time, is frequently transferred to another college. 1 le appoints one or two prefects of Studies, and all must obey and revere him as the representative of Jesus Christ. A college of the first class must, as a ride, have 20 teachers or •• regents"; a college of the second class. 30; a college of the third class, or a university, at least 70. Small institutions which have not a Suffi- cient number of teachers must he dissolved. With the colleges, there are generally connected convictoria alumnorum (boarding-houses), in which students of the college receive lodging, hoard, and strict superintendence by a mem- Iit of the order, or seminaries for educat- ing young candidates for the priesthood or knights' academies, for the exclusive education of the sons of nobles. Day scholars who do not live in any of the institutions, have to promise obedience to the rector and the rules, and they are. from time to time, visited by the prefect of studies in their houses. The schools of the Jesuits are divided into higher and lower classes. The former are under the supervision of a prcefectus generalis, or prcefectus studiorum superiorum; the latter, un- der that of a prcefectus studiorum inferiorum. The smaller colleges have only the lower classes, and, therefore, only one prefect. The studia in- feriora embrace five classes: (1) Infima, also called "the rudiment"; (2) Secunda, or media classis grammaticae, also called "grammar"; (3) Ter/i'i, or s>t/>rema classis f/rtininin/iae. also called -syntax"; I \) Quartet — poetica.ov humani- tas, (5) Quinta — rhetorica. The three lower are designated as the three grammar, and the two higher as the two humanity classes. In smaller schools, two classes are sometimes united into one ; in larger schools, parallel classes are formed. < nnsiderable prominence is given, in all the clas- ses, to the study of the Latin language. As much as practicable, Latin is made the medium of instruction ; and it is intended to give to the pupils such a knowledge of the language as will enable them to speak and write it. Father Beckx, the general of the order, says on this subject, in his correspondence with the Austrian minister of public instruction : " Because the Latin language is the language of the church, and the language of Christian tradition, and because in this language the literary treasures of all times and nations have been deposited, and because it has been for centuries developed beyond any other language, as the medium of faith and of science, the Soci- ety of Jesus has a special predilection for this lan- guage, and uses it as medium of instruction in its schools." It is expressly stated that it is not intended to imbue the minds of the pupils with the spirit of classic antiquity, and most of the Latin authors used in the schools of the Jesuits are read in expurgated editions. - The study of the Greek language begins simultaneously with the Latin, though much less time and attention are given to it. Instruction in the vernacular language was incorporated with the course of in- struction by order of the 1 1 1 1 1 Genera] Congrega- tion, in 1 7().'>; and. in 1 T.~><",, the colleges in Ger- many were advised to devote as much attention to German as to Latin and Greek.- To in- struction in religion, less time is devoted than in most other schools conducted by religious orders. the Jesuits being of opinion that the religious education of their pupils will he more promoted by religious exercises than by theoretical instruc- tion. — In the two higher classes oratorical exer- cises and exercises in composition receive spe- cial attention.— The other subjects of instruct ion were originally comprised under the collective name of eruditio, and it was recommended to use specially the hours of recreation, and the weekly holidayfor the purpose of acquainting the pupils with the elementary and most interesting parts of the studies. — The s/»ol institute." In the l!)th cent- ury, the communities of the Jesuits, inclusive of their schools, were suppressed, on the charge of being dangerous to the interests of the state, in Portugal, Spain. Italy, Switzerland, the Ger- man Empire, and Russia; and they were, in L876, threatened with suppression in Austria- Hungary. They have also been expelled from Mexico, the United States of Colombia, and a number of other South American states. They, however, still have a number of colleges in France, the Netherlands, Belgium, Great Britain, and the Austro Hungarian Monarchy. The .Jesuits accompanied Lord Baltimore to Maryland, and were the first instructors of the Catholic settlers of that province. They continued to live in a community after the abolition of their order, and grew rapidly after \\< restoration. Their col- 3, in L876, were as follows : Boston College, South Boston, and College of the Holy Cross, Worcester, Mass.: College of St. Francis Xavier, New York; St. John's College, New York (Ford- ham); St. Joseph's, Philadelphia; St. John's, Frederick, Md.; Loyola. Baltimore; Gonzaga, Washington, D. O.j Georgetown, 1>. C; Spring Hill, near Mobile, Ala.; St. Louis University, St. Louis, Mo.; College of the Immaculate Con- ion New Orleans; St. Charles, Grand Co- teau, La.; St. Joseph's, Bardstown, Ky.; St. Xav- ier's, Cincinnati; st. Ignatius College, San Fran- cisco; and Santa Clara College, CaL In Canada, the Jesuits condud St. Man a College, Montreal, founded in 1848. -Among the admirers of the school- of the Jesuits were Lord Bacon, Descartes, and Chateaubriand. Says Bacon: "As it regards I b hing, this is the sum of all direction : take example by the schools of the Jesuits, for better do not exist. When I look at the diligence, and the activity of the Jesuits, iioth in imparting knowledge and in i n< mi 1 line the heart. I bethink me of the exclamation of Agesilaus concerning Pharnabazus : ' Since thou art so noble, 1 would thou wert on our side. " Lanke. in the His- tory qf the Popes (vol. i.). makes the following remarks on the educational system of the Jesu- its : "The Jesuits were more systematic than the former teachers ; they divided their pupils into classes. Their instruction carried the pupils in the same spirit from the first elements to the highest stage. They also supervised the morals, and educated well-bred gentlemen. They were favored by the political power. Finally, they im- parted their instruction gratuitously. This could not but be of immense advantage to them, especially as their results were really as great as their zeal. The Jesuits were learned, and. in their way. pious: but no one will say that their science was based on a free soaring of the mind. or that their piety proceeded from the depth and the ingenuity of a simple mind. They are suf- ficiently learned to awaken confidence, to obtain reputation, to educate and retain scholars; they aim at nothing further. Neither their piety nor their teaching enters upon free and untrodden roads; but it has something which characterizes it; it has method. Every thing is calculated, for every thing has a special aim. They were diligent and fantastic, full of wisdom and en- thusiasm, respectable people whom one likes to approach : without personal interest, one aid- ing the other. No wonder that they succeeded." Among the most important work.- on the history of the Jesuits are : Cketineau-Joli (friendly to the order). Histoire religieuse, politique et litter- aire dela compagnie ae Jesus (6 vols., 1844 — 6); GlOBERT] (adverse to the Jesuits), 11 Ge- suita Moderno (5 vols., 1847) : Stkixmetz. His* tory of the Jesuits (3 vols., 1848] : IL beb (OW Catholic), Der JesuUenordeii (lo'T.'l). A special work on the Ratio studiorwn is, Jhr SorieWit Jesu Lekr- und Erziekungsplan (3 vols., Lands- hut, 1 833 — 6, friendly to the order). See also The Jesuits ami their Schools, in Barnabd's German Teachers .!>., 1855—64; John M. Gregory, LL.D., 1864—7; and the Rev. Kendall Brooks, 1 >.!>.. the present incumbent (1876), appointed in 1868. KANSAS, originally a part of the Louisiana purchase of L803, was organized as a separate ter- ■ ritorybyan act of Congress passed in May, L854. It was admitted into the Union in 1861. Its area is 81,318 sq. in., and its population, accord- ing to the census of 1870, was 364,399, of whom 17.1ns were colored, and 914 Indians. The state census of L873 showed a gain of 67.63 per cent. the total population of the state at that time be- ing 610,863. ( >f the male adults 8. 12 per cent were illiterate; and of the female adults, 13.2 percent. Educational History. — By the provisions of the constitution ratified in 1859, the legislature was required to "encourage the promotion of intellectual, moral, scientific, and agricultural improvement, by establishing a uniform system of common schools, and schools of higher grade, embracing normal, preparatory, collegiate, and university departments.'' It also provided for the appointment of a state superintendent, county superintendents, and a state board of commissioners. Sections of land in every town- ship had been, as in the case of other new states, set apart for common-school purposes, and sev- enty-two sections were reserved for the main- tenance of a state university. School laws have been passed, with modified provisions, from time to time by successive legislatures. A compulsory education law was enacted in 1874. School System.— -The educational interests of the state are committed to (1) a superintendent of public instruction, elected for two years; (2)a state board of education, consisting of the prin- cipals of the normal schools, the president of the stale university and of the agricultural college; which body meets annually, and issues to teach- ers, upon examination, diplomas for life or certifi- cates for three or five years; (3) a state board of commissioners, composed of the state super- intendent, the secretary of state, and the at- torney general, for the management of the per- manent school and university funds ; and 496 KANSAS (4) county superintendents, elected for two years, whose duty it is to apportion the school moneys, to visit schools, and to hold teachers' institutes. These institutes are also required to be held annually by the superintendent of public instruction, in the several judicial districts of the state. The schools must be kept open six hours per day for at least three months, the school month consisting of four weeks of five i lays each. The school age is from 5 to 21 years. By the act of A.ugust, L874, parents are com- pelled to send healthy children to public or private schools not less than twelve weeks every year, under the penalty of a tine of from #•*> to sio for the first offense, and from #10 to $20 for every subsequent offense. School directors are charged with the enforcement of this law. — The school revenue is derived from (1) the pro- ceeds of all lands granted by Congress to the state for the support of schools, including the 500,000 acres granted to each new state in 1841; (2) all estates of persons dying intestate and with- out heirs; and (.'!) money derived from military exemptions, fines, and estrays. The amount of interest-bearing permanent school fund, in 1S75, according to the report of the state superintend- ent, for that year, was $1,163,534.09. The income from all sources for the support of schools, amounted to $1,478,998.64, including S'-'CI.ijkH.:!!) from state funds, and $685,162.27 from district taxes. — The salaries of teachers areas follows: average monthly salary of male teachers, $33.98; of female teachers, $27.25. — The course of instruction according to the law of L874, includes orthography, reading, writing, English grammar, arithmetic, and such other branches as may be prescribed by the district board. Educational Condition. — The total number of school-districts in the state is 4,560 ; and the number of school houses. .'5,71."). According to the report of L875, the number of persons of school age was L99,986; of whom 103,551 were males, and 96,435 females. The following are addi- tional items of school statistics : Number of pupils enrolled 142,606 Average daily attendance 85,580 Number of teachers, males 2,448 " " " females 2,935 Total 5,383 Receipts >1.I7s,'j:is.c,| Expenditures, for salaries, repairs, etc. $1,235,969.72 Normal Instruction.- -There are three state normal schools for the training of teachers. The first was organized at Emporia in L865. This affords a two years' and a four years' course of study in the normal department, and has, be- sides, a model department, consisting of a high> school a in I era minar department, and an element- ary training school. The enrollment, in L875, was 302: in the normal department, 77: high school, 8; braining and preparatory school, 217. The second normal school isat Leavenworth and was organized in 1870. This comprises a nor- mal department, which affords a thorough knowl- edge of all the subjects taught in the public schools of the state, and a model school, in which the art of teaching is practiced. The model school comprises thirteen grades or departments, and, in 1875, the total enrollment was 836 ; and the number of teachers, 12. In the normal de- partment, the enrollment was 420: and the num- ber of teachers, 7 ; the average attendance was about '250. This department includes two kinds of classes: the regular classes of the normal course, and the temporary classes of the institute course. The former study in detail all that per- tains to professional training: the latter give their attention to all the ordinary common-school subjects, with only enough detail to illustrate methods. There are five of these short courses in a school year. The normal students teach in the grades of the city schools. The third normal school, organized in 1 874, is located at Concordia. The school edifice is a tine stone structure, ca- pable of accomodating 300 students. The enroll- ment, in L875, was. in the normal-department, 171 : iii the training school, 8'A: total, '254. Secondary Instruction. — In 1^73, the regents of the university authorized the preparation of a course of study for the high schools of the state, for the purpose of introducing uniformity into the school system. With this view a clas- sification was adopted which assigned to the high schools an intermediate position between the graded schools on the one hand, and the state university and agricultural college on the other. Three courses, each of four years, were arranged. — a classical, a scientific, and an Knglish course. The choice as to which shall be pursued, is op- tional with the student. There are 66 graded schools in the state which have, connected with them, high school courses, attended by 1,066 pu- pils. There are two business colleges, which were reported, in 1874, to have 1 instructors and 179 students. 140 of the latter being males, and .'!!• females. The principal denominational schools of this grade are (I i St. Benedict's College (Ro- man Catholic), at Atchison, with 7 instructors and 110 students; (2) the college of the Sisters of Bethany (Episcopal), at Topeka, witli a pri- mary, a preparatory, and a collegiate department; (.'!) Mt. St. Mary's Female Academy [Roman Catholic), conducted by the Sisters of Charity, with 7 instructors and 26 pupils: (4) the Geneva Academy I Presbyterian) with 2 instructors and 100 pupils; (5) the Western Methodisi Collegiate Institute, at Hartford: (6) Washburn College (i longregational), at Topeka. Superior Instruction. — Of the institutions which afford instruction of this grade, the only one under the direct management of the state i.- the University of Kansas (q. v.), at Lawrence. Others are included in the following table : NAME Location Baker I niversitj Baldwin Citj Highland University Highland Lane University Lee pton st. Benedict's College Atchison si. Mary's CoUege st. Mary's Washburn College Topeka When Religion* found- denomiua- ed tion 1857 M. l'l'is. 1857 Presb. 1866 U. Hreth. 1869 K. ('. ls.-.'.i R. C. 1SG5 Cong. KANSAS UNIVERSITY K A NT 497 Professional and Scientific Instruction. — The Kansas Agricultural College, at Manhattan, is designed, as its name implies, to afford instruct tion in agriculture; ami. to that end, it has a large farm of over 400 acres, by means of which the Students are enabled to put to a practical test the theoretical knowledge acquired. This farm has been divided into orchards for pears, apples, etc., plots for the cultivation of grains and grasses. and the raising of root-crops, as on an actual farm. Besides this farm and the course con- nected with it. there are departments for the teaching of sewing, printing, and telegraphy. The literary departments of the college include a farmers', a mechanics', and a commercial course. besides special instruction for women. It is claimed that the full curriculum carries the graduates up to the point reached by the best colleges. The endowment of the institution was derived from the sale of the congressional grant of land (90,000 acres), yielding, in ordinary years, an income of about $20,000, which it is expected will, before many years, be doubled. The attendance of students at the college, during the year 1 874, was 208, of whom 139 were males, and 69 females. Special Instruction. — The Kansas Institution for the Instruction of the Blind is organized with a superintendent, matron, physician, and four teachers, and receives pupils from 9 to 21 years of age. It is expected that, before admission, students shall have previously received sufficient elementary instruction to enable them to go on with the course pursued in the institution; and, on this condition, they are received without charge, except for clothing, traveling, and in- cidental expenses. KANSAS, University of, at Lawrence, Kansas, was chartered in 1864. It is supported by state appropriations, the income of a fund of SI 0,500, and by contingent fees of $10 per annum, the only charge made by the university. The institution owns 72 sections of land granted to the state by Congress, in 1861, for the sup- port of a state university. The grounds com- prise 50 acres on Mount Oriad, donated by citizens of Lawrence and its vicinity. There are two buildings, erected partly by the city and partly by the state. The university has chemical and philosophical apparatus, libraries containing about 2,500 volumes, and a cabinet of natural history. Both sexes are admitted. The charter provides that the university shall consist of six departments: (1) Science, literature, and the Arts: (2) Law; (.'!) Medicine; (4) Theory and Practice of Elementary Instruction ; (5) Agri- culture ; (6) The Normal Department. Of these several departments, — Science, Literature, and the Arts, and the Normal Department, are the only ones yet organized. These departments, at present, comprise seven courses of instruc- I tion ; namely, a classical and a modern literature course, each leading to the degree of Bachelor of Arts ; a general scientific course, and three special scientific courses, — one in chemistry, one in natural history, and one in civil and top- 32 "graphical engineering each of the four scien- tific courses leading to the degree of Bachelor of Science. A three years' preparatory course precedes a four years' course in each of these de- partments. A normal course was added in April, 1876. In L875 — 6. there were L0 instructors and 237 students (72 collegiate, 35 normal, and 130 preparatory), of whom 1 17 were males and L20 females. The presidents of the university have been as follows : the Rev. R W. Oliver, I). I)., 1865—8; Bev. John Fraser, A. M., 1868—74; and the Rev. dames Marvin, D. D., the present incumbenl (1876), appointed in 1874 KANT, Imrnanuel, one of the most illus- trious of philosophers, was born April 22., 1724, at Konigsberg, where he died Fetor. 12., 1804. After having been for nine years a tutor, he be- came in 1755. jirirnt rdoct nt, and. in 1770, pro- fessor, in the philosophical faculty of the univer- sity of Konigsberg. The latter position he re- tained until his death. The philosophical system of Kant, which marks one of the great turning- points' in the history of philosophy, is designated by the name of critical philosophy, or criticism, because he was the first who, by a keen analysis and criticism of our power of cognition, endeav- ored to fix a distinct boundary line between that which is essential and generally valid in our cognition on the one hand, and that which is empirical, non-essential, and accidental, on the other. The chief tenets of his system are the following : (1) that we know things not in their essence, but in their external appearance; (2) that there are in the human mind, a priori, elements of transcendental knowledge, but that this transcendental knowledge does not at- tain, with absolute certainty, to the nature of things ; (3) that God, freedom, and immortality are postulates of practical reason ; (-1) that the moral law is a categorical imperative. The prin- cipal works of Kant, which are still reckoned among the classic productions of philosophical literature, are, Kritik der reinen Vemunft (1781); Kritik der praktischen I r ern unfit (1788); Kritik der Urtheilskraft (1790); Die Religion innerhalb der Grdnzeu der blossen Vemunft (1793) ; Anthropohgie in pragmatischer Hiii- sieht (1798). — As professor of philosophy, Kant was required to deliver, alternately with the other professors of the same subject, lectures on pedagogy. The notes which he prepared for these lectures, were, in the latter part of his life, revised and arranged by his pupil Rink, who, in 1803, published them under the title, Imrnanuel Kant uber Padagogik. Kant regarded education as the highest and most difficult task which can be assigned to man. He, therefore, insisted that pedagogics should be made the subject of earnest study, that education should be freed from mechanism, and be elevated to an art guided by science. Children must not be educated, in ac- cordance with mere custom, for the world, as it now exists, but, in harmony with the idea of humanity, for a better condition of society in the future. The plan of education should not be narrow and restricted, but cosmopolitan. The 498 KENTUCKY development of man for the fulfillment of the manifold laws of his existence is regarded by Kant as the proper object of education. He lays particular stress upon practical morality, and requires that the teaching of religious doctrines should be preceded by a thorough course of in- struction in the principles of morality, which should be derived from reason. The work of God (conscience, moral law, and reason) must be known, before God himself can be known. — Kant was a great admirer of the pedagogical views of Montaigne and Rousseau, and took an earnest interest in the career of ihe philanthro- pic lie has exerted considerable influence upon the development of German pedagogics; as is i \ [dent from the fact that a number of the most devoted believers in his philosophical views dis- tinguished themselves as educational writers; among whom may be mentioned Niemeyer, Sehwarz, and Rosenkranz; and even llerbart was greatly influenced by Kant. — Editions of the complete works of Kant have been pub- lished by Habtenstem (10 vols., 1838-^9 ; 2d edit., 8 vols., 1867 — 9), by Schubert and Rosen- ki:\\/. ill vols., 1840 — L2, with a biography by Schubert), and Kirchmann (Berlin, 18(!8 — 74). A good English translation of the Critique of Pure Ramon has been published by J. M. 1). Mkiki.kjoiix (in Bonn's Philosophical Library, 1855). Recent works of value to English stu- dents are Mahaffy, Kant's Critical Philosophy for EwjHxfi I!<;/i/r. Breckinridge) as to whether the common school fund should Ik' considered a part of the regular siate debt, the interest of which was payable out of the sinking fund. Dr. Breckinridge considered that it should be so paid, and the adoption of this method was of vital moment to the popu- KENTUCKY 491) larity of the public-school system, since, if it were not so pud, aspecial annual tax of #80,000 would be necessary. After a Long and heated dis- oaaskm, a bill directing the commissioners of the sinking fund to pay the interest of the school bonds was passed : but it was vetoed by the governor. It was. however, immediately repassed over his veto, by a large vote. In L85o, the school tax w;is increased from two to five cents on the hundred dollars, by a majority of 57,980 votes out of 109,492 cast. Prom that time till IstiT, little change was made in the common- school system of the state. In the latter year, the state superintendent, Z. F. Smith, prepared a plan which contemplated an entire reorgani- zation of the system. His proposition to increase the school tax from five to twenty cents on the hundred dollars, to add a poll tax of one or two dollars, and to empower the people of any county, district, town, or city to vote an additional local tax of thirty cents on the hundred dollars, for school purposes, was accepted by the legislature, and carried by a large popular majority. His plan for the reconstruction of the schools, though greatly modified, was substantially embodied in the law enacted, and resulted in giving a fresh impetus to the cause of education. In 1873, the present school laws went into effect, and the beneficial results of their operation are looked for with very great confidence. In 1S74, an act was passed for the establishment of a uni- form school system for the education of colored children, to be under the supervision of the superintendent of public instruction and the state board of education. This act provides that all taxes collected from colored people shall go to the support of colored schools. — The State Superintendents have been as follows : Joseph J. Bullock, D. P., 1837—9; Hubbard H. Kav- anaugh. D. D., 1839 — 40 ; Benjamin B. Smith, D. D., 1840—42 ; George W. Brush, 1842—3 ; Ryland T. Dillard, D. I)., 1843—7 ; Robert J. Breckinridge, D.D., LL. D., 1847—53; John I). Mathews, 1 >.!)., 1853 — 9; Robert Richardson, A. M., 1859—63; Daniel Stevenson, D.D., 1863 —7; Zach. F. Smith, 1867—71 ; Howard A. M. Henderson, D. !>., elected in 1871. School System. — The general supervision and control of the educational interests of the state are intrusted to a state hoard of education, which consists of the secretary of state, attorney gen- eral, superintendent of public instruction, and two professional educators. The last three con- stitute a standing committee for the preparation of rides, by-laws, and regulations for the govern- ment of the schools, anl for the recommendation of a proper course of study and suitable text- books — the latter to be adopted at the discretion of the county board of examiners. The executive officer of the board is the superintendent of pub- lic instruction who is elected for four years, and whose duty it is to exercise a general supervision over the schools of the state, to distribute an- nually through the state the school laws, to furnish blanks for reports, certificates, etc., and to perform all other duties naturally devolving upon the office of superintendent. The school year is live months, of twenty-two days each; ami the required age of pupils is from' 6 to 20 years. No books, tracts, paper, catechisms, or publications of a sectarian character are permit* ted to lie used in the schools in any way. The state board of examiners consists 'of the state superintendent and two practical educators ap- pointed by him. Their sessions arc held in -Inly of each year for the examination of teachers ap- plying tor certificates. These certificates, for each of which the examiners are allowed to charge three dollars, entitle the recipients to teach five years in any of the common schools, without re exam- ination by county boards. The county commis- sioners are elected for two years by the county judges and justices of the peace, their functions corresponding to those of county superintendents of other states. — The county board if examiners consists of the county commissioner and two competent persons appointed by him. They examine teachers, grant certificates, and select a uniform series of text-books, to be in use two years. Educational Condition. — Concerning the num- ber of school-districts, schools, etc.. advices from counties and districts are so imperfectly made up that entirely accurate statistics cannot be ob- tained. In the annual report of the state super- intendent for the year ending June, 1874, an approximate result is given as follows : number of school-districts, 4,035; districts in which com- mon schools are taught, 3,983 ; common- school houses, 3,1 18; private schools, 463; academies, 53; colleges, 25. The number of male teachers in the common schools was 2,756 ; of female teachers, 1,017 ; average attendance of pupils, 114,603. Normal Instruction. — There is an incorpo- rated normal school at Carlisle under private control ; but those who graduate from the course provided for teachers have the right, under the charter, to teach in the common schools of the state five years without examination by either state or county boards. Louisville has a train- ing school connected with its public-school system ; and the Frankfort public school has a training class. At Lexington, there is a colored school with a normal department under the direction of the American Missionary Society. Teachers' institutes are held in almost every county of the state. These institutes are con- ducted by professional teachers; and, being the chief agency for normal instruction in the state, receive considerable attention. Secondary Instruction. — High schools for males and females are maintained in Louisville, and some other parts of the state. There are also academies, female seminaries and colleges; and commercial colleges. Of the former. 17 were enumerated in the state, superintendent's report for 1874. The two business colleges at 1 ouisville and I^xington, reported, in 1874, 9 instructors and 240 students. Superior Instruction. — The following table includes the principal colleges and universities, exclusive of female colleevs, in the state : 500 KENTUCKY KENTUCKY UNIVERSITY When Religious NAME Location found- denomin.i- ed tion Bethel College Busselville 1849 Baptist Centra] Cniversil \ . . . Richmond is;:; & i. Presb. Im:\ ille ]H1<> b Sew Liberty L839 Kv. Luth. Eminence College — Emim in i is:, 7 Non-sect. etown College, . i Georgetown [829 Baptist Kentucky University. Lexington 1 868 N ■ in sect. Ky . Military Inst ETarmdale 1846 Non sect. Kv. Weslej ;m Univ.. . Millersburg 1859 M. E. So. st. Mary's 1821 R. ('. Bowling Green M. E. So. The female colleges are quite numerous : chief among which may be mentioned Bethel Female College, a1 Boplrinsville, a Baptist institution; Bourbon Female College, at Paris; the Presby- terian Female College, at Bowling Cieen : Bap- tist Female College, at Clinton; Franklin Fe- male College, at Franklin; Lebanon Female College (Baptist), at Lebanon; Lexington Fe- male College (Baptist), at Lexington: Logan Female College (M. B. South), at Busselville; Louisville Female College (Meth.), at Louisville; Millersburg Female College, at Millersburg; Shelbyville Female College (So. Presb.), at Shelbyville ; and Stanford Female College, at Stanford. Besides these, there are several un- chartered institutions which are prosecuting the work of higher education. Among these may lie mentioned Warren College at Bowling Green; Daughters College, Barrodsburg; 1 locker Female College, Lexington; the Kentucky Col- lege for Young Ladies, IVwee Valley; and Berea Coljege, at Berea. The last was organ- ized in' L858 for both sexes, without distinction of race. Professional and Scientific Tnsiru Scientific instruction is partially provided in many of the colleges already enumerated; but special provision in this respect is made in the State Agricultural and Mechanical College, a1 Lexington. The course comprises the following departments: (I ) English Language and literature; (2) mathematics; (3) chemistry and experimental philosophy: i I) natural history and political econ- omy; (•*>) mental and moral philosophy; (6) com- mercial training: IT) mining and civil engineer- ing; (8) modern languages; (9) fine arts; (10) mili- tary tactics. Law is taught in a special school forming a part of the Kentucky University; and medicine in tlie Transylvania Medical College. now forming a department of the same univer- sity. The Louisville Medical College, Louisville Hospital Medical College, and the university of Louisville also afford opportunity for instruction in the theory and practice of medicine. Sp cial Instruction. The institution for deaf- mutes, at Danville, is one of the oldest in the United States, having been founded in L823. It is a school for the education of deaf-mutes, similar to that of New York and of Hartford, and not an asylum. Every deaf-mute in the state. of Bound mind, between the ages of in and 'At), is entitled to its privileges for seven years, fp charge It is under the control of a board of commi rionen appointed hy the governor. Its resident officers are a principal, matron. steward, and physician. Its curriculum is that which is common to such institutions. The Asylum for the Education of the Blind, at Louisville, is in- tended to furnish instruction to every child in the state, between the ages of <°> and 16, who is deprived by defective sight from receiving the education usually given in the common schools. In addition to these institutions for special in- struction, the Kentucky Institution for the Edu- cation of Feeble-Minded Children, at Frankfort, is worthy of mention. This was re-established in 1874, after having been discontinued for some years. As its name implies, it is for "feeble-minded children." not for idiots. To such children, between, the ages of 6 and 18 years, the state affords, through this institu- tion, an education free of charge. The build- ing is situated just beyond the city limits of Frankfort. Society for the Advancement of Education. — On the L5th of -'uly, 1874, a meeting was called at Frankfort to concert measures for establish- ing a school or schools for the training of teach- ers and the education of young men for clas- sical and technical pursuits. 'I his resulted in the foundation of the Society for the Advance- ment of Education. State Teachers' Association. — This body holds annual meetings to promote the cause of com- mon schools and popular education, and to ele- vate the character and advance the interests of the profession of teaching. Prominent educa- tors from other states are usually present by invitation and take part in the proceedings, which consist of discussions in regard to school matters, a daily order of exercises illustrative of school methods. and lectures in the evening. The Louisville Educational Association is a body formed for essentially the same purpose as the Teachers' Association. KENTUCKY UNIVERSITY, at Lexing- ton, Ky. was chartered in 1858. With the ex- ception of the theological department, which is under the control of the Christian Church, it is non sectarian. It was opened as a college, in I sal', at Barrodsburg in the building of Bacon College, the property of which had been trans- ferred to the university. By an act of the legis- lature, in 1865, the institution was removed to Lexington, the property and endowment of Transylvania University v. ere transferred to it, ami the State Agricultural College, founded with the congressional land grant, was made a de- partment of it. In 1866, Ashland, the home- stead of Henry Clay, and the adjoining estate of Woodlands, on the border of and partly within the city, the entire tract containing 133 acres, were purchased for an experimental farm and the permanent site of the university. These grounds are now the scat of the Agricultural aid Mechanical College. The other depart meiits occupy the former campus of Transylvania Oni- :iy, containing -H acres in the city, with suitable buildings. The university has an en- dowment of aliout $400,000; the value of its real KENTUCKY MILITARY IXSTiTCI II kindergarten .001 estate is about $250,000. The libraries contain about 10.000 volumes. It has a museum of natural history, an anatomical museum, and valuable chemical, philosophical, and astronom- ical apparatus. The university comprises the following colleges: (1) The College of Arts; ('_') The Agricultural and Mechanical Colleg Kentucky; (3) 1'he College of the Bible ; I t)The Normal College (not yet organized); (5) The Commercial College; (<>) The College of Law; (7) The College of Medicine (Transylvania Medical College). Tuition in the theological department is free ; in arts and agriculture, its cost is $5 per year, in commerce $30, in law •S<»0. in medicine $10 for each professor. Each legislative district of the state is entitled to send three students to the university free of charge for tuition in any of the first four colleges named above. In 1873 — I, the whole number of instructors in the various colleges was 32, and of students. 406. John B. Bowman, LL. D., to ■whom the foundation of the university is mainly due, is (1876) the regent. KENTUCKY MILITARY INSTITUTE, at Farmdale, Franklin ( 1 o.. Ky.. was founded in 1 8 15. chartered in 1846, and placed under the direction and control of a board of visitors ap- pointed by the governor of the state, who is, ex officio, inspector of the institute. The superinten- dent, faculty, and cadets are constituted a quasi military corps ; and the officers are commissioned under the seal of the commonwealth. The arms are furnished by the state. The institution has fine grounds, and buildings erected at a cost of more than $1 00.000. The library contains 3,000 volumes. The charge for tuition is $100 per annum ; for board, etc., 3200. There is a prepara- tory, an undergraduate, a resident graduate, a civil engineering, and a commercial course. The under- graduate course is in three divisions, requiring from three to five years for completion, and com- prises four departments, mathematics, languages, natural science, and English. .V certificate of pro- ficiency is conferred after a satisfactory exami- nation iu the studies of a department; in the de- partment of languages a knowledge of two is re- quired, of which one must be cither Latin or < ler- man. The degrees of Bachelor of Mathematics, of Natural Science, and of English, an' conferred after an examination in an extended course in the respective departments. For the degree of Bachelor of Languages, four languages are re- quired. The degree of Bachelor of Arts is con- ferred on those receiving certificates of proficiency in three departments, an 1 of Master of Arts upon those who receive them in all the four de- partments. Upon those completing the com- mercial course the degree of Bachelor of Com- mercial Science is conferred. In the resident graduate course, besides mathematical, scientific, and linguistic studies, an elementary course of medicine or a professional course of law may be pursued. In 1875 — fi, there were 8 instruct- ors, 51 students, and 222 alumni. The super- intendents have been as follows : Col. lb T. P. Allen, 20 yrs.j Col. E. W. Morgan, 7 yrs.; B. B. Sayre, 2 yrs.: and Col Robert I>. Allen, tho present incumbent, 2 yrs. KENTUCKY WESLEY AN COLLEGE, at Millersburg, Ky., under the control of the Methodist Episcopal Church, South, was char- tered in L859 and opened in L866. It has a four years' course, with departments of English language and literature, history and philosophy, chemistry and natural science, mathematics, Greek, and Latin. All these arc necessarj to the degree of A. B., and with the exception of Gi and Latin, to the degree of B. S. In L875— 6, there were 5 instructors and 94 students. The value of its buildings, grounds, and apparatus is $40,000; amount of productive funds, $45,400. T. J. Dodd, 1). J)., is (1876) the president. KENYON COLLEGE, at Gambier, Ohio. is under Protestant Episcopal control. It w;ls first incorporated under the title of the Theolog- ical Seminary of the Protestant Episcopal Church in the Diocese of Ohio, and was opened for elementary instruction at Worthington, in L825. By a subsequent act of the legislature. the president and professors were constituted the faculty of a college, under the name of Kenyon College; and. in June, 1828, the institution was removed to its present site. In 1840, the theolog- ical department was separated from the college, and constituted the Theological Seminary of the Diocese of Ohio. Auxiliary to the college, there is a preparatory school. The college park com- prises 50 acres, and contains four college 1 luildings and six houses for the professors. At some dis- tance, are the buildings of the preparatory depart- ment and the theological seminary. The college has an endowment of SI 00.000. an astronomical observatory, and libraries containing 19,000 vol- umes. The value of its buildings, grounds, and ap- paratus is$160,000. In 1873 — 74, there were 8 instructors and 66 students (13 preparatory and 53 collegiate). The number of alumni, in 1S72, was 453. The presidents of the college have been as follows : the Rt. Rev. Philander Chase, D. D,, 1825—31 ; the Rt. Rev. Charles P. Mcllvaine. 1). D., D.C.L., LL. D.. 1832—40; David Bates Douglass, LL. I). . 1840 — 14; the Rev. Samuel Fuller, D. D. (provisional), L844— 5 : the Rev, Sherlock A. Bronson, 1>. D.. 1845 — 50; the Rev. Thomas M. Smith. D.D., L850— 54; Lorin An- drews, LL. I).. 1854 — (il ; Benj. L. Lang, A. M. ing), 1861—3; Charles ' Short. LL. D., 1863 — 7: the Rev. dames Kent Stone. A. M 1867—8; Eli T. Tappan, L.L.D., 1868 75; and the Rev. E. < !. Benson, A.M. (acting), the present incumbent ( 1S7G). KINDERGARTEN (Ger., children's gar} den), a peculiar system of education, founded by Friedrich Froebel (q. v.), designed to precede all other elementary training, and to prepare the chiM for regular instruction by exercising all its ] lowers so as to render it self-active. While the reformers of education before his time. I'estalozzi included, whose assistant he was, treated the youthful mind, more or less, as a passive recipient of truth, goodness, and beauty, it was Froclx l's fundamental idea to set the child to do whatever 502 KINDERGARTEN" it could be induced to do as a kind of amusement, exercising its observing faculties in connection •with its playthings and games, and thus to create in it an interest in learning. He discovered, by means of half a century's attentive practice in teaching, in association with many other excellent educators, that the faculties of most children are stunted in infancy and earliest youth by the want of appropriate mental food ; that every child may be developed (may develop itself) into a self-educator by appropriate amuse- ments ; and that, in this manner, pleasure may be made the most efficient instrument in the first stages of education. He studied all the plays and games in use from the most ancient times, in order to find their special adaptation to mental and bodily growth, and thus formed a complete philosophical system of early intellectual culture. This culture was to begin in the earliest years, with ball plays, accompanied by snatches of song and rhyme : later, with a sphere, a cube, and a cylinder of wood, used for various amusing ex- ercises, and calculated to enliven the attention, and increase the self-activity of the infant. The two little books for mothers, which contain his suggestions for this purpose, disclaim any merit of invention ; he considers them derived simply from a diligent observation of the methods of many excellent and successful mothers. But it was not from books alone that he intended that mothers should learn how to train their children. They were to be educated, as young children, in a kindergarten, and afterwards, before graduat- ing from the upper classes, to learn the art of infant education in a model kindergarten. It was in this way that he hoped to render, in the course of time, all mothers true educators of in- fancy, the centers of happy family circles, and the priestesses of a higher humanity, so that they might be "in harmony with themselves, with nat- ure, and with God. ' — But mere family education It ling liable to one-sidedness and exclusiveness, social education should begin early, in order to complement the former. During part of the day, the child should be in company with many other children of the same age, and should engage in such plays as supply, in a gradually ascending scale, proper food for the mental and bodily appetites and functions, while making the com- pany of little ones as happy as possible. This can be done only under the guidance of a true t teller, who should be a female capable, by nat- ural endowments and previous study, to take the place, in this respect, of the mother. The locality should be a hall in a garden, with Mow- ers, shrubs, trees, each child having its own flower-bed, so that it may learn how to raise plants, and to enjoy nature. The playful occu- pations of the pupils comprise a great variety of I lays in a given order which, however, should n >! be absolutely fixed, but should afford a fa ■ ilthy change, without inducing habits of im- perfect attention and restlessness. None of these occupations were the invention of Froebe] | they had all been practiced more or less before his time. But their combination into a harmonious whole, their adaptation for mental food in every direction, and their development in detail must be set down as Froebel's creation ; and the expe- rience had with them for more than twenty-five years, and in many hundreds of kindergartens, justifies the wisdom of the sytem. Although meeting at first with a most stubborn opposition on the part of governments, sects, and the teach- ing fraternity, the kindergarten has, step by stej), made friends of enemies, silenced the most severe critics, and won favor with governments (in Austria, Italy, and Russia), with the Roman Catholic bishops (in Belgium. France, Hungary, and many parts of the I nited States), and with orthodox Protestants <>f various denominations. It has been endorsed by the great conventions of German teachers, after a protracted study of its results: and, in America, by the National Teach- ers' Association, at the meeting held at Elmira. in 1873. In short, it seems to be destined to be universally adopted, and to be connected with every infant school. There is still much con- troversy among the followers of Froebel them- selves in regard to the mi nor details of the system : and some improvement has been made upon his own first practical realization of the idea, which, from insufficiency of means, could not be all thai he desired; but the indefinite perfectibility of the system in practical details, according to its prin- ciples, insures its progressive success— The exer- cises of the kindergarten are alternately carried on in a sitting, and in a standing or walking position, for the sake of a salutary change, and are partly such as can. without special training, be guided by any good teacher; namely, singing; the reciting of child-like poetry committed to memory by means of the teacher's frequent repetition; light gymnastics, marching exercises, and easy ball plays; acting the doings of men and animals ; all these accompanied from time to time with song, or turned into object lessons by frequent conversation on the things men- tioned or represented; also amusing employment with playthings, called gifts, of which there are several sets. (See (itiTs.) The guidance of these occupations requires a practical training, on the part of the teat her, and a theoretical study which never can lie too thorough, if the pupil's mental and moral development is to become what Froebel intended it to be. Each Of these t ixercist b serves a threefold purpose,- to produce forms of beauty, forms of life (such as re- semble things that occur within the child's ex- perience), and tonus of knowledge (such as may lead to a knowledge of the qualities, quantities and actions of objects'. The child itself is to produce these forms; the teacher is not to teach them, but to lead his pupil by suggestions con- veyed in questions or conversation, so that the child may become inventive. To do this properly, Froebel has advised a method based on the law of contraries and their combination into a higher unit; but the teacher is to abstain from all learned lore from using abstract expressions. Abstract notions and words are severely banished from the kindergarten; it is merely concrete KINDERGARTEN 50S facts, which the child can learn through the senses, and can clothe in its own language, that can become familiar to it by its own mental assimilation. Neither is discipline to be main- tained by authority or by any mechanical means; but by the suggestions of the teacher, and by the pupils'own absorption in the interest of their occupations. Thus children are, at an early age, enabled to discipline themselves through pleasant employment, to submit to the will of the majority of their equals, on the one hand, or to assert, on the other, their own free volition, if they can induce others to agree with them. Thus, they are to take their first lessons in moral self-govern- ment, An objection has been urged to the general introduction of the kindergarten as being to.) costly; but experience has established the indis- putable fact, that a good kindergarten need cost no more than the best primary school. The genuine kindergartner — and none but such ought to be employed — can superintend more than a hundred children at a time, provided she begin with no more than twenty, adding twenty more as soon as she has a good assistant able to replace her ; and again twenty more, and so on. whenever one more assistant is prepared to take her place. Such assistants may be pupils of the training or normal school classes, who wish to acquire the art of infant education, and heed not be paid for their assistance. These pupil- teachers will not, of course, by merely six months' help in this way, be fully able to conduct a kindergarten independently ; but they will learn enough to be valuable assistants, and to become good educators as mothers. This is not merely an economical measure, but is sustained by peda- gogical principles. The little pupils of a kinder- garten, from four to seven years old, will form several grades, that can simultaneously be en- gaged only in certain occupations; while, in all others, they must be separately employed. As, then, divisions into grades are indispensable, and the principal teacher must go from one to the other, she can leave all the grades under the guidance of proficient assistants, taking the pupil-teachers along from division to divi- sion, thus affording them an opportunity to witness the greatest variety of exercises possible within a short space of time, and to practice every one under her direction. Besides, she can hardly fail to receive valuable support in the singing, articulation, and gymnastic exer- cises, from the talents of some of her assistants. But even more important is the following con- sideration. It is almost impossible to carry on A genuine kindergarten successfully without the exercise of a wide-spread and lively interest in it among the women, especially the mothers, of the community. So long as they do not fre- quently visit the institute, they will not fully appreciate its purposes and results ; they will insist that their children should begin to learn the alphabet; and, if that is not done they will Serhaps take them away to some primary school. lany kinderyarlnws of our count ry yield to the demand of the mothers, and make the alpha- bet and ciphering a part of the regular kinder- garten exercises ; but tliis is a positive loss to the children. A prize essay on the question, "How may the kindergarten be organically connected with the (Public) School," was, a short time ago, called for by the Education Society of Germany; and the prize was awarded to Dr. A. Hicli'ter, of Leipsic. The reasons for rendering the kinder- garten a universal institution, which are given in this essay and in several others that were honorably mentioned, are here presented. If it be granted that the first education, imparted through a good kindergarten, is far more effect- ive than that obtained in a common elementary school, it will not do to combine a number of pupils that have completed their kindergarten course, with such pupils as come directly from the nursery or from the street. The two sets of pupils will form a most incongruous body. The former, possessing a more or less harmonious development of all their powers, and a certain degree of self-activity and self-control, admit of a more rapid course of primary teaching and more advanced methods of instruction than would be proper for children entirely untrained. These pupils would, therefore, be greatly re- tarded in their progress by being subjected to the same treatment as the other pupils, who come to school with an insufficient preparation, who are, perhaps, unable to understand what the teacher says, and to make themselves under- stood by him (or her) , who need a rigid uniform- ity of mechanical discipline and a preparation of their powers for the school exercises. This difference must remain the same in the primary, grammar, and high school classes; for, in all. the kindergarten pupils must, on account of their self-activity and self-control, need a different management from that of the others. Hence the need of affording to all the children who at- tend the elementary school, a preliminary course of training by means of kindergarten exercises. A general introduction of this system is impos- sible until normal schools afford the instruction requisite to prepare teachers for the work. American teachers have already recognized the value of the system. At a meeting of the Na- tional Educational Association, held in Elmira, in 1873, resolutions were adopted, (1) recom- mending the kindergarten "as a potent means for the elevation of primary education, and for the development and promulgation of the prin- ciples of sound educational psychology"; (2) ur- ging " upon the attention of all practical educa- tors and boards of education the importance of initiating experiments with the intent to deter- mine the best methods of connecting the kin- dergarten with our current educational system"; and (3) suggesting that "all teachers study Froe- bel's system, in order to be instrumental in founding such institutions, and to hasten the advent of their general introduction." Efforts have been made by the (ierman -American Tecucheri Association to found a normal and 504 KINDERGARTEN KIN DERM ANN model school for the purpose of" training teach- ers ftff the management of kindergartens. The report of the U, S. Commissioner of Educa- tion for L874 enumerated 55 of these schools in various parts of the United States, in which then- were L25 teachers, and 1,636 pupils. The experimental introduction of the system in con- nection with the public schools of St. Louis, in 1st i. is represented as being eminently sue ful. At the date of the lasl annual report of the superintendent of schools in that city (1st i — 5), there were 7 kindergartens connected with as many of the public schools; and the whole number of kindergarten pupils was 457. The following advantages are claimed for the system: (1) The kindergarten children submit more readily to school discipline; ('-) the aver- age intelligence of the pupils is greatly superior to that of children who (Miter school without previous training; they are more accurate in observation, and Beize ideas with more rapidity and exactness than other children ; (3) in addi- tion to superior general development, children thus trained show special aptitude for arith- metic, drawing, and natural sciences, and can express what they know with greater correct- ness and fluency. In Germany, where there are, as yet, no kinder- gartens dependent on the state, and only a few dependent on communities, efforts are being made by the National Education Society to in- duce the governments to authorize a general in- troduction of the system, with all th ■ steps pre- liminary thereto. An experiment lias also been beimnin Austria and in Wiirtemberg, to establish Froebel's Labor School. This is a continuation of the kindergarten occupations through higher stages of development. Only about one half of the school time is spent in the ordinary kind of primary and secondary instruction ; the re- mainder is devoted to recreation and occupa- tions, such as singing, declamation, drawing, modeling, gymnastics, geometrical object lessons and exercises, paste-board work, wood work, and metal work, etc. This experiment has also l> sen carrie 1 on for the last five years, at a German- American school in Newark, N. J., on a smaller scale, but with very Satisfactory results. Owing to the necessity of special skill and training in order to Cdndud a kindergarten efficiently, many persons who undertake this work fail, through want of preparation, to pro- duce the results designed. In this way spurious kindergartens have caused much complaint, and broughl considerable discredit upon the system. The test, of a good kindergarten is its obvious effeel upon the pupils, in exciting cheerfulness, intelligence, activity, and a fondness for the school work, £f, on the other hand, the children dislike the School, il is an evidence that there is a want of tact and skill in its management. There may. indeed. exist in Buch a, school all the oeenpat ions recom- mended by Froebel, and each may be used ac- cording to the established formula : bul if the spirit in which the exercises arc to be conducted is missing, it' the treatment is mechanical, all Un- moral influence which should spring from the cheerful self-activity of the child, is lost. If too, the teacher shows always the calm and dignified deportment of the ordinary class disciplinarian, instead of entering with all her heart into the harmless joy from which the child's self-govern- ment is to take a fruitful growth, and calming only the troublesome excess of this mirth by now and then a look, a word, or a gesture, she is not well fitted for her calling. A genuine kinder- garten teacher will, like the best of mothers, take a lively interest in remedying, as far as possible, the bodily, mental, and moral defects of every child under her care. — uncleanly and disorderly habits, want of attention, stammering, color- blindness, a bad gait or posture, imperfect artic- ulation, etc. She will, in this way, earn the gratitude of the children and their parents, and exert a great moral influence. Her efforts in this respect are, in a great measure, facilitated by the pliability of the child's powers, as well as by its desire to avoid ridicule, and to enjoy the society of its comrades. Abundant experience teaches, that there need be no incurable ct of the above kind among children who have the full use of their senses; that till children may learn drawing, singing, correct enunciation, geometry, and many other aits and accomplish- ments that are. by common prejudice, pro- nounced attainable by those only who are specially gifted. It is evident, therefore, that a kinder- gartner can hardly be too well educated; and, also, that no education repays so abundantly its cost. — See Friedkich Froebel, GesammeUe padagogische Schrifien, herausgeg. v. Wichard Lange (Berlin, 1862); II. Marenholtz-Buelow, Die Arbeit und die neue Erziehung nach Froe- beVs Methode ((iottingen, 1875); II. Gold- ammkk, T)er Kindergarten (Berlin, L874); Lina Morgenstern, Das Parodies der KindneU, (Leipsic, isTI ) ; A. Kokiu.kk. Der Kindergarten in siim in Wesen dargestellt{ Weimar, 1868); and Die Praacis des Kindergartens ('•> vols.. Wei- mar) : also, the monthly periodical Erziehung der Gegenwart, published in Dresden, which is chiefly devoted to the cause of llie kindcrgar- ten. The chief English publications are: An. Dodai, The Kindergarten (N. V.. 1871); W. N. Haii.man. Kindergarten Cutture{Cm., L874); II. Hoffmann, Kindergarten 7oys(N.Y., 1*7-1 ; Arc Kokiii.kk. Kindergarten Education (N.Y.. L876) ; M. Kraub-Boelte and John Cradr, Kindergarten Guide(H. 5T.,1876); Mrs. Hor- ace Mann and Euz. 1'. Peabody, Moral Outturn of Infancy ii/r (N. Y.. L876) ; Jos. Payne, Froebel <>■ Kinder- garten System (London, 1874); Exrz. P. Peat body, Education of the Kinaergartner (PittS; burgh, L875) ; Johannes and Bertha Ro*jge, Guide tn tin- English Kindergarten (London, L875); Edw.Wibbe, The Paradise of Child- hood (Springfield, L869). KINDERMANN, Ferdinand, one of the greatest educational reformers of Austria, born at kniiigswaldc. in Bohemia, Dec. 27..1740, died May 25., L801. When he was appointed, in KI\<; COI.KKCK KNOX COLLEGE 505 1771, parish priest of Kaplitz, he found the school of th.it imvu. as well as the schools of Bohemia in general, in a mosl deplorable condi- tion. There was no discipline whatever, the methods of instruction were entirely mechanical, and there was scarcely any attempt at classifica- tion. Kindermann resolved to make the refor- mation of the school the work of his lite : ami. as he says himself ,' the first day which he gave to his pastoral duties, was also the first dayde'voted to the school, lie taught the teachers how to in- struct, and the children how to learn; and by equally enlisting the interest of teacher, children, and parents, met in a short time with complete success. The school of Kaplitz became famous throughout Bohemia, and even beyond its bor- ders; and priests and teachers were sent there from various towns to study the method which had achieved so great a result. In 177"), Kin- dermann was appointed chief superintendent of all the German schools of Bohemia, and coun- cilor of the school commission. In the same year, he also became professor of pedagogy at one of the gymnasia of Prague. In his new position, he devoted his attention chiefly to the develop- ment of the normal school of Prague, through which he exerted the most beneficent influence upon the other Bohemian schools. The empress Maria Theresa acknowledged his services in many ways, and raised him to the knighthood, un- der the title of Knight von Schulstein. Later, he was appointed bishop of Leitmeritz. — The method which Kiiiilennann followed and recom- mended was, on the whole, that of Felbiger (q. v.); but, in many respects, he pursued his own way, laying special stress on the catechetical method. His desire to increase the prosperity of the people by the improvement of education, induced him to train the children of his school in spinning, sewing, knitting, and also in agricult- ure, horticulture, and the rearing of silk-worms. He thus became the founder of the industrial- school system in his country. — See Aigner, Der Volks- und Industriereformator Bischof Ferdi- nand. Kindermann (1867). KING COLLEGE, at Bristol, Tennessee, founded in 1808, is under the control of Presby- terians. It is supported by tuition fees, varying from 812 to $25 per term of 20 weeks, and the proceeds of an endowment of 830,000. It has a preparatory anil a collegiate department. I n 1875 — (i, there were -1 instructors and 76 stu- dents. The Rev. James 1). Tadlock has been the president from the commencement of the institution. KING'S COLLEGE (London) is erected on a site which was given by the ( 'town, on the east side of Somerset House, in the Strand. Its foundation was owing to the strong dissatisfac- tion which many felt at the total exclusion of religious teaching from University College, which had opened its classes in 1828, three years earlier than King's. Accordingly, students at King's are instructed in the doctrines of the Church of England; although a liberal conscience clause is in operation, which enables Jews and other religion- ists to share largely in the benefits of the institu- tion. No person, however, \\ ho is not a member of the ( ihurch of England can hold any office in dm College, witli the exception of the professorships of oriental literature and modern languages, ill other respects, K ing's • 'ollege docs not materially differ from University College, originally partak- ing, like it, of the proprietary character, and ex- hibiting tb the new . lege e same adherence to the old studies and There are six departments in the col- namely, (1) Theological ; (2) General I iter- at tire and Science; (.'!) Applied Sciences, chiefly engineering; (4) Medicine; (5) Evening Classes ; (6) School for boys. The arrangements of the college are wholly under the supervision of tho principal, the Rev. Canon Harry. There is also a head-master of the school. The students at King's are either matriculated or occasional students ; the former being those who are admitted to the regular and prescribed courses of study, the latter those who take such classes only as suit their purposes. In Lent, term, 187;"), there were, in the six departments, the following matriculated students and pupils; (1)24; (2) 47; (3) 70 ; (4) 135 ; (5) 86 ; (6) 553, If to these be added 38 occasional students in the morning, and -147 occasional students in the evening, the total will be 1,400. This total would be much increased, if account were taken of cer- tain evening lectures not yet included in the regular system, such as the Gilbart lectures on banking, largely attended by clerks. — The Ap- plied Sciences department is highly esteemed by professional men, and, for some years past, has been attended by from 75 to 95 students: It has, besides other appliances, two good work- shops, one for working in wood, and the other for working in metal. There are about 48 pro- fessors, besides lecturers, demonstrators, and the masters in the school. Many of these and of the old students are men of great eminence. Sir Charles AVheatstone, the joint-inventor of the electric telegraph, was the professor of experi- mental philosophy from 1834 until his death, iii 1875. The management of the college rests with a council of 42 governors. Of these. 21 are appointed by the proprietors, six retiring every year. The remainder are either, ex officio, gov- ernors or life-governors appointed by the visitor, The college buildings, with fittings and addi- tional land, cost £180,000. The endowments produce a yearly income of £880, which issue: dally appropriated to certainfixed purposes. The ordinary expenditure is, therefore, defrayed by the fees, three-fourths of which art- paid to the professors, the other fourth being retained l, v the college. — The college has a hospital near Lincoln's^Inn Fields; it has also a chapel for divine service on Sundays and week-days. A small number of students reside within the col; lege. -See the College Calendar, and the Fifth Report of the Royal Commission <>/' Scientific Instruction. KNOX COLLEGE, at Calesburg, 111., was founded in 1836, and fully organized in 1841, The first class graduated in L846. It is non- >06 LAFAYETTE COLLEGE LANCASTER The productive buildings funds amount to , grounds, etc., are sectarian $110,000; and the valued at $190,000. The libraries contain 6,600 volumes. There are also cabinets of natural his- tory. The regular tuition fees vary from $20 to $30 per annum. The institution comprises a col- lege, a ladies' seminary, and an academy, the first of which includes a classical and a scientific course. In 1875 — 6, there were 12 instructors, and 32 f) students, of whom 41 were in the college. The presidents have been as follows : the Rev. Hiram H. Kellogg, to 1845; the Rev. Jonathan Blanchard, to 1858 ; the Rev. Harvey ( 'urtiss, to 1863 ; the Rev. Wm. S. Curtiss, D. D., to 1868; the Rev. John P. Gulliver, I). D., to 1872 ; Prof. Albert Ilurd (acting), to 1874 ; and Newton Bateman, LL. D., the present incum- bent (1876). LAFAYETTE COLLEGE, at Easton, Pa., tinder Presbyterian control, was chartered in 1826, and fully organized in 1832, with the usual classical course of study preparatory to the learned professions. The Pardee Scientific Department was added in 1866, through the munificence of Mr. Ario Pardee of Hazleton, whose gifts for this purpose amount to nearly $500,000. The college has seven dormitories, four of them, known as students' homes, having also families residing in them, and providing board and a home for such as desire it. It has five buildings of instruction and manipulation. The Pardee Hall of Technical Instruction, built and fitted up at a cost of $250,000, was dedicated in 1 873. The chemical laboratories are perhaps unpqualed in this country, and those of mining and metallurgy, mechanics and physics, are of the best. The department of natural history- contains the most complete collection of the plants of Pennsylvania. The college has libraries of over 20.000 volumes, and is especially rich in the department of Anglo-Saxon and early En- glish. It maintains a reading room, in which, Besides papers and periodicals, the reference books most frequently needed in each study are kept for constant use. The methods of instruc- tion in the two first years are those of the gym- nasium. The classes are kept in small divisions; and short lessons are thoroughly learned, and accompanied by many exercises of practice, and elementary explanation, often repeated. In the two last years, there is more attempt to stimulate general investigation, and to communicate ad- vanced thought and methods by lectures, and by requiring the preparation of essays of research. It now offers five courses, of four years each; namely, classical, scientific, engineering, mining and metallurgy, and chemistry, leading respect- ively to the degrees of Bachelor of Arts. Bachelor of Philosophy, Civil Engineer, Mining Engineer, and Analytical Chemist. Partial courses may also be taken, and opportunities are afforded for postgraduate study. A three years' postgraduate course leads to the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. A law department was opened in 1S75. The cost of tuition is from $45 to -ST.") per year. In L875— 6, there were 28 instructors and 835 students in the academic departments. The college has been honorably ociated with the progress of meteorological Bcience through the labors of Prof. J. H. Coffin, LP D., by wl i the government observations and the collections of the Smithsonian Institution have been here reduced and prepared for publi- cation ; also, since the election of Prof. F. A. March. 1 855, with the study of Anglo-Saxon and English, in connection with comparative philol- ogy and history, in which it has been a leader (see Anglo-Saxon, and English, thk Stout of); it is also distinguished for its courses in the Latin and Greek of Christian writers, established, in 1872, by an endowment from Mr. Benj. Doug- lass of New York City. Since 1864, under the presidency of the Rev. W. C. Cattell. I >.!>.. it has also become a center of scientific and technical study for the coal and iron districts of Pennsyl- vania anil New Jersey. The presidents of the college have been as follows : the Rev. George Junkin, D. D., 1832—41, and 1844—8; the Rev. J. W. Yeomans, D. D., 1841—4; the Rev. C W. Nassau, D. D., 1849 ; the Rev. D.V. Meliean, I). I).. L850— 57; the Rev. 6. W. Mc Phail, D. D., 1857—63; and William U. Cattell, I). I)., since 1863. LA GRANGE COLLEGE, at Li Grange, Mo., was chartered in 1859. and is under the control of the Baptist denomination. The college has valuable meteorological, astronomical, chem- ical, and electrical apparatus, a good niineralogical and geological cabinet, and a growing library. Tt is chiefly supported by tuition fees varying from $24 to $40 per year. During the present year an endowment of about $25,000 has been secured. Candidates for the ministry receive tuition free. There is a primary, a preparatory, and a collegiate department, the last having a classical and a scientific course. Both sexes are admitted. In 1874 — 5, there were 10 professors, 143 students, and 42 alumni (24 males and 18 females). J. P. Cook, LL. D., is (1876) the president. LANCASTER, Joseph, an English edu- cator, horn in London in 177^; died in New York, Oct. 24., 1838. He was the prom o t e r , though, probably, not the originator, of the sys- tem of instruction or school organization which, for a long time, p aced under his name. Of an imaginative and excitable disposition, Lincaster, at an early age, showed the enthusiasm of a true zealot. Thus, when only fourteen years old, upon reading Clarkson's Essay on tin 1 Sinn' Trade, he was seized with the desire to educate the Macks, so that they might be able to read the Scriptures, and. 1o thai end. ran away from home, carrying a Bible and a copy of J'i^/rin/'s LANCASTER 507 Prxtgreas in his pocket. The captain of the vessel, however, in which he proposed ti> sail, prudently sent liini hack. At sixteen, he joined the society . Bartlett, A.M., ted a second time, in I 876. LANGUAGE (Lat. lingua, the tongue, speech i. according to the ordinary acceptation of tli • word, is the utterance of articulate sounds for the purpose of expressing thought. This mode of expression constitutes one of the char- acteristic faculties of man : since no community of human beings, in historic times, has been found entirely destitute of language: and abroad line of demarcation separates every kind of human Bpeech of which we have any knowledge from all the moles of expression used by brutes. But though common to men of all degrees of culture, and. as far as we know, in till periods of time, language presents an infinite number of varieties. The further we remove from civiliza- tion, the greater is the number of different lan- guages that are met with. "At the first attainable period of our knowledge df it, whether by actual record, or by the inferences of the comparative Student, it is in a state of almost endless sub- division. The divaricating forces in linguistic growth are in the ascendant ; dialects go on multiplying, by the action of the same causes that had already produced them. Hut wherever civilization is at work, an opposite influence is powerfully operating. Oul of the congeries of jarring tribes are growing greal nations: out of the Babel of discordant dialects arc growing languages of wider and constantly extending unity. The cultivated languages have been and arc extending their sway, crowding mil of exist- ence the patois which had grOM a up under the old order of things, and gaining Buch advantage that men are lie-inning to dream of a time when one language may he spoken all over the earth." i \\ bitney, in Life and Growth of I.'. LA SALLE COLLEGE, in Philadelphia. Pa., a Roman Catholic institution, founded in L863, is under the control of the Christian 1 brothers. It is Bnpported by tuition fees, varying from $10 to $20 per quarter. It has a primary, an academic, a commercial, and a collegiate de- partment. The degrees conferred are A. 1!.. B. S., and A. M. In 1875 — 6. there were 200 students 7 1 collegiate, '■>'■'< commercial, and 93 academic). The presidents of the college have hern. Brother Oliver. Brother Noah. Brother Joachim, and Brother Stephen (the present incumbent). LATIN LANGUAGE, one of the two clas- sical languages, which as the language of one of the greatest empires of the world, and of one of the richest of literatures, and subsequently as the official language of the Catholic church, the literary language of western Europe, and the mother of the Romanic languages, has been among the foremost agents in developing modern ci\ ilization. The name is derived from the I-at- ins. or inhabitants of Litiuni. in central Italy. by whom it 18 believed by some to have been Book n as earl) as fifteen centuries before the Christian era. According to the researches Of modern philology, the Latin is < f the two branches of the Old Italic language, which. I with the Greek. German, Sanskrit, and others, is regarded as one of the chief divisions into which the lndo-( Jertnanic languages (q. v.) arc divided. The close resemblance of the Lit in. as well as the other (Cnibro-Samnitie) branch of the Old Italic language, to the Greek has led some philologists to assume that both the Italic and the Greek language sprang from one branch, now lost, which was co-ordinate with the San- skrit, tier man, and other divisions of the Ludo- Genuanic. The subjection of Italy to the rule of Rome, which was situated in Latium, gradually made Latin the language of all Italy. After the name of the people to whom it owes its eminent position in history, it has also been called the Roman language. For a long time, the Romans remained without a literature, the earliest work which is now extant dating about 240 B. 0. Of the preceding, ante-literary period of the lan- guage nothing is now left but a few fragments of the Salian songs, of the chant of the Arval brethren, and of the law of the twelve tables, be- sides a few epitaphs. During the next two centuries. Latin literature was gradually devel- oped, until, in the writings of Cicero, it reached its classic period. Though the distinction be- tween the elegant language of the educated classes [lingua urbana, wbanitas) and the lan- guage of the common and lower classes of the people (lingtta rustica or vulgaris ruslicitas) was early and broadly drawn, the literary lan- guage was and remained substantially the same ; and the natives of the provinces of Spain and northern Africa among the Roman writers used the same language as the natives of the city, although, in regard to the spoken language, the latter claimed the same prerogative as the mod- ern Parisians in regard to French. In the first century of the Christian era, the linguistic mate- rial was considerably enlarged by means of com- pounds and derivatives ; in the course of the second century, the admission of a large number of archaic, ante-Ciceronian words and forms and of Grecisins, put an end to the classic period of Roman literature. After the beginning of the third century, the purity of the language and lit- erature rapidly declined. The language of the common people invaded the literary language, provincialisms and Grecisms became more and more frequent ; and although there was a revival of pure Latin in the literature of the fourth and fifth centuries, the spoken language, in constant- contact with, and under the influence of, the » tongues of the barbaric conquerors of the em- pire, gradually succumbed to that series of gram- matical and verbal changes which formed the transition into the Romanic languages. In the mean while, Latin had become the liturgical and official language of the I 'liristian ( Jhurch; and, as the modern languages which arose in different countries of Europe remained for centuries de- void of a literary character, Latin became the common language of the schools and literatures of western Europe. It was the medium of instruc- tion, not only in the convent, and in the cathedral and collegiate schools, but also in the town LATIN LANGUAGE 511 schools, which in the 12th century, began to arise by the side of, and frequently in opposition to, the church schools. It was this latter class of schools for which the name Latin schools (q. v.) came into use. The Latin of the middle ages [Laiinitas media and Latmitcu in/nun) was far inferior to that of the classic period of Ro- man literature; and, from the 6th to the 14th century, not one writer can be found who, for the elegance of his diction, can be regarded as a classic. The revival of classical studies in the 14th and 15th centuries caused, in literature, ] a return from the Latin of the Church to the language of Cicero and the Augustan age, which many writers of that period strove, with some success, to reproduce in its classic purity. The Reformation, in the Kith century, banished the use of Latin from divine service in Protestant churches; but Latin schools were as rigorously maintained in Protestant as in Catholic coun- tries. The speaking of Latin was common among the citizens and mechanics of towns ; and it is reported of the family of the learned printer Henry Stephens that not only his wife, but even his domestics talked Latin. Special importance was attributed to the speaking of Latin in the schools of the Jesuits ; and also in Protestant states, like Prussia and Saxony, the gymnasia were, and partly still are, expected to train their pupils in speaking and writing Lat- in. In modern times, the growing opposition to the privileged position of classical studies in the educational systems of civilized nations, has diminished the study of Latin as well as that of Greek, but the former still maintains a promi- nent place in the higher institutions of learning throughout the civilized world, and, even in the present century, though in a decreasing ratio, is still used in scientific works. As the lan- guage of diplomacy it began to give way to the French in the course of the 1 Tth century ; but, in some parts of' Europe, it was still, in the 18th century, the language of the educated classes and of political life. Thus, the Huii- garian Diet, in the middle of the 18th century, received Maria Theresa, when she personally ap- peared to ask its support, with the memorable acclamation: Moriamur pro rege nostro Maria Theresia. In the Roman Catholic ( 'hurch, Latin maintains unimpaired the high authority ac- corded to it as the language of the Church ; and, as such, it is still used by the Pope in his com- munications with the bishops and church mem- bers of all nationalities, and by the councils of the ( nurch in their discussions and decrees. The Latin alphabet derives a special interest from the fact that it has been adopted for the English language and all the Romanic languages, and has thus become the medium of written ex- pression for the thought of a large portion of the civilized world. Its early history is still far from being fully elucidated: but recenl researches, especially those of Kirehhoff i Abhandlungen der Academie der Wissenschaften vu Berlin, 1863) have shed considerable light on the subject. It is now commonly assumed that the I*itin charac- 512 LATIN" LANGUAGE lers are the offspring of the vEolo-"Doric variety of the Greek alphabet. According to < Scero and Quintilian, the number of letters in the old Lat- in was 21, but only 20 appear in the earliest documents. One letter appears, therefore, to have disappeared, which, according to Mommsen ami Lenormant, was Z. The letter C, as its place in the alphabet, as well as its early pro- nunciation, indicates, was originally identical with the Greek F; as it gradually assumed the sound K. it caused the introduction of the letter G. which was not in the earliest alphabet, as well as the disappearance of the letter K, which maintained itself in only a very few ab- breviations. In regard to the pronunciation of Latin, grammarians, until late in the present century, were accustomed to remark that the an- cient mode of pronouncing it was almost wholly lost, and that modern scholars had applied to it those principles which regulate the pronuncia- tion oi their own languages. The obscurity in which Latin pronunciation was believed to be enveloped, has, to a great extent, been removed by the learned works of Corssen (Veber Aus- sprache, Vocalismus und Betonung der lateini- schen Sprache, 2 vols., 2d edit., 1808 — 70) and Others; and the leading representatives of Latin philology are approaching a remarkable unanim- ity in regard to this subject. It is regarded as probable that the Latin vowels had about the same sound as the corresponding vowels have in the Italian and German alphabets, with the ex- ception of 0, which may have resembled more the sound of that letter in lord, than in note. The y, which only occurs in won Is of Greek origin. sounds like the Greek v, the German ii, and the French u. In pronouncing each of the diph- thongs, the Romans distinctly uttered both of the vowels composing it. Thus in neuter each of the two vowels was distinctly heard, just as in the pronunciation of this diphthong in the modern Italian and Portuguese. The letter <■ was always pronounced like k\ the g was always hard as in give; final m had an obscure sound, perhaps the nasal sound of the French, as in imia; s was always like the Spanish s, having the sound of ss in miss; and pn, ch, th were, as the characters indicate, pronounced as the as- pirates p, /,-, and /. In its rules for accentuation and the quantity of syllables, the Latin resembles the < rreek ; and it was thereby, like its classic sis- ter, enabled to develop in its poetry a rhythmical form which by Ear exceeds, in point of beauty, anything that is found in any modern language. The inflectional part of the language, both in the declension of nouns, pronouns, adjectives, and numerals, and in the conjugation of verbs, also characterized the Latin at first sight as a sister of the Greek, having many points of resem- blance. We meet with striking similarities in the rules pertaining to cases, numbers, genders, per- sons, voices, and modes, together with extensive verbal affinities. The later development of liter- ature among the Romans deprived the Latin of many 01 the forms which Still distinguish the Greek, and gave to the language a touch of that utilitarian character which characterized the people. Thus, there is no dual number, no middle voice distinguished in its form from the passive, and no optative mood. Besides, in both the active and the passive voice of the Latin verb, there are fewer tense-forms than are found in the Greek. An additional case in the declen- sion of singular norms— the ablative (which of all the Lndo-Germanic languages the Latin and Old Bactrian alone have preserved), is a small offset in favor of the Latin, as far as fullness of inflectional forms is concerned. The study of Latin is generally begun by En- glish students at an early age. It almost invari- ably precedes that of the Creek, and generally the Study of any foreign modern language. In many cases, the study of English grammar is either entirely postponed in favor of Latin, or only its most elementary rules are taught. At the outset, the student becomes aware that he is entering a new world of thought. The nouns which he has met with in his English reading, he has found to be subject to but very few changes. When the word father was used in a possessive sense, it became father's ; if used in the plural, fathers; and in the plural and pos- ave, fathers'. All the various relations, ex- cept the possessive, which a noun, either in the singular or plural number, may occupy in re- gard to other parts of the sentence, he finds, are expressed by means of prepositions; as, of the father, to the father, with the father, etc The Latin grammar presents to him quite an array of different forms; as, pater, patris, patri, pa- in in. etc. Thus he sees that the modifications of thought which in English arc chiefly expressed by means of prepositions, are indicated in I .at in by the varying inflections of the root. It re- quires considerable effort on the part of the youthful scholar to grasp this new idea, and it is easily seen that this effort must tend to develop and strengthen the thinking powers of the stu- dent. — However much the methods of teaching Latin may differ in certain details, no one should dispense with a thorough drilling in the inflectional part of the language and in the principal rules of syntax. Exercises in translat- ing from Latin into English, and from KngHati into Latin, are now quite generally connected with the very first grammar lessons. In accord- ance with the principles of modern educational writers, the exercises in translation are now, from the beginning, very properly given in most of the text-Looks in the shape of complete sen- tences. \s it is the desire of every teacher to prepare his pupils for the reading of the Latin classics, a selection of the translation exercises from classic writers has obvious advantages. The mastery system, proposed by T. Prendergast, in The Mastery of "Languages (London, L872), inverts this process, by requiring the pupils to study sentences instead of words, committing to me ry carefully constructed expressions, and learning the inflectional forms by comparison. This process approximates to the natural method of learning language, and, it is contended, leads LATIN LANGUAGE 513 to a fluency and case m its use which cannot be acquired in any other way. (See R. II. Quick, First Steps in Teaching u Foreign Language, London, L875.) In the system of T. K. Arnold (q. v.). the inflectional peculiarities are learned gradually, as in the Ollendorff system, and al- most the tirst step taken by the pupil is an ex- ercise in construction. — The very large extent to which words of Latin origin have been re- ceived into English can be turned to great advantage by the intelligent teacher. But few words will he met with in the Latin exercises. which arc not etyniologically related to words in the English dictionary: and a constant ref- erence to this kinship not oidy facilitates the acquisition by the student of a copious Latin vocabulary, but at the same time enlarges his knowledge of English. The introduction of young students who have sufficiently mastered the elements of the language, to the Latin clas- sics is considerably obstructed by the want of good juvenile works in the literature, of Rome. If that literature ever had its Barbaulds and Edge- worths, their fame has perished with their works. 'The books which for centuries have been the first to be read in Latin schools, — Cornelius Nepos and Caesar, were certainly not written for boys and girls. Even in Rome, they were as little read by children of ten, eleven, or twelve years, as our children of that age are expected to read Shake- speare, I ribbon, or Macaulay; and it is. therefore, undoubtedly a pertinent question, from an edu- cational point of view, whether it is consistent with common sense to expect English boys and girls to read and appreciate writers whom the youth of the same age in their own country would have found too difficult to understand. Various attempts have been made, in modern times, to supply this want, and to provide young Latin students with suitable reading. Sometimes modern imitations of the ancient Latin have been selected for the purpose. Such, for example, is Willymot's Century of Maturinus Gorderius Col- loquies, long familiarly known in Scotland under the name of Cordery. < ertain portions of the dia- logues of Erasmus have the same object in view. As the most successful attempt of the kind, many Latin scholars regard a little work entitled He Viris [II a sir Hi a a Urbis Rovkp, and commonly known in the United States as Viri Romos, by L'Homond, a French professor of the eighteenth century. This work contains the most interest- ing stories related by Livy, Valerius Maximus, Floras, and other eminent writers, as much as possible in the very words of those writers, and is still extensively used in the United States Great Britain, France, and, to a less extent, in Germany. Attempts have also been made to epitomize special Latin classics for the use of young students; thus, in recent times, an epitome of Caesar, prepared by Dr. Woodford, classical master in Madras College. St. Andrews, has been in extensive use. Many of the Latin readers also contain attempts of this kind. The number of Latin classics which are commonly read in col- leges and schools, is quite small. Xepos, Caesar, 33 Cicero. Sallust, Livy, and Tacitus, among the prose writers; and Horace, Virgil, and Ovid among the poets, are universally regarded as the most suitable for this purpose. If we add to them the aames of Plautus, Terence, Lucretius, Catullus, Tibullus, Propertius, Birtius, and the unknown authors of the works I), bello Afri- cano, De bello Alexandrino, DebeUo Ilixj>. in intro- ducing a system of examination-., preliminary, middle, and final, as a strict condition of admis- sion to the roll. I landidates are examined by a Committee Of sixteen BOlicitorS, generally chosen from the council of that society, together with the masters of the common law courts. The council also appoint annually three lecturers, by whom lectin.- are delivered to articled clerks. Attendance at these is voluntary, but no solicitor can be admitted without passim.:' the examinations for which they prepare the student. — In duly, i s To, the Legal Education Association, composed of both barristers and solicitors, aud heade 1 by Sir Roundell Palmer, now Lord Selborne, was formed, with the avowed objects of bringing about the establishment of a law university for the education of students intended for the pro- fession of law, and the placing of the admission to both branches of the profession on the basis of a combined test of collegiate education and an examination by a public board of examiners. In every session of parliament, from that time to 1873, they made vigorous efforts to secure these objects by resolutions and bills, an account of which will be found in Mr. Campbell's preface to h\& Abridgment of Austin's Lectures. Since the latter date, attention has been chiefly occupied by the very great changes in the organization of the courts, the methods of procedure, and the fusion of law and equity. The association, however, is still engaged in prosecuting its reforms, which have been materially facilitated by these changes. The law schools of the United States have no historical connection with those already men- tioned. Their existence is due entirely to the wants of that country. Before the Revolution, it was not uncommon for law students who could afford it. to go to the mother country, and prosecute their legal studies there, nominally in the Inns of Court, really in the offices where other English students of the time prepared themselves for the bar; but the number of these was, of course, small, and the bar of the colonies was composed in a large measure, of those who had read only in the office of the nearest practicing attorney. The number of these was comparatively large. In a work published at London in 1790, entitled A Review of the Laws of the United States etc., it is stated that there were at that time three hundred practicing lawyers in ( onnecticut, and that, •'in New York, and from thence through all the northern states, lawyers swarmed." This natu- rally led the attention of thoughtful men to the possibility of improvement in legal education; and dames AYilson,one of the signers of the Declara- tion of Independence, a member of the con- vention which framed the Constitution of the •United States, ami an associate justice of the supreme court, has the honor of having been the first to deliver a formal course of lectures upon American law. He held the law professor- ship in the College of Philadelphia, then the federal capital, and in the winter of 1790 — 91, delivered his first course; a second course was commenced in the following winter, but was never completed. The college became incorporated with the University of Pennsylvania, in April 1 ~ { X1 ; and the law school, for some unexplained reason, was discontinued. The lectures delivered by Judge Wilson are published in his collected works in three volumes, Svo (Philadelphia, 1804). The honor of precedence is Bometimes claimed for the Litchfield School, next to be mentioned. Judge Parker, in his pamphlet on the Harvard law school (Loston, 1871), says that Timothy Reeve established the ('onnecticut school in I 782 or 1 784 But there is no reason to believe that the instruction given by Judge Reeve in the earlier years differed in any respect from that LAW SCHOOLS 51V f usually given by lawyers in their offices, till Judge Gould became associated with him in 1798. The Philadelphia school was at least the first one formally incorporated, while that of Judge Reeve was the iirst successful one. It was afterwards continued by the lion. James Gould, author of Gould's Treatise on Pleading. This school existed for more than thirty years. It was then removed to Northampton, and soon afterward discontinued, the professor in charge, John Hooper Ashniun, having been elected to a position at Harvard. The Litchfield school had students from all parts of the Union, but its numbers were never large. The attendance at no time exceeded 50 ; and the total number of its students, from 1798 to 1827, was 730, or an average of about 25 per annum. The third law school, and the oldest now in existence in the United States, is that of the Law Department of Harvard University. A single professorship was established in 1815; and the school, in 1817. Until 1829, its success was very meager; but, in that year, a gift from the Hon. Nathan Dane established a new professorship to which Judge Story was elected. Professor Ashmun was as- sociated with him; and the Harvard School sprung at once to the position which it has ever since retained, at the head of American law schools. Among its professors have been the distinguished legal authors Simon Greenleaf, 1832—48; Theophilus Parsons, 1848—70; and Emory Washburne, 1855 — 7(5; besides many other distinguished men. Several other law schools were started in various parts of the country prior to 1830; but the only oues now surviving without a break of existence are believed to be those of Yale College, 1824, and of the Univer- sity of Virginia. 1 825. The history of the thirty years from 1829 to,59, may be summed up by say- ing that law schools were few and neglected, and that their graduates were but an insignificant mi- nority of the profession. Even the great name and influence of Joseph Story, and the success of the Dane Law School, under his direction, formed but an exception to the rule, without perceptibly mod- ifying the general custom of legal education in private offices. In L842, if we may trust a table published the following year, there were only 10 law schools in nominal existence in the coun- try, with 19 professors among them, and 384 students. No school had more than three teachers; and some of the most frequented, like the University of Virginia, had only one. Harvard had only two, but they were Judge Story and Simon Greenleaf ; and their reputation attracted 115 students, while no other law school in the country had more then 75. The only schools still existing which date from this period are the following : Indiana University, at Bloomington, 1842 ; Louisiana University, at New Orleans, 1847 ; Albany Law School, now a branch of Union University, 1851 ; University of New York, New York City, 1857 ; Cincinnati Law School, 1833; Ohio State and Union Law Col- lege, Cleveland, 1856 ; Cumberland University, Lebanon, Tenn., 1847. The Law School of the University of Michigan, was established in L858, and that of Columbia College, in New York (which had previously been established under Chancellor Kent, but discontinued after a brief existence), dates its present existence from the same year. These are now the two largest schools in the country; and the date of their establishment may well be taken as the period when the more rapid growth of law schools began in this country. — Prior to 1858, the schools cannot be said to have exerted much influence upon legal education. Their attendance was very small, and a course in them was re- garded rather as an accomplishment which might very well be dispensed with, than as a necessary part of the preparation for the actual work of the bar; but, about this time, several causes con- tributed to produce a change in the system of legal education. The rapid development of the "W est, and the number of lawyers required by its business gave a great stimulus to professional education; while it became evident that the tra- ditional method of instruction in offices would not meet the wants of the country, outside of the few great cities. The introduction of codes also, and the change from a very technical practice to an informal one, together with the immense in- crease of decided cases, and the consequent loss of precision and fixity in the law, all combined to make the old method unpopular and unsatis- factory. An increase of teaching facilities was an evident necessity; and the recent growth of law schools has been the result, rather than the cause, of the change which has come over the whole system of professional education. The school at Ann Arbor was also the first to place its tuition fees at a rate within the means of most students, and thus to encourage a very general disposition on their part to take a course in the law school, as, at least, a part of their pro- fessional education. 1 he growth in numbers of this school was entirely unprecedented. — In 1860, as we learn from the United States census of that year, there were in the country twenty law schools, distributed as follows ; five in the state of New York, two in Indiana, and one each in the states of Connecticut, Illinois, Kentucky, Louisiana, Massachusetts, Michigan, Missouri, North Carolina. Ohio. Pennsylvania, Tennessee, Virginia, and. in the District of Columbia. But how little dependence can be placed on such statistics may be learned by comparing this list with the one prepared in the same year for the American Almanac, of 1 861 . This gives nearly the same total number (nineteen), but entirely omits oneof the New York schools, and those in Illinois, Missouri, and the District of Columbia, while adding one in each of the states of Virginia, Kentucky, and Mississippi. A comparison of both lists shows about fifteen schools that had what may be called a substantial existence at that time. Nearly all of these remain in full operation at present. Since that time the number has been more than doubled, as will be seen by the table we give below. Some of the most flourishing schools at present have been estab- 518 LAW SCHOOLS lislied since that period; as. for instance, those al Boston, Chicago, St. Louis, Iowa City, and Washington; and most of the older schools have been reorganized and improved. — The fol- lowing table, will show the remarkable recent increase of these institutions. Year, and source Number of schools Number of teachers Number of students 1842 American Almanac, for 1843 10 19 20 28 30 37 37 38 41 19 43 384 Lmeric&D Almanac, for lnGl) 1,111 1860 !'. s. census) 1870 U.S. Bureau of Edu- 99 129 154 168 181 216 1,653 1871 [do 1H72 do.) 1873 (do 1ST4 (do 1,722 1.976 2.174 2,585 1S75 [do.) 2,631 It will he noticed that, of late years, the number of teachers has increased much more rapidly in proportion than that of students. Organization, Cnurm- <>/ Simli), etc. — Although there is, in the nature of the case, no statutory or other rule prescribing the organization and conduct of American law schools, in general, yel a few prominent features are common to all. The faculty usually consists of lawyers in the active practice of the profession, or judges oc- cupying seats upon the bench; and the time which tiny give to instruction is usually but a 11 pari of that required by their other dut Only a U'\\ schools have yet succee Led in secur- ing to themselves the constant services of one or more resilient professors who devote themselves entirely to the work of instruction in law. — The method of instruction differs in different schools, but is usually either by lectures, or by recitation from text-books. The latter are for the most part th ■ treatises which have been prepared for the use a: practicing lawyers, and very few of them are fil for elementary instruction. Still, the method of recitation is so much more effective than the mere delivery of lectures, that the present tend- ency is to an increased use of textbooks. A few teachers have made an effort to combine the two. thus affording a method really adapted to the use of beginners, or have prepared them- selves printed synopses of their lectures, or col- lections of cases, to be place:! in the hands of th ■ class for study. Attention has recently I drawn to this subject, ami to the great waste of t ime and labor cause 1 by the pre\ ions neglect of all effort toward better teaching. Another defect of the schools may lie trace I to the cireumstae of their origin. As they grew up only to sup- pl •incut the old method of instruction in otlices. bave relied entirely upon such instruction f •!■ the training of students in professional li kbits, and in the details of practice. They have conf niselves exclusively, or almosi so. to the task of assisting the Btudenl in memorizing - of law: ami a course of introductory lect- like the encyclopaedia ami methodology of the German schools is almost unknown. Very few ir students a \ iew of the law as a single and uniform system. The course is composed of detached fragments, in each of which a single topic of law is treated with no reference to others, and no attempt at consistent treat- ment by different teachers. The result, too fre- quently, is, that students go through a course with uo conception of the law as a whole, and with no training of that power of legal judgment which is the first requisite of a lawyer. Admission. — Most of the schools throw open their doors to all comers, and require no partic- ular amount of education for admission. The course is intended to be taken, in all cases, at the very beginning of professional education. None of the schools require any previous knowledge of law. except in cases where students apply for advanced standing. — Two or three of the older schools have recently adopted a rule by which students an- required to present a college diploma, or to pass an equivalent examination. This rule is not to take effect until the next college year. 1*77 — 8; and its operation must be considered as yet an unsolved problem. Length of Course, (tmi Graduation. — The course of study varies in length, from a single session of five or six months to three years. < >nly one or two schools, however, haveas yet adopted the latter. The majority require either a single year of continuous study, or a course nominally of two years, composed of two annual sessions of five or six months each. Tin' advantage of the latter arrangement is supposed to lie in the op- portunity given to students to prosecute their studies in an office between the two sessions. Iu such cases students are usuall} r admitted to the senior class, upon examination, and are thus enabled to reduce the period of actual attendance to one session: but, as methods of instruction im- prove, a tendency is manifest to insist more upon the discipline acquired in the school itself, and to make a constant term of attendance a condi- tion of graduation. The usual degree at gradu- ation is that of LL. B. It was formerly given as a matter of course, after the requisite period of attendance: but. at present, an examination is required in every case. This examination, in some schools, is conducted by the faculty: in others, by a committee appointed by the courts of the state, or in some ol her manlier. The extent and rigor of examinations, of course, vary widely in different institutions; but, upon the whole, they are so much more thorough and severe than those to which applicants were subjected under the former system, that the\ ha\e undoubtedly done much to raise the standard of professional acquirements. —Quite a number of Bchoolshave, by law. the privilege of admitting students to the har of the states iii which they arc situated. In such cases, it is usually sutlicieiit for a graduate to present his diploma, and take the attorneys oath; though, in some instances, the diploma serves merely as a substitute for examination, and the applicant must also prove moral char- acter, etc. A warm controversy has recently been waged, in New York and some other states, iu regard to the value and propriety of this LAW SCHOOLS LEBANON VALLEY COLLEGE f)l!> privilege. The schools themselves are by no means unanimous in desiring it. The better opinion seems to be that it should be granted only in cases where the examination tor the degree is not left with the faculty alone, but is under the direction of the supreme court of the state, or of some other body whose position will guarantee its fairness and impartiality. Where examinations are so conducted, it certainly seems superfluous to require the graduates to appear again before Buch committees as are usually ap- pointed for local examinations. As a general rule. no degree but that of LL. B.. given on tin- com- pletion of the usual course, is bestowed by the American law schools. The Vale School, how- ever, now offers the degree of Master of Law (M. L.) to such students as pursue an advanced course for oue year after taking the bachelors decree, and the degree of Doctor of Civil Law (1). C. L.) for a second year of advanced study. The University of Georgia offers the degree of Doctor of Jurisprudence to such of its graduates as have pursued the practice of law ■with success, and maintained an honorable and virtuous character for seven years after grad- uation. — The subjoined table contains a list of all the important law schools in the United States : School ■a z U V , t or Location E " Z) >> Department O £.5 Univ. of Alabama Tuscaloosa, Ala is 75 1>. — Yale Law School 1824 2 35 1866 1 51 111. Wesleyan Univ.... Blooniington, HI... 1S74 •j 36 Union CoH. of Law. ) Chic. ^N.W.Univ...J Chicago, HI 1873 2 36 McKendree College. .. 1870 2 40 Lincoln University. . . Indiana University. . . Lincoln, HI 1875 1842 2 Bloomington, Hid.. 38 Iowa College of Law 1 Simpson Cent. Coll. J 1ST;, 1 36 Iowa State Univ Iowa City, la 1866 1,2 38 Mt. Pleasant. la 1S71 — ■ lsc,.-, 2 22 Central Univ 1874 2 — Univ. of Louisiana. . . New Orleans, La ... . |S47 2 20 Univ. of Maryland. . . . L812 2 34 B"st"ii t'liivcrsitv. . . . 1872 3 30 Harvard University. . Cambridge, Mass... 1817 2 37 Univ. ■>!' Michigan.... Ann Arbor, Mich... L858 2 — Univ. of Missouri L872 2 21 Washington Univ 1867 2 ' a Albany Law School. . . Albany, N.Y 1*51 1 I 38 Clinton, N.Y — 1 — Columbia College New Tori, N. Y L858 2 32 Univ. of N.Y. City. ... New York, N.Y. 1857 2 36 Kutherford College.. . Happy Home.N.C — — — Trinity, N. C L867 2 40 Cincinnati Law S 1833 2 30 Cincinnati College Ohio State & I'nion 1 Law College ( 1856 2 39 Xenia, 1 872 is;:. 2 4'> Lafayette College Univ. of Pennsylvania •»> Philadelphia. Pa I860 2 40 ( ' 'lumbia. S. C L868 2 40 Neophogan Law Sch. . 1876 1 39 Cumberland Univ Lebanon. Tenn 1*47 1 411 Univ. of Virginia Charlottesville, Ya.. 1826 1 39 Sch. of Law & Equity 1 Wash. ,v Lee Univ.. J 1871 1.2 — Univ. of Wisconsin. . 1 B68 1 38 Columbian University Washington. D. C. . I SCI 2 ::c, Reward University. . . Washington, 1>. 0... L869 2 :s7 Washington, D.c... 1870 2 :;l National Dniversit] . . Washington, D. C. .. 1870 2 30 LAWRENCE, Abbott, born in Groton, Mass.. Dec., Hi., L792 ; died in Boston, Aug. Is., 1855. Be was associated with his brother in business, but turned his attention also to politics, serving as minister to Great Britain from L849 to 1852. His chief claim to remembrance in the educational world was his founding of the Lawrence Scientific School, at Cambridge, in 1847, for which he gave 850,000. LAWRENCE, "Amos, brother of the pre- ceding, a merchant, born in Groton, Mass., April 22., L786; died in Boston. Dec. 31. L852. After a serious illness in 1831, he retired from active business, and devoted the remainder of his life to acts of benevolence, expending in this way over $600,000. Among the educational institu- tions which were the objects of his bounty, may be enumerated the following: Williams College, Mass., to which he gave nearly $.10,000, the Lawrence Academy of Groton, Wabash College, Ind., Kenyon College, Ohio, and the theological seminary at Bangor, Me. LAWRENCE UNIVERSITY OF WIS- CONSIN, at Appleton, A\ is., chartered in 1847, is under Methodist Episcopal control. It is supported by tuition fees, etc.. and the income : of an endowment of about $60,000. It has chemical and philosophical apparatus, a cabinet of minerals, botanical specimens, etc., aud a li- brary of nearly 8,000 volumes. The regular tuition fees vary from $15 to £"21 a year. The university comprises both the College and the Institute, and consists of seven depart- ments, as follows: (1) a preparatory department ; (2) an academic department; (3) a commercial school; (4) a conservatory of music; (5) a school of drawing and painting: (6) a juvenile depart- ment; and (7) the college (opened in 1853), which has a classical, a scientific, and a civil engineer- ing course. Both sexes are admitted. In 1875 — 6, there were 14 instructors. The number of stu- dents was as follows : collegiate, 102 (58 males and 44 females); preparatory. 'J 7; academical. 38; commercial, 4:"i ; music, 33 ; drawing and paint- ing, 14; juvenile, 29; total, deducting repetitions, 333 (185 males and 148 females). There were 173 alumni (114 males and 59 females). The Rev. W. II. Sampson, A. M.. was principal of Lawrence Institute from 1848 to 1853. The presidents of the university have been as follows: the Rev. Edward Cooke, D. D., 1853— 61 ; the Rev. R. Z. Mason. LL.D., 1861—5; and the Rev. G ge M. Steele. I >. I>.. the present incumbent (1876), appointed in 1865. LEBANON VALLEY COLLEGE, at Annville, Pa., under the control of the I'nited Brethren in Christ, was founded in 1867 by the East Pennsylvania Conference of that church. It has an endowment of $20,000, but is chiefly supported by several conferences of the church, and by contributions ami tuition The regular fees are from $40 to $47 a year. The college has a beautiful campus of about seven acres, two fine buildings, a cabinet', anil a library of over 1,200 volumes. The cur- riculum embraces three course* : a classical, a 520 LECTURES LESLIE ladies', and a scientific course. There is also a preparatory department. In L875- 6, there were . De Long, the present incumbent, elected in 1876. LECTURES, or Lecture System, a method of giving instruction by formal expo- sitions, generally written out and read to the learners. Hence the term lecture (from the Latin, meaning ri'(i or something read). Lectures are, however, quite often extempora- neous, or delivered without previous preparation of the language. The lecture differs from the lesson chiefly in dispensing with the ordinary processes of the recitation room— question and answer, repetition, etc. The learners simply listen, or take notes, while the lecturer reads or speaks, with or without illustrations by means of the blackboard, maps, pictures, apparatus, etc. Lectures, as a system of instruct ion. are chiefly depended on in higher education in col- leges and universities, also in technical, scien- tific, and professional schools, because the stu- dents are supposed to have acquired a consider- able maturity ot intellect, enabling them not only to receive knowledge without exercises specially designed to awaken attention or stim- ulate the understanding, but to exercise their own faculties in arranging it in their minds for use. —iii other words. CO-ordinating it with their previously acquired knowledge. They are. he- sides, supposed to appreciate the importance of the information communicated, SO as not to need any special stimulus to self-activity. In element ary instruction, all these conditions are reversed; and. therefore, the lecture system is inappropriate at that Stage. In middle Schools (secondary in- struction), lectures may he used w ith good effect. in connection, or alternation, with the ordinary recitation processes. When the material has been methodically arranged, and when the state- ments are definite and precise, the language simple and forcible, and the style earnest, lectures may he made to suhserve a very useful purpose. [See I llSToKV.) LEHIGH UNIVERSITY, at South Beth- lehem, Pa, chartered in L866, is under Protest ant Episcopal control. It was founded by Asa Lacker, of Mauch < 'hunk, who. in 1865, appropriated 8500,000 and suitable grounds for the purpose, Tuition is entirely free. There are three fine buildings, besides houses for the president and professors. The library contains 2,000 volumes. The university has a well equipped observatory, a museum, and collections in natural history. It comprises live schools: (1) general literature; (2) civil or statical en- gineering; (3) mechanical or dynamical engineer- ing; 1 1) muiing and metallurgy ; (5) chemistry. The courses are each of four years, excepl that for the degree of Engineer of Mines, which requires four years and a half. The Studies of the fresh- man year and of the first half of tin 1 sophomore year are the same in all the courses. This institution was originally designed to impart a technical education, anil the school of general literature (similar to the ordinary college cor,; was added subsequently. In l^Ta — (i. there were 8 professors, 6 other instructors, and 111! students. The Lev. John M. Leavitt. 1>. D., is (1876) the president. LELAND UNIVERSITY,in New ( Means. La., chartered in L870 and opened in 1873, is under Baptist control. It was especially de- signed for colored youth, but no one can be ex- cluded on account of race, color, sex, or religion. It is supported by contributions, tuition fees, and the products of Kl acres of cultivated land. The buildings and grounds are valued at about $75,000, toward which the I'Teedmen's Bureau contributed $17,500, and benevolent individuals and churches the residue. The cost of tuition is SI per month, which is remitted to ministers and licentiates. An opportunity is afforded students to support themselves in part by labor on the farm. The university has an academic and a college preparatory course, of three years each, a college course ot four years, and a theological department. In 1874 — 5, there were 4 instructors ami 96 students (63 male and .'>.'{ female), of whom 5 woe in the college preparatory course, and L 6 were pursuing theological studies. 'I he Rev. Silas B.Gregory was the first president, who held office one year, and was succeeded by the Lev. L. Bartlett Barker, A. M.. the present incumbent. LESLIE, Sir John, a celebrated natural philosopher, teacher, ami author of scientific works, born in I argo, Scotland. April lh.. 1766; died in Coates, Fifeshire, Nov. 3., L832. Whili a boy, his strong inclination for natural science was shown, and led to his entrance into the uni- versity of St. Andrews, in 177'.*. I le afterwards went to the Edinburgh Divinity Hall, but de- voted his time there to the study of the sciences. particularly chemistry. In L 788, he accepted the position of tutor in the Randolph family of Vir- ginia : but. in L790, returned to London, when he attempted to establish himself as a lecturer on natural philosophy. Failing in this, be be- came a tutor in the family of Mr. Wedgewood at Ltruria. Staffordshire; and while traveling in that capacity on the continent, made a transla- tion of Buffon's Natural History of Birds (I 793), ami published an Experimental Inquiry into //"■ Nature and Propagation of Heat (1804). In L805, after much opposition on the part of the clergj of Edinburgh, he was elected professor of mathematics in the university of that place, suc- ceeding I 'rof. Playfair; and. in 1 819, on the death of the latter, again succeeded him. as professor of natural philosophy. Shortly after his election. in 1805, he began the publication of his <'<>/t/-si of Mathematics, followed, in L823, by one vol- ume of his Elements <., the collegiate department had 6 instructors. The number of students was 118; namely, collegiate, 66; preparatory, 31; academy, 21. The presidents of the university have 1 n the Rev. Howard .Malcoin. 1). !>., 1851 — 8; and the Rev. Justin R. Loomis,LL.D., the present incumbent, appointed in L858. LEWIS COLLEGE, at Glasgow, Mo., founded in i860, is under Methodist Episcopal control. It is supported by tuition fees, which vary from $30 to $40 per year, and by the liber- ality of its founders, the Lewis family of Howard county. It has a library of about 3.000 volumes, and comprises a primary, an academic, a prepar- atory, ami a collegiate department, the last hav- ing a classical and a scientific course. Oppor- tunity is aLso afforded for theological and musical instruction. Both sexes are admitted, in 1874 — 5, there were 5 instructors and B8 -students. The presidents have been as follows: theRev.D.A. Mct'ivadv. c_' years) ; the Rev. Joseph Barwick, A. M. (2 years) : the Rev. L. M. Albright, A .M. (1 year) ; the Rev. .lames ('. Hall, A.M.. the present incumbent, appointed in L871. LIBERAL EDUCATION, literally, that which is suited to the condition and wants of a freeman or a gentleman, that is, extending be- yond the practical necessities of life; hence, contrasted with a. practical education, or that which is designed to fit for mechanical or busi- ngs pursuits. A liberal education embraces within its scope instruction in all those branches which collectively are called the humanities (q. v). LIBERIA, a republic of western Africa; area, 9,500 sq.m.; population, estimated at 718,000, of whom about 700.0(10 arc uncivilized negroes. The sett lenient of Liberia was commenced in L822, by liberated slaves from the United States, under the auspices of the American Colonization Society: and. in L 847, it was pro- claimed a free and independent state. Its con- stitution has for its model that of the United States. Of the numerous tribes comprising the native population the Mandingos are the most remarkable. They all possess considerable in- telligence, and not a few of them are educated. 'I hey are found on the whole eastern frontier of the republic, and extend far into the interior of Africa. Like most of the interior tribes of Africa, they are Mohammedans, and have schools and mosques in every large town. They read and write, and many speak, the Arabic language. Besides the Mandingos, the only tribe that have reached any degree of culture are the Veys, on the west coast. They have a syllabic alphabet, invented by themselves. A mission school has been established among them at Totocareh. by the Protestant P]piscopal Church of the United States. There were also, in 1872, 15 day schools, under the control of the Methodist Episcopal Church, and a training school for Baptist mis- sionaries, at Virginia. A regular system of public schools has been organized, comprising elementary and high schools, and a college. The statistics arc very meager in regard to the com- mon schools. The county of Mesurado had. in 1870, 36 public schools, with 37 teachers and 1,155 pupils. — See Stockwkm,, 77/ e Republic of Liberia (N. Y., L 868), and Blyden (a negro professor in Fourah May College. Sierra Leone), The Republic of Liberia, its Status and its Fields, in the Methodist Quarterly Review (1872). LIBRARIES constitute one of the most important instrumentalities for stimulating the intellectual improvement of the people, as well as for the mental and moral training of pupils in schools. This has been recognized in the Legislation of many of the states of the Amer- ican Onion, by making provision for supplying the schools ami school-districts with libraries of interesting and useful books. In 1S27, Covernor Clinton, of New Fork, recommended the estab- 52: LIBRAE IKS lishment of school district libraries; and, in 1835 , a law was passed by the legislature of that state which permitted school-districts to raise money by tax for the Bupport of libraries. In 1838, further provision was made by author- izing an animal appropriation of 855,000 from the general school fund for this purpose, on con- dition that the districts would raise an equal .sum. In L875, the legislature of this state re- duced the appropriation to !£~>0,000. Massachu- setts enacted a permissory law in 1837, and, in 1 9 12, granted a premium of 81.") to each district which raised an equal sum by taxation. Maine, Connecticut, New Jersey, <*hio, Michigan, Illi- nois. Wisconsin, and California have passed acts I similar to that of New Fork. These provisions have, however, been found inadequate-; and, in some of the states, township libraries have taken their place. Such libraries, administered as a ; part of the common-school system, have been established in Michigan, Indiana, and Wisconsin ; but the results are said not to be wholly satis- factory. In Massachusetts, the library has been rated from the school system, being made public, or open to all. In 1851, a law was passed authorizing " cities and towns to establish and maintain public libraries," and the system thus inaugurated has proved eminently sue fid. In 1869, there were 58 public libraries in the state, wholly or partly maintained by taxa- ti m. At the present time, there are, probably, more than three times that number. " Public libraries," says die ('. S. Commissioner of Edu- cation, in his report for L874, "are now univi ally regarded by school officers and friends of education as an indispensable complement to our system of free schools, and no educational r.port can now lie considered complete which do es not recognize their importance." The value of a school library will depend up- on the character of the books of which it is composed, and the uses to which it is applied. A large and expensive collection of 1 ks is not idea ; but the hooks should tie instructive and interesting to children, so that through their perusal they may not only obtain useful infor- mation, but imbibe a taste for reading. By this means, an antidote may. in part at least, be ap- plied to the influence of the trashy, exciting, and .sensational literature, which so greatly abounds at the present lime, and which is so apt to Cor- rupt both the minds and morals of the young. • \ library," says //« spec tivcly. In all an unqualified attestation of moral character is r« quired, in ad- dition to literary and professional qualifications. Walsh, The Lawyer in iJi> School-Room, N. V.. L871, s. v. The Law as tothe Teacher's Morality.) State certificates, that is. certifi- cates issued by state boards of education or state superintendents, entitle the holders to teach in any part of the state without an examination before county, town, or district boards or officers. Such certificates are. however, usually overruled by city hoards of education, who make an ex- amination and license by their own officers — usually the city superintendent — a condition of employment. In some states, the standard for a license is fixed by the state board of education or by the superintendent: in others, each locality fixes its own standard. 'I his gives rise to a great want of uniformity, which lias often been in- veighed against as prejudicial to the interests of teachers and of the profession. American teachers have been, and still arc. to a diminished extent however, subjected to greal wrong and injustice by being obliged to pass examinations before in- competent persons, that is. persons who have neither scholarship nor professional knowledge, either theoretical or practical. The examiner.-, in the rural districts are rarely teatheis. and hence cannot hut imperfectly determine the teachers qualifications, except, indeed, elementary schol- arship and moral character. At the meeting of the National Educational Association, in 1>TL'. this sulijcct was discussed, and the following decided upon as the proper conditions for award- ing teachers' certificates: (1) a comprehensive system of state, city, county, and town boards of examination ; (2) such boards to he composed of school superintendents and profc B&iona! teach- ers; (3) a graded series of certificates from life diplomas down to annual certificates, to he LICENSE I, IK BE R 523 granted only upon actual examination; (-1) legal recognition by each state of professional certifi- cates and normal school diplomas issued in other states. In the state of New Fork, the superin- tendent of public instruction can issue his err tiii. 'ate only to those who have been found on examination qualifie 1 to receive it ; and it is his duty to appoint exami ters.at such times and in BUCn places, as he may deem necessary, for the purpose of examining candidates. (See New York.) The English Elementary Education Act (1870) provides that "before any grant is made to a school, the Education Department must be satis- fie 1 that the principal teacher is certificated ;" an 1 that "teachers, in order to obtain certificates, must be examined, and must undergo probation by actual service in school;" that is, "after suc- cessfully passing their examination, thsy must. as teachers continuously engaged in the same schools, obtain two favorable reports from an in- spector, with an interval of one year between them : and if the first of these reports be not preceded by service of three months (at the least I since the examination, a third report, at an in- terval of one year after the second report, is re- quired : if the second (or thirl; report is favor- able, a certificate is issued. Teachers under pro- bation satisfy the conditions which require that schools be kept by certificated teachers." The Scotch Education Act (1872) provides that "no person shall be appointed to the office of prin- cipal teacher in a public school, who is not the holder of a certificate of competency. - ' Those win.) hold university degrees are entitled to re- ceive the certiticat ■ without further examination in the studies in which they were examined for the degree. Too great laxity seems to exist in the granting of these certificates ; as appears from the following statement of the Educational New* (Edinburgh, dune 3., 1876) : "A gradual deterioration in tlu value of certificates has been going on for the last twenty years, under pre- tence of making it the badge of practical skill rather than of literary attainments and scientific knowledge of the principles of teaching; and so thorough has been the transformation, that it now affords no evidence whatever of the posses- siou of knowledge, and next to none even of practical skill;" which strong statement is based on the fact, as alleged, that " the Education De- partment seems bent on interfering with the intentions of parliament in this matter by grant- ing certificates -without examination,' although the act unmistakably makes examination a nec- essary condition of granting a certificate." — in Austria, most of the teachers are compelled to spend four years in the normal schools, after which they are required to pass an examination before an independent commission appointed by ill.- government, before they can obtain a license to teach. In France, the teachers of private as well as of public schools are required to obtain a license by passing an examination before the governmental officers; and their schools are also subject to official supervision. In the German states, persons are prohibited from keeping schools without being licensed ; ami to obtain a license are required to pass an examination ; upon which they receive certificates showing the grade of school they are qualified to teach ; and they are interdicted, under a severe penalty, from issuing a prospectus for any higher school. Sim- ilar legal provisions exist in Sweden, Denmark, and some other European countries. LIEEER, Francis, a noted publicist and teacher, born in Berlin, March is., L800; died in New York, Oct. "J.. 1 .s 7 'J . He entered the uni- versity of Jena, in 1819, but left it in L821; and, after traveling on foot through Switzerland, cm- barked at .Marseilles for ( ireece, where he entered the Greek army as a volunteer. Returning to Koine, he became an inmate of the family of Niebuhr, the historian, then I 'nis.-ian ambassador; and wrote therein 1822, an account of his so- journ in Greece, which was published in Leipsic (1823). lie returned to Berlin, and entered the university of Halle, but was arrested and im- prisoned at Kopenick, where he wrote a number of poems, which, upon his release, at the inter- cession of Niebuhr. were published under the name of Franz Arnold, being threatened with another arrest, he left Germany,in L 825, and fled to England, where he supported himself for a year as a private teacher. While in England, he contributed to German periodicals, and wrote. in German. an article on the I ancasterian method. in 1*27, he came to the United States, lectured on history and politics, and. shortly alter. 1 egan, at Boston, to edit the Encyclopaedia Americana, which was published, in 13 volumes, in Phila- delphia (1828 — ■VI). By invitation of the trus- tees of Girard College in Philadelphia, he fur- nished a plan of education and instruction for that institution, and afterwards went to reside in that city. In 1835, he was appointed to the chair of history and political economy in the South Carolina College, at Columbia, a position which he held till 1856. 1 hese were the most fruitful years of his life. Here he wrote his Manual of Political Ethics (Boston, le.'5*~9), commended by Kent and Story, and adopted by Harvard ( ollcge as a text-book : Legal < instruct- ors and 75 students. LINCOLN UNIVERSITY, at Lincoln. III., under the control of the Cumberland Pres- byterians, was organized in 1867, and chartered in 1872. The value of its buildings, -rounds, and apparatus is $475,000; thei unt of its produc- tive funds, $834,000. The libraries contain 22,000 volumes. Both sexes are admitted. There is a preparatory, a classical, a Latin-scientific, a scien- tific, and a select course. A theological depart- ment has also Leen organized. In 1873 — 4, there were 1 '1 instructors and 386 students (332 pre- paratory and 54 collegiate). LINCOLN UNIVERSITY, at ( brford, in Chester Co., Pa., opened in 1856, is under Presbyterian control. It is especially, but not exclusively, designed for colored students. The value of its buildings, grounds, and apparatus is $125,000. The grounds include 80 acres, and contain four university buildings and four pro- fessors' houses. The library contains 3,500 vol- umes. '1 he university has valuable philosophical apparatus and a mineralogical cabinet. It has a collegiate department, a normal, preparatory, and business department, and a theological, a law, and ai lical department. In L874 — 5, there were 1(1 instructors and 117 students (71 collegiate, 57 preparatory, and L6 theological. The Lev. Isaac N. Randall, D. D., is (1876) the president. LINDSLEY, Philip, an American edu- cator, born at Morristown, N. J., in 1786; died at Nashville, Tenn., in 1855. After graduating at the College of New Jersey, in 1804, he was for three years tutor in that institution. In 1813, he became professor of languages, and. in lsl7. vice-president of the college. In 1823, he was chosen president of the institution, but he de- clined. In 1824, he accepted the thrice-tendered presidencyof the university of Nashville, which, through his efficient administration, attained a very high rank among American colleges. So great was the reputation which he acquired in that position, that no less than ten different col i leges offered him the presidency. Be retired in Oct. 1850, and spent the last four years of his life at New Albany, teaching part of the time. in the theological seminary of that town. His works have Leen edited by L. J. Halsey (Philn.t. LING, Peter Henrik, a Swedish poet, and the founder of a system of gymnastics for the cure of disease, was Lorn in Ljunga, Nov. 16., 1776, and died in Stockholm. May 3., 1839. Un- der the name of leinesipathy [movement cv his system has Leen put into practice to some extent in other countries, but, like many similar discoveries, has not fully answered the expec- tations of its too sanguine advocates. In 1813, the Loyal Central Institution of Stockholm was established for the purpose of carrying out this system, Ling being appointed director. His /-./. mentary Principles of Gymnastics was pub- lished after his death (Stockholm, 1840). LINGUISTICS. See Lakqi age. LOCKE, John, an illustrious English philos- opher, Lorn at Wrington.in Somersetshire, Aug. 29., 1632; died at Oates,in Ebbcx, Oct. 28., 1704. His education began at Westminster School. from which he passed, in 1651, to Christ Church. Oxford, where he graduated in 1658. Heapplied himself to the stuay of medicine with such suc- cess as to win the special approbation of Dr. Sydenham, the greatest medical authority of his time. In 1 66 L iie went to Berlin, as secretary to the British envoy. Sir William Swan, but returned within a year to pursue his studies at Oxford. LOCKE 521 His perplexity, at this time, as to the choice of a profession, was very great, three being open to him. A preferment in the church was offered him by the (hike of Ormond; inducements to continue in diplomatic service, either in Spain or Germany, were. also, made to him; while his own inclinations were toward the practice of medicine, for which he had shown special aptitude. While engaged in the study 01 experimental philosophy, in connection with his medical studies, he formed the acqaintance of Lord Ashley, afterwards earl of Shaftesbury. This nobleman's life is believed to have been saved by IiOeke's skill : and at this time an intimacy sprang up between them, which led to Locke's taking up his residence at Lord Ashley's house in London, where he applied himself to the study of politics and philosophy. There he met the earl of Northumberland, the earl of Halifax, the duke of Buckingham, and others of the most eminent persons of that day. in 1668, he accompanied the earl of Northumberland on a Tour in Prance, and, on his return, was em- ployed by Lord Ashley, then chancellor of the exchequer, to draw up the constitution of the province of Carolina. In 1G70, he began to form the plan of his great work, the Essay con- ceniiinj !]/•> Human Understanding, though this was not published till twenty years later. In 1675, he visited France for the benefit of his health, where, at Montpellier, he became ac- quainted with the earl of Pembroke, to whom, many years after, he dedicated his J:'rsns appearing in 14 years, besides translations of it into Latin and French, which gave; the author a European reputation. In 1693, appeared his Thoughts Concerning Education. This work. the value of which has been variously estimated by distinguished critics, is of special interest to educators, inasmuch as it was the first attempt . in England, to deal with the subject of education in a comprehensive and practical way. It was written as a guide to the education of a young gentleman, in this respect resembling Montaigne's essay on the same subject. Indeed, Locke's work was an amplification, through in no sense an im- itation, of Montaigne's. The subject is eonsi lered from the beginning, ami rides were laid down not only for mental and moral development, but for physical training, Locke's education as a physi- cian especially qualifying him for the latter. Some of his recommendations in this respect, have, of course, become antiquated by the pi reSS made in physiology and hygienic knowl- edge since his time ; but. as a whole, it remains. to this day, a trustworthy guide. His views in regard to early influences, the force of habit. manners, etc.. do doI differ materially from tl now entertained. In regard to tin' training of children, his observations concerning tin- time at which it should be begun, the means to be em- ployed, and the objects to be kept in view, are, in all essential respects, in accordance with the views now generally held. Many objections to Locke's teachings have been made by modern educators. For instance, he has placed himself on record as entirely opposed to corporal punish- ment, except for obstinacy; and even for this he would have the punishment so ordered that 'the shame of the whipping and not the pain, should be the greatest pari of the punishment." In the controversy which springs up period- ically on this subject, therefore. Locke's great authority, as a guide to educators, would probably, by one side, be seriously questioned. A more serious objection is, that the motive presented to children for doing right • — the approbation of their elders ■ — is not a sufficiently exalted one. It may be said, however, in defense of Locke, that it was not his intention to present a psychologic- al theory of education, but a practical plan lor educating the young. The reasoning faculty in children is very rarely developed sufficiently to make an explanation of motives of any use in educating them. Whipping being discarded by Locke, there seemed to him only one way t< > incline children to do right — that of rewards, or of ap- pealing to their love of approbation. He care- fully guards himself here, by explaining that the reward or the approval must not be given for any "particular performance that they show an aversion to, or to which they would not have applied themselves without that temptation". •But", he says, "to make the sense of esteem or disgrace sink the deeper, and be of the more weight, other agreeable or disagreeable things should constantly accompany these different states ; not as particular rewards and punish- ments of this or that particular action, but as necessarily belonging to, and constantly attending, one, who, by his carriage, has brought himself into a state of disgrace or commendation." It is doubtful whether any more powerful agent can be brought to bear practically in influencing the i hild. It has, indeed, been doubted w hcther any higher motive for doing right, can be presented to the majority of adults, than this of the ap- probation of their fellows, which is usually known as public opinion. To attempt to in- fluence children, therefore, exclusively by higher motives, would hardly be practical, or productive of benefit. That Locke was not forgetful of these higher motives, however, the following words will show: "Concerning reputation, 1 shall only re- mark this one thing more of it ; that though it be not the true principle and measure of virtue (for that is the knowledge of a man's duty, and 526 LOCK I . LONDON UNIVERSITY the satisfaction of it is to obey his Maker, in fol- lowing the dictates of that light God has given him, with the hopes of acceptation and reward), yet it is that which comes nearest to it. and, being the testimony and applause that other people's reason, as it wen', by a common con- sent, gives to virtuous and well-ordered actions, it is the proper guide and encouragement of children, tall they grow able to judge for them- selves, and to 1 1 114 L what Is right by their own reason." II is disapproval of public schools, also. is not in accordance with our modern view, but of this there are two extenuating circumstances, — one- the fact that his essay was intended to be used in the education of a young nobleman ; the other, that the public schools, in Locke's day. were SO inferior to those of to-day. that his cen- sure can hardly be construed as applying to the latter. Bis slight opinion of the classics, also. must be modified in our estimate of it. by the same fact mentioned above, that it was the edu- cation of the man of affairs that he had in view, and not that of the scholar. 1 1 is recommendations in regard to the study of natural philosophy, in- terspersed, as tiny are, with theological con- siderations and directions concerning "spirits", of course, show the confusion of mind in regard to this subject, prevalent in his day. and furnish no guide for that branch of study at the present time. Bis high opinion of the value of history, civil law, English law. style, and letters will, by many, he thought to show the bias produced by his long association with them, and the station of the pupil for whom his treatise was intended ; while his depreciat ion of music, as part of a liberal education, is accounte 1 for by the low state of that art during his time, and will hardly be acepted now as a true statement of its merits. Not- withstanding the objections which can he urged hist Locke's method, owing to the changed condition of society, the greal progress thai has been made in man j branches of learning, and the creation of new ones, his treatise remains a memorable contribution to the literature of the great subject of which he treats, and a landmark in its history. That it is not without errors and short-comings, and that he was conscious of them, his own concluding words will show: "Though I bave now come to a conclusion of what ob- vious remarks have suggested to me concerning DO Q education, I would not have it though! that I look on it asajusl treatise on this subject. There are a thousand other things that may need con- sideration ; especially if one should take ill the various tempers, differenl inclinations, and par- ticular defaults thai are to he found ill children: and prescribe proper remedies. * ■ I'ach man's mind has s e peculiarity, as well as his face, thai distinguishes him from all others; and there are possibly scarce two children who can he conducted by exactly the same method. * * * Bui having had here only some general views in reference to the main end and aims in education, and those designed tor a gentleman's son, whom. being then \cry little. I considered only as white paper or wax to he molded and fashioned as one pleases, I have touched little more than t!, heads, which I judged necessary for the breeding of a young gentleman of his condition in general, and have now published these my occasional thoughts, with this hope, that, though this be far from being a complete treatise on this sub- ject, or such asthat everyone may find what will just tit his child in it. yet it may givesomesmall lighl tn those whose concern for their dear little ones makes them so irregularly bold, that they dare venture to consult their own reason in the education of their children, rather than wholly to rely upon old custom. - ' L'HOMOND, Charles Francois, a French priest and educator, was horn, in I T'JT. at ( Ihaul- nes; died at I'aris, in L794. lie was for some time at the head of the College cPInviUe at Paris, and from there passed to the College du Cardinal Lemoine win-re he was for twenty years teacher of the sixth class. After becoming professor emeritus, he devoted his time to the compilation of school hooks, many of which attained a very wide circulation. His work De viris illustrious urbis Himiii . is still in extensive use. not only in France, hut in the United States, England, Germany, and some other countries, and is re- garded by many distinguished educators as the best Latin reader that has ever been issued. In L860, his native town erected a statue to him. (See I. mix Language.) LOMBARD UNIVERSITY, at Gales- burg, 111. .under the control of OniversalistS, was founded as the Illinois Liberal Institute, in 1851, and chartered as a university, in 1853. It is supported by the income of an endowment of $100,000, and by tuition fees. 'I he regular fees vary from $15 to $33 per year. It has a large and valuable cabinet, and libraries containing over 4,000 volumes. The university embra two departments of instruction, the collegiate and the preparatory. The Collegiate includes three differenl courses of study, the classical, the scientific, and the literary course, on the comple- tion of which the degrees of Bachelor of Arts, Bachelor of Science, and Laureate of A its are. respectively, conferred. Both sexes are ad- mitted. In 1875—6, there were ;i instructors and !l I students, of whom "_'."> (7 classical. 1.'! scientific, and 5 literary] were in the collegiate department, and 69 (24 pursuing ancient and modern languages, and 1"> English studies), in the preparatory department. The presidents have been as follows: the Rev. Paul II. Kendall. A. .\L. 1851 6; Prof. •'. V. \. Standish (acting), 1856- 7 : the Rev. Otis A. Skinner, l». D., 1857 9; the Rev. J. I'. Weston. I). I).. L859 7.*?: Prof. Win. Livingston (provisional), 1873 .">: and the Rev. Nehemiah VVhite, Ph. D., the present incumbent, appointed in L875. LONDON, University of, was created by royal charter bearing date Nov. 28., 1836. It was founded on the same principles of liberality as University College, London (q. v.), out of which it sprung. By an oversight, the firsl char- ter was granted only during "royal will and pleasure", and would have expired six months LONDON UNIVERSITY 52V after the death of the king. A new charter, therefore, not so determinable, was granted ID the following year by Queen Victoria. The early constitution of the university bore a rough resemblance to that of the universities of Oxford and Cambridge, there being, on the one hand, colleges or teaching bodies, and, on the other, a university to test the quality of the teaching and to grant degrees accordingly. There was how- ever, this capital difference, that, in the Univer- sity of London, the colleges, instead of being all in one loeality. were scattered 0V6T the country. some of them being situated even in distant colonies. En the earlier years of the university, every candidate, before presenting himself at the examination for his degree, was obliged to furnish a certificate showing that he had studied at one of the affiliated colleges for two years subsequent to his matriculation. In 1858, these affiliated institutions, which alone had the right to give certificates for degrees in arts and laws, com- prised, in addition to the universities of the United Kingdom and of Sydney, 37 other col- leges and schools. The most important of these were University College and King's College, London, and Owens College. Manchester (q. v.). Most of the remainder were theological colleges in connection with the Roman Catholics, the Independents, the Baptists, and other denomina- tions. The government of the university is in the hands of a senate, consisting of a chancellor, a vice-chancellor, and 36 members, or fettows; all of whom are appointed by the < Jrown for life or until resignation. All by-laws and regulations. however, have first to be submitted to the ap- proval of one of her Majesty's principal secre- taries of state. It had been proposed, as early as 184(1, to give the graduates some influence in the management of university affairs. This scheme, taken up in earnest in 1848, was agitated year after year, until a new charter was obtained in 1858. This charter formed the graduates, then about 1,01)0 in number, into a corporation, giving them the right to meet in convocation and. to in- tervene by discussion and opinion in university affairs, to nominate one-fourth of the senate.and the right, along with the senate, of accepting any new charter or of surrendering a charter. The charter also gave the right to confer new degrees in science, in music, or in any department of knowledge whatever, theology always excepted. Itisexpectedtli.it the degrees in music will be instituted shortly. Whilst the draft charter was under considera- tion, in the earlier half of 1857, a new clause was introduced by the senate which provoked great excitement and strong opposition from all the affiliated colleges except one. and from a decided majority of the graduates. According to this 36th clause, all persons, wherever educated, were xo be allowed to compete for degrees, other than medical. The senate, notwithstanding the oppo- sition they met with from without, persevered in their course, and the new charter came into force on April 9.,. 1858. The certificate system. in fact, had not, in many cases, been working well ; many whom the university would ehidly have welcomed as candidates, were kepi away; and the university was prevented, it was thought, "from an expansion commensurate to its national position and promise." At the same time, in- creased care was taken to discredit superficial knowledge by making the examinations more scan liin-: and i-ont innous and progressive study wassoughl to be secured by making the exam- inations more frequent. There had, for in- stance, formerly been two examinations, includ- ing matriculation, for B.A.,with at least two years between them: henceforth, there were to 1m- three, with not less than a year, in most cases, between them. The new clause did, in fact, constitute a revolution in the history of the university; but, after Is yens, it can hardly be said that the ap- prehensions of its opponents have been realized. Although the number of graduates now is nearly treble what it was 18 years ago, the value of the degree in public estimation lias not di- minished but increased. Nor have the colleges suffered, although the former protective system in their favor has been abolished. The advantages of effective collegiate instruction will always speak for themselves, as will be seen by the fol- lowing statistics relating to the final examination for the ordinary B. A. degree in L875. Of 106 candidates. 53 described themselves as coming from certain colleges and schools ; the other •">.'!, as having been prepared by private study and tuition. Of the college students, 17, or 3'J.l per cent, were rejected; of the others. 28, or 52.8 per cent, were rejected. The comparison would be still more decisive, if the examinations for honors were taken into account. The first examination in the university is the matriculation examination (to be carefully dis- criminated from matriculation at Oxford or Cambridge) ; for this there were, in lS7. r >. 1,021 candidates, of whom 522 passed. It may be passed at the age of 16 ; but the average age of candidates is L9, and sometimes, 20 years. It is an examination in Latin ; in any two of the fol- lowing languages. Greek, French, German; in English; in mathematics: and in natural philos- ophy and chemistry. It may be regarded as a good lest of a complete school education. One peculi- arity of the examination, as of the other pass examinations, is, that a candidate is rejected if he fails entirely in any one subject, however well he may do in all the rest. Of those who pass this examination, about one third go no further. Those who do, henceforth pursue diverging courses. They may proceed to prepare for de- grees in arts, in science, laws, or medicine. The university grants the higher degrees of Master and Doctor only after the passing of a further examination, which differs from the Bachelors' examinations by testing the depth. rather than the width, of the candidate's acquire- ments. < >f all these degrees, the medical ones, in particular, have always had a high reputation. A large proportion of the leading physicians in London are graduates of this university. The 528 LORIXSKR LOUISIANA matriculation examination and the pass exami- nations for B. A. and I!. Sc. are, on application to the senate, held, simultaneously with the ex- aminations in London, at various populous cen- ters in England, at some places in Ireland, and in the colonics (e. g. Canada, Mauritius, and Tasmania). They will shortly he held also in Scotland. An unintended omission in the charter of 1858 made a newcharter necessary in 1863; and, in 1867, a supplemental charter was obtained, conveying the right to hold examinations for women. There have been, at times, a majority in ( 'mi vocation who were willing to admit wom- en to degrees on the same terms as men ; but whether the movement will be successful re- mains to be seen. The programme of the gen- eral examination for women will, next year, be completely assimilated to the matriculation pro- gramme; and that is the amount of success which the movement has attained so far. Wom- en, after passing this examination, may be ex- amined for certificates of higher proficiency also. The Reform Act of 1807 gave the members of Convocation the right of returning a represent- ative to Parliament: the first member for the university is the Right Hon. Robert Lowe. Convocation, in March, L876, numbered L.663 members. The entire number of graduates is nearly double this, only those of them being members of Convocation who are of a certain standing, and have paid the prescribed fee. The estimate of the expenses of the univer- sity, for L876 — 7, is as follows : salaries (of the registrar and his assistant, of the clerks, etc.) £2,705 5s 8d ; examiners, £5,300; exhibitions, scholarships, prizes, and medals, £1,972 10 s.; incidental expenses, £520; total, £10,557 L5s. 8d. If from this be deducted £4,500, which it is estimated the fees will yield during the same period, it will be seen that the university is a yearly charge to the country to the extent of about £6,000. It must be added that the beauti- ful new buildings in Hurliiii'ton Gardens, which are the first home of its own the university has had, and which were opened by the Queen in 1870, were built entirely at public cost. The earl of Burlington, now the duke of Devonshire, was the first chancellor of the university; he still retains a seat in the senate. The second and present chancellor is Earl Granville. — See the yearly Cede) uliir of the University of London, ainl the Minutes of ilf Senate; The University of London ■>• QesundheU auf Schulen), in which he severely inveighed against the condition of the gymnasia, asserting thai the great variety of studies pursued, the long school hours, and tin' excessive amount of home work, tended to undermine the health of the pupils. This criti- cism of the school management gave rise to a ; bitter controversy, more than seventy pamphlets being written pro and con. King Frederick William III., of Prussia, declared himself in sympathy with Lorinser's views, and ordered the ministry of education to draw up a plan to rem- edy the evils described in the pamphlet. The minister Altenstein. however, in his decree vir- tually denied the charges. An important result of this controversy was, that gymnastics were 1 again introduced into the gymnasia, and that the necessity of making school hygiene a subject of special and thorough study, was generally ad- mitted. The autobiography of I. orinser was pub- lished in 1 sii I. by his son. LOUISIANA, one of the southern states of the American I "liioti. was originally a part of the French province of Louisiana, which was ceded to the United States in 1803. This vast tract, stretching from the Mississippi river westward to the Rocky mountains, was at first divided into two territories, that of Orleans and Louisiana, the former including the present State of Louisi- ana, and the latter all the remainder. In 1812, the territory of Orleans was admitted into the Union as the state of Louisiana. The population, in L810, was 70.550. of whom 34,660 were slaves, and 7,585 free colored persons; in 1870. the population was 726,915, of whom 362,065 were whites, 364,210 colored persons, 569 In- dians, and 71 ' 'hinese. Educational History. — While Louisiana was yet a territory, provision was made for the es- tablishment of primary schools in each parish. In IM'.t. these schools were placed under the su- pervision of police juries: and. in L821, under live trustees appointed by the police jury of each parish, from the resident landowners. In that year, the sum of $800 was appropriated for the support of schools, and authority was given to increase that amount by a tax on the property of each parish. By an act of the legislature, in L833, the secretary of state was made superin- tendent of public education, and acted as such from that time until L846; The result not proving satisfactory, however, a bill was passed in is 17, providing for the appointment of a state superintendent and parish superintendents, the collection of a one mill tax on property, and the establishment of a state school fund by a consolidation of the land grants (amounting to 786,044 acres) and individual donations. The object of this legislation was to establish a free public-school system for all the white children between the ages of and 10 years. Additional legislation, in L855, imposed a poll-tax of $1.00 on each free white male inhabitant over twenty- one years old. In L850, there were 676 public schools in the state, taught by 845 teachers, and giving instruction to 25j793pupils. There were also 1 12 academics, and 8 colleges. In I860, the number of public scl Is had increased to 713, with 31,813 pupils; and the school revenue amounted to $469,210. In L868, the new state constitution provided that a statesuperintendent should he elected for four years, and that all the children of the state between the ages of C> ami LOUISIANA t>29 21 years, should bo admitted to the public schools or to other state institutions of learning, without regard to race, color, or previous condition. A special act to carry <>ut these provisions was passed in March, L869. This required the ap- pointment of a state board of education to con- sist of the superintendent of public education, 7:!,144.44 " other purposes, 290,247.42 Total, $863,301.86 Normal Instruction. — Although the law pro- vides for the establishment of a normal school in the state, no steps have yet been taken to carry out its provisions in this respect. The city of New Orleans had formerly a normal school; but, owing to the inability of the school board to sustain it with appropriations, it has passed from their control, and is now a department of the New Orleans University. Straight University and the Peabody Normal Seminary, in the same city, also afford normal instruction and training. The division superintendents are required by law to hold teachers' institutes annually in their respective divisions. Secondary Instruction. — The institutions of this grade, in the state, are (1) private schools, (2) high schools, and (.'!) business colleges. The first, in 1875. reported 846 teachers and, 22.306 scholars. Of the high schools, four are mentioned in the state superintendent's report for 1875, three being established in New Orleans, and the other recently open at Baton Rouge. One of those located in New Orleans is for boys ; the other two, for girls, The Central High School for boys, is divided into six departments, as follows: English literature; Latin and Greek; science; mathematics; commerce, comprising penman- ship, drawing, and book-keeping: and French. During the first year in this school, all pursue the same studies ; after that time, the study of the classics is optional. Four business colleges re- 530 LOUISIANA LOUISVILLE ported, in 1874, to the U. S. Bureau of Edu- cation, 12 teachers and 915 pupils, of whom 8(>0 were males, and 55 females. Their courses of instruction vary from three months to a year. Superior Instruction. — The institutions which afford opportunities for higher instruction, in- cluding the Louisiana State University (q. v.), are enumerated in the following table : When Religious NAME Location found- denomina- ed tion Jackson 1825 M. Kiiis.S. Leland University N. Orleans 1870 Non - Louisiana State Univ'ty. . Bat. Rouge 1863 Non-Beet. New Orleans University.. N. Orleans M. Epis. St. Charles College Q-r. Coteau 1852 E. C. M.Mary Jefferson College. St. James 1861 B. C. N. Orleans 1869 Evangel. Centenary College, the oldest in the state, is also one of the most efficient. The New ( Means University, like Straight University, makes no distinction of race or sex in its requirements for admission. It has a preparatory, a normal, a eol- legiate, and a theological department. The Silli- m.in Female Collegiate Institute, at Clinton, under the control of the Presbyterians, also affords superior instruction. It has a collegiate course, and is authorized to confer degrees. Scientific and Professional Instruction. ■ The Agricultural and Mechanical College of Louisiana was opened June 1.. L874, in the building of the Louisiana University, in pursu- ance of an act of the legislature, passed in April of the same year, making provision for carry- ing into effect the purposes of the donation, by the i Hind States, of public lands for the estab- lishment of an agricultural and mechanical col- li j' in the state. The ( ihalmette battle-ground, in tin' parish of St. Bernard, where the state owns 200 acres of land, was selected as a site for the college. The only schools of theology are the Biblical department of NewOrleans I mversdty, the theological department of Straight Univer- sity, which is open to all denominations, and tin- theological department of Leland University. The law department of the University of Louisiana performs the office of a law school, besides which there is a law department in Strai-ht University, instructed by members of the New Orleans bar. By a special act of the legislature, a diploma from this department en- titles the graduate to practice in all the courts of the slate. The same institution has also a medical department. Special instruction. — The Louisiana Institu- tion tor tin- Education of the Deaf and Dumb, at Baton Rouge, was founded in 1854. In 1874, it had 5] pupils, and 10 instructors. The value ot us grounds, l>iiiMin..:>. etc.. is aboul $200,000. The Institution for the instruction of the I'.lind. al-o at Baton Rouge, was founded in 1871. It is represented to he in a flourishing condition. In 1*71, it bad 65 pupils, and 1 9 instructors and other employes. The value of its grounds and buildings is about 8100,000. This institution Includes als,> an industrial home for the blind. ides these institutions, there is an insane ' asylum, at Jackson, supported by the state at an annual cost of about $40,000. LOUISIANA STATE UNIVERSITY, at Baton Rouge, La., was chartered in L853, be- ing founded upon grants of land made by Con- gress to the state for the establishment of a seminary of learning. It was opened at Alex- andria, in January, L860, under the superintend- ence of Col. (now Gen.) Win. T. Sherman, and continued in operation till June, 1861, when it was closed on account of the war. It was re- opened in 1862 — 3, tinder the superintendence of Col. Win. E. M. Linfield and Prof. Wm. A. Seay.but was again closed. It was again opened in October, 1865, under the superintendence of Col. David J-'. Boyd, who resigned in 1875, but is still (1876) in charge of the institution. In 1 869, the university building having Keen burned, the institution was transferred to the buildings of the Asylum for the Deaf and Dumb at Baton Rouge. This location is intended to he tempo- rary, until the edifice at Alexandria shall he re- built. The university owns state bonds to the amount of SI ,",^.ni)(i. on which it receives li per cent interest. It has a library of 13,000 vol- umes, good chemical and philosophical appara- tus, and museums of natural history, fine aits. etc. The value of its real and personal property is about 8160,500. The cost of tuition is 880 a year. An act of 1870 provided tor the education and maintenance of two indigent youths from each parish, and 20 from the city of New Orleans, who, after remaining at the uni- versity four years, were required to teach school in the state two years. No provision, however, has been made recently for carrying this ad into effect. By act of the legislature, the professora of engineering, mineralogy, geology, botany, and zoology, of this institution, are required to make surveys of Louisiana, in their respective depart- ments. Several reports of these surveys have been made. The organization of the university is thoroughly military, and there are daily drills and parades. The course of study embraces a preparatory and an academic department, a spe- cial school of civil engineering, and a commercial Bchool. The academic department has a literary (or classical), a scientific, and an optional coi The degrees conferred are 1'.. A.. B.S., li. Ph., A. M.. and C. E. In 1872- 3, there were 12 in- structors and IK' students. Since then, the unsettled condition of the state and the con- sequent withdrawal of legislative support have greatly embarrassed the institution : and. in 1 876, there were only '_'*J students. The number of graduates, from 1869 to 1874, inclusive, was 58. LOUISVILLE, the chief city of the state of Kentucky, having a population, according to the U. S. census of L870, of loo.:."'."., of whom 1 1,956 were colored persons, and 25,668 foivign- the latter including 1.4,380 natives of Ger- many. This city has grown up during the pres- ent century, its population, in 1810, being only 1,357. The town was established by an act of the Virginia legislature in 1 780, and called Louis- ville, in honor of 1/niis XVI., king of !■ ranee, LOUISVILLE 531 important aid having boon furnished by that country to the United States in their struggle for independence. Educational History. — -Among the earliest efforts in the cause of education in Kentucky, were those made by the Roman Catholics, who established schools in connection with their churches, in many parts of the state; and it is probable that Louisville shared in the benefits of these efforts. In 1819, an institution known as the Seminary, gave instruction in the several branches of an English and classical education. It was under the direction of the trustees of the town, but was not well supported, the wants of the community requiring little beyond elementary education. In 1837, the Medical institute was organized, having received an appropriation of $50,000 from the city council, and opened with 80 students. In 1847, the building for the Uni- versity of Louisville was sufficiently near comple- tion to permit the opening of its law department, the first lectures in which were delivered to about .'50 students. At that time, there were, in the city, 4 large public-school buildings, and 24 schools, of which wore grammar schools, — 3 for males and 3 for females. In 1861, a high school for males, with all the rights and privi- leges of a university, was chartered by the legis- lature, as an institution for superior instruction, in connection with the public schools of the city. In 1802 — 3, the average daily attendance of pupils in the public schools Avas 3,851. Two years afterward, instruction in vocal music was made a part of the common-school course ; and, in 1868, the study of the German language, which had been previously introduced, bad been so far extended, that one-half of all the pupils (over 4,000) received instruction in it. In 1870, there were 2 high schools, and 17 schools of an inferior grade. The progress of the school sys- tem has been uninterrupted since that time. The number of pupils enrolled in the public schools has increased, during the ten years ending in 1875, from 9,388 to 17,593; and the cost of the system, from $103,425.05 to $255,529.02. School S;/s(em.— The public schools are under the management of a board of trustees, consist- ing of 24 members, 2 from each ward of the city. The chief executive officer of the system is the superintendent of the public schools, who exer- cises a general supervision over the schools, and makes an annual report to the board of trustees. There is also a superintendent of German in- struction, who is subordinate to the superintend- ent of schools, but acts under the direction of the committee on German, of the board of trust- ees. The board of examiners of public scliools consists of the superintendent and six or more professional teachers, who hold principals' cer- tificates, selected by the committee on examina- tions and course of study of the board of trustees; and there is also a (Jcrman board of examiners, consisting of the superintendent and other persons selected !>y the committee. All teachers are required to be at least 18 years of age. The schools are divided into primary, district, intermediate, and high schools, besides the evening schools and the training school for teachers. The studies pursued embrace all tho ordinary common-school branches, besides Ger- man and music, which are taught in all the grades of the schools. — The Length of the school course is designed to lie 71 years in the lower grades, 5 years in the male high school, -I years in the female high school, and 2 years in the training school. The support of the schools is chiefly derived from a city tax. The daily ex- ercises in each are commenced by the leading of a selection from the Scriptures. The legal school age is from G to 20 years. Children living out- side the city limits are permitted to attend the pnl ilic schools on payment of a tuition fee ran- ging from $20 to #50 per annum. Educational Condition. — The whole number of schools, in 1875, was 3d, as follows: 2 high schools, — 1 male, and 1 female, 6' intermediate schools, 14 district schools, 7 primary schools, 4 night schools, and 1 training school. Of tho schools of the lower grade, 5 are for colored children. The principal items of school statistics, for 1875, are as follows : Whole number of children of school age 44,827 Whole number of pupils enrolled 17,593 Number of colored pupils enrolled 2,634 Average daily attendance 11,561 Average attendance in the night schools G10 Number of teachers, English 286 " " " German 27 " " " of music 4 Total number of teachers 317 Total receipts for school purposes $301,655.72 Total expenditures $255,529.02 Cost per pupil $19.95 Total value of school property $847,300.00 The course of instruction in the training school, or class, embraces arithmetic, algebra, geometry, history, English grammar and composition, elo- cution, physical geography .physiology, astronomy, chemistry, and theory and methods of teaching. The whole number of pupils in this school, in 187;", was 42. The Male High School contains five classes, including the preparatory class. The studies taught are comprised in the following departments: belles-lettres, ancient languages, pure mathematics, chemistry and technology, ap- plied mathematics, and modern languages. Any student who passes a satisfactory examination in any of these departments is entitled to a cer- ate of graduation in the same. This institu- tion, in 1875, had an enrollment of 221 students, and a faculty of members, including the pres- ident. For admission into the Female High School, applicants are required to pass an ex- amination in the branches taught in the first grade of the Intermediate Schools. They must also be at least 12 years of age. The number of teachers in the school, in 1875, was 12 I. Besides tho institutions for superior, pro- fessional, and scientific instruction mentioned in the article on Kentucky, there are several pri- vate schools and academies, and 3 public libra- ries, having an aggregate of about 10,000 volumes. The Public Library of Kentucky alone contains 20,000 volumes. 532 LOYE LUTHER LOVE, on the part of pupils for their teach- er, is one of the most essential elements of his success, just as antipathy (q. v.) constitutes an insurmountable obstacle to the exertion of any important educational influence. Thefirst thing, therefore, which the educator should strive to do is to win the affection of his pupils; if that is accomplished, every tiling else will be done with- out difficulty. It is of little use to address merely the intellect of children. Their curiosity, it is true, can be excited, their attention aroused, and the faculties of their minds, to a certain ex- tent, be developed and sharpened; but the real elements of character are behind all this; and the>e cannot he affected in any important degree by mere intellectual training. The heart - the sensibilities and the will —must be reached; and the key to success in this, the greatest office of the educator, is love. When love for the teacher reigns in the bosom of his pupil, there is entire confidence in him, a desire to obey him, to please him, to listen to his precepts, to imitate his example, both in words and in acts; indeed, by an inexplicable psychologic law. the pupil seems to he 1 » mini to the teacher by a kind of magnetic chain, and is subject in every thing to his will, fear, on the other hand, repels, and thus prevents the operation of that influence without which educational processes are, more or less, nugatory. The fear to do wrong, and of the punishment which is to follow it, is not, how- , inconsistent with a love of tin; teacher. (See Pear.) The latter must make himself, and the authority which he wields, respected ; or he will incur the contempt of his pupils; and this is, of course, antagonistic to love. Children naturally recognize authority, however much they may strive to evade or defy it ; and its just ami rightful exercise docs not interfere with their warmest affections toward parents and teachers. Hence, love is not to be inspired by making improper concessions to children, for these tiny construe into weakness, which they despise. Minute directions may he given tor the winning of the pupil's affections; hut these would he cither unnecessary or futile. Lov< the part of the teacher can alone produce love in the hearts of the pupils. lie cannot put on a semblance of affectionate regard for his pupils ; he must feel it. Children have naturally deep intuitions into character, and detect hypocrisy almost instantly; hence they at once discern whether there is any real affection in the mind of the teacher towards themselves, or only a mere pretense, hove will show itself in hisappear- e, his words, his manners: every tone of his voice will indicate it . if it exist, and the pleasant smile beaming habitually from his countenance will, while m ulring his own labors pleasant and ., make bght the hardest tasks of his pupils, by exciting their ambition and determination to accomplish it. The teacher should, however. aever forget the relation existing between him and his pupils. "Some teachers," says Mail the School-Room, Phila., 1868), "in avoiding a hard, repulsive manner, run to the opposite ex- treme, and lose the respect of their scholars by undue familiarity. Children do not expect you to become their playmate and fellow, before giving you their love and confidence. Their native tendency is to look up. They yearn for repose upon one superior to themselves." LOYOLA COLLEGE, in Baltimore, Md., was opmed in L852, and chartered in 1853. It is a Roman Catholic institution, controlled by members of the Society of Jesus. It has a mu- seum, philosophical apparatus, and Libraries con- taining 21,500 volumes. There is a classical, a commercial, and a preparatory course. The cost of tuition, in the preparatory course, is §50 a year; in the other courses. $75. In 1875 — 6, there were 16 instructors and 1 -lit students. LUTHER, Martin, the author of the great religious movement of the 16th century, was horn at Eisleben, Nov. Hi., 1483 (according to others. 1 1>I). and died in the same town Feb. L8., L546. After attending the town school of Mansfeld and the Latin schools of Magdeburg and Eisenach, he went, in 1 501, to the university of Erfurt in order to study law. In 1505, he entered the AugUStmian convent at Erfurt, and in 1508, received the appointment of professor in the university of Wittenberg. There he be- gan, in 1517, the religious reform which made his name s,, famous. A- Luther held that all Christians should read the Bible in their native tongue, the governments which adopted the Ref- ormation had Indirect their attention to the es- tablishment of schools in all the parishes. Luther himself, in 1524, issued a powerful appeal to towns in 10 establish schools. and to provide tor the edu tion of school-teachers, and the establishment of school libraries. Helaidgreat stress upon the im- portance of religious instruction and the ancient Languages, and made many suggestions in regard to an improvement of the methods of teaching. which were adopted by educators of the follow- in-' centuries. His German translation of the Bible and his smaller catechism Mere generally introduced into the Lutheran schools, and have remained in extensive use up to the present day. The first Gt rman primer (/•'/'/- 1), which appeared about this time, is by some ascribed to Luther; 1 iv others to Melanchthon. It contained the alpha- bet, and as reading exercises the ten command- ments, the creed, the Lord's Prayer, somepas- - from the Bible, and prayers. At the end, the numbers from I to L00, and the multiplica- tion table were given. Many of the measures which weiv taken by Melanchthon for the refor- mation of .schools, were, in great part, due to the advice and co-operation of Luther, for the schools which he recommended the German burgomasters to establish, Luther drew up a comprehensive course of studies, which he sent to his friend Spalatin with the request to sulunit it to the elector of Saxony. This course of studies is either verballj contained in the Book of Visita- tion (VtsitationsbilchJein, published by Melanch- thon in L 528), or at fast forms the Lasisof the the burgomasters and magistrates of all in the ( rerman countries,"in which he urged them LUTHERAN CHURCH 533 one published by Melanchthon, — See Gedike, Luther's Padagogik \ [792); Bruestlein, Luther's Einfliiss n'if das Vblksschuhcesen mid den Religionsunterricht (1852) ; J.Schiller, Dr. .1/. Luther uber christliche Kinderzucht (2d ed., L854). LUTHERAN CHURCH, the Dame of the religious denomination which anise in the L6th century, from the church reformation effected by Martin Luther. It has also been designated by the name Evangelical, Evangelical Lutheran, or Protestanl Church, or, as in Austria, the Church of the Augsburg Confession. The three general creeds of the ancient church, and the Confession of Augsburg have generally been re- garded by Lutherans as standards of faith. In respect to constitution the Lutheran churches greatly differ. Sweden. Norway, and Denmark have an episcopal, most of the other churches a synodal or consistorial, form of government; the latter, which means a government of the church by state boards called consistories, is, however, on the wane. In Prussia and some of the other German states, the Lutheran Church has been united with the Reformed Church into one ecclesiastical organization, called the United Evangelical Church (q. v.) ; but the Lutherans to a large extent have regarded this as a mere confederation which does not impair or alter their standing as Lutherans. In Germany, as in other countries, the predominance of rationalistic views, and the almost unlimited freedom of be- lief or untielicf. which has been practically con- ceded to the clergy and members of the church, have, to a great extent, swept away the distinctive landmarks of the Lutheran denomination. It has been calculated, however, that of the 25 millions of Protestants in the German empire, 20.0(10,00(1, at least, are of Lutheran extraction. In the Scan- dinavian kingdoms, which have an aggregate population of about 8,000,000, as well as m the grand-duchy of Finland, and in the Baltic provin- ces of Russia, nearly the entire population is Lu- theran. Austria had, in 1869, a Lutheran popu- lation of l,365,000,and Russian Poland. 2 10,000. France has lost almost all her Lutheran pop- ulation by the annexation to Germany of Alsace and Lorraine. The entire Lutheran population of the world (including the Lutheran portion of the United Evangelical Church) has been estimated at about 40,000,000. [n consequence of the close connection of church and state in Europe, the Lutheran Church has exerted, and to some extent still exerts, a verygreat influence upon the educational institutions of those coun- tries in which it prevails. Universities and gymnasia have, however, so generally passed i under the sole control of the state, and in the; German churches so wide a departure from the official creeds of the Protestant churches has been generally allowed to theologians, that it would be extremely difficult to state in a few words the relation of the Lutheran Church to the learned institutions of the countries named. It may be said, however, that at present ( L876) the universities of Rostock. Frlanevn. and Leip- sie, in ( lermany, those of < lopenhagen, Lund, and ( psal, in the Scandinavian kingdoms, and of ' Dorpat,in Russia, are seats of a strictly Lutheran theology. (See Germany, Denmark, Finland, Norw w, Swedi The immigration of Lutherans into the United Stai i as early as 1(121. when a few came to New York from Holland. Their firsl church was built in L671. They were s i followed bj a Lutheran colony from Sweden, and by more numerous emigrants from < lermany, who chiefly settled in Pennsylvania. In the 19th century, the immigration into the United States, from the Lutheran countries of Europe, Germany, Den- mark, Sweden, and Norway, increased so rap- idly, that the Dumber of preachers and of communicants, which, in L820, was only L 70 and 35,000, respectively, rose, in L875, to 2,669 and 573,149. The first generation of immigrants re- tain their native tongue in divine worship; of their descendants, a considerable Dumber have, in the course of time, substituted for it the En- glish. Still the church, school, and family lan- guage of a large majority of these churches is even now chiefly German. Some idea of the proportion of the languages spoken among the Lutherans of the United States may be formed from the fact, that of their periodicals, 22 are published in the English language, 30, in the German, 5, in the Swedish, and 8, in the Danish or Norwegian language. Like the Meth- odists and Baptists, the Lutherans of the United States are divided into a number of independent bodies which, to some extent, differ as to certain points of doctrine. The principal divisions are the following : 1 1 | Tin' General Synod. — This was formed in 1820, and is the oldest of the general bodies. In it the English language largely predominates. It allows larger liberties than the other bodies in both doctrine and practice. It recognizes the Augsburg Confession as the chief exposition of its faith, but does not impose a strict adherence to its text as a test of membership. (2) The General Council. This was formed in 18(57. It exacts a strict adherence to the unaltered Augsburg Confession, and recognizes the Apology for the Augsburg Confession. Lu- ther's greater and smaller catechisms, the Schmalkalden Articles, and the Formula of Concord, as forming, with the unaltered Augs- burg Confession, the full creed of the same faith. (3) Tli'- Synodical Conference. This is the most numerous Lutheran body in the United States. It is also the most strict in its inter- pretation of the standards, and in its rules oi membership and fellowship. It was formed in L872, and the language used in its churches and schools is al st wholly German. i 1 1 TkeSouihern Synod — This withdrew from the General Synod during the civil war, chiefly for political reasons, and formed the General Synod South. Resides these four general organi- zations, there arc seven particular synods, which are entirely independent. 534 LUTHERAN' CHURCH LYCEUM The Lutheran bodies in the United States have always felt the importance of the educational work required of them, and have endeavored to meet its demands as far as they haw had the means. In lTT.'J, Dra. Schmidt and I [eUmuth opened, in Philadelphia, a Latin school and a private semi- nary for the instruction of candidates for the ministry. It continued in operation for more than twenty years, and was finally elosed by the necessities of war during the Revolution. In 1787, the legislature of Pennsylvania established Franklin College, Lancaster, of which Henry Ernest Muhlenberg was the president, for the especial benefit of the Germans of the common- wealth, and as a reward for their services in the war. In L791, the * 'lunch's services to education were further recognized by the legislature of Pennsylvania, by the gift of five thousand acres of land to the Free Schools of the Lutheran Church, in Philadelphia. Tn 1784, Johann Christoph ECunze, of Philadelphia, accepted a call to the High German Congregation, in New York, in the hope that he mighl establish a Lutheran theological professorship in Columbia College. He became professor of oriental lan- guages in that institution. The Lutherans at- tach greal importance to theological instruction, and theological seminaries receive very great consideration from them. Their oldest in- stitutions, in fact, seem to have been at first theological schools, around which literary de- partments were afterwards formed. Hartwick Seminary, New York, was founded in L816. The theological school there was the first pub- lic training school of the American Lutheran Church for candidates for the ministry. The theological seminary, at Gettysburg, Pa., was founded by the General Synod in L826. Pre- vious to that time, the Rev. Dr. S. S. Schmucker, of New Market. Va..and the Rev. D.F.Schaef- fer, of Frederick, Md., had received a limited number of young men as students, and in- structed them in theology. The Gettysburg seminary celebrated, in L876, the completion of the fiftieth year of its existence. It had then furnished thirty-nine professors to various in- stitutions, nearly ah 1 the editors of the English periodicals and reviews of the General Synod, and five hundred and thirty-eight ministers. Pennsylvania College, Gettysburg, Pa., was founded in 1832, six years alter the th seminary. The General Synod has also the following higher institutions of learning: Wit- tenberg College, Springfield, Ohio (founded in 1 s !, „,■ .„ , a surname which is differently explained by Creek etymol- ogists), a gymnasium or public palestra with covered walks, in the eastern suburb of Athens. where Aristotle and the philosophers of his school taught. The Romans gave the name lyceum to Beveral similar institutions, as to those in the LYCURGUS McGUFFEY 535 Tusculanum of Cicero, and in the villa of Ailrian at Tibur. In the middle ages, lyceum denoted an institution in which the Aristotelian philosophy was taught. In modern times, the meaning of the word varies greatly in different countries. In Wurtemberg, il i> equivalent to a progymnasium, or the five lower classes of a gymnasium ; in Alsace- Lorraine, it is still given to some of the gymnasia, with which a real school is connect eil ; in France, the lyceum is the highest secondary school ami comprises eight classes; in Italy, it corresponds to the three higher classes of the German gymnasium ; in Finland, some of the lyceums which have seven classes corre- spond to the German gymnasium, and some which bave only four classes, to the higher clas- ses of the gymnasium ; in Rotimania, the lyceum Ills seven classes, and equals the complete gym- nasium, hi England and in the United States, the word is not applied to any class of schools, but is sometimes given to literary associations. For a fuller account of the modern lyceums see the articles on the several countries ; for an ac- count of the American Lyceum, see Holrrook, JOSIAH. LYCURGUS (Greek A.vKovpyog, the light- producer), the reputed author of the Spartan system of education. He is said to have lived in the 9th century before Christ : but so little is known of his life, that even his existence has been doubted by some, his name being regarded by them as the personified origin of a new era of culture. According to the traditional view, he belonged to the royal family of Sparta, and was guardian of his nephew, king Charilaus. Having been forced by an opposing party to leave his country, he made extensive travels in Asia Minor, and in Crete, where he became acquainted with the laws of Minos, lie was finally recalled to Sparta, in order to put an end to tin' increasing disorders, for which purpose he enacted the laws which have made his name immortal, lie made the Spartans swear to keep his laws, until he Should return from Delphi, where he was to ask the god's opinion as to their value. As the orai le predicted for Sparta an unfailing prosperity as Jong as these laws should be observed, he never returned to his native land. According to one legend, he starved himself to death, having pre- viously ordered the ashes of his ((.ipse to be thrown into the sea in order that they might nol be brought back to Sparta so as to release the Spartans from their pledge. That the whole of the political and educational system of Sparta was not the work of Lycurgus, is admitted even by those who have entire faith in the existence of a famous lawgiver of that name. (See Sparta.) LYON, Mary, an American teacher, born in Bucklaud, Mass., Feb. 28., ITDT; died in South Hadley, Mass.. Mar. '>.. 1849. In the face of many obstacles, she acquired sufficient educa- tion to enable her to teach, which she did with- out notable result till 1837, when she established at South Hadley, Mass., the Mount llolyoke Female Seminary, the first of several similar es- tablishments founded by her pupils. The dis- tinct feature of the Mount Bolyoke seminary was the union of domestic labor with intellectual aud moral instruction. Her published works are Tendencies of the principles embraced ami the system adopted in the Mount Holyoke Female Seminary (1840); and the Missionary Offering (Boston, 1843). McCORKLE COLLEGE, at Bloomfield {Sago P. O.), Ohio, was founded as a high school in 1862 by the Rev. Win. Ballantine, A. M., who has been its president from the first. It was in- corporated as an academy in 1808, and as a col- lege in 1873. It is under Associate Presbyterian control. Both sexes are admitted. The prin- cipal design of the institution is to qualify young men for the study of theology ; yet a general and thorough course of education, well adapted to qualify students for the pursuit of any of the learned professions, is given, in languages, mathe- matics, and the sciences. There are three depart- ments: a preparatory, two years; and a classical and a scientific, each four years. The cost of tuition ranges from $18 to 630 per year. In 1874 — -5, there were 5 instructors and 43 students. McCOSH, James, an eminent Scottish scholar, teacher, and metaphysician, born in Ayr- shire, in 1811. He was educated in the univer- sities of Glasgow and Edinburgh ; and. in Is. - !."), ordained a minister of the Church of Scotland. at Arbroath. Subsequently, while pastor at Brechin, he took an active part in the organiza- tion of the Free Church of Scotland. In 1851, he accepted the appointment of professor of logic and metaphysics in Queen's College, Bel- fast ; and while here distinguished himself both as a lecturer and a metaphysician, publishing Intuitions of the Mind (London. 1860), a work of great merit for its originality and acuteness, Inl8G8,he waselected president of the ( 'ollege of New Jersey, at Princeton, which position lie still occupies. As an educator he has exerted a very extensive influence, by the breadth and sagacity of his views. His reputation as a metaphysician is not exceeded by that of any living scholar. In this department of intellectual research, his writings have been very numerous, and. as is universally conceded, are characterized by re- markable depth of thought and acuteness of reasoning. McGUFFEY, William Holmes, an Amer- ican educator, born in Washington Co., Pa., Sept. 23., 1800; died in Charlottesville, A'a.. May 4., 1873. He graduated at Washington College, iii Pennsylvania, in 1826, and was soon afterwards elected prof essor of ancient lan- guages in Miami University, at Athens, Ohio, in which institution he was transferred, in 1632, 536 McKENDREE COLLEGE MAGEK to the chair of moral philosophy. Tn 1836, he was elected president of Cincinnati Col- lege; but, in L839, he returned to Miami Uni- versity to take the position of president of the institution. In L 845, he accepted the appoint- ment of prof essor of moral philosophy and po- litical economy in the University of Virginia, where he remained until bis death. While president of Cincinnati College, he began the preparation of the Eclectic Series of school read- ing-books, which became widely popular, more than a million copies, it is said, having been issued. It is by these that he is best known. M'KENDREE COLLEGE, at Lebanon, ED., established in 1828, was chartered in 1834, and rechartered in L839'. It is under Methodist Episcopal control. It has beautiful grounds, and buildings well adapted for college purposes. The location is healthful and easy of access. The libraries contain about 7,500 volumes; and the apparatus is extensive. The institution is sup- ported by tuition fees and the income of an en- dowment of 845,000. Both sexes are admitted. The collegiate department has a classical and a scientific course, and there is a preparatory and a law department. The cost of tuition in the collegiate department is $24 a year. In L875 — 6, there were 8 instructors, and 226 stu- dents, of whom L29 were in the collegiate and 8 in the law department. The presidents have been as follows: the Rev. Peter Alters, l>. I>.. T yens; the Rev.John W. Merrill, I). I)., 3 years; the Rev. .lames Finley, I >. I>.. 1 years: the Rev. Erastus Wentworth, D. D., 4 years; the Rev. Anson CummingS, l>. !>., '2 years; the Rev. Nelson Cobleigh, l>. I'.. 5 years; the Rev. Robert Allyn. I >. D., L3 years; and the Rev. John W. Locke, I>. D., the present incumbent (1876), 2 years. McMINNVILLE COLLEGE, at McMinn- ville, Oregon, under the control of Baptists, was chartered in L859, It has an endowment fund of $25,000. It comprises a primary, an academic. and a collegiate department, in which the cost of tuition is sis. $30, and $44 a year, respect- ively. Both sexes are admitted. In 1873 — 4, there where 6 instructors and L50 students. MADISON UNIVERSITY, at Hamilton, \.Y.. under Baptist control, was chartered in L846. It comprises a theological seminary, a col- lege, and an academy. The seminary was opened in L820; the college and academy w, r gan- i/.ed in L832. The college has a classical and a atific course. The endowment i nuts to 15,000. The university has extensive cabinets of natural history, and valuable chemical and philosophical apparatus. The libraries contain I l.doi) volumes. The cost of tuition in the col- lege is $30 a year, in the academy $20; in the Seminary, tuition and room rent are free. In 1^7:7 (',, there were in the seminary. ."> instruct- ors and 33 students; college, 9 instructors and ~7 students; academy, 9 instructors and 89 stu- dent s; total, deducting repetitions, 1 '.» instructors and 209 students. The Rev. Ebenezer Dodge, D. I)., Id.. 1)., is (1876) the president. MADRAS SYSTEM. See ^Ioxitokial System. MADVIG, Johann Nikolai, a Danish educator and philologist, born in Svanike, on the island of I Joriiholm. in L804. He graduated at the university of Copenhagen, where he became professor of the Latin language and literature in L829. In L 848, he was appointed minister of public worship, and in L852, di- rector of public instruction. He has edited the works of Cicero, Juvenal, Livy, and Lucretius. In 1829, he published a pamphlet in which he attempted to prove that the Tie Orikographia, attributed to Apuleius, and first published by Mai in L823, was written as late as the L5th century, lie has also published a Glance at the Constitutions of Antiquity; Tin- Creation, De- velopment, and I. if <■ of Language; Adversaria CrUica l S<-rij>(ores (>ro?cos et Latinos (vol. i. T 1871); and a Latin Grammar for Schools. This last was translated by the Rev. G. W< (Oxford. L859). MAGER, Karl, a distinguished German educator, was born near Dusseldorf, dan. 1., L810;diedin Wiesbaden, June 10., L858. Be studied iii Bonn, Berlin, and Paris, where he early attracted attention by his talents and scholarship. After his return to Germany, he engaged in the study of the philosophical sys- tems of Hegel and llerbart. and in thoseof edu- cation and instruction, introduced by Pestalozzi and Diesterweg. for the Wiegweiserfur deutsche Lehrer, edited by the latter, he wrote an essay on the teaching of foreign languages (1835 and L838), after which he became professor in the cantonal school, in Geneva. This position he Boon resigned on account of a spinal disea.se. from which he found some relief in ('annstadt. a watering- place, near Stuttgart. In 1840, he founded the Pddagogiscke /■'- vue, which soon became one of the leading journal.- for all questions of education and instruction in Germany and Switzerland. This was edited by him until L849. The wish to test practically his theories and school books induced him to accept the professorship of modern languages (French and German] in the cantonal school of Aarau. Switzerland. Altera few years, he resigned this position, to give all his time to the radagogische Revue, which, for his con- venience, had been removed from Stuttgart to Zurich. In 1848, he was invited by the Staats- minister Wydenbruck, in Weimar, to take the direction of the real gymnasium in Eisenach, an institution that had been organized accordi to his plan and ideas, lie begin his work with his usual ardor; but, unfortunately, his disei greVi worse, and his health became so much impaired, that, in L852, he was obliged to retire from his office, and, even to give up all literary WOrk, thus being unable to show whether his practical skill as a teacher and head of an insti- tution was equal to his extensive .scholarship and the brilliancy of his writings. EEb death oc- curred a few years after his retirement. Mag r was without doubt an eminent reformer in the held of education and instruction; ami his coun- MAGEK MAINE 537 try is largely indebted to him for his efforts in the introduction of the genetic metJiod and the creation of the higher real school or real gym- nasium. (Sec Real Schools.) A few words will suffice to characterize Mager's ideas on the genetic method, which lie calls the combination of analysis and synthesis. There is a method of development proper to every objeel a pecu- liar mode of growth, both in form andsubstance; this is objective method. Bu1 the term method lias also a subjective meaning, implying the man- ner in which the pupil acquires knowledge, and hence having reference to his self-activity, which it is the office of the educator to stimulate, to vest rain, or to guide. Now, psychology and ex- perience teach us that the human mind has to go through different stages in the acquisition of knowledge: perception, conception, and, finally, abstraction : and the mode of instruction must conform to the operations of the human mind. Applying these principles to the study of foreign languages, it is obvious that grammar cannot be its beginning, but must be its end. Man speaks in sentences. The simplest form of human speech is not a word, but a sentence. The old gram- matical school said, the sum of the parts of a thing is the thing: but this is not true: the sum of the parts of a watch is not necessarily a watch: only when they are combined in a proper manner so that they indicate time, they are a watch, dust so it is with language. Hence, gram- matical lexicography, inflections, parsing of words, etc., must hie subordinate to syntax. Xow. every sentence contains a verb, and the verb alone can form the whole sentence, though now more rarely than in the older languages; then- fore grammatical instruction must begin with the verb. As the simple sentence is the begin- ning of language, so the most developed period is its completion. So far for the genesis of the substance; but also the form of the instruction must follow the process of human thought — in- tuition, perception, abstraction — first, the lan- guage (example), then its rules. But the study of language is not merely theoretical, it is prac- tical also. lie who learns a language, lias to apply it, to use it; and, therefore, Mager ends with the free speaking and writing of the for- eign language. — Besides several articles in the Pdrt of schools, and in part from various other - •■ vs. Mich as bequests, etc. An amount equal to six percent of the permanent school fund is distribute I to the school- each year. This fund ii amounts to $400,558. III. Supervision of Schools. — NTotwithsl ing the emphatic statements of the constitution as to the rights ami duties of the state in regard to public education, there was in the law a greal lack of the elements of an effective system until 1846, when, in response to determined action of the friends of education, a law was passed estab- lishing a state board of education consisting of one member from each county, chosen by the school committees of the county in joint con- vention, with a secretary chosen by the board. Win. (1. Crosby, afterwards governor of the i, was secretary of the board from 1846 to '. lie then resigned, and was succeeded by E. M. Thurston, who served until the abolition of the board, in 1852. Great good was effected by this board of education. County institutes were held, and were attended by huge numbers of teachers. Teachers' associations were organ- ized in every county of the state. [Setter school- houses were built, and the standard of teaching was raised : moreover, the state owes several improve- ments in tin- school law to this period of its his- tory. In 1 852, an act was passed directing the ap- pointment by the governor of a school commis- sioner for each county, thus replacing the board of education by a much less efficient agency. In 1853, this law was repealed, and the office of state superintendent was created, the superintendent beingappointed by the governor and the coun- cil. The following is a list of the successive state superintendents, with the dates of their appoint- ment to office : (diaries A. Lord, June 26., 1854; Mark II. 1 tumuli. March 27., 1855; John P. Craig, Feb. 28., 1 >')('>: Mark II. Dunnell, Jan. •J!'.. 1857 : Edward P. Weston. March 5., 1860 ; Edward Mallard. May s.. l,siia; Warren Johnson March 30., 1868; and Wm. J. L'orthell, the present incumbent, ( >et. 26., l^Tti. In 1869. acts were passed directing the ap- pointment, by the governor and the council, of a board of county supervisors for a term of three yens. and making provision for county institutes. In 1 872, the first of these laws was repealed ; and. three years later, the second was also repealed. ddie efforts of the friends of education to secure more efficient means for the training of teach- ers were for a long time fruitless. For several years appropriations were made by the state to academies for the maintenance of normal depart- ments. I he results proving unsatisfactory, the first state normal school, located at Farming- ton, was established by an act of the legislature, approved March 25., 1863; and the school went into operation Aug. 24., 1864 The second state normal school, located at I 'astine. went into oper- ation Sept. 7., l s f>7. A state teachers' associa- tion was organized in 1859 ; but it was not con- tinued, ho]. ling its last session in 1864. Another association was organized in 1867, and still holds annual sessions. Of county and town associa- tions, there are very few. School System. — The public schools of the state are under the supervision of the state superintend- ent of common schools and the town. superintend- ing school lommittees. There is no intermediate agency. The state superintendent is appointed by the go\ ernor and council for the term of three years. " or during the pleasure of the executive." It is his duty to exercise a general supervision over the schools of the state ; to advise and di- rect town committees in the discharge of their duties, devoting all his time to the duties of his office : to collect and disseminate information as to the school systems of our own and other countries: to prescribe the studies for the com- mon Schools of the state, town committees hav- ing also the right to prescribe additional studies. and lo make a report to the governor and coun- cil, annua 1 1\ prior to the session of the legislature. ddie superintending school committees examine all teachers, and employ teachers for the school- M A 1 N E ;.:;«> districts when authorized to do so by the town. They direct the general course of instruction, ae- fect a uniform system of text-books, and exercise a general supervision and control over the several schools of the town. They are required to make a written report of the condition of the schools in their respective districts, for the preceding year, at the annual town meeting, and to transmit a »copy thereof to the state superintendent of com- mon schools. They are also required to make an annual statistical report to the state superintend- ent on or before the first day of May of each year. Supervisors, ami members of the school committee, receive for their services SI .JO a day, bjsides the necessary traveling expenses. A town, at its annual meeting, or at a special meeting called for that purpose, may determine the number and limits of school-districts therein ; but these districts must not be altered, discon- tinued, or annexed to others, except upon the written recommendation of the municipal officers and of the superintending school committee. A town may abolish its school-districts; and it must (hereupon take possession of all the school prop- erty therein, levying upon the town a tax equal to the appraised value of such school property, and remitting to the tax payers of each district the appraised value of the property thus taken. The town must annually expend for the support of schools the amount received from the state school fund, under penalty of forfeiture of its share of the fund for the ensuing year ; and it must raise and expend annually for the support of schools, ex- clusive of income from any other source, at least eighty cents for each inhabitant, or forfeit not less than twice, nor more than four times, the amount of its deficiency, and also its share of the state school fund. The assessors and the school com- mittee may annually apportion among the smaller districts of the town, in addition to theirper capita share of the school money, 20 per cent of money raised by the town and of that received from the state, in such a manner as to give them equal educational advantages with the larger districts. The town may provide school books to pupils of the public schools at cost, or free of cost. It is required to choose a school committee of three for a term of office of three years, one to go out of office each year, or a supervisor instead of school committee. Towns are empowered to make such by-laws, not repugnant to the laws of the state, concerning truants and children between <> and IT years of age not attending school, and having no regular and lawful employment, as are most conducive to their welfare and the good order of society. Children under 15 years of age Cannot be employed in a cotton or woolen manu- factory without having attended school a pre- scribed p >rtion of the year next preceding, and no person under the age of 16 can be employed by any corporation more than ten hours a day. A law was passed in L875, compelling the at- | tendance at school for at least twelve weeks each year, of all children between the ages of 6 ami 1 5 years, unless excused by the school officers, for reasons prescribed in the act. Every school-district is a corporate body, and all school property therein belongs to the dis- trict, and is under its full control; but all plans for the erection or reconstruction of a school house voted by a district musl be ap- proved by the school committee. Each school- district, at its annual meeting, chooses a moder- ator, a clerk, ami an agent, unless by vote of the town the agents are chosen in town meet- ing. Twoormore districts may unite to sup- port a union school for advanced scholars, or to maintain a graded school; and a district main- taining a graded school may choose a committee to classify and grade the pupils therein. Wher- ever, in the opinion of the school committee, a school district unreasonably neglects or refuses to raise money to provide proper school build- ings or grounds, the matter may be brought be- fore the next town meeting, and the town mav vote to raise the money by a tax upon the dis- trict, to be expended by a committee appointed by the municipal officers. A school-district may appropriate a sum not exceeding lit per cent of its school money for any year, for the pur- chase of a school library and school apparatus; and adjacent districts may unite for this pur- pose. The school agent attends to the finan- cial affairs of the district, and employs tea< hers, unless by vote of the town they are employed by the school committee. The audit may, at his discretion, expend for repairs, each year, 10 per cent of the money apportioned to the district. Any town establishing and maintaining a free high school for at least ten weeks in any one year, is entitled to receive from the state one-half of the amount actually expended for instruction, not however exceeding $ 500 from the state to any oue town. Two or more adjoining towns may unite in sustaining such a school ; and so long as any town shall decline to avail itself of the pro- visions of this act, any school-district, or union of school-districts, in the town may do so. — Every teacher of a public school is required to keep a register containing the names and attend- ance of his pupils, and a record of such other facts as may be required by the blank forms provided for annual or other reports; and he is required to leave such register completed, and signed by the school committee, as a condition of receiving his salary. Educational Condition.- — The number of school-districts returned in 1875, was 3,953; and the number of parts of districts, 368. The num- ber of towns in the state was 121 . and the num- ber of these which have abolished the district svs tem was 25. The country schools are generally ungraded. In the cities and larger villages, pri- mary and grammar schools arc maintained; and. in the cities and a few of the larger villages, high scl Is have also been established. There were maintained, in L875, for one or more terms, 157 tree high schools, at an annual cost of 8116,308, of which the state paid $38,633. There are no returns by which the number of graded schools, or departments in each grade, can be ascertained- 540 MAINE For the support of public schools there was paid, in 1875, $1,261,297, from the following sources : Permanent school fund $22,193 Local funds 25,585 Total from funds $47,778 Municipal taxation for current expenses $662,558 School mill-tax 224,579 Savings-bank tax 145,936 For free high schools 116,308 " supervision 36,968 " normal schools 15,500 To prolong schools 11,671 Total taxation $1,213,519 Total current expenses $1,261,297 There was also expended for new school- houses in 1875, $1 1.0,725 : and hereafter si 3,000 for the support of normal schools will be taken annually from the general school fund, instead of being made a special appropriation. The following are other important items of school statistics for 1875 : The number Of teachers : In summer, males, 171; females, 4,426; total, 4,597 In winter, males, l,!is4; females, 2,475; total, 4,459 The average wages per month, excluding board, was of Male teachers (36.96 Female teachers 17.16 The average cost per month ofteach- ers' board was $9. Whole nnmber of scholars between l and 21.. 221,117 Number registered in snmmer schools 117,^-1 Number registered in winter schools 130,343 Average attendance in summer schools 95 Average attendance in winter schools 105,625 Average length of schools for the year (5i 'lays to n week) 21 weeks 1 day. Normal Instruction. — The date of establish- ment of the two state normal schools has been given in the historical sketch. For their support $13,000 is drawn from the common-school fund each year. The law establishing these schools prescribes that they "shall be thoroughly devoted to the work of training teachers for their profes- sional labors," that "the course of study shall include the common English branches in thorough reviews, and such of the higher branches as are especially adapted to "prepare teachers to con- duct the mental, moral, ami physical education of their pupils," and "thai the art of school management, including the best methods of gov- ernment and instruction, shall have a prominenl place in the daily exercises of said schools." Candidates for admission must be, it' females, 16 years of age; if males. 17; they must pledge themselves to teach in the public schools of Maine for as long a time as they shall have remained connected with the normal school, and pass a satisfactory examination in reading, Spelling, writing, arithmetic, geography, and English grammar. The course requires two years for its completion, and comprises the usual studies of an English high-school course, togetherwith history of education, school laws, and didactics, and practice teaching. The schools are sup- plied with libraries and apparatus, and with models and copies for free-hand drawing.- The normal schools are tinder the direction of a board of trustees consisting of seven members, five of whom are appointed by the governor and executive council for a term of three years, the governor and the state superintendent of schools being, ex officio, members of the board. Seconduri/ Instruction (comprehending the high schools and the academies). — Of the high schools an account has already been given. The right and duty of the state to aid institutions of this class is explicitly asserted in the constitution; and, in its early history, many academies received grants of public lauds. Twenty-three academies were chartered by Massachusetts before Maine became a state. For many years the elements of an effective system were lacking in the public schools of the state ; and the academies, always tuition schools, effected much good. The period from 1830 to 1850 was perhaps the period of their greatest influence, Since the latter date, improvements in the public-school system, and other cause.-, have led to their decline, and some have been incorporated with the public-school system as high schools. Several have been en- dowed by religious denominations, or made pre- paratory schools for the several colleges of the state. Of these the most prominent are Maine Wesleyan Seminary and Female College, at Cent's Bill, the Fast Maine Conference Semi- nary, at Hucksport. both conducted by the Meth- odists; the Wcstbrook Seminary, by the Cni- versalists; Waterville Classical Institute. He- bron Academy, and Houltou Academy,— prepar- atory schools f or < lolby University, Maine ( lentral institute, at Pittsfield, and Nichols Latin School at Lewiston, — preparatory schools for Ba College, and Hallowcll Classical Institute, a preparatory school for Bowdoin College. Denominational and Parochial Schools. — Most of the academies of the state were origi- nally founded by the efforts of religious denom- inations. The most prominent have been named in the preceding section. Of parochial schools, there are none but a few small Roman Catholic schools in connection with local churches. Superior Instruction. — Bowdoin College (q. v.). the oldest college in Maine, situated at Brunswick, received its charter in 1794, with a -rant of five townships of land. It derives its name from . lames Bowdoin, governor of Mas- sachusetts in L785. The board of trustees and the board of overseers met in L801 and elected a president, and a professor of languages. At the installation of these otiicers. in 1 802, 8 stu- dents were admitted, and in L806 the first class, consisting of s. was graduated. It has now an aca- demical faculty of 1 07 and numbered. in 1ST.") — 6, 148 students. — Waterville College, located at Waterville, was established in L820 ; and a few years since, the name was changed to Colby Ini- ny <|. v.), in honor of ( iardner ( 'olby. a bene- factor of the college. It lias a faculty of 12. and 91 students. Hates College (,n v.!. located at Lewiston. was founded in L863. It is named in honor of Joshua Bates, a benefactor of the college- It has a faculty of 7, and numbers 96 students. Professional treated in a practical and exhaustive manner. The sound judgment, wide experience, and comprehensive grasp displayed in these papers, constitute them a classic OU the subject of which they treat ; while their clear and vigor- ous statements, apt illustrations, ami felicitous style carry conviction even t<> careless readers, and amply justify his selection as the instrument for working out the great reform proposed. Their publication and broad-cast disperai ver the state, gradually changed the current of pub- lic opinion, and raised up friends in every quar- ter. .Not without opposition, however, wen all MANX MANNERS 543 these changes effected. In 1840, in the midst of his manifold wearying and distracting labors, a bill was introduced into the legislature, calling for tlic abolition of the board of education, thus undoing the work of three years, and remanding the schools to their former condition. Eappily the bill, though sustained by a majority of the committee, was defeated. The publication of his seventh annual report gave rise to a tierce opposition. Op to this time, his reports had treated the subject of education in a philosoph- ical way, with a constant reference to first prin- ciples, and with illustrations drawn from the practical experience of every reader. 1 lis seventh report, however, gave the result of his observa- tions in Europe, singling out Prussia for special commendation, and comparing her system of in- struction with that of his native state, to the disadvantage of the latter. A rancorous hostil- ity, founded on national jealousy, was the im- mediate result, and Mr. Mann found himself, his motives, and his work assailed by means of let- ters, newspapers, and pamphlets in the most violent manner. The result of this attack, how- ever, was that the attention of the public was specially called to the subject under discus- sion, without impairing the work of the board, either in its extent or its efficiency. In 1848, Mr. Mann was elected to Congress to fill the vacancy caused by the death of John Quincy Adams ; and, in November of the same year, was re-elected. In 1850, though failing of the nomination, he was elected again as an independ- ent candidate. It was thought by many, per- haps by Mr. Mann himself, that by re-entering the field of politics at Washington, he might in- fluence the government to establish a bureau of education either independently, or in connection with the Smithsonian Institution. This, how- ever, was not accomplished. Leaving polities, therefore, he accepted the presidency of Antioch College, where he hoped to be able to effect something in the way of further reforms in the pursuit he had most at heart. In the organiza- tion of this institution, his shaping hand is again recognized; and the objects attained before his death, which happened a few years after, are said to have satisfied him of the feasibility of his plans. The great glory, however, of Mr. Mann's career — -that which is now acknowledged to be his distinctive work — was the reform accomplished in the Massachusetts common and normal school system, dming his labors in the board of educa- ! tion. His twelve annual reports led to many J radical reforms, which extended beyond the bor- ! ders of his native state ; and the knowledge on \ the subject of education which they contain ren- ! 'ders them a necessary part of every school library. Mr. Mann's other published works are : A Few Thoughts for a Young Man (1850) ; Slavery, Letters and Speeches (1851) ; Lectures on In- temperance (1862); Powers and Duties of Woman (1853) ; besides numerous reports, lectures, and addresses. A complete edition of his works with a biography (Life and Works qf\ Horace Mann, 2 vols.) was published in Cam- ! bridge, in 1867; a selection from his works (Thoughts selected from //is Writings), in L869. A biography was published by his wife, Maky Peabodi M\.\\ (Boston, L865V. Mis lectures on education were translated into French by Eugene de Cuer, with a preface and biographical sketch, by Laboulaye (1ST.'!). MANNERS, the genuine or simulated manifestations of disposition towards each other, which occur in the intercourse of human beings. The ordinary use of the word manners re- stricts it to those personal and visible peculiar* ities of deportment which characterize the inter- course mentioned. The agents commonly em- ployed for this purpose are the eye, the voice, lan- guage, and gestures. When persons are brought together without previous knowledge of each other, or with no common ground of taste or ex- perience between them, custom has prescribed a conventional code of formal manners, character- ized as etiquette, which serves to relieve the awkwardness of the situation. That this, how- ever, is temporary in character, and not intended to survive its original uses, is evident from the fact, that after it has, in great measure, been laid aside, any attempt to revive it, as the exclusive medium of kindly expression, is regarded as just cause for resentment. The fugitive character of mere etiquette can never constitute it an equiv- alent for that abiding kindliness of disposition which finds expression in genuine politeness. Manners, therefore, are more decidedly moral in their nature than a superficial observation would lead us to suspect ; hence the usual association of " morals and manners." The basis of agree- able manners is that humanity, or feeling of brotherhood, which, in a greater or less degree, pervades the human race, and which every cent- ury, by its multiplied means of communication, is tending to extend and strengthen. It is, there- fore, essentially Christian; and pleasant man- ners may be regarded, not as an accomplishment merely, but as one of the legitimate ends of a thorough education. In social intercourse, agree- able manners are far more powerful than intel- lectual accomplishments ; while the displeasure produced by rude manners often neutralizes moral worth, and renders mental acquisitions, however great, comparatively useless. Momentous issues — even the destiny of a lifetime — may hang upon the apparently unimportant question of man- ners. To educate thoroughly, therefore, and neglect the means by which thai education is to be made effective, is self-evident folly. Beyond the ordinary rules of etiquette, no set rules can be given for the production of good manners; since, in addition to the moral basis above re- ferred to, they are largely dependent upon tem- perament ; but, no precept is half so powerful in furtherance of this end, as the daily example of the teacher, the parents, or other persons with whom the pupil is brought into daily contact. The indirect though constant insistence upon the claims of every individual to respect and kindly attention, which results in a practical recognition of this by the pupil, together with the daily 544 MANUAL LABOR SCHOOLS .MARYLAND example referred to. constitute, perhaps, the most effective method for the grafting of agree- able manners on the conduct of the pupil. — Sec Gow, Good Morals and Gentle Manners (Gin. and N. V., 1873). (See also Moral Education.) MANUAL LABOR SCHOOLS. See In- dustrial Schools. MAP-DRAWING. See GEOGRAPHY. MARIETTA COLLEGE, .Marietta. Ohio, was founded in 1 .. LL. D., the present incumbent, appointed in Is;,"). MARYLAND, one of the thirteen original states of the American Union, having an. area of 11,124 sq. m.: and a population, according to the census of 1870, of 780,89 I. of whom 605, 197 were whites, L75,391 colored persons, I Indians, and '1 Chinese. In respect to population, the state ranks as the 20th. Educational History. — In many counties of the state, free schools were established as early as 1723, when an act was passed "for the en- couragement of leaming.and erecting schools in the several counties of this province." Under it, a ■• public free school" was established at the county-seat of Calvert county (Battle Creek), which existed without a rival for fifty-two years. In I 7 T.">, anot her school was established at Lower Marlboro', the efficiency of which was. in 177'.', increased by the addition to its funds of the proceeds from the sale of the buildings and lands of the first school. Though this is one of the earliest schools on record in the slate. Talbot. comity claims to have had the tirst absolutely free school. He t. ween the years I 77)0 and L753, the Rev. Thomas Bacon established a charity working school in the parish of St. Peter, which continued in existence to the time of the Revo- lution, when the building in which it was kept, was converted into a home Eor the county poor. NO genera] interest appears to have been aroused OH the subject of education till L825, when the Legislature passed an act "to provide for the public instruction of youth in primary schools." The offices of state superintendent, county com- missioners, and school inspectors were created by this law : and a system of public schools for the city of Baltimore was authorized to be established by the mayor and common council. for which purpose they were empowered to levy a tax. In L827, the office of state superintend- ent was abolished. For some years from this time, little mention is made of the schools of the state, and little action was taken for their benefit outside of the city of Baltimore. In L828, sis school commissioners were appointed to establish a system of city schools. The next year, three schools were opened; the following year, two more, the highest number of pupils up to that time being 402. In 1839, the first high school was opened; and. in 1840, the number of common schools had increased to nine. In 1840, there were 127 academies or grammar schools, with 4,178 pupils; and 567 common and pri- mary schools, with 16,982 pupils. In 1850, of 104,438 educable children in the state, only 34,467 attended school, for which there was an- nually expended $225,260. The M-hool fund, in 1852, was $148,509. In 1864, the constitution gave a generous recognition to the cause of edu- cation, for the first time, by decreeing that free schools should be opened in e\ cry school district, and taught six months every year. A state board of education was created, consisting of the governor, lieutenant-governor, speaker of the house, and state superintendent. Local super- vision was to be exercised by school commission- ers, and an annual tax was levied upon the property of the state for the creation of a school fund. Acting on this Suggestion, the stale super- intendent prepared a detailed plan for a system which was adopted in 1865, and continued in operation till 1868. It was then superseded, and the school system of the state lias been variously modified since that time, principally in L868, L870, and L872. Under the system estab- lished in 1865, Rev. L. Van Bokkelen was the state superintendent ; and on the change of the system, in 1868, M. A. Newell, principal of the state normal school since Lsof>, became, by the operation of the law. the state superintendent. This position he still holds i 1876). School System. — The care of the schools, at present, is confided to a state board of education which consists of the governor, the principal of the state normal school, and four persons ap- pointed by the governor with the consent of the senate. These four persons are appointed for two years, and must be chosen from among the presidents and examiners of the county boards, one of whom must be a resilient of the eastern shore. The members of the board are. ex officio, trustees of the state normal school. The prin- cipal of this school is the executive officer of the board, his office corresponding to that of stale superintendent. The boards of county school commissioners consist of three, or live members, according to the size of the county, who arc ap- pointed for two years by the judges of the cir- cuit courts. They elect a person, not of their number, to act as secretary, treasurer, and ex- aminer, and when necessary, an assistant exam- iner in the larger counties. The county com- missioners ti\ teachers' salaries, and decide what text 1 ks shall be used. District school trustees. three in each district, are annually appointed by the county commissioners. They have the more MARYLAND 545 immediate supervision of the schools in their respective districts, subject to the county com- missioners and tin' state board. A special board of trustees is appointed by the county board for each colored school. County examiners are re- quired to visit the schools under their jurisdiction at least twice every year, and to make quarterly reports to the county board. Teachers must be graduates of the normal school, or have a certif- icate from the state board, or the county exam- iner. Teachers] institutes must be held, once a war, for five days, in each county. For this purpose, time is allowed from the school session. and a portion of the traveling expenses is paid. These institutes are presided over by the county examiner, or by the principal or a professor of the normal school. The law, also, encourages asso- ciations in districts and counties. and state teach- ers' associations. One school, in each district, must be kept open ten months each year, the sessions, of five hours each, to be held five days of each week. The school age is from 6 to 21 for whites, and, in the city of Baltimore, from 6 to 20 for colored persons. For the latter, separate schools have been established in each election dis- trict. These are supported by state appropriations, private gifts, and special taxes for the purpose levied upon the colored people. Tin; school revenue is made up of a state school tax, a free-school fund, an academic fund, and a county tax. The state tax is limited to ten cents on the $100 ; the county tax is levied by the county officers at a rate varying from ten to twenty-five cents on the $100. Educational Condition. — The number of schools in the state, in 1875, was 1,846, — in the city of Baltimore, 125 ; and in the counties, 1,721. The other principal items of school sta- tistics, for 1875, are the following : Number of different pupils enrolled 143,003 Highest number enrolled in one term 112,399 Average attendance 69,2,59 Number of teachers 2,723 Receipts (except city of Baltimore) : State school tax $336,110.11 Appropriations to col- ored schools SI, 170. 16 County taxation 36^,962.39 Other sources 135.757.51 Total ~ $922,000.17 Expenditures (counties): Teachers' salaries $609,035.07 Buildings, repairs,etc. 10.5,175.65 Other expenses 209,898.23 Total — — $924,108.95 Expenditures in the city of Baltimore 716,938.82 Total in the state $1,641,047.77 Normal Instruction. — A state normal school was established in Baltimore in 1865, to which 200 pupils, upon the recommendation of the city or county commissioners, are admitted free, if in- tending to teach in the state; otherwise, payment for tuition is required. An appropriation of $100,000 has recently been made by the legis- lature for a new building, which is now in proc- ess of erection. The number of instructors, in 1874, was 10; number of pupils, 174, — 9 males, 35 165 females. The number of graduates was 21. There is also a normal school for the education of colored teachers, which was organized in 1H66. it received, in L874, an appropriation of §2,000 from the state. The number of instructors was ■I; number of pupils, 246, -115 males, 131 fe- males. The number of graduates was 5. There has been formed, also, in Baltimore, a normal class for the schools of that city, which has re- eeived very favorable notice from the school board. — Tieaehers' institutes constitute a part of the system. Fourteen were held, during 1875, in different counties. The principal of the state normal school or the local examiner is, by law, the presiding officer, the tendency to substitute the latter officer for the former increasing as the number of competent examiners increases. "The good results of the institutes." says the annual report for 1875, "have been as marked in Mary- land as in any other state of the Union." Secondary Instruction. — The provision for this purpose, by the establishment and mainte- nance of' high schools, has been somewhat re- tarded by the existence of the old academies of the state which, by receiving from the state an- nual appro] uia t ions too small to maintain them in a condition of efficiency, and yet too large, to permit of their extinction, act as a bar to prog- ress in the means of secondary instruction. The old law provides that each academy shall edu- cate one pupil free of charge for every $100 received from the state. This was intended to encourage the academies, and, at the same time, to educate a few of the most deserving poor. The first object seems not to have been attained, at least not to the extent expected; while the sec- ond has failed entirely, on account of the estab- lishment of the public schools. Another result has been, that these academies have become, in many cases, entirely anomalous in character, holding, in some places, the position of elementary schools, in others, that of high schools, so that it is diffi- cult to classify them in the school system of the state. The city college of Baltimore is the prin- cipal high school of the state. It numbers 10 professors and 400 students. Its English course, alone, furnishes a good commercial education ; while the full course is an ample preparatory one for entrance into any college or university. Two female high schools are also located in Bal- timore, with 30 teachers, and an attendance of 761 pupils. Their courses of study are for four years each, and give instruction in the ordinary branches of a good English education, besides the accomplishments of drawing and music. Many other academies and secondary schools ex- ist in the state ; but the reports from them are incomplete or entirely wanting. In 1874, as far as heard from by the U. S. Bureau of Education, they gave employment to 243 teachers, and had an attendance of 3,694 pupils. There are, through- out the state, a number of private schools and academies, the courses of study in which are various, furnishing all degrees of preparation, from that necessary to enter commercial life to that required for admission to college. 546 MARYLAND Denominational and Parochial Schools. — Several of these exist iu the state, but from the amount of instruction imparted, tiny are more properly classed under the head of schools for secondary instruction. Superior Instruction. — The following table contains the principal institutions of this grade. NAME CoUege of St. James Frederick College Johns Hopkins University Loyola College Mt. st. Diary '8 College Hill College St. < 'uarles's College st. John's College Washington College ni Maryland College Location When found- ed Denomi- nation St. James 1842 M. Epis. rick 1797 Non-sec. Baltimore I 376 Non-sec. Baltimore 1852 B. C. Emmettsburg 1808 R. C. Elliott City 1867 R. C. EllicottCity 1848 R. C. Annapolis 1789 Non-sec. Chestertown 1783 Non-sec. Westminster 1807 51. Prot. Woodstock College T.Woodstock 1867 R. C. St. John's College reported, in 1*74, 11 pro- fessors, 130 students, and 8 graduates. Its course is the usual collegiate one of four years. Six scholarships are provided at this college for each senatorial district, the holders of which are en- titled to rent of room and tuition free: and 1 i< tan I is furnished free to two of them from each dis- trict, who agree in return to teach in tin' state, after graduation, not less than two years. For the latter purpose, $10,000 of the$25,000 annual- ly appropriated by the state, is devoted. The Western Maryland < iollege reported 13 pr< 'lessors and 131 students, of whom 61 were females, for whom there is a three years' course of study. This college also, has several state scholarships. Wash- ington College had 2 professors, 27 students, and 3 graduates. It supports 6 state scholarships as provided by the act of 187-1. Mt. St. Mary's college had, in 1873—4,13 professors, and 182 students. Besides the usual colli course, it has a theological course, in which 34 students, in addition to the number above mentioned, re- ceived instruction. St. Charles's College had L2 professors and 180 students. It is intended only for students proposing to enter the church. Woodstock College, with 102 students, is exclu- sively Roman Catholic. For additional informa- tion in regard to these institutions, see the re- spective tides. In 1874, six institutions claiming to be colleges for women, were reported to the U. S. Bureau of Education. They numbered 58 instructors and 66 I students. Professional and Scientific Instruction. — The Agricultural College in Prince Georges Co. was established in 1865, with a fund of $1 L0,000,the proc Is of UK). ihh) acres of land, granted by Congress to the state. It has a farm of 300 acres connected with it, and furnishes partial tuition free to twelve students from each con- gressional district. It has a preparatory and a collegiate department, and has '.* professors ami 91 students. Mt. St. Clement's College, al Qches- ter. and St. Mary's Theological Seminary, at m. Sulpice, both Roman Catholic, afford instruction in theology, besides the theological departments ni the other colleges. A school of law tonus a part ni the University of Maryland, while tin' professions of medicine, surgery, etc., are repre- sented by the College of Physicians and Sur- geons, and the College of Dental Surgery, at Baltimore, the .Maryland Dental College, the Maryland College of Pharmacy, and the schools attached to the Washington University and the University of Maryland. Sp' j <-iH jut pupil was the average annual expenditure ; and. in 1 83 1, it was ascertained that five-sixths of the educable children of the state received instruction in the public schools, the re- mainder attending private schools. In this year (1834) a law was passed prohibiting children under 15 years of age from working in factories, unless they had attended Bchool for at least tine.' months during the preceding year. In 1837, the state board of education was created, and Horace Mann was elected ita secretary (June 29., 17). It was made the duty of the secretary, "to collect information of the actual condition tod efficiency of the common sohools and other means of popular education; aud to diffuse as widely as possible, throughout every part of the commonwealth, information of the most ap- proved and successful methods of arranging the Studies and conducting the education of the young." I'p to that time, though much had been done, throughout the state, for the cause of edu- cation, the great lack of uniformity, in system and action, had deprived the results of much of their practical usefulness. This uniformity the board set itself vigorously to work to supply. Mr. Mann, in particular, labored long and ear- nestly for the attainment of this object, withdraw- ing himself entirely from politics and the prac- tice of his profession, and devoting himself for twelve years to the work. (See M \\\\ HORACE.) The result of the labors of the board was a uni- form common-school system, which was adopted by the legislature, and which has continued in force to the present time. In 1839, two normal schools were opened, — one at Lexington, and the other at Barre. These were first designated state normal schools in 1842 ; and their number has been increased gradually, according as a ne- cessity for their establishment has been recog- nized. In 1846, the first law making education compulsory in this state was passed ; being ren- dered necessary, in the opinion of the legislature, by the fact that the number of persons in the state who were unable to read and write was vapidly increasing, the presence of which class had always been regarded with distrust. Previ- ous to L819, accurate information in regard to schools had not been obtainable; but, in that year, a law was passed, specifying that the income of tin' permanent school fund should be apportioned among those cities, towns, and die- ts only which had raised by taxation the sum of $1.50 for the education of each child between the ages of 5 and 15 years. By thus making the amount raised for each child the unit of ap- portionment, definite statistical information as well as accuracy of appropriation, was insured. Various changes and amendments of minor im- portance were made in the school laws from this time to L857, when the state constitution itself was altered in the interest of free non-sectarian education. By this amendment it is provided. that "no person shall have the right to vote, or shall be eligible to office under the constitution of this commonwealth, who shall not be able to read the constitution in the English language, and write his name, unless prevented by physical disability from complying with the requirement, and unless he already enjoys the right to vote. All moneys raised by taxation in towns and cities fur the support of public schools, and all moneyB appropriated by the state for the sup- port of Common schools, shall never be appropri- ated to any religious sect for the maintenance exclusively of its own schools." In L869, upon petition of several citizens of the state, an act was passed amending a previous act so as to in- clude drawing in the common-school course, and providing, in addition, that every city and town having more than 10,000 inhabitants, should make annual provision for giving free iustruc- MASSACHUSETTS 549 drawing to tion in industrial and mechanical pupils over fifteen years of age. II. There have been live BOUTCeB of income for the support tit' schools and colleges: (I) In- dividual gifts; (2) Tuition tees, or rate bills; (3i Taxes : (1) The income of permanent funds; (.">) Special appropriations. (1) Individual Gifts.- -The first mention made in the history of the state, of a, fund for the es- tablishment of a school, was that of a gift, in the shape of a subscript ion, made in L 636, by several wealthy >*tizens of Boston, for the school, of which Daniel Maud was teacher. This example was followed, in L638, by the Rev. John Harvard, who bequeathed £77!) and a library of 30(1 vol- umes to the college already founded at New- town. A year after, the name of Harvard Col- lege was given to it in his honor; and the name of Newtown was changed to Cambridge, in com- pliment to the English university of that name, of which some of the settlers were graduates. Since that time, the history of education in tin- state, particularly since the Revolution, is adorned by continual gifts made by enlightened citizens for the establishment, maintenance, or improvement of schools or colleges. Chief among these benefactors may be mentioned, Samuel Appleton, John Lowell, jr.. Amos Lawrence, Abbott Lawrence, Nathaniel Thayer, Edmund Dwight, and George Peabody. Probably no state has produced a larger number of pecuniary contributors to the cause of education. (2) Tuition Fecs.-Tho, earliest method employed for the payment of the teacher was that of a fee charged to each parent or guardian, according to the number of children sent. This method con- tinued in force for a century and a half after the first school law was passed. Even after towns were compelled by law to maintain a free school by a special yearly tax, the original method was continued in many country districts down to a very late clay. These fees took different forms according to locality, in the cities and large towns being usually in money ; in the country, consisting of board for the teacher, con- tributions of fuel, etc. (3) Ta.res. — The first educational law passed by the colony — that of 1647 — provided that the teacher should be paid either by the parents or masters of the children taught, or by " the inhabitants in general, by way of supply, as the major part of those that order the prudentials of the town shall appoint; provided that those that send their children 1m not oppressed by paying much more than they can have them taught for in other towns.'' Through every period of the subsequent history of this state, taxation has been, to a considerable extent, re- sorted to as a means of supporting schools. As already stated, the towns were obliged, under stringent penalties, to support schools ; and this, of course, could only be effected by paying taxes. In 1827, the legislature, in the school law of that year, authorized the towns to raise as much money as they might deem necessary for school purposes. The method of raising money for the support of public schools has varied from time to I line, lull tlie plan generally adopted prior to the establishment of the school fund, in 1-31. was by taxation of the polls and estates of the people of the tow ns and school disti icts. without any substantial aid from the government. Since the establishment of the school fund, more or less aid has been furnished by the state for the support of the common schools. During the period from 1*35 to L 845, the amount raised an- nually by tax for the wages of teachers advanced from $325,320 to$600,000. Thestatuteof L839 required that $1.25 should be raised for every child between the ages of -1 and Hi, and actually expended for the purpose of instruction in each town; but, in 184"), more than $3 for every child of that age was actually raised by tax in 53 towns, and more than $2 in DO towns, the average being $2.99. (4) The Income of Pn-initnentFiouh. — The first trace of any thing like a permanent fund for school purposes is found at a very early day, when the public money derived from the ('apt; Cod fisheries was applied to the maintenance of schools. The revenue from this source was, of course, uncertain ; but the intelligence of the people seems to have been relied on to furnish, from time to time, by special act of the legislature or direct taxation, whatever funds were necessary, till 1834, when a most important step was taken for placing the public school system of the state on a firm financial basis, by the establishment of a permanent school fund. Chapter 1(59 of the laws of that year provided that this fund should consist of the amount in the treasury de- rived from the sale of lands in the state of Maine, with fifty per cent of all money to be received from the sale of lands in the same state after January 1., 1835 ; and all money derived from the claim of the state on the government of the United States for military services and not otherwise appropriated. This fund was not to exceed $1,000,000. and the income only was to be used for the support of common schools ; no city, town, or district receiving more than it had raised for the same purpose. This created almost immediately a permanent fund of $500,000, which was increased from that amount, in 1835, to $800,000, in L845. At the close of the year 1850, the amount of the fund was up- wards of $986,000 ; at the end of 1853, it had been increased, by the sale of lands in Maine, to $1,244,284; in 1854, it was $1,501,743.62. In 1859, this fund was further increased by the proceeds derived from the sale of public lands in iioston. At the end of L863, it amounted to $1,870,970; in 1864, to $2,196,827.18; and at the close of 1874, $2,1 1 7.732.*2. By an act of the legislature, passed in 1*54, one half of the income derived from this fund is applied to the support of the common schools, the other half being used for the maintenance of normal schools, teachers' institutes, repairs of school buildings, the salary of the secretary of the board of education, printing, etc. Any surplus, re- maining after the payment of expenses, is to be 550 MASSACHUSETTS added to the fund. For some time, the principal of the fund was increased by these unexpended balances, but at present this is not the case. 13y a liberal interpretation of the law, various sums of money were, from time to time, drawn from the income of the permanent fund for the pur- pose of aiding, in an indirect, way new normal schools, till it was discovered that the income was becoming insufficient, and the half devoted to the support of common schools was being en- croached upon. This was due to the increase in educational wants produced by the growth of the state in population, and has been remedied, from year to year, by special acts of the legis- lature. (5) SpecialApproprialions. — The first special appropriation made for educational purposes was that of 163(5, by which £400 was devoted to the founding of a school or college. The appropria- tions from that time to the present have been many, and for various purposes, and have in- creased rapidly in number with the growth of the state, being most frequent as we approach tin- present time. Thus, in L836, the foundation of Bchool libraries was made secure by an act of the legislature, which authorized the expenditure, in each school district, of $50 the first year, ami $10 each succeeding year, for their establishment and maintenance. In 1837, $10,000 was appro- priated for the establishment of two normal Bchools, a like sum having been contributed for the same purpose by lion. Edmund Dwight; and, in L842, $6,000 was appropriated annually for three years to continue these schools. In 1873, a special act of the legislature set apart the sum of $7,500 to establish a state normal art- school in Boston. III. The supervision of the common schools of the state appears to have been committed to the selectmen at the first, afterward I in 1 826) to school committees appointed in the different towns. In 1837, the reorganization of the public-school system was undertaken by the board of educa- tion. The secretary of the board, Horace .Mann, in his first annual report, makes special mention of the ansa! Isfactory manner in which the schi were supervised, laying great stress upon the 1 of properly qualified school conunittee- men. " Thi py," says the report, " a con- trolling position in relation to our common school,. They are the administrators of the system ; and, in proportion to the fidelity and intelligence exercised by them, the system will flourish or decline." One of the most important duties imposed upon the school-committees (by tli ■ law of L826) was to obtain evidence of the good moral character of all instructors, and to rtain their "literary qualifications and ca- pacity for the governmenl of schools." The law c .pp. I, i, quired every teacher to obtain, from the school committee of the town, a certificate o his qualifications before opening the school. The laxity with which this part of the law was enforced received severe animadversion from Mr. Mann, in the report above referred to. The employment by the board of education of state agents constitutes a peculiar feature of the Mas- sachusetts system. Their duties, as defined by the general statutes of the state, are " to visit the several towns and cities, for the purpose of inquiring into the conditions of the schools, con- ferringwith the teachers and committees, and lecturing upon subjects connected with educa- cation." In L850, the legislature appropriaxed 82,(100 to the board for this purpose; and ac- cordingly, six agents were employed to visit the towns in the early summer. Among these, were N. P. Banks, and S. S. Greene, the latter after- wards of Brown University. The experiment was eminently successful ; and accordingly, the legislature, in 1 851 , made a similar appropriation for two years, which was renewed in 1853, 1855, and 1 ^o7, with the authority in the last instance to expend a sum not exceeding $4,000 in one year. B. (i. Northrop was sole agent from 1860 to 1867. when he was succeeded by Abner B. Phipps, who has continued in office till the pres- ent time (1876). The legislature of 1871 made a special appropriation of 810.000, for this purpose, payable from the "moiety of the in- come of the school fund appropriated to gen- eral educational purposes." This opened a May for the employment of a state director of art-education, to which position "Walter Smith was appointed in 1871. In 1^75, the legislature made an appropriation, for the same purpose, of $14,000, payable from the state treas- ury, and thus enabled the board to increase the number of its agents.— The following named persons have filled the office of secretary of the board of education since its creation in L837 : I loiace Mann, until 1848; Hamas Scars, from L848 to L855; George S. Boutwell, from L855 to 18(*>1 ; Joseph White, from 1861 to the pres- ent time (187(>). — Teachers' Infinites were first organized in 1845 ; and, in 184G, the legislature for the first time made an apjjropriation for their support. In 1850. the first truant law was passed, which simply authorized the towns to make needful by-laws concerning habitual truants, and re- quired the towns that availed themselves of the act to appoint truant officers empowered to carry the law into execution. This law was amended in 1862, making i! obligatory upon the towns to enact bylaws concerning truants; and such is the law at present. An amendment, made in : . requires the school committee, instead of the town or city, to appoint the truant officers. ami fix their compensation. This is the duty of the committee independently of the action of the town; since there are other laws besides those relating to truancy which only the truant officers can execute. School System. — The control of the educa- tional interests of the state rests immediately with the legislature. All information, however, in regard to the schools, colleges ami other in- stitutions of learning, on which its action is based, is derived from the annual report of the state board of education, which is composed of the governor, lieutenant governor, and eight MASSACIirSKTTS 551 persons appointed by the governor, who hold office for eight years, one retiring each year. To this board is entrusted the care and management of the school system, subject to the enactments of the legislature, to whom the board annually re- ports its proceedings and the condition of the schools. — The s '■cretury of the board is its chief executive oflicer, performing the duties usually devolving upon the superintendent of public in- struction in other states. There is also a gen agent and such other agents as the hoard may deem necessary, whose duties are to visit the schools, deliver lectures, confer with school com- mittees and teachers, and generally to act as rep- resentatives of the secretary. — Each town elects a school committee consisting of three persons (or any multiple of three), whose duty it is to super- intend the public schools in the town, apportion the school money among the schools or districts, examine, and license teachers, select the text- books to be used, anil visit every school once a month during the school session, and make an annual report to the town or to the board of education. For this service they receive not less than one dollar for each day actually spent in the performance of their duties, with whatever additional compensation may be allowed by the town. In the cities and some of the larger towns, the school committee appoints a superintendent, who, as it- agent, performs most of the duties above enumerated. The salary of the superin- tendent is fixed by the school committee, who by appointing this officer relinquish all claim to compensation for their own services. — Pru- dential committees are elected in some of the towns, consisting of one person in each district, who must be an actual resident. The duties performed are similar and supplementary to those of the town school committee. — Parents and guardians are required, under a penalty of §20, to send their children between 8 and 12 years of age, to school at least 20 weeks each year, six weeks of which must be consecutive. The only exemptions are cases of poverty, physical or mental incapacity on the part of the child, or when the child is otherwise provided for. The truant officers are required to see that truant children, absentees from school, and va- grants, are sent to school ; and the education of orphans and the children of drunken parents is ■compulsory on the cities and towns in which they reside. — The school age is between 5 and 15 years; and the public schools of the state are free to all persons of school age, without regard to religion, race, or color. — The daily reading of a portion of the Scriptures is required in •fcvery school. — The school fund, which, on the 1st of January l.S7<>, amounted to .'i?2,0G.'>,23S.s(i, is in charge of a board of commissioners, con- sisting of the secretary of the board of education, and the treasurer and receiver-general. One moi- ety of it is distributed among the towns in pro- portion to the school population of each, and the other is applied to the support of normal schools, teachers' institutes, etc. A special fund is pro- vided for the education of Indians. Educational Condition. The number of elementary public schools in the state, in L875, was 5,551 ; the number of high schools, 208 ; of ing schools, 99; incorporated academies, 63; of private schools and academies, 369; of schools instate charitable and reformatory institutions, 12; making a total of 6,302 schools. The es- timated value, as returned by committees, of School-houses and grounds, was $20,856,777.50. The amount of money received for the sup- port of the schools was as follows : Income oi state school fund. $88,613.46 Amount raised by taxation, including only wages of teachers, fuel, and care of fires and school rooms. . . . 4,358,623.59 Income of funds appropriated for the support of public schools at the option of towns 52,050.31 Voluntary contributions of hoard, fuel, apparatus, etc. 30,787.32 Income of local fund 120,2m;. :',2 $4,660,260.99 Expenditures on public schools alone, ex- clusive of the repairing and erecting of school-houses and the cost of school books $4,GG8,472.09 Amount expended in 1874 tor erecting school-houses -1.1 ts,i :;:',. r,:, Average wages per month, male teachers. $88.37 female teachers $35.35 The other most important items of the school statistics for the year 1874 — 5 are the follow- ing :— Number of children of school acre 294,708 No. of all ages, enrolled in the public schools 302,118 Average attendance during the year 216,861 Number under 5 years of age enrolled. . . . 2,383 Number over 15 years of age enrolled 32,'JSG Number of teachers, males 1,169 " ' " females s.047 Total 9.21G Average length of school term 8 mo. 17 days Normal Instruction. — There are five normal schools in the state, exclusive of the Normal Art-School in Boston. The first two were established in 1839, at Lexington and Barre.but were afterwards removed, — the first to Newton, and afterwards to Framingham ; the second, to Westfield. Three have since been established, — at Bridgewater, Salem, and Worcester. The normal school at Framingham wasopened in 1853, and is exclusively for females. The number of pupils in attendance, dining the year L874— 5, was, the first term. 117; the second term, 116; the number of graduates was 35. The normal school at Salem is also for females. The number of pupils, in 1 ^7 1 - ">. was. first term, 211 ; second term, 228; number of graduates, 58. The normal school at Bridgewater is for both sexes. The number of pupils, in L874 — 5, was, first term, 151, — 37 males, 114 females; second term, L60, — 45 males, and 115 females; number of graduates, 49, — !) males, and 40 females. The normal school at Westfield is for both sexes. 'I'he number of students in attendance was, winter term, L35, — 11 male.-,. 121 females; sum- mer term, 126, — 11 males, lie females; num- ber of graduates, 42, — 3 males, .'!!• females. The 552 MASSACHUSETTS normal school at Worcester was established in 1874. The number in attendance the first year was 93. The intention is to make these schools com- plete, in all aids to a higher education, with spe- cial reference, however, to the career of the grad- uates a.s teachers. For this purpose, libraries, laboratories, cabinets of specimens, and courses of lectures have been provided; and each of the schools is visited annually by a board of visitors who report to the secretary of the state board of education. — The Normal Art -School, at Boston, was established in L873, and grew out of the necessities first made apparent by the attempt to carry out the law of L870, which provided that every city or town containing more than 1.0,000 inhabitants should establish and maintain a school for the teaching of mechanical and industrial drawing. This law was inoperative from the want of competent teachers to conduct such schools; and with the view to supply this want, the Normal Art-School was founded. The number of pupils the first year was 133. This number was increased, in the second year, to 239, — 84 males, and L55 fe- males. The establishment of this school was in answer to a petition made to the legislature by the manufacturing and mechanical interests of Boston, in which it was represented that those interests were suffering from a lack of skilled employes. The ease with which graduates from this institution have found employment since their graduation is considered ample proof of the wisdom shown in its establishment. — Teach- ers' Institutes were first organized in L845. From this time to 1874 inclusive, 242 institutes have been held, averaging 8 annually. The annual average attendance has been L,060, or 133 at each institute. The average cost of each institute is about $3,000 ; average cost of each teacher attending, between $2 and $3; total annual cost to the state for eight institutes, about $2,550. /.'■- ning Schools. — In addition to the schools for primary instruction enumerated, then' are evening schools in many of the large towns and cities, the opportunities afforded by which are eagerly sought by many whose early educational privileges have been neglected. The reporte an- nually made in regard to them show a larger attendance of adults than in other schools, and of pupils of both sexes, drawn principally from the mechanical and laboring classes. Their sessions being short, ami held generally during only the winter months, and the attendance being fluct- uating, the results are. of course, not as satis- factory as in other schools. The instruction im- girted also is necessarily elementary in character. y an act of the legislature, in 1870, all towns and cities of L0,00U and over are required to BUppOli free evening drawing schools; and 23 schools of this class are now open. Secondary Instruction. The number of high schools, incorporated academics, and private academies in the state has already been stated as -•us, 63, and 369 respectively. Of L51 towns numbering over 500 families, and therefore re- quire! each to maintain a high school, only had failed to comply with the law, while 40 such schools were maintained in 38 towns not required to do so. The high schools are of various degrees of excellence, ranging from about that of the ordinary grammar school to thai of the best pre- paratory school for admission to college. It is estimated that about one third are of this latter class, students passing from them into college with- out difficulty. The former class numbers also about one third, their condition of comparative in- feriority being attributed to the want of teachers and apparatus, and to the mixed character of the pupils. The remaining, or middle third, furnish their pupils with only a tolerable prepa- ration for college, but with a good English edu- cation. The state includes among its academies and private schools, a very large number of in- stitutions for the education of girls. All these various schools draw their pupils largely from other states, the high reputation of Massachusetts- in respect to education securing for them an ex- tensive patronage. Denominational n College B Bl m Qniversity. . . Coll. of the Eoly Cross Harvard College nuts College Williams Colleg - Amherst Boston Worcester Cambridge Medford W'illianistown When found- ed 182] 1 86 1 L878 1st:; 1638 1854 1798 Religious denomina- tion Cong. R. C. M. Epis. u. a Nun sect. Univers. Cong. The principal institutions for the superior in- struction of females are Ahliott Academy. An- dover; Bradford Academy. Bradford ; Gannett Institute. Boston; Mt. Holyoke female Sem- inary. South 1 1 ad lev: ( tread I nst it tit e. Worcester ; Smith College, Northampton; Wheaton female Seminary, and W'ellesley College, W'ellesley. Professional and Scientific Instruction. — This includes principally institutions for the study of science, law. medicine, and theology. Many of the colleges just enumerated under the- head of superior instruction have departments, or courses in which the subjects classed as pro- fessional or scientific may be pursued, but there are in addition the following : NAME Location Andnver Theol. Seminary \ndovor Epis. Theol. School Cambridge M:i>^ agricult. College., Lmheral Mass lnst. of Technology Boston Newton Theol. Institute. Newton Cen, Net* ChnxchTheo. School W'altnani When Religious found- denomina- ed tion 1808 Cong. 1867 i pisoopat 1867 Non-fleet. 1861 Non-sect. 1825 Baptist 1800 N. J. C'n. MASTKR OF AIM'S MATIIFMATICS 553 Special Instruction. — Tlic Clarke Institution for Deaf-Mutes was established at Northampton in 1867. Pupils arc instructed in the ordinary branches of an English education, besides philos- ophy, zoology, chemistry, and drawing. There is attached to the institution, also, a cabinet shop iu. which many nt' the pupils work a part of each i day. Though founded by private benefaction, ', .it receives an annual appropriation from the 'state, the amount from the utter source being, in 1875, SI 1,415. The number of pupils during the year was 50 ; the number of instructors. 8. The Boston Day-School for Deaf-Mutes was founded in 18(i9. It is a city tree school for both sexes, and is supported entirely by taxation. The number of pupils, in L874 — 5, was (i.'i; the Dum- ber of instructors, 7. The Perkins Institution and Massachusetts Asylum for the Blind was estab- lished in 1829, Samuel G. Howe being its first superintendent. (See Howe, S. G.) The total num- ber of pupils admitted iuto it since its foundation was, in 1874 — 5, 865. All blind children who are residents of the state, who are suitable sub- jects for instruction, and who are recommended by the governor, are received for education. The ordinary branches taught in the common schools of the state form the course of study; to which is added instruction in music and in some branch of manual labor. In addition to the original donation made by its founder, it receives from the state an annual grant of $30,000. Besides the residents of the state who are educated gratuitously, it receives pupils from other states, upon payment of a certain annual sum. The number of instructors and employes was 55 ; the number of pupils, 156. There is also a school for idiotic ami feeble-minded youth in Boston, founded in 1848, the number of instructors and employes in which, in 1874 — 5, was 16, of pupils 118 ; a private institution for the same purpose, founded in Barre in 1848, with 50 instructors etc., and 75 pupils ; and one for backward and peculiar children, in Fayville, with 7 instruc- tors and 8 pupils. There are nine industrial and reform schools in different parts of the state for the reformation of children, principally those between the ages of 7 and 17 years, who have been committed for poverty, truancy, vagrancy, and petty crimes. MASTER OF ARTS. See Degrees. MASTERY METHOD. See Latin Lan- guage. MATHEMATICS.— The term mathematics is the Latin word maihemalica, or the Greek word /ia&ijfiaTiKd, anglicized. The Greek word was derived from fiav&avu, to learn; whence fia&qoic, learning. Both the Greeks and the Romans used the word mathematica as we do the word mathematics. The use of the plural form indicates that this department of human knowledge was formerly considered not as a single branch, but as a group of several branches, much as we use the phrase the mathematical sciences. This group of sciences is subdivided into pure mathematics and mixed, or applied, mathematics. In this article we are concerned I mainly with the former. The branches qf pure mathematics are arithmetic, algebra, the calculus, and geometry. In tin's classification, the calculus is made to include the infinitesimal calculus, the calculus of finite differences, and the calculus of variations; while geometry includes the com- mon or special geometry, general {analytic) \ geometry, descriptive geametrij. trigonometry, conic sections, and the new science of quater- nions.— No at ten i pi togivea philosophical defini- tion of the department of knowledge embraced under the term mathematics, has as yet been so successful as to lie generally accepted. The stale ment that " mathematics is the science of quan- tity" is often flippantly repeated as a defini- tion, but it can scarcely serve for that purpose. Conite defines mathematical science, as the sci- ence which has for "its object the indirect measurement of magnitudes, and constantly proposes to determine certain magnitudes from <>///ers, by means of the -precise relations existing between them." It is not a little singular that, while this great thinker rules geometry out of the realm of pure mathematics, he bases his definition of the science exclusively on the geometrical conception. That he does so is espe- cially apparent in the discussion from which he deduces the definition. Moreover, it is not clear how the abstract principles of the science can be included in this definition. Such propositions as, "The product of the multiplicand and the multi- plier is equal to the sum of the products of the parts of the multiplicand into the multiplier ;" " The root of the product of several quantities equals the product of their like roots ;" " The bisector of any angle of a triangle divides the op- posite side into segments which are proportional to the adjacent sides;" etc., are scarcely embraced in Comte's definition without an unjustifiable ex- tension of the signification of its terms. "We pro- pose the following definition: Pure mathematics is a general term applied to several branches of science -which have for their object the inves- tigation of the properties and relations of quan- tity — comprehending number, and magnitude as the result of extension — and of form. It will be observed that this definition embraces that of Comte, inasmuch as the measurement of quantities, or the determination of unknown from known quantities, is effected by an in- vestigation of their relations ; but, on the other hand, we can scarcely say that all investiga- tions of the relations of quantities are for the purposes of measurement, or of determining un- known quantities from known. — But the chief purpose of this article is to inquire as to the place which mathematical studies should occupy in our courses of elementary instruction. In such an inquiry, the leading considerations are, (I) For what purpose should these studies be pursued in such courses? (II) To what extent should they be pursued? and (HI) What gen- eral principles should govern our methods of teaching ? I. Mathematical studies should be pursued in elementary schools primarily as a means of mental 554 MATHEMATICS discipline. Notwithstanding all that Sir William Hamilton has said, and the formidable array of names which he adduces in support of his views, it may still be claimed that there is no single line of study pursued in schools, which develops the mind in bo many ways, and is so well adapted to every stage of mental growth, as mathemat- ical studies. It has heeii I, and quite gen- erally conceded, that the power of observation is not developed by mathematical studies ; while the truth is, that, from the most elementary mathematical notion which arises in the mind of a child to the farthest verge to which mathematical investigation has been pushed and applied, this power is in constant exercise. By observation, as here used, can only be meant the fixing of the attention upon objects (physical or mental) no as to note distinctive peculiarities— to recog- nize resemblances, differences, and other relations. Now. the first mental act of the child recogniz- ing the distinction between one and more than one, between one and two, tico and three, etc., is exactly this. So, again, the first geometrical notions arc as pure an exercise of this power as can b.' given. To know a straight line, to distin- guish it from a curve ; to recognize a triangle and distinguish the several forms — what are these, and all perceptions of form, but of observations? Nor is it alone in securing these Fundamental conceptions of number and form thai observation plays so important a part. The very genius of the common geometry as a method of reasoning —a system of investigation — is, that it is but a series of observations. The figure being before the eye in actual representa- tion, or before the mind in conception, is so closely scrutinized, that all its distinctive feat- ures are perceived; auxiliary lines are drawn (the imagination leading in this), and a new series of inspections is made; and thus, by means of direct, ■simple observations, the investigation proceeds. So characteristic of the common geometry is this method of investigation, thai Comte, perhaps the i !' all writers upon the philo ophy of i itics, is disposed to class geometry, a, to its methods, with (he natural sciences, as being based in rvation. Moreover, when we con- sidi I mathematics, we need only to notice that the exercise of this faculty is SO essential, that the basis of all such rea oning, the very material- v.: h which we build, ha ived the name ol ms. Thus we might pro to consider the whole ran-" ..i the human facul- . and find for most of them ample scope for exercise in mathematical - .lies. Certainly, the memory will not be found to he neglected. The very firsl Steps in number, counting, the multiplication table, etc., make heavy demands on this power; while tin- higher branches re- quire the memorizing of formulas which are Simply appalling to the uninitiated.** So the imagination, the creative faculty of tie mind, his constant exercise in all original mathematical investigation, from the solution of the simplest c ,i i i . h ■ discovery of the most recondite principle; for it is not by sure, consecutive si as many suppose, that we advance from the known to the unknown. The imagination, not the logical faculty, leads in this advance. In fact, practical observation is often in advance of log- ical exposition. Thus, in the discovery of truth, the imagination habitually presents hypotheses, and observation supplies facts, which it may re- quire ages for the tardy reason to connect logic- ally with the known. Of this truth, mathemat- , ics, as well as all other sciences, affords abundant illustrations. So remarkably true is this, that to-day it is seriously questioned by the majority of thinkers, whether the Bublimest branch of mathematics- -the infinite simal calculus — has any thing more than an empirical foundation, mathematicians themselves not being agreed as to its logical basis. — That the imagination, and not the logical faculty, leads in all original in- vestigation, no one who has ever succeeded in producing an original demonstration of one of the simpler propositions of geometry, can have any doubt. Nor are induction, analogy, the scrutinizing of premises or the search for them, or the balancing of probabilities, spheres of mental operation foreign to mathematics. No one, indeed, can claim a pre-eminence for math- ematical studies in all these departments of iu- tellectual culture, but it may. perhaps, be claimed thai scarcely any department of science affords discipline to so great a number of faculties, and that none presents so complete a gradation in its exercise of these faculties, from the first prin- ciples of the science to the farthest extent of its application, as mathematics. 'I here are, however, two respects in which, probably, special pre- eminence may lie claimed for mathematics as a disciplinary study: namely, training the mind to i he habit of forming clear and definite concep- tions, and, of clothing these conci ptions in exact and perspicuous language. 'I his pre-eminence arises, in part, from the fact that, in this branch of knowledge, the terms convey exactly the same meaning to all minds. Thus, there can be no difference between the conceptions which different persons have of Jiff, six, a straight . a circle, a perpendicular, a product, a square root; or of the statements, that .'! and 5 make 8, that the sum of the angles of »/ plane triangle is two right <>• etc. The concep- tion in each case is definite, and the langu may be perfectly clear. That this i.- not so in most other sciences, no one needs to be told. ('an we be sure that all have the same concep- tion of the metaphysical terms idea, perception, ~>ii? Can any one discriminate infallibly be- tween an adjective and an adverb; between downy, hirsute, and pubescent? Are the conceptions designed to lie conveyed by the terms schistose, fissile, slaty, laminar, foliated, squamose, so dis- tinct that no two mineralogists will ever inter- change them? Is the meaning of a Greek text always unequivocal ? Is it an easy matter for any two persons to gel exactly the .-ame concep- tion of the causes which led to a certain political revolution : can either be absolutely certain. from any language which he can use, that no one will M ATI I KM ATI CS 555 mistake his conception? — That the habit of mind which rests satisfied only with clear and definite conceptions, and the power oi Bpeech which is able to clothe snch conceptions in lan- guage perfectly unmistakable, are most impor- tant attainments, need not be argued; and these are exactly the ends which mathematical studies, properly pursued, are adapted to secure. In this hasty review, nothing has been said di- rectlyof these studies as a means of developing the reasoning faculties, since it is generally con- ceded that pur.' mathematics is practical Logic, and that pupils, who do not learn to reason by their study of mathematics, fail of the most im- portant end of such study. Doubtless, the common answer to the question, Why should mathematical studies lie pursued in schools? would be, for their practical value; by which is meant, their direct application to the affairs of life, as in reckoning bills, computing interest, measuring' distances, volumes, areas, etc. It is, indeed, true, that, in the every-day affairs of life, to the accountant, and to the man of business, a certain amount of arithmetical knowledge is essential — that surveying, civil engineering, mechanics, navigation, geography, ami astronomy, are based on geometry. But, let it be observed, that only a special few practice the arts last named, and that for the masses embraced in the former specifications, a very limited amount of arithmetical knowledge is all that they are required to apply. And still further, while it is, indeed, necessary that the business man should be able to add, subtract, multiply, divide, and compute interest, skill in these operations can never form the basis of prac- tical success in life, except in the case of mere clerks. Many of the most sagacious business men would make wretched work with their ledger columns, and they know too well their own deficiencies to risk themselves in any important numerical computations. Indeed, the elements of practical success in life are quite other than a specific knowledge of any branch of sci- ence whatever, however indispensable a certain amount of such knowledge may be in particular callings. The conclusion, therefore, is, that the important point is not, how much mathematical knowledge can be crammed into the minds of pupils, but by what methods of teaching and study such habits of mind can be secured, as will make the pupils most efficient in performing the duties of life. II. 7'< what extent should uu/fhemaiical stud- ies be pursued in our elementary courses? — Were we to judge from the practice of most schools, we should conclude that mathematical studies ought to occupy from one-third to one- half of the pupil's time throughout his school life, unless, indeed, a slight exception is to be made in favor of other studies for the last two years of a college course ; that is, that read- ing, sp-Hing, writing, geography, grammar, his- tory, literature, rhetoric, logic, the who]" domain of natural science, including the physical consti- tution of the human system, chemistry, languages, metaphysics, political economy, — all these, and whatever else goes to make up the furniture, and secure the discipline, of a well-cultivated mind. are only to receive as great, or at most twice as great, a part of the pupil's time, as his mathemat- ical studies. And this is no exaggeration, as will be obvious from an inspection of the curriculum of a graded school, or college. For the first six or seven years of the ordinary evaded public school course , if we include the oral lessons, in number anAform, of the lowest grade, arithme- tic forms one of the three main studies for the entire course ; and, in not a few cases, there are two arithmetical exercises, one in mental (oral), and one in writti n arithmetic, or one in arithme- tic and another in algebra, each day, constitut- ing, in such cases, fully one half of the school work. During the entire course of the high or preparatory school, either algebra, higher arith- metic, or geometry constitutes one of the studies, except for a part of one year; but this exception is much more than made up by the large rela- tive amount of time which the pupil's mathe- matical studies usually occupy, and by the fact that not unfrequently some two of these studies are pursued at the same time. In the college course, one of the three regular studies for the first two years is. almost invariably, mathematics. — So far, reference has been hail exclusively to pure mathematics, including only arithmetic, al- gebra, geometry, and perhaps a little of general (analytical) geometry and the calculus. What- ever of applied mathematics, including surveying. navigation, mechanics, astronomy, etc., is to be studied, must find additional time in the course. The question then arises, can the legitimate purposes for which mathematical studies shoidd be pursued, be secured in any less time? In or- der to answer this, let us observe the exact pro- portion of time usually given to the pure mathe- matics in a course of training extending through the ordinary college course. Arithmetic has from one-half to one-third of the pupil's time in the elementary schools. In the high school or academic course, to obtain any creditable knowl- ei Ige of algebra, geometry, and plane trig* tnometry, and to review the arithmetic, at least one-third of the time is consumed. Passing into the col- lege with this knowledge of mathematics, the student finds onc-1hird of the time, for the first two years, scarcely adequate to secure a respect- able knowledge of higher algebra, geometry, and trigonometry, the elements of the general geometry, and the infinitesimal calculus ; and whatever of applied mathematics is learned, as of surveying, mathematical drawing, mechanics, astronomy, etc., must find a place in the other two years of the college course. Now. all this is .-imply inevitable, unless relief can be found in the course prior to entrance upon college work. If, however, the inordinate demands of arithme- tic can be so abridged (see Arithmetic), (hat the grammar school course shall include, at least, i [ghteen months' study introductory to algebra and geometry, the highschool can save this time for other studies, and also secure such thorough- 556 MATHEMATICS ness in preparation, that the student's course in j college will be far more rapid and satisfactory than at present. With the quality of prepara- tion now secured, it should be borne in mind. that the student comes to college having, it is true, been over the requisite amount, but with so little of the real strength and knowledge which that course should impart, that, if he does jus- tice to his mathematical studies for the first two years, nearer one-half than one-third of his time is consumed upon them. By rigidly confining the study of elementary arithmetic to its proper domain, giving a year in the grammar school to an introduction to algebra, and half a year to the definitions and facts of plane geometry, the pupil may come to the high school so thoroughly prepared in the elements of the three great mathematical studies, — arithmetic, algebra, and geometry, that between two and three years in the high school will be amply sufficient to secure such further proficiency in these branches as is consistent with the course here marked out. Moreover, if the pupil's school life closes with the grammar school, the course thus secured will be of far more value to him in after life, both for practical uses and as a discipline, than the ordinary one. (See ARITHMETIC, ALGEBRA, and Geometry.) — In the above, it will be observed. that the genera] geometry and the infinitesimal calculus are ineluiled in the college course. The elements of the former are usually required, al- though it is quite common (for no good reason) to make the latter elective. By omitting the Calculus, the graduate; leaves college without ever having looked into on< of the Bublimest deparl incuts of human knowledge, or having even the remotest idea of the language and methods of the mechanics and astronomy of the day, or being able to read an advanced treatise upon any scientific subject as treated by the modern mathematician. Xor can the beauty and power of the general geometry be appreciated without a knowledge of the calculus. Thus the pupil who is allowed, at his option, to leave this out of his course, leaves college a hundred years be- hind his time, in one of the leading departments of human knowledge. HI. What general principles should govern our methods qf teaching mathematics? —This topic has been quite fully treated in the separate articles Arithmetic, Algebra, and Geometry, to which reference is made. It is proper to add here, that, from first to last, the methods should he BUCh as will give absolutely clear per- ceptions and conceptions, and secure facility. accuracy, and elegance in expression. These ends are of vastly more practical importance than the mere ability "to gel the answer" of special problems. The notion which prevails among ■Ome teachers, that if the pupil learns the prOO- and incomes expert in it. he has obtained v thing thai is essential, and that, whatever of the rationale may be desirable will be. in some way, induced by this mechanical process, is an exceedingly vicious one. In the first place, it is far more important that the pupil should be able to comprehend the logic, and to express his ideas in intelligible language than merely to solve any number of problems, since the former ability he will have occasion to use every day of his life, while he may never need the latter at all. But we are not driven to the alternative of securing ctdture at the expense of mechanical skill ; the very best means to acquire expertness in mathematical manipulations is that which secures the best results in culture. No greater intellectual monstrosity probably ever presents itself than he who is usually known as a mathematical genius; that is. one who has a wonderful ability to do what nobody else can do. or cares to do — to solve knotty and often senseless mathematical problems. On the contrary, the object of mathematical study shoidd be to develop men with cultured minds, not to make them mere computing machines. Mathematical Literature. — It is designed, un- der this topic, to point out to the teacher a few treatises which may be helpful to him in extend- ing his knowledge of the subjects of arithmetic, algebra, and geometry beyond the mere rudi- ments; in becoming acquainted with the history of these branches; and in providing material for use in class-room work. It is rather to men- tion a few works which arc presumed to be acces- sible to the teacher than to furnish an extended list of authors. The best catalogues of writers on algebra and geometry accessible to teachers are those in the Encyclopaedia Britannica. The list of writers on algebra contains 171 nanus, and extends from .'{(It) A. D. into the present century. The catalogue of geometrical writers covers the period from 272 A. D. to the middle of the present century. — By far the most com- plete history of arithmetic with which we are acquainted is the article by Dr. Peacock in the Encyclopaedia Metropolitans (vol. i. of Pure Scit nee. pp. :i(J!(— -ls2). The Encyclopaedia Britannica also contains a fair history of this branch, together with as good an outline of tho history of algebra and geometry as the teacher can usually find accessible. The Algebra of Wallis.an Knglish mathematician (1616 — 170.'f), has a history of the subject prefixed. — Of Mathematical Dictionaries, mention may be made of those by Button I London. L815); Harlow (London, L814); and Navies and I'eck (N. V.. L856).- Montucla's History qf Mathe- matics I l vols., 4to). besides being too volumi- nous tor most readers, is brought dow u only to the beginning of the present century, and is only to be had in latin or blench. A more recent work is Geschichte der Mathematik, by Poppe (Tubingen. 1828), to be had only in German. Among other works in the German language, especial reference should be made to Diesterweg's Wegweiser (Essen, L851). This may lie called a treatise on the Theory owl Practice qf Teaching, discussing not only the philosophical principles of pedagogy, but treat- ing, quite in detail, methods and even text- books. In the second volume (pp. 343 — «194), may he found a full list of German text-books MATRICULATE MEDICAL SCHOOLS 557 on arithmetic, in connection with the discussion of meth o d s . The succeeding chapter treats in like manner of geometry. — Among arithmetics not bow specially candidates for popular fa\or. the following will be found interesting and val- uable in a teacher's library : An Introduction to Arithmetic on the Lancasterian plan, by John Euton (Albany, 1817); Dana 1'. Oolbum's Arithmetic will be found exceedingly suggestive to the practical teacher; Window's Gomputist's Manual contains a large amount of practical matter very useful to the teacher ; ( 'base's Arithmetic furnishes a vast amount of material ■which can be utilized by the teacher in the reci- tation room ; Sangster's Arithmetic (Montreal, 18(14) will be found quite instructive in many respects. To these the intelligent teacher will add the various series offered to the public by lead- ins educators in the United States. — In algebra, among English works, Todhunter's Algebra, and Theory of Equation; Bland's Examples; Wood's, Young's, Hind's, and Bonnyeastle's trea- tises on algebra will afford not only the elements of the subject, but an cxhaustless mine of ex- amples for practice. Peacock's Algebra (2 vols., 8vo, London) is one of the most celebrated theoretical treatises. Serret's is one of the best French treatises. Cirode's and Comberousse's are also valuable. Hackley's Algebra (N. Y., 1840) will be found valuable for reference, being one of the most complete ever published in this country. In reference to geometry, it may be sug- gested that every teacher should read President Hill's two little books. First Lessons in Geome- try, and Second Book. Most English writers on the elements of geometry have contented them- selves with editing Euclid with slight modifica- tions. The student who wishes a knowledge of the modern methods in elementary geometry, will find Muleahys work quite satisfactory. Rouche et Gomberousse, a French treatise (2 vols., 8vo), is the most complete modern treatise on element- ary geometry with which we are acquainted, and is a complete thesaurus of examples for in- dependent work. All of De Morgan's (English) mathematical works are exceedingly valuable, containing treatises on algebra, geometry, the calculus, and other branches. In regard to the relative value of mathematical studies, see Sir William Hamilton, Discussions on Philosophy and Literature (N. Y., 1858), art. On the Study of Mathematics as an Exercise of Mind; J. S. Mill, Examinations of Sir William Hamilton's Philosophy (1865); Grote, Review of this work (1868) ; Barnard's Journal of Education, vol. xni.; Whewell, On the Principles of English University Education (Loud., 1838); T. H.S af- ford, Modern Mathematics iii the Collage Course, in Proceedings of National Educational Asso- ciation, at St. Louis, 1871; T. Hill, True Order of Studies (N. Y., 1876); Todhunter, The Con- flict of Studies (Lond., 1873). MATRICULATE (Lat. matricida, a public roll or register), to admit to membership in a college or university, by enrollment. (See Col- lege, and University.) MEDICAL SCHOOLS. The earliest prop- agation of medical science was effected by means of tradition, and not until much later by written records. The oldest instructors were the priests in the temples of .Esculapius. Hippocrates, among the Greeks, Galen, among the Romans, and Avicenna, among the Arabs, were the first savants that brought into scientific shape the written fragments left by their predecessors. The study of their works was the main source of med- ical knowledge for centuries. The ancients had no special medical schools, but their schools gave scientific and philosophical instruction in general. Such institutions could be found in Athens, Alexandria, Rome, and other cities. The name medical school was first used in the 0th century in the city of Salerno, where an association of several medical teachers, of the Greek, Jewish, Latin, and Arabian nations, lectured on the heal- ing art. Their method, substantially, consisted in the reading and explanation of the old Greek, Ro- man, and Arabian parchment scrolls. After the foundation of universities, in the 13th century, the medical schools, as a rule, were united with them. (See University.) The earliest were those of Naples and Messina, founded in 1224, by the emperor Frederick II. of Germany. The division into faculties was first made in Paris, Prague, and Vienna. Highly celebrated medical scl Is of the early middle ages were, together with these above named, at Leipsic, Basel, Montpellier, Bo- logna, Padua, Pavia, and Salamanca; at the last named of which, the Jews and Arabs taught mathematics and medicine. In all these institu- tions, the writings of the ancient physicians named above formed the basis of teaching; and only with the development of anatomy, did the scientific efforts attain a higher degree of perfec- tion. In 1308, the Great Council of Venice pro- vided, by a special decree, that the medical pro- fession of the city should, once a year, make the dissection of a human body; and, about 1320, the first work on anatomy, based on his own dis- sections, was written by Mondini di Luzzi. It was first printed in Padua, 1478, and for a long time was held in the highest esteem. Still, the dissection of human bodies remained a very rare occurrence, a special permission of the pope hav- ing to be obtained in each case. The real father of anatomy was Andreas Vesalius, professor in Basel; where his celebrated work, De human i corporis fabrica, was edited in 1403. Surgery, the child of anatomy, remained, for a long time, in the hands of empirics ; and it was not until the 17th or 18th century, that it was taught scientifically, in universities. The cultivation and development of anatomy also changed the meth- od of teaching, in the medical schools, from a simple lecturing to a more demonstrative course; and, with the accumulation of material for teach- ing, it was natural that medical science should be more and more divided into specialties, for which separate instructors were appointed. The first stationary clinics were organized at Leyden, by Boerhaave, in the first half of the 18th cent- ury, and at Vienna, by his pupil Van Swieten. 558 MEDICAL SCHOOLS These two, together with Van Haen and Johann Peter Frank, were the founders of the practical method of medical instruction. Previous to them, the professors, of surgery for instance, lectured before their audience for years, without even touching a patient with the knife. This to us, nowadays, seems hardly comprehensible. The firsl clinic of obstetrics was established in 17'JO. in Paris, by th-e'goire. A very celebrated school of midwifery was founded, about 1730, at Stras- bourg, and first conducted by the renowned Johann Jacob Fried. Separate clinics for other specialties, as ophthalmology, otology, skin and venereal diseases, etc., are of more recent date. In Germany, every medical school constitutes a faculty of a university: this is also the rule in the other European countries. England ex- cepted. Considering the degree of preparatory instruction, Germany ranks highest. The stu- dents,after having gone successfully through the gymnasium, receive a certificate of maturity, that enables them to matriculate in the medical faculty of any of the German universities of the German Empire, Austria, and Switzerland. No time is fixed for the duration of the course of studies; but, generally, it takes five years. At the end of the first or second year, the student has to undergo an examination in natural philos- ophy: and, at the end of the whole term, a rigid examination [rigorosum), theoretical as well as practical, takes place for the degree of M. I>. Besides this, the several states require what is called a Staatsexamen (state examination] before granting a license for practice. In all the < rerman universities, the students have absolute freedom to select such lectures, and to follow them in such order, as they please. Very nearly the same are t'i ■ arrangements in the universities of Austria, Switzerland. Denmark, Norway, Sweden, Russia, the Netherlands, and Belgium. — France lias only three medical faculties (Fan's. Montpellier, and Nancy) and 21 so-called ('<■<,/,:< pr6paratoires. At the former, the docteurs en mddecine el chi- rurgie arc educated ; the latter train an inferior class of physicians [officiers de .-wWc), licensed for practice only in certain departments. In France, no freedom of instruction exists. The lectures and their order are strictly prescribed. 'The time of study is fixed at .'! years for the "///- de sante, and at 1 years for the degree of M. I >. England has preserved the old independ- eiit iii-tit in ions of the middle ages. The state hi no influence upon tin' education of medical students; and only a weak control is exercised by the Genera] Medical Council of London — the highest medical authority of Great Britain. This body appoints the corporations that have the right to educate and license physicians. All medical bcI Is are private institutions main- tained by private means. Twenty three so-called "licensing bodies" (7 in England, 11 in Scotland. 5 in Ireland) bestow the privilege of practicing the art. the qualifications tor which may be ob- tained at 15 medical Schools. Of these. 27 are ill England ill in London alone), s in Scotland, and loin Ireland. The licensing bodies require 4 years' study, and a certificate showing the scientific acquirements of the applicant to be sullicient for the study of medicine. The differ- ent degrees that may be obtained at the English universities are Bachelor of Medicine (M. B.), Bachelor of Surgery I 1!. S.t. Master in Surgery (M.S.). and Doctor of Medicine (M. !>.). Simi- lar to the English medical schools are those of India and Australia. — In Italy. 17 universities are maintained by the state, and 5 by municipal and provincial corporations. Perfect freedom of instruction is allowed, the only control exercised over the students consisting in 6 several exami- nations in the different branches of medical sci- ence : after passing which the license is granted. For the diploma laurea di dottore in medicina e chirurgia,a separate examination is required. — Turkey has a medical school in Constantinople, divided into a military and a civil department, and organized after the French model. The same is the case with the medical academy in Cairo, Egypt, i stablished by Mehemet Ali, in L V L!7. M dical Education in America. — For more than a century after the American colonies had been planted, they did not contain an institution of medical learning. Medical instruction was alone conveyed in the irregular form of medical pupilage. A few physicians, in different parts of the country, eminent for their skill and popu- larity, attracted to themselves numerous pupils, w ho enjoyed the advantages of the library and the conversation of their preceptor, compounded his medicines, and occasionally attended him in his visits: these preceptors, after three or more years, Signed certificates of attendance which supplied the place of diplomas. In some sections, a system of apprenticeship existed; the young medical pupil being indentured for a period of time, often as long as seven years. Those students who as- pired to a regular degree in medicine, and the high public favor accorded to it. were obliged to cross the ocean and to attend one of the European universities, a step not unfrequently taken by thus,, able to afford the great expense of such a course. In some of the larger towns, an occasion- al private course of lectures on anatomy, surgery, etc.. was attempted with success: and these paved the way for the regular and orderly organization of medical colleges. The fust medical faculty in the country was instituted in 1 7(i~>. under the auspices of the ( lollege of Philadelphia, which was afterwards merged in the far-famed University of Pennsylvania. In L767, a second school was founded in New York, as a department of King's (now Columbia) College, having six chairs, from which lectures were, from the outset, read upon anatomy, theory and practice of physic, surgery, chemistry and materia niedica. and midwifery. These two faculties, the only ones established be- fore the Revolution, were possessed of very meager means and appliances of instruction, but they placed their standard of requirements very high, much higher than it has since been, or is even now. held. The principal rules of the New York faculty were (I I a preliminary exami- nation, in latin and some branches of natural MKDICAD SCHOOLS 559 philosophy, was required of all matriculants who bad not taken a degree in arts; (2) after three years' study and one complete course of lectures, the bachelor's degree was allowed ; (3) after an- other year and a second full course, students 22 years of age were admitted to examination for the doctorate : and they were required to pub- lish and publicly defend a thesis on some medical subject. The examinations were conducted after the pattern of the University of Edinburgh, the regnant medical school of that day. These schools were broken up by the Revolutionary war. in 177(>. at which time they had graduated about 50 physicians. With the return of pet these institutions were resuscitated : and other faculties were formed in different parts of the country, principally as departments of previous- ly existing literary colleges or universities. — that of Harvard in L782, Queen's in 1792, and Dart- mouth in 179G. They did not at once enjoy the attendance of large classes, for the country was impoverished and distressed by the effects of a long war ; and they exercised with caution and reserve their privilege of conferring medical de- grees, so that, with the close of the 18th century, their graduates did not exceed 253 in number ; and the honorary M. D. was but seldom granted. Among the eminent names allied to these pio- neer movements are those of Morgan, Rush, Jones, Bard, Romayne, Hosack, Warren, and Nathan Smith. During the opening quarter of the present century, as national prosperity re- vived, and learning began to flourish and students to multiply, a great degree of energy marked the progress of medical education. In 1825, the number of schools had increased from four to sixteen, well distributed, geographically; in twelve states, principally the Northern and sea-board states. Three were south of the Potomac, and two west of the Alleghanies. They were, as a rule, affiliated with some previously existing col- lege, but the practice of seeking private, inde- pendent charters had commenced; these charters were readily granted by the legislatures of the various states. The American medical college then began to take shape and direction, the same essentially that it retains at this day. Govern- ment, as a rule, withheld all support, endowment, or control ; and what little protective legislation had previously been enacted was then, or soon after, repealed ; practical anatomy was a felony by statute ; the populace were still inimical to dissection, the last mob-rising being as late as 1820. Thrown upon their own resources, and recognizing the necessities of the land for prac- titioners, the colleges broke away from the line of European tradition, at once increasing the facilities and lowering the standard of medical education. The minimum of requirements was pretty uniformly adopted; preliminary qualifica- tions were not demanded; the time of study was shortened ; examinations became less difficult ; the printed thesis and its public defense wen' remitted except on special occasions ; and, about 1812, the primary degree of M. U. ceased, and all diplomas declined in appreciation. Identified with this formative period, are the names of Physick, Mott, Drake, Mussey, Caldwell, God- man, McDowell. KLnight, and Childs. Unprom- ising as this Bystem, or want of Bystem, in medical education, Beemed to the conservative and educated part of the profession, and despite protests, in greal variety, made as early as 1827, against the deuvmrate tendencies of the now developed American plan, the status of in- struction grew worse rather than better. Char" tered colleges of an interior grade, often-times short-lived, multiplied, — duplicated even in the same town; indeed, from 1 8 '_'."> to 1850, their number almost trebled. In some, inferiorpro- fessors lectured to benches promiscuously tilled, the regulations were lowered, the lecture-term was reduced to three months, and the attendance even then was not obligatory, and few candidates were rejected. It is even said that diplomas, with lithographed signatures, were sold. About this time (1850), largely through the instrumen- tality of the American Medical Association, the demand for reforms gradually made itself felt. No radical change of plan has been adopted or is immediately probable, but a progressive growth from within is manifest. Schools of the poorer quality are still unduly multiplied; there are now over GO of all grades, about 30 others having been discontinued. The time of study, and the length of the lecture-term, are yet too short, although additional courses have been added which are for the most part optional, and the number of branches taught has been increased. The instructor is still also the examiner of the candidates for graduation, although some visiting censor* have been appointed. The curriculum, nominally the same as 50 years ago, is vastly im- proved by the introduction of clinical teaching, by demonstrative methods and illustration that excite the admiration of critics from abroad, and in a few cases by the grading of classes. The superior appointments of the more modern schools facilitate the work of the student, and many of them have their buildings close to the hospitals. The study of anatomy by dissection is now as easy as formerly it was difficult. The American plan favors the production of a superi- or teaching corps. The success of a school is ordinarily in direct proportion to the merits of professors; the brightest and most progressive minds, therefore, are diligently sought out, and a fruitful emulation is excited among them to render their lectures at once practical and popu- lar. From these and other considerations, tin- conclusion is inevitable — that the colleges of the United States are destined to advance, however defective their origin and place may be. In 1874, the number of instructors was 780; of pupils, over 7.000, of whom 2,000 were graduated as doctors in medicine; one student in ten had pre- viously obtained a degree in arts or science. In the above enumeration and description, only the "regular" schools are included. In this century, these schools have graduated fully 7">,000 candi- dates. In regard to the education of women as physicians, a favorable sentiment has been grow- 560 MEDICAL SCHOOLS MEIEROTTO ing up, and some progress has been made, three good schools being in operation. In the medical faculties of South America and the British do- minions, the scale of regulations is higher than in the IT. S., both as to preliminary qualifications and the term of study. In Brazil, there are two departments of medicine; in Canada, there are six, some of them quite small and poorly sustained. The subjoined table contains a list of the med- ical colleges and departments in the U. S. Dental Colleges. — In the United States, the first institution of this kind was the Baltimore College of Dental Surgery, which received its charter in 1839. In 1876, there were in the U. S. the following dental schools : Medical College or Location -c g.fi J3 = 1 = - u Department O 1858 1858 aj c > ° 2 3 is.S Med. Coll. of Alabama Med. C. of the Pacific Mobile, Ala ?1 San Francisco, Cal. . 20 Univ. of California San Francisco, Cal.. 1864 1 40 1812 3 34 Atlanta Med. CoU Univ. of Georgia Atlanta, Ga 1855 1831 2 17 Savannah Med. Coll. .[Savannah, Oa 1853 2 16 Northwestern Univ.. .Chicago, 111 1859 3 39 Bush Med. Coll Chicago, 111 1844 3 20 1870 2 32 M. C. of Evansville. . . Evansville, Ind 1847 1 23 Coll. of rhysicians and] Surgeons of Indiana Indianapolis, Ind.. . 1874 2 16 Univ. of Indiana Indianapolis, Ind. . . 1869 2 22 Univ. of Iowa Iowa City, Iowa 1868 2 StO Coll. of Physicians and 1850 2 16 1*52 2 20 1874 Central Univ 1874 1S69 1 2 30 Louisville Med. Coll. . 24 1837 <> 20 Univ. of Louisiana. . . New Orleans, La... . 1834 3 16 Med. School of Maine, 1820 3 16 Coll. of Physicians ainl 1872 , , 22 1807 2 20 1832 2 36 Harvard Univ Ann Arbor, Mich. . . 1782 1850 3 3 26 Detroit Mod. Cell 1868 3 40 Univ. of Missouri.... 1873 2 40 Kansas City Coll. of Kansas City, Mo.... 1869 2 21 Mo. Med. Coll iSt. Louis, Mo 1840 2 24 St. Louis Med. Coll.. . St. Louis, Mo 1841 3 22 Dartmouth College . . . lianover, N. H 1796 3 44 Union Univ Albany, N. Y Brooklyn, N. Y 1839 1860 3 1 24 L. I. Coll. Hospital... 36 Buffalo, N. Y 1847 3 20 liellevue Hospit. IX, C. New York, N. Y 1861 3 37 Coll. of Phys. and Sur. New York, N.Y 1807 3 32 Free M. C. for Women New York, N. Y 1871 3 26 Univ. of City of N. Y.. New York, N. Y 1841 3 32 Women's Med. Coll. of the N. Y. Infirmarv. New York, N. Y 1864 3 35 Syracuse, N. Y 1872 3 39 Cincinnati College of Medicine and Surg. . Cincinnati, Ohio... 1851 3 40 Med. Coll. of Ohio Cincinnati, Ohio... 1819 3 20 Cincinnati, Ohio... 1852 3 21 Cleveland Med. Coll. . Cleveland, Ohio 1843 2 40 Univ. of Wooster Cleveland, Ohio.... 1 SCO 2 20 StarliugM.O.andHosp. Columbus, Ohio 1847 2 22 1867 3 .. Jefferson Med. Coll.. . Oxford. Pa 1870 1824 3 2 37 Philadelphia, Pa 22 Univ. of Pounsvlvauia Philadelphia, Pa.. . . 1765 3 24 ■Women's M C. of l'a. Philadelphia, l'a. . . . 1850 3 32 Med. Coll. of 8. C Charleston, S. C 1826 32 Columbia, S. C 1868 •• 36 Univ. of Nashville* and Vanderbilt Univ., . . 1850 20 Tex. Med. C. andHosp. Galveston. Tex 1S73 2 16 Univ. of Vt Charlottesville, Va. . Kiitimond, Va 1809 1SJ4 1851 2 *2 16 Univ, of va Med. Coll. of Va :n Georgetown Univ Washington, D. C . 1851 3 20 Washington, D. C... Washington, D. C... 1868 3 3 40 22 Dental School .5 a <" s or Location -= e: '-- iiE Department o > - >j New Orleans D. C New Orleans, La. . . . 1867 2 17 Baltimore College of Dental Surgery 1840 2 23 Maryland Dental Coll. 1873 2 26 Boston Dental College 1867 3 16 Dental School of Har- vard University Boston, Mass 1868 2 20 Missouri Dental Coll. 1865 2 17 N.Y. Coll. of Dentistry New York. N. Y 1866 2 20 Ohio Coll. of Dent. Sur. Cincinnati, Ohio 1845 2 22 Pa. Coll. of Dent. Sur. Philadelphia. Pa 1856 2 36 Phila. Dent. Coll Philadelphia, Pa 1863 2 36 Amer. Dental College 1873 1873 2 1? Univ. of California. . . Oakland, Cal HbmceopatJ/ic Colleges. — The homoeopathic system of medicine was first definitely propound- ed by Hahnemann (born in Meissen, Saxony, 1755 ; died in Paris, 1843). The first homoeo- pathic college was founded at Allen town, Pa., by Dr. Wesselhoeft, but it no longer exists. In 1876, there were in the United States the following homoeopathic colleges and departments : Homoeopathic College or Department Location Chicago, HI. Chicago, HI Iowa City. Iowa.. Boston, Mass Ann Arbor, Mich . St. Louis, Mo St. Louis, Mo New York, N. Y. . . New York. N. Y... Cincinnati, Ohio. . Cleveland, Ohio.. 5.2 J= c c 1876 - - t> eg § 8 3 1860 1870 3 1873 3 1874 3 1858 2 1876 3 1860 3 1863 3 1878 3 1849 2—3 1869 2-3 1 4 o 29 29 30 86 36 20 18 24 28 28 21 ChicagoHomoeop.Coll. Hahnemann Med. Coll. and Hosp. of Chicago Iowa State University Boston Univ Univ. of Michigan. . . . Homceop. M. C. of Mo. Missouri School of Midwifery N.Y. Homceop. M. C. N. Y. Med. Coll. and Hosp. for Women.. Ptdte Med. C..II Homceop. Hosp. Coll. Hahnemann Med.Coll I of Philadelphia (Philadelphia, Pa. In Europe, there are chairs of homoeopathy in the universities of -Munich, Germany, and of Buda-Pesth, Hungary; also, a school of homoeop- athy in Ixmdon, England. MEIEROTTO, Johann Heinrich Lud- wig, a German educator, born August 22., 1742; died September 24., L800. He was appointed, in 1771, professor, and. in 1775, rector of the Joachimsthal Gymnasium, in Berlin; in which position lie was i-minently successful, being called the King of Rectors. While a member of the school council, he traveled through the provinces of Prussia, Bilesia,and Posen.and displayed great talent in organizing common schools. Besides numerous works on various subjects, he wrote a Latin grammar constructed on a plan which bore some resemblance to the met hods of Jacotot and Hamilton, and which attracted considerable at- tention at the time of its introduction, but soon fell into disuse. MELANCIITON MEMORIZING 561 MELANCHTHON, Philip, one of the church reformers of the 16th century, and one of Germany's greatest schoolmen and educators, was born at Bretten, a little town near Beidel berg, Feb. L6., 1 197; died at Wittenberg, April 19., 1560. [n recognition of the extraordinary influence which he exerted upon the schools of Germany in his own and the following cent- uries, he has been honored with the titleof Pros- oeptor Germanice. Alter the death of his father, in 1507, he was taken into the family of his grandmother, who was a sister of the celebrated Kcnchlin, and lived at Pforzheim. Reuchlin, who frequently visited his sister, was delighted with the progress of young Melanchthon, gave him books, and, after the fashion of the times, chanced his original name Schwarzerd into the (jlreek Melanchthon. At the age of only twelve years, .Melanchthon was sent to the uni- versity of Heidelberg, which two years later, in 1511, gave him the bacealaureale degree, but, in 1512, by reason of his extreme youth, de- clined to confer upon him the degree of .Master. While at Heidelberg, Melanchthon took charge of the studies of the two sons of Count Lowen- Stein, and sketched, pi'obably for their use, the first outlines of a grammar of the Greek lan- guage. In 1512, he went to the university of 'fiibingen, where he was involved in the struggle between the old and the new era, and with the energy and ardor of youth strove to compass all branches of knowledge. In L 514, at the age of seventeen, he was made a Master, and at once began to lecture on Latin classics. His career as an author began about the same time ; for, as early as 15 1(5, he published an edition of Terence, and, in 1518, his Greek grammar, at the close of which he announced " that he intended, in con- junction with a number of his friends, to edit the works of Aristotle in the original". At the same time, he attended mathematical and med- ical lectures, and studied the science of law. In 1518, Frederick the Wise, Elector of Saxony, upon the recommendation of Reuchlin, ap- pointed him professor of Greek in the university of Wittenberg. When he left Tubingen, Sinder, his old teacher, said of him : " As many learned men as the university can boast of, they are, nevertheless, none of them, learned enough to form a suitable estimate of the learning of him who is about to leave us." Melanchthon entered AVittenberg Aug. 25., 1518, and remained there until the close of his life, laboring for 28 years in intimate connection with Luther. He lectured on the most diverse subjects, — the Old and the New Testaments, dogmatics, the Greek and Latin classics, ethics, logic, and physics. I lis fame spread throughout Europe; and the number of his hearers reached at times as high as two thousand, embracing not only Germans, but Frenchmen, Englishmen, Poles, Hungarians, Italians, and Greeks. Among the distinguished educators who were formed under his teaching, were Trotzendorf and Neander. He was often, and in various ways, appealed to for counsel in school matters. The people of Nuremberg having 3G resolved to establish a gymnasium, invited Me- lanchthon to become its rector. I !e declined this in\ itation, lest he might seem to be ungrateful to the Elector; bul consented to take a leading pari in the inauguration of thegymnasium, which took place in 152(1. At the third centennial ceK lna- tion of this event, in L826, a statue of Melanch- thon was erected in front of the building. Put 1 * *» i the most important event of his life in connec- tion with school matters, was his visitation, in 1 "'27, of the churches and schools of Thiuingia, undertaken by order of the Elector, John the Constant, and through the influence of Luther. In company with Myconius and Justus 'I homas, lie traveled over the whole country. and. in 1528, published his Report, or Book of Visitation, & work of great importance in the history of edu- cation in Germany. This book describes the be- ginnings, as yet crude, of a high-school system in that country, without organization, or well- regulated activity. Melanchthon was a prolific author of text-books, which wire universally introduced, and were perpetuated through many editions. They comprise a Greek and a latin grammar, two manuals of Logic, one of rhetoric, one of ethics, and one of physics, all character- ized by great clearness of expression. Under the title Declamationes, we have a collection of Melanchthon 's orations, which contain a treasure of educational wisdom. The best edition of Melanchthon "s numerous works is that of Bret- Schneider and Pindseil. in the Corpus Reformdr torum (28 vols., 1834 — 60). His life has been written by Ledderhose (Heidelberg. J 847 ; trans- lated into English by Krotel) ; Schmidt (1861); and many others. MEMORIZING, committing to memory, or, as it is sometimes called, learning by heart, generally implies repetition or rote-learning; though it need not be without an understanding of what is memorized. The law of repetition has an important application in many processes of instruction that are addressed, wholly or in part, to the memory. The mere memorizing of words or sentences, in order to produce a show of knowledge is a great abuse. Children may, however, be required to commit to memory some statements which they do not perfectly under- stand, such complete understanding requiring a more mature degree of intellectual development. "No doubt", says Oalderwood (On Teaching, Edin., 1874), "all children must commit to memory a good many things they do not rightly understand. Such storing of the memory he longs less or more to all study." This is the view also of Thring [Education and School, Lon- don, 18G4): "There should be a clear perception how far it is wise to explain, and to proceed on the principle of making a boy thoroughly under- stand his lessons, and how far they should be looked on as a mere collecting of material and a matter of memory. It must be borne in mind that, with the young, memory is strong, and logical perception weak. All teaching should start on this undoubted fact. It sounds very fascinating to talk about understanding every 562 MEMORY thing, learning every thing thoroughly, and all those broad phrases, which plump down on a difficulty, and hide it. Put in practice, they are about on a par with exhorting a boy to mind he does not go into the water till lie can swim." The method referred to in this citation is the other extreme from mechanical word memorizing, and while not as injurious, or as likely to be adopted, is equally unphilosophical. The extent to which memorizing is to be carried, and the branches of instruction to which it is to be applied, constitute important subjects for the exercise of the teach- er's judgment and intelligence. (See Concert Teaching, Memory, and Rote-Teachin<;.) MEMORY is often represented as a distinct faculty of the mind ; but this may do harm in education. The mind is one. and has no sepa- rate faculties distinct from each other, the term faculty being used merely for the sake of con- venience. It is important to turn away from this mode of conception, and to look at the phenomena as they arise in the mind. An ob- ject and a mind come into connection ; what is the result ? An impression is produced on the mind, or more correctly the mind forms an im- pression of the object. What becomes of this im- pression? A new object presents itself, and then the impression disappears before the new impres- sion which the mind forms of the new object. Has the former impression disappeared altogether? No. We believe that, in some way or other, it still remains in the mind. If a similar ob- ject were to come before the mind, it would be conscious that it had formed an impression of it before, and the two impressions would blend into one. We have here, then, a peculiar power of the mind to retain what it has once had; and this power does not apply merely to perceptions or other intellectual acts, but to feelings and desires. A longing for an object has been aroused within us. The longing is displaced for a time by some other pressing passion. But the longing is still in the mind; and when the appropriate causes of excitation occur, the longing will come back, and, it may be, blend with the new longing which helps' t«> awaken it, or repel the new longing which has aroused it by contrast. This then is the first feature of memory. The soul has the power of retaining feelings, volitions, perceptions, and thoughts. The question has been raised, can these feelings, volitions, and thoughts en- tirely and absolutely vanish from the mind? A categorical answer cannot, from the nature of the ease, be given to this question : but. certain tacts render it likely that the mind retains every thing, and that it is merely the power of resus- citation which is defective. Many circumstances which seem to have been entirely forgotten, are, under peculiar conditions, recalled to the memory. It is said that often, when persons have been drowning, they have seen, as in a rapid vision, their pail life in multitudinous details which they had entirely forgotten. People, in diseases of the brain, have remembered languages, which they had learned in early days, bul which they i.e.i to have lost completely, facts like these point to the indestructibility of that which has once had a place in the soul. — But besides the power of retention, there is the other power of reproduction ; and it is to this power that the educator has to direct his attention. What are the means of strengthening the reproductive power of the minds of children ? We have to look at the conditions of its exercise ; and. in this con- nection, we must consider the four following principles: (I) It is plain that the impression will be reproducible in proportion to the strength and vivacity with which it is first made. This strength depends partly on the natural capacity of the child, partly on whether the stimulus in the object is sttch as to produce a strong impression. The educational inferences from this statement are numerous. Thus it follows that wherever a real object can be presented to a child, it should be used in preference to any picture of it, and that a picture of it is better than a mere verbal description. More- over, if more than one sense can be employed, so much the better. Jf any object is to be re- membered, the child will remember more easily, if he can touch, smell, and taste it. as well as see it. This arises partly from the fact that these direct sensations produce strong impressions, but partly also from what we call our second prin- ciple of memory: — (II) Every means should be used to concentrate the attention on the object. If we wish to make a child remember an object, the object must be allowed to lie before the child's eve or mind for some time. In the percep- tion of every object the process is somewhat as follows : the perception or sensation has first to displace the preceding perception or sensation. It then gathers strength and occupies for a time the whole mind. But, soon after, another object of perception or of thought presents itself ; and the mind will occupy itself with this. 'I his new perception will weaken, and finally expel, the other. Each perception is connected with two other perceptions or mental acts — with the one which it expels and the one by which it is ex- pelled. Now. the power of reproducing the men- tal act depends not merely on the Btrength with which the act is executed at its central moment, but also on the strength of the connections which it may form with the antecedent and subsequent acts: and this strength depends partly on the time and attention with which they can be kept together in the mind : for, in every mental act, there are subsidiary simultaneous acts which scarcely reach the point of consciousness. For instance, when I examine a house, there is some Blight perception of the intermediate space be- tween me and the house, of the objects, such as trees, which may be in that space, and of the sky which is overhead. These pass from the one definite perception to the other, and in a latent state help to recall the one. when we get the other. The strength of the connect i< m is in- Creased, if there be a natural connection between the two mental acts, such as that of cause and effect, means anil etui, or if there lie some points of resemblance between them, or some points of MEMORY 5G3 contrast. But, in .all cases, time must bo given to let these points of resemblance or contrast flow over, as it were, from the one to the other. The danger to which the educator is here ex- posed, is that of attempting to do too much and, therefore, doing what lie docs too hurriedly. I lc must be patient. He must try to intensify the impression by allowing the various senses to deal with it. and he can thus concentrate attention longeron it than he could otherwise do. And he must, as far as possible, bring only two objects or two ideas at a time before the pupil's mind. These should be held together for sometime; and they should, if it is possible, be naturally connected. Of course, there are occasions in which this is neither possible nor advantageous. There are some occasions in which the teacher must pass over a good deal of matter in a short time. He does not wish his pupil to remember the whole, nor would it be good for the pupil to do so ; but these cases should be limited to those of necessity. And a warning should be given against the danger of indulging too much in reading books which, awakening the interest strongly and thus disturbing the nervous sys- tem, do not demand of the reader an accurate recollection. This is specially true of novels. The frequent and rapid reading of these works, in which the reader has no stimulus and no occa- sion to remember the incidents accurately, fills the mind with a great number of vague mem- ories. These memories render indistinct what ought to be distinct, for they abstract so much of the valuable power that the mind possesses for reproduction; and the habit of reading with- out caring to remember, is apt to transfer itself to the books and acts which ought to have the closest attention. — (III) There must be frequent repetition. An object or thought is reproducible easily, when it has been made to occupy a large space in the mind. The power of reproduction is limited by time, and the mind can only reproduce within certain limits in this respect. If, therefore, an object is to be reproduced, the faded impres- sion must be renewed ; and the renewal of the impression strengthens its hold. It is thus that a fact may become indelibly imprinted on the memory. The value of the repetition cannot be overestimated, but great care must be taken not to make it wearisome. — (IV) The power of re- production greatly depends on the state of the health. That there is a very close connection between this power and the body, is proved most conclusively by the numerous instances collected by Dr. Abercrombie, in which abnormal states of the brain were accompanied by abnormal developments of memory. When, therefore, a child forgets, it must not be always attributed to carelessness. A child learns a word on Monday, and knows it with perfect accuracy; but when he comes, on Tuesday morning, to repeat it. he finds he cannot. In all probability, the impression was too weak to last a whole day, and to resist the many and more interesting ideas which have intervened ; but the lesson is not lost. The orig- inal impression is there ; the teacher patiently and pleasantly renews the impression; and the old blends with the new. and strengthens, until repetition tixes it in the mind forever. Hut it may lie merely a temporary suspension of the child's power of reproduction, in consequence of illness: and there 18 no surer sign of latent dis- ease than when a child, generally ready and (puck, stumbles and forgets. Some physiologists go the length of affirming that, owing to the EreshnesBof the nervous system, the exercise of the memory should be assigned to the morning: while other mental efforts, such as those of imagination, should be reserved for the evening. These four principles lead not only to the power of reproduction, but to the power of ready and accurate reproduction. In order that the mem- ory may embrace a wide range of subjects, it is essential that the mind should devote itself to such a range of subjects. The power of reprodu- cing a subject depends upon the frequency and strength with which it has come before the mind. It is, therefore, not quite correct to say. that a person has a good or a bad memory. Every one has many kinds of memory. If he has exer- cised his mind in words, he will remember words; if he has given much attention to numbers, he will remember numbers; if to any other class of ideas, he will remember such ideas. But. however great his practice in numbers may be, that prac- tice will not enable him to remember words; and the converse is also true. The teacher must care- fully exercise the pupil in each group of notions, if he expects him to remember them readily and accurately. Perhaps, one of the questions which deserve careful consideration in education is what ought to be forgotten. The human mind is limited in its range, and cannot reproduce every thing. Ought it to put into its store-house any thing that it cannot hope to reproduce ? We think that it ought. Where the aim is to pro- duce in the pupil a clear idea or notion, many particulars must be adduced which, studied atten- tively for a short time, will render the notion clear and distinct : but it is not necessary that the mind should retain all these particulars. This is the case, for instance, in geography. In order to form a correct notion of a country, many par- ticulars must be carefully weighed; but, after the notion has been attained, the pupil will wisely drop a great deal of the knowledge which he has temporarily mastered, deeming it enough to know where he can get the knowledge when he wants it. Again, when the object is to inculcate a great principle of action, the same course may lie pursued. If. for example, a teacher wishes to impress upon his pupils the true idea of tolera- tion, he may choose many incidents in history to bring it home to their minds, and may go into the minutest details of these incidents in order to awaken interest ; but he succeeds in his pur- pose, if he leaves a strong and accurate general impression, even though the pupil forgets most of the details which have been given him. The power of forgetfulness is one that can also be directed, as well as the power of reproduction, it is, indeed, true that the greater the effort to forget any f>64 MEMORY tiling, the more surely is it impressed on the memory; but this holds true mainly in those mat- ters in which there is a strong personal element; and just as a man who sleeps iii a room where a clock strikes can make up his mind not to take any notice of the striking of the clock in his sleep, so, in the impersonal matters of the intel- lect, we can make up our minds to l"t such and such facts fall into oblivion. Kant distinguished memory as the mechanical, the ingenious, and the judicious. The mechanical is employed when the only bond of connection is, thai the two things are in the mind at the same time, the one im- mediately succeeding the other. This is what is called committing to memory, or learning by heart. Such kind of memory must be frequently used in early education. It is important for the teacher to note its character. It depends on simultaneity and succession, and any disturbance of these circumstances disturbs the memory. For instance, it would be very difficult for anyone at first to repeat the Lord's Prayer backwards. He has learned it forwards ; he has not learned it backwards. A. boy learns aino, Hove. He may not have mastered / Jove, amo. If you ask him the Latin word for >/■■>////, he cannot i 11 you; but if you ash him the meaning of mors, he can tell you. The third method — that which Kant calls the judicious, is no doubt the best; since by it, things are remembered by means of th sir natural con- nection in thought. Thoughts can be grouped, and one of a group suggests the other. Phenomena stand in the relation of cause and effect. The cause will suggest the effect, or the effect the cause. — As an example of tin- b icond kind, may be mentioned mnemonics; which is an attempt to introduce an artificial connecting link. Two idea-; are unconnected, but they may be linked by a third which is familiar to the mind. Thus a clock has no real connection with hope; but, having re- solved to make a speech, I fix. on three objects in the hall, with which I arbitrarily connect the three heads of my discourse. The first, for example, is a pillar in the hall, and with it T connect the idea of faith ; this will be my first head, and, when I see the pillar, I shall know how to begin. Hop'' is my second and I have but to look at the clock to recall it to mind; and a third object in the room, in the same manner, will remind me that my third head is charity. Mnemonic systems may be divided into three classes : (1) those which connect the ideas with localities, such as the parts of a room, tablets divided into different compartments, etc. ; (2) those in which the ideas are connected with letters or words ; and (3) those in which an attempt is made to seize hold of some natural connection; for in- stance, lunr, mourir, naitre, plaire, rire, vivre, are irregular French verbs, having no connection with each other; but the meanings may be so arranged as to be easily suggestive of each other; thus, die suggests live, live suggests to be born, to be born su gge sts laugh, laugh suggests please, B&dplea jests hate. Now, if two of these ideas be kept steadily in the mind together, they will remain united in the mind, and afterwards the one will suggest the other. None of these mnemonic systems are likely to be of much use to the teacher. They, indeed, often add to the task of memory; they are apt to create confusion, after a time, and they tend to displace intelligent memory. The only case in which some good may be got out of them is in connection with dates. There is no doubt that dates are far more dif- ficult to remember than letters or words ; and, I therefore, a temperate use of letters or words for figures may be recommended. — One of the most noted systems employing letters is the old one of. Grey's Memoria Technica (1730). The letters employed are as follows : a e i o « cat oi ei on y 1 2 .{ 4 5 G 7 8 9 b d t f I 8 p I: n z Hen- c and b Btand for 1 ; e and (/, for 2 ; i and t, for '■'<; and so on. These letters are assigned arbitrarily to the respective figures, and may very easily be re- membered. The first five vowels in order natu- rally represent 1, 2, 3, 4, 5. The diphthong au, being composed of '/ (1 ) and u (."»;. stands for 6 ; oi for 7. being composed of o (4) and i (3); ou for 9, being composed of o (4) and u (5). The diph- thong ei will easily be remembered for eight, being the initials of the word. In like manner with the consonants ; where the initials can conveniently be retained, they are made use of to signify this number ; as / for three, /"for four, s for six, and n for nine. The rest are assigned without any particular reason, unless that possibly p may be more easily remembered for 7 or septem, k for 8 or .'-.-..-. 1 1 for 2 or duo, b for 1 as being the first consonant, and /for live, being the Roman letter for .".II. than any others that could have been put in their places. A much more ingenious and more effective system, is that taught by 1". Fauvel-Gouraud {Phreno-Mnemotechny, or ^1/7 r. Alex. Mackay's Facts >'l Dates (Edinburgh, L869). In this, as in Gouraud's system, every date is contained in a sentence which is approp- riate to the event. Thus the sentence which gives the date of Hannibal's defeat al Zamais, "The formidable warrior is defeated." — The art of mnemonics is said by Cicero to have been invented by the Greek poet Simonides. It is described by Cicero, Quintilian, and Pliny. In more modern times, works on the subject have been written by Schenkel (1593), Bruno (1582), Mink (1648), Grey (1730), Aretin (1810), Fain- agle (1812), improved by Aimee (Paris 1832), Bemowsky (1812), Otto "(1843), Kotho {S,,stmi der Mnemonik, Cassel, 1853), Pick (1866),3ayer (1867). Slater {Sentential Chronological, edit, by .Miss Sewell, 1868), Mackay (1869), Minola, Nemos (1875), and many others. A short his- tory of Mnemonics is given in Pick's work. MENNONITES, a denomination of Prot- testante, which originated at Zurich, Switzerland, in 1525. They spread to Southern Germany, and soon after to the Netherlands, where Menno Symons, a former Roman Catholic priest, joined them in 1535. From him they took their name, though he was not their founder, but only re- organized them. In common with the Friends, they practice non-resistance and abstinence from oaths: and, in common with the Baptists, they reject infant baptism, administering, however, baptism by pouring. In the Netherlands, in 1700, they numbered 150,000 members; but at present have only 20,0011; and. in Germany and Switzer- land, even less than that number. In southern Russia, whither they have gone from Germany as colonists, they form a population of more than 30,000. Their emigration to the United States began in 1683, and continued throughout the entire 18th century. At present their mem- bership in the United States and < 'anadi. is esti- mated at 60,000. They are all of German origin, and most of them still employ the German lan- guage. Nearly all of them are fanners, being favorably known for their honesty, industry, and other domestic virtues, but greatly behind the age in the matter of education. Their lirst at- tempt to found a high school took place in 1868, when the GhrisUiche BUdungsansta.lt (christian institution of learning), at Wadsworth, Medina Co., Ohio, was opened. It is an academy, hav- ing for its principal a theological teacher, Rev. 0. J. Van der Smissen. but besides him only teachers of German and English grammar, mu- sic, and the elementary branches. The number of pupils, iii L876, was 27. Only one of the various divisions existing an g the Menno- nites of this country, supports this school, which is under the control of an ''administrative com- mittee." appointed by the general conference of the body. The other divisions of the Mennonitea haw no institutions of learning whatever. Even Sabbath schools e\i>t only in a minority of the churches, and are of quite recenl origin. In Europe also, little is done by the Mennonites for the education of the members of their order. They send their children to the public schools, but support a theological seminary of their own, founded at Amsterdam, in 1812, under the name I)e KweeTcschool der algemeene Doopsgezindt Socieieit ter bevordering ran de predikdienst, i. e., Seminary of the General Society of Bap- tists for the furtherance of the ministry. This seminary is under the control of 12 curators, who are appointed by the trustees of the genera] society. It has at present (1876) 3 professors and about 30 students. In Germany the Menno- nites have an academy at Weierhof, Rhenish Havana, founded in 1868. MERCER UNIVERSITY, at Macon. Ga., under the control of Baptists, was founded in 1837. It lias a fine building, on grounds com- prising about 10 acres, and is furnished with valuable philosophical and chemical apparatus. Its endowment amounts to $250,000. The li- braries contain about !),000 volumes. The cost of tuition is $>60 per annum : but provision is made for the free tuition of the sons of ministers and of candidates for the ministry. The university comprises a college of liberal arts, with a classical course of four j - ears. and a scientific course of three years ; a department of theology (not yet separateh" organized) ; and a school of law. In 1874 — 5, there were 6 professors in the college, and 3 in the law school, and 150 students, of whom 7 were in the law school. The Mercer High School, at Penfield, Greene Co., and the Crawford High School, at Dalton, are connected with the university. The following named per- sons have been presidents of the institution: the Rev. Otis Smith, 1811 — '1 ; the Rev. Jho. L. Dagg, 1). D., 1843 — 50; the Rev. X. M. Crawford, D. I>.. 1850- -60; the Rev. H. 1 1. Tucker D.D.,1867— 71 ; and the Rev. Archi- bald J. Pattle, D. P.. appointed in L872. MERCERSBURG COLLEGE, at Mercers burg. Pa., founded in 1865, is under the control of the Reformed Church in the United States. It succeeded Marsha. 11 College (founded in 1835), occupying its buildings and grounds. It is sup- ported chiefly by tuition fees and contributions. It has an endowment of 818,000. The libraries contain about 3,000 volumes. The cost of tui- tion is $45 per annum. There is a preparatory, a collegiate, and a theological department. In 1875 — 6, there were 7 professors and 75 students, (23 preparatory, 39 collegiate, and 1 3 theological). The presidents have been the Rev. Dr. Thomas G. Apple, and the Rev. Dr. E. E. Higbee, the present incumbent (1876). 566 METHODISTS METHODISTS, the collective name of a number of Protestant denominations that have sprung from the peculiar religious character and influence of John Wesley, a Fellow of Ox- ford University, and ordained as a clergyman of the Church of England. As early as 1729, while a Fellow at Oxford, Wesley gathered about him a number of persons of like character, and spent much time in religious worship, in the study of the Bible, and in active benevolent la- bors among the poor. Their fellow students, either in derision or as a happy expression of their char- acter, called them .Methodists, a term which has been loosely employed not only to describe any who are extraordinarily zealous in religion, but as the recognized name of several denominations that can trace their origin, more or less directly, to the influence of John Wesley. The principal Methodist bodies in Oreat Britain are the Wes- leyan Societies, organized in 1740 ; the Primitive Methodist Church, organized 1819; the Methodist New Connection Church; the United Methodist Free Churches ; the Bible Christian Church, and the British Wesleyan Reform Union. There are also affiliated -Methodist bodies in France. and in Australia ; and la rye and flourishing missions in China, India. South Africa, and elsewhere, under the charge of British Methodists; and bodies of American Methodists, which promise soon in- dependent and affiliated organizations. In Amer- ica, the oldest is the Methodist Episcopal < 'hurch, from which sprung, in L844, the Methodist Epis- copal Church, South; the African Methodist Episcopal Church; the African Zion M. E. Church; and the Colored M. E. Church of America. There are also several smaller organ- izations, called The .Methodist Church, Methodist Protestant Church. American Wesleyan Church, Free Methodist, and Evangelical Association. All these bodies are substantially identical in doc- trine, all maintain a regular itineracy of the preachers; and, in fact, the M. E. (.'hurch, and M. EL < 'hurch, South. embrace by far the greater part of all the membership among the white population. The general summary of Methodists in the United States, in 1876, gave in round numbers 19,000 itinerant ministers and nearly 3,000,000 members, in Methodist Episcopal churches; and L,500 itinerant ministers and L 60,000 members, in non-episcopal Methodist churches. In the rest of the world, Methodists at the same time numbered about 5,000 itin- erant ministers and L ,000,000 members. Ac- cording to the I . S. census of 1870, the Meth- o lists had 21,337 church edifices, 6,528,209 hidings, and church property (edifices and parsonages) worth 969,854,121 ; but they have rapidly increased since that time. In Great Britain, the leading body of Meth- odists in England and Scotland is composed of the Wesleyan Societies under the control of the British Wesleyan Conference, which has also a branch in Ireland, and affiliated Conferences in the British colonies. As early as 1711, two cols, the Eingawood and the Woodhouse Crove, were established, which are still flourish- ing. Two theological institutions were estab- lished in 1838, which are largely attended, many of the ministers now receiving their education at these schools. They have also the Wesleyan Proprietary School at Sheffield, which is recog- nized as one of the colleges of the London Uni- versity. What are called day schools or parish schools are established numerously in England, complying with the terms required, and sharing in governmental assistance. Also, to fit teach- ers for these schools, the Wesleyans have a large normal school at Westminster. They have also a college designed expressly for the education of those who are preparing to be foreign mission- aries. By means of a Children's Fund and other collections, many needy students are aided while securing an education. The Irish Wesleyan Con- ference has two vigorous schools under its charge, — the Belfast College and the Conventional School at Dublin. There are various other branches of Methodists in Great Britain, all of which manifest an increasing interest in edu- cation. The Primitive Methodist Church has a theological institute at Sunderland ; the Meth- odist New Connection (hurch, has one at Shef- field ; the United Methodist Free Societies, at Manchester; and the Bible Christians. atSheb- bear. In C< n/i nhi. there are but two Methodist bodies, the one called the Methodist Church of Canada and Eastern America ; and the other, the M. E. Church of Canada. The former has a flourish- ing university at Cobourg, with colleges of arts, theology, law, and medicine ; also the Mt. Alli- son Wesleyan College, at Sackville, N. B. ; the Wesleyan Female College, at Hamilton; Home- stead College ; Theological College, at Montreal; Collegiate institute, at Dundas; Manitoba Wes- leyan Institute, and Ontario Ladies' College, at Whitby. These institutions have an aggregate property of about one million dollars. They are all under the care of a board of education. The Methodist Episcopal Church of Canada concen- trates its educational interests at Belleville, where it has a flourishing institution called Albert Col- lege, which has university powers, and depart- ments in arts, theology, law. and medicine. There is also connected with it a school for females, called Alexandra I 'ollege. In Australia, the Methodists have several flourishing academies and colleges. In the United States, the Methodist Episcopal Church was not organized till 1784; but Meth- odist Societies were established in New York and Maryland as early as 17(>0. Rev. Thomas Coke. LL. D., one of the presidents of the first conference, was a graduate of Oxford Uni- versity, ami deeply interested in education. At this conference, a "Book Concern", which has since become one of the leading publi.sh- ing houses in the country, was provided for; and it was ordered that its profits should be devoted to five purposes, one of which was the foundation and maintenance of a college particularly designed for the education of preach- ers. A collection for this purpose was also or- METHODISTS 567 dered to bo taken in all the congregations. Thus, education was approved as a part of the legiti- mate work of the church at the time of its or- ganization. The college thus established was opened in Abingdon, Md., in 17^7. and called, after bishops Cuke and Asbury, Cokes- bury College, and was well attended till 17'.»7, when the building was destroyed by fire, with- out insurance, causing a loss of about $50,000, a great calamity for the feeble church. Immediately collections were ordered in the societies, and the college was re-opened in Baltimore; but the new building was also soon consumed by fire. So disheartened was the Church by these losses that some hastily inferred that it was "not the business of Methodists to build colleges", and it was im- practicable to resume the enterprise at once; and, for twenty years, all the educational work of the church was carried on in a few private schools in various parts of the country. These schools were somewhat numerous, and, in some instances, formally recognized by the Church; but, for the want of system and permanent foun- dations, the most of what they accomplished has not been recorded in history.— As a kind of sub- stitute for theological schools, the general con- ference ordered that all who entered the reg- ular ministry should pursue for four years a prescribed course of literary and theological study, aud be examined annually in the same; and their promotion in the conference as well as their ordination was dependent on their passing the examinations. This custom, the course of study having been enlarged and improved from time to time, is still practiced; and all Methodist ministers pursue a uniform course of reading and study for the first four years of their min- istry. This has greatly contributed to harmony of belief and theological culture. It has, indeed, been a great educating power, every young Methodist preacher being specially charged to spend from four to six hours in study daily. In 1817, largely through the influence of Rev. Wilbur Fisk, B. D., of New England, an alumnus of Brown University, an academy was purchased by the Conference in New England, and opened as a conference seminary. Students of both sexes were admitted. Tne ensuing general con- ference approved the enterprise, and recom- mended all the annual conferences to follow the example. This has become the general prac- tice. The greatest educational force of Meth- odists has appeared in these seminaries. There have been nearly a hundred of these conference seminaries founded, of which some have become extinct after doing a noble work, some have be- come female colleges, and some have grown into regular colleges; but more than fifty still remain in a flourishing condition on the old foundation. The buildings and funds of these seminaries are valued at more than $4,000,000 ; and they employ about 500 teachers, and are attended by about 25,000 students of both sexes. They have educated at least 300,000 pupils, mostly young men and young women from 16 to 25 years of age, many of whom have become preachers or teachers. Of late, the lead- ing conference seminaries are making efforts to secure endowments in addition to commodious buildings. There are bul few colleges or schools exclusively for women under the care of the M. E. Church. Perhaps ten such institutions may be regarded as permanently founded, and as the property of the Church. These, for the most part, have good buildings, but no considerable endowment fund, and some of them are partly private property. — The first regular college estab- lished by the Methodists in America, except the Cokesbury College mentioned above, which had an existence of only ten years, was the Wesleyan University, at .Middletown, Ct.. in L831. This college has been remarkably successful in the character of its alumni, having graduated about I. '200 in 45 years, besides partially educating many more, a large ftorti »f whom have en- tered the ministry. Other colleges soon sprung up imitating its example; and there were, in 1 877, at least thirty institutions having university charters, about 20 of which were doing respect- able college work. Four or five had also added to the literary college, schools of medicine, law, or theology. The Northwestern University, at Evanston, 111., has associated with it a medical school in Chicago. The Boston University has a medical, a law, and a theological department. The Syracuse University, in Syracuse, N. Y., has a medical college; and a college of missionaries and a law school are a part of its plan. The buildings I connected with all these colleges cost over $3,000,000; the endowments are about$4,000,000, and the number of college students, about 2,500. The number of professors is about 300; of volumes in the libraries, 200,000. Several of these colleges are open impartially to both sexes. The num- ber of young women attending them and pur- suing thorough college courses of study, is com- paratively small; but the experiment has proved, in all respects, a success. Even the medical schools of the Boston and the Syracuse univer- sities are open equally to both sexes, and are largely attended by both males and females. The establishment of theological schools proper met with considerable active opposition in the Methodist Episcopal Church, some fearing that the teaching would tend to educate for the minis- try, as a profession, young men who had not been called of the Holy Ghost to this office and work; others maintaining that, if a young man were well grounded in academic and college edu- cation, the theological training might be well enough obtained by the course of study and read- ing furnished for young ministers, and by actual professional work. But, in spite of these ob- jections, principally through the persistent ef- forts of John Dempster, 1). D., a Biblical In- stitute was opened in Concord, N. II., in 1847, which was originally attended by stu- dents who had not pursued a college course of study. Br. Dempsters great object being a school exclusively theological for young ministers of whatever grade of scholarship. Subsequently, this school was removed to Boston, and its 5G8 METHODISTS courses of study were greatly enlarged; it is now a department of the Boston University. In 1855, the Garrett Biblical Institute was opened in Evanston, 111., founded on a bequest by a Mrs. Garrett, of Chicago. In 1867, the Drew Theological Seminary was opened in Madison. N. J. These three theological schools are now largely attended by college grad- uates; but they furnish, as yet, but a small portion of those who enter the conferences as regular preachers. From the beginning, it has been the practice to admit to the ministry prom- ising young men, with but a limited school education ; but the relative proportion of college graduates is rapidly increasing. Several of the colleges offer special instruction to candidates for the ministry. In tic&fareign missions of the Methodist Epis- copal Church, schools have been established ac- cording to the exigences of the place, some ele- mentary. and some theological, and even medical. Martin Institute, at Frankfort on the Main, tier- many, is a combination of a conference seminary with a theological school. There is also a flour- ishing India Theological School, at Bareilly, British India. Several schools are under the charge of the Woman's Foreign Missionary Society. Considerable effort has been made through the Freedman's Ai 1 Society to open and sup- port schools for the freed colored people of the South. About twenty si Is have been estab- lished, employing a hundred teachers, and edu- cating many young colored people for teachers and preachers. In eight years, more than half a million of dollars was expended for this purpose. Most of these schools will, probably, grow into permanent and strong seminaries or colleges. In 1869, a board of education of the Methodist Episcopal Church was chartered in the State of New York, by request of the General Confer- ence, designed to hold and disburse funds for the whole Church, particularly to aid students for the ministry, and especially for missionary work: and also, to assist Schools, if any funds are intrusted to it for that purpose. The board is designed to be as permanent as the < Jhurch it- self , consisting <»f two bishops, four preachers, and six laymen, appointed in sections, for twelve years each, by the General Conference. In L872, Rev. K. I >. Maxell. LL. I>.. was elected by the General Conference corresponding secretary: and, since that time, many students, mostly in Colleges and theological schools, have annually received some assistance from the board or its auxiliary societies, in obtaining an education. The General Conference has also recommended the observance of the second Sunday in June as ''Children's May." and that collections be taken in the Sunday-schools on that day in behalf of the board of education. Tin' beneficiaries of the board are all pledged to repay the money after completing their school education. They receive money as a loan, not by gift. The General Conference of 1876 made a pro- vision in regard to education, which was designed to render the action of the Church on that subject more Systematic and radical than ever before. It makes it the duty of the presiding elder to bring the subject of education, in individual churches, before the first quarterly conference of each year, and secure the appointment of a commit- tee, of which the preacher in charge shall be chairman : to organize, wherever practicable, a church lyceum for mental improvement; to or- ganize free evening schools ; to provide a library, text-books, and books of reference; to popular- ize religious literature by reading-rooms, or otherwise ; to seek out suitable persons, and, if necessary, assist them to obtain an education, with a view to the ministry : and to do whatever shall seem best fitted to supply any deficiency in that which the church ought to offer to the varied nature of man. In this way. it is hoped to make educational work a part of the duty of every preacher and of every congregation. While, in the aggregate, the educational work accomplished by the direct agency of the Meth- odist Kpiscopal Chinch appears creditable, it must be acknowledged that, hitherto, the efforts of the denomination have not been so systematic, and so thoroughly wrought out. on this subject, as in many of its other enterprises. Its numer- ous Sunday-schools are all carefully organized and reported, and thi' circulation of Sunday- school literature is immense. Through the in- fluence of the Rev. J. II. Vincent, corresponding secretary of the S. S. Union, nearly every eiin- day-School in the whole Church feels the power of a central life and controlling spirit. The seminaries and colleges have acted less in con- cert, and some conferences have done compara- tively little for education: but. at last, a con- dition has been reached, in which every society is requested to have a committee on education ; nearly every annual conference has an education society practically auxiliary to the board of edu- cation; every congregation is requested annually to contribute for education : and the seminaries. «ol leges, and theological schools are nearly all Steadily receiving additions to their property; an increasing proportion of the ministers are graduates of colleges and theological schools; and the sentiment is strong in the Church that education will be far more thoroughly advanced in the second century of American Methodist history than in the first. The Methodist Church is decidedly in favor of the public-school system, particularly of the elementary schools attended by children residing at home. Several times, the General Conference has expressed the sent iiueiil of the < 'htirch against using the funds of the state to aid parochial or sectarian schools. It is. however, in favor of fol- lowing the practice that has grown up among Americans, as a christian people, of having the Bible read as a sacred book in the public schools; though some leading Methodists do not recom- mend even insisting upon that. This Church favors supplementing the work of the state by whatever may be deemed necessary to secure- popular elementary education. It claims that, METHODISTS 560 if the state does no1 provide for education, the Church should. Colleges and universities should not be trammeled by political partisanship or control. The Church is competent to establish* and sustain colleges and universities in which the broadest and best culture shall be given in science, philosophy, and religion. Neither of these should be absenl from a college ora univer- sity ; but it is difficult to maintain them all in a college controlled by the state. — The literary in- stitutions of every grade, under the care of the Church, are so numerous, and their condition is so constantly changing that, for an exact enu- meration of these, attention is directed to the Methodist Almanac and other current publica- tions of the Church. When the Methodist Episcopal Church, in 1844, divided itself into two sections, that which be- came the Methodist Episcopal Church. South, retained all the schools of every grade within the boundary created by what was called the Plan of Separation. Among these schools, were se\ era! chartered colleges of high standing. Randolph Macon College had been established in 1832, one year after the Wesleyan University at Middletown, Ct., and is, therefore, next to the oldest Methodist ( 'ollege in America. Emory College, at Oxford, Ga., had been founded in 1837, and Emory and Henry College, at Emory, Va., in 1838. Between 1844 and the breaking out of the civil war, other institutions were added. Centenary College, which had been es- tablished by the state of Louisiana in 1825, passed, in 184."), into the hands of the Methodist Episcopal Church, South. Trinity College, in Randolph Co., X. C, arose (1852) from a school commenced by the Rev. B. Craven, D. D. Wof- ford College, S. C, named after the Rev. Ben- jamin Wofford, who gave §100,000 for its en- dowment, was opened in 1855 ; Central College, at Fayette, Mo., in the same year; the Southern University, at Greenboro, Ala., in 1856 ; the Kentucky Wesleyan University, at Millersburg, Ivy., in 1858. The civil war had a most dis- astrous effect upon the Methodist as well as upon the other literary institutions of the Southern states. A number of colleges and other institu- tions wholly perished ; others were closed during the greater part of the war, and have been, since then, but gradually revived. Thus, there were in the state of Alabama three colleges for males, all in a flourishing condition, two of which had their entire endowments swept away; while the third, the Southern University, was greatly re- duced in its means, and only kept open in some of its departments. Since the close of the war, great efforts have been made by the Church to enlarge her educational work. The unfortunate condition in which the finances of most of the Southern states found themselves, proved, of course, a great obstacle; but, more recently, great strides in advance have been made, and; at pres- ent, the Church, possesses, in Vanderbilt Univer- sity, at Nashville, Tenn., the best endowed in- stitution of learning in the South. The movement for the establishment of this institution began in L871, when delegates were appointed to a con- tention to consider the subject of a university, such as would meet the wants of a church do mantling a higher Christian education than could be obtained in the South and South-west. It declared that one million of dollars was neces- sary to perfect the plan, and refused to anil i/.e steps towards the selection of a site, until the public showed itself in sympathy with the mo ment, by a valid subscription of half that amount. It was early discovered that, in the exhausted condition of the South, so soon after the war, it was not practicable to pursue the en- terprise. The project was in abeyance, when Cornelius Vanderbilt, of the Cityof New York, donated 8500,000, to which he subsequently added $200,000. The institution was dedicated and inaugurated in Oct., 1875. (Sec VANDEB- nu.T UNIVERSITY.) In Texas, a convention was called in 1869, to consider the propriety of con- solidating four chartered colleges of the Church, the oldest of which, Rutersville College, had been chartered in 1860 by the Congress of the Republic of Texas. The convention met in I 870. resolved upon the establishment of a united central institution, and declared not less than $500,000 necessary to carry out the design. The new institution was opened, in 1874, as Texas University, and. in 1875, chartered as South- western University (q. v.). The total number of chartered colleges enumerated in the Deport of the Commissioner of Education for 1875, was 1G. All of them are in the Southern states, with the exception of one in < 'alifornia, and one in Ore- gon. r ihe latter, Corvallis College (q. v.), was opened in 18G5, and the legislation of the state, in 1869, placed the agricultural college of the state in connection with it. The Church has a large number of female colleges and high schools under her control. The Wesleyan Female ( ol- lege. at Macon, Ga., is the oldest institution of this kind in the United States, having been chartered by the Legislature of Georgia, in 183G, under the name of the Georgia Female College. The Greenboro Female College, at Greenboro, N. C, is only a few years younger, having been founded in 1841. Other prominent institutions of this class are. the Montgomery Female Col- lege, at Christiansburg, Va.; the Central Female College, at Lexington, Mo.; the Thomasville Fe- male College, at Thomasville, N. C; the Wes- leyan Female Institute, at Staunton. Ya.; Dav- enport Female College, at Lenoir, N. (.'.; Mar- tin Female College, at Pulaski. Tenn.; the Martha Washington College, at Abington, Ya.; the Wesleyan Female College, at Murfreesboro, N. C. — One of the most interesting and impor- tant institutions in connection with the Southern Methodist Church, is the Culleoka Institute, in Mora* 'o./LVnn. It is a model high school, as well as an academy affiliated to Vanderbilt Univer- sity. There has always been a strong feeling in this Church against special schools of theology. Biblical instruction in connection with the reg- ular college course is, however, afforded in most Southern Methodist Colleges. 570 MEXICO MEXICO, a republic of North America; area, 741,800 sq. miles; population, about 9,276,000, made up of whites, I Teoles, Indians, half-breeds, and a few negroes. The language of the country is Spanish: and the ruling religion, the Roman Catholic. Mexico was discovered by the Spaniards early in the 1 6th century, and was conquered by Cortes, 1519 — 21. It continued in the possession of Spain up to the beginning of the present cent- ury, when it established its independence. Since that time, it has passed through a number of rev- olutions and civil wars. When the Spaniards came to Mexico, they found there the intelli- gent and highly cultivated Aztecs. This people had been preceded by others who had also at- tained a high degree of civilization. In many of the arts and sciences, the ancient Mexicans, when conquered by Cortes, had made great progress. Their calendar was more correct than that of the ancient Greeks and Romans. They knew how to manufacture paper, and possessed maps, on which even the roads were marked which their ancestors had used when they came to Mexico. The education of children was of a very severe character. In each family of the higher classes, the boys remained with their mothers up to the 6th or 7th year, when they received a carefully selected companion; and in their 10th or 12th year, they were sent to the temple, to be educated by the priests. Here they were sub- jected to a strict discipline, and were instructed in the liturgy, and in various other subjects. The girls were also received into the temple, which they did not leave until they were married. For the hoys, there were also military schools. As in the other Spanish colonies, very little was done for education by the Spaniards. A university and -a number of colleges had been established, in which the teachers were generally priests who had been educated in Spain. But insufficient as the instruction was, under Spanish rule, it became worse under the republic. The continual civil wars prevented all progress in education ; while the hatred for every thing that came from Spain, tended to destroy ad educational institutions previously established. Hence, the education of the whites, who alone had been cared for by the Spanish government, was now neglected ; while the native population continued to be neglected. By the law of 1846, the federal government transferred the care of the schools to the separate states, in some of which considerable progress has been male. Recently, the federal govern- ment has again established secondary schools in the capital, principally for the education of teachers. Compulsory education laws have been passed in most of the states; but in some they are entirely inoperative. In 1875, president Lerdo de Tejada, in his message to congress, referred to education in the following words : "Public instruction has continued to merit particular at- tention. Both in the primary and in the pro- fessional schools, efforts have constantly 1 a made to afford the elements of instruction, by establishing new professorships, as well as by providing all the instruments and other useful apparatus for practical teaching. With the same desire to obtain the most complete practical in- struction, various pupils of the national schools have continued to be sent abroad upon the suc- cessful conclusion of their studies." — Primary schools have now been introduced in almost all of the states. The schools are supported by the state governments, with pecuniary aid from the federal government, the municipalities, and sev- eral private associations, among which the Lan- casterian Society and the Benevolent Society in Mexico occupy a prominent position. The Lancasterian Society supplies the government schools with teachers. There are also, in all the principal cities, private schools; but these are open only to the children of the rich. The plan of instruction comprises only the most necessary subjects, and the text-books are written in ac- cordance with this plan. In 1^~74, the total number of private schools was 8,040; of which 5,691 were for boys; 1,615, for girls; and the rest were common to both sexes. Of the total number, 603 were supported by the federal and state governments; 5,240, by the municipalities; 378, by private corporations; and 117, by relig- ious associations ; 1,518 were private schools, in which tuition is paid for ; and 184 were without classification. The proportion of the number of schools to the population, was one primary school to every 1,1-11 inhabitants. The attendance, during the same year, was about 349,000, or something less than one-tilth of all the children between the ages of 6 and 1 3 years. There are also, in some of the larger cities, evening schools for adults of both sexes. The total expenditure for primary instruction, during the year 1874, was SI. 632,436, of which $1,042,000 was fur- nished by the municipalities ; $417,000. by the federal and state governments ; and §173,000, by individuals and private corporations. Seconditri) instruction is imparted in national and state colleges, and in Catholic seminaries. The course of studies, in these institutions, com- prises Spanish, French, and Latin grammar, his- tory, geography, natural philosophy, and math- ematics. In some colleges, other branches are added; as the English language, law. medicine, engineering, agriculture, and theology. In 1874, there were 54 state and national colleges, with 9,337 .students; and 24 Catholic seminaries, with 3,800 students. Law was taught in .33 of the colleges; medicine, in 11 ; engineering, in 9; agriculture, in 2: and theology, in 21. There were, also, 15 higher schools for girls, with 2,300 students. The University of Mexico only grants diplomas, no studies being pursued there, as all the instruction is given in the colleges. The total expense of supporting the government colleges, in 1874, was $1,100,000, of which $200,000 was expended in fellowships, which entitle those who hold them to free board and lodging in the college building. There were, in the same year, "> special schools in the federal district ; 1 , of mines and engineering; and 1. each, of medicine, law. agriculture, and the tine arts ; the last men- tioned was attended by about 700 pupils of both MIAMI UNIVERSITY MKIIIC.W 571 sexes. The city of Mexico has also a school for deaf-mutes.- See Schmid, P&dagogische Ency- chpddie, art. S'dd-America; Report of the U.S. Commissioner of Education for 1874. MIAMI UNIVERSITY, at Oxford, Ohio. ■was organized in 1824. It lias a preparatory, an undergraduate, and a post-graduate course, and is composed of six schools; namely, Lit in lan- guage and literature ; Greek language and literature; modern languages and English phi- lology; mathematics; natural science: and philos- ophy and literature. The cost of tuition is $40 a year. The libraries contain about !) ,000 volumes. The university has valuable cabinets and appa- ratus. In 1872 — 3, there were 6 instructors and 86 students. The university is temporarily closed. MICHIGAN, one of the western states of the American Union, was at first included in the North-west Territory, set apart by the ordi- nance of 1787. Subsequently it formed a part of the territory of Indiana ; but, in 1805, was organized as a separate territory. In January, L837, it was admitted into the Union as a state, Wisconsin Territory having been formed from its western portion. At the next census, in 1840, the population of Michigan was 212,267; in 1870, it was L,184,059, of whom 11,84!) were colored persons, and 4.!)26 Indians. The land area of the state is 56,451 sq. m. Educational History. — One of the first acts of the first legislature of Michigan, in the year 1836, required the governor to appoint a super- intendent of public instruction, and male it the duty of such superintendent, " to prepare a sys- tem for the common schools and a plan for a university and its branches." The appointment was given to the Rev. John D. Pierce, who still lives (1876); and few men have ever lived to see so abundant fruit from the seed of their plant- ing. In 1837, he reported the "system" and the '"plan," and both were adopted, without material change, by the legislature. The primary school law comprised 45 sections originally ; and though, from subsequent legislation, the same code now numbers nearly two hundred sections, yet the general features of the system have been changed in no essential respect. The same may be said of the original plan of the university ; and now, after a trial of forty years, the educational system of Michigan has the reputation of being one of the best in the Union. Since the adop- tion of the constitution, in 1850, the superintend- ent of public instruction has been elected bien- nially, with other state officers. He has a general supervision, without much actual power, over all the educational institutions of the state, includ- ing local colleges and incorporated private schools ; and all such institutions are required to make an annual report to him. Since the estab- lishment of the office, there have been eight incumbents, serving in the order and for the time here named : John I). Pierce, 5 years; F. Sawyer, Jr., 2 years ; 0. 0. Comstock, 2 years ; Francis W. Sherman, 6 years ; Ira Mayhew, 8 years ; John M. Gregory, 6 years ; Oramel IIos- ford, 8 years ; and Daniel B. Briggs, the present incumbent, 4 years. — A state teachers' association was organized in ls.Vj. |t holds its meetings an- nually, in December; and is sustained qow, as heretofore, by the leading teachers ami educators in the state. -The primary-school fund of the state, most of which pays 7 per cent, is $3, I 30,- 911.05. There are 398,080 acres of primary- school lauds yet unsold, and held at four dollars per acre. School System. — Each township has aboard of three school inspectors, whose main duty is to organize and regulate the boundaries of school- districts. Each district has an executive board of three members, who make provision for such length of school terms, as is determined by the votes of the district ; but which must be nine months, in districts having 800 children of school age; five months, in districts having 30 children ; and three months, in all districts containing a number less than 30, under a penalty of forfeit- ure of their share of the interest derived from the primary-school fund (about 50 cents per ca- pita), and the tax of 2 mills on each dollar of the property in the district, which amounts, on an average, to about one dollar per child. This con- stitutional provision assures a school in nearly every district in the state. The district board determines the amount of taxes to be raised each year in addition to the statutory two-mill tax, and primary school money for the support of the school ; but taxes for building purposes must be voted by the district. The districts are not com- pelled by law to build houses ; but the greater portion must have a house or no school, and few districts are, for any length of time, without a school-house. The district boards make their an- nual reports to the inspectors, by whom these are collated, in the several townships, and for- warded to the superintendent of public instruc- tion. All contracts with teachers must be in writing, and no public money can be legally paid to a teacher who has not a certificate in the form prescribed by law. All school officers are liable to a fine, and district officers to removal, for delin- quency in the discharge of their duty. Parents are liable to a fine, if they fail to send their children to school three months in the year, while over eight and under fourteen years of age; but little respect is paid to this law. Districts having 100 children of school age, may have a board of 6 trustees ; but, since the enactment of this provision, the powers of all districts have been so enlarged that these districts — styled graded-school and high-school districts — have hardly any superior privileges, except that they may establish a high school, in which a charge may be made for tuition, instruction in all other departments being free. A very small number, however, of the districts (nearly 300) organized under this law, have ever charged tuition to the resident pupils. These high schools are, many of them, of a superior grade; and pupils graduat- ing from them after a satisfactory examination, are admitted to the state university without re- examination. The working of the school system is generally satisfactory, except in regard to \ 572 MICHIGAN supervision. After eight years' trial of a county superintendence, the state, in L875, returned to & township superintendency, each township (not including the cities) having a superintendent, who examines teachers, grants certificates, and visits schools. The presenl system of supervision is not, however, giving that satisfaction which insures its long continuance. It may also be said that the supply of really competent teachers is not equal to the demand ; although a marked improvement in the qualifications of teachers was manifest under the county superintendency. Educational Condition. -There are (1876) 5,411 ungraded-school districts, each employing a single teacher, and 297 graded-school districts requiring about 2,000 teachers. The graded schools have regular courses of study, from the lowest primary grade to that of the senior year of the high school. The whole number of school buildings in the state is 5,787, valued in the aggregate at 8'.'.! L 5,354. The 297 graded-school districts have 539 buildings, valued at $5,775,790, showing an average of $10,716 each. Twenty- five of these buildings cost over $20,000 each, and several cost from $50,000 to $100,000 each. The support of the schools, during the year 1874 -5, was derived from the following sources : Balance from preceding year $675,892.40 Primary school interest fund 218,030.29 District taxes 2,341,923.71 Statutory tax (2 mills on $1). 508,551.87 Tuition of non-resident pupils 37,453.65 All other sources 401,722.97 Total $4,183,580.80 Expenditures during the year 1 sT4 — 5 : Teachers' salaries $1,958,481.15 Buildings 550,661.64 Bonded indebtedness 398,106.41 Other purposes 619,112.98 Total. $3,52(;,3C2.18 The principal items of school statistics, for the year L875 6, are the following: Number of children <>t' school age (5—20) 449,181 Number " " attending school 343,981 Number of teachers, males 3,156 females 9,120 Total "" 12,276 Average monthly wages of teachers, mule-; . .$51.29 females.. ..$23. 19 Normal Instruction. — The state normal school, at Tpsilanti, was opened in L852. It is under the general supervision of a board of education consisting of three members, elected on a state ticket for si\ years, and the superintendent of public instruction, ex t>f/iri<>. It has an endow- ment fund of $69,255, the balance necessary for its support being derived from appropriations by the legislature. The value of its buildings and other property is about $75,000. The annual current expenses are nearly $25,000. The iiuiu- ber of students, in l^7.~>.in the normal depart meiit. numbered 409, L87 males and 222 fe- males: in the experimental department, there were 200 pupils, making a total of 609. All stu- dents, mi entering the normal department, are required by law to tile a declaration of their in- tention to teach. The tuition fee is $10 per year; but each member of the lower branch of the legis- lature may appoint two students, residents of his district, who are entitled to admission, and to receive instruction free of charge. Many avail themselves of this privilege. The diploma of the school licenses the holder to teach in any of the public schools of the state. Nearly 7000 teach- ers have received instruction in this school dur- ing its existence. The board of instruction con- sists of a principal and 12 assistants. Secondary Instruction. — Under this head may he classed high schools and academies. There were, in L874, 311 graded schools in the state. Of these. 144 made reports as to organization etc.. and 84 were reported as having high-school departments, with an aggregate of 5,642 pupils, and. in L873, 303 graduates. The subject of high schools has assumed unusual interest and impor- tance in this state. (1) on account of an effort recently made to have their existence declared. by the courts, illegal ; and (2) on account of their peculiar status as direct tributaries to the state university. The first effort failed, the court rul- ing that, though there was nothing in the school law expressly directing their establishment, there was nothing, on the other hand, forbidding it. This decision has been regarded asfinahnol only for the state of Michigan, but for other states in which the school law is so worded as to raise a doubt on this point. (See High Schools.) The peculiar relation of the public high schools to the state university is the result of an arrangement by which high schools that wish to be recognized by the university in such a way as to permit their graduates to enter the latter without further examination, are visited anil examined as to course of study and methods pursued, by a com- mittee of the faculty. This examination lasts one day for each school; and. if the school is rejected by the committee, the reasons are dis- tinctly stated. If the school is accepted, its gradu- ates are admitted to the freshman class of the? university without examination. This method facilitates their admission only. their continuance depending entirely upon their proficiency, which is tested by the usual term examination. The effect upon the high schools has been beneficial by raising the grade of scholarship for graduates, and by maintaining the schools on that higher level produced by the dignity of their position as Stepping-StoneS to the university. In the latter, the direct effect has been uniformity of scholar- ship, and a decrease of necessary watchfulness on the part of professors and tutors, for individ- ual deficiencies. Though, by the old method. there may have been, in individual cases, greater proficiency at the time of admission, the great diversity of attainment shown by members of the same class was likely to lie maintained to- the end of the college course, and the diplomas given to graduates had. therefore, widely differ- ent values. By the new method, uniformity of attainment, by being insisted on at an earlier period, produces uniformity of attainment at graduation. This plan, though regarded at first with misgiving, if not positive disfavor, is gradu- MICHIGAN 573 ally working its way to general approval. Those more immediately interested in it and best capa- ble of judging of its effects the teachers of the schools, ami the faculty of the university — regard its success in the near future as assured. The private schools of the state are reported by the present superintendent of instruction as ■• few and feeble, owing to the excellence of our tree public schools." The number reported in 1873 was 133, with 6,761 pupils. This is thought t<> be much below the actual number. Business colleges exist hi several of the cities and towns. 13 being reported in 1874, with .'i'J instructors and 1,506 students. Of the latter, 196 are fe- males. Denominational >t>td Parochial Schools. — These institutions are not numerous. A few are reported in different parts of the state, managed by Catholics and German Lutherans, where in- struction is given to a few thousand children, but a vast majority of the children and youth of the state find their only source of education in the public schools. Superior Instruction. — The names etc. of the higher institutions of learning are contained in the following table. For further information in regard to them, see the respective titles. NAME Location .V'hen bund- ed Religious denomina- Adrian College Adrian 1859 M. Epis. Albion College Albion 1864 M.Epis. Battle Creek College Battle Creek 1ST") Advent. Grand Traverse CoHege Benzonia ls.jo Chiili. Hills lale College Hinsdale L855 F.W.Bap. H .pa College. Holland City 186:1 Ref.(D'ch) Kalamazoo College Kalamazoo 1855 Bap. Olivet College.. Olivet 1858 Con.&Pr. University of Michigan Ann Arbor 1811 Non sect. In none of these institutions is any distinction as to sex made in the admission of pupils; but there are, besides, several institutions specially for the education of females, among which may be particularly mentioned the following: Michigan Female Seminary, at Kalamazoo, under the pat- ronage of the Presbyterians, was organized in 1867, and conducted on the plan of the cele- brated Mt. Holyoke Seminary in .Mass. Its prop- erty is valued at $70,000, and its annual income is about §10,000. The Young Ladies' Seminary and Collegiate Institute, at Monroe, was incor- porated under the laws of the state, and has been in operation about 30 years. It holds property valued at 810,000. It has a regular college course, besides post-graduate courses. Music, drawing, painting, and the modern languages are taught. Degrees are conferred as in colleges for young men. The number of instructors is 8; and the number of students, in ls7.">, was 103. Professional and Scientific Instruction. — There are two institutions for this kind of in- struction, — the State Agricultural ( 'ollege at Lansing, and the Detroit Medical College. Near- ly all the institutions, however, enumerated under superior instruction have departments in which professional or scientific instruction is given. The Agricultural College of Michigan was the first state institution of its kind established in the United States. By an act of the legislature, in 1855, it came Into existence and was opened for students in the spring of 1857. Until recently, it has been supported wholly by appropriations tf the state treasury, aside from $56,320 real- ized from appropriated state lands, The appropri- ations from the state treasury for the college, np to the present time, amount to $397,787. The farm consists of 676 acres, situated on both Bidee of the Cedar river, three miles distant from the capital of the state: ami 300 acres are under cul- tivation. The property of the college is valued at $250,000. The agricultural land -rant by Con- gress.in 1 si >_V gave Michigan 240,000 acres. From this has been realized $228,933, and t he portion yet unsold is valued at $496,543. These avails go into the state treasury and constitute a perma- nent fund, on which the state pays 7 per cent. The number of students in attendance during the past year (1875—6) was 120. The student's receive board and lodging at the institution at cost, which is about $2.60 per w.ek : but. quite one half of this expense is met by allowance-; granted the students for manual labor performed. Tuition is free, and the incidental fees are a mere trifle. The faculty and other officers number 1 I. The control of the college is rested in aboard of agriculture, the members of which are ap- pointed by the governor, for a term of six years. The governor of the slate and the president of the college are members, ex officii). Special Instruction. — The State Public School at Coldwater, partakes of the nature both of a school and an asylum. The object is to educate the dependent children from the poor houses. It originated in 1871. when a state appropriation of $30,000 was made, and three commissioners were appointed to carry it into effect. A gift of 20 acres in the town of Coldwater and of$25,000 towards the buildings, led. to its location at that place, and this was supplemented by an additional appropriation of $38,000 by the legislature. The plan of the buildings consists of a large central edifice, and surrounding cottages for the home residence of the children. It receives children between the ages of 1 and 1 (i years from the county poor-houses, and provides for and edu- cates them till good homes are found for them. They are strictly the wards of the state till 21 years of age. There is an agent in each county whose duty it is to look after those who are in- dentured to, or adopted by, individuals, and, in case of any violation of the terms of indenture, to return them to the school. The school was opened in 1874, with nearly 200 children; the number, in September 1875, was 171. The num- ber of officers is 18 consisting of a superintend- ent, teachers, matrons, etc. The aim of the insti- tution is, to give a fair elementary education. Since its establishment, the legislature has made appropriations for its support to the amount of SI *7, at')."). — The State Reform School, at Lan- sing, was established, in L85C, for the purpose of rescuing, if possible, from a life of crime, chil- dren and youths convicted of offenses against the law. It receives boys of from 10 to 16 years of 574 MICHIGAN UNIVERSITY age, and is strictly an industrial school. It is managed by a board of control, consisting of three members appointed by the governor, and is sup- ported by annual appropriations from the state treasury, and the earnings of the inmates. Five hours of each day are spent in school ; and four, in manual labor. The officers are a superintend- ent and an assistant, and '.i teachers, besides over- seers of the farm and shops. The annual ex- penses are from $25,000 to $30,000. The school has at present 220 inmates. Over 1,600 boys have been cared for by the institution since its establishment. — The Michigan Institution for the Deaf and Dumb, and Blind, was organized at Flint in L854. About 94 acres are contained in the grounds and the farm connected with them. It is managed by a principal, steward. matron, assistant matron, physician, and 17 teach- ers in all departments, with a few minor assist- ants. In addition to the usual mental instruction given in such institutions, the pupils are trained in mechanical and industrial occupations. In some of these departments the sale of wares pro- duced has more than paid expenses, and the sur- plus has been devoted to the support of the libra- ry. About 200 inmates were receiving instruc- tion in 1874. The educational journals published in the state are. The Michigan T tocher, a monthly, published at Kalamazoo, and The School, a monthly, pub- lished in Ypsilanti. The publication of the former was begun nearly 20 years ago. Both are ably edited, and have a very general circulation in the state. MICHIGAN, University of, at Ann Arbor, owing its foundation to a grant by Congress, in ]H'J(i, of two townships of land, to the territory of Michigan, was established by a legislative act, March 18., 1837, and was first opened for stu- dents, Sept. 20., 1 8 12. It is a part of the public educational system of the state, and is governed by a board of regents, elected by popular vote, each for a term of eight years. ('nder certain conditions, the graduates of the public high schools of the state are admitted without examination. The university comprises the de- partments of literature, science, and the arts (including the school of mines, organized in L875); the department of medicine and surgery, organ- ized in L850; the department of law, L 859 ; the hom pathic medical college, 1> S 7">. and the dental college, L875. Bach oi these departments and colleges has its special faculty of instruc- tion, having charge also of its management. The University Senate is composed of all the faculties, and considers questions of common interest and importance tt) them all. The de- partment of literature, science, and the arts em- braces six regular courses of four years each. and two -holler special courses. The regular courses, with the degrees that are conferred, upon their completion, are as follows: classical [Bach- elor of Arts), scientific [Bachelor of Science), Latin and scientific (Bachelor of Philosophy), Greek and scientific (Bachelor of Philosophy), civil engineering (Civil Engineer), mining engi- neering (Mining Engineer). A full course in ar- chitecture and design was opened in 1876. The special courses are one in analytical chemistry, and one in pharmacy. On the completion of a two years' course in pharmacy, the degree of Pharmaceutical Chemist is conferred. Stu- dents may also pursue selected studies for any , period not less than one term. Postgraduate courses are provided, leading to the degrees of Master of Arts, of Philosophy, or of Science, and Doctor of Philosophy, as well as for those not candidates for a second degree. After 1 v 77, the master's degrees are not to be conferred "in course." The technical courses of the depart- ment of literature, science, and the arts, are grouped together and known as the Polytechnic School. The regular courses in the professional departments are for two years. Both sexes are admitted to all the departments; but the courses of lectures for women, in the medical depart- ments, are distinct from those for men. The only charges made by the university are to residents in Michigan, an admission fee of 810, and the annual payment of 81 - r >; to those who come from other states or countries, an admission fee of 825, and the annual payment of 820. The num- ber of instructors and students in the different departments, in 1875 — G, was as follows : Departments Instructors Students Literature, etc. 31 452 Law 6 321 Medicine and surgery 10 312 Dental college 3 20 Homoeopathic med. college 2 24 Total, deducting repetitions 49 1,127 The students in the department of literature, science, and the arts were classified as follows : resident graduates, 15 ; in the regular classes, 339; in selected studies, 19 ; in pharmacy, 79. Of these, 149 were in the Polytechnic School. The university grounds embrace -\\\ acres, and con- tain an astronomical observatory; a central build- ing, called Cniversity Hall, for the department of literature, science, and the arts; buildings for the departments of law and medicine; a hospital; a chemical laboratory ; and residences for the president and the professors. The observ- atory, erected |iy citizens of I 'etroit, was opened in L854, and is supplied with the most approved instruments. The university museum contains valuable and constantly increasing collections, illustrative of natural .science, ethnology, art. history, agriculture, anatomy, and materia med- ico. The geological, zoological, and botanical cabinets together are estimated to contain about ."> 7. '-'•"> n entries and 255,000 specimens. The li- braries accessible to the students contain about 31,000 volumes. The university fund, being the proceeds of the sale of the universily lands. amounts to aboul $550,000. Tt is held in trust by the state, which pays interest thereon at the rate of 7 percenl per annum. The present an- nual income of the university amounts to nearly 3120,000. Previous to 1S52. under the regulations then in force, there was no president of the university. MIDDLEBURY COLLEGE MILITARY SCHOOLS 575 Since that time, the office 1ms been filled as fol- lows : Henry P. Tappan, I>. D., 1852—63; Erastua 0. Haven, D.D., 1863—9; Henry S. Erieze, LL. L). (acting), 1 S{J1) — 71 ; James B. Angell, LL.D., appointed in 1871 and still (1870) in office. MIDDLEBURY COLLEGE, at Middle- bury, Vt., founded in 1800, though not denomi- national by its charter, is under the direction of Congregationalists. The grounds, embracing about 30 acres, occupy a commanding eminence. It has productive funds to the amount of 1180,000, a library of more than 12,000 volumes. and valuable cabinets of natural history. The cost of tuition is $45 per annum. There aiv several scholarships, besides other beneficiary funds, for the aid of needy students. In 1875 — (], there were 8 instructors and 53 students. Ac- cording to the triennial catalogue of 1871, there were 1,100 alumni, of whom 721 were living. Of the whole number 481 (274 living) became clergymen. The presidents have been as follows : the Rev. Jeremiah Atwater, S. T. D., 1800— 1809 ; the Rev. Henry Davis, S. T. D., 1810—17; the Rev. Joshua Bates, S. T. D„ 1818—39 ; the Rev. Benjamin Labaree, S. T. D., LL. 1)., 1840 — 66 ; the Rev. Harvev Dennison Kitchel, S. T. D., 1866—1875 ; and the Rev. Calvin B. Hulbert, D. D., the present incumbent, elected in 1875. MILITARY SCHOOLS. Special institu- tions for the education of army officers now exist in all European countries, though they are of comparatively modern origin. The first military school in Erance was established by Louis XV., at Vincennes, in 1751. It was, soon after, re- moved to the Champ de Mars, Paris, but it has long ceased to exist as an institution for instruc- tion. The Special Military School of St. < Yr. near Versailles, was founded by Bonaparte in 1802, and, for the first few T years, was located at Fontainebleau. Candidates are admitted by competitive examination, and must be between 17 and 20, or. if from the army, not over 25 years of age. The course is for two years, and embraces geography, German, literature, drawing, legislation and administration, hygiene, topog- raphy, military art and history, artillery, for- tification, and military exercises. The pupils pass either to the Staff School, in Paris, the Cavalry School, at Saumur, or to the army as sub-lieutenants of infantry. The St. < Yr School has about 700 pupils. The Polytechnic School, in Paris, opened in 1794, and organized by I. a Place in 1799, though not specially military in character, affords theoretical instruction in vari- ous military and related branches. There are also the Artillery and Engineers' School, at Fon- tainebleau, for officers; for the education of officers, the artillery schools at Valence and N imes, the School for Non-commissioned In- fantry Officers, at Camp d'Avor; — also the Mil- itary Orphan School, at La Fleche. the Military School of Medicine and Pharmacy, in Paris, the Military Pyrotechnic School, in Bourges, and the Normal School for Gymnastics, in Vincennes. — In Great Britain, the most noted institutions are the Royal Military Academy, at Woolwich, founded in 1711. ami the Royal Military College, at Sandhurst, founded in 1799. The former is intended tor officers of the artillery and engineers. The course is tor two years and a half, and em- braces mathematics, elementary chemistry and physics, French or German, military drawing and reconnaissance, fortification, artillery, mil- itary history and geography, drills, and exercises. Candidates are admitted by competitive exam- ination, and must be between 16 and 18 years of age. The number of pupils is about 200. The college at Sandhurst is intended for officers of the cavalry and infantry. Admission is by competitive examination. The course is for one year, and embraces the elements of tactics, in- fantry and field-artillery drill, the regulations and orders of the army, accounts and correspond- ence, gymnastics, riding, regimental interior economy, military topography and reconnois- sance, field fortification and the elements of permanent fortification, and military law. There are 250 students. The Staff < iollege, at the same place, for the instruction of staff officers, former- ly the senior department of the Royal Military College, is now a distinct institution. The course is for two years, and embraces French. German, or Hindoostanee, military administration and law, fortification and field engineering, geology, mil- itary art, history and geography, artillery, riding, topography, reconnaissance, and military teleg- raphy and signaling. Admission here, also, is by competitive examination, open to officers of all arms who have served five years. The number of students is 40. Besides these insti- tutions, may be mentioned the Royal School of Military Engineering, at Chatham, the School of Gunnery, at Shoeburyness, the School of Mus- ketry, at Hythe, the Military Medical School, in London, and the Royal Hibernian Military School, in Dublin. — In Germany, military in- struction is given in the following institutions: for officers, the war academies in Berlin and Munich (for higher scientific education, especial- ly for the general staff) ; for the education of officers, the united artillery and engineers' schools in Berlin and Munich, the war schools at rots- dam, Erfurt, Xeisse, Engers, Kasscl, Hanover, Anclam (Prussia), Metz (Lorraine;, and Munich (Bavaria), the Prussian, the Bavarian, and the Saxon cadet corps ; six schools for the education of non-commissioned officers ; also the Medico- Surgical Frederick William Institute, the Med- i( (i Surgical Military Academy in Berlin, the Mil- itary Veterinary School in the same place ; the musketry schools at Spandau and Augsburg, the School of Gunnery, the Superior Pyrotechnic School, and the Central Gymnastic Institution in Berlin ; and the military riding institutes in Hanover. Dresden, and Munich.— in Prussia, the senior cadet school is in Berlin, and to this the junior cadet schools are preparatory. The usual course is for four years in the junior schools, and two years in the senior school, from which the pupils pass to a war school, though some remain an additional year in the senior cadet 576 MILITARY SCHOOLS school. There is an examination for admission to the junior schools, and to the senior school for those who have not passed through the junior schools. The age of admission to the junior schools is about 1 o years; to the senior, about 15. In the former, the course embraces arithmetic, elementary algebra and geometry. I lerman gram- mar and composition. French, Latin, Bible his- tory, natural philosophy, drawing, writing, his- tory, drill, gym nasties, fencing, and dancing; in the latter, geography, mathematics] physics, drill, fencing, imitative drawing. Latin, German, French, history, military drawing, religious in- struction, riding, and gymnastics. For the ad- ditional year, the branches are topography, mil- itary service and correspondence, science of arms. military exercises, fortification, tactics, military .surveying and drawing, French, etc. Each junior school has about 200 pupils; and the senior school, about TOO. The war schools are intended for officers of the infantry and cavalry, and as preparatory to the Artillery and Engineers' School. The course is for about nine months, and embraces musketry practice, tactics, science of arms, riding, fencing, fortification, military surveying and drawing, gymnastics, manual of tic piece in artillery, drill in infantry exercises, with about six weeks' field exercise in applied tactics, reconnoissance, and surveying, The War Academy is intended for the education of officers for the staff, as military instructors, and for other high duties. Candidates are admitted by competitive examination, open to officers of all arms of three years' active service. The course is for three years, and embraces French, Rus- sian, military hygiene and law, general, physical, and military geography, tactics, history of liter- ature, geodesy, mat hematics, science of arms, history of the art of war. fortification, military administration, history, surveying, art of siege, chemistry, staff duty, physics, with practical field instruction in staff duty, surveying, field-sketch- ing, etc. There are about 275 students in this institution. The military schools of other Euro- pean countries are similar, in their general feat- ures, to those already described. — -In Austria- Hungary, there are the following: for officers, the War School (for the general staff), the higher Ar- tillery and the Higher Engineering Course, the Preparatory Course for Candidates for the Artil- lery Staff, the Central Infantry* oursc. the intend- ancy < "oursc (affording a preparation for the mili- tary intendancy), all in Vienna, and the Royal Hungarian Landwehr-Cavalry School, at Jasz- b&eny; for the education of officers, the Mil- itary Academy, in Wiener Neustadl (for infantry and cavalry), the Technical Military Academy, in Vienna (for the art illery and engineers), the Ludovica Academy, in Buda-Pesth (for the Hun- garian Landwehr); preparatory to the academies, the Military Superior Ileal School, in Weiss- kirchen, the military inferior real schools at St. Polten and Guns; the Military Medical ( 'oursc and the Military Riding Institute, in Vienna. — The Russian Institutions arc as follows: for Officers, the Nicholas Academy (for the general staff), the Michael Artillery Academy, the Nich- olas Engineering Academy, the Military Jurid- ical Academy, all in St. Petersburg ; for the education of officers, six war schools (two for in- fantry, and one each for cavalry, artillery, and engineers in St. Petersburg, and one for infantry in Moscow), the imperial Page Corps, in St. Petersburg, the Finnish ( 'adet I !orps, in Ilelsing- fors, eleven infantry, two cavalry, and four Cos- sack schools for young noblemen ; as preparatory institutions. 17 military gymnasia and !t military progymnasia ; — for special instruction, the Mil- itary Law School, the Military Topographical School, the Preparatory School for the Guards, the Military Surgical School, the Technical and Pyrotechnic School, all in St. Petersburg, and two gunsmithery schools. — Italy has the following: for officers, the War School, in Turin (for the high- i ^t instruction and the general staff), the Artil- lery and Engineers' School, at the same place; for the education of officers, the Military Acad- emy, in Turin (for the artillery and engineers), the Military School, in Modena (for infantry and cavalry); as preparatory institutions to the Mil- itary Academy and Military School, the military colleges, in Naples, Milan, and Florence; also the Normal Infantry School, in Parma, and the Normal Cavalry School, in Pinerolo. — Besides the schools for officers of the character already indicated, there are in nearly every European country regimental or battalion schools for the instruction of privates or non-commissioned officers in the common branches of learning. — In Brazil, military instruction is given in reg- imental schools, for training non-commissioned officers; preparatory schools; the Military School, in Rio de Janeiro ; the Depot of Artillery Ap- prentices, iii the same place; the Cavalry and Infantry School of the Province of Sao Pedro do Rio Grande do Sul : and the General Gun- nery School of Campo Grande. — In the Military Academy, at West Point, N. Y.. founded in 1802, the United States has an institution second to none of its kind in the world. The organization, course, etc., are described tinder the appropriate title, i See West Point.) There is also an Artillery School at Fortress Monroe, organized in 1867. The act of Congress of I8C2. donating land to the states for the establishment of agri- cultural and mechanical colleges, includes milita- ry tactics among the branches to he taught in those institutions. An act of 18(H) authorizes the president to detail officers of experience to act as professors of military science in institu- tions of learning, having over 1 ."HI male students. A Dumber of institutions have availed them- selves of this privilege. By the same act. provi- sion is made for the instruction of enlisted men in the common I'.nglish branches of education at every post, garrison, or permanent camp. In nearly every military department, there arc schools for instruction in military signaling ami telegraphy. A number of academies or high schools in the United States are organized upon military principles, in imitation of West Point, daily drill being required of the pupils. MILTON sn Some of those are designed for boys not ame- frftble to the milder discipline of the ordinary schools. Several institutions providing instruc- tion of a collegiate grade, in classics, modem languages, and scientific branches, have a similar organization. Of these the principal, having Separate articles in this work, are as follows: fhe Kentucky Military Institute, at Farmdale, Ky. ; Louisiana State I'niversity. at Baton Rouge, La.; Norwich I'niversity. at Northfield, \'t. ; Pennsylvania Military Academy, at Ches- ter, Pa. : Texas Military Institute, at Austin. Tex.; and Virginia Military Institute, at Lex- ington, Va. — (ien. Hazen. in contrasting (1872) the French and Prussian system of military edu- cation, remarks that only about one-third of the French officers are of necessity educated men. while, in Prussia, all must be. In the French schools, there is almost a total absence of moral control : while, in Prussia, the opposite is true. In France, the great lack of a good preparatory education is loudly complained of, and the almost total neglect of mathematical subjects in the special schools is noticeable : while great atten- tion is paid to drawing and all practical subjects of a military character. In the French system, the entire school course is given before service is seen; but, in Prussia, a certain amount of actual service must precede any theoretical course at the schools; nor is there in France, as in Prussia, any provision for recognizing, utilizing, and educating the talent of young men who have, by a few years' service, developed mental superiority. In Prussia, nothing is more strik- ing than the connection between the military and civil education of the country. The competitive system is almost universally objected to, and mathematics are thought worthy of attention up to the highest grades only by those of peculiar aptness. The Academy, which gives a superior education to the first men of the army, is of great merit and usefulness. The greatest pos- sible care is bestowed upon methods of study and instruction; the most remarkable feature of the system is the attention paid to forming and dis- ciplining the mind and encouraging habits of reflection. The education is eminently practical. — - In reference to West Point he says : -After see- ing much of the best European armies, I believe that, at the breaking out of our war, our little regular army was officered by better technical soldiers than any army in the world : and this I believe to be due to West Point." — See II. Barnard, Militant Education; an Account of Institutions for Military Education in France, Prussia, Austria, Russia, Sardinia, Sweden, Switzerland, England, and the United States ' (2 vols.). — A list of the military schools of all European States is given by Brachelli, Die Staaten Eurqpa's (1875). — See Gen. W. B. II \- zen, U. S. A.. The School and the Army in Ger- many and France. MILTON, John, a celebrated English poet, born in London. Dec. 9., 1 608; died there Nov.8., 1674. His father, being disinherited on chang- ing his religion — which had been the Roman 37 Catholic, — followed (he profession Of a scrivener. by which, we are told, he "got a plentiful estate.'' Young Milton was carefully educated. A private" tutor gave him instruction in Latin, and perhaps 1 in Greek, and imbued his mind with a love for poetry, and the writing of Latin and English \erse. Ilencxt pa.-sed to St. Paul's School, where he was prepared for Christ's College, Cambridge, which he entered in L625. Here, for seven years, he devoted himself, with great assiduity, to such studies as would tit him for a career of author- ship instead of the usual 01 f a profession, all desire for which he had abandoned. At this time, his singular personal beauty and intellectu- al independence made him a marked character among his fellow collegians. On leaving Cam- bridge, in K>.'!'_ > . he .-pent five years in study and reading, chiefly classiqal, and the composition of poetry. The most beautiful of his shorter poems' were written at this period of his life. In 1637, he set out upon his travels, visiting Prance and Italy, in both of which countries lie formed the acquaintance of men eminent in science and literature. Paris. Florence and Rome were among the places visited by him at this time: and Grotius and Galileo, among the acquaintances 1 thus formed. On receiving word of the struggle impending between the people of England and the king, he abandoned further travel, and hast- ened home. For several years, his energies were devoted to the cause of the revolution, to which he contributed many pamphlets, which estab- lished not only his great ability as a controver- sialist, but his mastery of vigorous and eloquent English prose. In 1643, he was married; but, within a month, a separation took place, owing to incompatibility of temper. This led to an at- tempt on his part to change the law relating to marriage, in the course of which he published some of the the most famous of his prose pam- phlets. In K')44. he published his Tractate on Education and his ArrojxKjitica. a S/,rerh far tin' Liberty of Unlicensed Printing. In 1645. a reconciliation took place between him and his wife : and. for several years, he resided in Lon- don, devoting himself to literature. About 1654, he became totally blind, the malady being hast- ened by his zeal in writing a defense of the people of England against the usurpations of the king. I lis wife dying in 1652, or 1653, he married again in 1656. and again in 1603. About 1665, he completed Paradise Lost and began Paradise Regained The last years of his life were passed in domestic disquiet, obloquy, and the contem- plation of the defeat of the public measures and principles he had labored so long to establish. The prominence accorded to Milton by educa- tionists rests principally upon his Tractate on Education, addressed in the form of a letter to Samuel Ilartlili (q. v.). In this tractate is pre- sented Milton's view of "a complete and generous education, to tit a man to perform justly, skill- fully, and magnanimouly all the offices, both private and public, of peace and war.'' His first injunction is " to find out a spacious house and ground about it fit for an academy, and big 578 MILTON MILWAUKEE enough to lodge 120 persons, whereof 20 or thereabouts may be attendants, all under the government of one who shall be thought of desert sufficient, and ability either to do all, or wisely to direct and oversee it done." Such an academy is to be both "school and university" — the sole place of instruction for the youth it contains, from the time of their admission to the time when they enter upon the duties of mature life. Their studies, their exercise, and their diet are separately considered. For the first, grammar is to be used as an introduction, giving special at- tention to the practical use of it, as in con vet pronunciation and a knowledge of the rules most commonly used. Advantage, also, should be taken to cultivate indirectly the moral sense by the use, as text-books, of such works as have become classics. Fortius he recommends several in the Greek language, lie attaches great im- portance, also, to the personal magnetism of the teacher, as a means for inciting his pupils to an "ingenuous and noble ardor." Arithmetic is to be taught at this period; and, shortly after, geometry. In the evening, the instruction is to be moral only. The next step is the study of agri- culture, as found in the writings of Cato, Varro, and ( 'olumella. These authors are chosen for the double purpose of acquiring a mastery of "any ordinary prose," and for inciting in the pupils a desire in alter life to ■•improve the tillage of their country." It will then be proper to go on to the Study of maps, globes, ami natural philoso- phy. Greek should then be taken up, and in a short time, trigonometry, fortification, architect- ure, enginery or navigation, and anatomy. Medi- cine, both theoretical and pracl ical, should next be pursued. These studies should all lie supple- mented, as far as possible, by an observation of their application in practical pursuits. Moral instruction should now predominate. The les- sons ineuieated should lie enforced by reading tin' moral works of Plato, Xenophon, Cicero, Plutarch, etc., ending at evening with the Bible. The next study should lie that of political econo- my, followed by politics and law. Sundays and evenings should he devoted to theology, church history, and the study of Bebrew -the latter in order that the Scriptures may be read in the original. Then follow ■•choice histories, heroic poems, and attic tragedies," with "political ora- tions," some of which Should be committed to memory, and declaimed. Rhetoric, the art of composition, logic, and poetry uexl succeed; after which, he says, "whether they [the students] be to speak in parliament or council, honor and at- tention would be waiting on their lips." He nexl speaks of physical exercise. Wrestling and i lie USe of tli .-word are specially commended, the hivat hiii-- spells to be filled with music. About two hours before Bupper, the students are to be summoned to their martial exercises, on fool or on horseback, in fair weather or foul. These w ill give personal prowess and hardihood, and ac- "iii the youths to halms of discipline, and the practical conduct of armies. Visits to the country, also, al favorable seasons, and for- I eign travel, are recommended to supplement the studies and exercises of the academy. Lastly, the students' food should be "plain, healthful, and moderate," and served in the same house. The proper age in which to pursue this curriculum is from the 12th to the 21st year. It will be seen from this synopsis, that Milton's view of a liberal education differed widely from that of the school- men of his day, in its estimate of the classics and natural science ; while, in many respects, it ex- ceeds the liberal tendencies of the most advanced educators of the present time. The period of child- hood, which is now claiming so much of the at- tention of the educators throughout the civilized world, is not. indeed, considered by him ; not, however, because it was overlooked, nor because he undervalued its importance; but, because "brevity" was his "scope." On nearly all of the great subjects that now agitate the educational world, this tractate is silent. Compulsory educa- tion, sectarianism, the relation of schools to the state, the education of women, the co-education of the sexes — none of these arc mentioned. Yet, if the reader of today, wondering at its fame, and doubting its claim to special consideration, will transport himself to Milton's time, and note the influences by which he was surrounded — the almost universal disregard of the. practical in education, and the blind worship of book knowl- edge—this "letter to Master Samuel Ilartlib" will appear almost a daring innovation; and the moral courage, as well as the sagacity, of its author will be unquestioned. MILTON COLLEGE, at Milton, Wis., founded as an academy in 1 8 II and as a colli ge in 1807, is under the control of the Seventh-Day Baptists. It is supported chiefly by tuition lees. Its endowment amounts to $6,000. The libraries contain about 2.1(10 volumes. It has philosophical and chemical apparatus and cab- inets of botany, mineralogy, etc. The academic department has a teachers' course, an English ami business course, ami a preparatory course; the collegiate department has a classical and a scientific course. In 1875 — 6, there were 260 students in all courses. Both sexes are admitted. , The principals and presidents have been as fol- lows: the Rev. Bethnel ('. Church, 1 year; the Rev. S.S. Bicknell, .'> years ; the Rev. Amos W. Conn, l' years; Prof. A. C. Spicer, 7 years; and i he Rev. \V. C. Whit ford, the present incumbent (1876), L8 years, MILWAUKEE, the chief city and port of entry of the state of Wisconsin, was settled in 1835, and incorporated as a city in L846. Its population, according to the census of L870, was 89,930; and its school population (between the ages of I and 2<> years) 27,359, which, in August L875, had increased to 33,919. The total popu- lation of the city, at present (1876), is about 120.11(111. Of the'sehool population, in L875, the number attending the public schools was ,'i(),7 per cent; attending private schools, 21..'! percent. (If the children between the apes of I Mini 15 years, more than 75 per cent attended either public or private schools. MILWAUKEE 57!) Educational ERstory. — The history of the public schools of Milwaukee, in its general char- acter, does do! differ greatly from that of other western cities which have grown into importance during the last thirty years. In all. the advance has been from the rude frontier school of the early settlers, in which only the rudiments of a common English education were taught, to the highly-organized system of the large city, with its several grades of schools, crowned with its high or normal school, ami. sometimes, with a university. The first school taught in the city, was the private school of a Methodist minister, opened in the winter of 1835 — f>, in a building in Bast Water Street. The following year, the first public school organized under the school laws of the territory, was opened in Third Street Since the incorporation of the city, in 18d6, the progress of the schools has been rapid and steady. Two steps of sufficient importance to be noted. are the introduction of German as a regular study in the district schools, which took place in 1857, and the introduction of drawing and music, in 1873. The present school system was organized in 184-6. The first school superintend- ent was Rufus King, 1859 — 60. His successors were, Jonathan Ford, 1860 — 62 ; A. C. May, 8 days in 1862; J. R. Sharpstein, 1862—3; Edwin De Wolf, 1863—5; F. C. Pomeroy, 1865—70 ; G. H. Paul, 1870—71 ; F. C. Law, 1871 — 4; James MacAlister, the present in- cumbent (1877), elected in 1874. School Si/stem. — The supervision and control of the public schools are vested in a board of education, consisting of 26 members, 2 from each ward, who are appointed biennially by the alder- men, subject to confirmation by the common council. The board elect annually from their number a president, who is required to preside at all meetings, and to deliver an annual ad- dress. The school board is required, subject to the approval of the common council, to establish and organize a sufficient number of schools for the accommodation of the children of the city, for which the common council must purchase, or lease, lots and buildings, erect school-houses, and provide the necessary furniture. The board, is, al- so, authorized to define the boundaries of school- districts, to adopt suitable text-books, which must be uniform, and must continue in use without frequent change, and to enforce uniformity in the system of instruction employed in the schools. They also elect biennially a superintendent of schools, whose duties are to exercise a general supervision over the public schools, to examine into their organization and condition, to suggest to the teachers such changes, consistent with the school law, as he may deem expedient, and, in connection with a committee of the board, to ex- amine teachers, to employ and classify them, and to dismiss them when necessary. The school law requires the establishment and maintenance of a high school, in which must he organized an academic department and a normal course for the special training of teachers for the public schools of the city. The course of study in the academic department embraces four years; that in the normal course, three. Pupils from the district schools, who are L 5 years of age or over, of studious habits and good moral char- acter, and who have passed an examination of the tirst grade, and received the superintendent's diploma tor such examination, are admitted to the high school ; but candidates who have not attended the district schools, may be admitted to the high school upon passing a special ex- amination. A certificate of gradual ion, entitling the holder to tea< h in the public schools, may be given to each student in the normal department of the high school, who is not less than 18 yean of age, and who lias maintained a satisfactory standing in that department for one year. There are three kinds of schools,— branch schools, dis- trict schools, ami the high school. The liist are only adjuncts of district schools, and are opened whenever any of the latter are not adequate to the public needs. The work in the branch school is graded, but is of an elementary char- acter. In the district schools, there are ten grades, occupying about eight years. The course of study embraces all the ordinary branches of an English education, together with German (graded like the other studies, and taught by a special teacher), and music, free-hand drawing, and calisthenics, graded and systematically taught by the class teachers. There are special superintendents, however, for each of these branches, who regularly inspect and supervise the work, and, in the case of drawing and music, hold all the examinations for promotion. In th • high school, there are two courses — the clas- sical and the English — each occupying four years. Three grades of certificates are granted to teachers, examinations for which ate held in March, June, August, and December, din; schools are supported principally by an annual city tax, levied by the common council on all taxable property. In L875 — 6, this tax amounted to 1.85 mills on the dollar. The school age is from 4 to 20 years. The number of schools, in 1875 — 6, was 21, consisting of the following: high school, 1; normal department, 1: district schools, 13 ; branch schools, 6. — The following are the principal items of school statistics for. the same year: X i ii niter of pupils of school age 34,:>:;t " " " enrolled in public schools. . . 13,881 Average daily attendance 8,453 Number of teachers 107 Total receipts $168,949.22 " expenditures $164,210.15 " valuation of school property $486,500.00 Connected with the public schools, is a teach- ers' library, the privileges of which are free to all teachers employed in the public schools, and to the pupils of the normal department of the high school. In addition to the means of in- struction afforded by the public schools, there are many private and denominational schools. The number of the former, in L873, was 17, in which instruction was given to 7,000 pupils, the number of whom, in 1875, was increased, to 9,26«J. .580 M1XETCALOCY MINERALOGY. Under the bead of mvn- entl substances, or those which constitute the mineral kingdom, are included all inorganic bodies; that is to say, by strict definition, all sub- stances that are not the products of life. By a similar strictness, we mighl be led to say that, the mineral kingdom being a division of nature, artificial products should be excluded from it. Nature, however, is not to be limited by our verbal definitions; organisms appropriate and use mineral substances without altering their composition, or they may, in the complex chemical reactions of vitality, give rise to a min- eral Bubstance, especially as a resull of organic decomposition, 'thus we have in bones mineral matter: and the carbonic aciil breathed out by the visitor to the Grotto del Cane belongs as much to the mineral kingdom as that evolved from the floor of the cave. Again, nature right- fully claims as true mineral substances many which owe their existence to the art of man, be- ing altogether identical in form, composition, and character with those of her own production. We can make no distinction between the crystal of salt formed by the artificial evaporation of brine, and a similar crystal produced by the natural evaporation of sea-water ; or between the crystals of augite formed as furnace products and those of volcanic origin. Hence we see that, in reality, the mineral kingdom embraces all sub- stances, in their constitution essentially inorganic, which occur in nature, even though they may have been formed under organic or under artifi- cial conditions: and we thus include in this kingdom, not merely all solid bodies formed in the crust of the earth, but also all inorganic fluids, whether liquid or gaseous, within, upon, or above the earth. Among these, we are at once culled upon to recognize the distinction be- tween the different kinds of molecules that are presented to our notice, and the different forms under which these are aggregated : in ordinary language, we recognize materials and structures. To the materials we apply the term minerals. A. material must be homogeneous; hence the definition of a mineral is " a natural homogene- ous Bubstance of inorganic origin." To mineral aggregates we apply the term rocks; but as thud minerals, whether gaseous or liquid, can hardly lie said to have structure in the sense in which the geologisi uses the term, he defines a rock as " any aggregation Of solid mineral particles which Constitutes an essential pari of the earth's crust." Imbedded within rocks, we meet with certain mineral holies that presenl forms and structures undoubtedly of organic origin ; to these, provided they are of a certain geological antiquity, is ap- plied the term fossil. (See PaljEontology.) — Bach mineral is theoretically assumed to be ca- pable of taking, under favorable circumstances, the form of , i geometrical solid. This capability lue '" Forces inherent in inorganic matter. which causes its molecules to arrange themselves to fixed laws about certain mathemat- ically related axes. A perfect crystal is thus the outward expression of symmetrica] internal structure, and is defined as "an inorganic solid bounded by plane surfaces symmetrically ar- ranged, and resulting from the forces of the con- stituenl molecules." (See Dana. System of Min- eralogy,vo\. 1.) As the molecules of different kinds are variously affected by the molecular forces, the crystalline forms of different minerals vary ac- cordingly. The form of the same mineral is always constant : not that it always occurs in crystals of identical form, but that all its forms are referable, under mathematical conditions, to one fundamental type. Its crystalline form is, therefore, regarded as an essential characteristic of a mineral species, which will embrace vari- eties resulting from modifications of the type; and. in this light, any particular crystal maybe regarded as a mineral individual. Ihe existence of such mineral structures is not incompatible with the definition of a rock given above, since crystals are not structures essential in the earth's crust. The formation of a crystal is interfered with bySO many external and varying influences, that forms of exact symmetry are almost im- probabilities; or, to quote Dana, "this sym- metrical harmony is so uncommon that it can hardly he considered other than an ideal perfec- tion."- The law that the same mineral is always limited to its own crystalline form is apparently contravened in many instances; — thus, we may have minerals of similar composition, as of carbonate of lime, or even elements, as carbon and sulphur, crystallizing under two or more different fundamental forms [dimorphism, poly- morphism); or. we may have minerals of differ- ent but related chemical composition assuming identical or similar forms [isomorphism, Immceo- morphism); or, finally, we may have a mineral assuming the form of another mineral of essen- tially different chemical composition [pseudo* morphism). As the molecular arrangement known as crystalline structure is thus intimately controlled by the laws that govern chemical combination, the explanation of the above men- tioned apparent exceptions to law lies within the province of the chemical physicist. Thus, whilst the mathematician deals with the forms of crystals and their properties as geometrical solids, to the chemist and physicist must be assigne I that part of crystalology, or the science of crystals, which treats of the law s and condi- tions that give rise to such forms. To the mathematical branch, is assigned 'he name crys- tallography, to the physical, crystaUogeny. As crystalline form and chemical composition are the essential characteristics of mineral sj>ecics, chemiBtry, physics, and solid geometrj are the sciences upon which mineralogy is based. In turn, it is an essential subordinate of geology, necessarily throwing light upon the character ami history of rocks. Prom a more general educational Stand-point, mineralogy is important as making us acquainted with the results of the forces that are restricted in their action to in- organic matter, and enabling us to contrast them with the results of that combination of lores which we call vitality. The projK'rties M I N KRALOGY MIWI-.SOT A 58 1 of minerals also throw light on physical problems by affording data tor the discussion of questions affecting light, electricity, magnetism, etc — In its applications to the arts, the value of mineral- egj rests upon a chemical basis. It may thus he regarded, educationally, as supplementing chemistry, as complementary to geology, as of great technical importance to the practical chem- ist and as a necessary study to the metallurgist and mining engineer. — It will be at once apparent that the study of mineralogy, with whatever end in view, must lie deferred to a late stage in ad- vanced education. At the same time, it may he noted that minerals, regarded merely as the materials of which the earth's crust is composed, offer examples of so many physical properties that come under the cognizance of the senses, either unaided or aided by the simplest experi- ments, that they afford excellent material for the cultivation of the powers of observation in the lower stages of education. Minerals present these properties in the simplest conditions, un- complicated, as in vegetable or animal materials. by the effects of vitality; and they are superiorto artificial objects for objective teaching, because, if rightly used, they may he made to elucidate all that can be elucidated by the former, whilst they become, in addition, foundation stones upon which a more advanced and scientific study may be satisfactorily based. In this manner. they may be used to inculcate, in its most elementary form. a scientific method of research. Thus, by means of the physical characters of minerals, observa- tion, accurate as far as our unaided senses can make it. and exactness of thought, and conse- quently of speech, may be cultivated in regard to external form, interned structure (including elementary notions of crystalline structure and cleavage), color, diaphaneity, luster, hardness, tenacity, fracture, etc. Observations, elementary it is true, but still of a fundamental character, regarding specific gravity, solubility, andfusibil- ity, may be induced by simple experiments with the balance, the test-tube, and the blowpipe. Such knowledge, acquired from the common minerals around us, will undoubtedly be a val- uable stepping-stone to further acquisitions. At a later stage, if practicable, instruction in the use of the blowpipe might be made to yield a further insight into ample chemical phenomena, and. if carried far enough, might be made an excellent starting-point for systematic scientific investiga- tion by analysis. In connection with mineralogy, attention should be given to lithology, or the science of mineral aggregates, or rocks. This subject presents many points of interest both from a scientific and an educational point of view : and in its connections, on the one hand; with geology, and, on the other, with mineralogy, affords the materials for practical study as well as useful mental culture, thus constituting an element of ) both technical and liberal education. The works necessary to the general reader for reference on j topics of mineralogy and lithology are few : and those only are here named that are perfectly ac- | | oessible. — See Dana, .1 System of Mineralogy ; and .1 Mimual of Mineralogy; the formei the standard work of reference on minerals: the latter is a brief compendium for beginners, but requiring adaptation to late advances; \ .. Elements of Mineralogy; Bristow, Glossary of Mineralogy; Mitchell, Mineralogy, in Obr's Circle of the Sciences, useful in presenting the subject of crystallography. Elementary anil concise information wiil he found in the standard manuals of geology. (Sec Geology.) MINES; SCHOOL OF. See Schsntifio Schools. MINISTRY OF PUBLIC INSTRUC- TION. How far it is right or expedient for state governments to assume the control of the primary, secondary, and Superior schools of a country, is a question which is still unsettled, receiving -various answers in different countries. (See State and Sci i..) 'I his difference of views finds an expression in the way in which the different national govern nn nts have arranged the administration of those educational affairs Of which they have taken charge. Some states have a special minister ot public instruction who has charge only of the educational affairs of the country. Such states are. in Europe, Prance, Italy. Russia, Norway. Turkey: among the Amer- ican states, only Nicaragua was reported (in the Goiha Almanac for L876) as having a special minister of public instruction. In many other countries, one of the members of the state min- istry bears the title of Minister of Public in- struction, but performs also the duties of some other department. 'I hits, in Prussia, Bavaria, Sax- ony. Wurtemberg, Denmark, Greece, Sweden, Bolivia, Chili, and Costa Rica, the minister of education was, in 1875, also minister of public worship; and, in some of these states, even a third ministerial department was connected with the office. In Spain, commerce, education, and public works: in Guatemala, foreign affairs and education: in San Salvador, the interior and education, were assigned to one member of the ministry. In none of the other states of Europe or America, do any of the members of the ministry hear the special title of minister of edu- cation, cither exclusively or jointly with that of another ministerial department. In Belgium and in the Netherlands, there is a special bureau for educational affairs in the ministry of the inte- rior : and, in the same way. in the I 'nited States, a bureau of education, with a commissioner of education at its head, as a section of the de- partment of the interior. In England, there is a committee of the council on education; in Por- tugal a supreme study council : and, in the new German Empire, an imperial school commission. Fuller information on this subject may he found in the special articles in this work on the differ- ent countries of the globe. MINNESOTA, one of the north-western states of the American Union, formed a part of the territory of the same name, which was or- ganized by Congress in l s l'.». The state of Min- nesota was admitted into the Union in 1858, 682 MINNESOTA taking rank as the 19th, in the order of admission. lis area is 83,531 8q. in.; and its population, in 1 -7t>. was 439,706, including 438,257 whites, 7.~>!> Colored persons, and 690 Indians. Educational History. — The importance of general education was recognized in Minnesota at the commencement of its existence, the first constitution of the state making provision for a free public-school system ami a state university. Every township containing not less than five families was constituted a school - district, in which school trustees were annually elected ; and tiic majority of the voters had authority to levy a tax not exceeding $600 ; besides which a county tax was also sanctioned for school pur- p »ses. Tin' general direction and supervision of tin: school system was assigned to a state super- intendent. In 1860, there were 879 public schools, having .'}l,U. was 3,362 ; the number of school-houses, 2,975 ; the number of winter schools. 2,682; of summer schools. 2,643. The number of graded schools reported in that year was 222. The receipts for the support of the schools, were derived from the following sources: Balance from previous war . .$23] ,089.98 Special tax collected.. 669,427.60 Apportioned by conn ty auditor ,v 1 , v :'.7.17 Sale ofbonds.. " 48,870.51 < Ither sources R4,*?66.34 Total. ... .T" ~" $1,576,081.60 Th<' expenditures were as follows: For teachers' wages $702,662.66 Furnishing and supplies 57,56 1!( pairing honses and grounds 64,206.98 Purchasing sites and building houses 187,667.74 Renl of sites and renins 3,158.64 Payment of distiict bonds.... 151,567.79 For ether purposes 132.796.30 Total - $1,289,629.01 The other important items of the school statistics, for 1875, are the following : Pupil- enrolled 107,044 Average attendance in summer 32,660 •• winter 38,1 " " mean, for the year 35,646 Number of teachers in ungraded scl Is: winter, male- 1,262 females . . ..1.147 Total.... 2,399 summer, male- females . . . l.'.Mti Total.... 2,301 MINNESOTA 583 Number ol teachers in graded schools: males 120 females .... 444 Total...! 6(J4 Number of different teachers employed: males 1,372 females 1,591 Total 2,963 Normal Instruction. — The normal schools of the state are three in number, located at Winona, Mankato, and St. Cloud. In that at Winona, the course of study embraces the English lan- guage, mathematics, physical and natural sciences, political economy, vocal music, and the theory and practice of teaching. The number of pupils enrolled in the normal department was (in 1875), males, 75; females. 220. The number enrolled in the model classes was, males. 105; females, 93; total enrollment, 499; the number in actual Attendance in the normal department, 220. The faculty consists of a principal and ten assistants. The class of graduates of May, 1875, numbered 18; the whole number of graduates, since its organization, was 227. — The second state normal school is at Mankato. It is divided into a nor- mal and a model department, and has a faculty of one principal and five professors or assistants. Both sexes are admitted. Its course of study is similar to that pursued in the normal school at "Winona. The number of pupils enrolled, in 1875, was, in the normal department, males, 03 ; fe- males, 150; in the model department, males, 30; females, Hi. The average attendance in the nor- mal department was 59 ; in the model depart- ment, 20. There were 11 graduates during the year. — The normal school at St. Cloud is the youngest of the three state institutions, having been established in 18IJ9. Its organization and ■course of study are the same as those of the two oiler schools at Mankato and Winona. It is open to both sexes, and has a faculty consisting of a principal and six instructors. The enrollment was as follows: in the normal department, males, 50; females, 121; in the model department, males, 1(5; females, 32 ; average number in the normal de- partment, males, 28 ; females, 64 ; average in model department, males, 10; females, 1 5. In addition to the privileges afforde 1 by these three institutions, special instruction, to those desiring to teach in the public schools, is given in several of the high schools of the state. A large number of teachers of both sexes is supplied annually from this source. — Teachers' institutes are con- vene 1 by the sup ■rintendent of public instruc- tion, and are presided over by the superintendent •of the county in which they are held. The effort made by the normal board to induce teachers and pupils in the normal schools to attend the annual institutes, and take part in the proceed- ings, has been successful. Eleven institutes were convened in 1875, the exercises in which were •conducted largely by the teachers and pupils of the schools referred to; and the increased interest manifested, and the good feeling produced by bringing together the county teachers and those of the normal schools, are thought to be full of jproniisc. Secondary Instruction. — The number of high schools in the state is not reported. 'I hey are confined principally to the cities and large towns, many of the 222 graded schools having high-school courses attached. Recommendations have been made that the high schools be pro- vided with a uniform course of study so as to constitute them stepping-stones to the state university, as in some oth< r states; but decided action in this regard has not yet been taken. .Many private schools exist in various parts of the state, which were reported, in 1875, as em- ploying I 15 prof essors and teachers, and afford- ing instruction to 5.447 pupils. The Baldwin School, the preparatory department of Macalister College, was incorporated in 1853. Its curric- ulum is reported as substantially the same as that of Phillips Academy, in Massachusetts. The St. Croix Valley Academy, at Afton, received its charter in 1867 ; it is supposed to be the first regularly incorporated academy in the state. This institution has fitted a large number of teachers, who are satisfactorily employed in the district schools. Among the most important private in- stitutions for secondary instruction, are Taylor's Select Graded School, at St. Paul, organized in 1 < i T 1 ; the Minneapolis Business College, and the St. Paul Business College, the latter established in 1865, said to be the oldest and the largest in- stitution of the kind in this part of the North- west. The number of teachers, in 1875, was 6 ; lecturers, 3 ; students. 209. Denomini lit, mil and Parochial Schools. — The chief institutions of this character, according to the report of lb75, are the Schools of the Fpis- < opal < hurch, at Faribault, including Shattuck School, a collegiate and business school for boys, which has a military organization, under the care of an experienced officer of the U. S. Army; and St. Mary's Hall, now in its eleventh year, established to provide a Christian home for young ladies, with opportunities for the highest mental culture. The Stabury Divinity College is con- nected with this group of institutions ; also a cathedral, which cost $50,000, in which the stu- dents meet for public worship. Besides these, there is AVesleyan Seminary, at Wasioja, under the control of the Minnesota conference of the Wesleyan Methodists, which in 1875, had 98 students ; and St. John's Seminary, near St. Joseph, Stearns Co., which is conducted by the Benedictine Fathers, and provides five courses of study: an elementary, a scientific, a commercial, a a classical, and an ecclesiastical course. (See below.) Superior Instruction. — The University of Minnesota (q. v.), at Minneapolis, is the only institution of this grade controlled by the state. The following table includes all the institutions for superior instruction : NAME Location (ail. t , ; » 7 « » pupils, and an income of $385,679. 'The number of academics and other schools was 169, with 7.97 i pupils; and there were 13 colleges, with 856 students. The state constitution of 1 recognized the need of provi ling the means of popular education, and hence made it the duty of the legislature to establish "a uniform system of free public schools by taxation, or otherwise, for all coil Iren between the ages of 5 and 21 yeas." and also, as soon as practicable, "to establish schools of a higher grade."' The same constitu- tion also required the election of a "superintend- ent of public education." to hold office for four years, and also that there should be a " board of education," consisting of the secretary of state, the attorney-general, and the state superintendent; and that there should be a school superintendent in each county, and that school should be kept in each district for at least four months in each year. It also provided for a school fund from the proceeds of lands belonging to the state, granted by the United States, and the lands known as swamp lands, and authorized a poll- tax not exceeding S'2 a head, in aid of the school fund. It prescribed the establishment of an agricultural college, and that " no religious sect is ever to control any part of the school or uni- versity funds of the state". In pursuance of these constitutional requirements, the legislature. at its session of June. 1870, passed a school law, organizing the present school system, except as amended in some particulars by the revised code of 1871. — The first state superintendent under this law was II. R. Pease, who served till 1874; hi- sii ecessors being T. YV. < 'ardozo, from 1874 to 1876; T. S. Gathright, from dan. to Sept.. 1876; and Rev. Jos. Bardwell, now in office (1876). School System. — The general supervision and control of the public schools of the state are committed to a state board of education, consist- ing of the secretary of state, the attorney-gen- eral, and the superindendent of public education. This board has charge of all property and funds devoted to school purposes, the income of which they pay to the local authorities. 'I'hey make an annual report to the superintendent of public education, which is incorporated in his report to the legislature. The immediate super- vision and control of the schools are entrusted to the superintendent of public education, who is elected every four years. There is. in each county, a county superintendent, appointed by the hoard of education, and confirmed by the senate, for two years. The duties of these officers are .similar to those of county superintendents in other states. Each county <•< institutes a school- district, which is governed by a board of school directors, elected by the parents or guardians of the children attending school. The number of! schools in each county must be one or more, and the school session not less than four months. Each city of 3.000 inhabitants, also, forms a school-district, governed, as in the case of the counties, by six school directors chosen by the resident voters. Each county is required to furnish a free scholarship to each of the uni- versities of the state' : and to each normal school, as many students as it has representatives in the lower house of the legislature. It is provided by law that " the Bible shall not be excluded from the schools of the state". The school age is from 5 to 21 years. Educational Condition. — The number of schools, in 1875, was 3,434, — first grade, 764; second grade. 2,670 ; high schools, 8; private schools, 606. The support of the schools was deri veil from the following sources: State four-mill tax $489,443.8? ( Sty and county taxes 354,8 i 2.40 ( Ihickasaw fund 63,466.63 Collected on loans of school funds 20,000.00 Sale and rental of school lands 50,000. no Aid from Peahod y Fund 9,500.00 Total $yb7,'282.fctf Expenditures: For teachers' salaries $857,950.44 Salaries of county superintendents 48,650.00 Miscellaneous expenditures 80,000.00 Total $986,600.4 t The other items of school statistics are the following: Number of children of school age: Whites, 141,514 Colored, 176,945 Total 318,459 Number of pupils enrolled 168,217 Average monthly enrollment 13U, :;;;() Average daily attendance 106,894 Number of teachers 4. 1 .' 8 Average monthly wages of teachers $55.47 Normal Instruction. — There are two normal schools in the state, one at Holly Springs, the other at Tougaloo. The first was opened in 1 870, and three years after, graduated 3 pupils, The limited appropriation made for its support, has impaired its efficiency by rendering it diffi- cult to secure the sendees of competent persons as instructors. The normal school at Tougaloo- is a part of the Tougaloo University, to which the American Missionary Association contributed gl 5,000. and the state SI 0,1)00. The faculty of the school consists of a principal, preceptress, 586 MISSISSIPPI UNIVERSITY MISSOURI and five teachers. Manual labor is a feature of the curriculum, each student being required to occupy himself one hour daily in this way In- struction is given principally in the English branches and mathematics. Facilities are also afforded for the study of vocal and instrumental music. There is a reference library of 1.000 volumes, and philosophical apparatus. Secondary Instruction. — The reports received from high schools and academies have been so ivw in number as to give very little ground on which to base an estimate of the work that is being done in this grade of instruction. Superior Instruction. — The chief institu- tions of this grade are enumerated in the follow- ing table: When ;ious NAME Location found- denomina- ed u ii Mississippi College, . . Clinton 1830 Bap. Pass i Iuim Lan i l J ass Christian 1866 K. C. Holly Springs 1868 Meth. 'i ings I-" 1 ii\ ersity.. Tougaloo L869 i nil in. t ni\ , of Mississippi . . Oxford 1814 Non-SQct. The report, for 1874, of the U. S. Bureau of Education mentions 7 colleges for the superior instruction of women, of which ii (including a commercial course); (2) sci- ence, literature, and the arts; (3) professional education. The second department includes five distinct courses of study, three of which are undergraduate parallel courses, two being post - graduate courses. The undergraduate courses are known as (1) The Course for Bachelor of Arts (4 yrs.) ; (2) The Course for Bachelor of Science (4 yrs.); (3) The Course for Bachelor of Philosophy (3 yrs.). A student has free choice of these coursi 8, but the studies prescribed for each course are all com- pulsory for that course. 'I he postgraduate courses are fur the degrees of Master of Arts and Doctor of Philosophy. Under the third general department are embraced three professional schools; namely. (1) law: (2) medicine and .surgery (not yet organized] ; (3) agriculture and the mechanic arts, in which the regular course is for four years, leading to the degree of belor ui Scientific Agriculture (B. S. A.). The cosl of tuition in the first general depart- ments is $25 a year; iii the law school, §50 a year. In L875- 6, there were 13 instructors and 131 students. The presiding officers have been as Follows: George F. Bolmes, LL. D. (president), 1848 — 9; the Rev. Augustus B. Longstreet, D. D., LL. D. (president), 1849— 56 ; the Rev. Frederick A. P.Barnard, D. D., LL.D., L856 — 9 as president, and 1859 — Gl as chan- cellor; the Rev. John N. WaddeLD.D., LL.D., (chancellor) L86£ 71 ; and Gen. Alexander P. Stewart, the present chancellor (1876), appointed in 1874. MISSISSIPPI COLLEGE, at Clinton, Miss., unilcr Baptist control, was chartered in 1830. It has libraries containing 3,000 volumes, and extensive apparatus and cabinets. Its pro- ductive funds amount to $50,000. The regular tuition lee is $25 a Mar. The college consists uta preparatory department, and the following six schools: (1) mental and moral science, (2) Greek, (3) Latin, (4) mathematics, (5) natural sciences, and (6) Knglish. Any student complet- ing the six schools is entitled to the degree of A. 15. ; those completing the schools of moral science, mathematics, natural sciences, and the English, to the degree of B. S.; those complet- ing the Bchools of mural science, Greek, Latin, and English, to the degree of B.L. In L873- t. there were 7 instructors and 1 •'>.'» students. The Rev. W. S. Webb, A. M.,is the president (1876). MISSOURI, one of the western states of the American Union, was originally a part of the Louisiana purchase of L803, and on the admis- sii f the state of Louisiana, in 1812, formed part of the MissOUri Territory. It was admitted MISSOURI 587 into the Union as a state, with its present limits, in 1821. Its area is 65,350 Bq. in. : and its popu- lation, in 1870, was l,721,295,of whom 1,603,146 were whites, 1 L8,071 colored persons, 75 Indians, and 3 Chinese. Educational History. — This subject will be considered under three heads: (I) The establish- ing of schools; (II) The mode of maintaining them; (III) The mode of supervising them. I. The first recorded school established in the present state of Missouri, was an academy in the town of Genevieve. There are no means of knowing when it was established; hut. in 1808, it was incorporated under a hoard of trustees, . the act of incorporation requiring, "that an insti- tution for the education of females shall he estab- lished by the trustees as soon as the funds of the academy will admit of it ; and that the trustees shall cause, at all times, the French and English languages to be taught in the said academy." In 1812, Congress, in erecting the territory of Mis- souri, made general provision for the cause of e lucation, which took practical shape shortly after in special grants of town lots and other lands to specially named communities, or school corporations; but the territorial government niah' no effort to establish a general system of public schools. It contented itself with extend- ing aii I, encouragement, and protection to all communities showing enterprise in this respect; but further than this it could not prudently go, owing to the numerical weakness of the popula- tion and its widely scattered character. An act was approved January 22., 1817, establishing "a ^ lottery for the benefit of Potosi Academy."' which institution consisted of two houses, built and in part furnished by the inhabitants of Washington county at Mine a Burton. On the 30th of Janu- ary, in the same year, an act to incorporate trustees of this academy was approved. The board was to consist of seven members. Two classes — junior and senior — -were established, the instruction given in the former being prepar- atory, that in the latter, "the English language, with such other languages and sciences as were usually taught in seminaries of learning." The name of the school had previously been Mine a Burton Academy. This is the first school men- tion.; 1 in the public records between 1812 and 1821). On the same day (January 30., 1817), an act was approved authorizing the commissioners of public buildings, in the town of Jackson, Cape Girardeau Co., to convey to five persons, named in the act, four acres of land on which to erect a school-house. They were permitted to dispose of a portion of this land, for the purpose of creating a building fund. ( >n the same day, an act to incorporate a board of trustees for the superintendence of schools in the town (now city) of St. Louis was approved. The board was lim- ited to thirteen members, and when incorporated, consisted of William ('lark, William C. Omit, Thomas II. Benton, Bernard Pratte, Auguste .Chouteau, Alexander McNair, and John I'. Cabanne — names ever after prominent in, and ■intimately associated with, the development and i history of St. I.ouis and the state. They were authorized to take and hold all real and personal property given to the schools by individuals or Congress, and to dispose of the same to advan- tage, by lease or sale. The establishment of these schools embraces the whole educational history of the eight years of territorial existence, so far as is indicated by the public records. Five years elapsed, after the formation of the state govern- ment, before any effort was made to establish a general and uniform system of public schools. Puring this period, the three academies already mentioned were re incorporated, with slighl modifications and improvements of the acts of incorporation, and several new ones were estab- lished. This closed the first period of the Mate's educational history; since, thereafter, the legis- lature pursued the policy of encouraging edu- cation by the establishment of a general system, and by the enactment of general instead of spe- cial laws. In the act of Congress. March, 1820, authorizing the people of Missouri Territory to form a constitution and state government, prop- ositions were offered providing for the establish- ment and support of common schools, which were accepted by the state and incorporated into the constitution, the first section of the sixth article of which reads, "Schools and the means of education shall forever be encouraged in this state; and the general assembly shall take meas- ures to preserve from waste or damage such lands as have been, or hereafter maybe, granted by the United States, for the use of schools within each township in the state, and shall apply the funds which may arise from such lands in strict con- formity to the object of the grant; one school or more shall be established in each township as soon as practicable and necessary, where the poor shall be taught gratis." Section 2d of the same article provided that the assembly should take measures for the improvement of such land as had been already, or might be thereafter, granted by the United States, the funds accruing from the rent or lease of which, together with all other funds given for the same purpose, were to constitute a permanent fund for the support of "a university for the promotion of literature and the arts anil sciences." The state was ad- mitted into the Union upon the terms of this constitution; and. hence, a general public-school system, of a high or a low grade, is one of her permanent institutions. The statutory provisions in relation to school lands and public education have been very numerous, being suggested from time to time by the condition of the rapidly growing state, and by the needs of its increas- ing population. In 1820, the legislature directed the several county courts to appoint five commis- sioners of school lands, to exercise a general supervision over the same, to rent or lease them, and to invest the proceeds, but without power to sell. In 1822, the act of 1820 was amended so as to require the appointment by the courts of two commissioners in each township, whose duly it should be to erect "a sufficient school-house for the benefit of education," whenever the funds 588 MISSOURI derived from the renting or leasing of the school lands were sufficient to justify it. In 1824, an act was passed by which ea< h township was con- stituted a school-district, and a board of five trustees was appointed in each, who were em- powered to "build or procure school-houses, and repair the same." "to appoinl teachers and visit- ors of schools, and to make rules for the govern- ment of the schools.'" All subsequent legislation in regard to tin' common schools consists of modi- fications of the law of L82 1. In 1835, there was a general revision of the statutes. Among them was a revised school law, reported by a commit- tee of three, appointed by the governor, "to form a system of common primary-school education as nearly uniform as possible throughout the State." By this, each congressional township constituted a school-district, in which three trustees were elected annually, who were empowered to build school houses, employ teachers, anil maintain schools si* months in the year, or throughout the year, if a majority of the patrons petitioned therefor. The constitution adopted in L865 con- tains still further provisions for the establishment of free s hools for all persons in the state between the ages of 5 and 21, and permits the establish- ment of separate schools lor children of African descent, requiring the distribution of all public- school moneys (not funds) in proportion to the number of children, without regard to color. Sec- tion 4. of the state constitution requires the legis- lature to establish and maintain a state univer- sity with departments for teaching "agriculture ami natural science," as soon as the public-school fund will permit. The school law was siill further amended, hut not materially, in L870, and again by the new constitution, adopted in convention, in 1ST;'). II. The earliest record of measures taken tor tdie maintenance of schools in Missouri extends back to the school incorporated in St. ( ieiievieve. in L808. The first means employed for creating a school revenue was by grants of land, in L812, already referred to. In L817, the income of the Mine a Burton Academy was increased by the election of seven trustees, each of whom was re- quired to pay SHI as a necessary qualification for the office, and by a fee of $5 previously paid by each elector voting for said trustees. When the people of Missouri applied, in I 820, for ad- mission into the Union, Congress, for the sake of providing for the establishment of schools. Bubmitted the following proposition : " that the section numbered In' in every township, and when such section has Keen sold or otherwise dis- posed of , other lands equivalent thereto, and as contiguous as may be, shall be granted to t he state for the use of the inhabitants of such township, for the use of schools"; that "thirty-six sections, or one entire township, which shall he designated by the President of the United States, together with the other lands heretofore reserved for that purpose, shall he reserved tot the use of a semi- nary of learning, and rested in the legislature of siid state. ti> he appropriated solely to the use of such seminar} bj the said legislature." This prop- osition was accepted, and embodied in the state constitution; and the same year five commis- sioners were appointed to nut or lease the school lands, and securely invest the proceeds. In 1824, similar measures were adopted, three commis- sioners being appointed in each township. They were authorized to assume control of and manage the school lands of the township, to "loan mon- eys," and "lease real estate." They could, also, on petition of two-thirds of the householders, lew and collect a special tax for the maintenance of the schools, or of those Sending pupils to them, when the public funds were insufficient. In 1831, an act was passed authorizing the sale of the saline lands given hv Congress to the state. In the same year, the sale of the 10th section WW directed by law. by an agent appointed by the county court of each county, when three-fourthg of the inhabitants of any township petitioned for such sale. The interest of the money thus de- rived was to be used for school purposes. The sale of the "seminary lands" — two entire town- ships — was. in L 832, directed by the legislature for not less than $2 per acre It is estimated that $400,000 was lost hv this sale alone; and that the losses by injudicious sales of other lands: belonging to the state, andby insecure investments of the proceeds, have amounted to a sum suili- cient to have supported the public schools of the state forever, exclusive of any local taxation. The revised school law of L835 empowered town- ship trustees to levy a s) ecial tax for the purp so of keeping the schools 0] en as long as a majority of the patrons desired, whenever two-thirds of the voters of the school-districts demanded A. These trustees, also, were required to subscribe si each to the school fund. The state constitu- tion, adopted in L865, established a permanent school fund. and provided forthe annual distribu- tion of the income of the same, together with so much of the annual revenues as might he necessary to maintain free schools three months in the year. These funds were to he invested in bonds of the United States. In case the public-school funds should prove insufficient to sustain free schools at least four months every year, power is given to increase the school revenue by local taxation. The genera] assembly, also, was required to re- duce all property in the state held tor school purposes into the public school fund, and in the annual distribution to equalize apportionments by a consideration of the amount of county or i its funds appropriated, 1 ] he constitution, adopted in 1876, does not materially alter the provisions of that of 1865; like that, it perpetuates the public-school fund, setting apart annua Is 25 per cent of the state revenue, exclusive of the in- terest and sinkiti": fund, for the support of the schools. It places in the county school fund the net proceeds of estrays, tines, forfeitures, and penalties; while the constitution of L865 placed this in the state school fund. All moneys paid for exempt ion from military duty, also, are placed in the county fund. The article on Revenue and Taxation in the new constitution limits taxation for school purposes to 10 cents on the S100, uti- MISSOURI 589 loss increased by a majority vote of the tax-payers. By-such vote, it may be increased, In cities and towns, to SI , ami. in country districts, to 65 cents. For building purposes, it can be still further in- creased. The permanent public-school funds of the state arc the following : Tim v te Fund, consisting of U. S.Reg'd 6 per cent bonds, U.S. (i per cent coupon bonds, Mo. 6 per cent coupon bonds, and Mo. ■> per cent certificates of indebted- ness (#900,000) $2,634,354.00 Seminary Fund (University), consisting of V . s. Reg'd. and coupon •', per cent bonds $108,700.00 Tomiship Funds $2,079,182.96 County Funds (including swamp land).. .$2,257,716.83 Township and county funds under the control of the county courts, may be invested in state or U. S. bonds, or loaned upon personal and real estate. It is an almost invariable custom to loan them. The proceeds, like the proceeds of the state fund, and 25 percent of the revenue, are annually distributed to the districts in which schools were taught the previous year for not less than three months, in the ratio of school population. III. For many years, the method of super- Vising the few schools and academies in the ter- ritory was by local trustees, specifically named for the purpose, or elected by the people. Their power, also, was very great, comprehending al- most all that is now divided among several grades of officers. Thus, the board appointed, in 1817, to supervise the schools of St. Louis, was authorized not only to establish schools, but to take and hold all real and personal property given to the schools by individuals cr by Con- gress, and to dispose of the same to advantage by lease or sale. In 1820, the division of duties first appears, county commissioners being then ap- pointed to manage the school lands; but, in 1824, the boards of trustees are again required to as- sume control of the school lands, in addition to their other duties, among which duties was that of appointing visitors to the schools. These visit- ors were nine in number in each district. They were required to visit the schools once in three months, to examine teachers, and to issue certifi- cates of qualification, without which no one was allowed to teach, and to exercise a general super- visory power. In 1835, the revised school law placed the supervision of the schools in the hands of three trustees annually elected for the purpose in each school-district, who reported to the county courts, the latter reporting biennially to the secretary of state. The first system of gener- al supervision of the schools was inaugu- rated at this time, the law constituting the governor, the auditor, the treasurer, and the at- torney-general, a state board of education. In 1853, an act was passed, requiring the election of a state superintendent. The constitution adopted in 1865, created a state board of educa- tion, to consist of the secretary of state, the at- torney-general, and the superintendent of public schools, the latter being chairman of the board and eligible for four years. In 1874, the school law was again changed, the general supervision of the schools remaining with the state board, and the immediate supervision with district directors. The state superintendents have been as follows: (1) Peter . Shannon, elected in November, 1874, and still in office (1876). School System. — The general control of the educational interests of the state is lodged with a state board of education, which consists of the secretary of state, the attorney-general, and the state superintendent. In addition to a super- visory power, it is charged with the duty of investing all moneys received by the state for educational purposes. The state superintendent is elected for four years, and is chairman of the state board. He has general jurisdiction over the whole school system, with power to compel all school officers to furnish him with any statis- tics or information respecting their trusts he may deem proper. In addition to the duties usually performed by this officer, he is required to estab- lish colored schools whenever the proper officers fail to do so. He makes an annual report to the legislature, or to the governor when the legislature is not in session. County commissioners — one in each county — are elected biennially, in April. Their duties are to examine teachers, grant certif- icates (graded, limited to one county, and valid for one or two years), and exercise a general supervision over the schools of the county. Dis- trict directors, three in number, are elected for three years, one being chosen annually. They are required to examine into, and report upon, the condition of the schools, to purchase the nec- essary apparatus and furniture, to employ teach- ers, and to make all regulations requisite forthe proper organization and management of the schools. They may levy a tax, when neces- sary for the maintenance of the schools, at a rate not exceeding one per cent of the taxable proper- ty of the district, for teachers' salaries ; and not exceeding the same rate, for buildings and inci- dental purposes ; but no tax can be levied for the continuance of the schools for more than four months in the year, except by a majority vote of 590 MISSOURI the district at the annual meeting. The school system is divided into departments as follows : (1) the university, supported by a distinct fund and Legislative appropriations; (2) normal schools, supported by permanent legislative appropria- tions of $10,000 each; (3) schoolsin -cities, towns, and villages,'' under the general law of 1870 for their organization. These schools have boards of education, witli special privileges, each consisting of six members, two of whom are elected annual- ly in September. The schools must be taught not less than '■'>", nor more than 40, weeks each year; (4) schools in cities having special school char- ters, which charters confer almost unlimited powers in all matters pertaining to their school interests; (5) general district public schools ; and (6) colored schools, specially provided for; those belonging to the classes marked above (3), (4), (")), and (6) being supported by the state public- school fund and local taxation. " Central schools" may be established by the union of two or more districts for that purpose. These are graded schools kept for six months, or longer, if the dis- tricts interested so vote. They are controlled by boards — composed of the presidents of the boards of these districts — and by the districts themselves, to about the same extent that the district schools are managed by their boards. The tax for the maintenance of the colored schools is levied on the taxable property of the townships in which the schools are located. To these schools, persons over 21 years of age are admitted. The school month consists of I weeks of ."> days each: and the school day, of (i hours. The legal school age is from •"> to 21 years. A meeting of the pres- idents of the various boards of directors, with the county commissioners, is held at every county seat once in t years, to secure uniformity in text-books. Appropriations from any public fund in aid of sectarian instruction are strictly prohibited. Educational Condition. The estimated num- ber of school-districts, in ls7">. was 7,932; the number of public schools, lor whites, 7,061 ; for colored persons, 326; the number of private schools, 661, in which there were enrolled 33,525 pupils. The support of the schools was derived from the following sources: From public funds (state, county, and township) 8857,785 From taxation $'2.1 ">■'». v in Total *:s,oi:i,a!»5 Expenditures. For salaries, buildings, rent, etc $1,638,353 School Statistics. Number of persons of school age 1 5 21): Whites 678,270 Colored 41,016 T..tal 720,186 Niunli'T enrolled in public BChOOls: Whites 379,948 Colored ■ ■ ■ .14,832 Total 394,780 Average daily attendance 192,904 Number of teachers, males 5,904 " " females 3.747 Total 9,651 The average monthly wages of teachers, males, $38.00 " " " " females, $29.50 Normal Instruction. — There are four normal schools under the control of the state, and one at St. Louis, the latter intended principally for supplying teachers to the schools of the city. This school has recently been made more useful by the addition of a model department. The course is for two years, and instruction is given, during the first year, in the higher branches, the second being devoted to review, with special reference to the methods of teaching. Pupils of tlii' high school are admitted to the nor- mal school without examination. In 1874 — 5, the total enrollment was 254. The ITuilland Normal Institute, at Jackson, was organized in 1864. It reported, in 1874, 3 resident and 2 non-res- ident instructors, 53 male. and 21 female students. Three years constitute the school course. The North Mo. State Normal School, at Kirksville, was organized for the purpose of fitting teachers for the country district schools. The qualifica- tions for admission are those necessary to secure a teachers' certificate of the lowest grade. In I 875, the number of instructors was 9 ; number of students, 709 : number of graduates. 72. The South Mo. State Normal School, at Warrensburg, pro\ ides three courses of study, — an elementary, an advanced, and a professional. Two terms, or twenty weeks, are necessary to complete the course of study. Some embarrassment has been occasioned to the institution from lack of funds. It reported, in L875, 11 instructors, and 1(1^ stu- dents. 'Idle South-east Mo. State Normal School, at Cape Girardeau, was opened in InT.'J. with 35 students. In 1875, it had 5 instructors and 1(14 students. Each of the state normal schools is un- der the care of a state board of regents. Lincoln Institute, at Jefferson City, was organized in L866,forthe instruction of colored teachers. It is supported by a permanent state appropriation of s-.'.iKKt. and by private subscriptions. It is divided into a primary and a normal department, and, in L874, had i'' instructors and -1(1 students. Its graduates, according to the report of the state superintendent, for 1875, are teaching colored schools in a large number of counties, and arc giving genera] satisfaction. Teachers' Institutes. — The practice of holding teachers' institutes was. in 1875, comparatively i abandoned, the law not requiring them except; in counties which employ the whole time of the coi issioner, and there being only one (Jasper) in which this is the ease. Probably not o\er 20 institutes were held during the year. Efforts, however, are to be made to increase the number and efficiency of the institutes. Secondary Instruction. The question of the supporl of high schools by the state has been raised in Missouri, as it was in Michigan, and Superintendent Motiteith. in L873, in discuss- ing this question, expressed the opinion, that, though their existence is the logical result of the establishment of a public-school Bystem and a state university, ye1 as the need of them is local, their establishment should rest with the local school boards, and their support be derived from local taxation. There are several business col- ■, MISSOIK1 MODKRN LANGUAGES 591 leges, situated in various parts of the state, lint chiefly in St. Louis, 8 of which, in 1874, reported bo the I • S. Bureau of Education, 48 teachers and ti.<>77 pupils. Their courses of study range bom three months to I years. Superior Instruction. -The universities, col- leges, and institutions for higher education are enumerated in the following tablt When Religious NAME Location found- ■luna- ed tion lsTl M E S Christum University. . . i anton 1856 Christian College of the Christian 1859 R. C. Springfield Hannibal 1873 Hannibal College 1868 W. E. S. Lewis College ( Uasgow 1865 Iff. Epis. Lincoln College Greenwood 1870 M. Epis. IfcOee College i '.'11. Jlmmd 1853 U. Pivsb. 31 Ibseph 1867 Cumb.Pr. St. Louis University. . . . St. Louis 1832 R. C. St. Paul's College Palmyra 1844 Prot. Ep. St. Vineeut's College i '. i m-anlcau 1*44 B. C. Washington University. St. Louis 1857 Non-sect. Westminster College... Fulton 185'2 Presb. William Jewell College . Liberty 1853 Bap. Independence 1S69 Christian Besides these institutions, there are 11 acad- emies and colleges for the higher education of women, 9 of which, in 1874, reported 97 in- structors and 1,136 students. Professional and Scientific Instruction. — Many of the colleges and imiversities furnish opportunities for professional and scientific in- struction, but special schools have been established for the same purpose in many places. Of these, the principal are the Vardeman School of Theol- ogy, at Liberty; the Kansas City College of physicians ami surgeons ; the Missouri Medical College, the St. Louis Medical College, the Homoeopathic Medical College of Missouri, the Missouri Dental College, and the College of Pharmacy — the last five, at St. Louis. Special Instruction. — The Missouri Asylum for the Education of the Deaf and Dumb was organized at Fulton, in 1851. It is supported by state appropriations, which have not been large enough, thus far, to admit of giving instruction in the trades — a prominent feature in several other institutions of the kind. Board and tuition for all deaf and dumb persons between the ages of 7 and .'!(> years are furnished Jive of cost, but it is estimate!! that onlyabout one half the persons so afflicted in the state can be accommodated. There were 8 instructors, in 1874, and 153 pupils — 75 males, and 78 females. Besides this, there is an- other institution (St. Bridget's institute), founded in St. Louis, in 1 800, for the same purpose. The Missouri Institution for the Education of the Blind was opened in St. Louis, in 1 851 . It receives from the state an annual appropriation of about 82 1 ,000. In addition to the branches of an ordinary education, instruction is given in music, and the pupils are taught some kind of industrial or mechanical occupation. .V normal class has also been formed, for the purpose of fitting some of the more advanced pupils to teach in the pub- lic schools. There were, in 1874,27 instructors and employes of all kinds, and 93 pupils. Educational Journals. — There are several journals either wholly or partly educational published in the stale, among which may be specially mentioned The Western, a monthly published at St. Louis, and now in its eleventh year; and the American Journal if Education, a monthly, also published at St. Louis, and at present in its ninth year. These journals are well conducted, and have exerted an important influence in advancing the cause of education in the state. MISSOURI, University of the State of, at Columbia, Mo., was chartered in 1839, and organized in L840, receiving the proceeds of the lands granted by Congress to the state for the support of a seminary of learning. In 1870, it was awarded the benefit of the congressional land grant for the establishment of a college of agriculture and the mechanic arts. During the civil war, the university was partially suspended; but after its close, it was re-organized, and it now consists (besides the preparatory department) of (1) the College proper, with courses in arts, sci- ence, letters, and philosophy, and of the following professional schools: (II) The Normal, or College of Instruction in Teaching, opened in 1868; (III) The Agricultural and Mechanical College, 1870 ; (IV) The School of Mines and Metallurgy (at Rolla), 1871 ; (V) The College of Law. 1872 ; (VI) The Medical College, 1873; (VII) The Department of Analytical and Applied Chem- istry, 1873. Both sexes are admitted to all the departments. The university has appropriate buildings, all necessary apparatus, and an ex- tensive farm. The libraries contain about 8,500 volumes. The income of the institution (from endowment and state appropriations) is $68,467 per annum. The charges to students who are residents of Missouri, cannot exceed $20 a year. The school of mines and metallurgy has exten- sive and valuable lands in the mining district in the south-eastern part of the state. In 1875 — 6, there were, in all the departments of the university, 29 instructors and 391 students. The presidents have been as follows : John H. La- throp, LL. D., 1840 — 50 ; .Tames Shannon, LL. D., 1850—5li ; WAV. Hudson. A. M.. Is5(i_ 7 ; B. B. Minor 1 858—60 ; and Daniel Read, LL. D., the present incumbent, appointed in L866. MNEMONICS. See Memory. MODEL SCHOOLS. See Normal Schools. MODERN LANGUAGES, in the literal ami widest sense of t lie term. are the languages DOW in use. in contradistinction to those which were formerly spoken, but are now extinct. Taken in this sense, the term embraces the mother-tongue, in which the home education of the child is con- ducted, the national or ruling language of the country, which is the medium of instruction in the schools, and the living languages of foreign nations. It is the general tendency of the age, to make a thorough knowledge of the national language the center and the chief aim of all school instruction ; though it has been demanded, from an educational point of view, that wher- ever the mother-tongue of a large portion of the 59'J MODERN LANG T AGES hihabitantB of a country is different from that of the national language, the claims of the mother- tongue should not he ignored. When the modern languages are spoken of as a hranehof school in- struction, they are, however, generally understood in the sense of the languages of foreign nations. The admission of modern foreign languages into a regular course of instruction isof comparative- ly remit date, and the credit of having first <>1, tained tin's recognition belongs to the French language (q. v.). Until very recently, French has enjoyed, in this respect, an acknowledged superiority over any other language of the globe; and it is but recently that English and German have to any considerable extent begun to com- pete with it. At present, French, English, and German are studied a.11 over the world, as the chief representatives of modern culture. The Italian language (q. v.) is learned by many of the students of line arts and of music in preference to any of the three principal modern languages; but more in courses of private instruction than in schools. It is, however, chiefly in the second- ary schools, that the study of modern languages has dow been generally admitted. There are but few colleges, gymnasia, lyceums, Latin schools, real schools, academies, seminaries, or boarding- schools which do not provide for instruction in one or two of the modern languages. The adop- tion of more than two modem languages, in a regular course of studies, is met with in only a few cases, and finds but few advocates. Scientific and real schools (or departments). especially the latter, Cultivate the modern languages, frequently to tl Kclusion of the classical; but even classical schools have now quite generally opened their gates to the at first unwelcome rival. — In the highest institutions of learning, such as the Euro- pean universities, the modern languages are still far from occupying a position of equality with the classical, or even some of the oriental lan- guages. In England, Oxford and Cambridge had, in 1875, professorships of Latin, Greek, Hebrew, Arabic, and Sanskrit: Oxford, also of Anglo- Saxon and comparative philology, but not of either French or German. In the 21 universities of ' rermany (including the academy of M iinster), classical philologists had, in 1874, the oppor- tunity to attend l.'U courses of lectures, which occupied an aggregate of 100 hours weekly. Besides, tin- exercises in the philological seminaries occupied I2h hours, making a total of 528 hours. Of the professors teaching the classical languages. fi4 were ordinary, I C> extraordinary, besides 1 1 /l. To the oriental languages, .'{.'ill hours were devoted; but to French and English, only 172 horns. The German govern- ments show, however, a readiness to reconsider the claim of modem languages to a better repre- sentation; and a Dumber of new chairs were, therefore, created during the years |s7."> and 1876. In regard to the lowest classes and schools in which the study of nioclern languages nicy advantageously be admitted, there is a variety of opinion at present iii school legislation, and among educational writers. It is evident that, in this respect, a marked difference exists between those localities where only one language is spoken, and those where two or more languages arc in the daily use of large portions of the people. In the latter case, the language which is spoken by a large portion of the children who attend school, is by many not regarded in the light of a foreign language; and school regulations for giving instruction in it are often different from those for the teaching of languages to- tally foreign. The latter, according to the opinion of most educators, should not be begun too early. It is. however, on the other hand, urged that the pronunciation of a foreign lan- guage is best learned at a time when the organs of speech are still flexible, and that a good pro- nunciation of a foreign tongue is rarely acquired except by those who learn it in childhood. — The French language had been long and exten- sively studied in other European countries before it was, in the 1 7th century, introduced in some of the German schools as a part of the regular course of studies. Toward the close of the 1 - 1 1 1 century, the German real schools made the superior advantages of the study of French, in comparison with the classical languages, a main issue of their war against I he classical schools; and. from that time, the admission of blench into the schools of other countries has been rapid and extensive. In Prussia, the efforts made to secure to the French language a prominent place in the course of instruction were so successful, that the Prussian government became alarmed, and, in 181(i, excluded it altogether from public instruc- tion. A rescript of 18."i7 re-admitted it. how- e\er, "out of regard for its usefulness for practical life." That, from the stand-point of practical usefulness, modern languages, as a branch of instruction, have an advantage over the classical, is now scarcely disputed. French. English, and German bring the student into living contact with the great standard-bearers of modern civ- ilization, and thus afford, in many cases, mental enjoyments, material and business advantages. and impulses to esthetic culture, which classical studies obviously cannot afford.- Being the keys to the three great literatures of the world, the En- glish. German, and French languages, as branches of instruction, have challenged a comparison with the Latin and the ("J reek. Here also it will be readily and generally admitted, that modem literatures contain a vast amount of information unknown to the ancients; and that, viewing their contents as a whole, they are. in many respects, vastly superior to the liter- atures of the ancient world. Classical scholars, in fact, are among the first to recognize the gnat value of modern literatures; and there are few among them who cannot read the three great modern languages, at least, as fluently as the two classical. The contest has been narrow, d down to the question whether Latin and Greek classics, as literary master-works, and in view of the superior advantages claimed for the langu;e themselves, still afford such advantages for de- veloping the mental faculties as to recommend MODERN LANGUAGES 693 their retention in every course of studies. (See Classical Studies.) Upon the held of comparative linguistics, the superior value of the richly inflected Latin and Greek by the side of the less inflected German and the mutilated Kurdish and French, is not likely to be ever disputed. But since the labors of Bopp, Grimm, and their numerous followers, have opened an insight into the degree of kin- ship existing between the prominent languages of the present and former times, the question has been toned upon the attention of gram- marians, how far a comparison of kindred lan- guages may, even at an early stage of instruc- tion, elucidate the structure of the native tongue, and thus be made serviceable in giving to the youthful scholar a better command even of his native speech than otherwise would be attain- able. The elucidative power which belongs to comparison, in grammar no less than in other branches of instruction, cannot be disputed; though the precise point of time when, and the manner in which, it may be put to use in the course of instruction, still remain open ques- tions. It will be seen, however, that the degree of usefulness which may be attributed, from this point of view, to one particular language, is by no means commensurate with the advantages which the same language may afford as the key to the superior civilization or the rich literature of one of the great nations of the globe. It will, on the contrary, be chiefly dependent on the relationship existing between the language to D studied and the language of the student. In a .French school, the Latin, Italian, and Spanish languages will, in this respect, be of more use than English or German; in German schools, the English will be more important than French or Latin; and in English schools, the German more than Latin or French. Since modern languages have come to be studied on a much more extended scale than the classical, a great variety of methods have been proposed. The authors of some of these methods are by no means distinguished for modesty, and do not hesitate to declare all former modes of in- struction absolutely useless, as having been wholly superseded by their own. In most cases, they have wholly forgotten that the method of teach- ing and learning a modern language must, to a very great extent, be dependent upon the pur- pose for which it is learned. If the student chiefly aims to acquire the ability to express his thoughts in the language of another person belonging to a foreign nation, the methods which make con- versation the basis of instruction will justly com- mend themselves to the attention of the in- structor. When a foreign language is learned as a means of understanding the literature of a particular nation, an early knowledge of the inflectional part of the language, of all its pecu- liarities in etymology and syntax, and of its vocabulary, will be felt as an urgent want ; and grammar lessons connected with translating exer- cises, will form the chief means of instruction. In the combination of grammar and translation, 38 every possible method has been tried: the strictly synthetical, which starts from the parts of speech, and teaches them singly, before proceeding to a regular system of translations: the strictly analytical, which begins with the analysis of foreign sentences, and from them, by degrees, derives the knowledge of grammatical forms; and the synthetico-analytical.oranalylico synthetical, which, from the first, endeavors to combine in- struction in the grammatical structure with practice in using the foreign language. ( )f these, the former may be said to have been almost entirely abandoned, the latter being the one generally preferred in schools. In regard to the arrangement of the grammatical rules, an in- finite variety may be observed in the numerous grammars of modern languages. It was espe- cially Mager (q. v.), one of the most ingenious writers on the subject of language, who attacked the traditional order of article, noun, adjective. pronoun, and verb, and demanded the first place for the verb, so as to be able to begin with whole sentences, that is, with a complete thought. In regard to translating exercises, in- structors generally • agree in introducing their students as soon as practicable to the reading of standard writers in the foreign language. The shortness of time allowed for the study of foreign languages will recommend the use of a good reading-book in order to familiarize the student with the peculiar style of several writers. It is not possible in this article to attempt an enumeration or a criticism of the different meth- ods which have been specially proposed for teach- ing modern languages. Among those whose sys- tems have obtained any general reputation or acceptance, may be mentioned Aim, Jacotot. Hamilton, Mager, Ollendorff, and Robertson. Ahn's and Ollendorff's methods have had numerous imitations, of very unequal value, and have been applied to nearly all the living languages of Europe, and even to Latin and Greek. Of the elementary books based on Ahn's method, P. Ilenn's Rudiments of the German Language (4 parts, New York), written with a special view to the requirements of the public schools in the United States, and, in particular, in the city of New York, has deservedly gained very great popularity. Among recent attempts to teach living languages "without grammar or dictionary," solely by means of conversation, that by Heness {Introduction to the Leitfaden; a Guide for In- struction in German without Grammar or Dictionary, Boston, 1874) has attracted the at- tention and won the approval of many eminent scholars. Prendergast's The Mattery of Lan- guages (London, 1872) is a new effort to introduce the pupil to a practical knowledge of language in an analytical way, by proceeding from sentences committed to memory and learning the inflec- tional forms from their position in sentences. Whitney's Compendious German Grammar ( New York, 1869), to a higher degree than any former English grammar of a foreign language, embodies the results of comparative grammar, and directs special attention to the points of '594 MONITORIAL SYSTEM correspondence between English and German. It need hardly be added that the study of modern languages, and especially that of their pronun- ciation, should be pursued, whenever it is pos- sible, under the guidance of an intelligent pro- fessional teacher. Among the attempts to teach these languages without the aid of a teacher, the method proposed by Toussaint and Langen- scheidt has received the best recommendation, the special articles on French, German, Italian, Spanish.) See also Whitney, Language and ike Study of Language (1867); and Life and <; ' rmrth of Language (New York, 1875) ; Quick, Firxt S/i'ps in Ti'tirhhig a Foreign Language (London. isT")); Maucei,, Study of Languages (New York, L874) ; Schmitz, Encychpadie des philologischen Studiums der neueren Spracken (2d id.. Leips.,1875 ; 4 parts and 3 supplements); Pfalz,' JJeber den Bildungswertk der fremden Spracken im Schidunterricht (Fx'ips., 1875) ; Mager, Ueber (I*,* Unterricht in fremden Spra- cken (Essen, 1S38). A periodical specially de- voted to the study of modern languages is the ArcJiivf&r das Studium der neueren Spracken by Herrig (2 vols., in 1 parts annually, 55th and 56th vols., 1876.). MONITORIAL SYSTEM, sometimes ca lied the Madras system, because it was introduced into England from Madras, by Andrew Bell; also the Lancasterian system, after one of its most enthusiastic advocates, Joseph Lancaster. It is, moreover, often designated the system of mutual instruction, because conducted on the principle of requiring the pupils of a school to teach eaeii olher. The name monitorial instruc- tion is derived from the circumstance that the pupil teachers employed to carry on the system were called monitors. — This plan of teaching is very old; bul whether Bell or Lancaster deserves the merit of first introducing it into EGurope, has been warmly disputed. (See Bei.l, and Lan- caster.) By means of the efforts and publical of these ardent philanthropists, the system mel with a rapid and extensive adoption both in Europe and America. Inthecityof NewYork, free schools were organized upon this plan, which continued to lie the prevailing method <>t organ- ization and instruction in the public schools of that city tor nearly fifty years. In Philadelphia and other large cities of the Union, it was also employed; in Boston, i1 was soon pronounced a failure, and abandoned. The 25th Beporl (1830) of the liiitish and Foreign School Society (Lan- casterian) stated thai measures had been taken b\ the governments of Belgium,] 'en mark. Sweden, Norway, and Russia, to introduce the system ; that more than 30 monitorial schools had been for a ■ time in operation in Tuscany; and thai the duke of Lucca had also caused several of Buch schools to be established; thai even the governmenl of Naples had opened 20 of these schools in Sicily, and designed to establish one in each parish. The reporl also stated that the society had constantly a number of prisons in training as teachers, and at the previous anni iry. had under its cue 20 Arab youths, sent to England for education by the Pacha of Egypt. The rivalry that had existed for years between this society and the National School Society, which favored Bell's system. increased the efforts of both. In the American Annals of Education (1831), it was stated that, in Denmark, 2,000 monitorial schools were established in the course of four years; in Sweden, there were 1,800 of such schools, in many of which music, linear drawing, and gymnastics were taught. The system had also been introduced into France. Spain, and Sardinia. 'J he French Society for the Promotion of Education sent books and tables of the system to the principal countries of South Amerii a and to liayti. and oj em d schools at St. Louis and Senegal, in Africa, which were attended by the native chiefs. There were, also, numerous schools in ( 'ape Colony, Madagascar, and the l'a-t Indies, both continental and insular. The system was also said to have been adopted in one of the first classical schools of Paris, and in the High School of Edinburgh. — The opinions entertained of the advantages of this system were at first very extravagant. Dr. Bell said, "The system has no parallel in scholastic history. In a school, it gives to the master the hundred eyes of Argus, the hundred hands of Briareus, and the wings of Mercury. By multiplying bis ministers at pleasure, it gives him indefinite powers ; in other words, it enables him to instruct as many pupils as his school room "will contain." '1 his principle was carried into effect by Lancaster, whose school had L,000 pupils, he being the only adult teacher. "Crowds", says Donaldson [Lect- ures on Education, 1874), "flocked to see this performance : one master with a thousand schol- ars. It seemed to solve the question of educa- tion." De Witt Clinton, in New York, expressed the most unbounded admiration for this system as an instrument for educating large masses of children. But not only as a means of teaching i numbers was it commended. The system of mutual instruction was thoroughly discussed at a meeting of the American Lyceum held in New York, in 1836 : and. while the New England meml med to condemn il as unsatisfactory andd ,o1 hersgave it their unqualified ap- proval. -'It '.said S. W. Scion, the public-school : of New York u'ly. "I had a School of twenty, nay of ten, I would make otic teach another. If I had but three. I would make two of them monitors."- This system, when carried into operation by a master of energy and tact, was showy and attractive: and. doubtless, was an effective instrument in giving an elementary education to many thousands of children ; thai is, in teaching them to read, write, and cipher;' but. as remarked by Donaldson, it "ignored alto- gether the tact that the work of the leaeher is to evolve the powers of the mind, and that for this work a wise and cultivated mind is required." The arguments advanced in its favor were (I) that it provided for the tuition of a far greater number of pupils than could be taught by the ordinary method of managing an ungraded school, in which only one teacher was employed; MONMOUTH COLLEGE MONTAIGNE 595 (2) that tin's w.is accomplished by an economy of the time and labor of the teacher; (3) thai it kepi every pupil of the school constantly employed ; (■I) that the monitors, nr pupil teachers, were benefited by giving instruction to their fellow pupils; (5) that, as children learn, by a kind of natural sympathy, from each other, the pupils made rapid progress. These principles, without doubt, arc sound to a certain limited extent, and under circumstances which prevented a thor- oughly organized system of instruction by compe- tent teachers. The monitorial system required very remarkable ability in the master — such an ability as few could be found to possess. The monitors required a special training; and the whole school, when thus conducted, needed a peculiarly efficient discipline, and an adroit man- agement, to prevent it from degenerating into the most chaotic condition : and this was often the case. That the system was an expedient, and a very useful one, is obvious. That it is applicable to the condition of a large ungraded school under a single teacher, is also indisputable. "When", said a writer in the American Annals of Edu- cation (1831), in a despairing tone, "will our common and primary schools be so divided into different departments in regard to age and studies, and so furnished with a competent sup- ply of assistant teachers, as to keep each pupil, during school hours, cheerfully and industriously employed?" The impossibility of obtaining the means for such an organization, led to the adoption of the monitorial system; but, wdierever, at the present time, as in the large cities of the United States, such means are afforded, mutual instruction is found not to have even a modified existence ; indeed, the reaction against it has been so strong, that, for years, it has not only made no progress anywhere, but has been very generallv abandoned. MONMOUTH COLLEGE, at Monmouth, 111., chartered in 1857, is under United Presby- terian control. It has a fine college building, a library of about 2,000 volumes, a cabinet, and extensive philosophical and chemical apparatus. Besides the collegiate department, with a clas- sical and a scientific course, there is a prepara- tory school, a grammar and high school, and a normal course, and a musical and an art depart- ment. Both sexes are admitted. The tuition fee in the collegiate department is $30 a year. In 1875 — 6, there were Id instructors, and .'IDT students, of whom 200 (128 classical and 72 scientific) were in the collegiate department. The Rev. David A. Wallace, D.D.,LL.D., is (1870) the president. MONTAIGNE, Michel, Seigneur de, a celebrated French essayist, born at the chateau of Montaigne, in Perigord, in 1533 ; and died there September 13., 1592. His father, having ideas on the subject of education far in advance of his age, provided for his son a German tutor, who, knowing nothing of French, conversed with him entirely in Latin, so that the young Montaigne spoke that language with ease at the age of six. He graduated at the College of Guienne, in Bordeaux, and studied law; but, being possessed of ample means, and having no inclination for public life, he retired to his castle at Montaigne, where he wrote his famous essays. The subjeel of education is touched upon incidentally all through the works of this writer: but his conclusions are nearly all condensed into one remarkable essay, addressed to the Countess of Gurson, and entitled Of (In- "Education of Chil- dren. Many of the principles there announced were afterwards amplified by John I ocke. In this essay, a scheme of education is laid down for a young gentleman of quality, which is, in nearly every essential respect, in accordance with our most advanced modern ideas. The subject isconsideied in its various branches, physical, intellectual, and moral. 'I lie dominant idea throughout, is the modern one. derived from the etymology of the word education, i. e.,