1 >* V V- ' 
 
 
 
 < \ 
 
-Y' 
 
 - ~r 
 
 \ 
 



THE 
 
 CYCLOPEDIA OF EDUCATION. 
 
THE 
 
 CYCLOPEDIA OF EDUCATION: 
 
 A 
 
 DICTIONARY OF INFORMATION 
 
 Knit Til i: USE OK 
 
 TEACHERS, SCHOOL OFFICERS, PARENTS, AND OTHERS. 
 
 EDITED BY 
 
 HENRY KIDDLE, 
 
 Superintendent of Public Schools, New York City, 
 
 AND 
 
 ALEXANDER J. SCHEM, 
 
 Assistant Superintendent of Public Schools, New York City. 
 
 Third Edition. 
 
 WITH Ari'KNDIX. 
 
 * a .» © * ■ 
 
 . 
 
 NEW YORK.: K STEIGER & CO. 
 
 LONDON: SAMPSON LOW & CO. 
 
 1883, 
 
 f *f* OP THE 
 
 [UKIVER3IT7] 
 
Ccpyright, 1870, By E. Steioer. 
 
 I'rc-is of 
 E. Stkiubu. N. Y. 
 
- 
 
 4/; J 
 
 P R T. F A E. 
 
 The work here offered to the public is the first cyclopaedia of education in the English 
 language, although the need of such a work has long been felt. Cyclopaedias, both general and 
 special, are rapidly increasing in number, not only in countries in which the English language is 
 spoken, but wherever, under the influence of advancing civilization, literature flourishes, and the 
 cultivation of science and art has enlarged the boundaries of human knowledge. Information 
 scattered through a multitude of volumes is usually inaccessible to those by whom it is most 
 needed : and. consequently, the most important results of study and research are often of no avail 
 to those whose special office it is to apply them to a practical purpose. Hence, the need of works 
 that present in a condensed form, and so as readily to be referred to, all the important facts in the 
 various departments of human knowledge; and, consequently, we find that it is fast becoming the 
 habit of the educated classes every-where to consult such works. Tn view of the large number of 
 special cyclopedias in other departments of knowledge, and more especially of the excellent cyclo- 
 paedias of education which Germany has possessed for many years, it is quite surprising that a branch 
 of knowledge so extensively valued and studied as education, should have continued, in this country 
 and in England, for so long a time without its special cyclopaedia. Accordingly, the first announce- 
 ment of this work was, on all sides, greeted with the most earnest expressions of approbation and 
 welcome. 
 
 The value of a work of this kind mast, of course, depend on the plan which forms its ground- 
 work, and the accuracy and fullness with which the plan is carried out. To both of these points 
 the editors have given their undeviating attention, striving to leave nothing to be desired in 
 either respect. 
 
 The plan of the work has been constructed after a careful examination, not only of all the 
 cyclopedias and general histories of education which have thus far appeared, but of the principal 
 cyclopaedias, both general and special, which have been published in English or in other 
 languages. Of course, the editors did not contemplate, for a moment, the task of undertaking a 
 work of the magnitude of Schmid's great German encyclopaedia of education, which was com- 
 menced in 1S5T, and of which the last (11th) volume is not yet completed, although a revised and 
 enlarged edition has already been issued of the first volume. Their design was to prepare 
 a work which, while comprehensive and complete within its scope, would be of moderate 
 size, and would be completed within a reasonable time — a work which, while useful to all. would, 
 like the dictionary, be upon every teacher's desk, to be consulted whenever occasion might require, 
 thus affording information and practical aid at every exigency of his daily labors. Such a work, 
 it was thought, would not only supply valuable information, but would stimulate the study of 
 pedagogy, still very widely neglected because of the want of a brief but comprehensive embodiment 
 of the whole subject. 
 
 In accordance with these views, the editors now present, a little more than two years after the 
 first announcement of the work, a single volume of nearly 900 pages, in which they have endeavored 
 to treat, in alphabetical order, of all the subjects, which they have deemed to come within the 
 limits of their plan, embracing the following general topics : (1) Theory of Education and In- 
 struction (pedagogy and didactics), including a consideration of the principles of education, in each of 
 its departments, with practical suggestions as to the best methods of applying them, both in training 
 and instruction. In this connection, it will be found that every subject ordinarily embraced in the 
 school or college curriculum has been carefully treated in its relation to practical education, 
 special attention having been given to tli" department of language, both the classical and the im- 
 portant modern languages being separately considered. (2) Sckool Economy, including the organ- 
 
II 
 
 ization and management of schools, also discipline and class teaching. (3) The Administration of 
 Schools and School Systems — embracing supervision, examinations, school hygiene, school architect- 
 ure, co-education of the sexes, etc. (4) Governmental Policy in regard to Education — including 
 such subjects as state education, compulsory attendance laws, the secular and denominational 
 systems, etc. (5) The History of Education, giving an account of the most noted plans and 
 methods of instruction and school organization that have been proposed, or that are now in vogue, 
 as well as the history of the school system of every state and territory in the Union, and of every 
 important country in the world. Much of the matter under this section is entirely new, and will 
 be found to be of great interest. (6) Biographical Sketches of distinguished educationists, 
 educators, and others who have been celebrated for their efforts as promoters or benefactors of 
 educational progress or enterprise. (7) Statistical and other information in regard to (a) schools 
 and other institutions of learning of different countries, states, cities (in the United States, of those 
 having a population of 100,000 and upward), and religious denominations (the latter treated with 
 considerable fullness) ; (b) different kinds of schools, as public schools, private schools, parochial 
 schools, academies and high schools, kindergartens, colleges and universities. Every important 
 college or university in the United States has been described in a separate article ; and special 
 articles also inserted on the great universities in England, the latter articles having been written 
 in that country. Considerable care has also been taken to show what has been done, during the 
 last few years, for female education, and more particularly for the higher education of women 
 (especially in this country and in Great Britain). (8) Educational Literature, which is constantly 
 brought to the notice of the reader in connection with the various articles. As the immense mass 
 of material to be condensed within the compass of a single volume has necessitated the greatest 
 possible brevity, references are made throughout to standard works on educational science, as well 
 as to statistical works affording more detailed information. It is believed that this will prove one 
 of the most valuable features of the work. (9) The main work is followed by an Analytical 
 Index, in which reference is made to the principal topics of all the longer articles, as well as to 
 the pages on which the more important subjects are treated incidentally. 
 
 Of course, the editors of a cyclopaedia cannot be expected to carry out their plan without 
 the support of an adequate corps of able contributors. However extensive their own information 
 may be in relation to the general subject, there must always be many topics to the details of which 
 specialists have devoted a much more minute study, and of which, therefore, their knowlege must 
 be more comprehensive and exact. The list of special contributors which follows this preface will 
 show to what extent the editors have succeeded in securing the co-operation of distinguished 
 educators and writers in the preparation of this work. Most of the names presented will be at 
 once recognized as those of persons of well-established reputation for successful experience in 
 their respective spheres of effort. The editors deem themselves singularly fortunate in securing to 
 so large an extent the aid and co-operation of the state and city superintendents throughout this 
 country, the articles on the school systems having been prepared by them or under their direction, 
 or compiled from the latest and most accurate information officially supplied by them. The 
 articles on the different classes of professional, scientific, and denominational schools and colleges 
 have, in the main, been written by persons professionally conversant with those institutions, 
 and thus afford an amount and kind of information very difficult to obtain, but often of great 
 value to students and educators. 
 
 It is proper to say that the announcement of this work has met with a most earnest and 
 encouraging response from educators in Great Britain, and that the editors have received most 
 prompt and valuable assistance, as well as cordial co-operation, from that source, so as to enable 
 them to carry out their intention to make the usefulness of the Cycto/xrtlia co-extensive with the 
 English-speaking race. It is. however, a cause of deep regret to the editors that a long illness, 
 terminating ill death, deprived them of the co-operation of one of the ablest and most highly 
 esteemed English educators, the late Joseph Payne, who not only was among the first to afford 
 encouragement to this work when proposed, but promptly engaged to contribute a number oi 
 
 important articles. 
 
 As a work of reference for information in regard to American institutions for higher 
 education, the Cyclopaedia will, it is hoped, prove eminently satisfactory. Great pains has 
 
 been taken to secure the fullest and most accurate information respecting the colleges and 
 
Ill 
 
 universities of this country; for which purpose, every article of this description has been sub- 
 mit ted, in proof, to the president of the institution described, and, with but very few exceptions, 
 has received the benefit of his revision. 
 
 The editors also acknowledge their indebtedness for the very full information, in regard to 
 the educational work of the various religious denominations of the United States and Great 
 Britain, which they have received from distinguished members of those denominations. Very 
 much of this information could have been obtained by no other means than by a long official 
 connection with the educational boards of the churches, and, to a considerable extent, is now 
 supplied exclusively by this work. 
 
 To all the contributors the thanks of the editors are due for a support without which the 
 work could not have been completed — at any rate, could not have possessed the value which may, 
 with considerable confidence, be attributed to it; and certainly could not have earned the approval 
 which it may justly be expected to receive. The editors, also, take occasion to express their 
 obligations to the many friends who, though not special contributors, have afforded valuable aid 
 in the revision of special articles, in giving important advice, or in affording needed information. 
 
 In these few remarks, the editors have briefly stated the object they have striven to attain, 
 and some of the instrumentalities of which they have availed themselves; but they are by no 
 means so presumptuous as to suppose they have produced a work without fault or blemish. The 
 Cyclopaedia, it must be borne in mind, is but a pioneer, opening out, it is to be hoped, a wide 
 path for further literary and professional effort in the same direction. It will, doubtless, share 
 the fate of all books of its class, in which the habitual reader, as well as the scrutinizing critic, by 
 the side of that which elicits his approval, meets with statements that are capable of improvement 
 or that require correction. In every future edition of the work, pains will be taken to correct what 
 is faulty and to improve what is imperfect; and any assistance which those who appreciate the 
 aim of the work may be able to render to that end, will be gratefully acknowledged. 
 
 New York, March 17, 1877. 
 
 NOTICE OF THE THIRD EDITION. 
 
 In issuing the Third Edition of the Cychpcedia, the publishers would express their grateful 
 acknowledgments to the educational public for the favorable reception hitherto accorded to it, 
 and the many appreciative, commendatory notices it has received from scholars and educators of 
 the highest culture and the ripest experience. For the present edition of the work, the articles 
 have been carefully revised for the correction of inaccuracies, but no essential change has been 
 made in any of them. In order, however, to bring the work down to the present time, a brief 
 Supplement has been added, containing a summary of the latest educational statistics of this 
 country, as far as they have been received in reply to inquiries. It has been considered best thus 
 to limit the information given, and to refer for further particulars to the official reports and 
 catalogues. . ~ 
 
 E. Steiger & Co. 
 
 New \ ore, Feb. 1, 1883. 
 
A LIST OF THE PRINCIPAL 
 
 CONTRIBUTORS TO THE CYCLOPEDIA OF EDUCATION. 
 
 Prof. E. B. Andrews, I^ancaster, O. 
 
 Ohio. 
 
 Hon. Ellis A. Apgar, Supt. Public Instruc- 
 tion, New Jersey. 
 New Jersej . 
 Prof. Th. Appel, Franklin and Marshall Col- 
 lege, Lancaster, I 'a. 
 
 Reformed Churches (in part). 
 Rev. John G. Baird, Asst. Sec. Board of Edu- 
 cation, Connecticut. 
 Connecticut. 
 Wm. Uland Bourne, New York. 
 Seton, Samuel W. 
 
 Prof. B. P. Bownk. Boston Oniversity. 
 
 College (in part). 
 
 Hegel,— ami other biographical articles. 
 Rev. Dr. R. L. Breck, Chancellor Central Uni- 
 versity, Richmond, Ky. 
 Presbyterians (in part). 
 Eon. Dan. B. Briggs, Supt. Public Instruction, 
 Michigan. 
 
 .Michigan. 
 
 Henry B. Buckham, A. M.. Principal State 
 Normal School. Buffalo, N. V. 
 Buffalo. 
 Norman A. Calkins, Asst. Supt. Schools, New 
 York. 
 
 Color, 
 N umber, 
 Numeral Frame. 
 M. P. Oavert, A. M.. Rhinebeck, N. Y. 
 
 New York (State). 
 
 Henry Chettle, M. A. Cxon., Headmaster of 
 Tottenham Grammar School, England. 
 
 < Oxford l ' Diversity. 
 
 Jinn. Ki>\\ \i:n Conant, Supt. Public Instruction, 
 Vermont. 
 
 Vermont. 
 
 Hon. J. C. Corbin, late Supt, Public Instruc- 
 tion, Arkansas. 
 
 a rkansas. 
 Rev. I>r. B. T. CORWTN, Millstone. N. J. 
 Reformed Churches in part . 
 
 George II. Oi rtis, Prof, of Music. New York. 
 
 Urate, 
 
 Singing-Schools, 
 Voice, Culture <>r t be. 
 
 Rev. Dr. S. S. Cotting, Cor. Sec. Baptist Edu- 
 cational Society, Brooklyn, N. Y. 
 
 Baptists 
 Prof. E. II. Day, .Normal College, New York. 
 
 i teology, 
 
 m Lneralogy, 
 
 Science, The Teaching <>r (part it.). 
 Rev. Dr. Charles I'. Deems, New York. 
 
 Mci hodlsts (in part i. 
 
 Bon. W. L. Dickinson, Supt. Schools, Jersey 
 City. 
 
 Jersey City. 
 
 James Donaldson, LL. D., Rector of the High 
 School of Edinburgh, and Editor of the Edu- 
 cational News. 
 
 I'Mucal inn I I heory oi), 
 
 England (in part), 
 
 I nst ruction, 
 
 Memorj . 
 
 Science, The Teaching of (part I.), 
 
 Senses, Education of the. 
 
 Dr. A. Douai, [rvingtou, N. J. 
 Developing Method (in part), 
 Bar, < ultivation of, — an I other articles. 
 
 Prof. W. E. Grtffis, late of the Imperial Col- 
 lege, Tokio. Japan. 
 Japan. 
 
 .Miss Maky Gdrney, of the Women's Education 
 I nion. London, England. 
 
 Women, Higher education of. 
 
 Hon. II. M. Hale, Supt. Public Instruction, 
 Colorado. 
 
 Colorado (in part). 
 Prof. Wm. (i. Hammond. Law Department Iowa 
 State University, Iowa City. 
 Law Schools. 
 
 Thomas F. Harrison, Asst. Supt. of Schools, 
 
 New York. 
 
 Geography. 
 
 Dr. E. O. H wi:\. Chancellor Syracuse Univer- 
 sity. Syracuse, N. Y. 
 Mel liodists (in part). 
 
 J. W. 11 \wi:s. New York. 
 
 College (in part), 
 Harvard University, 
 
 ^ ale College, — and other articles on \m. rican 
 colleges and universities. 
 
 Rev. W. W. Hicks, Supt. Public Instruction, 
 Florida. 
 
 Florida (in part). 
 
 Hon. T. W. Higginson, Newport, R. 1. 
 
 Rhode Island. 
 
 Prof. Charles T. IIiuks. Dickinson College, 
 < larlisle, Pa. 
 
 ( heinist ry. 
 
 Dr. Fred. Hoffmann, New York. 
 
 Pharmaceutical Schools. 
 Hon. HENRY HOUCK, Dep. Supt. Public In- 
 struction. Pennsylvania. 
 
 Pennsylvania. 
 
 Thomas Hi (jter, A. ME., President Normal Col- 
 lege, New York. 
 
 Teachers' Seminaries. 
 
 Rev. I>r. I. F. HcRST, Pics. Drew Theological 
 Seminary, Madison, N. J. 
 
 Seneca. 
 
 Rev. I>r. E. T. Jeffers, Prea Westminster Col- 
 lege, New Wilmington, Pa. 
 Prosbj terlans m part). 
 
Prof. D. P. Kidder, Drew Theological Semina- 
 ry, Madison, N.J. 
 Sunday-Schools, 
 Theological Schools. 
 
 Albert K lam roth, late Commissioner of Com- 
 mon Schools, New York. 
 
 Falk, P. L. A., 
 Germany. 
 
 Rev. Prof. E. G. Klose, Moravian Theological 
 Seminary, Bethlehem, Pa. 
 
 Moravians. 
 
 W. H. Larrabee, New York. 
 
 Francke, A.H.,— and other biographical articles. 
 
 Dr. Edwin Leigh. Brooklyn, N. Y. 
 
 Illiteracy, 
 Phonetics. 
 
 R. M. Leverson, Ph. D., Denver, Col. 
 
 Social Kconoiny, 
 
 Dr. J. Berrien Lindsley, Nashville, Tenn. 
 
 Nashville University, 
 Presbyterians (in part). 
 
 J. M. Logan, Princ. Springfield School, Pitts- 
 burgh. Pa. 
 
 Pittsburgh. 
 
 W. MacDonald, High School of Edinburgh, 
 Scotland. 
 
 England (in part), 
 Ireland in part), 
 Scotland (in part). 
 
 Wdlson MacDonald, Artist, New York. 
 
 Art-Education. 
 
 Hon. J. M. McKenzie, Supt. Public Instruction, 
 
 Nebraska. 
 
 Nebraska (in part . 
 
 Hon. J. M. McKleroy, Supt. Public Instruction, 
 Alabama. 
 
 Alabama (in part) 
 
 Prof. Francis A. March, Lafayette College, 
 Easton, Pa. 
 
 Anglo-Saxon, 
 Belles-Lettres, 
 Classics, Christian, 
 English, the Study of, 
 Lafayette College, 
 Orthography. 
 
 Prof. J. M. D. Meiklejohx, University of St. 
 Andrews, Scotland. 
 
 English Literature. 
 
 Thomas Miller, M. A., late Fellow of Queens' 
 College, Cambridge, England . 
 
 Cambridge University. 
 
 Prof. 0. W. Morris, late of the Deaf and Dumb 
 Inst., New York. 
 
 Deaf-Mutes (in part). 
 Prof. Edward Olney, University of Michigan. 
 
 Algebra, 
 Arithmetic, 
 Geometry, 
 Mathematics. 
 
 S. S. Packard, of Packard Business College, 
 New York. 
 
 Book-keeping, 
 Business Colleges. 
 
 Hon. John D. Philbrick, Supt. Schools, Bos- 
 ton, Mass. 
 
 Boston. 
 
 Hon. J. L. Pickard, Supt. Schools, Chicago, 111. 
 
 Chicago. 
 
 Prof. A. Rauschenbdsch, Theol. Seminary, 
 Rochester, N. Y. 
 
 Mennonltes. 
 
 Hon. Andrew J. Rickoff, Supt. Schools, Cleve- 
 land. 0. 
 
 Cleveland. 
 
 Prof. I. P. Roberts, Cornell University, Ithaca, 
 N. Y. 
 
 Agricultural Colleges. 
 
 C. C. Rounds, Princ. State Normal School, Far- 
 mington. Me. 
 
 Maine. 
 
 Win. H. Rcffner, LL. D., Supt. Public In- 
 struction, Virginia. 
 
 Virginia. 
 
 Prof. Charles A. Schlegel, Normal College, 
 New York. 
 
 Mager, Karl. 
 
 Prof. David B. Scott, College of the City of 
 New York. 
 
 New York, College of the City of, 
 
 Oral Instruction, 
 
 Khetorlc. 
 
 Edward Seguin, M. D., New York. 
 
 Thermometry, Educational. 
 
 Hon. R. D. Shannon, Supt. Public Instruction, 
 Missouri. 
 
 Missouri. 
 
 Hon. J. W. Simonds, Supt. Public Instruction, 
 New Hampshire. 
 
 New Hampshire. 
 
 Hon. J. H. Smart, Supt. Public Instruction, 
 Indiana. 
 
 Indiana fin part). 
 
 Prof. Walter Smith, State Director, Art Edu- 
 cation, Mass. 
 
 Drawing. 
 
 William L. Stone, Jr., New York. 
 
 Stone, William L. 
 Hon. John Swett, late Supt. Public Instruction, 
 California. 
 
 California, 
 
 San Francisco (in part). 
 
 Rev. Dr. I. N. Tarbox, Cor. Sec. Amer. Educ. 
 Society, Boston, Mass. 
 
 Congregationalists. 
 
 Rev. Dr. H. A. Thompson, Pres. Otterbein Uni- 
 versity, Westerville, 0. 
 
 United Brethren in Christ. 
 
 D. L. Thompson, Plainfield, N. J. 
 
 Genius, 
 
 Locke, John, — and other articles. 
 
 J. S. Thornton, B. A., University College 
 School, London, England. 
 King's College London), 
 London, University of, 
 Murray, Lindley, 
 
 Owens College (Manchester, England), 
 Preceptors, College of, 
 Rousseau, 
 University College (London). 
 
 Whxiam B. Wait, Supt. New York Institution 
 for the Blind. 
 
 Blind, Education of the in part). 
 
 S. Walker, University College School, London, 
 England. 
 
 Working Men's College (London). 
 
 H. L. Wayland, Editor of Tlie National Bap- 
 tist, Philadelphia. 
 
 Wayland, Francis. 
 
 Rev. Dr. J. P. Weston, Pres. Dean Academy, 
 Franklin, Mass. 
 
 Universalists. 
 
 Prof. J. H. Worman, Norwich, N. Y. 
 
 Hebrews, 
 
 Plato, 
 
 Ronie, — and other articles. 
 
 R. M. Wyckoff, M. D., Brooklyn, N. Y. 
 
 Medical Schools (in part 1 . 
 
 F. Zinsser, M. D., New York. 
 
 Medical Schools (in part;. 
 

 •*,> OP 
 
 THP! 
 
 ^ 
 
 lUHIVEESITy] 
 E CYCLOP.EKIA OF EDUCATION. 
 
 ABACUS (6r. 5/3of, a slab or board), a piece 
 of school apparatus, used to facilitate the teach- 
 ing of chili hen to count, and perform other sim- 
 ple arithmetical operations. Various forms of 
 the abacus are employed as counting or adding 
 machines. .Such a contrivance was much used 
 among the ancients; and in China, epiite long 
 and difficult computations are performed by 
 means of such an instrument, called swan-pan. 
 (See Numeral Frame.) 
 
 ABBOT, Benjamin, LL. D., distinguished 
 for his long connection with Phillips Academy. 
 Exeter, N. IF., of which institution he was the 
 principal for a period of fifty years, from 1 788 
 to 183S. He was a graduate of Harvard College. 
 He died at Exeter in 1849, at the advanced age 
 of 86 years. Edward Everett delivered one of 
 his graceful and elegant speeches on the occasion 
 of the retirement of I >r. Abbot from the prin- 
 cipalship of Phillips Exeter Academy. — See 
 Everett, Orations and Speed/is. 
 
 ABBOTT, Rev. Jacob, a distinguished cler- 
 gyman, teacher, and author, was born at Hallo- 
 well, Me., in 1803. and graduated at Bowdoin 
 College in 1 820. He was professor of mathemat- 
 ics and natural philosophy in Amherst College 
 from 1825 to 1829, and afterwards took charge 
 of the Mount Vernon school for girls, in Boston. 
 In connection with education, he is chiefly noted 
 for his numerous books for the young, among 
 which may be particularly mentioned the Rollo 
 Books, the Franconia Stories, the Harper Stun/ 
 Books, Science for the Young, and The Teacher. 
 A full catalogue of his publications embraces 
 about 200 titles. He has also edited many other 
 educational works, and compiled a series of read- 
 ing books. His brothers, Rev. Gorham D. and 
 Rev. John S. C, are also noted for their labors 
 in the field of educational and literary effort. 
 
 ABC, the first three letters of the English 
 alphabet, often used to denote the alphabet itself; 
 as. " To learn A B C is felt to be extremely irk- 
 some by the infant," Tat/lor (See Alphabet.) 
 
 A-B-C BOOK, a primer, or little book used 
 to learn the alphabet and its simplest combina- 
 tions, with tlie most rudimental lessons in read- 
 ing. (See I Lorn-Book.) 
 
 A-B-C METHOD. See Alphabet Method. 
 
 ABECEDARIAN. This word, formed from 
 the names of the first four letters of the alpha- 
 bet, is generally used to denote a pupil who has 
 not advanced beyond the most elementary stage 
 of school or book education, that is, who is 
 learning A B C, or the alphabet, The name 
 has been sometimes applied to one engaged in 
 teaching the alphabet, (See Reading, and Word 
 Method.) 
 
 1 
 
 A-B-C SHOOTERS(Germ. ABC-Schiitzen), 
 pupils of those scholastic vagrants who, during 
 a certain period of the middle ages, and even 
 later, used to wander through many parts of Ger- 
 many, giving instruction to such pupils as they 
 could pick up, who accompanied them in their 
 journeyings. These itinerant teachers were called 
 Bacchants, from their disorderly lives and their 
 disposition to indulge in wild revels. Their 
 pupils were often obliged to purloin food, fowls, 
 etc., to supply their masters' wants, and hence 
 were called, partly in derision of their elementary 
 knowledge, A-B-< ! Shooters — shoot, in their 
 parlance, being the slang word for steal. — See 
 Sohmid, Enci/clopddie; and Barnard, American 
 Journal of Education, vol. v. 
 
 ABELARD, or Abailard, Pierre, one of 
 the most famous teachers of pliilosophy and 
 theology in the middle ages, was born in 
 Nantes, in 1079, died April 21st, 1142, at St. 
 Marcel, near Chalons-sur-Saone. A pupil of 
 William of Champeaux in philosophy, and of 
 Anselm of Laon in theology, he became the 
 dreaded and hated rival of both, as they found 
 themselves entirely eclipsed by the cosmopolitan 
 reputation of their pupil, who for a time was re- 
 garded in the Christian world as the foremost of 
 all living teachers. The tragic end of his love 
 for his pupil Heloise, whom he had seduced, 
 closed to him the higher ecclesiastical dignities, 
 and drove him into the austerities and retirement 
 of monastic life; but his theological and philo- 
 sophical writings continued to keep the Christian 
 world in a high state of excitement. His opin- 
 ions were repeatedly condemned by councils 
 and synods as heretical, but he always preferred 
 submission to the sentence of the Church rather 
 than open defiance. His influence on the schools 
 of the middle ages was, without doubt, greater 
 than that of any of his contemporaries. He in- 
 troduced dialectics into theology, and thus, as 
 Cousin says, "contributed more than any other 
 to the foundation of scholasticism." 
 
 A complete edition of the. works of Abelard 
 was published by Cousin (2 vols., Paris, 1849— 
 1859), containing also valuable notes by the 
 editor. Among the best biographical works on 
 Abelard are those bylte'musat (Abelard, 2 vols., 
 Paris. 1845), and Wilkens (Peter Abalard 
 Gottingen, is.').")). — See also Schmidt, Geschichte 
 der Padaqogik. 
 
 ABERCROMBIE, John, M. D., was 
 born at Aberdeen, in 1781. and died in 1844. 
 In his profession as a physician he rose to great 
 eminence, and was widely distinguished for his 
 writings on medical subjects. In connection 
 with education, he is noted for his Inquiries con- 
 
ABIXGDOX COLLEGE 
 
 ACADEMY 
 
 centring the Intellectual Powers, and Tlie Philos- 
 ophy of the Moral Feelings. These two works 
 possess great merit, and have been quite exten- 
 sively used as school text-books. They were 
 edited and adapted to the use of schools in this 
 country by Jacob Abbott. 
 
 ABINGDON COLLEGE, at Abingdon, HI., 
 under the control of the Disciples of Christ, was 
 founded in April, 1853. The number of students 
 in the institution in 1875 was about 180. It 
 has an endowment of $20,000. The college 
 building is a handsome edifice well supplied with 
 modern furniture and appliances. There are 
 about 1000 volumes in the library, besides which 
 the institution has a museum and laboratory. 
 'I he names of its successive presidents are Patrick 
 Murphy. •(. W. Butler, and Oval I'irkey. The 
 annual tuition fee is from $30 to S.'i 1 .). 
 
 ABSENTEEISM is opposed to regularity in 
 the attendance of pupils belonging to a school; 
 that is. the number of school sessions from which 
 a pupil was absent, as compared with the number 
 at which he was present, during any particular 
 period, gives the absenteeism of the pupil for 
 that period. The average daily attendance of 
 pupils divided by the average daily enrollment 
 the "average number belonging" shows the per- 
 centage of attendance: and this subtracted from 
 loo gives, of course, the percentage of absentee- 
 ism. Within certain limits, this is a criterion 
 
 of efficiency of management and instruction. 
 Class teachers who interest their pupils neces- 
 sarily secure a more regular attendance than 
 those who fail in this respect : and principals of 
 schools who keep a careful watch over all the 
 pupils belonging to their schools, strictly and 
 uniformly enforcing wholesome rules of disci- 
 pline, and carefully notifying parents of the ab- 
 sence of their children, inquiring into the cause 
 of the same, and admonishing both parents and 
 pupils of the need of strict regularity, will, of 
 
 course, succeed best in this regard. Where the 
 
 basis for computing the degree of absenteeism is 
 the average enrollment, and where regularity of 
 attendance is made a test of efficient manage- 
 ment, teachers will be more careful to keep the 
 number of pupils on the rolls as little as possible 
 above the average attendance. I leiice. to render 
 this test reliable, a uniform rule should 1h> follow- 
 ed in the discharging of pupils for non-attend- 
 ance. Such a rule has been adopted in many 
 cities <>f the Union, any pupil's name being in- 
 variably dropped from the roll after a certain 
 number of days of absence, however caused. 
 This is based on the principle that irregularity of 
 attendance being at school one day. one week, 
 or one month, and absent the next is not only of 
 no profit to the pupil concerned, but a positive 
 injury to the other pupils, and is a serious hin- 
 drance and embarrassment to the teacher in the 
 management of the school. To some extent, ab- 
 senteeism thus computed may indicate also the 
 
 prevailing tone of the community in regard to 
 education the degree of appreciation of the 
 benefits of education generally felt by the people, 
 
 as inducin;; parents to sacrifice their own persona] 
 
 advantage, in the employment of their children, 
 to the interests of the latter, in enjoying the bene- 
 fits of school instruction. 
 
 "Absenteeism" is also technically applied to a 
 total neglect of school attendance by a part of the 
 school population of any place. This is exhibited 
 by a comparison of the average attendance of 
 1 hi pi Is with the census of children of school age. 
 (See Attendance.) 
 
 ABSTRACT AND CONCRETE. These 
 terms have a very important application in many 
 departments of practical education. Abstract 
 has reference to general ideas, or the ideas of 
 qualities considered apart from the things to 
 which they belong; concrete, to those which are 
 only conceived as belonging to particular objects 
 orsubstances. '! bus, if we speak of a man. a horse, 
 a tree, etc.. we use abstract or general idea.-: 
 for we are not thinking of any particular object 
 of the class, but only of the assemblage of qual- 
 ities or characteristics that especially belong to 
 all the members of the class. But when we 
 mention such names as ( 'icero. Washington. John 
 Smith, etc.. we have in our mind a conception of 
 the charai teristics that served to distinguish those 
 persons from all other men. Thus, the expression 
 five pounds represents a concrete idea : the word 
 five, an abstract one. 
 
 The immature minds of young children em- 
 ploy to a greal extent concrete ideas, and hence 
 the instruction addressed especially to them 
 should deal principally with these. As the mind 
 advances, it becomes more and more occupied 
 with abstract conceptions, which constitute the 
 material for all the higher forms of thought and 
 ratiocination. 
 
 ACADEMY i ( Jr. ' \mS^ftm or 'AKod^/teia) was 
 originally the name of a pleasure ground near 
 Athens, and was said to be so called after Aca- 
 demus, a local hero at the time of the Trojan 
 war. Its shady walks became a favorite resort 
 for Plato: and. as he was accustomed to lecture 
 here to his pupils and friends, the school of phi- 
 losophers which was founded by him was called 
 i he Academic School, or merely the Academy. 
 
 In the history of ancient philosophy, three dif- 
 ferent academies are distinguished, the Old Acad- 
 emy, formed by the immediate followers of 
 Plato, the Middle Academy, founded, about 24 I. 
 by Arcesilaus. and the New Academy, whose 
 founder was ( 'arueades, about L60 B. C. Some- 
 times the philosophical schools founded by Philo 
 and AntiochuS tire called respectively the Fourth 
 
 and tin' Fifth Academy. Among the Romans. 
 
 ( 'icero. who regarded himself as all adherent of the 
 
 Academic philosophy, gave the name of Academy 
 
 to the gymnasium at his villa near Tusculum, as 
 well as to one of his villas in Campania, where he 
 wrote his Academical Qucestiones. During the 
 
 middle ages, the term was but little used for 
 learned institutions: but. after the revival of 
 classical studies in the L5th century, it again be- 
 came frequent. In a wider sense, it was some- 
 times applied to higher institutions of learning 
 in general. I iradually. however, its use was, in 
 most countries, restricted to Special schools, as 
 
ACADEMY 
 
 ACCOMPLISHMENTS 
 
 academies of mining, of commerce, of forestry, 
 of fine arts, and, especially, of music. In Eng- 
 land and the United States, the national high 
 schools for tlic education of military and naval 
 officers arc called academies. Thus, England h;is 
 the Naval Academy at Portsmouth, and the 
 Royal Military Academy at Woolwich; and the 
 United States, the Military Academy at West 
 Point, and the Naval Academy at Annapolis. 
 In the United States, the name has also been 
 assumed by a large number of secondary schools. 
 ■which are designed to prepare ih rir pupils for 
 colleges, or to impart a general knowledge of (he 
 common and higher branches of education. As 
 they are. in nearly all cases, private institutions, 
 independent of any control by state boards, their 
 courses f instruction widely differ, ranging from 
 the lowest primary class to the highest classes of 
 grammar and high schools. Tiny are usually 
 both boarding and day schools. 
 
 The name academy is also employed to des- 
 ignate associations of learned men for the ad- 
 vancement of science and art. Some of these 
 associations are of an entirely private character, 
 others have been founded by the state. The 
 first academy of this kind was the Museum of 
 Alexandria, in Egypt, which was founded by 
 Ptolemy Soter. After its model, the -lews, to- 
 ward the close of the first century of the < hristian 
 era, began to establish academies for the develop- 
 ment of Talmudic science. Later, the Arabian 
 caliphs established academies at their places of 
 residence, to show their interest in the promotion 
 of science. Efforts to establish Christian acad- 
 emies of this kind were made by Gregory the 
 Great and Charlemagne, but both failed. It was 
 not until the middle of the fifteenth century, that 
 associations of this kind were formed in Italy for 
 the purpose of fostering the free development of 
 science and art, in opposition to the rigid conser- 
 vatism of the monastic and ecclesiastical schools. 
 They gave special attention to the cultivation of 
 the Italian language and literature. It was es- 
 pecially the Aceademia della Crusca, founded at 
 Florence by the poet Grazzini, to which the 
 Italian language is indebted for its purification 
 and development. From Italy, these institutions 
 spread to the other countries of Europe : and, as 
 they became the centers of literary activity, they 
 exercised every-where a prominent influence 
 upon the intellectual progress of the several 
 countries, and, especially, upon the improvement | 
 and regulation of the native tongue. Prominent 
 among these academies, was the Academie fran- 
 caise, instituted, in 1 <'.'{.">. by Cardinal Kiche-j 
 lieu. In 1 7!':"), it was united with three other! 
 French academies into the Instilut national,] 
 the name of which was changed by Louis XVI. i 
 into histitut de France. The Institute con- 
 sisted then of four academies: (1) V Academie 
 francaise, (2) P Academie des inscriptions et\ 
 belles lettres, (3) V Academie des sciences, (4) 
 V Academie des beaux arts. A fifth academy,; 
 V Academie des sciences morales et poUHques, 
 was added in 1832. These academies are among 
 the most important of the kind in the world, 
 
 and their influence on other educational insti- 
 tutions has been considerable. The Academie 
 franpaise is the highest authority upon every 
 thing relating to the niceties of the French lan- 
 guage, to grammar, and the publication of the 
 French classics. The Academie des inscriptions 
 et 6c//cs- Ifttrrs embraces among the objects of 
 its attention comparative philology. Like the 
 French Institute, the academies in the capitals of 
 Spain, Portugal, Sweden, Russia, and other 
 
 countries, have gradually become great national 
 centers for the promotion of science and ait; 
 
 but no such centralization has been effected in 
 
 Italy, Germany, England, or the United States. 
 In England, the learned corporations correspond- 
 ing to the continental a< ademies of sciences have 
 generally the name society or association. Eng 
 land proper has, however, a royal academy of arts 
 (founded in 1765, re-organized in L768) and a 
 royal academy of music (established in 1822); 
 and in Edinburgh, there is a, royal academy of 
 yachting (founded in 1754). In Ireland, the name 
 academy, according to its continental use. has 
 been adopted forthe Royal Academy of Sciences 
 at Dublin (founded in 1782). --In the United 
 States of America there are also a number of 
 learned societies to which the name academy, 
 in the sense used on the continent of Europe, 
 has been applied. The following societies are 
 called academies : The American Academy of 
 Arts ami Sciences, at Boston (founded in 1780), 
 the Connecticut Academy of Arts and Sciences 
 (founded in 1799), the Academy of Natural 
 Science in Philadelphia (founded in 1818), the 
 Pennsylvania Academy of Fine Arts (established 
 in 1807), the National Academy of Design, at 
 New York (founded in 1828) ; the Medical Acad- 
 emy of New York. The National Academy of 
 Sciences was incorporated by Congress, March 
 3d, 1863. In New York, Philadelphia, Brook- 
 lyn, Chicago, and other large cities, the princi- 
 pal opera house is called the Academy of Music. 
 ACCOMPLISHMENTS. This term, as 
 contrasted with en/turf, refers to those educa- 
 tional acquirements which fit a person for certain 
 special activities, while culture has reference to 
 the general improvement of the character or 
 mental faculties. Hence the expression "external 
 accomplishments," or " ornamental accomplish- 
 ments," such as skill in foreign languages, music. 
 drawing, painting, dancing, etc. Involved in this 
 application of the term, is the idea of display, or 
 the ability to please, or the power to awaken ad- 
 miration in the beholder. Thus in the Spectator 
 we find the expression "the visible graces of 
 speech and the dumb eloquence of motion.'* as 
 indicating the accomplishments of a pleasing a I 
 dress and a graceful carriage. 
 
 Accomplishments are either purely intellect- 
 ual, as that of language, or partly or wholly 
 artistic, such as music, drawing, dancing. etc. In 
 the education of boys, fencing and boxing were 
 formerly considered as Indispensable accomplish- 
 ments; but of these, at the present time, rowing 
 seems to take precedence, as contributing to a 
 healthy development of the physical system. 
 
ACCOM PLISHMKN'TS 
 
 ADAMS 
 
 In many classes of schools, particularly in 
 private seminaries, the acquisition of certain orna- 
 mental accomplishments constitutes the chief end 
 of education. Were these accomplishments based 
 on a solid culture of the intellectual and moral 
 nature, they would be very proper and desirable; 
 but being merely showy and superficial, they 
 constitute a perversion of the true end of edu- 
 cation. Tims Hannah More remarks: "In train- 
 ing our daughters, should we not carefully culti- 
 vate intellect, implant religion, and cherish mod- 
 esty? Then, whatever is engaging in manners 
 would lie the aatural result of whatever is just 
 in sentiment and correct in principle. Softness 
 would grow out of humility, and external delicacy 
 would Bpring from purity of heart." The folly 
 and wrong of giving this exclusive attention to 
 mere accomplishments have very frequently been 
 a subject of satirical invective. Says Sydney 
 Smith: "A woman of accomplishments may 
 entertain tin ise who have the pleasure of knowing 
 her for half an hour with great brilliancy ; but a 
 mind full of ideas, anil with that elastic spring 
 which the love of knowledge only can convey, is 
 a perpetual source of exhilaration and amuse- 
 ment to all that come within its reach. Therefore, 
 instead of hanging the understanding of a woman 
 upon walls, or hearing it vibrate upon strings, 
 instead of seeing it in clouds, or hearing it in the 
 wind, we would make 1 it the first spring and or- 
 nament of society, by enriching it with attain- 
 ments, upon which alone such power depends." 
 Goldsmith also inveighed severely against this 
 practice in his time. "Another passion," he 
 says, " which the present age is apt to run into 
 is, to make children learn all things, — the lan- 
 guages, the sciences, music, the exercises, and 
 painting. Thus the child soon becomes a talker 
 in all, but a master in none. Ife thus acquires 
 a superficial fondness for everything, and only 
 shows his ignorance, when he attempts to exhibit 
 his skill." The tendency of the present time, in 
 what is called fashionable education, is equally 
 subject to the same unfavorable criticism. Ac- 
 complishments, in the first stages of education, 
 are to lie regarded as secondary to the solid im- 
 provement of the mind. Those rudimentary at- 
 tainments which constitute the basis of all school 
 education, and are indispensable to any further 
 progress, namely, reading, spelling, writing, and 
 arithmetic, must of course he made: to which 
 should be added the ability to use one's own lan- 
 guage, in speaking and writing, with tolerable 
 ease and propriety. A common-school educa- 
 tion should give great prominence to these, as 
 not only constituting the acquirements most 
 generally needed for success in hf e', bul as placing 
 in the hands of the pupils the keys to future 
 progress in learning. 
 
 Accomplishment, being derived from the 
 French accomplir, to finish or complete, may be 
 contrasted with smattering, a mere superficial 
 acquirement of some of the prominent orrudi- 
 mental parts of any subject. No educational 
 scheme should admit of the study of any branch 
 of knowledge which cannot, under the given 
 
 circumstances and in the time proposed, be ac- 
 complished so as to give the pupils who are to 
 pursue it. a thorough knowledge of the subject, 
 as well as the ability to apply it to some prac- 
 tical purpose. The peculiar talent, or bent of 
 mind, of children should be regarded, in the at- 
 tempt to bestow upon them ornamental ac- 
 complishments, such as music and drawing, ex- 
 cept such elementary portions of these arts as are 
 within the capacity of all. and which constitute, 
 not indeed special accomplishments, but a part 
 of that general culture which the most element- 
 ary education should bestow. (See CULTURE.) 
 
 ACQUISITION. The acquisition of knowl- 
 edge must be, to a certain extent, the scope of 
 every process of teaching. Sometimes it is the 
 primary object : but, in the earlier stages of edu- 
 cation, it is generally secondary, the educative 
 value of the process taking precedence of the prac- 
 tical importance of the knowledge communicated. 
 The acquisition of new ideas must always, more 
 or less, improve the mind by affording additional 
 material for the exercise of its various faculties: 
 but. in education, what particular faculties are 
 concerned in the study of any subject or branch 
 of knowledge, is a matter of paramount im- 
 portance, and therefore should never be lost 
 sight of by the teacher. Where this is disre- 
 garded, instruction is apt to degenerate into mere 
 rote-teaching ; and the teacher will often rest 
 satisfied when his pupil can repeat the formula 1 
 of knowledge, without evincing the acquisition 
 of new ideas, on which alone the improvement of 
 the mind depends. 
 
 ACROAMATIC METHOD (Gr. oKpoaua- 
 tikoc, to be heard, designed for hearing only), a 
 name originally applied to the esoteric teachings 
 of Aristotle and other Greek philosophers, to 
 designate such as were confined to their imme- 
 diate hearers, and not committed to writing, 
 loiter, the term has been applied to a system of 
 instruction in which the teacher speaks and the 
 pupil only listens. A method of this kind, of 
 course, presupposes scholars of a certain maturity 
 of age and of considerable progress in intellectual 
 culture, it forms the basis of the lecture system. 
 (See Lecture.) 
 
 ADAM, Alexander, I/L. D., was born in 
 Scotland, in 17-11. and died in L809. He at- 
 tained a high distinction as a teacher while licet or 
 ,.f the High School at Edinburgh (1768 -1808). 
 
 lie was also the author of several educational 
 
 text-books, among which his Roman Antiquities 
 
 (1791) has been very extensively used in this 
 country and in < Ireal Britain. 
 
 ADAMS, John, LL. D., was born in Can- 
 terbury, < 't.. in L772, and died m Jacksonville, 
 111., in L863. lie was noted both as a teacher 
 
 and a philanthropist. After graduating at rale 
 
 College, in I7',l.">. he taught the academy in 
 
 his native town, and subsequently other schools. 
 till, in L810, he became principal of Phillips 
 
 Academy. Andovcr. Mass., in which position he 
 
 continued for twenty-three years. In L833, he 
 removed to Illinois, and was very active in effect- 
 ing improvements in the school system of that 
 
ADRIAN UOLLKGE 
 
 ESTHETIC (TI/ITRK 
 
 State. His labors in connection with various 
 }>enevoleiit institutions in both States, were nu- 
 merous and important. Through his efforts, a 
 large Dumber of Sunday-schools were established 
 in his adopted State. Many essays and other 
 publications on education attest the intelligence 
 and ability with which he devoted himself to the 
 training of the young. 
 
 ADRIAN COLLEGE, at Adrian. Midi., 
 was founded in is.")!), by the Methodists. The 
 number of students is about 21)0, males and 
 females, about one fourth of whom belong to the 
 collegiate department. It has a classical and 
 a scientific course of instruction, a school of the- 
 ology, a school of music, and a normal class. Its 
 corps of instructors numbers twelve, and it, has 
 one endowed professorship. The number of 
 volumes in its library is about 1000; its endow- 
 ment is$100,000. Rev. (J. B McKlroy, D. D., is 
 the president of the Institution (1876). The 
 tuition fee is very small. 
 
 ADULTS, Schools for. The proper time 
 to obtain instruction is during the periods of 
 boyhood or girlhood, and youth. (See Age in 
 Education.) It is in the interest of states as 
 well as of families and individuals, that, as much 
 as possible, every child, not prevented by physical 
 disabilities, should have its share in the instruc- 
 tion provided by public legislation and private 
 effort. The majority of states have even deemed 
 it a duty to make education compulsory, in order 
 to render it universal. (See Compulsory Edu- 
 cation.) It is also the general tendency of edu- 
 cational legislation to extend the legal school 
 age to the utmost, in order to make the educa- 
 tion of the school population as thorough as pos- 
 sible. (See School Age.) Still, though boy- 
 hood and youth are the proper ages for in- 
 struction, the need of special schools for adults 
 has always been deeply felt. Though modern 
 legislation has succeeded in some countries in 
 almost wholly extinguishing illiteracy (see Illit- 
 eracy), the number of adults whose education, 
 during the proper age. has either been entire- 
 ly insufficient, or who find themselves on en- 
 tering life, without the requisite amount of 
 information specially needed in their several 
 avocations, remains ;us great as ever, and is even 
 likely to increase, as the standard of popular 
 education becomes more elevated. Systematic 
 reading, instruction by private teachers, and. 
 more recently, popular lectures, are among the 
 principal agencies for supplementing the de- 
 ficiencies of school education. Efforts have, How- 
 ever, not been wanting in many states to establish 
 schools for adults for the special purpose of 
 giving to those who have left the public schools 
 and entered into practical life, a suitable oppor- 
 tunity to supply the deficiency of their school 
 education. .Many German states began in the 
 l*th century to establish Sunday-schools in 
 
 which, besides religious education, a review of 
 
 the instruction given in the elementary school 
 was provided for. As the school age. in the 
 < rerman states, only extended t<> the 1 Ith year, a 
 Sunday-school was specially provided for boys 
 
 and girls to the Kith or 18th year of age. Sev- 
 eral states made attendance at these schools ob- 
 ligatory for all boys and girls who had left the 
 elementary school and not entered any higher 
 school. Special attention has been given to 
 schools of this class in Austria, where the gov- 
 ernment has established "reviewing schools" 
 ( Wiederfiolungssohulen.) (See Austria.) As the 
 ordinary Sunday or reviewing school was found 
 to be insufficient, especially for young me- 
 chanics, special classes or schools were organized 
 in which particularly instruction in drawing 
 was given. The attendance at these schools is 
 always voluntary ; inmost of them the scholars 
 have to pay moderate fees; instruction is gen- 
 erally given on Sunday mornings, and, in most 
 schools, is confined to writing, arithmetic, and 
 drawing. In some of the German states, espe- 
 cially in Wiirtemberg, an evening school on 
 week-days has been added to the Sunday-school; 
 and thus a great impulse has been given for the 
 further development of industrial schools for 
 adults. (See Industrial Schools.) The Schools 
 for Adults established in other Euri >pean countries 
 are .mostly evening industrial schools. In the 
 United States, evening schools have been very ex- 
 tensively introduced, to give to all adults an op- 
 portunity of obtaining the same education as 
 children receive during the day: ami some of 
 the larger cities afford in these evening high 
 schools instruction in the studies of a higher 
 grade. (See Evening Schools.) 
 
 ADVENTISTS. This is the name of several 
 organizations of American Christians, the dis- 
 tinctive doctrine of whom is the belief in the 
 speedy second advent of ( hrist, and the end of the 
 world. In 1875, there were four different organ- 
 izations: (1) The Advent Christian Association ; 
 (2) TheAmerican Millennial Association (Evangel- 
 ical Adventists); (3) The Life and Advent Union; 
 (1) The Seventh Day Adveutists. 'I he churches 
 of this denomination were formerly almost wholly 
 independent, and had fewer church boards for 
 common interests than most of the other religious 
 denominations of the United States. The great- 
 est advance in point of organization has been 
 made by the Seventh Day Adventists. 'I he sub- 
 ject of education and the founding of a denomi- 
 national school was brought to the attention of 
 the members of this denomination by Elder 
 •James White and wife, in the early part of 1872. 
 The matter was referred to a General Com- 
 mittee, who. during the summer and autumn 
 of 1ST.'}, solicited subscriptions to this enterprise, 
 obtaining pledges for over $54,000. I Mi the 1 6th 
 of March. L874, an association was formed, under 
 the law of Michigan, 'dor the incorporation of 
 institutions of learning ;" and a school edifice, 
 capable of accommodating between four and five 
 hundred students, was finished in 1875. — Sec 
 Annual Cyclopedia, 1875, art. Adventists; also 
 SeventJi Day Adventists; a brief sketcli of 
 their Origin, Progress, and Principles (Battle 
 Creek, L874). 
 
 AESTHETIC CULTURE. See Esthetic 
 
 s Ct'LTHBE. 
 
AFFECTATION 
 
 AGE 
 
 AFFECTATION, as opposed to what is real, 
 genuine, and natural, is care fully to be guarded 
 against in the education of the young. In certain 
 peculiarities of character, there is a proneness to 
 the formation of habits of affectation in manners 
 and speech. This tendency, however, rarely 
 shows itself at an early age. < 'hildren generally 
 yield to their natural impulses, and do not as- 
 sume or feign what they do not feel. or. to use a 
 common expression, " put on airs." Their mode 
 of training, however, may tend to this, partic- 
 ularly if they arc forced to assume an unnatural 
 mode of expression in phraseology or pronuncia- 
 tion, in the attempt to make them excessively pre- 
 cise in such matters. Some styles of reading and 
 elocution may lead to this characteristic; and 
 hence the importance of adopting methods that, 
 in all respects correspond to the prevailing usage. 
 Certainly, nothing can be more disgusting than 
 the forced imitation of peculiar and unnatural 
 models of conceived propriety of speech and 
 manners, which we sometimes find to prevail 
 among the pupils of certain schools, or the ••min- 
 cing airs " which are often assumed by those, both 
 male and female, but particularly the latter, who 
 affect to belong to the best society, and hence ar- 
 rogate to themselves a superior degree of refine- 
 ment. The standard of the educator should lie. 
 in every respect, that ease, grace, simplicity, and 
 
 beauty that belong to what is natural : and every 
 
 tendency to the contrary, in his pupils, should be 
 promptly and sternly repressed. Locke says: 
 "Plain and rough nature left to itself, is much 
 
 lietter than an artificial ungracefulness, and such 
 studied ways of being ill fashioned. The want 
 of an accomplishment, or some defect in our be- 
 havior, coming short of the utmost gracefulness, 
 often scapes observation ; 1 nit affectation in any 
 part of our carriage, is lighting up a candle to 
 our defects, and never fails to make us to be 
 taken notice of, either as wanting sense or want- 
 in- sincerity." — See Locke, Thoughts concern- 
 ing Education. 
 
 AGASSIZ, Louis John Rudolph. This 
 eminent naturalist and teacher was born at 
 Motiers, near Neufchatel, in Switzerland. May 
 28., 1807, and died at < lambridge, Mass., Dec. 14., 
 Is;:!. His ancestors were Huguenots, driven 
 
 from France by the revocation of the edict of 
 Nantes. His father was the pastor of a protest- 
 ant parish; his mother, the daughter of a phy- 
 sician. Under the latter he received his firsl 
 education till the age of eleven, when he was 
 M'nt to the gymnasium at Bienne, where he re- 
 mained four years. His subsequenl studies were 
 puisne 1 at the college of Lausanne, the medical 
 school of Zurich, ami the universities of Heidel- 
 berg and Munich. At the latter place, he partic- 
 ularly distinguished himself for his attainments 
 in natural history. At Paris, he made the ac- 
 quaintance of Humboldl and Guvier, both of 
 whom held him in high esteem for his talents and 
 scientific acquirements. In 1846, he came to the 
 United States, being invited to deliver a course 
 
 of lectures at the I owell I list it ute. in Boston. 
 
 The next j ar, he accepted the appointmenl <>f 
 
 professor of zoology and geology in the Lawrence 
 Scientific School, then just established. He com- 
 menced his duties in 1848, and settled per- 
 manently in the United States, where his greatest 
 fame was achieved by his numerous labors as a 
 naturalist and a scientific lecturer and teacher. 
 The establishment of the Anderson School of 
 Natural History on Penikese Island in loTH, 
 was almost the last act of his life. The means for 
 founding this school were furnished by Mr. John 
 Anderson, a generous and public-spirited citizen 
 of New York, who not only devoted for this ob- 
 ject the island of Penikese, but the sum of 
 $50,000, as a permanent endowment. Agassiz 
 had long advocated the establishment of such 
 a school for the special instruction of teachers 
 in marine zoology ; and during the summer of 
 L873, he devoted his time and energies to this 
 institution, being present at every exercise and 
 lecture, and the constant companion of the 
 students. His chief publications were Recher- 
 ches sur les Poissons Fossiles, L833- — 1844; 
 Etudes sur les (/lacier*. 1840 ; System?, gla- 
 ciaire, is IT. and Contributions to the Natural 
 History of the United States. Though chiefly 
 eminent as a naturalist, and particularly in the 
 department of ichthyology, he was an accom- 
 plished linguist, being versed in six languages, 
 lie read Plato and Aristotle in the original, 
 wrote several works in elegant Latin, and was 
 a good Hebraist. French and German were 
 to him vernacular tongues, and he could speak 
 and write the English language with case and 
 correctness. He was a natural teacher, fond 
 of giving instruction, patient and sympathetic, 
 overflowing with an earnest love for bis sub- 
 ject, and having a mind replete with stoics of 
 information. His voice. look, and manner at 
 once gained the attention of his pupils : and the 
 clearness of his explanations as well as the fluen- 
 cy of his delivery gave interest to every subject 
 upon which he spoke. His skill in ready graphic 
 delineations with chalk and blackboard was 
 astonishing, and greatly contributed to the 
 effectiveness of his teaching. Lew have ever 
 made such rich additions to the stores of science, 
 or have been more zealous in diffusing the bene- 
 fits of knowledge among mankind. His ex- 
 ample as a teacher has been of very greal value, 
 since his system was to teach from natural ob- 
 jects rather than from books,- to enable the 
 pupil to acquire an experience of bis own before 
 
 presenting to his mind the results of the ex- 
 perience and observation of Others. His own 
 
 assumed title " Louis Agassiz Teacher," was 
 
 tin c Of which he seemed to be most proud ; 
 
 and till teachers should cherish the example 
 
 which he set, as the true means of success. 
 
 AGE, in Education. The life of man has 
 been variously divided into periods, or ages. 
 
 Thus Pythagoras assumed four, Solon and Ma- 
 crobiusten, different ages, while others have pre- 
 ferred a division into five, six. seven, or eight. 
 With regard to the education of man, one great 
 turning point stands forth so conspicuously, that 
 t ichers al all times have chosen it as a broad 
 
A.GE 
 
 line of demarcation, into whatever number of 
 periods they have thought it proper to divide 
 human life. This turning-point in life is the 
 period when man panes from the age of youth 
 into that of virility. The physical development 
 at this time has become complete ; in social life 
 both Bexes have attained majority ; and the edu- 
 cation of the young man or woman for the 
 career that has been selected, is, in the main, con- 
 cluded. Up to this time, the education of man 
 is conducted by others, chiefly parents and 
 teachers: henceforward, he is expected to edu- 
 cate himself, and to assume the education of 
 others. 
 
 Daring the period of life when man is depend- 
 ent upon others for his education, three different 
 ages are broadly distinguished, — childhood, boy- 
 hoo 1 or girlhoo Land youth. These are marked. in 
 the physical development of the body, by the 
 
 shedding of teeth, the entrance of puberty, and 
 the setting in of virility. The process of mental 
 development in these three ages is as different aa 
 the physical basis ; and, accordingly, each of them 
 demands a peculiar pedagogical and didactical 
 treatment. 
 
 Childhood, which embraces the first seven 
 years of life. is characterized by the rapid growth 
 and development of the organs of the body. At 
 
 the age of seven a chill weighs about six times 
 as much as at its birth, and it has attained one 
 half of the stature, and about one thir 1 or one 
 fourth of the weight of the grown man. The mind 
 is. during this period, more receptive than self- 
 active : the only manifestations of self-activity 
 being found in the efforts to retain and arrange 
 the impressions which have been received. All 
 pedagogical influence upon the pupil in this age 
 can be only of a preparatory character. The body 
 must be guarded against injuries, and must have 
 opportunities for a vigorous and manifold develop- 
 ment. The mind must be preserved from debasing, 
 weakening, or over exciting influences, and must 
 be kept open for any thing that is conducive to 
 the development of its faculties; and, in order 
 not to become sated and confused, it must learn 
 to distinguish what is important from the less 
 important. As the child is thoroughly dependent 
 upon its educator and unable to direct its own 
 exertions, it should be made to understand as 
 clearly as possible, that any opposition of its own 
 will to that of its educators can be followed by 
 only evil consequences. It should, therefore, be 
 taught obedience, but not obedience through fear, 
 for fear has a repressive influence upon the 
 development of the mental faculties, but an 
 obedience springing from confidence in the 
 superior wisdom and experience of the teacher, 
 and from love produced by his kindness. The 
 natural educators of the child are the parents, 
 especially the mother; but, toward the close of 
 this age. systematic teaching by a professional 
 teacher begins. Legislation in regard to the 
 school age differs considerably in different 
 countries. In some, children are sent to the pub- 
 He schools when they are four years of age : in 
 others, not until they are seven. (See School 
 
 A ok.) Of course, instruction at such an age 
 must be limited to the most elementary rudi- 
 ments, such as reading, writing, and arithmetic. 
 The method should be thoroughly adapted to tin- 
 mental condition of the child, and modern edu- 
 cators are agreed in recognizing the importance 
 of object teaching for the first stages of a child's 
 instruction. A novel mode of instruction, specially 
 intended as introductory to the regular prima r\ 
 school, is the kindergarten, founded by Frcelxd. 
 The astonishing rapidity with which it lias spread 
 
 through all the countries of the civilized world, 
 and found admission into educational systems 
 otherwise radii ally at variance, seems to prove it to 
 
 lie a great improvement in elementary education. 
 (See Kindergarten.) 
 
 Boyhood or ijirlhooil embraces the time from 
 the 7th to the 14th year of age. In the develop- 
 ment of the body, this age is characterized by 
 lie appearance of the permanent teeth, by the 
 completed growth of the brain, and by the first 
 consciousness of sexual difference. Boys and 
 -iris long for the free and frequent exercise of 
 their muscular systems. At the beginning of this 
 age. girls like to take an active part in the plays 
 of the boys ; but they soon show a preference for 
 more quiet occupations and less publicity ; while, 
 on tie other hand, boys manifest an increased 
 interest in noisy and wild sports. It is among 
 the prime duties of the educators of this age. to 
 keep the development of the natural desires and 
 aspirations of the two sexes within the right 
 channels. The minds of boys and girls afford 
 many proofs of independent thought and 
 activity. The company of adults is not sought 
 for by them as eagerly as before, but they feel 
 entire satisfaction in the society of children of 
 their own age. They think, as yet. little of the 
 realities of life and of their future careers ; but 
 their plays give more evidence, than before, of 
 plan, serious thought, and perseverance, and 
 generally indicate the faculties with which they 
 have been most strongly endowed ; each child, 
 in this way, foreboding to some extent its 
 future career. It is of great importance that 
 the educator should not only understand the 
 peculiar nature of this age in general, but that 
 he should thoroughly know the character of each 
 individual ; for the faults which are peculiar to 
 this age are best overcome in individual cases, if 
 the educator knows how to make the right kind 
 of appeal to those good qualities of his pupils 
 which are most strongly developed. !n arran- 
 ging a course of instruction for this age. it must 
 be specially remembered that the minds of boys 
 ami girls are predominantly receptive. Hie mem- 
 ory readily receives and faithfully retains im- 
 pressions: and this, therefore, is the right time 
 for learning a foreign language and geographical 
 and historical facts. The independence of mind 
 peculiar to this age shows itself at the same time 
 in the growth of imagination, which awakens in 
 the boy a lively interest in all that is great and 
 extraordinary in history. On many questions 
 telat in-- to the education proper for this age. 
 educators still differ. Prominent among these 
 
AGRICOLA 
 
 AGRICULTURAL COLLEGES 
 
 questions, are, whether the two sexes should be 
 educated separately or conjointly, to what extent 
 the same course of instruction should be pre- 
 scribed for both, whether special studies should be 
 begun at this age, or whether the entire course 
 should be obligatory for all the children of a 
 school. (See Co-education of the Sexes.) 
 
 The age of youth extends from the beginning 
 of puberty to the complete development of sexu- 
 ality, or from the fourteenth to about the twenty- 
 first year of age. At this time the growth of j 
 the body is completed ; young men and women j 
 become aware of their special duties of life and of 
 the difference in the careers upon which they are | 
 respectively to enter. The time of study is draw- I 
 ing to its close ; the entrance into active life is at | 
 hand. Among the lower classes of society, this 
 transition occurs at the beginning of this age; 
 and the only increase of knowledge that is access- j 
 ible to most persons of these classes must be de- 
 rived from evening schools, public lectures, and 
 reading ; while those of the wealthier classes, and 
 all who wish to fit themselves for any of the 
 learned professions, now enter upon the special 
 studies of those professions, or finish the general 
 studies of the preceding age. Toward the close of 
 this period, if not earner, the preparations for enter- 
 ing public life are completed,* >r an actual entrance 
 into life begins. —See Schw irz, Erziehungslekre; 
 
 ScHLEIERMACHEK, Erziekztngslehre, edited by 
 
 Platz; Beneke, Erziehungs- und Unterrichts- 
 lehre; Berbart, Umriss padagogiscTier Vor- 
 lesungen. 
 
 AGRICOLA, Rodolphus, an eminent edu- 
 cator of the middle ages, was horn in August 14-!3 
 (or 1442) at Baflo, near Groningen, in Holland. 
 Bis original name was Buysmann, which, after 
 the custom of his time, he exchanged for a Latin 
 name. After his native province, Friesland, he 
 is also sometime-; called Frisius. lie studied at 
 the universities of Louvain, Paris, and Ferrara; 
 and, after returning to bis native country, distin- 
 guished himself greatly by introducing the study 
 of Greek into the countries north of the Alps. 
 In 14S.'i, lie accepted an invitation from his 
 friend. Bishop Dalberg of Worms, and deliv- 
 ered lectures alternately at Beidelberg and at 
 Worms, lie died in Heidelberg, Oct. 28., 1485. 
 Ilis works, which are uol very numerous, are 
 written in Latin. His principal work De inven- 
 tione dialectica attacks the scholastic philosophy 
 of the age. In an educational point of view, his 
 epistle to Barbirianus in Antwerp, the so-called 
 Epistola de formando studio, is of special im- j 
 portance. At the time of its publication, it was 
 regarded as a compendium of the pedagogical 
 views of the German humanists. Its prime ob- 
 ject was to advise his friend as to the continua- 
 tion of hisstudies. Agricola recommended philos- 
 ophy, by which term he understood also ethics 
 and physics, and, in general, the entire range of 
 natural science, as the study most deserving his 
 friend's attention: he represents it as the only 
 road to true knowledge and perfect felicity. 
 the other science could procure only a 
 
 Willi" 
 
 doubtful happiness. The Latin language was 
 
 regarded at that time as necessary for this study, 
 but Agricola advised his friend always to repro- 
 duce what he had learned in German. Three 
 things were needed for pursuing any study: (1 ) To 
 understand what had been learned; (2) To retain 
 what had been understood ; (3) To derive ad- 
 vantage from what had been learned. The first 
 was obtained by application, the second was the 
 gift of memory, the third could only be ac- 
 quired by practice. While the works left by 
 Agricola would alone not suffice to assign to him 
 a prominent place among the educators of the 
 middle ages, it appears from the writings of his 
 contemporaries that his personal influence was 
 very great, and that, in fact, he was regarded as 
 second to none but his friend Reuchlin. His 
 letters to Reuchlin, to Alexander Hegi us, an ex- 
 cellent educator, who founded the famous school 
 of Deventer, to Antonius Liber of Soest, a very 
 zealous humanist, who. after fruitless efforts to 
 establish a school at Emmerich. Kampen, and 
 Amsterdam, at length succeeded at Alkmaar, 
 where he died in 1514, and to other contem- 
 poraries, contain a large amount of information 
 on the educational movements of his times. A 
 complete edition of the works of Agricola has 
 been published by Alardus, of Amsterdam (Co- 
 logne. L539). — See Schmidt. Oeschichte der Pa- 
 dagogik, h. 152; Ratjmer, Geschichte der Pdda- 
 <l<i(jJh\ trans, in Barnard's German Educational 
 Reformerst; Geiger, in Allgemeine Deutsche 
 Biographie, i, L51 — 156 ; Trebling, Vita et 
 merita Rudolphi Agricolce (Groningen, ls;J0) ; 
 Hallam's Literature of Europe. 
 
 AGRICULTURAL COLLEGES. It is 
 only within the last fourteen veal's that any 
 general and systematic effort has been made in 
 the United States to furnish facilities for acquir- 
 ing a thorough scientific and practical education 
 in agriculture. In 1862, Congress gave to the 
 several states and territories land scrip to the 
 amount of 30,000 acres for each senator and 
 representative in Congress, provided that each 
 state or territory, claiming the benefit of this 
 act, should, within five years from its passage. 
 "provide not less than one college, which should 
 receive for its endowment, support, and main- 
 tenance the interest of all moneys derived from 
 the sale of the aforesaid scrip or lands." It 
 was further required that " the leading object" 
 of these colleges ••should be, without excluding 
 other scientific and classical studies, and includ- 
 ing military tactics, to teach such branches of 
 learning as are related to agriculture and the 
 mechanic arts, in order to promote the liberal 
 and practical education of the industrial classes, 
 in the several pursuits and professions of life." 
 The main supporter of this law was the Hon. 
 • Iiistin S. Morrill, senator from Vermont. Of 
 all laws enacted, either state or national, for 
 the advancement of higher education, no one has 
 ever been productive of such fruitful results. 
 The originators ami framcrsof this law. "builded 
 
 better than they Unew." The tabulated state- 
 ment below, while it shows a vast amount ac- 
 complished in a short space of time, cannot, of 
 
AGRICULTURAL COLLEGES 
 
 9 
 
 necessity, give more than a faint idea of what 
 has been done in advancing agricultural edu- 
 cation in the single direction of a systematic 
 and thorough collegiate training. Looking back 
 over the last ten years, we notice that those 
 engaged in agriculture have made marvelous 
 progress in general information, as well as in 
 technical subjects having a direct bearing upon 
 their special calling. This has been largely 
 brought about by the munificent endowments of 
 ( 'ongress. For as soon as the act had become a 
 law, numerous energetic and far-seeing men 
 brought the matter prominently before the 
 several state legislatures, setting forth the great 
 benefits that would arise from an acceptance of 
 the donation. Some strenuously opposed its ac- 
 ceptance, as it would add heavy burdens, in order 
 to furnish buildings etc., to those already im- 
 posed by the war ; and others opposed it, believ- 
 ing the whole scheme to be chimerical and im- 
 practicable. Through these discussions, which 
 have not yet wholly ceased, much valuable in- 
 formation has been disseminated ; and the effect 
 has been, to arouse thoroughly the agricultural 
 classes to a sense of their rights and duties. 
 These earnest and continued discussions have 
 developed latent talents, and excited a desire for 
 information among the farmers, that is. as yet, 
 only partially gratified. They have made it pos- 
 sible to publish and sustain numerous agricult- 
 ural journals with regular contributions from 
 the pen of many of the ablest writers on the 
 practical and scientific subjects of the day. They 
 have created such a demand for agricultural 
 literature, that a large proportion of our relig- 
 ious and political journals devote more or less 
 space to the subject. These are but a few of the 
 incidental results of this wise and munificent act 
 of Congress : and they are none the less real or 
 beneficial, although they cannot be tabulated or 
 set forth in long columns of figures. Such rapid 
 strides have been made in some directions within 
 the last few years, that a chemist and a laboratory 
 have become a necessary adjunct to many of the 
 agricultural industries, — notably to that of the 
 manufacture of cheese, butter, and commercial 
 fertilizers. Up to 1865, the agricultural college 
 of Lansing, Mich., was the only one in the United 
 States in which students could pursue a college 
 course arranged and adapted to meet the wants 
 of those who might desire, in after years, to en- 
 gage in agriculture. Since that time, some thirty 
 colleges have been organized — about one half of 
 them from parts of universities — which are 
 largely devoted "to teaching such branches of 
 learning as are related to agriculture and the 
 mechanic arts." The donation of lands by Con- 
 gress did not furnish endowment sufficient fully 
 to equip and man these numerous institutions : 
 but it afforded the means to lay the firm founda- 
 tions upon which, aided by Btate and individual 
 munificence, have been reared many noble insti- 
 tutions of learning, which are doing an important 
 and much-needed work. We can hardly con- 
 ceive of the grand and important position these 
 institutions are to occupy when the wants of an 
 
 increased population shall furnish a demand for 
 the products of the soil at prices sulliciently re- 
 munerative to induce many trained and educated 
 men to embark in agriculture. 
 
 It is difficult to give an exact statement of the 
 present condition of agricultural colleges, since 
 they are only a part of colleges or universities 
 devoted also to teaching mechanic arts, and scien- 
 tific and classical studies more or less germane to 
 agriculture. We find that, in this department, and 
 in that of mechanics. there are at present about 300 
 professors and teachers. So far as reported, 361 
 students have graduated after a full course in 
 agriculture. According to the usual proportion 
 of freshmen to graduates, this would indicate 
 that 1,444 had pursued the course for a longer or 
 a shorter period. The number of graduates who 
 during their course have, to use the phraseology 
 of the act of Congress endowing these institu- 
 tions, pursued studies " relating to agriculture 
 and the mechanic arts," is <><>!> : making the total 
 number who have entered these courses, for a. 
 longer or a shorter period. 2,676. The number 
 of students, as far as reported, in all the depart- 
 ments of the institutions named, is 6,907, of 
 whom 715 are ladies, and 2,889 are receiving 
 instruction in military tactics. The minimum cost 
 of board — usually in clubs — is SI. 25 per week; 
 the maximum cost, $5.00; and the average, 
 $3.00. The cost of room rent per term ranges- 
 from $1.33 to $12.00. In all but two or three 
 institutions, some provision is made for a greater 
 or less number of free scholarships, and several 
 offer free tuition for all. As a general rule, no 
 pains have been spared by these colleges to fur- 
 nish all the facilities for pursuing a college course 
 at the least possible expense. Manual labor is re- 
 quired in 11 of the colleges ; in the others, it is 
 optional. The price paid for students' labor 
 ranges from 5 to IS cents per hour. State ap- 
 propriations have been made of nearly one and 
 a half million of dollars, which have been largely 
 used for erecting buildings. The amount of pri- 
 vate donations it is iuqwssible to arrive at ac- 
 curately, but they cannot fall short of $5,000,01)0. 
 The late Ezra Cornell gave $700,000 to the uni- 
 versity that bears his name, and the total amount 
 of private donations to this single institution is 
 not less than SI ,400.000, of which the colleges of 
 agriculture and the mechanic arts have received 
 their due proportion. The number and equipment 
 of laboratories, workshops, etc., in the colleges 
 that serve, directly or indirectly, to illustrate and 
 teach subjects relating to agriculture, an- as fol- 
 lows : mechanical laboratories or workshops, 10, 
 all of which are furnished with tools for work- 
 ing in ii and wood, and several with engines, 
 
 planers, turning-lathes, drilling-machines, saws. 
 
 and other necessary but less expensive tools; 
 physical laboratories, L6, most of which are 
 
 furnished with apparatus for illustrating the sub- 
 jects of mechanics, electricity, magnetism, heat, 
 
 acoustics, and optics. All. with one or two ex- 
 ceptions, have well equipped chemical labarato- 
 ries; and several of them furnish facilities for in- 
 struction in chemistry not excelled in any other 
 
10 
 
 AGRICULTURAL COLLEGES 
 
 institutions in the United States. Nine anatom- 
 ical, 12 geological, and 15 botanical laboratories 
 are already equipped for student practice. Eight 
 of these colleges have greenhouses in operation ; 
 most of them have drafting-rooms, with the 
 necessary tables and models for illustrating the 
 subjects taught. A large amount of practice in 
 drawing is, moreover, required in several of the 
 branches related to agriculture. Eree-hand 
 • hawing, as yet, has not been largely introduced. 
 Some ten colleges have large collections of mod- 
 els of farm implements and machinery; engrav- 
 ings, photographs, charts, and drawings; to- 
 gether with numerous specimens of grains, 
 grasses, anil other plants ; geological and miner- 
 alogical specimens : collections of insects and 
 skeletons of domestic anl other animals: all 
 constituting what might be called an agricult- 
 ural museum, though usually kept in separate 
 rooms for the sake of convenience. Ten of these 
 institutions offer one or more prizes for good 
 scholarship; six report, through their lea ling 
 otficer, that the effect of offering such prizes 
 appears to be "good ;" six consider it "bad;" 
 two. "doubtful :' one, •• that it depends on cir- 
 cumstances :" one. that it is " a healthy stimu- 
 lant to be carefully used : " and one. " won con- 
 slat" \\ least twelve appear to have kept care- 
 ful accounts of farm receipts and expenditures; 
 but since we have no reports of the amount of 
 increase in the valuations of farm-stock, imple- 
 ments, etc., it is impossible to say whether the 
 farms are worked at a profit or a loss. The 
 total gross receipts of twelve farms reported, for 
 L874, are $64,329.60, or an average of $5,360.80 
 per farm. The total expenditures for experi- 
 ments, during the same year, on eight of these 
 farms, are S"\l-13.2<>. This indicates that farm 
 experiments are not, as yet, carried on to any 
 great extent ; and the reason for this is, doubt- 
 less, a lack of means rather than of disposition. 
 Every professor of agriculture fully appreciates 
 the benefit, not only to his class but to himself 
 as well, of extended and systematically conducted 
 experiments. They are, indeed, effective but 
 costly auxiliaries to the class-room lectures. 
 There is a constantly increasing tendency to- 
 ward using the farm and its appliances, regard- 
 Less of pro'it or loss, in order to teach and illus- 
 trate the principles of agriculture, rather than — - 
 as has too often been the case using it simply 
 as a means of increasing the common fund. The 
 aggregate number of acres used for general and 
 experimental farming by twenty of these col- 
 leges is 5,081 ; added to which there are 1 12 
 acres of orchard. 92 acres of vegetable gar- 
 den, 29 acres of small-fruit garden, 1,360 acres 
 of native timber, 438 acres of planted timber, 
 and 580 acres used as college "■rounds. Though 
 
 we find thai the planted timber is about six 
 
 acres to each hundred of arable land, - w Inch is 
 
 certainly a very creditable showing yet forestry 
 i- taught to but a limited extent, there being no 
 
 distinctive course yel marked out in that branch 
 of study. We are far behind some of the Euro 
 j »ean countries in our facilities and methods for 
 
 training students in the art and practice of the 
 care, preservation, and planting of forests. As 
 a part of the equipment for illustration and 
 practice on these farms, are found some 500 head 
 of neat-cattle. 236 of which are thorough-breds. 
 representing nine distinct 1 needs. The horses 
 and mules number 129, only 3 of which are 
 thorough-breds: the total number of sheep is 
 233, of which 58 are pure bloods of various 
 breeds; the swine exceed 500, including about 
 4()i> pure-bred animals, representing nearly all of 
 the well-established breeds. This aggregation of 
 laboratories, workshops, museums, greenhouses, 
 orchards, gardens, farms, and domestic animals 
 is furnished and provided for the express pur- 
 pose of affording, not only the means for illus- 
 trating the subjects taught, but actual experience 
 and skill in those processes which require that 
 the judgment, eye. and hand, as well as the in- 
 tellect, should be trained. 
 
 The propriety and expediency of the Congres- 
 sional grant by means of which these institu- 
 tions have been established, have been seriously 
 called in question; indeed, it has been held that 
 the function of government should be strictly 
 confined to the promotion of elementary instruc- 
 tion. In L873, President Eliot, of Harvard 
 College, took strong ground against the endow- 
 ment, by the Government, of institutions for su- 
 perior or technical instruction, and was sus- 
 tained in this view by President McCosh and 
 others. At the session of the National Educa- 
 tional Association, held at Elmira, N. V., in Au- 
 gust, L873, this question was considerably dis- 
 cussed, and the principle underlying the endow- 
 ment of the agricultural colleges was ably vindi- 
 cated in a paper by Prof. <i. W. Atherton, of 
 New Jersey, entitled The Relation of ike Gen- 
 eral Government to Education, in which he 
 said. " These younger institutions have a larger 
 average of students, by more than one-tenth. 
 than the long-established colleges, and are fairly 
 occupying with them the field of higher educa- 
 tion. In an important sense, however, they are 
 not the rivals of the older colleges. Their grad- 
 uates, to only a limited extent . enter the learned 
 professions. They become engineers, farmers. 
 mechanics, architects. They labor with hand 
 ami brain. They become leaders and organizers 
 of labor, and thus precisely fulfill (he intent of 
 Congress when it designed these institutions to 
 furnish a ' liberal and practical education to the 
 industrial classes'" Prof. Atkinson, on the 
 same occasion, took similar ground. "What, 
 said he, "is the government domain but the 
 property of the people, and to what higher use 
 can the people put it than to promote the higher 
 as well as the lower education of all the people? 
 
 We have in this country no aristocracy of edu- 
 cation — not one education, as in the old country . 
 
 for the ' masses.' and another and higher one for 
 the privileged minority. The republican prin- 
 ciple is, the best education for all the best and 
 
 highest education for the ' masses.' That is the 
 only principle on which republican institutions 
 can be founded." The words of Washington 
 
AGRICULTURAL COLLEGES 
 
 11 
 
 fully justify this principle: "In proportion as 
 the structure of a government gives force to 
 public opinion, it is essential that public opinion 
 should be enlightened." 
 
 t 'ourse of Study. -The full course of four 
 vcars in agriculture comprises the following sub- 
 jects: (In some eases, a few are omitted or a few 
 aided: hut those mentioned will serve to show 
 
 what studies are now generally considered appli- 
 cable and necessary in this course) — (1) algebra; 
 (2) solid, plane, and analytical geometry, trigo- 
 nometry, and the calculus: [H) rhetoric and 
 composition, declamation and English literature; 
 (4) drawing, free-hand and linear; (5) surveying 
 and mapping ; (6) book-keeping, especially applied 
 to farm accounts: 1 7i botany, general and agricult- 
 ural ; (8) horticulture, floriculture, and general, 
 market, and landscape Hardening; (9) history, 
 which may comprise one or more of the follow- 
 ing: American, English, Roman, French, agricult- 
 ural, and history of civilization ; (10) physiology, 
 hygiene, and comparative anatomy. (11) zo- 
 ology and entomology; (12) veterinary anatomy, 
 physiology, medicine, and surgery ; (13) chem- 
 istry, general and agricultural ; (14) French and 
 German, usually extending through not less 
 than two or three terms (when both languages 
 are not required. German is usually preferred); 
 (15) physics, geology, mineralogy, and meteo- 
 rology; (16) constitutional and municipal law 
 and political economy; (IT) mechanics applied 
 to agriculture : (18) strength and preservation of 
 materials; (1!)) rural architecture. The subjects 
 treated of under the head of applie 1 or practical 
 agriculture — with slight changes — are as follows : 
 (1) stock-breeding, including the laws of likeness 
 or similarity, variation and atavism ; the influence 
 on the subsequent progeny of the dam. by tlu 
 first fruitful connection, in-and-in and miscel- 
 laneous breeding, the government of sex, the 
 relative influence of sire and dam on the prog- 
 eny, pedigrees and their value, the history, forma- 
 tion, and characteristics of breeds and families ; 
 ("_') the selection, breeding, feeding, and general 
 management of domestic animals, each species 
 and race being treated of separately ; (3) annual 
 nutrition ; (4) the education, shoeing, driving, 
 and care of the horse; (5) drains, — their material 
 anil construction, and the effect of drainage on 
 health, soil, climate, and plants; (6) soils, — their 
 classification, character, mechanical division, and 
 preparation for the cereals and grasses ; (7) the 
 
 preparation and selection of seed; (8) sowing, 
 planting, cultivating, and harvesting; (9) the 
 nutrition of plants; (10) insect enemies and 
 fungi; (11) the culture of roots and their value 
 as food for man and beast ; (12) forage plants, — 
 their culture, use, and value; (13) weeds, — 
 their habit of growth, time of seeding, and mode 
 of eradication : (14) the effects of air. water, heat, 
 and light, on the fertility of the soil and the 
 growth of plants; (15) the care, cultivation, and 
 us- of natural and artificial forests; (16) fields, 
 
 — their number, shape, and size; (17) fences. 
 
 — their material, construction, and durability ; 
 (18) farm yards and buildings ; (1!)) water priv- 
 
 ileges; (20) farm accounts; (21) the manufact- 
 ure, preservation, and application of farm ma- 
 nures: (22) the rotation of crops : (23) farm ma- 
 chinery and tools; (24) rural law. The subjects 
 of instruction, as tar as possible, are illustrated 
 by diagrams, cuts, and models. The lectures 
 are supplemented by field practice, varying from 
 5 to 15 hours per week, and sometimes even 
 more. Visits are frequently made to adjoining 
 farms and herds. The lectures and practice 
 usually extend through at least one year. The 
 
 foregoing statement shows conclusively that there 
 has been an earnest, systematic, and successful 
 effort to promote the education of the rural clas- 
 ses; and it may be truthfully said, that, within 
 the last ten years, no other department of educa- 
 tion has made an equal degree of advancement. 
 
 The lirst agricultural school in Europe was 
 founded, in 1804, by Fellenberg, at Ilofwyl in 
 Switzerland. It flourished tor more than 30 
 
 years under the excellent directi >f Wehrli, 
 
 and educated nearly 3,000 pupils. 'I he success of 
 Ilofwyl led to the establishment of other schools 
 of the same character; and. at present, such 
 schools are found in every country of Europe. 
 They are very numerous in Germany and Aus- 
 tria, and are divided into two classes. — a lower, 
 called Ackerbauschule, intended chiefly to give 
 practical instruction in agriculture, and a higher, 
 called Landwirlhschafisschule, in which the 
 whole science of agriculture, with all its auxil- 
 iary sciences, is taught. The most celebrated 
 among the schools of a higher class are those at 
 Hohenheim (established in 1818), Schleisheim 
 (1822), Jena (1826), Eldena (1835). Wiesbaden 
 (1836), Tharand (1829), Regenwalde (1842), 
 Poppelsdorf (1H46), Proskau (1847), I ngarisch- 
 Altenburg (181 8). Special chairs of agriculture 
 have been established at the universities of Rer- 
 lin, Halle, Gottingen, Munich, Leipsic, Uiessen, 
 and Jena ; and instruction in agriculture is also 
 given in the polytechnic schools. England has 
 a Royal Agricultural College at Cirencester, 
 founded in 1849 ; and in Scotland, the Uni- 
 versity of Edinburgh has a chair of agriculture, 
 and special lectures are given in a college at 
 Aberdeen. Ireland has two agricultural schools 
 of a higher grade, — one at Templemoyle, founded 
 in 1827; and the other at Glasnevin, founded 
 in L838. France has three higher agricultural 
 schools and one school of forestry. In Italy, 
 there are two agricultural schools of a higher 
 grade, at Milan and 1'ortici. Russia, besides 
 a large number of schools of agriculture and 
 forestry of a lower grade, has an Agricultural 
 Institute at Gorygorezk, founded in L836, an 
 Institute of Agriculture and forestry at New 
 Alexandria, and an Academy of Agriculture 
 and forestry at Pctrovskoi. See LoEBE, Die 
 landwirthschofUichen LehranstaUen Europa's 
 (Stuttgart. L849) ; Schulz, Die (heoretisch-prak- 
 tische Ackerbauschule (Jena, 1869). 
 
 In the following tabular exhibit, will be found 
 a full statement of the location, condition, re- 
 sources, etc., of all the agricultural colleges and 
 departments in the United States. 
 
12 
 
 AGRICULTURAL COLLEGES 
 
 STATE 
 
 TOWN 
 
 Arkansas Fayetteville 
 
 Alabama Auburn 
 
 California Oakland 
 
 Connecticut New Haven 
 
 Delaware Newark 
 
 Florida J 
 
 ... ' ( Athens ) 
 
 Borgia | Dahlonega . . . } 
 
 Illinois Champaign 
 
 Indiana La Fayette 
 
 Iowa 'Ames 
 
 Kansas 'Manhattan 
 
 Kentucky . 
 Louisiana . 
 Maine 
 
 Lexington 
 
 Orono 
 
 Maryland Near Hyattsvillo, 
 
 (Boston 
 
 Massachusetts 
 
 ( Amherst . 
 Lansing 
 
 Michigan . . 
 
 Minnesota Minneapolis 
 
 Mississippi Oxford 
 
 Missouri jColumbia 
 
 Nebraska Lincoln 
 
 Nevada lElko 
 
 New Hampshire Hanover 
 
 New Jersey 
 
 New York 
 
 North Carolina. 
 
 Ohio 
 
 Oregon 
 
 Pennsylvania . . 
 
 Hhode Island. . , 
 South Carolina. 
 Tennessee , 
 
 Texas 
 
 \ ermont 
 
 New Brunswick. 
 
 Ithaca 
 
 Chapel Hill 
 
 Columbus 
 
 Cor vail is 
 
 State College. 
 
 Providence. . . 
 Orangeburg . 
 Knoxville 
 
 Bryan 
 
 Burlington . . 
 
 Name and location of insti- 
 tution, and date of organiza- 
 tion 
 
 Virginia 
 
 West Virginia. 
 Wisconsin 
 
 ! (Hampton 
 
 f Blaoksburgb 
 antown . . 
 
 M:i llS'in 
 
 ( Ark. Indus. University, i 
 
 ( Jan. 1871 j 
 
 | Agr. & Mechan. Coll. of 
 ( Alabama, March 1872. 
 ( Univ. of California, Fall 
 I of 1869 
 
 Yale Coll. — Sheffield 
 
 Scientific School, 1846. . 
 
 Delaware College 
 
 Florida State Agr. Coll. 
 
 Univ. of ( Coll. of Agr. 
 
 Georgia. ( & Mech. Arts 
 (HI. Indus. University, 
 
 I March 1808 
 
 ( Perdue Univ., Septem- 
 ( ber 16th, 1874 
 
 Iowa State Agr. Coll. '68 
 
 Kansas State Agr. Coll. 
 
 (Agr. & Mechan. Coll. of 
 ( Kentucky, 1866 
 
 ( Maine State Coll. of Agr. ) 
 ( & Mech. Arts. 186'.).. . J 
 
 Maryland Agr. Coll., '68 
 I Mass. Inst, of Technol- 1 
 
 I ogy ( 
 
 \ Muss. Agr. College, Oc- I 
 
 I tober 2d, 1867 j 
 
 I Mich. State Agr. Coll.. I 
 ( February 1855 ) 
 
 Univ. of Minn., 1868.... 
 
 Univ. of Mississippi .... 
 
 /Univ. of Mo., 1840 
 
 \ Agr. College, organized 
 
 ) 1870 
 
 { Agr. Coll. of Nebraska, i 
 | June 1872 J 
 
 Prep. Department 
 
 Dartmouth Coll.— N. H. 
 Coll. of Agr. & Mech. 
 Arts 
 
 Rutgers College, 1770... 
 
 Cornell University. 1868 
 
 Univ. of North Carolina 
 
 (Ohio Agr. & Mech. Col-) 
 
 ( lege, 1873. ( 
 
 (Corvallis College, Au- 
 
 I gust, 1868 
 
 j Pennsylvania State Col- 1 
 I lege, February 1859..] 
 
 Brown University 
 
 I ( llaflin University .Stale > 
 I Agr. Coll. & Mech. Ins. ) 
 
 Tenn. Agr. Coll.. 1869.. . 
 
 I Agr. & Mech. coll. of 
 
 I Texas 
 
 I Univ. of Vermont and I 
 
 state Agr. coll.. 1866. j 
 
 Hampton Normal \- Agr. | 
 
 i ustitution ) 
 
 ( Virginia Agr & Mech. i 
 
 \ College, 1872 i 
 
 West Virginia Univ 
 
 I ii\ . el' Wisconsin. 1868 
 
 Name. 
 
 title, and age 
 president 
 
 of 
 
 N. P. Gates, A. M., 42. . . 
 
 Rev. I. F. Tichenor, 
 D. D.,49 
 
 U (J 
 
 ^i re. 
 
 O h 
 
 ■- - 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 '— 
 
 
 a 
 
 
 c 
 
 SJ 
 
 
 
 — 
 
 V 
 
 E 
 
 
 
 r. 
 
 u 
 
 
 
 — 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 < 
 
 
 z 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 — 
 
 u 
 
 3 
 
 - 
 
 
 u 
 
 
 
 O 
 
 
 O 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 ■z: ■ • 
 
 3-3 J= 
 
 ~ t» 'J 
 
 a 3 v 
 -O s<5 
 
 2 5-ca 
 N> u . 
 
 g o< 
 
 u ° o 
 
 £ 5 »J 
 
 °5; 
 
 6.2 
 
 
 s-s 
 
 Rev. Noah Porter, D. D., 
 LL. D 
 
 Win. H. Purnell, A.M.. 
 (Not yet organized.] 
 
 Bev. A. Lipscomb, D. D. 
 
 John M. Gregory, LL.D., 
 
 regent 
 
 A. M. Shortridge, A.i 
 
 M., 42 
 
 A. S. Welch, LL.D., 53.. 
 ( Rev. Joseph Deuison, 
 
 I D. D 
 
 J. B. Bowman, LL. D., 
 
 regent 
 
 Not yet organized.) 
 
 Rev. C.F. .Allen, D.D., 59 
 
 W. H. Parker. 49 
 
 John D. Runkle, Ph. D.. 
 LL. D 
 
 W. S. Clark, LL. D., 50.. 10 
 
 10 
 
 5 
 
 20 
 
 35 
 10 
 
 11 
 
 29 
 
 1 
 13 
 
 13 
 
 7 
 34 
 
 T. C. Abbot, LL.D. 
 
 W.W. Folwell. M. A..43. 
 < Rev. J. N. Waddel, D. D., 
 I Chancellor 
 
 D. Read. LL. D..68 
 
 S. R. Thompson Dean. 42 
 
 I D. R. Sessions, Prin- 
 i cipal. 36 
 
 Rev. Asa D. Smith, D.D., 
 LL. D 
 
 (Rev. W. H. Campbell. 
 
 i Ii. D 
 
 A.D.White, LL.D, 43.. 
 (Not yet organized.) 
 
 Edward Orton. A. M... 
 B. L. Arnold, A. M.,38.. 
 
 Jas. Calder, D. D , 50... 
 
 (Bev. E. G. Robinson. ]). 
 j D., LL.D 
 
 Bev. K.Cooke. A.M., M.l> 
 | Rev. T. W. Humes. S. T. 
 | D., 60 
 
 Not yel organized.] 
 M. D.Buckham, A.M.. 43 
 
 S. C. Armstrong. 86. . . . 
 
 c. I., c. Minor, M. \.. 
 1. 1.. D., 30 
 
 13 
 
 10 
 13 
 
 25 
 
 i Rev. .1. H.Twombly, l> 
 
 i i>.. 48 
 
 ii 
 
 10 
 23 
 
 10 
 5 
 
 11 
 
 16 
 
 7 
 18 
 
 7 
 
 16 
 
 54* 
 
 22 
 
 
 40 
 
 77 
 123 
 
 40 
 
 1 
 
 •jo 
 
 
 15 
 
 344 
 
 15 
 
 88 
 
 
 312 
 
 
 230 
 
 56 
 SO 277 
 
 71 
 352 
 
 iss 
 512 
 
 166 
 
 52 148 
 255 
 
 30 
 
 292 
 
 12 
 
 P 
 
 1" 
 
 2501 
 123 407 P 
 
 P 
 P 
 
 113 P 
 
 37 | Ii:. 
 56 
 
 77 I 100J 
 123 156J 
 11 255 P 
 
 4911 P 
 
 18 P 
 
 18 
 
 479 
 
 P 
 
 1' 
 
 23 91 
 200 P 
 
 222 P 
 345 P 
 
 * No distinct degree for these departments. Graduated as Ph. B. 
 ** No Beport . 
 
AGRICULTURAL COLLEGES 
 
 13 
 
 age 
 LH 83 
 
 45 
 
 L15 
 
 L16 
 L16 
 
 79 
 
 
 M 
 
 10—15 cts 
 8 cts 
 
 $130,000 
 
 L15 8 
 
 L16| 
 
 L 
 L14 
 
 
 59 
 
 L16 87 
 
 L15 
 1,14 
 
 1, 17 40 
 
 12 } z cts 
 
 7—10 its 
 9 cts 
 
 5—10 cts 
 10 cts 
 
 15 cts 
 10 cts 
 15 cts 
 
 12 cts 
 10—15 cts 
 
 L 
 
 L14 
 
 50 
 
 1,16 
 L14 
 
 89 
 
 $130,000 
 
 $253,000 
 
 $120,000 
 
 15 cts 
 
 10—18 cts 
 
 5—10 cts 
 
 5 — 8 cts 
 7—18 cts 
 
 15 cts 
 
 $319,000 
 
 $371,000 
 $500,000 
 
 $1G5,000 
 
 $134,000 
 
 $12,800 
 
 $450,000 
 $231,377 
 $256,037 
 
 $319,000 
 $212,238 
 
 $165,000 
 $134,000 
 
 $170,000 
 $231,377 
 $256,037 
 
 $54,749 
 
 
 25,000 a. t 
 $75,000) 
 
 
 
 31.321 a. 
 
 
 
 165,154 a.) 
 
 $495,463 j 
 149,374 a. I 
 
 $945,770) 
 
 200,000 a. ) 
 $325,000 ) 
 
 90,000 a. ) 
 $300,000 ) 
 
 $25,000 
 $22,000 
 
 $50,000 to 
 53,000 
 
 $40,000 to 
 $48,000 
 
 $10,000 
 $20,000 
 
 $6,000 
 
 $145,000 
 $100,000 
 
 K(l -1 ■> 
 
 86 
 
 $35,000 
 
 $18,000 
 
 $13,000 
 $12,800 
 
 $25,000 
 
 variable 
 
 $34,698 
 
 $63,467 
 
 $27,710 
 
 $20,000 
 $32,000 
 
 7(1 
 
 $2,500. Farm 70 
 
 $65,000 50C 
 
 $210,000 ; 145 
 $60,000 , 294 
 
 4d 
 40 
 
 35 
 
 8 4 
 
 Id 1(1 
 
 $397,325 
 $1,261,999 
 
 $116,000 
 $601,999 
 
 $500,000 
 
 $395,267 
 $50,000 
 
 $396,000 $268,909 
 
 $125,000 
 $210,000 
 
 $220,833 
 
 ( 400,000 a. \ 
 { $2,000,000 ) 
 
 90,000 a. 
 
 
 $9,900 
 
 $8,000 
 $6,000 
 
 $8,500 
 $16,196 
 $10,699 
 
 $5,474 
 
 
 $107,500 
 
 $250,000 
 
 $180,000 
 $100,000 
 
 $250,000 
 $231,407 
 $147,713 
 
 2,250. Stock 
 
 400 7 12 
 
 370 
 285 
 
 383 
 150 
 114 
 
 640 
 293 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 5 
 8 
 2 3 
 
 20 
 
 is 
 
 1 
 
 
 1^ 
 
 $6,960 
 $40,000 
 
 $40,000 
 Farm & Stock 
 
 $56,000 
 
 $122,626 
 
 $95,000 
 
 $190,000 
 
 
 
 
 
 52,403 a. \ 
 $65,503) 
 
 $6,500 
 $32,923 $30,000 
 
 $20,500 $22,572 
 
 $19,000 
 $40,000 
 
 is, Kill 
 $10,329 
 $20,629 
 
 $65,781 $16,148 
 
 $632,000 
 
 $125,000 
 
 $180,000 
 
 $209,500 
 
 $38,950 
 
 95 
 124 
 
 227 
 
 200 
 
 5 
 10| 6 
 
 
 150 
 
 150 
 
 175 
 
 35 
 
 40 
 
 300 
 
 
 
 250 
 
 
 
 20 
 
 
 
 300 
 
 75 
 55 
 
 21 
 
 23 
 90 
 
 50 
 
 22 
 
 
 
 20 
 
 ll 60 
 
 
 12 
 
 20 
 
 30 
 1 
 
 185:18 
 
 300 5 
 150 6 
 
 2d 
 
 30 
 
 65 
 
 l! 
 
 50 
 
 •jo 
 
 1 
 
 
 60 
 
 60 
 
 26 
 
 20 
 
 10 
 30 
 
 80 
 
14 
 
 ANN 
 
 ALABAMA 
 
 AHN, Johann Franz, a (Jerman teacher, 
 noted for his method of teaching foreign lan- 
 guages, was born in 179(*>, and died in 1865. He 
 gave instruction for many years in the Meal- 
 schule at Neuss, and published several manuals 
 for teaching the German and other languages ; 
 but his chief work was his Practiced Method/or 
 tin' rapid and easy Learning of the French 
 Language (Praktischer Lehrgang zur schnel- 
 len und leichten fflrlernung der franzb'siscJien 
 Sprache). 'Phis work, between L834 and 1875, 
 passed through 190 editions. He was also the 
 author of several works in general literature, llis 
 elementary books on the study of foreign lan- 
 guages have been translated into all the languages 
 of the civilized world, and have everywhere found 
 an immense circulation. The fame thus acquired 
 by Aim's method of studying foreign languages 
 has led to numerous imitations, not a few of 
 which are utterly unworthy of the just reputa- 
 tion of the original author. The method of Aim 
 was. to a. large extent, founded on the works of Dr. 
 Seidenstucker, and combines both the analytical 
 ami the synthetical method. The principle on 
 which it is ba£ed is. that the mode of learning 
 a foreign language should, as closely as possible, 
 correspond to the manner in which a child 
 acquires a knowledge of his native tongue. 
 
 AINSWORTH, Robert, an English teacher 
 and scholar of considerable eminence, was born 
 
 in L660, and died in 1.743. He taught private 
 schools for some years, but having soon obtained 
 a competency, he was enabled to relinquish the 
 business of teaching. From 171 4 to 1736, he was 
 engaged in compiling the Latin dictionary which 
 has made him famous. This work was extensively 
 used in schools both in England and in the United 
 States, but has for some years been superseded 
 by works of greater accuracy. 
 
 ALABAMA, one of the southern states of 
 the American Union, was originally a part of 
 Georgia, except the south-western portion, which 
 belonged to Florida. It was set off from Georgia, 
 in L798, as a portion of the Territory of Missis- 
 sippi, from 1 si 7 to L819, it was known as the 
 Territory of Alabama, in the latter year, being 
 admitted into the Union as a state. Its area is 
 50,722 si|. m. : and its population, in 1870, was 
 996,992, of whom 521,384 were whites: 475,510, 
 colored persons; and 98, Indians. 
 
 Educational History. — The first constitution 
 of the state declared that "schools and the means 
 of education should be forever encouraged," and 
 gave directions for the preservation of all land 
 
 grants r ived for this purpose from the general 
 
 government, and the seminary lands for a "state 
 university for the promotion of the arts, litera- 
 ture, and science." Attempts were made, in 
 L823, and at various times thereafter, to organize 
 an efficient public-School system; but little was 
 accomplished ti!L 1854, when a general system 
 was established under which, according to the 
 report of the supc rintendent of education, the 
 state, in lNf>7, was "in proportion to her white 
 tax-paying and school-attending population, far 
 ahead of nearly all the southern states, and most 
 
 of the New England states ; was the superior, 
 in the school room, of even Massachusetts; and 
 was almost the peer of New York and Pennsyl- 
 vania/' In L856, county superintendents were 
 substituted for the county boards of school com- 
 missioners previously existing. Under this sys- 
 tem, township trustees had complete control of 
 the school funds, and could aid schools already 
 established according to their discretion. In 
 1860, according to the census of that year, there 
 were in the state 1.903 public schools, with I'd ,751 
 pupils, and 17 colleges, attended by 2,120 stu- 
 dents, besides 206 academies and other schools, 
 with 10.77s pupils. The income for the support 
 of common schools was $489,474, of which near- 
 ly $200,000 was derived from public funds. The 
 progress made during the previous decade is in- 
 dicated by the fact that, in 1 Sat), there were re- 
 ported 127,390 children in the state, of whom 
 only 35,039 were attending school. The consti- 
 tution of the state, ratified Feb. 4., L868, ex- 
 pressly provided that all children between the 
 ages of 5 and 21 years should be educated free 
 of charge; and in accordance with its provisions, 
 a new system was adopted the same year, which 
 placed the schools under the supervision and 
 control of a. board of education, and gave to 
 county superintendents much of the power be- 
 fore committed lo township trustees. In L871, 
 the school law was again changed, the control of 
 the schools being entrusted to a state superin- 
 tendent, district superintendents, and township 
 trustees, all elected by the people. 'I he state 
 board of education was abolished, its duties be- 
 ing discharged by the legislature, which, in the 
 words of tiie law, "shall designate, in advance, 
 such days as they may deem best (during the 
 session of the general assembly) for the consider- 
 ation of measures relating to the educational in- 
 terests of the state; on which days the state 
 Superintendent shall be entitled to a seat in the 
 house then considering educational measures, 
 and shall have, and may exercise. all of the rights 
 and privileges of a member of such house, but 
 have no vote." In 1872.-.':. and - I, various 
 changes were made in the school law; but the 
 new constitution of the state, which took effect 
 December (>.. 1875, supersedes all laws previous- 
 Iv passed, and confirms that portion of the act 
 proposed in 1871, which relates to the admin- 
 istration of the schools. 
 
 State Superintendents. — The office of state 
 superintendent was first tilled by General W. F. 
 
 Perry, his title being Superintendent of Educa- 
 
 eation. He was elected by the legislature in 
 
 L854. His successor, in 1854, was »i. It. l>u Val, 
 
 who died in office, his successor being. I. B.Taylor. 
 who was appointed to lill the vacancy in L865. 
 
 John Ryan was elected to the office in L866,and 
 
 served till L867, when the office was merged in 
 that of State comptroller, its duties being per- 
 formed by M. A. Chishohn. from November. 
 L867,t0 -inly. L868. In that year, the title of 
 the office was changed to that of Superintendent 
 .a Public Instruction, N. B. Cloud being the 
 first incumbent, llis successors were J. llodg- 
 
ALATtAMA. 
 
 15 
 
 son (1870—72); Joseph II. Speed (1872—4); 
 John M. McKleroy (1874—6); and I.croy P. Box, 
 with the title of Superintendent of Education, 
 restored by the constitution of 1875. 
 
 School System. — By the law of L877, the 
 officers i>f the school system are (1) a superin- 
 tendent of education for the state, (2) a county 
 superintendent in each county, and (■">) three 
 trustees of public schools in each township or 
 other school district. The state superintendent 
 is elected by the people, and holds office for two 
 years. I lc is required to give a bond in the sum 
 of 815,000, for the faithful performance of his 
 
 duties, which are as follows: ( 1 ) To exercise a 
 
 general supervision over all the educational in- 
 terests of the state ; (2) To visit annually every 
 county in the state for the purpose of inspecting 
 the schools and their management, assisting also 
 in the organization and managementof teachers' 
 institutes: (3) To apportion and distribute an- 
 nually the school money as prescribed by law, 
 and to sec to its proper disbursement; (4) To 
 keep proper records, and to prepare and dis- 
 tribute to the other school officers necessary 
 blanks : (5) To keep in his office an accurate ac- 
 count of the capital of all sixteenth-section or 
 other trust fund to which each township may be 
 entitled: and (6) To make an annual report to 
 the governor. The county superintendents are 
 appointed by the state superintendent for two 
 years. Their duties are to pay the teachers, to 
 receive and take charge of the school moneys of 
 the county,and distribute the same, and to make 
 an annual report of their proceedings and the con- 
 dition of the schools of the county, to the state 
 superintendent. They are required to give bonds 
 for the faithful performance of their duties. — 
 Three township trustees are elected biennially 
 who have the immediate control of the schools. 
 subject to supervision by the county superintend- 
 ent. In several of the cities, special school laws 
 are in force, by which the immediate manage- 
 ment of the schools is entrusted to city boards ol 
 commissioners, subject cither to the supervision 
 of the county superintendent, or of city super- 
 intendents. Four grades of schools are compre- 
 hended in the operation of the law — primary, 
 intermediate, grammar, and high schools. In the 
 filet, spelling, reading, and the elements of arith- 
 metic and of geography are taught ; in the 
 second, these studies are continued, with the ad- 
 dition of grammar and writing; in the third, 
 etymology, composition, history, and elocution 
 are added : and in the fourth, the higher branches 
 common to schools of this grade are pursued. 
 The school fund is composed of "the income 
 from the 16th section trust fund, the surplus 
 revenue fund, until it is called for by the United 
 States government :" the proceeds of " all lands 
 or other property given by individuals or ap- 
 propriated by the state for educational purposes, 
 and all estates of deceased persons who die with- 
 out leaving a will or heir:" " an annual poll tax. 
 not to exceed one dollar and fifty cents on each 
 poll ;" with such other moneys, " to be not less 
 than §100,000 per annum, as the general as- 
 
 sembly shall provide by taxation or otherwise." 
 It is. also, made the duty of the assembly to 
 increase, from time to time, the public school 
 fund, as the condition of the treasury ami the 
 resources of the state will admit.' In addition 
 to this, each county may raise, by annual taxa- 
 tion, an amount not exceeding 10 cents on each 
 $100 of taxable property. Ninety- six percent 
 of the money raised oi- appropriated must be 
 
 used for the payment of teachers unless other- 
 wise directed by a vote of two-thirds of each 
 branch of the legislature. Schools tor whites and 
 blacks must be separate. Sectarian or denomina- 
 tional schools are not cut it led to any share of the 
 public-school money. 'I he school age is from 7 
 to 21 years. 
 
 Educational Condition. — The number of 
 school-districts in the state, in 1875, was 1,696, 
 the area of each being six miles square except in 
 the ease of fractional townships. In each of these 
 districts, there must be. at least, one school for 
 each race, — white and colored. The *'/'<><>{ reve- 
 nue, at that time, was as follows : 
 
 Interest on Kith section fond $146,983.32 
 
 " " the surplus revenue 
 
 fund 53,526.94 
 
 One-fifth of the state revenui 
 
 the previous year 209,887. 1 1 
 
 Poll-tax collected in IsT'J— :;.. . . - 0,486.66 
 '• •• '« 1S7.» 73,555.30 
 
 Total $564,439.66 
 
 This state has received from the Peabody fund, 
 since 1868, §59,550. The amount received in 
 1875 was |4,300. (See Peabody Fund.) 
 
 The expenditures were as folloyvs : 
 Poll-tax disbursed by superintend- 
 ents $73,555.30 
 
 Apportioned to counties and 
 
 cities 176,332.29 
 
 Apportioned to normal schools. . . 10,000.00 
 Incidental expenses 2,550.00 
 
 Total $562,437.59 
 
 The other principal items of school statistics 
 
 are the following : 
 
 No. of children of school age: white, '.'.'!:!, 7:;:: 
 
 colored, 172,537 
 
 Total 40"3,270 
 
 No. of children enrolled: white, 91,202 
 
 colored, ."> 4 ,.">!»"> 
 
 Total 145,797 
 
 Avcrage attendance: white, 67,024 
 
 colored, 4::,22:> 
 
 Total. 
 
 Xo. of teachers: 
 
 white, male, 1,669 
 
 " female, 1,006 
 
 colored, male, 1,002 
 
 female, 'isl 
 
 .110,253 
 
 Total 3,961 
 
 Average monthly salary, white teachers $26.50 
 
 » " " colored " $'!'■ 87 
 
 Normal Instruction. — Three state normal 
 schools are in existence, the expenditure for 
 which, during the year 1875, was 810,000. The 
 first, at Florence, organized' in 1873, is designed 
 for the education of white teachers of both sexes. 
 
■11 ; 
 
 ALABAMA 
 
 It has a library and apparatus valued at $8,000, 
 besides the buildings, which are estimated at 
 $30,000; and, in L875, reported 4 teachers and 
 126 pupils. The State Normal School and Uni- 
 versity, at Marion, and the Normal School, at 
 JIuntsville, are neither of them so extensive as 
 that at Florence. They are intended for the 
 education of colored teachers. The former, in 
 1875, had 3 teachers and 70 pupils ; the latter, 
 2 teachers and 8-1 pupils. This institution is 
 designed to become a university for the colored 
 population of the state. Besides these state nor- 
 mal institutions, there are four schools of the 
 same grade under the control of the American 
 Missionary Association, and one conducted by 
 the Methodists, having an aggregate, in the state, 
 of G59 pupils under normal instruction. 
 
 Teachers' institutes were held, during the 
 year 1875, in six counties, and their organization 
 is contemplated in four more. The interest 
 aroused, both on the part of the teachers and of 
 the people at the places of meeting, leads to the 
 belief that their permanent establishment is only 
 a question of time. 
 
 Secondary Instruction. — There are 21s pub- 
 lic high schools in operation in the state, 3 of 
 which are for colored, the remainder, for white 
 pupils. The course of study prescribed for these 
 institutions has been already stated. A number of 
 high schools and academies are scattered through 
 the state, which occupy a position intermediate 
 between the primary schools and colleges. Accu- 
 rate statistics in regard to them are, however, dif- 
 ficult to procure. In Talladega College, the work 
 has thus far been entirely preparatory, the colle- 
 giate classes not having been formed. In 1875, 
 it had 1 2 instructors, and a total of 247 students in 
 all the departments. It is conducted by the 
 American Missionary Association for the benefit 
 of the colored people. 
 
 Superior Instruction. — There are several in- 
 stitutions of this grade in the state, the most 
 important of which are enumerated in the fol- 
 lowing list : 
 
 NAME 
 
 Howard College 
 
 Southern University. 
 
 Spring Hill College. . 
 Univ. of Alabama. . . . 
 
 Location 
 
 \\ lien Religions 
 found- denomina- 
 
 ed tion 
 
 Marion 
 
 Greensboro 
 Near Mobile 
 Tuscaloosa 
 
 1hi:j Hap. 
 
 L856 M.F.pis.S. 
 
 1836 B. C. 
 
 1820 Non-sect. 
 
 To the above list. must be added 9 institutions 
 which afford opportunities for the higher edu- 
 cation of women. In addition to the studies 
 usually pursued in such institutions, special at- 
 tention is given to the ornamental branches. 
 The number of instructors in these institutions, 
 in L875, was 80 ; the number of students. ss:j. 
 
 Professional and Scientific Instruction. — 
 The Agricultural and Mechanical College of Ala- 
 bama was established at Auburn by an act of the 
 legislature, its endowment being the proceeds of 
 the liuid grant made by Congress for the benefit 
 of agriculture and the mechanic arts. The 
 amount thus derived was $218,000, to which was 
 added .all the property of East Alabama College, 
 
 amounting to more than SI 00,000. Students 
 are required to pursue a three years' elementary 
 course, after which they are permitted to choose 
 one of four courses — that of scientific agriculture, 
 of civil and mining engineering, of literature, or 
 of science. Under agricultural chemistry, are 
 taught the composition of soils, the relation of 
 air and moisture to vegetable growth, the chem- 
 istry of farm processes, the methods of improving 
 soils, etc. These are accompanied by lessons in 
 practical agriculture throughout the course. Mili- 
 tary training is given, but only to the extent of 
 improving the health and bearing of the stu- 
 dents. Free scholarships, two in number, are pro- 
 vided for each county in the state. The course 
 of study covers four years. The number of in- 
 structors in all the departments, in 1*75, was 7; 
 the number of students, 50, in the regular course, 
 and 5 in the special. Law is taught in departments 
 organized for the purpose in the State University 
 and the Southern University ; theology, in the 
 Southern University, in Talladega College, and, 
 to some exteut, in Howard ( ollege ; medicine, 
 in the Southern University, and in the Medical 
 College of Alabama, at Mobile. This last in- 
 stitution provides a two years' course of study, 
 and, in 1875, had 9 instructors and 50 students. 
 
 Special Instruction.- The Alabama Institution 
 for the Deaf, Dumb, and Blind was founded in 
 18f>0 at Talladega, and is maintained at an annual 
 expense of about $1H,000. The deaf-mute depart- 
 ment is provided with a small museum of natural 
 history and a library of 300 volumes. The studies 
 pursued are mathematics and the ordinary En- 
 glish branches. Instruction is also given in agri- 
 culture and gardening. In 1875, there were 
 4 instructors and 52 pupils. In the department 
 for the blind there were, in the same year, 2 in- 
 structors and 10 pupils. 
 
 ALABAMA, University of, at Tuscaloosa, 
 was chartered in 1820, but not organized till 
 ls.il. At the commencement of the civil war, 
 it was in a prosperous condition, but was burned 
 by a federal force during the war. It was rebuilt 
 in 1868, and is now in a nourishing condition. 
 The value of its grounds, buildings, apparatus, 
 etc., is estimated at $150,000 : and it has an en- 
 dowment of $300,000. Its library contains 5,000 
 volumes. In L874, the number of instructors 
 was 9, and of collegiate students 7(i. 'I he aca- 
 demic depart men t embraces eight courses of study, 
 i 'I nil to the selection of the students: (1) Latin 
 language and literature; (2) Greek language and 
 literature; (.'!) English language and literature; 
 
 ii) Modem languages; (5) Chemistry, geology, 
 
 and natural history; (6) Natural philosophy; 
 (7) Mathematics and astronomy ; (8) Mental and 
 moral philosophy. The department of profes- 
 sional education embraces a school of law, and 
 a school of civil engineering. All the students, 
 
 except those specially infirm, are subjected to 
 military drill. A special military school affords in- 
 struction in military science and art, in military 
 law. and in elementary tactics. The president of 
 the institution is Carlos G. Schmidt, LL. D., 
 elected in 1874. 
 
ALP.ION COLLEGE 
 
 ALEXANDRIAN SCHOOL 
 
 17 
 
 ALBION COLLEGE, al Albion, Mich., was 
 chartered aa a college in L861, by members df 
 the Methodist Episcopal Church. The number 
 of students is about 200, males and females. It 
 lias a preparatory, classical, and scientific course 
 of instruction, its endowment fund is $200,000. 
 It- library contains about 2000 volumes. Rev. 
 <;. B. Jbcelyn, D. 1>.. is the president of the 
 institution (1875). The tuition is free. 
 
 ALCOTT, Amos Bronson, an American 
 educator, was born in L799. He firsl gained 
 distinction by teaching an infant school, for 
 winch employment he evince I a singular aptitude 
 and tact. He removed to Boston in L828, \vh re 
 he manifested the same skill in teaching young 
 children at the Masonic Temple. His methods, 
 however, were in advance of public opinion, and 
 were disapproved, (hi the invitation of James 
 P. Greaves, of London, ^he co-laborer of P< 
 loz/.i in Switzerland, in educational reform, Mr. 
 Alcott, in L842,went to England; but the death 
 of Mr. < rreaves, which occurred before his arrival, 
 interfered with his prospects. On his return to 
 thi< country, he attempted with some of his 
 Rngjish Mends to establish a new community 
 at Harvard. Mass.; but the enterprise was soon 
 abandoned. Mr. Alcott has since written several 
 works, one of which, Concord Days, was pub- 
 lished in 1872. — See E. P. Peabody, Record of 
 Sr](nol ( Hoston, 1834), and Conversation on the 
 Gospels (Boston, 1836). 
 
 ALCOTT, William Alexander, M. D., 
 cousin of the preceding, noted for his zeal and 
 success as a common-school teacher, and his life- 
 long efforts in behalf of popular education, was 
 born in Woleott, Ct., in 1798, and died at 
 Auburndale, Mass., in 1859. He bad only an 
 elementary education : and, for several years, he 
 taught in the district schools of his native State, 
 distinguished for his remarkable earnestness, and 
 the many reforms which he labored to introduce 
 into the imperfect school management and in- 
 struction of his time. He afterwards studied 
 medicine; but Ids chief labors were devoted to 
 the cause of education, co-operating with Gallau- 
 det, Woodbridge, and others in the endeavor to 
 bring about much-needed reforms in the public 
 schools of the State. Subsequently, he associated 
 himself with William ( '. Woodbridge, and as- 
 d him in the compilation of his school geog- 
 raphies, and also in editing the American An- 
 nals of Education. He also edited several juve- 
 nile periodicals. His newspaper contributions 
 were very numerous, and quite effective ^>n ac- 
 COUnl of their racy and spirited style. An 
 
 article which he published on the Construction of 
 - oolrHouses gained him a premium from the 
 
 American Institute of Instruction. His labors 
 as a lecturer on hygiene, practical teaching, and 
 kindred subjects were severe and unintermitting. 
 He is said to have visited more than 20,000 
 schools, in many of which he delivered lectures. 
 His writings are very numerous; and some of 
 them were widely popular. The most noted are : 
 Confessions of a Schoolmaster, The House I 
 Lir^ in, The Young Man's Guide, The Yo>*//>/ 
 
 Woman's Guide, The Young Housekeeper, etc., 
 
 etc. l>r. Alcott was a genuine philanthropist, 
 
 though extreme and somewhat eccentric in mans 
 of his views. As one of the pio rs in the 
 
 cause of common-school education and reformin 
 
 practical teaching, his labors were of incalculable 
 value. 
 
 ALCUIN (Lat. Flaccus Albinus Alcuinus), 
 a distinguished English scholar, ecclesiastic, and 
 reviver of learning, was born in Yorkshire 
 aboul 753, and did in 804. lie was educated 
 at York under the direction of Archbishop 
 Egbert, and was subsequently director of the 
 seminary in that city. Returning from Rome, 
 whither he had gone by direction of the English 
 king, he met the emperor Charlemagn< 
 Parma, and was induced by that monarch to 
 take up his residence at the French court, and 
 become the royal preceptor. Accordingly, at 
 Aix-la-Chapelle, he gave instruction, for some 
 time, to Charlemagne and his family, ill rhetoric, 
 logic, divinity, and mathematics. It has been 
 said with much truth, that " France is indebted 
 to Alcuin for all the polite learning of which it 
 could boast in that and the following ages." The 
 universities of Paris, Tours. Soissons, and many 
 others were either founded by him, or greatly 
 benefited by his zeal in their behalf, and the 
 favor which he procured for them from Charle- 
 magne. In 796, be was appointed abbot of St. 
 Martin's at Tom's, where he opened a school wdiich 
 acquired great celebrity. Here he continued 
 teaching till his death. Alcuin was probably 
 the most learned man and the most illustrious 
 teacher of his age ; and his labors were veiy im- 
 portant in giving an impetus to the revival of 
 learning, after the intellectual night of the Dark 
 Ages. He left many epistles, poems, and treat- 
 ises upon theological and historical subjects, all 
 written in Latin, and noted for the elegance and 
 purity of their style. The Life of Alcuin (Lebe/t 
 Alalia's) by Prof. Lorf.nz. of Halle (1829) has 
 been translated into English (1837) by Si.ee. — See 
 AUgemeine Deutsche Biographic, art. Alcuin. 
 
 ALEXANDRIAN SCHOOL, a name vari- 
 ously applied, but chiefly designating (1) a school 
 of philosophers at Alexandria in Egypt, which 
 is chiefly noted for the development of Neoplato- 
 nisin. and its efforts to harmonize oriental theol- 
 Ogy with (deck dialectics; (2) a school of 
 Christian theologians in the same city, which 
 aimed at harmonizing Pagan philosophy with 
 Christian theology. The city of Alexandria be- 
 came, soon after the death of Alexander the 
 Great, by whom it had been founded, a chief 
 seat of science and literature. The time during 
 which the teachers and schools of Alexandria 
 enjoyed a world-wide reputation, is called tin 
 Alexandrian Age, and is divided into two pe- 
 riods, tin' former embracing the time of the 
 Ptolemies, and extending from 323 to 30 I'.. C. 
 and the second embracing the time of the Ro- 
 mans, extending from .'!<) !!.('. to 640 A.D. 
 (irammar, poetry, mathematics, and the natural 
 sciences were all taught in the Alexandrian 
 School ; and among the most illustrious teachers 
 
18 
 
 ALFRED THE GREAT 
 
 ALGEBRA 
 
 were Ammonius, Plotinus, Hierocles, Proclus, 
 Apollonius (poet), Galen (physician), Euclid 
 (mathematician), Eratosthenes (astronomer), Ptol- 
 emy (geographer). When Christianity began to 
 gain a firm footing, it was found necessary to de- 
 vote to the instruction of the catechumens special 
 care, in order to fortify them against the attacks 
 upon Christianity by the pagan philosophers. The 
 catechists not only gave to the candidates for 
 admission into the Christian Church element- 
 ary instruction. 1 tut also delivered learned lectures 
 on Christianity, and combined with it instruction 
 in philosophy. Though, from its original character, 
 the school continued to be called the catechetical 
 school of Alexandria, it was in its subsequent 
 development something very different from a 
 catechetical school, and may rather be regarded 
 as the first theological faculty, or school of scien- 
 tific theology, in the Christian Church, [n op- 
 position to the pagan philosophers, the teachers 
 of the Christian schools chiefly undertook to 
 show that Christianity is the only true philos- 
 ophy, and alone can lead to the true gnosis, or 
 knowledge. As the first teacher of the Christian 
 theological school, Pantaenus (about 180)is men- 
 tioned, who was followed by Clement, Origen, 
 Heraclas, Dionysius, Pierius, Theognostes, Sera- 
 pion, IVter Martyr. The last famous teacher of 
 tin' school was Didymus the Blind (335 to .'!'.).'>). 
 who, being blind from boyhood, had learned read- 
 ing, writing, geometry, etc.. by means of brass 
 let ters and figures, and was equally distinguished 
 for his piety and extent of knowledge. The method 
 of teaching used in this, as well as in the other 
 
 schools of that age. was the Pythagorean. The 
 
 teacher explained, and the pupil listened in 
 
 silence, though he was permitted to ask questions. 
 
 Every tefifiher taught in his own house, there be- 
 ing no public school 1 mill lings. The teachers did 
 
 not receive a fixed salary, but the pupils made 
 
 them presents. Origen is reported to have de- 
 clined all presents, lie supported himself on a 
 daily Stipend of four oboli, which he received for 
 
 copying the manuscripts of ancient classics. — See 
 M ltter, Histoire de I'ecole d'Alexandrie (2 vols., 
 2d ed., Paris, L840 1844); Barthelemy St.- 
 Hilaire, De I'ecole d'Alexandrie (Paris. L845); 
 Simon, Histoire <!'■ I'ivolc. d'Ale.ri tin trie (2 vols., 
 Paris, L844 — L845); Vacherot, Histoire cri- 
 tique de I'ecole d'Alexandrie (3 vols.. I'aris. L846 
 — 1851); Guerike, ~De Schola quaz Alexandriae 
 floruit vittfi-lirtiru (Halle, lSL'l); I Iasski.c, veil, 
 
 ue schola '/mi'' Alexandriae floruit catechetica 
 (Stettin. L826) : Kittkk, Geschichte der christ- 
 lichen Pkihsqphie, vol. i, p. 11!) — 564. 
 
 ALFRED THE GREAT, king of the West 
 Saxons and virtually ruler of all England, holds 
 the same prominent position in the history of 
 
 education in England, which Charlemagne occu- 
 pies in fiance and Germany, lie was horn in 
 8 I '.(.succeeded his brother Ktheh'ed as king of the 
 West Saxons in 871, and died in 901. After 
 having thoroughly humbled the Danish invaders 
 and secured the independence of England, he 
 gave his whole attention to internal reforms, and 
 >l>eeiaUy to the promotion of education. Al- 
 
 though he is said to have been twelve years of 
 age, before he was taught the alphabet, and 
 although his health was always feeble, he showed 
 a thirst for knowledge which is almost without 
 parallel in the history of European princes. 
 He gave eight hours every day to religious 
 exercises and to study. He translated nu- 
 merous works from Latin into Saxon, as Bede's 
 History of England, Boethius' De Consola- 
 tione Philosophiae, and the Liber Pastoralis 
 Curae of Gregory the Great. He invited dis- 
 tinguished scholars to his court from all coun- 
 tries, among whom Wernfried. Plegmund. and 
 Athelstan of Mercia, Grimbald of France, the 
 Irishman John Scotus Krigena. and the monk 
 Asser of Wales are the most famous. A large 
 number of schools were founded and suitably 
 ( irganized. The convents became, more genera 1 1 v 
 than had been the case before, nurseries of 
 science. All the public officers were required to 
 learn to read ami write ; and Alfred declared 
 that the children of every freeman without ex- 
 ception should be able to read and write, and 
 should be instructed in the Latin language. A 
 complete list of his works is given in the Ency- 
 clopaedia Britannica, art. Alfred. — See Stol- 
 bero, Leben Alfred desGrossen, \ M iinster, L815); 
 Weiss, Geschichte Alfred des Grossen (Schaff- 
 hausen, 1852); Freeman, Old English Jlistan/ 
 and History of the Norman Conquest. 
 
 ALFRED UNIVERSITY, at Alfred. X. 
 V., was founded in 1857, by the Seventh Day 
 Baptists. The number of students in the pre- 
 paratory department (in 1874) was 293, males 
 and females, ami in the collegiate department 
 114, of whom 42 were females, it has a clas- 
 sical and a collegiate course of instruction. Its 
 endowment is $70,000; the number of volumes 
 I in its library is about 3500. Rev. .). Allen is 
 the president. Its tuition fee is small. 
 
 ALGEBRA (Arab, aljabr, reduction of 
 parts to a whole). For a general consideration of 
 the purposes for which this study should he pur- 
 sued. and its proper place and relative proportion 
 of time in the curriculum, the reader is referred 
 to the article MATHEMATICS. If is the purpose of 
 
 this article to indicate some of the principles to 
 
 be kept in view, and the methods to he pursued 
 
 in teaching algebra. 
 
 The Literal Notation. — While this notation 
 
 is not peculiar to algebra, 'out is the char- 
 acteristic language of mathematics, the student 
 usually encounters it for the first time when 
 he enters upon this study. No satisfactory 
 progress can be made in any of the higher 
 branches of mathematics, as General Geometry, 
 Calculus, Mechanics. Astronomy, etc.. without 
 a good knowledge of the literal notation. By 
 far the larger part of the difficulty which the 
 
 ordinary student finds in his study of algebra 
 proper - the science of the equation — and 
 in his more advanced study of mathematics, 
 grows out of an imperfect knowledge of the 
 
 notation. These are facts well known to all ex- 
 perienced teachers. Nevertheless, it is no unfre- 
 quent tiling to hear a teacher say of a pupil : 
 
ALGEBRA 
 
 19 
 
 " He is quite good in algebra, but cannot got 
 along very well with literal examples!"' Nothing 
 couM be more absurd. It comes from mistaking 
 the importance and fundamental character of 
 this notation. It is of the first importance that, 
 at the outset, a clear conception be gained of 
 the nature of this notation, and that, in all the 
 course, no method nor language be used winch 
 will do violence to these principles. Thus, that the 
 letters a, b,.c. y, etc., as used in mathematics, rep- 
 resent pure number, or quantity, is to be amply- 
 illustrated in the first lessons, and care is to be 
 taken that no vicious conception insinuate itself. 
 To Bay that, as 5 apples and G apples make 11 
 apples, so 5a and (>a make 11a, is to teach 
 error. If this comparison teaches any thing, it 
 is that the letter a in 5a, 6a, and 11a, simply 
 gives to the numbers 5, 6, and 11 a concrete 
 .-iirnificance. as does the word apples in the 
 first instance ; but this is erroneous. The true 
 conception of the use of a, to represent a num- 
 ber, may be given in this way : As 5 times 7 
 and 6 times T make 1 1 times 7, so 5 times any 
 number and 6 times the same number make 1 1 
 times that number. Now, let a represent any 
 number whatever ; then 5 times a and 6 times a 
 make 11 times a. The two thoughts to be im- 
 pressed are. that the letter represents some num- 
 ber, and that it is immaterial what number it is, 
 so long as it represents the same number in all 
 cases in the same problem. Again, the genius 
 of the literal notation requires that no concep- 
 tion be taken of a letter as a representative of 
 number, which is not equally applicable to frac- 
 tional and integral numbers. Thus we may not 
 say that a fraction which has a numerator a and a 
 denominator b. represents a of the b equal parts of 
 a quantity, or number, as we affirm that f repre- 
 sents 3 of the 4 equal parts ; for this conception 
 of a fraction requires that the denominator be 
 integral ; otherwise, if b represent a mixed num- 
 ber, as 4|, we have the absurdity of attempting 
 to conceive a quantity as divided into 4§ equal 
 parts. The only conception of a fraction, suf- 
 ficiently broad to comport with the nature of the 
 literal notation, is that it is an indicated oper- 
 ation in division : and all operations in fractions 
 should be demonstrated from this definition. 
 
 So also to read .r m , u x to the mth power", when 
 m is not necessariiy an integer, is to violate this 
 fundamental characteristic of the notation. In like 
 manner, to use the expressions greatest common 
 divisor, and least common multiple, when literal 
 quantities are under consideration, is an absurd- 
 ity, and moreover fails to give any indication of 
 the idea which should be conveyed. For example, 
 we cannot affirm that 'lax 1 — 2bxy is the greatest 
 common divisor of 2a 3 .c 4 — 2d 2 bx 3 u-\-2ah i x i y i 
 — 2b 3 xy 1 and WbWy 2 — 2ab i x 2 y i —2b*xtf\ 
 since ax— by is a divisor of these polynomials, and 
 whether 2ax' 2 — 2bxy is greater or less than ax — 
 by cannot be affirmed unless the relative values 
 of the letters are known. To illustrate, 2ax l 
 — 2bxy=2x {ax — by). Xow eujjpose «=500, 
 6=10, y=2, and .r^-rV; then ax — 6y=30, and 
 2ax' 2 — 2bxy=6. Moreover, it is not a question I 
 
 as to the value of the divisor that is involved ; 
 it is a question as to the degree. Hence, what 
 we wish to affirm is that 2ax" — 2bxy is the 
 highest common divisor of these polynomials, 
 with respect to x. 
 
 In order that the pupil may get an adequate 
 conception of the nature of the literal notation, 
 it is well to keep prominently before his mind 
 the fact that the fundamental operations of ad- 
 dition, subtraction, multiplication, and division, 
 whether of integers or fractions, the various trans- 
 formations and reductions of fractions, as well as 
 involution and evolution, are exactly the same as 
 the corresponding ones with which he is already 
 familiar in arithmetic, except as they are modi- 
 fied by the difference between the literal and the 
 Arabic notations. Thus, the pupil will be led 
 to observe that the orders of the Arabic notation 
 are analogous to the terms of a polynomial in the 
 literal notation, and that the processof "carrying 
 in the Arabic addition, etc., has no analogue in 
 the literal, simply because there is no established 
 relation between the terms in the latter. Again, 
 he will see that, in both cases, addition is the 
 process of combining several quantities, so that 
 the result shall express the aggregate value in 
 the fewest terms consistent with the notation. 
 This being the conception of addition, he will see 
 that for the same reason that we say, in the Ara- 
 bic notation, that the sum of 8 and 7 is 5 and 10 
 (fifteen), instead of 8 and 7, we say, in the 
 literal notation, that the sum of 5aa: and 6ax is 
 Wax. Infact.it is quite conceivable that the 
 pupil, who understands the common or Arabic 
 arithmetic, can master the literal arithmetic for 
 himself, after he has fairly learned the laws of 
 the new notation. 
 
 Positive and Negative. — Although the signs + 
 and ■ — , even as indicating the affections positive 
 and negative, are not confined to the literal nota- 
 tion, the pupil first comes to their regular use 
 in this connection, and finds this new element 
 of the notation one of his most vexatious 
 stumbling-blocks. Thus, that the sum of 5ay 
 and — 2ay should be 'Say, and their difference 
 lay, and that " minus multiplied by minus 
 should give plus," as we are wont to say. often 
 seems absurd to the learner. Yet even here he 
 may be taught to find analogies in the teach- 
 ings of the common arithmetic, which will at 
 least partially remove the difficulty. When he 
 comes to understand, that attributing to numbers 
 the affection positive or negative gives to them 
 a sort of concrete significance, and allies them 
 in some sort to denominate numbers, he may 
 at least see, that bay and 'lay do not neces- 
 sarily make lay ; for, if one were feet and the 
 other yards, the sum would not be lay of either. 
 if. then, he comes to understand that the funda- 
 mental idea of this notation is, that the terms 
 positive and negative indicate simply such opposi- 
 tion in kind, in the numbers to which they an 
 applied, as makes one tend to destroy or counter- 
 balance the other, he is prepared to sec that the 
 sum of bay and — 2ay is 3ay ; since, when put 
 together, the — 2ay, by its opposition of nature . 
 
20 
 
 ALGEBRA 
 
 destroys lay of the 5a//, The ordinary illustra- 
 tions in which forces acting in opposite directions, 
 (notion in opposite directions, amounts of proper- 
 ty and of debts, etc., are characterized as positive 
 ami negative, are helpful, if made to set in clearer 
 light the fact, that this distinction is simply in 
 regard to the way in which the numbers are ap- 
 plied, and not really in regard to the numbers 
 themselves. 
 
 So, also in multiplication, the three principles, 
 ill that the product is like the multiplicand; 
 ili ii a multiplier must be conceived as essen- 
 tially abstrad when the operation is performed; 
 and (3) that the sign of the multiplier shows 
 what is to be done with the product when 
 obtaine I. remove all the difficulty, and make it 
 
 a mi more absurd that "min is multiplie I by 
 minus gives plus."' than that -plus multiplie 1 by 
 plus gives plus": in fact, exactly the same course 
 ofargumenl is required to establish the one con- 
 clusion as to establish the other. When we ana- 
 lyze the operation which we call multiplying 
 
 a by j A. we say " f- a taken h times gives 
 
 -{-ab. Now the sign -j- before the multiplier 
 indicates that the product is to be taken ad- 
 ditively, that is, united to other quantities by its 
 
 own sign.'" So when we multiply — a by — b, 
 we say- - a multiplied by b (a mere number) 
 gives — <ib (a product like the multiplicand). 
 But the — sign before the multiplier indicates 
 that this product is to be taken subtractively. 
 i. e. united with other quantities by a sign op- 
 posite to its own." This, however, is not the place 
 to develop the theory of positive and negative 
 quantities; our only purpose here is to show 
 that the whole grows out of a kind of concrete 
 or denominate significance which is thus put 
 upon the numbers, and which bears some analogy 
 to familiar principles of common arithmetic. 
 
 Exponents. -One other feature of the mathe- 
 matical notation comes into prominence now for 
 the first time, and needs to be clearly compre- 
 hended: it is the theory of exponents. Bfere, 
 as well as elsewhere, it is important to guard 
 against falsi' impressions at the start. The idea 
 that an exponent indicates a power is often so 
 
 fixed in the pupil's mind at first, that he never 
 afterwards rids himself of the impression. To 
 avoid this, it is well to have the pupil learn at 
 
 the outset that not all exponents indicate Hie 
 
 sum' thing; thus, while some indicate powers, 
 others indicate roots, others roots of powers, an 1 
 
 others still the reciprocals of the latter. Too much 
 pains can scarcely he taken to strip this matter 
 
 of all ob8CUrity, and allow no tog to gather 
 around it. Nothing in algebra gives the young 
 
 learner so much difficulty as radicals, and all be- 
 cause he is nol thoroughly taught the notation. 
 Perhaps, bul lew. even of those who have at- 
 tained considerable proficiency in mathematics, 
 have reallj Bel clearly before their own minds the 
 
 tact that used as an exponent is not a fraction in 
 the Same Sense a- in its ordinary use. and hence 
 
 that the demonstration that ■$■ = § as given con- 
 cerning common fractions. \<\ m. means proves 
 
 ♦hat the exponent J equals the exponent J. 
 
 Other principles bearing on this important sub- 
 ject will he developed under the following head. 
 Methods of Demonstration. — It requires no 
 argument to convince any one that, in establish- 
 in- the working features, if we may so speak, of 
 ascience.it is important that they be exhibited 
 as direct outgrowths of fundamental notions. 
 Thus, in giving a child his first conception of a 
 common fraction, no intelligent teacher would 
 use the conception of a fraction as an indicated 
 Operation in division, and attempt to build up 
 the theory of common fractions on that notion. 
 It may lie elegant and logical, and when we come 
 to the literal notation it is essential ; but it is not 
 sufficiently radical for the tyro. It is not natural. 
 but scientific rather. So in the literal notation, 
 the proposition that the product of the square 
 ron/s of lii-n numbers is equal to the square root 
 of their pi'oduct, may be demonstrated thus: Let 
 s/a x \ b=p, whence ab=p*\ and. extracting the 
 square root of each member we have ^ ,,h = p. 
 Hence N "X\ 6 = \ ah. Now. this is concise 
 and mathematically elegant ; but it gives the 
 pupil no insight whatever into "the reason why." 
 What is needed here is, that the pupil be en- 
 abled to see that this proposition grows out of 
 the nature of a square root as one of the two 
 equal factors of a number : i. e., lie needs to see 
 its connection with fundamental conceptions. 
 Thus v«'~ means that the product ab is to be re- 
 solved into two equal factors, and that one of them 
 is to be taken. Now. if we resolve a into two equal 
 factors, as v " :i" ( l \ "• and l> into two equal 
 factors, as \/b and \Jb, ab will be resolved into 
 four factors which can be arranged in two equal 
 groups, thus x a K b X s/as/'l>. Hence x a v b is 
 the square root of ab because it is one of the two 
 equal factors into which ab can be conceived to 
 be resolved. In this manner, all operations in 
 radicals may be seen to be It; used upon the most 
 elementary principles of factoring. Again. a> 
 another illustration of this vicious use of the 
 equation in demonstrating elementary theorems, 
 let us consider the common theorems concerning 
 the transformations of a proportion. As usually 
 demonstrated, by transforming the proportion 
 
 into an equation, and pice versa, the real 
 reason why the proposed transformation does 
 no! vitiate the proportion, is not brought to 
 light at all. for example. Suppose we are to 
 
 prove that. If four quantities are in propor- 
 tion, they an' in proportion by composition, 
 i. e., if u : b : : c : d, a : a + b : : c : c -\- it. 
 The common method isto pass from the given 
 proportion to the equation be = ad, then add 
 ac to each member, obtaining i/r -{-be =oc-|- <"!■ 
 or c (a + b) = a (c -f- d), and then to 
 traii-form this equation into the proportion 
 
 n : a I It : : r : r \ il. No doubt, this is concise 
 and elegant, but the real reason why the transfor- 
 mation does not destroy the proportion. \ i/.. thai 
 
 both ratios'have been divided by tin' same mnn- 
 
 ber, is not even suggested by this demonstration. 
 On the other hand, let the following demonstra- 
 tion be used, and the pupil not only sees exactly 
 why the transformation does not destroy tin' 
 
ALGEBRA 
 
 21 
 
 proportion, bat at every step has his attention 
 held closely to the fundamental characteristics of 
 a proportion. Let the ratio a : 6 be r; hence as 
 a proportion is an equality of ratios, the ratio 
 C : '/ is /■ ; and we have a -£- /> = r, and C -r- '/ 
 = r, or a = br. and c = dr. Substituting these 
 values of a and e in the terms of the proportion 
 which are changed by the transformation, we 
 have <t -f b = br -f- 6, or b (r -f- 1), and c + <7 
 = <//• -f d, or c?(r + 1); whence we see that 
 n :<t -\-b : : c : c -f- </ is dedueed from a :b : :c:d 
 by multiplying both consequents by r + 1 (the 
 ratio +1), which docs riot destroy the equality 
 of the ratios constituting the proportion, since it 
 divides both by the same number. Moreover, 
 this method of substituting for the antecedent of 
 each ratio the consequent multiplied by the ratio. 
 enables us to demonstrate all propositions con- 
 cerning the transformation of a proportion by one 
 uniform method, which method in all cases clearly 
 reveals the reason why the proportion is not 
 destroyed. 
 
 This choice of a line of argument which shall 
 be applicable to an entire class of propositions 
 is of no slight importance in constructing a 
 mathematical course. It enables a student to 
 learn with greater facility and satisfaction the 
 demonstrations, and fixes them more firmly in 
 his memory; while it also gives broader and 
 more scientific views of truth, by thus classi- 
 fying, and bringing into one line of thought, 
 numerous truths which would otherwise be seen 
 only as so many isolated facts. This is beauti- 
 fully illustrated in the higher algebra by the use 
 of the infinitesimal method of developing the 
 binomial formula, logarithmic series, etc., in con- 
 trast with the cumbrous special methods which 
 have so long held their place in our text-books. 
 By the old method of indeterminate coefficients, 
 the pupil is required to pursue what is to him 
 always an obscure, long, and unsatisfactory process 
 for the development of each of these series. 
 Nor are these processes so nearly related to each 
 other, but that, to the mind of the learner, they 
 would be even more perplexing than if absolutely 
 independent. Moreover, they are styles of argu- 
 ment which he never meets with again during 
 his subsequent course. On the other hand, after 
 having learned a few simple rides for differentiat- 
 ing algebraic and logarithmic functions* he is 
 enabled to develop these, and several other im- 
 portant theorems, in one general way. which is as 
 remarkable for its concise simplicity, as it is for 
 its extensive application and habitual recurrence 
 in the subsequent course. 
 
 Range of Topics to be Ehnbraced. — We may 
 distinguish three different classes of pupils, who 
 require as many different courses in this study. 
 First, there is a very large Dumber of our youth 
 
 who. if in the city, never pass beyond the pram 
 
 *) Ft may be new t" s .mm- that there is a bIi 
 elementary method of proving the rule for differentiat- 
 ing a logarithm without refnrence to series. This 
 method was discovered by Dr. Watson of tie' University 
 of Michigan, and was first presented t<> the public in 
 Olsf.y's University Algebra in is":;. 
 
 mar school, or. if in the country, never have other 
 school advantages than those furnished by the 
 common or rural district school. Nevertheless, 
 
 many of these will receive much greater profit 
 from Spending half a year, or a year, in obtaining 
 a knowledge of the elements of algebra (and 
 
 even of geometry) than they usually do in study- 
 ing arithmetic. (Sec AJUTHMETIC.) For this 
 class the proper range of topics is, a clear expo- 
 sition of the nature of the literal notation; 
 the fundamental rules, and fractions, involv- 
 ing only the simpler forms of expression, and 
 excluding such abstruse subjects as the more 
 difficult theorems on factoring, the theory of 
 lowest common multiple and highest common 
 divisor; simple equations involving one, two, 
 and three unknown quantities; ratio and pro- 
 portion; an elementary treatment of the subject 
 of radicals with special attention given to their 
 nature as -roving out of the simplest principles 
 of factoring; pure and affected quadratics in- 
 volving one. and two unknown quantities, 'flic 
 second class comprises what may be called high 
 school pupils. For this grade the range of 
 toi>ies need not be much widened, hut the 
 study of each should be extended and deepened. 
 This will be the ease especially as regards the 
 theory if exponents, positive and negative 
 quantities, radicals, equations involving ru<l- 
 icals, and simultaneous equations, especially 
 
 those of the second degree. To this should 
 
 In- added the arithmetical and geometrical pro- 
 gressions, a practical knowledge of the binomial 
 formula, and logarithms, and a somewhat ex- 
 tended treatment of the applications of algebra 
 to the business rules of arithmetic. A wide 
 acquaintance with the results attained in our 
 high schools in all parts of the country, and an 
 observation extending over more than twenty 
 years satisfy the writer that time spent in these 
 schools in attempts to master the theory of 
 indeterminate co-efficients, the demonstration 
 of the binomial and logarithmic formulas, or 
 upon the higher equations, series, etc., is, if 
 not a total loss, at least an absorption of time 
 which might be much more profitablj employed 
 
 on other subjects, such as, for example, history. 
 literature, or the elements of the natural sciences. 
 The course taken by such pupils gives them 
 no occasion to use any of these principles of the 
 higher algebra ; and the mastery of them which 
 they can attain in any reasonable amount of time 
 is quite too imperfect to subserve the endsof 
 good mental discipline. This second course is 
 entirely adequate to fit a student for admission 
 into any American college or university. 'I he 
 
 third course is what we may tall the coll 
 course. The principal topics which our present 
 arrangements allow us to add to the second ( ourse 
 as above marked out, in order to constitute this 
 course, are the theory of indeterminate co-effi- 
 cients; a sufficient knowledge of the differentiation 
 of algebraic and logarithmic functions to enable 
 tin- student to appreciate the idea oi function and 
 variable,to produce the binomial formula, the 
 logarithmic st rtes.and Taylor's formula, which is 
 
22 
 
 ALGEBRA 
 
 necessary in treating Sturm's theorem, and to ap- 
 preciate also the demonstration of that theorem; 
 indeterminate equations; a tolerably full prac- 
 tical treatment of the higher numerical equa- 
 /inns; and the interpretation of equations; 
 adding, if may be, something upon interpolation 
 and serifs in general. 
 
 Class-Room Work. — It is probably unneces- 
 sary to say, that a careful and thorough study of 
 text-books should be the foundation of our class- 
 room work on this subject; nevertheless, so much 
 is said, at the present time, in disparagement of 
 "hearing recitations" instead of "teaching,"' that it 
 may lie well to remark that, if our schools succeed 
 in inspiring their pupils with a love of books, and 
 in teaching how to use them, they accomplish in 
 this u greater good than even in the mere knowl- 
 edge which they may impart. Books are the 
 great storehouse of knowledge, and he who has 
 
 the habit of using them intelligently has the key 
 to all human knowledge. But it is not to be 
 denied, that there is an important service to be 
 rendered by the living teacher, albeit that service, 
 especially in this department, is not formal lect- 
 uring on the principles of the science. With 
 younger pupils, the true teacher will often pref- 
 ace a subject with a familiar talk designed to 
 ftrepare them for an intelligent study of the 
 esson to he assigne I, to awaken an interest in it, 
 or to enable them to surmount some particular 
 difficulty. For example, suppose a class of young 
 pupils are to have their first lesson in subtrac- 
 tion in algebra; a preliminary talk like the fol- 
 lowing will be exceedingly helpful, perhaps 
 necessary, to an intelligent preparation of the les- 
 ion. Observe that, in order to profit the class, 
 the teacher must confine his illustrations rigidly 
 to the essential points on which the lesson is 
 based. In this case these are (1) Adding a neg- 
 ative quantity destroys an equal positive 
 quantity; (2) Adding a positive quantity de- 
 stroys an equal negative quantity; (3) As the 
 minuend is the sum of the subtrahend and 
 remainder, if the subtrahend is destroyed from 
 Dut tin- minuend, the remainder is left. Now. in 
 what order shall these three principles be pre- 
 sented ? I >oubtless the scientific order is that just 
 
 given; but in such an introduction to the subject 
 
 as we are considering, it may be best to present 
 
 the 3d first; since this is a truth already familiar, 
 
 and h nee affords a connecting link with previous 
 knowledge. Moreover, this being alrea ly before 
 
 tin' mini as a, statement of what is to be done, 
 the 1st and I'd will follow in a, natural order as 
 
 an answer to th ■ question how the purpose is ac- 
 complished. To present the 3d principle, the 
 teacher may place on the blackboard some sim- 
 ple example in subtraction as : 
 12.'. |1,. will then question the class thus: 
 ■ .;,. What is the L25 called? What the 74? 
 What the 5] ? How much more than 71 is 125? 
 [f we add 71 and 25,wha1 is the sum'.' Of what 
 
 th ii is the minuend composed ? What is 5] | 7 I '.' 
 [f we destroy the 74, what remains? If in any 
 
 case we can destroy the subtrahend from out the 
 minuend, what will remain? Saving brought 
 
 this idea clearly before the mind, the teacher will 
 proceed to the 1st principle. If — Sab be added 
 to lab how much of the lab will it destroy? 
 (Here again we proceed from a fundamental con- 
 ception — the nature of quantities as positive and 
 negative, thus deducing the new from the old.) 
 Repeat such illustrations of this principle as may 
 have been given in addition If several boys are 
 urging a sled forward by lab pounds, and the 
 strength of another boy amounting to 3ab 
 pounds is added, but exerted in an opposite 
 direction, what now is the sum of their efforts? 
 What kind of a quantity do we call the 3ai? 
 [Negative.] Why? How much of the-f-7ai 
 does -Bab destroy w hen we add it? If then 
 we wish to destroy + 3ab from -\- lab, how may 
 we do it? Proceeding then to the 2d principle, 
 it may be asked, how much is 6 ay — 2 ay? If 
 now we add -f '_' ay to (i ay — 2 ay, which is 4ay, 
 what does it become? What does the — 2ay 
 destroy? What then is the effect of adding a 
 positive quantity? Such introductory elucida- 
 tions should always be held closely to the plan of 
 development which the pupil is to study, -and 
 should be made to throw- light upon it. It is a 
 common and very pernicious thine.' for teachers 
 to attempt to teach in one line of development, 
 while the text -book in the pupils hands gives 
 quite another. In most cases of this kind, either 
 the teacher's effort or the text -book is useless, or 
 probably worse — they tend to confuse each other. 
 Such teaching should culminate in the very lan- 
 guage of the text; and it is desirable that this lan- 
 guage be read from the book by the pupil, as the 
 
 conclusion of the teaching. Moreover, there is 
 great danger of overdoing this kind of work. 
 Whenever it is practicable, the pupil should be 
 required to prepare his lesson from the book. 
 A competent teacher will find sufficient oppor- 
 tunity for ••teaching" after the pupils have gath- 
 ered all they can from the book. Another im- 
 portant service to be rendered by the living teacher 
 is to emphasize central truths, and hold the pupils 
 to a constant review of them. So also il is his duty 
 to keep in prominence the outlines of the subject, 
 that the pupil may always know just where he is 
 at work and in what relation to other parts of the 
 
 the subject that which he is studying stands. All 
 
 deli nit ions, statements of principles, and theorems 
 
 should be thoroughly memorized by the pupil and 
 recited again ami again. In entering upon a new 
 
 subject., as soon as these can be intelligently learn- 
 ed, they should be recited it: a most careful and 
 formal manner: and. in connection with sub- 
 sequent demonstrations and Solutions, they should 
 
 lie called up and repeated. Thus, suppose a high 
 school class entering upon tin' subject of equa- 
 tions. Such a class may be supposed to be able 
 
 to grasp the meaning of the definitions without 
 
 preliminary aid from the teacher, save in special 
 cases. The first lesson will probably contain a 
 
 dozen or more definitions, with a proposition or 
 
 two; and the first work should be the recitation 
 of these by the pupils individually, without any 
 questions or suggestions from the teacher. Il- 
 lustrations should also be required of the pupils ; 
 
ALGEBRA 
 
 23 
 
 but neither illustrations nor demonstrations 
 should be memorized, although great care should 
 be taken to secure a good style of expression, 
 modeled on that of the text. To this first rec- 
 itation on a new subject all the class should give 
 the strictest attention; and every point in it 
 should be brought out, at least once in the hear- 
 ing of every pupil. In the course of subsequent 
 recitations in the same general subject, individ- 
 uals will be questioned on the principles thus 
 developed. For example, what algebra is will 
 have been brought clearly to view in this first 
 recitation; but when a pupil has stated and 
 solved some problem, and has given his expla- 
 nation of the solution from the blackboard, the 
 teacher may ask: Why do you say you have 
 solved this problem by algebra? The answer 
 will be: Because 1 have used the equation as an 
 instrument with which to effect the solution. 
 Can you solve tliis problem without the use of 
 an equation? What do you call such a solution ? 
 What is algebra ? Again, suppose the solution 
 has involved the reduction of such an equation as 
 2.r— }=l (3.6-— 1) 4- i (,c + 1). Of course, in the 
 first place the pupil will solve the example and 
 give a good logical account of the solution; but 
 the teacher will make it the occasion for review- 
 ing certain definitions and principles with this 
 particular student, in such a practical connec- 
 tion. Thus he will ask: What is your first equa- 
 tion ? What is your last? [a?=2.] Do you look 
 upon these as one and the same equation, or as 
 different equations ? In how many different forms 
 have you written your given equation ? What 
 general term do you apply to these processes of 
 changing the form of an equation ? What is 
 transformation ? Similarly, every principle and 
 definition will be reviewed again and again 
 in such practical connections. But the great, and 
 almost universal, evil in our methods of conduct- 
 ing recitations is the habit of allowing mere 
 statements of processes to pass for expositions of 
 principles, as given by the pupil from the black- 
 board in explanation of his work. The writer's 
 observation satisfies him that this most pernicious 
 practice is. as he has said, almost universal Let 
 us illustrate the common practice, and then point 
 out the better way. The pupil has placed the 
 following work upon the board: 
 lx i — 28.r+14=238 
 7a; 2 — 28.r=224 
 
 x-— 4,c=32 
 x 2 — 4a;4-4=36 
 x— 2= + 6 
 ,<r=2 + 6=8, and— 4. 
 
 He is then called upon to explain his work. 
 Something like the following is what we hear in 
 the majority of our best schools: 
 
 "Given 7x 2 — 28,c+14=238, to find the value 
 of x. 
 
 "Transposing, I have 7,r 2 — 28x=224. 
 
 "Dividing by 7, x 1 — 4t=32. 
 
 ••Completing the square, x 2 — 4a;4-4=36. 
 
 •Extracting the square root, x — 2=4-6. 
 
 Transposing, x=2 + 6=8, and — 4 " 
 
 Aud the pupil turns to his instructor in the 
 
 full consciousness of duty nobly done. The 
 fact is, all that he has said is useless, nay, worse 
 than useless, ile has simply intimated what 
 processes he has performed. That he could solve 
 the problem was sufficiently apparent from his 
 work. There was no need that he should tell 
 us what he had done, when he had performed 
 the work before our eyes. AN' hat is wanted is 
 a clear and orderly exposition of the reason why 
 he takes every step. This involves two points, 
 since he is to show (1) that the step taken tends 
 to the desired end, that is, the freeing of the un- 
 known quantity from its connections with known 
 quantities so as finally to make it standalone as 
 one member of the equation ; and (2) that the 
 step docs not destroy the equation* Something 
 like the following should be the style of expla- 
 nation: "Given 7.r 2 — 28,^+14=238, to find the 
 value of x. In orderto do this, I wish so to trans- 
 form the equation that, in the end, .'•shall stand 
 alone, constituting one member of the equation, 
 while a known quantity constitutes the other 
 member. Jlencel transpose the known quantity 
 14 to the second member. This I do by subtract- 
 ing 14 from each member, which may be done 
 without destroying the equation (or the equality 
 of the members), since, if the same quantity be 
 subtracted from equals, the remainders are equal. 
 1 thus obtain 7a; 2 — 28a - =224. I now observe 
 that the first term of the first member contains 
 the square of :c, while the second contains the first 
 power. I wish to obtain an equation which shall 
 contain only the first power of x. Jn order to do 
 this. I make the first term a perfect power by 
 dividing each member of the equation by 7, 
 which does not destroy the equality, since equals 
 divided by equals give equal quotients, and 1 have 
 x 2 — 4.c=32. Now, observing that a -2 — Ax con- 
 stitutes the first two terms of the square of a 
 binomial of which the square of half the coeffi- 
 cient of x, or 4, is the third term, 1 add 4 to this 
 member to make it a complete square, and also add 
 4 to the second member to preserve the equality 
 of the members, and have x 2 — 4a;+4=36. Ex- 
 tracting the square root of x 2 — 4x-f-4, I have 
 x — 2. an expression which contains only the first 
 power of x; but to preserve the equality, 1 also 
 extract the square root of the second member, ob- 
 taining x — 2= -j-6- Finally, transposing —2 to 
 the second member by adding 2 to each member, 
 which does not destroy the equation, I have .c=8, 
 and — 4." If it is desired to abbreviate the ex- 
 planation, it is far better to make it simply an 
 outline of the reasons than a mere statement 
 of the process. In this case, an outline of the 
 reasons may be given thus: The object is to 
 disengage x from its connections with other 
 quantities so that it shall stand alone, constitut- 
 ing one member while the other member is a 
 known quantity. The first process is based upon 
 the principle that equals subtracted from equals 
 leave equal remainders; the second, upon the 
 
 * "Destroy the value of the equation", is an absurd 
 expression which we frequently hear. An equation is 
 i) >t a quantity, and hence has no value. The equality 
 of the members is meant. 
 
24 
 
 ALGERIA 
 
 ALPHABET 
 
 principle that equals divided by equals give equal 
 quotients," etc. Again, while it is admissible 
 when the purpose is to fix attention upon any 
 particular transformation, to omit the reasons for 
 some of those previously studied, it is far better 
 that these be omitted pro forma, than that 
 something which is not an exposition of reasons 
 be given. Thus, if the present purpose is to 
 secure drill in the theory of completing the 
 square, after having enunciated the problem, the 
 pupil may say: " Having reduced the equation to 
 the form as*— 4or=32," etc., proceeding then to 
 give in full the explanation of the process under 
 consideration. But it is well to allow no recita- 
 tion on such a subject to pass without having at 
 least one full explanation. These remarks apply 
 to study ami recitations designed to give intel- 
 ligent facility in reducing equations. In what may 
 he called "Applications of equations to the solu- 
 tion of practical problems" the purpose is quite 
 different, and so should lie the pupil's explanation. 
 In tin 'si '.the statement is the important thing, and 
 should be made the mam thing in the explanation. 
 In mosl such cases, it will be quite sufficient, if, 
 after having given the reasons for each step in 
 the statement, thus fully explaining the principles 
 on which he has made the equation, the pupil 
 conclude by saying simply: "Solving this equa- 
 tion, I have," etc. Outlines of demonstrati 
 and synopses of topics arc exceedingly valuable 
 as class exercises. I -'or example, it requires a far 
 better know ledgeof the demonstration of Sturm's 
 theorem to be able to give the following outline 
 than to give the whole m detail : (I) No change 
 
 in the variable which does not cause some i 
 
 of the functions to vanish, can cause any change 
 in the number of variations and permanences of 
 the signs of the functions: ('_') No two consec- 
 utive functions can vanish for the same value 
 of the variable: (.'{) The vanishing of an inter- 
 mediate function cannot cause a change in the 
 number of variations and permanences; and 
 (4) The last function cannot vanish for any 
 value of the variable; and, as the first vanishes 
 every time the value of the variable passes 
 
 through a root of the equation, it by so doing 
 
 causes a, loss of one, and only one, variation. We, 
 therefore, have the theorem [giving the theorem]. 
 
 Finally, no subject should he considered as mas- 
 tered by the pupil until he can place upon the 
 blackboard a synoptical analysis of it, and discuss 
 each point, cither in detail or in outline, without 
 any questioning or prompting by the teacher. The 
 order of arrangement of topics, i. e., the sequence 
 of definitions, principles, theorems, etc., is as 
 much a part of the subject considered scientifically 
 as are the detailed facts; and the former should 
 
 lie as firmly fixed in the mind as the latter. 
 
 ALGERIA, a division of N. Africa, which 
 was formerly a Turkish pashalic, but has since 
 
 L830 been in possession of the French. The 
 boundaries are not defined, and the tribes dispute 
 the claims of the French to large tracts on the 
 border. The territory claimed by the French is 
 estimated at about 258,317 sq. m. ; of which 
 
 about 1.50,568 are Subject to the civil, and the 
 
 remainder to military, government. The popu- 
 lation according to the census of 1872 was 
 2,416,225, of whom 245,117 were Europeans 
 and their descendants ; 34,574 native Jews; the 
 remainder were Mohammedans. In regard to re- 
 ligion. 233,733 were Catholics, 6,006 Protestants, 
 39,812 (including those of European descent) 
 Jews, and 141) had made no declaration. The 
 Catholics have an Archbishop and two Bish- 
 ops : the Protestants three Consistories, under 
 which both the Lutheran and Reformed Churches 
 are placed. In regard to public instruction, 
 Algeria constitutes a division, ballet 1 the .1 a " lemy 
 of Algeria and headed by a rector. The number 
 of free public schools in 186(1 was 4 26, with 
 45,375 pupils ; for secondary instruction there 
 are four colleges and one Lyceum (at Algiers, 
 Bona, Constantine, Philippeville, and Oran), the 
 secondary institution at Tlemcen, and the free 
 school at Oran. A special system of instruction 
 lies been arranged for the Mohammedan popu- 
 lation. It comprises the dollar (village or camp) 
 schools, the law schools (zaiouas), the schools of 
 law and literature i m\ dresas), the French Arabic 
 si hools, ami the French Arabic colleges. Algiers, 
 capital, has special schools of theology and of 
 medicine. The educational progress of this coun- 
 try derives a special interest from the fact that 
 it illustrates the influence which the government 
 of a Christian country can exercise upon a Moham- 
 medan dependency. — See Bi.ocK,Dictionnairege- 
 neralde la /><i/i,'/>//'r. A full account of the French 
 laws regulating public instruction in Algeria may 
 be found in Greard,Lcj Legislation de Vlnstrue- 
 tiou Primaire en France, torn, m., art. Algerie. 
 ALLEGHENY COLLEGE, at Meadville 
 Pa., was founded in 1817, and is under the 
 
 direction of the Methodist Episcopal Church. 
 The number of students in 1*74 — ."> was L32, 
 more than one half of whom were pursuing the 
 collegiate course. It has classical, scientific, and 
 biblical departments, and is open to both sexes. 
 Its library contains about 12,000 volumes. Rev. 
 L. 11. Bugbee, P.P.. is the president of the faculty. 
 ALMA MATER (Lat., fostering mother) is 
 a name affectionately given by students of colleges. 
 and universities to the institution to which they 
 owe their education. 
 
 ALPHABET. The alphabet of any language 
 is the series of letters, arranged in the customary 
 
 Order, which form the elements of the language 
 when written. It derives its name from the first 
 two letters in the Greek alphabet, which are 
 named alpha, beta. The letters in the English 
 alphabet have the same forms as those of the 
 Latin language, which were borrowed from the 
 Greek. The Latin alphabet, however, did not 
 contain all the Greek letters. The letters of the 
 Greek alphabel were borrowed from the Phoeni- 
 cian, which was that used by many of the old 
 Semitic nations, and i.- of unknown origin. It 
 consisted of 22 signs, represent i ng consonantal 
 sounds. Into this alphabel the < .'recks introduced 
 
 many modifications, and the changes made by 
 the Romans were also considerable. Its use 
 in English presents many variations from its 
 
ALPHABET MKTIIoh 
 
 25 
 
 final condition in the Latin language. Thus, I 
 and J, and (J and V, instead of being merely 
 graphic variations, were changed so as to represent 
 different sounds, during the Kith and L7tn cent- 
 uries. W was added previously, in the middle 
 ages. The twenty-six letters of our alphabet have 
 been thus classified with regard to their history: 
 
 (1) B, 1>, H. K. I, M. X. 1', <>. R, S, T, letters 
 from tlir Phoenicians ; (2) A. E, I. 0,Z, origin- 
 ally Phoenician, but changed by the Greeks; 
 
 (3) IT (same as V), X, invented by the Greeks; 
 
 (4) C, F, Phoenician letters with changed value ; 
 
 (5) G, of Liitin invention; (6) Y, introduced 
 into Latin from the Greek, with changed form; 
 (7) •'. V. graphic Latin forms raised to inde- 
 pendent letters; (8) W,arecen1 addition, formed 
 by doubling D (or V), whence its name. 
 
 The Imperfections of the English alphabet are 
 manifold: (1) Different consonants are used 
 to represent the same sound; as c (soft) and s, 
 
 30ft) and j, c (hard) and A'. y and k, x and ks. 
 
 (2) Different sounds are expressed by the same 
 Letter; as c in cat and cell, g in get and gin, s in 
 sit and as, f in if and of, etc. (3) The vowels 
 are constantly interchanged, as is illustrated in 
 the following table of the vowel elements of the 
 language and their literal representations, the 
 diacritical marks used being those of Webster's 
 Dictionary. 
 
 Long. 
 | e as in apo, they 
 
 a i care, ere 
 
 a •■ •• art 
 
 a 6 •• " all. orb 
 
 $ as 
 
 it 
 
 a " 
 
 a 8 
 
 Short. 
 in end 
 
 •• hat 
 " ask 
 •• what, not 
 
 £ i ■■ •• eve, p que 
 
 e i y " " her, sir, myrrh 
 
 3 '■ " old 
 
 o u So •' " do, rule, too 
 
 u " •• " urn 
 
 l " 
 
 q u ot> " 
 6u 
 
 •• ait 
 
 " wolf, put, book 
 " love, luck 
 
 u " " use 
 
 
 
 i y " " ice, my 
 oi oy " " oil, boy 
 on ow " " out, owl 
 
 
 
 From this table it will be seen that the letter 
 'i is used to represent sere// different sounds; e,five 
 sounds; o, sir sounds, etc. (See Phonetics.) The 
 names given to the letters are not in conformity 
 with a uniform principle of designation. Thus. 
 the names of /;, c, d, g, />, t, v, and z are be, ce, 
 de, ;/e, etc. ; while the names of f, 1, m, it, s, and 
 x are ef, el, em, en, etc. ; and the names of j, k, 
 are ja, ka. The heterogeneity of these names 
 and of their construction will be obvious. It is 
 important that the teacher should take cogni- 
 zance of these incongruities in giving elementary 
 instruction, as they dictate special methods of 
 presentation. (See Alphabet Method.) 
 
 ALPHABET METHOD, or A-B-C 
 Method. This has reference to the first steps 
 in teaching children to read. According to this 
 method, the pupil must learn the names of all the 
 letters of the alphabet. cither from an A-B-( 'book, 
 from cards, or from the blackboard; that is. he 
 must be taught to recognize the various forms of 
 
 the letters, and to associate with them their re- 
 spective names. The method of doing this, once 
 very general, was to supply the pupils with books. 
 and then, calling up each one singly, to point to 
 the letters, one after the other, and to pronounce 
 
 the name of each, so as to associate arbitrarily 
 
 the form with the name; or, in simultaneous 
 
 class instruction, to exhibit the letters on sepa- 
 rate cards, and teaeh their names by simple repeti- 
 tion. This process must, of course, be not only 
 long and tedious, but exceedingly dry and uninter- 
 esting to a child, since it affords no incentive to 
 mental activity, — no foot 1 for intelligence. By 
 a careful selection and discrimination, however, 
 in presenting the letters to the attention of the 
 child, its intelligence may be addressed in teach- 
 ing the alphabet by this method. The simple 
 
 forms, such as I. 0, X, S, will be remembered 
 
 much more readily than the others; and these 
 being learned, the remainder may be taught by 
 showing the analogy or similarity of then forms 
 with the others. Thus becomes ("when a 
 portion of it is erased; one half of it with I. 
 used as a bar, forms I>; two smaller D'sform I>; 
 and so on. This method is very simple, and may 
 be made quite interesting by means of the black- 
 board. 
 
 The letters which closely resemble each other 
 in form, such as A and V, M and N. E and F, 
 and C and (J. among capitals, and b and d, cand 
 e, p and q, and n and u, among small letters, 
 should lie presented together, so that their minute 
 differences may be discerned. When the black- 
 board is used (as it should always be in teaching 
 classes), the letters may be constructed before 
 the pupils, so that they may perceive the elements 
 of which they are composed. Thus the children 
 will at once notice that b, d, p, q, are composed 
 of the same elements, differently combined. — a 
 straight stroke, or stem, and a small curve. By 
 an appropriate drill, the peculiar forms, with the 
 name of each, will then be soon impressed upon 
 the pupils' minds: and. besides that, their sense 
 of analogy, one of the most active principles of 
 a child's mind, will be addressed, and this will 
 render the instruction lively and interesting. In 
 carrying out this plan, the teacher may use the 
 blackboard, and as a review, or for practice, re- 
 quire the children to copy, and afterwards draw, 
 from memory, on the slate, the letters taught. 
 Cards may also be used, a separate one being 
 employed for each letter. With a suitable frame 
 in which to set them, these may be used with 
 good advantage, the teacher making, and the 
 children also being required to make, various 
 combinations of the letters so as to form short 
 and familiar words. A horizontal wooden bar 
 with a handle, and a groove on the upper edge 
 in which to insert the cards, forms a very useful 
 piece of apparatus for this purpose. Letter- 
 Blocks may also be used in a similar manner by 
 both teacher and pupils. These blocks are some- 
 times cut into sections so as to divide the letter 
 
 into several parts, and the pupil is required to 
 adjust the parts so as to form the letter. This 
 method affords both instruction and amusement 
 
 to VOUng children, and at the same time, gi 
 
 play to their natural impulse to activity. 'I bese 
 various methods will be combined and otb 
 devised by every ingenious teacher. In some 
 schools a piece of apparatus, called the reading 
 
26 
 
 ALUMXEUM 
 
 AXALYSIS 
 
 frame, is used. This is constructed like a black- 
 board with horizontal grooves, in which the let- 
 ters can be placed so as to slide along to any 
 required position. Hy the use of assorted letters, 
 the teacher can construct any word or sentence, 
 building it up letter by letter, as types are set. 
 .Many interesting exercises in reading and spelling 
 may be given by means of such an apparatus, the 
 children being required to construct words and 
 sentences themselves, as well as to read those 
 formed by the teacher. The A B C Method of 
 teaching the elements of reading has now, quite 
 generally, been superseded by the Word Method. 
 — See Currie, Early and Infant School Edu- 
 cation, and Principles and Practice of Common 
 School Education ; Wickebsham, Methods of 
 Instruction. (See Word Method.) 
 
 ALUMNEUM, or Alumnat (Lat., from 
 alere, to feed, to nourish), the name given in 
 Germany to an institution of learning which af- 
 fords to its pupils board, Lodging, and instruc- 
 tion. The first institutions of this kind arose in 
 the middle ages in connection with the convents. 
 Among the most celebrated are those founded by 
 Maurice of Saxony.in the L 6th century, at Pfbrta, 
 Meissen, and Grimma. When the pupils were 
 i ceived and instructed gratuitously, they were 
 expected to perform various services for the 
 school and church, such as singing in the choir. 
 The pupils of thi'se schools were called alumni. 
 (See Alumnus.) 
 
 ALUMNUS, pi. Alumni (Lat., from alere, 
 to feed, to nourish) originally the name of a 
 student who was supported and educated at the 
 expense of a learned institution (see Alumneum), 
 now generally applied to a graduate of a college 
 or similar institution. The graduates of higher 
 seminaries or colleges for females are sometimes 
 called alum inc. 
 
 AMHERST COLLEGE, at Amherst. Mass.. 
 is one of the chief seats of learning in the 
 
 United Stales. It was founded in L821 by the 
 
 Orthodox Congregationalists, especially for the 
 education of young men for the ministry; but 
 
 its charier was not obtained till L825. Its first 
 
 president was the Rev. Zephauiah S. Moore, who 
 
 in L823 was succeeded 1 > v the Rev. 1 leman 
 
 Humphrey, to whose strenuous and prudent 
 efforts the college owed much of its success, lie 
 continued in office till L845, when he was suc- 
 ceeded bj the Rev. Edward Hitchcock; and, 
 on the resignation of the latter, in L854, the 
 presenl incumbent, the Rev.Wilham A. Stearns. 
 D. D., was elected. This institution has been the 
 recipient of very large donations from private 
 
 persons, anil appropriations from the Slate 
 
 amounting to upward of $50,000. The college 
 funds amount in the aggregate to more than 
 $650,000. lis charity fund for the gratuitous 
 • ■ducal i f clergymen amounts to about $70,000; 
 
 and its fund for free scholarships is at least 
 $100,000. The n; s of the principal donors 
 
 to the institution are Dr. William J. Walker, 
 
 to the extent of $240,000 : Samuel A. Hitch- 
 cock. $175,000; Samuel W'illiston. $150,000; 
 and a college church was erected a short time 
 
 ago from funds contributed for the purpose by 
 W. F. Stearns, son of the president. This in- 
 stitution occupies twelve public buildings, besides 
 the president's house, including an edifice for sci- 
 entific instruction, and the college church. There 
 are also a gallery of art. a cabinet of natural 
 history, containing about 100,000 specimens, and 
 an astronomical observatory. The department 
 for physical training is very efficient. It com- 
 prises an extensive and well-appointed gymna- 
 sium ; and, at a certain hour, each class is re- 
 quired to attend, and engage in exercise under the 
 direction of the professor, who is a thoroughly 
 qualified physician. The faculty includes twenty- 
 three instructors, and there are several endowed 
 professorships. The number of students in L874 
 was about 340. The college library contains 
 more than 30,000 volumes: and those of the 
 societies, about 10.001). There is a scientific as 
 well as a classical course: also a post-graduate 
 course, established in 1874, in history and polit- 
 ical science, with especial reference to a "science 
 
 of statesmanship;' while any graduate may 
 
 arrange to pursue a course ol study in any de- 
 partment additional to the college course. The 
 
 tuition fee is $90 per annum. 
 
 ANALYSIS, Grammatical, or Senten- 
 tial. — I'>y the analysis of a sentence is meant a 
 
 decomposition of it into its logical elements. 
 Every sentence must either be a single proposi- 
 tion, or be composed of propositions more or 
 less intimately related: and every proposition 
 must contain a subject and a predicate, the for- 
 mer expressing thai of which we speak, and the 
 latter, what we say of it. The entire or logical 
 Subject must contain a noun or pronoun, either 
 alone or with related words called modifiers OS 
 adjuncts, or it may be a phrase or a clause. The 
 entire or logical predicate, in the same manner, 
 must consist of a veil) with or without adjuncts. 
 These constitute all the parts, and all the relations. 
 
 involved in the construction of a sentence. A few 
 
 words, such as interjections, may be used inde- 
 pendently of them. Grammar has been defined 
 
 as the"arl of speaking and writing correctly." 
 or as the ■• practical science which teaches the 
 
 right use of language"; and for general pur- 
 poses this account is. perhaps, sufficiently ex- 
 plicit. It docs not. however, truly distinguish 
 grammar from the other aits concerned in teach- 
 ing the "right use of language," and hence does 
 not correct Iv point out its peculiar province. 
 
 from a want of precision in defining tin' limita- 
 tions of any art or science, there must necessarily 
 follow a corresponding inaccuracy and looseness 
 
 in its treatment : since, before we can reason 
 
 properly as to the best methods of attaining any 
 
 object, we must clearly conceive what thai objecl 
 is, and carefully distinguish it from all others. 
 
 The special province of grammar does nol ex- 
 tend beyond the construction of sentences: hut 
 it is (piite obvious that to use language correctly, 
 those principles and rules must lie understood 
 
 which underlie the proper method of combining 
 
 sentences so that they may constitute decani and 
 logical discourse. A person may be sufficiently 
 
ANALYSIS 
 
 27 
 
 familial- with grammatical rules to construct sen- 
 tences with perfect correctness, but may so ar- 
 range them as to express only nonsense ; and 
 
 such a person could scarcely be considered a.s un- 
 derstanding the "right use of language." The 
 sentence being the peculiar province of grammar, 
 it follows that the only subjects of investigation 
 
 embraced within it arc words, their orthography, 
 inflectional forms, and pronunciation, and their 
 arrangement in sentences. All grammatical de- 
 finitions and rules are founded upon the relations 
 
 of the parts of a sentence to each other; and. 
 therefore, these relations should be firsfc taught, 
 it is with reference to these relations, that words 
 are classified into parts of speech, or, as they 
 might properly be called, parte of the sentence. 
 To define or explain these* parts of speech before 
 giving any definition of a sentence, is, therefore, 
 clearly illogical : yet this has been the method of 
 many grammarians, words being explained and 
 parsed aa if they had only individual properties, 
 it is in this that the distinction between parsing 
 and grammatical analysis consists. Both are. in 
 fact, only different kinds of analysis, and are 
 base 1 on precisely the same relations, — those in 
 which the words stand to each other as parts of 
 tttence. 
 
 Parsing, as uniformly employed by gram- 
 marians, is a minute examination of the in- 
 dividual words of a sentence, with the view to 
 determine whether the rules of grammar, proper 
 to the particular language in which the sentence 
 is written, have been observed or violated. Anal- 
 ysis, on the other hand, deals with the relations 
 upon which those rules are based, and which 
 are common to all languages. Thus, in parsing, 
 the pupil is obliged to scrutinize all the inflec- 
 tional forms in which the words composing the 
 sentence arc used ; and, in order to determine 
 whether they are proper or not, must not only 
 know the rules of syntax, but the relations of the 
 words to each other, so as to be able to apply 
 those rules. The relations are invariable in all 
 languages, but the rules which refer to the in- 
 flections are founded on particular usage, and 
 hence are in no two languages exactly alike. ( >n 
 this account, since the general logically precedes 
 the special, the treatment of sentential analysis 
 should precede any exercises in parsing. Other- 
 wise, how. for example, could a pupil be required 
 to distinguish the eases of nouns and pronouns, 
 and the person and number of verbs, before be- 
 ing taught the relations of the words to each other? 
 
 By means of the analytical method, when rightly 
 applied, the study of grammar is made clear, 
 
 logical, and easy from the very beginning. The 
 pupil is first taught the nature of the sentence, 
 its essential parts, and their relations to each 
 other, and is shown how to analyze sentences of 
 a simple character. He is troubled with but 
 little phraseology ; for all the terms that are es- 
 sential to the complete distinction and designa- 
 tion of the parts of a sentence are subject, verb 
 or predicate, object, attribute, and adjuncts. These 
 being defined, and the pupil taught how to dis- 
 tinguish them, a complete foundation has been 
 
 laid for the intelligent study of all other gram- 
 matical terms and distinctions; and this being 
 the foundation, should, of course, be the first 
 thing done. Those who oppose the analytical 
 method assert that words are the real elements of 
 a sentence, and that any consideration of these 
 involves, therefore, an exhaustive analysis of the 
 
 sentence itself. With the same propriety mighl 
 it be said that pieces of iron of various shapes 
 are the elements of the steam-engine. They in- 
 deed compose the machine, and it can ultimately 
 be resolved into them; but could its structure 
 and workings be explained by taking these frag- 
 ments of metal in a hap hazard way. and noticing 
 how they are related toothers in immediate jux- 
 taposition, without regard to the general struct- 
 ure of the machine, and the dependence of its 
 operation upon a few elementary orprimary parts. 
 as the cylinder, piston, condenser, etc.? Words 
 are not necessarily the real elements of a sen- 
 tence. These are the subject and predicate and 
 their adjuncts: and. unless these component parts 
 of the general structure be first observed, the 
 relations of the separate words cannot be under- 
 stood. Hence, we find that those writers who 
 have ignored a definite consideration of tl 
 logical elements, have fallen into many errors 
 and inconsistencies. 
 
 The various systems of analysis in use differ 
 in no essential respect, the chief variation being 
 in the nomenclature employed to designate the 
 elements of the sentence. The name generally 
 applied to a proposition forming a part of a sen- 
 tence is a clause, and any group of related words 
 not making a proposition is called & phrase. The 
 modifying elements are by some called adjective 
 or adverbial, according as they perform the func- 
 tions of adjectives or adverbs. Instead of the 
 term adjective, adnominal is sometimes employed. 
 The term adjunct is generally employed to des- 
 ignate an element subordinate to either subject 
 or predicate. Such adjuncts may be modifying, 
 descriptive, or oppositional. A modifying ad- 
 junct changes the meaning of the element to 
 which it is applied, generally, by making it more 
 specific, or by restricting the class to which it be- 
 longs. Thus animal is a more general term than 
 four-footed animal ; hence./bwr^oofea is a modi- 
 fying adjunct. But the term man is no more 
 general than man thai is born of a woman,or 
 mortal man ; the adjuncts, that is born of a wom- 
 an and mortal being only descriptive, not modi- 
 fying. A] (positional adjuncts only explain : 
 as: He, the chieftain of them all, in which the 
 phrase, the chieftain, etc., is only explanatory, or 
 appositional Adjuncts may be single words. 
 phrases or clauses; and one of the chief ad- 
 vantages of sentential analysis is to show the 
 pupil that groups of words are often used so as 
 to perform the same office as single words. In 
 teaching this subject, a proper gradation of topics 
 should Be observed; and much caution exercised 
 to avoid the perplexing of the young pupil by 
 
 presenting to his mind distinctions too nice to be 
 
 discerned by his undeveloped powers of analysis 
 
 Various methods have been devised in order to 
 
28 
 
 ANALYSIS 
 
 ANDREW 
 
 present to the eye of the student the analyzed 
 sentence, so as to show clearly the relation of its 
 parts; and. in the radimental stages of the in- 
 struction, these are, without doubt, of consider- 
 able utility; but they should not be carried so 
 far us to present to the student a confused mass 
 of loops, lines, curves, or disjointed phrases, far 
 more difficult to disentangle than to analyze, with- 
 out any such aid, the most involved sentence. 
 All such devices, it must be remembered, are 
 only auxiliaries to the mind's natural operations, 
 and cannot at all supersede them. Neither 
 should the exercise of analyzing sentences be al- 
 lowed to degenerate into the mechanical applica- 
 tion of its must simple requirements. As the 
 student advances, he will be able to omit more 
 and more of the routine, until he reaches a stag i 
 of progress, at which the general structure of 
 the sentence — its component clauses and their re- 
 lations, will be all that he need observe or state. 
 When judiciously and rationally employed, sen- 
 tential analysis must engender a very important 
 quality of mind, ami greatly conduce to clear 
 thinking, intelligent, critical reading, and accurate, 
 terse expression. -See Mulligan, Gramma 
 Structure of the English Language (N.Y., 1852); 
 Goold Brown, Grammar of English Gram- 
 mars, and Institutes if English Grammar, 
 with Kiddle's Analysis; Welch, Analysis of 
 the English Senten.ce; Greene, Analysis of the 
 English Language; Clark, Normal Grammar 
 of the English Language; Cruttenden, Phi- 
 losophy of Sentential Language; March, Pars- 
 ing and Analysis; Andrews and Stoddard, 
 Latin Grammar. 
 
 ANALYSIS, Mathematical. See Math- 
 em vni's. 
 
 ANALYTIC METHOD OF TEACH- 
 ING. This is the method used by the teacher 
 when he presents to his pupils composite 
 truths or facts, and by means of analysis 
 shows tin' principles involved, or leads the 
 mind of the pupil to an analysis of them for 
 himself. In this way he teaches principles 
 which the pupil is to apply to the elucida- 
 tion of many diverse problems. In the synthetic 
 method, the teacher begins with principles, ex- 
 plains their meaning, and shows how they arc to 
 he applied, 'rims, suppose the pupil is to lie 
 taught how to add and subtract fractions. Ac- 
 cording to the analytic method, the fractions to 
 lie operated upon are presented to the pupil's 
 mind, and he is shown, firsl the difficulty in- 
 volved, and sec My, Imw to surmount this diffi- 
 culty, by (h tin ling a common denominator, 
 
 and (2) by Changing the numerator so that the 
 
 fractions with the common denominator may 
 
 have the same value as the given fractions. 'I lieu 
 
 the method of addition or subtraction becomes 
 
 obvious. In this way learning the principle him- 
 self by analysis, the pupil is enabled to construct 
 • ' genera] rule, and applj it to .my given ease. In 
 the synth tic method, the pupil would be taught 
 in the first place the nature and use of a common 
 denominator, then the method of reducing frac- 
 i- to a comm 'ii denominator, and then to add 
 
 or subtract fractions by finding a common de- 
 nominator. If the object of the instruction given 
 were, exclusively, to make the pupil expert in 
 adding and subtracting fractions, the synthetic 
 method would perhaps have some advantage over 
 the analytic ; but. since an important part of 
 this object is to train the mind, the analytic meth- 
 od is greatly to be preferred; for (1) it stimu- 
 lates the mind to greater activity. (2) it teaches 
 it how to investigate for itself, and to discover 
 truth, and (3) it gives it a much clearer knowl- 
 edge of the fundamental principles involved in 
 the subject taught, Whether the analytic meth- 
 od should be employed and to what extent, is 
 to he determined by a consideration of the nature 
 of the subject taught, and the degree of advance- 
 ment of the student. In the higher stages of 
 education, much time would be lost by rigorously 
 following this method : and if, in the more 
 elementary stages, the pupil's mind has been 
 thoroughly trained in this way, it will not be 
 necessary to adhere to it when he comes to study 
 
 the higher branches. At everystage, and in ev< ry 
 
 branch of instruction, however, there will be oc- 
 casion for the use of both analysis ami synthesis; 
 and the skill and judgment of the teacher must 
 
 be exercised, at every step. to determine which is 
 the appropriate method to be employed. — 
 Palmer, Th.e Teacher's Manual (Boston, 1840). 
 ANDREW, Johann Valentin, a German 
 clergyman and educator, was born at llerreii- 
 berg, in Wurtemberg, in L586, and died in 
 Stuttgart, in 1654. After tilling several eccle- 
 siastical positions in the Lutheran church of 
 his country, lie became, in 1650, Superintendent 
 General at Babenhausen, and in L 654 at Adel- 
 berg. Be was a stern and influential opponent 
 
 of the principles which the Lutheran orthodoxy, 
 at that time, endeavored to carry out in edu- 
 cation, lie denounced, in particular, the me- 
 chanical method of teaching Latin, which then 
 prevailed, as well as the equally mechanical 
 method of catechetical instruction in the pub- 
 lic schools; and he is known, in the history of 
 German education, by the reforms which he in- 
 troduced in these studies, lie insisted that no 
 orders should be given to the pupils in a foreign 
 language, that they should not be required to 
 learn any thing which they did not understand, 
 
 and that no explanations should be given to them 
 exceeding their comprehension, or not enlisting 
 their interest. His views on pedagogical and 
 didactical reform are fully developed in the 
 work ReipubliccB Christiana Descriptio (1619), 
 which sketches the constitution of an ideal 
 
 ( 'hristian republic, giving due prominence to the 
 
 organization of education. Another work, writ- 
 ten in his youth. Idea Bonce Tnstiiutionis, is no 
 
 longer extant. Andrea' was an intimate friend of 
 Amos ( 'omen ins. whose work. Didactica Magna, 
 
 h ■ earnestly recommended. The autobiography 
 of Andrea' in Lit in has been published by Lheiii- 
 wald i Berlin 1849). - See Schmidt, GescJiichte 
 der Padagogik, rrr, 338; Hossbach. Andreas 
 imil sein Zeitalter (Berlin, 1830); IIkxkk in 
 Deutsche AUgemeine Biographie, art. Andrea?. 
 
ANGLO-SAXON 
 
 29 
 
 ANGLO-SAXON is the current name for 
 thr mother-tongue of the modern English lan- 
 guage. During the 5th and 6th centuries, tribes 
 from the shores of the North Sea. — Angl 
 Sax<ms. Jutes, ami others, made conquests and 
 settlements in England, They spoke LowGerman 
 dialects, and after they were converted to Chris- 
 tianity, Roman alphabetic writing was intro- 
 duced, and a single literary language came into 
 use through the whole nation. This lan-nap' 
 they commonly called Anglisc, or Engli$c,i.e. 
 English, but since the 17th century it lias been 
 called Anglo-Saxon. its besl period was the 
 reign of Alfred the Great, A. I>. 871 901. 
 
 In the careful Study of its literary remains, it is 
 
 necessary to distinguish three dialects, the North- 
 umbrian, the Wes1 Saxon, and the Kentish; and 
 three periods, the early, the mi Idle, an I the late: 
 but in this article, our attention will be mainly 
 directed to classic Anglo-Saxon, which is West 
 Saxon of the middle period. This literary lan- 
 guage was cultivated mainly by rewriting in it, 
 for the use of the people, the best Latin works 
 of the time on religion, history, and philosophy. 
 King Alfred and his learned assistants thus pre- 
 pared Gregory's Pastorale; the General His/on/ 
 of Orosius, the Ecclesiastical History of Bede,the 
 Consolations <>f Philosophy of Boethius; and 
 these were followed by many other translations 
 in prose and verse. The language in this way 
 attained accuracy and ease in following Latin 
 compositions, and a, higher general cultivation 
 than any other Teutonic tongue of the time. 
 It is a very j mre Low German speech, closely 
 akin to the Friesic ( >ld Saxon, and I hvtch. These 
 Low- German tongues are most nearly related, on 
 the one side, to High German, and on the other 
 to Scandinavian; and more remotely to Latin, 
 Greek, Slavic. Sanskrit, and the other Indo- 
 European or Aryan languages. The Anglo- 
 Saxon is to lie classed with the older inflected or 
 synthetic languages, like the Latin, Greek, ami 
 Sanskwit. rather than with the analytic, or little- 
 inflected, like French and English. The noun 
 has five cases, and three genders: and four de- 
 clensi mi- growing out of differences in the stems. 
 The adjective is declined as in German, in a 
 definite and an indefinite declension, with two 
 numbers, three genders, and five cases. The 
 onal pronouns are also fully declined in 
 three numbers, having special forms for the dual 
 number in the first ana second persons. There 
 
 are two great classes of verbs, one of which 
 forms the past tense by reduplication, ami the 
 other by composition with dide, did. In the 
 first class are five conjugations, arranged accord- 
 ing to their root vowels, and from these com, ■ 
 most of what are called the irregular verbs of 
 modem English; our regular verbs come from flu' 
 sixth conjugation. <>ur Buffixes of derivation, 
 our prepositions, and conjunctions are also in 
 great part Anglo-Saxon. The syntax is of 
 course that of a highly inflected language. Some 
 verbs govern an accusative, some a dative or in- 
 strumental, some a genitive, some two accusa- 
 tives, some an accusative and dative, and so on 
 
 as in Latin and Greek. The uses of the modes 
 are also a matter of great nicety. The body of 
 rules for the use of the subjunctive rivals that 
 for the Latin subjunctive. Most of the diffi- 
 culties if English syntax find their solution in the 
 tact that they are relies of idioms which were gen- 
 eral, ami are easily understood, in Anglo-Saxon. 
 
 The laws of sound, including prosody, are note- 
 worthy. The vowel sounds are very susceptible 
 to the influence of adjacent letters. A root a 
 will change to ae, ea, e, o, as one or another 
 
 letter follows it: ami so with the other vowels. It 
 is in this way thai the plural of man comes to be 
 men, from mani. And, m general, the changes 
 
 ■ of the original letters of an English word in in- 
 flection are to be explained from the phom 
 laws of Anglo-Saxon. The verse. like that of 
 the other early Teutonic nations, is accentual, 
 and marks off the lines by alliteration. The art 
 of poetry was highly cultivated: the sedp, or 
 ] o(t, was highly honored, and it was a disgrace 
 to any man nol to be able to sin- in his turn at 
 the feasts. We have specimens of the old ballad 
 epic reaching far back into heathen antiquity, 
 the Iliad and Odyssey of the North. There is 
 also a body of Christian poetry in similar verse 
 and in somewhat similar style. 
 
 From this sketch of the language and its 
 literature it will appear, that whatever disciplin- 
 ary advantages are to be gained from the study 
 of an inflected tongue as such, or of a literature 
 introducing us to a new world of thought and 
 manners, are to be gained as well from the 
 study of Anglo-Saxon as of Latin or Greek. It 
 has, however, additional and more intimate uses 
 to those who speak and write English, and have 
 English for their foster-mother in literature. It is 
 the mother of our mother-tongue, and the knowl- 
 edge of it helps us at every step in our study of 
 English grammar and literature, and is essential 
 
 ] to any really advanced scholarly knowledge of 
 either. We may. therefore, find a place for 
 Anglo-Saxon in all grades of schools in which 
 language and literature are studied, using it in 
 different wavs at different stages of progress. 
 
 The study of language must always occupy a 
 chief place in any comprehensive educational 
 scheme. It has two great divisions: (1) as the 
 study of the art of communication, (2) as the 
 
 study of the record of human thought. With- 
 out the art of communication, man cannot live: 
 
 w ithout access to the accumulated thought of the 
 race, any generation would be savages; without 
 an introduction to the emotions and ideals of 
 the great and noble which are embodied in lit- 
 erature, any generation would lapse toward 
 moral idiocy. 
 
 Common Schools. — The Anglo-Saxon is no 
 longer spoken, ami it would be hardly worth 
 
 while to learn to speak it: but in learning to 
 speak and write English we need to know much 
 of it. The power to speak well is founded on 
 familiarity with choice idioms and synonyms. 
 These are learned in connection with the history 
 of the formation and meanings of words, and 
 especially in English, of our Anglo-Saxon words. 
 
30 
 
 ANGLO-SAXON 
 
 There are several school etymologies which afford 
 manuals of practice in the study and use of the 
 Anglo-Saxon elements of our speech, among 
 which may be mentioned : Hand-Book of Anglo- 
 Saxon Hi nit- Words (New York); Hand-Bookqf 
 Anglo-Saxon Derivatives (New York); Gibus's 
 Teutonic Etymology (New Haven); Sargent's 
 School Manual of English Etymology (Phila.). 
 In these books the pupil is told the meanings of 
 certain Anglo-Saxon words, prefixes, and suffixes, 
 and of English words which are derived from 
 them; and exercises are arranged in which to 
 acquire skill in the ready use of this knowledge. 
 They are intended for the Common School. 
 Haldeman's Affixes (Phila.) is a treasury of this 
 branch of learning. 
 
 In the High School or Academy, Anglo-Saxon 
 is to be read and studied not only as explanatory 
 of English, but for its own structure and liter- 
 ature, just as Latin, Greek, and German are 
 studied. Manuals for this study in its simplest 
 form contain brief grammars, selections for read- 
 ing, notes, and vocabulary. — Such books are S. 
 M. Shdte's Anglo-Saxon Mo,, mil (N. V.); Bar- 
 nes's Anglo-Saxon Delectus (London); Vernon's 
 Guide to the Anglo-Saxon Tongue (London); 
 < !arpenter's Introduction to the study of the 
 Anglo-Saxon Language (Boston). Similar to 
 these, but containing more apparatus for a 
 comparative study of the language and philo- 
 logical Dotes, are March's Introduction to the 
 Anglo-Saxon Language (N. Y.); Morris's Ele- 
 mentary Lessons in Historical English Gram- 
 mar, containing Accidence and Word Forma- 
 tion (London). 
 
 Normal Schools. —There are no persons to whom 
 tin's study is more important, than to teachers of 
 English grammar. The explanations of the forms 
 of words arc- all to besought in it. The origin and 
 meaning of the possessive ending 's, of the plural 
 endings, of the endings for gender, of the tense 
 forms and other forms of the verb, the adverbial 
 endings, the prepositions, may at any time be de- 
 manded of the teacher. Pupils will ask him 
 whether John's hool: is a contraction of John his 
 book; how comes geese to be the plural of goose, 
 and men tiaeplural of man: how comes lady 
 to be the/eminine of lord; how cornea I have 
 
 loved ti> express the perfect tense; what does the 
 
 to mean when you say to be, or not to be, that is 
 the question, and so on without end. Bui such 
 questions cannot be answered without knowing 
 Anglo-Saxon. It is the same with questions of 
 
 syntax. Almost all difficulties crow out of 
 
 Anglo-Saxon idioms, or find their solution in 
 the forms of that speech. Teachers who know 
 nothing of the history of the language puzzle 
 themselves infinitely with subtle reasonings to 
 prove that expressions must he parsed in one 
 
 way CT another, when a glance at an Anglo- 
 Saxon grammar would settle the matter in a 
 moment. No teacher can safely pronounce on 
 
 any such mooted questions of our language with 
 
 out knowing the Anglo-Saxon forms. No nor- 
 mal school ought to send out graduates from its 
 grammar department wholly ignorant of this 
 
 study. A lesson a day during the last school 
 term skillfully directed to the most frecpient ex- 
 amples in which this knowledge comes into use, 
 would perhaps answer the most pressing necessi- 
 ties of the common school teacher. Twice that 
 time woidd be a meager allowance to lay the 
 foundation of the education of an accomplished 
 high-school teacher in this department. For this 
 study may be used March's Comparative Gram- 
 mar of the Anglo-Saxon Language I New York); 
 — this contains a full syntax ; R. Morris's His- 
 torical Outlines of English Accidence (London 
 
 Eadley's Brief History of the English Lan- 
 guage, in Webster's Dictionary (1865). 
 
 Colleges and Universities. — The earliest im- 
 portant use of Anglo-Saxon in our schools was 
 that introduced by President Jefferson Into the 
 University of Virginia, in 1825. Be thought 
 that it was a rude form of colloquial English dis- 
 guised by bad spelling, and that the whole gram- 
 matical system as given in the text-books was a 
 series of ■• aberrations into which our great Anglo- 
 Saxon leader. Dr. Bickes, has been seduced by 
 too much regard to the structure of the Greek 
 and Latin languages." " Remove," he says. -the 
 obstacles of uncouth spelling and unfamiliar 
 character, and there would be little more diffi- 
 culty in understanding an Anglo-Saxon writer 
 than Bums' poems." lie proposed to have text- 
 books prepared, in which the original Anglo- 
 Saxon should be accompanied by a parallel 
 column containing the same matter respelt into 
 modern English or forms like the modern En- 
 glish, and h\ explanations of the meaning of 
 unusual winds. 'I hese he thought would be few, 
 so that the whole tongue might be mastered 
 
 with great ease and rapidity. These views of the 
 language are all wrong; the best Anglo-Saxon 
 manuscripts are really spell on a more careful 
 and more scientific system than our modern 
 
 English. The language, really, is an inflected 
 language, like I atin and (deck, having its case- 
 endings and other inflective forms from the 
 same Original as those sister-speeches. Of course. 
 
 no one has carried out Mr. Jefferson's plan liter- 
 ally. One of its suggestions has, however, been 
 embodied in March's Introduction to Anglo- 
 Saxon (New York). An early division of the 
 
 prose is prepared iii parallel pages of Anglo- 
 Saxon, and a sort of English made by giving for 
 each Anglo-Saxon word the corresponding En- 
 glish word to which it has given rise, if there be 
 
 any, or a kindred English word. The following 
 
 is a specimen: 
 
 Se leornere segeth: We cildru biddath the, 
 eala lareow, thael thu baece Qssprecan on Ledene 
 gereorde rihte, fortham ungelaerede we sindon, 
 and gewemmedlice w e sprecath. 
 
 (The learnersaith: Wechilder 1 bid- thee, O-lo 
 lore-master, that thou teach us /o-speak in Latin 
 i-rerd right, lot-that * un-i-lered ■■ we are. and 
 i-weiiiincilly we speak.) 
 
 l children (Chauoer). spray, nlanguago HalliwelT. 
 'because, o unlearned Stratuiauu). c corruptly, from. 
 wrm, a spot. 
 
ANGLO-SAXON 
 
 ANSELM 
 
 31 
 
 An extract from the poetry of Caedmon is 
 prepared in the Bame manner. Tt will be Been 
 that this affords an easy introduction to a gen- 
 eral knowledge of the Anglo-Saxon vocabulary, 
 and is a grateful means of enabling beginners 
 who wish only to read in an off-hand fashion, to 
 get a fair knowledge of the contents of Anglo- 
 Saxon books, especially of simple prose, and 
 makes a good beginning for grammatical and 
 philological study. 
 
 There has been a great increase of Anglo-Saxon 
 study in our colleges within the last ten years. 
 From being almosl unknown, and wholly unpro- 
 vided with any suitable apparatus, it has become 
 a common study, and a number of manuals have 
 been published for beginners in it. both in America 
 and Europe. There is ft difference of opinion 
 among our educators as to whether it should be 
 studied early in the college course and in connec- 
 tion with English simply, or later and in connec- 
 tion with Latin, Greek,and German; whether it. 
 should he mainly a literary study, for reading and 
 the vocabulary, or chiefly a grammatical and 
 philological study. The earliest of the later text- 
 books announced for publication was a < 'ompar< - 
 Hi-.- Grammar by P. A. March, Prof, of the 
 English Language and Comparative Philology i:i 
 Lafayette College. This was primarily intended 
 for the use of a Junior Class in college, who 
 have already studied Latin, Greek, French, 
 and German, according to a progressive plan by 
 which each language is compared with the others 
 in its grammatical forms and analogous words, so 
 that when beginning Anglo-Saxon, the students 
 are good comparative grammarians within the 
 range of the above languages. It is the plan of 
 this grammar to compare the Anglo-Saxon with 
 Sanskrit, Greek, Latin, Gothic, Old Saxon, Old 
 Frisic, Icelandic, and Old High German. Gen- 
 eral principles of phonology, enough to cover 
 all the changes of sound, are first laid down, 
 and then parallel paradigms of the inflection 
 forms in these languages are given, and the 
 Anglo-Saxon explained under their guidance. A 
 comparative syntax is also given. The author 
 in this way introduces the student to the 
 methods of the modern science of language in 
 connection with the study of Anglo Saxon, so 
 that our mother-tongue may share the honors 
 of this new science. This grammar was followed 
 by a Reader, which is prepared with notes 
 .adapted to lead to and aid in the study of the 
 grammar. These books have been since studied 
 at Lafayette College in the manner here sug- 
 gested. A class goes slowly on with the reader 
 and grammar together, studying, word byword, 
 letter by letter, the relations of the forms to 
 <fthoee of dt her languages, and the laws of change 
 which govern their history, and trying to ground 
 all in the laws of the mi ml and of the organs of 
 speech. Besides this grammatical study, how- 
 ever, the substance of the selections is carefully 
 studied, including choice extracts from the 
 Anglo-Saxon Chronicle and Beda giving the 
 noticeable events of history, Anglo-Saxon laws. 
 and extracts from the great poets. In method 
 
 and substance, aa thorough and scientific study is 
 given in this way to a portion of the Anglo- 
 Saxon as can be given to < J reek or Latin with 
 the ordinary college text-books. The study is 
 pursued in this way at several of the American 
 colleges. In others, rapid reading for literary 
 purposes prevails. The text -books used are 
 \I lrch's Grammar and Reader, as above, in 
 which are also bibliographical notes, ami a sketch 
 of the literature; Shdte's Anglo-Saxon Manual; 
 Ki Epstein's Anglo-Saxon <<ra/nniar(^SewYoTk); 
 Corson's Anglo-Saxon and Early English 
 (New York); Thorpe's Analecta Angh-Saxonica 
 (Loudon); Carpenter's Introduction to Anglo- 
 Saxon (Boston). 
 
 Nowhere else is this study pursued as in 
 America. It is almost wholly neglected in the 
 English universities. Nine German universities 
 announced lectures on it for the winter semester 
 of 1874—5. 
 
 Dictionaries of Anglo-Saxon are BoswORTH's 
 (London); Ettmueller's Lexicon Anglo-saxoni- 
 cum (Quedlinburg & Leipsic, 1851), — an etymo- 
 logical dictionary. Other valuable works of 
 reference or for further reading are Thorpe's 
 Beowulf, with translation, notes, and glos- 
 sary (London): Grein's Beowulf, with Ger- 
 man glossary (Cassel, 1867); Heyne's Beovulf, 
 with German notes and glossary (Paderborn, 
 1873); Thorpe's Gospels (London); Bosworth's 
 Four Versions of the Gospels (London); E. 
 Mjbtzner's Englische Grammatik (Berlin, I860 
 — 65); C. F. Koch's HOstorische Grammatik 
 der englischen Spracke (Weimar, 1803 — 71); 
 Marsh's English Language, and its Early 
 Literature (New York, 1862); Morley's English 
 Writers (London, 1867); Wright's Biog.Brit. 
 LUeraria (London. 1842); Ettmceller's Scdpas 
 and Bdceras (Qued. & Leips., 1850); 0. W. ML 
 Grein's Bibliothek der angelscLchsischeti Poesit 
 (Cassel & Gottingen, 1857—1864); Grein's Bi- 
 bliothek der angelsdchsischen Prosa (Cassel. 
 1872); Grein's Sprachschatz der angelsdchsi- 
 schen Dichter (Cassel & Gottingen. 1864): and 
 articles in Appleton's New American Oy- 
 chpeedia, and Johnson's New Universal <';/- 
 clopcedia. 
 
 ANSELM, of Canterbury, a saint and 
 doctor of the Roman Catholic Church, is re- 
 garded as one of the founders of scholasticism. 
 (See Scholasticism.) lie was born at Aosta, in 
 Piedmont, about L033, entered, after a dissolute 
 youth, the Benedictine order in L060, succeeded, 
 in inc.::. Lanfrancas prior of the monastery of 
 Bee in Normandy, and. in L 079, became abbot. 
 lie was, in 1093, consecrated archbishop of Can- 
 terbury, and died in L109. The school of Bee 
 
 became, through him. the most famous of the 
 age. 1 le endeavored to show the entire harmony 
 between faith and science, and was the first to 
 develop what is called the ontological argument 
 to prove the existence of God. He was a de- 
 termined and effective opponent of the discipline 
 which at that time prevailed in the monasteries, 
 and which even allowed abbots to cudgel die 
 obedient monks. " A fine education," he once 
 
32 
 
 ANTIOCH COLLEGE 
 
 APHORISMS 
 
 replied to an abbot, who complained of the in- 
 efficiency of his educational efforts. •• which edu- 
 cates man to animals ! Because they receive from 
 you no mark of love and kindness, they mistrust 
 you. suspect you of malignity and hatred, and 
 can only face you with lowered looks and averted 
 eyes." An edition of Anselm's complete works, 
 dso containing his life, by his friend and com- 
 panion Eadmer, was published, in 1744, in Ven- 
 ice [Opera omnia, '1 vols.). See Moshler, An- 
 selm's Leben undSchriften | Tub.Quartalschrift, 
 L826, L827) ; Basse, Anselm von Canterbury, 
 (2 \ols.. L843— 52; an abridged English trans- 
 lation by Torner, London, 1860); Ch. de Remu- 
 Si!. Anselme de Cantorbery (Paris, L852). 
 
 ANTIOCH COLLEGE, at Yellow Springs, 
 Green Co., Ohio, was incorporated in L852. Its 
 buildings, which were erected at a cost of 
 $150,000, have a plea-ant and healthful situa- 
 tion. This institution is designed to afford the 
 means of a useful education, at small expense, to 
 both sexes. Its charter forbids (lie teaching of 
 sectarian dogmas; but the instruction is Liiven 
 in consonance with tin- spirit of liberal Chris- 
 tianity. Its first president was Horace Mann 
 (ls.").'3 — 59). He was succeeded by Thomas 
 Hill. I). I>. (1859—62), George W. Bosmer, 
 I). i>. (1866 — 72); and since then, the college has 
 been under the direction of Prof. Edward Orton 
 and Samuel < '. Derby, A. M., acting presidents. 
 Its endowment is upward of SI 2(1,000. It has a 
 preparatory and collegiate department ; and stu- 
 dents are permitted to select any studies from its 
 curriculum which they are able to pursue with 
 advantage, and receive a certificate for the same, 
 after passing a satisfactory examination. In this 
 respect, the institution affords the advantages of 
 the best academies. It has a musical institute 
 under the supervision of the faculty, and a li- 
 brary of 5000 volumes. The number of students 
 in 187 I was about 100. The co-education of the 
 sexes has been very successful in this institution. 
 The annual tuition fee is S.'iT. 
 
 ANTIPATHY. This term, the opposite of 
 sympathy, denotes the instinctive dislike which 
 is fell towards some persons on account of cer- 
 tain peculiarities of temperament, disposition. 
 manners, etc. The natural characteristics of dif- 
 ferent persons show remarkable diversities in 
 this respect. Some seem lo exert a kind of 
 magnetic influence, which attracts and engages 
 others, and by means of which they immediately 
 gain the good-will and affection of those with 
 whom they are brought into communication. 
 ()ihers. on the contrary, appear to repel, as it 
 were, all who approach them, and aie obliged, 
 therefore, to make special efforl to secure the con- 
 fidence and good-will of their associates, T'rank- 
 ness and candor tend to inspire confidence; while 
 an exhibition of reserve and shyness produces 
 aversion ami distrust. Shy. secretive persons 
 strive to avoid others, and are instinctively avoided. 
 
 They naturally produce antipathy. Hatred is 
 engendered in the mind towards those who com- 
 mit positive acts of injury, wrong, or crime; but 
 this is to be distinguished from antipathy, which 
 
 is an instinctive dislike. Such a feeling is apt 
 To exist on a first acquaintance only, and is often 
 dismissed subsequently as a prejudice. No per- 
 son can succeed in teaching children, who pos- 
 sesses an unfortunate temperament or mental con- 
 stitution of this kind, ami such a one should seek 
 other employment ; since all real success in prac- 
 tical education, depending as it does upon in- 
 spiring the minds of pupils with love, esteem, and 
 confidence, must be founded upon the opposite 
 quality, sympathy. (See Sympathy.) 
 
 APHORISMS, Educational. The expres- 
 sion of general truths in the form of aphorisms 
 has some advantages over more extended state- 
 ments, particularly in their brevity, pithiness, 
 and point. The understanding grasps them 
 as the keys to practical rules, and as guides in 
 conduct : and the memory more readily retains 
 them. It is not. however, to the uninformed, 
 untrained mind, that such expressions are of the 
 greatest use. but to those who,having already ac- 
 quired by experience and reflection a good store 
 of facts and idea- upon the subject treated, are 
 glad to find them concentrated, as it were, in 
 these small and convenient verbal repositories. 
 \o subject is richer in such aphorisms than 
 education ; and to no one will their study and 
 acquisition prove more serviceable than to the 
 practical teacher, eager to avail himself of the 
 treasured experience of others. In these scintil- 
 lations of wisdom, struck out from the minds of 
 ancient and modern sages, philosophers, and edu- 
 cators, will be found an illumination sufficient per- 
 haps to guide the humble explorer in the field of 
 pedagogical lore, to the true path to professional 
 success, as well as to the temple of speculative 
 and practical truth. The few here given have 
 been selected not only for their appositeness, but 
 for their value as the exponents to correct educa- 
 tion and teaching. Their arrangement by topics 
 
 will not only serve to divest them collectively 
 of their fragmentary character, but render them 
 easy of reference and application. In regard to the 
 value of aphorisms in general, t 'oleridge remarks: 
 " Exclusively of the abstract sciences, the lar- 
 gest and worthiest portion of our knowledge 
 consists of aphorisms: and the greatest and best 
 of men is but an aphorism." 
 
 I. Value of Education. 
 
 Man cannot propose a higher or holier object 
 tor his study than education and all that per- 
 tains to education. — l'l.Vl'o. 
 
 Man becomes what he is principally by edu- 
 cation, which pertains to tin whole of lite. l'i vm. 
 
 Man becomes whal he is by nature, habit, instruc- 
 tion; the last two together constitute education, and 
 must always ace pan} each other. Aristotle. 
 
 There is within every mind a divine ideal, the 
 type after which he was created, the germs of a 
 perfect person ; and it is the office of education to 
 favor and direct these germs. Kant. 
 
 Mali is tin product of his education. — 
 
 Helvetius. 
 
 A right-directed system of education is a moral 
 
 power in the mind, second only to that creating 
 
 energy that formed and sustains in existence its 
 
 material frame-work. — A. E. Craig. 
 
APHORISMS 
 
 33 
 
 Of all the men we meet with, nine parts out of 
 ten are what they arc, good or evil, useful or not, 
 by their education. — Locke. 
 
 Education is to inspire the love of truth, as the 
 supreme good, and to clarity the vision of the 
 intellect to discern it. — H. Mann. 
 
 Education is the one living fountain which 
 must water even part of the social garden, or its 
 beauty withers, and fades away. — E. Evebett. 
 
 II. Scope of Education. 
 
 The object of education is not external show 
 and splendor, but inward development. — Seneca. 
 
 A good education consists in giving to the body 
 and the soul all the perfection of which they are 
 susceptible. — Plato. 
 
 Education can improve nature, but not com- 
 pletely change it. — Aristotle. 
 
 The object of the science of education is to 
 render the mind the fittest possible instrument for 
 discovering, applying, or obeying the laws under 
 which God has placed the universe. — "Wayland. 
 
 The first principle of human culture, the 
 foundation-stone of all but false, imaginary cul- 
 tm-e. is, that men must, before every other tiling, 
 be trained to do somewhat. Thus, and thus only, 
 the living force of a new man can be awakened, 
 enkindled, and purified into victorious clear- 
 ness. — C arlyle. 
 
 The object of education ought to be to develop 
 in the individual all the perfection of which he is 
 capable. — Kant. 
 
 I call that education which embraces the cult- 
 ure of the whole man, with all his faculties — sub- 
 jecting his senses, his understanding, and his pas- 
 sions to reason and to conscience. — Fellenberg. 
 
 I call a complete and generous education that 
 which fits a man to perform justly, skillfully, 
 magnanimously, all the offices, both private and 
 public, of peace and war. — Milton. 
 
 All true education is a growth ; the mind is not 
 a mere capacity to be filled like a granary ; it is a 
 power to be developed. — J. P. Wickersham. 
 
 The object of education is rather to form a per- 
 fect character, than to qualify for any particular 
 station or office. — A. Potter. 
 
 The educator should not so much form and 
 instill, as develop and call out. — Michaelis. 
 
 The school is a manufactory of humanity. — 
 
 ___ _ , , _ ., Comenius. 
 
 III. Teacher and Pupil. 
 
 Nature without instruction is blind; instruc- 
 tion without nature is faulty ; practice without 
 either of them is imperfect. — Plutarch. 
 
 The fittest time for children to learn anything, 
 is when their minds are in time, and well-dispos- 
 ed to it. — Locke. 
 
 Let the tutor make his pupil examine and 
 thoroughly sift every thing he reads, and lodge 
 nothing in his head upon simple authority and 
 upon trust.— Montaigne. 
 
 Let the child learn what is appropriate for his 
 years, and not precociously what he ought to 
 learn afterwards. — Rousseau. 
 
 To learn is to proceed from something that is 
 known to the knowledge of something link n< >wn. — 
 
 Comenius. 
 
 Perverseness in the pupil is often the effect of 
 frowardness in the teacher. — Locke. 
 
 The great skill of a teacher is to get and keep 
 the attention of his scholar; whilst he has that, 
 he is sure to advance as fast as the learner's ability 
 will carry him. — Locke. 
 
 3 
 
 It is the teacher's character that determines the 
 character of the school; not what lie does SO 
 much as what he is. The maxim is a true one: 
 As is the teacher, so is the school. — J. Currle. 
 
 Teachers should observe the following rules: 
 
 1. Never to correct a child in anger. 
 
 2. Never to deprive a child of anything 
 without returning it. 
 
 3. Never to break a promise. 
 
 4. Never to overlook a fault. 
 
 5. In all things, to set before the child an 
 example worthy of imitation. — Wilderspin. 
 
 It matters not how learned the teacher's own 
 mind may be, and how well replenished with 
 ideas, and how widely soever he sees them, there 
 is a power beyond this necessary, to produce 
 copies of these ideas on the minds of others.— 
 
 A. R. Craig. 
 
 Those studies should be regarded as primarj . 
 
 that teach young persons to know what they are 
 
 seeing, and to see what they otherwise would fail 
 
 to see.— J. S. Blackte. 
 
 Long discourses and philosophical reasonings, 
 at best, amaze and confound, but do not instruct 
 children. — Locke. 
 
 It is as important how children learn, as what 
 they learn.— Dr. Mayo. 
 
 A skillful master who has a child placed under 
 his care, will begin by sounding well the character 
 of his genius and natural parts. — Quintiuan. 
 Pules should not be set before examples. — 
 
 Comenius. 
 Actual intuition is better than demonstration. — 
 
 Comenius. 
 At first it is no great matter how much you 
 learn, but how well you learn it. — Erasmus. 
 
 Study is the bane of childhood, the aliment of 
 youth, the indulgence of manhood, and the 
 restoration of age. — W. S. Landor. 
 
 A teacher ought to know of every thing much 
 more than the learner can be expected to acquire. 
 He must know things in a masterly way, curious- 
 ly, nicely, and in their reasons. — E. Everett. 
 
 The teacher should create an interest in study, 
 incite curiosity, promote inquiry, prompt investi- 
 gation, inspire self-confidence, give hints, make 
 suggestions, and tempt pupils on to try their 
 strength and test their skill. — J. P. Wickersham. 
 There is frequently more to be learned from the 
 unexpected questions of a child, than from the 
 discourse of men who talk in a road, according 
 to the notions they have borrowed and the prej- 
 udices of their education. — Locke. 
 
 From every thing noble the mind receives 
 seeds, which are vivified by admonition and in- 
 struction, as a light breath kindles up the spark 
 in the ashes. — Seneca. 
 
 Curiosity in children is but an appetite after 
 knowledge ; and, therefore, ought to be encouraged 
 in them, not only as a sign, but as the great in- 
 strument nature has provided to remove that 
 ignorance they were born with. — Locke. 
 
 Clearness of id«as must be cultivated by exer- 
 cising the intuition, and the pupil must be edu- 
 cated to independent activity in the use of his 
 own understanding. — Seneca. 
 
 Ideas before words; principles before rules; 
 the judgment before the memory ; incidental in- 
 formation before systematic : reading before 
 spelling ; the sounds of the letters before their 
 names; and, on the whole, nature before art. — 
 
 A. R. Craig. 
 
34 
 
 APHORISMS 
 
 The school should cautiously beware of making 
 sacrifice to the arrogant requirements of the 
 spirit of the age; which, when it takes a wrong 
 direction, promotes nonsense, and desires to study 
 by steam. — Stoy. 
 
 Arouse in the child the all-powerful sense of 
 the universe, and the man will raise himself above 
 the world ; the eternal over the changeable. — 
 
 Eichter. 
 
 The process of enlightening the mind should 
 not be like lightning in the night, giving a 
 strong light for a moment, but only blinding by 
 it, and then leaving every thing dirk again ; but 
 like daybreak, which renders every thing gradu- 
 ally light. — J. A. Fischer. 
 
 Human perfection is the grand aim of all well- 
 directed education : the teacher should have ever 
 present with him his ideal man whose perfections 
 he would realize in the children committ id to 
 his care, as the sculptor would realize the pure 
 forms of his imagination on the rough mar I 
 lies unchiseled before him. — J. P. Wickebsham. 
 
 IV. Training and Habit. 
 
 Train up a child in the way he should go, and 
 when he is old he will not depart from it. — 
 
 Solomon. 
 Training is developing according to an idea. — 
 
 SCHWABZ. 
 
 No teaching or lecturing will suffice without 
 training or doing. — Stow. 
 
 You cannot by all the lecturing in the world 
 enable a man to make a shoe. — Dr. Johnson. 
 
 Nature develops all the human faculties by 
 practice, and their growth depends upon their 
 exercise. — Pestalozzi. 
 
 The intellect is perfected not by knowledge, 
 but by activity. Abistotle. 
 
 The end of philosophy is not knowledge, but 
 the energy conversant about knowledge.— Aris- 
 totle. 
 
 The great thing to be minded in education is, 
 what habits you settle. — Locke. 
 
 Infinite good comes from good habits; which 
 must result from the common influence of exam- 
 ple, intercourse, knowledge, and actual experience: 
 morality taught by good morals. Plato. 
 
 It is habit which gives men the real possession 
 of the wisdom which they have acquired, and 
 gives enduring strength in it. — Pythagobas. 
 
 A man is not educated until he has the ability 
 to summon, on an emergency, his mental powers 
 in vigorous exercise, to effect his proposed ob- 
 ject. I>. \\r.:,,ii;i;. 
 
 The great result of schooling is a mind with 
 just vision to discern, with free force to do; the 
 i schoolmaster is Practice. — Cablyle. 
 
 1 [abil is a power which it is not left to our op- 
 tion to call into existence or not; it is given to 
 us to us or abuse, but we cannot prevent its 
 working.— J. Cubs 
 
 1 hi mind, impressible and Boft, with ease 
 [mbibi s and copies « hat Bhe bears and sees, 
 
 i life's labyrinth holds Cast the clew 
 That education gavi her. raise or true.— Cowfeb. 
 
 V. Development of the Faculties, 
 
 All our kn I I e originates with the senses, 
 proceeds thence to the understanding, and ends 
 
 with the reason, which is subordinate to no 
 higher authority in us. in working up intuitions, 
 and bringing them within the highest unit\ of 
 thought. — Kam . 
 
 The power of reflection, it is well known, is 
 the last of our intellectual faculties that unfolds 
 itself; and, in by far the greater number of in- 
 dividuals, it never unfolds itself in any consider- 
 able degree. — D. Stewart. 
 
 Clearness of ideas must be cultivated by exer- 
 cising the intuition, and the pupil must be edu- 
 cated to independent activity in the use of his 
 own understanding. — Niemeyeb. 
 
 The laws which govern the growth and opera- 
 tions of the human mind are as definite, and as 
 general in their application, as those which ap- 
 ]>ly to the material universe ; and a true system 
 of education must be based upon a knowledge 
 and application of these laws.— J. Henry. 
 
 Knowledge begins with perception by the 
 si uses; and this is, by the power of conception, 
 impressed upon the memory. Then the under- 
 standing, by an induction from these single con- 
 ceptions, forms general truths, or ideas ; and 
 lastly, certain knowledge arises from the result of 
 judgments upon what is thoroughly under- 
 stood. — COMENTOS. 
 
 The mind may be as much drawn into a habit 
 of observation and reflection from a well-directed 
 1 sson on a pin, as from the science of astron- 
 omy. — A. E. Craig. 
 
 During early childhood enough is done if 
 mental vivacity be maintained. — I. Taylor. 
 
 The conceptive faculty is the earliest develop- 
 ed, and the first to reach its maturity: it more- 
 over supplies materials and a basis for every 
 otlur mental operation. — I. Taylor. 
 
 VI. Language. 
 
 Things and words should be studied together, 
 but things especially, as being the object both of 
 the understanding and of language.— CoMENTCS. 
 
 He who has no knowledge of things will not 
 In lulpi d by a knowledge ol words. — Luther. 
 
 The sie,ns of thought are so intimately asso- 
 ciated with thought itself, that the study of lan- 
 guage, in its highest form, is the study of the 
 processes of pure intellect. — E. Everett. 
 
 Speech and knowledge should proceed with 
 equal steps.- ComentcS. 
 
 We cannot express in words the thousandth 
 part of what we actually think, but only a few 
 points .if the rapid stream of thought, lrom the 
 crests of its highest waves. — Zschokee. 
 
 Language is the sheath in which is kept the 
 sword of the mind : the casket in which we pre- 
 serve our jewel; the vessel in which we secure 
 our drink ; the store-house where we lay up our 
 
 food.- -LOTHEB, 
 
 Thinking is aided by language, and, to a great 
 extent, is dependent upon it as its most efficient 
 instrument and auxiliary. — N. Pobteb. 
 
 VII. Self-Education. 
 
 The primary principle of education is the de- 
 termination of the pupil to self-activity— the do- 
 ing nothing lor him which he is able to do for 
 himself. Sir W. Hamilton. 
 
 The peculiar importance of the education of 
 childhood lies in the consideration, that it pre- 
 pares the way tor the subsequent self-education 
 
 of manhood. — J. CrjRRlE. 
 
 Self-activity is the indispensable condition of 
 improvement ; and education is only education — 
 that is, accomplishes its purposes, only by afford- 
 ing objects and supplying materials to this spoil- 
 
APHORISMS 
 
 APPARATUS 
 
 35 
 
 taneoua exertion. Strictly speaking, every man 
 mnst educate himself. —Sir W. Hamilton. 
 
 The child learns more by his fourth year, than 
 the philosopher at any subsequent period of his 
 life; he learns to affix an intelligible sign to every 
 outward object and inward emotion,by a gentle im- 
 pulse imparted by his lips to the air. — E. Evekett. 
 
 If all the means of education which arc scatter- 
 ed over the world, and if all the philosophers and 
 teachers of ancient and modern times, were to be 
 collected together, and made to bring their com- 
 bined efforts to bear upon an individual, all they 
 could do would be to afford the opportunity of 
 improvement. — Degkrando. 
 
 VIII. Moral Education. 
 
 The best-trained head along with a corrupt 
 heart, is like a temple built over a den of rob- 
 bers. — Tegner. 
 
 Head and heart constitute together the being 
 of man, and lie who is sound in one only is a 
 cripple. Stot. 
 
 It holds as a rule in mental as well as in moral 
 education, that the learner should be habituated 
 to what is right before he is exorcised in judging 
 what is wrong. — J. CuRRTE. 
 
 If you can get into children a love of credit, 
 and an apprehension of shame and disgrace, you 
 have put into them the true principle, which will 
 constantly work, and incline them to the right. — 
 
 Locke. 
 
 Man may be said originally to be inclined to 
 all vices ; for he has desires and instincts which 
 influence him, although his reason impels him 
 in an opposite direction. — Kant. 
 
 In my opinion, the first lesson which should 
 quicken the understanding of the young, should 
 be intended to form their morals and their 
 perceptions ; to teach them to know themselves, 
 to live well and to die well. — Montaigne. 
 
 Direct teaching on moral ideas and principles 
 is an important-part of instruction. —Hegel. 
 
 Faith in God is the source of all wisdom and 
 all blessings, and is nature's road to the pure 
 education of man. — Pestalozzi. 
 
 He that will have his son have a respect for him 
 and his orders, must have a great reverence for his 
 son. "Maxima debetur pueris reverentia. " — Lo< ike. 
 
 A properlj conducted school is a sort of moral 
 gymnasium, preparatory to the great struggle on 
 the arena of life. — A. R. Craig. 
 
 Morality is in infancy founded on the authority 
 of the parent, acting with the support of habit and 
 association; what he commands is law; the virtue 
 of childhood is summed up in obedience. —Currie. 
 
 In man, the ideal is older than the actual. The 
 loftly lies nearer the child than the debased. We 
 measure time by the stars, and reckon by the 
 clock of the sun, before we do by the city clock. — 
 
 Richter. 
 
 Love awakens love; and a cold and heartless 
 education usually produces a pupil of the same 
 character.— J. A. Frscm 
 
 Children should live in their paradise, as did our 
 first parents, those truly first children. — Rousseau. 
 
 IX. Discipline and Government. 
 
 Correct thy son. and he shall give thee rest ; 
 yea, he shall give delight unto thy soul — Solomon. 
 
 He that Bpareth his rod hateth his son ; but he 
 that loveth him chasteneth him betimes. — Solo- 
 Ki is. 
 
 No father inflicts his severest punishment, un- 
 til he has tried all other means. — Seneca. 
 
 A principal point in education is discipline, 
 which is intended to break the self-will of chil- 
 dren, in order to the rooting out of their natural 
 lc > w tendencies. — He< a ■: I .. 
 
 There is one, and but one fault, for which 
 children should be beaten ; and that is obstinacy 
 or rebellion. — Locke. 
 
 Beating is the worst, and, therefore, the last 
 means to be used in the correction of children. — 
 
 Locke. 
 
 The shame of the whipping, and not the pain, 
 
 should be the greatest part of the punishment.— 
 
 Locke. 
 No frighted water-fowl, whose plumage the 
 bullet of the sportsman has just grazed, dives 
 quicker beneath the surface, than a child's spirit 
 darts from your eye when you have tilled it with 
 the sentiment of fear. - II. Maun. 
 
 A school can be governed only by patient, en- 
 lightened, Christian love, the master principle of 
 our natures. It softens the ferocity of the savage; 
 it melts the felon in his cell. In the manag ment 
 of children it is the great source of influence ; 
 and the teacher of youth, though his mind be a 
 store-house of know! dee, is ignorant of the first 
 principle of his art, if he has not embraced this 
 as an elemental maxim. — E. Everett. 
 
 Angry feelings in a teacher beget angry feelings 
 in a pupil; and if tiny are repeated day after day, 
 they will at last rise to obstinacy, to obduracy 
 and incorrigibleness. — H. Mann. 
 
 The evil of corporal punishment is less than 
 the evil of insubordination or disobedience. — 
 
 H. Mann. 
 It is the teacher's duty to establish authority ; 
 peaceably, indeed, if he may, —forcibly if he 
 must. — D. P. Page. 
 
 There are usually easier avenues to the heart, 
 than that which is found through the integuments 
 of the body.— D. P. Page. 
 
 Several collect ; ons of educational aphorisms 
 maybe found in Barnard's American Joumail 
 of Education (passim).— See also Wohlfartii, 
 Pedagogical Treasure- Casket I Padagogisches 
 Schatzkastiein, (Jot ha, 1857), translated in Bar- 
 nard's Jon rind: also the same, republished 
 from Barnard's Journal, entitled Educational 
 Aphorisms and Suggestions, Ancient and 
 Modern. 
 
 APPARATUS, School. — The work of in- 
 struction in school is very greatly facilitated by 
 sufficient and appropriate apparatus, such as 
 blackboards, slates, globes, maps, charts, etc. 
 This is especially required in the teaching of 
 children in classes, as in common schools. By 
 this means, the sense of sight being addressed, 
 the impressions made are clearer and more du- 
 rable. Besides, the concrete is made to take the 
 place of the abstract, by the use of suitable ap- 
 paratus; and, in the first stages of education, the 
 former is almost exclusively to be employed, since 
 ract principles or truths are not compre- 
 hende 1 by the young mind, except upon a suffi- 
 ciently extensive basis of concrete tacts. Thus, 
 by means of the numeral frame, the various rudi 
 mental combinations of numbers are presented 
 to the mind of the young pupil, in conne t 
 
36 
 
 APPAR \TUS 
 
 A HAITIAN SCHOOLS 
 
 with actual objects ; and in this manner a clear 
 idea is given of those processes which, merely by 
 abstract statements of the truths, would scarcely 
 be apprehended at all. Of course, the teacher 
 should be careful not to carry the use of such 
 apparatus beyond its proper limits ; since the 
 pupil's mind is gradually to be accustomed to 
 conceive clearly t lie truth of abstract propositions 
 without regard to their concrete applications. 
 
 Every stage or grade of school instruction 
 must have its appropriate apparatus. Infant in- 
 struction requires a great number and variety of 
 simple apparatus {gifts) in order, by natural 
 methods, to aid the development of the child's 
 mind. (See Kindergarten.) The primary 
 school should be supplied with a numeral frame, 
 blackboards, slates, and pencils for the use of the 
 children, a box of forms, spelling and reading 
 charts, color charts, pictures of animals, etc.; and, 
 when elementary geography is taught, simple 
 maps and a small globe. For this purpose, one 
 that may be divided into hemispheres (Hand 
 Hemisphere Globe) is best ; since by means of it 
 the relation of the planisphere maps to the globe 
 may be clearly shown. (See Globes.) A simple 
 relief globe is also of great service at this stage. 
 Other ingenious and attractive apparatus has 
 been devised to aid the work of the primary 
 school teacher, to which a special reference is not 
 needed. In the more advanced stages of instruc- 
 tion, the use of any other than the ordinary ap- 
 paratus, such as the blackboard, maps, globes, etc., 
 becomes less and less necessary, except in the 
 teaching of certain special subjects; as higher 
 arithmetic, mensuration, astronomy, and other de- 
 partments of natural science. For such pur- 
 poses, the cube root blocks and other geometrical 
 solids, a tellurian, an orrery, etc., will be of great 
 value. Charts of physiology, history, etc., are 
 scarcely to be dispensed with. In the teaching 
 of natural science, very expensive and compli- 
 cated apparatus is not at first required Indeed, 
 the simpler it is, the better ; since the use of such 
 appliances will incite the pupil himself to experi- 
 ment with those simple contrivances which his 
 own powers of invention will enable him to de- 
 vise. Thus the use of the level' may be just as 
 well explained by means of a pen-holder or a 
 
 pointer as by a polished steel rod specially con- 
 structed for the purpose. Nothing marks more 
 fully the ability of the teacher man adroitness 
 in availing himself of all common resources for 
 the purpose of illustration. Some of the most 
 
 important discoveries in physical science have 
 
 been made with very rude apparatus. In the use 
 of apparatus to illustrate scientific facts, as of 
 
 the globe, tellurian, or orrery for the purpose of 
 
 tea hing astronomy, it should always be borne in 
 mind that such contrivances cannot supersede the 
 
 study of nature itself. Cumbrous ami compli- 
 cated machinerj , without an attentive observation 
 of the natural phenomena which they arc in- 
 tended to explain, rather serve to give false 
 notions than to imparl correct ideas of the actual 
 facts. The latter must be clearly grasped by the 
 mind as facts before their illustration is attempted 
 
 by means of artificial contrivances. This depends 
 upon an important principle which the teacher 
 should be careful to recognize and apply. (See 
 Blackboard, and Numeral Frame.) 
 
 APPORTIONMENT. See School Find. 
 
 ARABIAN SCHOOLS. The peninsula of 
 Arabia, situated between the Red Sea and the 
 Persian Gulf, has an area of 1,218,798 square 
 miles, and a population estimated at 5,000,000. 
 Of late, the Arabs have been of but little account 
 in the annals of education as well as in political 
 history. In former centuries, on the other hand. 
 t hey occupied, for a considerable time, a promi- 
 nent position. Arabia was the birthplace of 
 Islamism, which, in its doctrinal and ethical 
 peculiarities, bears the most evident marks of the 
 people among whom, and the country in which, 
 it originated. With the rapid spread of this 
 religion, the Arabs became a powerful people. 
 extending their political rule far beyond their 
 original borders. Large empires were founded 
 in Asia, Africa, and Europe; and science and the 
 arts kept pace in their development with the in- 
 crease of political power. The Arabian schools 
 of the caliphate, and, later, those founded by the 
 Moors, in Spain, not only attained a world- 
 wide reputation, but, for a time, were generally 
 recognized as eclipsing all other literary institu- 
 tions. The prosperity of these schools began 
 during the rule of the dynasty of the Ommiyades. 
 These monarchs transferred their residence to 
 Damascus, the capital of Syria, which at that 
 time was a chief seat of Creek literature, appoint- 
 ed many Greeks and Syrians as surveyors, archi- 
 tects, and physicians : and brought the Arabian 
 mind into contact with the civilization of the 
 Greeks and the Syrians. The dynasty of the Ah- 
 bassides. which succeeded that of the Ommiyades 
 in 7")(), were still more instrumental in the pro- 
 motion of science and literature among the 
 Arabs. A large number of Greek authors were 
 translated into Arabic; and in medical literature 
 the Arabs became BO proficient, that through the 
 middle ages they were regarded as the highest 
 authorities. Soon the Arabian schools were also 
 regarded as superior to all others in mathematics 
 and astronomy. A translation of Aristotle had 
 a far reaching influence upon the further develop- 
 ment of the Arabian mind. The teachings of Aris- 
 totle not only became the basis of Arabic philos- 
 ophy, but through the influence of the Arabian 
 schools, the study of this great Creek philosopher 
 became popular among the Jews in Spain and. 
 Subsequently, generally among the dews and 
 
 Christians of Europe. The highest prosperity 
 was attained by the Arabian Schools in Spain. 
 
 In the higi) schools of Cordova. [Toledo, Sala- 
 manca, ami Seville, nearly all branches of human 
 knowledge, Mohammedan theology and law, 
 mathematics, astronomy, history and geography, 
 grammar and rhetoric, medicine and philosophy, 
 were taught. In these schools, dewish. Moham- 
 medan, and Christian teachers worked harmoni- 
 ously together. The students lived in coUeges,and, 
 from time to time, had to pass examinations. The 
 teachers sometimes employed substitutes. In the 
 
ARCII.KOUMJY 
 
 ARGENTINE REPUBLIC 
 
 37 
 
 lower schools, which were mostly connected with 
 mosques, the pupils often received their clothing 
 and hoard gratuitously. The fame of the Arabian 
 schools in Spain attracted students from all parts 
 of Christian Kurope. who were anxious to acquaint 
 themselves with the Greek and Arabic literature 
 and the Aristotelian philosophy. Among the 
 many celebrated men who studied there, was the 
 learned Gerbert, who became pope under the 
 
 name of Sylvester 11. Among the results which 
 these students brought with them from the 
 Arabian schools, were the Arabic numbers, now 
 
 in genera] use in the eivili/.ed world. At the 
 close of the H>th century, the Arabian schools in 
 Spain began to decline, and the downfall of the 
 caliphate of Bagdad, in L258, extinguished the 
 fame of their Asiatic schools. 
 
 In Arabia, at present, there is little education 
 deserving the name. Among the Bedouins, 
 there are no schools, and those that exist in the 
 towns and villages are only of a very elementary 
 character, generally connected with the mosques, 
 and giving instruction in reading, particularly of 
 the Koran, writing, and the rudiments of arith- 
 metic. In the schools connected with the mosques, 
 which are public schools, the poorer children are 
 taught gratuitously; but besides these schools, 
 there are private seminaries for the instruction 
 of children of the higher and middle classes. A 
 private teacher for children and young slaves is 
 no uncommon part of the domestic establish- 
 ments of distinguished families. There is no 
 public provision for the education of women. In 
 some of the larger towns and cities, there are 
 colleges and professional schools, in which mathe- 
 matics, astronomy, medicine, etc., are taught. 
 One of the chief studies is that of the Arabic, to 
 enable the scholars to read the Koran and the 
 commentaries upon it. of which there are several; 
 since these are written in a dialect differing in 
 some respects from that now in general use. — 
 See Schmidt. Geschickte <h>r Padagogik, vol. n. 
 
 ARCHEOLOGY (from apyalnr, ancient, 
 and ?.6yog, knowledge, science) denotes properly 
 the science of antiquities. In the widest sense of the 
 word, it would embrace the history, mythology, 
 political institutions, religion, commerce, industry, 
 literature, and fine arts of ancient times, but it is 
 now more generally used in a restricted sense. 
 Some writers, especially in America, apply it to 
 the researches into the primeval period of man, 
 and, in particular, into the history, customs, and 
 remains of the primitive inhabitants of a coun- 
 try. Thus the Indians in the United States and 
 the Celts in Creat Britain, have become the sub- 
 jects of profound archaeological research.— In 
 Germany the term is now more frequently used 
 to denote the science of the monuments which are 
 left to us from ancient times, and especially from 
 Greek, Etruscan, and Latin antiquity. As the 
 ancient monumentB contain a v;ust amount of in- 
 formation, not to be derived from classical litera- 
 ture, archa'ology is regarded as an important 
 auxiliary to the science of classical philology. 
 the founder of arclueology as a special science 
 was Winckehnann : and the most famous work 
 
 on thui subject is the Handbuch der Archotologie 
 by K. (). Miki.i.kh (3d edit., by Weleker, Bres- 
 lau, 1846). An English work on the subject is 
 Westropp's Handbook of Archaeology (Loud., 
 1869). Biblical archaeology and ecclesiastical oi 
 Christian archa'ology, are branches of theology. 
 The former treats of the ancient geography, 
 physical condition, and ethnography, and the 
 general antiquities of Palestine and the adjacent 
 countries; the latter, of the antiquities of the 
 Christian Church, and chiefly of the early his- 
 tory of Christian worship. Works on biblical 
 archaeology have been written by lb: YYkitk, 
 Scholz.Jahn, ItosKNMiKi.i.KK, Kkii., and others; 
 on Christian archa'ology, by Bingham, Pellicia, 
 Augusti, Bintkrim, Rheinwald, Ottk. Henry 
 (Philadelphia. 1837), Riddle (2d edit., Loud., 
 L843), Coleman. [Ancient Christianity exempli- 
 fied, Philadelphia, 1853). At many of the 
 European universities and theological schools, 
 special courses of lectures on classical, biblical, or 
 ( 'hristian archaeology are provided for. 
 
 ARCHITECTURE. See Fine A ins. 
 
 ARCHITECTURE, School. See School 
 House. 
 
 ARGENTINE REPUBLIC, an independ- 
 ent state of South America, area 841 .000 sq. m., 
 or, if we add the territory which is claimed by 
 both the Argentine Republic and Chili, 1,000,1 100 
 sq. in. ; population, according to the census of 
 1st)!), L,879,410. The republic is growing rap- 
 illy, the increase of population from 1836 to 
 
 1869 amounting to 146 per cent. Since 1863, 
 immigration has begun to assume large propor- 
 tions. While, from 1863 to 1866, it averaged 
 annually little more than 10,000, it reached, in 
 
 1870 and the following years, 40,000. The for- 
 eign element is especially large in the city and 
 province of Buenos Ayres, and a considerable 
 number of prominent positions in the literary 
 institutions of the country are occupied by for- 
 eigners. Almost the whole native population 
 belongs to the Roman Catholic Church; but the 
 immigrants from the United States. Great Brit- 
 ain, Germany, and Switzerland have established 
 a number of Protestant congregations and 
 schools. To these a few native congregations 
 have been added by the Methodist missionaries 
 from the United States. '1 here is a marked 
 difference between the population of the towns, 
 and that of the country. 'I he former are gener- 
 ally civilized, and take a profound interest in 
 education ; but the gauchos, or the horsemen of 
 the plain, think hut little of education and civili- 
 zation. 
 
 The territory of the Argentine Republic, after 
 being occupied by the Spaniards, formed a part 
 of the Viceroyalty of Peru till 177<>, when the 
 Viceroyalty of La Plata was erected. The war 
 of independence against Spain began in L810, 
 and was successfully ended in 1812. In 1813, a 
 Sovereign Assembly was convoked ; ami in 1817, 
 the independence of the United Provinces of 
 La Plata was formally declared. Pike the other 
 republics of Spanish America, the country suf- 
 fered much from civil wars, from 1H.V2 to I860, 
 
38 
 
 ARGENTINE REPUBLIC 
 
 ARISTOTLE 
 
 Buenos Ayres was separated from the confedera- 
 tion of the other provinces, and formed an in- 
 dependent commonwealth. More recently, the 
 progress of the country has been greater and more 
 rapid than that of most of the other South 
 American republics. 
 
 As early as 1605, the Jesuits established the 
 university of Cordova, which soon became the 
 literary center of all the territory lying in the 
 basin of the La Plata river. Of course, instruc- 
 tion during the 17th and L8th centuries was 
 entirely in the hands of the clergy, especially the 
 Jesuits; and very little was done in the way of 
 primary instruction. After the expulsion or the 
 Jesuits, in I TUT. the university passed into the 
 hands of the Franciscans and greatly declined. 
 Though, after the establishment of national inde- 
 pendence, there were not wanting those who fully 
 appreciated the importance of education, and 
 sought to devise plans for its future development, 
 the progress at first was very slow. The active 
 progress of education dates from the adoption of 
 the constitution of Sept. I860, which still rules 
 the country. Among the first provisions, is one 
 for securing primary e lucation in every province' 
 of the republic, making this an essential obliga- 
 tion. To the general government was given the 
 power to dictate plan of general and university 
 education; and a special ministerial department 
 of public instruction was created. Such, how- 
 ever, was the indifference of the people, that the 
 government, in order to carry out its plans of sec- 
 ondary education, was compelled not only to 
 offer instruction, hooks, and all other necessaries 
 free, but also to pay the pupils for the trouble 
 of attending school and studying their lessons. 
 The National College of Buenos Ayres was 
 founded shortly after the adoption of the present 
 constitution. Scholarships, under the name of 
 cecas, were established, giving to the student a 
 monthly allowance of from ten to fifteen dollars 
 in gold. About the same time, three other pro- 
 vincial institutions, the College of the Uruguay 
 in the province of Entre Rios, and the College 
 ami the University of Cordova, were nationalized 
 ami placed upon ;\ similar basis. Up to 1868, 
 there were established five other similar institu- 
 tions in the provinces of Tucunian, Salta, Cata- 
 marca, San Juan, ami Mendoza; and, in L868, 
 five others were added in San Luis, La Lioja. 
 Jujuy, Santiago, anil Corrientes. In 1872, there 
 were thirteen colleges, with uii'.iT students and 
 162 professors. The colleges are visited by an 
 inspector of national colleges, who is himself a 
 government employe. 
 
 In L865, the national government took its 
 first step in favor of primary instruction, distrib- 
 uting $22,000 in gold among the various prov- 
 inces, for the purpose of promoting a popular 
 movement in this direction, In I Hon and 1867, 
 th, u mill was voted by the national con- 
 
 gre for this purpose. In August 1868, began 
 
 th • a lininist ration of President Sariniento. who 
 
 has done more for the promotion of education 
 than any other statesman of South America. The 
 progress made since then is wonderful. The 
 
 new minister of public instruction, Dr. Nicolas 
 Avellaneda, in his first report to the congress 
 (lHo9), earnestly advocated sweeping reforms: 
 and the work of carrying out these reforms was 
 begun energetically. For the year 1 869, $1 15,000 
 was voted tor the purpose of encouraging pri- 
 mary instruction; for 1870, $95,000, and for 1871 
 $215,000. In L871, a law was also passed, crea- 
 tine a special and independent fund tor the pur- 
 poses of primary instruction, distributing the 
 proceeds among the various provinces in propor- 
 tion to the efforts which they themselves might 
 make. This law took effect in January L873. 
 In 1ST2. primary instruction was given in Kiss 
 public and 566 private schools. 'I he children of 
 
 school age (<i to 15) numbered 468,987, while 
 the number of those attending schools was. 
 97,549. The number of teachers was. male 
 1558, female 1408. The expenditure for primary 
 
 instruction in the same year was $1,564,350. In 
 August 1871, the first national normal school 
 was established at Parana, it had, in lsT2. 285 
 students and 6 professors. '1 he first principal 
 
 of the school was Dr. Geo. A. Stearns. — 'I he 
 Only national university, at Cordova, was re-or- 
 ganized, in 1870, by President Sarmiento, who 
 established a number of new (hairs, and called 
 from Germany professors of chemistry, physics, 
 and botany, and from the United States a distin- 
 guished professor of astronomy, in L872, the 
 university numbered II professors and 103 stu- 
 dents. 'I he university of Buenos Ayres is a 
 provincial institution. It was organized in 1822 
 by Rivadavia, and was. at first, only a law school; 
 but, owing to the zeal of its rector, Dr. duan 
 
 Maria Gutierrez, (hairs of mathematics, experi- 
 mental physics, and chemistry were soon after- 
 wards added. Its course of instruction resembles 
 that of French institutions: the museum has 
 been for many years under the direction of the 
 distinguished Herman naturalist. Dr. Burmeister. 
 — See Report of the Commissioner of Educa- 
 tion for 1872 and 1ST.'!; Lb Roy, in ScHMIDS 
 Encyclop., art. Sudamerica; Burmeister, in 
 Petermann, Die siidamerikanischen Bepubliken 
 Argentina, Chile, Paraguay und Uruguay in 
 Is;:, (Gotha, 1875). 
 
 ARISTOTLE, one of the most illustrious 
 teachers and philosophers of either ancient or 
 modern times, was horn in :!■>( It. ('. at Stagira, 
 a Greek colony of Macedonia, near the mouth 
 
 of the Strymon. from his birthplace ho is 
 
 often called "the StagiriteJ His father. Nicom- 
 achus, was a distinguished physician and friend 
 of the .Macedonian king Amynlas II.; and bom 
 
 him Aristotle received the first instruction. Hav- 
 ing lost his parents, he went at the age of seven- 
 teen to Athens, where he was for twenty years a 
 
 pupil of Plato. His great teacher used to call him. 
 on account of hi- r-st less study and his thirst for 
 
 knowledge, the philosopher of truth and the in- 
 tellect of his school. Subsequently, however, an 
 estrangement arose between them, owing chiefly 
 to the radical differences in their philosophical 
 
 and educational systems. While Plato was a 
 thorough idealist. Aristotle was just as fully a 
 
ARISTOTLE 
 
 39 
 
 realist ami the father of experimental science. 
 About •> 13 I!. ( '.. Aristotle was appointed by king 
 
 Philip of Macedon teacher of his son Alexan- 
 der, at that time thirteen years old. The history 
 of Alexander, who intellectually was no less prom- 
 inent among the kings of the ancient world 
 than as a conqueror, testifies to the success of 
 Aristotle as a practical teacher. For a long time, 
 Alexander was anxious to show his gratitude to 
 his preceptor ; and after the conquest of Persia, 
 he presented him with eight hundred talents, or 
 nearly a million of dollars. Later, however, the 
 friendly relations between Alexander and Aris- 
 totle greatly suffered from the vicious habits of 
 the former. After completing the education of 
 
 Alexander, Aristotle returned to Athens fin 335, 
 or according toothers in 331, B. ('.) and taught 
 philosophy in the Lyceum. a gymnasium near the 
 city. In the morning, he instructed the advanced 
 ilars in lectures acroamatic or esoteric: in the 
 evening, he gave popular or exoteric lectures to 
 larger circles of hearers. From the shady walks 
 - -.-ni) around the Lyceum, in which he 
 walked up and down while delivering his lectures, 
 his school was called the peripatetic. After 
 having taught in this way for thirteen years, and 
 composed most of his immortal works on philos- 
 ophy ami natural science, he was accused by 
 hemophilus, a prominent citizen of Athens, of 
 impiety, because in a poem he had attributed di- 
 vine honors to his friend liermias. lie, therefore, 
 tied to Ohalcis in Eubcea, where he died, in o22, 
 B. C, of a chronic disease of the stomach. 
 
 Aristotle's method of teaching was essentially 
 .analytic. Proceeding from the concrete, he tried 
 to derive general ideas from a number of ob- 
 served facts and phenomena ; and his entire phi- 
 losophy is based on the principle that all our 
 know ledge must be founded on the observation of 
 facts. Pedagogy, according to Aristotle, must be 
 founded on principles derived from the knowl- 
 edge of man. The highest goal of all human 
 activity is evdaijiovia, happiness, both tor the in- 
 dividual and for the state. This evdaifiovia is 
 based on virtue, which is acquire 1 ly the perform- 
 ance of moral actions. As man is a social being, 
 destined to live in society, the development of 
 virtue in general is dependent upon political 
 lite. The object of the state is to establish the 
 iplete happiness of families and communities, 
 and the preservation of the state depends on an 
 educational syst a conformable to the laws and 
 constitution. Thrjmmr education will not pro- 
 duce the same virtues in different persons; for 
 the formation of character in each person is de- 
 pendent on three different things, — nature. habit. 
 and instruction. It must be the aim of habit 
 and instruction to develop the peculiar faculties 
 which nature has implanted in each individual. 
 In the education of a child, as it is of the great- 
 est importance that its body be, from its birih.as 
 perfect as possible, care should be taken that the 
 parents be suitably matched, and that women 
 during their pregnancy receive substantial food, 
 and be preserved as much as possible from men- 
 tal agitation. Children who at their birth are 
 
 crippled should not be brought up at all. Until 
 the fifth year of age, children should not be oc- 
 cupied in hard labor ; on the other hand, how- 
 ever, they should not remain inactive, but have 
 suitable exercises in plays adapted to their age. 
 During this time, as well as during the two fol- 
 lowing years, education by means of habit takes 
 place, as children observe what they subsequently 
 have themselves to perform. Education by means 
 of instruction begins in the Tth year of age and 
 lasts to the 'J 1st. This time is divided into two 
 
 periods, the one extending from the 7th year to the 
 
 age of puberty (about the I lthyear) theotherfrom 
 the 1,4th to the 21st. Education by habit during 
 this period continues, but the chief work is done 
 by instruction. As a general principle, it must 
 be observed, that a state can only exist if children 
 are educated in accordance with the -existing con- 
 stitution; in democratic commonwealths, in which 
 all in turn may rule or be ruled, it is, therefore, 
 of importance that boys should be taught obe- 
 dience, for only those who have learned how to 
 obey will be able to rule. In regard to the 
 subjects in which instruction should be given, 
 three classes should be distinguished, (lj that 
 which is necessary and useful for life, (2) that 
 which leads to ethical virtue, and (3) that which, 
 going beyond these, serves the highest theoretic- 
 al aims. In things pertaining to the ordinary 
 occupations of life, the young are to be instructed 
 only so far as such occupations are becoming to a 
 free man. Every mechanical work, every kind of 
 servile or menial labor, and especially every 
 thing that might injure the body, is to be avoided. 
 The fine arts should be practiced with a view to 
 general culture ; but no special excellence should 
 be aimed at. In regard to ethical virtues, 
 children must especially be taught to be consider- 
 ate and temperate, in order that the exertions 
 necessary to attain self-control may lose their 
 original unpleasantness by means of habit. Fi- 
 nally, there are for ethical as well as theoretical 
 education , certain instructional means, namely 
 reading and writing, gymnastics, music, including 
 rhythmics and poetry. and occasionally also draw- 
 ing. The first and the last of these serve also 
 for the necessities of life: and care should, there- 
 fore, be taken that the supreme aim of a noble 
 education be not infringed upon. Tin instruction 
 in drawing, therefore, should be given in such a 
 way as to enable the youthful mind to under- 
 stand ami criticise the works of plastic art. 
 Gymnastics educate the youth in manliness, 
 and give to the body health and beamy. That 
 
 which is properly athletic and especially every 
 
 thing that leads to rudeness and ferocity, should 
 be avoided, a point of view which the Spartans, 
 in their otherwise excellent educational system, 
 Somewhat lost sight of. Before the age Of pu- 
 berty, only easy exercises should be practiced, and 
 all violent exertions that might impede natural 
 growth, should be avoided. After attaining the 
 a-_ ■• of puberty, boys may <le vote three years to 
 r branches of instruction; then more diffi- 
 cult exertions and privations may be practiced; 
 and during this time mental occupations should 
 
40 
 
 ARITHMETIC 
 
 receive less attention; for the activity of the mind 
 is impeded by the exertions of the body, and the 
 activity of the body by the exertions of the mind. 
 Musical education deserves special attention on 
 account of its ethical influence. Music more than 
 any other art, is the art of imitation, and reflects 
 in the soul of the hearer, in a manner both at- 
 tractive and instructive, the various affections 
 and emotions of the mind. The Doric melody is 
 specially recommended, as keeping the right 
 mean between passionate excitement and woman- 
 ish weakness. The last class of subjects to be 
 taught in the instruction of youth, are those 
 which serve for theoretical purposes, or for the 
 acquisition of the so-called dianoetical virtues, 
 which are only to be found in the more intelligent 
 class of men. These subjects are the pure sciences, 
 as mathematics, dialectics, and philosophy. The 
 highest of all practical sciences, political econ- 
 omy, is not a fit subject for the young, as they 
 are too inexperienced in the actions of life on 
 which political science is based. — like the edu- 
 cational theories of Plato and other Greeks, the 
 theories of Aristotle almost exclusively refer to 
 free-born youth. But little attention is paid to 
 the education of the female sex and the working 
 classes; and still less is given to the education 
 of slaves. Aristotle recommended, however, that 
 the moral and intellectual improvement of the 
 slaves should he eared for. 
 
 Among the works of Aristotle still extant, the 
 Nicomachean EJthics and the Politics contain his 
 views on education. ( >n the educational system 
 of Aristotle, sec Schmidt, Gesckickte der Pada- 
 gogik, vol. i; and Onckbn, Die Staatslehre des 
 Aristoteles, 2 vols., IsTO — 1875. — See also Ari- 
 stotelis Ethica Nicomachea, edited by J. E. 'I'. 
 BOGERS, (Lond., 1874); and the same, translated 
 by R. Williams. (Lond.. L874); The Politics 
 (Greek text, with English notes), by Richard 
 Congreve, (Lond.. 1874); The Ethics, with Es- 
 says mill Notes, by Sir A. Grant, ilxmd., 1874); 
 (trotk, Aristotle (Lond., lsT'ij. 
 
 ARITHMETIC (Gr.ap^^ffljfromap^rfc, 
 number), the science of numbers. This subject oc- 
 cupies a prominent place in the curriculum of all 
 elementary schools, both primary and grammar, as 
 well from its educational or disciplinary, as its 
 practical value. On a fair estimate, not less than 
 one-fourth of the pupil's time, for the first eight 
 or ten years of his school lite, is given to the study 
 of this Bubject; hut the results are too often 
 quite inadequate to this large expenditure of 
 time, the most that can generally he claimed 
 being a tolerable familiarity with the processes 
 of the fundamental rules, common fractions, and 
 denominate numbers, with a very imperfect 
 
 knowledge even of the processes of decimal frac- 
 tions, proportion, evolution, and the business 
 
 rules 01 arithmetic. Any such knowledge of the 
 
 subject as enables the student to give a clear ex- 
 position of the reasons tor the various processes, 
 or as is required to render him trust worthy in 
 
 ordinary business computations, is far from be- 
 ing the usual attainment. This arises, in part at 
 hast, from a fundamental error in the general 
 
 treatment of this branch of instruction. — the dis- 
 sociation, to a great extent, of mental from writ- 
 ten arithmetic ; whereas they should be so com- 
 bined as to constitute only different exercises of 
 the same subject, (^uite within the memory of 
 some of our living educators, the text-books of 
 arithmetic generally in use were simply single 
 books of definitions, rules, and examples. Such 
 were Ostrander's, Pike's, Dabol's, etc. These were 
 succeeded by two classes of text-books, — one, 
 called Mental Arithmetics, of which Lolburn's is- 
 a type ; and the other, such as presented an at- 
 tempt to explain the reasons of the processes in- 
 volved in the different rules. Of the latter, 
 Adams's New Arithmetic affords a fair example. 
 Following these two lines, the science has been 
 practically divided into two; and so diverse are 
 these in their methods, that a pupil may be quite 
 expert in one, and almost entirely ignorant of 
 the other. If. in addition to this, the fact is con- 
 sidered that the text-books in the course have 
 been multiplied until there are now two books 
 in mental arithmetic, and three in written, in 
 several of the series in general use, the rea- 
 son for the length of time consumed on this sub- 
 ject La our public schools will he obvious. But 
 there is still another cause which operates with 
 considerable force: that is. the cumbering of our 
 text-books with so many subjects that are utterly 
 useless to the student. No branch of business re- 
 quires a knowledge of greatest common divisor, 
 least common multiple, circulating decimals, or 
 duodecimals. It is indeed important that a 
 pupil should know how to reduce a fraction to 
 its lowest terms : but no ordinary case requires 
 a knowledge of the process for finding the 7. c. 
 <!.. nor are we accustomed to use it. Lor the 
 process itself we have no use until we reach 
 higher algebra, and the demonstration of the 
 process is quite too intricate for the ordinary 
 pupil in elementary arithmetic. Again, no one 
 uses the processes of alligation alternate; and hut 
 tew indeed of the great mass of our school chil- 
 dren can comprehend the conditions which give 
 rise to much of otir business arithmetic. It is 
 not intimated that such problems as those which 
 arise in stocks, arbitration of exchange, general 
 average, etc.. should not have a place in an arith- 
 metical course, but only that they do not belong 
 in the course for the masses. There are other 
 topics, more elementary and more generally use- 
 ful, to which the time of these should l>c given. 
 And lastly, on this topic, of what conceivable 
 use are many of the examples which occupy SO 
 much space in our books, and BO much time in 
 the course? Take the following as specimens: 
 
 I bought a hat coat, and vest, For $34; the hat cost 
 ,-; of the price 0? the coat, and the vest j of the price 
 uf the hat : what was the cost of each? 
 
 One-half of A's money = $ of B'SJ and the intere-t 
 of 3 of A's and i of l!'s money, at 4 per cent for 
 '_' yr. .'! inmi. is Sis": how much lias each? 
 
 \ and li have the same income; A saves J of his; 
 lint I!, by BDending (SO per annum more than A, at 
 the end 'of s years finds himself $40 in debt; what 
 is their income, and what does each spend per annum 1 
 
 l!ut it is said by some that these things are 
 necessary as mental gviiinasties. However ap- 
 
AKTTHMETIO 
 
 41 
 
 plicable the principle involved in this may be, 
 in education there is really no need of it. If the 
 demands of actual life are so meager, that we 
 must make a large part of our discipline in 
 arithmetic consist in unraveling such manufact- 
 ured puzzles, is it not well to ask the question 
 whether there are not other branches of science 
 which will afford the needed discipline by deal- 
 ing with the actual and useful, instead of wasting 
 time and strength on the purely fictitious? The 
 arithmetics of to-day. however, are a great ad- 
 vance, in this respect, on those in use fifty years 
 ago ; but no editor of a text-book on arithmetic 
 has yet felt at liberty to cut out entirely these 
 superfluous problems. Undoubtedly, the demands 
 of science and of business life furnish abundant 
 resources in this direction ; but these more ab- 
 struse problems do not fall within the purview 
 of an elementary course, nor come within the 
 demands which actual life makes upon the great 
 majority of persons. There are a great number 
 and variety of intricate questions which do act- 
 ually arise in discounting negotiable paper, as 
 well as in the abstruse questions which insurance 
 and annuities present ; but it is not the aim of 
 our elementary courses to train pupils for such 
 specialties; and when in any properly co-ordin- 
 ated course of study such topics are reached, 
 their solution will then come in the regular line 
 of the application of general principles, and the 
 Student will have acquired sufficient maturity to 
 comprehend the business, economical, or political 
 relations which give rise to them. 
 
 What should constitute the course in arith- 
 metic. — In the first place, there should be a thor- 
 ough unification of the processes of mental and 
 written arithmetic. There is but one science of 
 arithmetic ; and every thing that tends to pro- 
 duce the impression in the pupil's mind that there 
 are two species, the one intellectual and the other 
 mechanical, is an obstacle to his true progress. 
 What is valuable in the methods now peculiar to 
 mental arithmetic, needs to be thoroughly in- 
 corporated with what is practically convenient 
 or necessary in written arithmetic ; so that the 
 whole may be made perfectly homogeneous. The 
 basis upon which this is to be effected is, that 
 principles should be discussed first by the use of 
 small numbers which can be easily held in the 
 mind, and which do not render the difficulty or 
 labor of combination so great as to absorb the 
 attention, or divert it from the line of thought; 
 and that we should pass gradually, in applying 
 the reasoning, to larger numbers and more difficult 
 and complex combinations, in which pencil and 
 paper are necessary. The rationale should be al- 
 ways the same in the mental (properly, oral) arith- 
 metic and in the written, pencil and paper being 
 used only when the numbers become too large, or 
 the elements too numerous, to render it practi- 
 cable to hold the whole in the mind. For example, 
 suppose the pupil to be entering upon the sub- 
 ject of percentage. The first step is to teach 
 what is meant by per cent. In order to this, 
 small numbers will be used, and the process will 
 not require pencil and paper, nor will such num- 
 
 bers be selected at first, as will cause difficulty 
 in effecting the combinations. Thus, the first 
 questions may be, " Mr. A had 300 sheep and 
 lost f> out of each hundred: how many did he 
 lose?" " What phrase may we use instead of '5 
 out of each hundred?'" "Mr. U had an or- 
 chard of 400 peach-trees and lost 6 per cent of 
 them; how many did he lose ?" " What phrase 
 may we use instead of '(5 per cent?'" To as- 
 sign as the first example, one like the following 
 would be a gross violation of this principle : 
 "Mr. A put out $759, on 7 per cent interest; 
 what was the interest for a year?" After the 
 principle to be taught is clearly seen, larger 
 numbers should be introduced, and such as re- 
 quire that the work be written. But the same 
 style of explanation should be preserved ; and 
 great care should be taken to have it seen that 
 the method of reasoning is the same in all cases. 
 To illustrate still farther; as, in practice, the 
 computer ordinarily uses the rati' as the multiplier, 
 the form of explanation, when the whole is given 
 orally, should be adapted to this fact. At first, 
 such an example as the first above will naturally 
 be solved thus : " If Mr. A lost 5 sheep out of 
 100, out of 3 hundred he lost 3 times 5, or 15 
 sheep." But before leaving such simple illustra- 
 tions, the reasoning should take this form: "Since 
 losing 1 out of 100 is losing .01 of the number, 
 losing 5 out of 100 is losing .0") of the number. 
 Hence, Mr. A lost .05 of 300 sheep, which is. 
 1 5 sheep." Thus, in all cases, the form of thought 
 which will ordinarily be required in solving 
 the problem, should be that taught in the intro- 
 ductory analysis. A farther illustration of this 
 is furnished by reduction. At first, the question, 
 " How many ounces in ft lb.?" will naturally be 
 answered, " Since there are 16 oz. in 1 lb., in 5 
 lb. there are 5 times 16 oz., or HO oz." But in 
 practice the 1 6 is ordinarily used as the multi- 
 plier, and it is better that the introductory 
 (mental) analysis should conform to this fact. 
 I Ience, the pupil should be led to see, at the 
 outset, that, as every pound is composed of 16 
 ounces, in any given weight there are 16 times as 
 many ounces as pounds; and he should be re- 
 quired to analyze accordingly. Apart from this 
 use of what are called mental processes, there is no> 
 proper well-defined sphere for their employment. 
 In practical applications, it is quite unphilos- 
 ophical to classify the examples, by calling some 
 mental and others written. We do not find them 
 so labeled in actual business life. The pupil 
 needs to discriminate for himself as to whether 
 any particular example should be solved without 
 the pencil or with it. It should also be borne 
 in mind that business men rely very little upon 
 these mental operations. They use the pen 
 and paper for almost every computation, in 
 the second place, in constructing our course in 
 arithmetic, we need to give the most careful 
 attention to the condition and wants of the 
 youth found in our public schools. Perhaps it 
 is no exaggeration to say, that from eighty to 
 ninety per cent of the pupils disappear from 
 these schools by the close of the seventh school 
 
42 
 
 ARITHMETIC 
 
 year; and not more than one in one hundred 
 takes a high school course. Since all pupils of 
 the common schools have need of the rudiments 
 of number, as counting, reading and writing 
 .small numbers, the simple combinations em- 
 braced in the addition , subtraction, multiplica- 
 tion, and division tables, the simpler forms of 
 fractions, and the more common denominations 
 of compound numbers, an elementary text-book 
 is deemed to be needful for many schools. The 
 objections often urged to having these primary 
 Lessons entirely oral are, that it makes an un- 
 necessary draft upon the time and energy of the 
 teacher, renders the pupils' progress very slow, 
 does not so readily supply the means of giving 
 them work to do in their seats, and more than 
 all, begets in their minds a dislike for study and 
 self-exertion, and a disposition to expect that 
 the teacher must do all the work, and tints 
 ■Carry them along. But whatever disposition may 
 he made of primary arithmetic, as usually un- 
 derstood, there is an imperative demand that the 
 course in arithmetic for the masses should lie so 
 arranged that the more important practical sub- 
 jects can be reached and mastered by a majority 
 of our youth during the comparatively short time 
 which they can spend in our schools, [n order 
 
 to effect t his, three things will lie found necessary: 
 
 (1) a rigorous exclusion of all topics relatively 
 unimportant, (2) a judicious limitation of the 
 
 topics presented, and (3) care that, in the laudable 
 desire to secure facility in fundamental processes, 
 — adding, multiplying, etc., the teacher tln-s, not 
 consume so much time that the great mass of 
 tin- pupils will never advance beyond the merest 
 rudiments of the subject. The range of topics 
 to be included in the common school course, 
 will In 1 the fundament d rules; common and 
 decimal fractions; denominate numbers (care 
 being taken to reject all obsolete or unusual 
 
 denominations, ami to give abundant exercises 
 calculated to insure a definite conception of 
 the meaning of the denominations); percentage, 
 includiu'4 simple, annual, and compound interest, 
 with partial payments, common and bank dis- 
 count, and some of the more common uses of 
 percenidge. If. after this, the course may be ex- 
 tend I'd, the nexi subjects in importance are ratio, 
 propoi'lioii'j&nd th • square and cube roots. Much 
 more than this cannot be embraced in a course 
 Whiqh the mass a of, our youth are able to master; 
 
 and in treating these. cOttStatil care will lie neccs- 
 xii v tu introduce problems which occur in actual 
 life, and as far as possible to exclude all others. 
 
 Somethihg of common mensuration should be 
 introduced in connection with the tables of meas- 
 ures of extension; and the more common prob- 
 lems in commision, insurance, taxes, stocks; etc., 
 will he readily introduced in percentage without 
 
 OCCUpj ing either much space or time. 
 
 For tlie few who call take a more extended 
 
 course, a thoroughly scientific treatment of the 
 Bubjed of arithmetic is desirable; and this quite 
 :is much for its disciplinary effect, in giving 
 breadth and scope tu the conceptions, and in- 
 ducing a disposition to systematize and gener- 
 
 alize, and thus to view truth in its relations, 
 as for the amount of mere arithmetical knowl- 
 edge which may be added to the pupil's stock. 
 Here we may introduce an analytical outline of 
 the subject, presenting the topics in their philo- 
 sophical relations, rather than in their mere prac- 
 tical and economic order and connection. 'Ihus, 
 in treating notation, the various forms of nota- 
 tion can be introduced, as of simple and com- 
 pound numbers, other scales than the decimal, 
 various forms of fractional notation. the elements 
 of the literal notation, etc. Then, as reduction 
 is but changing the form of notation, this topic 
 will come next, and will embrace all the forms of 
 reduction found in common arithmetic, as from 
 one scale to another, of denominate numbers, of 
 fractions common and decimal, etc., showing how 
 all arithmetical reductions are based on the one 
 simple principle: If the unit in reference to 
 which tin' numbe?' is to In' expressed is made 
 smaller, the number must be multiplied, and if 
 the unit of expression is moil" larger, the num- 
 ber must In- divided. Passing to the combina- 
 tions of number, under mi a/inn all processes 
 
 thus designated in arithmetic will be treated, and 
 the general principles out of which they all grow 
 will be developed. In this method of treatment. the 
 pupil will noi find himself merely going overthe 
 elementary subjects through which he plodded in 
 t he days of his chili lliood.l nit new ranees of thought 
 will lie presented, at the same time that all the 
 principles and processes of the elementary arith- 
 metic are reviewed : the very first sections, even 
 those on notation, reduction, and the ftindamen- 
 itil rules, bringing into requisition must of his 
 knowledge of arithmetic, and giving vigorous ex- 
 ercise to his mind in grasping new truth. I5ut 
 in addition to all this, which pertains to the 
 method of presentation, there will lie much of 
 practical arithmetical knowledge to be gained. 
 In the business rules, discount needs a much ful- 
 ler treatment than it has usually received in any 
 of our textbooks. Many problems, of frequent 
 occurrence in modern business circles, are nut pro- 
 vided for in these books : and. in fact, some of the 
 must common have had no solution at all which 
 has been made public. The wonderful develop- 
 ment of the insurance business demands that its 
 principles and methods receive a much fuller 
 treatment than thej can have in an elementary 
 course: this is especially true of /;'/'< insurance. 
 Fan ion exchange, customs, equation of pay- 
 ments, etc.. are other topics suitable for this ad- 
 vanced course, which are quite impracticable in 
 an elementary course within the reach of the 
 
 masses. Two other ends will he subserved by 
 this method: (1) It will he a leading purpose to 
 teach the pupil how to investigate, ana to this end 
 he should he put in possession of the great in- 
 sirumcni for mathematical investigation, namely, 
 
 the equation. Of course, only the simpler forms 
 
 of the equation can he introduced : nevertheless, 
 enough can he given to enlarge very greatly the 
 student's power to examine new questions for 
 himself. By means of the equation, he may he 
 
 taught the solution of such problems as the fol- 
 
ARITI IMKTIO 
 
 43 
 
 lowing, which would he quite out of his reacli 
 without this instrument : 
 
 To find what each payment must be in order 
 to discharge a given principal and interest in a 
 given number of eijttul payments at equal inter- 
 vals of tiin>\ 
 
 To find the present worth of a note which 
 has been running a certain linn-, and is due at 
 a future time, with minimi payments on the 
 principal, and mm mil interest; so that the pur- 
 chaser shall receive a differentrate of annual 
 interest from that named in th<> note. 
 
 These and many other important business 
 problems are quite within the reach of the 
 simple equation, and arc scarcely legitimate ques- 
 tions to propose to a student who has not some 
 knowledge <>f this instrument. (2) The second 
 general purpose which we shall mention as being 
 subserved by this course is, that by grouping all 
 the arithmetical processes under the fewest pos- 
 sible heals and showing their philosophic de- 
 pendence, the whole is put in the best possible 
 form to be retained in the memory. Thus, if it is 
 seen that a single principle covers all the eases in 
 reduction, that another simple principle covers all 
 the so-called "problems in interest" that all the 
 common intricate questions in discount axe read- 
 ily solved by the simple equation, etc., these proc- 
 esses will not he the evanescent things which 
 they have often been. 
 
 Principles and maxims to be kept in view 
 while f'-'ir/i/,/>/ arithmetic. — I. There are two 
 distinct and strongly marked general aims in 
 arithmetical study: ( 1 ) To master the rationale of 
 tlii- processes, and (2) To acquire facility and ac- 
 curacy in the performance of these operations. 
 The means which secure one of these ends are not 
 necessarily adapted to secure the other. Thus, to 
 secure the first, for example, in reference to ad- 
 dition, the steps are, learning to count, learning 
 how numbers are grouped in the decimal system, 
 learning how to make the addition table, and, 
 finally, by means of a knowledge of the sum of j 
 the digits taken two and two, learning to rind the 
 sum of any given numbers. In regard to the 
 latter pro, ess, the pupil nee Is to know why we 
 write units of a like order in the same column, 
 why we begin at the units' column to add. why we 
 •• carry one for every ten," as the phrase IS, etc. 
 Bttt all this may he known, and yet the pupil 
 make sorry work in practical addition. In order 
 
 ■■lire a knowledge of the rationale, each step 
 needs to be-clearly explained and fully illustrated, 
 and then the pupil must he required to repeat the ; 
 whole, "over and over again," in his own language. 
 
 For this purpose, much class drill on the black- 
 board, in having each pupil separately explain in 
 detail the reasons for.each step of the work which 
 lie has before performed, will be necessary. 
 Pupils may be required to bring into the class 
 
 practical exercises Solved on their slates, and then 
 
 sufficient time be given to explanation from the 
 
 slates. These three things repeated in about the 
 same way, (1) a clear preliminary explanation 
 of principles either given in the text bunk or 
 by the teacher, (2) a thorough mastery of these 
 
 principles by the pupil so that he can state 
 them in a general way. and (3) a careful and con- 
 tinued repetition of them in the class, in appli 
 cation to particular examples, will secure the first 
 of these general ends of arithmetical study. To 
 secure the second, namely, facility and accuracy 
 in applying these principles, so as to be able to 
 add with ease, rapidity, and accuracy, lone, con- 
 tinued drill, with the mind quite unencumbered 
 by any thought of the reasons for the processes, 
 will be indispensable. It will not be sufficient 
 that pupils solve accurately numerous examples. 
 in the slow plodding way to which they an 
 accustomed in their private study, but large 
 numbers of fresh problems should be furnished 
 in the class, which the pupils should be required 
 to solve with the utmost promptitude, and 
 with perfect accuracy. In respect to all mere 
 numerical combinations, as addition, subtraction, 
 multiplication, division, involution, evolution, 
 etc., oral drills like the following will be of the 
 greatest use and should be continued until the 
 combinations can be made as rapidly as we would 
 naturally read the numbers: Teacher repeats 
 while the pupils follow in silence, making the 
 combinations, "5-j-3-^2*+3, squared, — 7^f-7x 
 3+7, square root, etc." These oral drills maybe 
 commenced at the very outset in regard to addi- 
 tion, and extended as the other rules are reached, 
 and should not be dropped until the utmost facil- 
 ity is secured. A similar drill exercise can be 
 secured by pointing to the digits as they stand on 
 the board, or on charts, and simply speaking the 
 words which indicate what combinations are 
 required. Any figures which may chance to 
 stand on the board may be used in this way to 
 secure an indefinite amount of most valuable 
 drill. This latter exercise. — making the combina- 
 tions at sight — is of still greater practical value 
 than the former, in which the ear alone is de- 
 pended upon; for it is a singular fact that 
 facility in one method docs not insure it in the 
 other, and the latter is the form in which the 
 process is usually to be applied. Again, in the 
 business rules the principles underlying the pro- 
 cesses must be clearly perceived, and the pupil, 
 by continued practice in explaining solutions 
 written upon the board, must become able to give 
 in good language the reason for each step. Bu1 
 when all this is secured, there will be found need 
 of much drill on examples to the answers of 
 which he cannot have access, and which he must 
 take up and solve at the moment. In this depart- 
 ment, much valuable exercise may be given by 
 handing the pupils written notes or papers indue 
 form, and requiring them to compute the in- 
 terest, or discount, or make the required com- 
 putation at sight. But the illustrations now given 
 will Buffice to show that there are, as above 
 stated, two general purposes — the theoretical and 
 
 * The si^ns of division, multiplication, etc. are not 
 used with strict propriety in this specimen exercise; 
 they are applied to the result of all the preceding 
 operations in each case as though all before them bad 
 been included in a parenthesis. Thus In this ca 
 5-J-8, or 8 which is meant to be divided by 2, wiving 4, 
 to this :i added, giving 7, this squared, niviiii,- 49, etc. 
 
44 
 
 ARITHMETIC 
 
 the practical — which must run parallel through 
 all good teaching in arithmetic, and that they 
 are generally to be attained by different means. 
 II. In order to realize the above, a careful 
 discrimination needs to be made between simply 
 telling how a thing is done, and telling why it is 
 done. Very much of what we read in our 
 text-books, and hear in classrooms, under the 
 name of analysis, in explanation of solutions, is 
 nothing more than a statement of the process — a 
 telling how the particular example is wrought. 
 This vice is still so prevalent as to need the 
 clearest exposition and the most radical treat- 
 ment. Indeed, it has become so general as to 
 be mistaken by the masses for the thing it 
 purports to be ; and pupil and teacher frequently 
 seem to think that this parrotdike way of telling 
 what //us been done is really a logical exposition 
 of the principles involved. The following ex- 
 ample, clipped from a book not now a candidate 
 for popular favor, will serve to illustrate our 
 meaning: 
 ".0017)36.3000(21352 Commencing the di- 
 
 .'54 vision, we find that 1 7 
 
 is contained in 36, 2 
 
 23 times. We place 2 in 
 
 17 the quotient, and sub- 
 
 tract 2 x 17 from .'ill. 
 
 60 The remainder is 2::. 
 
 51 17 is contained in 23, 
 
 1 time. Place 1 in the 
 90 quotient, and subtract 
 
 85 1x17 from 23. To the 
 
 remainder <> we annex 
 50 one of the 0s, and find 
 
 34 that 17 is contained in 
 
 60, 3 times with !» re- 
 16 mainder. We continue 
 
 this process, annexing to each remainder a new 
 figure of the dividend, until we find a final re- 
 mainder Hi, which does not contain 17. but the 
 division by 17 may be expressed by writing the 
 divisor underneath." 
 
 Compare this with the following: 
 Reasons for ///>- Huh' in Short Division. — 
 The divisor is written at the left of the dividend, 
 simply that we may be able to see both at once 
 conveniently. 
 
 We begin at the highest order to divide, be- 
 cause by so doing we can put what remains after 
 each division into the next lower order and 
 divide it : and thus we get all that there is of 
 any order in the quotient as we go along. 
 
 We write the quotient figures under the orders 
 from whose division they arise, because they are 
 of the same orders. 
 
 The process ascertains how many times the 
 divisor is contained in the dividend, by finding 
 
 how many limes it is contained in the parts of 
 
 tin' dividend and adding I he results. 
 
 This may be readily illustrated by an example. 
 For this purpose let us divide 1547 by 4. lhe 
 
 following is an analysis of the operation: 
 
 1547 e<|iials 12 hundreds, ,'52 tens, 24 units, 
 and 3 units ; 
 
 in 
 
 4 is contained 
 
 12 hds. 3 hds., or 300 times. 
 32 tens 8 tens, or 80 times. 
 24 units (') units, or ti times. 
 3 units, no times. 
 
 386 times. 
 
 I L547 
 with a remainder .3. 
 
 III. There should, also, be a careful dis- 
 crimination between pure and i/jijitierf arithme- 
 tic in order that they may be so taught as to 
 secure the proper end of each. Pure arithmetic 
 is concerned solely with abstract numbers, and 
 the breadth of discipline to be secured by its ttudy 
 is not great ; but the applications of arithmetic 
 are almost infinitely varied, and give a far wider 
 scope for mental training. In the latter, the 
 questions are not how to multiply, add. subtract, 
 etc.. but why we multiply, add, or subtract. 
 Thus, in solving a problem in interest, it would 
 be quite out of place to cumber the explanation 
 with an exposition of the process of multiplying 
 by a decimal, but it is exactly to the purpose to 
 give the reason for so doing. The most im- 
 portant object in applied arithmetic is to ac- 
 quaint one's self so thoroughly with the conditions 
 of the problem — if in business arithmetic, with 
 the character of the business — as to discern what 
 combinations are to be made with the numbers 
 involved. .Many of these applications are quite 
 beyond the reach of the mind of a mere child. 
 
 Thus, to attempt to explain to very young pupils 
 the commercial relations which give rise to the 
 problems of foi'eign exchange, or the circum- 
 stances out of which many of the problems in 
 regard to the value of stocks grow, would be per- 
 fectly preposterous. 
 
 IV. In teaching applied arithmetic, it is of 
 the first importance that the problems be such as 
 occur in actual life, and that in expressing them, 
 the usual phraseology be employed. For example, 
 compare the following: 
 
 (1) What is the present worth of $600 duo :? yr. 
 7 mo. 2(i da. hence, at <; per cent per annum! 
 
 (2) 1 have a 7 per cent note for $500, dated Feb. 6th, 
 1st::, and due July loth, 1876. Mr. Smith proposes to 
 buy it of me Sept. lstli, 1*74, and to pay me Bach a 
 sum tor it as shall enable him to realize 1(1 per cent 
 per annum on his investment. What must he pay me? 
 In other words, what is the present worth of this note 
 Sepl 18th, L874? 
 
 The first supposes a transaction which could 
 rarely, if ever, occur, and even disguises that. 
 Most pupils who have cone through discount in 
 the ordinary way. if asked, " What interest does 
 the $500 bear, in the first example?" would an- 
 swer, "6 percent." ( •fcoursc.it is understood that 
 the money is not on interest. Moreover, we find 
 no such paper — no notes not bearing interest 
 in the market. Again, the assumption seems to 
 he that the note - if even a note is suggested at 
 all— is discounted at the time it is made. Thus, 
 it is obvious that the first form is calculated 
 
 to give the pupil quite erroneous imp re ssions; 
 whereas the second brings a real transaction into 
 
 full view. 
 
ARITIIUKT1C 
 
 ARIZONA 
 
 45 
 
 V. From the beginning to the cm lot' the course, 
 it slunil I In' the aim to teach a few germinal prin- 
 ciples and lead the pupil to apply them to as great 
 a number of cases as his time and ability may 
 permit. Thus, at the very outset, a good teacher 
 will never tell the child how to count ; but hav- 
 ing taught him the names of the numbers up to 
 fourteen, will show him the meaning of the word 
 "fourteen | four and ten); then he can be led to go 
 on to nineteen by himself. No child ought to be 
 told how to count from fifteen to nineteen; and 
 after twenty, he needs only to be shown how the 
 names of the decades, as twen-ty, thir-ty. for-ty. 
 and tif-ty arc formed, to be able to give the rest 
 himself; nor docs he need to be told how to count 
 through more than one decade. In reference to 
 the fundamental tallies, it may be suggested that 
 no pupil should be furnished with an addition, 
 subtraction, multiplication, or division table ready- 
 made. Having been taught the principle on 
 which the table is constructed, he should be re- 
 quired to make it for himself. As preliminary 
 to practical addition and subtraction, the combi- 
 nations of digits two and two which constitute 
 any number up to 18 (9+9) should be made 
 perfectly familiar. Thus the child should recog- 
 nize 1 +4, and 2-|-3, as 5; l + ~>, 2+4, and 3+3, 
 as G; etc.; and this should be made the founda- 
 tion of addition and subtraction. He should be 
 taught, that if he knows that 3+4 = 7, he knows 
 by implication that 23+4 = 27, 33+4 = 37, etc. 
 Passing from the primary arithmetic, he shoidd 
 be taught common fractions by means of the 
 fewest principles and rules consistent with his 
 ability. Thus in multiplication and division. To 
 multiply or to divide a fraction by a whole 
 number, and To multiply or to divide a irhole 
 ■number by a fraction, are all the cases needed; 
 and these should be taught in strict conformity 
 with practical principles. Thus, to multiply a 
 whole number by a fraction is to take a frac- 
 tional part of the number; and to divide a num- 
 ber by a fraction is to find how many times the 
 latter is contained in the former. To cover all 
 the forms of reduction of denominate, members, 
 nothing is needed but the principle or ride, that to 
 pass from higher to lower denominations, we mul- 
 tiply by the number which it takes of the lower 
 to make one of the liigher; and to pass from lower 
 to higher we divide by the same number. These 
 simple principles should be seen to cover all 
 cases, those involving fractions as well as others. 
 
 In like manner, by a proper form of statement 
 of examples, and an occasional suggestion or 
 question, most of the separate rules usually given 
 endear percentage may he dispensed with. In 
 dealing with the cases usually denominated prob- 
 lems in interest, ail that is needed is the following 
 
 brief rule: Find tin- effect produced by using a 
 unit of the number required, under the given 
 circumstances, and compare this with the given 
 
 effect. This should be made to cover the cases 
 usually detailed under six or eight rules. 
 
 \ I . There are three stages of mental develop- 
 ment which should be carefully kept in view in 
 all elementary teaching : (1) The earliest slaye, 
 
 in which the faculties chiefly exercised are obser- 
 vation, or perception, and memory, and in which 
 the pupil is not competent to formulate thought. 
 or to derive benefit from abstract, formal state- 
 ments of principles, definitions, or processes; 
 (2) An intermediate stage, ia which the reason- 
 ing faculties (abstraction, judgment, etc) are 
 coming into prominence, ami in which the pupil 
 needs to be shown the truth, so that he may have 
 
 a clear perception of it. before he is presented 
 
 with a formal, abstract statement, the work, how- 
 ever, not being concluded until he can state the 
 truth (definition, principle, proposition, or rule) 
 intelligently, in good language, and in general 
 (abstract) terms: (.'!) An ultimate stage, or that 
 in which the mental powers are so matured and 
 trained, that the pupil is competent to receive 
 truth from the general, abstract, or formal state- 
 ment of it. At this stage, definitions, principles, 
 propositions, and statements of processes maybe 
 given first, and illustrated, demonstrated, or ap- 
 plied afterward. (See Analytic Method, and 
 Developing Method.) 
 
 ARIZONA was organized as a territory 
 Feb. 24th, 1863, being formed from the territory 
 of New Mexico. Its area is 113,910 square 
 miles; and its population, excluding tribal Indians 
 and military, in 1870, was 9,581. 
 
 Educational History. — An act was passed by 
 the territorial legislature in October, 1863, author- 
 izing the establishment of common schools ; and 
 the next year, another and more complete law 
 was enacted. Nothing, however, of any impor- 
 tance was accomplished toward the establishment 
 of a system of common schools in the territory 
 until the appointment of A. P. K. Safford as 
 governor in 1869. Through the most laborious 
 efforts on his part, a public opinion in favor of 
 common schools was awakened among the people; 
 and in consequence thereof, a law was passed in 
 1871, which levied a tax for the support of 
 schools, of ten cents on each one hundred dollars 
 of the taxable property of the territory, and 
 authorized the supervisors of counties and the 
 trustees of the school-districts to levy addi- 
 tional taxes for the establishment and mainte- 
 nance of free schools in their respective districts. 
 By this law, the governor was made ex officio 
 superintendent of public instruction, and the 
 judges of probate, county superintendents. It 
 was not until 1872 that, in pursuance of these 
 ] mivisions, schools were established. In July of 
 that year, the governor stared that "a free school 
 had been put in operation in every school-district 
 where there was a Sufficient number of children." 
 The larger portion of the children, he further 
 stated, '• were of Mexican birth, and few could 
 speak the English language; but they had been 
 taught exclusively in English, and had made 
 satisfactory progress." In L873, the total school 
 population between the ages of 6 and 21. was 
 reported as 1,660, of whom 836 were males, and 
 824 females. Of these there were only 4S2 at- 
 tending public and private schools, the former. 
 343. The whole amount paid for school pur- 
 poses was $11)080. In February. 1S73, the 
 
46 
 
 ARKANSAS 
 
 school law was amended, constituting the system 
 ;is it now exists. 
 
 School System. — The governor of the terri- 
 tory is ex officio superintendent of public in- 
 struction, and apportions the school fund among 
 the several counties, according to their respective 
 school population, consisting of children be- 
 tween the ages of six and twenty-one years. It 
 is made his duty to visit and inspect the schools 
 as often as once in each year. The probate 
 judges of the several counties are ex officio super- 
 intendents of public schools for the same. 'I hey 
 are appointed by the governor, and hold their 
 respective offices for two years. A tax of 35 cents 
 on each $100 is levied in the several counties for 
 the maintenance of schools, and a tax of 1 5 cents 
 on $100 for the whole territory. The money is 
 divided in proportion to the school attendance. 
 Each district may levy additional taxes by a vote 
 of two thirds of the district. Education is made 
 compulsory; that is, parents or guardians can be 
 compelled to send their children sixteen weeks 
 during the year to some school, when within two 
 miles of their residence, or have them instructed 
 at home. 
 
 Educational Condition. — The schools of Ari- 
 zona are all of a primary grade; and teachers 
 receive from $100 to $125 a month, males and 
 females receiving an equal salary. According to 
 the report of Gen. Safford, of Dec. 21st. ls7.">. 
 there were in the territory 2,508 children be- 
 tween the ages of six and twenty-one. of whom 
 598 attended public schools. The receipts for 
 the preceding year were $28,759. 92, and the dis- 
 bursements were $24,151.96. 
 
 This report stated that, under the existing 
 school law. the free school system had been made 
 a success, and that ample means were afforded by 
 which every child in the territory might obtain 
 the rudiments of an e lucation. 
 
 ARKANSAS. This state was originally a 
 portion of the territory of Louisiana, purchased 
 from the French government in lso;!. It re- 
 mained a pari of that territory until L812, when 
 Louisiana being a Lmitted as a state, it became a, 
 part of the Missouri territory, which was or- 
 ganized in tli.it year; and so continued till L819, 
 when it was organized as a separate territory. It 
 was admitted into the Pnionas a state in L836. 
 Educational History. — The constitution of 
 L 836 contained a declaration in favor of educa- 
 tion to the effect that " as knowledge and learn- 
 ing, generally diffused through the community, 
 are essentia] to the preservation of free govern- 
 ment," ii should lie ih' duty of the general as- 
 sembly to provide for the sale of land.- donated 
 to the state bj the general government for edu- 
 cational purposes and to apply the money re- 
 ceived therefrom, to the establishment and sup- 
 port of schools. In accordance with this pro- 
 vision of tlii' constitution, the legislature passed 
 certain acts prescribing I lie manlier of disposing 
 of the school lands, which ads are. substantially. 
 Still in force. Two provisions of this law are 
 worthy of special notice, on accounl of their dis- 
 astrous consequences. The first was. that, upon 
 
 the petition of a majority of a township, the 
 comity commissioner should sell the sixteenth 
 section, in forty-acre tracts, to the highest bidder, 
 one-fourth of the purchase money being payable 
 in cash, and the balance, within eight years, in 
 installments. The second was. that the county 
 commissioner should loan the school moneys in 
 his hands to parties who would give satisfactory 
 notes to secure their payment with interest. The 
 practical operation of the law was as follows : A. 
 B, and (' purchased a sixteenth section, say Janu- 
 ary 1st; A and I! being security for O's notes 
 for deferred payments, 15 and C for A's notes, 
 and A and (' for Bs notes. Each party paid tin- 
 school commissioner, say five hundred dollars, as 
 his first payment, and took his receipt. The same 
 day. they each borrowed live hundred dollars 
 from the school fund of the county, thereby vir- 
 tually borrowing from the school commissioner 
 the money to make the firsl payment on the 
 lands. The notes given were made payable in 
 •lawful money of the United States"; but. after 
 the secession of the state, payments were made 
 iii confederate money, and purchasers of school 
 
 lands were not slow to complete their payments 
 
 in that currency at par. During this period, the 
 
 state auditor was the thief executive school of- 
 ficer, and made his report to the governor. The 
 
 last school report, under the ancien regime, was 
 made by William Et. .Miller, state auditor, to 
 Governor Reetor, who held office at the time of 
 
 the secession of the state. In its printed form. 
 it consisted of one leaf of a book about as huge 
 as Webster's Spelling Hook. and states that there 
 were then but two public schools in the state. 
 
 Evidence from other sources shows that, by the 
 peculiar system of financiering^described above, 
 
 Dy loss in Confederate money and Arkansas war 
 bonds, and from the usual casualties incident to 
 a state of civil war. a very large proportion of 
 
 the sixteenth section and other school lands of 
 
 the state was squandered, without creating anj 
 considerable permanent school fund, (if thai 
 
 which was created, the sum of $8,000, the last 
 
 remnant, was invested in the purchase of medi- 
 cines for the confederate troops; and the medi- 
 cines were lost on a steamer which was wrecked 
 on Brazos river, in Texas. 
 Two provisions of the Constitution of L868 
 
 related to public schools. Section I. of Article V I. 
 
 provided that "'the executive department of 
 
 (his state shall consist of a governor, etc.. ami 
 a superintendent of public instruction, all of 
 whom shall hold their sewral offices for a term 
 of four years.'' Article XI. related to education, 
 and its several sections provided, (1) that the 
 
 general assembly should establish and maintain 
 
 a system of live schools for the gratuitous in 
 
 struction of all persons between the agesof five 
 
 and twenty-one years; i'-'i that the supervision 
 of such school.-, should be intrusted to a superin- 
 tendent of public instruction; (3) that a state 
 university should he established; (4) that a 
 
 school fund should he created from the sales of 
 
 school lands, escheats, estrays. grants, gifts, one 
 
 dollar capitation tax. etc: a that no part of the 
 
ARKANSAS 
 
 47 
 
 school fund .should be invested in the bonds of 
 any state, city, county, or (own : ((!) that the 
 distribution of the school fund should lie limited 
 to such districts as had kept a school for at least 
 three months in the year for which the distribu- 
 tion was made : and that each child should 1 e re- 
 quired to attend School at least three years: (7) 
 that, in every district in which the school fund 
 should he insufficient to support a school for at 
 hast three months in the year, the general as- 
 sembly sin mill provide by law for levying a tax ; 
 (8) that all lands, moneys, etc., held iii the va- 
 rious counties for school purposes, should lie re- 
 duced into the general school fund ; and (!)) that 
 the general assembly should he empowered to 
 raise money by taxation for building school- 
 houses. In addition to these provisions, a section 
 of the article on finance, etc., made the purchase 
 money for school lands payable into the state 
 treasury, and obligated the state to pay interest at 
 the rate of six per cent per annum, upon the same. 
 This constitution was adopted in February, 
 L868; and, upon the l.'ith day of March suc- 
 ceeding, an election for state officers was held, 
 General Powell Clayton being elected governor, 
 
 ami I fon. Thomas Smith, superintendent of public 
 instruction, (hi the 2d day of April ensuing, 
 the first legislature under the new constitution 
 met. and, in due time (July '1 .'id), enacted the 
 school law. which with certain modifications, few 
 in number 1 nit very important in character, has 
 ever since been in force in the state. 
 
 This law provided for the appointment of cir- 
 cuit superintendents, one in each of the ten judi- 
 cial districts of the state, whose duties in their 
 several circuits were analogous to those of the 
 state superintendent, in supervising, making re- 
 ports, etc. A school trustee was appointed in 
 each school district, with the same duties as those 
 already specified. The report of the school trust 
 ees were made annually to the circuit super- 
 intendents, who transmitted the information to 
 the state superintendent, to be used in his bien- 
 nial report. Cinder many difficulties and embar- 
 rassments, Superintendent Smith organized his 
 department in August, L868; and in December 
 following, the trustees of the various districts 
 were elected. In September. L869, a Special ses- i 
 sion of the state board of education — composed 
 of the state and circuit superintendents — was 
 he! I. At this time the only free schools existing 
 in the state were a few for persons of color. 
 established by the Onited States, through the 
 agency of the Freedmen's Bureau. The resources 
 nf the school department consisted of (1) saline 
 lands, about 20,000 acres; (2) seminary lands, 
 about 1 .Dili) acres; (3) sixteenth-section lands, 
 about 841,000 acres. The original quantities of 
 these lands, which were donated by the United 
 States government for common school purposes, 
 were two sections, each of the first two classes, 
 and 928,000 acres of the third class, of the 
 saline and seminary land funds, about $12,000 
 in specie, war-bonds, confederate money, etc.. had 
 been transferred, after March 6th, L861, to the 
 general revenue fund of the state ; and about 
 
 $45,000 of outstanding notes, to the solieitor- 
 general for collection. In all, the claims of the 
 state for school lands sold and moneys loaned, 
 with accrued interest, amounted to about three 
 quarters of a million of dollars. The several 
 amounts of the school fund on hand at the be- 
 ginning and end of the period embraced in 
 Superintendent Smith's first biennial report, were 
 as follows : — 
 
 Oct. 1, 1868. U. S. Currency $ 2,691.98 
 
 State Scrip 56,302.97 
 
 Total $58,954.96 
 
 Oct. 1, 1870. U. S. Currency $22,201.37 
 
 State Scrip.. .*. 12,991.12 
 
 Total $35,192.49 
 
 During this period, the scl 1 revenues were 
 
 subject to depletion from three causes: (1) The 
 taxes on sixteenth-section lands were merged in- 
 to the general revenue of the state: (2J The 
 "fines, penalties, and forfeitures." levied by the 
 various courts, were loosely handled by the col- 
 lecting officers ; (3) in many cases, the 'electors of 
 the various school districts refused to authorize 
 the levying of the local tax for school-houses; 
 and (4) by an act approved March 2d, L869, 
 school-taxes were made payable in interest-bear- 
 ing certificates issued by the state treasurer. 
 Notwithstanding all these obstacles, the school 
 system was able to present, in 1870, considerable 
 progress since the preceding year, as will he seen 
 from the following statistics : 
 
 ls70 
 
 lso,274 
 
 107,908 
 
 2,537 
 
 2,302 
 
 41 
 
 $405,748 
 
 I-;, i 
 
 176,910 
 
 117,112 
 
 1,489 
 
 1,335 
 
 VI 
 
 $188,397 
 
 \ umber of children of school age. 
 " " attending school 
 
 '" schools 
 
 " " teachers 
 
 " " teachers' institutes 
 
 Amount of money paid teachers. 
 
 The whole number of school-houses built prior 
 to 1868, was 632 ; in L869 and L870, it was 657. 
 The apportionment of the state fund for 1868 
 -1869 was $377,919.94, and the district tax. 
 $215,348.79. In addition to these evidences of 
 progress should be mentioned the organization of 
 the State Teachers' Association, July 2d, L869 ; 
 and the commencement of the Arkansas Journal 
 of Educatioti, Jan. 1st. IsTO. The institutions 
 for the blind and for deaf-mutes were also re 
 
 organized during the period referred to, and 
 
 handsome buildings erected for their accommo- 
 dation. 
 
 Superintendent Smith's second report, for the 
 
 two years ending September 30th, L872, presents 
 
 striking evidence oi the decadence of the newly 
 
 Wished school system. Many of the school 
 
 districts had become deeply involved in debt, and 
 
 had levied exorbitant taxes to remove the in- 
 cumbrance; the depreciated paper was destroy- 
 ing the schools and driving tin bes1 teachers from 
 
 the state: and the circuit superintendents Were 
 
 neglecting the schools. The following was fch< 
 
 condition of the school fund : 
 
 United States Currency *l I .'■ 10.84 
 
 ."..20 Bonds 24,186.25 
 
 State Scrip 56,804.22 
 
 Total $95,501.3] 
 
48 
 
 ARKANSAS 
 
 ARKANSAS UNIVERSITY 
 
 1872 
 
 1871 
 
 194,314 
 
 196,237 
 
 32,863 
 
 69,927 
 
 2,035 
 
 2,128 
 
 25 
 
 31 
 
 $353,624.90 
 
 $424,4i.i. 90 
 
 187 
 
 302 
 
 The amount of money distributed since Oct. 1st, 
 1870, was as follows : 
 
 United States Currency $ 33,688.03 
 
 State Scrip 454,407.76 
 
 Total $488,095.79 
 
 The balance on hand at the above date was 
 $39,87(>.75, of which nearly the whole was in 
 state scrip. The following general summary of 
 statistics shows a decrease in nearly every item 
 as compared with those of 1870 : 
 
 No. of children of school age. 
 
 " " " attending school 
 
 " " teachers 
 
 " " teachers' institutes. .. . 
 
 Amount paid teachers 
 
 No. of school-houses erected.. 
 
 Almost the only encouraging feature of the 
 period covered by Superintendent Smith's second 
 report, was the opening of the Arkansas Indus- 
 trial University (Jan. 22d, 1872), in the town 
 of Fayetteville. Mr. Smith was succeeded in 
 the office of superintendent by Joseph I !. Oorbin, 
 who entered upon the duties of his office in 1872; 
 and the only report which he issued was for the 
 year ending September 30th, 1873. Prior to 
 this, the general assembly passed a new revenue 
 law, which was construed to repeal the provision 
 of the former law appropriating two mills on 
 the dollar out of the ordinary revenue of the 
 state for school purposes. This reduced the 
 amount of the semi-annual apportionment from 
 $210,000 to $55,000, all of which was in state 
 scrip, worth at the time about 35 per cent. The 
 same legislature abolished the office of circuit 
 superintendent, and substituted that of county 
 superintendent. It also limited the local tax to 
 a maximum of five mills ; and a decision of the 
 supreme court made even this tax payable in 
 state scrip. The following are the principal 
 items of the school statistics for the year IS 7.'! : 
 
 Attendance of pupils 59,687 
 
 Number of teachers 1,481 
 
 Number of school-houses 1,035 
 
 Number of teachers' institutes 26 
 
 A iin Hint paid teachers $259,747.08 
 
 Revenue raised for school purposes. . .$258,456.09 
 Amount of expenditures $3ls,i);i7.77 
 
 A new constitution was adopted in lH74,of which 
 the following are the chief provisions in regard 
 to education: — (1) That the state "shall ever 
 maintain a general, suitable, and efficient system 
 of free schools, whereby all persons in the slate. 
 between the ages of six and twenty-one years, may 
 receive gratuitous instruction;" (2) That no 
 school money or property shall be used for any 
 other purpose; (.'>) That the general assembly 
 shall provide for the support of common schools 
 by a tax, not to exceed the rate of two mills on 
 the dollar, on the taxable propertyof the state; 
 a capitation tax of one dollar, and a local tax not 
 to exceed live mills on the dollar ; (4) Thai the 
 supervision of the schools shall be vested in "such 
 officers as may be provided for by the general 
 assembly." Under this last pro\ ision, the duties 
 of superintendent of public instruction were 
 
 transferred to the secretary of state, "until other- 
 wise provided by law." 
 
 Elementary Instruction. — The only common 
 schools in the state at present (Nov. 1875) arc 
 those of the city of little Rock, which were 
 opened September 13th, 1875. The sole reliance 
 of the mass of the citizens for educational advan- 
 tages is. therefore, upon private schools, of which 
 a large number were opened at the beginning 
 of the school year. No school report has been 
 rendered since that of Superintendent Corbin, in 
 1873, as the necessary duties of the secret an 
 of state have rendered an active supervision of 
 the schools impossible, and the returns from the 
 local officers are very imperfect. 
 
 Normal Instruction. — ■ The chief provision 
 for the training of teachers in the state is the 
 normal department of the State Industrial Uni- 
 versity. A course of two years and one of three 
 years have been arranged, the former embracing 
 all the studies likely to be taught in any of the 
 common schools, and the latter, those of the high 
 schools. Male applicants far admission are re- 
 quired to be 1 (i years of age, and females 14. A 
 training school is operated in connection with 
 this school. Besides this. Quitman College, in 
 Van Buren county, is a normal school for the 
 training of colored teachers. There is also a 
 state teachers' association. 
 
 Superior Instruction* — The most prominent 
 
 of the higher educational institutions of the state 
 
 are the Arkansas Industrial University, at 
 
 Fayetteville (q. v.). and St. John's College, at 
 
 j little Rock (q. v.) ; the latter of which is under 
 
 I the control of the masonic fraternity. 
 
 Special Instruction. — The Arkansas Deaf- 
 Mute Institute and the Arkansas Institute for 
 the Education of the Blind, both at little Rock, 
 are the only institutions for special instruction. 
 The former was incorporated as a state institu- 
 tion in 18(>8. The latter, the same year, was re- 
 moved from Arkadelphia to Little Rock. The 
 financial embarrassments of the state have great- 
 ly impeded the progress and efficient operation 
 of these institutions. 
 
 Educational .Inn noil, etc. — The last educational 
 journal published in the state was the Arkansas 
 Journal of Education, which suspended publica- 
 tion in 1872 ; and the only works on the schools 
 of the state arc the three educational re]>orts of 
 the state superintendents. 
 
 While the present educational condition of 
 Arkansas is by no means cheering, it is not quite 
 hopeless. The decadence of the school system, 
 which a short time ago was so promising, is the 
 result of financial, political, and social c\ ils and 
 misfortunes thai have afflicted the state from its 
 earliest history. Many of these evils, however, 
 are already things of the past, of which only the 
 
 effects remain. Under the present administra- 
 tion, much has been done towards developing the 
 natural resources of the state: and there is no 
 doubt that, in a few years, its educational pros- 
 perity will be restored. 
 
 ARKANSAS INDUSTRIAL UNIVER- 
 SITY, at Fayetteville, Arkansas, was provided 
 
ARMY SCHOOLS 
 
 ARNOLD 
 
 49 
 
 for by an act of the state legislature in 1868, 
 hut was not opened until January 22., L872. 
 The law regulating the institution provides for 
 321 beneficiaries who are entitled to four years' 
 Eree tuition. The value of the mounds, build- 
 ings, etc. is $] B0,000. The buildings will accom- 
 modate four hundred students, and consist of a 
 brick edifice five stories high, 21 I feet in length, 
 with a depth in the wings of L22 feet, with five 
 large and several small halls, and thirty class- 
 rooms. The. report of the university for 1874 
 showed an attendance of 32] students, in its 
 various departments, under the instruction of 
 so professors and three other instructors. The 
 institution includes a preparatory aud a normal 
 department, a college of engineering, and a college 
 of general science and literature. A college of 
 agriculture and a college of natural science; with 
 a school of military science, and a school of com- 
 merce, are also provided for : and an experimental 
 farm for the agricultural college has been secured. 
 The university library is as yet quite small. 
 Gen. Albert \\\ Bishop is the president of the 
 institution. 
 
 ARMY SCHOOLS. See Military Schools. 
 
 ARNDT, Ernst Moritz, a German patriot 
 an I author, was born Dec. 26., 1769, at Schoritz on 
 I; men, and died Jan. 29., 1860, at Bonn, lie 
 was appointed, in 1 805, professor at the university 
 of Greifswalde ; but he wrote violently against 
 Napoleon and, therefore, fled, after the battle at 
 Jena, in 1806, to Sweden. In 1809, he returned, 
 and henceforth took a prominent part in the na- 
 tional movement in Germany which led to the 
 wars of liberation (1813 to 1815), and the over- 
 throw of the French rule in Germany. In 1818, 
 he was appointed professor of history at the uni- 
 versity of Bonn; but, in the next year he was 
 retired in consequence of his liberal sentiments. 
 In 1840, he was reinstated by the new king 
 Frederick William IV. ; and, in 1848, he was 
 a member of the National Assembly of Frankfort, 
 which attempted the reconstruction of a united 
 Germany. Arndt is chiefly famous in Germany 
 as one of the foremost promoters of patriotism. 
 One of his songs, Was isi des Deutschen Vater- 
 land? was long regarded as the most popular 
 national hymn; but was superseded in popular 
 favor, during the Franco-German war. by Die 
 Wacht am Rhein. Some of Arndt "s numerous 
 works are of a pedagogical character, the most 
 important of which is Fragmente Hber Menschen- 
 bildung (Altona, L805), which explains the prin- 
 ciples of a rational education of man in accor- 
 dance with the dictates of his nature. In 
 opposition to the ideas of Rousseau, he insisted 
 that the essence of man must not be sought in 
 the sensuous nature of the isolated individual. 
 but in his spiritual part, and in his rela- 
 tions to parents, family, society, and his native 
 country. From this point of view. Arndt con- 
 tends, with Pcstaloz/.i. that the mother should be 
 the first teacher of the child, and that her in- 
 struction should proceed from the concrete. He 
 represents love, necessity, and freedom as the 
 tliree powers which cooperate in the education 
 4 
 
 of man. The work of these three great powers 
 IS conditioned by the bodily and spiritual develop- 
 ment of the pupil. In childh 1, it is chiefly 
 
 the power of lo\e. represented by the mother, 
 which moulds the young mind, and instills into it 
 the first notions of God, man. and life. The 
 power of necessity must curb and discipline the 
 vehemence of boyhood, and teach the habit of 
 diligence. At last, in the age of ripe youth, love 
 and necessity coalesce into the spirit of freedom, 
 or self-control, which is the completion of every 
 harmonious education. A few years later. Arndt 
 gave an exposition of the same principles, with 
 special reference to the education of princes, hi 
 his work Entwurf Ster Erziehung und TJnter- 
 weisunp eines F&rsten (Berlin, 1813). These 
 educational works of Arndt exercised far less in- 
 fluence upon the rising generation of Germany 
 than his fairy tales, and especially his patriotic 
 songs, many of which are to be found in most 
 German reading-books and thus have contributed 
 very much toward shaping the German mind of 
 the nineteenth century. In his autobiography, 
 Erinnerungen aus diem ausseren Leben (l.eip- 
 sic, 2d ed., 1840), Arndt treats fully of his own 
 education. Biographies of Arndt have been 
 written by Eugen Labes (I860), II. Rehbein and 
 R. Keil (1861), and D. Schexkel (1866). — See 
 also G. Freytag, in Deutsche Allgemeine Bio- 
 graphie, art. Arndt. 
 
 ARNOLD, Thomas, D. D., the illustrious 
 English teacher and historian, was bom at West 
 Cowes, in the Isle of Wight, in 1795. He was 
 educated at Winchester College and Oxford 
 University, from the latter of which he obtained 
 a first-class degree in 1814. He attained his 
 greatest fame as head-master of Rugby School, 
 to which position he was elected in 1828, and in 
 which he continued till his death. In the course 
 of instruction of this school, he introduced many 
 improvements ; but it was the system of moral 
 teaching and training which he established, that 
 gave to him and to the school their greatest distinc- 
 tion. He preserved among the boys the highest 
 tone of moral and religious sentiment ; and. with 
 consummate tact, habituated them to the practice 
 of the principles which he taught, making him- 
 self both feared and loved. His chief reliance 
 was upon guiding the public opinion of the 
 school, as the most powerful element of control 
 in every community. For the practice of "fag- 
 ging" previously in vogue in the school, he insti- 
 tuted a system of responsible supervision by the 
 pupils of the highest class over the younger 
 boys, thus giving full opportunity for the active 
 exercise of those virtues which they had been 
 taught. Rugby, however, by no means occupied 
 all his time and attention. For some time he 
 held a place in the senate of the London Uni- 
 versity, and a short time before his death, ac- 
 cepted the appointment of Regius Professor of 
 Modern History at Oxford, where he delivered 
 some introductory lectures. To this position he 
 intended to devote his whole energies, retiring 
 from Rugby; but his plans were frustrated by 
 his sudden death, in 1842. His greatest literary 
 
50 
 
 ARNOLD 
 
 ART EDUCATION 
 
 work is the History of Rome, which he publish- 
 ed in three volumes (1838 — 1840 — 1842), 
 brought down to the end of the Second Punic 
 War. Tins work he did not live to complete. 
 His miscellaneous writings are varied and numer- 
 ous. Dr. Arnold's purity and elevation of char- 
 acter, his conscientious zeal and wise efforts as a 
 practical educator, his learning and literary skill, 
 and the excellent example which he presented in 
 all the relations of life, entitle him to be con- 
 sidered "one <>f the brightest ornaments of his 
 age." — See Stanley, Arnold's lAfe and Cor- 
 respondence (London, L845) ; also Tom Brown's 
 School-Days at Rugby (Ixmdon and Boston, 
 1857). 
 
 ARNOLD, Thomas Kerchever, an En- 
 glish clergyman, was born in 1800 and died in 
 L853. He is chiefly noted for his school man- 
 uals for elementary instruction in Greek, Latin, 
 French, German, and some other languages. 
 These books have been extensively used in this 
 country as well as in England. They are based 
 upon a thorough system of practical drill in all 
 the peculiarities of the language to be taught. 
 Mr. Arnold also prepared a series of school 
 classics, and published articles on various relig- 
 ious and ecclesiastical questions. His manuals 
 for classical study are based on a system similar 
 to that of Ollendorff. 
 
 ART EDUCATION. Every complete sys- 
 tem of education must provide for the cult- 
 ure of all the varied faculties of the human 
 mind, physical and intellectual, moral and spir- 
 itual, esthetic ami emotional; and must, be- 
 sides, supply the means necessary for the develop- 
 ment of those practical capacities upon which 
 the social and national progress of every civilized 
 people depends. Among the agencies required 
 for this purpose, art education claims profound 
 attention. The element of beauty, which exists 
 in the human mind, when made the subject of 
 
 progressive cultivation, and applied to the vari- 
 ous industries of social life, becomes a thing of 
 pecuniary as well as esthetic value. The train- 
 
 tng of the hand and eye. which is obtained by 
 
 drawing, is proved by experience to be of very 
 
 great advantage to the operative in every branch 
 
 of industry ; indeed, in many occupations, draw- 
 ing is indispensable to success. But the value is 
 still greater if to this simple training, the culture 
 
 of the perception and conception of forms and 
 their combinations is added, Leading to skill in 
 
 designing a branch of art of the highest value 
 
 in very many departments,)!' manufacturing in- 
 dustry. "Art education", says an eminent author- 
 ity, ■■ embraces all those appliances ami methods 
 of training by which the sense of form and pro- 
 portion is developed. It is successful when the 
 student unerringly discriminates between what is 
 
 ugly and what is beautiful, and expresses his 
 
 ideas of form in drawing as readily as ideasof 
 ot her sorts on tlic written page." 
 
 Art culture among the ancients must have 
 been carried to the highest degree of perfection, 
 
 as is obvious on an inspection .if Egyptian, As- 
 
 s\rian. and more especially Grecian antiquities. 
 
 The genius of Phidias and Praxiteles must have 
 owed its development to the results of many 
 centuries of previous culture. The Parthenon 
 was the noblest achievement of the loftiest genius 
 making use of the agencies and residts of the 
 most complete culture and education in art. We 
 have, however, no history of that education in 
 detail. Instruction in the art of design (ypcujuidji) 
 was quite general at Athens and in some of the 
 other ( brecian states ; and Aristotle, in his scheme 
 of education, attributes to it great importance as 
 a means of cultivating the sense of the beautiful. 
 The establishment of art-schools and schools of 
 design for the masses is, however, of modern 
 origin, and is due to a consideration, based upon 
 experience, of the great value of general artistic 
 skill in increasing the sources of national wealth. 
 This will be fully shown as we proceed : but as 
 immediately relevant to it we quote the follow- 
 ing statement of the French imperial commis- 
 sion, in its summary of the inquiry on profes- 
 sional education : "Among all the branches of 
 instruction which, in different degrees, from the 
 highest to the lowest grade, can contribute to the 
 technical education of either sex, drawing, in all 
 its forms and applications, has been almost unan- 
 imously regarded as the one which it is most 
 important to make common." Heretofore, in 
 the struggle and conflict of nations for suprema- 
 cy and power, it was believed they could depend 
 exclusively upon armed men and heavy guns; 
 but to-day the great nations of Europe rely on 
 industrial education, and the general culture of 
 the people. The World's Fair held at London, in 
 L8.")l, revealed plainly to England that she was 
 far behind her great rival France in the produc- 
 tion of articles requiring skilled labor and taste, 
 indeed, below all the other civilized nations ex- 
 cept the United States. Convinced of her inferi- 
 ority, she went vigorously to work to give general 
 instruction in the tine and industrial arts, by 
 establishing schools for special training, free of 
 cost, to those whom the science and art depart- 
 ment of the government had selected for art- 
 masters. Art scl Is were founded for instruc- 
 tion in drawing, modeling, and design, in many 
 of the large cit ies and towns throughout the king- 
 dom. The British official report for L872 shows 
 that there were, at that time, in England 122 in- 
 dustrial art-BChools; besides which there were 
 
 194,549 children receiving instruction in draw- 
 ing in the •■schools for the poor." Fp to that 
 time, there had been established one well-ap- 
 pointed art school of I'.IO students for every 
 
 210.000 of the population; so rapidly was in- 
 struction iii an as applied to industry provided 
 
 for and diffused anion- the industrial classes of 
 
 ( ireat Britain. Hut the results had, previous to this 
 time, been already definitely shown. At the Fan's 
 Fxposition of L867, Englandstood in the first rank 
 
 of artistic nations, and even surpassed sonic of 
 
 those who previously had carried off the highest 
 honors. This great advance made by the E nglish 
 from L851 to L867 alarmed the French. They saw 
 tiny could do Longer rely on that prestige which 
 
 had always placed .them at the head; and they. 
 
ART EDUCATION" 
 
 51 
 
 in turn began to reconstruct, improve, ami in- 
 crease their art-schools. The commission ap- 
 pointed by the emperor Napoleon III., after due 
 consideration, made an elaborate report, and the 
 government acted upon its recommendations. 
 Immediately after the late war between France 
 and ( t'crmany.the Prussian minister of commerce 
 and industry issued a circular calling upon the 
 government and the people to follow the example 
 of France : and it is now being followed in all 
 the schools of Prussia, from the primary school to 
 the university. Not only in England, France, 
 and Germany, hut in nearly all the other Euro- 
 pean countries is this great movement in art-edu- 
 cation in progress. The United States, alone of 
 all enlightened nations, is making but little ad- 
 vancement and little effort in this direction. New 
 York, Massachusetts, and a few other states have 
 enacted laws concerning the teaching of free- 
 hand drawing in the public schools, and in this 
 way have shown some appreciation of the great 
 importance of the subject. 
 
 During the first twenty-five years of the na- 
 tional independence of the United States, nothing 
 was accomplished in art-education. All teaching 
 was confined to the few lessons that were given 
 by professional painters. Even at the com- 
 mencement of the present century, no school had 
 been established. In 1802, however, a proposi- 
 tion was made to found an institution for the 
 promotion of the arts of drawing, painting, and 
 sculpture, in the city of New York, under the 
 name of The New York Academy of 'Fine Arts. 
 On account of the want of public interest in the 
 enterprise, and the inactivity of those who start- 
 ed it, the charter for the academy was not ob- 
 tained until 1808. In 1805, the Pennsylvania 
 Academy of Fine Arts was founded at Philadel- 
 phia by seventy-one citizens ; and in Boston, in 
 1807, the Public Library and Department of 
 Fine Arts was established. These institutions 
 are still in existence : but the New York Academy 
 only lasted till 1816. There is no evidence that 
 there were any schools of importance connected 
 with the first academies. The few artists who 
 belonged to them probably practiced drawing 
 from casts, and, it may be, sometimes from life. 
 — Among the names of those who took an in- 
 terest in art-matters at the early date here refer- 
 red to, may be found some of the best men of the 
 time; and at their head stood De Witt Clinton, 
 certainly the foremost man in the State of New 
 York. He was the president of the Academy. 
 and delivered an address upon the Fine Arts 
 when he retired from active participation in its 
 affairs. According to the venerable Thomas A. 
 CummingS, a veteran artist at this date (1876), 
 this address was probably the first ever delivered 
 in this country on that subject. It is likely that 
 there were some artistic societies, classes, or clubs 
 besides those mentioned, straggling into existence 
 in cities like Boston. Philadelphia, Baltimore, 
 Richmond, and ( Charleston, but of these we have 
 but little or no history. It is quite certain that, 
 up to 1816, no attempt had been made to in- 
 struct students anywhere in this country. In 
 
 1825, Samuel F. B. Morse was chosen to pre- 
 side over a new association, just then formed, 
 called the New York- Drawing Association. 
 It was out of the small number of artists who 
 
 constituted this association, and who met fchra 
 times a week to draw from casts, that the present 
 National Academy of Design was established 
 Much dissatisfaction was caused among the 
 members of the Drawing Association, on ac- 
 count of an attempt of Col. John Trumbull, the 
 historical painter, acting as the president of the 
 then almost defunct Academy of Fine Arts,tx> 
 assume a kind of dictatorship over them. These 
 pretensions, however, were stoutly and success- 
 fully repelled by president Morse and the young 
 artists of the association. Col. Trumbull was 
 evidently opposed to art-schools; and according 
 to Mr. Cummings. he assailed the students of 
 that day in a very rude and improper manner. 
 The resolution of Morse and his associates estab- 
 lished on a firm foundation the National 
 Academy of Design,aa the L8th of January, 
 
 1826, with twenty-five artists, and a life school 
 of eleven students. Mr. Morse delivered an ad- 
 dress at the first exhibition of the new academy, 
 in which he announced a new departure from 
 the old forms and usages of the art-associations 
 which had previously been established. His 
 course was to be the same as that adopted and 
 sanctioned by the academies of Europe. From 
 1826 to 1830, there was a bitter feud between 
 the rival institutions, the American Academy 
 and the National Academy, — the former sup- 
 ported by the renowned John Vanderlyn, and 
 the latter by the illustrious and indefatigable 
 Morse. The contest ended by the discontinuance 
 of the older institution ; but while it was in 
 progress, the interests of art were neglected, and 
 art-education sunk to a low ebb. Owing to 
 causes that have not been explained, the National 
 Academy of Design has never been able to estab- 
 lish and continue a first-class school for the edu- 
 cation of students. On this account, the institu- 
 tion can hardly lay claim to be a national one. 
 nor can it be said that it has kept pace with the 
 educational institutions of the country. 
 
 Methods of AH Instruction. — The modes of 
 drawing and the usages of art-schools are nearly 
 the same now that they were in the Old World 
 two hundred years ago; that is. in schools in 
 which pupils are trained to be professional artists. 
 After students have learned to draw from the 
 flat, from lithographs, drawings, etchings, etc., on 
 paper, they are required to draw from plaster 
 casts, — mostly figures and fragments of the 
 antique, statues, and busts. The teacher of draw- 
 ing very Often selects for the student those casts 
 which arc best suited to his taste, style and abil- 
 ity. These casts are generally so arranged and 
 illuminated as to show strong contrasts of light 
 and shade ; and each student is provided with an 
 old-fashioned i Ira wing-board, which is simply a 
 board, generally about 35 x 25 inches, with two 
 legs, resting upon the floor and thus support- 
 ing one end, while the other end rests on the lap of 
 the student. A charcoal outline of the object to be 
 
52 
 
 ART EDUCATION 
 
 drawn is first made. This being easily rubbed 
 off, the student is thus enabled to get the outline 
 with less trouble than would be possible with 
 crayons, which are only resorted to after a correct 
 outline has been obtained. — The life-school, as 
 it is called, or more properly speaking, drawing 
 from the living form, is generally conducted in 
 the following manner. The model, or person who 
 is to stand, or pose, is placed generally under the 
 light, in whatever position may be chosen by the 
 students. They then arrange themselves around 
 the model, and begin their drawings. The model 
 stands from twenty-five to fifty minutes in one 
 position. A resl is then taken, and at will the 
 model again assumes precisely the same position 
 as before, and the drawing goes on until each 
 student has finished. 
 
 Art Schools in Ike United States. — The num- 
 ber of art-schools or institutions affording art- 
 instruction, in the United States, according to 
 the Report of the V. S. Commissioner of Edu- 
 cation, for L 874, is twenty-six; as shown in the 
 following table. 
 
 Institutions affording Art Instruction in U. S. 
 
 When 
 
 Name 
 
 School of Design of the 
 San Francisco Art-As- 
 sociation 
 
 Yale School of the Fine 
 Arts 
 
 Art-Schools oi Chicago 
 Academy of Design . . 
 
 Illinois Industrial Univer- 
 sity 
 
 Schools of Art and Design 
 iif Maryland Institute 
 
 Art-School 
 
 Boston Art-Club 
 
 Lowell School of Practical 
 Design 
 
 Mass. lust, of Technology 
 
 Mass. Normal Art-School 
 
 Worcester County Free 
 Institute of Industrial 
 Science 
 
 St. Louis Art-School 
 
 Manchester Art-Associa- 
 tion 
 
 Brooklyn Art-Association 
 
 Cornell I ni\ ersity 
 
 Ladies' A i i-A --ociation , 
 
 National Academy ol I >' 
 sign 
 
 The Palette Club 
 
 CooperTJnionArt-Schools, 
 
 1. Women's Art-School 
 
 2. Free School of Art. 
 Colli ge of Fine Arts of 
 
 Syracuse University 
 School oi Design of th< 
 
 University of Cincinnati 
 Toledo University of Arts 
 
 and Trades ...'.... 
 
 Franklin institute Draw- 
 ing i llasses 
 
 Art-Classes of the Penns, 
 \ id >my oi Fine Arts. 
 
 Philadelphia School of 
 Design for Women .... 
 
 Pittsburg School of De- 
 aign for Women 
 
 Location 
 
 founded 
 
 San Francisco, Cal. 
 New Haven, Ct. 
 I Ihicago, 111. 
 Urbana, 111. 
 
 Baltimore, Md. 
 
 Baltimore, Md. 
 Boston, Mass. 
 
 Boston, Mass. 
 Boston, Mass. 
 
 Boston, Mass. 
 
 Worcester, Mass. 
 
 St. Louis, Mo. 
 
 Manchester, N. H. 
 Brooklyn, X. Y. 
 
 Ithaca, X. Y. 
 New York, N. Y. 
 
 New York, X. V. 
 New York, X. Y. 
 
 New York, X. Y. 
 New York, X. Y. 
 
 Syracuse, N. Y. 
 
 Cincinnati, 0. 
 Coledo, 0. 
 Philadelphia, l'a. 
 Philadelphia, l'a. 
 Philadelphia, Pa. 
 
 1873 
 1864 
 
 1867 
 
 1*71 
 
 IMS 
 lsri 
 1 K.-,.-> 
 
 1872 
 1861 
 1873 
 
 1865 
 
 1872 
 
 lsTl 
 isul 
 Is.;;, 
 1870 
 
 1820 
 
 L869 
 
 1 866 
 
 IV, 7 
 
 IsT'J 
 ISC!) 
 Is72 
 1 82 1 
 L806 
 ls|7 
 L866 
 
 Pittsburg, l'a. 
 Of these institutions three are the great art- 
 schools at Philadelphia, New York, and New 
 
 Haven; namely, the Pennsylvania Academy 
 of the F'nif Arts, the National Academy of 
 Design, and the Yale School of the Fine Arts. 
 Ten of these institutions are for the special 
 training of artists. Three others, the Boston 
 Art-Club, the Palette Club, and the Ladies' 
 Art-Association, are voluntary associations of 
 artists, with life-classes, etc., for their own im- 
 provement. 
 
 In some of these schools nearly every kind of 
 art-culture receives attention, — drawing from 
 the flat, from simple objects, casts, the antique, 
 paintings, and from life; modeling in clay, wax, 
 and plaster; painting in oil and water colors ; 
 architecture ; and fresco painting. In others, the 
 instruction is given with special reference to the 
 practical application of science to art. to the edu- 
 cation of skilled artisans, to mechanics, manu- 
 facturers, etc. 
 
 Tlie number of art schools is so small, com- 
 pared with the number of inhabitants, that, in 
 fact, but very little national progress in art-cul- 
 ture can be expected. On account of the lack 
 of opportunities for studying painting and sculp- 
 ture, most students who have the means go to 
 Europe to obtain those facilities which are not to 
 lie found in this country. According to the Re- 
 port above quoted, there are only 27 art-must urns 
 and art-collections, of colleges, etc.. in the United 
 States. Of these seven are in New York, six in 
 Massachusetts, two each in Connecticut and 
 Pennsylvania, and one each in Illinois. Indiana, 
 Louisiana. Maryland, Michigan. New Hampshire, 
 Ohio. Rhode Island. Vermont, and the District 
 of Columbia. The incomes of eight of these 
 institutions, in lsTl. were reported as amounting 
 in the aggregate to about $200,000; bul of this, 
 $70,000 was reported as the income id' the Cor- 
 coran .1/-/ Gallery, aX Washington, which lias an 
 endowment of $1,000,000. Eleven of the twenty- 
 seven institutions above referred to are art -collec- 
 tions connected with colleges or universities, and 
 mosl of them are of recent foundation, — five 
 since 1S72. 
 
 Instruction in Drawing. — There is a growing 
 appreciation of the value of drawing as a branch 
 nt common school instruction. and a much clearer 
 
 perception of the fact that to teach drawing sys- 
 tematically in the schools of the people is to lay 
 the foundation not only of national art-culture, 
 but of national progress in the industrial arts. 
 The state superintendents and many of the city 
 superintendents of public instruction express this 
 sent imeiit very generally and strongly, and earn- 
 estly advocate the encouragemenl of drawing in 
 the public schools, especially for the purpose of 
 educating thai class id pupils who are to become 
 the future skilled laborers and artisans of the 
 nation. As an illustration, we quote from the 
 
 superintendent of schools in Indiana: "Indiana, 
 as much as any slate in the In ion. needs to look 
 
 after these interests, and needs to educate her 
 children for the work which must either be done 
 by them or bysome more skillful class, imported 
 
 from abroad to supply their places. Her wood. 
 wool, minerals, and other rough materials are 
 
ART EDUCATION 
 
 ARTS 
 
 53 
 
 carried away ami manufactured into the com- 
 monest articles of daily use, and are returned to 
 the state as imported articles at an enormous 
 cost . • • The skill of our native workmen is 
 limited through want of training, and our labor 
 is not, therefore, of the most profitable quality. 
 
 That our system of education IS in tliis point de- 
 fective, and that it needs such improvement as 
 shall look to the preparation of persons for 
 skillful labor, are no longer matters of ques- 
 tion." i Sec Report, k s 71 ) lie, therefore, recom- 
 mends that the statutes of the state be SO 
 amended as to include drawing as one of the 
 common school branches of study. In Massa- 
 chusetts, much has been done in this direction, in 
 compliance with the law of 1 870, which provided 
 that " any city or town may. and every city and 
 town having more than 10,000 inhabitants shall, 
 annually make provision for giving free instruc- 
 tion in industrial or mechanical drawing to per- 
 sons over fifteen years of ag !." < If the twenty- 
 three cities and towns of the State, in L874, 
 twenty had compile I with the statute. In 1871, 
 on the invitation of the school committee. .Mr. 
 Walter Smith, head-master of the school of 
 art in Leeds, England, t >ok the direction of 
 this branch of instruction in the public schools 
 of Boston : and subsequently was appointed 
 State-Director of art-education. Jn 1873, the 
 State Normal Art-School was established at 
 Boston, under the direction of Mr. Smith, for 
 the training of art teachers, or teachers of in- 
 dustrial drawing, which institution, in 1874, had 
 12 instructors and 240 students. The results of 
 this system, so complete and admirable, have 
 thus far been eminently successful. The state 
 of New York, following the example of Massa- 
 chusetts, in 1875, passed a law requiring indus- 
 trial drawing to be taught in all the common 
 schools of the state. (See Drawing.) 
 
 Mule, of Establishing Art Schools. — The first 
 thing necessary for the establishment of art- 
 schools, or for the introduction of drawing, 
 modeling, and designing into schools already 
 established, is to obtain capable teachers, or art- 
 masters. These must be trained in the art in 
 normal schools ; or the officers of school-districts 
 may institute classes for this purpose. The 
 Cooper Tustitiilf, in the City of New York, and 
 the School of Design, in Cincinnati, and some 
 others, have prepared a considerable number 
 of excellent art-teachers. The state normal 
 schools have also done something in this direc- 
 tion, but have the facility and means, if properly 
 applied, to do very much more. The customary 
 mode of procedure in art-instruction has already 
 been explained; but the various methods of in- 
 struction in drawing will he given in another 
 f>art of this work. (See Drawing.) Modeling 
 lis not yet become as prominent in industrial 
 art-education as its importance demands. With- 
 out doubt, the modeling of real forms is much 
 more beneficial for the future artisan than 
 representation of forms upon flat surfaces. It 
 will be readily perceived tha the wood-carver, 
 cabinet-maker, machinist, jeweler, and all o1 
 
 whose work consists in the production of fori) 
 would be liettcr trained in this way. To the de- 
 signer of fabrics, drawing on flat surfaces is 
 
 the preferable practice ; but in Dearly all other 
 eases, modeling affords the most efficient train- 
 ing. A set of objects classified and graded, 
 
 from the simplest to the most complicated forms. 
 as well as compositions for drawing and model- 
 ing purposes, is of great value in this instruction; 
 and, accompanying this, there should be a com- 
 prehensive text-1 k.or manual,giving directions 
 
 as to the modes of teaching, the arrangement of 
 rooms and studios, the adjustment of lights, and 
 the placing of casts and models ; together with a 
 full description of the materials and instruments 
 needed at each stage and in each department of 
 the instruction. For valuable information and 
 suggestions in this direction, see Art-Education, 
 by Prof. C. 0. Thompson, in Report of Commis- 
 sioner of Education (1873). 
 
 Importance of Art-Education. — This country 
 can compete with foreign nations in the produc- 
 tion of articles requiring taste and skilled labor 
 only by establishing schools for instruction in the 
 iine arts and in industrial art. so that the native 
 artisans may be properly educated. Millions of 
 men, women, and children, in Europe, are at the 
 present time receiving an industrial art-education 
 at the public expense; and the United States. 
 through the state or national governments, must 
 make a similar provision. The following facts 
 clearly show this necessity. In lSTT. there were 
 exported from the United States articles upon 
 which skilled and mechanical labor had been ex- 
 pended, of the value of $24,631,835; while the 
 value of such articles imported, was $1 77 s;>7.i32. 
 In the same year, the articles of taste and 
 skilled labor exported from France amounted to 
 $434,513 800, and from England, to $384,787,944. 
 The contrast presents an instructive lesson as to 
 the importance of art-education in its relation 
 to national wealth and prosperity. — See Modem 
 Art-Education (Boston, 1875); Official Report 
 of the Vienna Exposition (1873); Reports of 
 U. S. Commissioner of Education (1872,-3,-4.) 
 
 ARTISANS, Education of. See Tech- 
 nical Education. 
 
 ARTS, Liberal. The term arts, or liberal 
 arts, was, during the middle ages, applied to cer- 
 tain studies which constituted an essential part 
 of a learned education. The full course of study, 
 at that period, embraced " the seven liberal arts," 
 three of which — grammar, logic, and rhetoric — 
 composed what was called the trivium I the triple 
 way to eloquence); anil the remaining four — 
 music, arithmetic, geometry, and astronomy - 
 constituted the quodrivium (the quadruple way |. 
 The termfaculty of arts denoted, in the univer- 
 sities, those who devoted themselves to philos- 
 ophy and science, in contradistinction to the 
 faculty of theology, of medicine, or of law. 
 Master | Lat. magister) was used to designate one 
 who taught the liberal arts: and doctor, one who 
 bt or practiced divinity, law. or medicine. 
 The first degree (gradus) of proficiency in the 
 arts, instituted, as it is said, by Gregory l. v . 
 
54 
 
 ASCHAM 
 
 ASTRONOMY 
 
 about the middle of the 13th century, was that 
 of bachelor (Lat. baccalaureiis); and the second 
 that of matter, which originally conferred the 
 right, and indeed imposed the duty, of teaching 
 one or more of the liberal arts. This title, in the 
 colleges and universities of the United States, 
 England, and Prance, is now merely honorary. 
 (See Degrees.) 
 
 ASCHAM, Rogar, a celebrated English 
 scholar and teacher, who flourished during the 
 reigns of Henry VIII., .Mary, and Elizabeth, 
 was horn in l.">15, and died in 1568. He 
 graduated at St. John's College, Oxford, in 1537, 
 became a college tutor, and was appointed to read 
 Greek in the public schools. In L545, he pub- 
 lished Toxophilus, or the School of Shooting, 
 in which, as Dr. Johnson says. " he designed not 
 
 only to teach the art of shooting, but to give an 
 example of diction more natural and more truly 
 English than was used by the common writers 
 of thai age." In 1548, he was appointed teacher 
 of the learned languages to the lady Elizabeth, 
 afterwards queen, and continued to perforin that 
 service for two years. In 1553, he was appointed 
 Latin secretary to Queen Mary, and was contin- 
 ued in the same office by Elizabeth, besides 
 acting as her tutor in Latin and Greek. His 
 most noted work is ■• The Schokmaster, or u 
 Plain and Perftte Way of leaching Children 
 to understand,read, and write the Latin Tonge," 
 published by his widow in 1571. Dr. Johnson 
 said, this work was '■' perhaps the best advice that 
 was ever given for the study of languages :" and a 
 recent authority says: "This book sets forth the 
 
 only sound method of acquiring a dead language.'' 
 
 — See Life of Ascham, written by Dr. Johnson 
 for an edition of his English works, published in 
 17(d : Grant, h<> Vita Rogeri Ascham; Wood, 
 Fasti Oxonienses ; Hartley Coleridge, Lives 
 (f Northern Worthies, vol. n. ; Quick, Essays 
 on Educational Reformers (London. 1868.) The 
 last mentioned work contains an excellent sketch 
 of Aschani's method. 
 
 ASSOCIATION OF IDEAS. By this 
 is meant that relation or connection which is 
 formed between ideas, so that one immediately 
 
 suggests the other, hence called by Dr. Lrown 
 the principle of simple suggestion. This law of 
 mental operation demands a most careful con- 
 sideration in 1mi|1i moral and intellectual educa- 
 tion. Peelings of pleasure and pain are often 
 associated with certain ideas or objects in the 
 
 minds of pupils at school, and thus control their 
 
 whole after life. Antipathies, prejudices, or 
 predilections are thus so firmly fixed, that thej 
 can never be eradicated. The law of association. 
 rightly applied by the teacher, may thus be used 
 to establish in the minds of his pupils an abhor- 
 rence of meanness ami wrong, of falseh land 
 
 dishonesty, which will go far toward forming a 
 thoroughly virtuous character. This law has a 
 very important application in the intellectual 
 training of the young, and in the general cultlva- 
 
 ii »f the mind. Here we are to consider the 
 
 various ways in which the law of association 
 operates. (See Fa< i lties, Development of.) The 
 
 power to control the succession of our ideas or 
 thoughts very much depends upon the habits 
 we may have formed in establishing these associa- 
 tions. If the ideas with which a person *s mind 
 is stored are connected only by arbitrary or acci- 
 dental associations, he will find it difficult to 
 arrange his thoughts on any subject in a regular, 
 logical order. On the other hand, there are 
 minds so trained as to be able, at any moment, 
 to command their ideas upon any subject with 
 which tiny are acquainted, so that they flow 
 forth in an unintermitting logical stream. Ma- 
 caulay says of Sir James Mackintosh. "I lis mind 
 was a vast magazine, admirably arranged ; every 
 thing was there, and every thing was in its 
 place. His judgments on men. on sects, 
 on books, had been often and carefully tested 
 ami weighed, and had then been committed, 
 each to its proper receptacle, in the most 
 capacious and most accurately constructed mem- 
 ory that any human being ever possessed. It 
 would have been strange indeed, if you had 
 asked for anything that was not to be found in 
 that immense store-house. The article which 
 you require I was not only there : it was ready ; 
 it was in its own proper compartment. In a 
 moment it was broughl down, unpacked and dis- 
 played." This admirably expresses, of course in 
 a very high degree of development, and partly as 
 the result of a natural constitution of mind, the 
 intellectual quality to be aimed at by the teacher, 
 in connection with the association of ideas. It 
 follows, too, from this that the law by which 
 ideas become permanently associated by means 
 of repetition, should have a most important place 
 in the consideration of the teacher. Certain 
 branches of knowledge require the special appli- 
 cation of this law: such as arithmetical tables, 
 grammatical paradigms, and all other things that. 
 having no logical relations, are to he arbitrarily 
 associated. The point to be gained in such 
 acquisitions is to connect these ideas iii the mind 
 in such a way that one will instantly, and, ;is it 
 
 were, automatically, suggest the other, d he per- 
 ceptions of sight and hearing may both be 
 brought into play in ace plishing this. The 
 
 former are. without doubt, the strongest and the 
 
 most enduring, as Horace truly says. 
 
 8 gulus irritant animoa demissa per aureru, 
 Quam quae sunt oculia aubjecita fidelibua. 
 
 Hence the use of the blackboard and slate, par- 
 ticularly tin- 1 former ; also the importance of 
 
 repeating aloud from the printed page. (See 
 Intellect! \i. Education, Memory, Mnemonics, 
 and Rote-Teachtng.) 
 
 ASTRONOMY (Gr.dorpov.a star, and vduoc, 
 
 ,i law i. the science which treats of the heavenly 
 bodies, has peculiarly strong claims to a place 
 
 i.i every educational scheme of study, both its a 
 
 means of intellectual training, and on account of 
 
 the practical value of the class of facts which it 
 embraces, as well as its ennobling influence upon 
 
 the mind of the student. The progress of this 
 
 science in modern times has been perhaps the 
 
 most interesting feature of the intellectual histo- 
 ry of the period, and its cultivation in this coun- 
 
ASTRONOMY 
 
 55 
 
 try has shed a peculiar luster upon American 
 scientific and mathematical genius. The im- 
 mediate results 'it' this study not being so obvi- 
 ous as those of most others to which is universally 
 conceded a place in the courses of instruction 
 prescribed forcommon schools, it has been in 
 these schools, comparatively speaking, a neglected 
 
 Subject. Bui the science to which we owe our 
 
 means of measuring time, of locating places on the 
 
 surface of the earth by Longitude and latitude, of 
 fixing the boundaries of countries ami sections of 
 country, of accurately mapping out coast-lines, 
 of navigating the ocean, of ascertaining the mag- 
 nitude and exact figure of the globe which we in- 
 habit, and determining its relations to the uni- 
 verse, certainly should not be overlookd 1. Pri- 
 marily, astronomy is a science of observation. Its 
 materials are observed farts: but it differs from 
 many other natural sciences in that the observed 
 facts, far from explaining themselves, demand a 
 peculiar exercise of conception, judgment, and 
 reason, in order to infer from them the truths 
 ■which they obscurely indicate. Thus, when we 
 observe the varying apparent diameters of the 
 sun and moon, the phenomena of eclipses and 
 tides, the progressions, stations, and retrograda- 
 tions of the planets, etc. we have advanced, how- 
 ever accurate our observations, but little toward 
 a solution of the mysteries involved in these ap- 
 pearances. We must conceive how. under a general 
 hypothesis of the structure of the solar system, 
 these phenomena are caused, since the phenom- 
 ena often seem to be at variance with the facts; 
 e. g. the apparent motions of the planets appear 
 to contradict the general truth, or law, of their 
 eastward orbital motion. 
 
 Li teaching this subject, the order of investi- 
 gation — the analytic method, should be at tirst 
 adopted, for two reasons: (1) because in this way 
 we are able to impress upon the mind of the pupil 
 clearer conceptions of fundamental facts, and (2) 
 because he will thus form the habits of though! 
 which are particularly needed in the study of thi j 
 .science. We should insist upon his observing for 
 himself all the more obvious phenomena, and 
 then stating, as fully and accurately as possible, 
 the result of his observations. It is astonishing 
 how many persons go through the world, filling 
 the measure of a long life, without casting any 
 thing but an indifferent, uninquuing, and un- 
 interested glance at the glories of the stellar firma- 
 ment. So it is also with children, before their at- 
 tention is attracted, and their interest aroused, to 
 observe the wonders of the heavens. The teacher, 
 therefore, should lead his pupils, by questioning 
 them, to notice some of the most ordinary phe- 
 nomena: 88 the rising and setting of the sun and 
 the moon, the phases of the latter, the apparent 
 diurnal revolution of the stars, the positions and 
 apparent movements of the larger and more con- 
 spicuous planets among the stars, the ebb and 
 flow of the tides, the solar and lunar eclipses, 
 etc. Finding, from such questioning, that they 
 have really been inattentive to what they might 
 readily have observed, the pupils will strive to see 
 these things for themselves, and will thus, in a 
 
 short time, acquire such an experience of their 
 own. as will enable them to pursue the study 
 with interest and success. As soon as they have 
 
 acquired a clear conception of these natural ap- 
 pearances, their attention should be called to the 
 explanation of them: and in this, for a short time 
 at least, it would be well to let the pupils try 
 to think out for themselves some hypothesis to 
 account for what they have seen, and not to give 
 
 them the correct scientific explanation until they 
 have exhausted their own conjectures. For, it is 
 not so much facts that we desire to communicate 
 
 as mental habits: and. by the process here recom- 
 mended, whatever facts are finally imparted, 
 though they maybe few. will he indelibly im- 
 pressed upon the memory. This process is. how- 
 ever, strictly in accordance with the educational 
 axiom, that the pupil should be told nothing 
 which he maybe made to discover for himself; 
 to which may perhaps be added, that he should 
 In' told nothing until he has endeavored to dis- 
 cover it for himself , and has failed in the effort. 
 (See Science Teaching.) After this prelimi- 
 nary instruction, an elementary course in astron- 
 omy would embrace the following topics ar- 
 ranged in the order of presentation: — (1) The 
 earth — its form, magnitude, motions, etc., with the 
 phenomena connected with it, and arising from 
 its relations to the sun, such as day and night, 
 and the seasons; ('_') The solarsystem — its general 
 arrangement, the bodies of which it is composed, 
 with their magnitudes, distances, periodic times. 
 the position of their orbits and axes, and their 
 apparent motions; (3) The circles etc. of the 
 sphere; as equator, equinoctial, ecliptic, merid- 
 ians, tropics, polar circles, longitude and latitude, 
 both terrestrial and celestial, declination and 
 right ascension, the horizon, vertical circles, alti- 
 tude and azimuth, etc. If the preliminary in- 
 struction has been correct and thorough, these 
 various tropics cau be taught in such a manner 
 as. at every point, to appeal to the learner's in- 
 telligence, and. not as a mass of arbitrary facts, 
 encumbering his memory for a while, to drop out 
 afterwards as useless lumber. For example, if 
 we would lead his mind to a clear idea of 
 the use of longitude and latitude on the surface 
 of the earth, we ask him to locate, that is. to 
 describe the location of. any point on the surface 
 of the globe. He will soon he led to perceive 
 that this cannot be done without some standards 
 of reference; and thus the use of the equator 
 and meridians will become obvious, ami. in a 
 similar manner, that of altitude and azimuth, in 
 locating the positions of stars and planets in the 
 visible heavens, or right ascension ami declina- 
 tion, in fixing their places in the celestial sphere. 
 No part of this science need be taught arbitra- 
 rily. Even the numerical facts, as distances, mag- 
 nitudes, periods of revolution, etc., should, in 
 part at least, be worked out, however rudely, for 
 the student from the data of observation: or he 
 should be required to work them out himself. 
 after being taught the principles and methods 
 involved. Thus, the teacher may begin with the 
 diameter of the earth, and show how this has 
 
56 
 
 ATI I EN HUM 
 
 ATHENS 
 
 been determined; then the distance of the sun 
 from the earth, explaining in this connection the 
 nature and use of parallax; then the linear di- 
 ameter of the sun from its apparent diameter; 
 then the sidereal year of the earth, and the 
 sidereal periods of the planets from their observed 
 synodic periods: and next the distances of the 
 planets from an application of Kepler's third 
 law, etc. In this way, the whole subject will be 
 so woven together in the pupil's mind, that it 
 will be impossible for him to forget its funda- 
 mental principles, however few of its facts of 
 detail he may retain. After such a course, it 
 will be a very simple matter to present for his 
 study the other important topics comprehended 
 in the general subject. 
 
 The use of diagrams and apparatus should 
 be constantly resorted to in giving the instruc- 
 tion here marked out ; but great care should be 
 observed to prevent the use of apparatus from 
 superseding or obscuring the ideas obtained from 
 the observation of nature itself. The student 
 must come down to the apparatus from a clear 
 conception of the actual phenomena, using the 
 machine to apprehend the manner in which the 
 phenomena occur. Very simple apparatus is 
 much to be preferred to cumbrous and compli- 
 cated machinery,-— admirable, perhaps, aspiecas 
 of ingenious workmanship, but of little value for 
 the purpose of illustration. The student should, 
 however, be thoroughly practiced in the use of 
 the globes, as a myessential part of the training 
 comprehended in this branch of instruction. The 
 use of a telescope, of at least moderate power, 
 is also a valuable means of augmenting both the 
 interest and in ton nation of the student, especially 
 in connection with the study of uranography, 
 which is certainly one of the most useful as well 
 as entertaining departments of astronomical 
 science. In this part of the study, a good plani- 
 sphere will prove a valuable adjunct. 
 
 The religious aspects of the study should not 
 be lost sight of in giving this instruction. The 
 student should be constantly reminded that, in 
 studying the phenomena and laws of the material 
 universe, he is contemplating the works of an 
 infinitely wise and beneficent Creator, who has 
 wonderfully endowed us with faculties to behold 
 the splendor of his works, and. in some degree, to 
 conceive of their vastness. Says a distinguished 
 
 German educator: "Astr my is. more than 
 
 .■iu\ other science, valuable as a study for youth. 
 None will seize so strongly and fully upon the 
 
 youthful mind. It hardens the body, sharpens 
 the senses, practices the memory, nourishes the 
 fancy witli the noblest images, develops the 
 power of thinking, destroys all narrow-minded- 
 and lays an immovable foundation for faith 
 in ( Sod." 
 
 ATHENETJM, or Athenaeum ((Jr. 
 vaiov, a building dedicated to Athena, or Minerva, 
 t'i ■ tutelary goddess of Athens.. was the name ap- 
 plied to a temple at Athens, in which poets and 
 scholars used to meet ami read their productions. 
 At Komi', a celebrated institution of the same 
 mi o ■ v.,;- founded by the emperor Hadrian, on 
 
 his return from the east, about 133 A. D. It 
 existed until the 5th century, and also served as 
 a school in which teachers, specially appointed 
 for the purpose, gave instruction in poetry and 
 rhetoric. In modern times, this name is frequent- 
 ly used to denote a scientific association or the 
 building in which such an association meets. In 
 Belgium and Holland, it is used to designate 
 a school of a higher grade, ranking next to the 
 university. (See Belgium, and Netherlands.) 
 
 ATHENS, the capital of ancient Attica, one 
 of the political divisions into which Hellas proper 
 was divided, is famous as the city in which Greek 
 science and education attained the highest degree 
 of perfection. The educational laws of Athens 
 constitute a part of the legislation of Solon. (See 
 Solon.) They are. in some respects, in direct 
 opposition to the principles which regulated 
 public education at Sparta. (See Si-arta.) While 
 the Spartans almost exclusively aimed at develop- 
 ing the highest perfection of the body. at Athens 
 a cultivated mind was regarded as the highest 
 product of education. All the Athenian chil- 
 dren, rich and poor, had to attend school and 
 to learn how to read : and tardiness in attending 
 school as well as truancy was punished by a fine. 
 Pupils were not admitted to school In fore their 
 seventh, nor after their tenth year of age. Afb i 
 attending school for several years, pool- children 
 were required to be employed in agriculture, 
 commerce, or some trade : while the children of 
 wealthy parents devoted themselves to music, 
 hunting, philosophy, or similar occupations. If a 
 father neglected to have his son instructed, the 
 son was not bound to support him in his old 
 age. The elementary schools had at first one. 
 subsequently two teachers. — the grammatist, who 
 taught reading and writing (r<) yp&MMTa), and 
 the clitic, who read the classics w ith the children. 
 explained to them the poets, and heard them 
 recite poems. Homer's works were in almost 
 every school; and.it is said, Alcibiades, on one 
 occasion, boxed his teacher's ears because he did 
 not find a copy of Homer in his school. The 
 second book of the Iliad, which enumerates the 
 
 tribes and princes who followed Agamemnon to 
 the Trojan war. and the allies of the Trojans. 
 Supplied tin' outline of the instruction in geog- 
 raphy, history, and genealogy. The grammatist 
 first taught the children the alphabet, the forma- 
 tion of letters into words, and reading: direct- 
 ing them to pay special attention to long and 
 short syllables, to correct accentuation, and to 
 
 euphonious pronunciation. ' When they had ac- 
 quired a sufficient knowledge of reading, instruc- 
 tion in writing began, embracing within its scope 
 both tachygraphy (short-hand writing) and cal- 
 ligraphy. I he use of signs for abridgments was 
 known to the Athenian snort-hand \\ rio re. The 
 letters were drawn by a s////i>s (a sharp-pointed 
 iron instrument i on wax tablets, and copied by 
 
 the children. The use of ink was also ki.ov n. 
 
 It was prepared of soot and gum. ami applii I 
 to parchment, linen, or Egyptian paper (papyrus), 
 
 by means of a brush or tube. All the children 
 were required to learn music and to play on 
 
ATLANTA UNIVERSITY 
 
 ATTENDANCE 
 
 :.: 
 
 the lyre or cithara. Many learned also to play 
 on the flute. The instruction in music was 
 difficult, as the Greeks usedavery complicated 
 system of notation. Among the ancient Greeks, 
 however, music {jxovaiidj] had a much more com- 
 prehensive signification, embracing grammar, 
 rhetoric, and poetics. The school-house {rn 616a- 
 aKakelw) had benches for the boys.anda chair or 
 pulpit (Ka&iSpa) for the teacher. The teachers of 
 the elementary schools enjoyed but little repu- 
 tation in consequence of the small amount of 
 their knowledge and their severity toward their 
 pupils. The chili hen of affluent parents were 
 educated in the higher branches of study, as 
 well as trained by regular bodily exercises in the 
 gymnasia. All the children were obliged to take 
 part in the gymnastic exerfises, in order that, by a 
 proper physical development, they might befitted 
 for their duties as citizens, both in peace and war. 
 At the head of each gymnasium, was thegymna- 
 siareh. who was elected by the citizens for the term 
 of one year, and who not only did not receive any 
 salary, but had to pay for the oil which was used 
 for the anointment of the pupils. The gymnasi- 
 arehs were assisted by inspectors who had to 
 maintain order, discipline, and cleanliness. The 
 boys were required to attend at one of these in- 
 stitutions for a. term of two years, but they were 
 allowed to make their own selection. They 
 practiced in these institutions jumping, running, 
 climbing, riding on horsebaek, driving chariots, 
 wrestling, throwing javelins and quoits, fencing, 
 and similar exercises. Special attention was given 
 to swimming, which all Athenian boys had to 
 learn. Every gymnasium had a bath which was 
 closed at sunset, and which strangers, during 
 bathing hours, were forbidden to enter upon 
 penalty of death. The private tutor (iratdayu-) <>, ) 
 of an Athenian family was generally a trust- 
 worthy slave, to whose care children were com- 
 mitted on attaining their sixth or seventh year. 
 He went with them to and from the school and 
 gymnasium, and was rather their custodian than 
 their teacher. The latter {Sidaamhig) instructed 
 them in grammar, music, and other branches of 
 learning. The education of girls was almost ex- 
 clusively left to their mothers, and was generally 
 much neglected. ( trphan children, wdiose parents 
 had fallen in battle, were carefully educated in 
 the public institutions at the expense of the state. 
 — See Schmidt, Geschichteder Padagogik,v6L i ; 
 Wachsmuth, HeUenische AUerthumskun.de, vol. 
 ir.; II. I. Schmidt, History of Education (N. V.. 
 1842); Grote, Hixton/ of fV/wtv, vol. vm. (N. Y., 
 1859). 
 
 ^ ATLANTA UNIVERSITY, at Atlanta, 
 '■a., was organized in 1869, is non-sectarian, and 
 offers the advantages of education to either sex, 
 without regard to race, color, or nationality. 
 It was established in accordance with a plan 
 formed early in the history of the work of the 
 American Missionary Association in the South, 
 the means being furnished by the Freedmen's 
 Bureau and the state of Georgia, as well as by 
 the Association. 'Hie value of its grounds, 
 buildings, etc., is estimated at $100,000 : and 
 
 by a law passed in 1*71, it receives an annual 
 appropriation of $8000 from the State. Its 
 library contains about 3000 volumes. In IsTI. 
 its corps of instructors numbered II; and the 
 whole number of students was 236: in the pre- 
 paratory department 46; in the collegiate, 18; 
 in the theological class, .'? ; and in the normal 
 courses. 169. The normal department has sup- 
 plied a large number of teachers for the schools 
 of the State. The president of the institution 
 is Edmund A. Ware, A. M. Its annual tuition 
 fee is 82 I ; but all pupils are required to work 
 for the institution at least one hour a day. 
 
 ATLAS is the name applied to a collection of 
 maps, first thus used by Mercator in the sixteenth 
 century, the figure of Atlas, bearing the globe 
 on his shoulders, being on the title-page of his 
 book of maps. Atlas, in theancient mythology, 
 was one of the Titans, who for the crime of at- 
 tempting to take heaven by storm was compelled 
 to bear the vault of the heavens. Some suppose 
 that by this myth is communicated the fact that 
 a certain king, named Atlas, labored to solve the 
 astronomical problem of the starry universe. The 
 first important atlas published in this country 
 was that of Jedidiah Morse in 1775. Vast num- 
 bers of this work were issued; and Blackwood's 
 Magazine remarked, that, it had quite superseded 
 all other works of the kind in this part of the 
 world. Many new editions of the work were 
 subsequently published. That of Sidney E. 
 Morse in 1823 was widely noted : and of this an 
 edition with cerographic maps afterward had a. 
 very extensive sale down to comparatively recent 
 times. Among the most important and valuable 
 atlases, apart from school geographies, at the 
 present time, may be mentioned Stieler's Hand- 
 Atlas, issued from Justus Perthes's world- 
 renowned cartographical establishment at Gotha, 
 under the editorial supervision of A. Petermann 
 (completed in 187")). These maps are noted for 
 their minute accuracy. Macks and Johnston's 
 Atlases, published in England, are of great merit 
 and value. Von Spruner's Historico-Geograph- 
 ical Atlas, and .Menkes OrbisAntiqui Descriplio, 
 also deserve to be mentioned. Among astronom- 
 ical atlases, those of R. A. Procter are the most 
 elaborate and correct. 
 
 ATTENDANCE, School. This is an im- 
 portant subject of consideration in estimating the 
 effectiveness of any system of public education, 
 as showing what proportion of the community 
 participates in its benefits. Educational statistics 
 are too imperfect and too deficient in uniformity 
 to render any comparison of different states and 
 countries in this respect entirely reliable. Thi 
 average attendance, accurately computed, as 
 
 compared with the entire scl I population, Can 
 
 alone show in what degree the people ot ' an\ state 
 or country participate in the advantages of the 
 education provided by the government, and. con- 
 sequently, the need of measures designed to in- 
 duce or enforce school attendance. 'I lie annual 
 average attendance is usually found by addi 
 together the whole number of pupils present 
 each session during the year, and dividing the 
 
58 
 
 ATTENDANCE 
 
 sum by the number of sessions. Of course, this 
 does not afford an accurate basis for comparison 
 where the schools are kept open during different 
 periods of the year; since a school which has 
 been kept open all the year would, with the same 
 number of pupils, show no larger average attend- 
 ance than one kept open only one half the year. 
 To rectify this, the aggregate number of pupils 
 in attendance at all the sessions is often divided 
 by a fixed number, without regard to the actual 
 number of sessions. This method is sometimes 
 legally enjoined for the purpose of an equitable 
 distribution of the school moneys. Obviously, 
 both tin' actual average and statute average are 
 needed to ascertain the true effectiveness of a 
 system of schools. The average attendance com- 
 pared with tin' " average number belonging" is 
 useful as showing the temporary regularity or 
 irregularity of attendance, arising from various 
 local or incidental causes. (Sec Absenteeism.) 
 It is generally conceded thai in the United States 
 — .particularly in the Northern and Western 
 States - there arc but few native children who 
 do not attend school some portion of the year, 
 or who have never attended any school during 
 their lives, li is chiefly among the foreign pop- 
 ulation, that the opportunities for school attend- 
 ance are neglected. 
 
 Table of School Attendance. 
 
 State 
 
 Alabama 
 
 Arkansas 
 
 California 
 
 Connecticut . . . . 
 
 Delaware 
 
 Florida 
 
 <»eorgia 
 
 Illinois 
 
 Indiana 
 
 toira 
 
 Kansas 
 
 Kentucky 
 
 Louisiana 
 
 Maine 
 
 Maryland 
 
 Massachusetts . 
 
 M ichigan 
 
 Minnesota 
 
 Mississippi 
 
 Missouri 
 
 Nebraska 
 
 .W\ ada 
 
 New Hampshire. 
 
 Ww Jersey 
 
 New Fork 
 
 North Carolina. . 
 
 Ohio 
 
 Oregon 
 
 Pennsj U ania. . . . 
 Rhode Island 
 Smith Carolina . . 
 
 Tennessee 
 
 Texaa 
 
 Vermont 
 
 Virginia 
 
 ( ii ■ inia . . . 
 Wisconsin 
 
 Per cent of 
 
 enrollment 
 
 on school 
 
 pop. 
 
 35.8 
 ? 
 
 7:i.'.i 
 86.3 
 39.3 
 31.7 
 30.9 
 To.;, 
 7-1. <; 
 72.1 
 63.1 
 
 9 
 
 26.5 
 64.4 
 
 4 ).2 
 100 
 74.9 
 G1.3 
 G3.8 
 52.6 
 i,.-,.:; 
 76,3 
 !»J.5 
 62.fi 
 65.4 
 
 42.1 
 
 71.8 
 
 50.6 
 
 7ILS 
 
 89.7 
 43.7 
 60.2 
 51.6 
 87.3 
 39.8 
 62.4 
 61.1 
 
 Per cent of 
 
 attendance 
 
 on school 
 
 pop. 
 
 27.1 
 16.9 
 44.3 
 48.2 
 
 9 
 
 23.7 
 
 l!i.3 
 40.8 
 47.» 
 44.8 
 39.9 
 26.8 
 15.9 
 49.0 
 23.6 
 71. S 
 38.8 
 
 f 
 31.4 
 29.8 
 64.1 
 16.8 
 64.3 
 32.3 
 112. 3 
 28.1 
 13.5 
 37.1 
 45.3 
 65.8 
 
 ? 
 
 37.5 
 38.6 
 55.9 
 22.fi 
 38.7 
 39.8 
 
 Per cent 
 of atten- 
 dance on 
 enroll- 
 ment. 
 
 75.6 
 
 9 
 
 60.0 
 
 55.8 
 
 ? 
 
 7l.!i 
 62. 1 
 57. s 
 C3.7 
 G2.2 
 57.1 
 
 9 
 
 fill. 2 
 89.8 
 48.6 
 
 70.7 
 
 51.7 
 
 v 
 
 £9.2 
 
 56.7 
 98.2 
 59.9 
 68.3 
 5 1 .fi 
 49.8 
 66.6 
 60.8 
 73.3 
 63.9 
 61.9 
 
 9 
 
 62.3 
 
 74.8 
 64.0 
 5(1.7 
 63.0 
 65.1 
 
 The above table is chiefly based on returns 
 made to the Bureau of Education at Washing- 
 
 ton (see Report of Commissioner of Education 
 
 for 1874), and obviously shows, except in Mas- 
 sachusetts, great irregularity of attendance, as 
 compared with the census enumeration of child- 
 ren of legal school age. The variations in the 
 latter in the several States must lie taken into 
 account in the consideration of these compara- 
 tive statistical facts. (See School Age.) 
 
 In Delaware. Iowa, Kansas, Minnesota, Mis-} 
 sissippi. Missouri, Nebraska. New York, and 
 West Virginia, the school age is the same — 5 to 
 21 ; in Florida. Illinois, Indiana. Louisiana. 
 North Carolina. Ohio, Pennsylvania, and Wis- 
 consin, it is from (i to 21 ; in Georgia, Nevada, 
 Tennessee, and Texas, it is from (i to 18; in 
 California..") to IT; Connecticut, 4 to 16; and 
 in Massachusetts and Rhode Island, 5 to 1.5. 
 The exccs< (if attendance over the enumeration 
 
 in Massachusetts, indicates that pupils are per- 
 mitted to attend School who have not as vet 
 reached, or who have passed, the legal school age. 
 
 The percentage of population between the ages 
 
 of 5 and L5 enrolled in the scl Is in 1872—3 
 
 was. in Alabama, 38; Delaware, 59 : Florida. 
 -12: Maine, 90; Maryland, 67; Mississippi, 70 ; 
 
 Missouri. 88; North Carolina, :">1 : South Caro- 
 lina, -fti ; Rhode Island. 91; Tennessee, 50; 
 Texas, 56; Virginia, 51 ; West Virginia, 67. 
 
 In England and Wales, the average attendance 
 at the public schools, in L873, was about 28 per 
 cent of the population of school age (between 
 3 and 13); and about 69 per cent of the total 
 enrollment ; and, consequently, the enrollment 
 was about -11 per cent of the school population. 
 Under the compulsory education act in force in 
 that country, the school attendance had con- 
 siderably increased. (See England.) A careful 
 comparison of the census returns of different 
 countries shows that, on the average, tin' children 
 between the ages of 6 and 12 constitute about 
 17 per cent of the entire population. Comparing 
 this rate with the following percentages of school 
 attendance as compared with population, we may 
 ascertain approximative^ the relative rate of 
 attendance in each country. In Saxony the 
 school attendance is about 20 per cent ; in Prus- 
 sia, I ."> per cent; in Norway, I I per cent; in 
 the Netherlands, 13J per cent; in Denmark, 13 
 percent; in Scotland and Protestant Switzer- 
 land. 11 per cent; in Belgium, 11 percent; in 
 Austria, in percent : in England, 9 per cent; in 
 belaud ami Catholic Switzerland, 7 percent; 
 in Frame, 5 per cent; in Portugal, lj per 
 cent : in Italy, l percent ; in Greece, as] to 118; 
 in Spain, as I to 1 7d; ami in Russia, as I to 700. 
 
 Mr. Framis Adams, in his work on the Free 
 s< ■//nil/ Systi 'in of Ho' I T n iti •< I Sh it< 's (London, 187 5 ) . 
 remarks, in connection with a comparison of the 
 school attendance in this country v ith that of Eng- 
 land : "While in England we have a more select 
 enrollment, and. consequently, a more regular at- 
 tendance than in many Of the States. some 
 
 of them the principal Northern ami Western 
 
 Slates yet, so far as concerns our hold upon the 
 great mass of the population, we stand only on a 
 
 level with some of the most backward of the old 
 
ATTENDANCE 
 
 ATTENTION 
 
 f)9 
 
 slave states. T do not forget that our average 
 attendance is estimated upon a longer school year 
 
 than that in most of the states, hut against this 
 fact may be set the later sehool age in the United 
 States; and where allowance is made tor every 
 difference which would tell in our favor, there 
 *an he hut one conclusion — that, in the work of 
 getting the masses into school, we are still far 
 
 behind a country in which absenteeism and irreg- 
 ularity of attendance are admitted. on all hands, 
 to he the most crying evils under which their 
 
 -in labors." 
 There is considerable difference in the school 
 attendance in cities and in rural districts, greatly 
 in favor of the former, owing to the difference in 
 
 circumstances. In summer, the children in the 
 country are kept from school to assist in the 
 rural labors of their homes; and in the winter 
 
 they are often prevented from attending school 
 by t'n ■ long distance, which they have to travel, 
 frequently over bad roads, in order to reach the 
 sch ii il. The following exhibits the attendance in 
 some of the large cities of the Union : 
 
 City 
 
 Baltimore . . . . 
 
 Boston 
 
 Brooklyn 
 
 Chicago 
 
 Cincinnati . . . . 
 Cleveland . . . . 
 
 Detroit 
 
 Jersey city . . . 
 
 Newark 
 
 New York. . . . 
 Philadelphia.. 
 
 St. Louis 
 
 San Francisco. 
 
 Per cent of 
 attendance 
 on populat. 
 
 Per cent of 
 attendance 
 
 mi whole 
 
 Per cent of 
 attendance 
 on average 
 
 < . i 
 12.2 
 8.3 
 8.1 
 7.2 
 8.9 
 8.5 
 9.3 
 7.8 
 10.9 
 9.7 
 
 ;>.4 
 9.6 
 
 enrollment enroUm't. 
 
 55.0 
 
 T.i.l 
 
 .VI. I 
 
 67.2 
 
 74.5 
 63.6 
 
 6G.3 
 50.9 
 52.5 
 i;:i.u 
 68.4 
 67.4 
 61.9 
 
 so. 
 :i2.;. 
 
 88.7 
 94 2 
 95.4 
 93.5 
 
 88.9 
 
 S'.I.O 
 
 915.4 
 8ti.2 
 'X',A 
 76.6 
 
 The only thoroughly reliable basis for a com- 
 parison of the school attendance of different 
 places is either the whole population or the 
 school population between certain ages. The 
 enrollment is not to be depended upon, because 
 it is not kept the same way in different places. 
 In some, it is greatly increased by including all 
 the children enrolled in any of the schools during 
 the year, many pupils being thus counted several 
 times. 
 
 The following table will permit a comparison 
 between the American and English cities in re- 
 spect to school attendance : 
 
 City 
 
 Kate of 
 
 Number 
 
 Per cent of 
 
 enrollment 
 
 enrolled 
 
 attendance 
 
 Liverpool. . . 
 
 Fcl.. Wo 
 
 57,698 
 
 66.6 
 
 Leeds 
 
 Feb. i^7o 
 
 44,498 
 
 61.8 
 
 Bristol 
 
 Fell. 1^7o 
 
 25,182 
 
 70.7 
 
 Newcastle | 
 on Tyne ( 
 
 Jan. 1875 
 
 17,444 
 
 69.6 
 
 Birmingham 
 
 June 1875 
 
 61,334 
 
 67.6 
 
 Manchester.. 
 
 Feb. H7o 
 
 18,275 
 
 67.1 
 
 It will he thus seen t hat the average attendance, 
 as compared with the number enrolled, is better 
 in this country than in England . 
 
 In estimating the efficiency of school systems, 
 the period of attendance is a very important ele- 
 ment to be considered. (See School Age, and 
 B( HOOL Vk.vr.) 
 
 ATTENTION (from the Latin tendere, to 
 strain, implying a strained effort of the mind) is 
 perhaps the most important of the mind's activi- 
 ties, since the quality and duration of the intel- 
 lectual impressions depend upon the degree of at- 
 tention with which the faculties have been exerted 
 
 iii acquiring them. There is no point of difference 
 between the trained and the untrained intellect so 
 Striking as the voluntary power of fixing the mind 
 
 for a continuous period of time upon any given 
 
 subject. Hence, to discipline this power becomes, 
 in an especial manner, the ollice and duty of the 
 educator. Commencing with the most rudimen- 
 
 tal exercise of the observing faculties, he passes 
 
 on, step by step, to the process by which, through 
 the entire and determined giving up. as it were, 
 of the whole mind to the contemplation and study 
 of any given class of facts or ideas, the student 
 learns to evolve new truths, or analytically to ex- 
 plain the intricacies of abstruse problems. When 
 the attention has become obedient to the will, 
 this branch of mental training is complete ; and, 
 therefore, the aim of the educator should lie to 
 instill habits of controlling the attention, and 
 rigidly preventing those of desultory, wayward 
 application, or listlessness. This power of con- 
 tinuous attention is, without doubt, the most 
 valuable result of intellectual training. To pro- 
 duce this result, it is of the first importance to 
 interest the pupils, especially in the earlier stages 
 of instruction. Young minds have an intense 
 desire to know — not words merely, but things. 
 They have a strong craving for new ideas, and 
 take the deepest enjoyment in the exercise of the 
 perceptive and conceptive faculties. Hence the 
 importance of object-teaching. The perceptive 
 faculties are exercised in the observation of the 
 sensible qualities of all the different things with 
 which the child is surrounded, or which may be 
 presented to its view by the teacher, for the pur- 
 pose of attracting its attention; and these objects 
 should be diversified as much as possible, so as to 
 appeal to the child's love of novelty. 
 
 The attention should not lie exercised for 
 Ion-' periods of time. When the teacher per- 
 ceives that it is Sagging, it is best to stop the 
 exercise; for all that is done while the child's 
 attention is relaxed, is worse than fruitless. 
 It is from an inattention to this truth that 
 children are often made incurably listless in 
 school. They are set at exereises which awaken 
 no interest in their minds, and. consequently, ac- 
 quire ineradicable habits of superficial, careless 
 attention. In all the subsequent studies of the 
 pupil, it is essential that his interest be awakened 
 as much as possible; but it will he found there 
 is a reciprocal action of interest and attention. 
 The pupil having acquired in the first stages, in 
 some degree, the hain't of voluntary attention, 
 will, as a matter of duty, apply his mind to the 
 studies prescribed for him; and this very appli- 
 cation, if earnest and diligent, will soon excite 
 the deepest interest in the subjects of study. 
 
 'I he dependence of memory upon attention is 
 
 well known to all who have observed, however 
 
 Superficially, the operations of the mind; and the 
 
GO 
 
 A D G USTANA COLLEGE 
 
 AUGUSTINE 
 
 power to recall at will our mental impressions 
 and acquisitions is perhaps directly in proportion 
 to the attention with which the associations bind- 
 ing them together were formed. When these 
 are feeble, loose, accidental, and formed with 
 little volition, the mind will have but an imper- 
 fect control of its thoughts, and will thus be 
 wanting in the chief quality of a sound intel- 
 lectual character. 
 
 Attention requires a vigorous exercise of the 
 brain, and, therefore, is, more or less, dependent 
 upon the physical condition. When this has 
 been exhausted by labor, either bodily or men- 
 tal, or weakened by disease, attention is scarcely 
 possible; and the effort to give it is injurious, 
 because it induces still farther nervous pros- 
 tration. Neither should deep attention be 
 exerted or attempted immediately after a hearty 
 meal. The nervous energy is then directed to the 
 digestive functions, which active cerebration will 
 greatly disturb. Hence, the diet of a studenl 
 should be light, lntt nutritious. The brain should 
 also be supplied with thoroughly oxygenated 
 blood. No one can think well iii an impure at- 
 mosphere, especially if it is contaminated by the 
 breathing of many persons. In this way. children 
 often suffer a serious loss of health. They are 
 crowded in apartments too small for the number 
 to be accommodated, and very imperfectly ven- 
 tilated ; and, at the same time, are expected to 
 give close and earnest attention to the subjects 
 of instruction. This is a physical impos- 
 sibility, and the attempt to do it must always 
 be followed l»y disastrous results. In no re- 
 spect has the aphorism. " A sound mind 
 in a sound body" a more forcible application 
 than to the exercise of attention. For whal 
 contrast can be stronger than that presented by 
 the poor wretch whom disease has berefl of every 
 mental state but wandering thoughts or absolute 
 vacuity, and the man of sound health and a well- 
 trained mind, who is ready at will to concentrate 
 all his intellectual energies upon a given subject, 
 and to keep them steadily fixed upon it until the 
 object of his investigations his been attained! 
 i See Intellectual Fine mow.) 
 
 AUGUSTANA COLLEGE was founded at 
 I'axton, III., in L863, by the Swedish AugUStana 
 Synod of the Evangelical Lutheran Church. It 
 
 was removed to Rock Island. 111., in L875, where 
 it has buildings, grounds, and apparatus estimated 
 at $50,000 in value. It has a library of 7000 
 
 volumes, a faculty of seven professors and two 
 tutors, and III! si lulents, of whom 92 are in the 
 collegiate department. The chief object of this 
 
 college is to afford to young men a thorough edu- 
 cation at the lowest possible rates ialmiit $100 
 
 per annum for tuition, board, and room), and also 
 to prepare young men for the theological seminary 
 connected with it, and for teaching in the paro- 
 chial schools of the Swedish Lutheran congre- 
 gations. The Rev. T. V Hasselquist, D.D., is the 
 
 president. | L) 
 
 AUGUSTINE, Saint flat. Aurelius An- 
 gustinus), a celebrated doctor of the Latin 
 
 church, and one of the 'greatest of Christian 
 
 teachers and theologians, was horn Xov. 13., '■',' A . 
 at Tagaste. in Numidia, the modern Algeria. His 
 father, Patricias, was a pagan; his mother. .Mon- 
 ica, a fervid christian. He was sent by his 
 father to the famous school of Madaura, and 
 after the death of his father continued his studies 
 at Carthage. His life at this time was very licen- 
 tious ; but he never forgot the pious instructions 
 which his mother hail given him. nor the devo- 
 tional exercises to which she had accustomed him. 
 Dissatisfied with the religious systems of the an- 
 cient Greeks and Romans, as well as with the 
 Jewish and Christian scriptures, he tried to find 
 rest for his mind in the Manichean system. At 
 Rome, to which he went at the age of 20, he 
 achieved great reputation as a teacher of elo- 
 quence. Six months later, he was called to Milan 
 as a teacher of rhetoric. 1 lis intercourse with Saint 
 Ambrose, who was then bishop of Milan, and the 
 incessant entreaties of his mother, shook his faith 
 in Manicheism, and. in ,'fsT. brought about his 
 conversion to Christianity, lie became at once 
 one of the most prominent writers of the Chris- 
 tian church; and after spending three years in 
 seclusion at his birthplace Tagaste, he was obliged, 
 
 in compliance with the demand of the people of 
 the neighboring town of Bippo, to take on 
 
 so that he might assist bishop Valerius in his 
 failing age. Alter the death of Valerius, in •'!»•">. 
 
 he was elected his successor, and continued bishop 
 
 of Hippo till his death, in 430. His reputation 
 as a theological writer, soon tilled the entire 
 
 church, and his influence upon theological doc- 
 trine and upon the theological schools of the 
 Christian world proved to he greater than that 
 of any one who had preceded him. 
 
 The most famous of all the numerous work.- of 
 Augustine, the Confessions, has also a great edu- 
 cational interest, as it contains the reflections of 
 one of the most distinguished scholars of the 
 Christian church on his own education. He 
 demonstrates, in the clearest light, the strong 
 
 and imperishable influence of maternal education 
 upon the whole after life of man : and from his 
 touching account of the fierce conflict between 
 the highest intellectual and philosophical aspira- 
 tions on the one hand, and moral weakness on the 
 other, many prominent teachers have professed 
 to have learned more than from the study of 
 many theories of education. — Augustine followed 
 Tertullian in advocating a rigid exclusion of 
 pagan authors from the education of young 
 Christians. Especially did he oppose the reading 
 of the •• impioUS fahles of the poets, the polished 
 
 lies of the rhetoricians, and the verbose Bubtleties 
 
 of the philosophers;" but the reading of the 
 historians he did not absolutely object to. This 
 question as to the use of pagan classics in Chris- 
 tian schools has continued in he a lively qpntro- 
 versy in the Christian church: and. even in the 
 
 nineteenth century, the views of Tertullian ami 
 
 Augustine have found many defenders. (See 
 ( /HRISTl \n ( 'i. \ssics.) 
 
 By the establishment of a training institution for 
 
 candidates for the priesthood, Augustine laid the 
 foundation of episcopal seminaries, and gave a 
 
AUSTIN" COLLECE 
 
 AUSTRALASIAN COLONIES 111 
 
 powerful impulse to the diffusion of theological 
 nee among the clergy. He refused to ordain 
 any one as a priest who had not been edu- 
 cated in his seminary. A number of his pupils 
 ablished similar institutions in their dioceses; 
 and. when the church of North Africa vas dev- 
 astated by the incursions of the Vandals, the 
 African bishops established seminaries in many 
 of the plaees where they found a refuge. — 
 By his work De catechizandis rudibus, Augustine 
 became the father of I 'hristian catechetics. The 
 work was compiled in compliance with the ap- 
 plication of a deacon of Carthage, by the name 
 of DeogratJas, who wished to have a guided took 
 for the instruction of the catechumens. In this 
 work, Augustine demands for the instruction of 
 the catechumens a historical basis, regarding an 
 outline of Bible history as the best compendium 
 of the knowledge that is necessary for salvation. 
 Of the other writings of Augustine, the work De 
 musica, a dialogue between a teacher and a 
 scholar, and De magistro, which treats of Christ- 
 as the best teach t. are partly of an educational 
 character. — Sec Schmidt, Geschichte der Pada- 
 gogik, n, 59, sq. ; Bindemann, Der heil. Augu- 
 stinus, (2 vols.. 1S44 — 1855): Poojoolat, Vie de 
 SLAugustin; Mosheim, Ecclesiastical History, 
 vol. i.; The works of St. Augustine, edited by 
 M. Dons (London, i ST (—(!). Of the earlier 
 editions of his works, that by the Benedictines, 
 in 11 vols. (Paris. 1(579 — 1700) is considered the 
 
 AUSTIN COLLEGE, at Huntsville, Texas, 
 was founded in 1849, by Presbyterians. Its 
 
 f rounds, buildings, and apparatus are valued at 
 G0,()00. It has a library of 3000 volumes, and 
 a preparatory and classical department. The 
 number of students is about 90. The Rev. S. 
 M. Luckett, A. M., is the president. The annual 
 tuition fee is from $30 to .§50. 
 
 AUSTRALASIAN COLONIES. This 
 name is now commonly vtsed to designate the 
 English colonies on the continent of Australia, as 
 well as the neighboring islands of Tasmania and 
 New Zealand. The following exhibits the area 
 and population of each of these colonies : 
 
 New South Wales . 308,560 sq. m. 584.278 inhab. 
 
 Victoria 88,4. r )l " 807,756 " 
 
 South Australia ... 380,602 " 204,883 " 
 
 Queensland 668,259 " 160,000 " 
 
 West Australia !i7.">,s24 " 26,209 " 
 
 Northern Territorv 526,531 " 200 " 
 
 Tasmania ". . 26,215 " 105,000 " 
 
 NcwZ-aland 106,259 " 2!)!),500 " 
 
 Total 3,077,701 sq. m. 2,187,826 inhab. 
 
 Natives J Australia 55,000 " 
 
 natives [ NewZealand 45500 «. 
 
 Grand Total .2,288,326 inhab. 
 
 The progress of most of these colonies, especial- 
 ly that of New South Wales, Victoria, and South 
 Australia, has been very rapid; and it maybe 
 ly inferred from their vast resources, as well 
 as from their rapid progress in the past, that 
 these colonies will, ere long, hold a prominent 
 place among the civilized countries of the world. 
 Their national language is the English. There is 
 no state church as in England, but the Episco- 
 
 palians form the dominant body as regards num- 
 ber. Next to these are the Roman Catholics, 
 who constitute about 25 per cent of the total 
 population. The Methodists rank third. All 
 other denominations are well represented. 
 
 As the colonies are independent of each other, 
 each has its own educational system, which, how- 
 ever, in all the colonies is more or less assimi- 
 lated to the educational law of England or the 
 national system of Ireland. At the head of the 
 system, is a board or council of education, con- 
 sisting of members appointed by the govern- 
 ment. The government establishes schools to be 
 entirely supported and controlled by the state. bu1 
 
 also grants aid to schools established by other 
 parties, in case they submit to certain regula- 
 tions. In several of the colonies, education has 
 been made compulsory. With regard to grade, 
 the schools consist of primary schools, grammar 
 schools, colleges, and universities. Of the latter. 
 two have been in operation for some time, — 
 those at Sydney and Melbourne, the former in 
 1874 with 45 students, the latter with L22. A 
 third university was more recently established at 
 Dunedin, New Zealand, and a fourth, in L875, at 
 Adelaide. A monthly periodical, devoted to 
 education, is published in Sydney. 
 
 The Australian Handbook and Almanac for 
 1876 gives the following educational facts and 
 statistics for the several countries : 
 
 New South 71 'ales. — The number of schools is 
 returned at 1 508,with 2,334 teachers of both sexes, 
 and 110,287 scholars, of whom 57,917 are boys.and 
 52.370 girls. Under the council of education, 
 there were 942 schools, employing > s 77 male and 
 512 female teachers, with 92,303 scholars of both 
 sexes. These schools are particularized as public 
 schools, provisional schools, and half-time schools. 
 The denominational schools under the board num- 
 ber 209, of which 90 belong to the church of 
 England, 87 to the Roman Catholics, 15 to the 
 Presbyterians, 10 to the Wesleyans, and 1 to the 
 Jews. There are also under the control of the 
 board 2 orphan and 3 industrial schools. The 
 private schools of the colony numbor 555, of 
 which 55 are for boys. 87 for girls, and 1 1 3 mixed. 
 St. Paul's College had 12 students. St. John's 
 College 1, the Grammar School 293, the Heal' 
 and Dumb Institution 53. Toward the support 
 of these educational institutions, the sunt of 
 £154,220 was contributed by the government, 
 and L'i;7..'177 was received in shape of fees and 
 voluntary contributions. The number of sundaj 
 schools was 1.023, with an average attendance of 
 51 ,478, and 6,497 teachers. 
 
 Victoria. -Of day schools, including state 
 schools, private educational establishments, col- 
 leges, and grammar schools, there were. March, 
 
 :;i.. 1st::, 1936, with an attendance of 160,743 
 scholars and 4,257 teachers. The common & ho 
 numbered L.048, with 2,416 teachers. 73,826 boyB, 
 and 62.136 girls. The local receipts for the 
 maintenance of the schools, arising from fees and 
 other sources, were £117,868, this amount being 
 supplemented by a government grant of £182,202, 
 making a total of £300,070. The private schools 
 
62 
 
 AUSTRALASIAN COLONIES 
 
 AUSTRIA 
 
 numbered 881, with 11,024 male and 13,595 
 female scholars, and 528 male and 1236 female 
 teachers. The number of grammar schools and 
 colleges was 7, of which 2 were Episcopalian, 3 
 Presbyterian. 1 Methodist, and 1 Roman Catholic. 
 The total number of masters in these colleges 
 and grammar schools was 77, the total number 
 of students 1,162. Under the new educational 
 act, the instruction in the state schools is free, 
 secular, and compulsory. The governing power 
 is in the hands of a minister of education, assis- 
 ted by a .secretary. Each school is under period- 
 ical inspection. The teachers are required to pass 
 an examination, and are paid by fixed salaries; hut 
 they also receive the fees of the scholars, and have 
 a further allowance according to the progress 
 made by the scholars under their charge. The 
 number of Sunday-schools was 1,381; Episcopa- 
 lian 262, Presbyterian 308, Wesleyan 324, Prim- 
 itive .Methodist 73, ( ongregationalist 54, Bap- 
 tist 5!). Roman Catholic 171; with 111,540 schol- 
 ars and 11, si 5 teachers. 
 
 Son/// Australia. — The central board of 
 Education consists of 7 members ; the officers 
 are 3 inspectors and a secretary. The number 
 of licensed schools open at the close of 1874 was 
 320, with 17,42G enrolled pupils, and 315 
 teachers. 
 
 West Australia. — The legislative council in 
 1870 passed an education act, based upon the 
 principle of Poster's act, now in operation in 
 England. Schools are divided into elementary 
 and assisted schools. The former are maintained 
 wholly at the cost of the colony, the latter are 
 private, hut may receive- a capitation grant on 
 submitting to government inspection for secular 
 results, and to the observance of a strict conscience 
 clause during the four hours of secular instruc- 
 tion enjoined by the Act. The elementary schools 
 are under the control and supervision of a central 
 board appointed by the governor, and the local 
 district boards elected by the electors. Attendance 
 at school may be enforced by the local boards. 
 In the elementary schools, one hour a day is de- 
 voted, under the provisions of a conscience clause, 
 to reading the Bible or other religious books 
 approved by the hoard; but no catechism or 
 
 religious formulary of any kind can lie used ; and 
 tin Bible must he read, if at all. without note 
 or comment. In L874, the number of national 
 and assisted schools was 85, with an average 
 attendance of over 3,000. There is a Church of 
 England collegiate school in Perth, under the 
 patronage of the bishop. 
 
 Qi ensland. - Education is free. The prop- 
 erty of the schools, and the laud granted for 
 school purposes, are vested in a board of educa- 
 tion. Aid is granted to schools not established 
 l'\ the board, on complying with certain regula- 
 tions. The state also assists in the establishment 
 
 of grammar schools, whenever a district raises a 
 
 .sum lor this purpose by subscription. In 1*71. 
 there were 203 i ni 1 1 i;i t n schools, with 590 teach- 
 ers, and 29,012 scholars. There were also 62 
 
 private schools, with lis teachers and 2,123 
 scholars. The parliamentary appropriation for 
 
 educational purposes in 1874 was £72,000, the 
 local subscriptions were £3,116. The property 
 vested in the board was valued at £83,358. 
 
 Tasmania. — The educational system is under 
 the management of a council, and the attendance 
 of chili hen at school is compulsory. The number 
 of schools supported by the government was. in 
 1874, 147, average attendance 7,070, scholars 
 enrolled 1.2,158, teachers ins male and 116 female, 
 besides 3!) pupil teachers and paid monitors. 
 There are four schools of a higher grade. The 
 number of Sunday schools is 112, with 1.112 
 teachers and 1 d.Oll scholars. 
 
 In New Zealand, each province has its own 
 laws and regulations. To both national and de- 
 nominational schools, in some cases, state aid is 
 given ; in others, it is limited to national schools. 
 Dunedin has a university. In 1871, out of chil- 
 dren from 5 to 15 years of age, 59 in every 
 hundred could read and write, and 72 were at- 
 tending school. The increase in attendance from 
 L872 to ls7l was very large. The number of 
 common schools, in 1874, was 41)4. of colleges 
 and grammar schools 4, and of private schools 
 L82 ; total 680, having an attendance of 41.(127 
 scholars, of whom 21,774 were males, and 19.253 
 females. Of the entire attendance. 33,790 be- 
 longed to the common schools: 498, to the col- 
 leges and grammar schools: and (i.73!), to private 
 schools. Besides these, there were 47 native 
 schools, with (IS teachers and 1.214 scholars. 
 
 AUSTRIA (Germ. Oesterreich or Oestreich, 
 
 eastern empire), officially designated since Isi'iN 
 as the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy, has an 
 area of 240,381 sip in., and a population, ac- 
 cording to the last census, in 1869,01 35,904,435. 
 The empire now consists of two main divisions; 
 Austria proper and Hungary, each of which has 
 the legislative and administrative control of its 
 own educational affaire. In this article we shall 
 treat only of Austria proper, called also ('is- 
 leithania, because the small river I.eitha con- 
 stitutes pari of the frontier between it and Hun- 
 gary. For thi' rest, see BtJNGABY. 
 
 Austria proper, or Cisleiihania, consists of 
 14 provinces With an aggregate area of 115,925 
 si p in., am 1 a population numbering, according to 
 
 the census of L869, 20,217,531, and estimated at 
 
 the close of L874 at 21,169,341. The provinces 
 formerly wen' either independent, or belonged to 
 different states, and they still are inhabited by 
 
 people of various nationalities. An official cen- 
 sus of the nationalities has not been taken since 
 1850; hut their comparative strength is well 
 known, and the estimates made by writers on 
 
 this subjeci substantially agree. The Germans 
 number about 7,109,000, or 35,16 per cent; the 
 (Vcchs and Slovacks, 1,719,000, or 23,34 per 
 cent : the Poles. 2,444,000, or 1.2,09 per cent : the 
 Ruthenians, 2,585,000, or 1.2,80 per cent ; the 
 
 Slovens OT Winds. 1,196,200, or 5,92 per 
 
 cent; the Croats or Serbs, 522,400, or 2.5s per 
 cent ; the Magyars, 17,700, or 0,09 per cenl : the 
 Italians, 588,000, or 2,91 percent; the Rouma- 
 nians, 2(>7. '.Mill, or 1.(12 per cent: the .lews. 
 820,000, or 1.05 per cent. Two of the provinces, 
 
AUSTRIA 
 
 63 
 
 Upper Austria and Salzburg, are wholly Ger- 
 man; besides, the Germans bare a majority in 
 Lower Austria f 90 per cent), Carinthia (69 per 
 cent)', the Tyrol (60 percent), Styria (63percen1 1, 
 and Silesia (51 per cent). The Czechs control 
 two provinces, Moravia (71 per cent) and Bohe- 
 mia (60 percent); the Slovens (inc. Carniola (93 
 percent); and the Croats or Serbs one. Dalma- 
 tia (87 per cent). In four provinces, no one na- 
 tionality has an absolute majority; in Galicia, 
 the Ruthenians Dumber 44 per cent, and the 
 Poles l'.!: in the Bukovina, the Ruthenians 10, 
 and the Roumanians 39; in the Littorale, the Slo- 
 vens 12, the Italians 31, and the Croats 21. 
 
 A greater harmony than in regard to the 
 nationality of the inhabitants, prevails in re- 
 spect to their religion. The Roman Catholics, in 
 1869, constituted 91,92 per cent of the total 
 population: the dews 4,06 per cent, the ( h'tho- 
 ilox Creeks '2:21, the Lutherans 1,22, the Re- 
 formed 0,51, all others 0,02 per cent. Included 
 in the number of Roman Catholics are the 
 United Greeks (11,53 per cent) and the United 
 Armenians (0,02 per cent). The Roman Cath- 
 olic Church is in the majority in every province. 
 except the Bukovina. and in every nationality, 
 except the Roumanian. 
 
 Until the government of Maria Theresa, public 
 education was in a very backward state. As late 
 as 1770, thirty years after the accession of the 
 empress to the throne, only 24 per cent of 
 the children from the 5th to the 13th year of 
 age attended the public schools of Austria ; in 
 Lower Austria, only 1G per cent: in Silesia, only 
 4 per cent. The large majority of the children, 
 especially in the country, grew up without any 
 instruction. The first impulse to the thorough or- 
 ganization of a public school system -was given by 
 a memorial which the bishop of Passau, Count 
 Finnian. addressed to the empress. In accordance 
 with his suggestions, the council of state proposed 
 the establishment of two permanent school com- 
 mittees for the provinces of Upper and Lower 
 Austria for the purpose of improving the methods 
 of teaching and the administration of the schools. 
 The government approved the plan, and the first 
 committee was established May 19., 1770. One 
 of the first acts of the committee was the estab- 
 lishment of a model school at Vienna, in January, 
 1771. and of a model school fund. The influence 
 of these reforms was so satisfactory, that the 
 establishment of school committees, school funds. 
 and model schools in all the other provinces, 
 was either carried into effect, or at least begun. 
 The establishment of a court committee on stud- 
 Studienhqfcomm ixxii >n ). February 12.. 177 1. 
 which was to have the chief control of all the edu- 
 cational affairs of the empire, was another re- 
 form of gnat importance. In December, 1774, 
 the first comprehensive school law was published. 
 It provided For the establishment, in connection 
 with every parish church, of a common {trivial) 
 school, in which religion. Bible history, reading. 
 writing, and the elements of arithmetic, should be 
 taught: for the establishment in each circle of at 
 least one principal-school (Hauptschule), with 
 
 three or four teachers, who should give instruction 
 in the Latin language, geography, history, com- 
 position, drawing, geometry, and the elements of 
 agriculture ; and for the establishment, at the seat 
 
 Of each school committee, of a model and normal 
 
 school, \\ hieh. besides extending the course of in- 
 struction pursued in the principal-scl I. was also 
 
 to prepare candidates for the office of teacher. At- 
 tendance at school was made obligatory after the 
 6th year of age, and penalties were imposed upon 
 parents and guardians who should fail to send 
 their children to school. All teachers were bound 
 to use the text-books which the government 
 caused to be specially prepared for the Austrian 
 schools. The school law was chiefly the work of 
 Abbot Felbiger. who in connection with kinder- 
 mann and other distinguished educators, worked 
 indef atigably to carry into effect the pro* isiona oi 
 the law. The emperor Joseph 1 1, regarded the dif- 
 fusion of education a.s the soundest basis of his 
 reformatory, schemes. He enforced by compul- 
 sory" laws the education of all children from 6 to 
 12 years of age ; and. in 1 781 . ordered a general 
 school census to be taken. The patrons of the 
 churches were required to provide for the estab- 
 lishment of a school in connection with every 
 church winch was without one. The patent of 
 toleration of Oct. 13., 1781, gave als< > ti > the Prot- 
 estants of the Augsburg ami Helvetic confessions, 
 and to the non-united Creeks, the right to estab- 
 lish a church and school for every 500 persons. 
 The Jews, also, were at first authorized, but soon 
 afterward commanded, to establish schools for the 
 education of their youth. Great prominence was 
 given, even in provinces not I ierman.to the teach- 
 ing of the German language, the knowledge of 
 which was an indispensable qualification for an 
 appointment to any state office. Instruction in 
 singing, mechanical work, and horticulture was 
 recommended. Corporal punishment was limited 
 to extreme cases. A review course of instruction 
 I WiederTiolungsunterricki) was to be provided 
 on Sundays and holidays for children who had 
 finished the course of the elementary schools. In 
 the capital of each of the circles into which the 
 Austrian provinces were divided, school commis- 
 sioners were appointed to superintend the public 
 schools in common with the deans. During the 
 reign of the emperor Leopold, teachers' associa- 
 tions were organized, and delegates chosen by 
 these associations were admitted to the provincial 
 boards of education. A revisory committee on 
 studies (Studienrevisionscommissicm I, which was 
 formed in 17'.».">. under the emperor Francis, pre- 
 pared a new constitution tor the public schools, 
 which was published in 1805, and formed for a 
 long time the legal basis for public education in 
 Austria. The influence of teachers and teach 
 associations on the government of the schools was 
 greatly restricted ; while, on the other hand, that 
 
 of the Catholic Church was greatly extended, the 
 
 inspection and superintendence of schools being 
 almost wholly transferred to the parish priests ana 
 the bishop. The organization of the review course 
 of instruction, a peculiar feature of the Austrian 
 system, was completed in 1816 by a special law. 
 
04 
 
 AUSTRIA 
 
 which made attendance at the review course of 
 instruction compulsory until the close of the 
 1 5th year of age or the end of apprenticeship. 
 In 1828, the government began to publish statis- 
 tical accounts of the progress of public educa- 
 tion, which, as appears from these accounts, con- 
 tinued to be steady in all the provinces of the 
 empire. A peculiar feature in the educational 
 history of Austria, at that time, was the more 
 general introduction of the vernacular languages 
 of the various nationalities into the public 
 schools, in place of the German, which thus far 
 had been too predominantly used even in some 
 districts not German. Among the first re- 
 sults of the revolution of 1848, which led 
 to the abdication of the emperor Ferdinand 1.. 
 and tlie accession of the emperor Francis Joseph I., 
 was the establishment of a ministry of public 
 instruction, which in the same year published an 
 outline of the proposed re-organization of all the 
 Austrian schools. This outline established several 
 important principles: (1) The maintenance of a 
 public school was made obligatory for the com- 
 munities; (2) Instruction was every-where to be 
 given in the mother- tongue of the pupils; and 
 (3) For the candidates of teachers who formerly 
 had received only a six months* instruction, a 
 special course of two or three years was arranged, 
 which was gradually to be developed into a teach- 
 ers' seminary. In 1849, Count Leo Thun was 
 appointed minister of public instruction, who. dur- 
 ing the eleven veal's 01 his administration, carried 
 into effect some of the reforms proposed in the 
 outline, and organized in the capital of every 
 province a provincial school board, consisting 
 partly of experienced educators who received the 
 title of school councilor (Sckulrath), and partly 
 of administrative officers. Put the chief aim of 
 this minister was the establishment of a far-reach- 
 ing control of the ( 'atholic ( Ihurch over the public 
 school system. The concordat between Austria and 
 the Pope, which was concluded in August. 1855, 
 
 provides thai the entire instruction of the Cath- 
 olic youth, both in public and private schools, 
 must be in accordance with the ( atholic religion; 
 thai all the teachers in the Catholic schools are 
 placed under the superintendence of the church, 
 and that the bishops will propose to the govern- 
 ment lit pei-sons for the otlice of school superin- 
 tendents. The disastrous issue of the war against 
 Prance and Italy led to the introduction of 
 Several Sweeping reforms, and the establishment 
 
 of a national representation, or ReicTisrath, in 
 which the Liberal party impetuously demanded 
 the emancipation of the public schools from the 
 control of the church, and the abolition of the 
 concordat. The ministry of instruction, which 
 was Looked upon by the Liberals as a tool of the 
 church was totally abolished ; but the govern- 
 Mi Hi showed greal reluctance in yielding to other 
 demands of the Liberals. A new organization 
 of the public school system was provided tor by 
 
 the law of May I I., L869. It substitutes for the 
 former Haupt- mnl Trivicdschulen (high and 
 
 common bcI Is) a division into Vblks8ckulen 
 
 (people's schools) and Burgerachnlen (citizens' 
 
 schools). The subjects to be taught in the 
 former are religion, language, arithmetic, writing, 
 geometrical forms, the elements of natural science 
 and history, singing, and gymnastic exercises. 
 According to the number of teachers allowed, 
 it may have from one to seven classes. In the 
 Bv/rgerschule, moreover, composition, natural 
 science, geometry, book-keeping, and drawing are 
 taught. Schools of the latter class have, when com- 
 plete, 8 classes, or if connected with a Volkssch ule 
 of 5 classes, only 3 classes. The communities 
 must establish a school whenever, in the circuit 
 of one hour's walk, 40 children are found who 
 attend a school at least half a German mile 
 distant. A second teacher is allowed when the 
 number of children exceeds 80 ; and another 
 for every additional 80. The school age lasts 
 from the 6th to the 14th year. There are special 
 school boards for the communities, districts, and 
 provinces. The number of Bihrgerschulen and 
 Vblksschulen in 1871, was 14,769. of which 6560 
 were German, 5746 Slavic. 1080 Italian. 24 
 Boumanic, 5 .Magyar. '! Greek, and 1352 mixed. 
 The number of male teachers was 20,904; of 
 female teachers, .'1, 1 !.">. The attendance at school 
 was 941,497 boys and S7s.ll>:; girls. In two 
 provinces, the Tyrol and Moravia, the number of 
 children attending school exceeded that of the 
 
 children of school age; in UpperAustria, Bohemia, 
 
 and Silesia, it was between 90 and '.HI per cent. ; 
 in Lower Austria. Salzburg. Styria. and < 'arinthia, 
 bet ween 7."> and !'.">; in ( 'arniola and the Littorale. 
 between 50 and 55; in < 'alicia, 20; in 1 ►ahnatia, 1 •">: 
 and in thi' Ibikovina, only 12 percent. The middle 
 schools, which prepare boys for the higher studies, 
 are either gymnasia, realschool$,or realgymnasia. 
 The gymnasia prepare their pupils for the uni- 
 versities, the realschools for the higher technical 
 schools, and the realgymnasia for both. In 1870, 
 there were 97 gymnasia with 27.2*7 pupils. 24 
 realgymnasia with 3,210, and 50 realschools with 
 1 3,229 pupils. Of universities there are 7: those of 
 Vienna, Gratz, Tnnspruck. Prague, Cracow, Ijem- 
 berg, and < Izernowitz. They all contain, like the 
 German universities. 4 faculties, except l.emberg 
 and Czernowitz, which have only 3. The number 
 
 of students, in the winter semester of L874 — 5, 
 
 was. at Vienna 4,223, at Gratz 930, at Lnnspruck 
 633, at Prague 2,011, at Lemberg upwards of 
 
 L100, and at Cracow upwards Of 1,000. There 
 are seven technical high schools: 2 at Prague 
 [1 German and 1 Czechic), and 1 each at Vienna, 
 
 • irat/.. I'ninn, l.emberg. Cracow, and, in all, about 
 
 270 professors and 3,000 pupils. -Male teachers' 
 seminaries were first established in accordance 
 with the new law of L869, in L870. Of these, 
 there were, in 1 873, 40, with L45 principal and 
 207 assistant teachers, and 2,111 pupils, of whom 
 
 L,093 were Germans, 530 Czechs, 215 Coles. 9.'} 
 Ruthenians, L 28 Croats or Servians, 95 Italians, 
 
 and L5 Roumanians. For the education of female 
 teachers, then' are 21 seminaries, with 105 prinei 
 pal and 111 assistant teachers, and 1 ,(><>7 pupils. 
 The number of special schools is very largei 
 embracing theological, medical, and industrial 
 Schools, schools for navigation, mining, agricult- 
 
Al'TIIulMTY 
 
 65 
 
 ure. forestry, ami the fine arts, together with 
 military institutions, institutions for the deaf and 
 dumb, and the blind, orphan asylums, infant in- 
 stitutions [creches , 
 
 The most important educational periodicals 
 are Der Oestsrreichische Schulbote (since 1851) 
 and Zeitschrift filr GstreichiscJie Gh/mnasien 
 (since 1850). 
 
 A full account of the history and statistics' 
 of public education in Austria is given by Dr. 
 Picker, in Sciimid's P&dagog. Elncyctopadie, \< >1. 
 v. p. 242 — 566. Sec also Hblfebt, System der 
 tetreich. VoOcsschule (Prague, L861), a collection 
 of all the laws relating to the public school 
 system ; Schtmmer, Statistik der LehranstaUen 
 des Sstreich. Kaiserstaates von 1851 — L857, 
 (Vienna, 1858). The latest official statdstics 
 are annually published in the Statistische Jdhr- 
 buch, by the central statistical commission of 
 Vienna. 
 
 AUTHORITY (Lat. auctoritas), the right 
 to conunanil. or the persons or body by whom 
 the right is exercised ; sometimes also, in matters 
 pertaining to the intellect, the power to influence 
 or exact belief. In education, the term has espe- 
 cially this twofold application: (1) to the disci- 
 pline, or management of children.; (2) to their in- 
 struction. The primary authority, both in re- 
 spect to time and importance, to which the child 
 is subjected is that of the parent ; and for several 
 years no other can be exercised over it, except in 
 loco parentis. It is true, the state extends a pro- 
 tecting care over the child ; but only by an exer- 
 cise of its authority over the parents, requiring 
 them to perform their proper duties as the nat- 
 ural guardians of their children. When the 
 parents neglect oi repudiate these duties or are 
 guilty of acts in contravention of them, the state 
 interposes its authority, but not even then direct- 
 ly, upon the child, but only to placd it under the 
 authority of those who will better care for its 
 interests, and perform for it the natural duties 
 of its parents. The right exercise of parental 
 authority is, therefore, one of the most im- 
 portant elements in the education of the child. 
 (See Home Education.) If the child from its 
 earliest years has been accustomed to recognize 
 and submit to the authority of its parents, firmly 
 but judiciously exercised, were will be, ordinari- 
 ly, but little difficulty, on the part of the teacher, 
 in making his authority effective. The child, on 
 entering the school, feels for the first time that 
 it is under an authority different from that of its 
 parents, to which it has previously learned to 
 sui. mil with unquestioning obedience. Its first 
 imptdse is, perhaps, to refuse submission to this 
 new authority ; and the influence of the teacher 
 over the child will greatly depend upon the man- 
 ner i,i which obedience is enforced. (See Disci- 
 pline.) In the authority of the teacher, as well 
 as in that of the parents, two elements arc com- 
 bined, — one that attracts and encourages, and 
 one that curbs and subdues. Without the former, 
 authority is arbitrary and violent: without the 
 latter, it is feeble and often powerless. In oilier 
 words, the authority that truly educates should 
 
 be founded not alone upon fear, but upon love 
 and esteem as well. The authority of the teacher 
 is not, like that of t lie parents, based upon a natural 
 law, but is delegated either by the parents or by 
 those who stand in the parental relation to the 
 child. This is what is meant when it is said that 
 the teacher is in loco parentis ; not that he has 
 exactly the authority of the parent, but only so 
 far as it is not limited by the general usages of 
 society, or by special contracts. The conscien- 
 tious teacher cannot, for a moment. doubt that it 
 is his duty strictly to observe these limits ; since, 
 by willfully overstepping them, he must either 
 break a contract, or violate;! most sacred trust ; 
 and, in either case, his authority will be either 
 weakened or destroyed. 
 
 When schools arc controlled by boards of edu- 
 cation or boards of trustees, such constituted 
 authorities stand to the children in place of the 
 parents, in respect to school education ; and the 
 teachers become simply the agents of the school 
 board, and can only exercise an authority limited 
 by the rtdes of such board. The limits of the 
 authority delegated to teachers by the appointing 
 power, vary considerably in different places, 
 some school boards reserving to themselves 
 certain powers or functions which others confer 
 upon the teacher. It is a matter of the utmost 
 importance that all persons concerned in the edu- 
 cation of the child should co-operate harmoni- 
 ously ; since nothing tends so much to weaken 
 the force of authority in the mind of the child as 
 to notice a conflict among those under whose 
 control it is placed. Father and mother, parent 
 and teacher, teacher and school board, should, at 
 any rate, as far as the child is aware, agree ab- 
 solutely; since the less children know of any differ- 
 ence of opinion between their custodians, the 
 more cheerfully will they respect and submit to 
 the principle of authority in general. 
 
 Many cases will arise, both in the family and in 
 the school, in which children will refuse submis- 
 sion to the authority of their educators ; and hence; 
 the mode of enforcing authority becomes a mat- 
 ter of serious importance. Authority, of course, 
 implies a control of the will of those over whom 
 it is exercised; and the means by which this is 
 to be obtained will differ according to the dis- 
 position and habits of the child, and. to a coin 
 siderablc extent, also according to the character of 
 the educator himself. A violent . irascible, morose, 
 or capricious parent or teacher will have a con- 
 stant conflict with the child, and will never be able 
 to establish his authority, to whatever extent, for 
 the time being, he may compel a seeming obedi- 
 ence. Authority is thus described by an eminent 
 teacher: — "H is not mere legal form, nor the 
 instrumentalities for executing it. that constitutes 
 authority. It is a power in the individual him- 
 self, independent of all circumstances, and rising 
 in its own majesty above all mere conventionali- 
 ties. It is a power difficult to describe, but 
 which -end- out its .streams of influence al 
 the teacher's pathway. It exists in the man. de- 
 manding, securing, and retaining cheerful obedi- 
 ence." Authority should not be exercised as such; 
 
66 
 
 AUTHORITY 
 
 " the right-feeling parent," says Herbert Spencer, 
 " like the philanthropic legislator, will not rejoice 
 in coercion, but will rejoice in dispensing with 
 coercion." [Sec Mm: w. EDUCATION.) In this connec- 
 tion, arises the question of the propriety of corpo- 
 ral punishment to enforce authority in the family 
 or school. All educators are agreed, that the use 
 of physical force, if at all sanctioned, should be 
 only, as a dernier ressort, brought in when every 
 other means of coercion has failed; some, how- 
 ever, condemn the " use of the rod " utterly. 
 Locke assents to it only in cases of extreme ob- 
 stinacy. " The teacher," says D. P. Page, " has 
 the right to establish authority by corporal in- 
 fliction; and thus to save the school and also 
 
 save himself It is his duty to establish 
 
 authority, pea eably, indeed, if he may, — forcibly 
 if lie must." (See Corporal Punishment.) In 
 the exercise of authority, both parent and teacher 
 should faithfully consider the influence they are 
 exerting over the future character of the child. 
 As Locke says, •• Every man must some time or 
 other lie trusted to himself and his own conduct ; 
 and that he is a good, a virtuous, and able man, 
 must he made so within." In the family and 
 school, as in the great world beyond, authority 
 should, as far as possible, lie exercised without- 
 being felt. Richter justly remarks, "The best 
 rule in polities is said to be -[ins trap tjouverner'', 
 it is also true in education." 
 
 The principle of authority has an important 
 application to the mental as well as the moral 
 education of children. In the earliest stages of 
 intellectual instruction, the child must receive 
 most of the information imparted to it on the 
 authority of its teacher; but modern principles 
 and methods require that, even from the first, as 
 far as possible, the child should learn for itself 
 by the exercise of its perceptive and conceptive 
 faculties, and not merely on the authority of its 
 tcaehei-s. .Much, however, must be imparted. 
 that is beyond the scope of the chihl's under- 
 standing and experience; ami, consequently, 
 there will he a wide range for the operation of the 
 teacher's authority. It will, of course, be greater 
 or less in proportion to his personal influence in 
 
 Other respects, and particularly in proportion to 
 
 the confidence fell by his pupils in bis wisdom 
 and attainments. In some instances, as exem- 
 plified in the history oi religious orders and 
 
 creeds and of the schools of philosophy and 
 
 ice. the authority of eminent teachers has 
 i been so greal as to exert an influence for 
 
 many centuries over thousands, or even millions, 
 of intellects. Such was the intellectual authority 
 of Pythagoras, Plato, Aristotle. and other leaders 
 of ancienl Bchools of philosophy. Teaching too 
 much by authority, and failing to appeal suili- 
 
 cicntlv to the r, I judgment of the pupil 
 
 is an error to be carefully avoided : since it must 
 
 exert a. disastrous influence upon the student's 
 habits of thought and acquisition. With all 
 due deference to the philosopher of Samos, who 
 
 was content to have his disciples depend upon 
 the Ipse dixit Pi/thagaras, his example cannot 
 be wisely imitated by the teachers of our time. 
 Every one must learn to form his own opinions. 
 carefully, dispassionately, after due investigation, 
 and a proper consideration for the conclusions 
 and experience of other minds; but still they 
 must lie his own. The teacher should infuse into 
 the minds of his pupils an intellectual independ- 
 ence, — not a skeptical ipiestioning of every- 
 thing, but a thoughtful investigation of the why 
 and the wherefore, a diligent balancing of the 
 weight of testimony, and a habit of inquiring 
 into the ultimate reasons of things, as far as they 
 can be adduced. This will impart coneentrative- 
 ness and activity of mind, and call into exercise 
 the judgment and reflection upon whatever is 
 presented to the attention, whether in Study, 
 reading, or conversation. The pupil thus in- 
 structed would soon realize the force and beauty 
 of that tine sentiment of Emerson : " 1 had 
 better never sec a book than be warped by its 
 attraction clean out of my own orbit, and made 
 a satellite instead of a system." Montaigne 
 strongly condemned the prevalent modeof teach- 
 ing by authority. '■ Let the tutor," says he, 
 "make his pupil examine and thoroughly sift 
 every thing he reads, and lodge nothing in 
 his head upon simple authority and upon trust 
 .... \a'\ him know that he does know." lious- 
 seau also severely criticised the pedagogy of his 
 time, for basing the science of education on the 
 principle of authority. He demanded thai n. ■ 
 pupil should not know any thing merely because 
 it was told him by the teacher, but because he 
 understood it. lie should not learn the science, 
 but discover it. " If." said he. "you give him 
 ;m authority instead of a reason, he will never 
 think independently, but will always be the foot- 
 ball of tin' opinions of others." This is an ex- 
 treme view, as every teai her of experience must 
 know. The authority of the teacher cannot be 
 eliminated in intellectual education ; since to do so 
 would put the undeveloped understanding of the 
 pupil on an equality with the mature and devel- 
 oped intellect of the instructor: neither can its 
 just limits be definitely fixed. The disposition 
 
 to accept the statements of the teacher as truths, 
 
 when not fully understood, should be cultivated. 
 
 Modesty is often as requisite and as becoming in 
 thoughl as in morals. The great principle to be 
 
 kept in view — and it is to the credit of Kousseau 
 that he so clearly perceived, and so emphatically 
 
 enunciated it - is. that authority should not have 
 its aim within itself, but that its object should be 
 
 to develop the faculties of the pupil, so that he 
 
 may fully understand as true and right, what he 
 
 has received on the authority of the teacher. — 
 See Montaigne, Essais (Cotton's translation, 
 edited by \V. Ilazlitt) ; Locke, Tlioughte con- 
 cerning Education; Rousseau, Emue on tie 
 VEducation; Eerbert Spencer, Education: 
 dual, Moral, and Physical. 
 
BACCHANTS 
 
 BACON 
 
 67 
 
 BACCHANTS (Lat. Bacchantes) is a term 
 applied in mediaeval times to those university 
 students who had not yet finished their first 
 year's studies, and being taxed for drinking pur- 
 poses by the older students, were thus drawn 
 into revels and debauchery. Later, this name 
 was riven to those idle, dissolute students who 
 traveled about the country. Collecting money, 
 
 ostensibly to enable them to pursue their studies. 
 iietimes they were accompanied by pupils, 
 whom they compelled to steal and beg for them. 
 (See A B C-Sh00TERS.) So numerous were these 
 itinerant scholars, that organizations of them 
 existed with constitutions and rituals; and some- 
 times these bodies were supplied with board and 
 lodging by the cities in which they located them- 
 selves. These practices ceased almost entirely 
 with the Reformat ion, but we find traces of them 
 in Germany and England down almost to the 
 present century. Burkard Lingg and Thomas 
 Platen were Bacchants, whose autobiographies in 
 German are still extant. 
 
 BACHELOR (Lat. Baccalaureus), a term ap- 
 plied to one who has reached a certain grade in a 
 college or university education ; as, Bachelor of 
 Arts (A. B., or B. A.), Bachelor of Civil Law 
 (B. C. L.), Bachelor of Divinity (B. D.),etc. The 
 word as thus used is of uncertain etymology. It 
 was introduced into the University of Paris by 
 Pope Gregory IX.. in the 13th century, and ap- 
 plied as a title to those students wdio had passed 
 certain preliminary examinations, but were not 
 prepared for admission into the rank of master, 
 teacher, or doctor. Afterwards, it was adopted 
 by other European universities, to indicate the 
 lowest academical honor, as it is now used both 
 in this country and in Europe. (See Arts, and 
 Degrees.) 
 
 BACON - , Francis, Viscount St. Albans 
 and Baron Verulam, one of the most illustrious 
 of English philosophers, was born in London, 
 Jan. 22., 1 .".id, ami died April 1)., 1626. Little is 
 known of his early education, but from the social 
 position of his father. Sir Nicholas Bacon, he 
 must have enjoyed the advantages of the best in- 
 struction that could have been obtained. Be 
 was matriculated at Trinity College, Cambridge, 
 in 1573; and. after going abroad for a time, he 
 returned and commenced the study of the law 
 in 15811. He was soou called to the bar. and in 
 L590, his reputation was so great, that he was 
 le ''counsel extraordinary'' to Queen Eliza- 
 beth, lie afterwards served in parliament, wh in 
 he showed so much spirit, that on receiving the 
 royal rebuke for a certain speech, which he had 
 delivered, he uobly replied, that " he spoke in 
 di-eharge of his conscience, and his duty to God, 
 to the queen, and his country." As an orator. 
 he was much commended by his contemporaries. 
 Ben Jonson said that while he was speaking, 
 "the fear of every man that heard him was Lest 
 he should make an end.'' The earl of Essex 
 had been his friend and benefactor ; but when 
 
 that rash and unfortunate nobleman was under 
 trial. Bacon, evidently from fear of the queen's 
 
 displeasure, spoke .severely against him. and was 
 
 instrumental in securing his conviction. This has 
 subjected him to much obloquy, as being guilty 
 of meanness and ingratitude. After the acces- 
 sion of James 1.. Bacon rose rapidly in the royal 
 favor; his professional practice became very la 
 and lucrative, besides which he held the office of 
 nie\ general which yielded him £6,000 per 
 annum. In L616, he was made lord high 
 chancellor, ami, besides, received the title of 
 Baron Verulam; and, in 1621, he obtained the 
 additional title of Viscounl St. Albans. At this 
 time, he stood upon the highest pinnacle of polit- 
 ical preferment and literary fame ; for he had 
 just published his greatest work, the Novum 
 Organum. From this lofty position he suddenly 
 fell, accused and condemned of taking bribes 
 from those whose cases were before his court. 
 Mis own words to the House of Lords, when the 
 facts had been disclosed by an investigation, were, 
 '' I do plainly and ingenuously confess that 1 am 
 guilty of corruption, and do renounce all defense, 
 and put myself upon the grace and mercy of 
 your lordships."' He was, accordingly, sentenced 
 to pay a fine of £40,000, and to suffer imprison- 
 ment in the Tower during the king's pleasure 
 (1(121). He was, however, released from confine- 
 ment in two days, and the fine was subsequently 
 remitted. He never regained the position he 
 had so disgracefully lost, but spent the few re- 
 maining years of his life in a studious and liter- 
 ary retirement. Between the career of Bacon as 
 a politician and his career as a philosopher there is 
 a marked contrast. -1 lad his life.'' says Macaulay, 
 "been passed in literary retirement, he would, in 
 all probability, have deserved to be considered, 
 not only as a great philosopher, but as a worthy 
 and good-natured member of society. But 
 neither his principles nor his spirit were such as 
 could be trusted, when strong temptations were 
 to be resisted, and serious dangers to be braved.'' 
 His desire to keep up a grand establishment, to 
 make a brilliant figure in society by the princely 
 character of his entertainments, his equipage, and 
 all the other fascinations of luxury, caused ex- 
 penditures far beyond his means, which he 
 endeavored to meet by unlawful gains. His 
 philosophical views were in one sense entirely 
 consistent with his character. They were prac- 
 tical : tiny aimed to make science minister to the 
 worldly wants of mankind. The si holastic learn- 
 ing of the universities which he had inveighed 
 against shortly after leaving Cambridge, was, he 
 perceived, nothing hut antiquated, profitless word- 
 learning, lie wished to incite to the discovery 
 of new truth, that it might "mix like a living 
 spring with the stagnant waters." "Two words," 
 
 says Macaulay. "form the key of the Baconian 
 
 doctrine — utility and progress. The ancient 
 
 philosophy disdained to be useful, and was eon- 
 tent to be stationary. It dealt largely in theories 
 
68 
 
 BACON 
 
 BAHRDT 
 
 of moral perfection, which were so sublime that 
 they never could be more than theories ; in at- 
 tempts to solve insoluble enigmas ; in exhorta- 
 tions to the attainment of unattainable frames of 
 mind. It could not condescend to the humble 
 office of ministering to the comfort of human be- 
 ings." Bacon held that all knowledge must be 
 obtained by a careful and unprejudiced induction 
 from facts. I fence the importance of experiment ; 
 for without experiment man may indeed stumble 
 on t lie discovery of truth, but by experiment in- 
 ventions are made. " Bacon," says Kuno Fischer, 
 ••is the philosopher, not simply of experience, 
 but of invention. Bis only endeavor is philosoph- 
 ically to comprehend and fortify the. inventive 
 spirit of man. From this point alone is his op- 
 position to antiquity to be explained." Bacon's 
 career commenced at a time when a great in- 
 tellectual revolution was already in progress. 
 The Aristotelian philosophy so called, which was 
 indeed a perversion of Aristotle's teachings, and 
 the senseless attempt to employ the syllogism as 
 an instrument of discovery, had already disgusted 
 a large number of active minds, as being utterly 
 barren of fruit. As Macaulay remarks, - Before 
 the birth of Bacon, the empire of the scholastic 
 philosophy had been shaken to its foundation. 
 Antiquity, prescript ion. the sound of great nanus 
 had ceased to awe mankind." Bacon's mind was 
 so constituted as to sympathize at once with this 
 changed condition of things; and throwing the 
 weight of his vast intellect against the already tot- 
 tering fabric, he precipitated its fall. As Aristotle 
 analyzed the method of deductive reasoning, so 
 Bacon explained the principles and method oil in- 
 duction, proving it to lie the great instrument . or 
 organon, for the discovery of truth and the im- 
 provement of the condition of humanity. The 
 
 full title of his great work is Nornm Organum^ ^Quarreled with his patron, his connection with 
 
 this institution lasted only one year; but having 
 been appointed superintendent-general at Diirk- 
 heiin. he established, in May 1777. a new philan- 
 ihropin in the neighboring castle at Heideeheim. 
 This attempt was likewise unsuccessful, and the 
 new philanthropin on the brink of ruin, when 
 Bahrdt was suddenly summoned before the 
 
 sive Indicia Vera de Tnterpretatione Natural 
 et Regno Hbminis. [The New Organon, or 
 True Directions concerning the Interpretation of 
 
 Nature ami tin- Kingdom of Man.) The kej to 
 the whole philosophy is contained in the first of 
 the aphorisms of which it is composed : " Man. 
 being the servant and interpreter of nature, can 
 do and understand so much, and so much only, 
 as he has observed, in fact or in thought, of the 
 
 course of nature : beyond this he neither knows 
 
 anything nor can do any thin-.'' Previous to 
 the publication of this work, he had published 
 The Advancement of Learning (1605), which 
 was the germ of De Augmentis Scientiarum, 
 published in W'.'j:;. These and other works. 
 published or proposed by him, were to constitute 
 an Tnstauratio Magna— & grand re-establish- 
 ni nt not only of the true method of scientific 
 investigation but of science itself , in all its varied 
 departments. Modern discovery and invention 
 are to a great extent the offspring of this splendid 
 
 gift of human -cuius. Bacon's most popular 
 
 work was the Essays, originally published in 
 L597, but afterwards enlarged and improved. 
 
 Dugald Stewart has said of this work. " It may 
 
 be icad from beginning to end in a few hours. 
 and yet after the twentieth reading, one seldom 
 
 fails to remark in it something overlooked before." 
 In his essay on Education, Bacon refers all its 
 efficacy to custom, or habit: " Certainly custom 
 is most perfect when it beginneth in young years: 
 this we call education ; which is. in effect, but an 
 early custom." But Bacon's contribution to edu-*"? 
 cation does not consist in any particular precepts 
 concerning it or any special treatment of that sub- 
 ject ; but in the general effect of his philosophical- 
 views, in setting free the human mind from errors 
 and prejudices, and placing it on the direct road 
 which leads to scientific truth. The best edition 
 of Bacon's works is that edited by Spedding, 
 Ellis, and Heath. vols. i. — xv.(London andBoston, . 
 1858—1861). In this is contained the life of 
 Bacon by William Rowley, !>.!).. his chaplain. — 
 See also Macaulay's Essays, s. v. Bacon; Hep- 
 worth, Personal History of Lord Bacon (Lon- 
 don. L859); Remusat, Bacon, sa vie et son in- 
 fluence (Paris. 1857); Kino Fischer, Francis 
 Bacon von Verulam (2d edit., Leipsic, 1875), 
 which has been translated into English by John 
 Oxenford (London, 1857); American Journal 
 of Education, vol. rv. (1829), passim. 
 
 BADEN. See Germany. 
 
 BAHRDT, Carl Friedrich, a German 
 professor and scholar, was born in 1741, and 
 died in L792. As professor of theology at 
 the universities of Leipsic, Erfurt, and Giessen, 
 he was regarded as one of the foremost rep- 
 resentatives of the theological rationalism which 
 prevailed at that time. As his dissolute life 
 and his fondness for violent theological quar- 
 rels made his position as professor of theology 
 impossible, he eagerly accepted, in 177."), the 
 management of a philanthropin founded by 
 llerr v. Salis at Marschlins. in the Swiss canton 
 of Orisons. (See Philanthropin.) As he soon 
 
 Reichshofrath (Imperial Court Council) for 
 teaching doctrines not in accord with any of the 
 three churches recognized in the empire, and. 
 without any trial, deprived of all his offices. The 
 unfairness of this treatment gained for him a 
 great deal of sympathy, and from the Prussian 
 government an appointment as professor at the 
 university of Halle: but in consequence of the 
 unsteadiness of his habits, he held this posi- 
 tion likew ise only a short time, and lost with it 
 the esteem of nearly all who knew him. I'ahr It 
 
 was one of the most gifted men of his age, and 
 but for his total want of moral character, would 
 undoubtedly have risen to great eminence, both 
 
 as an educational w liter and a practical educator. 
 
 lie founded two educational periodicals, entitled 
 Literarisches Gorrespondem- und TnteUigenzblati 
 (1776) and Pddagogisches Wochenblatt (1778), 
 
 which clearly indicate the rare talent of the editor, 
 but neither of which survived the first year of 
 
BALDWIN UNIVERSITY 
 
 BALTIMORE 
 
 69 
 
 its existence. The disrespect which was generally 
 felt for Bahrdt, greatly injured the entire school 
 of PhilanthropinistB. I le published an autobiog- 
 graphy, entitled Dr. Bahrdt's history of his life, 
 his opinions and //is vicissitudes (4 vols., Bruns- 
 wick, 1790), which is of considerable value for 
 the information it gives of the educational move- 
 ments of those times. -See Letsbb, KaaiFried- 
 rich Bahrdt (2d edit., Neustadt, L870). 
 
 BALDWIN UNIVERSITY, at Berea, 
 Ohio, was established in L846 as Baldwin Insti- 
 tute, for the education of both sexes, by the 
 North Ohio conference of the Methodist Epis- 
 copal church. Ten years afterward, it was char- 
 tered as a university under its present name. 
 Its design is to provide the means of a thorough 
 general education, or to afford to students a com- 
 plete scientific basis for the various industrial 
 pursuits. It has a scientific and a classical de- 
 partment, in each of which there are preparatory i 
 and collegiate classes. There is also a college of 
 pharmacy connected with the institution. It 
 received a valuable endowment in quarry land 
 from John Baldwin, after whom it was named. 
 Its successive ] >r< sidents have been J< >hn Wheeler, 
 D.D., from L856 to L871 : W.D.Godman, D.D., 
 from L871 to 1ST."); and A. Schuyler. LL. D., 
 from L875. The number of students in the in- 
 stitutiou, in 1875 — 7(>, was 180. The tuition is 
 free. 
 
 BALTIMORE. The first attempt to pro- 
 vide the means of education for the lower classes 
 in this city was the establishment, in 1820, of a 
 school on the Lancasterian system. \n 1825, an 
 act was passed by the legislature, which author- 
 ized the establishment of public schools in Balti- 
 more, and empowered the corporate authorities 
 to levy a tax for their support. In 1828, a board 
 of six school commissioners was organized ; and, 
 the next year, three schools were opened, and 269 
 pupils enrolled. The first school-house was 
 erected in 1830, hired built lings having previously 
 been used. In 1839, the number of pupils en- 
 rolled had increased to 1.126 ; and the mayor 
 and city council requested the commissioners to 
 establish a high school. The request was promptly 
 complied with, and the school opened the same 
 year. This had the effect not only to raise the 
 grade, but to increase the efficiency, of the com- 
 mon schools; for, the next year (1840), there 
 were nine schools in operation, with 1 ,834 pupils. 
 Since that time the growth of the system has 
 been rapid. In 1874, there were 122 schools, 
 and the number of pupils enrolled was - _'!)d08,of 
 whom there were 2.'i.."i<>*2 in average attendance. 
 The first superintendent of public instruction 
 was Rev. J. N*. McJilton, who served for about 
 twenty years, acting, from L849to 1866, as treas- 
 urer of the board as well as superintendent of 
 the schools, lie was succeeded, Feb. I., L868, 
 by William \\. Creery; and after his death, 
 -May 1.. 1st."), the present incumbent, Prof. 
 Henry E. Shepherd, was elected to the position. 
 
 School Statistics. — For the year ending 
 Sept. 30., 1875, the following statistics were 
 reported : 
 
 Number of schools 125 
 
 Number of pupils enrolled 12,689 
 
 Average daily attendance 24,918 
 
 Number of teachers 7<>t; 
 
 Number of months schools were open. lo 
 
 Amount paid for teachers' salaries $426,719.75 
 
 do do for school buildings 167,363.78 
 
 do do for books and stationery.. .. . 51,767.49 
 
 do do for colored schools 45,496.78 
 
 do do for other expenses 25,601.02 
 
 Total expenditures $71<i,!in*.h2 
 
 The school age is from 6 to 18 ; and the num- 
 ber of children in the city between those ages 
 was reported, in the census of 1870, as 77.737. 
 School System. — 'I lie system consists of a 
 school board of twenty members— -one for each 
 ward of the city: a city superintendent, and as- 
 sistant superintendent: acity college; two female 
 high schools; a Saturday normal class; 1!) male 
 and 20 female grammar schools; 61 primary 
 schools; 10 evening schools, of which 4 are 
 colored ; and 11 day schools for colored children. 
 The Commissioners of Public Schools, con- 
 stituting the school-board, are appointed by the 
 two branches of the city council assembled in 
 convention, one commissioner being selected from 
 each ward. Their term of office is one year, or 
 until a new board is appointed. This board ap- 
 points a superintendent of public instruction 
 whose term of office is four years, unless sooner 
 removed by the board. It also has authority to 
 employ teachers and determine their salaries, to 
 prescribe the courses of study and the books to be 
 used in the schools, and to make all needful reg- 
 ulations for the management of the same. 
 
 The studies prescribed for the primary schools 
 are spelling, definition of common words, read- 
 ing, writing, geography, the primary rules of 
 arithmetic, drawing, and music. The studies for 
 the male grammar schools are spelling, etymol- 
 ogy, reading, writing, composition, grammar, 
 geography, history of the United States, history 
 of .Maryland, natural philosophy, arithmetic, al- 
 gebra, drawing, music, and single-entry book- 
 keeping. For the female grammar schools the 
 same studies are prescribed, except algebra and 
 book-keeping. 
 
 Examination and Qualification of Teachers. 
 — Applicants for the situation of teachers in the 
 public schools must pass a written examination 
 before the committee on examinations of the 
 board. The regular time for such examinations 
 is the second Saturday in November and May of 
 each year; and a certificate is given to each suc- 
 cessful candidate, showing the result and the 
 grade. The following are the studies for each 
 position and grade : 
 
 T. For any situation in the city college or for prin- 
 cipal of a female high school, the studies required to 
 be taught. 
 
 II. For tir-t assistants of a female liiirli school, arith- 
 metic, algebra, geometry, history, natural philosophy, 
 chemistry, and moral philosophy, 
 
 III. For am other situation in a female high school, 
 the studies which the candidate would be required to 
 teach if appointed. 
 
 IV. For principal and first assistant of a male gram- 
 mar school, arithmetic, algebra, etymology, geogra- 
 phy, grammar, history, orthography, natural philos- 
 ophy, and music. 
 
70 BALTIMORE CITY COLLEGE 
 
 V. For principal and fust assistant of a female 
 grammar school, grammar, modern geography, his- 
 tory, etymology, orthography, arithmetic, and music. 
 
 VI. For principal of a primary school, grammar, 
 modern geography, arithmetic, history of the United 
 States, orthography, and music. 
 
 VII. For lower assistants in a grammar or primary 
 school, grammar, arithmetic, orthography, modern 
 geography, and music. 
 
 In addition to these, all teachers must pass an ex- 
 amination in geometry and physiology before receiv- 
 ing a certicate of any grade. 
 
 Two-thirds of the questions in each branch must be 
 answered in order to pass the candidate for any 
 grade. 
 
 No person is eligible to any position ;is teacher 
 
 in any of the schools under the following a 
 
 Professor in city college or principal of a 
 male grammar school 21 years. 
 
 First assistant in male grammar school 19 years. 
 
 Principal of female grammar school 20 year-. 
 
 Principal of a primary school '.'<) years. 
 
 First assistant in female grammar scl I ....is years. 
 
 Assistant m female high school is years. 
 
 Second assistant in grammar or primary 
 school 17 years. 
 
 Industrial Education.— Voluntary instruction 
 
 in the domestic and industrial branchesof female 
 education is given by the teachers in several of 
 the grammar and primary schools. This was 
 commenced at the requesl of the president of the 
 school board, and embraces sewing, knitting, em- 
 broidery, and some oilier useful branches, one 
 afternoon of each week being set apart for the 
 instruction. The results have been highly ap- 
 proved, as affording an accomplishment of greal 
 practical value both in the home-circle and a- a 
 means of support. 
 
 Training of Teachers. — The normal class. 
 established Sept. 12., L 874, is designed to afford 
 to newly appointed teachers of the city schools 
 instruction in the theory ami practiceof teach- 
 ing. It is under the supervision of the superin- 
 ten 'lent of public instruction. The State Nor- 
 mal School is Located at Baltimore, besides which 
 there is a normal school for the instruction of 
 colored teachers. (See M vryl wi>.i 
 
 BALTIMORE CITY COLLEGE. This 
 institution is under the care of the commission- 
 ers of public schools of Baltimore, and forms a 
 pari of the common school system of that city. 
 It was originally established as the Central High 
 School, with 16 pupils; bu1 has graduated more 
 than 500 .students. The number on the roll 
 Oct. 31., L874, was 400, and the number of in- 
 structors was II. t Jandidates for admission must 
 pass a satisfactory examination in spelling, writ- 
 ing, grammar, geography, arithmetic, and algebra 
 through simple equations. The curriculum em 
 braces the English, French, German, and Latin 
 languages (Greek optional), history, writing, and 
 book keeping, arithmetic, algebra, g netry, trig- 
 onometry, analytical geometry, calculus, physiol- 
 ogy, chemistry, physical geography, natural phi- 
 losophy, astronomy, psychology, logic, rhetoric. 
 moral philosophy, political economy, and the con- 
 stitution Of the I nited Slates. 'I lie lull course 
 
 is four years. Boys fourteen years of age, 
 whether pupils of the public schools or not. may 
 be admitted on passing the required examination. 
 
 BAPTISTS 
 
 A handsome and spacious edifice for the accom- 
 modation of this institution was completed in 
 L875. 
 
 BALTIMORE FEMALE COLLEGE, 
 at Baltimore, Md., was founded in 1849, and was 
 under the control of the Methodist Episcopal 
 < 'hutch from that date to 18G8, when, by an act 
 of the legislature, tlie Hoard of Trustees became 
 a permanent corporation ; and the Board is now 
 composed of Methodists, Episcopalians, and Pres- 
 byterians. The number of students in the in- 
 stitution is (1876) about 100; Nathan C.Brooks, 
 LL. D., has been the president of the College since 
 its foundation. It has an endowment of $2,500 
 from the State of Maryland, but tuition fees con- 
 stitute its chief support. While its course of 
 higher education has been general, it has trained 
 and sent forth L57 teachers, most of whom are 
 occupying positions of n sj io] isibility in academics, 
 high schools, and colleges. 
 
 BAPTISTS, a denomination of Christians 
 distinguished by the denial of baptism to infants, 
 and by the restriction of that rite to those 
 
 who therein profess personal faith and regenera- 
 tion. They baptize byimmersion only, and in the 
 form of their church-government are congrega- 
 tional. In i Ingland, they are known as General and 
 Particular, the former, which is by a lew years 
 the older denomination in that country, being 
 Arminian, and the latter, which composes the far 
 greater part of the denomination, being Calvin- 
 istic, in theology. They are likewise distinguished 
 as Close -Communion and Open - Communion, 
 the larger part of the denomination in England 
 being Open-Communion. Baptists came to this 
 
 country with the first settlements. In Rhode 
 [stand, their churches are its old as the colony; 
 
 and before the close of the seventeenth century 
 
 they had gathered churches in Iloston, in the 
 
 neighborhood of Philadelphia, and at Charleston. 
 
 Their rapid growth commenced about the middle 
 of the eighteenth century. At the time of the 
 Revolution, they are supposed to have had about 
 25,000 communicants. In L876, they have more 
 than 1,800,000. The great body are known by 
 the appellation Baptists ; lesser bodies are know u 
 as l-'ree-W ill. or lately as free. Seventh-Day, Six 
 Principles, and Old School. All these last con- 
 stitute a fraction only of those who bear the 
 ric name. The Disciples, or Campbellites, 
 followers of Uexander Campbell, are a I. 
 
 ion, distinguished by peculiar theological 
 views. In this country, the Baptists, meaning 
 
 1>\ this the chief denomination SO tailed, are 
 Close-Communion; that is, believing that no 
 baptism is regular which is not the baptism of a 
 believer and by immersion, and that a regular 
 baptism is to preach participation in the Lord's 
 
 Supper, they restrict their communion to the 
 members of their own churches. 
 
 Several of the ministers, in the rise of the 
 Baptist denomination in England, were univer 
 sity graduates; bul thai source hopelessly failing 
 with the Restoration, the Baptists are found. 
 with other denominations, taking measures for 
 the e I uca t ion of a ministry by means strictly their 
 
BAPTISTS 
 
 71 
 
 own. The first resort was to private tuition, and 
 Mr. John Tombes, at one tune preacher in the 
 Temple church, London,, was the teacher of 
 young ministers. In 1675 and in L689, concerted 
 action was taken in the denomination in this 
 direction. Edward Jewell of Bristol, dying about 
 L686, left a legacy which provided for instruction 
 to candidates for the ministry, and became after 
 the lapse of thirty years the foundation of a school, 
 known still later as the Bristol College. With 
 tlic growth of the denomination several other 
 colleges arose, which according to the "Baptist 
 Hand-Book for 1876'' (London. 1876) were 
 located in the following places : liawdon near 
 Leeds (founded at Horton, 1804, removed to 
 Rawdon 1859); Pontypool, (founded at Aber- 
 gavenny. 1807, removed to Pontypool, 1836) ; 
 Regents Park. London (founded 1810; removed 
 tn Regents I 'ark. 1856); Haverfordwest (found- 
 ed 1839) : Chilwell, near Nottingham (founded 
 1797, removed to Chilwell, 1861); Pastor's Col- 
 lege, Metropolitan Tabernacle, London, (founded 
 !); Llangollen, or North Wales (founded 
 1862); Manchester Baptist Theological Institu- 
 tion (founded 1866) ; The Last End Training 
 Institute for Home and Foreign Missions, Lon- 
 don i founded 1873). All these colleges are un- 
 derstood to be for the education of ministers 
 only. 
 
 In the American colonies, the denomination 
 had not grown to sufficient magnitude in the 
 Seventeenth century to undertake any denomi- 
 national work in education. In the earlier years 
 of the eighteenth century, appear their first 
 graduates from American colleges. Down to 
 and including 1776, the number of their college- 
 bivd ministers, as far as can now be ascertained, 
 was 19, of whom, however, two were not gradu- 
 ates. They had an equal or larger number whose 
 education was not greatly inferior to that of a 
 
 College course. 
 
 Notices of attempts towards the education of 
 their ministry under denominational auspices, 
 appear early in the history of the Philadelphia 
 Association, — the benefactions to Harvard Col- 
 lege of Mr. Hollis, a London Baptist, having 
 i a stimulus in that direction. Similar meas- 
 ures were taken in 1755 in the Charleston As- 
 sociation. In 1756 was opened the Academy at 
 Hop 'well, X. J., which was the cradle of Rhode 
 Zsli nd College, now Brown University, organized 
 in 1764. Academics had been opened and 
 sustained for many years by individual teachers, 
 in the half century following the establishment 
 of Brown University, but no general movement 
 in the direction of education occurred till about 
 the time of the organization of the denomination 
 for the work of missions. In this organization 
 education was embraced. To this date. 1812 — 20, 
 must be referred efforts to establish theological 
 schools in Philadelphia and New York City, at 
 Waterville, Maine, and at Hamilton, X. V.. and 
 the rise of several societies to give pecuniary aid 
 to young men preparing for the ministry. The 
 Philadelphia movement became merged in the 
 founding of Columbian College, Washington !>. 
 
 C; the New York movement in the rise of the 
 institution at Hamilton, now known as Madison 
 University, but having in alliance with it a the- 
 ological seminary; and the Waterville movement 
 in the establishment of the college, now known 
 as Colt University. With the close of that 
 decade commenced the rapid establishment of 
 colleges and universities under the auspices of 
 the denominations in all parts of the country. 
 (Georgetown College, Ky., bears the date of 1S29; 
 Denison University, Ohio, |s:il ; Shurtleff Col- 
 lege, HI., 1832; Wake Forest College, N.C.,1834; 
 Franklin College, Ind., 1834; Mercer University, 
 Ga., 1837 ; Richmond College. Ya.. 1840; How- 
 ard College,, Ala., 1843; Baylor University, 
 Texas, 18 15 : University at Lewisburg, I 'a., 1847; 
 William Jewell College, Mo., 1849; University 
 of Rochester, N. Y., 1850 ; Mississippi College, 
 1850; Furman University, S. < '.. 1851 ; Mossy 
 Creek College, Tenn., 1853"; Central University, 
 Pella, Iowa. 1853; Kalamazoo College, Mich., 
 1855 ; Bethel College. Ky.. 1856 ; McMimmlle 
 College, Oregon, 1858; University of Chicago, 
 HI., 1859; Waco University, Texas, 1861 ; Yas- 
 sar College, N. Y., 1861 : University of Des 
 Moines, Iowa, 1865; La Grange College, Mo., 
 1866; Concord College, Xew Liberty. Ey.,1866; 
 Louisiana Baptist College. Mo., 1869; California 
 ( 'ollege, 1871 ; Monongahcla College, Pa., 1871 ; 
 Southwestern University, Tenn., 1874. Of the 
 later Colleges, those which have risen to chief 
 reputation and strength, are in the Xorth, 
 Rochester, Madison and Denison, and in the 
 South, Richmond. Yassar, the chief college in 
 the United States for young women, should be 
 ranked with Baptist institutions only from the 
 fact, that the founder, an adherent of the denomi- 
 nation, made the majority of its trustees Baptists, 
 charging them, however, to make it Christian 
 and unsectarian, which they have done. Several 
 of the colleges in the above list are very weak, 
 and some hold the title doubtfully. According 
 to the Baptist Year-book of 1876, the total 
 amount of property held by the Paptist colleges 
 is |8,045,146. This must be accepted as a proxi- 
 mate statement only, and is in part probably 
 exaggerated. Brown University has a very 
 valuable library of 45,000 volumes, several have 
 libraries from 9,000 to 12,000 volumes ; Brown 
 University has a library fund of about $27,000, 
 and the University of Rochester of $25,000. 
 The total number of students in L875 -.6 was 
 t,985, of whom 1,092 were females. These num- 
 bers, however, are of uncertain significance, be- 
 cause in some cases professional, and in many 
 cases preparatory students are included. The 
 curriculum of these colleges varies in character, 
 hut corresponds in that respects to the vary- 
 ing character of American colleges in general. 
 Some of them take rank with colleges of the 
 first class. 
 
 There are in the United States six Paptist 
 theological seminaries of the highest grade, be- 
 sides departments of theology in four or more 
 colleges. Of these seminaries. Hamilton wad 
 founded in b s 2 n , Xewton in L825, Rochester in 
 
72 
 
 Rvw.Arr.n 
 
 BARNARD 
 
 -out hem in 1859, Chicago in 1867, and 
 Groan in L868. In these seminaries, there were 
 in 1875 — 76, 362 students, of whom probably 
 about ;{'ki were in the c o m pfefr 
 courses designed for graduates of colleges, are as 
 high and as thoi ) are known to theolqg 
 
 inarii-s. 
 
 There are likewise in the United States about 
 fort imies, or institutions of that grade 
 
 having other Dames, which are ts under 
 
 Bai • pices, holding property of the estimat- 
 
 ed value of 82,000,000. Among these academies 
 or other institutions, are those established under 
 the protection and patronage of the American 
 Baptist Home Mission Society, at Was 
 Richmond, Raleigh, Columbia, Angusta, N 
 ville. and New Orleans, for the education of 
 colored preachers and teachers. T. jtitu- 
 
 tioi. _ 1 1 in their infancy, are perform] 
 
 very important and 
 
 There hare been three epochs of remarkable 
 
 .rk of American 
 Baptists the middle of the 
 
 - century, had for its fruit the foundii a 
 Hopewell Academy and Brown University. I be 
 md, contempora nary 
 
 movement. the movement h 
 
 - the prolific of all the later colli . 
 
 and seminaries. 'I he third 
 the year L870, n hen the ional ed 
 
 tional convention of tfa • Ba] Id under 
 
 the auspices of the Amei Educatii 
 
 - in Brooklyn, N.T. A remark. 
 impulse \v ition to the 
 
 founding and endowment of academies, for 
 which purp . i im- of money I 
 
 since been raised. From that time, di-. 
 of education. d questions in the denomination 
 have been marked b _ I breadth 
 
 and force, the number oi students in colleges and 
 seminaries i id the raid. 
 
 money for the endowment of institutions of learn- 
 ing has becom iltaneous and unive 
 
 effort. A aecond educational convention 
 
 held in Philadelphia in 1872. In L873, the 
 American Baptist Educational Commission re- 
 commended the celebration of the Centennial of 
 natron by a common movement for the i 
 >f funds for ional pu rod that 
 
 work is now pro< 
 The Baptists have had distinguished 
 
 of whom among the dead. rrai 
 \\ :i\ land and I [oratio I!. Flacketl may be named 
 as pre-eminent. ' »f the chief benefactors of edu- 
 ■n. like he dead, may be named, 
 
 • II. Thom. i . I lollis. \ i. ■ rwn, 
 
 and Vfal The list of living names 
 
 and honorable, were there suffi- 
 
 • enumeration. 
 BARBAULD, Anna Laetitia. an I 
 wri'. noted for her excellenl 
 
 read mg children. 
 
 born in I 7 13, and di 25. I hr father 
 
 John Aikin, a I nitarian minis the 
 
 principal of in Iaxv 
 
 his children. In 1 77 l ( 
 
 married the Rev. Ro ch e m ort Barbauld, with 
 iiool for el.-ven years. Her 
 
 r noted educational publications are Early 
 Lemons for Children, H&mnu in ['rose, and 
 the pieces which die contributed for /. ,■«• <// 
 
 Home, published by her brother Or. John Aikin. 
 Her n. _■ are numerous and 
 
 varied. Mrs. BarbaukTs books for children are 
 among the best of their class, and 1. med 
 
 their popularity to the present time, of tl 
 and their authoress. Dr. Knox remarks. •• A poetess 
 
 ur own tin. irkahly distinguished by 
 
 her taste and t Ended to compose 
 
 little books for the initiation of children in read- 
 g and they seem admirably adapted to effect 
 her laudable purposi - ucatum, 
 
 by VicEsnrus Kifoi.) Her writing! were col- 
 lected and edited by her met krnn 
 London, 1825). The same lady also public 
 .1 Legacy for Young I. ond., 1826), com- 
 piled fr [rs. Barbauld'a posthun 
 
 BARNARD, Frederick Augustus Porter, 
 LL. I'.. waa born at Sheffield, W 
 1809. He graduat ale College in I - 
 
 - tutor then- i! - and. ntly, 
 
 her in the ['or the d dumb 
 
 at Hartford, and in that of New York. I 
 
 7 to 1848, he V, 
 and natural phi. m the n. 
 
 han I natural 
 
 history till I854,in which year he took orde 
 tant Rpiacopal < hurch. He 
 
 • ■r of mathemal ural philosophy, and 
 
 civil engineering in the univ usippi 
 
 from L854 to 1861, being also president of I 
 
 tution from 1856 to 1858, and chancellor 
 from 1 358 to 1861, when hi _ I. In I 
 
 he accompanied the expedition to observe 
 
 in Labrador, and in the 
 lected president of the Ameri 
 
 AsBOi iation for the Advancement of Science. He 
 one of the original members of the Nati< 
 demy oi - ted in 1 863. In 
 
 ; ( he was in < \ \ chart-printing and 
 lithography in the L'nited 
 He waa elected president of Columb 
 - I. which office he still i 1876) holds, and in 
 
 nited .-tat.- COIIIIIli.-.-io)l- 
 
 to the i rition. Dr. Barnard i.-i 
 
 I'-mtier of various learned in the 
 
 ('nited trope. During his 
 
 idence in the South, he was actively 
 
 in promoting public education. He hat been 
 a i ontributor to the ' m Journal 
 
 Education and to .-mi.i.im w- .1- •/<• I, 
 
 nf > ,,,/ Arte. Among his pubheati 
 
 u hich have related chief! tad edu- 
 
 cational may be mentioned : 1 
 
 on .! - \natytic Grammar "-itlt. 
 
 I .• ■ rtii ' hich originated 
 
 ,ii the principal institutions. 
 he deaf and dumb : 
 
 s Inch attracted much attention; 
 Education Art 
 
 ( '„:■ 
 Coast & 
 
BARNARD 
 
 BASEDOW 
 
 73 
 
 3); Vndtdatory Theory <f Light (LS62)\ 
 .1/ tchinery and Processes qftihe Industrial Arts. 
 ■to, (1868); an<l Metric System <>/ Weights and 
 1/ sures i 1 871 I. 
 
 BARNARD, Henry, LL. !>.. was born in 
 Hartford, t 't.. in I 81 1 . I [e graduated from Yale 
 College in 1830 with honor, his course having 
 been marked by diligence and success in the 
 classics and an unusual devotion to English 
 literature. The next five years were devoted 
 chiefly to the study of the law. joined to a dili- 
 gent reading of the besl English and classical 
 authors. During this period, he taught Bchool 
 for a time, and toward its close spent some 
 months in traveling through the western and 
 southern portions of the United States. In L835, 
 be visited Europe, and traveled extensively on 
 tool through England, Scotland and Switzer- 
 land, devoting his attention chiefly to the social 
 
 lition of the people. On his return, after 
 
 an absence of eighteen months, he was elected to 
 
 the Connecticut legislature and represented his 
 native city in that body for three years. There, 
 various measures relating to the social, intellect- 
 ual, and moral condition of the people engaged 
 his attention, embracing the education of the 
 deaf and dumb, and the Mind, the care of the 
 poor and insane, the reorganization of county 
 prisons, the establishment of public libraries, and 
 the completion of the geological survey of the 
 state. His great work was the originating and 
 securing the passage of an "Act to provide 
 for the better supervision of common schools," 
 which created a board of commissioners, whose 
 duty it was to investigate the condition of the 
 schools, and to endeavor to improve them by ad- 
 dresses, lectures, correspondence, the publication 
 
 of a journal, and the recommendation of appro- 
 priate measures. Mr. Barnard was a member 
 and secretary of this commission for four years. 
 until it was abolished by adverse political action 
 in L842. In this capacity the duties of the hoard 
 devolved chiefly on him; besides which he edited 
 the Connecticut Common School Journal, and 
 made four annual reports, which were marked by 
 
 it ability and were highly commended. After 
 tit teen mouths spent in a tour of the United States 
 for the purpose of collecting materials for a His- 
 tory of public schools and other means <>f pop- 
 ular education in the United Slates, be was ap- 
 pointed commissioner of public schools in Rhode 
 Island, an office which he had been instrumental 
 in creating. In five years he organized an ex- 
 cellent system of popular education, and on re- 
 tiring from office, in consequence of ill health, 
 in 1849, he received the unanimous thanks of the 
 state legislature. During this period he published 
 several volumes relating to the schools of 
 Rhode Island, and edited (1845 9) the Jour- 
 mil i if the Rhode Island Institute of Instruction. 
 From l v >n to L854, he was principal of the 
 newly established < ionnecticut state normal school 
 and state superintendent of common Bchools, 
 
 in editing the Common School Journal. In 
 L855, he was chosen president of the American 
 Association for the Advancement of Education, 
 
 and. in 1 8 56, he commenced the publication of the 
 American Journal <f Education. From l s ">7 
 
 to l v ">'.t. he was chancellor of the university of 
 Wisconsin, and in 1865 — n' president of St. 
 John's College, Annapolis, Md. Upon the organ- 
 ization of the United States bureau of educa- 
 tion, in L867, for the establishment of which he 
 had labored, he was appointed the liist com- 
 missioner and held the office till L870. Dr. Bar- 
 nard has done much toward the improvement of 
 school architecture, the organization of teachers' 
 institutes, and the establishment of high and 
 normal m1i.mi1>. Among his works are, School 
 Architecture (1839), of whichl30,000 copies were 
 sold: Normal Schools (1851 1; National Education 
 'in Europe (1854), which was Baid by the West- 
 minster Review to group " under one view the 
 varied experience of nearly all civilized countries"; 
 Educational Biography (1857); Reformatory 
 Education (1857); ObjecLTeaching (1860); 
 and Military Schools (1862). 
 
 BASEDOW, Johann Bernhard, the found- 
 er of the Philanthropin, was horn in Hamburg, 
 in 17'_'.'>. His early youth was gloomy and un- 
 happy, owing to the excessive severity of his 
 father and the habitual melancholy of his 
 mother. While still a hoy. he ran away from 
 his paternal home, and entered the service of 
 a country physician in Holstein. Having re- 
 turned to Hamburg, upon the urgent entreaties 
 of his father, he entered tin' Johanneum, where 
 
 he became noted among hisscl [-mates for his 
 
 foolish tricks. In 1711. he went to the gymnasium 
 of I [amburg, where Reimarus, the famous author 
 of the Wolfenbvitel Fragments, was among his 
 teachers. While there, he had to support him- 
 self by giving private lessons and writing occa- 
 sional poems; but a large portion of the money 
 which he earned was spent in debauchery, and 
 his own studies were conducted without system 
 or perseverance. From 1 7 1 1 to 1 7 H'.. he studied 
 theology and philosophy at the university of 
 Leipsic. He was very irregular in attending the 
 lectures: and the Wolffian philosophy, which at 
 that time predominated, brought him, as be Bays 
 
 himself. •• into a state of half-way between Chris- 
 tianity and naturalism.'' In I 7 19, he was engaged 
 by Herr von Quaalen, in Holstein, as private 
 tutor for his children ; and while in this position, 
 Worked out for his pupils a new method of 
 
 studying languages, an account of which he has. 
 
 given in a Latin dissertation, entitled " />- inusi- 
 
 tiitti i'/ optima honestioris juventutis erudiendce 
 methodo" (Kiel. 17.V2). Herr von Quaalen, who 
 was much pleased with the results of Basedow's 
 teaching, procured for him. in L 753, the chair of 
 ethics and fine arts, and subsequently that of 
 theology, at the Ritterakademie (Knights' Acad- 
 emy) at Soroe. On account of the unorthodox 
 views expressed in his work On i>ru< 
 philosophy for nil ranks, he was obliged, in 1 761 . 
 
 to remove to the gymnasium of Altona II 
 
 two other heterodox publications, Philalethiaaiid 
 Methodical Instruction in both Natural and 
 Biblical Religion, involved him in a severe con- 
 troversy with several theologians, among oth 
 
74 
 
 BASEDOW 
 
 BATES COLLEGE 
 
 Senior Gotze of Hamburg, and caused him and 
 lu's family to be excluded from the Communion. 
 In 1767, he conceived a comprehensive plan for a 
 radical reform of public education, and soon suc- 
 ceeded in securing the support of the Danish 
 minister Bernstorff, who relieved him from the 
 duties of his position, and granted him a salary 
 of eight hundred thalers. In 1768, he pub- 
 lished the Address to the Philanthropists and 
 Men of Property ', upon Schools and Studies, 
 and their Influence upon the Public Weal ( Vbr- 
 stellung an Menschenfreunde etc.) with the 
 plan of an elementary work on human knowl- 
 edge. He applied to many princes, governments, 
 ecclesiastical dignitaries, freemasons' lodges, and 
 other learned men and societies, to aid him in 
 t\w publication of the elementary work which be 
 proposed; and the success of these applications 
 was so great, that. in 1771 (Contributions amount- 
 ing to more than $10,000 had been received. As 
 
 tin' first part of the proposed Elementarwerk, 
 Basedow published, in L770, Methodenbuch (book 
 of methods), of which a second edition appeared 
 in 1771, and a third in 177.'!. The chapter on 
 Education of Princes, was omitted in the second 
 edition of the work, and having been revised 
 " with a care worthy of th i subject," it was pub- 
 lished in 1771, as a separate work, under the 
 title of Agafhocrator. Prince Albert of Dessau 
 sent the author, in return for a copy of this 
 
 book, 10(1 thalers; and the emperor Joseph II.. 
 
 a medal with his portrait. At the same time, 
 Basedow received from the ruling prince of Des- 
 sau, Leopold Frederic Francis, a call to Dessau, 
 to carry out his plan of a large reformatory edu- 
 cational institution. Having, accordingly, re- 
 moved to Dessau, he published then 1 , in 177 1. 
 his long expected Elementarwerk, in 4 vols., 
 illustrated with one hundred plates, mostly en- 
 graved by Chodowiecky. The object of this hook 
 is, as Basedow himself remarks. (I) Elementary 
 instruction in the knowledge of world and things ; 
 (2) An original method, founde 1 upon experience. 
 Of teaching children to read without weariness or 
 loss of time I Natural knowledge ; ( I) Knowl- 
 edge of morals, the mind, and reasoning; (5) A 
 thorough and impressive method of instruction 
 in natural religion, with a perfectly impartial ac- 
 count of dogmatic articles of belief; and (6) A 
 knowledge of social duties, of commerce, etc." 
 This work was translated into Latin by Mangels- 
 dorf, and into French by I [uber. 
 
 The foundation of the educational institution 
 which became famous in history as the Philan- 
 thropic was laid in Dessau, Dec. 'J7.. 1771. 
 The prince of Dessau gave the building, a 
 garden, and $12,000. The object of the in- 
 stitution was i" supply a model school in 
 which the principles of the Elementarwerk 
 could be applied in practical methods. Poor 
 pupils were received at reduced rates, under the 
 name of famulants. In I77">. the number of 
 boarders was nine, and of famulants six. Many 
 
 of the prominent scholars and educators of the 
 
 time, as Cant, Oberlin, Nicolai, and Zolhcoffer, 
 took a profound interest in this novel institution. 
 
 which, as Basedow promised, was to be free from 
 sectarian bias and to lie carried on without a re- 
 sort to corporal punishment ; gymnastic exercises 
 were to be afforded and the work uf learning was 
 to be made " three times as short, and three 
 times as easy as it usually is." The expectations 
 raised by Basedow's enthusiastic announcements 
 and promises wire, however, not realized. As 
 early as Dec, 1774. Basedow was obliged to 
 transfer the supreme management of the institu- 
 tion to Campe, under whom the number of 
 pupils rose to 50. For a short time, Basedow 
 was again placed at the head of the institution: 
 but, in 177S, he had finally to leave it. In 1784, 
 the periodical of the PhUanlhropin, entitled Ped- 
 agogical Conversations il>i'' padagogischen Un- 
 terhaUungen) was discontinued: and. from that 
 time, the institution declined rapidly and was 
 soon entirely abandoned. The teachers, however, 
 were scattered through all parts of Germany, ap- 
 plying in various ways the principles of the 
 founder. Basedow devoted the last years of his 
 life to writing theological and educational works. 
 lie died, duly 25., L790, at Magdeburg. His last 
 words were, " I desire to be dissected for the 
 benefit of my fellow-men." Like Rousseau, 
 Basedow gave a powerful impulse to the discus- 
 
 sion of new educational theories; and he re- 
 sembled Rousseau, too. in being entirely unfitted 
 for a practical educator. There was much in 
 his method of teaching that appeared strange, 
 eccentric, and even farcical: but. on the other 
 hand, those who most severely criticise his defects, 
 rea lily acknowledge that his life-long labors in 
 behalf of education were not in vain. His pur- 
 pose vas, without doubt, honest and unselfish. 
 Like Rousseau, he labored ardently, and with 
 
 considerable success, for the removal of many un- 
 natural restraints, which, at that time, were so 
 common. Physical education, according to his 
 system, was attended to in a manner quite original 
 
 at that time: and the favorite principle of Base- 
 dow that the scholars should barn with love, and 
 nol with repugnance, had a most beneficenl in- 
 fluence upon the practical methods of other 
 educational institutions. See Lai her, Ge- 
 schichte tier Padagogik, vol. n. (translated in 
 Barnard's German Educational Reformers); 
 Max Muller (grandson of Basedow) in AUge- 
 meine Deutsche Biographie, art. Basedow; 
 Meyer, CJiaracter und Schriften Basedow's 
 (2 vols., Hamburg. 1791 -1792); Quick, Edu- 
 cational Reformers (London. 1868, and Cin- 
 cinnati, L874). 
 
 BATES COLLEGE, at Lewiston, Me., was 
 established in L863, by the Live Baptists, and 
 
 named in honor of Benjamin I''., bales of boston. 
 
 w ln> contributed $200,000 to its endowment. It 
 has handsome grounds, three tine college build- 
 ings, ami a president's residence. The value of 
 its grounds, buildings, and apparatus is about 
 
 $200,000. In L874,'it had a corps of S instruct- 
 ors, and 100 students in the different coll. 
 classes, of whom .'! were females. Nine different 
 schools and academies ad as preparatory schools 
 for this college. There is here an endowed schol- 
 
BAVARIA 
 
 BELGIUM 
 
 75 
 
 arskip for a lady student, supposed to be the first 
 instance of such an appropriation in any of the 
 
 Colleges of this country. There are ten state 
 scholarships, giving tuition to ten students, to be 
 selected by the governor; and in awarding these 
 scholarships, preference is required to be given to 
 the children of those who have fallen in defense 
 of their country, and always to those who are 
 indigent and meritorious. There is a professor- 
 ship of mental and moral philosophy, named 
 after Asa Reddington, LL. 1.)., of Lewiston, who 
 
 re a large amount toward its endowment. 
 The Cobb professorship of logic and Christian 
 evidence was named in honor of J. L. II. Cobb, 
 of Lewiston, who contributed the chief portion 
 of the funds for its endowment. The various 
 libraries, — college, theological, and societies', con- 
 tain about 9,000 volumes. The president of the 
 institution is (1876) Rev. 0. B. Cheney, D. D. 
 The annual tuition fee is $36. 
 
 BAVARIA. See Germany. 
 
 BAYLOR UNIVERSITY, at Independ- 
 ence, Tex., was founded in L845 by the Baptists. It 
 bad, in L874, a corps of 5 instructors. 2 endowed 
 professorships, 81 students, and a library of about 
 3,000 volumes. It has a theological as well as a 
 collegiate department. The value of its grounds, 
 buildings, etc. is estimated at $35,000 ; its endow- 
 ment is about $16,000. Rev. Win. C. Crane, 
 D. D., LL. I)., is (1876) the president. The an- 
 nual tuition fee is from $30 to ■Slid. 
 
 BEACH GROVE COLLEGE, at Beach 
 Grove, Tenn., was founded in 1868. It had, in 
 187-1. a corps of 5 instructors, and 106 students 
 hi its preparatory, and 18 in its collegiate depart- 
 ment. Its grounds, college buildings, and ap- 
 paratus are valued at $30,000. M. Parker, A. 
 It., is (1876) the president. It is non-sectarian. 
 
 BEBIAN, Roch Ambroise Auguste, a 
 noted teacher of deaf-mutes, was born on the 
 island of Guadeloupe, in 1 789, and died there in 
 1 8 •'! 1. He was godson of the abbe Sicard, so 
 1 mil for his efforts in behalf of the instruc- 
 tion of deaf-mutes, and under him was prepared 
 for the task which he afterwards assumed. After 
 the publication in 1S17, of his h'xxo/' sur les 
 aourds-muets et sur le langage naturel, he was 
 appointed a professor at the royal institution; 
 but the jealousy and opposition excited toward 
 him by his zeal for innovation and reform, com- 
 1 him to resign, in 1825, after which he re- 
 turned to Guadeloupe. His Eloge historiqw 
 Jhtbbe de ! Epee obtained a prize from the acad- 
 emy. Bisother important publications are, Mimo- 
 graphie, ou Essai d'ecriture mimique (1822), 
 and Manuel d'enseignement pratique (1827). 
 
 BEDE, or Becla, styled the venerable Bede, 
 a celebrated Saxon ecclesiastic and scholar, and 
 the earliest English historian, was born in Dur- 
 ham, England, about 677, and died in 7."».">. He 
 possessed an excellent character, was humble, 
 diligent, and truly pious ; and rose to great emi- 
 nence in the church through his learning and 
 literary ability. His biography, written by his 
 pupil Cuthbert, says of him, that having been 
 brought by his relations, in his seventh year, to 
 
 the abbot Benedict Biscop, in Wearmouth, he 
 devoted all his energies to the stmly of the Script- 
 ures, and occupied his spare time in learning, 
 teaching, and writing. He spent his entire life 
 in the monastery of Wearmouth in study and 
 teaching, and acquired a wide reputation both as 
 an instructor and a scholar. Many students 
 came from afar to hear him ; and others, who 
 could not come in person, requested of him, by 
 letter, explanations of difficult biblical passages. 
 Of his method of teaching, nothing is recorded; 
 
 but it consisted, without doubt, of lectures to the 
 
 students. There is no doubt that he possessed 
 
 an attractive delivery, and the excellence of his 
 diction may be seen from his literary works. 
 His studies were, by no means, confined' to theol- 
 ogy, but extended to every science, as we see 
 from Ids work on orthography and his works De 
 arte metrica, Liber de schematis et irqpis sacrce 
 scripturae, and De natura rerum, the latter 
 treating of physics, astronomy, and geography. 
 The greatest of his works, the Ecclesiastical 
 History of the English Nation, written in Latin 
 {Historia Ecclesiastica Gentis Anglorum), was 
 translated into Anglo-Saxon by King Alfred, 
 and is still the best authority for the period on 
 which it treats. Bede's complete works, as far 
 as extant, have been published by Dr. Giles 
 (London, 1843 — 1844). A new English trans- 
 lation appeared in 1871. — See also Weight, Bio- 
 graphia Britannica Literaria, vol. i. (London, 
 1842). 
 
 BELGIUM, a kingdom of Europe, has an 
 area of 11,373 sq. m.. and a population, in 1^7.'!. 
 of 5,253,821. Almost the entire population be- 
 longs nominally to the Roman Catholic Church. 
 The number of Protestants is variously estimated 
 at from 10,000 to 26,000; that of the Jews at 
 2000. The influence of the Catholic Church on 
 legislation is greater than in any other country 
 of Europe, and the Catholic party, which aims at 
 shaping the legislative functions of the national 
 assembly in accordance with the heads of the 
 ( 'hureh. has controlled the destinies of the nation 
 during the greater part of the time which has 
 elapsed since the establishment of Belgian inde- 
 pendence. The Belgians are almost equally 
 divided into two nationalities, the blemish, a 
 branch of th i race, and the Walloon, an 
 
 offshoot of the French. The Flemings are 
 estimated at about 49,8 per cent of the popula- 
 tion, and prevail in the provinces of Hast Flan- 
 ders (92,4 per cent of the total population), Ant- 
 werp (92,4 p. a), Limburg (88,8 p. a). West 
 Flanders (88,0 p. a), and Brabant (56,1 p. a), 
 while the Walloons have a majority in the prov- 
 inces of Liege (89.6 p. c), llainauit (95.8 p. a), 
 Namur (99.1 p. a), and Luxemburg 84.7 p. i 
 The country constituting the present kingdom of 
 Belgium formed part of the great Carlovingian 
 
 empire, utter the dissolution of which, the Scheldt 
 
 formed the boundary between France and Ger- 
 many. Subsequently it was united with Bur- 
 gundy, conjointly with which it was inherited by 
 the kings of Spain. The peace of Ctrccht (1713) 
 gave it to Austria, from which, in 1 71)4. it was 
 
76 
 
 BELGIUM 
 
 conquered by the French. On Xapoleon's abdi- 
 cation in L814, it was united with Holland, with 
 which it remained until 1S,'{0, when a successful 
 revolution established its independence. The 
 first schools after the introduction of Christian- 
 ity were connected with convents and collegiate 
 churches, and some of them, as the schools of 
 Liege. Gemblours, Dornick, Ghent, etc., achieved 
 a high reputation. Elementary schools were 
 established in many places by the monastic order 
 of the llicronymites or Hieronymians. During 
 the rule of the I hikes of Burgundy, the famous 
 university of Louvain was founded (in 1426), 
 which soon occupied a trout rank among the high 
 schools of Europe, and at one time was attended 
 by 6000 students. I hiring the Dutch rule, a 
 thorough system of inspection, reports, and full 
 publicity, was instituted; a normal school was 
 established at Liege in lslT. and in 1822 all per- 
 sons were forbidden to exercise the functions of 
 a school-master in the higher branches of public 
 schools who were not authorized by a central 
 hoard of examination. On the other hand, how- 
 ever, the efforts of the Dutch government to re- 
 press the use of the French language and the in- 
 fluence of the Roman Catholic Church, produced 
 an intense and general dissatisfaction, and became 
 one of the | iriniary causes of the revolution of 
 L830, and the permanent separation of Belgium 
 from Holland. The overthrow of the hate 1 
 Dutch rule was naturally followed by the aboli- 
 tion of the educational laws introduced by the 
 Dutch government. In the place of the strict 
 control of the entire educational system by the 
 state, the most absolute freedom of instruction 
 was now introduced. The cl argy founded a 
 number of schools, which remained under the 
 exclusive control of the church, while the Liberal 
 party supported, in opposition to the church 
 schools, the public school system. In 1836, a 
 
 compromise between church and state was ar- 
 rived at. The government gave to the clergy an 
 
 influence Upon the state schools, while the church 
 Subjected all its schools which received Support 
 from the commune, the government, or public 
 funds, to the inspection of the state. Since L865, 
 the educational question has been the subject of 
 a very animated controversy between the Liberal 
 and the Catholic parties. The Liberals founded 
 an association called Ligue de I'enseignemeni, 
 which aimed at emancipating the state schools 
 
 from the influence of the church. 
 
 Primary instruction is based on the law of 
 Sept. 23., 1842. This law provides that every 
 commune (the smallest territorial and civil suh- 
 di\ ision of the state) must have at least one public 
 
 elementary school, unless the instruction of all the 
 
 children is sufficiently provided for to the satis- 
 faction "1 the government, in private, endowed, or 
 denominational schools. Tin' elementary school 
 
 must he free In tin poor, and may I"' made free 
 
 to all by vote of i he communal council. The 
 primary school must give instruction in religion 
 and morals, in writing, in the mother-tongue of the 
 children (French or Flemish), and in arithmetic. 
 The law provides for a superior elementary school 
 
 in every large city. In ISoO, this class of schools 
 was changed into secondary schools. The schools 
 are managed by the communal council, and the 
 expenses required for their support are included 
 in the local taxes. The teachers are chosen by 
 the communal council from among candidates 
 who have for at least two years pursued the stud- 
 ies of a normal school. They must receive a 
 certificate of qualification from a board consist- 
 ing of a lay and a clerical member, the former 
 appointed by the state and the latter by the ec- 
 clesiastical authorities. The communal council 
 may suspend the teacher for three months, the 
 provincial inspector may, on consultation with 
 the communal council, dismiss him. The inspec- 
 tion of primary schools is exercised both by the 
 state government and the ecclesiastical author- 
 ities. The king appoints a cantonal inspector 
 for each canton, and a provincial inspector for 
 each of the nine provinces. The cantonal in- 
 spector is appointed for the term of three years, 
 lie must visit each school of his district at least 
 twice a year, and report to the provincial inspect- 
 or. The latter must visit each school at least 
 once a year, and report to the minister of the in- 
 terior. All the provincial inspectors assemble 
 once a year as a central commission, under the, 
 presidency of the minister of the interior. 'I he. 
 bishops also appoint cantonal and diocesan in- 
 spectors, and must once a year report to the 
 minister of the interior on the state of moral 
 
 and religious instruction. In the Protestant and 
 
 Jewish schools a dele-ate of the consistory super- 
 intends the religious instruction. The govern- 
 ment annually publishes a list of text-books that 
 
 may be used. From this list each teacher can 
 make his selection. 'I here is no special ministry 
 of public instruction, but all educational matters 
 are assigned to the minister of the interior, with 
 a separate bureau. Tin' state has established two 
 normal schools for primary teachers, a Flemish 
 
 sel I at Lierre, and a Walloon school at Nivelles. 
 
 'I here are. besides, seven normal departments an- 
 nexed to higher primary schools, and seven epis- 
 copal normal schools, which have been placed by 
 
 the bishops under government Supervision. 'I he 
 courses of instruction in the state normal schools 
 are for three veal's, and in the episcopal schools 
 for four. The pupils tire usually required to 
 board and lodge upon the school premises* 
 Teachers' conferences, generally occupying only 
 
 one day. and never more than three, are held 
 quarterly during vacations. and conducted by the 
 provincial and cantonal inspectors. 
 Secondary instruction was re-organized in 1 s .»<i. 
 
 The secondary schools are of two grades. The 
 higher grade, known as athenceums, includes two 
 sections, One tor classical instruction which cor- 
 responds to the German gymnasium, and is for 
 six years, and one tor industrial instruction, 
 corresponding to the realschoolot Germany, and 
 
 being tor four years. The superintendence of sec- 
 ondary instruction belongs to a general inspector 
 and two special inspectors. The law of 1850 
 
 provides for a council of secondary instruction 
 
 [conseil de perfectionnement), consisting of at. 
 
BELGIUM 
 
 BELL 
 
 77 
 
 [east 8 ;'.nd not more than 10 members. The 
 higbesl grade of instruction is that dispensed by 
 the universities. Of these, there are four. Two, 
 those of Ghent and Ldege, belong to the state; 
 one, that of Louvain, to the l>ishops; and one, 
 that of Brussels, to an association of liberals. 
 Ghent, Ldege, and Brussels have each four facul- 
 ties; Louvain has five. There is a council of 
 superior studies (conseil de perfectionnement de 
 Venseignement supirieur), consisting of the 2 
 rectors and 8 professors of the state universities 
 (1 from eaeli faculty), the school inspectors, and 
 gome private individuals. Industrial instruction 
 is given in institutions of three grades; higher 
 instruction, in the special schools of arts, and 
 manufactures and mines, attached to the Uni- 
 versity of Liege, in those of civil engineering, 
 and of arts and manufactures, annexed to the 
 University of Ghent, and in the superior in- 
 stitute of commerce at Antwerp; intermediate 
 instruction in the industrial departments at- 
 tached to all the athenaeums and high schools ; 
 primary instruction, in the industrial schools for 
 workmen. The latter are very numerous, lace- 
 making alone being taught in 586 schools. There 
 is a military school for training officers of all 
 arms, regimental schools for the instruction of ig- 
 norant soldiers, and a school for the education of 
 soldiers' children. There are 2 veterinary schools, 
 3 conservatories of music, 72 schools of drawing, 
 painting, sculpture, and architecture, a national 
 observatory, 2 schools for deaf-mutes, 1 for the 
 blind, 6 for orphans, and 3 for young criminals. 
 
 Education in Belgium is not compulsory, and 
 the number of children receiving no kind of in- 
 struction is still large. Of the conscripts there 
 were, in 18-45, 31)1 out of 1000, who could neither 
 read nor write ; in 1863, 302. 
 
 The salaries of primary teachers were fixed by 
 a law of 1863 as follows: (1) in schools with 
 more than 100 scholars, minimum salary 1,050 
 francs; (2) in schools with from 60 to 100 schol- 
 ars, 950 francs; (3) in schools with less than 
 60 scholars, 850 francs. The chief town of every 
 province has a special savings-bank for teachers 
 (caisse de prevoyance), into which every teacher 
 is required annually to pay a certain fixed amount 
 from his salary, and which also receives contribu- 
 tions from tin' provinces, the state, and private 
 individuals. Every teacher who is sixty years 
 old and has served thirty years is entitled to a 
 life pension. The full pension of teachers is also 
 paid to their widows and to their orphans till the 
 latter have reached their Kith year. 
 
 Of the four universities of I ielgium, the free 
 Catholic University of Louvain had, in 1872, 
 the largest uumbefof students (901); the free 
 iMberal) University of Brussels had 583; the 
 State University at Liege 436, and the State 
 University of Ghent 210; the Royal Academy 
 of Pine Arts at Antwerp, 1576 students. The 
 Conservatory of Music at Brussels was attended 
 by 675 pupils, that of liege by 789. The number 
 of teachers in the primary schools, in 1 S7-1, was 
 10,629, of whom 7.032 were laymen, and 3,5'.i7 
 members of religipus orders and clerics. The 
 
 latter class has increased since 1851 by 1 .098, the 
 former only by 624. The schools for adults num- 
 bered L99.957 pupils, 9,219 more thaninl848, 
 being ;5.98 per cent of the population. The 
 aggregate expenditures made for primary instruc- 
 tion, in L874, were as follows: national govern- 
 ment, 6,643,415 francs; provinces 1.5s 1. 010 f r . ; 
 
 c mimes 5,863,561 fr. ; total L4,090,986 fr. 
 
 To what extent illiteracy still prevails may be 
 inferred from the fact that, in 1874, of 43,311 
 men who were drafted for the militia. 8, 727 could 
 neither read nor write. 1,976 could only read, 
 15,726 could read and write. L 6,228 had a higher 
 education, and of 651 the degree of instruction 
 was unknown. — See Barnard, National Edu- 
 cation, part ii., p. .'569 to 401; Juste, Histoire de 
 V instruction publique en Belgique (1840) ; Raj>- 
 portstriennaux,publiesparle gouvernement sur 
 Venseignement des trois degres; Annuaire stati- 
 stique de la Belgique. 
 
 BELL, Andrew, D.D., a distinguished edu- 
 cationist, the author of the system of mutual 
 or monitorial instruction sometimes called the 
 Madras system, was born at St. Andrews. Scot- 
 land, in 1 753, and died at Cheltenham, England, 
 in 1832. He was educated at the University 
 of St. Andrews, went to America, and after a 
 short residence there, returned and took orders in 
 the Episcopal Church, in 1787. he embarked 
 for India, and on his arrival at Madras, was ap- 
 pointed chaplain to the English garrison, and also 
 superintendent of the school then recently estab- 
 lished for the education of the orphan children 
 of British soldiers. Finding great difficulty in 
 obtaining the assistance of competent teachei-s 
 iu this arduous work, he resorted to the expedi- 
 ent of conducting the school by means of the 
 pupils themselves. This method was partly 
 suggested to his mind by his seeing, on one of 
 his morning rides, the children of a Malabar 
 school sitting on the ground and writing with 
 their fingers iu sand. He immediately intro- 
 duced this method of teaching the alphabet into 
 his school, and finding the ushers averse to the 
 innovation, gave the A-B-C class to a boy whom 
 he selected as especially fitted for the task. Tin's 
 boy, whose name was John Erisken, and who 
 was probably the first monitor in English educa- 
 tion, was the son of a soldier, and then about 
 eight years old. The success of this lad induced 
 Dr. Bell to extend the experiment. He appointed 
 other boys to teach the lower classes : and soon 
 afterwards applied his system of monitors to the 
 
 whole school (1791). This was continued under 
 his superintendence till his return to Europe, in 
 L796. (See Monitorial System.) After his 
 arrival in England, he drew up a full report of 
 his school, which was published in London, in 
 1797, under the title of An Experiment in 
 Education, madeatthr Malr Asy/iutl. Madras; 
 
 suggesting a System by which a School or 
 Family may teachitself under tkesuperintt ndence 
 of the Master or Pare/it. This pamphlet at 
 tracted little attention, until, through the effo 
 of Joseph Lancaster, the monitorial system of 
 instruction invented by him was introduced into 
 
78 
 
 BELL 
 
 BELLES-LETTRES 
 
 the schools of the Dissenters. A controversy as 
 to the respective merits of the systems of Bell 
 and Lancaster then sprung up. the friends 
 and adherents of each claiming for it not only 
 superiority in merit, but priority of invention. 
 The idea of mutual instruction was, however, 
 not new. Indeed, it is as old as Lycurgus ; and 
 Lancaster was too candid a man to claim an ab- 
 solute originality for his plan. Tn his first pam- 
 phlet, published in 1803, he says : •• I ought not 
 to close my account without acknowledging the 
 obligations 1 lie under to Dr. Bell; I much re- 
 gret that I was not acquainted with the beauty 
 of his system till somewhat advanced in my 
 plan. If 1 had known it, it would have saved 
 me much trouble and some retrograde move- 
 ments." This controversy was as much sectarian 
 as educational, as the rival systems were favored, 
 the one by the Dissenters, and the other by the 
 Church of England, [t, however, served a use- 
 ful purpose, in giving an impetus to the prog 
 of education. In L811, a society, called 
 National Society, was formed for the establish- 
 ment of schools in connection with the Church 
 of England, on Dr. Bell's plan; and Dr. Bell 
 was appointed to superintend the enterprise, a 
 duty which engrossed much of his time and ef- 
 forts until his death. By this means, the Madras 
 system obtained an introduction not only in 
 England, but in Scotland and Ireland, as well 
 as in some parts of the United States. For the 
 purpose of bringing it to the notice of educators 
 on the continent, I>r. Bell made an exteusb ■ 
 tour, in the course of which he visited the schools 
 of Pestalozzi and Fellenberg, with the former of 
 whom he was quite charmed. " lie has much 
 that is original," he remarked, " much that is ex- 
 cellent. If he had a course of study — if he 
 were to dismiss his masters, and adopt the 
 monitorial system and the principle of emu- 
 lation, he would be super-excellent." In the 
 mean time, the analogous system of Lincaster 
 had been carried into effect in numerous schools 
 established by an association of Dissenters, styled 
 The British and Foreign School Society; and 
 much active rivalry existed between the two so- 
 cieties. [Sec Lancaster, Joseph.) During his hie. 
 Dr. Bell received several lucrative offices in tin' 
 Church, from which he was enabled to amass a 
 large fortune. The whole of this, amounting to 
 £120,000, he bequeathed to various towns in his 
 
 native country for the endowment of schools, lie 
 founded Madras College, at St. Andrews, and a 
 Lectureship, at Edinburgb 1 rniversity, on the prin- 
 ciples of teaching, and on the monitorial system. 
 ( in Ins death, in I B32, he was buried in Westmin- 
 ster Abbey, the highest dignitaries of the Church 
 
 and many distinguished noblemen attending as 
 
 mourners. An eleganl monument marks his 
 resting-place, with an inscription in which he is 
 
 characterized as the •• Author of the Madias 
 System." See Soi iimv. Life of lh>- "Rev. An- 
 drewBell, D.J). (Lend., L 844); the Edinburgh 
 Review, voL xxxm.; Lettch, Practical Educa- 
 tionists mill their Systems of Teaching (Cla^- 
 gow, lb"i'>). 
 
 BELLES-LETTRES is a French expres- 
 sion for polite Iiterature,i. e., books and language 
 in so far as they are shaped by the idea of beau- 
 ty. It has been used in English to designate a 
 somewhat vague class of studies connected, more 
 or less nearly, with the mastery of literature on 
 its esthetic side. Some of the colleges in the 
 United States have had a professor of belles- 
 lettres. He lias taught rhetoric and elocution 
 mainly: hut poetry, drama, prose fiction, criti- 
 cism, classical philology, the humanities in gen- 
 eral, are all in his province. Blair's Rhetoric was 
 long widely used as a text-book in this branch ; 
 and several editions of it are still kept in print. 
 — Esthetics (the science of beauty) and philol- 
 ogy have, of late years, made great advance, and 
 new textdiooks are needed to set forth modern 
 methods of studying literature and language, so 
 as to understand their beauties. The elements 
 of the study should be taught early. In the 
 kindergarten or other infant school, the children 
 
 should be taught to admire and examine beau- 
 tiful objects, to notice the qualities which give 
 them beamy, to name the objects and the qual- 
 ities : they should be told anecdotes in which 
 beautiful persons do beautiful acts, and the 
 words expressive of beauty should be spoken 
 with tones and gestures which may give them 
 lively associations and a permanent place in the 
 memory; passages of verse or rhythmical prose 
 in which beautiful thoughts are fittingly ex- 
 pressed, and of which the teacher is fond, should 
 be repeated till they are caught by the pupils. 
 Such passages may be among the noblest of our 
 literature. It is not necessary that they should 
 be wholly comprehended by the Learners. They 
 
 may be regarded as music, producing compar- 
 atively vague intellectual processes, but quick- 
 ening powerfully the emotional clement of es- 
 thetic culture. Language and literature should 
 
 had the youth of cultured races to a more rapid 
 development than the natural growth of the 
 
 understanding. Beautiful and noble words thus 
 learned by heart will serve as molds in which 
 the expanding intellect may How and form. This 
 early oral instruction may be happily aided l>\ 
 
 Learning to read in illustrated books, in which 
 
 beautiful pictures are made to interpret and en- 
 force the thought. Some of the magazines for 
 children afford such aid in a <_mod form : such 
 
 as The Nursery (Boston); St. Nicholas (N.Y.). 
 Children taught in this way will be ready to 
 pursue the study of belles-lettres when they 
 
 have learned to read with ease. The simplest 
 method used in our schools is the reading in 
 
 class of selections of characteristic works of the 
 most admired authors in our own and other 
 classic Languages. Textdiooks of selections for 
 this purpose are: lb dson's Textrbooh of Poetry, 
 lb oso\'s Text-book of Prose (Boston); Under- 
 wood's British Authors ; Undeewood's Amer- 
 ican Authors (Boston); Typical Selections from 
 the best English Authors from the I6ih to the, 
 \'Mh Century (Clarendon Press, Oxford); most 
 scries of School Readers have a class book of 
 literature, and some of them are well selected 
 
BELLES-U<;TTRKS 
 
 19 
 
 and arranged. The kind of beauty earliest appre- 
 ciated is that of adventure. Short stories please; 
 such as fables and parables. The style must be 
 simple, the movement rapid. Lyrics or orations 
 expressing tender or noble feelings come next. 
 The appreciation of epic and romantic narrative 
 will grow rapidly; minute delineation of char- 
 acter, the drama, and the modern novel will then 
 follow, ami finally descriptions of works of art, 
 Bcenery, and nature. The liking for ornate lan- 
 guage, figures of speech, rhythmical effects, and 
 other arts of style, generally needs special culti- 
 vation to make it strong in young leaders. 
 Whatever be the passages chosen to read, the 
 teacher aiming to give instruction in belles- 
 lettres will direct the attention of the class to 
 beautiful thoughts, figures, and expressions, and 
 will have them read with .care and expression, 
 so as to bring out the thought and feeling 
 of each passage. He may also mention criti- 
 cisms which have been made on the passage, 
 tell of occasions on which it has been quoted or 
 imitated, quote similar passages in other authors 
 or the same author, and have parts committed 
 to memory. In such studies, more is caught 
 than taught. The teacher must feel the beauties 
 and communicate the feeling by looks and tones. 
 Pupils who read with expression should also be 
 used to heighten the interest of the exercise. A 
 single good reader will often stimulate a whole 
 class. Comment and criticism should be mainly 
 used for pointing out beauties, and exciting ad- 
 miration for them. Appreciative reading, com- 
 ment, and memorizing may thus be made a de- 
 lightful introduction to literature, leading natur- 
 ally to further study in two main directions, — ■ 
 the historical and the philosophical. The historical 
 is the easier in its beginnings. Courses of lectures 
 on the history of literature, and text-books giving 
 material for historical and biographical study in 
 connection with selections for reading, are to 
 be had. Cleveland's Compendium of English 
 Literature (\. Y.) includes the most eminent 
 authors from Sir John Mandeville to Cowper. 
 The same author has published similar works on 
 the Literature of the VMli Century, and on Amer- 
 ican Literature (N. Y.). Somewhat like them 
 are Shaw's History and Specimens of English 
 Literature (edition by Backus, N. Y.) ; and 
 Chambers's Manual of English Literature. 
 Larger works for the teacher and for reference 
 are < Ihambers's Cyclopaedia of English Literature 
 (N.Y.); and DuvcKiNCx's Cyclopaedia if Amer- 
 ican Literature I Phila.); and indispensable to the 
 thorough teacher is Allibone's Dictionary of 
 Authors (Phila.), which is a great store-house of 
 biography, bibliography, and criticism gleaned 
 •from many sources, and quoted at length. With 
 these aids, the student of belles-lettres must be 
 led to point out how each successive beauty in 
 the passages which are read is related to the 
 character, education, and times of the author; 
 and by well-directed study he may acquire, in 
 time, clear ideas of the representative works of 
 literary art in the great eras of history, — first of 
 English history, then of the history of other 
 
 nations. This will require the reading of many 
 more books than can usually be read in school. 
 The teacher should, however, see that many are 
 read. This can best be done by requiring writ- 
 ten exercises of such a kind as to assure him of 
 the fact without taking much of his time. He 
 may have brief outlines of stories handed in, 
 as, of some of the Canterbury Tales; or the gist 
 of the critical views of some author on a partic- 
 ular point, as Coleridge's in regard to Hamlet; or 
 the brief mention of ten of the most interesting 
 passages in a book; as, in the Pilgrim's Progress, 
 (1 ) The Slough of Despond, ('!) The Interpreter's 
 House, (3) The Fight with Apollyon, and so on. 
 Or he may ask for biographical facts on which 
 works of art are based ; as, what events in Mil- 
 ton's life suggested passages in Paradise Lost. 
 Writing should also be freely used to stimulate 
 original production ; imitative production is, to 
 be sure, what is to be expected of the young stu- 
 dents of belles-lettres ; but they should use their 
 pens freely, in such a way as the authors they ad- 
 mire or their own powers may prompt. If they 
 show signs of talent, the teacher should encourage 
 them. The meters of the poets may easily be 
 imitated; and it is only by practice in production 
 that the secrets of style are attained or thoroughly 
 understood. The student of belles-lettres will 
 soon learn that the English is only one among 
 many classic literatures. He will wish to become 
 acquainted with Homer, Virgil, and Dante as 
 well as with Milton ; with Boccacio as well as 
 Chaucer; Goethe as well as Shakespeare. He will 
 wish to learn Greek, Latin, Italian. French, Ger- 
 man. (See the articles on these and other lan- 
 guages.) No literature can be mastered without 
 mastering the language in which it was original- 
 ly written ; but much may be done by transla- 
 tions. Several text-books of such selected trans- 
 lations are available : Longfellow's Poets and 
 Poetry of Europe (Phila.) ; Elton's Specimens 
 of Greek and Roman Poets (Phila.) ; Weight's 
 The Golden Treasury of ancient Greek Poetry 
 (Oxford) ; Ramage's Beautiful Thoughts from 
 Greek Authors; same from Latin Authors; from 
 German andSpanish; from French and Italian 
 (London) ; Angel's French Literature (Phila.); 
 Berard's Spanish Art and Literature (Phila.) ; 
 Botta's Universal Literature (Boston); and The 
 Hebrew Poetry in the English Bible. But in 
 order to render this historical study as valuable 
 as possible, it should be accompanied with the 
 critical study of literary works relating to the 
 principles of art, or the laws of beauty. Such 
 study requires a knowledge of descriptive rhet- 
 oric and prosody, and of the technical terms of 
 esthetic criticism; so that the students may be 
 able to classify and name the facts which come 
 before them, and talk of them with perspicuity. 
 They should, for example, when set to study a 
 In autiful passage, recognize the rhetorical forms 
 which occur in it, such as similes, metaphors, 
 personification, etc ; if it is poetry, they should 
 recognize the poetical forms, such as the meter, 
 with its management of the feet and caesuras, of 
 rhyme and alliteration ; they should be able to 
 
80 
 
 BELLES-LETTRES 
 
 BENEDICTINES 
 
 apply the ideas of order, proportion, form, ex- 
 pression, and the like, to single beautiful pas- 
 sages, or to whole works of art. This presup- 
 poses the study of the science of beauty. (See 
 Esthetic Culture.) The most effective general 
 theory of the beautiful, for use in study of this 
 kind, is that which looks to variety in unity to 
 explain all eminent beauty. Take, for example, 
 Shakespeare's Julius Gcesar for study. On read- 
 ing the first scene, let the class point out the 
 variety (1) among the characters, — as between 
 the tribune and the populace, between the loud 
 and the gentle tribune, between the simple car- 
 penter and the punning cobbler, and the like: 
 (2) in the action, — the meeting, the haranguing. 
 the dispersing of the crowd : (3) in the mode of 
 thought, — now comic, now tragic, foolery and elo- 
 quence; (4) in the language, part prose, part 
 verse, cobbler's puns, tribune's tropes, and t lie like. 
 This simly of variety directs attention to all the 
 particulars of beauty, the elements by which the 
 sensibilities, always craving novelty, are kept 
 pleasurably excited. After these elements have 
 been faithfully collected, let the pupils seek for 
 the unity by which all this variety is made to 
 gratify the reason. Let them point out the central 
 thought in the play : give an outline of the plot 
 by which the thought is developed; and then 
 show how each scene is necessary to bring out 
 the thought, and how each character, each event, 
 each particular beauty, is fitted for its place, and 
 contributes to the one end. Teachers may find 
 such an examination of Milton's Paradise Lost, 
 in Addison's papers in the Spectator. Topics 
 and questions to guide in such study, are mi- 
 nutely given in March's Method of Philological 
 Stud// of the English Language (N.Y.). Fqr 
 other aids, especially for editions of particular 
 authors, see English, tiik Study of. — The beau- 
 ty of language is not all included in the study 
 of it as combined in connected discourse. In 
 single words, also, when we examine their ety- 
 mology and history, much poetry is to be found. 
 This is an interesting department of belles-lettres, 
 and the study of essays in it is a favorite one 
 with most good teachers of language and liter- 
 ature. Among these, may be mentioned, Trench, 
 Ou the Study of Words ; and Glossary of En- 
 glish Words; and Db Yerk, Studies in English 
 (\. Y., 18G7). These books afford many hints 
 which the teacher may use to enliven the study 
 of literature. Teachers should also be familiar 
 with critical essays on art. and introduce them 
 to the acquaintance of their pupils; these consti- 
 tute a part of belles-lettres. Such are lb skin's 
 Lectures 071 Art, Of which selections have been 
 made foi reading (\. Y.): WinCKELMANN'S His- 
 tory of Ancient Art (Boston); Lessing's Laoc- 
 oon | Boston); ■' imeson's Sacred and Legendary 
 Art l to I 'ii i. To these may be added similar 
 books oi criticism on literary art ; such as those 
 of DeQi incey, Lowell, Emerson ; II irt'b Spen- 
 ser and the Fairy Queen V V.. IHTu Bud- 
 son's Shakespeare (Boston, L851 — 6); White's 
 Shakespeare's Scholar | V Y., 1854); Bchlbg 
 Lectures on Literature (I'hila.). 
 
 BELOIT COLLEGE, at Beloit, Wis., was 
 founded by the ( 'ongregationalists, in 1845. In 
 1 ST-4, it had a corps of 11 instructors, 146 stu- 
 dents in the preparatory, and (if) in the collegiate 
 department, and a library of about 9,000 volumes. 
 Its productive funds amount to $120,000, and 
 the value of its grounds, college buildings, and 
 apparatus, to $90,000. The president of the in- 
 stitution is (1876) the Bev. A. L Chapin, I>.I). 
 
 BENEDICTINES, Schools of the. The 
 monastic order founded by St. Benedict of Nun-da, 
 at the beginning of the 0th century, occupies a 
 prominent place in the early history of education 
 in Christian Europe. Parochial and communal 
 schools could not thrive well at a time when the 
 people at large felt no desire for education, when 
 the number of teachers was so small, and when 
 the few schools that were established, in connec- 
 tion with the parish churches, had to suffer so 
 much from constant wars. The education offered 
 by the Benedictine order was, at first, intended 
 only for boys Avho were to enter upon a monastic 
 life. According to the fundamental rule of the 
 order, the separation of the monk from t lie world 
 should begin as early as possible. Boys, called 
 jui, ri oblati, were admitted when only five years 
 of age. The discipline was strict. The rod was 
 u>fi\ to punish offenses against punctuality and 
 order, and deficiencies in recitations: more serious 
 offenses were sometimes punished by the scourge. 
 Latin was a prominent part of the instruction, 
 and almost exclusively the language of conversa- 
 tion. Beading, writing, and the singing of psalms 
 were the prominent subjects of instruction ; but 
 the course also included rhetoric, dialectics, arith- 
 metic, astronomy, geography, natural science. and 
 medicine. Special attention was given to history, 
 as is proved by the numerous annals and chron- 
 icles issued from the Benedictine convents. As 
 few schools outside of the Benedictine convents 
 could lie found, which offered equal opportunities 
 
 for the education of children, the monks were 
 soon requested to admit also boys not devoted to 
 monastic life. These applications came especially 
 from noble and wealthy families, and wen 
 numerous that it was SOOll found necessary to 
 
 provide special rooms, and probably also special 
 
 courses of instruction, for each class of boys 
 
 (scholce interiores and exteriores). — The in- 
 struction in the elementary branches was im- 
 parted by a teacher called ScholosticUS / in the 
 larger schools and for lusher studies, learned 
 
 monks, called magistri, wen- appointed, under 
 
 whose direction other monks, called SenioreS, 
 acted a- assistant teachers. Many convents of 
 tin' Benedictine nuns had similar schools for 
 girls, though they were not so numerously at- 
 tended as those of the monks. Sometimes these 
 Schools of the convents also admitted boyB. 
 
 With the decay of the Benedictine order these 
 
 schools declined. Convent education, after the 
 I'.'tli Century, did not retain the ascendency 
 
 which it had formerly enjoyed; and when- it was 
 still preferred, it passed toa large extenl into the 
 
 hands of other monastic orders. (Sec Co.wKNT 
 Schools.) 
 
BENEKE 
 
 BENGEL 
 
 81 
 
 Among the most famous schools of the Bene- 
 dictines, were Monte Casino. Bobbio, Koine, and 
 Milan, in Italy: Toms, Corbie, Fleury, which at 
 onetime hail 5,000 students, Clermont, Ferrieres, 
 Fontenay, Reims, Aniane, Marmoutier, 'Lobbes, 
 in Prance and Belgium; St. Gall, Reichenau, 
 Fulda, Fiit/.lar, Hersfeld, Mayence, Treves. 
 Prum, Lorsch, Weissenburg, Ratisbon, Salz- 
 burg. Korvei, in Germany and Switzerland. 
 In England, St. Peter's Convent at Canterbury 
 bad a wide-spread reputation, through Theodore 
 of Tarsus and his companion Hadrian. The 
 double convent of Wearmouth and Yarrow, 
 Which was founded in 673 by Benedict Biscop, 
 gave to western teachers the learned and illustrious 
 B de. (SeeBEDE.) York, which owed its celebrity 
 to Egbert and Adelbert, counted among its 
 pupils the celebrated Alcuin. (See Alcuin.) 
 Though the prominent influence which the 
 Benedictines, at the beginning of the middle age, 
 exercised upon the education of Catholic Europe, 
 was never recovered, they still continue to con- 
 duct a number of educational institutions. At 
 present (1876), they have a number of colleges 
 and gymnasia in the United States, in Austria, 
 Switzerland, and several other countries. 
 
 BENEXE, Friedrich. Eduard, an ingenious 
 I rerman writer on the art of education, was born 
 at Berlin, Febr*. 17.. 1798. He studied theology 
 and philosophy at the universities of Halle and 
 Berlin, and finally decided to devote himself 
 wholly to philosophy in order to reform it. He 
 became a lecturer (privatdocent) on philosophy 
 at the university of Berlin in 1820, and, placing 
 himself wholly upon the stand-point of empiri- 
 cism and denying the possibility of a priori cogni- 
 tions, at once boldly attacked the system of Hegel 
 who at that time was all-powerful. The Prus- 
 sian government, in 1822, deprived him of the 
 right of lecturing at the university, because 
 as the minister of public worship, Alten- 
 stein, personally explained to him, a philosophy 
 which did not derive everything from the ab- 
 solute, could not be recognized as a philosophy 
 at all. Beneke removed, in 1824, to the university 
 of Gottingen, whence he returned, in 1827, to 
 Berlin, where he was appointed after the death 
 of Hegel, in 1832, extraordinary professor of 
 philosophy. He suddenly disappeared, March 1., 
 1854, and a year later his corpse was found in the 
 canal at Charlottenburg. It has never been ascer- 
 tained whether he committed suicide, or whether 
 his death was caused by an accident. Most of 
 the numerous works of Beneke are of a philosoph- 
 ical character ; as an educational writer, he 
 became first known, in 1835, by a work, entitled 
 Theory of Education and Instruction (Erzie- 
 hungs- und Vhterrichtslehre), which made a 
 profound impression among teachers and friends 
 of education. The system of education pro- 
 posed by him is based exclusively on psychology, 
 and he claims for it the character of a wholly 
 empirical science. He found many enthusiastic 
 admirers, one of whom, Dressier (in Hergang's 
 Realenct/clopddie, i, p. 2(14), says of him: All 
 former achievements in the province of pedagogy 
 6 
 
 were surpassed by Beneke. Through him the 
 education of man has gained a character which 
 was formerly unknown — certainty of success. 
 Previous successes were accidental, but the psy- 
 chology of Beneke has given us a power over 
 nature which does not fall behind the power ex- 
 ercised by physicists and chemists. The number 
 of adherents of this system is small, though the 
 genius of Beneke is universally acknowledged. 
 Among (he other educational works of Beneke, 
 one published in L836, and entitled Our Uni- 
 versities and what they need, attracted great 
 attention. 
 
 BENEVOLENCE, good-will, general and 
 habitual kindness of disposition in our feelings, 
 not only toward each other, but toward the lower 
 animals, is a trait of character which should re- 
 ceive a careful cultivation in the education of the 
 young. Children, in general, are not naturally 
 benevolent. Their undeveloped sympathies, their 
 active propensities and love of sport, and their 
 proneness to what is called by phrenologists " de- 
 structiveness", incline them to acts of selfish- 
 ness and cruelty. In order to check this tendency, 
 their sensibilities should, as much as possible, be 
 aroused ; they should not be subjected to harsh 
 or inconsiderate treatment, and they should not 
 only read and hear stories that awaken their 
 sympathies, but should be made to observe ob- 
 jects of compassion that require their active aid ; 
 and they should be incited and encouraged in 
 every possible way to self-sacrifice in relieving the 
 sufferings of others. In their conduct toward 
 each other, they should be habituated to lay 
 aside their resentments, to forgive injuries, to put 
 the kindest and most considerate construction 
 upon the acts of their companions, and to dismiss 
 from their minds all suspicions and jealousies, as 
 well as all distrust that is not based upon indis- 
 putable facts. The quarrels of children may for 
 this purpose become the means of wholesome 
 discipline in instruction ; since the disputants 
 themselves may be made to feel the desirability 
 of mutual forbearance, and their associates, by 
 being brought in to aid in reconciling them, may 
 be impressed with the beautiful character of the 
 peace-maker. In the treatment of the lower ani- 
 mals by children, there is much occasion for this 
 kind of training ; and the skillful teacher will not 
 fail to make use of the numerous incidents of 
 school life to impress this virtue upon the child's 
 character. (See Moral Education.) 
 
 BENGEL, Johann Albrecht, a celebrated 
 German theologian and educator in Wurtenibere, 
 was born in 1(>87, and died in 1752. lie is 
 chiefly famous as a theological writer, being well 
 known as one of the most prominent representa- 
 tives of German pietism, lie was, from 1713 to 
 1711. a very successful teacher at a theological 
 seminary at Penkendorf, and while there intro- 
 duced many educational reforms. The course of 
 studies which he drew up for his school, in con- 
 cert with his colleagues, attracted great attention. 
 From an educational point of view, his writings 
 are valuable as illustrating the peculiar position 
 which pietism occupies in the history of German 
 
82 
 
 BENTLEY 
 
 BIBLE 
 
 pedagogy. ITis life was written by his son-in- 
 law. Ch. Burk. — See also Palmer, Eoangeiische 
 Pddagogik. 
 
 BENTLEY, Richard, considered the best 
 classical scholar England has ever produced, was 
 born at Oulton, in Yorkshire, in 1662, and 
 died at Cambridge in 1 742. lie was educated 
 ,-it Cambridge University, but subsequently, while 
 tutor of the son of Dr. StUlingfleet, he pursued 
 his classical studies at Oxford. His most cele- 
 brated work was his Dissertation on the JEpisUes 
 of Phalaris, in which, in controversy with the 
 most eminent scholars and literary men of bis 
 time, he proved that the Epistles were spurious. 
 "This was," says I lolland, "the first gnat literary 
 war in England;" and Bentley showed such pro- 
 found scholarship, acute criticism, and masterly 
 logic, that he not only vanquished his opponents, 
 but achieved for himself a reputation throughout 
 Europe. In 1700, he was appointed Master of 
 Trinity College, Cambridge, in which he con- 
 tinued till his death ; but his arrogance and rapaci- 
 ty involved him in the mosl bitter and protracted 
 quarrels and lawsuits, and at one time came near 
 ignominiously depriving him of his position. Ho 
 published critical editions of many classical 
 authors, of great merit and value among which 
 his Horace was the most elaborate and the most 
 popular. II is edition of Milton's Paradise Lost 
 (I 732) was, however, quite unworthy of his fame. 
 His edition of 1 1 omer he did not live to complete. 
 Bentley did a most valuable service not only to 
 classical scholarship, but to historical criticism, 
 the latter of which he established on a new basis. 
 While as an official he was arbitrary, exacting, 
 and severe, in private life he was courteous and 
 amiable. — See T. II. Monk, Life of Bentley 
 (1830); Hakti.ky Coleridge. Lives of Northern 
 Worthies (edited by his brother, London, 1852); 
 I>k Quincey, Essays on Philosophical Writers, 
 vol. ii. (Boston, L85 l.i 
 
 BEREA COLLEGE, at Berea, Ky., was 
 founded in 1858. It supplies the means of edu- 
 cation to students, both white and colored, male 
 and female. In L875, it had 1 I instructors and 
 271 students; of the latter, 157 were males and 
 1 1 I females; L26 white, and 1 l"> colored. Of the 
 
 colored students, f>7 were females. It includes a 
 ] preparatory and a collegiate department. All 
 the female sttiileiits are included in a ladies' de- 
 partment, under the special supervision of a lady 
 principal. No separate course of study is ar- 
 For females, but both sexes recite together 
 whenever their studies are the same. There is 
 
 also a normal department with a special course 
 
 for teachers; also a commercial course. The 
 college is well supplied with apparatus and has 
 a library of nearly 2,000 volumes. The college 
 buildings are spacious and elegant, particularly 
 
 the ladies' Mall, erected in 1st.'!. Rev. E3. li. 
 Pairchild (1875) is the president of the institu- 
 tion. Tli • annual tuition I. e 18 $1 It. 
 
 BERNHARDI, August Ferdinand, one 
 of th ' mosl eminent schoolmen of Prussia in the 
 
 beginning of this century, was born in L769, 
 iu Merlin, and died in L820. He became a 
 
 teacher in the Fried 'rich Wefd&r Gymnasium, in 
 Merlin, in 1791, and director of the same in- 
 stitution in 1808. In the same year, he gave 
 I 'estalozzi's method of teaching arithmetic a trial, 
 enlarged the exercises, and finally introduced 
 it into his school. His success as director of 
 the gymnasium was remarkable, the number of 
 pupils increasing from !>7 in 1808, to 4(H) in 1812. 
 Many of the most distinguished men of Prussia 
 proceeded from his school. He found no time 
 for the publication of large works: but some of 
 his essays and Lectures have been published under 
 the title of A view of the Organization of the 
 Learned /Schools. The programmes edited by 
 him in 1809, 1810, and 1811,give his views upon 
 the Number, importance, and relation of the sub* 
 jecis taught in a gymnasium, also on Hie First 
 principles of method, «dA on the First principles 
 of discipline. In later essays, published from 
 Is] | to 1816, he gave a fuller exposition of the 
 proper course of studies for a gymnasium ; and 
 the ideas which he developed in regard to this 
 subject, have gained for him the reputation of 
 being one of the best writers on the German 
 gymnasia. 
 
 " BETHANY COLLEGE, at Bethany, W. 
 A'a.. was established in 1841 by the Rev. Alex- 
 ander Campbell, the founder of the sect of Map- 
 fists, called Disciples. This institution had. in 
 1873, a corps of 9 instructors, and 123 students 
 in the collegiate department. Its productive 
 funds amount to $60,000, and the value of the 
 college property. — grounds, buildings, etc, is 
 estimated at $250,000. The president of the 
 college is (1876) W. K. Pendleton. 
 
 BETHEL COLLEGE, at Uusselville. Ky., 
 was founded by the Bethel Baptist Association 
 of South-western Kentucky, in Is pi. as a high 
 school; and. hi L856, it was chartered as a cot 
 lege. Its successive presidents have been M. T. 
 Mlewitt to 1861 : h'ev. Geo. Hunt, from L863 to 
 1864 : Prof. J. W. Rust, from 1864 to 1868; 
 Noah K. Davis.from 1868 to 1873. The die. 
 cipline of the college is now under the direction 
 of Leslie Waggener, as chairman of the faculty. 
 In the winter of 1861 — 2, the college buildings 
 were used as a hospital by the Confederate fores 
 
 lying at Bowling Green. The endowment funds 
 amount (1875] to #85,000, besides which it has 
 a beneficiary fund of about $8,000, and its real 
 estate, in addition to the college buildings and 
 
 -rounds, is valued at $85,000. It contains 
 schools of Latin, Greek, mathematics, natural 
 science, English, mental science, biblical knowl- 
 , and theology , in which, in 1874 — 5, there 
 were about 350 students; of whom !»7 were in 
 the collegiate department. The school of English 
 is very complete, affording to its students a 
 knowledge of the Anglo-Saxon language, as a 
 basis for a critical knowledge of English gram- 
 mar and literature. The tuition fee 18 $60 per 
 annum. 
 
 BIBLE (Qr. (kf3Ma, books), the sacred scrip- 
 tures of the Christians. All churches which 
 recognize Christ as their founder, whatever may 
 be their denomination, tierce in regarding tho 
 
BIBLE 
 
 83 
 
 Bible as the divinely inspired book which con 
 tains the tenets of Christian belief and of Chris 
 tian ethics. The Bible is divided into two parts, 
 called the Old and the New Testament. The 
 former is regarded as holy writ, not only by 
 
 Christians, but also by the .lews. 'There is not 
 
 an entire agreement in regard to the number of 
 books constituting the Old Testament. Several 
 books are regarded by the Catholic Church as 
 belonging to, and partaking of, the inspired 
 character of the Scriptures, which Protestants 
 generally regard as a class of works highly 
 venerable and useful, but not of divine origin. 
 
 The Catholic Church calls these books delltcro- 
 
 eanonical, the Protestants apocryphal, or, collect- 
 ively. the Apocrypha. The X sw Testament is the 
 same in the Catholic* Church as in Protestant 
 
 churches ; but one ( 'hristian sect, the Abyssinian 
 Church, recognizes, in addition to the books ac- 
 cepted by both Catholics and Protestants, a 
 number of others as a part of the New Testa- 
 ment. 
 
 Catholics and Protestants, though accepting the 
 same books as the sources of divine truth, differ 
 widely in the interpretation of their contents. 
 Most of the biblical Protestants regard the Bible 
 as the only source of Christian faith, and main- 
 tain that, whatever differences of opinion may 
 exist in regard to some particular doctrines, 
 the great fundamental truths of Christianity are 
 set forth in it so clearly, as to supersede fully 
 the need of any other standard of faith. The 
 Catholic Church, on the other hand, holds that 
 the Bible was not given by God to man to be the 
 only guide for the formation of his religious be- 
 lief, but that, for that purpose, an infallible 
 church was instituted, whose office it is to ex- 
 plain to the faithful the true meaning of the 
 Bible. 
 
 From the different position which these two 
 large denominations of Christians assume in re- 
 gard to the Bible, it follows that they must teach 
 a different way of using it. Thus, the Protestant 
 churches consider it a matter of prime import- 
 ance that every child should become acquainted 
 with the Bible as the only infallible source of the 
 pure word of < rod, and should learn, as soon as 
 possible, to read and understand it ; while the 
 Catholic Church enjoins upon its members to 
 keep constantly in mind, in reading the Bible, 
 that only the infallible church possesses the key 
 to its true meaning. The Protestant churches 
 earnestly desire that the Bible should be placed in 
 the hands of every Christian: and they have, 
 therefore, founded in all Protestant countries 
 Bible Societies, designed to carry out this object, 
 and thus have already fully succeeded in mak- 
 ing the Bible the most widely circulated book in 
 the world. The Catholic Church prefers the use 
 of annotated Bibles, or of selections from the 
 Bible, to that of the Scriptures without note and 
 comment. . When, in the thirteenth century, the 
 Albigenses translated the Bible into their ver- 
 nacular languages, and referred their members to 
 the text of the Bible as contradicting the teach- 
 ings of the church, the synod of Toulouse, in 
 
 l'J'J!». forbade laymen to read the Bible in the 
 vernacular language ; and, in modern times, the 
 efforts of the Bible societies have been repeatedly 
 condemned by the popes. In Protestant coun- 
 tries, the reading of the Bible has been a very 
 prominent agent in the development of public 
 education. The Bible having become, through 
 
 Luther and other Reformers of the sixteenth 
 
 century, the principal book for the church and the 
 
 home-circle, the instruction of children in this 
 book continued for a long time to lie the chief 
 object of popular education. Children were 
 taught to read in order that they might lie able 
 to peruse the bible ; ami instruction in the dog- 
 matic tenets of the Church, as well as instruc- 
 tion in history, geography, and other branches, 
 was secondary to the reading of the Scrip- 
 tures. In process of time, the relation of Bible 
 reading to other branches of education became 
 greatly modified : but, wherever public schools 
 still have a distinctively Protestant character, the 
 reading of the Bible is retained as a special 
 branch of instrnction. Protestant educators dif- 
 fer in regard to the question, whether it is pref- 
 erable to place the entire Bible, or only editions 
 specially abridged for the use of children [school- 
 bibles), into the hands of the pupils. Both vie w> 
 have found able advocates ; but the use of the 
 entire Bible has thns far been favored by the 
 legislation of most of the Protestant states of Eu- 
 rope. On the other hand, educators have generally 
 agreed in recommending to teachers not to re- 
 quire the entire Bible to be read consecutively 
 by the pupils ; but to leave out those portions 
 which are either inappropriate or too difficult for 
 children. 
 
 The Catholic Church is opposed to the intro- 
 duction of the Bible without note or comment 
 into schools, and substitutes for it the use of bib- 
 lical historic^ and selections from the Bible. 
 Recent Catholic works on education express the 
 wish, that to the reading of suitable selections 
 from the Bible greater prominence should be 
 given than has heretofore been the case. See 
 Rolfus & Pfister, Real-Encyclopddie des V.r- 
 ziehungs- tnnl Unterrichtswesens nach k>itlio- 
 lischen Principien, art. Bibel. 
 
 Bible Question. — In the United States, the pub- 
 lic schools are of an undenominational character, 
 being intended to receive children of all kinds of 
 religious belief or unbelief. The question whether 
 the reading of the Bible is to be retained in 
 the public "schools, has been and still is the sub- 
 ject of animated discussion and agitation. The 
 decision of this question is mostly left to the 
 
 local boards of education, which may prescribe, 
 
 allow, or forbid the reading of the bible. The 
 
 legislation of several of the states of the I Fnion pro- 
 rides, however, that no ordinance shall be passed 
 by any local board of education forbidding the 
 use of the Bible. The majority of the Protes- 
 tant churches still favor the reading of the 
 Bible, though some of the most prominent eler 
 gynien have, of late, taken the ground thai 
 would be unjust to request the children of Cath- 
 olics, Jews, or Non-Christians to take part in re 
 
84 
 
 BIBLE HISTORY 
 
 BLACKBOARD 
 
 ligious exercises to wliich their parents object. 
 The Catholics and Jews, together with all the op- 
 ponents of Christianity, generally demand the ex- 
 clusion of the Bible from the schools. In the 
 city of Cincinnati, a resolution by the board of 
 education forbidding the reading of the Bible in 
 the public schools, led, in 1869, to a legal contest 
 which lasted four years. The superior court of 
 < I'neinnati, in 1870, decided against the board of 
 education ; but the supreme court of Ohio, in 
 June 1873, reversed this judgment, and sus- 
 tained the Cincinnati board of education. The 
 school board of Chicago, in 1875, followed the 
 example of Cincinnati, and forbade the reading 
 of the Bible in the public schools. The question 
 has also been vehemently agitated in the city of 
 New York. — .See The Bible in the Public Schools; 
 Arguments in tl/» case of Joint I). Minor et al. 
 ccrs/is the Board of Education of the Oity of 
 Cincinnati et al. (Cincinnati, 1870) ; Bournk, 
 History of the l'nl>lir School Society (X. Y., 
 1870) ; Boesk, Public Education in the Oity of 
 New York (New York, 1869); T. II. Huxley, 
 The School Boards, in Critiques and Addresses 
 (London, and X. Y.. 1*7.'!): Gbtmke, Use of the 
 Bible in Common Education, in Amer. Annate 
 of Education, vol. in. (1833), and The Bible as 
 a Class Book, in Addresses (1831.) 
 
 BIBLE HISTORY, or Biblical History. 
 Tlic connected history of the events narrated in 
 the Bible is in many schools, both Protestant and 
 Catholic, a part of the prescribed religious in- 
 struction. The method of teaching it greatly 
 varies according to the age of the scholars. 
 While children of the primary grade are taught 
 only the most notable events of sacred history. 
 in language adapted to their age, more advance I 
 students are introduced into a full understanding 
 of the Bible. In the compilation of text-books 
 for this study, the authors have sometimes 
 endeavored to give the whole narrative as much 
 as possible in the words of the Bible, so as to 
 make the book, in fact, an abridgment of the 
 Bible. Others have deemed it better to pay less 
 attention to retaining the words of the Bible, 
 and to look, in the first place, to making the sub- 
 ject as interesting, attractive, and intelligible to 
 children as possible. Germany, where Biblical 
 history (Jiib/ische (lesehichte) is generally adop- 
 ted as a pari of the course of instruction in 
 public schools of various grades, has a very ex- 
 tensive literature on the subject, including many 
 manuals for teachers. Of scientific theology, 
 Bible history forms an essential part, and is di- 
 vided, like the Bible itself, into two sections, the 
 history of the Old, and the history of the New 
 
 Testament. 1* tonus the connecting link between 
 
 exegetical and historical theology, explaining, on 
 the one hand, the contents of the Bible, and. on 
 the other hand, treating and elucidating them 
 
 the same as any other historical Subject, 
 
 Bible history may also be viewed as a history 
 of the volume containing the sacred writings of 
 the Christian church. Lb tlus.sense.it treats of 
 the origin ot the several hooks composing the 
 Bible, and oi then- collection in the canon. The 
 
 works treating of this subject are generally en- 
 titled Introductions to the Bible; but a number 
 of prominent theologians, rejecting this title as 
 unsuitable, have treated of this subject under 
 the heading, History of the Bible, or History of 
 the Biblical Revelation. The most noted works 
 of this class are: Reiss, Die Geschichte d*>r heii. 
 Schriften des iY. T. (1853, 3d. edit. 1860); Gue- 
 ricke, Gesdmmtgeschichte des N. T. (Leip.,18.">4j: 
 Haneberg, Versuch einer Geschichte der bibli- 
 schen Offenbarwng (liatisbon, 1850). 
 
 BIRCH, as the name of the tree from which 
 rods or twigs were formerly obtained for the in- 
 fliction of corporal punishment, is often used as 
 denoting this species of punishment ; and the 
 tree is frequently referred to in connection with 
 school-keeping in the olden time. Shakespeare 
 speaks of the "threatening twigs of birch": and 
 Mienstone, in The Schoolmistress, thus refers 
 to the tree and its connection with school-man- 
 agement : 
 
 "And all in sight doth vise a birchen tree, 
 Which Learning near her little dome did stow, 
 Whilom a twig of small regard to see, 
 Though now so wide its waving branches flow, 
 And work the simple vassals mickle woe; 
 For not a wind might curl the leaves that blew, 
 But their limbs shudder'd, and their pulse boat low, 
 And as they look'd, they found their horror grew, 
 And shajied it into rods," and tingled at the view.'' 
 
 Doubtless, the toughness and elasticity of the 
 1\\ igs of the birch made them, before the intro- 
 duction of the rattan, very useful implements 
 for the purpose of school chastisement. (See 
 Corporal Punishment.) 
 
 BLACKBOARD, an important piece of 
 school apparatus now in use in all classes and 
 grades of schools. It is generally constructed of 
 wood, and is either attached to the wall of the 
 room, or made to stand on an easel or revolve in 
 a frame. Instead of blackboards, wall slates are 
 now very frequently used, which, although much 
 more expensive, are to be preferred on account 
 of their durability. Sometimes, a portion of the 
 wall itself is painted black, or covered with 
 liquid slating, for this purpose : and at the pres- 
 ent time a kind of slated cloth is manufactured, 
 which being attached to the wall answers every 
 purpose of a blackboard. 
 
 The blackboard tor the use of the teacher in 
 giving his instruction or explanations to the 
 whole school or class, should. for the sake of con- 
 venience, be placed near his desk and in front of 
 the pupils. It is a great advantage also to have 
 sufficient blackboard surface to admit of its use 
 by all the pupils of a class, or by sections of it. 
 This is especially desirable in higher instruction: 
 but even in elementary district schools will he 
 found to be quite desirable. Borne id' the pupils 
 
 id a school can lie employed in writing, drawing, 
 or working out arithmetical problems on the 
 blackboards, while others are engaged in oral rec- 
 itation. There is scarcely any branch of in- 
 struction, or any kind of teaching, from the ob- 
 ject lesson of the primary school to the lecture 
 of the college professor, in which the use of the 
 blackboard is not found to be almost indispcu- 
 
BLACKBURN UNIVERSITY 
 
 BUND 
 
 85 
 
 aable. In teaching mathematics, it has an espe- 
 cial value. Scarcely a teacher, at the present 
 
 day, in the most remote country school-house, 
 would think of teaching arithmetic without a 
 blackboard. But it is a most important aid 
 also in teaching writing, drawing, geography, 
 
 grammar, composition, history, and music: in- 
 deed, in every thing that admits of, or requires, 
 an ocular demonstration addressed to a large 
 Dumber of pupils. Blackboard drawing can be 
 
 made very instructive and interesting, particu- 
 larly when crayons of different colors are used. 
 In some schools this kind of drawing is carried 
 to great perfection. Map-drawing, or rapid 
 map-sketching, on the blackboard, is also very 
 useful in teaching geography. Recitations on 
 this subject may be conducted by this means. 
 One of the pupils draws the outline of the state 
 or country which is the subject of the lesson ; 
 another fills in the rivers ; the next, the cities. 
 etc., till the map is complete. As the study of 
 maps depends so largely on the proper and at- 
 tentive use of the eye. this method of blackboard 
 instruction cannot fail to be quite effective. 
 
 Blackboard illustration will also prove very 
 effective in the oral teaching, by a series of les- 
 sons or lectures, of abstract subjects other than 
 mathematics, such as logic, metaphysics, mental 
 and moral philosophy, etc. By this means the 
 divisions and subdivisions of the subject, with 
 their exact logical relations, are presented to the 
 mind through the eye, and a much stronger, 
 dearer and more durable impression is thus 
 male. For an excellent example of this kind 
 of teaching, see M.vrk Hopkins, An Outline 
 Study of Man (New York, 1876). See also 
 W. A. Alcott, Slate and Blackboard Exercises; 
 Wickersham, School Economy (Philadelphia, 
 1868). 
 
 BLACKBURN UNIVERSITY, at Carlin- 
 ville. 111., was organized in 18(i7, by the Presby- 
 terians. It has a preparatory, a collegiate, an 
 eclectic, a scientific, and a theological course, to 
 which both sexes are admitted on equal terms, 
 and receive the same honorary degrees on the 
 completion of the course pursued. There were, 
 in 1873, 257 students, of whom 141 belonged to 
 the preparatoiy and 11(> to the collegiate depart- 
 ment : and the corps of instructors numbered 1 .'5, 
 exclusive of 4 endowed professorships. The value 
 of its grounds, buildings, etc. is $90,000 : and its 
 productive endowment $90,000. The president 
 of the institution is ( 1 k 7 r. j Rev. J. W. Barby, 
 D.I>. The annual tuition fee is $25. 
 
 BLIND, Education of the: The blind 
 constitute, in every country, a numerous class of 
 atHicted persons for whom special instruction is 
 needed. Blindness, or loss of sight, is either con- 
 genital, or is caused by accident or disease oc- 
 curring after birth. The statistics of different 
 countries show that the number of blind persons 
 in all lias been quite huge; ami. in modern 
 
 times, this has led to considerable effort with the 
 view to afford to these unfortunates the means 
 of education, not only for their mental improve- 
 ment, but to train them to independent support, 
 
 so that they may be lifted out of the pauper class, 
 and be enabled to earn a respectable livelihood. 
 
 There is a great diversity in the number of 
 blind persons as compared with the population 
 in different countries. Tims, according to the 
 census of 1870, the total number of blind persons 
 in the United States was 20.320, or 1 in I !»()() of 
 the population. In England and Wales, the 
 proportion is reported as I to 1,037: in France, 
 1 to 938; in Greece and Turkey, 1 to 800; in 
 Iceland, 1 to 300 ; and in Egypt. 1 to 200. In 
 all countries, the number of males among the 
 blind exceeds that of the females: and. in the 
 United States, about one half of the blind are 
 over 48 years of age. The proportion of those 
 born blind to those who become so after birth is 
 quite small. 
 
 The ancients appear to have had a certain de- 
 gree of reverence for the blind, to some of whom 
 they attributed the gift of prophecy; but it was 
 not until the Middle Ages that any provision was 
 made for their care and protection : and it was 
 reserved for modern times to afford them the 
 means of education. The Hospice des Quinze- 
 Vingts (Hospital for the 300), in Paris, founded 
 by Louis IX. in 12G0, is supposed to be the first 
 public asylum established for the blind, the ob- 
 ject of the French king being to provide a re- 
 treat for the soldiers of his army who had lost 
 their eyes in Egypt, during the crusade which he 
 led against the Moslems. This institution still 
 exists, and has an annual income of $80,000. It 
 is, however, as it was originally, only an asylum, 
 affording no means of instruction ; indeed, it was 
 not until the 16th century that any processes 
 were devised for this purpose. But little was ac- 
 complished in this direction till 1784, when Va- 
 lentin Hatiy, incited by the example of the abbe 
 de LEpe'e in connection with the education of 
 deaf-mutes, commenced his exertions to find an 
 efficient method for teaching the blind. Having 
 succeeded with a few individuals, by the use of 
 raised letters, he opened a small school, which in 
 1791 was taken under the patronage of the gov- 
 ernment, and afterward became the Royal Insti- 
 tution for tin- Blind. He subsequently founded 
 institutions for the blind at St. Petersburg and 
 at Berlin. About the same time, similar insti- 
 tutions were established in England and Scot- 
 land ; and, after the example of that at Berlin, 
 in many of the cities of (Jermany. There are 
 now 1(> public institutions for the blind in Eng- 
 land, the oldest of which is the School for the 
 Wind, in Liverpool, founded in 1791 ; 4 in Scot- 
 laud, of which the Asylum for Industrious 
 Wind, in Edinburgh, was founded in 1793 ; and 
 4 in Ireland, the oldest being the Richmond 
 National Institution, in Dublin, founded in 1810. 
 In London. 23 private institutions have been 
 established by charitable endowments. France 
 has 13 schools for the blind, besides the Hospice 
 drs Quinze -Vingts. There are between thirty 
 and forty institutions for the blind in (Jcrniam , 
 of which the oldest is that commenced at Berlin, 
 in 1806, by Hatty. The Netherlands, Belgium, 
 and Switzerland have similar institutions. In 
 
86 
 
 BLIND 
 
 the Netherlands, they are supported entirely by 
 voluntary subscription. In Belgium, an asylum for 
 the blind is said to have been founded at Bruges 
 in L305; but the first school was opened at Brus- 
 sels in lS.'J.'b hi Spain, there are two institutions 
 for the blind, one at Madrid, and the other at 
 Barcelona- There are also institutions of the 
 kind in Italy, and a school for the instruction of 
 the blind at Rio Janeiro, commenced in L854. 
 The first institution for the blind in the United 
 
 States — the Perkins Institution at Boston, was 
 chartered in 1829, but not opened till August, 
 1832. It was named after Col. Thomas II. 
 Perkins, who gave his mansion for its accom- 
 modation. It was under the direction of Dr. 
 Samuel '<'. Howe until his death in 1876. The 
 New York Institution for the Blind was opened 
 March L5., L832. The following table of statis- 
 tics has been compiled from the Report of the 
 U. S. Bureau of Education for 1875. 
 
 Institutions for the Blind in the United States. 
 
 
 
 5 
 - .= 
 
 
 tU-9 
 
 » « 
 
 "2 i. • c 
 A a « * S a 
 
 .- - •-- •_ - - 
 
 
 NAME. 
 
 LOCATION 
 
 
 Control 
 
 ^ = c 
 
 
 t p SB 
 
 
 
 
 
 °.«8 
 
 £ ~ z 
 
 ' - ~ Z u c3 
 
 
 
 
 
 State 
 
 * 1 
 
 *> P - — 
 
 
 
 Inst, for Deaf and Dumb, ami Blind. Talladega, Ala... . 
 
 1866 
 
 40 
 
 2 
 
 $18,000 
 
 $40,000 
 
 fast, for Education of the Blind. . . . Little Hock. Ark.. . 
 
 1859 
 
 State 
 
 107 
 
 13 
 
 7,703 
 
 30,000 
 
 Inst, for Deaf and Dnmb, and Blind. Oakland, Cal 
 
 1860 
 
 State 
 
 S4 
 
 3 
 
 36,000 
 
 100.000 
 
 Georgia Academy for the Blind Macon, Ga 
 
 1862 
 
 1 Corporation. 
 
 144 
 
 11 
 
 13,000 
 
 7;, .ooo 
 
 Insi. lui' the Education of tin- Blind. Jacksonville, 111. . . 
 
 1849 
 
 State 
 
 506 
 
 29 
 
 31.IKKI 
 
 166,000 
 
 [nst. for the Education of the Blind. Indianapolis, Ind.. 
 
 1st: 
 
 State 
 
 52] 
 
 25 
 
 32,500 
 
 525, i 
 
 towa < iollege for the Blind Vinton, Iowa 
 
 1853 
 
 Stale 
 
 317 
 
 28 
 
 26, 
 
 .-,011.0(10 
 
 Kansas State Blind Asylum Wyandotte, Kan.. . 
 
 1867 
 
 State 
 
 65 
 
 11 
 
 9,(100 
 
 40,00(1 
 
 Asylum forthe Education ofthe Blind Louisville, Ivy 
 
 1842 
 
 State 
 
 358 
 
 20 
 
 19,380 
 
 100.000 
 
 Inst, for the Educati 1 the Blind. Baton Rouge, La... 
 
 1871 
 
 State 
 
 63 
 
 
 
 8,000 
 
 250,000 
 
 Just, tor the Instruction of the Blind Baltimore, Md 
 
 1853 
 
 Corporation. 
 
 173 
 
 16 
 
 22,000 
 
 255,000 
 
 Inst, for Colored Blind and Deaf-M. Baltimore,. -Md 
 
 is?'.' 
 
 Corporation. 
 
 IS 
 
 7 
 
 10,000 
 
 2(1.(100 
 
 Perkins Enst. and Mass. Asylum. . . . Boston, Mass 
 
 1832 
 
 Corporation. 
 
 SMI 
 
 is 
 
 30,000 
 
 354,716 
 
 Jnst. for Deaf and Dumb, and Blind. Flint, Mich 
 
 1853 
 
 Trustees. .. . 
 
 
 
 
 
 51,872 
 
 376,316 
 
 Inst. I'ni- Deaf and Dumb, and Blind. 
 
 Faribault, Minn. . . 
 
 1866 
 
 
 
 32 
 
 4 
 
 .-,.(i(!(i 
 
 2."., 000 
 
 
 
 ls.",'J 
 
 State 
 
 275 
 
 6 
 23 
 
 10,000 
 21,000 
 
 10,000 
 200,000 
 
 Inst, for the Education of the Blind. 
 
 
 Is.", 1 
 
 State 
 
 338 
 
 State Institution for tin' Blind 
 
 Batavia, X. Y 
 
 1868 
 
 State 
 
 29 
 
 3 
 
 25,000 
 
 70,000 
 
 N. V. Institution for the Blind New York. X. Y... 
 
 1831 
 
 ( lorporation. 
 
 1,172 
 
 60 
 
 62,600 
 
 324,500 
 
 fast for the Deaf, Dnmb, and Blind Raleigh, ST. G 
 
 1851 
 
 State 
 
 L50 
 
 6 
 
 40,000 
 
 .-,0,0(10 
 
 Inst, for Education of the Blind .... Columbus, 
 
 1837 
 
 State 
 
 siis 
 
 50 
 
 60,785 
 
 500,000 
 
 
 1873 
 
 State 
 
 12 
 
 3 
 
 2,000 
 
 __ 
 
 In-t. for Instruction of the Blind... . Philadelphia, Pa. . 
 
 Im::; 
 
 1 orporation. 
 
 ss.-, 
 
 63 
 
 39,000 
 
 201,000 
 
 Inst, for Deaf and Dumb, and Blind. Spartanburg, S. C. 
 
 1849 
 
 State 
 
 
 
 
 
 — 
 
 r,o,ooo 
 
 Tennessee School for the Blind Nashville, Tetm.. . 
 
 1S44 
 
 Cot] Miration. 
 
 17.". 
 
 9 
 
 I.->. 
 
 60,000 
 
 Texas Institute for the Blind Austin, Tex 
 
 L856 
 
 State 
 
 — 
 
 10 
 
 10,660 
 
 4. ".,000 
 
 Inst, for Deal and Dumb, and Blind. Staunton, Va . 
 
 1839 
 
 State 
 
 208 
 
 5 
 
 40. 1 
 
 1 7.-i,ooo 
 
 [net. for Deaf and Dumb, and Blind. Romney, W. Va 
 
 1870 
 
 State 
 
 29 
 
 3 
 
 25 000 
 
 70.000 
 
 
 Janesville, Wis.. . . 
 
 1850 
 
 State 
 
 236 
 
 21 
 
 83,000 
 
 85,000 
 
 From the above table it will be seen that there 
 are 29 institutions, either exclusively forthe edu- 
 cation of the blind, or for that of the Mind and the 
 deaf and dumb; and that, since L832, when the 
 
 New York and Boston institutions went into 
 operation, about 7..">H<> blind persons have re- 
 ceived instruction ; also, that, in L874, the amount 
 of state and municipal appropriations forthe 
 supporl of these institutions was upward of 
 $740,000, and that the amount of money invested 
 in grounds, buildings, etc., belonging to them, is 
 more than $4,500,000. It is an interesting fact 
 also that 22 of these establishments arc purely 
 state institutions. 
 
 Methods of Instruction. — An institution for 
 the blind should comprehend three schools, or de 
 partruents; namely, the literary department, or 
 .school proper, the school of music, and the in- 
 dustrial school. 'This organization is essential, 
 in older to give the general instruction which 
 
 every child needs, and also such special training 
 as blindness renders necessary. In the literary 
 department, the course of instruction includes 
 
 the branches which are usually taught, in the 
 common and high sd Is, to the seeing; the prin- 
 cipal difference being in the apparatus and meth- 
 ods of teaching em ployed. Instead of the black- 
 board, wall-maps, slate and pencil, and pen and 
 ink. there are employed topographical maps, em- 
 bossed Bonks, slates with movable type to repre- 
 sent numerals and algebraic signs, geometrical 
 
 cards with figures in relict, metal tablets for tan- 
 
 gible writing, according to the New York point 
 system, also for the New Fork system of alpha- 
 betic writing 1 and musical notation. 
 
 The first efforts to instruct the blind found 
 expression in an attempt to teach them how to 
 read by means of the fingers. Many alphabets 
 
 in relief have been devised. But all may Be in- 
 cluded in two classes: (1) Those composed of 
 line-, forming the ordinary capital or small let- 
 ters in their original form, or iii some modifica- 
 tion of it ; (2) Those in which the letters are 
 formed of raised points, or dots, in no respect 
 resembling the ordinary letters, and called the 
 
 point alphabet. These can Be Both printed and 
 
BLIND 
 
 87 
 
 written in B tangible form. The use of line let- 
 ter text-books in classes is very limited, from the 
 fact that a classification according to reading 
 ability differs entirely from that based upon 
 mental capacity and attainments. For this 
 reason, the instruction in each of the depart- 
 ments is chiefly oral. 
 
 The instruction of the Mind in music is of 
 paramount importance. It develops and refines 
 the taste, promotes general culture, affords con- 
 stant and inexhaustible enjoyment, as well as 
 the means of respectable support. The musical 
 course of instruction comprises voice lessons. 
 part and chorus singing, lessons and practice in 
 piano and organ playing, and a thorough course 
 of teaching and training in the tuning of pianos. 
 Blind organists teachers of the piano, and piano- 
 tuners may be found in all parts of the country. 
 One of the best tuners employed by Steinway & 
 Sons, the celebrated piano-forte makers of New 
 V. irk. is totally blind. Heretofore, tins depart- 
 ment of instruction has been exclusively oral ; 
 but there is now in press a piano instruction 
 book, in the N< w Yorkpoint system of musical 
 notation, by which the blind pupil may learn by 
 finger-reading from the printed or written page. 
 
 The importance of mechanical training, in 
 comparison with other branches of instruction. 
 in the education of the blind, is a matter of vital 
 interest. Some are of opinion that instruction 
 in trades is of the first importance ; others give 
 it simply a place co-ordinate with other depart- 
 ments of teaching : while still others attach the 
 chief importance to such branches as lead to 
 those employments in which skilled manual oper- 
 ations are required. The latter position cannot 
 be maintained, since in all such operations the 
 guidance of the eye is more or less essential to 
 perfection and dexterity of manipulation; from 
 which fact it is obvious that purely mechanical 
 pursuits are not necessarily the best adapted to 
 those who are deprived of sight. This being so, 
 it is a great mistake to rest the education of the 
 young blind, and the prospects of their future 
 usefulness and welfare, exclusively upon such 
 employments. The true plan is to give manual 
 pursuits such a place in the scheme of education 
 as is required by the conditions which blindness 
 imposes. The training of the young blind in 
 one or more industrial occupations should be 
 rigidly enforced, not because such employments 
 furnish the only, the best, or the most available 
 means of future support, but because such train- 
 ingand discipline of the head and the hand in 
 work are necessary to the proper education of 
 every pupil. Thus, manual training is made the 
 means to an end. hut not the end itself. Male 
 pupils are taught to make brooms, mats, mat- 
 tresses, and brushes ; to put cane bottoms into 
 • hairs: and to perform Other handicraft labors. 
 Female pupils arc taught to sew. knit, and cro- 
 chet, to use the sewing and knitting machine, 
 and to work a great variety of articles useful 
 and ornamental. 
 
 Government <///</ Discipline. — From necessity. 
 the pupils board and lodge at the institution ; 
 
 and. consequently, the government is twofold: 
 
 (1) that of a large ami well-ordered family; and 
 
 (2) that of a thoroughly organized school. The 
 rules are such only as are necessary to secure the 
 easy and effective performanceof the many kinds 
 of work which are carried on in the different 
 departments. In all well-regulated schools, the 
 male and female pupils are effectually separated 
 
 except during the hours of instruction, and all 
 
 communication is prohibited. The co-education 
 
 of the sexes is common to all schools for the 
 blind in this country, except those of Boston 
 and Philadelphia. The institutions are not de- 
 nominational, each pupil being permitted to at- 
 tend the particular church and Sunday school 
 which are chosen by parents, guardians, or 
 friends. Discipline is maintained in the New 
 York, Boston, and some other schools, entirely 
 by moral means, no recourse being ever had to 
 corporal punishment. 
 
 Systems of Printing and Notation. — Tangible 
 letters were first constructed in the 18th cent- 
 ury; afterward, the noted blind pianist. Theresa 
 von Paradis, of Vienna, represented musical 
 notes with pins on a cushion, from which her 
 friend Haiiy conceived the idea of embossing 
 letters on paper. The first book in relief print- 
 ing was. it is believed, Dairy's Estui sur I'edu- 
 cation des aveugles (Paris, 1 78<>j. The first 
 book in English printed in relief was issued by 
 James Gall. of Edinburgh, in 1827: and two years 
 afterward, he introduced relief printing in Lon- 
 don. His alphabet consisted of the ordinary 
 English lower-case letters reduced to straight 
 lines and angles. In 1832, Dr. Fry obtained the 
 prize offered" by the Society of Arts in Scotland 
 for the best alphabet and method of printing 
 for the blind. This alphabet consisted of the 
 Roman capitals .simplified, and was nearly the 
 same as that used formerly in Philadelphia. A 
 stenographic alphabet, invented by Mr. Lucas, of 
 Bristol, England, is used in some of the schools 
 of that country. A few years later, a phonetic 
 alphabet was invented by Mr. Frere and intro- 
 duced into some of the English schools. In Is 17. 
 a simplified alphabet, the letters of which con- 
 sisted of lines, was invented by Mr. Moon. This 
 alphabet has been used in many schools. The al- 
 phabet forming the system of tangible point- 
 printing, was, about 1839, introduced into the 
 imperial institution for the blind in Paris, by M. 
 Braille; and has been extensively used in the 
 schools of France, Switzerland, and Belgium. A 
 system of point writing and printing has been de- 
 vised by William B. Wait, superintendent of the 
 New York Institution for the Blind, and is now 
 used in nearly all the American institutions. This 
 system has also been applied to musical notation. 
 Systems of notation in raised characters have also 
 been invented by Rousseau,Guadet,andMahoney. 
 See Reportsof TJ. S. Commissioner of Education 
 for L872, -3, and I ; Proceedings of the .1 
 ciation of American Instructors of the Blind 
 
 |\V. 15. Wait. Cor. Sec.): also the publications 
 of the American Bible Society, and of the Ameri- 
 can Printing-House for the Blind. 
 
88 
 
 BLOCHMANN 
 
 BOLIVIA 
 
 BLOCHMANN, Karl Justus, an eminent 
 German educator and pupil of Pestalozzi, the 
 founder and for many years the director of a 
 celebrated educational institute, called after him 
 Blochmtuni'schrx lnstihtt, was born in 178(i, and 
 died in 185"). He studied, from 1805 to 1809, 
 at the university of Leipsic, theology and peda- 
 gogy, and at the same time endeavored to ac- 
 quire a practical experience as a teacher. In 
 1809, he went to Switzerland and became an in- 
 structor in Pestalozzi's school, where he remained 
 eight years. He then returned to Germany, and 
 became vice-director of the Friecbrieh August 
 School, in Dresden. In order to be fully able to 
 carry out his pedagogical views, he opened his 
 own school in 1 824, which was united with the 
 Vitzthum Grymnasium in L829 ; and he received 
 from the Saxon government the license, very 
 rarely granted to private institutions, to give to 
 its pupils certificates of preparation for the uni- 
 versity. I [e retained control of these two schools 
 until 1 85] , when he transferred their administra- 
 tion to his son-in-law. Dr. Bezzenberger. .V large 
 number of prominent < let-mans, including several 
 princes, have received their education in this in- 
 stitution, which ceased to exist Oct. 16., 1861. 
 Though a pupil and admirer of Pestalozzi, Bloch- 
 mann differed from his master in the importance 
 which be assigned to the religious element in 
 education. While Pestalozzi strongly sympa- 
 thized with the liberal movements in Prot- 
 estant theology, Blochmann was firmly devoted 
 to the strictest orthodoxy. 
 
 BLUE -COAT SCHOOL. See Christ's 
 Hospit \i.. 
 
 BOARD OF EDUCATION. See School 
 Board. 
 
 BOARDING-SCHOOL, a school in which 
 the pupils receive board and lodging as w T ell as 
 instruction. Boarding-schools are generally the 
 property of private individuals; but sometimes 
 they belong to associations or religious de- 
 nominations. Their management is independent 
 of any control by the state. In some countries, 
 the government does not allow any one to keep 
 a boarding or any other private school, who 
 does not hold a teacher's license ; in others, as in 
 the United States, the establishment of private 
 
 Schools is entirely free. The demand for schools 
 of this kind appears to be. in most countries, very 
 extensive. In small towns ami in country 
 districts, the public school frequently appears to 
 educated parents as not fitted for the instruction 
 of their children ; partly, on account of the un- 
 pleasant associations to which the children are 
 exposed, partly, because the .course of study 
 appears to be insufficient. Even in large towns 
 ami cities where there is no want of good 
 public schools, a large Dumber of parents are 
 found who prefeT boarding-schools to the best 
 public schools. Fashion has sometimes a great 
 deal to do with the attendance of pupils at 
 boarding-schools; and a school that once has a 
 well-established reputation in wealthy circles of 
 society, may be expected to receive numbers of 
 pupils for no other reason than because it is 
 
 fashionable. A consideration which induces many 
 parents of even moderate means to send their 
 children to boarding-schools, is the expectation 
 that, in such schools, more attention can be given 
 to individual teaching than in public schools, 
 and that especially children of small intellectual 
 capacities, as well as those who. in consequence 
 of the delicacy of their health, are less regular 
 in their studies, will receive special attention. 
 In other families, it is not the expectation of a 
 superior method of instruction which causes 
 children to be sent to boarding-schools, but the 
 belief that there they will be under better and 
 more constant educational influence than the 
 paternal roof can afford them. 
 
 As boarding-schools are entirely independent 
 of public school boards, there is the greatest 
 possible variety in their courses of instruction. 
 Moreover, since the financial success of these in- 
 stitutions depends upon the number of pupils 
 secured, the proprietors generally find it necessary 
 not oidy to receive pupils at any time of the 
 year, but to provide special instruction for every 
 pupil, of whatever grade or capacity. The inev- 
 itable consequence of this is, that the classifi- 
 cation, in the majority of these schools, is unsat- 
 isfactory. Very great danger, moreover, arises 
 from the fact that a large number of children of 
 evil habits are often received into such insti- 
 tutions, the parents hoping that the teachers of 
 these schools will be more successful in reforming 
 such pupils than public-school teachers. The 
 greatness of the danger which an association 
 with children of this class involves, for all the 
 pupils of tin' institution, cannot lie overestimated, 
 and is certainly not sufficiently appreciated by 
 many of those who have the charge of boarding- 
 schools. On the other hand, however, it has 
 been strongly and justly urged that instructors 
 
 of superior qualifications often find in this 
 class of schools an excellent and. it may be, 
 the only opportunity of turning their peculiar 
 talents to the use of mankind. Many of the 
 greatest educators that ever lived, would never 
 have been able to test their theories practically. 
 if they had not been at the head of private 
 boarding institutions. The boarding-school un- 
 doubtedly offers to educational reformers a grand 
 field of usefulness, and the more the public-school 
 system suffers in any particular place from the 
 incompetency of school boards, or the more, in 
 large cities, the standard of the public schools is. 
 depressed, the more strongly will the demand for 
 private and boarding schools make itself felt. 
 
 Nearly all hoarding schools alsoadmit pupils who 
 attend only for instruction {day-8chokars)\ and 
 very commonly they also provide board for chil- 
 dren of resident parents Uic^boarders). 
 
 BOLIVIA, a republic of South America, 
 having an areaof 500,880 sq. m.,and a population, 
 in L865,of L ,831 ,585, exclusive of about 250,000 
 Bavage Indians. The civilized population cona ts 
 
 of native whites, for the most part descendants of 
 the Spanish settlers, mestizos OT Choice iinived 
 white and Indian I. mulattoes, zambOS (mixed 
 Indian and Degro), and Indians in a domesticated 
 
BONET 
 
 BOOK-KEEPING 
 
 89 
 
 state. About three-fourths of the total popula- 
 tion is of Indian descent. Nearly the entire 
 population of the country belongs to the Roman 
 Catholic Church. 'The exercise of other relig- 
 ious denominations is not prohibited; but un- 
 restricted toleration cannot be saitl to exist in 
 Bolivia. In a concordat concluded with the 
 Pope in 1851, the Bolivian government promised 
 to support missions among the savage tribes, 
 hut a considerable number of them still remain 
 pagan and uncivilized. The national language 
 is the Spanish, but several Indian tribes, espe- 
 cially the Avinaras and the Quichuas, continue 
 to speak their own language. 
 
 The territory of Bolivia, after its conquest by 
 the Spaniards, formed a part of the viceroyalty 
 of Peru till L 780, when it Vas united under the 
 name of Chareas with the new viceroyalty of 
 La Plata. The declaration of independence and 
 the establishment of the republic of Bolivia took 
 place in L825. Since then, the country has been, 
 almost without interruption, a prey to civil wars. 
 
 The condition of education is as yet very un- 
 satisfactory. There is a special minister of public 
 instruction, under whom the chiefs of the three 
 universities of Chuquisaca (Sucre), La Paz, and 
 Cochabamba administer the educational affairs 
 of the country. The university of Chuquisaca, 
 named after St. Francis Xavier, and founded by 
 the Jesuits, was reformed in 1845 and endowed 
 with faculties of law and medicine. It possesses 
 an excellent library. The archiepiseopal seminary 
 is devoted to educating priests, but its pupils 
 are at liberty to prepare for any other vocation. 
 The subjects taught in the seminary comprise 
 Latin, mathematics, physics, philosophy (logic, 
 ethics, and metaphysics), theology, and civil and 
 ecclesiastical law. There is also in Chuquisaca 
 a high school, called Colegio de Junin, in which 
 grammar, mathematics, mechanics, logic, and 
 ethics are taught. The universities of La Paz 
 and Cochabamba educate lawyers almost ex- 
 clusively. There is, however, also a medical 
 school at La Paz and a colegio superior de cien- 
 oias y artes in La Paz, and Cochabamba. In the 
 entire reptiblic, there are 24 similar colegios, of 
 which 8 are colegios de ciencias with about 1070 
 pupils, and 10 colegios de artes (a kind of real- 
 schools). There were, hi 1846, only 4 female in- 
 stitutions of a higher grade, with 68 pupils. The 
 number of primary schools, public and private, 
 according to the latest reports, is about 800, with 
 'J 1 ,000 pupils. The school-books are to a large 
 extent translations from the French. — See 
 Schmid, Real-Encychp., art. S'udauierira; d'Ou- 
 bigky, Description geogrdfica, kistdrica, y esta- 
 (Mstica de Bolivia (2 vols., Paris. L835). 
 
 BONET, Juan Pablo, one of the earliest 
 instructors of deaf-mutes, was born in Aragon. 
 in the latter part of the 1 6th century. Though 
 Pedro Ponce, a Spanish Benedictine monk, who 
 lived about fifty years before Bonet, had em- 
 ployed a method of teaching the deaf and dumb 
 by means of an alphabet of manual signs, to 
 lionet is attributed the credit of originating a 
 similar iiiet hod. since he could have had no in- 
 
 formation of Ponce's invention. Bis plan is 
 fully explained in his work, Reduction de las 
 letras y artes para ensefu.tr a hablar a los mudos 
 (Madrid. 1620), which was the first formal 
 treatise on this branch of special instruction. He 
 used the articulation system to some extent, but 
 also made use of a manual alphabet, which was 
 almost exactly the same as the single-hand alpha- 
 bet now in use. lionet was secretary to the 
 constable of Castile, and taught a brother of his 
 patron, who had become deaf when only two 
 years of age. This young man was introduced 
 to prince Charles of England during the visit of 
 the latter to Spain, in L623 ; and it was stated 
 by Sir Kenelm Digby, one of the prince's escort, 
 that he could not only understand an ordinary 
 conversation, but could himself speak with re- 
 markable distinctness. (See Deaf-Mutes.) 
 
 BONNYCASTLE, John, an eminent En- 
 glish teacher and mathematician, and the author of 
 many excellent elementary works in various de- 
 partments of mathematics, was born at White- 
 church, England, and died at Woolwich, in 1821. 
 He was for more than forty years a professor of 
 mathematics at the Royal Academy at NVool- 
 wich. His chief publications were Introduction 
 ft> Mathematics (1782), Elements of Geometry 
 (1789), Treatise on Trigonometry (1806), and 
 Elements of Algebra (1813). The last of these- 
 works has been highly commended, and exten- 
 sively used both in the United States and in Eng- 
 land. He also published the History of Math- 
 ematics, & translation of Bossut's Essai sur l'J/i.<- 
 ioire generate des Maihematiques (Paris. 1810). 
 
 BOOK-KEEPING, a system of recording 
 the transactions of a business so as to exhibit, in 
 a plain and comprehensive manner, its condition 
 and progress. The usual method of such a record 
 comprises (1) a history of the transactions at the 
 date and in the order of their occurrence, in a 
 book, called the day-book, and (2) the classifying 
 of results in a book called the ledger. This clas- 
 sification consists in arranging upon opposite- 
 sides of separate statements, or accounts, all 
 items of purchase, sale, receipt, expenditure, in- 
 vestment, withdrawal, production, cost, etc., 
 which, in any way, affect the business. The ac- 
 counts taken together should thus be adequate to 
 express all that one may need to know of the 
 progress of the business and its condition at any 
 time. The simplest form of record, by day-book 
 and ledger only, here explained, is applicable 
 merely to a very limited business. En the more ex- 
 tended and complicated enterprises, various con- 
 current or auxiliary books are required, their 
 number and character depending upon the na- 
 ture and peculiar operations of the business. In. 
 even the simplest kinds of book-keeping, it is 
 customary to use an intermediate book between 
 the day-book and ledger, called the journal, the 
 office of which is to state, or separate, each trans- 
 action so as to simplify its transfer to the ledger. 
 
 The only competent system of book-keeping is. 
 that known as double entry, eo called from the 
 fact that the complete record of any transaction 
 requires at least two entries in the ledger 
 
90 
 
 BOOK-KEEPING 
 
 on the debit or debtor side of some account, and 
 one on the credit or creditor side of sonic other 
 account. The terms debit and cn-dil (meaning 
 debtor and creditor, and usually marked Dr. and 
 Or.) arc for the most part, used arbitrarily. 
 They are really significant only when applied to 
 personal accounts; hut their uniform application 
 to all accounts is a matter of great convenience. 
 The charm and utility of the double-entry system 
 consist in the philosophical adjustment of math- 
 ematical facts to the most exacting requirements 
 of finance, and in the tests afforded of the cor- 
 rectness of the work at any point. The simple 
 principles underlying the system may be suc- 
 cinctly stated thus: (1) All financial resources, 
 or items of wealth, are measurable by the money 
 Standard; (2) The sum of all the resources of a 
 concern, thus measured, less the sum of all its 
 liabilities, is its real or present worth: (.'{) All 
 increase or diminution in wealth comes from 
 one of two sources; namely, the receiving of 
 more or less for an article than its cost, or the 
 
 appreciation or depreciation of the value of an 
 article while in possession; ill The immediate 
 result of all gains or losses is the adding to, or 
 taking from, the net worth of the concern; 
 and. consequently, the net gain or net loss of 
 a business during any specified time must 
 agree with the increase or diminution of its 
 
 net worth for the same period. The foregoing 
 propositions may he said to be self-evident facts ; 
 but they are important facts nevertheless, and 
 such as any competent presentment of business 
 affairs must recognize and enforce; and this is 
 just what double-entry book-keeping does. 
 
 The science, or philosophy, of the system is 
 shown in the ledt/i'r, which, as before stated, con- 
 sists of accounts. An account is a collection of 
 homogeneous items pertaining to some part of 
 the l>u>incss. such as the receipt and disburse- 
 ment of money [cask), the purchase and sale of 
 
 goods, the issue and redemption of notes, the in- 
 curring and liquidating of personal indebted- 
 ness, etc. All accounts are alike in their struct- 
 ure, each having a title, more or less significant, 
 
 and two Bides, with the items on one side exactly 
 Opposite in effect to those on the other; and 
 
 like plus and minus quantities, each canceling 
 
 the other to the extent of the lesser side, the 
 preponderance, or excess, of cither side being the 
 true Bhowing ami significance of the account. 
 
 Thus, the debit or let' hand side of the cash ac- 
 count contains the items of cash received] a.i 1 
 the credit orright-han I si le, the items of cadb. dis- 
 bursed; the difference or balance, which. if any. 
 
 must be ill faVOr Of the debit side will be t he 
 
 anion hi of cash on hand. A gain, the debit of mer- 
 chandise account contains the items of the cost 
 of goods purchased ; and the credit side, the items 
 oi avails of goods sold, or what the separate sales 
 have produced ; the difference or balance, when all 
 
 the facts are shown, being the preponderance of 
 
 production over cost, or of cosl over production, as 
 the case may be in other words the net gain or 
 net loss. All transactions which mark the prog- 
 ress of the business, having in them the element 
 
 of gain or loss, must occur between the two 
 classes of accounts represented by cash and mer- 
 chandise — the one taking cognizance of measur- 
 ing financial worth, the other indicating its in- 
 crease or diminution. (The mere exchange of 
 one fixed value for another, such as the canceling 
 of a personal indebtedness by receiving or pay- 
 ing cash, should be called a liquidation rather 
 than a transaction .- for although it requires a 
 complete record, the same as the buying and sell- 
 ing of goods, it has nothing to do with the prog- 
 res-, of the business, having in it no element of 
 gain or loss.) The real transactions of the busi- 
 ness being, therefore, divided between these two 
 classes of accounts, we have in the one class — 
 such as merchandise — the indication or state- 
 ment of all the separate gains and lo.-ses which 
 have occurred, and in the other — such as cash — 
 the complete measure of the net resources, or 
 real wealth: the two together establishing the 
 satisfactory concurrence of canst' and effect, or 
 assertion and proof. Thus, the accounts of as- 
 sertion or cause indicate a net gain or net loss, 
 while those of proof or effect show correspond- 
 ingly increased or diminished net worth. 
 
 The peculiar methods or forms of recording 
 business affairs are so various — owing to the 
 great variety of manipulation or processes, as 
 also to the difference in the estimates of a com- 
 petent record, that they cannot be pointed out. 
 The general conception of the purpose and 
 sphere of book-keeping, however, may be stated 
 as compassing such a record of affairs as will 
 enable the proprietor to know, at any time, the 
 extent of his wealth and of what it consists. 
 Of course, if the real worth of a business man 
 can be ascertained at any time, the increase or 
 diminution between any two periods may readily 
 lie obtained. 
 
 Book-keeping by the double-entry system has 
 been in vogue since the latter part of the L5th 
 century. It was originally practiced in Venice, 
 and is even now known as the Italian method. 
 The first treatise on the subject was written by 
 
 I, ilea di Borgo, and published at Venice in 1 195. 
 A German treatise, written by Johann Gottlieb, 
 
 was published at Nuremberg as early as L53] : 
 and m England, in L 543, Hugh Oldcastle pub- 
 lished a work on this subject under the fanciful 
 title ^1 profitable Treatyce in learn In know the 
 good order of the kepying of tic famous ree- 
 onynge, called in Latin, dare et habere, and in 
 Englyshe, Debitour mid Creditour. M ua'a 
 Book-keeping Modernized was in very general 
 use <luring most of the eighteenth century, but 
 was superseded bj Benjamin Booth's Complete 
 System of Book-keeping t I to, London. 1789). 
 The more modern publications upon this subject 
 
 are very numerous : and the most recent of them 
 
 embody many important modifications ami im- 
 provements in the system, some of which are 
 rendered necessary in order to apply it to the 
 
 processes and methods of commercial transactions 
 
 at present in vogue. 
 
 Book-keeping constitutes an important branch 
 
 of instruction in all commercial acnools and busi- 
 
BOOK-MANUAL 
 
 BOUUI 
 
 91 
 
 ness colleges, in some of which it is pursued by 
 both sexes. It is also taught sometimes in con- 
 nection with arithmetic and penmanship, in the 
 higher classes of the common schools, and quite 
 uniformly in the evening schools in most of the 
 cities of the Union. This branch of school in- 
 struction, however, is often opposed on the 
 ground that it can only be acquired in connec- 
 tion with the actual practice of the counting- 
 room. The objection is not well founded; for 
 while it is obvious that no theoretical instruc- 
 tion, in this or any other art, can supersede the 
 necessity of actual practice, yet that instruction 
 performs an important function in laying the 
 foundation, in the mind of the student, for such 
 practical information ami expertness as are sub- 
 sequently to he attained. In many business col- 
 leges, for the purpose of obviating this objection, 
 exercises are resorted to that nearly approximate 
 to the o] tcrations of actual business. Thus the 
 students of certain colleges carry on business 
 correspondence with those of others situated in 
 different parts of the United States; make and 
 receive formal consignments of merchandise, buy 
 and sell exchanges upon the different sections of 
 the I'nion and < ana la. and in this way learn the 
 business peculiarities of different places. To insure 
 a complete training, the functions of the students 
 are constantly changed. The one, for instance, 
 who holds the position of bill-clerk and collector 
 to-day, is a book-keeper to-morrow, shipper the 
 next day, etc. By this diversity the exercises are 
 not only male more effective, but more interest- 
 ing and impressive. (See Business Colleges.) 
 
 BOOK-MANUAL, a series of directions as 
 to the method in which the reading-book should 
 be held by pupils when they are receiving class 
 instruction. Minute regulations for the distri- 
 bution of books to the pupils of a class as well 
 as for their proper manipulation while the lesson 
 is given, have been devised, and in some schools 
 are strictly enforced. There is no doubt that a 
 regular and uniform method of this kind not 
 only saves the book from injury occasioned by 
 improper handling, but also contributes to the 
 formation, in the minds of the pupils, of a love 
 and habit of order and propriety, which they 
 will apply to other things. Indeed, it is in con- 
 nection with the apparently unimportant and 
 trivial things that the teachei needs to exercise 
 the greatest care, if he would educate his pupils 
 in this direction ; since such things being of fre- 
 quent occurrence, habits are more readilyformed 
 by the constant repetition which they require 
 than in any other way. The following minute 
 directions were prepared, some years ago, for the 
 schools of New York City, and were for many 
 years in use. They are still employed by many 
 teachers, those referring to book-monitors being 
 usually omitted; since at the present time each 
 pupil of the class is generally supplied with a 
 hook of his own. The distribution of books for 
 a given exercise is still often necessary, and heme 
 all the rules hold good : 
 
 I. The pupil should stand erect, his heels near to- 
 gether, toes turned nut. and his face directed toward 
 the teacher. 
 
 IF. The book-monitor should stand at the head of 
 the class, with the pile of bunks to be distributed 
 across his Wt arm, with the backs from him, and with 
 the top of the page to the right hand. 
 
 ill. The book-monitor, with the right hand, hands a. 
 hunk to each pupil in succession, who should receive 
 it in his rigid hand with the back of the booh to the 
 left, and then pass it into the left hand, iii whirl, he 
 
 should hold it with the hark upward, until a farther 
 order is given. 
 
 IV. When the page is given nut, the book should be 
 
 turned by the thuml the side ; and, while held with 
 
 both hands, turned with the bark downward, the 
 thumbs meeting across the leaves at a point judged to 
 
 be nearest the place to be found. On opening the 
 book, the left hand slides down to the bottom, and 
 thence to the middle, when the thumb and little finger 
 are made to press on the two opposite pages, if the 
 page is thus found, the pupil stands holding the hook 
 in his left hand, and lets his right hand fall by his 
 side. 
 
 V. But if the pupil has opened short of the page re- 
 quired, the thumb of the right hand is to be placed 
 tear the upper corner of the page, while the forefinger 
 lifts the leaves to bring in view the number of the 
 page. If he finds he has nnt raised enough, the fore- 
 finger and thumb hold those already raised while the 
 second finger lifts the leaves, and brings them within 
 the grasp of the thumb ami linger. When the required 
 page is found, all the ringers are to be passed under 
 the leaves, ami the whole turned at once. Should the 
 pupil, mi the contrary, have opened too far, and be 
 obliged to turn back, he places the right thumb, in 
 like manner, on the left hand page, and the leaves are 
 lifted as before described. 
 
 VI. Should the book be ofd, or so large as to make 
 it wearisome to the pupil, the right hand may sustain 
 the left iii holding it. 
 
 VII. While reading, as the eye rises to the top of 
 the right hand page, the right hand is raised ; and with 
 the forefinger under the leaf, the hand is slid down 
 to the lower corner, and retained there during the 
 reading of this page. This also is the position in which 
 the book is to be held when about to be closed ; in 
 doing which, the left hand, being carried up to the 
 side, supports the book firmly, while the right hand 
 turns the part it supports over on the left thumb. The 
 thumb will then be drawn oat from between the leaves, 
 and placed on the cover; and then the right hand will 
 fall by the side. 
 
 VIII. When the reading is ended, the right hand re- 
 tains the book, and the left hand falls by the side. The 
 book will then be in a position to be handed to the 
 book-monitor, who should receive it in his right hand, 
 and place it on his left arm, with the back towards 
 the body. The books will then be in the most suitable 
 situation for being passed to the shelves, or drawers, 
 where, without being crowded, they should be placed 
 with uniformity and care. 
 
 See Mm mil (if PvbUc School Society (New 
 
 York, 1840) : Report of the Board of Education 
 
 of the CiU i of New York (1855). 
 
 BORGI, Giovanni, called the "founder of 
 ragged schools." was born in Rome about I7.'!">. 
 and died about L802. lie was a poor artisan, 
 who took a compassionate interest in vagrant 
 children, lie commenced his benevolent work 
 by taking a number of these children to his 
 home, providing them with food and clothing. 
 and apprenticing them to trades. Knlisting the 
 active interest of others, he was able to hire a 
 suitable building, in which considerable numbers 
 could be accommodated ami taught ; thus estab 
 lishing what was afterwards called in Scotland 
 and Kngland a "ragged school." The institution 
 founded by Borgi was continued after his death 
 and found an earnest patron in Pope Pius VI 1 
 (See Bagged Schools.) 
 
92 
 
 BOSTON 
 
 BOSTON, the capital and metropolis of 
 Massachusetts, having a population, in L875, of 
 341,919. The origin of the public-school system 
 of Boston is found in the following order adopted 
 by the freemen of the town, on the 13th of April, 
 "1035: "Likewise it was then generally agreed 
 upon, that our brother Philemon Purmont shall 
 be entreated to become schoolmaster for the 
 teaching and nurturing of children with us." 
 The school thus set up has been perpetuated to 
 the present day, and has long been known as the 
 Public Latin School, whose chief function, during 
 the whole period of its existence, has been the 
 fitting of boys for Harvard College. This was 
 the only public school in the town until 1682, 
 when it was voted, in town meeting, "that a 
 committee with the selectmen consider and 
 provide one or more free schools for the teach- 
 ing of children to write and cipher within this 
 town." Afterward, schools were established for 
 teaching reading and spelling. These reading and 
 writing schools have been gradually developed 
 into the present grammar schools. Pupils were not 
 admitted to these schools until they were seven 
 years of age. Girls were not admitted to the 
 grammar school until 17s!) ; and, during the next 
 forty years, they were permitted to attend only 
 half t lie year, from April to October. Tn 1818, 
 primary schools were established to fit pupils of 
 both sexes for the grammar schools, to which 
 children four years old and upward were ad- 
 mit ted. In 1821, a school similar to the German 
 real school, and named the English High School, 
 '•was instituted, with the design of furnishing the 
 young men of this city, who are not intended for 
 a collegiate course of study, and who have en- 
 joyed the usual advantages of the other public 
 schools, with the means of completing a good 
 English education." A normal school for qualify- 
 ing female teachers for the public schools of the 
 city was established in 1852, in which a two 
 years' course of training was provided. The plan 
 of this school was soon nnnlilied by extending its 
 course of study to three years, and by including 
 in its curriculum all the branches usually taught 
 in high schools. In 1ST2, this twofold institu- 
 tion, which bore the name of the* Jirls' 1 [igh and 
 Normal School, was separated into two distinct 
 schools, a normal school for girls and a high 
 school for girls. By the annexation of adjacent 
 municipalities, during the past eight years, live 
 mixed high schools have been added to the free 
 public schools for secondary instruction. Ele- 
 mentary evening schools, and day schools for 
 newsboys and bootblacks (licensed minors), were 
 established in L868; an evening high school, in 
 
 1869; a scl I for deaf-mutes, in 1869; evening 
 
 industrial drawing schools, in 1870; a kindergar- 
 ten, in 1 870. The public Bchoi Is were originally. 
 and for more then a .century and a half, managed 
 
 by the selectmen of the town, the clergy being 
 invited bj them to \ isil the schools, especially on 
 public occasions. From I 789, until the adoption 
 
 of the 'ity charter, in 1822, they were controlled 
 
 by a board composed of the select men and twelve 
 
 committee men. annually elected iu town meet- 
 
 ing. Under the charter, the selectmen were re- 
 placed by the eight aldermen. From 1835 until 
 1 855, the school board, called the Grammar 
 School Board, consisted of twenty-four com- 
 mittee men, two being elected annually by the 
 people in each ward, with the mayor and the 
 president of the common council, ex officio. Up 
 to this time, the primary schools had been under 
 the management of a board, appointed annually 
 by the Grammar School Board, consisting of one 
 member for each school or teacher, the number 
 being at first 3l>. but increased finally to 190. 
 I'uring the past twenty years, the school system 
 of public schools has been in charge of one board, 
 consisting originally of 7-4 members, 6 being 
 elected in each ward by the people, to hold office 
 for three years, the mayor and president of the 
 common council being also members. By the 
 annexation of municipalities above mentioned, 
 the number of members was ultimately in- 
 creased to 11G. This board was discontinued at 
 the beginning of 1870 ; and, in its place, a 
 board was constituted consisting of the mayor, 
 and 24 members elected by the people on a 
 general ticket, to hold office for three years. — 
 'I he office of superintendent of schools was estab- 
 lished in 1851. The first incumbent was Nathan 
 Bishop, who was succeeded by John D. .Phil- 
 brick, who held the office for nearly 18 years, 
 retiringin L874. The old board did not fill the 
 vacancy; and Mr. Philbrick was re-elected to the 
 office by the new board in 1876. Under the new 
 system of supervision, the school board is author- 
 ized to elect aboard of six supervisors. The follow- 
 ing persons were elected to this board: Lucretia 
 ('rocker. George M. Folsom, Samuel W. Mason, 
 William Nichols. Kllis Peterson, and Benjamin F. 
 Tweed. The superintendent ia,exqfficio,a member 
 and the chairman. The principal duties assigned 
 the board of supervisors are those of examining 
 candidates for teachers, of examining the schools, 
 in detail, twice in each year, and of conducting the 
 annual examination of the pupils, in the different 
 grades of schools, who are candidates for grad- 
 uating diplomas. — Besides this board of super- 
 visors, there is a general director of music, and 
 another of drawing, each having several assist- 
 ants. -For the purposes of supervision, the city 
 IS divided into nine territorial divisions, each 
 division comprising from four to seven territorial 
 districts, and each district containing one gram- 
 mar school and several primary schools. 'I he 
 
 master of the grammar school is the principal of 
 the district, having the supervision of all the 
 schools situated therein. There are no primary 
 
 principals. Each division is under the charge of a 
 committee composed of three or five members of 
 
 the school board. There is also a standing com- 
 mittee iii charge of the high schools. 
 
 School System. — Besides a normal school for 
 girls, with a course for study and training for 
 
 one year, to which pupils arc admitted only on 
 
 passing a satisfactory examination in the usual 
 
 high-School studies, there are 8 high school.: 
 namely, •"> large central schools, the Latin and 
 the English high School for boys, and the girls" 
 
BOSTON 
 
 93 
 
 high school, and 5 others for both sexes, located 
 in recently annexed districts. These schools 
 (187C) contain 2,180 pupils, taught by 50 male 
 teachers and 48 females, whose annual salaries 
 amount to $180,251.33. There are :')() grammar 
 schools, with 23,971 pupils, taught by 96 male 
 teachers, and oil females; the greater part of 
 these schools are unmixed. In the primary 
 grade, for children from 5 to Byearsof age, there 
 arc 18,665 pupils, taught by 414 teachers. The 
 whole number of pupils belonging to the day and 
 evening schools is 49,423. The aggregate annual 
 salaries of the teachers of the grammar and pri- 
 mary schools amount to $993,932.95. The spe- 
 cial schools are, 2 for licensed minors. 1 for deaf- 
 mutes, 1 kindergarten, 14 elementary evening 
 schools, 1 evening high school, and evening 
 schools for industrial drawing. These schools 
 arc taught by 177 teachers, whose annual salaries 
 amount to 8 12,82 1.64. The whole number of reg- 
 ular and special teachers employed in the day and 
 evening schools is 1,296; and the whole amount 
 of their salaries is $1,217,008.92 ; incidental ex- 
 penses, including salaries of officers, §507,364.69; 
 total current expenses, $1,724,373.61. The amount 
 expended during the year, besides this, for school- 
 houses and sites, was §356,669.74. The cost per 
 Bcholar for tuition, based on the average number 
 belonging to the day schools, is §26.30; for inci- 
 dentals, §10.55 ; total cost per scholar, §36.85. 
 In 1875, the whole number of school-houses owned 
 by the city was 144, which, with their sites, were 
 valued at Ss,500,000. The revenue for the sup- 
 port of the schools is derived exclusively from 
 an annual tax on all the personal and real prop- 
 erty in the city, which is levied by the city 
 council. There is no legal restriction to the 
 amount that may be levied for schools. The school 
 sites are purchased, and the school buildings are 
 erected, by the city council; but the plans of the 
 buildings and the sites must be first approved 
 by the school board, who have the authority also 
 to determine the amount to be expended for the 
 salaries of teachers. Tuition is gratuitous in all 
 the schools ; drawing-books, writing-books, and 
 stationery are furnished gratuitously to all pu- 
 pils ; and, to indigent children text-books are 
 also furnished at the public expense. 
 
 Salaries.— The salary of the superintendent is 
 $4,500 ; of members of the board of supervisors, 
 $4,000 each ; of head-masters of high schools, 
 $4,000; of masters of grammar schools and mas- 
 ters in high schools. §3.200; submasters in gram- 
 mar and high schools, §2.600 ; of ushers in gram- 
 mar and high schools. $2,000 ; of head-assistants 
 [females) in grammar schools. § 1 ,200; of assistants 
 (female) in high schools §1 .lit II I to SI .50(1; of assist- 
 ants (female) in grammar schools, and teachers in 
 primary schools, s^OO ; of supervisors of music 
 and drawing, §3.300 each ; and their assistants, 
 §2,500. The city is divided into 14 truant dis- 
 tricts, each having a truant officer, with a salary 
 of §1,200. Habitual truants, pupils who have 
 absented themselves from school several times 
 without permission from their parents or teach- 
 ers, and absentees, legally described as " children 
 
 found in streets and public places, not attending 
 schools and not engaged in a lawful occupation," 
 are sentenced to a reformatory for one or two 
 years. This plan of dealing with truants dates 
 from 1S50, and it has proved an efficient agency 
 in promoting good attendance at school. Chil- 
 dren growing up without education or salutary 
 control, by reason of orphanage, or the neglect, 
 crime, drunkenness, or other vice of parents, on 
 complaint of the truant officers, may he sent to 
 an institution assigned by the city for the pur- 
 pose, where they arc hoarded and educated. 
 
 Private Schools <t>nl other Institutions. — In 
 1874, the whole number of pupils in private tui- 
 tion-paying schools (excepting commercial "col- 
 leges"), whether incorporated or not, below the 
 college grades, was 3,ss7. There were, besides, 
 about 5,000 pupils in free denominational schools 
 (Roman Catholic). The aggregate number of pri- 
 vate schools is 93, with 358 instructors. There are 
 14 orphan asylums, with 37 instructors and 1,344 
 pupils; 5 business colleges, with 19 instructors 
 and 717 pupils ; 1 school of pharmacy, with 3 
 professors and 75 students; 2 schools of dentist- 
 ry, with 15 professors and 40 students; 1 college 
 (The Boston College, R. C), with 8 professors and 
 1 15 students; 1 university (The Boston Univer- 
 sity, Methodist), with a school of liberal arts, and 
 several professional schools; 1 school of theology, 
 with 7 professors and 94 students ; 1 school of 
 law, with 14 professors and 08 students; 2 schools 
 of medicine, with 35 professors and 195 students; 
 1 polytechnic school (Massachusetts Institute of 
 Technology) , with 36 professors and 356 students ; 
 1 normal art school (state), with 8 professors and 
 200 students ; 1 museum of fine arts, value of 
 collections §100,000, value of buildings, etc., 
 §400,000; 1 museum of natural history, having 
 10,000 volumes; value of collections, §100,000, of 
 buildings. §138,000; 14 public libraries, 456,427 
 volumes, 232,900 pamphlets; value of buildings, 
 §1 ,026,700; Sunday-schools, 157, with 4,450 teach- 
 ers, 43,540 scholars, and 83,700 volumes in lib- 
 raries. There are two conservatories of music, 
 and numerous smaller music schools. One of the 
 most important educational institutions in Boston 
 is the Lowell Institute, established in 1839 by 
 the munificence of John Lowell, to provide for 
 "regular courses oifree public lectures upon the 
 most important branches of natural and moral 
 science, to be annually delivered in the city of 
 Boston." The fund, in January, 1873, was 
 §642,711.32 ; the expenses for 1872 were 
 §31,912.47, the number of free lectures delivered 
 during the year being 264. Two drawing-schools, 
 and the school of industrial design in connection 
 with the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 
 are maintained by the fund. The Institute is 
 managed by one trustee, a kinsman of the 
 founder. No printed document or report has 
 ever been issued by the Institute. The Boston 
 City Free Public Library, which was opened in 
 1853, and is supported by taxation in the same 
 manner as the public schools, has six branches, 
 and contains 306,287 volumes; the annual ex- 
 pense of maintaining it is about §130,000. 
 
94 
 
 BOSTON COLLEGE 
 
 BOSTON UNIVERSITY 
 
 BOSTON COLLEGE, at Boston, Mass., 
 was founded in L863 by the Fathers of the 
 Society of Jesus, by whom it is conducted. Its 
 object is to impart a religious, classical, and 
 scientific education. The course begins with a 
 ••class of rudiments," and extending, in success- 
 ive years, through three " classes of grammar," a 
 •• class of poetry," and a " class of rhetoric." into 
 a seventh year of philosophy and chemistry. As 
 in must of the colleges of this fraternity, classical 
 studies occupy a prominent place in all the classes 
 of the entire course. In 1874, there was a corps 
 of 16 professors and other instructors, with 1 5 
 collegiate, and 143 preparatory students. The 
 value of its grounds, buildings, etc.. is $200,000, 
 an. I it has a library of about 4,000 volumes. 
 Rev. Robert Fulton. S. J., is (-1876) the presi- 
 dent of tlie institution. The annual tuition fee 
 is sen. 
 
 BOSTON UNIVERSITY, at Boston, 
 Mass., was founded by the munificence of Isaac 
 Rich, who bequeathed tor that purpose the 
 greater part of his estate, amounting to Dearly 
 
 12,000,000. The first, however, to suggest and 
 advocate its establishment, was the late Lee 
 Claflin, father of a recent governor of Massa- 
 chusetts, whose views found an earnest supporter 
 in Jacob Sleeper. Hence, these three persons 
 are regarded as the founders of the institution, 
 although Mr. Rich was its most munificent 
 patron. Its charter was obtained from the legis- 
 lature of Massachusetts in 1st;!), its plan of 
 organization is unique and comprehensive, in- 
 cluding (1) Preparatory Departments; (2) Col- 
 
 hycs ; (.'!) Prnfi'sximtul Schools; and (I) School 
 
 ,,)' all Sciences (Schola Scholarum). The first 
 of these are designed to fit students for the col- 
 leges : the second, to prepare them for the higher 
 industries and arts of civilization, and for the 
 study of the learned professions; the third, to 
 qualify them theoretically and practically for 
 professional life : while the fourth, including and 
 Supplementing the work of the professional 
 schools, is designed to he a universal, or non-pro- 
 fessional school of elective post-graduate studies, 
 with special degrees, scholarships, and fellow- 
 ships. 
 
 Of the colleges three have already been or- 
 ganized: (1) that of Liberal Arts, in 1873 ; (2) 
 that of Music, in IsT'J ; (.'!) that of Agricuti 
 supplied by the Massachusetts Agricultural Ool- 
 
 ;it Amherst, associated with the university 
 
 in I 875. This college has enjoyed a very high rep- 
 utation since its organization in L867 ; and by 
 
 the arrangemenl made with the Boston I Diver- 
 sity, matriculants in the latter, who desire in- 
 struction in agriculture, horticulture. and related 
 branches, can receive it in the College, and on 
 completing the prescribed course, can receive their 
 degree from the I diversity as well as from the 
 College. 'I'he ' qf Liberal Arts answers 
 
 to what is called in some American universities 
 tin- Academic Department. Its courses of in- 
 struction qualify studi bs for tin' degrees oi 
 bachelor "t arts, bachelor of philosophy, and 
 bachelor of science. The College of Music is 
 
 1 designed for students of the average proficiency 
 of graduatesof the best American conservatories 
 of music ; and is the only institution of its 
 grade and kind in the United States. The 
 regular courses of instruction extend through 
 four years, and include (1) a course for vocal- 
 ists : (2) a course for pianists : (3) a course for 
 organists; (4) courses for orchestral performers. 
 All these courses include the study of musical 
 theory, also the history and esthetics of music. 
 
 The professional schools include that of theol- 
 ogy, adopted in IsTl ; of law. opened in 1872; 
 of medicine, in 1873 ; of oratory, in 1^7.'!. The 
 School of all Sciences was established in 1874. 
 The school of theology was formerly the Meth- 
 odist Episcopal Theological Seminary of Boston, 
 which was organized in TS47. A school of fine 
 arts is projected. 
 
 A fundamental idea with those who organized 
 the university was. that a university should exist 
 not for one sex merely, but equally for the two ; 
 hence the most ultra principles of co-education 
 are carried out. Young men and young women 
 are welcomed to all the advantages of the insti- 
 tution on precisely the same conditions, -not 
 merely to the bench of the pupil, hut also to the 
 chair of the professor. The trustees of the New 
 England Female Medical College, said to he the 
 
 ' oldest medical college for women in the world, 
 by a special act of the legislature, in 1 s 7. ">. trans- 
 ferred all its properties and franchises to the 
 Boston Cniversity, and was thus merged into its 
 broader co-educative school of medicine. 
 
 Post-graduate students of this university, de- 
 siring to fit themselves for professorships of 
 Greek, Latin, modern languages, philosophy, 
 history, or art. enjoy special advantage's. By 
 
 virtue of an arrangement, effected in 1875, with 
 the authorities of the National University at 
 Athens, and those of the Royal Cniversity at 
 Rome, any member of the School of all Sciences, 
 
 duly recommended, may pursue, without expense 
 for instruction, and for any Dumber of years, 
 select or regular courses of study in any depart- 
 ment of said universities, enjoying all the lights 
 and privileges of university citizenship; and 
 upon returning, and passing a satisfactory ex- 
 amination in tlie work accomplished, can receive 
 a degree from the Boston I'niversity. The 
 faculties of these two foreign universities are 
 
 thus co-operating faculties of the School of all 
 
 Sciences, which is designed 1 1 ) for the benefil of 
 
 bachelors Of arts, philosophy, or science. of what- 
 soever college, who. with little or no direct refer- 
 ence to fitting themselves for a professional life, 
 may desire to receive post-graduate instruction 
 in this university; (2) to meet the wants of all 
 
 graduates in theology, law. medicine, or other 
 
 professional course, who may wish to supplement 
 their professional culture by courses of study in 
 
 related sciences, arts, and professions. This school 
 
 is. thus, like the studium generate of the middle 
 
 ages, the crowning and unifying department of 
 
 the entire university organization. 
 
 Thus far. this comprehensive plan ha- been 
 successfully carried out : and the institution has 
 
BOTANY 
 
 95 
 
 received a large patronage and haa accomplished 
 much work, lu L874 — 5, there were 745 stu- 
 dents belongingto the institution; <>f whom 268 
 wciv iii the preparatory departments; 81, in the 
 colleges; and 396 in the schools. Of the entire 
 number in the colleges and schools. L02 were 
 females, rts graduates from the schools of theol- 
 ogy, law. and medicine were more numerous 
 than those from the corresponding- schools of 
 Harvard or Yale. Its financial condition is 
 prosperous, notwithstanding the heavy loss which 
 it suffered in the great Boston conflagration of 
 1872. The final transfer of the Rich fund does 
 not take place till L882. The president of the 
 university is William F. Warren. S.T. !>.. LL. I >.. 
 elected in 1873. — See Boston University Tear 
 Books, edited by the university council, vols, i, 
 ii. and in. 
 
 BOTANY (Gr. loravri, herb, plant), the sci- 
 ence of vegetable life, treating of the elementary 
 composition, structure, habits, functions, and 
 
 ssification of plants, in which are included 
 herbs, shrubs, and trees. This is a branch of 
 that general descriptive, or empirical science, 
 called natural history : being based upon the 
 facts of observation. The educative value of 
 botany, especially in the early stages of the 
 mind's development, is very considerable, — far 
 more so, indeed, than its usual place in the cur- 
 riculum of school education would indicate; 
 since it is generally superseded by subjects which 
 seem to be of more practical importance to the 
 pupil in his after life. In the more modern 
 
 ems of elementary education, both in this 
 country and in Europe, particularly in Germany, 
 the training of the perceptive faculties by the 
 systematic observation of objects holds a very 
 prominent place, indeed is considered the basis 
 of all sound mental culture ; and among all the 
 objects of nature, none can claim precedence in 
 point of variety, beauty, and interest, for this 
 purpose, over those of which botany treats. It 
 has been well said by a writer upon this subject, 
 •As the love and observation of flowers are 
 among the earliest phenomena of the mental life, 
 so should some correct knowdedge of them be 
 among the earliest teachings.'' The facdity with 
 which plants maybe collected, handled, and ana- 
 lyzed, as well as their general attractiveness, 
 makes them peculiarly well adapted for object 
 teaching. Bugs and beetles are often quite re- 
 pulsive to a child, bu^ where is the girl or boy 
 who is not pleased with the contemplation, or 
 the manipulation, of leaves and flowers? 
 
 For the purpose of this kind of instruction. 
 and as an introduction of the subject to young 
 minds, the chief point is to direct the attention 
 of the child to the most obvious characteristics 
 of plants and of their parts, as leaves, stems, 
 roots, flowers, seeds, etc. They should be set at 
 once to collect specimens for themselves, and be 
 shown how (1) to observe them, ('!) how to state 
 and record the results of their observations, so 
 that they may acquire a knowledge; of the words 
 used to express the characteristic peculiarities of 
 different objects. Here will be afforded a wide 
 
 range for the exercise of comparative observation, 
 in the perception of both resemblances and 
 
 differences, lint particularly the latter. It is not 
 requisite, nay it would he injurious, to teach 
 anything of classification al this stage; nor in- 
 deed is it necessary that the child should know 
 the name of any plant the whole or part of 
 which is under observation. Some prefer to 
 teach the names: since the child's mind ha 
 cra\ ing for the names of such objects as interest 
 it. When therefore, the name is asked f or by 
 the pupil, there can be no objection to the teach- 
 er's telling it. The observation and description 
 of the characteristics are. however, the essential 
 
 points to be insisted upon, for this purpose, no 
 plan can be better than the " Schedule Method," 
 invented by Prof. .1. S. Ilenslow. of Cambridge, 
 England, and ingeniously, as well as exhaustively, 
 applied by Miss Youmans in her elementary text- 
 books on this subject. According to this method, 
 the pupil starts with an observation of the sim- 
 plest characteristics, as the parts of the leaf — 
 its blade, petioles, stipules; its venation, margin, 
 etc. The general appearance of these may be at. 
 first represented by pictures, but only to enable 
 the learner to study the natural objects, which 
 he carefully observes, and writes the characters 
 in his schedule, attaching each specimen to it, as 
 a verification to the teacher of the accuracy of 
 his observation. (See Yoimaxs's First Book of 
 Botany?) It will be easily seen that by a con- 
 tinuous application of this plan, the pupil will 
 acquire a considerable knowledge of the charac- 
 teristics of plants, as well as of the nomenclature 
 of the science; and. moreover, that at every step 
 his observation, and his judgment too. will be 
 thoroughly exercised and trained, in order to be 
 able to describe the minute distinctions of form, 
 structure, color, etc., that are subjected to his dis- 
 criminative attention. This process harmonizes 
 entirely with the following just view of a distin- 
 guished educator : '"The first instruction of 
 children in the empirical sciences should mainly 
 consist in exhibiting to them interesting objects 
 and phenomena; in allowing them to look, 
 handle, and ask questions'; and in giving oppor- 
 tunity for the free exercise of their youthful 
 imaginations. A teacher may guide them in 
 their explorations of the neighborhood, direct 
 their observations, make inquiries, give explana- 
 tions, conduct experiments, call things by their 
 light names ; but he must be careful to do it in 
 such a maimer as not to check their play of 
 fancy or chill their flow of feeling.'' (See 
 Wickbbsham's Methods of Instruction.) Bui the 
 young pupil is not to be kepi constantly at 
 mere observation. or the comparison of the form, 
 structure, color, etc., of leaves, flowers, and other 
 parts of plants; his attention may be called to 
 the simple facts of vegetable physiology, and thus 
 shown "how plants grow" and "how they be- 
 have," as well as what they are. The elementary 
 works of Prof. Gray, bearing the titles above 
 quoted (How Plants Grow, and How Plants' 
 Behave), and Dr. IIookkr's Child's Book of Nat' 
 ure, will be useful auxiliaries to the teacher for 
 
96 
 
 BOTANY 
 
 this purpose. Such information as the circula- 
 tion of the sap, its use, the functions of the leaf, 
 the root, the flower, and the seed, communicated 
 in an appropriate style and explained by their 
 analogy with other things, familiar to the mind 
 of every child, will properly supplement the 
 knowledge gained by the pupil through his own 
 observations. The following description from 
 the Child's Book of Nature, will illustrate what 
 is meant by this : 
 
 ' ' The bark is not all one thing. It is made 
 up of two parts ; or rather, we should say, there 
 are two barks. There is an outer bark and an 
 inner one. The outer bark has no life in it. 
 
 It is this outer bark that gives such a roughness 
 to the trunks of some trees, as the elm and the 
 oak. This outer bark is a coat for the tree. It 
 covers up the living parts so that they shall not 
 be injured. It does for the tree what our clothes 
 do for our bodies. It is not a perfectly tight 
 coat. It has little openings everywhere in it. It 
 would be bad for the tree to have this coat on it 
 tight, just as it would be bad for our bodies to 
 have an India-rubber covering close to the skin." 
 
 In such a simple style as this, and with the 
 use of similar illustrations, much interest may 
 be awakened in the child's mind, its observing 
 ami reasoning faculties quickened, and a 
 love of natural objects infused, which independ- 
 ently of the practical use of the knowledge 
 gained, will constitute a mental culture of the 
 highest value and prove a life-long blessing to its 
 possessor. If. after this elementary instruction, 
 it is deemed important that the science should 
 be studied as such, the pupil must be gradually 
 trained in classification, for which the founda- 
 tion will have been laid, in this branch of study. 
 as in all other departments of natural history, 
 the mental processes to be successively performed 
 are: (1) Observation, with the view to compar- 
 ison and analysis ; (2) Classification ; (3) Induc- 
 tion, or the discovery of principles, so as to em- 
 body the observed facts into a science ; and (4 ) 
 Application of the scientific principles to new 
 facts. The elementary exercises already described 
 conduct the pupil through the first stage only ; 
 but the scientific study does not begin until the 
 third, and is not completed till he has become 
 practiced in the fourth. The observation of 
 common characters in plants will necessarily 
 lead the mind of the pupil to perceive the 
 method and the value of classification : but such 
 
 exercises need not lie very protracted, since it is 
 natural even to a child I" generalize and classify. 
 
 He will soon be prepared for the methodical 
 
 study of systematic botany; and then very 
 
 properh may lie supplied with a good text-book. 
 Bui the pupils must only use it as an auxiliary 
 or instrument, in the study of nature. Let them 
 .■-till be encouraged to collect specimens, to notice 
 as fully and accurately as possible their peculiar 
 ities. and to describe them by the proper terms. 
 
 Borne simple means of drying and preserving 
 
 plants will be very serviceable, so that tin school 
 at least may possi tolerably complete her 
 
 barium. Magnified and colored representations, 
 such as those supplied by Prang's Natural 
 
 History Series, and especially Henslow's Botan- 
 ical ('harts, will prove a great aid in showing 
 clearly what the pupils fail to make out in the 
 actual specimens. For the purpose of analyzing 
 flowers, etc., a small microscope will be needed; 
 one that can be so used as to leave both hands 
 free for the work of dissection, is greatly to be 
 preferred. This, with a sharp knife, forceps, 
 and large needles, fixed in handles, is all that will 
 be needed. Judgment should be exercised in 
 the selection of the flowers for analysis. The 
 simpler and more obvious, as the Oruciferae, 
 Rosacece, Leguminosce, Ranunculacece,Violacece, 
 and Labiatce, before such orders as the Com- 
 posilce, Umbettiferce, Juncacece, and <'///>ei-acece. 
 The grasses, ferns, mosses, fungi, etc., will need 
 to be studied at an advanced stage of the course. 
 The artificial keys supplied in most text- 
 books should be used with judgment. Students 
 are very apt to become absorbed in the desire to 
 discover the names of plants by the use of these 
 devices, as if that were the end of the study. 
 But while there is no doubt that much progress 
 can be made by the verification of the order and 
 species of a plant, in this way, the great object 
 to be attained is, that the student should become 
 so well versed in observing and describing the 
 peculiarities of plants, and in their classification, 
 that he may bj able to place them at once where 
 they belong, only using the key when he has 
 come across a specimen which belongs to some 
 order with which he is unacquainted. 
 
 The utility of botany as a branch of school 
 study has been thoughtlessly called in question. 
 Its value as an educational agent has already 
 been sufficiently shown, and a brief consideration 
 of the relations of vegetable life to the most 
 important interests of society will suffice to 
 demonstrate its exceeding importance as a branch 
 of knowledge. The agriculturist is greatly at 
 fault who knows nothing of the principles of 
 vegetable physiology, who cannot distinguish the 
 properties and characteristics of the plants that 
 cover his domain — some the object of his most 
 tender care and concern, others his greatest bane. 
 The florist and horticulturist are certainly un- 
 acquainted with their own arts, unless they are 
 proficient in a knowledge of the structure, 
 functions, and habits of plants ; and the apoth- 
 ecary and physician have also an especial need 
 of similar information. The geographer and the 
 geologist; and indeed the scientist, in every de- 
 partment, needs tu have a good acquaintance 
 with the vegetable kingdom. Says Prof. Ilen- 
 fiw: •■ In geography , that is. physical geography, 
 the concrete natural history of plants becomes a 
 
 portion Of the concrete natural history of the 
 globe: the physiological laws are involved with 
 physical laws of climate, soil, etc.. in the ex- 
 planation of possible distributions, either in an 
 abstract point of view, or for the purpose of 
 practical application; while the systematic classi- 
 fications, and the natural history of particular 
 species, become the only guide by which we can 
 attempt to trace back the existing conditions of 
 distribution towards their origin, and thus per- 
 
BOYVDOIN C0LL1K 1 E 
 
 ROYS 
 
 97 
 
 form the share duo to botany; in the historical 
 connection of physical geography with geology, 
 of which it is properly only the statical part." 
 Moreover, to the clergyman, the lawyer, the 
 orator, and all who need to cultivate and employ 
 tlie art of persuasion, involving as it does, too, 
 the art of elucidation, few subjects present so 
 wi le a field for familiar and impressive illustra- 
 tions as the domain of plants, rich not only in 
 those natural flowers which are pleasing to the 
 eye, but also in those flowers of speech, which 
 constitute the most attractive ornaments of 
 rhetoric and poetry. The traveler and explorer 
 in distant lands, who is a botanist, can find in 
 the flora of every region he visits, food for prof- 
 itable instruction and research; and the rural 
 wayfarer, who has fled the bustle and confusion 
 of city life for relief and rest, will, in a knowledge 
 of this science, never fail to realize, at every step 
 he takes, the most refreshing enjoyment. Surely 
 no stronger plea can be set up for any of the 
 branches of study which occupy so conspicuous a 
 place in the educational schemes of schools and 
 colleges, those alone excepted which constitute the 
 indispensable foundation of all mental improve- 
 ment. — See Youmans, Educational Claims of 
 Botany (N. Y., 1870), First Book of Botany (N. 
 Y.. 1870), and Second Book of Botany (N. Y., 
 1873) ; Gray, How Plants Grow (N. Y, 1858); 
 F. A. P. Barnard, Early Mental Training, and 
 Henfrey's lecture on the Educational Claim* 
 of Botanical Science, in The Culture demanded 
 by Modern Life, edited by E. L. Youmans (N. Y., 
 1867) ; Wickersham, Methods of Instruction 
 (Phil., 1865) ; How to Teach, a Manual of Meth- 
 ods (X.Y.,1873). 
 
 BOWDOIN COLLEGE, at Brunswick, 
 Maine, the oldest and most prominent literary 
 institution in the state, was chartered in 1794, 
 and organized in 1802. It was named in honor 
 of Gov. James Bowdoin of Massachusetts. The 
 government was vested in a board of trustees 
 and a board of overseers, which, in 1801. elected 
 Joseph McKeen, D. D., the first president of the 
 College. He was succeeded, in 1807, by Jesse 
 Appleton, D. D., who served till 1819, when 
 Rev. William Allen was elected his successor, 
 and continued in office till 1839, when he was 
 succeeded by Leonard Woods, D. D., who held 
 office till 1866. In 1867, the Rev. Samuel Harris, 
 S. T. D., was elected president, and was succeeded, 
 in 1871, by Joshua L. Chamberlain, LL. D., 
 the present incumbent. The prevailing religious 
 denomination is the Congregationalist. Provision 
 is made in this institution for a scientific course 
 of study, distinct from the regular collegiate 
 course, during the last two years, and especially 
 embracing the modern languages, natural science, 
 (leering, mechanics, and drawing. There is 
 also a post-graduate course, which affords in- 
 struction in (1) Letters, comprising languages, 
 ancient and modern (including the oriental), 
 with the literature of each : philology, rhetoric, 
 logic, history, elocution, and the fine arts ; (2) 
 Science, comprising higher mathematics, physics, 
 natural history, and chemistry, in their uses and 
 7 
 
 applications; (3) Philosophy, comprising psy- 
 chology, metaphysics, ethics, esthetics, and pol- 
 ities, the latter including the theory of govern- 
 ment, constitutional history, principles of law, 
 and international law. The first leads to the 
 degree of master of arts (A. M.); the second, 
 to that of doctor of science (Sc. D.) ; and the 
 third, to that of doctor of philosophy (Ph. D.). 
 Graduates who have completed any course in 
 the post-graduate studies with honor, may be 
 appointed fellows, to reside at the college with all 
 the privileges of the same one or two years 
 further, without charge, enjoying facilities for 
 studies still more advanced, with opportunities 
 for teaching in the line of their specialties. 
 Much attention is given to physical culture, a 
 gymnasium being provided with the most ap- 
 proved apparatus. The exercises are carefully 
 directed upon physiological and hygienic princi- 
 ples, with the view to develop the bodily powers, 
 but are, at the same time, subservient to the 
 discipline of the mind. Instruction is also afforded 
 in military science, and daily exercises in drill 
 are given by an officer of the army detailed for 
 that purpose. Since 1873, these drill exercises 
 have been optional, the students electing be- 
 tween them and the gymnasium. Medical 
 training is given through the Medical School of 
 Maine, which, by an act of the legislature, in 
 1821, was placed under the superintendence and 
 direction of the trustees and overseers of Bow- 
 doin College. The number of professors and other 
 instructors in the college, in 1874, was 15, and of 
 students, 173, exclusive of those in the medical 
 school. The value of the grounds, buildings, and 
 apparatus is about $85,000, and its productive 
 funds amount to $154,000. The college and so- 
 ciety libraries contain about 31,000 volumes. The 
 roll of alumni includes some illustrious names. 
 Here, in 1825, graduated Henry W. Longfellow 
 and Nathaniel Hawthorne ; and subsequently 
 Franklin Pierce, Geo. B. Cheever, John P. Hale, 
 S. S. Prentiss, and Calvin E. Stowe. Thomas C. 
 Upham, D. D., was professor of mental philos- 
 ophy from 1824 to 1867 ; and H. W. Long- 
 fellow held the position of professor of modern 
 languages from 1829 to 1835, when he was called 
 to a similar position in Harvard College. The an- 
 nual tuition fee is about $75. There are ten en- 
 dowed scholarships, yielding from $50 to $60 per 
 annum and, besides these, funds donated to the 
 institution, amounting to about $10,000, from 
 which aid is liberally afforded to indigent students. 
 BOYS, Education of. In the education of 
 boys, the same general principles are to be ap- 
 I as in that of girls ; and, up to a certain age, 
 in their school education, the same arrangements 
 for discipline and instruction will answer. Edu- 
 n. however, rightly considered, has for its 
 object to aid and guide the development of the 
 powers or faculties, both generic and specific, 
 of the individuals who are subjected to its minis- 
 trations; and, consequently, its processes should 
 vary with the character of the facidties which 
 are to be developed. And this is by no means 
 the whole. Education is to be addressed to all 
 
98 
 
 BOYS 
 
 the elements of character, — physical, mental, and 
 moral. There are propensities to restrain and 
 subdue as well as powers to bring out and direct. 
 There are tendencies to good to cultivate and en- 
 courage: and then- are, from the first, those of an 
 opposite character to repress or extinguish. 
 There is not only the intelligence to be stimu- 
 lated and guided, there is the will to be subdued, 
 — to be made subject, not only to the authority 
 of the educator, lmt to the conscience of the edu- 
 cated. Doubtless, there are principles sufficiently 
 comprehensive to embrace all these considera- 
 tions, and to afford a safe foundation for prac- 
 tical methods and rules sufficiently minute to 
 reach every case, however peculiar or eccentric : 
 but what we wish here especially to lay down, is 
 th- important, fundamental law. that education, 
 claiming to be scientific, and nota nit re mechan- 
 ical empiricism, must take cognizance of all these 
 elements of human character, not only in their 
 average condition and degree, but in those 
 marked diversities which constitute individual 
 character. (See Education.) According to this 
 principle, boys and girls can never properly be 
 subjected to precisely the same processes of edu- 
 cation, because their natures are very different, 
 — physically, mentally, and morally. This fact 
 is, however, not necessarily in t diet with co- 
 education ; indeed, it may be an argument in 
 favor of it. Children of both sexes may be 
 trained in the same family, and instructed in the 
 ie school or class; but the wise parent and 
 the skillful teacher will often have to make a 
 careful discrimination in his treatment of them 
 as boys or girls. 
 
 The ancients had very different educational 
 systems for the two sexes, for two reasons : ( 1 ) 
 because of their diverse natures, and {'!) because 
 of their different spheres of life. Nearly all 
 that we read of ancient education concerns boys; 
 but we are not to suppose, for this reason, that 
 the education of the girls was overlooked. That 
 of the boys was public, and was a matter of pub- 
 lic concern, for the welfare and the safety of the 
 state depended upon it: but that of the girls 
 exclusively belonged to the social circle, and was, 
 therefore, strictly private. 
 
 In the Oyropd'tlin of Xenophon, we have a 
 beautiful picture of the education of boys among 
 the Persians, fictitious in some particulars, with- 
 out doubt, but illustrative of ancient manners 
 and views as to the objects of such an edu- 
 'ii. The public good was the exclusive 
 end of this system: ami as the education of 
 
 the future citizens for their duties in p 
 and war was the mosl important concern of 
 the state, this duty was not left to the parents. 
 
 by whom it might be oeglected or improperly 
 performed, bu1 was the subject of special gov- 
 ernmental regulations. Boys were all brought 
 up iii common, according to a uniform system. 
 
 which prescribed the kind of food, the times 
 
 of eating, the nature and duration of physical 
 
 exercises, and the modes of punishment. By 
 B very plain and simple die!, the boys were 
 
 accustomed to strict temperance; and such 
 
 modes of bodily exercise were employed as would 
 inure them to the hardships and fatigues of war. 
 Tn their schools, the chief object was to teach the 
 pupils justice and virtue, with the view that it is 
 much easier to prevent the commission of crimes 
 by proper early education, than by severity 
 of punishment at a more advanced period of 
 life. 
 
 The Spartan system of educating boys re- 
 sembled that of the Persians as described by 
 Xenophon, except that it was deficient in some 
 of the finer moral elements; and in its physical 
 characteristics was. perhaps, more severe. (See 
 Sparta.) For an account of the education of 
 boys among the Athenians, see Athens. ^\mong 
 the Romans, the education of boys was under 
 the guidance of the father; though much of it, 
 particularly in its earliest stages, was under the 
 superintendence of the mother. She attended 
 not only to their physical wants, but took pains 
 to form their language, their ideas, their moral 
 sentiments, and their religious feelings. Of this 
 we have an example in Cornelia, the mother of 
 the < rracchi. Later, the boy was furnished with 
 a custos, or paedagogus, who sometimes in- 
 structed him in gymnastics, or accompanied him 
 to the exercises, or to the theatre, being responsible 
 for his safety. This office, in a Woman family, 
 was performed by one of the older slaves, and its 
 functions continued until the age of manhood was 
 reached. Some distinguished Romans, the elder 
 Cato for example, taught their own sons; but 
 usually teachers were especially employed to give 
 instruction in reading, writing, calculation, rhet- 
 oric, etc. A teacher of this kind was called 
 hull magister. Youths were, for the space of a 
 year, exercised in arms in the Campus Martins, 
 and iii swimming in the Tiber. (See Rome.) The 
 most celebrated writer on the education of boys 
 among the Romans is Quintl'lian, whose great 
 work Fnsiitutiones Oratorios, although designed 
 to explain tin' education necessary for the com- 
 plete orator, yet treats likewise of the early 
 training ami instruction of the boy. Thus ho 
 says: •• Many are opposed to t he public schools, 
 for the reason that the children acquire bad 
 habits there, and also because the teacher can 
 bestow more attention upon one than upon 
 many: but these objections against the good old 
 dations are not valid, since there are also 
 many evils connected with private instruction; 
 
 and. moreover, if boys were not early rendered 
 
 effeminate, they would not be so easily corrupted 
 in the public schools. The instruction in tl 
 schools is to be preferred, especially for the fu- 
 ture orator, in order that he may accustom him- 
 self to the multitude, and be Stimulated by com- 
 petition." Quintilian enjoined particularly uj)on 
 the teacher to make himself acquainted with the 
 disposition and capacity (natura et ingeniitm) 
 of his pupils, and to treat every one according 
 
 to his peculiar traits. Other Woman writ, is 
 
 treated of the education of youth. Varro wrote 
 Gapy8,atU de liberis educandii, which, together 
 with most of this author's numerous treatises, 
 has perished. 
 
 
BOYS 
 
 BRAILLE 
 
 99 
 
 Tn modern times, most of the special treatises 
 cm education refer particularly to the training 
 and instruction of boys. This is true of Mon- 
 taigne, Milton, and Locke. The special education 
 of u r irls has engaged the attention of bul few 
 writers. Very many, therefore, of the principles 
 and rides laid down are based upon the peculiar 
 disposition and character of boys. Milton's defini- 
 tion of education is limited to the one sex, its 
 scope being"to lit a man to perform justly, skill- 
 fully, and magnanimously all the offices, both 
 
 private and public, of peace and war": and his 
 
 various directions as to studies, physical exer- 
 cises, etc., all have an exclusive application to 
 hoys, w ho he says, among other things, " must be 
 
 also practiced in all the locks and gripes of 
 
 Wrestling, wherein Englishmen were wont to 
 excel, as need may often be in fight to tug, to 
 
 grapple, and to close." Fencing he particularly 
 approves : " The exercise which I commend first, 
 is the exact use of their weapon, to guard, and 
 to strike safely with edge or point ; this will 
 keep them healthy, nimble, strong, and well in 
 breath, is also the likeliest means to make them 
 grow large and tall, and to inspire them with a 
 gallant and fearless courage, which being tem- 
 pered with seasonable lectures and precepts to 
 them of true fortitude and patience, will turn 
 into a native and heroic valor, and make them 
 hate the cowardice of doing wrong."' 
 
 .Most writers on education have recognized the 
 necessity of discriminating between the sexes in 
 education. " From the beginning of the eighth 
 year," says Schwarz, "the two sexes require, in 
 almost every respect, a different education. The 
 principal concern of boys are the studies of 
 school, alternating with bodily exercise. Their 
 amusements are, at an early age, of the more 
 active kind : chasing the butterfly, and scouring 
 the plain with other boys; at a later age, they 
 should engage in pedestrian excursions and bold 
 undertakings, and enjoy the cheerful company of 
 their equals; taking care, however, that their 
 playmates be of the proper character, and that 
 their hearts be cultivated for what is noble and 
 generous. This vigilant supervision should fol- 
 low- them to the latter years of youth, and guard 
 them against all bad company. Their propensity 
 to imitate their older associates, which, among 
 other evil practices, so often leads to the early 
 habit of smoking, and the like, should be en- 
 listed on the side of what is good and praise- 
 worthy, by constantly managing their entire 
 education in accordance with sound principles." 
 The same writer also observes very justly : " Al- 
 though hoys should be chiefly educated by men. 
 and girls by women, the two sexes should unite 
 in the education of both boys and girls. The 
 boy requires the mild and gentle treatment of 
 the mother, in order that his sensibility may not 
 become callous ; and. besides, he will always need 
 some intercourse with persons of the other sex. 
 both young and adult, as it is found in families, 
 because otherwise he will contrail habits of 
 rudeness, without developing a susceptibility for 
 the finer feelings of humanity." 
 
 The requirements of modern civilization, as 
 well as the usages of modern social life, appear 
 
 to dictate a separate education for boys, alter the 
 
 elementary stages, both on accounl of the diver- 
 sity in the mental and physical constitution of 
 boys and girls, and because of the difference in 
 the spheres of life which they are to occupy. 
 Here, however, there is great difference of opin- 
 ion, many, and particularly females themselves 
 contending for the breaking down of all distinc- 
 tions of the kind, and throwing open all grades 
 and classes of educational institutions, both gen- 
 eral and technical, to both sexes. (See Co-kim - 
 CATION.) This question will not be discussed 
 here; but the tact simply stated that many of 
 the public schools in the United States have an 
 organization especially adapted to males, and 
 
 that, among private seminaries, this rule chiefly 
 prevails. Hoarding-schools, with arrangements 
 for gymnastic and other physical exercises, and 
 a school military drill, are quite common ; 
 while business and commercial colleges and 
 schools have become very numerous. (See Bu- 
 siness Colleges.) These institutions aim to 
 give a training which will fit their pupils to till 
 their future positions as accountants, merchants, 
 or business men in any capacity ; and, in con- 
 nection therewith, impart such principles of 
 honor and integrity, as will give them true man- 
 liness and Christian integrity. Some of these 
 institutions are open to girls as well ; but just 
 as there are seminaries and colleges which are 
 for females exclusively, so there are likewise in- 
 stitutions especially devoted to the education of 
 boys. — See Milton, Of Education; Schwarz, 
 Erziehungslehre (Leipsic, 1829) ; Rousseau, 
 Emile, ou de l Ed 'wet it 'ion; H.I. Schmidt, His- 
 tory of Education (N. Y., 1842); Hailman, 
 History of Pedagogy (Cincinnati, 1874.) 
 
 BRAIDWOOD, Thomas, a noted teacher 
 of deaf-mutes, was born in Scotland in 1715, 
 and died at Hackney, near London, in 1806. He 
 kept an establishment at Dumbiedikes, near 
 Edinburgh, which was the first regular school 
 for deaf-mutes in Great Britain. It is this in- 
 stitution that Dr. Johnson praised so highly, and 
 in which, as recorded by Boswell, he gave one of 
 his sesquipedalia verba, to test the skill of the 
 pupils in articulation. (See Boswell's Life of 
 Johnson.) Subsequently, Braidwood kept a 
 school at Hackney, near London, in which he 
 continued till his death, and which was after- 
 ward maintained by his widow and grand-chil- 
 dren till lslG. He kept his methods of instruc- 
 tion secret as far as possible; but the chief tea 
 tn of his system was articulation and reading 
 from the lip. The manual alphabet was like- 
 wise employed. An account of his Edinburgh 
 school was published by Francis Green of Los- 
 ton, the father of one of Braidwood 's pupils, in 
 a work entitled Vox ocu/is subjecta (London, 
 
 178::). 
 
 BRAILLE, Louis, the inventor of a tan- 
 gible point system for the instruction of the- 
 blind, was born near Paris in 1809, and died in 
 1852. He lost his sight at a very early age, and 
 
100 
 
 BRAIN" 
 
 BRAZIL 
 
 was instructed in the institute for the blind at 
 Paris. He was highly distinguished for his in- 
 telligence, and the rapidity with which he ac- 
 complished himself in various branches of knowl- 
 edge, particularly music ; and besides being a 
 skillful player upon several other instruments, 
 was reckoned among the best organists of his 
 time. At the age of eighteen, he became a pro- 
 fessor in the Royal institute ; and while in that 
 position (about 1839), devised his method of 
 writing, based on the point system of ML ( narles 
 Barbier, which he also applied to musical nota- 
 tion. Le systems Braille was introduced in most 
 of the continental schools. A new system of 
 tangible point writing and printing has, quite 
 recently, been devised by William B. Wait, 
 superintendent of the New York institution for 
 the blind, in which the letters which occur 
 oftenest, such as e, </. and /. are represented by 
 the smallest number of points. — See Wait's 
 New Fork System of Tangible Musical Notation 
 a ml Point Writing mnl Printing (New York, 
 L873). 
 
 BRAIN", the principal organ of the nervous 
 system, ami the fountain of nervous energy 
 to the whole body. It is the seat of conscious- 
 ness, feeling, and intellect, ami also the recipient 
 of all impressions made on any part of the nerv- 
 ous system. The brain being the organ espe- 
 cially concerned in education, its hygiene is an 
 important subject for the attention of the 
 teacher. The development of this organ is very 
 rapid. The average weight of the brain in 
 adults is about 48 ounces, and this limit is gener- 
 ally attained at the age of thirteen years. No 
 -organ is, from the time of birth, so regularly and 
 so incessantly exercised as the brain. During 
 the period of infancy, nature, herself BUperinteni I > 
 this process ; and unless her cai'e is interfered 
 wit li through the ignorance, folly, or neglect of 
 the mother or nurse, it results in a healthy 
 growth and development. When the age of in- 
 fancy is passed, and the child is surrendered to 
 the educator, intelligence and skill may accom- 
 plish much benefit in regulating the cerebral de- 
 velopment : or a want of skill and intelligence 
 may do, and often does, very great injury. Ex- 
 ercise is the natural instrument by which all the 
 bodily organs are brought to a maturity of 
 growth and strength, and by which they are 
 kept in a condition of health. In applying this 
 principle, the teacher should see that the exercise 
 be proper, (1) as to its kind, (2) as to its degree, 
 (3) as to its direction ; and in all these respects, 
 thai ii is adapted to the age and peculiar phys- 
 ical conduit f the child to be educated. The 
 
 same processwil] not answer for all. The teacher 
 who wishes to do good, whose aim is really to 
 
 educate, will study the external indications of 
 
 temperament, of bodily health and disease, and 
 
 also of cerebral structure; and will, as fai 
 possible, regulate his operations accordingly. The 
 brain i-^ exercised both by thought and feeling ; 
 
 being the seat of various faculties, both mental 
 and moral, its activities are aroused by whatever 
 is addressed to the intellect, the conscience, the 
 
 emotions, or the propensities. " The first step," 
 says Combe. " towards establishing the regular 
 exercise of the brain, is to educate and train the 
 mental faculties in youth ; and the second is to 
 place the individual habitually in circumstances 
 demanding the discharge of useful and impor- 
 tant duties." The healthy development of the 
 brain may be prevented ( 1 ) by wrong exercise, 
 ('_') by being overtasked, (3) by bad physical con- 
 ditions. (4) by bad moral conditions. Over- 
 strained or too long continued attention, excess- 
 ive tasks from books, committed to memory 
 under the pressure of fear, long confinement in 
 close rooms, and hence the want of properly 
 oxygenated air. will impair the functions of the 
 brain, and lay the foundation, not only of future 
 disease, but perhaps of future imbecility. So, 
 too, when subjected to harsh disci] .line, to un- 
 kind treatment, to a moral atmosphere vitiated 
 by the irritability, ill-humor, and moroseness of 
 the ] talent or teacher, the brain of the child 
 loses even its natural or normal physical condi- 
 tion ; and its growth is necessarily morbid. (See 
 Physical Education.) 
 
 BRAZIL, an empire of South America, 
 having an area of .'!. '288,100 sq. in., and a popula- 
 tion, according to the census of L872, of 9,700,187. 
 It is one of the most important states of the 
 world, being exceeded, in extent, only by the 
 Russian, British, and Chinese empires, and by 
 the United States ; while, in regard to popula- 
 tion, it ranks as the Kith state. The established 
 religion of the empire is the Roman Catholic ; 
 but according to Art. 5. of the constitution, all 
 other religions are tolerated, "with their domestic 
 or private forms of worship, in buildings erected 
 for this purpose, but without the exterior form 
 of temples." No person can be persecuted for 
 religious acts or motives. The number of Prot- 
 estants is estimated at about 30.000. The ma- 
 jority of them are Germans, who have about 
 20 churches and are united in a synod. Besides 
 the German Protestants, there are Knglish and 
 French Protestant churches; and the Presbyteri- 
 ans of the United States haw established a small 
 number of congregations among the native 
 Brazilian population. The national language is 
 the Portuguese. The number of German and 
 Swiss colonies was, in L869, about 50, with 
 about 40,000 German-speaking settlers. The 
 whites number probably one third of the popula- 
 tion, the remaining two-thirds being made up of 
 mixed races, civilized and savage Indians, and 
 Africans, which last form the most numerous 
 unmixed race in the empire. The number of 
 Bavage Indians is estimated at from 250,000 to 
 500,000. They are divided into a large number 
 of different t lilies and speak many different 
 dialects, though all understand the lingoa geral, 
 which was formed by the priests, traders, and 
 slave hunters, on the basis of the Tupi-Quarani 
 i language of the native tribes Tupi&aa Guaranty 
 The Indians being found unprofitable as slaves, 
 recourse was had to the importation of negroes 
 from Africa. These were treated, until 1850 
 with almost unparalleled cruelty, though eman- 
 
bba/ib 
 
 m 
 
 cipation was always encouraged, and no man was 
 debarred by his color from reaching any position 
 inchurch or state. A law, passed Sept. 28., lsTl. 
 provided for the gradual abolition ot slavery. 
 
 Brazil was discovered and taken possession of 
 for the king of Portugal, in L500, and from that 
 time remained under the control <>t' Portugal, 
 with a short interruption, until L822, when it 
 was declared an independent empire, and Dom 
 Pedro L was proclaimed its first emperor. Ac- 
 n mviing to the constitution of L824, public ele- 
 mentary instruction is gratuitous, and placed 
 under tiie control of the state. Private schools, 
 like all others, are subject to the superintendence 
 of the state government. Public instruction is 
 graded, as in other countries, into primary, 
 secondary, and superior or scientific instruction. 
 Public instruction, like ecclesiastical affairs, be- 
 longs to the department of the minister of the 
 interior. Secondary and primary instruction, 
 arc, however, chiefly regulated by the provincial 
 assemblies, and placed under the administra- 
 tion of the presidents of the provinces. As the 
 Brazilian provinces enjoy a high degree of self- 
 government, there is but little uniformity in the 
 Organization, but generally the provinces have 
 modeled their schools after those of the capital. 
 As long as Brazil was a Portuguese colony, 
 little was done for public instruction; but Dom 
 Pedro I., as soon as he had ascended the throne, 
 showed great interest in the promotion of 
 public education, and established a number of 
 new schools. Still more was done by his son and 
 successor, Pedro II. (since 1831) ; but the provi- 
 sions of the constitution of 1824 were never 
 fully carried out until 1851, when the two cham- 
 bers passed a law authorizing the government 
 to reorganize the systems of higher instruction 
 throughout the empire, and those of secondary 
 and primary instruction in the capital. In ac- 
 cordance with this law, the minister of the inte- 
 rior, Pedreiro de Couto Ferraz, promulgated, 
 Feb. 14.. 1854, the organic provisions which had 
 been drafted by De Almeida Roza, and which 
 have remained the basis of everything that has 
 since been accomplished in Brazil for the promo- 
 tion of public instruction. 
 
 Brazil has, like Portugal, public schools of 
 the first and second (higher) grade. The course 
 of instruction in the former embraces religion, 
 ethics, reading and writing, the elements of the 
 Portuguese grammar and of arithmetic, with 
 legal weights and measures. In the female schools, 
 instruction is also given in embroidery and other 
 kinds of needle-work. In the schools of the sec- 
 ond grade, the gospels are read and explained, 
 and instruction is given in biblical and universal 
 history, geography, especially that of Brazil, 
 arithmetic, the elements of geometry and en- 
 gineering, drawing, music and gymnastics. The 
 number of schools is as yet entirely insufficient, 
 and as the salaries paid are generally very small, 
 there is a great want of competent teachers. 
 The country owes many important reforms to 
 the zealous minister of the interior. Correa de 
 Oliveira (1871 — L875), who has announced his 
 
 intention to introduce compulsory instruction 
 and to establish two national normal schools, of 
 which there is as yet a great want, as the few 
 institutions of the kind existing in the provinces 
 can be regarded as only a small beginning of real 
 normal instruction. 
 
 Before being allowed to teach, all persons have 
 to pass both a written and an oral examination. 
 Thequestions for the former are arranged by the 
 council of studies at the beginning of every 
 school year. This council consists of the general 
 inspector of schools, of the two rectors of the 
 Gollegio de Pedro //., and four elective coun- 
 cilors. There are also 5 assessors, 1 clerk with 1 
 assistants, and IT delegates of parishes, of whom 
 il belong to the city ot Bio de Janeiro. — Pupils 
 are admitted into the public schools from the 5th 
 to the 15th year of age. The school hours are 
 mostly from 8 to 11 A. M., and 3 to 5£ P. M. 
 The schoobbooks, which must be approved by 
 the inspector general, are to a great extent trans- 
 lations from the French and the English; among 
 them is a translation of Peter Parley's Universal 
 History. The school is opened every day with 
 a short prayer. Corporal punishment is not 
 permitted. Every school is annually examined 
 by a committee consisting of a delegate of the 
 district as president, the teacher, and a third 
 person appointed by the inspector general. The 
 rive most successful scholars receive rewards, 
 consisting of books. The president of the com- 
 mittee makes a report on the examination to the 
 inspector general. 
 
 According to the report of the minister of 
 public instruction to the legislature for 1872, the 
 number of public primary schools in the capital 
 was 111, with 6,149 scholars, namely 3,900 boys 
 and 2,249 girls. The number of public primary 
 schools in the provinces is 3,4 91 , namely 2,343 for 
 boys, and 1148 for girls, attended by 106,705 
 scholars, namely 75,594 boys, 29,096 girls, and 
 2,015 whose sex is not stated. The number 
 of private primary schools is 711, with 19,162 
 pupils. The total sum expended annually in the 
 provinces for public instruction was 3,362,687 
 milreis (about $1,836,000). 
 
 The model secondary school of Brazil is the 
 Colleyio de Pedro II. at Rio, which was organ- 
 ized in 1854. It consists of 2 separate institu- 
 tions, one of which is a boarding and the other a 
 day school, each with its own rector. The num- 
 ber of students was 351 ; of whom 221 were day 
 scholars and 130 boarders. Besides this college, 
 there were in the city of Rio de Janeiro 60 pri- 
 vate secondary schools, — 30 for boys, 25 forgirls, 
 and 5 for both sexes. The course of instruction 
 in these institutions varies somewhat, but in 
 most of them the following subjects are taught: 
 Portuguese. Latin, French, English, natural phi- 
 losophy, arithmetic algebra, geometry, history, 
 geography, rhetoric, and poetry. The number 
 of public secondary institutions in the provinces 
 was 107. with 2.9!) 1 scholars, namely 2,916boys, 
 and 7S girls. The number of private institutions 
 was 12::. with an attendance n\ 5,089 scholars. — 
 3,852 boys and 1.237 girls. The secondary 
 
:]-OU 
 
 brum; MAN 
 
 BRITISH COLUMBIA 
 
 institutions in the province arc under the control 
 of the provincial administration, and there is on 
 tiiat account a great lark of uniformity in their 
 courses of instinct ion and their entire admin- 
 istration. The government of Brazil intends, 
 however, to establish, as soon as practicable, state 
 colleges on a uniform plan. For the (ierinan 
 colonies in the province of Sao Paulo a "Ger- 
 man lyceurn" has been established; most of tin' 
 secondary schools resemble, however, the French 
 lyceums. 
 
 Brazil has as yet no university : but only tun 
 law faculties at Recife (Pernambuco) and Sao 
 Paulo, with an aggregate number of 542 students, 
 and two medical faculties at Rio de. Janeiro and 
 
 Bahia, with an aggregate number of 868 stud 
 The establishment of a complete university at 
 Rio de Janeiro is projected, and is urgently 
 recommended by the ministerof public inst rue 
 tion in bis annual reports to the legislature. 
 
 Theological faculties are connected with nearly 
 all the episcopal seminaries. Of other special 
 schools, there arc at the capital a business college 
 (with 36 students in 1872), an institution for the 
 blind (with L 9 pupils), an institution for deaf- 
 mutes (with 1!) pupils); tli- Central School (sci- 
 entific school), with which a military school is 
 connected, a naval school and a naval artillery 
 school, an academy of fine arts (with 187 stu- 
 dents), a conservatory of music (with 139 stu- 
 dents), and an imperial lyceum of arts and in- 
 dustry, belonging to the society for promoting 
 fine arts, a sort of polytechnic school (with 
 1,233 Btudents). In the provinces, there are 
 several agricultural and industrial schools. 
 
 See Lb Rot, in Schmid's Realencyclopadie, 
 vol. ix., pp. 8G9 — 920; Kidder and Fletcher, 
 Brazil and the Brazilians (8th edit., Boston 
 1866); Aoassiz, A Jonrna/ in Brazil (ls(JS), 
 "Waim'.ki s. Das Kaiserreich Brasilien (Leipsic, 
 1871); Annual reports of the minister of public 
 instruction of Brazil to the legislature. 
 
 BEIDGMAN, Laura, a remarkable blind 
 deaf-mute, born at Hanover. N. II., in 1829, is 
 particularly noted as the subject of a very suc- 
 cessful course of training and inst ruction, by 
 means of which she was taught to read, write, 
 and converse with others, and enabled to acqu 
 a knowledge of many useful branches of learn- 
 ing, besides becoming highly accomplished in 
 music. She lost ber sigh! and bearing al the 
 age of two years; and when aboul eight years 
 old, b icame an inmate of the Perkins institution 
 for ill-' blind in Host on. then under the care of Dr. 
 
 Samuel < b 1 1 owe. so noted lor his benevolence and 
 
 devoted philanthropy. Finding that she possessed 
 a high degree of intelligence, he resolved, despite 
 the many discouragements of the case, to attempt 
 ber education. Through the sense of touch, he 
 firel associated, by constant repetition, objects 
 
 with their names in relief letters, and when a 
 few of these were learned and the relation thor- 
 oughly established, be taught her to recognize 
 
 the separate letters composing each word, and 
 
 then to construct the words herself from the let- 
 ters. She was then taught the manual alphabet. 
 
 and its use in naming objects : after which, 
 through these channels of communication, she 
 learned the qualities, uses, and relations of ob- 
 jects, as well as their names. Subsequently, she 
 learned to write and to play upon the piano, in 
 which she became very skillful, and acquired also 
 a dexterity in needle-work and in the perform- 
 ance of many household duties. Her moral and 
 religious education was more difficult; but this 
 also was successfully accomplished, so that, in 
 1873, I>r. Howe could say of her: " She enjoys 
 life quite as much as most persons do. She 
 reads whatever books she finds in raised print, but 
 especially the Bible. She makes much of her 
 own clothing: and can run a sewing-machine. 
 She seems happiest when she can find some per- 
 son who knows the finger alphabet, and can sit 
 and gossip with her about acquaintances, the 
 news, and general matters. Her moral sense is 
 well developed." This case possesses peculiar 
 value iii showing what can be accomplished by 
 a devoted teacher despite the greatest natural 
 obstacles to the acquisition of knowledge; and is 
 a most encouraging example of the result of 
 patience n<\d address on the part of the educator. 
 
 — See I'.aknakd's Ameri'-an .Journal of Erfu- 
 rt, vol. xi. s. v. Samuel G. Howe. 
 
 BRITISH COLUMBIA, a province of the 
 Dominion of Canada, having an area of about 
 233,000 sq. m.. and a population, in 1871, of 
 8,576 whites, 462 negroes, and 1548 Chinese; 
 total, 10,586, exclusive of Indians, estimated at 
 35,000 to 40,000. It was created a distinct 
 colonial government by an act of parliament 
 passed .Vug. 2., 1858. In 1866, Vancouver 
 Island was united with British Columbia under 
 one government; and. in 1871, British Columbia 
 was admitted into the Dominion of Canada. 
 
 Although a common school ordinance was 
 passed in lSfi!) and amended in 1870, the real 
 foundation of the educational system in this prov- 
 ince was the public school act of 1872. This 
 law is an adaptation of the Ontario act. and its 
 enactment was advised by the superintendent. 
 himself a teacher trained in the Toronto normal 
 school. Amendments were made to the first act 
 in 1873, and a further act was passed in 1874. 
 
 The act provides for an annual -rant of $40,000 
 as a public school fund, and for the appointment 
 by the government of six persons, to hold office 
 during its pleasure, as a board of education : also 
 of an experienced person to be superintendent of 
 
 education, who shall be exoffieio chairman of the 
 
 board. School districts arc established and 
 
 altered h\ the government . which also makes 
 -rants for teachers' .salaries, the erection and fur- 
 nishing of school houses, and current expenses, 
 and establishes other schools, without a district. 
 
 where needed. The board of education prescribes 
 a uniform Beries of text-books to be used, and 
 
 provides for their supply to the schools, makes 
 general regulations, examines teachers and -rants 
 
 certificates, appoints teachers and lixes their 
 
 salaries, purchases and distributes school ap- 
 paratus, and may establish high schools. The 
 superintendent visits each school once a year. 
 
BROOKLYN 
 
 103 
 
 a instruction, enforces the law, suspends, if 
 necessary, a teacher's license till the meeting of 
 
 tin' board, -rants temporary certificates, settles 
 disputed elections, and makes an annual report. 
 An annual meeting for the election of trustees is 
 held in each district in January. There are three 
 trustees, of whom one retires at the annual meet- 
 ing, and no trustee may be a superintendent or 
 teacher. The trustees appoint the place of and 
 call the annual meeting, on ten days' notice. No 
 uncertificated teacher can be engaged in a public 
 school. All public schools must lie conducted 
 Upon strictly non-sectarian principles, no religious 
 dogma or creed being permitted to be taught. 
 •In Iges, clergymen, members of the legislature, 
 and others interested arc visitors. 'The compul- 
 sory clause provides that trustees may make by- 
 laws, with the sanction of the superintendent, for 
 requiring the attendance, at some school, of chil- 
 dren between the ages of 7 and 1 I years, with 
 certain limitations as to distance, etc. The act 
 of L874 provides for the establishment of public 
 boarding-schools. Such schools are managed by 
 three trustees, who are appointed by the gov- 
 ernor and hold office during bis pleasure; and 
 these officers appoint the teachers. The teachers 
 under the board are paid on the following scale: 
 For an average attendance of from 10 to 20 
 pupils, $50 a month : from 20 to 90, $60; 30 to 
 40, $70; in to 50, $80. When the average ex- 
 ceeds 50, the school is entitled to an assistant. 
 Teachers whose schools are far inland receive 
 £10 a month more. 
 
 The estimated number of children of school 
 age was, in 1874, about 2,240, of whom 1,245 at- 
 tended school some portion of the year ; this was 
 an increase of 711 over 1872. in consequence 
 of the exceeding sparseness of the population, 
 the boarding system has been introduced : and 
 one such school was, in 1875, in successful oper- 
 ation. The compulsory clause of the act did 
 not work successfully, its enforcement being op- 
 tional with the local authorities. The total ex- 
 penditure for the public schools for the year was 
 $35,287, of which 822,219 was paid for teachers' 
 salaries. An additional sum of $6,657 was ex- 
 pended by the superintendent in supplying books 
 and apparatus. There were .'!li teachers in the 
 The establishment of high schools at 
 \ ictoria and New Westminster was advocated 
 by Superintendent John Jessop in L875. The 
 rising city of Nanaimo has a school of a higher 
 grade (St. Paul's School), in connection with the 
 Episcopal church. It was originally established 
 in L862, but was (dosed in 1870, and re-opened 
 September 1874. — See Marltng, <'"><</,/,/ Edu- 
 cational Directory and Yearbook for 1876 
 (Toronto, 1876.) 
 
 BROOXLYN, capital of K ings county, Xew 
 fork, the third city, in population, in the United 
 tes. It is claimed for Brooklyn that, in 
 common with New York, it has the honor of 
 being the seat of the first free public schools 
 within the present territory of the United States. 
 Education received an early attention in the 
 Puritan colonies of Xew England; but the pu- 
 
 pils of their schools were burdened with a 
 portion of the cost of instruction; while, in the 
 Dutch colonies, tuition was entirely free. The 
 first school-tax levied in Brooklyn [Breuckelen) 
 amounted to oil gilders, equal to about $20; 
 and, in 1661, ('aid de Heauvois, a recent emi- 
 grant from Holland, was appointed (he first 
 school-master, to take charge of the school, as 
 
 well as to act as court-messenger, bell-ringer, 
 grave-digger, and precentor [voorzanger). Other 
 schools were established within the next few 
 years. After the conquest of the New Nether- 
 lands by the English, in 1664, the five school 
 system was abolished; and for the next century 
 and a half, the schools were supported only by 
 their patrons. No addition to the number of 
 schools appears to have been made until the 
 commencement of the revolutionary period, when 
 a fourth school was established, which was after- 
 wards organized as Public School No. 4. Another 
 school was established soon after the revolution. 
 In all these schools, tuition was afforded in both 
 English and Dutch down to 1800, and in the 
 Bushwick and Gowanus school still later; for all 
 the schools in Brooklyn up to this period were 
 located in Dutch neighborhoods, and were almost 
 exclusively under I hitch influence and patronage. 
 As early as 1795, the legislature made an appro- 
 priation of $50,000, which was continued annu- 
 ally for five years, for the encouragement of 
 the schools, and in 1805 established the common 
 school fund. Of the privileges granted by these 
 acts, Brooklyn did not avail herself till 1813, 
 when the trustees of district No. 1 , then the 
 whole village, were elected. On May (i., 1816, 
 Public School No. 1 was opened, the sum of 
 $2,000 having been previously levied for its 
 support upon the district, which then contained 
 552 children not attending private schools. This 
 school was conducted upon the Lancasterian or 
 monitorial system. Prior to 1843, the government 
 of the schools in Brooklyn was vested in the trust- 
 ees of each school district, of which at that time 
 there were ten in the village of Brooklyn, and two 
 in the town of Bushwick. in that year, the legisla- 
 ture passed an act empowering the common 
 council to appoint two or more suitable persons to 
 represent each of the school districts, who together 
 with the mayor and county superintendent, 
 should form the board of education of the city 
 of Urooklyn. The appointment of three persons 
 from some of the districts, with the addition of 
 the mayor and the superintendent, made the 
 board consist of 28 members. In L850, the law 
 was changed, fixing the number of members at 
 .'!.'!. at least one to reside in each school district, 
 and giving their exclusive election to the com- 
 mon council. 
 
 On the consolidation of the cities of Brooklyn 
 and Williamsburg, by an act of the legislature 
 passed April 17., 1854, the composition of the 
 board was again changed. The law required the 
 common council to appoint such additional mem- 
 bers as the proportional increase of the inhabi- 
 tants might demand. In pursuance of this 
 provision, the number of members constituting 
 
104 
 
 BROOKLYN 
 
 the board was fixed at 45, of whom 13 should 
 reside in the Eastern District (Williamsburgh). 
 This number was sanctioned by a direct legis- 
 lative enactment in 1862. By a subsequent 
 enactment, in 1868, the members were divided 
 into three classes, holding office for one, two. and 
 three years, respectively ; and the mayor is now 
 required to nominate to the common council 15 
 members each year, and, if the same shall not be 
 confirmed within twenty days, he may appoint 
 absolutely. In 1853, S. S. Randall was elected 
 city superintendent ; but he served only a short 
 time, being succeeded the same year by J. W. 
 Bulkley. who continued to hold the office till 
 1873, when, in pursuance of a law passed that 
 year, he was made associate superintendent, with 
 Thomas \Y. Field, who was elected superintend- 
 ent of public instruction. 
 
 School Statistics. — The growth of the system. 
 since 1854, has been steady and rapid. In L855, 
 the number of schools was 'Ml with 312 teachers 
 and an average attendance of pupils of 13,380. 
 Ten years afterward, the number of schools was 
 38, the number of teachers 5 15. and the average 
 attendance 22,610; in 1874, the number of schools 
 increased to 49, the number of teachers to 1,099, 
 and the average attendance to 40,193. The 
 following items are reported for the year 1875 : 
 
 Number of pupils enrolled 86,723 
 
 Average daily enrollment 50,022 
 
 \\ erage daily attendance 45,248 
 
 Number oi teachers 1,121 
 
 Number of months schools were open 10 
 
 Amount paid for teachers' salaries $1171 . Ids. Is 
 
 do do for school buildings :;7<i.'j-js.r,!> 
 
 do do for bonks and stationery. . . 6,616.61 
 
 do do for colored schools 11,164.78 
 
 .do do for other expenses 434,221.42 
 
 Total expenditure $l,4!t:S,339.58 
 
 School System. — The system consists of a board 
 of education of 45 members, a superintendent of 
 public instruction and an associate superintendent. 
 The city is divided into .'51 districts, containing 
 34 grammar and intermediate school buildings, 
 11 separate primary schools and 1 colored schools; 
 making the total number of the district schools 
 49; liesiiles which there are 16 evening schools, 
 (2 for colored pupils), 1 evening high school, and 
 9 corporate, or orphan asylum, schools. Most of 
 the grammar departments of the schools are for 
 both sexes. The school age is from 5 to 21. The 
 members of the board of education are appoint- 
 ed for three years by the common council, on 
 
 the nomination of the mayor, one-third of the 
 
 board retiring each year. The board elects the su- 
 perintendent ami associate superintendent, whose 
 term of office is three years, appoints teachers 
 and determines their salaries, prescribes the 
 
 course of instruction for the schools and the 
 books to be used therein, and makes all needful 
 regulations tor the management of the same. It 
 has the power to purchase sites and erect school- 
 houses with the consent of the common council to 
 
 purchase text-books for use in the schools, and to 
 
 sell or donate them to the pupils. Each school 
 
 is under the particular charge of a local commit- 
 tee of the board of education. 
 
 The course of instruction includes six grades 
 for tlie primary departments and six for the 
 grammar departments. The studies prescribed 
 for the former are reading, spelling, arithmetic 
 as far as long division, elementary geography, 
 and writing; in the latter, in addition to these 
 studies, English grammar and composition, 
 higher geography and arithmetic, etymology, 
 the history of the United States, astronomy, pen- 
 manship, drawing, and book-keeping, together 
 with natural philosophy and algebra as optional 
 studies. Under the direction of the local com- 
 mittee and the superintendent, a supplementary 
 ci mrse. including higher branches, may be pursued. 
 This grade is, in fact, an academic course in all 
 respects except the study of Latin. Vocal music 
 is taught in all the grades. Each grade of study 
 occupies one half of the school year, or about 
 5 months. There is no high school or colleg 
 connected with the system ; but the board of 
 education has at its disposal 99 free scholarships, 
 in colleges and seminaries for the benefit of pub- 
 lic-school pupils, the average value of each of 
 which is about $100. 
 
 Examination and Qualification of Teachers. 
 — The grade of scholarship of each teacher is 
 fixed by the superintendent, after examination 
 in one of the classes designated A, B, and C. 
 As most of the appointments are made from the 
 supplementary classes, the certificates graded B 
 or 0, are those usually granted at first. Those 
 of grade (' license to teach any primary grade; 
 those of B, any below the fourth grammar grade. 
 Certificates of the highest grade (A) are con- 
 ferred upon those only who have presented evi- 
 dence of superior efficiency as well as superior 
 scholarship. 
 
 No provision exists for the instruction of 
 teachers other than that afforded by the supple- 
 mentary classes of the grammar schools. 
 
 Private Seminaries and Schools. — The pri- 
 vate educational institutions of Brooklyn are 
 very numerous, and many of them quite cele- 
 brated for their efficiency and high grade of 
 scholarship. The Packer Collegiate institute, 
 incorporated in 1853, is a female seminary of 
 high reputation. It was named after William 
 S. Packer, from whose widow the institution 
 received a large endowment. It has a corps of 
 about 40 instructors, between 700 and 800 stu- 
 dents, and a library of nearly 5.000 volumes. It 
 has also a large number of free and endowed 
 scholarships. The Brooklyn Collegiate and 
 Polytechnic Institute, for males, was founded in 
 L854, with a capital stock subsequently in- 
 creased to SI OO.oiii). It is under the manage- 
 ment of a board of 17 trustees. In 1874, it had 
 
 a corps of 30 instructors, and 605 students, of 
 
 whom 136 were in the collegiate department. 
 
 The value of its grounds, buildings, and appa- 
 ratus was estimated at $164,000, and its receipts 
 from tuition fees amounted to about $63,000. 
 The Adelphi Academy, incorporated in 1869, is 
 
 also an institution of a high grade of efficiency. 
 
 In L 874, its corps of instructors numbered 29, 
 
 and the whole number of students was 546. The 
 
BROWN 
 
 BUCHTLL colli;*;!'] 
 
 105 
 
 value of its grounds, buildings, etc. was $160,000, 
 and its annual income from tuition feea was about 
 sin.iiiii). The institution is non-sectarian. For 
 (he early history of education in Brooklyn, see 
 D.T. Pratt, Annate of Public Education in the 
 state of New York ( Albany, I 872);Stile3, Hist wry 
 of the < Hty of Brooklyn (3 vols, N.Y., I 864— '70.) 
 
 BROWN, Goold, an eminent American 
 grammarian, was born in Providence, 11. L, in 
 1791, and died at Lynn, Mass., in L857. He was 
 a teacher for more than twenty years in the city 
 of New York. His Institutes of English 
 Grammar (N. Y., 1823), and First Lines of 
 English Grammar (N. I., 1823) .have been more 
 extensively used in the schools of this country 
 than any other grammatical tert-books. The 
 edition of these works with Kiddle's Analysis 
 nf Sentences has still a very wide circulation. 
 Qoold Brown's Grammar of English Gram- 
 niirrs (X. Y, 1851) is probably the most exten- 
 sive and complete treatise on the subject ever 
 published. This work contains a very valuable 
 catalogue of works on English Grammar. See 
 10th edition with index, by Samdel W. Berrian 
 (X. V.. 1871). 
 
 BROWN UNIVERSITY, at Providence, 
 R. I. formerly called Rhode Island College, was 
 founded in 1 7(14, through the instrumentality of 
 the association of Baptist churches at Philadel- 
 phia, and by the aid of certain prominent Bap- 
 tists of Newport. A charter was obtained in 
 1764, one of the provisions of which was, " that 
 into this liberal and catholic institution shall 
 never be admitted any religious tests; but, on 
 the contrary, all the members hereof shall for- 
 ever enjoy full, free, absolute, and uninterrupted 
 liberty of conscience ; and that the public teach- 
 ing shall, in general, respect the sciences, and 
 that the sectarian differences of opinions shall 
 not make any part of the public and classical in- 
 struction." Of the 12 members of the board of 
 fellows, having the government of the college, 8, 
 including the president, must be Baptists ; and 
 of the board of 36 trustees, 22 must be Baptists, 
 5 Friends, 4 Congregationalists, and 5 Episcopa- 
 lians, representing the proportion of each denom- 
 ination in the colony at the time of the char- 
 ter. The first president of the college was the 
 Bev. James Manning, D. D., who served till 
 1791. During this period, the seat of the college 
 was fixed at Providence; and, during a part of 
 the Revolutionary period, the operations of the 
 institution were suspended, the college building 
 being occupied by the state militia, and by the 
 troops of Rochambeau. The Rev. Jonathan 
 Maxcy, I >. I >.. was the second president, who 
 served from 17!U to 1802, when he resigned, and 
 was succeeded by the Rev. Asa Messer, l>. I>., 
 who held the position till 1826. During his in- 
 cumbency, in I si) |. the name of the institution 
 was changed to Brown University, in. honor of 
 Nicholas Brown, from whom it had received the 
 most munificent donations. Dr. Messer was suc- 
 ceeded in 1x27 by the Lev. Francis Wayland, 
 D. D., LL. !>., who resigned in L855, and was fol- 
 lowed by the Rev. Lamas Sears. D.D., LL. !>.. 
 
 who served till 18(17, and was succeeded by the 
 Lev. Alexis Caswell, Q.D., LL. D. In January, 
 1x72, he was succeeded by the presenl incumbent, 
 the Lev. E. G. Robinson, I>. !>.. LL. I). The in- 
 stitution has five college buildings and a mansion 
 for the president. Its situation is commanding 
 and salubrious, the inclosed college grounds cover- 
 inga space of 1 <*> acres. The value of its grounds, 
 buildings, and apparatus is estimated at 
 $1,500,000; the amount of its productive funds, 
 including scholarships, is stated (1876) as 
 $662,555. The average amount of scholarship 
 funds exceeds 950,000. 
 
 In addition to the classical and scientific 
 courses, there have been established departments 
 of practical science, including (1) chemistry, 
 applied to the arts, (2) civil engineering, and (3) 
 agriculture. This is for the benefit of students 
 who wish to prepare themselves for such pursuits 
 as especially require the knowledge of the mathe- 
 matical and physical sciences, and their applica- 
 tions to the industrial arts. There are two parallel 
 courses of instruction for the degree of bachelor — ■ 
 of arts, and of philosophy, each extending through 
 a period of three years. The one is largely com- 
 posed of classical studies, the other substitutes, 
 for them a larger amount of scientific studies. 
 Arrangements are made by which students have 
 daily exercises in the gymnasium. The univer- 
 sity library contains 4:>,<K)() volumes, the greater 
 part of which has been collected within the last 
 thirty years. It is especially rich in civil and 
 ecclesiastical history, antiquities, bibliography, 
 and patristics. Through means supplied by the 
 munificence of John Carter Brown, a fire-proof 
 building for the library is in process of construc- 
 tion, with accomodation for 150,000 volumes. 
 There is also a valuable museum of natural 
 history, containing about .'55,000 specimens. 
 
 The corps of instruction includes 17 professors 
 and other instructors ; and the whole number of 
 students in the university, in 1875 — 6, was 255. 
 The cost of tuition is $75 per annum. Among 
 the various forms of aid offered to students, there 
 are about 100 scholarships. There are 58 scholar 
 ships of $1000 each, the income of which is 
 given, under the direction of a committee ap- 
 pointed by the corporation, to meritorious stu- 
 dents needing pecuniary aid. 
 
 BTJCHTEL COLLEGE, at Akron, Ohio, 
 was founded, in 1872, by the Universalists, in 
 order to afford to students of both sexes equal 
 opportunities for a thorough practical and liberal 
 education. The full curriculum embraces a com- 
 plete college course of four years, a thorough 
 philosophical course of two years, a normal c< »urse, 
 and a preparatory course. The corps of instruct- 
 ors, in 1 874, included 1 5 professors and other in- 
 structors; and the whole number of students was 
 212, of whom 1 12 were in the collegiate depart- 
 ment. The value cf the college grounds, build- 
 ings, and apparatus is estimated a1 $250,000,and 
 its productive fund amounts to about .925,000. 
 The Rev.S.H.McCollester,A.M., is (1876) _ the 
 president of the institution. The annual tuition 
 fee is $30. 
 
106 
 
 BUFFALO 
 
 BUFFALO, a large and flourishing city in 
 western New York, having a population, ac- 
 cording to the state census of 1875, of 134.. 573. 
 
 Educational History. — The first school-district 
 embraced the village of Buffalo, in which the 
 first school-house was built in 180G. The first 
 school tax appears to have been levied in 1818, 
 for the purpose, probably, of rebuilding the 
 school-house, burned, with the rest of the village, 
 in 1813. In 1822, Millard Fillmore taught the 
 village school. At the time of the incorporation 
 of the city (1832), there were C districts, each 
 having one small school-house and one teacher. 
 In 1836 — •", a law was passed authorizing the 
 appointment by the common council of a super- 
 intendent; from which event dates the beginning 
 of the school system. In 1838, the 7 school-dis- 
 tricts were divided into lf>, and a resolution was 
 adopted to establish a common school in each, 
 with departments according to its needs and 
 numbers, and a " Central School, where all the 
 higher branches necessary to a complete English 
 education could be pursued;" and. in all these 
 schools, education was to b i entirely free. In 1839, 
 live new and commo lions school-houses were 
 built. In L853-4, important changes were made 
 in tiir city charter, by which, and by ordinances 
 of the city council in pursuance of the .same, the 
 sm received its present organization. In 
 1*73. Superintendent Larned endeavored to 
 secure the passage of a law creating a board of 
 c lueation, to have the management of the 
 schools; but the measure met with but little 
 popular favor, and did not prevail. — The city 
 superintendents have been as follows: Under 
 election for one year by the common council, 
 R.W. Haskins, \. I*. Sprague, and 0. G. Steele, 
 successively, daring 1837; Oliver (J. Steele. 1838, 
 -39, -45, and -51 ; Daniel Bowen, 1840, -46, 
 and 19; Silas Kingsley, 1841; Samuel Cald- 
 well, 1842 and -43 ; Ettas S. Ilawlev. 18 II, -47, 
 and -48; Henry K. Viele, 1850; Victor M. Bice, 
 -52 and 53 ; under the new law, electing for 
 two years, Ephraim F. Cook. 1854—5 and'ls.V, 
 —7 ; Joseph 'Warren, 1858—9 ; Sandford B. 
 Hunt, L860— 61 ; John B. Sackett, L862— 3; 
 Henry 1). Garvin, L864— 5 ; John S. Fosdick, 
 1866 7; Samuel Slade, 1868— 9; Thomas Loth- 
 rop , L870 — 71 : Josephus N. Larned, 1S72— 3; 
 William S. Rice, 1874—5, and re-elected for the 
 
 term which expires I >cc. 31., 1 B77. 
 
 School System. — By the charter of 1853 — 4, 
 the schools are under the control of the com- 
 mon council, an 1 arc free to all persons between 
 
 the ages of 5 and 20 years. Colored children 
 are admitted to any of the schools, but one 
 Colored school must Ik- maintained. The cost of 
 sites and school houses must lie assessed on the 
 
 property of Bchool - districts ; bu1 all other ex- 
 panses are pail out of the general fund or by 
 tax. The Central High School is entitled to 
 
 share in all appropriations to academies; and 
 
 the districts participate in the apportionment to 
 public schools. — The superintendent of education 
 La elected on general city tickel for two years. 
 He is the chief executive officer of the depart- 
 
 ment of education ; and his duties are, to recom- 
 mend courses of study, to hire teachers, who are 
 subject to bis directions ; under direction of the 
 city council, to contract for lots, houses, and 
 supplies, and to carry into effect all provisions 
 relating to education. — The course of study is 
 divided into ten grades, and embraces, besides 
 the common branches, drawing, composition, 
 vocal music, and, in some schools, German. 
 
 "Educational Condition. — The number of 
 school-districts is 35; of schools with one de- 
 partment, 14; with two departments, 11 ; with 
 three, 17 ; of night schools, 7. The principal 
 items of school statistics for the year ending 
 Dec. 31., 187(3, are as follows : 
 
 Whole number of children enrolled (estimated) 40,000 
 
 No. of pupils registered in day schools 23,000 
 
 No. of pupils registered in night schools 1,121 
 
 Xo. of teachers em ployed 420 
 
 Receipts from school fund. . . $77,552.27 
 " by tax 237,597.73 
 
 Total $315,150.00 
 
 Total expenditures $313,750.00 
 
 Of the 42 principals employed, 33 are males. 
 with salaries ranging from $550 to SI .450; and 
 '.) arc females, with salaries ranging from 8550 
 to $800. The salaries of assistants range from 
 $400 to $650. The amount paid for salaries is 
 $275,000. 
 
 In the ( 'entrai School, the courses of study are 
 a shorter English course, requiring two years, 
 and an English and a classical course, each re- 
 quiring three years. The Regent's examination 
 in full admits to the two regular courses. In 
 187(i, there were in attendance 159 boys and 220 
 girls; and the number of teachers was 14, the 
 amount of whose salaries was 815,750. The state 
 normal school at Buffalo was opened in 1871. 
 The common council appropriated 845,000, 
 and the supervisors of the county, an equal sum, 
 for the erection of a building, on a site com- 
 prising 5 acres, given for the purpose by Jesse 
 Ketehum, for the nominal sum of 8-1.5(10. Pupils 
 are admitted, at 1 (i years of age, on the recom- 
 mendation of the local school officers, and after 
 passing an examination in the common English 
 branches. 
 
 Parochial Schools. — There are 15 parochial 
 schools for instruction in common branches, in 
 connection with the Roman Catholic Church, 2 
 colleges, and several convent and Sisters' schools. 
 
 In the first, during the year ending Dec. 31.. 
 L876, there were 7.!>7f> pupils, taught by 98 teach- 
 ers. Canisius College is conducted by Jesuit 
 Fathers, assisted by lay teachers: in L876, it had 
 1 Hi students. St. Joseph's College is under the 
 charge of Christian Brothers, with 300 pupils. 
 
 Private Schools. — The Buffalo Female A.cad- 
 emy was organized in L851. It is under the con- 
 trol of a hoard of trustees, and hasa collegiate de- 
 partment, academic departments, and a primary 
 department, other schools are. the Beathcote 
 school for hoys. and the Buffalo Classical School, 
 
 the latter a school of lone, standing. Besides 
 these, then' are numerous other schools. ( 'atholic 
 ami Protestant, both for boys and for girls. 
 
BUGEXIIAGEN 
 
 BUREAU OF EDCCATION 107 
 
 BUGENHAGEN, Johann, one of the 
 leaden of the German reformation in the six- 
 teenth century, was born in 1485, at Wollin in 
 Pomerania, and died in L558. NV\t to Melanch- 
 fchon, be was the most prominenl educator among 
 the fathers of German Protestantism. When 
 onlv is wars of age, In 1 was placed at the bead 
 of the school of Treptow, which soon became 
 BO famous that it attracted scholars from various 
 countries of northern Europe. In L517, he was 
 called by the abbot of Belbuck to assume the 
 office of teacher of theology to his convent. 
 Alter joining the reformation, he was for some 
 rears professor at the university of Wittenberg; 
 but from 1536 until his death, his time was chiefly 
 devoted to carrying on the work of the Reforma- 
 tion in various . mnt i - In connection with 
 every Protestant church, he endeavored to estab- 
 lish a Protestant school, and he is believed to 
 have thus done more for tfte spread of education 
 in Prot -tint Germany than even Luther him- 
 self. The church established by him in the 
 duchy of Brunswick served as a model fora large 
 Dumber of others. The church constitution of 
 this duchy, drawn up by him in 1528, provides 
 for the establishment of two Latin schools for 
 boys, each with three teachers, of two German 
 s hools for boys, and four girls' schools. The in- 
 
 iction given in these schools consisted chiefly 
 in teaching the catechism and singing; but in the 
 girls' schools, biblical history was an essential 
 branch. The poor were to be aided as much as 
 possible to obtain admission into these schools, 
 and the heads of the parish were to exercise a 
 careful supervision over the education of all the 
 children. In the villages and towns, the sexton 
 was expected to give instruction to the lowest 
 classes. To aid this work of teaching, Bugen- 
 hagen translated the Bible into Low German, 
 very closely following the High German trans- 
 lation of Luther. 
 
 BUREAU OF EDUCATION, National, 
 an office in the Department of the Interior of the 
 government of the United States, organized in 
 pursuance of an act of congress approved March 
 2., lSI>7. This office had its rise in the need, 
 Ion,' felt by leading educators, of some central 
 agency by which the general educational statistics 
 of the country could be collected, preserved, con- 
 densed, and properly arranged for distribution. 
 In February, 1866, a m -mortal was presented to 
 the House of Representatives, asking for the 
 establishment of a national bureau of education. 
 This memorial emanated from the National As- 
 sociation of State and City School-Superintend- 
 ents, aiid enumerated the following as the means 
 by which the proposed bureau coiil 1 promote the 
 interests of education : "(1) By securing greater 
 uniformity ami accuracy in school statistics, and 
 so interpreting them that they may be more 
 widely available and reliable as educational tests 
 and measures; (2) By bringing together the re- 
 sults of school-systems in different communities, 
 s. and countries, and determining their com- 
 parative value : (3) By collecting the results of 
 all important experiments in new and special 
 
 methods of school instruction and management, 
 ami making them the common property of school- 
 officers and teachers throughout the country; (I) 
 By diffusing among the people information re- 
 specting the school-laws of the different states ; 
 the various modes of providing and disbursing 
 school-funds ; the different classes of school-officers 
 and their relative duties: the qualifications re- 
 quired of teachers, the modes of t heir examina- 
 tion, and the agencies provided for their special 
 training; the best methods of classifying and 
 grading schools, improved plans of school houses, 
 
 together with modes of heating and ventilation. 
 etc., —information now obtained only by a few 
 persons and at great expense, but which is of the 
 highest value to all intrusted with the manage- 
 ment of schools ; (5) By aiding communities 
 and states in the organization of school-systems 
 in which mischievous errors shall be avoided, and 
 vital agencies and well-tried improvements be 
 included; (61 By the general diffusion of correct 
 ideas respecting the value of education asaquiek- 
 ener of intellectual activities, as a moral renova- 
 tor, as a multiplier of industry and a consequent 
 producer of wealth, and. finally, as the strength 
 and shield of civil liberty." The act establishing 
 the bureau prescribes that its operations shall be 
 the •■ collecting of such statistics and facts as shall 
 show the condition and progress of education in 
 the several states and territories, and the diffus- 
 ing of such information respecting the organiza- 
 tion and management of school-systems and 
 methods of teaching as shall aid the people of 
 the United States in the establishment and 
 maintenance of efficient school - systems and 
 otherwise promote the cause of education." 
 
 Henry Barnard, LL. D., was the first commis- 
 sioner of education, appointed in pursuance of 
 this law ; and under him the Bureau was organ- 
 ized and put in operation. Two reports were is- 
 sued by him, that of 1867 — 8, and a special re- 
 port on the District of Columbia ; but for several 
 reasons, chiefly the want of congressional co-oper- 
 ation and support, the operations of the Bureau, 
 during this period, were neither extensive nor of 
 considerable importance. On the 17th of March, 
 1870, Dr. Barnard retired, and was succeeded by 
 John Eaton, Jr.. the present incumbent, during 
 ax years of whose administration, the Bureau 
 has accomplished a vast amount of work. Be- 
 sides the five annual reports, from 1870 to 1874, 
 it has issued twenty-seven circulars of informa- 
 tion, containing important summaries of intelli- 
 gence relating to the condition of education in 
 foreign countries, or upon other interesting edu- 
 cational topics. 
 
 The relation of the Bureau to the educational 
 authorities of the country, which are exclusively 
 under state control, is entirely ancillary. Its office 
 is to aid by dispensing information, not to direct. 
 It has no] lower to demand information; but is en- 
 tirely dependent upon the courtesy of the state 
 and city authorities and officials in affording proper 
 replies to its interrogatories. 'The extent of its 
 operations in gathering information will be ap- 
 parent from the following statement extracted 
 
108 BUI? MAT OF EDUCATION 
 
 BCRGHER SCHOOL 
 
 from a recent "Statement," issued under the 
 authority of the Bureau itself : — 
 
 " The field for exploration it presents embraces 
 the thirty-seven states and eleven territories. To 
 make the exploration thorough, the bureau must 
 examine every school law, and mark whatever 
 change or amendment may be made, including 
 the charters of city boards of education, with 
 their rides and ordinances. It must sift, for 
 things deserving general attention, the reports of 
 every state-, county-, and city-superintendent of 
 the public schools that may be sent to it. It 
 must get at the work not only of the public high 
 schools, but also of the private academies and 
 special preparatory schools. It must look through 
 the annual catalogues and calendars of a long list 
 of colleges and universities; schools of divinity, 
 law, medicine, and science; reformatories, and 
 institutions for the training of the deaf and dumb, 
 the blind, and the feeble-minded— selecting from 
 each wdiat is worthy to be noted in the way of 
 either improvement or defect. And, besides all 
 this, it. must keep its eyes wide open to ob- 
 serve the growth of libraries, museums, schools 
 of art or industry, and other aids to the proper 
 training of the people; must see what the edu- 
 cational journals say as to school-matters in their 
 several states; must note what maybe worth pre- 
 serving in the utterances at teachers' associations 
 and gatherings of scientific men ; and must keep 
 up, with reference to all these things, an incessant 
 correspondence with every portion of the country. 
 In fact, its correspondence reaches, more or less 
 directly, to the 48 states and territories, to 206 
 cities, 132 normal schools or departments, I 1 1 
 business colleges, 54 kindergarten, 1,455 acad- 
 emies, 103 schools especially engaged in prepar- 
 ing pupils for the colleges, 240 institutions for 
 the higher training of young women, 383 colleges 
 and universities, 73 schools of science, 115 of 
 theology, 37 of law. and 98 of medicine; with 
 58f) libraries. 26 art museums, 
 natural history. Ill institutions 
 tion of deaf-mutes, 28 for the 
 feeble-minded, 4(10 for orphans, 
 reformation of misguided youth.'' 
 
 The diffusion of information by the Bureau 
 takes a wide range, embracing not only full and 
 statistical information in regard to the progress 
 and condition of education in the United States, 
 but as to the " ministries of instruction in the 
 several European states, as to the useful sugges- 
 tions in foreign educational reports and journals, 
 and as to the systems of training in the universi- 
 ties, gymnasia, real-scl Is. schools of architec- 
 ture and drawing, and the various institutions 
 of primary education in every civilized com- 
 munity or state." Tin' mode of disseminating 
 
 this intelligence is, il ) By mi ii mil reports^ each 
 
 giving abstracts of the various classes of instruc- 
 tion (such as primary, secondary, superior, pro- 
 ional and special), with lists and statistics of 
 noticeable institutions and estimates of progress 
 or retrogression in various lines; (2) By occasional 
 circulars of information (of which 27 have been 
 lied up io L876) ; and (3) By written answers 
 
 53 museums of 
 for the instruc- 
 blind, for the 
 
 and 45 for the 
 
 \ to inquiries on school matters addressed to the 
 commissioner. The amount of intelligence con- 
 veyed, by these means, with respect to educational 
 systems, school laws, and important institutions, 
 j is such as has never previously been made gener- 
 ally accessible in the United States, and such, 
 certainly, as no single state, much less any single 
 individual or private association, coidd have 
 obtained, without an expenditure which it would 
 have probably been either unable or unwilling to 
 ! incur. 
 
 While there is a very emphatic and general 
 opposition in the United States to the establish- 
 ment of any national system of education, or to- 
 j conferring upon the general government the 
 right to interfere in any way with the state 
 systems, there has nevertheless been generally 
 manifested a full appreciation of the value of 
 the Bureau of Education as now constituted, 
 and a cordial disposition to supply the Commis- 
 sioner with the fullest replies to his inquiries for 
 information, as well as with copies of all edu- 
 cational documents issued under state or city 
 authority. In bringing about this very desirable 
 state of things, of course, the manner in which 
 the affairs of the Bureau have been administered 
 has had much to do. It would he easy by an 
 injudicious course to bring about an antagonism 
 that would most effectually prevent any further 
 progress. 
 
 An educational library of probably unsur- 
 passed richness is another of the valuable fruits 
 of the work of the Bureau. This is, in part, 
 composed of choice collections bearing on the 
 history and art of education in this country and 
 abroad; in part, of the accumulations made in 
 the process of annual examination into the con- 
 dition of public-school instruction, the state of 
 academies anil colleges, and the rise and work of 
 professional and special schools. This library.it 
 is said, for purposes of practical investigation, is 
 superior to any other educational library in exist- 
 ence, except, perhaps, the one at Vienna. With its 
 vast accumulations from year to year, its value 
 as a library of reference is constantly increasing. 
 — See Reports of U.S. Commissioner of Edu- 
 cation, INTO — I: also XulioiKil Bureau of 
 Education; its History, Work, and Institutions, 
 a pamphlet by Alex. Shtras, !>.!>., prepared 
 under the direction of the < 'ommissioner of Hdu- 
 cation i Washington, L875). 
 
 BURGHER SCHOOL (Ger. Burgerschule), 
 a name given to many public schools of a higher 
 
 grade in the towns of Germany, designed to ed- 
 ucate the children of citizens for a practical busi- 
 ness lite. Formerly, the course of instruction in 
 the town schools embraced the ancient languages; 
 and the study of Latin, in particular, was fre- 
 quently, even as late as the eighteenth century, 
 
 regarded as the most important part of the entire 
 course. In the last quarter of the eighteenth 
 
 century, a radical reform began gradually to lie. 
 effected. Teachers and school authorities investi- 
 gated the comparative usefulness of the different 
 branches of instruction for all those classes ol 
 
 towns-people who did not follow one of tin; 
 
BURLINGTON UNIVERSITY 
 
 BUSINESS COLLEGES 
 
 109 
 
 learned professions, and the conclusion generally 
 bed was, that natural science, geography, 
 history, and similar Btudies are of very much 
 higher advantage to the future citizen, than a 
 knowledge of Latin. The organization of the 
 town schools was gradually changed, in accord- 
 ance with these principles; and, on Jan. '2.. L804, 
 the first B&rgersckiue was opened at Leipsic. 
 Since that time, a large number of flourishing 
 i ils bearing this name have sprung up in the 
 large cities. In the further development of the 
 school system of Germany, the term, as a dis- 
 tinctive name, has to a great extent been dropped, 
 and the schools formerly thus designated consti- 
 tute, under various names, the higher division 
 of the Vblksschulen. The name hdhere B'tir- 
 '•• is identical with the more common 
 1! . (See Real School, and Germany.) 
 
 BURLINGTON UNIVERSITY, at Bur- 
 lington, Iowa, was founded by the Baptists, in 
 1852. In 1875 — 6, it had (i0 students, and a corps 
 of 8 professors and other instructors. The value 
 of its grounds, buildings, and apparatus is about 
 840,000; its endowment fund, about $20,000. 
 Prof. L. E. Worcester has been the president of 
 the institution since 1872. The annual tuition 
 fee is 812. 
 
 BUSBY, Richard, D. D., one of the most 
 noted of English pedagogues, was born in Lutton, 
 Northamptonshire, in 1(306, and died in 1695. 
 He was educated in the Westminster School 
 and Oxford University ; and, in 1 640, was ap- 
 pointed head-master of Westminster, in which 
 position he continued for more than fifty years. 
 It was here that he achieved his great fame as 
 the most successful school-master of his age, and 
 the most imperious one too, for his frequent and 
 excessive use of the rod or birch has made his 
 name proverbial. Within his school he was the 
 most arbitrary of despots ; and it is said that 
 when the king entered his school-room, he would 
 not remove his hat, being unwilling that the boys 
 should deem any one his superior. When taxed 
 with the severity of his punishments, he pointed 
 to the many illustrious and learned men whom 
 he had educated in his school, among whom at 
 one time he could number no less than sixteen 
 bishops. Dr. South, one of the most eminent of 
 his pupils, was at first a very dull, obstinate, and 
 intractable scholar ; but Dr. Busby discerned his 
 latent genius, and used his utmost efforts to bring 
 it forth, in the doing of which the rod was by no 
 means spared, and the master lived to enjoy his 
 pupils fame as one of the most brilliant pulpit 
 orators of his time. Dr. Busby's works as an 
 author were confined to some text-books, which 
 he compiled for the use of schools. 
 
 BUSINESS COLLEGES, as now existing 
 in the United States, are the product of individual 
 effort directed to the supplying of a public want. 
 As distinct institutions, they are the outgrowth 
 of the past thirty years, although schools and 
 private classes for instruction in the commercial 
 branches — particularly book-keeping and pen- 
 manship — have been in vogue for a much longer 
 time. Thirty years ago, most of this kind of in- 
 
 struction was given by a few private teachers in 
 the large cities (who generally united the duties 
 of teacher with those of public accountant), and 
 by itinerant professors who traveled from place to 
 place, teaching special classes for a limited num- 
 ber of lessons at low rates. These teachers or 
 professors were often authors of books or of 
 systems claiming pre-eminence over the ordinary 
 school methods; and by confining themselves to 
 
 the work in which they excelled, they undoubt- 
 edly accomplished much good. The utility of 
 this practical training was readily apparent, and 
 as a matter of self-protection no less than of self- 
 respect, the established schools, public and private, 
 were induced to recognize the importance of these 
 useful branches, and to supply instruction therein 
 in more liberal measure. There sprung up also, 
 in the large cities and villages, schools, making 
 the practical studies a specialty, and calling 
 themselves commercial or mercantile colleges. 
 Home of them were organized under state char- 
 ters and authorized to issue diplomas in due form. 
 • These institutions placed themselves before the 
 public as professional schools, assuming the same 
 relations to the future business-man as those 
 which already existed between the medical, law, 
 and theological schools, and the members of those 
 various professions. 
 
 Among the pioneers in this work, may be 
 mentioned R. M. Bartlett of Cincinnati, Peter 
 Duff of Pittsburgh, James Arlington Bennett 
 of New York, and George N. Comer of Boston. 
 As there was no unity of action among these 
 teachers and no means of measuring their indi- 
 vidual efforts, either absolutely or relatively, it is 
 impossible to say what was the prescribed course 
 of study adopted, or to what extent the various 
 schools made good the claim to their chosen title. 
 But the respect in which they were held by the 
 community, and the fact that they supplied in a 
 good measure preliminary training which had 
 heretofore been obtainable only in counting- 
 houses, is presumptive evidence that they deserved 
 the recognition and support which they received. 
 The time required for a full course of study in 
 these pioneer schools varied, according to the 
 capacity of the student, from three weeks to three 
 months ; wdiereas. the reputable business colleges 
 of to-day do not pretend to graduate their stu- 
 dents in less than from one to two years. These 
 facts alone must be accepted as evidence of a 
 substantial increase in the body of learning which 
 makes up the college course. Not only have 
 the main studies, — book-keeping, penmanship, 
 and arithmetic, been materially enlarged and 
 intensified, but other not less important branches 
 have been added, the purpose and effect of this 
 being to give form and symmetry to the training, 
 and to meet the increased demand for broadly 
 educated accountants and clerks. Among the 
 branches which have been added are political 
 economy, including civil government ; commercial 
 law ; correspondence, embracing the elements of 
 English composition and practical grammar; pho- 
 nography and modern languages, particularly 
 German, French, and Spanish. Some institutions 
 
110 
 
 BUTTMANN 
 
 CALIFORNIA 
 
 have also made a prominent feature of telegraphy. 
 But the feature which attracts most attention. 
 both from its novelty and its usefulness, per- 
 tains to the practical methods of applying in- 
 struction under the guise of real business opera- 
 tions. This plan embraces the organizing of the 
 advanced students into business communities, so 
 
 adjusted in their workings as to represent the 
 
 varied interests anil intercourse which exist in 
 the outside world. Thus, certain members are 
 established as merchants, others as agents or 
 brokers, others as manufacturers, others as im- 
 porters and jobbers, others as bankers, etc.: each 
 in his turn serving in these several relations, and 
 all together performing the functions of a work- 
 ing community. Not only is this method carried 
 on in the separate schools, but some of the most 
 prominent among them in the larger cities have 
 established a system of intercommunication by 
 which the work is widely extended through postal 
 
 correspondence. Thus representative merchandise 
 is really shipped by the members of one school 
 to those of another, drafts ate drawn, remittances 
 made, extended business settlements effected. and. 
 in fact, all the minute details of a varied business 
 are carried on. As will be seen, this extended 
 correspondence and co-operation give the best 
 opportunity for effective criticism and discipline, 
 and may be made as completely the rehearsal of 
 the future business man for his life-work, as is 
 the clinical practice of the medical college or the 
 moot-court of the law school. 
 
 The business colleges of America differ in 
 important respects from those of European coun- 
 tries. The commercial colleges of Germany 
 and France are less professional in their design 
 and less practical in their operations. In France 
 particularly, the commercial schools are under 
 government patronage and direction, and aim to 
 Supply not only well-trained clerks for the civil 
 service, but educated sailors and scieut ilic ship- 
 builders as well. The course of study covers 
 three years, and is definitely prescribed by the 
 
 government. The American business schools, 
 on the other hand, having no public recognition, 
 except ;is the result of individual work — with no 
 official supervision to inspire or control their 
 actions, are as various in their methods ami their 
 degrees of excellence as are other purely business 
 
 enterprises. And there is little doubt that, like 
 
 other business enterprises, they will continue to 
 meet the increasing demand for faithful work, 
 until they shall become as much a part of our 
 educational system as are the classical and pro- 
 fessional schools and colleges, whose purposes and 
 scope are more definitely fixed in the public mind. 
 'I he report for 1 874 of the I '. S. ( lommissioner 
 of Education showed that then' were L38of these 
 institutions in the diff erenl Btatesof the Union, 
 
 in 126 of which there were "'77 instructors, and 
 '_' students, of whom 2,867 were females. 
 BUTTMANN, Philipp Karl, a German 
 professor of classical literature, was born at 
 Frankfort on the Main, in 17(1-1. and died in 
 Berlin, in 1829. After completing his studies 
 at the university of Gbttingen, he was for a time 
 tutorof the princes of Anhalt-Dessau, became, in 
 
 L789, assistant secretary, and in L796 secretary 
 of the royal library of Berlin, in L800 professor 
 at the Joachimsthal Gymnasium, and in 1 si 1 
 librarian and member of the academy of science. 
 He was also, from L803 to I -I "J. editor of the 
 Spener'sche Zeitung. Buttmann is the author 
 of three * beek grammars, two of which, prepared 
 for the gymnasia (Griechische Grammatik. Ber- 
 lin, 1792, 22d edit.. L869, Griechische Schul- 
 grammatik, Berlin, 181(i. 17th edit.. L875), have 
 had for many wars an almost exclusive sway in 
 many learned institutions. Both have been trans- 
 lated into English He also published Lexilogus, 
 an explanation of Greek words, especially for 
 Homer and llesiod (Berlin, 1818 — L825, EngL 
 transL, 3d ed., London, L846); Muihologus, a col- 
 lection of essays on the legends of antiquity 
 (Berlin, L828— 1829), and editions of several 
 Greek and Latin classics. 
 
 CADET. Pee Military Schools, and Naval 
 Schools. 
 
 CADETS' COLLEGE, (lie name of a de- 
 partment of the Royal Military College at Sand- 
 hurst, England. Its objects are, to give a sound 
 military education i" youths intended for the 
 
 army, and to facilitate the obtaining of commis- 
 sions when the education is completed. Appli- 
 cation for admission is made to the commander 
 
 in chief, who, mi the production of satisfactory 
 Certificates and references, gives permission to 
 
 place the name of the youth applying on the list 
 of candidates. The age for admission is between 
 16 and l!>. The course for admission includes 
 English composition, modern languages, math- 
 ematics, geography, history, the natural and e\ 
 
 perimental Sciences, and drawing. After exami- 
 nation, the candidates are reported to the com- 
 mander in chief in the order of merit ; and those 
 
 who have the highest standing are admitted as 
 
 cadets as soon as vacancies occur in the college. 
 When admitted, they study for two years a great 
 variety of subjects connected with military sci- 
 ence and practice: and when the course is C - 
 
 pleted, the cadets are eligible to the reception of 
 
 commissions in the cavalry and infantry, a cer- 
 tain number of which are placed at the disposal 
 of the college. 
 
 CALIFORNIA was a part of the territory 
 which was ceded to the United States at the 
 close of the .Mexican war. It was admitted into 
 the Onion as a state Sept. I'.. 1850. 
 
 Educational History.— The foundation of the 
 
 school system of the state Wafi laid by the consti- 
 tutional convention at Monterey, in 1849, by a 
 provision tor appropriating for school pur):, 
 the proceeds to be derived from the sale ot the 
 
 500,000 acres of land. granted by Congress to new 
 
CALIFORNIA 
 
 111 
 
 states, for the purpose of infernal improvements. 
 This measure was carried after a sharp struggle, 
 and by one vote. The constitution also provided 
 far a superintendent of public instruction, ami 
 empowered the Legislature to provide for a system 
 
 minion schools, to l>e kept open at least three 
 
 months in the year. The first legislature, of 
 
 1849 50, took no action on school matters: but, 
 
 in 1850 1, the second state legislature passed a 
 crude law providing for the apportionment of the 
 state school moneys, pro rata, to sectarian and re- 
 ligious as well as tO public Scl Is. In L852 — 3, 
 
 Hon. Frank Soule" drafted and secured the pas- 
 of a more complete school law. which re- 
 mained in force until Is.")."), when Hon. I ». \l. 
 Ashley secured the passage of a revised law 
 which contained stringenl provisions against the 
 apportionment of public moneys for the support 
 of sectarian schools. This law was not materially 
 changed until L 864, when the state superintend- 
 ent secured the passage of important financial 
 amendments which more than doubled the school 
 revenue. Among these provisions was the levy- 
 ing of a state tax of five cents on the hundred 
 dollars. 
 
 A state normal school was organized in 1862, 
 and was located in San Francisco. In 1866, "an 
 act to provide for a system of common schools." 
 drafted by the state superintendent, was passed 
 under the title of the Revised School Law. 
 This law remains, with a few unimportant 
 changes, on the statute books at the present day. 
 In 1869, the state university was established at 
 Berkeley, near Oakland. In 1874, the state-tax 
 was increased so as to yield a revenue of ST 
 per unit of the school census, — a revenue which, 
 in lsT.">. amounted to SI. 100.000. 
 
 The first public school was opened in San 
 Francisco, Dec, 1849, by John C. Pelton, after- 
 wards city superintendent of San Francisco. In 
 1866, the whole state attained to a free-school 
 system. rate-bills being abolished by law. Pre- 
 vious to this time, most of the countiy schools 
 eked out their limited amount of school moneys 
 by monthly rates of tuition. The total amount 
 of money expended for public school purposes 
 from 1S.">1 to 1S75 was $20,000,000. 
 
 Slate Superintendents. — The following is a list 
 of the state superintendents: (1) John <i. .Mar- 
 vin, from 1851 to 1854; (2) Paul K. Hubbs, 
 from 1854 to 1857; (3) Andrew J. Moulder, 
 from 1H5T to 1S63 ; (4) John Swett, from L863 
 to 1868; i'm (>. P. Fitzgerald, from 1868 to 
 1872; (6) I bury X. Bolander, from 1872 to 
 187<i ; (V) Ezra S. Carr, the present incumbent, 
 who entered upon his duties in 1876. 
 
 School System. — The schools of the state are 
 under the supervision of a superintendent of 
 public instruction, county superintendents, and 
 city superintendents, all elected by popular vote. 
 The state board of < j <hi<:<ttio>t is composed of the 
 governor, the state superintendent, and six county 
 superintendents, all being members ex officio, 
 and has power to adopt a uniform series of text- 
 books, to issue life diplomas, to adopt a course of 
 studies for the schools of the state, and to make 
 
 rules and regulations for the government of the 
 schools. The city boards of <<iur<itini> are 
 
 elected by the people directly, under special city 
 charters and local school laws. Besides these, 
 there are boards of district school trustees, chosen 
 
 at special school elections, for the term of three 
 years, one trustee being elected annually. There 
 are boards of examination for the state, for the 
 
 counties, and for the cities. The state hoard of 
 examination is composed of the state superin- 
 tendent and four professional teachers appointed 
 
 by him. at a salary of $200 a year, and has power 
 
 to prepare questions for the state, city, and 
 county examinations, and to issue, on the result 
 of such examinations, educational diplomas, 
 valid for years, ami first, second and third 
 grade certificates, valid for 4, 3, and 2 years, re- 
 spectively. The cowMy boards of examination 
 are composed of the county superintendent, and 
 from 3 to 5 professional teachers, holding first 
 grade certificates, appointed by the county super- 
 intendent, for the term of two years, at a compen- 
 sation of $3 a day. and traveling expenses. They 
 are authorized to hold quarterly county examina- 
 tions, and to issue first, second, and third grade 
 certificates, valid for 3 years, 2 years, and 1 year, 
 respectively. The city boards of examination 
 are composed of the city superintendent and four 
 professional teachers, holding educational diplo- 
 mas, and elected by the city board of education. 
 Their powers are similar to those of the state 
 and county boards. All boards of examination 
 must be composed exclusively of professional 
 teachers. 
 
 The schools must be kept open at least six 
 months in the year to secure the state apportion- 
 ment, and to all children from 5 to 21 years of 
 age. Separate schools may be established for 
 colored children at the option of the local boards. 
 The daily school sessions must not exceed six 
 hours, and, for primary children under 8 years 
 of age. must not exceed 4 hours. For district 
 school libraries, there is an allowance of $50 a 
 year, out of the state apportionment, to be ex- 
 pended by the trustees. No sectarian or deno- 
 minational doctrines can be taught in the schools. 
 There is a compidsory education law, but no pro- 
 visions for properly enforcing it. 
 
 The school re re/me consists of the annual in- 
 terest of the state school fund, invested in 6 per 
 cent and 7 per cent bonds. This fund amounts 
 to $1,737,500, and the annual interest to$97,560* 
 There is a state tax sufficient to raise $7 for each 
 child between the ages of 5 and 17, as shown by 
 the last preceding school census, amounting, in 
 L875,to $1,100,000; a county school tax. at a 
 rate not less than $3 per unit of the school census; 
 nor exceeding 50 cts. on each hundred dollars of 
 the county assessment roll. The amount raised 
 from the county and city school tax in ls7."> was. 
 $1,115,000. Besides these, there is a district 
 school tax, submitted to local vote, for building 
 purposes, or for maintaining schools, not to ex- 
 ceed, in any one year, SI on each §100. 
 
 There is no supervision by school inspectors. 
 County superintendents are required to visit and 
 
112 
 
 CALIFORNIA 
 
 examine every school once a year, but this is 
 merely nominal. Each school district has a 
 board of three trustees ; and incorporated cities 
 have special boards of education, as well as city 
 superintendents. 
 
 The salaries of teachers are as follows : Aver- 
 age monthly salary of male teachers §84.93 ; 
 of female teachers, 368.01. 
 
 The course of instruction as prescribed bylaw 
 for the public schools, must include the follow- 
 ing branches of study : reading, writing, spelling, 
 arithmetic, grammar, geography, the history of 
 the United States, physiology, natural history, 
 drawing, and music. There is a course of study 
 adopted by the state board of education ; but as 
 there is no way to enforce it, but little attention 
 is paid to it in the country districts. Each city 
 has its own special course. In San Francisco, 
 German and French are taught in a part of the 
 primary and grammar departments. The high 
 schools have the usual course of study in order 
 to prepare pupils for admission to the state uni- 
 versity. 
 
 Educational Condition. — The total number of 
 school districts in the state is 1579. The number 
 of schools in each of the three grades is as 
 follows : state university, 1 ; high schools, 14 ; 
 first-gTade (grammar) schools, 875 ; second-grade 
 (intermediate) schools, 770 ; third-grade (pri- 
 mary) schools, 545 ; total number of schools, 
 2,205. 
 
 Besides these, there are public evening schools 
 in San Francisco, free to men and boys, and kept 
 open 10 months in the year. These schools are 
 graded, with special classes in book-keeping and 
 drawing. The number of teachers, in 1875, was 
 25; of pupils, 1,100. 
 
 The following are the principal items of the 
 school statistics for 1875 : 
 
 Number of pupils enrolled 130,930 
 
 Average daily attendance 78,027 
 
 Number of teachers, males 1,033 
 
 " " " females 1,660 
 
 Total receipts $3,390,359. 
 
 Total expenditures $2,658,241. 
 
 Normal Instruction. — The State Normal 
 School was organized in 1861, at San Francisco, 
 but in 1870 was removed to San Jose. The 
 building was erected at a cost of $250,000. 
 This school is open to both sexes, and is entirely 
 free. The number of students in L875 was 240, 
 mostly young women; the number of instructors 
 was 9. The annual cost of the school is about 
 $20,000. The total number of graduates, from 
 its foundation to 1876, was 378. 
 
 Secondary Instruction. There are 14 high 
 schools in the state, of which 2 are located in 
 San Francisco, one for girls, and one for boys. 
 There is one in each of the following cities : Oak- 
 land, Sacramento, Stockton, Lob Angeles, San 
 Jost''. Vallejo, Petaluma, tirass Valley, Nevada. 
 Marysville, Santa I llara, Santa Cruz, and Alame- 
 da. These schools, which are preparatory to the 
 state university, contain 1,500 pupils, taught by 
 A'A teachers. Besides the high schools, there i- a 
 large number of flourishing private schools, of 
 
 which some are for boys exclusively, others for 
 girls, and some for both sexes. 
 
 Denominational Schools. — The denominational 
 schools are quite numerous and extensive. In 
 San Francisco, six Roman Catholic schools give 
 instruction to 600 boys and 850 girls; besides 
 which, the Presentation Convent School, for girls, 
 has 700 pupils and 26 teachers : and the Sacred 
 Heart Presentation Convent, 750 pupils and 26 
 teachers. The Academy of Notre Dame, at San 
 Jose, has 550 pupils and 30 teachers. Other 
 Catholic schools in various parts of the state give 
 instruction to 1,385 pupils. The Protestant 
 schools in various parts of the state give instruc- 
 tion to about 1,500 pupils. 
 
 Superior Instruction. — The California State 
 University (q. v.) crowns the public school sys< 
 tern, being entirely free in all its departments. 
 Other institutions of a similar grade are included 
 in the following list : 
 
 California College 
 Christian College 
 Pacific Meth. College 
 Sacred Heart College 
 St. Ignatius College 
 SantaBarbaraCollege 
 St. Mary's College 
 Santa Clara College 
 Univ. Mound College 
 University of Cal. 
 Univ. of the Pacific 
 
 •a 
 
 a o 
 
 xi a 
 
 Religious 
 Denomina- 
 tion 
 
 Location 
 
 1-71 Baptists Vacavflle 
 1872 Christians Santa Rosa 
 1862 Meth. CI). s. Santa Rosa 
 I-;:; Rom. Cath. Ban Francisco 
 1 355 Rom. Cath. San Francisco 
 I --7 1 [ndep.Prot. Santa Barbara 
 L861 Rom. Cath. San Francisco 
 
 '.mi. Cath. Santa Clara 
 1859 Presbyt. San Francisco 
 1869 Non-sect. Berkeley 
 ls5l|.Meth. Epis. Santa Clara 
 
 Special Instruction. — The principal institu- 
 tions for special instruction are the following : 
 The California Institute for the Deaf and Dumb 
 and the Blind, near Berkeley, established in 1860, 
 and supported by the state ; the Pacific Theo- 
 logical Seminary (Congregational), at Oakland; 
 the Theological Seminary, at San Francisco; the 
 School of Design, at San Francisco, organized in 
 1873 ; besides which, there is the medical depart- 
 ment of the University of California, the Medical 
 College of the Pacific, and the California College 
 of Pharmacy. 
 
 There is no state reform school, but the San 
 Francisco Industrial School serves the purpose of 
 one, as minors from other counties may be com- 
 mit ted to its care on the payment of a stipulated 
 sum. The school connected with this institution 
 is well graded and equipped, and the buildings 
 for the accommodation of its different depart- 
 ments are large and spacious. 
 
 Teachers' Associations. — The first state teach- 
 ers' convention was held in San Francisco, in 
 Dec., L854; thefirsl teachers' institute met in San 
 Francisco, May. 1863, under the direction of 
 State Superintendent Moulder. The third state 
 institute, in L863, gave a marked impulse to 
 educational interests. The California State Edu- 
 cational Society was organized in L863, with 
 
 John Swetl as president. 
 bership only holders of 
 plomas. This society for 
 
 tile California Teacher. 
 
 It admitted to mem- 
 state educational di- 
 five years controlled 
 In 1875, a state edu- 
 
 cational association was organized at San Jose. 
 
CALIFORNIA COLLKCE 
 
 CALISTHENICS 
 
 113 
 
 Educational Literature. — The first educational 
 journal was the California Teacher, commenced 
 in July 1863, published under the general control 
 of the State Educational Society, and, edited, for 
 the first four years, by John Swett and Samuel 
 I. 0. Swe/.ev. It was saved from a speedy termi- 
 nation by a state subscription. In 1873, it 
 was taken from the control of the society, and 
 became the organ of the state superintendent. 
 In 1876, the state subscription of $4,000 was 
 withdrawn, and the journal expired with the 
 official term of Supt. Bolander. The Pacific 
 Educational and Home Journal, was com- 
 menced in April, 1877; and Fitzgerald's Home 
 Newsp iperand Educational Jownai, in March, 
 1877. The History of the Public School Sys- 
 tem of California, by John Swett, was pub- 
 lished in 1S76. 
 
 CALIFORNIA COLLEGE, at Vacaville, 
 Gal., was founded in 1871, by the Baptists. It 
 includes both collegiate and theological depart- 
 ments, has an endowment fund of about $20,000, 
 a corps of 8 instructors, and 160 students, of 
 whom 50 belong to the collegiate department. 
 The value of its grounds, buildings, etc., is esti- 
 mated at 825,000 ; and its library contains about 
 2,500 volumes. A. S. Worrell, A. M., is (1876) 
 the president of the institution. The cost of 
 tuition per annum is about $50. 
 
 CALIFORNIA, University of, at Berke- 
 ley. 4 miles N. of Oakland, was organized in 1869, 
 and forms a part of the public educational system 
 of the state. It is under the control of a board of 
 22 regents, of which the governor, lieutenant gov- 
 ernor, state superintendent of public instruction, 
 speaker of the assembly, president of the state 
 agricultural society, and president of the mechan- 
 ics' institute of San Francisco are ex officio mem- 
 bers. It is open to both sexes, young women be- 
 ing admitted on the same terms as young men. 
 Its endowment fund consists of the 150,000 
 acres of land granted by Congress in aid of agri- 
 cultural schools, and the 72 sections, comprising 
 46,080 acres, set apart for a " seminary fund " 
 from the public school lands. The 150,000 acres 
 were sold at an average price of $4 per acre, 
 yielding $600,000 ; the seminary fund amounted 
 to $35,000, making a total of $635,000. The state 
 appropriated $300,000 for the erection of suit- 
 able buildings ; and the site of 160 acres of land, 
 on the hills at Berkeley, overlooking San Fran- 
 cisco, was given by the College of California, 
 which was merged in the university. The state 
 appropriates for current expenses $50,000 a 
 year in addition to the revenue of the endow- 
 ment fund. In 1875. .lames Lick endowed the 
 university with $7(10.000, to be expended in 
 erecting and maintaining an observatory on Mt. 
 Hamilton, in the coast range, 90 miles south of 
 Berkeley. The departments, or colleges, fully 
 organized are the college of letters, or the classical 
 department, and the scientific school. Little has 
 been done, as yet, towards organizing the agricult- 
 ural college, or the colleges of mines or mechanics. 
 The college of medicine is in San Francisco, un- 
 der a separate faculty. It consists of the Toland 
 
 medical colleges, nominally transferred to the 
 university. The total number of students in De- 
 cember, 1875, was 366, of whom 40 were young 
 women. The first president of the institution 
 was Henry Durant, the founder of the College of 
 California, who died in 1874. He resigned his 
 presidency in L872. and was succeeded by Pro- 
 fessor I). C. Oilman of Yale College. 
 
 CALISTHENICS ((Jr. Kak6c, beautiful, and 
 a&evog, strength), a system of physical exercises 
 for females, designed to promote strength and 
 gracefulness of movement ; or, by assisting the 
 natural and harmonious development of the 
 muscular system, to improve the health, and add 
 to the beauty of personal appearance. Calisthen- 
 ic and gymnastic exercises are based on the 
 same principle, — that exercise is essential to the 
 proper development of the physical as well as 
 mental faculties, and to the maintenance of their 
 healthy condition ; and that, in education, it is 
 requisite that suitable exercises should be system- 
 atically employed. The only difference between 
 calisthenics and gymnastics consists in the adapt- 
 ation of the former to the physical education of 
 girls ; and, of course, the exercises employed re- 
 quire a less violent muscular action. These 
 exercises may be practiced with or without ap- 
 paratus. The latter, which should be employed 
 first, consist in such movements as bring into 
 regular and systematic operation all parts of the 
 body. The movements are neither violent nor 
 complicated, being in fact only such as are re- 
 quired in the ordinary exercise of the limbs. Their 
 advantage over those required in the common 
 active sports of girls consists in their systematic 
 regulation so as to ensure an equal and regidar 
 action of the muscles ; while long continued 
 sports of any particular kind, such as trundling 
 the hoop, using the skipping-rope, etc., have the 
 reverse effect. Calisthenic exercises should, how- 
 ever, be so varied as to exhilarate the spirits as 
 well as task the muscles, or they will lose much 
 of their beneficial effect ; since while the body 
 is exercised, the mind must be interested. The 
 simplest apparatus used consists of wands or 
 poles, dumb-bells, backboards, elastic bands with 
 handles, light weights, etc. With such instru- 
 ments, a great variety of beneficial, graceful, and 
 interesting exercises can be performed ; and when 
 ■whole classes are exercised simultaneously, there 
 will necessarily be a healthful mental excitement 
 mingled with the physical training, particularly 
 when the movements are regulated by the rhythm 
 of music, which is usually the case in modern 
 schools. The utility of such exercises, when 
 properly and judiciously employed cannot be 
 doubted, especially after the age of 12 or 14 years, 
 before which they should rarely, if ever, be resort- 
 ed to. Numerous ailments to which females are 
 peculiarly liable are due to the neglect of proper 
 physical training, and may be prevented or cured 
 by a judicious employment of calisthenic exer- 
 cises. Many injurious practices, such as tight 
 lacing, are necessarily precluded by the regular 
 resort to such exercises. Ling, the celebrated 
 Swedish author of kinesipathy or the movement- 
 
m 
 
 CALISTHENICS 
 
 CAMBRIDGE 
 
 Mrs. Willard says, 
 
 be learned chiefly 
 
 ( Mlii-v advantages, 
 
 tare, has written very enthusiastically upon the 
 importance of free gymnastic exercises, as a 
 means of promoting health as well as of curing 
 disease. (See Die allgemeinen GrUnde der Gym- 
 
 //us//'/,; published ;it Stockholm, in L840.) He 
 founded the Central Institute at Stockholm, 
 subsequently conducted by Prof. Branting. 
 Many excellent manuals giving full practical di- 
 rections to teachers, are now published. In social 
 life, dancing is one of the most attractive and 
 beneficial of calisthenic exercises, and were it dis- 
 sociated from the fashionable dissipation with 
 which it is too often allied, would meet with uni- 
 versal favor. Some of the most eminent teachers 
 of females have regarded this species of exercise 
 
 as the best even for schools. 
 '• The grace of motion must 
 from instruction in dancing. 
 
 besides that of a graceful carriage, might be 
 
 derived from such instruction, if the lessons were 
 judiciously timed. Exercise is needful to the 
 health, and recreation to the cheerfulness and 
 contentment of youth. Female youth should 
 
 not be allowed to range unrestrained, to seek 
 
 amusement for themselves. If it wereentirely 
 prohibited, they would be driven to seek it by 
 stealth: which would lead them to many im- 
 proprieties of conduct, and would have a perni- 
 cious effect upon their general character, by in- 
 ducing a habit of treading forbidden paths. The 
 alternative that remains is to provide them with 
 proper recreation, which, after the confinement 
 of the day. they might enjoy under the eye of 
 their instructors. Dancing is exactly suited to 
 this purpose, as also to that of exercise; for per- 
 haps in no way can so much healthy exercise be 
 taken in so short a time." Miss 0. E. Beecher, 
 in Eihirtiiiomil lit'ininiscpucen, remarks, " When 
 physical education takes the proper place in our 
 schools, young girls will be trained in the class- 
 rooms to move heads, hands, and arms gracefully; 
 to sit, to stand, and to walk properly, and to pur- 
 sue calisthenic exercises for physical development 
 as a regular school duly as much as their studies. 
 And these exercises, set to music, will besought 
 as the most agreeable of school duties." 
 
 In all such exercises, certain general rules and 
 directions ate to be kept steadily in view. They 
 
 should never be practiced immediately after 
 
 meals, nor very near the time of eating, as diges- 
 tion cannot be properly performed when the 
 • ■m is in an exhausted condition. The best 
 time for exercise is early in the morning or to- 
 wards evening. In school, these exercises, being 
 of a moderate character, may conic after the 
 mind is wearied with protracted intellectual 
 
 work, foi then they will prove a relief ; but in- 
 tellectual efforts cannot effectively be put forth 
 after the physical system has become jaded and 
 
 jlled by protracted exercise. Calisthenic 
 exercises should always lie commenced and tin 
 ished gently; indeed, all abrupt transitions from 
 getttk llO violent exertions, or the contrary. 
 
 Should be avoided. It is by moderate and pro- 
 longed OT repeated e\erci.-c that the physical 
 
 organs are to be developed or improved, not by 
 
 violent and fitful efforts. The weaker organs 
 should receive the most attention, so that the 
 whole system may receive a harmonious develop- 
 ment. The dress should lie light and easy : and 
 the department in which the exercises are taken 
 should lie spacious, cool, and well-ventilated. All 
 such exercises require to be practiced with many 
 precautions, and with a due regard to the con- 
 dition of the individual. Teachers may be the 
 means of doing much injury by indiscriminately 
 requiring all their pupils to go through the same 
 amount of exercise. The effect upon every pupil 
 should lie carefully watched: and. in some ca.-es. 
 the advice of a careful physician should not be 
 dispensed with. — See Catharine E. Bebcher, 
 Physiology and Calisthenics (X. V.. 1856); and 
 Educational Reminiscences (N.Y., 1874); Kjngs- 
 t.Kv. Health and Education (Loud, and X. V.. 
 L874) : Watson, Manual of Calisthenics (N.Y., 
 1864); Tkw.l. The Illustrated Family Gym- 
 nasium iX.Y., 1857); Dio Lewis, New Gym- 
 nastics | Boston, 1862); Basnet, The Gymnasium 
 at Howie (N.Y., 1871). (See Gymnastics, and 
 Physical EnucATioN.) 
 
 CALISTHENIUM, a newly coined term, 
 applied to an apartment or hall in which calis- 
 thenic exercises are practiced ; formed after the 
 analogy of gymnasium. 
 
 CALLIGRAPHY. See Penmanship. 
 
 CAMBRIDGE, University of, one of the 
 oldest anil most famous institutions of learning 
 in England. A school is said to have been 
 founded at Cambridge, by a party of monks, as 
 early as lid!); and, twenty years later. Alfred 
 of Beverley, the historian, lodged in the town, 
 and studied. The records of the university are 
 
 preserved in the Tower, and show the university 
 to have been in full operation in 1229. Edward I., 
 in 1291, granted it the first formal charter of 
 privileges, which was amplified by succeeding 
 sovereigns. Edward II. obtained the first papal 
 
 recognition of the university. Henry VI. founded 
 
 Kings College ; and bis consort founded Queens', 
 
 which obtained a second patroness in the con- 
 sort of Edward IV. Henry VH1. consolidated 
 and enriched earlier foundations to form Trinity 
 College; but, from 1257, the date of the found- 
 ing of St. Peters College, private munificence 
 was, and still is. yet more active in endowing 
 various foundations. A new era began with 
 Queen Elizabeth, in the Kith year of whose 
 reign, on the basis of existing charters, the Oni- 
 versity of Cambridge was incorporated, under 
 the title of " the < Chancellor, Masters, and Schol- 
 ars of the University of Cambridge." Theuni- 
 vcr-iiy is a federal republic of 17 colleges (or, 
 with Cavendish College, L 8), maintained solely 
 by the endowments of founders and benefactors. 
 Each college is a lesser republic, with its own 
 
 Statutes, but is Subject to university law. The 
 present Statutes were confirmed, in 1858, by 
 
 Queen Victoria. The legislative and executive 
 bodies are composed of members of the coileg 
 
 All master-, of arts and doctors in divinity, law, 
 
 and physic, whose names are on the university 
 
 register, have the right to vote in the senate. 
 
CAMBRIDGE 
 
 n;> 
 
 The electoral roll is a smaller body, consisting 
 dt' all who have resided, during the preceding 
 Tear, at the university, together with heads. 
 officers, and examiners ; and by it many of the 
 
 University officers are elected. The senate, in 
 
 L876, numbered 5,816; the electoral roll, 318. 
 Meetings of the senate [congregations) are held 
 fortnightly during terms, for conferring degrees 
 and transacting business. 'The council of the 
 tic consists of the chancellor, and vice-chan- 
 cellor. .■,..• officio, and L6 other members of the 
 ■ it the electoral roll, chosen by the latter 
 body. All resolutions for conferring degrees, etc. 
 .must lie sanctioned by the council be- 
 fore they are submitted to the senate. The ex- 
 ecutive consists of the chancellor, who is the head 
 of the university and non-resident (usually a 
 prince or a nobleman); the vice i hancellor, always 
 the head of a college, wielding the full powe] 
 the chancellor. and. pro tern* a magistrate for the 
 university, the town, and the county ; the high 
 steward, the commissary, the sex viri, the as- 
 - ir. all exercising judicial functions; the pub- 
 lic orator, who is the mouth-piece of the senate ; 
 the librarian: the registrary, for the registration of 
 graces and the custody of records; two proctors 
 and two pro-procb »rs, who maintain discipline and 
 attend congregations to read graces ami register 
 votes; the university marshals (constables) ; the 
 esquire bedells; and the university counsel, solic- 
 itor, moderators, and syndics, the last being 
 members of special committees for specific duties. 
 The university sends two members to parliament, 
 elected by the senate, — a privilege first granted 
 by James 1. — There are 33 professors: of divinity, 
 four; of law, three; of physic, medicine, anatomy, 
 comparative anatomy, Greek, Latin, Hebrew, 
 Sanskrit, one each; of Arabic, mathematics, 
 astronomy, two each; of natural experimental 
 philosophy, experimental physics, botany, geol- 
 tnineralogy, chemistry, moral theology or 
 casuistry, modern history, political economy, 
 music, archeology, fine arts, one each. The 
 oldest, the Margaret professorship of divinity. 
 dates from 1502. There are five regius profess- 
 orships: divinity, civil law. physic. Greek, and 
 I tebrew. Erasmus wasthe first professor of Greek, 
 and the third Margaret professor. The stipends 
 are from endowments, the university chest, and 
 fees. A few are richly endowed. There are three 
 terms: (1) Michaelmas, or October term (Oct. 1. 
 to Dec. L6); (2) Lent, or January term (.fan. L3. 
 to Friday before Palm-Sundayjj (3) Easter, or 
 Midsummer term i Friday after Easter to Friday 
 afi.r ( Jommencemenl day. which is the last Tins- 
 day hut one in .June). An under-graduate must 
 ■'■•side in the university two-thirds of each term, 
 i. e., about six months during the year.— Mem- 
 bers of colleges are classed .is follows: 1 1 | Meads 
 of colleges, styled Master a1 Bang's, Provost; at 
 
 Queens', President,!: ('_') PelloWB of colleges. 
 
 ted by the Society from distinguished grad- 
 uates — in one or two colleges, after examination 
 —numbering in all about 400; (3) Noblemen 
 graduates, doctors in the several faculties, bach- 
 elors in divinity, masters of arts, and of law ; 
 
 ( I) Bachelors of Arts, Law. and Physic; (;">) Fel- 
 low commoners, usually younger sons of the 
 
 nobility, or young men of fortune ; (6) Scholars, 
 generally elected by competition, and placed on 
 the foundation; (7) Pensioners (i. e., boarders), 
 who form the great body of the students: and 
 is) Sizars, who are students of limited means, 
 and enjoy certain emoluments and immunities. 
 — Degrees are conferred in arts, law. medicine, 
 
 divinity, and music. The first degree is that 
 
 of Bachelor (B.A.),for which there are three 
 requisites: (1) a period of residence, (2) to be a 
 member of a college, or a non-collegiati student, 
 and (.'!) to pass examinations. 'I he honor examina- 
 tions (triposes) nine in number, are held only 
 once a year. Those who pass in these are ar- 
 ranged in three classes according to merit, and, 
 in the mathematical triposes, are styled, respect- 
 ively, wranglers, senior op1Am.es, and junior op- 
 times, the senior wrangler heading the list. 
 The subjects of this tripos (•'!•"> are named in the 
 schedule) embrace the whole range of pure 
 mathematics, and mathematics applied to nat- 
 ural philosophy. 'I he examination lasts nine 
 days; and the publication of the list in the 
 senate house, is the great excitement of the year. 
 This tripos is the most ancient (the printed lists 
 in the Calendar begin with 1747 — 8), and has 
 given Cambridge its peculiar renown. The clas- 
 sical tripos ranks next in fame, age (first held in 
 1824), and numbers. It lasts eight days. The 
 moral sciences tripos, lasting 6 days, embraces 
 moral, political, and mental philosophy, logic, 
 and political economy. The natural sciences 
 tripos includes (1) chemistry, and other branches 
 of physics, (2) botany, (3) geology and palaeon- 
 tology, (4) mineralogy, and (5) comparative ana- 
 tomy, physiology, and zoology. Besidcsthese. there 
 are the triposes of law, of history, and of theol- 
 ogy. A pass in any of these triposes entitles to 
 B. A., the holder of which may become M . A. 
 after three years. The university, in 1858, in- 
 stituted local examinations, conducted at various 
 places. (See Examinations.) — The university 
 is a body which holds public examinations, and 
 confers degrees; the professors lecture, but hardly 
 can be said to teach; the colleges train, lodge, 
 and board the undergraduates. The most effect- 
 ive teaching is done by private tutors (coaches). 
 The names of the colleges, with the date of the 
 foundation of each, are as follows: St. Peters, 
 1257; Clare, L326 ; Pembroke, 1347; Gonville 
 and Cains. L348 ; Trinity Hall. 1350; Corpus 
 Christi, L352; King's. 1441; Queens', L448; 
 St. Catharine's, L473; Jesus, 1496; Chris 
 1505; St. John's, 1511; Magdalene, 1519; 
 Trinity. L546 ; Emmanuel, L584; Sidney Sus- 
 sex. L598; Downing. L800 ; Cavendish. L876. 
 The whole number of under-graduates. in L876, 
 was 2,175, the largest number (533) being in 
 Trinity, and the next (359) in St. John's. Th 
 were also 71 non-collegiate students. Cavendish 
 College aims to give a less expensive education 
 to students, and at an earlier age than the Others. 
 — The university buildings are numerous: the 
 senate house, adjoining which is the library, 
 
116 
 
 CAMPE 
 
 CARLETON COLLEGE 
 
 rich in 1.000 manuscripts ami containing half a 
 million of volumes; the geological museum; the 
 observatory, in charge of Professor Adams: Ad- 
 denbrooke's hospital, the Pitt Press, the botanic 
 garden, the Fitzwilliatn Museum, etc. There are 
 various societies in the university for promoting 
 research: the Antiquarian, Philological, and 
 Philosophical societies. The Union combines a 
 reading-room, library, and debating club. It has 
 a handsome and spacious building. — See Fuller, 
 History of Cambridge from L066 to 1634; Car- 
 ter, History of Cambridge (London, 1753); 
 Dyer, History of < 'ambridge; ( 'ooper, . [nnals of 
 Cambridge (Cambridge, L842 53); Cambridge 
 Cm'rersi/j/ Commission Hi ■port (1852 — 3); Cam- 
 briih/e Ci/irersi/i/ Calendar (annual) : Students' 
 Guide to the University of Cambridge (1874); 
 Bristed, Three Years in an English University, 
 3d edit. (N. Y., 1873) ; Everett, On the Cam 
 (London, 1866). 
 
 CAMPE, Joachim Heinrich, a prominent 
 educational writer of ( Jermany, was born in 1 746, 
 and died in 1818. Having studied theology at 
 the university of Halle, he occupied for several 
 years a position as minister. In I 777. he accepted 
 from Prince Francis of Dessau the appointment 
 of councilor of education {Ediicationsrath) to 
 the Pkilantkropin, and became its president in 
 place of Basedow, who had resigned in 1770. 
 
 The institution made marked and rapid progress 
 under his direction; but his personal relations 
 to Basedow were so unpleasant, that he resigned 
 after a few months. He then founded an edu- 
 cational institution, similar to the Philanthropin, 
 at TrittOW, near Hamburg, where he remained, 
 \intil 1787, when Duke Charles of Brunswici 
 called him to his capital, in order to reform, con- 
 jointly with some other prominent educators. the 
 school system of the duchy. The reformatory 
 scheme of the duke could not, however, be car- 
 ried out, in consequence of the opposition of the 
 consistory and the diet. Campe was the most 
 prominent representative of the principles 0D 
 which the rhilanthrqpin was founded. He 
 
 avoided the eccentricities of Basedow, and thus 
 
 gained for the principles which they both repre- 
 sented, a much larger number of friends. Hegave 
 so <> real a prominence to utilitarian considera- 
 tions that he declared he valued more highly the 
 merits of the man who introduced the use of the 
 potato, or invented thespinning-wheel.than those 
 
 of the author of the Iliad. The educational ideas 
 
 of Campe were set forth in two periodicals, the 
 Braunschweigisches Journal (I vols., 1 788 91 1, 
 and Altgemeine Revision des gesammten Schulr 
 vmi Erziehungswesens (16 vols.. 17. s "> 91). 
 In the ninth volume of the latter was published 
 
 a translation of Locke's Thoughts on Education; 
 
 and in volumes xu. to xv., Rousseau's Emile, 
 
 both with copious notes. The works of Campe 
 an very numerous, including many popular 
 juvenile books. 
 
 CANADA, The Dominion of, a federal 
 union ill' provinces and territories, comprising, 
 iu ls7<'>. all the British possessions in North 
 America, except the island of Newfoundland. 
 
 Its area is estimated at 3,513,325 sq. miles; and 
 its population, according to the census of 1871, 
 was 3,718,7 17. The imperial act under which, in 
 1867, the Dominion was established, imposed 
 upon the several provincial legislatures the duty 
 of providing for public education within their 
 respective jurisdictions. Since that time, all the 
 older provinces have revised their legislation upon 
 this subject ; while the younger members of the 
 confederation have laid the foundation of new 
 systems of public instruction. A full account of 
 t lie school system,- of the several provinces, which 
 differ in essential points, will be found, in this 
 work, under their respective titles. See Canada 
 Educational Directory and Fear-Book, by 
 Alexanoeb Marling (Toronto, 1876). 
 
 CANE HILL COLLEGE, at Cane Hill, 
 near Boonsboro, Washington county, Arkansas, 
 was chartered in L852, and reorganized in 1868. 
 It is under the control of the I lumberland Pres- 
 byterian Church. The institution has prepara- 
 tory and collegiate departments. In 1873 — f 
 there were 3 instructors, and 68 preparatory and 
 18 collegiate students. The I lev. E. R. Earle, 
 A. M.. is ( L876) the president. 
 
 CAPITAL UNIVERSITY, at Columbus. 
 Ohio, was organized in L850 by the Evangelical 
 Lutheran synod of Ohio and the adjacent states, 
 which, in L876, formed a part of the Synodical 
 Conference. It includes a preparatory or gram- 
 mar school, and collegiate and theological de- 
 partments. It has a library of 2. 500 volumes, 
 a faculty of C> professors, 2 of whom teach 
 both in the collegiate and the theological de- 
 partment, and 64 students, including those of 
 theology. Much attention is given to the study 
 of German, which extends through all the classes 
 of the three departments, and is partly used as 
 a means of instruction. The annual tuition fee 
 in the grammar school is $25; in the college, 
 $40. In the theological department, which, with 
 a few brief intermissions, has been in successful 
 operation since L830, no charge is made for tui- 
 tlon;and indigent young men. possessing the nec- 
 essary qualifications for the ministry, are sup- 
 ported by the Synodical Education Society. 
 The Kcv.'Dr. Win. V. I.ehmami IS (1876) the 
 president of the institution. 
 
 CARLETON COLLEGE, at NorthfieM, 
 Minn., was organized in 1866, by ihe Congrega- 
 tionalists. It hasa preparatory, a collegiate, and 
 an English department, the latter embracing 
 those pupils whose time or means will not allow 
 them to secure a thorough classical education. 
 
 The college department was not organized until 
 Sept.. L870. Both sexes are instructed in the 
 
 same classes, ami may take the same degrees. 
 There were in L875, 216 students, of whom 13 
 
 belonged to the collegiate, 82 to the preparatory, 
 
 and 111 to the English department. The corps 
 of instructors numbered LO. The first board of 
 
 trustees was elected by the stale conference of 
 Evangelical churches, which now annually ap- 
 points a visiting committee. The board of 
 
 trustees is Belf perpetuating, but a majority of its 
 members, according to the provisions of the or- 
 
carthac.k collkck 
 
 CATECHISM 
 
 117 
 
 ganic act, must be Congregationalists. In L871, 
 tin- college received $50,000 in cash from Wm. 
 Carleton, of Charlestown, Mass.. ami the board 
 of trustees voted to give liis name to the institu- 
 tion, and tn hold his gift as an endowment. In 
 1875, the endowment fund had increased to 
 about $80,000. The library, in L875, numbered 
 2,000 volumes. The Win. II. Dunning Cabinet, 
 donated to the college in 1875, is a valuable col- 
 lection of geological specimens. A museum of 
 natural history lias been commenced. The col- 
 lege has three buildings and a beautiful site of 
 about twenty-live acres. The tuition fee in the 
 collegiate department is $8 per term of 13 weeks. 
 The president of the institution is (187(>) Rev. 
 • lames Woodward Strong. I>. I). 
 
 CARTHAGE COLLEGE, at < arthage. Ill- 
 was founded in 1^ i0,by the Evangelical Lutheran 
 Church (General Synod). It commenced as a 
 classical school, and the college department was 
 not organized until 1S73. It comprises two de- 
 partments, the collegiate and the academic, the 
 former embracing three different courses of study, 
 the classical, the scientific, and the philosophical. 
 The institution had, in 1875, !) instructors and 
 203 students, of whom 53 were females. It is 
 supported partly from endowments, and partly 
 by tuition fees. The endowments, amounted, 
 in 1ST"), to about $40,000. The annual tuition 
 fee is from .$24 to $28. The college library 
 numbered about 3,000 volumes, and the two 
 literary societies of the college, the Calileo and 
 the Cicero, have also each commenced the forma- 
 tion of a library. L. F. M. Easterday was the 
 principal of the institution while it was a clas- 
 sical school (1870 to 1873) ; and the Rev. I). L. 
 Tressler was subsequently elected president of 
 the college. 
 
 CATECHETICAL METHOD, the method 
 of instruction by question and answer, accord- 
 ing to which the pupils are required to answer 
 the questions of the teacher, so as to show what 
 explanations they particularly need in order to 
 obtain a correct knowdedge of the subject ; or 
 sometimes they commit to memory and recite 
 answers to set questions from a text-book. This 
 was the method employed in teaching the truths 
 of Christianity in the early churches, each re- 
 sponse to the question being the formal state- 
 ment or detinition of a dogmatic truth ; and when 
 the object is to impart definite information in brief 
 and precise language which the pupil is expected 
 to commit to memory and recite verbatim, this 
 method is of great value. There are but few 
 subjects, however, which can be properly taught 
 in this way; since, in training the intellectual 
 faculties, the sequence of facts, thoughts, or 
 ideas, is more important than their clear ap- 
 prehension or expression singly and disconnect- 
 edly. On this principle, there arc several objec- 
 tions to the catechetical method as one of general 
 application: (1) The pupil is deprived of a 
 proper exercise of the expressive faculties, being 
 required only to repeat what has been enunciat- 
 ed in the language of others: (2) The logical 
 relations of the facts learned arc apt to be un- | 
 
 noticed by the pupils, from the absence of those 
 intermediate connective words and phrases by 
 which ordinarily those relations are indicated; 
 (3) The pupil, by learning merely the answer 
 to a question, fails to obtain a full idea, of the 
 truth, a part of which, and sometimes the most 
 essential part, is expressed in the question itself. 
 Thus, if a pupil is asked. What is an island? 
 and he answers. Land surrounded hi/ water, he 
 does not entirely express the fact, but only a 
 disjointed fragment of it. Many text-books 
 constructed on the catechetical plan are liable 
 to this objection ; others, however, obviate it by 
 invariably making the answer a complete state- 
 ment, the gist of the question being repeated. 
 Thus, the answer to the question, What is an 
 island? would lie. An island is land surround- 
 edbywater. When the catechetical method is 
 employed in giving oral instruction, the teacher 
 should be careful to keep this principle in view. 
 A skillful use of this method will always be 
 found effective in opening up to the mind of the 
 pupil the fundamental ideas and principles of a 
 subject previous to its formal study by the pupil 
 himself, or, when difficulties arise, in leading 
 the pupil's mind, by an adroit series of inter- 
 rogatories, to such an analysis of the statement 
 or problem in question as will enable him to 
 apprehend the elementary facts or principles in- 
 volved, and thus to solve the difficulty without 
 further aid. This, however, is not so much an 
 application of the catechetical method as a skill- 
 ful use of interrogation, one of the most valuable 
 and indispensable means of imparting informa- 
 tion. (See Interrogation-.) The Socratic method 
 was an illustration of this, being employed to 
 bring conviction to the learner's mind by obtain- 
 ing, in answer to the questions asked, a series of 
 admissions leading finally to his assent to the 
 truth proposed. 
 
 The catechetical method was formerly very 
 popular in schools, and almost universally em- 
 ployed ; but, in proportion as mechanical meth- 
 ods of recitation and rote-teaching gave place 
 to such as appealed directly to the pupil's intel- 
 ligence and powers of expression, the mere 
 question-and-answer system of instruction be- 
 came discredited and was abandoned. In its 
 place, the topical method is now in quite gen- 
 eral use. This requires that the pupil shall give 
 a connected statement, not simply as an answer 
 to a question, but as logically expressing the 
 knowledge which he has acquired in regard to 
 the topic assigned bythe teacher. 
 
 CATECHETICAL SCHOOL. See Alex- 
 andrian School. 
 
 CATECHISM (Or. Kar^ia^, instruction), 
 an elementary work containing a summary of 
 principles, especially of religious doctrine, re- 
 duced to the form of questions and answers. The 
 name catechism for religious works of this kind 
 was probably first proposed by Luther, whose 
 two famous catechisms appeared in 1529. Sum- 
 maries of Christian doctrines, in the form of 
 questions and answers, under other names, are, 
 however, of much earlier origin, and can be 
 
118 
 
 CATECHISM 
 
 CATHEDRAL SCHOOLS 
 
 traced to the eighth century. Among the early 
 works of this class, those by Kero, a monk of St. 
 Gall, and one probably written by Otfried of 
 Weissenburg, were the must famous. Subse- 
 quently, we find similar books in use among the 
 Waldenses and Bohemian Brethren, These 
 works oontained mostly the Apostles" Creed, 
 the Lord's Prayer, and. since the fourteenth 
 century, the Ten Commandments. Luther, who 
 devoted special attention to the religious in- 
 struction of children, published his first ele- 
 mentary work on this subject in L520. A few 
 years Later, Justus Jonas and Johann Auricula 
 were commissioned to prepare a catechism em- 
 bracing the entire creed of the Reformation, but 
 subsequently Luther undertook the work him- 
 self. Both of his catechisms were receive I by the 
 Lutheran Church among the symbolical books. 
 The mosl celebrated among the catechisms which 
 originated in the Reformed Church were the 
 Geneva catechisms, compiled in the French lan- 
 guage by Calvin (the smaller in L 536, the larger in 
 1541), the Zurich catechism, which, in I 639, was 
 
 ived as a symbolical I k. and especially 
 
 Heidelberg catechism, compiled in 1563 by 
 
 Order of the elector of the I 'alat iiiate. and gener- 
 ally adopted by the German ami Dutch Re- 
 formed Churches. In the Anglican Church, the 
 Church Catechism, which, in 1552, was com- 
 piled by John Poynet, sanctioned by Edward VI.. 
 ami published in L 553, obtained a great author- 
 ity. The Presbyterian Church has generally 
 adopted the shorter Assembly Catechism, which 
 was compiled by committeesof the Westminster 
 
 Assembly, presented to the House of C mons 
 
 in K)4T ami Mils, and in the latter year by 
 resolution of Sept. 15., 1648, ordered to be 
 printed "by authority," for public use. This 
 catechism is also extensively used among the 
 
 Independents and Oongregationalists in Great 
 Britain and America. In the Wesleyan Church 
 
 of England, the cathechisms in use have been ar- 
 ranged by the Rev. Richard Watson. For the 
 Methodisl Episcopal Church of the United State-. 
 
 a series of three catechisms, prepared by Rev. 
 
 Dr. Kidder, was adopted by the General Con- 
 ference ")' 1852. In the Roman Catholic Church. 
 
 the Tridentine Council ordered the compilation 
 of a catechism " for the use of pastors." It was 
 published in Rome, in L566, under the title of 
 Catechismus Romanus. It was, originally, not 
 
 in the shape of questions ami answers, though it 
 
 has this form in later editions. Among the 
 numerous catechisms prepared for the use of 
 children, those by Canisius (1554 and L566), 
 EJeUarmin (1603). and l5ossuet (lf>87)have had 
 the largest circulation. The Vatican Council, in 
 1870, decreed the preparation of a common 
 catechism for the whole Church, which is to be 
 essentially that of liellarmin. In the Creek 
 Church, the catechism prepared by MogilaS, 
 
 metropolitan of Kief (1642), was recognized as 
 tndard, in 1672, by a synod at Jerusalem. 
 M.i n v other religious denominations, besides those 
 mentioned, have also their denominational cat- 
 echisms; and it may. therefore, be said that the im- 
 
 I mense majority of the children of Christian 
 
 parents receive their first instruction in the tenets 
 of ( 'hristianity by means of catechisms. The ob- 
 ject of a catechism is. more or less, not only to 
 present to children, in the most lucid form, the 
 tenets of the religious communion of which they 
 are expected to become active members in after 
 life, but to impress these doctrines indelibly 
 upon their minds. 
 
 CATECHUMEN (Gr. mtnixob/ievog, in- 
 structed by word of mouth), the name given, in 
 the early Christian church, to a convert who was 
 
 receiving catechetical instruction preparatory to 
 baptism. The catechumens were divided into dif- 
 ferent grades or classes according to the degree 
 of their proficiency, only those of the highest 
 grade, who had been pronounced tit for baptism, 
 being permitted to be present at the adminis- 
 tration of the lord's Supper. This appellation 
 was afterwards given to the younger meml 
 of any Christian church who were undergoing 
 instruction to prepare them for the rite of con- 
 firmation, or for the ( lommunion, in which sense 
 die term is still used. (See Catechism.) 
 
 CATHEDRAL AND COLLEGIATE 
 SCHOOLS (Ger. Bom- und SHftsschulen), a 
 kind of schools founded in the middle apes in 
 connection with cathedral ami collegiate churches. 
 They are of considerable importance in the history 
 
 of education, because they shared with the con- 
 vent schools the honor of In i 1 1 o . for a lon<£ time, 
 almost exclusively the nurseries of instruction 
 ami education in Christian countries. They 
 
 were originally intended chiefly for educat- 
 ing the candidates for the priesthood, but af- 
 forded also to others who regarded a pood edu- 
 cation necessary for their social position, an op- 
 portunity to acquire the knowledge needed. A 
 
 few schools in connection with cathedra] churches 
 
 appear to have existed even before the founda- 
 tion of the Benedictine order; and the towns of 
 Aries. Reims, ami Orleans are. in particular, 
 mentioned as having possessed schools of this 
 kind. In England, the episcopal school at York 
 enjoyed a high reputation. The systematic or- 
 ganization of these institutions as a special class 
 of schools, in distinct ion from the coin cut schools. 
 
 was due to Bishop Chrodegang of Metz (died 
 766). Me united the clergymen of his cathedral 
 church tor a common life on the basis of a modi- 
 fied ride of the Benedictine order, and thus be- 
 came the founder of a class of religious orders 
 known in church history as the Canons Regular. 
 These orders, subsequently divided into a large 
 number of different branches, regarded it as one 
 
 of their foremost duties to establish schools sim- 
 ilar in organization to those of the Benedictines. 
 In the management of these schools, greater at- 
 tention was paid to strict discipline than to 
 excellence of instruction. One brother [frak 
 of unblamable character, was charged, in each 
 establishment of these orders, with the duty of 
 
 superintending the scholars, and of enforcing 
 strict discipline, in order that they might become 
 able " t" rise to the dignities of the church, fitted 
 out with ecclesiastical erudition and spiritual 
 
 
CKi'l I.IAN COLLKCK 
 
 CENTRAL AMERICA 
 
 119 
 
 weapons." The Dumber of these schools vapidly 
 tocreased, and they made the towns which con- 
 tained them the centers of learning. Thesubjects 
 of instruction embraced, besides theology, the 
 reading of Latin and Greek classics, as Homer, 
 Virgil, Sallust, Statins, Terence, Cicero, ami 
 Seneca, the making of Latin and Greek verses, 
 instruction in painting, calligraphy, church sing- 
 ing, ami arithmetic. In the celebrated cathedral 
 school of Paderbom, instruction was given in 
 
 mathematics, physics, music, rhetoric, and dia- 
 lectics. Special interest in the success of these 
 
 .schools was taken by Charlemagne (see Chable- 
 kagne), who, in very emphatic rescripts, urged 
 all the bishops to establish schools of this kind. 
 During the reign of his son, Louis le De- 
 bonnaire, the synod of Aix-la-Chapelle, in 816, 
 made the adoption of tin' rule of Chrodegang, 
 
 involving the establishment of a school, com- 
 pulsory for all cathedral (episcopal) churches. 
 Many other synods urged the carrying out of 
 this law. and demanded the establishment of 
 schools, not tor the episcopal churches alone, but 
 likewise for other large churches. The rapid 
 spread of the Canons Regular, who no longer 
 confined their religious communities to the 
 capital of the diocese, but established numerous 
 " collegiate " churches in smaller towns, greatly 
 aided in the steady increase of schools. The col- 
 legiate schools of the smaller towns resembled 
 the town schools which arose during and after 
 the crusades. They provided only for the teach- 
 ing of the trivium ; while, in the episcopal city, 
 the quadrivium as well as the trivium was 
 taught, and the addition of the sacra pagina de- 
 veloped the episcopal seminaries. With the de- 
 cline of the Canons Regular, this class of schools 
 also lost their reputation. The lower studies be- 
 wail to be pursued at the parish schools : and for 
 the higher branches the universities made much 
 more ample provision than had ever been made 
 by the cathedral and collegiate schools. — See 
 Lai'xoii Descholis celebrioribus s. " Garolo M. s. 
 j»,s/ eundem in Occidenie msiauraiis (Paris, 
 1672); Ozanam, La Civilisation ChreHenne ckez 
 k& Francs (Paris, 1849). 
 
 CECILIAN COLLEGE, situated near Eliz- 
 abethtown, I lanlin county, Kentucky, was found- 
 ed by Charles Cecil and sons, in L860. Though 
 a private institution.it was chartered in L867, 
 and confers degrees. It is under Roman Cath- 
 olic influence. It comprises a commercial and 
 a classical course. 
 
 CENSUS, School. See School Census. 
 
 CENTENARY COLLEGE, at Jackson, 
 Louisiana, was established by the state in L825, 
 
 and taken under the patronage of the Methodist 
 Episcopal Church. South, in L845. It comprises 
 a preparatory and a collegiate department, the 
 latter having a classical and a. scientific course. 
 The buildings arc healthfully situated in a grove 
 o! pine, magnolia, oak. and beech. They consist 
 of a commodious steward's hall, two brick dormi- 
 tories, each containing twenty-four rooms, and 
 a magnificent center building, which has been 
 erected at an expense of over $60,000. It 
 
 contains a chapel tor public exhibitions, large 
 enough to scat over two thousand persons. The 
 college possesses a. valuable set of philosophical, 
 astronomical, and chemical apparatus, and also a 
 well-selected mineralogkal and geographical 
 cabinet. The value of the college properly, in 
 L876, was about $100,000, and the income from 
 productive funds $10,000. The college library 
 contains about 2,000 volumes : those of the two 
 literary societies, about L,600 each. The cost of 
 tuition is silo a year in the collegiate, and $40 
 in the preparatory department Booms in the 
 dormitories arc free of rent. In \X~'l — 7.'! there 
 were ."> instructors, 1(10 preparatory and 24 col- 
 legiate students, and 2(1!! alumni. The Rev. 
 C. G. Andrews, A. M., is (1876) the president. 
 
 CENTRAL AMERICA is a narrow and 
 irregular strip of land which forms the southern 
 part of North America. It comprises the five 
 republics, Guatemala, Honduras. San Salvador, 
 Nicaragua, and Costa Rica. Its total area is 
 175,000 sq. m., and its population, according to 
 the census of L865, 2,665,000. Of these 1.34,000 
 are whites: 1,000,000 arc mestizos, or the off- 
 spring of whites and Indians: 1,500,000 are 
 aboriginal Indians: and the remainder are ne- 
 groes, either pure or mixed. The country was 
 conquered by the Spaniards in 1525, and re- 
 mained subject to Spanish rule until L823, when 
 the five colonies formed themselves into a federal 
 republic, which lasted until 1839, when the 
 federation was dissolved. There have been re- 
 peated federations formed since, but the inhab- 
 itants, like the country, are very unstable, and a 
 speedy dissolution has in each case followed. For 
 a long time, each of the republics has been going 
 its own way in politics and also in education 
 — a way which thus far has led only to anarchy. 
 The great instrument of reform, in all these 
 Spanish American republics, seems to have been 
 to plunder the Church — a plan which thus far 
 has borne no valuable fruit for public education. 
 
 In Guatemala public instruction is still in the 
 hands of the clergy, who, on account both of 
 these repeated plundering^ and of the severe 
 laws against them, are incapable of doing much. 
 There are 26 primary schools in the capital (10 
 for boys and 1G for girls) and several private in- 
 stitutions. These are .supported mainly by volun- 
 tary offerings. For the higher education, there is 
 a college hi old Guatemala, which formerly had a, 
 
 fair reputation. New Guatemala has the colegio 
 de la Trinidad, the colegio Iridentino, and a 
 
 university besides. The latter is the most famous 
 of the Central American schools and has many 
 students from the other republics. The Sociedad 
 patriMico-econdmica, founded in I7!'~>, also sup- 
 ports a school for drawing, sculpture, and mathe- 
 matics, and publishes a journal. 
 
 Honduras possesses two institutions called 
 universities, but they are such only in name. The 
 public schools are scarcely worth mentioning, 
 and education is at the lowest possible point. In 
 L874, the number of public schools was IDT. 
 which were attended, on an average, by 25 pupils 
 each, showing about one pupil for 60 inhabitants. 
 
120 
 
 CENTRAL COLLEGE 
 
 CENTRE COLLEGE 
 
 • San Sal null, r also possesses a university which 
 has the reputation of being the second in Central 
 America. Primary schools are few in number; 
 nailing and reckoning are taught in them more 
 or less indifferently; writing is a luxury in all 
 these republics which everybody cannot afford. 
 
 Nicaragua has a more demoralized popula- 
 tion even than the other republics, owing to the 
 former filibustering expeditions from abroad, and 
 also to the many political revolutions and parti- 
 san dissensions which have occurred. There are 
 two universities in name, one in Leon and one in 
 Granada. The first possesses a small library of 
 1500 volumes: the other has none. In 1873, the 
 whole number of schools for males was 92, with 
 an attendance of 3,871; and for females. !). with 
 an attendance of 532. The whole number of 
 children of school age (7 to 15) was 30,000 — 
 males, 12,000, and females, L8.000. 
 
 In Costa Rica, the schools are somewhat better 
 attended, but both the amount and the manner 
 of instruction given are pitiable. A. very short 
 time suffices to forget what little has been learned. 
 Moritz Wagner gives a rather gloomy picture 
 of these schools, lie leads us into dark, damp 
 rooms, in which teachers of unexampled igno- 
 rance give instruction in reading, writing, and 
 reckoning to some dozen of barefooted children. 
 who are crowded closely together and full of im- 
 patience to escape. There is a university as well 
 as a Lyceum in San Jose, and another Ivcciun in 
 Cartago. The university has six chairs, and the 
 professors receive a salary of skid a year. Juris- 
 prudence and theology are the chief studies. 
 .Mathematics and a little Latin are taught, hut 
 no Greek. There are about 100 students. The 
 lyceums are no better. See Lk Roy in Sr/,,ni<l, 
 P&dagogi&che Encydqpadie, vol. x., art. *s'^/- 
 america : Squier, TkeStatesof <'< , ntrnl America 
 (N. V.. L857). 
 
 CENTRAL COLLEGE, at Fayette. Mis- 
 souri, under the control of the Methodist Epis- 
 copal Church, South, of that state, was chartered 
 
 in is.")."), it comprises a preparatory and a 
 collegiate department. The latter embraces live 
 schools; namely, pure and applied mathematics, 
 moral philosophy, Knglish language and litera- 
 ture, ancient languages and literature, and phys- 
 ical science. Each student is required to attend 
 at least three schools. The degrees conferred by 
 Central College are (1) Graduate in a School, 
 (2) Bachelor 'of Philosophy, (3) Bachelor of 
 Arts. (4) Master of Arts. The degree of grad- 
 uate in a school is given upon passing an ex- 
 amination on the subjects taught in that school. 
 
 The degree of bachelor of philosophy is con- 
 ferred upon graduates in the schools of English 
 literature, moral philosophy, and physical science 
 
 who pass satisfactory examinations in the studies 
 of the junior and intermediate classes of mathe- 
 matics. To obtain the degree of bachelor of 
 
 arts, the student must graduate in the schools 
 of moral philosophy, physical science, and an- 
 cient languages, except the Greek and Roman 
 literature, ana pass examinations in the studies 
 of the junior class in the Bchool of English liter- 
 
 ature, and in part of the studies of the school 
 of mathematics. To obtain the degree of master 
 of arts, the student must graduate in the schools 
 of English, Latin. Greek, moral philosophy, nat- 
 ural philosophy, and chemistry; also in two mod- 
 ern languages, and pass an approved examination 
 in all the studies of the school of mathematics. 
 The college property is valued at $40,000, and 
 the productive funds amount to 800,000. in 
 1873 — 4 there were 7 instructors, and 33 pre- 
 paratory, and 1 1 1 collegiate students. The Lev. 
 .1. <'. Wills, 1). D.. is (1876) the president. 
 
 CENTRAL TENNESSEE COLLEGE, 
 at Nashville, Term., was organized in 18GG. It 
 is under the patronage of the Methodist Epis- 
 copal Church, and is supported almost entirely 
 by the Freedmen's Aid Society of tha4 church. 
 Through the Methodist Missionary Society and 
 the Freedmen's Bureau, the buildings now occu- 
 pied, valued at $45,000, were secured in 1869. 
 The college is designed mainly for the education 
 of colored youth of both sexes. It embraces an 
 academic department, for English education ; a 
 normal department, for training teachers; a 
 preparatory school, a classical collegiate course, 
 and a theological department. In L873 — 4, there 
 were 1 1 instructors. 262 students in the prepara- 
 tory and lower departments (139 males ami 123 
 females), and 'il in the theological department 
 The Rev. J. Braden, I). D., is (1876) the presi- 
 dent. 
 
 CENTRAL UNIVERSITY, at Richmond, 
 Kentucky, was chartered in L873, and is under 
 
 the control of the Southern Presbyterians. It 
 has property valued at $70,000, and productive- 
 funds to the amount of $150,000. It was opened 
 in 1874 with 7-"> preparatory students, of whom 
 40 were preparing for the classical, and 35 for 
 the scientific course. The Lev. I!. L. Breck, 
 
 P. I>.. is (1876) the chancellor. 
 
 CENTRE COLLEGE, at Danville, Ken- 
 tucky, was first chartered in Is Lb and received 
 
 an amended charter in 1824. It was originally 
 a state institution, but was purchased bv the 
 Presbyterian synod of Kentucky, which obtained 
 complete control in L830. Upon the division of 
 the synod in L866, the college was held by that 
 
 part adhering to the General Assembly (North), 
 It is supported by tuition fees and the income M 
 
 the endowment, which amounts to SdHbOOO. 
 The other property is valued at $75,000. Tuition 
 in the college is S."l) a year ; but to the sons of 
 clergymen and other young men of limited 
 means and good character, it is free. The in- 
 stitution comprises a preparatory and a collegiate 
 
 department. Special attention is given to the 
 
 German language. In L^Te 6, there were 8 in- 
 structors, !'_'.") collegiate and 50 preparatory stu- 
 dents, and about 7,500 volumes in the libraries. 
 The number of alumni in L872 was 754. 'I he 
 successive presidents have been as follows : the 
 
 Rev. .lames Met 'hold, L820, who died before 
 
 entering upon the duties of his office; the Kev. 
 Samuel Finley, />/■<> I'm.. L822; the Rev. 
 Jeremiah Chamberlain, I ».!>.. from L822 to L826 ; 
 the Rev. I». C. Proctor. 1». P.. pro tern., L826^ 
 
 
CERTIFICATE 
 
 CHARACTER 
 
 121 
 
 the Rev. Gideon Blackburn, D. !>., from 182*7 to 
 L830; the Rev. John C.Young, D.D., from L830 
 to L857; the Rev. Lewis W. Green, D.D., from 
 L857 to L863; the Rev. W. L Breckinridge, 
 from L863fol868; and Ormond Beatty, LL.D., 
 appointed in 1*72 and still (1876) in office. 
 
 CERTIFICATE. See License, and Incen- 
 tives, School. 
 
 CHAPSAL, Charles Pierre, a French 
 g rammarian , was burn in Paris in 17*7, and died 
 in 1858. I If is chiefly noted for the grammar of 
 which he was the joint author with Francis 
 Joseph Noel. This work, entitled Nbuvette 
 grammaire frctnpaise, avec exercises, was very 
 popular, passing through as many as 40 editions 
 between 1KUU and LS58, and is still in use, 
 although to a great extent superseded by more 
 recent publications. Chapsal realized from this 
 book a large fortune, which he partly expended 
 upon charitable objects. At his death, he left 
 si i.di it l francs to the teachers in the outskirts of 
 Paris. 
 
 CHARACTER, Discernment of. The per- 
 ception of the peculiarities of individual char- 
 acter by its external manifestations constitutes 
 an essential preliminary to all sound and judi- 
 cious educational treatment. There is an endless 
 diversity in the natural inclinations and capacities 
 of children ; and, therefore, no system of educa- 
 tion can claim to be scientific that fails tore- 
 cognize this fact, and to supply (1) the principles 
 and rules that should guide the educator in 
 discerning these individual peculiarities, and (2) 
 the practical methods of treatment best adapted 
 to each. Generally, however, education is car- 
 ried on with but little or no such discrimina- 
 tions ; pupils, whatever may be their tempera- 
 ment, physical condition, state of health, mental 
 capacities, or moral proclivities, are treated 
 according to the same system or plan. It is 
 true, there is in every mind a kind of instinctive 
 perception of the peculiarities of character, either 
 the result of an inexplicable impression or prej- 
 udice, formed with little observation, or a 
 positive judgment derived almost unconsciously 
 from an attention, more or less superficial, to 
 the person's appearance, actions, and words on. 
 different occasions. A systematic study of the 
 external indications of character has not, how- 
 ever, been generally, or usually, enjoined upon 
 the teacher as a preparation for the work of 
 training and instruction. Nevertheless, the most 
 distinguished educators have fully recognized the 
 principle. " I>et him that is skilled in teaching," 
 Bays Quintilian, ••ascertain first of all when a 
 boy is entrusted to him, his ability and disposi- 
 tion .... When a tutor has observed these indi- 
 cations of disposition and ability, let him next 
 consider how the mind of his pupil is to be man- 
 aged. Some boys are indolent, unless you stimu- 
 late them; some are indignant at being com- 
 manded ; fear restrains some, and unnerves 
 others; continued labor forms some ; but with 
 others hasty efforts succeed better. Ix-t the 
 boy be given to me, whom praise stimulates. 
 "whom honor delights, who weeps when he is un- 
 
 successful. His powers must be cultivated under 
 the influence of ambition; reproach will sting 
 him to the quick : honor will incite him ; and in 
 such a boy 1 shall never be apprehensive of in- 
 difference.'' Here we have prescribed, in moral 
 education at least, an adaptation of treatment 
 to special traits; and few will deny that educa- 
 tion is perfect in its plan and efficient in its 
 results in proportion as its agencies and opera- 
 tions are adapted to the peculiarities of the indi- 
 vidual character which it is to form or unfold. 
 When children are educated at home by private 
 teachers, and, indeed, always in that part of edu- 
 cation which belongs to the family or home circle, 
 there is a wide scope for such discrimination; 
 but when large masses of children are taught 
 together, as in public schools, a discrimination 
 of individual traits, and a corresponding adapta- 
 tion of method and requirement becomes, except 
 within quite narrow limits, impracticable; still, 
 it has been questioned whether, in the organiza- 
 tion of such schools, the classification of the 
 children should not be based upon other con- 
 siderations than merely their apparent profi- 
 ciency in a few elementary branches of study. If 
 to secure these intellectual acquirements be the 
 exclusive end of the teaching to be given, the 
 usual classification is, of course, proper; but, even 
 then, it should be constantly corrected according 
 as individual capacity unfolds itself. Some pu- 
 pils will make much more rapid progress than, 
 others ; and if these are kept back in order that 
 the general or average progress of the class may 
 be brought up to a given standard, their future 
 progress will be greatly obstructed ; their mental 
 activity and elasticity will be impaired by the 
 want of due exercise ; and their interest in study 
 will be more or less extinguished. Mereover, 
 not finding the natural craving of their minds, 
 for exercise gratified, their sensuous nature will 
 be unduly developed, and they will be inclined 
 to plunge into frivolous and idle amusements. 
 In large schools, conducted almost entirely with- 
 out any of the discrimination here referred to, the 
 individual is sacrificed to the mass ; and many a 
 bright youth loses not only the best hours of his 
 life, but, by untoward habits and a want of due 
 training, the very spring of his intellectual nature. 
 The moral influence of such indiscriminate treat- 
 ment is still worse ; since there is nothing that 
 requires so delicate and careful a consideration 
 as the proper methods of guiding, controlling, 
 and training the dispositions of children. 
 
 In the discernment of the character of chil- 
 dren, a careful attention should be given to the 
 temperaments ; indeed, a knowledge of tempera- 
 mental distinctions is one of the most important 
 of the teacher's accomplishments. Says an ex- 
 perienced educator, •• If I know the temperament 
 of a child, I know r how to approach him to ac- 
 complish a given object, to what motives to appeal, 
 what influences to bring to bear upon him. etc." 
 The four great distinctions, of temperament, — 
 nervous, sanguine, lymphatic, and hilious are 
 strongly marked and easily discerned. In the 
 Scientific I!<<sis of Education by John Ilecker 
 
122 
 
 CHARACTER 
 
 CHARLEMACXK 
 
 (X. V.. L868), they are thus described: "The 
 peculiarities of the nervous temperament spring 
 
 from tlic tact, that in such a physical organiza- 
 tion, the brain and nervous system predominate, 
 ami their indications take precedence in the 
 make-up of the individual, both as to proportional 
 size and activity. The functions of mental life 
 are stronger than others in the system. The 
 sanguine temperament, in like manner, indicates 
 
 the predominance of the lungs and arterial 
 33 -tern, as compared with the other physiological 
 
 functions. The lymphatic temperament is ac- 
 companied I iy a similar predominance of the func- 
 tions of the stomach ami digestive apparatus, 
 
 and of the glandular and lacteal system: and 
 
 the bilious temperament, by a similar predomi- 
 nance of the functions of the liver. — the ureal 
 
 secreting organ of the body." The same writer 
 enumerates with much minuteness the peculiari- 
 ties of disposition attendant upon these distinc- 
 tions of temperament. "Uptotheage of pu- 
 berty," he remarks, "growth being the leading 
 
 necessity of lite, the Lymphatic conditions, as a 
 general rule predominate." < Ihildren of a nervous 
 temperament when the brain is well developed, 
 "are eager to learn, and learn easily and fast. 
 beingreadily impressed through the mental fac- 
 ulties." They are. however, less retentive of 
 what they learn, than those of the bilious 
 temperament, have less warmth of disposition 
 
 than those of the sanguine temperament, ami are 
 
 less susceptible to the ordinary methods of train- 
 ing than those of the lymphatic temperament. 
 
 < 'hildren of the sanguine temperament are said to 
 be volatile, more swayed by the pleasures of the 
 senses and less interested in merely intellectual 
 employment ; but they are characterized bj a 
 1:1 cat degree of active energy, and hence desire 
 ami need more physical exercise. Children of 
 
 the lymphatic temperament receive impressions, 
 
 as distinguished from ideas, readily, hut do not 
 
 retain them as permanently, as those of the bil- 
 ious temperament : they lack also the physical 
 activity of the sanguine temperament. The bil- 
 ious temperament is said to give permanence 
 to all impressions, though their reception is com- 
 paratively slow ami difficult. " When we con- 
 sider," says Mr. Becker, "that children in a 
 
 school arc collected, not as operatives in a fac- 
 tory, tor what they can dn. hut for what can be 
 done to them what they can receive — it is 
 evident that differences of temperament, which 
 involve such important variations in theproper 
 mode of training, cannot he ignored in classifica- 
 tion, w ithout severely affecting the results of edu- 
 cation." This writer, however, who has made to 
 a very great extent the phrenological discrimina- 
 tions of brain structure the "scientific basis of 
 
 education." remarks in this connection. "It is 
 not to he supposed that the mental disposition of 
 the child resides ill the tempera II lent . 'I'll is depends 
 
 directly upon the organization of the brain : but 
 the temperamental conditions exert a marked 
 influence upon the activity of the brain, ami. 
 both directly by growth and indirectly by the 
 senses., modifj the mental disposition." 
 
 To what extent the principles of phrenology 
 
 may be applied to education, by affording a 
 means of scientific discrimination, has been con- 
 siderably discussed. The only question to de- 
 cide is. whether phrenology affords a reliable 
 means of discerning the mental peculiarities of 
 different individuals, or how far such peculiarities 
 are manifested in cerebral Structure ; since, if they, 
 are unerringly thus indicated, a means is in this! 
 way afforded, in connection with the tempera- 
 ments, of ascertaining the capacities and capa- 
 bilities of cluldren, which educators camiot prop- 
 erly ignore. 
 
 In whatever way. however, the educator may 
 obtain his knowledge of the peculiar dispositions 
 
 and talents of his pupils, it is essential that this 
 
 knowledge should be acquired, and that it should 
 
 modify his treatment Of his pupils, physical, 
 moral, and mental. — See Sitkziikim. Princi- 
 ples <if Education, with Appendix by S. lb 
 Wells (N. V.. L847) ; Becker, Scientific Basis 
 of Education (N. Y., 1868) ; Bain, The Study 
 <if Character (London. L861). 
 
 CHARLEMAGNE, Charles the Great, 
 or Charles I., king of the Franks and emperor 
 of the West, was born in 742, and died in Aix- 
 la-Chapelle. in 814. lie was one of the greatest 
 monarchs that ever reigned, and no less distin- 
 guished in the history of education than in po- 
 litical history. Though, from his earliest youth, 
 a great and impetuous warrior. he fully recognized 
 the importance of the educational interests of his 
 empire, and patronized them with a devotion 
 such as has been shown but by few princes. It 
 was his clearly conceived plan to elevate the 
 
 blanks and the Germans to an educational 
 
 level with the countries which at that time ex- 
 celled in the world of Utters. — chiefly Italy and 
 Ireland. Amidst all his wars of conquest and 
 the cares of avast and steadily extending empire, 
 
 he never ceased to labor to supply the deficiencies 
 of his early education. His thirst for knowledge 
 
 extended to all the different branches of science. 
 
 The letters which he addressed to Alcuin abound 
 in grammatical, arithmetical, astronomical, and 
 theological questions. Me completely mastered 
 
 the Latin: and he studied Creek in order to be 
 able to compare the Latin translation of the 
 gospels with the original He personally dis- 
 cussed with the bishop the most subtle theolog- 
 ical questions, and was indefatigable in search 
 
 ill the information necessary to a thorough 
 understanding of all controverted points. He 
 appreciated profound learning, and was anxious 
 to attract to his court as many scholars as pos- 
 sible. His chief adviser wa- Alcuin. with whom 
 lie became acquainted in 781, and whom he ap- 
 pointed instructor of his court school [palat- 
 inate school). Though he succeeded in gathering 
 at his court a brilliant galaxy of nun of genius, 
 he was himself never Satisfied, incessant Iy aiming 
 at Still higher results. His desire to have twelve 
 
 teachers like St. Augustine and St. Jerome 
 
 drew from the astonished Alcuin the reply, diat 
 the Creator himself had only had tWOSUch men. 
 
 Alcuin. conjointly with Rhabanus Maurus, Egin- 
 
CHARLESTON 
 
 CHEEVER 
 
 123 
 
 boid, and others, instituted al the court of Charle- 
 tnagne s kind of literary academy, in which the 
 emperor himself and several members of his 
 
 family took an active part. Though this may 
 
 not have been an academy of science in the 
 modern sense of the word, there was probably 
 Bome established association of the literary men 
 living at the court. 
 
 Charlemagne being convinced that the clergy 
 were the only class who could furnish the large 
 number of instructors whom lie needed for his 
 subjects, adopted measures for the thoroughedu- 
 cationof that class. In 787, he addressed a Letter 
 totheabbol Bangulfat Pulda in which heurged 
 the most thorough instruction of all candidates 
 for the priesthood, In order that &ey might be 
 enabled to understand more fully the Sacred 
 Scriptures, and to communicate their knowledge 
 more effectively to others, lie also enjoine 1 that 
 schools should be established in connection with 
 all the cathedrals and convents. In 789, it was 
 ordered that reading, writing, arithmetic, gram- 
 niar. and singing should be taught in these schools. 
 Attributing very great importance to the devel- 
 opment of the language of the people, in 7!>4, 
 he issue 1 an edict requiring that the faithful 
 should be taught the Lord's Prayer and the 
 Apostles' Creed in German, and that no one 
 should teach that God could only be worshiped 
 in the Latin. Greek.or Hebrew tongues. In 802, 
 he enjoined upon all priests, parents, and god- 
 fathers to provide for the instruction of children 
 committed to their care, in the tenets of the 
 Christian faith and in the Lord's Prayer; and, 
 in 804, he ordered that all those who did not 
 know the Lord's Prayer and the Creed should be 
 Bcourged, and required to fast until they had 
 learned both. These efforts were zealously sup- 
 ported by the bishops; and the councils held at 
 Mayence, Reims, and Tours declared in favor 
 of using the native tongues spoken in the em- 
 pire, for the instruction of the people, in place 
 of the Latin. Even the idea of organizing a 
 system of public instruction began to be con- 
 ceived at that time, as appears from a rescript 
 ad Iressed by bishop Theodulf of Orleans to the 
 priests of his diocese, admonishing them to keep 
 ■ >i every-where (per villas est vicos), and to 
 ask no pay, but only to receive gratuitous offer- 
 ings in return for the service rendered. - See 
 GrAiLLARD, Histoire de Charlemagne (I vols., 2d 
 edit., Paris, 1819) ; Lorenz, Karl des Grossen 
 Privatr und Hqfleben, in Raumer's llislor. 
 Tasckenbueh, 1832); Hbppe, Das Sckulwesen 
 des Mittelnlters (.Marburg, 18(i0); 1 Iai.i.am, En- 
 during the middle ages; Schmidt, Gesch. 
 </-r PSdagogik, vol. n. 
 
 CHARLESTON, College of, at Charleston. 
 South Carolina, was founded in 17s."). It isnon- 
 
 tarian. The patronage has been almost entirely 
 confined to the city, one greal object being to 
 prevent the youth of Charleston from losing 
 their acclimation by absence from the city during 
 a critical period of their lives. There being 
 no dormitories, the students enjoy the advan- 
 tage of domestic influences. The institution 
 
 has a valuable museum of natural history, a 
 library of 10,000 volumes, productive funds to 
 the amount of $200,000, and scholarship funds 
 to the amount of $33,000. The value of the 
 
 college property is $50,000. In 1875 — 6, there 
 
 were 5 instructors and 35 students. The pres- 
 idents have been as follows : the lit. Rev. Robert 
 Smith, the Rt. Rev. X. Bowen, the lion. Mit- 
 chell K iiiLr- the Rev. Jasper Adams, the Rev. 
 Dr. Brantley, Wm. P. r'inley, and N. R. Middle- 
 ton. LL.D. (now in ollice). 
 
 CHART (Gr. {dprttg, Lat. charta, a leaf of 
 paper), a large sheet generally of pasteboard, 
 containing a synoptical exhibil of letters, words, 
 colors, plants, etc.,tobeusedin giving instruction, 
 particularly to classes. This is a very useful 
 piece of school apparatus, since by means of it 
 the eye is addressed, and large numbers of pupils 
 may be taught simultaneously ; while the teacher 
 is relieved from the trouble of writing out or draw- 
 ing on the blackboard what is to be presented. 
 In teaching cohr by object lessons a chart is in- 
 dispensable, as it exhibits, in a methodical way. 
 the objects themselves. Several excellent charts 
 for this purpose have been constructed. Charts 
 are also very useful in teaching phonics. In 
 higher instruction, there are many subjects in 
 which the use of charts affords an important 
 means of illustration ; and, hence, we find in 
 school rooms charts of botany, physiology, 
 chemistry, astronomy, etc. While the rapid 
 sketching of an illustration on the blackboard 
 has many advantages for certain kinds of illus- 
 tration and teaching, the more accurate delinea- 
 tion of objects by charts is often to be preferred, 
 and, therefore, no school room can be completely 
 furnished without sets of these articles. 
 
 CHEEVER, Ezekiel, one of the earliest 
 and most celebrated teachers of New England, 
 illustrious not only for the extraordinary length 
 of his service, which lasted seventy years, but 
 for his scholarship and classical attainments. He 
 was born in London, England, in 1014, where 
 he received an excellent education. At the age 
 of 23, he emigrated to America, landing at 
 IJoston. He did not remain there, however, but 
 took part with Theophilus Baton, Rev. John 
 Davenport, and others in planting the colony of 
 Xew Haven; and held the ollice of deacon, from 
 1644 to 1650, in the first church established at 
 that place. He commenced his career as a 
 school-master in 1638, teaching the first free 
 school of Xew Haven till Kill, when he took 
 charge of a grammar school of a higher grade. 
 These schools, like the New England schools in 
 general, were not common or public schools, 
 open to all without expense, but were partly 
 supported by endowments and partly by tuition 
 fees. The principal studies pursued were Latin 
 and Greek. Until L650, Cheever continued to 
 take charge of this school, and as is remarked by 
 one of his biographers, " devoted to the work a 
 
 Scholarship and personal character which left 
 their mark forever on the educational policy of 
 Xew Haven." At the date mentioned, here- 
 moved to Ipswich, in Massachusetts, where he 
 
124 
 
 CHEEVER 
 
 CIIEKE 
 
 took charge of the grammar school of that town, 
 and made it famous by his faithfulness, scholar- 
 ship, and skill. Prom 1661 to L 670, he taught 
 
 the Town Free School in Chariest own. in the 
 latter year removing to Boston, which became 
 the scene of his labors for 38 years thereafter. 
 Hi re he was appointed head -master of the 
 "Free Schoole," known since L790 as the '• Latin 
 School," being engaged by the governor and 
 select men at a salary of " sixtie pounds p. an.", 
 and allowed the "possestion and use of ye schoole 
 house." This school, under his long and faithful 
 service, became the chief classical school, not 
 only of Massachusetts Bay , but of all the English 
 colonies in America. Some of the most eminent 
 men of the period were educated under Master 
 Cheever; and in the autobiographies which 
 some of them have written, they have left mosl 
 sincere testimonials of respect and affection for 
 their old and venerable teacher, as well as highly 
 interesting pictures of school life in those early 
 days. Among these pupils the Rev. Dr. Cotton 
 Mather became the mosl celebrated; but per- 
 haps the most interesting sketch of M]'. Cheevers 
 school is contained in the Autobiography of ike 
 /ur. Jo//// Barnard, drawn up in 1766, in the 
 85th year of the writer's age. and first printed 
 in the Collections of the Massachusetts Historical 
 SiH-ir/,/. •• I remember once," says Barnard, "in 
 making a piece of Latin, my master found 
 fault with the syntax of one word, which was 
 
 not so \\r..-t\ byme ! eedlessly, but designedly, and. 
 therefore, I told him there was a plain grammar 
 
 rule for it. lie angrily replied, there was no 
 such rule. I took the grammar ami .showed tin- 
 rule to him. Then he smilingly said, " Thou art 
 a brave boy ; I had forgot it." And no wonder; 
 for he was then above eighty years old." He 
 was ;i strict disciplinarian, and corporal punish- 
 ment was often resorted to, and not sparingly 
 applied, in his school ; but severity was tempered 
 with kindness, and his venerable presence was 
 accompanied by " an agreeable mixture of majes- 
 ty and sweetness, both in his voice ami counte- 
 nance," that secured at once obedience, reverence, 
 and love. Such is the pleasant testimony of 
 one of his pupils, lie died in L 708, in the 94th 
 year of his age : and we are told by Dr. Mather 
 that "he held his abilities in an unusual degree 
 to the last, his intellectual force being as little 
 abated as his natural." Says one of his biogra- 
 phers, •• It was his singular good fortune to have 
 lived as an equal among the very founders of 
 New England, with them of Boston, and Salem, 
 
 ami New Haven, to have taught their children, 
 and their children's children, unto the third and 
 
 fourth generation— and to have lingered in the 
 recollections of his pupils ami their children, the 
 model ami monument, the survivor ami represent- 
 ative of the Puritan ami Pilgrim stock, down 
 
 almost to the beginning of the present century." 
 At his funeral, which took place from the school- 
 house, there were present the governor, council- 
 ors, ministers, justices, and gentlemen; ami Dr. 
 Mather preached a funeral sermon on the occa 
 rion, in w bich he not only eulogize I his "faithful, 
 
 successful, venerable, and beloved teacher," but 
 took occasion to deliver a lecture upon the duty 
 of towns ami parents to provide for the education 
 of children. This sermon was printed under the 
 quaint title of " Corderius Americanus, an Es- 
 say upon tin- Good Education of Children, and 
 what nun/ Hopefully In- Attempted for the II 
 of the Flock; in a Funeral Sermon upon Mr. 
 K/.KKiKi, Cheever, the Ancient "in/ Honourable 
 Master of the Free-School, in Boston,etc." 
 
 The most noted of Cheevers publications was 
 a Latin accidence, entitled A snort introduction 
 In the Latin Tongue, which, for more than a 
 century, was the hand book of most of the Latin 
 scholars of New England, and very highly com- 
 mended. An edition of this celebrated work 
 was published in 1838, with testimonials from 
 the most distinguished scholars, asserting its 
 merits, and commending its restoration to use in 
 the schools. President Quincy of Harvard Col- 
 lege said, "It is distinguished for simplicity, 
 comprehensiveness, and exactness: ami. as a 
 primer or first elementary book. I do not believe 
 it is exceeded by any other work, in respect to 
 those important qualities." — See Barnard, Edu- 
 cational Biography (N. V.. L861). 
 
 CHEKE, Sir John, an eminent English 
 scholar and teacher, was born at Cambridge, in 
 L514, and died in 1557. He was educated in 
 the university of Cambridge, and was appointed 
 in 1540, professor of Creek in that institution. 
 In 1544, he became tutor to prince Edward ; 
 and on the accession of his pupil to the throne, 
 he was rewarded with an annuity and a grant of 
 land. In L551, he was knighted, ami soon after 
 rose to the office of secretary of state. On the 
 accession of Mary, he was compelled to leave 
 England, as he had favored the cause of Lady 
 -lane Grey, and he supported himself for some 
 time at Strasburg by teaching Greek. Heine 
 arrested in Flanders, by order of Philip II. of 
 Spain, he was carried a prisoner to London and 
 confined in the Tower, when, in order to save 
 his lite, he abjured his religion, and became a 
 member of the Catholic church. Repentance 
 for this act, it is said, preyed upon his mind, 
 and shortened his days, lie wrote many works, 
 
 evincing profound scholarship and excellent taste: 
 among which may he mentioned, Epistles mi tin'- 
 /><■<//// nt' Bueer, ami /'-■ Pronunciatione '•riv- 
 en- potissimum Ungues disputationes (Basel, 
 L555). The only work in English published by 
 him was a pamphlet entitled The Hurt of Sedi- 
 tion, how Grievous if is in n Commonwealth 
 (1549). Among his unpublished manuscripts, 
 
 was a translation of the Gospel of St. Matthew, 
 in words derived solely from Saxon roots, ami 
 
 a plan to change the English orthography by 
 
 a kind of phonography — spelling by sound. 
 Before his time, the study of the Creek language 
 and literature had been greatly neglected in 
 
 England; but, through his efforts, it was estab- 
 lished as an essential part of a learned educa- 
 tion. He was deservedly considered one of the 
 most learned men of bis age. See Strype, V 
 Life '/Sir .li,!i,, Cheke (Lond., I To.")). 
 
 
CHEMISTRY 
 
 125 
 
 CHEMISTRY, although one of the youngest 
 branches of physical Bcience in its development, 
 is one of tlu' most important, from an educational 
 ]>oint of view. But the attention may be so readily 
 
 arrested by its many easily recognized points of 
 
 contact with the individual and society, in its 
 numberless applications in the household, the 
 shop, the farm, etc., as well as in the industrial 
 processes on a grander scale, thai any value it 
 may possess, as a purely disciplinary agent, may 
 be overlooked, even by teachers of it, and it may 
 be regarded too much, simply as a low utilitarian 
 element in an educational course, however valu- 
 able it may be admitted to be. It is, neverthe- 
 less, true that, in recent years, much that had 
 contributed a peculiar attractiveness to chemis- 
 try as a branch of instruction, seemed inex- 
 tricably involved in discussion. The perspicuity 
 of its nomenclature, the precision of its state- 
 ments, the simplicity and comparatively limited 
 number of the laws involved in its most com- 
 plex phenomena, were all apparently affected. 
 But it has at last emerged from this formative 
 condition, so changed to be sure, that many well 
 educated in chemistry a few years ago may be 
 obliged to recast their knowledge in new moulds, 
 but with a system of philosophy which has much 
 clearer and more comprehensive generalizations. 
 It has, moreover, lost nothing of its peculiar 
 character as perhaps the most sharply defined 
 branch of physical science. The changes have 
 not been so much those of abandonment of views 
 formerly held, as of their expansion, to provide 
 for the wonderful accumulation of facts since 
 the science first took form about the beginning of 
 the century. The old nomenclature survives only 
 in a few general principles. The names, being 
 out of accord with established and accepted facts, 
 were too precise, and expressed too much. 
 
 It may be felt that the New Chemistry is 
 too elaborate and complex to permit of profitable 
 introduction; but a closer examination will show 
 that it still possesses its former peculiar sim- 
 plicity and directness of statement, that its no- 
 tation is as expressive as ever, that it requires 
 no application of mathematical analysis hi work- 
 ing out or stating its generalizations, that these 
 are as easily reached from facts within the com- 
 prehension of the pupil, as ever, and that they 
 are just as susceptible of reproduction, for and 
 by the pupil, with comparatively little ami in- 
 expensive apparatus. No doubt, more depends 
 now upon the faithfulness with which it is 
 taught. There is more of a philosophy, as well as 
 a larger body of facts, and the mind of the pupil 
 must be led to discern the principles that under- 
 lie the facts. A necessity for the conception 
 of a threefold division of matter arises in the 
 modern explanation of chemical phenomena. The 
 indivisible, indestructible, insensible atoms of the 
 old chemistry are accepted ; but the interpola- 
 tion is required of equally insensible groups of 
 atoms, called molecules, between the atoms and 
 the sensible aggregations of matter called masses. 
 The word molecule henceforth ceases to be used 
 interchangeably with atom. Forces may act 
 
 upon or within these molecules; and when they 
 act within, a chemical change is said to occur. 
 Thus, ice composed of molecules is converted 
 into water by releasing these molecules, in a great 
 measure, from cohesive attraction, and thus allow- 
 ing them perfect freedom of motion among them- 
 selves, apart from any directive force. By con- 
 tinued heating, repulsive force predominates; and 
 they separate, but still as molecules, the atoms 
 as such being unaffected. The electrical current, 
 whatever that may be, invades these molecules; 
 dissects off atom from atom; demonstrates the 
 molecules to be groups of hydrogen and oxygen 
 atoms, held together by a force named chemical 
 affinity or chemical attraction, or better still 
 chemism. However chemical phenomena maybe 
 influenced by physical conditions, they involve, 
 essentially, only this play of the atomic foi'ce, 
 between atoms, within molecules. This appar- 
 ently restricted and sharply defined character of 
 the field of chemistry is calculated to render it 
 more easy of comprehension, as a whole, by the 
 pupil, than most other branches of physical sci- 
 ence; whilst it still retains, in a high degree, the 
 advantages conceded to such branches as in- 
 struments for the culture of the faculty of abstrac- 
 tion and generalization, and for fostering a habit of 
 careful, close inductive reasoning, in connection 
 with that of cautious, patient observation, — habits 
 that have so much to do with the formation of 
 correct judgments in the affairs of every-day life. 
 Although a fuller consideration of the purely 
 disciplinary qualities of chemical studies might 
 exhibit them in favorable comparison with some 
 of the usual branches taught, there can be no 
 doubt that it very properly holds its place, largely 
 by reason of the character of the information it 
 imparts. It may be regarded, therefore, as the 
 chief aim of the teacher of chemistry, to make 
 the pupil acquainted with the chemical proper- 
 ties of matter, and with the leading processes by 
 which comparatively worthless material has high 
 value imparted to it. And yet the manner in 
 which this information is acquired, to whatever 
 extent the science may be taught, has far more 
 to do with the subsequent practical value of the 
 study than the amount; and a proper mode of im- 
 parting the facts will also prove of high educa- 
 tional value in other respects. It is only facts so 
 connected, and so lodged in the mind that they 
 readily suggest themselves when an occasion may 
 demand them, that are fruitful. But chemistry 
 has such a body of minute facts, that the text- 
 books are necessarily constructed largely on a 
 cyclopaedic plan ; masses of facts are classified 
 as well as they can be, and are pigeon-holed 
 away for reference rather than for a connected 
 inductive study. Nothing is more natural for 
 the pupil than to run into the vicious habit of 
 simply memorizing. There is no tendency more 
 decided in pupils with memories well trained by 
 early studies. It will require very little encour- 
 agement on the part of a teacher to have the 
 pupil reproduce the numerical statements of 
 a lesson, the specific gravities to the last dec- 
 imal, the equivalents of elements, the melting 
 
126 
 
 CHEMISTRY 
 
 points, etc. Yet these form the very class of facte 
 which scarcely survive the day of recitation, and 
 for which the chemist would rely upon his ref- 
 erence-book in case of need. This is also true of 
 a large number of other facts of subordinate im- 
 portance. Again, facts of the highest importance, 
 assigned by a proper classification to one place, 
 may find most forcible re-statement, in many 
 other places, and in other connections. It rests 
 with the teacher to direct the pupil continually 
 in his study, by calling his attention to the most 
 important facts, and by holding them up to 
 view in all their relations, particularly in their 
 practical bearing upon each other. A compar- 
 atively few facts, thus exhaustively studied, will 
 form a nucleus around which further chemical 
 knowledge may accumulate, whilst the mind will 
 
 be impressed with the interdependence of chem- 
 ical processes. It is also apparent that the 
 process by which these facts are accumulated is 
 
 an educating process of the highest order. The 
 
 pupil soon falls into the habit of considering all 
 
 facts in their relation-, am 1 n fuses to he satisfied 
 
 with uncorrelated facts: and he carries this habit 
 into the consideration of all matters, and seeks a 
 wider view i if every subject. 
 
 In teaching chemistry, three methods readily 
 suggest themselves: I By text-hooks: ('Jj By 
 lectures, accompanied by experiments; and 
 (3) By experiments or investigations performed 
 by the pupil. These methods are so different in 
 themselves and in the end to be accomplished, 
 that they cannot be compared as to effectiveness; 
 but they so fully supplement each other, that 
 they should as far as possible accompany each 
 other. The tendency, at the present rime, is to 
 
 undervalue the text-book. Whilst there can he uo 
 
 doubl that, by itself, it yields the least return for 
 the time, attention, ami drudgery of both teacher 
 and pupil, as an adjunct to either of the other 
 methods, it not only imparts fullness to the 
 knowledge, but also renders it more precise. An- 
 other incidental advantage of the highest charac- 
 ter consists in a certain facility for reference, 
 which its Study imparts; and. in many cases, an 
 ability to make use of the literature of the 
 science, and. by means of it. to study up a 
 
 subject, or investigate a particular case, may he 
 of far more value than a memory thoroughly 
 crammed with facts. 
 
 Lectures accompanied by illustrative experi- 
 ments are generally conceded to he valuable, and 
 
 to some extent indispensable, aids iii teaching 
 
 physical science. Text-boob study, however 
 Faithful and earnest, must he supplemented by 
 them. The facts formulated in words must he 
 vitalized, ami re-enforced bj their objectivere- 
 production. Presented thus directly to the senses, 
 tiny not only become more intelligible, hut pos- 
 sess a peculiar charm, that impresses them upon 
 the memory, and renders the whole study more 
 
 profitable, as well as more attractive. 1 Jm Lectures 
 
 are more part icularl\ adapted to teach the gen- 
 eral principles of the science, and to develop, to 
 
 its fullest extent, the d iscipl inar\ value of the 
 mode of reasoning employed in the investigation 
 
 of the trutlis of nature, and also to cultivate the 
 faculty of observation. They are, however, 
 in no wise adapted to displace the text-hook. 
 They arc feeble in teaching details. Simple 
 statement and re-statement, and illustration com- 
 bined, will not impress these upon the memory. 
 
 If the pupil be required to take fall notes, or in- 
 deed he allowed to take any notes at all. it will 
 he at the lo>s of much that is peculiarly valuable 
 ill such lectures. With the faculty of observation 
 in the pupil generally untrained, any division of 
 attention between writing, and listening, and ob- 
 serving v\i!l greatly reduce the proper effect of 
 
 the lecture. Great pains should hi' taken to ar- 
 range the matter, and bring it before the pupil 
 so that the salient points may impress themselves 
 
 upon the memory: and the lecture should he tilled 
 in from memory afterward, or it may he a still 
 better plan, in many cases, to furnish, on the 
 blackboard, a very brief syllabus of the lecture. 
 But much of the effectiveness of a lecture is lost 
 in attempting even incidentally to teach numerous 
 details by means of it. It cannot be expected, 
 nor is it at all necessary, to reproduce all, or in- 
 deed a very large proportion, of the facts and 
 processes of the text-book, in order that it may 
 lie fully comprehended. There are many facts 
 
 and processes in chemistry that possess a typical 
 
 character, aiding directly in the comprehension 
 of many others, and these are the ones most 
 likely to be drawn upon by the lecturer. There 
 is no branch of physical science that admits of a 
 fuller illustration and verification of its tacts 
 with comparatively limited and inexpensive ap- 
 paratus, nor any in which the want of thorough 
 practical knowledge and skill on the part of the 
 experimenter is productive of less damage to 
 
 the apparatus employed, dp to a very recent 
 date, simple entertainment and amusement have 
 been regarded, almost equallj with instruction, 
 as the objects of such lectures. The most sen- 
 sational experiments that the science and the 
 means at command could afford, were impressed 
 
 into service; ami these, too, often Loosely con- 
 nected, or arranged in the order of the text-book. 
 There is .-till unfortunately a residuum of expec- 
 tation of something of this kind. The apparatus 
 
 and experiments with it arc apt to he made the 
 display features of the instruction. Whilst simple 
 entertainment, or even amusement, may some- 
 times legitimately accompany lectures on chem- 
 istry, it should hi ly as a natural incident; and 
 
 even then, should not occur too often, since it is 
 
 apt to create an expectation of , if no1 a desire for. 
 
 such features: and this will seriously divert the 
 
 attention of the pupils from the line of thougbl 
 which should always connect the experiments. 
 
 Every experiment should come upon the seem 
 
 like a well trained servant, just at the right 
 point of time to add its proper effect to the 
 total effect of the lecture: and, in no case. 
 
 should it control the lecturer. An experiment 
 without sucm a subordinate relation is as much 
 
 out of place as a word without proper con- 
 nection in a discourse. As the text hook is 
 largely a compendium of details, its somewhat 
 
CHEMISTRY 
 
 127 
 
 arbitrary plan of arrangement, and its formal. 
 systematic, didactic treatment must give way 
 
 to the mora instructive, as well as more attract- 
 ive. Baconian method of insinuating knowledge 
 into the mind of the pupil ia the manner in 
 which it was discovered. Topics should be taken 
 up, discussed, and illustrated. The most familiar 
 phenomena should be noticed, and the lecturer 
 should place himself, with his appliances, in the 
 position of an investigator,— an interrogator of 
 nature, and an interpreter of her replies. The 
 point of attack, and the line of investigation 
 should be carefully determined upon and wrought 
 out. so as to cm ike the most valuable information, 
 and exhibit the logic of tacts inductively em- 
 ployed. The pupil will readily follow the in- 
 vestigator in his alternate inductions and deduc- 
 tions, as he "guesses and checks his guesses." 
 Be will thus not only learn the subject, but ac- 
 quire, in a measure, the attitude of mind by 
 which facts are discovered, judged, and arranged, 
 and by which also they may be turned to prac- 
 tical account. To take a very simple ease: car- 
 bonic acid being selected as the subject, a burn- 
 ing candle may suffice to start the inquiry which 
 will lead up to it. and far beyond it. Then, out 
 of the numerous questions that suggest them- 
 selves, the chemist might ask whether, as the 
 material of the candle evidently undergoes a 
 radical change, the air surrounding it is affected? 
 It is placed in a jar. and covered; it goes out. 
 Is the air changed ? Test with lime-water. Yes. 
 Will a splinter change it in the same way? Try. 
 ^ • -. It is then allowable to guess that all burn- 
 ing bodies affect the air in the same way. The 
 guess may be checked by employing a wax taper; 
 then an oil-lamp : then a gas-jet. The inference 
 then becomes the very plausible hypothesis, that 
 burning bodies invariably affect the air surround- 
 ing them in such a way. that it will render lime- 
 water turbid. All would be satisfied to stop at 
 this conclusion ; but a jet of burning hydrogen 
 is at hand, and on repeated trials, each time 
 with greater care, it fails to give the result pre- 
 dicted from the hypothesis. The many facts only 
 led up to that degree of certainty; the one dis- 
 cordant fact shakes the whole fabric. The case 
 is now looked at anew. What have these bodies 
 in common so as to produce this identical result 
 in bimiing. which hydrogen has not? Carbon. 
 A piece of charcoal is tried. It confirms the 
 conjecture which led to the experiment with it. 
 More cautiously than befc ire, the hypothesis would 
 then be modified to suit the new fact. — bodies 
 containing carbon in burning modify the atmos- 
 phere in a certain way. From this point, all the 
 leading properties of carbonic acid could be 
 developed, with but little more apparatus than 
 may be found in any household: its specific 
 gravity, by pouring it from ordinary pitchers, or I 
 running it off by means of a syphon, by weighing 
 it in a paper bag on ordinary scales, etc.: its solu- 
 bility in water, ami the solvent properties it im- 
 parts to the water, by passing it through lime- 
 water, until the precipitate is re-dissolved, then 
 re-precipitating it by boiling the solution, etc. 
 
 The other constituents of the atmosphere are. 
 in a similar way. readily brought within the range 
 of inquiry. Such a mode of treatment has for 
 the pupils all the freshness of an original inves- 
 tigation. It arouses a spirit of inquiry, and 
 quickens observation; since they will be far more 
 
 apt to observe closely when they are to discover 
 what is to be seen, than if required simply to 
 see what is described. There will, moreover, he a 
 pleasing surprise at the evolution of clear general 
 principles from apparently confused inquiries. 
 In such lectures, a sensational experiment with- 
 out a direct bearing upon the subject, would be 
 entirely out of place. Humble and apparently 
 trifling experiments are frequently found to pre- 
 sent the truth in it.> simplest, clearest, most in- 
 telligible form. In all cases the chemical notation 
 should lie freely employed. All reactions should 
 be expressed by symbols upon the blackboard. 
 One fact, however, should he continually kept in 
 mind in arranging such a. lecture, and bringing 
 i the phenomena before the pupils; namely, that 
 in pupils of all ages, without any previous train- 
 ing in this direction, the power of observation is 
 generally exceedingly feeble, and that they can 
 follow the lecturer but slowly. They are very apt 
 to overlook or mistake the feature to be observed, 
 or to be misled by some unavoidably prominent 
 accessory. An examination upon a lecture of 
 the simplest character will reveal this fact. The 
 most salient points, even, will often be found to 
 be wanting. A great part of the value of the 
 illustrations of scientific lectures in our higher 
 institutions, and of the highly elaborated popular 
 lectures is lost for the same reason. This dif- 
 ficulty may be remedied in a great measure by 
 adding the other method of teaching suggested : 
 that is. by allowing the pupil, under the direction 
 of the teacher, to perform the experiments and 
 conduct the investigation, requiring him to keep 
 accurate notes, and, in some cases, to reproduce 
 the residts in the form of a lecture. Chemistry 
 is peculiarly adapted to this mode of instruction. 
 A few test-tubes, flasks, corks, etc.. and very little 
 material will put it into the power of the pupil 
 to reproduce the explanation of many facts. I le 
 will learn more by a few failures than by a win »le 
 scries of experiments successfully exhibited in a 
 le.t ure, and will realize how much of care ami 
 painstaking accuracy must be expended in the 
 preparation of every successful experiment. Ih- 
 will appreciate the importance of the most 
 tr ifling essential condition, and will find that 
 here no oversights, no mistakes, no negligence 
 can be condoned: but that failure follows them 
 as inexorably as effect follows cause, lie will be 
 surprised to find how apparently trifling an over- 
 sight often lay between him and success, and will 
 learn to estimate conditions by other standards 
 than their apparent magnitude or importance. He 
 will thus form the habit of observing closely, and 
 of noticing every thing exhibited in the course 
 of lectures, and will carry this habit into all the 
 affairs of life.— Sec Dai iu':nv (Prof . Charles G.B.), 
 On !},<■ Study of < 'hemistrif us n llranch of Edu- 
 cation, in Lectures on Education (Loud., 1855). 
 
128 
 
 CHICAGO 
 
 CHICAGO, the principal city of Illinois, the 
 commercial metropolis of the North-western 
 section of the Onion, and the fifth in population 
 of the cities of the United States. Its population, 
 according to the national census of 1870, was 
 298,977 ; but, according to the special census 
 of 1874, was 395,408. 'This city was incor- 
 porated March 1.. 1837 ; and the first census 
 was taken in July of that year, when it was 
 found to contain a population of 4,170. Its 
 rapid growth is probably without a parallel in 
 history. During the '-'<> years preceding the cen- 
 SUS of 1874. its increase was nearly 579 per cent. 
 The public schools of ( Ihicagowere first classified 
 and graded by .John C. Dorr, the first superin- 
 tendent, who served from May. L854, to March, 
 1851). when he was succeeded by William II. 
 Wells, who continued in office till August, 1864, 
 and was succeeded by Josiah L. Pickard, the 
 present incumbent. The first public school 
 building was erected in 1844, but there was no 
 published school report till 185 I. 
 
 School Statistics. — For the year ending August 
 31., 1875, the following statistics were reported : 
 
 Number of schools 41 
 
 Number of pupils enrolled 49,121 
 
 Average daily attendance 32,999 
 
 Number of teachers 700 
 
 Number of months schools were open 10 
 
 Amount received from school tax fund $765,968.21 
 
 do do from state fund 109,044.40 
 
 do do from rents, interest, etc. 91,684.58 
 
 Total receipts $966,697.19 
 
 Amount paid for teachers' salaries $535,706.79 
 
 do do for school buildings 155,564.26 
 
 do do for school sites 9,769.98 
 
 do do for fuel and supplies 75,729.22 
 
 do do for other expenses 38,068.24 
 
 Total expenditure $814,838.49 
 
 The school age is from 6 to 21 ; and the num- 
 ber of chih hen in the city between those ages 
 was reported, in special census of Oct. 1., 1874, 
 as 1 D'2.555, out of a total population of 395,408 ; 
 of these 15,947 were reported as at work, and 
 33,547 as neither at work nor in school. The 
 whole number of children reported as enrolled in 
 the public schools was, at this date, only 36,416 ; 
 and the number in private schools, 16.6 15. 
 
 School System, — The system consists of a 
 board of education of fifteen members, appointed 
 by the mayor of the city, subject to the approval 
 of the common council, 1 high school, 3 division 
 high Bchools, 1 normal school, 21 district schools 
 with grammar and primary departments, and L5 
 independent primary schools. The term of office 
 
 of the men i hers of the board is three years, five 
 
 members being appointed each year ; and at Least 
 five years' previous residence is requisite for el i- 
 gibility to appointment. Bythe"act to estab 
 Gahand maintain a Bystemof free schools", which 
 went into operation July 1., 1872, the board of 
 education has power, "with the concurrence oi 
 
 the city council". ( I i To erect or purchase build- 
 ings suitable for Bchool houses, and keep the 
 same in repair; (2J To buy or lease sites for 
 school-houses with the necessary grounds; (3) To 
 
 issue bonds for the purpose of building, fur- 
 nishing, and repairing school-houses, for purchas- 
 ing sites for the same, and to provide for the 
 payment of said bonds; and to borrow money for 
 school purposes upon the credit of the city. It 
 is also empowered, (1) To furnish schools with 
 the necessary fixtures, furniture, and apparatus ; 
 (2) To maintain, support, and establish schools, 
 and supply the inadequacy of the school fund for 
 the salaries of teachers from school taxes; (3) 
 To hire buildings or rooms for the use of the 
 schools or the board ; (4) To appoint teachers 
 and fix the amount of their compensation; (5) 
 To prescribe the school-books to be used, and 
 the studies to be pursued in the schools ; (6) To 
 divide the city into school districts, and, from 
 time to time, to alter the same, and create new 
 ones as circumstances may require ; and (7) To 
 enact such ordinances as may be necessary or ex- 
 pedient for the proper management of the 
 schools. The board of education is not per- 
 mitted to increase the expenditures beyond the 
 amount received from the state common school 
 fund, the rental of school lands, and the amount 
 annually appropriated for such purposes; nor 
 can it levy or collect taxes, or demand that the 
 city council shall levy any tax for school pur- 
 poses, except on its concurrence. The officers of 
 the board arc a president, vice-president, secre- 
 tary, clerk, assistant clerk, school agent, and 
 messenger; also a superintendent of schools and 
 an assistant superintendent of schools, to tin- 
 latter of whom is entrusted the more immediate 
 supervision of the work of instruction and dis- 
 cipline in the schools. There is also a building 
 and supply agent, who has the immediate super- 
 vision of all the buildings and grounds used for 
 school purposes, and who attends to all repairs, 
 and to the purchase of needed supplies. 
 
 The course of study, below the high school, 
 comprises eight grades, four of which are known 
 as grammar grades, and four as primary grades; 
 the grammar schools, however, embrace all the 
 eight grades, instruction in the four lower grades 
 being given in the primary departments. The 
 high school course is arranged for four years, 
 and affords instruction in the higher Knglish 
 branches and in the modern languages, preparing 
 for college such of its pupils as desire it. The 
 division high schools are organized with a course 
 of study for two years, excluding all foreign lan- 
 guages, except German, which is an optional 
 study. 
 
 The studies prescribed for the primary 
 
 schools are reading, the rudiments of arithmetic. 
 
 spelling elementary geography, and writing; to 
 these, in the grammar schools, arc added higher 
 geography, English grammar and composition. 
 and the history of the United States. Music and 
 drawing are systematically taught throughout 
 the course. To each grade some topics are as- 
 signed for which no text-books are provided. 
 These topics constitute the oral course, which 
 includes various branches of science presented in 
 a familiar way. and designed to develop the in- 
 telligence of the pupils, as well as to impart 
 
CHICAGO UNIVERSITY 
 
 129 
 
 useful information. German is taught in 1") 
 schools, besides t ho high schools, ami is super- 
 vised by a special superintendent. There is a 
 division high school in each division of the city ; 
 and the studies taught are natural science, lan- 
 guage, mathematics, history, and civil govern- 
 ment. German, music, and drawing are op- 
 tional. The establishment of these schools, with 
 their brief and practical course of study, was 
 dictated by the fact that more than fifty per cent 
 of those who annually enter the High School, 
 leave before the completion of the second year. 
 
 Examination, Licensing, and Appointment 
 of Teachers. -Candidates for teachers' certifi- 
 cates are examined by a committee of the board 
 of education, consisting of four members, and the 
 superintendent. Those who pass the examina- 
 tion receive, at first, partial certificates, testifying 
 to their moral character and intellectual attain- 
 ments. After trial, and upon the joint recom- 
 mendation of the committee on the appointment 
 of teachers and the committee on the school 
 in which the teacher is employed, the board of 
 education grants a full certificate, certifying to 
 the competency of the holder in regard to all 
 matters of instruction and discipline. No person 
 is eligible to any position as a teacher who is not 
 eighteen years of age. Teachers are appointed 
 annually by the board of education, and at other 
 times by a committee of the board, when vacan- 
 cies occur. These latter appointments are sub- 
 ject to confirmation by the board. Each teacher, 
 in the four higher grades, is responsible for the 
 instruction and discipline of 48 pupils, and in 
 the lower grades for 62. About half the teach- 
 ers hi the high and normal schools are males ; 
 but in the other schools there are very few males. 
 — only 21 out of a corps of 671. 
 
 Salaries of Teachers. — Male teachers receive 
 from SI, 000 to $3,000 per annum, according to 
 position and experience. Female teachers re- 
 ceive from $550 to $2,000. Certain salaries are 
 attached to particular positions, and no distinc- 
 tion as to sex is recognized in this regard. 
 
 The private schools in Chicago are quite nu- 
 merous, and many of a high degree of efficiency. 
 The census of 1874 enumerated 144 such schools, 
 including the various classes of parochial and 
 denominational schools, female seminaries, select 
 schools, kindergartens, etc. The number of pu- 
 pils in these schools was reported as 28,251, — ■ 
 14,113 males, and 14,138 females. The whole 
 number of teachers employed was 097, of whom 
 23'J were males, and 458 females. 
 
 CHICAGO, University of, in Chicago, 
 Illinois, was chartered in 1857 and opened in 
 1858. The building, a magnificent structure, 
 costing over SI 1 7,000, is situated in the southern 
 part of the city, in a beautiful grove of oaks. 
 This site was donated by Stephen A. Douglas. 
 The charter provides that the majority of trust- 
 ees and the president of the university shall be 
 Baptists, but otherwise no religious test or par- 
 ticular religious profession is required for admis- 
 sion to any department of the university, or for 
 election to any professorship or other place of 
 9 
 
 honor or emolument in it. The institution em- 
 braces a preparatory department, a collegiate 
 department, a law department, and a med- 
 ical department. The preparatory department 
 comprises a classical course of four years 
 and a scientific course of two years. Be- 
 sides the regular preparatory department. Way- 
 land Institute, at Heaver Dam, Wisconsin, for- 
 merly Wayland University, is now conducted as a 
 preparatory department of the university. The 
 collegiate department comprises a classical course 
 of four years ; a scientific course of four years ; 
 a course in astronomy of two years ; and a 
 course in practical chemistry of two or three 
 years. Provision is made for students who de- 
 sire to take only a partial course. Young women 
 are admitted to the preparatory and collegiate 
 classes on the same terms as young men. There 
 is a museum with a valuable collection of speci- 
 mens in human anatomy and physiology, zool- 
 ogy, entomology, geology, numismatics, etc. The 
 university also has valuable chemical and philo- 
 sophical apparatus. The library contains about 
 20,000 volumes. In the rear of the uni versify 
 building and attached to it, is Dearborn Observ- 
 atory, established in 1805, which forms the astro- 
 nomical department. It is designed not only 
 to furnish instruction in astronomy, but also to 
 make original researches in that science, and aid 
 in its application to geography. This observato- 
 ry contains a fine equatorial refracting telescope, 
 of 23 feet focal length, and 18£ inches aperture, 
 constructed by Alvan Clark in 1804, and a 
 meridian circle of the first class constructed in 
 Hamburg, with all the necessary appliances. 
 It is under the direction of Prof. Truman H. 
 Safford. The price of tuition in the university 
 is $70 per annum ; room rent, $20. The uni- 
 versity property is valued at $700,000, and there 
 are scholarship funds to the amount of $48,000. 
 The law department was organized in 1858. It is 
 now also a department of the Northwestern Uni- 
 versity (at Evanston, Illinois), and is known as 
 the Union College of Law of the University of 
 Chicago and the Northwestern University. The 
 course of study is for two years. The Rush 
 Medical College forms the medical department 
 of the university. This college was chartered 
 in 1843, and organized in 1844 ; it became con- 
 nected with the university in 1874. The new 
 college building is near the new county hos- 
 pital. In 1874: — 5, there were, in the prepar- 
 at i try and collegiate departments, 8 professors and 
 7 other instructors ; in the law department, 5 
 professors and 2 lecturers ; and in the medical 
 department, 11 professors. The number of stu- 
 dents was 011; namely, medical, 203; law, 103; 
 Wayland institute, 96 ; preparatory, 100 ; col- 
 legiate, 10!), of whom (allowing repetitions) 
 3 were resident graduates, 3 in astronomy, 7 in 
 practical chemistry, 22 in partial courses, and "'.) 
 in the regular classes. The Rev. John C. Bur- 
 roughs, LL.D., was elected president in 1858 
 and remained in office 15 years, when he was 
 succeeded by the present incumbent, the Rev. 
 Lemuel Moss, D. D. 
 
130 
 
 CHILDHOOD 
 
 CHILI 
 
 CHILDHOOD. See A.GB. 
 
 CHILI, a republic of South America, having 
 an area of 126,034 sq. in., and a population, in 
 ~ls72, according to official calculation, of 2,003,346, 
 exclusive of 70,400 independent Araucanians. [ 
 This is one of the few flourishing states of South 
 America. It has been almost entirely free from 
 civil wars, and its progress in education, litera- 
 ture, commerce, and general prosperity exceeds 
 that of almost any other South American state. 
 The government favors immigration from Eu- 
 rope : and, in L865, the number of foreign born 
 persons was 23,220, among whom there were 
 :{,s76 Germans, 3,092 English, and 2,483 French. 
 According to art. 5 of the constitution, the Cath- 
 olic religion was permitted to the exclusion of 
 all others; but, in L856, a treaty with England 
 guaranteed full religious liberty to all English 
 subjects; ami, in lsii."), an Act of Toleration was 
 adopted as an amendment to the constitution, 
 authorizing not only the exercise of non-Catholic 
 religious worship, but also the establishment of 
 non-Catholic schools. The number of Prot- 
 estants is limited almost to the English and Ger- 
 man immigrants and their descendants. Only a 
 tew Protestant congregations have been estab- 
 lished among the natives by missionaries from 
 the United States. The national language is the 
 Spanish. 
 
 The Spanish conquest of the country began 
 about L535; and, during the Spanish rule, Chili 
 formed a viceroyalty under the name of Estre- 
 madura. The war of independence began in 1 si o. 
 and was virtually terminated in 1818. The in- 
 dependence of the country, however, was not 
 recognized by Spain until L84 1. 
 
 Public instruct ion in Chili is under the direc- 
 tion of the minister of justice and ecclesiastical 
 and educational affairs. It is his duty to inspect 
 all the schools and colleges supported by the 
 national treasury, to appoint all the teachers and 
 employes, to apply to congress for the necessary 
 sums for their support, and to present every 
 year a report on the condition and progress of 
 education. The university of Chili regulates 
 the studies and examinations which candidates 
 
 for the different scientific courses are required to 
 
 pass, examines and prescribes the text-books, 
 makes out the programmes of examination, etc. 
 The primary schools are, moreover, under the 
 
 immediate direction of a general visitor of schools, 
 
 who has deputies in all the provinces, and whose 
 central office is at Santiago. It is his duty tu 
 vi'm'i the schools constantly , and to receive detailed 
 information regarding the number of pupils and 
 
 the COndud of the teachers, as well ;is the tinan- 
 
 cial condition. The municipalities of each prov- 
 ince exercise a vigilanl inspection, and aid, ac- 
 cording to theextenl of their local treasuries, in 
 supporting the educational institutions. 
 
 Primary Instruction. The tirst organization 
 of primary instruction in Chili was due to the 
 
 zeal ot Presidenl Montt, who regarded public 
 schools as the firmest support of republican in- 
 stitutions. He offered in 1853, a reward of It"" 1 
 
 pesos for the best treatise on 
 
 the following 
 
 three questions : (1) What influence has public 
 instruction on manners, public morality, in- 
 dustry, ami the development of public wealth? 
 (2) What educational organization is the most 
 appropriate in view of the national peculiarities 
 of the country and of its inhabitants? (3) 
 What is the best way to provide for the support 
 of public instruction? The prize was awarded, 
 in 1855, to Miguel Luis and Gregorio Victor 
 Amunategui; and the views of the successful 
 treatise were the basis on which the organization 
 of public instruction was begun. According to this 
 treatise, there were, in 1855, 39 I public primary 
 schools for boys, with 15,707 pupils ; 95 schools 
 for girls, with 4.297 pupils; total 489 schools 
 and 20,004 pupils. The number of private 
 primary schools was, for boys 194, with 5879 
 pupils, for girls 105, with 939 pupils; total 299 
 schools, with 6,818 pupils. The aggregate num- 
 ber of public and private primary schools was 
 7*S. with 26,822 pupils. Eight years later, in 
 L863, the number of schools had increased to 
 9S"> (5ss public, 397 private), with 47.717 pupils 
 (35,4*0 in the public schools, and 12.247 in the 
 private). Of the 197 new schools which had 
 been opened, 150 were female schools: of the in- 
 crease of 20,895 new pupils, 11,027 were girls. 
 The school population, embracing the children 
 from the 7th to the 15th year of age, numbered 
 in L863, 167,409 hoys and L67.838 girls; which 
 shows that, notwithstanding the great progress 
 that had been made, nearly six-sevenths of all 
 the children of school age were growing up 
 without any instruction. In bringing these facts 
 to the knowledge of the country, the minister of 
 public instruction stated, that, to carry out the 
 law of 1860, which prescribed the establishment 
 of a primary school for every 2,000 inhabitants 
 and of two schools of a higher grade in the chief 
 town of each department, the sum of 970,000 
 pesos would be required, instead of 208,000 pro- 
 \ ided for in the budget: also, to cany out the law 
 of I860, it would be necessary to establish 1(>70 
 
 elementary and LOO higher schools, besides those 
 previously established. As the government did 
 not deem it advisable to raise the cost of pulilie. 
 instruction to the amount thus demanded, it 
 
 encouraged the formation of private associations 
 for tin' promotion of public instruction, and also 
 authorized the "Brothers of Christian Schools" 
 
 to establish schools: but though much has been 
 
 achieved in this way, the number of schools is still 
 insufficient, and the number of children attend- 
 ing school in proportion to the total population, 
 
 was. in L872,only I to 25. The number of public 
 
 Scl Is. in the same year, was la 1 ; of private 
 
 schools 706; the aggregate number of children 
 attending school (public and private) was 54,821, 
 and the annual expense tor each scholar averaged 
 8.98 pesos. The number of schools for adults, 
 which are designed to afford the advantages of 
 
 education to those who have grown up illiterate, 
 was. in L855, 10: and in 1863,30, of which 24 
 were supported bytJhestate. Two normal schools, 
 
 one tor male ami one for female teachers, were 
 
 established by President Montt. in L863. The 
 
CHILI 
 
 CHINA 
 
 131 
 
 candidates for admission are required to be 18 
 years of age, and to furnish certificates of good 
 behavior and good health. They are educated at 
 the expense of the state, but engage to accept 
 the position of teacher at the place assigned to 
 them by the government, The smallest salary 
 paid to a teacher is 300 pesos. The course of 
 instruction in the normal schools is for .'{ years. 
 The public primary schools are supported by the 
 state, by municipalities, or by monastic organiza- 
 tions. Elementary instruction embraces reading, 
 writing, the elements of practical arithmetic, and 
 legal weights and measures. The primary schools 
 of a higher grade, which are gradually to be estab- 
 lished in the capital of each department, but 
 the number of which is as yet quite small, teach 
 also Spanish grammar, higher arithmetic, draw- 
 ing, an outline of the history of Chili, the con- 
 stitution of Chili, and book-keeping. 
 
 Secondarylnsiruclion. — The secondary schools 
 of the republic embraced, in 1863, 13 state 
 lyceums with 2,537 pupils, 4 episcopal seminaries 
 supported by the state and, therefore, also re- 
 garded as state institutions, 6 monastic colleges 
 with 210 students, and 53 private colleges with 
 2868 students. The study of the classical lan- 
 guages has of late, somewhat declined. 
 
 Superior List ruction. — The highest institu- 
 tion of the country is the Tnstituto national, 
 comprising the university of Chili, a preparatory 
 college, and a school of fine arts. The university, 
 which embraces five faculties (plulosophy and 
 philology, law and political science, natural sci- 
 ence and mathematics, medicine, and theology) 
 is entirely modeled after the best institutions of 
 the kind in Europe, and a large number of the 
 professors are distinguished scholars of Germany 
 and France. The university is richly endowed, 
 and possesses excellent collections. It has pub- 
 lished a year-book, called Anodes de la Uni- 
 !•• r&idad de Chile, by means of which it keeps 
 up a communication with similar institutions 
 in Europe and America. Among the institu- 
 tions connected with the university, are an ob- 
 servatory, a national museum, and a national 
 library. 
 
 Special Instruction. — Of special schools, 
 there are, at Santiago, a national school of art and 
 industry, a military academy, a school of agri- 
 culture and veterinary science, with a model 
 farm ; a school of midwifery, an institution for 
 the deaf and dumb, and a conservatory of music. 
 The most important schools in the provinces are 
 a school of mining at ( lopiapo, a nautical school 
 at Valparaiso, a mariners' school at Ancud, a 
 school of tine arts and industry at Talca ; and 
 commercial colleges at Valparaiso and Quillota. 
 
 In accordance with the recommendations of 
 the prize essay, the government makes an annual 
 appropriation for the establishment of public 
 libraries in connection with public schools; and a 
 large number have already been established. — 
 See Le Roy, in Schmid's Realencuclopddie, vol. 
 ix, pp. 848 — 857; Anales de la tmiversidad de 
 Chile; Amunategui, De la instruction primaria 
 en Chile (Sautiago, 1856). 
 
 CHINA Proper is a country of eastern Asia, 
 extending from Ion. 98° E. to 123° E., and 
 from lat. Is 1 -' V to 43° X. Its area is about 
 L ,553,000 sq. miles, or nearly half that of all 
 Europe. Inclusive of its dependencies, it has an 
 
 extent estimated at 3,970,000 sq. miles. The 
 population of China Proper is estimated at about 
 404,000,000, (see Behm, mid Wagner, BevGlke- 
 rung der Eh'de, vol. in., Cotha. L875), while that 
 of the vast dependencies, Mantchooria, Tibet, 
 Mongolia, and Corea, is believed not to exceed 
 20,000,000. The traditions of the ( 'hincse point 
 to an immigration from the west, and distinctly 
 affirm the savage character of their ancestors. 
 (See L'Histoire generate dr la Chine by Eere 
 Mailla.) Unlike the civilizations of western 
 Europe, which were all imposed from without, 
 the Chinese civilization seems to have developed 
 spontaneously from within. Stagnant though it 
 be in many respects, the claim that < 'hinese civili- 
 zation has remained stationary for thousands of 
 years seetns unfounded. Civilization has had a 
 peculiar development in China, but still it has 
 made progress. There is an intense national 
 pride among the people, wdiich is not altogether 
 without justification; as there is scarcely a 
 modern invention of any note, with the excep- 
 tion of electricity and the steam-engine, which 
 was not known to them many centuries ago. 
 The mariner's compass, gunpowder, printing, 
 porcelain, and paper were known to them soon 
 after the Christian era. The chief religions 
 are Confucianism, Buddhism, and Taonism; 
 and the lack of religious elements in these 
 systems has led to the charge that the Chinese 
 nation is atheistic. Confucianism, for example, 
 recognizes no personal Cod as an object of divine 
 worship, while the other religious systems have 
 grown into a farrago of jugglery, necromancy,, 
 and devil worship. In all the empire, there is- 
 but one temple consecrated to the worship of 
 the Supreme Deity, and but one worshiper — 
 the emperor — who celebrates the pageant once a 
 year. This, however, is a degradation from an 
 earlier and purer form of monotheism. The 
 works of the ancient sages, and even the earlier 
 w r orks of Confucius abound in passages showing 
 a higher and purer conception of God than after- 
 ward obtained. (See Life and teachings of Con- 
 fucius, by Dr. Legge.) The language, like every 
 thing else Chinese, is stri generis. It is neither 
 Semitic, nor Aryan, nor Turanian. It is not, how- 
 ever, a monosyllabic language, as is commonly 
 said, this error being due to the form of the 
 printed words, in which the syllables are sepa- 
 rated, whereas they are not separated in meaning. 
 The alphabet is also peculiar. Instead of employ- 
 ing letters to represent sounds, they have letters 
 to represent things and words. Hence, the lan- 
 guage contains many thousand signs. A dic- 
 tionary of the second century of our era contains 
 9,353 signs. The imperial dictionary of Kang- 
 he, the most recent work of the class, gives 
 43.960. This makes the language one of extra- 
 ordinary difficulty. The written language i- 
 only mastered by a small percentage of the pop- 
 
132 
 
 CHINA 
 
 ulation, and even scholars do not by any means 
 master the whole number of signs. A knowledge 
 of ten or twelve thousand is sufficient to make 
 an accomplished graduate ; and, with a knowl- 
 edge of two or three thousand, one may make a 
 very fair start as a literary man. The literature 
 is said to be the most extensive in the world. 
 The most prominent works are the so-called 
 Classics, which are supposed to have been 
 supervised by Confucius. They are five in num- 
 ber, and are held in the highest reverence, being 
 looked upon as a standard from which there is 
 no appeal. They are the sacred books of Con- 
 fucianism, and are replete with rules for daily 
 conduct, public and private. Apart from these 
 Classics, and the commentaries upon them, which 
 are legion, the most important part of Chinese 
 literature consists of the histories of the several 
 dynasties. The historian of the western Han, 
 which ended A. I>. 84, gives a catalogue of the 
 works in the imperial library, comprising clas- 
 sics, philosophy, poetry, military tactics, mathe- 
 matics, and medicine. The literature probably 
 suffered somewhat from the barbarism of ( 'hi- 
 hwang-te.who attempted to immortalize himself, 
 about 21(1 B. < '.. by destroying all the literature 
 of the ages that preceded him. 
 
 Education is held in the highest honor. No 
 government provision, however, is made for pub- 
 lic education. The government fosters it only 
 by making it the road to distinction, and by sup- 
 porting the various examinations. Knowledge 
 centers in a mere acquaintance with the apho- 
 risms of the Glassies. A scanty knowledge of 
 reading, writing, and arithmetic is all but uni- 
 versal; but, owing to the peculiar structure of 
 the language, one may be able to read a little. 
 without having any knowledge whatever of the 
 rest. Not more than three males in a hundred 
 can read the classical books with readiness, and 
 not more than one woman in a thousand. The 
 oidy course of instruction necessary to obtain a 
 government position, is a classical and histor- 
 ical one. The consequence is a disregard for all 
 branches of study, which are not practical, and 
 hence a most astonishing narrowness of all culture. 
 The rights and duties of the government, and of 
 the individual in his several social relations, form 
 the chief subject of Chinese books and instruc- 
 tion. Confucius, in his system, adopts the prin- 
 ciples of dependence and subordination, ana the 
 instruct ion of the schools aims to impress them 
 carefully upon the student. The great end of 
 all instruction in China is not so much to till 
 the head with knowledge as to make quiet and 
 orderly citizens. Any thing like general culture 
 is entirely unknown, except where the Chinese 
 have been Forced into contact with European 
 
 nations. They have ttO ueed of science, for I he 
 
 Classics contain all thai is worth knowing. 
 and no need of geographical and historical 
 knowledge beyond mat of their own people, for 
 they are "celestials," and all outside are "barba- 
 rians", female education is almost unknown. 
 Girls are very seldom instructed in anything but 
 ordinary house-work ; and yet a learned woman 
 
 is held in honor. It is not thought right that 
 parents should conduct the education of their 
 own children, because the relation of parent and 
 child is a holy one and would be disturbed by 
 the necessary severities of the teacher. Chil- 
 dren begin their studies with their sixth and 
 seventh year. There is no compulsory educa- 
 tion. School-teachers are not appointed by the 
 state and need no official permission. Parents 
 choose the teachers, who receive from $4f> to 
 $90 a year with board. A teacher takes from 
 twenty to thirty scholars. Public school-houses 
 do not exist. The arrangement of the schools is 
 very simple ; a teacher has a table and arm- 
 chair, and every scholar has to provide himself 
 with a desk and a chair. There is in every 
 school-house a little altar dedicated to * onfucius 
 and to Wun-tschong-ya. the God of Science. 
 I'pon entering school, the boys receive their 
 school names in place of their so-called " milk 
 names." The first school-book is the Path to 
 lie regions of classical and historical literature. 
 It begins with the methods of instruction and 
 their necessity, the importance of the duties of 
 children and brothers: and then follows an over- 
 sight of the different branches of knowledge : 
 the great powers, heaven, earth, and man ; the 
 four Beasons and the points of the compass ; the 
 five elements, " metal, wood, water, fire, earth ;" 
 the five cardinal virtues, •• love, justice, wisdom, 
 cleverness, truth ;" the five kinds of grain, the 
 six domestic animals, the seven passions, the 
 eight notes of music, the nine grades of relation, 
 the ten social duties. After this, follow rules for 
 a course of academical study, with an index of 
 the books to be used, a short account of the 
 universal history of China, together with a 
 list of the successive dynasties of the empire. 
 The idea is, to take advantage of the receptivity 
 of the memory at this period, to store it with 
 tacts to be afterward digested. The method of 
 learning to read is as follows : The book is open 
 and the teacher begins to read ; the scholars 
 have each a book, and with eyes upon the book 
 pronounce word for word after the teacher. Only 
 a line is read at a time, and this is repeated until 
 the scholars have learned the pronunciation of 
 every sign, and the line is then learned by heart. 
 When this is learned, the scholar goes to the 
 teacher, lays the book upon the table, turns his 
 back to him. and recites it. Besides reading, 
 writing is taught in all the primary BChools, 
 but there is no instruction in reckoning, geog- 
 raphy, universal history, natural history, foreign 
 languages, or even in religion. This reading and 
 writing, however, for the most part, is the mere 
 ability to pronounce or make the signs, and does 
 
 not imply an understanding of what is read or 
 written; a> if one should read or write Latin or 
 Greek words without any comprehension of 
 
 their meaning. Those who wish to devote thein- 
 Belvea to study receive a thorough exposition of 
 the Classics, and write verses and essays. The 
 written language is so difficult, that more time 
 is consumed by the Chinese student in mastering 
 it than is given in western countries to the ac- 
 
(MUX A 
 
 133 
 
 quiremenl of a libera] education; and the cele- 
 brated literary examinations arc limited to the" 
 inquiry whether the candidates can read and 
 write with readiness and grace. This study is 
 overseen by teachers who have passed an exam- 
 ination. When one lias acquired some reputa- 
 tion for learning, a number of young people 
 gather around him to prepare themselves for 
 examination under his instruction. Such private 
 colleges arc numerous both in the city and coun- 
 try. Lectures are given by the teacher upon 
 the Classics, and essays and verses are written 
 
 upon them once a week by the students. It is the 
 custom of these students to learn a large num- 
 ber of standard essays by heart, in order to ob- 
 tain a finished and correct style. There are four 
 literary degrees : The first corresponds to our 
 B. A., the second is the degree of "licentiate," 
 tin' third, that of doctor, and the fourth, the 
 degree of "member of the imperial academy.'' 
 Public examinations for the degrees have existed 
 in China since the Tang- dynasty. There are 
 three examinations for the first grade. The first 
 is held by th3 mandarin of the district, and 
 lasts several days. The candidate has to furnish 
 seven essays and verses upon seven subjects, with- 
 out a hook or other help. The second examina- 
 tion is conducted by the prefect of the district, 
 assisted by the literary chancellor of the province. 
 The third examination is under the control of 
 the chancellor, and is held twice in every three 
 years. Whoever passes all three examinations 
 receives the degree of "blooming talent," and 
 although he has no claim to position, he is still a 
 man above the common people. If he neglects 
 his studies he may lose his rank; hence he must 
 be present at the examinations up to his sixti- 
 eth year. Thousands of men of this degree be- 
 come school-teachers, doctors, letter-writers, ad- 
 vocates, etc. The examinations for the second 
 degree are held every three years, in the capital 
 of each province, by two imperial examiners 
 from Peking. The average number of applicants 
 is twenty thousand, of whom about two hundred 
 pass. Besides the imperial examiners from 
 Peking, about sixty-five literary officers and a 
 multitude of servants assist. When the candidates 
 enter the apartment, they are searched for books 
 and papers which might give them an unfair 
 advantage ; they then receive the work, and are 
 shut up in cells of about 12 sq. ft., and high 
 enough to admit of their standing. The exami- 
 nation hall contains about 7,500 of these, arranged 
 around open courts; these are paraded by sol- 
 diers to prevent any communication between the 
 candidates or with the outer world. The exami- 
 nation consists chiefly in the writing of themes, 
 and is intended to last nine days and three 
 nights. \\ hen the work is done, it is examined 
 first by a subordinate commission, to see if the 
 formalities have all been observed. No essay 
 
 may have more than seven hundred signs, nor less 
 
 than one hundred : and correction LB in no case 
 allowed. The work is afterward laid before the 
 imperial examiners, whogive the final judgment. 
 It i.- considered an honor to attempt this cxami- 
 
 I nation, and failure is never looked upon as a dis- 
 grace. The licentiate is entitled to a position 
 alter some years, and has the right to hoist a 
 flag before his house. The examination for the 
 
 degree Of doctor is held every three years at 
 Peking, and only licentiates are allowed to 
 Undergo it. This examination is the same as 
 that for the degree of licentiate, except that the 
 examiners are of higher rank. The names of the 
 successful candidates are entered upon the civil 
 Service list, and they receive the first vacant 
 position. The examination for membership of 
 the imperial academy takes place every three 
 years at the imperial palace; this degree is 
 equivalent to an office, since the members of 
 the academy are maintained by the state. 
 
 Contact with European nations is gradually 
 breaking down the popular estimate of the Glas- 
 sies, and gradually European education is being 
 introduced. In L866, a mechanical workshop 
 was opened in Shanghai, in which the imperial 
 officers were commanded to study. In 18(>7. a 
 polytechnic school was opened in the sea province 
 Fu-tschien, for the instruction, by foreign teach- 
 ers, of talented young Chinamen in machinery. 
 In 1868, a university was opened at Peking; 
 where the instruction was afterward on the 
 European plan. This caused a good deal of ex- 
 citement among the conservatives, but all to no 
 avail. A great observatory has been built for 
 the university, and many costly instruments ob- 
 tained from Europe. The student in the uni- 
 versity must (1) have taken a course in the 
 classics ; (2) he must live in the university 
 building, and be present from morning until 
 evening; (3) he has to pass a monthly and 
 semi-annual examination ; (4) after three years 
 he has to pass an examination for dismissal ; (5)v 
 he receives board and lodging free, and about 
 $ I 5 a month pocket money. Those who pass 
 the final examination are viewed as belonging 
 to the higher classes of learned men. Besides 
 scientific instruction, the " six fine arts " are also 
 taught : (1) Society manners, (2) Music, (3) Arch- 
 ery, (4) Carriage driving, (f>) Writing,( (i) Reckon- 
 ing. Prince Kung, who was the chief mover in 
 founding the university, complained bitterly of 
 the decay of mathematics and astronomy, ow- 
 ing to a monopoly of the mandarins, who had 
 procured a law forbidding any one to study 
 astronomy under heavy penalties. He viewed 
 it as the greatest glory of the dynasty to have 
 restored to his father-land the mathematical and 
 astronomical studies. and whatever the Europeans 
 have built upon them, as an old property of the 
 nation. In this way he justified to the jealous 
 Chinamen the introduction of foreign teachers and 
 foreign inventions. The Roman Catholic Church, 
 which had. in IsT'J.in China proper, 26 vicariates 
 apostolic, and •'! prefectures apostolic, and. in the 
 Chinese dependencies, .'{ vicariates, with a Cath- 
 olic population of about 400,000, supports a 
 large number of schools, some of which are of a 
 high grade. The number of native priests is 
 considerable; and most of them receive a Euro- 
 pean education in the propaganda at Borne, and 
 
134 
 
 CHRIST CROSS ROW 
 
 CHRISTIANS 
 
 in a Chinese missionary seminary at Naples. 
 The Protestants, who have formed native con- 
 gregations in the treaty ports, with an aggregate 
 membership (in 1869) of :),l>24, have also some 
 schools, and make considerable progress in cir- 
 culating the Bible. In 1872, the Chinese govern- 
 ment sent 30 students to the United States, and 
 30 more were to come each year for the succeed- 
 ing four years; in all 130. — See Schmidt, Ge- 
 schichte der P&dagogik ; Coircy, 1/ Empire >/" 
 Milieu (Paris, 1867); Davis, Description of 
 China mid it Inhabitants (2 vols., London, 
 L857); Gutzlaff, China Opened (2 vols.. Ixni- 
 don. 1838); Banspach, Reports, for the Years 
 1863 and 1864, of the Chinese Vernacular 
 Schools (Hongkong, 1805); Hit, L' Empire Chi- 
 nois (2 viilx. 4th edit., Paris, 1862); Williams, 
 The Middle Kingdom (N. Y., 1848). 
 
 CHRIST CROSS ROW, or Criss Cross 
 Row, a familiar designation formerly applied to 
 
 tlic first line, or row. of the alphabet, as arranged 
 
 in the old horn-books, or primers. In these books, 
 which consisted of only a single page, the letters 
 
 were printed in the following manner: 
 -f- A a b c d efghijkl m n o p q 
 r f s t u v w x v z etc a e i o u 
 A I! C I) E T (i II U K LM N O I' <> 
 8.8TD V W X V Z. 
 
 The first line commencing with a cross was 
 called the Christ frnss row, or briefly the cross 
 
 row. The term was. however, frequently ap- 
 plied to the whole alphabet. Thus, we read in 
 Dove's Polydoron (1631), -of all the letters in 
 
 the CTOSS rmr a "■ is the worst." "The cross was 
 placed at the beginning," says Johnson, "to show 
 that the end of learning is piety.'' 
 
 This term is often referred to by the old writ- 
 ers. In Shakspeare's Richard III., .allusion is 
 made to it by Clarence when he says of the 
 king : 
 
 •■Hi' hearkens alter prophecies and dreams, 
 Ami from the cross row pluck9 the letter <;.'' 
 
 Cotgrave mentions "La croix de /»ir Then, or 
 Ln cnii.r <!•' ./rs».t. the Chrisfs-crosse-rowe, ox 
 home-booke, wherein a child learns it." In Spec- 
 imens of West Country Dialect, we find the 
 
 following words, used by one who is teaching 
 
 the alphabet : 
 
 •■ Ston -'ill there, and mind what I da za to ye, and 
 whaur I do point. Now; criss-cross, ghi a, little a. 
 b, c, d. That's right, Billy; you'll zoon lorn the 
 criss-cross lain. - ' 
 
 In the autobiography of John Britton, bom in 
 1771. iii Wiltshire, England, the following pas- 
 sage occurs: " I learnt the < 'lirist cross row from 
 a horn hook, on which were the alphabet in 
 large and small letters and the nine figures in 
 Roman and Arabic numerals. The horn-hook is 
 
 now a rarity." -See Ttmbb, School Days ; Bar- 
 nard's Journal <f Education, vol. \n. art. 
 A B-C-Books and Primers. (See also Horn- 
 
 r> c, ami Primer.) 
 
 CHRISTIAN BROTHERS, College of 
 the, at St. Louis. Missouri, was established by 
 Roman Catholics in 1855. It comprises 8 pre- 
 paratory and a collegiate department, and has a 
 library of 1.5,000 volumes, Its buildings, grounds, 
 
 etc., are valued at 0150,000. In 1873 — 4, there 
 were 30 instructors. 270 preparatory and 31 col- 
 legiate students. The Kev. Brother James is 
 (1876) the president. 
 
 CHRISTIAN BROTHERS' COLLEGE, 
 at Memphis. Tennessee, was opened in 1871. 
 It is a Roman < 'atholic institution, having a col- 
 legiate, a scientific, a commercial, and a prepar- 
 atory department. The college possesses valuable 
 philosophical apparatus and a library of about 
 L,500 volumes. The value of the college prop- 
 erty is $40,000. In 1874 — 5, there were 9 in- 
 structors and 127 students, of whom 48 were of 
 a collegiate grade. Brother Maurehan is (1876) 
 the president. 
 
 CHRISTIAN COLLEGE, at Monmouth, 
 Oregon, is under the control of the Christians. 
 It was formerly known as Monmouth University, 
 but was chartered under its present name in 
 L865. The value of its buildings and other prop- 
 erty is estimated at $20,000 : the amount of its 
 productive funds is about the same. The college 
 has two separate coursesof study, the classical and 
 the scientific; and there is also a preparatory 
 course. Roth >e\es are admitted. A student may 
 receive a certificate of graduation in any of the 
 following departments: (1) sacred history, 
 mental and moral sciences: (2) natural science; 
 (3) mathematics; (4) classics. To obtain such 
 certificate it is required that the candidate should 
 have been a Student of Christian College at least 
 one year, and that he should pass a satisfactory 
 examination in all the prescribed studies of the 
 department. In L873 — 1, there were '.' instruct- 
 ors and 180 students. T. P. Campbell, A. M., is 
 (b s 7iii the president. 
 
 CHRISTIAN UNIVERSITY, at Canton, 
 Missouri, was chartered in L853, and organized 
 in 18f>(>. It was founded by the Christian de- 
 nomination for the education of both sexes. Its 
 buildings, grounds, etc., are valued at $100,000. 
 In 1S72 — 3 it had 8 instructors and 166 students. 
 W. 1 1. 1 lo|u»i. A.M.. is ( L876) the president. 
 
 CHRISTIANS (sometimes, but improperly, 
 pronounced Christ iansi, CHRISTIAN DENOMINA- 
 TION, Christian Connection, and Christian 
 Church, are name- chosen, in the United States, 
 by organizations of Christians who -seek to 
 
 unite the followers of Christ of every persuasion, 
 
 bj the breaking down of party walls, party 
 spirit, and sectarian feeling and practice, and by 
 infusing into the minds and hearts of all lovers 
 lit i he eon i nn m Saviour a liberal spirit, thereby in- 
 ducing libera] practice." (See Wellons, Annual 
 qf the Christian Church for L875, Suffolk, Va., 
 L875.) They have no rule of faith and practice, 
 save the Holy Scriptures, and the only test of 
 
 fellowship agreed upon is Christian character. 
 They believe that the right of private judgment 
 
 and entire liberty of conscience, in reference to 
 
 those points of doctrine and practice not con- 
 sidered essential to sal vat ion.. should be accorded 
 
 to, and enjoyed by, all; and that, therefore, all 
 
 who believe in, and love and serve, the Lord 
 
 •lesus Christ, ought to be received into the fel- 
 lowship and communion of the Church. They 
 
CHRIST'S HOSPITAL 
 
 CHURCH OF GOD 
 
 135 
 
 are generally Antitrinitarians and Baptists; 
 they cherish prayer meetings, Sunday schools, 
 and missionary enter) irises, and are congregational 
 in church government, holding animal and state 
 conferences, and a quadrennial general conven- 
 tion. Tlie first organization of the kind was 
 effected, and the name Christians, to the exclusion 
 of all other names, adopted, through the influence 
 of Rev. ••• 1 Kelly, in a conference held in Surry 
 ( lounty, Va.. Aug. 4., 1794. The new organization 
 consisted of seceders from the Methodist Episcopal 
 Church. A similar organization was established, 
 a tew years later, by seceders from the regular 
 Baptists, in the New England States; and a third 
 in I sud. in Kentucky and Tennessee, by a number 
 of Presbyterians. Soon after, the three bodies 
 met in general convention and were consolidated 
 into one denomination. The war interrupted 
 the connection of the Southern with the Northern 
 conferences, and the former organized a Southern 
 ■ral convention, which held its first session 
 in L866, ami the fourth in IsTd. The main 
 body had, in 1ST."). 1197 ordained and 210 un- 
 ordaiae 1 ministers, and <>1),T01 members. The 
 Southern branch had, in the same year, (i confer- 
 ences. ~>T elders, 12 licentiates, and about 10,000 
 members. 
 
 The main branch, according to the almanac 
 published by the denominational publishing 
 house at Dayton. Ohio [The ('lirixtiun Almanac 
 fur \ 876), had, in 1ST"), the following educational 
 institutions: Union Christian College, at Merom, 
 Sullivan County, Indiana ; Starkey Seminary 
 at Eddytown, Yates County, N. Y. ; Proctor 
 Academy, Andover, N. H., and the Christian 
 Biblical Institute, at Stanfordville, Dutchess 
 County. N. Y. The latter institution was for- 
 merly situated at Eddytown, N. Y., and was, 
 in 18T2, removed to Stanfordville, where sixty 
 acres of land had been bought for it, at a cost of 
 318,000. The Institute building and a student's 
 home had been erected by the Hon. David (dark, 
 of Hartford, Ct., at a cost stated to have been 
 between 820.000 and §.'{0,000, and were present- 
 ed to the convention as his free gift. It offers 
 free tuition to worthy young men and women : 
 also the free use of class-books and library, and to 
 students without families the free occupancy of a 
 lodging and study-room in the Students' Home. 
 The Southern branch controls the Suffolk Ool- 
 legiate Institute, at Suffolk, Va., and the 
 Graham High School, at Graham, N. C. 
 
 CHRIST'S HOSPITAL, or Tin: Blue-Coat 
 School, one of the most famous charitable in- 
 stitutions of London, incorporated by Edward 
 VI., in 1553, as a hospital for orphans and found- 
 lings. It derives its name, Blue-Coat School, 
 from the costume of the boys, which has con- 
 tinued from its foundation. This consists of a 
 blue woolen gown or coat with a red leathern 
 girdle, yellow breeches and stockings, and a black 
 worsted cap. (diaries li. founded a mathemat- 
 ical school in the hospital, in K;T2. the students 
 "f which arc called King's boys. The age of ad- 
 don is between seven and fifteen, except for 
 die King's boys and the "Grecians," or boys of the 
 
 highest class, of whom eight are annually sent to 
 Oxford and Cambridge. The government of 
 the institution is vested in the lord-mayor and 
 aldermen of London, anil those who have con- 
 tributed to the institution the sum of £400. The 
 total income of the hospital is about £50,000. 
 The old buildings, which were destroyed in the 
 
 great fire of L666, were replaced by others erect- 
 ed under the direction of Sir Christopher Wren. 
 The present edifices were erected in 1825. It has 
 ceased to be a charitable institution, and is now 
 essentially a classical school. Latin and Greek 
 form the basis of its course of study, but all the 
 elementary branches, including drawing, the mod- 
 ern languages, etc., arc also taught. In lti83, a 
 preparatory school was built at Hertford, in 
 which the hospital children are nursed and in- 
 structed till they are old enough to enter the 
 school. The girls remain permanently here. Many 
 illustrious names are found in the list of its 
 graduates, among whom may be mentioned, 
 Camden, the historian, Bishop Stillingfleet, 
 Richardson, the novelist, Coleridge, Lamb, and 
 Leigh Hunt. 
 
 CHRONOLOGY. See History. 
 
 CHURCH OF GOD, a denomination of 
 Baptists in the United States, organized in 1830 
 by the Rev. Mr. Winebrenner, formerly a minis- 
 ter of the German Reformed Church. The pe- 
 culiar name was adopted as being the most scrip- 
 tural. Besides baptism and the Lord's Supper, 
 they hold feet-washing to be a positive ordinance 
 of perpetual standing in the church, and obliga- 
 tory on all Christians. In church government, 
 this denomination is Presbyterian. A number 
 of congregations form an eldersliip, which meets 
 annually. The General Eldership, consisting 
 of delegates from annual elderships, meets trien- 
 nially. ddiere were, in 1875, 13 elderships, about 
 400 churches, and about 25,000 members. Sev- 
 eral efforts were made, between 1854 and 1866, 
 to establish a denominational school, but they all 
 failed. In 1872, the General Eldership was vis- 
 ited by a delegate from the general conference 
 of the Eree "Will Baptists (wdio, like the Church 
 of God, are Arminian in theology) , wdio proposed 
 on behalf of that body, that the Church of God 
 should take an interest in Hillsdale College, a de- 
 nominational school of the Eree Will Baptists at 
 1 Iillsdale, Michigan, by endowing a professorship 
 and designating a professor. The offer was ac- 
 cepted, a professor chosen, and a visiting com- 
 mittee to the college appointed. The chair was 
 to be endowed by the sale of scholarships. At 
 the next General Eldership, in 18T5, the board 
 of education were, however, compelled to report 
 that the effort to raise an endowment fund of 
 si n.ooo, had failed, no more than $200 having 
 been obtained. In accordance with the request, 
 the board of education was relieved from the 
 charge of completing the arrangement with the 
 authorities of Hillsdale College. At the same 
 time, it was resolved to form a chartered or in- 
 corporated society to take charge of the educa- 
 tional interests of the church, and similar socie- 
 ties in all the annual elderships. 
 
136 
 
 CINCINNATI 
 
 CINCINNATI, the metropolis of the state 
 of Ohio, having a population, in 1870, of L'lG.'Jiiit. 
 
 "Educational "History. — The first effort made 
 in behalf of education was that of John Kidd, 
 who, in 1818, devised $l,000per annum, charge- 
 able upon the "ground rents of his estate,'' to be 
 expended for the education of the poor children 
 of the city. His title to his estate, however, prov- 
 ing defective, his devise failed. The next bequest 
 was that of Thomas Hughes, who. in 1824, left a 
 tract of land the perpetual rent of which, 
 amounting to $2,000, was to be applied to the 
 same purpose. The following year, the legislature 
 passed a general law applicable to the state, but 
 making no special provision for education in the 
 cities. Owing to inherent defects, however, this 
 law became inoperative; and. in 1830, the city's 
 representatives in the state Legislature procured 
 the passage of a law by which an independent 
 organization was given to the schools of Cincin- 
 nati. This provided tor the appointment of a 
 board of trustees and visitors, and directed the 
 council to divide the city into ten districts, in 
 each of which they were required, within ten 
 years, to purchase a lot on which a building of 
 brick or stone, two stories high, and containing 
 two school rooms, should be erected; the cost of 
 which was to be defrayed by taxation. Much 
 
 opposition was encountered, however, by the 
 trustees in carrying out these provisions, the ob- 
 jection, on the pari of the people, to taxes lev ied 
 
 for such a purpose being very strong. Want of 
 means, and the unfriendliness of the city council, 
 also, produced such delay, and the accommoda- 
 tions provided for the pupils were 80 insufficient, 
 
 that the sympathy of the people was in danger 
 
 of permanent estrangement from thecauseof the 
 
 schools. At this juncture, the friends of education 
 
 resolved to place the benefits derived from the 
 schools before the people. Annual examinations 
 
 of the pupils were publicly held, to which emi- 
 nent men. members of the press, and teachers 
 from other states, wert' invited; and these were 
 followed by imposing street parades of the school 
 children, which were continued for several years. 
 
 The result was a hearty endorsement of the pub- 
 lic schools by the people, so that, in 1833, a model 
 
 schoobhou.se was 1 milt, a nd, in 1 83 Iandl835,eigh1 
 public-school houses were erected the whole 
 at an expense of $96,1 59.4 I, which was met by the 
 issue of city bonds. The cause was furthered still 
 more by the establishment, about this time, of 
 the Western College of Teachers, and the open- 
 ing of the Woodward Sigh School, which offered 
 
 to receive annually, for gratuitous instruction. 
 
 ten boys to be selected by the school board from 
 the common schools. In 1 s .' { 7 , the constitution 
 of the Bchool board was changed so as to consist 
 of two members, instead of one, from each ward. 
 In 1839, schools were established in orphan 
 asylums; in 1840, the German language was in- 
 troduced into the coi union schools; and. in 1842, 
 
 oighl schools were opened. The harmony of the 
 schools was disturbed, in L842, by a violent dis- 
 cussion in regard to the use of the Bible in the 
 
 Schools, which has been carried on with goal 
 
 acrimony, at intervals, ever since. The Central 
 High School, with a graded course, was estab- 
 lished in L847 ; the Woodward High School and 
 the Hughes High School, in 1851. In 1852, the 
 Woodward and the I Inches funds were merged in 
 the city-school fund, the whole being managed 
 by a union board. In 1849, colored schools were 
 established by law. and the study of the German 
 language was authorized in some of the district 
 schools. The organization of intermediate schools 
 was begun in 1854, the object being the consoli- 
 dation of pupils in such a manner that fewer 
 teachers would be needed. In 18.">7. the first 
 normal school was opened, the number of teach- 
 ers at that time being 300. In L869, the Bible 
 question was again discussed, and. in the legal 
 struggle which resulted, it was excluded from 
 the schools. In May, 1873, the legislature passed 
 an act for the re-organization and maintenance 
 of common schools, which is substantially the 
 present law of the city. — The supervision of the 
 schools was first provided for in 1850, the first 
 general superintendent being Nathan Guilford, 
 who was elected by popular vote, lie served two 
 years, and was succeeded by Dr. Merrcll. who re- 
 signed shortly after. In 1853, the law was 
 changed, and the annual appointment of a super- 
 intendent by the board was ordered. A.. 1. Rickoff 
 being the first incumbent of the office under the 
 new law; he was succeeded, in L866, by John 
 Hancock, and, in L874,by Jno. B. Peaslee. 
 
 School System. — The system, at present (1876), 
 comprises 26 district.-! intermediate, ami 2 high 
 schools, for whites; and 4 district schools, one 
 intermediate, and one high school, for colored 
 persons; in addition to which, there arc inter- 
 mediate departments in 10 of the district schools. 
 There are, also. ID district night schools, and one 
 evening high school. The legal school age is 
 from 6 to 21 years. Three courses of study have 
 been adopted by the union board of high schools, 
 denominated the classical, the technological, and 
 the general; the first two intended as preparatory 
 to kindred courses in the university, the last, for 
 pupils whose education ends in the high school. 
 The fund for the support of the schools is derived 
 from a special three-mill tax on property, the state 
 tax. the income of the Woodward and Hughes 
 funds, tuition fees paid by non-residents, etc. 
 
 The chief items of school statistics are : 
 
 No. of children of Bchool age 7(5,477 
 
 " " " enrolled in public schools 28,999 
 
 •' " " In average daily attendance. .. .21,929 
 
 " " " attending private schools 1.6,464 
 
 " " " «' ' night schools 3, , . ) 7!> 
 
 N'n. of teachers in public schools 54.5 
 
 Receipts (1876) $695,000 
 
 Expenditures (1870) $(i!U,700 
 
 Many other educational institutions exist in 
 Cincinnati. The Catholic parochial schools edu- 
 cate, it is estimated, about L 7, 000 children ; and 
 
 different religious orders, male and female, annu- 
 ally educate many children and young ladies in 
 denominational and conventual schools. The 
 
 University of Cincinnati, which is liberally en- 
 dowed, took possession of its new building iu 
 1875, and is now in active operation. 
 
CINCINNATI, UNIVERSITY OF 
 
 CLASS 
 
 137 
 
 CINCINNATI, University of, in Cincin- 
 nati. Ohio, whs organized under the acl passed 
 by the general assemblyof Ohio, April L6., L870, 
 "to enable cities of the first class to aid and 
 promote education." It consists of three depart- 
 ments: the Academic, or Department of Litera- 
 ture and Science; the School of Design ; and the 
 Observatory. It is to be maintained by any 
 funds either heretofore or hereafter given to the 
 n't v. for the purpose of founding or aiding an 
 institution for promoting free education. The 
 statute' also authorizes any persons or bodies 
 corporate, holding any estate or funds in trust 
 for the promotion of education or any of the 
 arts or sciences, to transfer the same to the city 
 as a trustee for such purpose, thus affording a 
 means of consolidating the various funds now 
 existing which separately are of little or no 
 avail for their intended purpose. The same 
 statute, furthermore, authorizes an annual tax, 
 by the city, of one-tenth of a mill, for the sup- 
 port of such institutions. The endowment of 
 the University of ( 'incinnati consisted, in 1876, 
 of the estate devised to the city by the late 
 Charles McMicken, in L857, the annual tax of 
 one-tenth of a mill, and donations for special 
 purposes, amounting, in the aggregate. to s<l 25,000. 
 The donation of the old observatory property, on 
 Mt. Adams, is upon the condition that the city 
 shall maintain an observatory in connection with 
 the university, and was accepted by the city 
 council accordingly. 
 
 The institution is managed by a board of 
 directors, consisting of the mayor ex officio and 
 L8 members, appointed by the common council. 
 It is open to both sexes. The receipts, in 1875, 
 amounted to Sill). 74*. 92 ; the expenditures 
 were 8 1 ( >s.si K5.S4, including $54,683.28 for build- 
 ing purposes. The academic department was 
 opened in 1873. Three courses, of four years 
 each, have already been established ; namely, (1) 
 The Classical Course; (2) The Scientific Course; 
 (3) The Course in Civil Engineering. Besides 
 these regular courses, provision is made for stu- 
 dents desiring to pursue particular branches ex- 
 clusively. The work during the first year is rig- 
 idly prescribed ; but, after that, a large amount 
 of option is allowed, except in the civil engineer- 
 ing course. Candidates for the degree of B. A. 
 or B. S. must choose at least one principal study 
 in which to take a full course of three or four 
 years. For the former, this may be either an- 
 cient languages, modern languages, or some other 
 literary branch ; for the latter, chemistry and 
 physics, natural history, geology, mathematics, 
 astronomy, or some other science. The re- 
 mainder of the elective time may be devoted to 
 other full or partial courses. Instruction is free 
 to all who are bona fide residents of Cincinnati; 
 but tuition fees are charged to non-residents. The 
 course pursued in the city high schools constitutes 
 the requirements for admission. 
 
 The north wing of the university building was 
 completed, and occupied by this department, in 
 October, 1>7">. In 1S7(5, there were Id instructors 
 and 51 students. II. T. Eddy, C. E., Ph. !>.. is 
 
 (1876) dean of the faculty. The School of Design 
 was established in connection with the Ohio 
 Mechanics' Institute in L863, but they are now 
 entirely separate. This school occupies rooms in 
 the Cincinnati < 'ollege building; and there are day 
 and evening sessions. It is designed especially for 
 residents of ' 'incinnati, but others may be ad- 
 mitted. The full course is for four years. In 1 876, 
 there were 6 instructors and 402 students, of 
 whom 242 were in the classes in drawing and 
 design. 1.'!.'! in wood-carving, and 27 in modeling. 
 The Observatory was established about LS44. The 
 new site is on Mt. Lookout, li m. from the city, 
 one of the highest points in Hamilton County. 
 Besides an astronomical library, it is supplied with 
 first class instruments, among them the Mitchel 
 refractor of 12 inches aperture. It is (1876) un- 
 der the direction of Ormond Stone, A. M. 
 
 CIVIL GOVERNMENT. See Science of 
 Government. 
 
 CLAFLIN UNIVERSITY, at Orangeburg, 
 South Carolina, under the auspices of the Meth- 
 odist Episcopal Church, was chartered in 1869, 
 and opened in 1870. It was established prima- 
 rily for the education of colored youth of both 
 sexes, but no one is excluded on account of race, 
 color, or religious opinions. The buildings, 
 grounds, etc., are valued at $40,000. In 1872, 
 the state established its agricultural college and 
 mechanics" institute in connection with the uni- 
 versity. Three departments are now in opera- 
 tion, namely : a common English department, a 
 classical preparatory and higher English depart- 
 ment, and an agricultural and scientific depart- 
 ment. In 187-4 — 5, there were f) instructors and 
 188 students, of whom 151 were in the common 
 English department, 37 in the higher English,. 
 and 65 in the scientific and agricultural depart- 
 ment. The agricultural college and mechanics' 
 institute has a productive endowment of 
 $18d,000. The Baker Theological Institute is 
 connected with the university. The Rev. Ed- 
 ward Cooke, D.D., is (1876) the president. 
 
 CLASS (Lat. classis, from Gr. K/.aaic, from 
 naTitiv, to call, because applied to an assembly of 
 the people when called together), a number of 
 pupils or students in a school or college, of the 
 same grade of attainments, receiving the same in- 
 struction, and pursuing the same studies. When 
 large numbers of pupils are to be taught, a care- 
 ful distribution of them into classes becomes requi- 
 site; indeed, nothing is so important, previous, 
 to the work of instruction, as an accurate classi- 
 fication. Heterogeneous masses of children can- 
 not be instructed simultaneously. They may be 
 made to perform mechanically certain school ex- 
 ercises, — may, perhaps, be taught to read, to 
 spell, to write, and to cipher to some extent ; but 
 it can only be by rote, without the due exercise 
 of their intelligence, and, hence, without proper 
 mental development. A poorly classified school 
 can never be really efficient, whatever talent in 
 teaching may be brought to bear upon it. Then 
 is no doubt that individual teaching has many 
 advantages over the teaching of classes; since 
 there is a better opportunity to observe the pu- 
 
138 
 
 CLASS 
 
 pils' peculiar traits of character, and to adapt the 
 instruction to them ; but class teaching approx- 
 imates to individual teaching in proportion as 
 the classification is so accurate as to bring to- 
 gether under the influence of the teacher pu] tils 
 of a like grade of attainments, and of similar 
 disposition, temperament, and mental constitu- 
 tion. Of course, such a degree of accuracy in 
 classification is ordinarily impossible ; but this 
 is the ideal standard to which the teacher shovdd 
 always endeavor to approximate in organizing 
 the classes of his school. 
 
 A pi-oper limit as to the size of classes should 
 be carefully observed. This is difficult to fix 
 by the statement of any particular number, since 
 the number of pupils that may be properly 
 placed under the instruction of a single teacher 
 will vary with the age and character of the pu- 
 pils, the evenness of the grade, and the skill and 
 experience of the teacher himself. When the 
 number is between 50 and LOO, or over, as it 
 sometimes is ill the large city schools, of course 
 no proper result can be effected. "In a large 
 class." says Eteid [Principles of Education), 
 "each of whom seldom, and at best only for a 
 short time, receives individually any attention 
 from the teacher, the progress is slow, the facul- 
 ties little develop,' Land the education altogether 
 v.tv imperfect." The danger inseparably con- 
 nect e 1 with the indiscriminate treatment of pu- 
 pils of different characteristics has been often 
 referred to by experienced educators. Thus, we 
 find in a work designed to aid practical teachers, 
 the following important admonitions : "In every 
 class, however well graded, the pupils will differ 
 much in age, health, mental capacity, and home 
 advantages. A correct and judicious classifica- 
 tion will reduce this inequality to a minimum ; 
 but there will still remain a wide field for the 
 exercise of discrimination, care, and caution on 
 the part of the class-teacher. The lessons should, 
 in all respects, be adapted to the average ability 
 of the pupils of the class ; but, even beyond this, 
 some allowance will often have to be made in th i 
 case of pupils of quite inferior mental capacity 
 
 or opportunities for ho stu lies :" ami further, 
 
 " Teachers are especially admonished to be con- 
 dderate toward pupils of a delicate constitution, 
 
 an over-excitable brain and nervous system, or in 
 temporary ill health. Many children of thiscla^s 
 precocious hi mental activity and exceedingly 
 ambitious to excel : ami the greatest care is re- 
 quired to prevenl them from Injuring themselves 
 by an inordinate devotion to books and study." 
 
 (Sec How to Teach N. Y.. L873.) The < ipar- 
 
 ative advantages and disadvantages of home (in- 
 dividual) instruction, and school (class! instruc- 
 tion are quite fully discussed in Isaac Taylor's 
 
 I Inni'- Education. • \ principal and necessary 
 distinction," he remarks, " between the two sys- 
 tems is this, that while, in the one, all methods 
 
 of instruction and modes of training are or may 
 be, with more or less exactness, adapted to the 
 faculties, tastes, and probable destination of the 
 
 pupils singly, and may he accommodated to the 
 
 individual ability oi each: in the other .system. 
 
 that is to say at school, it is the mass of minds 
 only, or some few general classes, at the best, that 
 
 can be thought of Lad yet even this undistin- 
 
 guishing mechanism, which is proper to a school, 
 and which carries all before it with a sort of 
 blind force, is in itself, in some respects, a good; 
 and if some are the victims of it, to others it may 
 be beneficial. There are children who are not 
 to be advanced at all, except by the means of 
 a mechanical momentum ; and such might well 
 be sent from home to school, on this sole account, 
 that they will then be carried round on the ir- 
 resistible wheel-work of school order But al- 
 though in a large school, even when broken up 
 into classes, little regard can equitably lie paid 
 to individual peculiarities of faculty or taste, 
 the principle which is characteristic of home edu- 
 cation, may readily be extended to schools not 
 much exceeding the bounds of a numerous fam- 
 ily. In fact.it is only the personal ability of the 
 teacher, his tact, his intelligence, and his assi- 
 duity, that can fix the limits within which the 
 principle of adaptation may be made to take ef- 
 fect." The number of pupils that should lie 
 placed in a class is. therefore, a matter requiring 
 the utmost exercise of good judgment, taking 
 cognizance of all attending circu instances. 
 
 What should constitute the basis of classifica- 
 tion is also a matter requiring a careful consider- 
 ation. The several grades of the course of study 
 should, of course, be exactly defined, and all the 
 Subjects, or parts of subjects, prescribed, should 
 lie carefully adjusted. so that the various require- 
 ments of the grade may be accomplished simul- 
 taneously, and a due proficiency in each may 
 constitute the basis of distribution or promotion 
 at every reorganization of the classes. Still, let 
 the adjustment be as nice as practicable, some 
 diversity will be found at the end of each period 
 of instruction. One pupil, for example, will 
 have made good progress in arithmetic, but very 
 little in reading, writing, grammar, etc. What, 
 then, is to be done? If the average' progress is 
 taken, pupils of such unequal attainments in 
 particular studies may be broughl together, that 
 the teacher will find it impossible to give instruc- 
 tion to one portion of the class without neglect- 
 ing the other, or will lie obliged to divide his 
 
 class into Bub-grades, and thus .sacrifice much 
 time in attending to each separately. This dif- 
 ficulty is often. measurably, Obviated by selecting 
 some one branch of instruction, as arithmetic, 
 
 and basing the classification upon the pupils' at- 
 tainments in this subject, working constantly 
 thereafter to bring the pupils, as far as may he 
 necessary, up to the same standard in other sub- 
 jects. 
 
 Whether a school is best taught by classes or 
 by subjects, is a question that has received much 
 
 attention from educators; that is to say. whether 
 each teacher shall instruct a particular class in 
 all the branches of study which the pupils are 
 required to pursue: or whether each class shall 
 be taughl in succession by Beveral teachers, each 
 one taking a particular subject or class of sub- 
 jects. The diversity of attainments, mental 
 
CLASSICAL STUDIES 
 
 139 
 
 tastes, and special skill among teachers, won Id 
 seem to dictate the subject system rather than 
 
 the class system ; since, were certain liranches as- 
 sumed as a specialty to each teacher, there would 
 be more time for the careful study by the 
 
 teacher, not only of the liranches themselves, but 
 of the proper methods of teaching them ; and, of 
 course, better work would necessarily be done. 
 Other considerations, however, seem partially or 
 wholly to neutralize this apparent advantage. 
 The success of a teacher, especially of young pu- 
 pils, depends upon his thorough knowledge of 
 their disposition, and also upon their familiarity 
 with his characteristics; and this knowledge it 
 would bedifficult to acquire if the teacher were 
 required to spend but a short time with each 
 class, and his means of acquiring it were dis- 
 tributed over a number of classes. Some edu- 
 cators, however, take a view directly opposed to 
 this. " If the pupil," says Wickersham, "recite 
 always to the same teacher, he may become fa- 
 miliar with certain lines of thought, but he will 
 most likely be confined to them. He might be 
 Trained by a more unvaried discipline, but it 
 is a discipline in one direction. He becomes im- 
 bue 1 with his teachers peculiar opinions, ac- 
 quires his manners, and is apt to create a little 
 world in which his teacher is the reigning sover- 
 eign and himself the most conspicuous citizen of 
 the realm. It is much better for all pupils to 
 have different teachers, with different tastes, tal- 
 ents, and opinions ; but it is very important that 
 this should be the case with advanced pupils." 
 Nevertheless, it has generally been found that 
 much better discipline. — a tinner control, prevails 
 in schools conducted under the class-teaching 
 plan than in those taught on the subject or de- 
 partmental system ; and, consequently, the for- 
 mer is the prevalent mode of organization in 
 large public schools. In district or private 
 schools consisting of but few pupils, and in insti- 
 tutions of a higher grade, as high schools, col- 
 leges, and universities, the other system is in- 
 variably, and of course necessarily, employed. 
 
 Instead of requiring all the members of a class 
 to study the same branches, some schools are so 
 organized that pupils recite different studies in 
 different classes. This method has sometimes 
 been denominated a loose classification. It en- 
 courages unequal attainments, the pupil being 
 stimulated to do his best in each study without 
 any regard to his progress in other studies. This 
 i-. of course, a great disadvantage. Besides, it 
 requires a constant change of classes in the 
 working of the school, and, consequently, makes 
 the discipline more difficult. " 1 recommend," 
 says Wickcrshani (School Economy), "a close 
 classification, with such departures from it as 
 overruling circumstances may make expedient.'' 
 —See Wki.i.s. Graded Schools (N. Y„ 1862); 
 Wickebsham, School Economy (Phil., 1864); 
 Isaac Tavi.or, Home E'inrn/io// (London and 
 K. Y., L836) ; Le Vaox, Science and Art of 
 Teaching (Toronto. 1875). 
 
 CLASSICAL STUDIES, a term denoting 
 the study of the Latin and ( deck languages and 
 
 literatures. The word classical is derived from 
 the Latin word c/ussif/is, that is, relating to 
 the classes of the Roman people, especially to 
 the first class. The b-st authors known to the 
 Romans, both Latin and Creek, were rated as 
 classici, that is, of tJie first class, or classics. The 
 expression is sometimes used to designate the 
 standard authors of any nation, but it is chiefly 
 applied, as it was originally, to the standard Latin 
 and < ireek writers. 
 
 The study of Latin and (ireek occupies a very 
 prominent part in the educational history of the 
 Christian and civilized world, and still constitutes 
 a principal branch of instruction in institutions 
 of the middle and higher grades. The Romanic 
 countries. Italy, Spain, Portugal, and France, in 
 which new languages gradually and slowly arose 
 out of a mixture of the Latin and the native lan- 
 guages, naturally retained the Latin as their 
 exclusive literary language. In the Germanic 
 world, a knowledge of Latin was no less indis- 
 pensable, on account of the connection of the 
 churches with the see of Rome. The Sacred 
 Scriptures, and the ecclesiastical literature in 
 general, were only accessible in Latin ; and, as 
 none of the native languages had a literature, 
 Latin was the only key to the scanty amount of 
 information which, at that time, was attainable. 
 In the cathedral, collegiate, and convent schools 
 of the middle ages. Latin was not only a subject 
 of study, but also the vehicle of instruction. 
 ( 'harlemagne, in the schools founded by him, 
 promoted the study not only of Latin, but also 
 of (ireek. His example, however, found little 
 imitation ; and, until the end of the fourteenth 
 century, Greek was taught in but few of the 
 schools of western Europe, and even the knowl- 
 edge of Latin was quite rare. Though it was the 
 official language of the Church, the acquaintance 
 of the great majority of priests with it appears 
 to have been very imperfect. The growing op- 
 position to scholasticism awakened a new inter- 
 est in the Latin classics ; and, from the beginning 
 of the fourteenth century, when the learned 
 Byzantine Emmanuel Chrysoloras taught Greek 
 in Italy, the study of the Greek language and 
 literature spread throughout western Europe. 
 The Reformation, while it favored the tise of 
 (lie native languages in preference to the Latin, 
 for divine worship, encouraged the study of 
 the Latin classics in opposition to the writings 
 of the representatives of mediaeval scholasticism. 
 At the same time, a great impulse was given 
 to the study of Greek, since the Protestant 
 churches urged a thorough study of the (ireek 
 Testament, in preference to the Vulgate. In the 
 Protestant as well as in the Roman Catholic 
 countries, the Latin remained the usual medium 
 of literary productions, and thus Latin classics 
 continued to be a very important agent in the 
 education of the European nations. The increas- 
 ing interest in the natural sciences, and the Spread 
 of Utilitarian tendencies, which found a distin- 
 guished representative in the Philanikropin, led, 
 Fn the second half of the eighteenth century. 
 to a considerable restriction of Latin, in all 
 
140 
 
 CLASSICAL STUD1KS 
 
 schools of a lower grai le, and to a fierce con t r< >versy 
 in regard to the propriety of classical studies, in 
 general, in the course of instruction prescribed 
 for schools of a higher grade. This controversy 
 is not yet ended ; and the relative importance of 
 these studies, as compared with other subjects of 
 instruction, is still greatly disputed. The op- 
 position to the prominence which was formerly 
 accorded to classical studies in colleges, gymna- 
 siums, and similar schools, has been so far suc- 
 cessful, that the course of instruction in all schools 
 of this grade, now embraces subjects formerly ex- 
 cluded; and, moreover, institutions of a higher 
 grade have been organized, in which classical 
 studies are either entirely excluded, or reduced 
 to a secondary or auxiliary position. A large 
 Dumber of American colleges and universities 
 have arranged, in addition to the full classical 
 course, a scientific course, from which Greek is 
 always and Latin generally excluded: and the 
 large patronage which this arrangement has 
 attracted presents, of course, a very strong in- 
 ducement for all colleges to yield to what appears 
 to be a general demand. In Germany, a sharp 
 controversy is still pending on the question 
 
 whether the state government should confer 
 
 upon the real schools in which either Greek or 
 
 classical studies, in general, are excluded, the 
 right of conferring certificates of maturity for 
 the university. On the part of those who de 
 
 inand that classical studies should be retained as 
 a prominent and essential part of a higher edu- 
 cation, it is argued that the organic structure of 
 the Latin and Greek languages is more nearly 
 perfect than that of any other language, and that. 
 
 by the great diversity of their inflections, they 
 
 express re fully and exactly all the various 
 
 and minute modifications of thought. The fact 
 that they are no longer living languages, is urged 
 
 as an advantage: because, being complete organ- 
 isms, they afford a better means of mental dis- 
 cipline than the modern languages, which arc 
 
 continually undergoing important changes. The 
 mutual relation of the two classical languages is 
 represented as such that they supplement each 
 
 other, the Latin being more artistic, rhetorical, 
 
 and pathetic: while the Greek bears, to a greater 
 extent, the impress of naturalness, refinement, 
 and freedom. The literatures of Rome and I i recce 
 are regarded as no less indispensable than their 
 languages. Translations, it is claimed, will never 
 
 succeed in reproducing all the excellencies of a 
 literary masterpiece; and the standard works 
 
 of classic literature are models of such perfection, 
 
 that, like the ancient worksof plastic art, they are 
 Sure to remain for all time the instrumentality 
 
 for teaching those who aspire to a higher edu- 
 cation. There is do country, in either Europe 
 or America, which, tor its intellectual develop- 
 
 ■ hi, n!, has not leaned on the pillars of the I aim 
 and Greek classics, and a normal and continuous 
 
 growth of our modern literatures is not conceiv- 
 able, without an uninterrupted connection with 
 the chief sources of our Intellectual life. This 
 connection is necessary tor all branches of science : 
 for some, as theology, philosophy, philology, law. 
 
 and medicine, it will obviously appear so indis- 
 pensable that no student of any of these sciences 
 will ever think of disputing it. 
 
 John Stuart Mill, in an address delivered in 
 the university of St. Andrews, on his inaugura- 
 tion as rector, strongly expressed his preference 
 for classical studies as compared with modern 
 languages. " The only languages," he says, "and 
 the only literature to which I would allow a 
 place in the regular curriculum, are those of the 
 Greeks and the Romans, and to these I would 
 preserve the position in it which they at present 
 occupy." The superiority of the Latin and < Sreek 
 languages over any other, ancient or modern, is 
 thus explained by -Mr. Mill : "The principles and 
 rules of grammar are the means by which the 
 forms of language are made to correspond with 
 the universal forms of thought. The distinctions 
 between the various parts of speech, between 
 die eases of nouns, the moods and tenses of verbs, 
 the functions of particles, are distinctions in 
 thought, not merely in words. Single nouns and 
 verbs express objects and events, many of which 
 
 can be cognized by the senses; but the modes of 
 
 putting nouns and verbs together, express .the 
 relations of objects and events which can be 
 cognized only by the intellect: and each different 
 mode corresponds to a different relation. The 
 structure of every sentence is a lesson in logic. 
 The various rules of syntax oblige us to dis- 
 tinguish between the subject and predicate of a 
 
 proposition, between the agent, the action, and 
 
 the thing acted upon: to mark when an idea is 
 intended to modify or qualify, or merely to unite 
 with some other idea: what assertions are 
 categorical, what only conditional ; whether the 
 intention is to express similarity or contrast, to 
 make a plurality of assertions conjunctively or 
 disjunctively; what portions of a sentence, 
 though grammatically complete with them- 
 selves, are mere members or subordinate parts 
 of the assertion made by the entire sentence. 
 Such things form the subject-matter of universal 
 grammar; and the languages which teach it best 
 are those which have the most definite rules. and 
 which provide distinct forms for the greatest 
 number of distinctions in thought — BO that if we 
 fail t<> attend precisely and accurately to any of 
 these, we cannot avoid committing a solecism in 
 language. In these qualities, the classical Ian- 
 guaevs have an incomparable superiority over 
 every modern language, and over all languages, 
 
 dead or living, which have a literature worth be- 
 ing generally studied." Mr. Mill also claims that 
 "the pre-eminence of the ancients in purely liter- 
 ary excellence in perfection of form -is not 
 disputed, that their composition, like their sculp- 
 ture, has been to the greatest artists an example, 
 to he looked up to with hopeless admiration, luit 
 of an inappreciable value, as a light on high, 
 guiding their own endeavor." 
 
 The I Ion. William E Gladstone, who as a clas- 
 sical scholar has few.it' any, equals among the 
 
 greal statesmen of the nineteenth century, 
 
 strongly maintains the hereditary claims of clas- 
 sical studies toe prominent position in a modern 
 
CLASSICAL STUDIES 
 
 141 
 
 curriculum for secondary and superior schools. 
 Be denies the right of natural science, modem 
 languages, modern history, or other studies, to a 
 parallel or equal position. "Their true position," 
 he says, " is ancillary, and as ancillary it ought to 
 be limited Or restrained, without scruple, as much 
 as a regard to the paramount matter of education 
 may dictate The modern European civiliza- 
 tion, from the middle ages downwards, is the 
 compound of two great factors, the Christian re- 
 ligion for the spirit of man, and the Creek (and 
 in a secondary degree the Roman) discipline for 
 his mind and intellect. St. Paid is the apostle 
 of the Gentiles, and is, in his own person, a sym- 
 bol of this great wedding. The place, for ex- 
 ample, of Aristotle and Plato in Christian edu- 
 cation is not arbitrary, nor in principle mutable. 
 The materials of what we call classical training 
 were prepared in order that it might become not 
 a mere adjunct, but (in mathematical phrase) the 
 complement of Christianity in its application to 
 the culture of the human being, as a being 
 formed both for this world and the vorld to 
 come." 
 
 In the conflict between the advocates of clas- 
 sical studies in our higher schools and their 
 opponents, the former generally take the ground 
 that Latin and Greek, both the languages and 
 tin' literatures, supplement each other. Where 
 a comparison between the two is made, the pref- 
 erence is generally given to the Latin, partly 
 because the knowledge of Latin grammar is 
 supposed to be of superior utility, and partly 
 with a view to the fact, that Latin is not only 
 the key to an understanding of the Latin clas- 
 sics, but, for a long period, has been the universal 
 language of Christendom ; and also because the 
 Latin works, since the restoration of letters, 
 are in themselves of considerable value for the 
 knowledge of every kind which they afford, even 
 to this day, many valuable works being published 
 in that language. The Greek language, too, is 
 by no means without its champions ; and, though 
 none of them would venture to disparage the 
 study of Latin, they regard the Greek as the 
 superior representative of classic antiquity. (See 
 Latin, and Greek.) 
 
 The method of teaching and studying the clas- 
 sical languages and literatures must, of course, 
 vary according to the object or purpose for which 
 they are taught or studied. In some schools, the 
 study of these languages (particularly Latin) has 
 been adopted tor the sole or chief purpose of 
 showing their relation to the English language, 
 and of giving a clear insight into the mean- 
 ingot" English words derived from them. Where 
 tliis is the exclusive object, a comparatively small 
 amount of time will be found sufficient for this 
 study. In classical schools, colleges, gymnasia, 
 etc., classical studies are generally pursued for 
 the purpose of cultivating and developing the 
 mental faculties, and introducing the student to 
 the literary treasures of which they are the keys. 
 It is obviously of the greatest importance, that 
 the teacher should be fully conscious of the pre- 
 cise aim that is to be attained, and that the pu- 
 
 pils themselves should, as soon as possible, be 
 made to understand the objects and advantages 
 of the study. The first reading exercises will, of 
 course, serve chiefly to familiarize the pupil with 
 the grammatical rules ; but, as soon as he under- 
 stands the peculiar structure of the language, the 
 teacher should strive to unveil, as much as pos- 
 sible, what is beautiful and excellent in the clas- 
 sic authors selected for study. Loth translation 
 and explanation should aim not only at increas- 
 ing a knowledge of the vocabulary and the gram- 
 mar, but at the training of the mind to compre- 
 hend, to appreciate, and to admire these beauties 
 and excellencies. The finer parts of a classic 
 author will, of course, require the greatest and 
 most concentrated attention of the pupil; and, 
 therefore, the greatest possible exclusion of mere 
 grammatical explanations. It is evident that 
 none but teachers of the best skill and attain- 
 ments are competent to give this kind of instruc- 
 tion. The college graduate' who has just com- 
 pleted his course, however well he may have been 
 taught, cannot be expected to make the impres- 
 sion, and accomplish the success, by his teaching, 
 which can only spring from a professor of ripe 
 scholarship, cultivated taste, and experience in 
 giving instruction. There is no doubt that clas- 
 sical studies have suffered in repute as the agen- 
 cies of a higher education, by the mechanical 
 methods employed by teachers. The letter, and 
 not the spirit, has been taught ; and the conse- 
 quence has been, that the perusal of the sub- 
 limest masterpieces of ancient history, oratory, 
 and poetry has commonly degenerated into the 
 study of petty grammatical subtleties, only puz- 
 zling the mind of the student without informing 
 or elevating it. Next in importance to the employ- 
 ment of competent teachers, is the selection of 
 proper text-books, in order to produce the best 
 results in this department of instruction. The 
 books at first needed by every pupil are a gram- 
 mar, a dictionary, and books for translation. 
 The grammars and dictionaries used should be 
 those specially prepared for pupils; for the 
 wants of pupils are different from those of 
 teachers and scholars. As regards the editions 
 of classic authors, some teachers prefer texts with 
 notes, others those without notes. In the former 
 case, the notes should be exclusively calculated 
 to promote the pupil's knowledge of the language 
 and a clear understanding of the writers mean- 
 ing. The use of translations is generally dis- 
 couraged by teachers; though all know, that 
 •ponies" are great favorites with students. 
 There are some educators who regard a judicious 
 use of translations as not only not hurtful, but 
 commendable. When a knowledge not only of 
 the classic language, but also of its literature is 
 desired, the use of the entire work of an author is 
 preferable to that of selections, such as are found 
 in reading-books. An introduction, giving the 
 pupil information in regard to the author of the 
 work, facilitates a correct understanding of the 
 work itself, and increases the pupils interest. 
 Ceographical and historical explanations should 
 be given wherever they arc needed. The trans- 
 
142 
 
 CLASSIC'S, CHRISTIAN 
 
 lations should be at first literal, but should, in- 
 variably, be converted into good English, and 
 should reproduce, as much as possible, the excel- 
 lencies, as weD as interpret the meaning, of the 
 original. Of course, the pupil should not be dis- 
 couraged by too harsh and minute a criticism of 
 his i Minor faults should, at first, be passed 
 
 over, and the pupil's mind gradually trained to 
 facility, accuracy, and elegance of expression. 
 
 See II. Babnabd, Studies and Conduct (Hart- 
 ford, 1 873), gn ing the views of Byron, ( ihatham, 
 Donaldson, Be Quincey, Froude, Gladstone, Her- 
 schel, Hodgson, Locke Lowe, Macaulay, Marti- 
 neau, Mill. Milton, Niebuhr, Southey, Temple, 
 Tyndall, Vaughan, and Whewell, respecting clas- 
 sical studies; Hodgson, Classical Instruction: Its 
 Use and Abuse (London. L854); J. W. Donald- 
 . Classical Scholarship and Classical L<nrn- 
 ing\ London, L856); Et. Raucbenstein, THeZeUge- 
 masskeit der alien Sprachen in unsern Qymna- 
 sien (Aarau, 1850); Beneke, Bhrziehungs- und 
 Unterrichtslehre, 2d vol. (3d edit . Berlin, L864}; 
 Thaulow, OymnasialrPddagogik (Kiel, I- 
 Laab, Gymnasium und Real8chule{ Berlin, 1 875). 
 
 CLASSICS, CHRISTIAN, or Christian 
 Greek and Latin Writers. The ideas and life 
 of pagan Greece had been expressed and beauti- 
 fied, and the growth of pagail genius had ceased 
 in < rreece before the coming of < Ihrist. The I Ireek 
 language remained to embody the new idea- of 
 Christianity; the expression of them by Christ 
 and his apostles in the New Testament is the 
 earliest Christian Creek. These ideas rapidly 
 affected all serious thought. A long succession 
 of Christian Greek writers followed, many of 
 admirable eloquence, more of wonderful subtlety 
 and learning, apologists, preachers, commen- 
 tators, historians, philosophers, and poets. 'The 
 Greek language, meantime, was most carefully 
 studied from generation to generation, and 
 changed very slowly. 
 
 The center of controlling thought and genius 
 early moved westward. There had been an 
 after-growth of pagan literature at Komi': but, 
 in the second century of our era. Africa became 
 the nurse of genius, and Christianity Its inspira- 
 tion. M iimtiiis Felix, Tertullian, Cyprian, Com- 
 modian. Arnobius, Lactantius, and Augustine 
 appeared in rapid succession. The Latin language 
 expanded and strengthened, to express the new 
 ideas and life. An original Roman poetry for 
 the first time appeared, new in its form and 
 thought, and living on the lips of the people. 
 A new mythology of the saints displaced the 
 heathen deities. History was rewritten, phi- 
 phy drawn to new and higher applications, 
 Christianitj became the religion of the state. 
 and the services of the church, the canon law, 
 and the proceedings of the courts were in Latin 
 throughout the Western world. At the decline 
 and fall of the Roman empire, the mingling of 
 barbarians with Romans changed the spoken 
 dialects of the common people bo much that they 
 are called new languages, Italian. French, Span- 
 ish, and the like. But the priests and lawyers 
 and scholars continued to read, write, and speak 
 
 Latin ; and. when learning revived, the book 
 Latin was carefully cultivated. All important 
 works in science or learning were written in it. 
 and also much literature. This practice continued 
 till recent times. Bacon. Milton, and Sir Isaac 
 Newton used it, and critical commentaries on 
 ancient authors are still often written in Latin. 
 
 The earliest Christian Latin differed little 
 from the heathen Latin ; but, after it ceased to 
 be folk speech, the free use of the living idioms of 
 feeling was gradually lost, and the number and 
 precision of its technical terms immensely in- 
 creased. The late Latin follows the general 
 rules of ancient Latin grammar more closely 
 than did the ancient- themselves, and is proba- 
 bly the most perfect language which ever existed, 
 for the purposes for which it has been cultivated, 
 for precision, brevity, and perspicuity in dealing 
 with its own range of subject.-. 
 
 The early Christians detested and feared the 
 paean religion and manners, and the literature 
 in which they are made alluring. The pagan 
 books were often destroyed, and the Christian 
 authors displaced them almost entirely. Through 
 the darkest period of the middle ages, the works 
 of the Christian writers were almost the sole 
 reading, and the Btudyof them and their lan- 
 guage, almost the sole learning, of western Eu- 
 rope. At the pagan renaissance, the admirers 
 
 of the older heathen writers claimed for them 
 the place of honor; and heated contests were 
 waged between the advocates of the Christian 
 and the heathen Latin, which ended in a victory 
 for the heathen, and the establishment of the 
 
 pagan authors as the text-hooks for the study 
 of Ixitiu and Greek in the schools of Europe. 
 
 The great Christian writers have always been 
 the delight of Christian scholars ; and no long 
 period has ever passed without expressions of 
 regret from eminent educators, that the best years 
 of youth should be spent in mastering the de- 
 tails of heathen life, and dwelling on the 
 thoughts of heathen heroes to the exclusion of 
 the Bible and Christian heroes ; audit has Keen 
 yielded to by many, only on account of the train- 
 ing to be derived from the study of the Lain and 
 deck languages, which were thought to be found 
 only in the heathen books. But christians also 
 have written Greek and Latin welL All the 
 grammatical forms are preserved, and used in 
 
 their works according to the rules of our gram- 
 mars. Whatever is to be gained from an acquaint- 
 ance with a synthetic language, and from strange 
 modes of expression, may be had from studying 
 
 them; and. at the same time, the student may 
 
 imbibe from their perusal the noblest thoughts. 
 The modern science of language has changed the 
 estimate placed on classic periods, and it now 
 teaches the recognition of many admirable lan- 
 guages, and the study of all dialects and periods 
 in their relation to thought and history; audit 
 
 has been Bald thai no other thought or history is 
 so interesting or bo important as that embodied 
 in Christian Greek and Latin, and that these 
 should, therefore, have the place of honor in the 
 Linguistic studies of our universities. 
 
 
 
CLASSICS. CHRISTIAN 
 
 CLEVELAND 
 
 143 
 
 The knowledge of Christian Latin especially 
 is Decenary tn all original researches into the 
 history of moil, tii civilization and of modern 
 philosophy, since the early history of the Euro- 
 pean nations, their laws, charters, diplomas, and 
 treaties, the councils of the church, and the 
 works of the founders of modern science, are all 
 written in it. It is also essential to original 
 researches into the history of the modern lan- 
 guages; the peculiarities of etymology, syntax. 
 and orthography, are to be explained from the 
 later Latin, for the most part. The history of 
 modern literature, the spirit emerging in the 
 works of the early masters, like Caedmon. Haute, 
 and Milton, is to be understood only by the 
 study of the Latin fathers. From considerations 
 like these, the fitness of these writers to be used as 
 text-books in our schools and colleges, has lately 
 been strongly urged, and attempts are making 
 to introduce them in F ranee and Austria. In the 
 United States, there has always been a consid- 
 erable use of the Historic* Sacra, as a Latin 
 book for beginners. Two editions are now pub- 
 lished: Epitome Historice Sacra, L'Homond 
 (Baltimore): Historia Sacra (Phila.). A consider- 
 able part of it is also included in Allen and 
 Gbkenough's Latin Primer (Boston). The New 
 Testament, in Greek and Litin. is used in several 
 editions prepared for schools: also the Greek 
 Testament, by Spencer (New York); and Gfreek 
 and Latin,by Leusden (Phila.). A series of ( 'hris- 
 tian classics in Greek and Latin, prepared with 
 notes, like the common text-books for our schools 
 and colleges, and edited by F. A. March, is also 
 appearing in New York under the name of The 
 Douglass Serifs, Mr. Benjamin Douglass having 
 given a fund to promote the publication, and to 
 establish the study in Lafayette College. Tho 
 following have appeared: Latin Hymns, Euse- 
 bius, Athenagoras, TertuSian; Justin Martyr 
 is in press, .-1 ugustine in preparation, and others 
 are to follow. Other books which may be used 
 as text-books, are : Sanctorum Patrum Opuscula 
 selectn ml usum praisertim studiosorum theo- 
 hgias, II. Burter (Innspruck), of which 31 
 volumes had appeared in 1876. Books pre- 
 pared for the French schools : TertuUien, Au- 
 gustine, Erasme, Peres de VEglise Latine, Mor- 
 ceaux choisis des Peres Grecs, St. Basile, Gre- 
 goire, Chrysostome, each a few pages with little 
 or no apparatus, but with a translation added. 
 There are stereotyped texts of the Confessions 
 of St. Augustine, of the De Sacerdotio of Ghry- 
 DU by Tacchnitz, i Leipsic); of Eusebius and 
 Josephus by Teubner | Leipsic). Accessible trans- 
 lations of several authors are in Tlie Antenicene 
 FaUiers, Edinburgh: I John's Ecclesiastical Series, 
 London ; Rqjssler, Bibliothek der Kirchenvater 
 in Uebersetzungen (Leipzig, 1776 — 86); Thal- 
 hofer, Bibliothek der Kirchenvdter, Auswahl 
 der vorzuglichsten patristischen Werke in deut- 
 scher Ueberseteung fKempten), of which, up to 
 1876, 175 parts have appeared. Great Li- 
 braries of the Fathers are those edited by Gal- 
 lani.i (Venice, L765— 88), and by J. P. Miuxe 
 (Paris), not yet complete. Of all the most emi- 
 
 nent authors there are many editions, commen- 
 taries, and other works of elucidation. Students 
 will also find the following works convenient: 
 Lexicon Manuals ad Scriptores media} et iafimoz 
 Latinitatis, by W. II. M. D'Aknis (Paris. 1866); 
 Gfreek Lexicon from 146 B. C. to 1000 A. D., 
 by E. A. Sophocles (Boston, 1870). 
 "CLASSIFICATION. See Class. 
 CLEVELAND, an important eity in Ohio. 
 being the second in the state in population. 
 The Dumber of inhabitants in l v 7<). was 92,829 ; 
 
 in 1876, it was estimated at 1 10,000. 
 
 Educational History. — The general assembly 
 of the state, as early as 1821, provided for the 
 
 establishment of school-districts, the election of 
 school committees, and the levying of a tax for 
 school purposes: and. in 1823, it made further 
 provision for education. The act of incorporation, 
 in 1836, authorized the city council to provide 
 for the support of common schools, to levy a 
 tax of not more than one mill on the dollar of 
 the assessed valuation of property for the pur* 
 chase of .sites and the building of school-houses, 
 and one mill additional for the support of a 
 school in each of the three wards of the city, for 
 a term of not less than six months in the year. 
 The administration of school affairs was vested 
 in a board, entitled the Board of Managers of 
 Common Schools, appointed by the city council 
 for the term of one year. In 1859, by special 
 legislation, the election of members of the board 
 of education was placed in the hands of the 
 people, one member being elected in each ward, 
 and one half of the wards electing annually. The 
 city council, however, still retained its control of 
 the finances; but it was required to "provide 
 and support such number and grade of schools, 
 in said city, as may be necessary to furnish a 
 good common-school education to all the children 
 residing therein", and to "support two high 
 schools." In 1868, a law was passed removing 
 all restraints on the part of the city council from 
 the board of education, except that the purchase 
 of sites and the erection of school-buildings were 
 made dependent upon the consent of the council. 
 In 1837 — 8, the number of pupils enrolled in 
 the schools was only 840 : and there were only 6 
 schools. In 1850 — .")1, there were 32 teachers 
 employed; the average attendance in all the schools 
 was 1 650 : and the number enrolled, 2,304, out of 
 a school population of 6,7-12. In 1860 — 61, the 
 school population was 14. 625; enrollment. 5.081; 
 average daily attendance, 3,962, with s -'! teachers. 
 In 1870 — 71, the school population had increased 
 to 34,544; enrollment, L3.184; average daily at- 
 tendance. 8,174, with L88 teachers. — In 1846, a 
 high Bel u K >1 h ir I h lys was , >j >ei icd by order of the city 
 council : and. in the following year, a department 
 for girls was established in the same school. For 
 two years, the new institution met with much op- 
 position, it being ••maintained by some that it 
 was illegal, by others that it was inexpedient", 
 to levy taxes for the support of schools for 
 higher education. The people, however, gave 
 
 policy, and the follow- 
 passed authorizing and 
 
 their support to the 
 
 ing year, a law was 
 
m 
 
 CLEVELAND 
 
 CLINTON 
 
 requiring the city council to "establish and 
 maintain a high school" Since that time, two 
 other high schools have been established— the 
 West ffigh School, in 1864; and the East High 
 School, in L872. — The supervision i >t 'the schools 
 was, in 1841, vested in an acting manager of the 
 public schools, who was a member of the board, 
 and its secretary. The office of superintendent 
 of schools was created in 1853, and has been 
 rilled as follows : Andrew Freese, 1853 — 61; 
 Luther M. Oviatt. 1861—3; Anson Smyth, 1863 
 — 7; Andrew J. Kickoff, the present incumbent 
 (1876), from 1867. This officer is elected by 
 the board of education for a term of two 
 years. There are, besides, three associate super- 
 intendents, one (a female) specially for primary 
 schools. — The chief duties of the superintend- 
 ent are to supervise the work of instruction 
 in all the schools of the city, visiting the schools 
 as often as possible, noting detects, and recom- 
 mending measures to remove them ; to inspect 
 the school buildings, and report on their condi- 
 tion; and to fix the time and mode of the 
 examination of schools. Candidates for teach- 
 ers' licenses are examined by a board of six 
 examiners, appointed by the board of edu- 
 cation. — The School System < sists of a normal 
 
 school, 4 high schooLs, L9 grammar schools, 
 and 15 primary schools, making a total of '■'>'■> 
 schools. These schools receive all children six 
 years of age and upward, without regard to 
 color. There are four courses of study prescribed 
 for the high schools : an English course, of 3 
 years; a German-English course, of 4 years; a 
 Ixitin-English course, of 4 years; and a classical 
 course, of 4 years. The course of study pre- 
 scribed for the grammar and primary schools com- 
 prises the branches usually taught in common 
 schools, including music, drawing, and the ele- 
 ments of natural science. German is taught in 
 most of the schools (introduced in 1870). All the 
 teachers of the primary and grammar schools, 
 both principals and assistants, are females. 
 
 School Statistics. — The following items are re- 
 ported for the year 1876 : 
 
 Number of children of school age 4G,990 
 
 Number of pupils enrolled 2o,771 
 
 Average daily attendance 14,069 
 
 Number of teachers, 326 
 
 Receipts (1876) 1497,174.67 
 
 Expenditures 1 1875) $366,096.24 
 
 Besides the public schools, there are private 
 schools and seminaries in considerable number; 
 also German and English schools, and de- 
 nominational schools, the latter including several 
 Roman Catholic institutions. The Cleveland 
 Female Seminary is an institution for the supe- 
 rior instruction of women, chartered in L853. 
 St. Mary's Theological Seminary, a Roman < !ath- 
 olic institution, was founded in 1849. The 
 Ohio State and Onion Law College, founded in 
 L856, in L 874, had I professors, and a library of 
 3,000 relumes. The Cleveland Medical College, 
 
 founded iii L843, had, the same year, 15 in- 
 structors, and 92 students; there is also a col- 
 lege, connected with the homoeopathic hospital. 
 
 CLINIQtTE (Gr. iMyti, a couch or bed), a 
 French word used, in medical schools, to denote an 
 examination or treatment of patients by medical 
 or surgical professors in the presence of their 
 pupils, for the purpose of giving practical in- 
 struction ; hence the term clinical instruction 
 or lectures, because originally given or delivered 
 at the bedside of the sick. (See Medical 
 I Schools.) 
 
 CLINTON, De "Witt, one of the most il- 
 j lustrious of American statesmen, of deserved 
 celebrity, not only on account of his brilliant 
 talents, high culture, and comprehensive views, 
 but for his earnest philanthropy and his zealous 
 efforts in behalf of popular education, lie was 
 born at Little Britain, Orange Co., N. Y., March 
 2., 1769, and died in Albany, Feb. 11.. 1828. 
 After graduating at Columbia College. Xew 
 York, with great distinction, in 1786, he studied 
 Jaw. and was admitted to the bar in 1788. lie 
 also entered the field of politics, sustaining the 
 interests and principles of the republican party. 
 of which his uncle, George Clinton, was then the 
 leader in the state of New York. After rilling 
 various offices under the latter as governor of the 
 state, he was elected to the legislature, serving 
 successively in the assembly and in the senate, and 
 at the age of 33 was appointed to a seat in the 
 senate of the United States. This he resigned 
 to assume the position of mayor of the city of 
 Xew York, which he filled, at intervals, for ten 
 years. He also served as lieutenant-governor of 
 the state ; and his advocacy of the construction 
 of the Erie and Champlain canals made him so 
 popular, that, in 1816, he was elected governor 
 of the state, virtually by the unanimous voice of 
 the people ; and his administration was contin- 
 ued, with the exception of an interval of two 
 years, during a period of twelve years. 1 lis wise 
 and comprehensive measures, particularly in be- 
 half of internal improvements and common- 
 school education in the state, gave him a wide 
 popularity and fame; and, in L825, he partic- 
 ipated in a grand popular celebration on the 
 don of the completion of his greatest meas- 
 ure, — the establishment of a water communi- 
 cation between Lake Krie and the Hudson River. 
 As he was borne in a barge along that magnifi- 
 cent canal (called the (frond Erb< Canal) he 
 was every-where saluted with the ringing of 
 bells, the tiring of cannon, and other joyous dem- 
 onstrations. 
 
 It is not. however, intended to dwell here upon 
 his brilliant career as a statesman and politician, 
 bu1 to refer to his connection with the cause of 
 education, and the mighty impulse which was 
 given to it in the stale of New York by his 
 genius and public-Spirited exertions. The foun- 
 dation of the state school fund had already been 
 Commenced; but nothing had been done for 
 public education in the city of New York. In 
 L805, Clinton, then mayor of tin' city, joined 
 with several distinguished citizens in obtaining 
 an act of incorporation for the Society for Estab- 
 lishing a Free School in the city of New Fork, 
 for the education of such poor children as donot 
 
 
CLINTON 
 
 CO-EDUCATION 
 
 146 
 
 belong to, or are not provided for by, any re- 
 Ugiotis society; and for a period of 21 years, 
 from 1805 to l*'J<i. he was the president of the 
 society. This society was afterwards known as 
 the Public School Society, and its operations fill 
 a large space in the educational annals of the city. 
 In 1809, on the occasion of the inauguration of 
 its first large school (for it commenced with a 
 few poor children, in a single room), Clinton 
 delivered an interesting address, in which he 
 referred to the previous work of the society in 
 connection with the Lancasterian system, in the 
 following words : " When T perceive that many 
 boys in our school have been taught to read and 
 write in two months, who did not before know 
 the alphabet, and that even one has accomplish 1 
 it in three weeks — when I view all the bearings 
 and tendencies of this system — when I contem- 
 plate the habits of order which it forms, the 
 spirit of emulation which it excites, — when I 
 behold the extraordinary union of celerity in in- 
 struction and economy of expense, — and when I 
 perceive a great assembly of a thousand children 
 under the eye of a single teacher, marching with 
 unexampled rapidity and with perfect discipline 
 to the goal of knowledge, I confess that I rec- 
 ognize in Lancaster the benefactor of the human 
 race — I consider his system as creating a new 
 era in education, as a blessing sent down from 
 heaven to redeem the poor and distressed of this 
 world from the power and dominion of ignorance/' 
 The merits of the mutual system of instruction 
 as a means — and then the only means — of diffus- 
 ing the benefits of education among all classes of 
 the people, had impressed themselves deeply 
 upon his philanthropic mind. He discerned 
 clearly, to use his own language, that " the first 
 duty of a state is to render its citizens virtuous 
 by intellectual instruction and moral discipline, 
 by enlightening their minds, purifying their 
 hearts, and teaching them their rights and their 
 obligations." He took an active part in enlarg- 
 ing the means of ed tcation by augmenting, and 
 rendering more available, the school fund of the 
 state. In 1826, in his annual message, he re- 
 marked, "Our common schools embrace children 
 from 5 to 16 years old, and continue to increase 
 and prosper. The appropriation for the school 
 fund for the last year was $80,670, and an equiv- 
 alent sum is also raised by taxation in the several 
 counties and towns, and is also applied in the 
 same way. The capital fund is $1,333,000, which 
 will be in a state of rapid augmentation from 
 sales of the public lands and other sources ; and 
 it is well ascertained that more than 420,000 
 children have been taught in our common schools 
 during the last year. The sum distributed is 
 now too small, and the general fund can well 
 warrant an augmentation to $120,000 annually.'' 
 In May, 182d, the Presbyterian Society for the 
 Promotion of the Education of Youth elected 
 De Witt Clinton its president, and he continued 
 to occupy this position till his death. On taking 
 the chair, he delivered an address, in the course 
 of which he said, " Monitorial education, Sun- 
 day schools, and Bible societies are the great 
 10 
 
 levers which must raise public opinion to its 
 proper elevation." lie also took an active inter- 
 est in the Infant School Society of New York, 
 founded in 1*27. upon the plan of similar insti- 
 tutions in Great Britain, These schools were 
 designed to receive such children of the laboring 
 poor, as had not attained the age at which they 
 could be received into other schools. Indeed, 
 such were the active beneficence and public spirit 
 of De Witt Clinton, that, in the community to 
 which he belonged, there was scarcely an enter- 
 prise designed, in any way. to promote the good 
 of mankind, in which he did not take a leading 
 part. Among such may be further mentioned, 
 the New York Hospital and the New York 
 Historirttt S'icit'ty, of the latter of which he was 
 the president from 181*7 to 1820. Be was also 
 a member of most of the literary and scientific 
 institutions in the United States, and of several 
 of those of Great Britain and the continent of 
 Europe. It was well remarked by Dr. Samuel 
 H. Cox, one of his distinguished contemporaries, 
 that " he was remarkable at once for the com- 
 bination of great qualities, and the happy equi- 
 librium of their adjustment. He was unquestion- 
 ably a man of genius, a scholar, a jurist, a states- 
 man, an enlightened political economist, a deep 
 and practical projector, and a polished gentle- 
 man." — See Hosack, Memoir of lie Witt Clinton 
 (N. Y., 1829); S. S. Randall, History of the 
 Common-School Si/stem of the State of New 
 York (N. Y., 1871). (See also New York.) 
 
 COACH, a cant term applied to a private tu- 
 tor (particularly in the English universities), who 
 prepares students to pass the public examinations 
 (hence the verb coach, to give such instruction). 
 Such tutors are graduates from the university, 
 and are prepared for the special function which 
 they perform, not only by scholarship, but by ex- 
 perience in the particular requisites of the college 
 examinations, as well as by address in teaching. 
 — See Bristed, Five Years in an English Uni- 
 versity (N. Y., 1852). 
 
 CO-EDUCATION of the Sexes, a term 
 used to denote the system of educating males 
 and females together, that is, in the same insti- 
 tution, school, or class, and by means of the same 
 studies, and methods, pupils of each sex receiving 
 the same school training and culture. This sys- 
 tem, in the lower grades of schools, has been al- 
 ways prevalent in the United States, as being the 
 most convenient and economical for small com- 
 munities. Where only one small district school 
 could be supported, of course, the separate in- 
 struction of boys and girls was out of the question. 
 This practice, so common, appeared, and still ap- 
 pears, to receive not only the tolerant assent of 
 parents as a necessity, but, in most cases, an un- 
 qualified approval, as being not simply expedient, 
 but, in all respects, the best to be adopted. In 
 some of the large cities, as the schools grew 
 large, and were composed of children gathered 
 from all classes of society, it was often deemed 
 best to organize separate boys' and girls' schools; 
 especially, as this could be done without any in- 
 jury, but, probably with a benefit to the clas- 
 
146 
 
 CO-EDUCATION 
 
 sification. Private seminaries, however, have 
 generally been separate schools, except those for 
 the youngest pupils. Passing from the grade of 
 primary schools, we find the propriety of co-edu- 
 cation to be a question among educators ; while 
 many patents prefer that even the youngest 
 children of their families should attend schools 
 exclusively for either sex. Those who oppose 
 co-education allege as reasons for their views. 
 (1) That there is need of a better adaptation of 
 instruction and discipline to the peculiarities of 
 the .sexes than is possible in mixed schools ; (2) 
 That the manners of the girls are unfavorably 
 affected by the constant example of the rougher, 
 coarser conduct of the boys, the latter receiving 
 but little or no benefit from the presence of the 
 girls; and (3) That the moral character of each is 
 liable to be impaired by a premature develop- 
 ment of the sexual instincts, caused by the 
 constant presence of the other sex. With but 
 few exceptions, these arguments are advanced by 
 those who have only theoretically considered the 
 subject, or by those whose practical experience 
 has been in connection with mixed schools of 
 which the discipline and management were im- 
 perfect, thus leading to abuses which, under 
 proper and normal circumstances, would have 
 been eliminated. On the other hand, wh 
 there has been a thorough and proper trial of 
 the co-education of boys and girls, the testimony 
 serins to be strongly, and almost exclusively, 
 favorable to that system. In many of the large 
 cities of the Union, this is the prevalent plan of 
 organization, and the reports of superintendents 
 are quite emphatic in its approval. The allege I 
 benefits arising from it are chiefly the fol- 
 lowing: (h Improvement in discipline, the self- 
 will, violence, and rudeness of the boys being 
 restrained by the presence of the girls; while 
 the girls' manners are rendered more easy and 
 self-possessed by daily school association with 
 the other sex; (2) Improvement in instruction 
 and Study, the diversities of the sexes prevent- 
 ing extreme methods, and exclusive, one side I 
 
 training and study. Thus.it is said, that the 
 tastes of the boys for severer studies, such as 
 mathematics, are corrected by the inclination of 
 the oaris for the lighter and more sentimental 
 studies, general literal me. poetry, etc.; (.'}) .V 
 mure sound and healthy development of both 
 se\cs; in support of which it is asserted that 
 "schools kept exclusively for girls or boys, re- 
 quire a much mure strict surveillance on the 
 pari of tin- teachers. The girls confined by 
 themselves, develop the sexual tension much 
 earlier, their imagination being the reigning 
 faculty, and not bridled l»y intercourse with 
 society in its normal form. So it is with the 
 boys, OB the Other hand. Daily association in 
 the class room prevents this tension, and supplies 
 its place i'\ mi lifference. Bach Bex testing its 
 
 Strength with the other, on an intellectual plane. 
 
 in the presence of the teacher— each one seeing 
 
 the Weakness and Strength of the other, learns 
 
 to esteem what is essential at its true value. 
 That the sexual tension be developed aa late as 
 
 possible, and that all early love affairs be avoided, 
 is the desideratum; and experience has shown, 
 that association of the sexes on the plane of in- 
 tellectual contest is the safest course to secure 
 this end." Thus, the theory of one side in re- 
 gard to sexual peculiarities is just the reverse of 
 that of the other ; but it is claimed that prac- 
 tical experience confirms the latter, while the for- 
 mer is only a theory; and for this claim there 
 appears to be a pretty strong foundation. The 
 citation given above is from the report of one of 
 the most experienced school superintendents of 
 the United States, and is based upon an obser- 
 vation of the mixed system in large public 
 schools for fifteen years. (See School iRepori if 
 St. Louis, 1869 — TO.) In the city of New York, 
 in 1874, the number of mixed grammar schools 
 was reported as 13, containing, in average at- 
 tendance, 2,400 pupils : and the superintendent 
 in his report for that year remarked: " A careful 
 examination of these schools, as to their disci- 
 pline and progress in scholarship, has elicited 
 nothing to discredit, in any way, this mode of or- 
 ganization, as compared with that of the other 
 schools. The principals commend it as possess- 
 ing many advantages over the plan of separating 
 male and female pupils of such an age and grade 
 of attainments, and parents seem to approve of 
 it." In New York, however, most of the schools 
 arc organized On the extreme separation system. 
 The report of the U. S. Commissioner of Edu- 
 cation, for 1874, states that there are in the 
 United States .ltd schools (secondary), contain- 
 ing 64,129 pupils, male and female (boys. 32,711; 
 girls. 27,942 : of others, sex not reported): while 
 the number of separate schools for boys, report- 
 ing to tin' Bureau, was 195, with 13,592 pupils; 
 and for girls. 275, with 20,458 pupils. This 
 would seem to indicate, as might naturally have 
 heeii expected, a tendency to separate schools for 
 ;_:it Is : but, at the same tame, shows that, in sec- 
 ondary education in the Inited States, the mixed 
 system prevails. There is, unquestionably, a 
 
 natural reluctance on the part of many parents 
 to send their daughters to schools in which boys 
 arc also educated: but this apprehension of danger 
 
 Seems to give way after a trial of co-education; 
 
 and. it is claimed that corrupt influences are 
 more liable to abound in schools exclusively for 
 either sex. hut particularly in separate schools 
 for girls. "To insure modesty." says Richter, 
 "I would advise the education of the sexes to- 
 gether; for two hoys will preserve twelve girls, 
 
 or two girls twelve boys, innocent, amidst winks, 
 jokes, and improprieties, merely by that instinct- 
 ive sense which is the forerunner of natural mod- 
 Bui I will guarantee nothing in a school 
 where -iris are alone together, and still less 
 w here hoys are." 
 
 All the facts and views here considered have, it 
 must he observed, reference onlj t" that limited 
 education which is carried on in schools, where 
 hoys and girls are brought together tor a brief 
 
 period to receive instruction in those branches 
 of study which are pursued for the purpose of 
 
 intellectual education. The question whether 
 
CO-EDUCATION 
 
 1i n 
 
 such a limited co-education is expedient and 
 proper, does ool involve a consideration of the 
 extent to which the distinction of sex requires a 
 diversification of method in education in a lar- 
 ger sense, as comprehending physical, mora], and 
 mental training. Extreme opinions, however, 
 prevail on this point. Dr. Clarke says, in Seas 
 in Education, " None doubl the importance of 
 acquirement, idiosyncrasy, and probable 
 career in life as factors in classification. Sex 
 goes deeper than any or all of these." On the 
 other hand, it is contended that sex is not to be 
 considered; and this is the position of most 
 women who have written on this question. 
 "Education," says Caroline II. I 'all, "is to be 
 adapted neither to boys nor to girls, but to indi- 
 viduals. The mother, or the teacher, has learned 
 little who attempts to train any two children 
 alike, whether as regards the books they are to 
 study, tin; time it is to take, the attitudes they 
 are to assume, or the amusements they are to be 
 allowed.'' The general principle, without doubt, 
 is, that education should be adapted to the in- 
 dividual ; but as there are many diversities of 
 character, both physical and mental, which arise 
 from the difference of sex, and, consequently, are 
 common to all of the same sex, boys cannot, in 
 every respect, be educated as girls. It is against 
 this " identical co-education," as he calls it, that 
 Dr. Clarke, in Sex in Education, so warmly in- 
 veighs. "Boys," he says, "must study and work," 
 "in a boy's way, and girls in a girl's way;" which 
 may be very true, and yet by no means invali- 
 date the propriety of school co-education. 
 
 In respect to the higher education of women, 
 this question takes a wider range ; and, since 
 the diversities of sex are, at this stage, more com- 
 pletely developed, the arguments against co-edu- 
 cation become more emphatic on the part of those 
 who view the subject from a theoretical stand- 
 point. These may be summed up as follows: (1) 
 The physiological peculiarities of the female sex 
 render it impossible that young women should 
 undergo the same continuous mental labor as 
 young men, without the sacrifice of their health, 
 and without impairing the functions proper to 
 their sex; (2) The constitution of the female 
 mind is so diverse from that of the male mind, 
 that it requires different studies, different modes 
 of instruction, and different regimen in every 
 n spect ; (3) The career in life which is the 
 destiny of woman demands a preparation diverse 
 from that which is to fit a young man for the 
 special duties of his sphere. The first of these 
 positions is, of course, of paramount importance; 
 although it is not simply an argument against 
 co-education, but against affording to young 
 women the same facilities for a higher education 
 as are afforded to young men. whether they are 
 educated together or not. " Appropriate educa- 
 tion of the two sexes," says Dr. Clarke, " carried 
 as far as possible, is a consummation most de- 
 voutly to be desired ; identical education of the 
 two sexes is a crime before God and humanity, 
 that physiology protests against, and that ex- 
 perience weeps over." Doubtless, this position 
 
 was based upon certain facts which came under 
 the writer's observation as a physician ; but it is 
 contended thai these cases were peculiar and ab- 
 normal, the result of an imprudent disregard of 
 individual peculiarities, and that thej were not 
 sufficiently numerous to form the basis of so 
 sweeping a. generalization; and that there are 
 no facts of the kind within the range of actual 
 experience in co-education to warrant this asser- 
 tion. Hence, in the words of Miss Anna I '. 
 Brackett, " the men, generally, and seemingly 
 without appreciation of its logical results, ap- 
 prove of what Dr. Clarke has said ; the women 
 of largest experience condemn, denying his prem- 
 ises, disproving his clinical evidence by adding 
 other facts, and protesting against his conclu- 
 sions." 
 
 Co-education in the higher institutions of 
 learning has, during the last few years, been 
 thoroughly tried in the United States; and the 
 system has rapidly advanced, stimulated by the 
 success which appears uniformly to have attended 
 the experiment. But a few years ago, there was 
 not one college in the United States, which af- 
 forded equal instruction to both sexes ; in 1874, « 
 according to the report of the U. S. Commis- 
 sioner of Education, there were 97 colleges and 
 universities in which the co-educative system 
 prevailed. Of the academies, normal schools, and 
 high schools, only about seventeen per cent are 
 for boys exclusively, nineteen per cent for girls 
 exclusively, and more than sixty per cent for 
 both sexes. The testimony of those experienced 
 as instructors in the higher institutions, as well 
 as of the alumnce themselves, appears to favor 
 strongly the principle and practice of co-educa- 
 tion. In 1853, Horace Mann accepted the posi- 
 tion of president of Antioch College, which had 
 just been established ; and, as the co-education 
 of the sexes in such an institution was then a 
 novel experiment, he had many misgivings as to 
 the result. Five years afterward, however, in a 
 letter to Mr. Combe, of Edinburgh, he stated, 
 "We really have the most orderly, sober, diligent, 
 and exemplary institution in the country. We 
 passed through the last term, and are more than 
 half through the present ; and I have not had 
 occasion to make a single entry of any misde- 
 meanor in our record book — not a case for any 
 serious discipline." Mrs. Mann, in the Life of 
 Horace Mann (Boston, 1865), says: " No one 
 conversant with the daily life and walk of Anti- 
 och College can deny that the purity and high 
 tone of its morals and manners, in both depart- 
 ments, were unequaled by those of any other 
 known institution.'" In 1868, the Westminster 
 Review said: "Antioch College has been visited 
 by Emerson, Theodore Parker, Oliver Wendell 
 Holmes, Dr.Bellows, and other distinguished men: 
 j and the testimonies as to its superior character 
 have been uniform." The writers of the article 
 referred to (The Suppressed Sex, Westminster 
 Review, Oct. 1868), stated, that he had resided in 
 the vicinity of Antioch College under circum- 
 stances that afforded ample opportunities for 
 forming an acquaintance with its plan, professors. 
 
148 
 
 CO-EDUCATION 
 
 and students ; and, although quite familiar with 
 the University of Virginia, Harvard, and to sonic 
 extent with English universities, he expressed 
 Ins "entire conviction that, in none of those male 
 institutions, can there be found anything com- 
 parable to the moral elevation, the refinement. 
 or the intellectual enthusiasm which characterize 
 the students of Antioch." As to the ability of 
 the female students to perform the intellectual 
 tasks assigns 1 to those of the other sex, the testi- 
 mony of college presidents and professors is uni- 
 formly and strongly favorable. President Fair- 
 child, of Oberlin, in 1874, said, " During my ex- 
 perience as professor — twenty-seven years in all — 
 I have never observed any difference in the sexes 
 as to performance in recitation. President 
 Angell, of the University of Michigan, said (1874), 
 " We have not had the slightest embarrassment 
 from the reception of women. They have done 
 their work admirably, and, apparently, "with no 
 peri] to their health." President White, of ( lornell 
 University, in an address delivered in 1st 1, said. 
 " The best Greek Bcholar among L ,300 students 
 of the University of Michigan a few years since, the 
 best mathematical scholar in one of (lie largest 
 classes of the institution to-day, and several 
 among the highesl in natural science and in the 
 general courses of study, are young women." 
 President Magill, of Swarthmore College, in an 
 address before the Pennsylvania State Teachers' 
 Association, August, L874, said. " As a rule, the 
 more faithful and conscientious discharge of their 
 duties, which characterizes the young women, 
 has produced a slight difference in their favor. 
 in the matter of scholarship. The average stand- 
 ing of the nine young women, for the four years. 
 was 80.8; that of the four young men, 82.2." 
 Professor Orton, of Yassar College, in an ad- 
 dress (entitled Four Fears in Vassar College) 
 before the National Educational Association. 
 August, 1ST 1. said, "Vassar graduated last dune 
 42, being just half the number who have been 
 connected with the class. Amherst graduated 
 62 out of 95, and ( lornell ii"> out of 261 — a pain- 
 ful example of 'the survival of the fittest'. Dur- 
 ing the past year, eleven per cent of the under- 
 graduates in VaSSar have been kept from college 
 duties more than ten days on account of illness; 
 while at Amherst, where the physical education of 
 the young men is more carefully attended to than 
 
 at any other college, the percentage was twenty- 
 one" Professor Bosmer, of the University of 
 Missouri, in a paper entitled Co-Education of the 
 Sexe& in Universities, read before the National 
 Educational Association in L874, cited many in- 
 stall inexperience unfavorable to tin- en 
 
 education of young men and women, and thus 
 
 very forcibly illustrated the need of great vigi 
 lane and caution in the management of institu- 
 tions where the sexes are thus educated. Still he 
 
 sums up the matter in (he following words: 
 "The coeducation of the sexes in universities i- 
 
 possible; even to Mime extent desirable, on ac- 
 count of a certain good influence which the sexes 
 may exert upon each other. That eo-education 
 is a matter of no difficulty, we are not to belies 6] 
 
 much less that it is to be accepted as the power 
 which is to produce straightway a millennium of 
 purity and good order." 
 
 A s to the effect of such an education upon the 
 after physical health and vigor, and the longevity, 
 of the female students, the statistics are. proba- 
 bly, insufficient to decide the question titherway. 
 Those given in Adelia A. P. Johnston's essay on 
 Oberlin College are very interesting and suggest- 
 ive, and seem to disprove the danger which, some 
 physicians have alleged, is attendant on such a 
 system of co-education. Of the 620 women grad- 
 uated, up to lb'73. at Oberlin College, some, she 
 says, have been "teachers in our common schools 
 and in our high schools, missionaries, both in the 
 home and foreign field, professors in female 
 medical colleges, founders of asylums ami homes 
 of refuge, and Leaders in all benevolent enter- 
 prises." The number of deaths among the 
 alumni is stated to have amounted to a little 
 over 10 per cent ; among the alumna, to 9.67 
 per cent. Twenty cases of alumnoe, the names of 
 whom are taken in alphabetic ordir from the roll. 
 are cited, to show how many.. seventeen years after 
 their graduation, were leading lives of healthful 
 vigor and activity: and the facts in regard to 
 each afford additional testimony, in disproof cf 
 the peril of "identical co-education" as regards 
 the health of the students. In briet.it may justly 
 be said, that the testimony of practical educators 
 is greatly in favor of the eo-education of the 
 sexes in the higher institutions of learning. 
 I'lie recently established Boston University 
 has been organized avowedly on the principle, 
 that a "university should exist not for one sex 
 merely, but equally for the two." " It welcomes," 
 says the University Year Hook, vol. n., "woman 
 not merely to the bench of the pupil, but also to 
 the chair of the professor. It is the first institu- 
 tion in tile Commonwealth of Massachusetts to 
 admit the two sexes to common advantages in 
 classical collegiate studies; the first in the world 
 to open the entire circle of post-graduate profes- 
 sional schools to men and women alike." 
 
 In Europe, co-education is generally discour- 
 aged; still, the principle seems to be gaining 
 st length, in consequence of the results of the pro- 
 visions made for the higher education of women. 
 In Switzerland, women have been admitted to 
 
 the various departments of the universities since 
 L864. In the university of Zurich, many young 
 Russian women have been educated; and in the 
 university of Bern there were, in 1875,32 female 
 students, pursuing their studies without any dis- 
 crimination as tosex. Women are now welcomed 
 to university instruction in Vienna, Paris. 
 Home. I.eipsie. (iottiiigcn, Preslau. and some 
 
 other European institutions Efforts have been 
 
 made, unsuccessful as yet. under the leadership 
 
 of Miss. lex Blake, to open to female students the 
 university of Edinburgh; and. practically, co- 
 education is sanctioned in connection with the 
 "university examinations for women" in Eng- 
 land, since the lectures Supplied by the Uni- 
 versity of Cambridge, for the purpose of afford- 
 a preparation for these examinations, are 
 
 / 
 
 mg 
 
COLBURN 
 
 COLBY UNIVERSITY 
 
 149 
 
 Opeil to both sexes. (See EXAMINATIONS.) Til 
 
 London, in 1st I . a college was opened under 
 the name of College for Men and Women, 
 which recently reported about 500 students. 
 In Cambridge, the establishment <>t' Newuham 
 Mall and Girton College for young women 
 shows the growth, of public sentiment in favor 
 of the higher education of women, and is a 
 step toward coeducation in the University 
 Plenum. Girton College holds simultaneous 
 examinations with those of the university, and 
 OSes the university examination questions. Ac- 
 cording to the report of the National Union far 
 Improving the Education of Women (1874), 
 more than two-thirds of all the professional 
 lectures of the University of Cambridge have 
 been thrown open to women. Public sentiment 
 in Great Britain is growing in favor of co-edu- 
 cation. Some of the great leading journals have 
 already commenced to advocate it. The Exam- 
 iii' r declares. •■ We believe the separation of the 
 sexes in the worlds of learning and thought to be 
 simply evil. To allow young men and young 
 women to meet together for amusement and 
 frivolity, and strictly to part them when at work 
 with any serious endeavor, is surely foolish." — ■ 
 See E. H. Clarke, M. [>.. Sex in Education 
 (Boston, 1873) ; and The Building <>f a Bruin 
 (Boston. 1874); Anna C. Brackets, The Edu- 
 cation of American Girls (N. V.. 1*74): E. B. 
 Duffey, No Sex in Education (1'hila.. 1*74); 
 Westminster Review, Oct. 1808, s. v. The Sup- 
 prrsseif Sex, and Oct. 1873, s. v. The Educa- 
 tion of Women in America; Boston Univer- 
 sity Year Book, vols. i. and n. ; D. Beale, Uni- 
 versity Examinations for Women (London, 
 L875); Report of the Public Sri,,, oh of St. Louis, 
 for 1869—70, and 1872—3: Report of the Com- 
 missioner of Education (Washington, L875). 
 
 COLBURN, Warren, one of the most emi- 
 nent American mathematicians and teachers, 
 was born at Dedham, Mass.. March 1., 1793, ami 
 died at Lowell, Sept. 15., 1833. His parents 
 were poor; and Warren, who was the eldest son 
 of a large family, could attend the district school 
 only a portion of the year, working during the 
 remainder on his father's farm. Subsequently, 
 he worked in the factories, till having turned 
 his attention to machinery, he followed, for some 
 time, the trade of a machinist. He had. how- 
 ever, always been diligent in the improvement 
 of his mind, manifesting an unusual talent for 
 arithmetic; and, in his twenty-third year, he 
 entered Harvard College, at which he graduated 
 in L820. After leaving the college, he taught a 
 private school in Boston; and in 1*21 published 
 his First Lessons in Mental Arithmetic, the 
 book which made him famous. The publication 
 oi this wi irk. to a certain extent, revolutionized 
 the method of teaching arithmetic then in vogue, 
 substituting for the mechanical working-out of 
 problems by rule, exercises in intellectual arith- 
 metic, of a simple and progressive character, re- 
 quiring not only calculation but analysis. In 
 in- address on Teaching Arithmetic, delivered in 
 1830, before the American Institute of Instruc- 
 
 tion, he compares what he called the old and the 
 new system, thus describing the latter : " By the 
 new system, the learner commences with practical 
 examples, in which the numbers are so small 
 that he can easily reason upon them; and the 
 reference to sensible objects gives him an idea at 
 once of the kind of result which he ought to pro- 
 duce, and suggests to him the method of proceed- 
 ing necessary to obtain it. By this he is thrown 
 immediately upon his own resources, and is com- 
 pelled to exert bis own powers. At the same 
 time, he meets with no greater difficulty than he 
 feels himself competent to overcome. In this 
 way, every step is accompanied with complete 
 demonstration. Every new example increases 
 his powers and his confidence; and most scholars 
 soon acquire such a habit of thinking and rea- 
 soning for themselves, that they will not be satis- 
 fied with anything which they do not under- 
 stand, in any of their studies. Instead of study- 
 ing rules in the book, the reason of which he 
 does not understand, the scholar makes his own 
 rules ; and his rules are a generalization of his 
 own reasoning, and in a way agreeable to his own 
 associations." The composition of this book was 
 the result of Colburn's own teaching, and em- 
 bodied his methods. "The pupils," he said, "while 
 under tuition, made his arithmetic for him." 
 The sale of tliis book was enormous, not only in 
 the United State's, but in Great Britain, reach- 
 ing, it is said, in the former 100,000 copies, and 
 in the latter 50,000 copies, annually. It was 
 also translated into most of the languages of 
 Europe, as well as into some others. Its plan is 
 that which was conceived by Pestalozzi, but 
 Oolburn realized it, and adapted it to general 
 use. George B. Emerson, in the Schoolmaster 
 (1842), says of this work: "Colburn's First 
 Lessojis is the only faultless school-book that 
 we have. It has made a great change in the 
 mode of teaching arithmetic, and is destined to 
 make a still greater. It should be made the 
 basis of all instruction in this department." Col- 
 burn's career as a practical teacher was quite 
 short, continuing only three years. The subse- 
 quent part of his life was spent in the work of 
 superintending a large manufacturing company, 
 first at Waltham, afterwards at Lowell : but he 
 delivered several courses of lectures on natural 
 history and physics, published a Sequel to the 
 First Lessons (1*24), compiled a school text- 
 book on algebra, and also a series of reading- 
 books, on an original plan. It was, however, his 
 First Lessons that gave him his celebrity as an 
 educator, and that will ever associate his name 
 with the subject of oral or intellectual arithmetic. 
 " Then' are few men," it has been remarked, 
 " who. in so short and quiet a life, have done so 
 
 much good, and rendered their names so familiar 
 
 as W'anvu Colburn." — See Baenard, Educa- 
 tional Biography (N. Y., 18(d). 
 
 COLBY UNIVERSITY, at Watervffle, 
 Maine, under the control of the Baptists, was 
 Founded in 1*20. There are four fine college 
 buildings. The value of the college property is 
 $150,000, and the amount of productive funds. 
 
150 
 
 COLLEGE 
 
 8200.000. Scholarships to the number of 60, 
 yielding from $36 ti> Sf>0 per annum each, have 
 been founded for the benefit of students needing 
 aid. The charge for tuition, room-rent, and use 
 of library is $41 per annum. The institution 
 has a gymnasium, a cabinet of natural history, 
 especially rich in the departments of conchology 
 and ornithology, and a library of about 10,000 
 volumes. The two literary societies have libra- 
 ries of about 3,000 volumes each. The Water- 
 ville Classical Institute is under the control of 
 the trusters of the university, and serves as a 
 preparatory department. The regular university 
 course is the ordinary four years' course of 
 American colleges. Persons of suitable age and 
 attainments are allowed to pursue a partial 
 course for any length of time not less than one 
 year, selecting such studies as they may desire. 
 On leaving the institution, they are entitled to a 
 certificate of their respective acquirements in 
 
 the studies in which they have passed an exami- 
 nation. The courses of study are DOW open to 
 young women on the same terms as to young 
 men. In 1873 — 4, there were 7 professors and 
 62 students, of whom 5 were females; namely, 
 senior class. 7; junior, Ifi: sophomore, It: fresh- 
 man, 25. The Rev. Henry E. Robins, D. D., is 
 (1876) the president. 
 
 COLLEGE (Latin collegium, originally mean- 
 ing any kind of association) is a name given to 
 large classes of educational institutions, especially 
 in the United States, England, and France. The 
 academic use of the word college began about 
 the beginning of the L3th century, and originated 
 in the following manner. The students who 
 flocked to the university towns often came into 
 collision with the citizens, and frequent brawls 
 resulted. In order to protect the public peace. 
 as well as to watch over the students, lodging- 
 houses were provided in which the students were 
 under the charge of a superior. These houses 
 were called colleges; and this name was afterwards 
 applied to any academic institution of a certain 
 grade, whether connected with a university or 
 not. Colleges appear to have first been estab- 
 lished in Paris; and soon afterward in Oxford 
 and Cambridge, in Bologna and Padua, and 
 
 in Fragile and Vienna. They were richly en- 
 dowed by popes and other dignitaries of the 
 church, princes, and powerful families ; and. in 
 
 some of the university towns just named, 1 1 i y 
 became so numerous in the L5th century, that 
 
 almost every studenl of the university was a 
 member of some one of the colleges. 
 
 France. In Paris, several monastic orders 
 founded colleges to give to their younger mem- 
 bers an opportunity to study theology and philos- 
 ophy at the great Beats of learning; other colleges 
 were founded in some of the French provinces and 
 in several foreign countries. Among the oldest 
 French colleges were the College of St. Thomas, 
 the Danish College, College des Dix-huit,the Col 
 lege Grec (founded in 1206), the College des Bans 
 Enfants 1 1. 208), thai of the Premonstratensians 
 (1252), the Sorbonne, founded in 1253 for 16 
 I r siu dents of theology, and subsequently one 
 
 of the most famous of French colleges, the Col- 
 lege de la Congregation de Glugny (1269), and 
 
 the Colleijc <li' Ximirre, founded in 1304 by the 
 Queen of Navarre. In France, these colleges 
 were almost exclusively situated in Paris, where 
 their number, up to the end of the 13th century, 
 rose to 1">, and subsequently increased to about 
 LOO; many of these, however, were of little im- 
 portance. From their origin, it is plain that 
 colleges were not originally designed to give in- 
 struction, but merely to look after the students, 
 and also to help the poorer ones in their course 
 at the university. The teaching, however, be- 
 longed entirely to the university. This was 
 gradually changed, and the colleges, from being 
 j merely auxiliary to the university, became 
 finally the centers of instruction. By limiting 
 lectures and disputations to a single department, 
 the colleges became so many distinct faculties; 
 
 and the university assumed the character of a 
 union of colleges. In modern times, the term 
 college is. in France, the distinctive name for 
 
 schools of sec lary instruction, corresponding 
 
 to the gymnasiums of Germany and other coun- 
 tries. The higher class of these schools arc 
 called lyceums isee Lyceum), the lower, com- 
 munal colleges [colleges communaux). In 1873, 
 there were 78 lyceums and 236 communal col- 
 leges; iiesides. a number of private institutions 
 of a similar grade were called colleges libres. 
 These colleges have the character either of Latin 
 schools or real-schools. The former strive to 
 emulate the lyceums, though consisting some- 
 times of only a ivw of the lower classes, and 
 frequently giving special prominence to a scien- 
 tific course of instruction. The latter class of 
 colleges generally exclude Latin, and are real- 
 schools for pupils of the middle class, who intend 
 to devote themselves to industry, commerce, arts, 
 and agriculture. .Many of them prepare their 
 pupils to enter the special schools. There is a 
 great variety in the courses of instinct ion of 
 these schools. Among the best schools of the 
 
 kind is the College municipal Chaptaloi Paris, 
 founded in lsii by the city. It consists of 6 
 
 classes. The subjects of instruction in the first 
 
 or lower class are (1) Religion; (2) Arithmetic 
 (decimal and common fractions; exercises in the 
 
 metrical system : calculation of extension, sur- 
 face, and solids | ; i .". i French and General <>' ram- 
 mar ; ill German and English; (5) Geography; 
 (6) General History: (7) Geometrical Drawing; 
 (8) Free hand Drawing; (9) Singing. Ln the second 
 class, the same subjects are taught, and. in ad- 
 dition, the elements of geometry and mathemat- 
 ical geography. Those of the third class, besides 
 
 the studies of the preceding class, give instruction 
 iii algebra, natural philosophy, chemistry, stere- 
 ometry, mineralogy, and book-keeping. Those of 
 the fourth class discontinue arithmetic. and take 
 Up trigonometry, Latin. Italian or Spanish. 
 
 mechanics, botany, and zoOlogy. In the /;/'/// class. 
 the history of French literature, hygienics, and 
 technology are added. In the sixth or highest 
 
 class. are taught geology, Cosmography, industrial 
 and political economy, and the history of France. 
 
COLLEGE 
 
 151 
 
 Tli.' subjects taught in all the six classes are 
 religion, French (in the lower classes grammar, 
 in the higher literature), German or English, 
 history, drawing, and Hin ging . The College de 
 "Prance, in Pans, is an institution of a higher 
 grade than either the communal colleges or 
 rjceums, presenting a system of instruction 
 almost as comprehensive as that of a complete 
 university. It was founded by Francis I., in 1530, 
 and its professors have always borne the name 
 of lecteurs royaux. It has counted among its 
 prof essors some of the greatest scholars of France, 
 and has at present 28 professors and several 
 distinct courses, embracing all the different sci- 
 ences, law. medicine, as well as classic, modern, 
 European, and oriental literature. 
 
 Qreat Britain and Ireland. — The colleges 
 founded in England in connection with the uni- 
 versities of Oxford and Cambridge, were not in- 
 tended to afford instruction, but to aid students 
 in passing through the university. The rich en- 
 dowments which were conferred upon the col- 
 leges, however, soon enabled them to give to 
 their inmates instruction as well as aid, and so 
 increased their reputation and importance, that 
 the university, with its four faculties, gradually 
 losl its hold of the students, and retained little 
 more power than the conferring of degrees and 
 other honors. The studies designed to prepare 
 the students for the academic degrees, were 
 chiefly pursued in the colleges, and it was espe- 
 cially the lectures of the faculty of arts which 
 were transferred to the colleges. " The colleges," 
 said one of the speakers during the discussions 
 upon the Cambridge bill, in the House of Com- 
 mons, May 30., 1856, " have overshadowed and 
 practically almost monopolized the teaching of 
 the university." Every college is a corporation 
 of its own, having its own statutes, and electing 
 one of its members for the legislative and exec- 
 
 • • • 
 
 utive authorities of the university. The general 
 name given to the heads of the colleges is Heads 
 of Houses ; but there is a considerable diversity 
 in the titles which the Heads of Houses have in 
 different colleges. In some, the head is called 
 Master, a. title which prevails in Cambridge ; in 
 ■others. Provost, President, Procurator, Warden, 
 /.'• ctor, Perpetual Rector, or Dean. Most of the 
 1 hails of Houses are Doctors of Divinity. Next 
 to the Heads of House- are the Fellows, a num- 
 ber of graduates who receive an income from 
 the funds of the college, and are permitted to 
 retain their positions for life, unless they inherit 
 ttes of greater income, or marry. The num- 
 ber of fellowships in Cambridge is 4,'5() ; in Ox- 
 ford, f>4<». The Heads of Houses are elected for 
 life by the Fellows. A portion of the under- 
 graduates also derive an income from the funds 
 of the colleges, and are called Foundation Mem- 
 bers. Members not on the Foundation constitute 
 a large number of graduates who continue their 
 names on the lists of the college in order to have 
 the right to take pari in the sittings of the sen- 
 ate, and of independent under-graduates. who ac- 
 cording to their rank and expenditures, are 
 called "Noblemen, Gentlemen Commoners, Fellow 
 
 Commoners, Commoners, or Pensioners (the 
 terms used at the two universities not quite 
 agreeing). The under-graduate. on entering col- 
 lege, is assigned to a "tutor," who is to him in 
 loco parentis, superintends his conduct, and 
 provides for his instruction in the different stud- 
 ies by the college lecturers or sub-lecturers. 
 The latter instruct those students whom the 
 lecturer cannot admit to his classes, either for 
 the want of room, or for some other reason. The 
 tutor may be, at the same time, a college lec- 
 turer. The instruction in the college aims almost 
 exclusively at preparing the student for the ex- 
 aminations, which are partly college and partly 
 university examinations. The college examina- 
 tions are called collections, and take place at the 
 end of every term, when each student has to 
 answer in writing several questions relative to 
 all the studies pursued by him. (For the uni- 
 versity examinations, see University.) Oxford 
 University contains 21 colleges and "> halls: 
 Cambridge. 1 7 colleges or halls (the two terms 
 in Cambridge meaning the same). Next to these 
 most important institutions, Trinity College, 
 Dublin, holds a high rank. The Queen's Uni- 
 versity in Ireland consists of three colleges, lo- 
 cated in Belfast, Cork, and Calway. Until about 
 1 830, dissenters' colleges were not allowed to grant 
 degrees without requiring the graduates to sub- 
 scribe to the ^drty-nine art ivies. This caused 
 a great deal of political agitation, which resulted 
 in granting the privilege to these institutions, and 
 also in founding the University College, King's 
 College, and the University of London, in which 
 | the thirty-mine articles are not insisted upon as 
 1 a condition of admission. These institutions 
 have also served to promote the study of the 
 natural sciences ; Oxford and ( ambridge being 
 still, in this respect, strongholds of conservatism. 
 The '• great public schools," such as Eton and 
 Rugby, are, in effect, colleges. Of these there 
 are 17, some of which have also the name college; 
 as Eton College, Dulwich College, Wellington 
 College, and Winchester College. Some of the 
 schools classed as grammar schools (see Gram- 
 mar Schools) are also styled colleges. Besides 
 these, there are many theological colleges, classi- 
 fied as follows: Established, 11 ; Wesleyan, 7 ; 
 < 'ongregationalist, 11; Roman Catholic, 11; 
 Baptist, 9 ; Presbyterian. 3 ; Calvinist, '1: Meth- 
 odist. 2 : Unitarian, 1 ; Free Religious Thought, 
 1. There were also, in 1875 (according to 
 Wkittaker's Almanack for 1870), five "Ladies' 
 
 ( olleges." 
 
 United States. — The American colleges grant 
 degrees in the arts, and give the ordinary course 
 of under-graduate instruction. Some of the older 
 colleges, as Vale and Harvard, add instruction in 
 theology, law, and medicine, and thus approach 
 to the rank of universities in tin- European sense 
 of the word. Most of the so-called universities, 
 however, furnish only collegiate instruction : and 
 there is, as yet. no fixed distinction between the 
 terms college and university in the United States. 
 The institutions of this kind considerably differ 
 in their mode of organization. On the one hand, 
 
152 
 
 COLLEGE 
 
 are those which, adhering to the old system, have 
 fixed standards of admission and a curriculum 
 strictly prescribed ; on the other, those which 
 have no fixed standard of admission nor pre- 
 scribed curriculum, their course of studies being 
 arranged in schools, among which the student 
 may select at will. Of the former (the prevailing 
 system) Yale may be taken as a representative : 
 of the latter, the University of Virginia. Be- 
 tween these two extremes, are those that allow a 
 greater or less freedom of choice to the student. 
 Some, like I Iarvard and Yale, have distinct scien- 
 tific departments ; others, like Cornell Univer- 
 sity, have parallel courses in which greater atten- 
 tion may be paid to science or to modern lan- 
 guages than in the classical course. With some 
 of the colleges, professional schools are connected. 
 Of about 350 institutions in the United States, 
 styled colleges or universities, and possessing the 
 right to confer degrees, a large majority have 
 preparatory, and some, inferior departments, 
 which often, especially in the West and South, 
 comprise the greater part of the students. I Iar- 
 vard, Vale, and a few others have post-graduate 
 courses of study. The principal degrees confer- 
 red are as follows: undergraduate,- Bachelor 
 of Arts, of Science, of Philosophy, of Literature, 
 of Letters; post-graduate. — Master of Arts. I >octor 
 of Philosophy, Doctor of Science; professional, — 
 Civil Engineer, Mining Engineer, Bachelor of 
 Laws, Bachelor of Divinity, Doctor of Medicine : 
 honorary, — Doctor of Divinity. Doctor of Laws. 
 The degree of Master ofAxts is ordinarily con- 
 ferred, as of course, upon Bachelors of Arts of 
 three years' standing; but, in some institutions.it 
 implies a course of post-graduate study, and it is 
 often honorary. Many details respecting the 
 course of study will be given in the articles on 
 the different institutions, and matters relating to 
 professional and other special degrees will be 
 
 noticed under the appropriate heads. Only the 
 range of studies open to candidates for the 
 degree of Bachelor of Arts will be noticed here, 
 and, for this purpose, Harvard and Vale will be 
 taken as examples. The term of study for this 
 degree U, in almost every institution, four years ; 
 the method of instruction is ordinarily a combi- 
 nation of lectures, recitations, and written cx- 
 aminat ions. 
 
 In Harvard, the course of study includes 
 I lebrew. Sanskrit, I ireek and I. at in (language and 
 literature, including ecclesiastical Greek and the 
 elements of Roman law). Anglo-Saxon, Knglish 
 language and literature, German, French, Italian. 
 Spanish, Romance philology, rhetoric, political 
 economy, logic, metaphysics, ethics, history (in- 
 cluding international law), mathematics (includ- 
 ing the higher branches), physics (including 
 
 mechanics, astronomy, optics, acoustics, electric- 
 ity, etc.), chemistry [including mineralogy), nat- 
 ural history (including physical geography, me- 
 teoroli igy, ge< »logy, botany, zooli >gy, palaeontology, 
 and comparative anatomy and physiology i, music, 
 and the fine arts, in oaanj of these branches, 
 several parallel courses are arranged. The pre- 
 scribed studies occupy the whole of the fresh- 
 
 man year, and about one third of the sophomore 
 and junior years. For the senior year, oidy cer- 
 tain written exercises are prescribed. The re- 
 mainder of the time is occupied by elect ives, in 
 the choice of which the student is limited only 
 by his qualification to pursue them. The clas- 
 sics or mathematics may be pursued through the 
 entire four years. The requirements for admis- 
 sion are embraced in two courses, distinguished 
 by a preponderance of the classics and mat he- 
 matics respectively. The first course embraces 
 Latin grammar and composition, with the trans- 
 lation of Latin prose at sight; Caesar, De Bello 
 GaUico, Books I. — IV., inclusive ; Sallust, Cati- 
 line; Ovid. 4.001) lines; Cicero, eight orations 
 and Cato Major; Virgil, Bucolics, and d&neid, 
 1 Books I. — VI., inclusive; (ireek grammar and 
 (composition; Goodwin and Allen's (ireek 
 Reader, orXenophon's Anabasis, Books I. — IV., 
 inclusive, with the Seventh Book of Herodotus; 
 Homer's Iliad, Books 1. — IH., inclusive, omitting 
 the catalogue of ships ; arithmetic, including the 
 metric system of weights and measures, with the 
 rudiments of logarithms: algebra, through quad- 
 ratic equations; as much plane geometry as is 
 contained in the first L5 chapters of I'circe's 
 Geometry; ancient history and geography; mod- 
 ern and physical geography; Knglish composi- 
 tion ; the translation at sight of either easy 
 French prose or easy German prose: and either 
 elementary botany, rudiments of physics and 
 of chemistry, or rudiments of physics and of 
 descriptive astronomy. The second course em- 
 braces Latin grammar; Caesar, De Bello Oallico, 
 Books I. and II.; Cicero, six orations and 
 Cato Major) Virgil, fflrufid, Hooks I. — VX, in- 
 clusive ; (ireek grammar ; Goodwin and Allen's 
 (ireek Header, first 111 pages, or Xenophon's 
 Anabasis, Hooks I. — IV., inclusive: Homer's 
 Iliad, Bonks Land 1 L. omitting the catalogue of 
 ships: algebra, as much as is contained in the 
 larger treatises of Greenleaf, etc.; solid geometry, 
 as much as is contained in IVirce's ( ieometry ; 
 plane trigonometry: elements of plane analytical 
 geometry; with arithmetic, plane geometry, 
 history, geography, Knglish composition, French 
 or German, and physical science as in the first 
 course. 
 
 In Vale, tin ursc of instruction and the terms 
 
 of admission are similar to those of the better 
 
 class of colleges throughout the country. The 
 course uf instruction includes the (ireek and 
 
 Latin languages and literatures (three years), 
 mathematics (two years), history, rhetoric, trench 
 
 or German (two terms, junior yean, natural 
 
 philosophy, logic, astronomy, physics, mental 
 
 philosophy, political and social science, chemistry, 
 natural theology and evidences of Christianity, 
 
 moral philosophy, geology, anatomy and physi- 
 ology, the history of philosophy, constitutional 
 history, the constitution of the Dnited States, lan- 
 guage and the study of language. In some of 
 these subjects, the instruction is imparted Bimply 
 by lectures. The course of in.-t nut ion is strictly 
 prescribed, except that the differentia] and ill- 
 tegral calculus may he substituted for (ireek 
 
COLLEGE 
 
 153 
 
 or Lathi during the first two terms of the 
 junior year. 
 
 The requirements for admission arc Latin 
 grammar; sallust, Bettum Jugurthinum, or four 
 books of Caesar; Cicero, aeven orations; Virgil, 
 s-. (icon/ics. and the first six books of 
 ih,' .Knrul; Arnold's Latin Prose Composition, 
 first twelve chapters; Greek grammar; Xeno- 
 phon's Anabasis, four books; Homer's Mad, 
 tlu-ee books; Greek history ; higher arithmetic, 
 including the metric system of weights and 
 measures ; algebra ; Euclid, first two books ; 
 English grammar and geography. In the post- 
 graduate course, facilities are afforded for the 
 study of Anglo-Saxon, the American Indian lan- 
 guages (especially the dialects of the Algonquin 
 family i, Sanskrit, the Chinese and Japanese 
 languages, Hebrew, and some other branches not 
 in the undergraduate course. 
 
 According to the Report of the U. S. Com- 
 missioner of Education for 1874, there were, in 
 the I'nited States. ,'iU> universities and colleges, 
 with 3,783 instructors' and 56,692 students, dis- 
 tributed according to the following table : 
 
 STATES and TERRITORIES. 
 
 Alabama 
 
 Arkansas 
 
 California 
 
 f Connecticut 
 
 Delaware 
 
 Georgia 
 
 Illinois 
 
 Indiana 
 
 Iowa 
 
 Kansas 
 
 Kentucky 
 
 Louisiana 
 
 Maine 
 
 Maryland 
 
 Massachusetts 
 
 Michigan 
 
 Minnesota 
 
 Mississippi 
 
 Missouri 
 
 Nebraska 
 
 New Hampshire 
 
 New Jersey 
 
 New York 
 
 North Carolina 
 
 Ohio 
 
 Oregon 
 
 Pennsylvania 
 
 Rhode Island 
 
 South Carolina 
 
 Tennessee 
 
 Texas 
 
 Vermont 
 
 Virginia 
 
 West Virginia 
 
 Wisconsin 
 
 District of Columbia 
 
 Colorado 
 
 Dtah 
 
 Washington 
 
 In the foregoing table, the colleges and nni- 
 versities are placed together, but in such case 
 only the collegiate department is to be under- 
 stood. When there is a medical, law, or the- 
 ological department, the statistics of the same 
 are given elsewhere under the appropriate title. 
 
 - ;o 
 o 
 
 No. in- 
 structors 
 
 No. stu- 
 dents. 
 
 5 
 
 55 
 
 274 
 
 2 
 
 8 
 
 39 
 
 12 
 
 L3o 
 
 752. 
 
 3 
 
 .).) 
 
 855 
 
 l 
 
 6 
 
 45 
 
 ;. 
 
 35 
 
 574 
 
 •2:: 
 
 232 
 
 1,904 
 
 17 
 
 132 
 
 1,613 
 
 17 
 
 L38 
 
 829 
 
 7 
 
 42 
 
 206 
 
 12 
 
 7!) 
 
 802 
 
 7 
 
 56 
 
 82 
 
 3 
 
 32 
 
 355 
 
 7 
 
 77 
 
 477 
 
 7 
 
 132 
 
 1,517 
 
 7 
 
 '.in 
 
 817 
 
 3 
 
 38 
 
 167 
 
 6 
 
 46 
 
 271 
 
 17 
 
 175 
 
 1,358 
 
 3 
 
 19 
 
 55 
 
 1 
 
 20 
 
 265 
 
 4 
 
 61 
 
 645 
 
 26 
 
 410 
 
 3,010 
 
 6 
 
 31 
 
 267 
 
 34 
 
 258 
 
 2,430 
 
 7 
 
 30 
 
 180 
 
 27 
 
 256 
 
 2,238 
 
 1 
 
 15 
 
 253 
 
 s 
 
 33 
 
 287 
 
 10 
 
 130 
 
 757 
 
 12 
 
 64 
 
 691 
 
 3 
 
 20 
 
 161 
 
 K 
 
 72 
 
 L.284 
 
 3 
 
 23 
 
 171 
 
 It) 
 
 s4 
 
 (Hit 
 
 5 
 
 54 
 
 144 
 
 2 
 
 7 
 
 15 
 
 L 
 
 4 
 
 — 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 56 
 
 Some aggregate statistics from the same re- 
 port are given in the following table: 
 
 No. volumes in college libraries 1,870,455 
 
 No. volumes in society libraries 406,144 
 
 Aggregate value of grounds, buildings, 
 
 and apparatus $39,170,223 
 
 Amount of productive funds 28,080,309 
 
 Aggregate income therefrom 1,801,890 
 
 Receipts from tuition fees 1,768,929 
 
 Amount of scholarship funds 1,999,338 
 
 State appropriation for the preceding year 611,676 
 
 The denominational character of the colleges 
 as nearly as can be ascertained was, in 1875, as 
 follows: 
 
 Baptist 36 
 
 Free Baptist 4 
 
 Seventh-day Baptist 2 
 
 Christian 9 
 
 Congregationalist lt> 
 
 Cumberland Presbyterian 6 
 
 Evangelical Association 2 
 
 Friends 4 
 
 Lutheran 15 
 
 Masonic 1 
 
 Methodist Episcopal 47 
 
 Methodist Episcopal, South 9 
 
 Methodist Protestant 1 
 
 Moravian 1 
 
 Mormon 1 
 
 Presbyterian 24 
 
 Protestant Episcopal 19 
 
 Reformed 3 
 
 German Reformed 3 
 
 Roman Catholic 67 
 
 State 12 
 
 Swedenborgian 1 
 
 Unitarian 1 
 
 United Brethren 3 
 
 United Presbyterian 4 
 
 Universalist 4 
 
 Unsectarian 34 
 
 A few colleges are not contained in this enu- 
 meration, it being uncertain to what denomination 
 they belong. All the important institutions, 
 however, are included. 
 
 The presidents of nearly all the leading col- 
 leges in the United States met at Hanover, N. 
 H., in November 1874, and discussed, among 
 other tilings, college athletics (boating etc.), the 
 taxation of college property, optional studies 
 and the comparative importance of classical and 
 scientific studies, and the college and university 
 system. It was resolved not to interfere in 
 any way with regattas and boating. While the- 
 influences attending these pastimes might some- 
 what divert attention from study, and thus lower 
 the standard of scholarship, the physical training 
 and development secured thereby were deemed 
 amply sufficient to compensate for any such un- 
 favorable results. Some of the presidents took 
 strong ground against the taxation of college 
 property. President Kliot warmly argued in 
 favor of optional studies, contending that the 
 United States is the only country which com- 
 pels a student to pursue prescribed branches 
 after the age of 19. In the discussion on class- 
 ical and scientific studies, each side had its 
 advocates; but the genera] opinion was, that 
 
 the languages and sciences should lie studied as 
 means of mental discipline only, during tie 
 
 freshman and sophomore years, and that the 
 
 succeeding years— junior and senior — should be 
 
154 
 
 COLLEGIATE SCHOOLS 
 
 COLOMBIA 
 
 devoted to philosophy, literature, and special 
 sciences, leaving the languages and mathematics 
 optional during the junior year. — See Noah 
 Porter, The American Colleges and ike Amer- 
 ican Public (N. Y., 1870); Jex-Blake, A Visit 
 to some Aiivriain Schools and Colleges (Lond. 
 and X. Y.): Oi.ix. College JAfe; Its Theory and 
 Practice (X. Y., L867); P. Arnold, Oafordand 
 Cambridge; their Colleges etc. (London). 
 
 COLLEGIATE SCHOOLS. See Cathe- 
 dral Schools. 
 
 COLOMBIA, United States of, formerly 
 \ w I rranada, a republic in the northern part of 
 South America, formed of nine federal states, 
 the combined area of which is variously esti- 
 mated a! from 480,000 to 521,000 sq.m., and 
 the population at about 2,900,000, composed of 
 whites, negroes, Indians, and mixed races. The 
 whites are mainly Spanish, cither by birth or 
 by descent; they speak the Spanish language and 
 
 generally profess the Catholic faith. The 
 country was conquered by the Spaniards in L536 
 and L537, and was created a viceroyalty of 
 Spain, under the title of New < rranada, in L718. 
 Alter various insurrectionary attempts, the 
 Spanish rule was finally thrown off in L819, and 
 an allia ce was formed with Venezuela and 
 Quito, under the name of the Republic of Co- 
 lombia. The chronic anarchy which has always 
 reigned among the South American republics, 
 put an end to this union in L829, and the pres- 
 ent republic was organized in L831. 
 
 Under the Spanish rule, primary instruction 
 was chiefly in the hands of the Church; and 
 higher instruction was confined to the colleges. 
 In the latter, a very superficial instruction was 
 given in the classics, history, geography, and the 
 elements of natural science; a smattering of 
 theology was also included. A number of these 
 colleges still exist, but are of little importance. 
 The chief ones are the Colegio National de San 
 Bartohmeo, in Bogota, and the colleges in Car- 
 tagena, Popayan, Mompox, Tunja, and Cali. 
 
 After the overthrow of the Spanish power. 
 Bolivar aimed to set public instruction upon a 
 firm footing. As a preliminary step, the church 
 property was sold, and all cloisters \\ bich ha I leas 
 
 than eight monks were Suppressed. The con- 
 stitution of L821 limited the righl of voting to 
 those citizens who could read and write; it also 
 
 provided that the national congress should con- 
 trol public education. Very considerable ad- 
 vancement was made under Bolivar's administra- 
 tion towards an ellicient school system ; but. un- 
 fortunately, his dictatorial proceedings, together 
 with the anarchical spirit of the people, produced 
 such political contusion, that nothing resulted 
 from it. I'ntil the year 1863, the only schools 
 were the relics of the old church and cloister 
 
 schools, a few private institutions. and some local 
 Schools, supported by ihe muniei] ialit ies. Public 
 
 instruction was ftrsl placed definitely under the 
 direction of the national government by the con- 
 stitution of L863. The law of .May 30., L868, 
 determines the nd.it i >f ihe national govern- 
 ment to the several states in the matter of edu- 
 
 cation, prescribing the following as its duties : 
 Besides managing the national university, it is 
 required to maintain normal schools for both 
 sexes ; also to establish primary schools, which 
 shall serve as a standard for the establishment of 
 similar schools by the several states. The found- 
 ing of agricultural schools, together with the en- 
 tire direction of what school books and apparatus 
 shall be used, is entirely in the hands of the gov- 
 ernment. The law also provides for a central 
 normal school in the capital of the republic. 
 This law remained a dead letter until November 
 : 1., 1870, when a decree was issued upon the sub- 
 j ject, providing for a national school board in Bo- 
 gota, and a state school board for each of the 
 states to which a national school officer is sent. 
 The public schools are cither primary schools or 
 higher schools, and are for both sexes. The 
 primary school gives instruction in reading, 
 writing, ami arithmetic, the rudiments of the 
 
 Spanish language, the elements of physiologyand 
 hygiene, singing, natural history, and the history 
 of the nation. The higher schools add to these 
 branches the elements of algebra and geometry, 
 
 and an elementary knowledge of natural science 
 and general geography. In the girls' schools, the 
 same subjects are taught, though to a less ex- 
 tent : and various feminine accomplishments, 
 such as house-keeping etc., are added. The cen- 
 tral normal school has a four years' course. The 
 subjects studied are grammar, Spanish literature. 
 
 the French and Rngliah languages, universal 
 history, the national history, algebra, geometry, 
 trigonometry, general geography, astronomy, in- 
 dustrial physics and chemistry, mechanics and 
 mechanical drawing, natural history and agricul- 
 ture, anatomy, physiology, and hygiene, music, 
 vocal and instrumental, and gymnastics. The 
 law further provides for a normal school in the 
 
 capital of each state, the expense of which is 
 borne by that state. A teachers' association is 
 connected with each of these normal schools. 
 Schools are also provided for those small chil- 
 dren whose parents are unable to provide them 
 
 with the first rudiments of education. Every 
 public school must have its own building, which 
 includes the dwelling of the principal ; it also 
 has a garden for the practical study of botany, 
 gardening, etc. The law pros ides, too, that pub- 
 lic instruction shall aim at moral culture, but 
 the national govemmenl does not interfere with 
 religious education. The course of instruction 
 
 in the schools must, however, be so arranged 
 
 that sufficient time may remain for religious in- 
 struction by the pastors, Or such other per-ons 
 
 as the parents may choose. Parents and guard- 
 ians must either send their children and wards, 
 between the ages of seven and fifteen, to the pub- 
 lic schools, or provide other satisfactory instruc- 
 tion for them. As yet. however, there is no 
 penalty for a non-compliance with this provision, 
 although there is a strong sentiment in favor of 
 compulsory education. Besides these schools, 
 
 the government has established schools in the 
 
 military barracks, for tin" instruction of the sol- 
 diers in the common branches of learning. 
 
COLOR 
 
 155 
 
 In Colombia, however, as elsewhere, tin' doc- 
 trine of state rights lias been a troublesome ele- 
 ment. No act of the national congress becomes 
 
 a law in the several states, until it has been 
 adopted by their respective legislatures; and 
 there is not a single provision of the law per- 
 taining to education which has not been fiercely 
 
 disputed by the several states: but it has finally 
 been adopted by all but Antioquia. A further 
 disturbing element in carrying out the law, was 
 Ultramontanism. The government called many 
 prominent teachers from abroad, and especially 
 from Germany, for the national normal schools, 
 — a measure at which the clerical party took great 
 offense. The exclusion of religious instruction 
 from the schools also caused a great deal of op- 
 position from the clergy : nevertheless, the system 
 of national instruction has continually grown in 
 favor with the people, and now seems to be as 
 well established as the restless character of the 
 people admits. A number of educational journals 
 arc published, of which the following are the 
 principal : La Escuela Normal, El Maestro de 
 Es .'. La Escuela Primaria, El Monitor, and 
 La Revista. 
 
 COLOR, as a branch of object instruction, is 
 of great interest and value ; since, at an early 
 children take particular notice of colors, and, 
 hence, lessons upon this subject furnish an excel- 
 lent opportunity for training them to distinguish 
 resemblances and differences, and for encouraging 
 the formation of those habits of attention and 
 comparison which are necessary to the successful 
 study of other subjects. From the fact that 
 many persons are found to be color-blind, it is of 
 great importance that suitable lessons should be 
 given children to enable teachers and parents to 
 ascertain whether this defect exists in any under 
 their care, before they become old enough to en- 
 gage in any occupation in which color-blindness 
 would be an insurmountable defect. Besides, by 
 the early training of children to observe colors, 
 much of the inability to distinguish them, which 
 is commonly not discovered until later in life, may 
 be overcome by education. Furthermore, a gen- 
 eral knowledge of colore, and of their relations to 
 each other, is of importance in nearly every avo- 
 cation of life. This becomes especially apparent 
 when it is remembered how much depends upon 
 color in the manufacture of materials for dress. 
 furniture, household decorations, in the work of 
 artists, and in various other kinds of employment. 
 
 Since a knowledge of color can be gained only 
 through the sense of sight, the methods for 
 teaching it in school should be so arranged that 
 the pupils may have abundant exercise of this 
 sense in distinguishing colors. For the first les- 
 sons, place before the pupils the best colors that can 
 be procured, in order that they may obtain cor- 
 rect conceptions as to what are good reds, yel- 
 lows, blues, greens, purples, etc. Commence 
 with showing a single color, as red. and leading 
 the pupils to compare red cards, paper, silk, 
 worsted, etc.. with it. and thus to notice resem- 
 blances and differences between the true red and 
 the several objects compared with it. Give sim- 
 
 ilar exercises, with each of the primary and sec- 
 ondary colors, singly ; then place two of these 
 colore before the pupils, and let them select ar- 
 ticles t atch each of the given colors. Pro- 
 ceed in a similar way with the other colore; and, 
 finally, place several or all of them before the 
 pupils at the same time, and require them not 
 only to point out the colore as named, but to se- 
 lect colored articles to match each. 
 
 Frequent changes in the mode of giving these 
 exercises on color will increase the interest of the 
 children in the subject, and add to their knowl- 
 edge of it, especially when each one has some- 
 thing to do in the exercise. After the pupils 
 have learned to know each of the six colore used 
 in the previous lesson, fresh interest may be 
 given to the subject by supplying each child with 
 a piece of colored paper, taking care that those 
 who sit side by side shall, as far as possible, hold 
 different colore. When the papers have been 
 distributed, the teacher may say, " Now. look at 
 your paper, see what color you have, then fold 
 your arms so as to hide your paper. Now, look 
 at the color which I show you ; all who know 
 that they have a like color may hold it up. — 
 Right. — Now. look at this color, — all who have 
 one like it. hold it up." Proceed in >he same 
 manner with each color ; — to close the iJsson, re- 
 quest one pupil to collect all the red papers, 
 another all the blues, another the greens, etc. 
 Similar lessons may be given for the purpose of 
 teaching children to distinguish shades of colore, 
 as dark and light reds, blues, greens, etc. 
 
 If it be desired to continue these lessons, and 
 teach that the six colors previously shown may 
 be divided into two groups — primary and sec- 
 ondary — procure artists' paints: red (carmine), 
 yellow (chrome) , blue (ultramarine) ; also a small 
 palette, and a palette knife. Place a little yel- 
 low and blue on the palette, side by side, re- 
 questing the pupils to notice what colore are 
 used. Then, with the knife, mix these two 
 colore together until green appears in place of 
 the yellow and blue. Then ask the pupils what 
 color has been produced by mixing the yellow 
 and blue, Proceed in a similar manner to mix 
 red and blue, to produce purple ; red and yellow, 
 to produce orange. The teacher may now write 
 on the blackboard for the pupils to learn : Mix- 
 ing yellow and blue will produce green. Mixing 
 red mill blue will produce purple. Mixing red 
 and yellow will produce orange. Then pupils 
 may select the two primary colors that will pro- 
 duce given secondaries, also the secondary that 
 may be made from two given primaries. Show 
 the pupils also that light and dark colors maybe 
 formed by mixing white or black with other 
 colore. Provide exercises by which the pupils 
 may do something to indicate that they know 
 each fact taught. 
 
 In order that children may understand Itar- 
 mony of colors, they must be led to observe that 
 to produce harmony, the three primary colors 
 must be grouped together ; that if two of them 
 exist in a given secondary, the other primary 
 will harmonize with that secondary. To accom- 
 
156 
 
 COLORADO 
 
 plish this result by teaching, arrange colored 
 paper, or other material, so that red and green, 
 yellow and purple, blue and orange, pale green 
 and violet, may be compared, and the sensation 
 noticed. Request the pupils to tell what colore 
 are compared in each instance; also whether 
 the three primaries exist in each group; as well 
 as to observe that the colore of these groups 
 harmonize. Next, compare red and orange, blue 
 and green, yellow and green, requiring the 
 pupils to observe the effect on the sense of 
 sight; also to state which primaries exist in each 
 group, and to notice thai the colore of these 
 groups do not harmonize. These lessons will 
 be more or less useful in proportion to the 
 amount of exercise which the pupils have in 
 distinguishing and comparing colore, and in 
 observing their relations. — See N. A. Cal- 
 kins. Primary Object Lessons, L5th ed. (N. Y.. 
 L871) : Burton, The Culture of the Observing 
 Faculties (N.Y.,1865); Ci www.. Principles and 
 Practice of Early and Infant School-Education 
 (Bdin., 1857). (See also Senses.) 
 
 COLORADO was organized as a territory 
 Feb. 28., L861, From parts of Kansas, Nebraska, 
 New Mexico, and Utah. The part which is 
 
 situated north of the Arkansas river and east of 
 the Rocky mountains, was included in Louisiana. 
 purchased from Prance in L803; the remainder 
 formed part of the territory ceded by Mexico 
 to the United States in L848. In L870, the area 
 of < 'olorado was reported as In t,500 sq. m., and 
 its population as 39,864, which included 456 col- 
 ored persons, 7 Chinese, and ISO Indians. The 
 settlement of the territory, it may he said, was 
 
 begun in •lane. L858, by a party of gold-seekers 
 from Georgia, consisting of nine persons, under 
 the leadership of W. G-. Mussel. The region se- 
 lected by these for settlement was near the pres- 
 ent city of Denver, then within the limits of 
 Kansas. Previous to this time, however, there 
 were a few Mexicans in the southern portion of 
 tin- territory, engaged in stock-raising. 
 
 Educational History. Among the acts passed 
 by the first legislative assembly, which met Sept. 
 !»., I si; 1 , was one that provided for the establish- 
 
 nt of a system of public schools, to he under 
 
 the supervision of a superintendent of public in- 
 struction, county Superintendents, and district 
 directors. At this time, the school population 
 of the territory was very small ; hence, the law, 
 
 although comprehensive and liberal, was of little 
 practical use. At a subsequent session of the 
 legislature, the office of superintendent of public 
 
 instruction was practically abolished b)' making 
 
 the territorial treasurer superintendent ex officio, 
 with a -alary of 8100 per annum. Unlike most 
 
 of the recently settled states and territories. Col- 
 
 orado had for her pioneers not families, hut indi- 
 viduals, not women and children, but gold-hunt- 
 ing men and adventurous explorers, few of whom 
 were to I"' found for two successive years in the 
 same locality, *and in me of whom intended to re- 
 main for a longer time than was required to 
 gather a fortune. Hence bu1 little interest was 
 
 manifested in BChools indeed, at that period, 
 
 there was scarcely any necessity for their estab- 
 lishment i. until about the year 1869, by which 
 time the natural resources of the territory — agri- 
 cultural, mineral, ami climatical — had been made 
 manifest to such an extent, that railroads were 
 projected, colonies were organized in the east, 
 and those who had been here during the preced- 
 ing years felt no desire to emigrate. The num- 
 ber of school children increased rapidly, and the 
 necessity for a permanent and liberal school sys- 
 tem not only became apparent, but was demanded 
 by the people. In 1870, the school law was re- 
 vised; the office of superintendent of public in- 
 struction was again created: and Wilbur < '. 
 Loth top was appointed to till the office for two 
 years, and re-appointed, in 1872, for a second 
 term. Before the expiration of his second term, 
 however, Mr. Lothrop resigned, and Horace M. 
 1 1 ale was appointed to till the vacancy, and re- 
 appointed for the full term ending in Febru- 
 ary. 1 876. 
 
 School System. — The superintendent of public 
 instruction is appointed by the governor and 
 confirmed by the legislative council, holds the 
 office tor two years, and receives an annual salary 
 of $1200. He has a general supervision of the 
 county superintendents and of the public schools. 
 and is required to report biennially to the gov- 
 ernor. 'I he county superintendents (25 in num- 
 ber) are elected at the regular county election 
 for two years; they receive five dollars for each 
 
 day's service, are required to examine teachers. 
 to grant certificates (valid for a period not ex- 
 ceeding one year), to apportion the county fund, 
 to visit the schools twice each term, and to make a 
 report each year to the superintendent of public 
 instruction. The district directors, consisting of 
 a president^ treasurer, and a secretary, are elected 
 on the first Monday of May in each year by the 
 tax-paying voters of each district. The directors 
 employ teachers, make all contracts for the main- 
 tenance of the schools, and perform such special 
 duties as may be delegated to them by the citi- 
 zens at the time of their election, such as fixing 
 
 the course of study, designating the kind of text- 
 hooks to he used, specifying the time during 
 
 which the schools shall be in session, levying spe- 
 cial taxes for building and other purposes, etc. 
 School districts are bodies corporate, formed 
 
 from time to time by the county superintendent. 
 They may. at a special election called for the 
 purpose, vote to issue the bonds of the district 
 for the purpose of building school-houses. Many 
 
 of the incorporated towns have Special school 
 
 laws differing somewhat from the general school 
 
 law. The school fund is obtained from a county 
 tax (not less than two mills on the dollar), from 
 
 the proceeds of fines collected in the several 
 
 counties for breaches of the penal laws, from 
 
 all i leys arising from the sale of waits and 
 
 est rays, and from a special tax levied in each 
 district whenever the citizen voters so direct. 
 The comity fund and penal fund are apportioned 
 
 quarterly to the several districts, according 
 the number of persons in each between the . 
 of 5 and 21 years. There is no state. school tax. 
 
COLORADO COLLEGE 
 
 COLORED SCHOOLS 
 
 157 
 
 It is provided that the Bible shall nut be ex- 
 cluded from the .schools, but that no pupil shall 
 be required to read it contrary to the wishes of 
 his parents or guardian. Teachers' institutes are 
 held in the several counties at the call of the 
 county superintendents ; but there is no regularly 
 organized teachers' association, nor state normal 
 school. The school year begins I >ctober 1st. 
 
 Educational Condition. — From the report of 
 Sept. 30.. 1ST.">. it appeared that there were in 
 the territory '.VI'.) school-districts, 280 public 
 schools, and 172 school-houses. The number of 
 children of school age — from 5 to 21 — was 
 23,274, and the number of pupils enrolled 
 10,185. The whole number of teachers employed 
 was 377. of whom 172 were males, and 205 fe- 
 males : and the average monthly salary paid to 
 the male teachers was 860, and to the female 
 teachers. $50. The whole amount of money ex- 
 pended for school purposes during the preceding 
 year, was $210,813.86 ; and the total value of 
 the school houses and furniture was $414,008. 
 The increase dining the preceding year was as 
 follows: In number of school-districts, 16 per 
 cent ; in schools, 18 per cent ; in school-houses, 
 16 per cent ; in school population, 16 per cent ; 
 in value of school property, 23 per cent. 
 
 Secondary andotker Instruction. — The High 
 School of Denver was established in 1873, and 
 will graduate its first class in 1877. There are 
 also several private and denominational schools, 
 including a school of mines, in Denver. There 
 is also a school for deaf-mutes at Colorado 
 Springs. A proposed state university has been 
 chartered, and located at Boulder. Forty acres of 
 ground have been set apart for its use, and $30,000 
 are now (1876) in the hands of the trustees to be 
 appropriated to the erection of buildings. Col- 
 orado College, at Colorado Springs, was estab- 
 lished in 1874 by the Congregationalists ; and 
 Evans University, at Evans, was chartered in 
 1874 by the Presbyterians. A school of mines 
 has also been commenced, at Golden, as the fut- 
 ure scientific school of the projected state uni- 
 versity. 
 
 COLORADO COLLEGE, at Colorado 
 Springs, Colorado, was organized in 1874. It 
 is under the control of ( loneresationalista. Pre- 
 paratory and collegiate departments have been 
 established. In 1873 — 4, it had 5 instructors, 
 and 25 preparatory and 15 collegiate students. 
 It admits both sexes. 
 
 COLORED SCHOOLS, a class of schools 
 designed for the instruction of colored children. 
 Such schools are quite common in many parts 
 of the United States, especially in the South, 
 where the negro population is very large. Thus, 
 in South Carolina, in 1874. the whole number 
 of children of school age (6 to 16, inclusive) 
 enumerated was 230,102, of whom 84,975 were 
 white, and 14"). 127 colored children; and of a 
 total enrollment of 100.710. the white children 
 numbered 44,470, and the colored children 
 56,249. In all the old slave states, and in many 
 of the northern states, the feeling of aversion to, 
 or prejudice against, the negro race is so strong, 
 
 that the public; school system can be made effect- 
 ive only by the establishment of separate schools 
 for colored children; since many white parents 
 would refuse to permit their children to attend 
 schools in which the " co-education of the races" 
 was carried on. This feeling is sometimes strong 
 even in new communities. Thus, in Montana, t lie 
 legislative requirement of separate schools, ac- 
 cording to the report of the superintendent for 
 1873, has practically excluded colored children 
 from all opportunity to obtain an education; 
 and he remarks, in this connection, that " prej- 
 udice should not be permitted to stand in the 
 path of justice." and urges, that the schools should 
 be open to all children without regard to color. 
 In some of the older and larger northern states, 
 this distinction, of separate schools for white 
 and colored children, is fast passing away. Thus, 
 in Pennsylvania, in 1874, there were only 73 
 schools for colored children out of an aggregate 
 number of schools of 16,641 ; and an attendance 
 of only 2,500 pupils, out of about 440,000. In 
 the state of New York, the whole expenditure 
 for school purposes in 1874, was $12,298,729; 
 and of this only $66,126 was expended for the 
 support of colored schools in the state, those in 
 the towns costing only $7,768, and those in the 
 cities, $58,458, of the latter of which $46,676 
 was expended for the support of the colored 
 schools of New York City. In that city, separate 
 schools for colored children have existed since 
 the establishment of the African Free School, 
 in 1787, by the Society for promoting the manu- 
 mission of slaves, incorporated in 1785. In 1838, 
 the name African Schools was changed to Col- 
 ored Schools, on the petition of the teachers. Pre- 
 vious to this time, these schools had been trans- 
 ferred to the Public School Society, which then 
 had the charge of all the other common schools 
 of the city. In 1835, the whole number of pupils 
 enrolled in these schools was about 1608, with 
 an average attendance of 757 ; and the annual 
 report of the city superintendent for 1875 shows 
 an enrollment of only 1958, and an average at- 
 tendance of 872. Although, by the Civil Rights 
 Bill, passed by the state legislature in 1873. all 
 the schools were practically tin-own open to 
 colored children, few have taken advantage of 
 this, but have apparently preferred to remain in 
 the separate schools provided for them, though 
 their attendance is often at considerable incon- 
 venience in consequence of the remoteness of 
 their places of residence from the schools. 
 
 In some of the states, the prescribing of sep- 
 arate schools for colored children is a great hard- 
 ship, since their numbers are not sufficient to 
 warrant the establishment of good schools, if any 
 at all. Thus, in the Ohio state report for 1873, 
 it is stated that, " in many districts, colored chil- 
 dren are practically deprived of school privileges 
 and advantages, especially where the number by 
 enumeration is less than twenty; and the separate 
 schools established for them are sometimes con- 
 tinued in session a less number of weeks than 
 the schools for white children in the same district. 
 It is a significant fact that, of the 23,020 colored 
 
158 
 
 COLORED SCHOOLS 
 
 COLUMBIA COLLEGE 
 
 youth of school age in the state, only f),950 are 
 under instruction." It has been claimed by some 
 that the fourteenth amendment to the constitu- 
 tion of the United States, winch denies the right 
 of any state " to make or enforce any law which 
 .shall abridge the privileges or immunities of 
 citizens of the United states," prohibits the 
 establishment of separate schools for colored 
 children : hut decisions of the supreme courts in 
 New York and Ohio have settled this question 
 in favor of the separate schools, provided these 
 schools afford their pupils advantages equal to 
 those provided for white children. Such was 
 also the decision of the superior court of Marion 
 County. Indiana, in L874, which held that "the 
 classification of scholars on the basis of race or 
 color, and their education in separate schools in- 
 volve questions of domestic policy which are 
 within the legislative discretion and control, and 
 do not amount to an exclusion of either class." 
 Hence, the state law of May 13., L859 was sus- 
 tained as constitutional : ami it was decided that. 
 while it remained in force, colored children were 
 "not entitled to admission into the common 
 schools provided for the education of white 
 children." 
 
 The feeling in regard to mixed schools for 
 white and colored children is very diverse in 
 different localities. In some places, there is a 
 most intense opposition to such schools ; while, 
 in others, and sometimes in the same state, there 
 
 is a complete acquiescence of all citizens in the 
 arrangement. In L873, the school superintendent 
 of Illinois issued a circular of inquiry, in regard 
 to this subject, to the county superintendents, 
 asking for facts and results; and out of 77 
 counties reporting, there were in LO, no persons 
 of color to be educated; in 41, colored children 
 attended the same schools as white children ; in 
 10, the colored children were in separate schools; 
 
 in L6, some were in separate schools, while others 
 
 attended the same as whites; in 30, no objections 
 
 to the co-education of the races were reported; 
 but in 27, trouble, of a more or less serious na- 
 ture, was stated to have oeeiirred. Some of the 
 superintendents were strongly in favor of co-edu- 
 cation, while others, including some from coun- 
 ties where the schools were mixed, expressed 
 their opposition to it in the strongest terms. 
 
 The opposition to the co-education of the races 
 in the Southern states is. as might be expected. 
 Very strong. This was made manifest in the 
 public expression of opinion in regard to the 
 Civil Rights Mill while it was pending in the 
 tin- United States Senate, in L874. In Co- 
 education of the While and Colored Races, by 
 
 Rev. W. II. Etuffner, state superintendent of 
 
 schools in Virginia, published in Scribner's 
 Mm, thiii (May, 1874), the author said, "An act of 
 <'oh equiring the south poles of all mag- 
 
 nets to attract each other, would not beawhri 
 more absurd than one requiring education to he 
 
 conducted on a race mixture in the late sla\e 
 states." "There a iv QOW," he said, "more than 
 a million and a half of children, white and black. 
 in the public Bchools of the fifteen ex-slave states;" 
 
 | and he expressed the opinion, that the passage of 
 any law enforcing co-education would have the 
 effect to ruin the common school system in every 
 one of those states. As long as this feeling of 
 aversion to the co-education of whites and blacks 
 exists, whether prejudice or not, it would seem 
 to be the duty of legislators to respect it : and 
 not to endeavor to force upon communities a 
 school organization which they abominate, as 
 long as the equal rights of all citizens are re- 
 spected. At the same time, it must be borne in 
 mind that experience seems to show that these 
 lace distinctions disappear in time; but that 
 this time may be prolonged by unwise violence. 
 and haste. Probably, not in the present genera- 
 tion will the existence of coloreil schools cease, 
 at any rate in the Southern states: but that they 
 will finally disappear, as a feature of American 
 common-school systems, there are many that 
 entertain no doubt. 
 
 COLUMBIA COLLEGE, in the City of 
 New York, was incorporated by royal charter iu 
 L754, and was called King's College. It was sus- 
 pended during the revolution, and reorganized, 
 in 17S", under its present name. Columbia 
 ( 'ollege. The college grounds comprise the block 
 bounded by Madison and Fourth avenues, and 
 49th and 50th streets. The value of grounds, 
 buildings, and apparatuses S7s 7, 70(1 ; the amount 
 of productive funds. $4,581,700, on which the 
 annual income is $205,000. These figures are 
 exclusive of the medical school. Certain so- 
 cieties and corporations, including each reli- 
 gious den ination in the city of New York, 
 
 may send students to be educated free of charge. 
 
 fourteen scholarships have recently been estab- 
 lished, of the annual value of SI III) each, and 
 six fellowships (one in science and one iii litera- 
 ture) of the annual value of $500 each. The 
 fellowships are offered for competition to the 
 senior class upon graduation, and arc tenable 
 for three years. The fellows are required to 
 continue their studies under the direction of the 
 president of the college, but they may choose the 
 place of study. The institution comprises the 
 college proper, the school of mines, the law 
 school, and the medical school. The college 
 
 propel 1 has 8 professorships : ill Greek language 
 and literature ; (2) German language and litera- 
 ture; (3) chemistry; (4) mathematics; (•">) 
 mathematics and astronomy; (6) moral and in- 
 tellectual philosophy, and English literature; (7) 
 mechanics and physics; (8) Latin language and 
 literature. The course is the ordinary four years' 
 course of American colleges, leading to the degree 
 
 of Bachelor of Arts. The college has an aslro- 
 
 nomical observatory, a herbarium, and valuable 
 chemical and philosophical apparatus. The cost of 
 
 tuition is $100 per annum, but it may be remitted 
 to indigent students. The school of mines Was 
 
 established in L864. It has 8 professorships: 
 (I) mineralogy and metallurgy; (2) civil and 
 mining engineering ; (3) analytical and applied 
 chemistry ; (4) general chemistrj : (5) mechan- 
 6) mathematics; (7) physics: 8) geology and 
 palaeontology. The system of instruction includes 
 
COLUMBIA 
 
 COM KM US 
 
 159 
 
 five parallel courses of study; namely, (1) civil 
 engineering; (2) mining engineering; (3) metal- 
 lurgy: (4) geology and natural history ; (5) ana- 
 lytical and applied chemistry. The course of in- 
 struction occupies three years. Those who com- 
 plete it receive the degree of Engineer of Mines, 
 civil Engineer, or Bachelor of Philosophy. 
 There is an advanced course for graduates 
 of the Bchool for the degree of Doctor of Phi- 
 losophy. For candidates not qualified to enter 
 the first year, there is a preparatory year. 
 Collections of specimens and models, illustrating 
 all the subjects taught in the school, are access- 
 ible to the students, including crystal models, 
 natural crystals, pseudomorphs, ores and metal- 
 lurgical products, models of furnaces, specimens 
 illustrating applied chemistry, fossils, economic 
 minerals, rocks, Olivier's models of descriptive 
 geometry, models of mining machines, and models 
 of mining tools. The cost of tuition is $200 
 per annum, hut it may be remitted to indigent 
 students. The law school, now in Great Jones 
 street, was opened in 1858. Under the direction 
 of Theodore W. Dwight, LL. D., it has attained 
 a high reputation. The ( 'ollege of Physicians 
 and Surgeons, on the corner of 23d street and 
 Fourth avenue, became the medical department 
 of Columbia College in 1860, but the connection 
 is little more than nominal. The number of in- 
 structors, students, and volumes in the libraries, 
 in 1875 — 6, was as follows : 
 
 Departments. Instructors. Students. Volumes. 
 College (proper) 13 172 17,500 
 
 School of Mines 23 220 6,000 
 
 Law School 6 573 4,000 
 
 Medical School 29 410 1,200 
 
 Total 71 1,375 28.700 
 
 According to the triennial catalogue of 1870, 
 the total number of graduates of all the schools 
 was 3,834, of whom 2,721 were living. There 
 were 2,109 graduates in arts, 868 in medicine, 
 487 in law, 37 in mining, and 333 honorary grad- 
 uates. The presidents have been as follows : 
 the Rev. Dr. Samuel Johnson, 1754 — 63; Myles 
 Cooper, LL. D., 1763 — 75; Benjamin Moore, 
 A \[., pro tern., 1775 — 6; AVm. S. Johnson, 
 LL.D., 17S7— 1800; the Rev. Dr. Charles H. 
 Wharton (who probably did not act), 1801; the 
 Rev. Benjamin Moore, P.D.. 1801—11; the Rev. 
 Wm. Harris. D.D., 1811—29; Wm. A. Duer, 
 LL. D., 1829 — 12 ; Nathaniel F. Moore, LL.D., 
 1842—9 ; Charles King, LL. D., 1849—64 ; the 
 Rev. Frederick A. P. Barnard, LL.D., the present 
 incumbent, appointed in 1864. 
 COLUMBIA, District of. See District 
 
 OF < loLUMBl \. 
 
 COLUMBIAN UNIVERSITY, nearW a sh- 
 ■ington, I>. ( '.. was chartered in 1821 as the 
 Columbian College, and opened in 1822. In 1873, 
 the name was changed by act of Congress to the 
 Columbian University. A majority of the board 
 of trustees and overseers are Baptists, but the 
 institution is required by its charter to be un- 
 sectarian. it comprises a preparatory depart- 
 ment, a college department, a law department, 
 and a medical department. The institution has 
 
 not a large endowment, and is supported prin- 
 cipals by tuition fees. The value of its real 
 estate is about $500,000. 
 
 The regular course of instruction (4 years) 
 in the college department is comprised in seven 
 schools, as follows: (1) School of English; (2) 
 School of Greek; (3) School of Latin; (4) 
 School of Modern Languages; (5) School of 
 Mathematics: ((I) School of Natural Science; 
 (7) School of Philosophy. Certificates of pro- 
 ficiency are given to students who pass an exam- 
 ination in certain prescribed studies in any school. 
 A diploma of graduation is given to those who 
 pass an examination in all the obligatory studies 
 of any school. (1) The degree of Bachelor of 
 Letters is conferred on students who obtain 
 diplomas in the schools of English, Creek. Latin, 
 Modern Languages, and Philosophy, and who 
 receive a certificate of proficiency in the School 
 of Mathematics or of N atural Science. (2) The 
 degree of Bachelor of Science is conferred on 
 students who obtain diplomas in the schools of 
 English, Modern Languages. Mathematics, Nat- 
 ural Science, and Philosophy. (3) The degree 
 of Bachelor of Arts is conferred on students who 
 obtain diplomas in any six schools, and who re- 
 ceive a certificate of proficiency in the residuary 
 school of the entire course. (4) The degree of 
 Master of Arts is conferred on students who, 
 after obtaining diplomas in all the schools of 
 the college, sustain a final and satisfactory 
 examination, in review of all the studies pre- 
 scribed for this degree. The cost of tuition in 
 the college is $60 a year, but it is remitted in 
 favor of students intended for the ministry. 
 The medical department, known as the National 
 Medical College, is in the city of Washington. 
 The law department (opened in 1826) is also in 
 Washington. The college, in 1875 — 6, had 12 
 instructors, 103 preparatory and 48 collegiate 
 students, and a library of 5,750 volumes ; the 
 law school, 5 professors and 130 students; and 
 the medical college, 11 instructors and 54 
 students. The presidents of the university have 
 been as follows: the Rev. Win. Staughton, D.D., 
 1821—1827 ; the Rev. Stephen Chapin, D.D., 
 1828—1841; the Rev. Joel S. Bacon, D.D.,1843 
 —1854; the Rev. Joseph G. Benney, D.D., 1855 
 —1858 ; the Rev. Geo. W. Samson, D.D., 1859 
 — 1871; James C. Welling, LL.D., the present 
 incumbent, appointed in 1871. 
 
 COMENIUS, John Amos, the forerunner 
 of Basedow and Pestalozzi, and one of the great- 
 est educators of modern times, was born at 
 Komna, in Moravia, March 28., 1592, and died 
 Nov. 15., 1671. From his birthplace, he re- 
 ceived the name Komensky, Latin Comenius, 
 by which his family name was so fully sup- 
 planted, that even his grandson. D. B. Jablon- 
 sky, did not know it. Be studied in Berborn 
 and Beidelbere, and taught for a time a school 
 of the Bohemian Brethren in Prerau, Moravia. 
 Be afterward became a preacher of this church 
 at Fulneck, likewise in Moravia, assuming at the 
 same time the direction of the school. In com- 
 mon with the Protestants of Moravia and Bo- 
 
160 
 
 COMENIUS 
 
 hernia in general, he suffered great hardships at 
 the hands of the Austrian government ; and the 
 Thirty Fears' war also entailed upon him the 
 most serious losses. At the sack of Fulneck by 
 the Spaniards, he lost his library and manu- 
 scripts, and the greater part of his property. In 
 1624, Protestant preachers were driven from the 
 country, and Comenius was compelled to conceal 
 himself. In 1628, he left Bohemia, and settled 
 at Lissa, in Poland. Soon afterward he assumed 
 the direction of the gymnasium of this town, 
 and, while in this position, gained a European 
 fame by the publication of his first great work 
 (in 1631), the Janua linguarum reserata (Gate 
 of Tongues unlocked), a new method of teaching 
 languages, especially Latin. This book met with 
 an extraordinary success, being translated into 
 twelve European, and even into several Asiatic 
 languages. At a syn<>l held in Lissa. in 1632, 
 he was elected bishop of the Bohemian Brethren. 
 In 1638, he received a call from Sweden, to re- 
 form the educational system of that country, but 
 lie did not accept it. He sent, however, to the 
 Swedish government a Latin translation of the 
 greatest of his pedagogical works, the Didactica 
 magna seu omnes omnia docendi artiftci um . 
 which lie had planned in Lissa as early as 1629, 
 and had now completed in German. An extract 
 from this work having been printed by some of his 
 friends in England under the title Prodromus 
 Pansophin' (London, 163!)), he receive I an invi- 
 tation from England to reform public instruction 
 there. In compliance with this invitation, he 
 went, in I (ill, to London, but political troubles 
 in Ireland prevented his accomplishing anything. 
 In 1642, he was invited to Sweden to consult 
 with Oxenstiern, the chancellor of the kingdom, 
 on educational matters. Oxenstiern had read 
 the Prodromus, audi recommended Comenius to 
 pursue his undertaking, but first to care for the 
 needs of the schools. The Swedish government 
 established Comenius in the Prussian town of 
 Elbing to compose a work upon his method. 
 After laboring four years, he returned in L646 
 to Sweden. Three commissioners examined his 
 work, and declared it proper for printing when 
 Comenius should have finally revised it. He re- 
 turned to Elbing to do this, and thence, in 164S, 
 he went to Lissa. where, in the same year, he 
 brought out his work, the Nbvissima linguarum 
 methodus, which substantially brought to a close 
 his literary labors in behalf of a reform of the 
 methods of instruction. In the same year, the 
 Bohemian Brethren elected him Senior Bishop 
 and President of the Synod, a position which he 
 retaine I to the end of his life. In 16,">o, upon an 
 invitation from Prince Rakoczy, he went to 
 
 Hungary and Transylvania, and remained there 
 
 four years, during which time he organized a 
 school at Patak (also called Saros Patak). Here 
 Comenius wrote, among other works, his cel- 
 ebrated Orbis Sensualium Pictus, w hich was pub- 
 lished in L657 at Nuremberg, and. in various 
 forms has continued a favorite Look for children 
 down to the present time. In L654, Comenius re- 
 turned to Lissa, where he remained until L656, in 
 
 which year the Poles burned the city. He lost on 
 this occasion his house, his books, and his manu- 
 scripts, the labor of many years. He fled into 
 Silesia, thence successively to Brandenburg, Stet- 
 tin. andHamburg, and in August. 1656, to Am- 
 sterdam, where lie remained until the end of his 
 life, highly honored by all who knew him, and 
 liberally supported by some wealthy merchants 
 whose children he instructed. He printed his 
 Opera Didactica (4 vols.), at Amsterdam. in 1 657, 
 at the expense of Lorenzo de Geer, one of his 
 patrons. 
 
 Comenius's position in the history of pedagogy 
 is chiefly that of a reformer. I lis dissatisfaction 
 with the prevailing modes of teaching was, doubt- 
 less, hugely increased by the neglect of his own 
 early education. He did not go to a Latin school 
 until his sixteenth year; and his mind was al- 
 ready sufficiently developed to be dissatisfied 
 with the artificial and worthless instruction there 
 received. At that time, the study of the Latin 
 language was the only means of culture: and the 
 ability to read and write it. was regarded as all 
 that was valuable in education. Comenius in- 
 sisted upon a study of the mother-tongue as 
 of greater importance than that of the Latin, 
 and declared, moreover, the study of languages to 
 be a means of knowledge, not an end. The aim 
 of education, he asserted, is the development of 
 complete men, and the profoundest knowledge 
 possible of the world without and within. The 
 ideal order of instruction in things, as opposed 
 to instruction in language, is: (1) A Pmi- 
 sophi'i, in which the sum of human knowledge 
 should be treated in its relations to God, the 
 world, and reason ; (2) A Panhistoria, which 
 should be divided into six classes: biblical his- 
 tory, natural history, history of inventions, dis- 
 tinguished examples of virtue, history of dif- 
 ferent religious customs. and the history of the 
 world; (3) A Universal Do>/i>i<ttic, or psychol- 
 ogy. In this outline, Comenius adopted a great 
 many of the principles of Bacon's Insiauratio 
 Magna. With Bacon he insisted strongly upon 
 a study of nature at first hand and unfettered by 
 traditional prejudices, lie insisted, too, upon 
 the equal instruction of both sexes. Education 
 aims at the development of the human being, and 
 to shut any one out from it. is injustice. The 
 school should be no respecter of persons. He 
 
 strongly insisted upon the necessity of physical 
 
 education, and called the attention of educators 
 to the importance of providing airy school- 
 rooms and pleasant play -grounds. The true 
 order of instruction must be learned from nat- 
 ure. Art can do nothing except by imitation. 
 I'pon this point Comenius uses many fantastic 
 analogies, with all of which, however, he mingles 
 a great deal of truth. Many studies are. at the 
 same time, to be avoided, as dissipating the men- 
 tal strength. All studies must be so ordered 
 that the later are always founded on the earlier, 
 and the earlier Supported by the later. Words 
 must be learned only iii connection with things. 
 In the study of science the scholar must, as 
 far as possible, have the objects themselves be- 
 
OOMENIUS 
 
 COMMENCEMENT 
 
 161 
 
 fore him : and, when this la impossible, correct 
 drawings should be used. His Orbis Pictus is 
 devoted to the exposition of this principle, and 
 is the first attempt at a system of "object teach- 
 ing." In the study of languages, one's mother- 
 tongue must come first. Children may only learn 
 that part of a language which deals with the no- 
 tions of childhood. Every language is to be 
 learned more through practice than by rule. 
 Rules must be grammatical, and not philosoph- 
 ical. They must give the form, and not the ex- 
 planation. Rules are necessary only where the 
 language differs from the mother-tongue. These 
 thoughts may seem commonplace enough at 
 present, but it required no little genius at that 
 time to originate them. Schools he divided into 
 four classes : The mother school, the vernacular 
 Mil. the Latin school, and the university. The 
 mother school must lie in every house. Here the 
 child learns the use of the senses and the use of 
 Language . The child enters the vernacular school 
 in its sixth year, and learns reading, writing, arith- 
 metic, singing, hymns, the catechism, the Bible, 
 universal history, etc. In the Latin school, Latin, 
 (deck. Hebrew, and the mother-tongue are stud- 
 ied, together with physics, chronology, ethics, and 
 Biblical theology. The university should be a 
 place for universal study. In all this, intellectual 
 culture must not he separated from morality and 
 religion. According to him, all learning is a 
 means for the moral elevation of mankind. The 
 present life is to be viewed as a preparation for 
 the life eternal : and children and youth must be 
 taught, both by precept and example, to connect 
 this life with God and his commandments. The 
 importance, however, of ( 'omenius as an educator 
 lies less in what he did than in the reform which 
 he inaugurated. His theory that education 
 should he a development of the whole man, that 
 educational methods should follow the order of 
 nature, that nature itself should be studied, and 
 that education should aim at knowledge — this, 
 though imperfectly understood by himself, con- 
 stitutes a solid foundation for an enduring fame. 
 ( 'omenius always designated Germany, to which 
 country he principally owed his education, as 
 his native country, although Slavic (Czechic) 
 Mood may have flowed in his veins. He was 
 master of both the languages spoken in Mo- 
 ravia, his native land, the German and the 
 < V.echic ; and he acknowledged their respective 
 advantages, but he expressed Iris regret that 
 there was more than one language. 
 
 The second centennial anniversary of ( 'ome- 
 oius's death was celebrated in 1871. with ap- 
 propriate solemnities, not only in Moravia, but 
 in almost all the countries of Europe, as well as 
 in the United States; and tin' Teachers' Associa- 
 tion in Moravia concluded to erect a monument 
 to his memory. A tine statue of the great edu- 
 cator has since been executed in Saxon sand- 
 stone with much genius and skill by the cele- 
 brated sculptor, Professor Seidan, in Prague; 
 and, since August 23., L875, it has adorned the 
 square before the castle in Prerau. A list of 
 the educational works of Comenius is given in 
 11 g 
 
 llaumer's Gesckichte </<■>• /'in/ai/nt/i/,- (translated 
 in Laniard's German Teachers and Educators)', 
 
 most of them are contained in the edition of 
 
 the Opera Didactica, published by Comenius 
 
 himself. A complete list of all his works, edu- 
 cational as well as others, has been published 
 
 by Palacky in the Jahrbucher 'As Hah mi when 
 Museums, L829. German translations of the 
 pedagogical works of ( 'omenius, with notes and 
 biography, are published by Dr. Th. Lion, in 
 Bibliothek padagogischer Classiker (Langen- 
 sal/a. 1875), and by Beeger and Zoubek in Rich- 
 ter's Pddagogische Bibliothek (Leipsic; of the 
 translation of the Didactica Magna in this col- 
 lection the .'Id edition appeared in L875). See 
 also Lautbecher, Joh. Amos Comenius' Lehr- 
 k>u/st (Leipsic, Ls.">3); Gindely, Ueber des J. A. 
 Comenius' Leben mnl Wirksamkeit in der 
 Wremde, in the proceedings of the Vienna, Acad- 
 emy of Science (Vienna, is,").")); Qiick, fcssai/s 
 on Educational Reformers (London and Cin- 
 cinnati). 
 
 COMMENCEMENT denotes, in the United 
 States, the occasion on which degrees are con- 
 ferred by colleges and universities upon their 
 graduates. This takes place in June or July, 
 and closes the scholastic year, so that the name 
 in this respect appears to be a misnomer. The 
 exercises connected with the connnencement 
 sometimes begin on Sunday with a connnence- 
 ment sermon to the graduating class. On the 
 two or three following days, the literary societies 
 among the students hold their annual meetings, 
 and orations are delivered before the societies 
 and before the alumni association. A general 
 reunion of the alumni of previous years is held, 
 and, frequently, also the graduates of a particidar 
 class hold, by appointment, a special reunion. 
 The board of trustees also holds its annual meet- 
 ing, receives the report of the president of the 
 institution for the past year, and makes the nec- 
 essary regulations for the year ensuing. All 
 these transactions precede " commencement day", 
 on which the president of the institution, in 
 the presence of the board of trustees, the fac- 
 ulties, and as many friends and visitors as the 
 occasion may bring together, confers upon the 
 graduates the degrees (see Degrees) for which 
 their special studies and examinations have pre- 
 pared them. The conferring of the degrees is 
 preceded by orations delivered by the members 
 of the graduating class, the " valedictory" and 
 "salutatory" addresses being assigned to the 
 scholars holding the highest rank in the class. 
 The Latin language is frequently used by the 
 "salutatory" speaker, as well as by the president 
 in conferring the degrees. 
 
 For the students of colleges and universities, 
 the commencement is an occasion of peculiar in- 
 terest. The ambition to excel a, that time, acts as 
 
 a powerful and most beneficial incentive to as- 
 siduous study. The reunion of former graduates 
 tends to nourish, in all the former students of 
 these institutions, a spirit of devoted attachment 
 to their Alma Mulcr, and thus secures to the 
 cause of collegiate education a large and influen- 
 
162 COMMERCIAL COLLEGES 
 
 COMPANIONSHIP 
 
 tial number of zealous friends and patrons. The 
 large concourse of the relatives and friends of 
 the pupils, as will as of the friends of education, 
 and. in smaller towns, of the town population 
 in general, diffuses among the people at large 
 an acquaintance with these institutions and a 
 care for their success, and gives them a pop- 
 ularity which no other feature could secure. 
 A glance at the reports, in American newspapers, 
 of the commencement exercises during the 
 months of June and July, reveals a national in- 
 terest in collegiate institutions, which is hardly 
 found to an equal extent in any other country ; 
 and. if the wealthy citizens of the United States 
 have acquired a world-wide reputation by their 
 liberal donations for educational purposes, the 
 popular commencement exercises may claim to 
 have very largely contributed to this result. 
 Commencement exercises may. therefore, be con- 
 sidered a very potent agent in stimulating the 
 zealot the students, and in fostering among all 
 classes of the people a just appreciation of the 
 value of higher education. 
 
 COMMERCIAL COLLEGES. See Busi- 
 ness Colleges. 
 
 COMMISSIONER OF EDUCATION. 
 See Bureau of Education. 
 
 COMMON SCHOOLS, the name given in 
 the United States to schools maintained at the 
 public expense, and open to all. These schools 
 are public elementary schools, although the com- 
 mon-school system of any state or city often in- 
 cludes schools of several grades, as primary, 
 grammar, and high schools, besides normal 
 schools for the special instruction and training 
 of teachers. Common schools in the rural districts 
 are called district schools, being under the super- 
 vision and control of the officers of the school 
 district; and for the same reason those situated in 
 the wards of a city are sometimes called ward 
 Schools. Common schools are established by 
 legislative enactment, and arc supported by tun; Is 
 derived from legislative appropriation, (See 
 School Fund.) The expensive common-school 
 
 systems of large cities arc. however, chiefly, if not 
 wholly, supported by local taxation ; thus, in 
 the city of New York, the amount received by 
 apportionment from the state for the support of 
 the common schools of the city is very much 
 less than the amount of tax paid by the city for 
 the support of the common-school system of 
 
 the state. There is no uniform eommon-scl I 
 
 system in the United States no national system 
 of public instruction, the organization ami con- 
 trol of the common schools being left to the in- 
 dividual Btates; and. even in the states, the tend- 
 ency is to almost exclusive local authority. The 
 
 history and description of the C inon-school 
 
 ■■in of each state is given, in this work, under 
 the name of the state ; tor an account of public 
 or popular education in general, see Public 
 Schools, (See also National Education, and 
 I kited States.) 
 
 COMPANIONSHIP, as one of the neces- 
 sary conditions of a child's life, is an important 
 element in education : indeed, the influence of a 
 
 child's companions, either for good or evil, is 
 often far greater than any that can be exerted 
 by parents or teachers. The social nature of a 
 child is stronger than that of an adult; and. 
 therefore, to educate it by itself, excluding it 
 from all intercourse with children of its own 
 age, would result not in a natural or normal 
 development, but in a kind of monstrous distor- 
 tion. The selfish principles of its nature would 
 attain a disproportionate growth and strength; 
 and it could have neither sympathy nor self- 
 control. Hence, companionship is necessary for 
 several reasons : ill To develop the social sym- 
 pathies and affections of the child: (2) To 
 cultivate properly its moral nature; (3) To bring 
 into play its intellectual activities, and to accus- 
 tom it to their ready exercise. Besides, without 
 suitable and congenial playmates, it would not 
 be properly or sufficiently stimulated to bodily 
 exercise; and its physical growth and develop- 
 ment would be incomplete. " How many young 
 girls," says Schwarz, "have become diseased in 
 body and in soul by reading! How many have 
 lost their health by close application to orna- 
 mental needle-work! They ought, therefore, to 
 be directed, at all suitable times to engage in 
 free bodily exercise, and even in some of the 
 more quiet and gentle gymnastic exercises; they 
 should enjoy frequent opportunities of appropri- 
 ate amusement in the society of others of the 
 same age." < 'ompaniouship. therefore, being in- 
 dispensable, it is of the greatest importance that 
 it should be of the right character. It is partic- 
 ularly true of children, that "evil communications 
 corrupt good manners;" and not only manners, 
 but morals : indeed, the society of the debased 
 
 will inevitably undermine the whole character, 
 leaving it but an example of incorrigible deprav- 
 ity. Nevertheless, a youth must gradually be 
 accustomed to the exercise of considerable free- 
 dom in selecting his or her associates ; since the 
 circumstances of after life will necessitate this 
 
 independence of choice. The great desideratum 
 is. that the child's mind should be so impressed 
 with right principles, that it will avoid the com- 
 panionship of those whose conduct and language 
 it perceives to be vicious. There is, however, al- 
 ways need of great vigilance in order to prevent 
 corrupting companionship, even when the greatest 
 
 care has been exercised in the previous moral 
 training of a youth : for the stronger will must 
 always control the weaker will, when brought 
 together, and children learn much faster from 
 
 each other than from their elders. To influence 
 a young person, SO 88 to form his character in a 
 particular direction, or fully to control his ac- 
 tions, it is requisite to cultivate a certain degree 
 
 of companionship with him. Parents who pur- 
 sue this course, -fathers making companions of 
 their sins, and mothers, of their daughters, are 
 the most successful in establishing the character 
 
 of their children. To a limited extent, the same 
 principle may he applied in school education. 
 
 The austere teacher who never strives to culti- 
 vate any other relation between himself and his 
 pupil than that of authority, will never exert 
 
( 'OMPKTITl VK FXA MTXATTOXS 
 
 << IMPOSITION" 
 
 103 
 
 any considerable influence over his moral charac- 
 ter; while, on the other hand, he who is easy 
 and familiar, who cultivates the friendship, 
 esteem, and confidence of his pupil, will find the 
 latter always glad to be his companion, and will 
 be able to control his conduct to an almost un- 
 limited extent. 
 
 COMPETITIVE EXAMINATIONS. See 
 
 EX \M1\ VI'IONS. 
 
 COMPOSITION, as the formal expression 
 of thought, and as a branch of school exercise, 
 has usually been confined to that which is writ- 
 ten : but by some the signification of the term 
 has been so extended as to embrace also the oral 
 use of language in the expression of a logically 
 connected scries of ideas. Thus, it has been 
 saiil that "oral composition may be cultivated 
 from a very early period, indeed from the be- 
 ginning of the pupil's school education; and 
 whatever degree of facility he attains in it will 
 secure his more rapid advancement when he 
 enters on the study of written composition ;" 
 which is undoubtedly true. At the same time. 
 as nothing is gained by extending the application 
 of a terin beyond the limits of ordinary usage, 
 it would seem best to restrict the word compo- 
 sition to the written expression of thought; mora 
 especially as this requires a somewhat diverse 
 training from that which is needed in oral dis- 
 course. Of course, the habit of using language 
 correctly in all the oral school exercises, as well 
 as in ordinary conversation, is not only useful 
 hut essential as an antecedent preparation for 
 written composition ; and in view of this, it is 
 important that pupils should be accustomed, in 
 all their recitations, to be accurate in expression, 
 and not only to use the proper forms of words, 
 but to construct complete sentences, instead of 
 such fragmentary phrases as are very often made 
 use of in answer to the questions of the teacher. 
 Mnreover, in all recitations which do not abso- 
 lutely require a verbatim repetition of the lan- 
 guage of the text-book, the pupil should be ac- 
 customed to use his own language as far as pos- 
 sible, thus drawing upon the resources of his own 
 vocabulary, and his constructive power in expres- 
 sion. But all this is only auxiliary to written 
 composition, which requires special anil peculiar 
 exercises, beginning almost as soon as the pupil 
 has learned to write simple words and sentences; 
 indeed, rudiniental exercises in composition may 
 constitute an essential part of object lessons, the 
 teacher writing on the blackboard instead of 
 requiring the pupils to write on the slate or on 
 paper. For example, in the description of an 
 object, the pupils observe and state each quality 
 Successively, and the teacher writes each separate 
 statement on the blackboard, observing strictly 
 the rules for punctuation and the use of capitals; 
 and then the pupils are required to put the whole 
 into a connected statement, which the teacher 
 also writes on the blackboard. Thus, suppose the 
 object is a piece of glass. The pupils say, and 
 the teacher writes, (this* is Intnl. dtuss is solid. 
 Glass is brittle. Glass is transparent. Then 
 the whole is formed into a connected statement ; 
 
 and the teacher writes, Glass is hard, solid, 
 brittle, and transparent. Such simple exercises 
 are susceptible of a very great variety, and, con- 
 sequently, may be made to afford a grea1 deal of 
 
 valuable training both in thought and language. 
 Reading also may be made available in training 
 
 pupils in the ready and correct use of language, 
 
 by. requiring them constantly to reproduce, in 
 their own modes of expression, the substanceof 
 
 the lessons read ; and, as scon as they have learned 
 to write with sufficient fluency, to set down 
 on paper, or on the slate, portions of these state- 
 ments. Akin to this kind of exercise, is the 
 reading of simple narratives by the tea* her, and 
 requiring the pupils to give the substance of 
 them in their own language. 
 
 In all these cases, the pupils are trained chiefly 
 in the use of words and the construction of sen- 
 tences: but the teaching of composition requires, 
 (1) a cultivation of thought ; and (2) a cultiva- 
 tion of the faculty of expression. Thought im- 
 plies ideas and their logical arrangement accord- 
 ing to certain laws of association. The mind 
 must recall all that it has learned upon the sub- 
 ject under consideration. — ideas, facts, proposi- 
 tions, opinions, etc., and arrange them into a 
 symmetrical whole. To do this well requites 
 not only maturity of mental culture, but much 
 practice in the use of language, filling the memory 
 not only with a vocabulary of words, but a large 
 accumulation of phrases, and other forms of ex- 
 pression, associated regularly with certain re- 
 current ideas. The difficulty experienced by pu- 
 pils in writing compositions is proverbial ; and 
 to a considerable extent, it is to be hoped, 
 obsolete; since modern methods of instruction 
 have gone far towards eradicating many of the 
 absurd educational practices of by-gone times 
 one of which was to require young pupils to 
 write formal compositions upon difficult abstract 
 themes without any, or with very inadequate, 
 ] ireliminary preparation and training. The ne- 
 cessity of such training is now pretty generally 
 recognized, and suitable graded exercises are 
 employed; such as the following : (1) Conversa- 
 tions upon familiar objects, such as usually 
 engage the attention of children ; (2) Sentence- 
 making, in various forms, and affording practice 
 in the application of grammatical rules; (3) 
 Formal descriptions of objects ; (4) Simple narra- 
 tives; (5) Didactic essays, graduated from the 
 simplest composition upon such subjects as a 
 horse, <* cow, <i flower, &c, up to those upon 
 complex abstract themes; (6| Argumentative 
 compositions, in which the principles and rules 
 of logic and rhetoric mayfind an application and 
 illustration. Each of these classified forms of 
 exercise aeeds much continuous practice; and 
 the pupil should not be required to write mis- 
 cellaneous compositions until he has been suc- 
 cessively trained in those of the first four classes, 
 and has acquired a fair degree of readiness at 
 each stage of his progress. In all the exercises 
 however, of whatever grade or kind, it is very 
 essential that the pupil should, as much as pos- 
 sible, be induced to make use of his own experi- 
 
164 
 
 COMPOSITION 
 
 COMPULSORY EDUCATION 
 
 ence in selecting subjects for composition, writ- 
 ing of what lie lias himself seen and heard, and 
 using the simplest and most direct language he 
 can command. 
 
 Mere grammatical exercises are of little use 
 in teaching composition; perhaps, they are 
 rather a hindrance, since the exclusive atten- 
 tion to the construction of sentences without 
 regard to their meaning or logical coherence, 
 tends to the formation of habits that are directly 
 opposed to success in actual composition. The 
 great point is to accustom the pupils, by constant 
 daily practice, to the free expression of their 
 thoughts in writing. Let them have something 
 tn say. and then require them to write it in the 
 most natural way. employing their own Diodes of 
 thinking and using Language, and thus, in the 
 course of time, developing a style ; since style is 
 only the peculiar impress of a writer's individu- 
 ality upon his tonus of expression. Paraphrases 
 and translations, however, afford a very valuable 
 kind of exercise in composition; but should not 
 be employed except in the more advanced sta 
 of the instruction. 
 
 In the correction of compositions, the teacher 
 should exercise grea1 prudence, so as to impart 
 the kind and degree of instruction adapted to 
 the pupil's progress ; ami. at the same time, not 
 discourage his efforts by too minute criticism. 
 If a class is under instruction, the prevailing 
 errors of the pupils, as discerned on a perusal of 
 the con i posit ions, will suggest certain topics on 
 which instruction is needed; and this may then 
 be illustrated by examples culled from the com- 
 positions without referring to them individually. 
 Especially should the teacher avoid holding up 
 any of the pupils' efforts to ridicule or severe re- 
 buke, unless the inaccuracies are such as resuH 
 
 from sheer carelessness. A pupil's whole intellec- 
 tual career may he vitiated by an imprudence of 
 this kind; since, in general, there is nothing in 
 respect to which persons, whether adults or chil- 
 dren, are so sensitive as in regard to their efforts 
 in written composition. 
 
 When the compositions have been carefully 
 read, and the errors pointed out by suitable marks, 
 the pupils should be required to transcribe them, 
 so that they may be presented for further revi- 
 sion. The study of grammar and composition 
 should be pursued together in the earh 
 
 and rhetoric and composition in the latter. A 
 
 distinguished writer thus sums up the require- 
 ments of these two branches of study: "Rheto- 
 to become a useful branch of modern educa- 
 tion, should embrace a gradually progressive 
 course of exercises, embodying successively the 
 facts of Language, in the use of words and the 
 construct] >f sentences; it should include the 
 
 practice of daily writing, for successive years; 
 
 frequent exercises in the Logical arranging of 
 
 thought tor the purposes of expression, and the 
 
 adapting of the forms and character of expres 
 
 sion to thought; and it should he accompanied 
 
 by the dose study and critical analysis of the 
 
 works of distinguished writers, with the view to 
 acquire a perfect mastery over every form of 
 
 style." — See William Russell, Intellectual 
 Education, in Barnard's Auwricau Pedagogy; 
 Ci brie, The Principles and Practice of Com- 
 mnit - School Education (Edinburgh, 1872) ; 
 WicKEBSHAM, Methods of Instruction (Phila., 
 1865). 
 
 COMPULSORY EDUCATION, a term 
 commonly used to designate the compulsion of 
 parents by state law to provide an education for 
 their children. We find the principle that the 
 government of a state has the right, and that it 
 is its duty, to watch over the education of all the 
 
 children within its jurisdiction, for the first time 
 expressed in the legislation of Athens and Sparta. 
 
 Solon gave a law enjoining on parents to have 
 their children instructed in music and gymnastics, 
 and providing further, that no son was bound to 
 Support bis father in old age. if the latter had 
 neglected to have him instructed in some profit- 
 able trade. In Sparta, according to the legisla- 
 tion of Lycurgus, the state charged itself with 
 the entire education of all male children, after 
 
 they had attained their seventh year. In Kome. 
 the state did not interest itself at all in the edu- 
 cation of children, it being left to the care of the 
 
 mothers. During the period which followed the 
 downfall of the Roman empire, little provision 
 was made, in any of the countries of Europe, for 
 the education of children. Only the candidates 
 
 for the priesthood and the children of noblemen 
 and persons of affluence received instruction in 
 the cathedral, collegiate, convent, or parochial 
 schools; but the mass of the people grew up 
 without any instruction. (See CATHEDRAL AND 
 
 Collegiate Schools, Convent Sc ls, and 
 
 Parochial Schools.) The capitularies of Charle- 
 magne imposed upon all parents the obligation 
 to semi their children to a convent or parochial 
 school, to obtain the necessary instruction in re- 
 ligion. These .schools were also required to teach 
 reading, writing, arithmetic, grammar, and sing- 
 ing; but no compulsion was to be imposed in 
 regard to any of these subjects. A new interest 
 in the cause of universal education was awakened 
 by the revival of classical studies, in the fifteenth 
 century. More than one of the educational writ- 
 ers of that time demanded that the state govern- 
 ment should recognize and enforce the principle, 
 that parents should lie obliged to send their 
 
 children to school. Luther said, that he regarded 
 it as a "duty of the state authorities to compel 
 their subjects to send their children to school ," 
 
 in order that the community might have well- 
 educated clergymen, jurists, physicians, teachers. 
 
 ami other officers ; and the new church constitu- 
 tion of Saxony, of L528, which was chiefly com- 
 piled by Melanchthon, required that clergy- 
 men should admonish the people to send their 
 
 children to school. •• ill order that persons might 
 lie educated so as to he competent to teach in the 
 
 church. and to govern." The church constitution 
 of Wurternberg, of L559, provided that the 
 pastors should admonish their congregations at 
 
 leasi twice a year, to send their children regular- 
 ly to school. Similar provisions were made in 
 
 other German states, without, however, adopting 
 
 
(OMIMLSOHY EDUCATION 
 
 165 
 
 the principle of compulsion ; but, in regard to 
 instruction in the catechism, which was given in 
 the church on Sundays and other holy-days, a 
 punctual attendance was enforced; and lines were 
 imposed upon the parents of children who, instead 
 of being presenl to receive this religious instruc- 
 tion were found running about in the streets. In 
 1640, the General Synod of Wurtemberg recog- 
 nized the duty dt requiring all children to go to 
 school, and resolved thai all parents should lie 
 fined, whose children tailed to attend. It was, 
 however, found extremely difficult to enforce this 
 provision; and new rescripts were issued in L670, 
 L672, and 1679, to remind the parents of their 
 duties. The first law defining the school age 
 of children, was given by the Duke of Brunswick- 
 t Vile, w ho commanded the parents and guardians 
 of children to send them to school from the sixth 
 year of age. The movement in behalf of compul- 
 sory education now made steady though slow 
 progress in all the German states. Prussia intro- 
 duced it in 17:!'_': Bavaria, which was one of 
 the latest, in 1802. Compulsory education has. 
 since the beginning of the nineteenth century, 
 been the general rule in the German states ; and 
 it is a remarkable fact. that, in all the fierce 
 conflicts which have been caused by educational 
 legislation, no party has made any serious op- 
 position to the principle, that the state govern- 
 ment may and ought to demand that parents 
 should provide some kind of instruction for their 
 children. This kind of legislation, in Austria, 
 began in the eighteenth century with laws pro- 
 viding that magistrates should send to school- 
 teachers, twice a year, lists of all children entering 
 the sixth year of age, and that the teachers should 
 return monthly lists of absence. Although the 
 school attendance steadily increased, the number 
 of children growing up without education was 
 still very large. After the disastrous war with 
 Prussia, in 1866, the Austrian government has- 
 tened to introduce a new educational law similar 
 to that of Prussia, providing for the rigorous en- 
 forcement of the principle of compulsory edu- 
 cation. In some provinces, it was found ex- 
 tremely difficult to provide for a sufficient num- 
 ber of teachers and schools, and to compel the 
 attendance of children. The statistics of school 
 attendance show, however, a steady increase, and 
 there is no systematic opposition to the principle, 
 which is now being rapidly carried into effect. 
 The cantons of Switzerland, with the single excep- 
 tion of Geneva, and the Scandinavian kingdoms 
 have enacted laws similar to those of Germany; 
 and Denmark, in particular, has had a stringent 
 law on compulsory education in operation sine 
 1814, and has thus effected a remarkably high 
 average education of its entire population. In 
 France, the pubhc-school system was, for the first 
 
 time, regulated by the educational law of 1833, 
 which embodied the ideas of Guizot and Cousin. 
 Neither this law. however, nor the subsequent 
 dations recognized the principle of compul- 
 sory education : and the school attendance, espe- 
 cially in many of the rural districts, continued 
 to be very small. Louis Napoleon favored the 
 
 principle of compulsion, and M. Duruy, his min- 
 ister of public instruction from 1863 to 1869, 
 
 wasone of its most zealous advocates: but the at- 
 tempts made to introduce ii into the legislation 
 of France had to he abandoned in consequence 
 of the powerful Opposition which it met with. 
 
 After the proclamation of the republic, iii L870, 
 "tic of the must enthusiastic champions of com- 
 pulsory education, Jules Simon, was appointed 
 .Minister of Public Instruction ; and the new 
 educational law proposed by him embodied the 
 
 principle; but the National Assembly refused 
 to adopt the law. 1.'! of the 15 bureaux voting 
 against it. The principle is generally advocated 
 in France by the Liberals, and opposed by the 
 Catholic party. In England, public opinion has 
 always been strongly adverse to a participation 
 
 of the state government in school matters. An 
 important advance toward the principle of com- 
 pulsory education was. however, made in 1870, 
 by the adoption of a bill brought in by William 
 Edward Forster, according to which, within one 
 year, provision was to be made for the education 
 of every child in England and Wales. The ques- 
 tion of compulsory attendance was very earnest- 
 ly discussed in Parliament, and was finally left to 
 the separate school boards, which have a certain 
 discretionary power of enforcing attendance; but 
 it seems that the advocates of compulsion do not 
 mean to be content until its ultimate adoption. 
 Liverpool, .Manchester. Oxford, and many other 
 towns have passed by-laws, compelling the at- 
 tendance of children in the public schools. The 
 Italian Parliament, in 1871, adopted a new- 
 school law according to which elementary in- 
 struction is required to be given every-w here free 
 of charge, and attendance at school is obligatory 
 on all children. In Belgium and the Nether- 
 lands, every commune is compelled by law to 
 make provision for a public school ; and, in 
 Belgium, indigent children receive, on the ap- 
 plication of their parents, gratuitous instruction; 
 but neither of these two states has, as yet, recog- 
 nized the principle of compulsory education. In 
 Russia, Peter the (Treat desired to make edu- 
 cation obligatory; but the obstinate resistance 
 of his subjects, who called education "their 
 destruction," prevented him from carrying out 
 his design ; and the consequence is, that Russia 
 is still among the least educated countries of 
 Europe, there being, in 1875, 1 scholar for about 
 Si; inhabitants. Turkey, in 1869, promulgated 
 a law providing for the establishment of a school 
 in every locality, and requiring all children, 
 both boys and eirls. to attend it : but no attempt 
 of any kind to execute the law had been made 
 
 up to the end of the year 1875. In Greece, 
 communal schools were established by law. in 
 1834, on the German system, that is. on the 
 system of compulsory education. By the 6th 
 article of the law. all children between the ages 
 of five and twelve years must attend the com- 
 munal school. Parents are liable toafinefor 
 
 each hour that the child is absent : but the pen- 
 alty has fallen into disuse; ami it was found, at 
 
 the census of 1870, that but 33 per cent of the 
 
166 
 
 C< )M PULSORY EDUCATION 
 
 grown-up men, and but 7 per cent of the grown- 
 up women, were able to read and write. Spain 
 and Portugal also have compulsory education 
 acts, but they are not fully enforced. 
 
 In America, the right of state authorities to 
 require the attendance of all children at school 
 was asserted at an early date by some of the 
 English colonies. B. 0. Northrop, the secretary 
 of tin- Connecticut state board of education, in 
 his annual report for 1*71 , says, that Connecti- 
 cut may justly claim to lie one of the first states 
 
 in the world, that established the principle of 
 
 compulsory education. Its code of laws, adopted 
 in May L650, he says, contained stringent pro- 
 visions for compulsory attendance: and these 
 provisions, with some modifications chiefly de- 
 signed to give them greater efficacy, continued 
 in force until the revision of the code, in L810. 
 Public opinion so heartily indorsed this principle, 
 or rather so thoroughly believed in the necessity 
 of universal education, that attendance lost its 
 involuntary character. Outside of Connecticut, 
 
 however, little appears to have been done in this 
 
 direction; ami even in Connecticut, the diffi- 
 culty in enforcing the law was clearly shown 
 when the influx of immigration, in the nineteenth 
 Century, gave fcO the state a considerable school 
 
 population of foreign birth. In L869, a new law 
 was. therefore, passed, forbidding manufacturers 
 
 to employ minors under fourteen years of age, 
 who have not attended any public school, for 
 at least three months in each year. The school 
 board appointed an agent to supervise the en- 
 forcement of the compulsory attendance law, 
 and the subsequent considerable increase of 
 school attendance is partly ascribed to its en- 
 forcement. This law makes it the duty of school 
 visitors to examine into the condition of chil- 
 dren employed in manufacturing establishments, 
 and to report violations of the law to the grand 
 jurors of the town. In Massachusetts, the 
 first educational ordinance, in 1(542, enjoined 
 the selectmen of every town to see "that 
 their brethren and neighbors teach their chil- 
 dren ami apprentices, by themselves or others, 
 
 SO much Learning as may enable them to real 
 the English tongue, and the capital laws, upon 
 penalty of twenty shillings tor each neglect 
 
 therein." In L834, children under fifteen years 
 
 of age were prohibited from working in factories, 
 
 unless they had attended school during three 
 
 months of the preceding year. The present 
 
 school law compels parents and guardians to 
 semi children in their charge, between the age of 
 
 eighl and fourteen, to scl 1 twenty weeks every 
 
 year; andno person can be excluded from the 
 
 public schools on account of race, color, or re- 
 ligion. Towns and cities are required to provide 
 
 f'U- the education of orphans and the children of 
 drunken parents. In Maine, the school law of 
 
 the state authorizes towns to make by laws for 
 the enforcement "i attendance of scholars be- 
 tween aix and seventeen yens of age, and to 
 annex a suitable penalty, not exceeding twenty 
 dollars, for any breach thereof. In New Hamp- 
 shire, an ad of the Legislature, approved in July 
 
 1871, provides that all parents, guardians, or 
 masters of a child, between the ages of 8 and 14. 
 residing within two miles of a public school, 
 shall send such child to school at least 12 weeks 
 each year. Similar acts were passed in the same 
 year by the legislatures of Michigan and Texas. 
 Nevada passed a law in February 1873, which 
 makes it obligatory on parents and guardians 
 to send every child between the ages of 8 and 14 
 years to a public school for a period of at least 
 sixteen weeks in each school-year, at least eight 
 j of which must be consecutive, unless the child 
 is being otherwise instructed, or is excused 
 from attendance by the board of trustees for 
 some satisfactory reason. The penalty, for non- 
 compliance with this act is a tine of not less 
 than $50, nor more than SI 01) for the first offense, 
 and uot less than SI 00 nor more than $200 for 
 each subsequent offense. In 1S74. compulsory 
 laws were passed by the legislatures of Califor- 
 nia. New .Jersey, and New York. The general 
 features of these laws are similar to those of the 
 state laws already referred to. The scliool age 
 dining which every child is to be instructed is. in 
 New Jersey, from 8 to 13, and in California and 
 New York from 8 to I I. There is some diversity 
 in the time of school attendance each year. New 
 Jersey requires 12 weeks, of which 6 must be 
 consecutive. New York 14 weeks in a day school, 
 or 28 weeks in an evening school, and California, 
 two-thirds of the time during which the public 
 schools ale ki-pt.at least 12 Weeks of which must 
 be consecutive. The New York law also specifies 
 the subjects in which the child is to be instruct- 
 ed : namely, spelling, reading, writing. English 
 grammar, geography, and arithmetic. It also 
 provides that no child of this age shall be em- 
 ployed, unless the employer has a certificate that 
 such instruction was given the child the previous 
 year, the penalty for violating this law being a 
 tine of S.Ml. In many other states, the passage 
 of compulsory laws is strongly urged. In Indi- 
 ana. Illinois. Kansas. Minnesota. Mississippi, 
 Nebraska. Pennsylvania, and Khode Island, the 
 state superintendents, in their annual reports, or 
 the governois in their messages, have of late 
 taken a decided stand in favor of such laws. 
 
 The opinions of American educators and legis- 
 lators, on the subject of compulsory education, 
 continue, however, to be greatly divided. The 
 lion. Edward Searing, state superintendent of 
 public instruction in Wisconsin, in his annual 
 report for 1874, expresses the opinion, that " the 
 difficulties lying in the way of the successful work- 
 ing of a general compulson law are numerous 
 and nearly insuperable : so that there is an over- 
 whelming probability of the failure of such a 
 law to attain the ends desired." He believes 
 
 that there is in such a law "something essentially 
 
 Opposed to the genius of our free institutions, — 
 
 something essentially un-American." He appre- 
 hends no peril to the state from the mere fact. 
 • that a small fractional part of its children do not 
 
 obtain such primary instruction as the common 
 
 schools afford :" and the idea that " crime is the 
 
 direct result of illiteracy" is characterized by 
 
COMPULSORY EDUCATION 
 
 CONCEPTION 
 
 167 
 
 him as a " fallacy quite commonly accepted as a 
 truth.'' An enthusiastic defendant of compul* 
 soiy education, the Hon. 11. I>. McCarty. state 
 superintendent of public instruction in Kansas. 
 in his annual report for l s T.'». thus replies to 
 Borne of tlic common objections made to compul- 
 sory attendance : " (1 ) ' Such a law would create 
 a new crime.' I reply, it ought to. To bring 
 up a child in ignorance is a crime, and should 
 he treated as such. (2) ' It interferes with the 
 liberty of parents.' I reply again, it ought to, 
 when they are incapacitated by vice or other 
 causes for the performance of essential duties as 
 parents. (3) 'It arrogates new power by the 
 government.' So do all the quarantine and 
 hygienic regulations and laws for the abatement 
 of nuisances in time of pestilence. Now. igno- 
 rance is as noxious as the most offensive nuisance. 
 and more destructive than bodily contagions. 
 Self-protection is a fundamental law of society. 
 (4) • It is un-American and unadapted to our 
 free institutions.' To put the question in the 
 most offensive form, it may be asked : ' Would 
 you have a policeman drag your children to 
 school'.''' I answer, yes. it' it will prevent his 
 dragging them to jail a few years hence." 
 
 While, thus, a wide difference of opinion exists 
 in regard to the principle of compulsory educa- 
 tion, there is an almost entire agreement between 
 friends and opponents, as to the character of the 
 existing laws. They are, on all sides, declared to 
 be deficient. Many laws supply no means 
 whatever for the enforcement of the compul- 
 sory provisions; and, in such cases, the state 
 superintendents must, of course, report, that the 
 law has amounted to little or nothing. Thus, 
 the state law of New York was pronounced de- 
 fective and inefficient by the state association of 
 school commissioners and superintendents, at a 
 meeting held in Dec, 1874; and it was unani- 
 mously resolved to ask the legislature to "so 
 complete and perfect the act already passed, that 
 it may better secure the results at which it 
 aims." The American laws in favor of compul- 
 sory education agree with those of Europe in de- 
 signating a certain age, during which the state 
 shall enforce the education of every child. A Ger- 
 man writer. Riimelin (in Zeitschrift fur <li<' ge- 
 sammte Staatswissenschaft, vol. xxiv.), contends, 
 that the state has the right to demand and to see 
 to it, that each of its members receive a certain 
 amount of instruction, but that this right does 
 not give to it the power of depriving parents, for 
 any length of lime that may appear necessary to 
 state authorities, of the right of disposing of 
 their children, but only justities the state in de- 
 manding a certain amount of knowledge deemed 
 necessary for the discharge of the duties every 
 One OWCS to society. Every child, therefore, he 
 argues, should be dismissed from the public 
 school, without any regard to its age, as soon as 
 it has acquired the knowledge demanded by the 
 state. 
 
 Prom the stand-point of the Catholic church, 
 'he claim of state governments to enforce edu- 
 cation has sometimes been absolutely denied, on 
 
 the ground that only the church, not the state, 
 has received (he divine commission to teach. 
 Some Catholic writers, however, recognize the. 
 
 right of the state to enforce education in concert 
 with the ecclesiastical authorities. The < atholic 
 EealrEncydopddie dies Wrziehungs- und Unter- 
 richtswesens (vol. iv„ 2d ed., Mayence, 1875, 
 art. Schulzwang) defines its position as follows: 
 (I) The majority of Catholic parents in Germany 
 are convinced that the schooling of their children 
 is useful, and under the present circumstances 
 indispensable. The church has always had the 
 same conviction, and the state, therefore, acts in 
 concert with both, if it makes school attendance 
 obligatory. (2) The instruction demanded by 
 the state should be limited to what is necessary, 
 and be confined to reading, writing, the four 
 fundamental rules of arithmetic, and religion. It 
 is entirely unnecessary to extend compulsory edu- 
 cation to 7 or 8 years, and 5 or 6 hours a day. 
 (3) The state has no right to prescribe where the 
 knowledge demanded by it shall be obtained. 
 This must be left to the parents. (4) Private 
 schools cannot claim to be entirely exempt from 
 an inspection by state authorities. They should 
 work in concert with the church and the state. — 
 See the Ann mil Reports of the V. S. Commis- 
 sioner of Education (1871 — 74) ; V. M. Rice, 
 Special Report on Compulsory Education etc. 
 (Albany, 1867) ; D. A. Hawkins, Report on 
 Compulsory 'Education (X. Y., 1874); Francis 
 Adams, The Free School System of ike United 
 States (London, 1875); Addresses and Proceed- 
 ings of the National Educational Association, 
 August, 1871 (N.Y. and Wash., 1872); Lukas, 
 Der Schvlzwang, ein Stuck modemer Tyrannei 
 (Landshut, 1865); Buedinger, Von den Anfan- 
 gen des Schulzwanges (Zurich, 1865) ; J^enisch, 
 Der Schidzu'iniif, kein Stuck modemer Barbarei 
 (Ratisbon, 1866). 
 
 COMSTOCK, John Lee, M. D., a noted 
 American author, and compiler of school books, 
 was born in Lyme, Ct., in 1789, and died in 
 Hartford, Ct., 1858. After receiving a com- 
 mon-school education, he studied medicine ; and, 
 during the war of 1812, served in the army as 
 an assistant surgeon. He afterwards settled in 
 Hartford, where he practiced medicine, and 
 where his books were written. He published 
 Natural History (1829), System of Natural 
 Philosophy (1831), a work which had an extra- 
 ordinary success, being translated into several 
 languages, and edited for use in Canada, 
 London, and Edinburgh. Op to I860, it is esti- 
 mated that at least 50(1,000 copies of this book 
 had been sold. His other works were Introduc- 
 tion to Mineralogy, Element* of Geology, The 
 Young Botanist, The Young Chemist. The 
 Youth's Hook of Astronomy, Outlines of Physi- 
 ology, History of the Greek Revolution, History 
 of the Precious Metals, Readings in Zoology, 
 etc., etc. Though mostly compilations, these 
 books possess considerable merit, and some of 
 them have had a very wide circulation. 
 
 CONCEPTION/ or Conceptive Faculty, 
 the faculty of the mind which retains past per- 
 
168 
 
 CONCEPTION 
 
 ceptions, and forms from them general ideas, or 
 notions, sometime- called concepts. In this man- 
 ner, the individual impressions obtained by per- 
 ception are associated in the mind, according to 
 their resemblances and analogies, and become 
 the materials df thought: for without general 
 ideas thought is impossible. Tims, the child 
 perceives a horse, but the concept in its mind as 
 the result of the perception, is not of that par- 
 ticular horse, which it will remember to have 
 seen at a particular time and place, but of the 
 horse as one of a class of animals resembling the 
 one seen; and to each one of this class it is at 
 once prepared to apply the name horse. As. if 
 you ask a child. How many legs has a horse? 
 he answers, four ; because such is his concept or : 
 notion of a horse, formed from all the percep- 
 tions which he has had of this animal. ••Nature." 
 says Isaac Taylor,"for purposes which it is no! 
 very difficult to divine, has allowed an absolute 
 predominance to the conceptive faculty during 
 the season of infancy, and has granted it a prin- 
 cipal share in the mental economy during the 
 succeeding years of childhood." Hence, it is 
 with this faculty that early education has prin- 
 cipally to deal. At this period, the mind is to 
 he stored with ideas images, or mental pictures 
 of past perceptions, which it is to employ as the 
 material for the exercise ot the other faculties, — 
 imagination, judgment, reason. " A rich and 
 ready conception," says Currie, "is the soil out 
 of which grows a sound judgment. The cause 
 of error in our judgments lies as frequently in 
 the want of materials on which to base them as 
 on the want of power to compare them when re- 
 quired." He also judiciously remarks, " It is a 
 great mistake to hasten on the child to use the 
 /units of judgment before his mind is stored 
 with the materials to which to apply them, un- 
 der the impression that we are teaching him to 
 think." The faculty of conception is most active 
 in relation to the objects of sight, that is. the 
 perceptions derived from that sense give rise to 
 
 the strongest or most vivid conceptions; hence. 
 indeed, the word idea, meaning image or picture 
 in the mind. To those who are deprived of the 
 Bense of sight, the perceptions produced by the 
 sense of hearing stimulate, perhaps, with almost 
 
 equal force the conceptive faculty. ••The furniture 
 
 of the conceptive faculty, as derive I from the ob- 
 jects of sight." says Isaac Taylor, "constitutes 
 the principal wealth of the mind, and upon the 
 
 ready command of these treasures, with some 
 specific end in view, depends in great measure 
 it- power." The cultivation of this faculty 
 should aim. ih To give clear, definite ideasof 
 objects and their properties; (2) To imprint 
 them deeply upon the mind, so that they may 
 1m- permanently retained, and reality recalled: 
 and '■'■ To associate them, as far as possible, ac- 
 cording t" their intrinsic or logical relations. It 
 is a well-understood fact that the clearest and 
 deepest conceptions are obtained bj a close and 
 accurate observation of the objects from which 
 they are derived. Clearness and strength of per- 
 ception are followed by the same qualities in 
 
 conception. Hence, the value of object teaching. 
 the best results of which are the effects produced 
 upon the conceptive faculty. In training the 
 perception, we are. indeed, training the concep- 
 tion : and it is the latter process that is espe- 
 cially valuable, not the former. This training can 
 only he carried on by means of language. No 
 idea can lie fixed in the mind to he of any prac- 
 tical value, unless there is linked with it its 
 proper verbal designation. Words as well as 
 ideas are the elements of thought. A large 
 part of elementary teaching consists in analyzing 
 the parts and properties of object.-, and. after 
 leading the mind to form concepts of them 
 through sense-perception, applying to them the 
 names by which they are commonly known. As 
 examples of lessons of this kind, the following 
 are given from Curries Early School Education : 
 
 TREE. 
 Place — in the ground, in fields, gardens, etc 
 Form— upright, bending, wide-spreading above, with 
 
 n aving motion, etc. 
 Parts — Root: below ground, branching, etc. 
 
 Trunk: round, solid, pillar-like, firm, dark, 
 
 rough, knotty, etc. 
 Leaves: heart-shaped, oval, etc.; suit. 
 
 green, yellow, etc. 
 Blos-oin ami fruit in their seasons. 
 Sound [in motion)— rustling, gentle, violent, etc. 
 
 GLASS. 
 
 Color— light, stained, clear, transparent, [ 
 
 obscured, etc. I &„]< 
 
 Form (in windows) square, round, oval, 
 lozenge-shaped, etc 
 
 Thin, light, hard, brittle, cold, ) foiuJ 
 sharp, etc. \ '* 
 
 SEA. 
 
 Taste— salt, unpleasant, cold, etc. Tasti 
 
 Size large, broad, deep. etc. 
 Color— green, blue, clear, Bandy, etc. 
 
 I'iikm- Surlace : plain, wavy, smooth, foam- 
 ing, etc. 
 
 >ui m) (in vee/;../,)- dashing, murmuring, Bear- 
 gentle, violent, etc. 
 cool, refreshing, cold, etc. Touch.. 
 
 Such lessons admit of an endless variety, and 
 maybe either entirely objective, that i-. given 
 with the objects placed before the pupils. OT 
 
 purely conceptive : such as tln.se above on the 
 
 tree and the sea. Both kinds, however, have die 
 same primary object in view. — to train the con- 
 ceptive faculty in connection with expression. 
 
 Observation is also greatly stimulated ami guided 
 
 I. v such lessons. Thus, to take so familiar an 
 
 object as the sky, of which every child must 
 
 necessarily have a multitude of conceptions, 
 
 although perhaps indefinite and almost useless, 
 because imt associated with any names. I low 
 much would his nal available knowledge be in- 
 creased by an exercise enabling him to enumerate 
 the various appearance- id the sky by proper 
 designations, Thus: -The Sky may be sen 
 stormy, -■/.•.,/•. overcast, misty, hazy, foggy, 
 gloomy, lowering, bright, resplendent, brilliant, 
 deep, </>>//. brazen, red, gray, azure, starry, dark, 
 lurid, etc., etc. In a similar manner, the sensible 
 properties of a great variety of familiar objects 
 
 ma\ be recalled and named, and in this way the 
 
 atteiitii.ii of the pupils to minute characters 
 
 %/,/. 
 
CONCKRT TEACHING 
 
 160 
 
 may be cultivated, and their command of lan- 
 guage much increased. 
 
 The conceptions of the mind arc greatly in- 
 fluenced byits feelings. An indifferent, apathetic 
 mental mood will effectually preclude the forma- 
 tion of any deep or durable impressions; on the 
 contrary, the conceptions of objects and scenes 
 with which the mind has been brought into con- j 
 tact under circumstances causing deep emotion, 
 either of pleasure or pain, arc ineffaceable. " The 
 cherished ami imperishable recollections of child- 
 hood, often as bright and clear at eighty as they 
 were at twenty, are those treasures of the COn- 
 
 ceptive faculty which have been consigned to its 
 keeping tinder the influence of vivid pleasurable 
 emotions." There is no principle which the 
 teacher should more earnestly consider than this, 
 prompting as it does to the effort, to associate 
 with the scenes of the child's school life every 
 possible objed which may excite its interest. 
 awaken its delight, and lend a charm to its intel- 
 lectual acquirements. — See Isaac Taylor, Ifome 
 Education; Currte, Principles and Practice 
 qf Early and Infant School-Education; Russell, 
 Intellectual Education, in Barnard's American 
 Pedagogy; Porter, The Human Intellect (N.T., 
 L869). 
 
 CONCERT TEACHING, a mode of in- 
 struction in which the pupils memorize what is 
 to be learned, by simultaneous repetition. It is 
 thus a kind of rote-teaching, and is subject to all 
 the disadvantages and liable to all the objections 
 incident to that system. In large schools, in 
 which very many pupils are taught together in 
 a single class, this has been a common and favor- 
 ite practice with teachers; because it has been 
 found a ready way to fix in the memory of chil- 
 dren the rudimentary principles of reading, spell- 
 ing, arithmetic, etc., and to impart to the pupils 
 the ability to repeat, in answer to set questions. 
 what has been thus mechanically learned. The 
 arbitrary associations established in this way are 
 very strong and durable ; and. as some things are 
 to be taught arbitrarily, and others to be asso- 
 ciated in the mind so that they may be arbitrarily 
 suggested, that is, recalled without any effort of 
 reasoning or other mental process, the method of 
 concert repetition, has a place in teaching that 
 is usefid and important. For example, the mul- 
 tiplication table would be of little value if it 
 were so learned, that the pupil would require to 
 reason out. or reckon up, the result of each re- 
 quired combination : the associations must be of 
 such a character, that thought is unnecessary to 
 recall them, the process of simple suggestion be- 
 ing alone required. Hence, in memorizing such 
 things as arithmetical tables, grammatical de- 
 clensions, conjugations, etc.. concert teaching is 
 valuable, on the principles. (! i that all repetition 
 is valuable in order to impress the mind; and (2) 
 that, the sense of hearing being strongly appealed 
 to. the mental impressions and their associations 
 
 are more durable, and more easily recalled. Be- 
 sides, by such exercises, the young pupils are 
 constantly employed ; their minds are k< pt Btead- 
 
 ih/upon their school work, and a strong social 
 
 or collective sympathy is established, which 
 would not lie possible by the exclusive employ- 
 ment of individual exercises. In this connection, 
 Currie says. ■• By this oft repeated simultai us- 
 
 ness of thought, action, and emotion, the m 
 becomes welded together, takes on one Stamp, 
 breathes one spirit .... Such is the foundation of 
 that simultaneous action with which, under the 
 name of collective lessons or gaUery lessons, we 
 arc so familiar in the infant school." So strongly 
 is this writer impressed with its usefulness, that 
 he styles it " the very essence of the infant-school 
 system, springing immediately from the root of 
 it. and embodying a first principle of its exist- 
 ence." 
 
 The exercise of intelligence is. however, to be 
 considered the chief instrument of education; 
 and this is so much an individual matter, that 
 the limits within which concert or simultaneous 
 repetition is proper, are quite narrow ; and the 
 tendency with most teachers is to transcend 
 them. Consequently, the intelligence of many 
 pupils, instead of being properly addressed and 
 exercised, is kept in a kind of stagnant condition, 
 and is thus impaired rather than benefited. The 
 teacher, in giving simultaneous instruction, must 
 endeavor to prevent this. The pupils will have 
 different temperaments and different degrees of 
 mental power; and. consequently, cannot all 
 perform the same work. The questions, when 
 addressed to the whole class, will not be adapted 
 to all the pupils ; and if the teacher should de- 
 pend upon a mere simultaneous response, only a 
 part of the class would lie benefited by the teach- 
 ing. A show of hands is a ready and useful ten- 
 tative means of ascertaining the condition of the 
 class in this respect ; and thus the advantages of 
 the simultaneous and individual plan of teaching 
 may be combined, the teacher selecting from all 
 who raise their hands those who are to answer, 
 and, at the same time, observing carefully who 
 do not raise their hands. Then, when the teacher 
 wishes a certain answer to be repeated for the 
 purpose of impressing it upon the pupils' minds, 
 the class may be required to repeat it as often as 
 may be necessary in concert. Tact and skill on 
 the part of the teacher will make this method of 
 elementary instruction very effective. 
 
 In the simultaneous responses, the tones of the 
 voice should be as natural as possible. ^ ithout 
 greal care on the part of the teacher, concert 
 exercises are very apt to degenerate into a sing- 
 song monotonous drawl, which undermines or 
 prevents all proper habits of reading and speak- 
 ing The pupils, too. are very apt to pitch their 
 voices too high, or to use a kind of shouting 
 tone, which no intelligent teacher would, for a 
 moment, permit. Under the limitations referred 
 to, ami with all proper efforts to guard against 
 the abuses to which this system of teaching is. 
 
 peculiarly liable.it is of great value; but should 
 never be employed, except when the common 
 nature and common intelligence of the children 
 are to be brought into play. See CURRIE, The 
 Principles and Practice of Early and Infant 
 School-Education (Edin. and Lond.). 
 
170 
 
 CONCORD COLLEGE 
 
 CONGREGATIONALISTS 
 
 CONCORD COLLEGE, at New Liberty, 
 Kentucky, was established in 1845, and chartered 
 in I860. It is under the control of Baptists. 
 Both sexes are admitted on the same terms. The 
 institution comprises a classical course, leading to 
 the degree of Bachelor of Arts, and a scientific 
 course, leading to the degree of Bachelor of Sci- 
 ence. In 1873 — 4, it had 3 instructors and 69 
 students. H. J. Green well is (1876) the pres- 
 ident. 
 
 CONCORDIA COLLEGE, at Fort Wayne, 
 Indiana, was organized in 1839 and chartered in 
 1848. It is under the control of the Evangelical 
 Lutheran < Ihurch. The value of its buildings, 
 grounds, etc., is $150,000. The library contains 
 5,000 volumes. To students whose parents are 
 members of the synod, tuition is free : others are 
 required to pay $24 per annum. The college has a 
 preparatory and a collegiate course. In 1873 — 1, 
 there were 15 instructors and 255 preparatory 
 and 133 collegiate students. Dr. W. Sihler is 
 (i87l>i its president. 
 
 CONGREGATION ALISTS. This denom- 
 ination takes its name from the fact, that the 
 church government is lodged with each local 
 congregation or ecdesia. And yet, in this re- 
 spect, the Congregationalists do not differ essen- 
 tially from the Baptists, the (Jniversalists, andthe 
 Unitarians. The Congregationalists of the Unit- 
 ed Stales correspond, in general, with the Inde- 
 pendents of England, and these names are used 
 somewhat interchangeably on both sides of the 
 water. The difference as far as there is a differ- 
 ence, is found in this, that the word Independent 
 has a stronger reference to the absolute and final 
 power of the local church, while the word Con- 
 gregational suggests more the comity, fellowship, 
 interchange between churches that are, neverthe- 
 less, independent. The word Congregational 
 -and that which is peculiarly suggested by it, is 
 rather growing in favor in England; but hither- 
 to the English Independents have made less of 
 councils, conferences, associations, than have the 
 American Congregationalists. The general name 
 in England embracing the Independents, is "The 
 Congregational Union." 
 
 The first Congregational church in America 
 was planted at Plymouth in KJ20; and the 
 second at Salem in L629. By the year 1 Too. the 
 number of churches was about 130. The Pres- 
 byterians and Congregationalists had been kin- 
 dred in their history in the old world, and they 
 early became kindred here. Until within times 
 quite recent, it was the common sentiment, that 
 a man who was a Congregationalist in New 
 England, would be a Presbyterian in the Middle 
 States, and vice versa. When the great wave 
 of population began to set westward from the 
 Atlantic shore, in the early part of the present 
 century, these two denominations formed a "Plan 
 of Union", by which they worked together in the 
 founding of churches, schools, and colleges in the 
 Middle and Western States. The great benevolent 
 societies like the American Board, the American 
 Some Missionary Society, the American Edu- 
 cation Society, were union societies between 
 
 these two denominations, untU within a few 
 years. 
 
 Because of this prevailing sentiment, the Con- 
 gregationalists of New England did not, until 
 the present century, attempt to found churches 
 distinctly Congregational out of New England, 
 and not till within the last forty years was any 
 special influence put forth in this direction. But 
 now the denomination, in the states and territo- 
 ries, numbers 3,438 churches, of which 1,459 are 
 in New England, and 1,979 out of New England. 
 There are but 57 Congregational churches in the 
 Southern States. The number of ministers be- 
 longing to the denomination is 3.300. 
 
 The system of common schools originated with 
 the Congregationalists of New England in the 
 early generations, and so thoroughly inwrought 
 is this system with the whole history and habit 
 of the denomination, that it would be an anomaly 
 to find any number of Congregationalists any- 
 where in this country, without public schools. 
 
 From the first they built their institutions 
 upon the principle of an educated ministry, and 
 founded their colleges to this end. The rule has 
 been with slight exceptions, from 1620 until now, 
 that a Congregational church should have a 
 minister, with a collegiate education. In Con- 
 necticut, from 1635 — 1835, there were not far 
 from 1,000 Congregational ministers, and not 
 more than 30 of them were without an Knglish 
 university education, or a collegiate education on 
 these shores. What was true in that state will 
 be found substantially true in all the New Eng- 
 land states. Quite a number of the colleges and 
 theological schools which the Congregationalists 
 largely helped to build, under the Plan of Union, 
 now belong to the Presbyterians. But aside 
 from these, their colleges are as follows, with the 
 date of their foundation: Harvard, Mass, (1638), 
 now Unitarian; Yale, Ct. (1700); Dartmouth, N. 
 11. (1709); University of Yt. (1791); Williams, 
 Mass. (1793); Middlebury, Yt. (1800); Bowdoin, 
 Me. (1802); Amherst, Mass. (1821); Illinois. 111. 
 (1830); Obcrlin, O. (1834); Beloit, Wis. (1847); 
 Iowa, Io. (1847); Olivet, Mich. (1855); Pacific 
 University, Oregon (1859); Washburn, Kan. 
 (1865); Wheaton, 111. (1860); Ripon, AVis. 
 (1863); Pisk University, Tenn. (1867), Carleton, 
 Minn. (1867); Tabor,' Iowa (1866); Berea, Ky. 
 (1858); Drury, .Mo. (1873); Thayer, Mo. (1868); 
 Doane, Neb. (1872); Colorado, Col. (1874). 
 
 The Congregational theological seminaries are, 
 Andover, Mass. (1807) — the oldest theological 
 school iii the country; Bangor, Me. (1817); New 
 Haven, Ct. f 1822); Hartford, Ct. (1834);Oberlin, 
 O. (1835); Chicago, 111. (1858); Pacific Theo. 
 Sem., Cal. (1869). 
 
 Of academics and female schools the list is 
 too long to be enumerated. Some of the oldest 
 and best-known academies to prepare boys for 
 college, in New England, are Phillips Academy, 
 Andover. Mass.; Phillips Academy. Exeter, N. 
 II.; andWilliston Academy. Kasthanipton, Mass. 
 Of female academies, there are Mt. Bolyoke 
 Seminary. Iladley, Mass.; Abbott Academy, 
 Andover, Mass.; Bradford Academy. Bradfordj 
 
cov;ki:<;atio\a lists 
 
 CONNECTICUT 
 
 171 
 
 Mass.; Wheaton Academy. Norton. Mass. and 
 Wellesley College, a1 Wellesley, Mass. 
 
 Of Congregational colleges in England, some 
 of the more conspicuous are, Rotherham Inde- 
 pendent College (1756), with which Rev. F. J. 
 [folding, D.D., and Rev. II. I!. Reynolds are 
 prominently connected; Lancashire Independent 
 College (1806), where Rev. J. G-. Rogers and 
 Rev. J. Baldwin Brown, both London ministers, 
 are employed as lecturers; New College, London 
 (1850), having among its foremost professors, 
 Bev.J.Stoughton, D .15., and Rev. R. BulleyJ)J).; 
 Theological Hall of Congregational Churches of 
 Scotland (1811), with which Rev. \V. L. Alexan- 
 der is honorably associated, and several other 
 institutions, with the same general character 
 and aim. 
 
 The American Education Society, organized, 
 in L816, to assist young men in humble circum- 
 stances, in obtaining an education for the Chris- 
 tian ministry, has given aid, in the sixty years 
 of its existence, to li. .'!!)'_' young men. It assists 
 them only in the collegiate and theological 
 courses, though, in the early years, it nave aid 
 also in the preparatory departments. Its prin- 
 ciple is not to support, but to help men to help 
 themselves. It gives them si no, a year, each. 
 The society is now giving its aid to 310 young 
 men in thirty different colleges and theological 
 schools. Two years since, this society was united 
 with the College Society, so called, whose func- 
 tion it was to assist young colleges at the West. 
 Since the union, the name of the organization is 
 "The American College and Education Society", 
 and it has now the double duty of aiding young 
 colleges, as well as young men. 
 
 The denomination now carries on its benevo- 
 lent work through six societies, which are dis- 
 tinctively Congregational, namely: The American 
 Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions, 
 raising and expending yearly about $475,000 ; 
 The American Home Missionary Society ; The 
 American Congregational Union (church-build- 
 in^,: The American Missionary Association (work 
 among the freedmen of the South); The American 
 College and Education Society; and the Con- 
 gregational Publishing Society. Besides these, 
 the Congregational churches bear a part in the 
 union societies, like the American Bible Society, 
 American Sunday School Union, etc. The whole 
 amount of the benevolent contributions of the 
 denomination, last year, was $1,241,014.29. 
 
 While the Congregational system of church 
 government lodges the power with each local 
 church, yet it makes much of the advisory power 
 of councils. In the settlement and dismissals of 
 ministers, — in the organization of new churches. 
 — in cases of difficulty in any local church — it is 
 customary to call upon sister churches for coun- 
 sel and assistance. There has also grown up in 
 the denomination a large system of interchange 
 and fellowship, by means of associations, local 
 and state conferences, andnow, at length, a trien- 
 nial national council. 
 
 From the circumstance, that the Congrega- 
 tionalists so early founded their system of public 
 
 ! schools and their colleges, it has come to pass, 
 j that this denomination has furnished the educa- 
 tors of the country, in the lower, and especially 
 in the higher departments, far beyond any other 
 religious denomination in the land. It lias sup- 
 plied presidents of colleges, and professors in col- 
 leges and theological schools in immense lium- 
 ! bers. Anything like an enumeration of names. 
 in this particular would require so much space, 
 that we will not attempt it. But the tact will 
 probably stand unchallenged by all intelligent 
 and observing men. A few conspicuous names 
 may be mentioned, for the most part belonging 
 to by-gone generations. Such were Increase 
 Mather. Edward Holyoke, John T. Kirkland, 
 .lared Sparks, presidents of Harvard College; 
 Thomas Clap, Ezra Stiles, Timothy Dwight, Jer- 
 emiah Pay, presidents of Yale College: Eleazar 
 Wheelock and Nathan Lord of Dartmouth Col- 
 lege. The late Dr. Theron Baldwin, for nearly 
 thirty years secretary of the College Society, by 
 reason of his large organizing power in the depart- 
 ment of education, fitly finds a place in this list. 
 ( )f men still living, but \vh< >. 1 >y reason of age, have 
 passed out of the offices they so long held, and 
 may be reckoned as emeriti, we may name Mark 
 Hopkins, of Williams College, and Theodore 
 1 hvight WoolseV) of Vale College. From the be- 
 ginning until now, the presidents and professors 
 in the Presbyterian institutions have been largely 
 furnished by New England; and the same is true, 
 in a lesser proportion, in the institutions of other 
 denominations. A catalogue of presidents and 
 professors in American colleges and theological 
 seminaries, including only the men born and 
 reared among the " Congregationalists," would 
 embrace several hundred names. 
 
 CONNECTICUT, one of the original thir- 
 teen states of the American Union, having a 
 population, in 1870, of 537,454, and an area of 
 4,750 sq. m., being the smallest of the present 
 states except Bhode Island and Delaware. 
 
 Educational History. — This topic may con- 
 veniently be discussed under three heads : (I) 
 The establishing of schools ; (II) The mode of 
 maintaining them ; (HI) The mode of supervis- 
 ing them. 
 
 I. The earliest European immigrants to Con- 
 necticut established schools very soon after their 
 arrival. Two distinct colonies were originally 
 planted within the present limits of the state, 
 each consisting of several towns or plantations. 
 Hartford (settled in L635) was the leading town in 
 the Connecticut colony, and New Haven (settled 
 in 1638), in the New Haven colony. At first, each 
 town acted independently in establishing schools. 
 The earliest records of I lartford are lost, but the 
 oldest extant records show that a school existed 
 there as early as lfi42. The records of New 
 Haven speak of a school there in 1639 — 40, and 
 two years later they contain a vote to provide 
 means for a school. The action of these two 
 leading towns no doubt indicates correctly the 
 similar action of the other original towns. The 
 first code of laws for the Connecticut colony, 
 completed in 1650, required "the selectmen of 
 
172 
 
 CONNECTICUT 
 
 every town to have a vigilant eve over their 
 brethren and neighbors, to see that none of them 
 shall suffer so much barbarism in any of their 
 Families as not to endeavor to teach, by them- 
 selves or others, their children and apprentices 
 so much learning as may enable them perfectly 
 to read the English tongue, etc. - ' The same code 
 required every town containing 50 families to 
 • appoint one within their town to teach all such 
 children as shall resort to him, to write and 
 read;" and every town of 100 families, to " set 
 up a grammar school, the masters thereof being 
 able to instruct youths so far as they may be 
 fitted for the university." The New Haven 
 colony code, prepared in 1 655, was equally em- 
 phatic in requiring the education of all children. 
 The two colonies were united in 1665, and the 
 Connecticut code became the law for the whole 
 colony. In 1672, that code was revised, and the 
 provision requiring a grammar school in every 
 town of 100 families, was superseded by a new 
 law requiring such a school to be maintained in 
 the county town of each of the four counties 
 that had then been. organized; namely. Hartford. 
 New Haven, New London, and Fairfield. This 
 law remained in force till 1798. In 1678, every 
 town containing .'ill families (instead of "ill) was 
 require 1 to maintain a school. A new revision 
 of the code was prepared in 1700, and publishe I 
 two years later. Under the revised code, every 
 town of "o families, or more, was required to 
 maintain a school eleven months of each year, 
 and every town of less than 70 families, to have 
 a school at least half of the year. In 1712, these 
 requirements were extended to parishes or socie- 
 ties, into which several towns of large extent 
 were divi led, from time to time, for the con- 
 venience of people in attending public worship. 
 In 1766, each town, ami each parish, where there 
 was more than one in a town, was authorized to 
 divide itself into convenient districts, and main- 
 tain within its limits as many schools as might 
 be needed to accommodate its inhabitants. Pre- 
 vious to this time, the law had required only one 
 school in each town or society. The law of 1766 
 led, in time, to the "district. system" of establish- 
 ing and maintaining schools. At first, however, 
 the districts were merely subdivisions of towns 
 or parishes. In 17!) I, their separate existence 
 began to be recognized in legislation. They 
 were authorized that year to locate new school- 
 houses by a vote of two thirds of the citizens, t i 
 lay taxes for the same, and to appoint collectors. 
 In 1799, they were empowered to choose clerk; 
 
 and treasurers ; and, finally, in L839, they were 
 declared to be " bodies corporate," and were 
 
 authorized to elect their own committees. In 
 
 L795, L 798, and L799, laws were passed by which 
 parishes or s icieties were invested with full con- 
 trol over schools within their limits, an I n 
 designated Wythe new name of "school societies." 
 Such society mighl be an entire town, a part of 
 a town, or parts of two or more towns ; bu1 all 
 action concerning schools was taken by school 
 
 icieties, and towns, as such, ha I no pari in 
 
 school affairs. In 1856. school societies were 
 
 abolished, and their powers and duties were trans- 
 ferred to the towns. In 1865, the towns were 
 authorized to consolidate all their districts, pro- 
 vided a majority of the districts in a town con- 
 sented. In 1866, the right to consolidate was 
 given without that condition; and this law, with 
 slight modifications, is still in force. Under this 
 law, several towns have abolished their school 
 districts and returned to the original "town 
 system." 
 
 II. There have been three principal sources of 
 support for public schools: (1) Taxes; (2) Tui- 
 tion fees, or rate bills ; '3) The income of per- 
 manent funds. 
 
 (1) Taxes. — The earliest schools in Hartford. 
 New Haven, "Wethersfield, and, doubtless, in the 
 other original towns, were supported in part by 
 appropriations from the town treasuries. The 
 code of 1650 (already mentioned) directed that the 
 teachers should be paid "cither by the parents or 
 masters of such children " as resorted to them, 
 "or by the inhabitants in general by way of 
 supply, as the major part of those who order the 
 prudentials of the town shall appoint." The two 
 methods here suggested,— taxes and tuition fees 
 — were, doubtless, combined, as they had been be- 
 fore that code was formed. In 1690, the general 
 court d. c. legislature) of the colony granted 60 
 pounds yearly to each of the county grammar 
 schools of Hartford and New ETaven,"30 pounds 
 of it to We paid out of the county treasury, the 
 other 30 to he paid in the school revenue given 
 by particular persons, or to lie given for that use, 
 s i tar as it will extend, the rest to be paid by the 
 respective towns of Hartford and New Haven.'' 
 In 1693,20 pounds was voted to each of the 
 other two grammar schools. In the revised code 
 of 1700 (previously referred to), an important 
 change was made. The sum of 40 shillings 
 on the thousand pounds was ordered to be paid 
 from the colony treasury to those towns which 
 maintained schools according to law. in propor- 
 tion to their respective grand lists of taxable 
 property and polls. This sum was assessed in 
 addition to previous taxes, and was thus virtually 
 a town tax for schools. If the amount thus re- 
 ceived by any town was insufficient to maintain 
 its school, the deficiency was to be " made up of 
 such estate as hath been bequeathed by any for 
 
 that use, and for want thereof, the one half to be 
 paid by the town, and the other by the children 
 that go to school, unless any town agree other- 
 wise." In 1 712, parishes or societies were placed 
 on the same footing as towns for maintaining 
 
 schools. The law of 1700. as thus amended, re- 
 mained in force, with slight modifications, till 
 L820. The most important modifications were 
 the following: In 1754, the rate of tax was 
 diminished from 40 shillings to 10: in 1766, it 
 was increased to 20; and in 1767, was restored 
 
 to 10. The burdens of the Seven Years' war 
 (1756 63), doubtless, caused the diminution 
 of the tax. In L 820, the state school fund had 
 
 be< so productive that a law was passed per- 
 mitting the discontinuance of the tax whenever 
 
 the yearly income of that fund should amount to 
 
COXXKCTICUT 
 
 173 
 
 • 2,000, which occurred the next year. In L854, 
 the town school tax was restored, and it has since 
 been repeatedly increased, till it now supplies 
 fully half of the funds for the current expenses 
 of public schools. In 1 839, school districts were 
 authorized to tax themselves for current school 
 expenses. This is now done most commonly by 
 the more populous and wealthy districts. In 
 (.871, there was appropriated from the state 
 treasury 50 cents for each child between 4 and 
 16 years of age. The next year the sum was in- 
 creased to one dollar and a half per child, which 
 it now remains. 
 
 (2) Tail inn Fees or Rate Bills. — These were 
 a source of school income from the beginning till 
 they were abolished in 1868. Where parents or 
 guardians were too poor to pay them, they could 
 be collected from the town or society. 
 
 (3) Income of Permanent Funds. — A law al- 
 ready quote 1. passed in 1690, refers to " school 
 revenue given by particular persons." The quo- 
 tation already given from the law of 1 TOO, con- 
 tains similar language. In 1733, the public 
 lands belonging to the colony, now constituting 
 the north-western part of the state, were set apart 
 to form a permanent school fund, and the avails 
 of these lands, except certain reservations, were 
 distributed among the towns then organized, in 
 proportion to their tax lists ; parishes receiving 
 their portions on the same basis. The money 
 thus obtained now constitutes the greater part 
 of the " school society funds" belonging to many 
 of the former societies. A small part of these 
 funds came from the " excise moneys" granted 
 by the colony, in 1766, for the encouragement of 
 schools, and another part from the donations and 
 bequests of benevolent persons. The Connecticut 
 School Fund was for more than half a century 
 the main source of public school income. By 
 the charter granted to Connecticut by Charles II. 
 of England, in 1662, the colony extended west- 
 ward to the Pacific, and from 41° to 42° 2' X. 
 lat. The part of this territory now belonging 
 to Pennsylvania, was yielded to that state 
 after a bitter controversy, but the title of Con- 
 necticut to the remainder, lying farther west, 
 was confirmed. In 1786, this was ceded to the 
 L • S., except a reservation extending 120 miles 
 westward from the W. line of Pennsylvania, and 
 known as the " Western Reserve," or sometimes 
 as '• Xew Connecticut." This tract, except a | 
 small part previously disposed of, was sold in 
 L795 for ^1,200,000, which was the original 
 capital of the Connecticut school fund. By ju- 
 dicious management, particularly that of James 
 Hillhouse. commissioner of the fund from L810 
 to 182."). and Seth I'. Beers, from 1 825 to 1 849, 
 the capital was increased to over $2,000,000. 
 The first dividend was paid in 1799. The fund 
 now bears interest at 6 per cent, and in some 
 cases more than that. The income, until 1820, 
 was distributed to the school societies in propor- 
 tion to their respective amounts of taxable prop- 
 erty and polls; since that time it is divided ac- 
 cording to the number of children between 4 and 
 16 years of age. — The Town Deposit Fund came 
 
 t'n ,in the treasury of the U. S. In 1836, Congress 
 directed that the "surplus revenue" then on 
 hand should be divided among the states in pro- 
 portion to their representation in both houses of 
 Congress. Connecticut revived 87(14,670.60. 
 Of tins sum $763,661.83 was divided among the 
 towns according to their population al the census 
 of 1830. Towns organized since that date have 
 (with one exception! received their share of the 
 town deposit fund which belonged to the towns 
 from which they were formed. In theory, this 
 money is merely deposited with the towns by 
 the state (whence its name), and is liable to 
 be recalled: but, practically, it belongs absolutely 
 to the towns. At first, one half of the income 
 was devoted by law to public schools; since 
 1 855, the entire income has been so devoted. 
 
 III. For the first 60 or Til years in the history 
 of Connecticut, there appears to have been no of- 
 ficial supervision of the schools. The "selectmen" 
 in each town were to " have a vigilant eye" over 
 their townsmen to prevent the " barbarism " of 
 ignorance; but nothing is recorded which indi- 
 cates that schools were particularly under their 
 care. A law of 1702 speaks of a "committee 
 for schools" as existing in a part of the towns, 
 and similar committees were afterward appointed 
 in the parishes; but the duty of these committees, 
 so far as appears, extended only to the financial 
 affairs of the schools. In 1714, the civil author- 
 ity and selectmen of every town were "directed 
 and empowered, as visitors, to inspect the state 
 of all such schools as are appointed in said town, 
 from time to time, and particularly once in each 
 
 quarter of the year and to inquire into the 
 
 qualifications of the masters of such schools and 
 their diligence in attending to the service of the 
 said schools, together with the proficiency of the 
 children under their care." They were also re- 
 quired to give such directions as would render 
 the schools most efficient for the purpose in- 
 tended. This law remained in force till 1798, 
 when each society — then called a school society — 
 was required to " appoint a suitable number of 
 persons, not exceeding nine, of competent skill 
 and letters, to be overseers and visitors of 
 schools," who were to examine and approve 
 teachers, displace the incompetent and such as 
 disregarded the " regulations by them adopted, 
 superintend and direct the instruction of the 
 youth in letters, religion, morals, and manners," 
 and in other ways promote the efficiency of 
 the schools. When the school societies were 
 abolished, in L856, the appointment of "school 
 visitors" was transferred to the towns. 
 
 Xo state superintendent of schools was chosen 
 in Connecticut till 1*38. In thai year, a board 
 of commissioners of common schools was created, 
 and authorized to appoint its own secretary, who 
 was to- devote his whole time, if required, un- 
 der the direction of the board, to ascertain the 
 condition, increase the interest, and promote the 
 usefulness, of the common schools." The board 
 appointed as its secretary I bury Barnard, who 
 served the state efficiently in that position till 
 1842, when the law creating the board was re- 
 
174 
 
 CONNECTICUT 
 
 pealed. In 1845, the commissioner of the school 
 fund, Seth P. Beers, was appointed by the gen- 
 eral assembly superintendent of common schools. 
 In 1849, an act was passed establishing a normal 
 school, the principal of which was to be, ex offi- 
 cio, superintendent of common schools. Under 
 this act, Henry Barnard became superintendent 
 in September of that year, and continued to 
 hold the office till January, 1855. John D. 
 Philbrick succeeded him for two years, and 
 David N. Camp was superintendent from Jan- 
 uary, 1857, to August, 1865. In July, 18G5, 
 the state board of education was constituted, and 
 was required to appoint a secretary, who by the 
 appointment was made superintendent of schools. 
 The first secretary was I )aniel C. Gihnan, who 
 filled the position from August, 1865, to Jan- 
 uary, 1867. The present secretary, Birdsey G. 
 Northrop, entered upon his duties January 1., 
 1867. 
 
 A State Teachers' Association was formed 
 April 7., 1846, which meets once a year. Teach- 
 ers' Institutes are held in different parts of the 
 state, every year. They are provided for by an 
 appropriation of .$.'5,000 a year, from the state 
 treasury. Associations of teachers for mutual 
 improvement are formed from time to time in 
 some towns. 
 
 School Si/stem. — The general supervision and 
 control of the educational interests of the state 
 are entrusted to the state board of education, 
 which consists of six persons, — the governor and 
 lieutenant-governor of the state, ex officio, and 
 one person from each of the four congressional 
 districts, chosen by the general assembly for the 
 term of four years, one going out of office each 
 year, but re-eligible. The secretary ehosen by 
 this board is superintendent of schools, as above 
 stated. Towns are required to maintain schools 
 for at least 30 weeks in each year, in every 
 district containing 24 or more persons between 
 4 and 1 6 years of age, and for at least 24 weeks 
 in other districts : but no school need be 
 maintained in any district in which 
 age attendance, the previous year, 
 than 8. Kach town has a board 
 visitors, either 3, 6 or 9 in number, 
 chosen by ballot for three years, one 
 Log out of office each year, but re-eligible. In 
 choosing them, no voter may vote for more than 
 half of the number to lie chosen when it is an 
 even Dumber, nor for more than a bare majority 
 when it is an odd number. The care of school 
 funds and other school property belonging to the 
 towns, is entrusted to selectmen, and the visitors 
 have charge of strictly educational affairs. They 
 examine and certificate teachers, rejecting those 
 considered unfit or incompetent, prescribe rules 
 and regulations for the management, studies, 
 classification, and discipline of public schools, 
 and direct what text-books shall be used. They 
 approve sites ami plans for new schooMiouses, 
 fill vacancies in district offices, make rules for 
 the care and management of district libraries, 
 and supervise high schools where such exist. 
 They aunually assign to one or more of their 
 
 the aver- 
 was less 
 
 of school 
 who are 
 third go- 
 
 number, called acting visitors, the duty of visit- 
 ing all public schools in the town at least twice 
 in each term. They choose from their own num- 
 ber a chairman arid secretary, make yearly re- 
 turns of the number of children between 4 and 
 16 years of age, and draw all moneys from the 
 state treasury. They also send to the secretary 
 of the board of education such statistical re- 
 turns as he may call for. As compensation, they, 
 are entitled to receive 3 dollars a day. for the 
 time necessarily spent in performing theirduties. 
 Each town has power to form, alter, and dissolve 
 school districts within its limits, and any two or 
 more towns may form joint districts of adjoining 
 parts of their territory. Each district is a body 
 corporate, with all the powers necessary for 
 building, purchasing, hiring, and repairing 
 school-houses, employing and paying teachers, 
 and raising moneys by tax or loan. The name 
 or number, and the boundaries of every district 
 are to be definitely ascertained and entered on 
 its own records, as well as on those of the town 
 or towns in which it is situated. Each district 
 chooses yearly by ballot a committee of not. 
 more' than 3 persons, a clerk, treasurer, and col- 
 lector. Some large districts choose their com- 
 mittees in the same Avay that school visitors are 
 chosen, as already described. The committee of a 
 district is its agent, employing its teacher or 
 teachers, and taking charge of its affairs ; giving 
 notice of district meetings, and calling special 
 meetings when deemed necessary, or when one- 
 tifth or ten of the voters in the district request 
 it in writing. 
 
 Any town may, at any annual meeting, abol- 
 ish all the school districts and parts of districts 
 within its limits, and constitute itself one district. 
 Such town assumes all the property and debts of 
 the former district, and chooses by ballot, as 
 school visitors are chosen, a committee of 6, 9, 
 or 12 male residents, who take the place and 
 perforin the duties of both district officers and 
 school visitors. They arrange for schools, of at 
 least 30 weeks in the year, in the different parts 
 of the town, and take charge of school buildings 
 and other school property. All towns have 
 authority to establish and maintain high schools, 
 and to do what is requisite for that purpose. 
 The siate makes yearly payments for procuring 
 and replenishing libraries and apparatus, to such 
 districts as comply with certain requirements. 
 Teachers are required to be examined and ap- 
 proved by the school visitors before commencing 
 to teach, and to keep an accurate record of each 
 scholar's attendance, in registers provided by the 
 state for that purpose. An enumeration of all 
 persons between 1 and 1 6 years of age is made 
 yearly, in January, and the number is returned 
 to the proper officer by February 5th. The dis- 
 tribution of the school finance and state appro- 
 priation is based on this enumeration. 
 
 Educational Condition. — The number of school 
 
 districts as returned in 1 876, is L ,493, of which 
 
 In comprise each an entire town: about 200 are 
 
 joint districts, lying in two or more towns, and 
 
 about 1,280 are each a part of a town. The 
 
CONNKCTHTT 
 
 175 
 
 number of schools was 1,650; of departments, 
 2,499. The number of graded schools was 264 : 
 i>t which 1 1 I had each two departments ; 39 had 
 :: each; 37,4; 23, 5; 11. 6; L0, 7; 5,8; 5,9; 
 6, Hi: 1. 11; 7, 12; 3,13; 1, 19; 1,20; 1,21. 
 The whole number of departments in the graded 
 scIki. >ls was L,093. Hence about 1,406 of the 
 public schools were ungraded. 
 
 The support of schools (including the cost of 
 building and repairing school-houses) was de- 
 rived from several sources; namely. 
 
 Bchool Fund $148,220.60 
 
 Town Deposit Fund 46,534.97 
 
 Other Funds 15,614.79 
 
 Total from funds $210,370.36 
 
 State Tax $202,1 L9.00 
 
 Town Tax 668,167.13 
 
 District Tax 463,775.19 
 
 Total from taxes $1,334,061.32 
 
 Voluntary Contributions 6,881.26 
 
 Other sources 41,545.17 
 
 Total from all sources $1,592,858. 1 1 
 
 The average wages per month of male teach- 
 ers was $70.05; of female teachers, $37.35. The 
 highest salary of any teacher is $3,000 a year. 
 
 The course of instruction in graded schools 
 varies so widely that no definite statement can 
 be given. 
 
 School Statistics (for the year ending August 
 31., 1875) :— 
 
 Pupils enrolled (or registered): 
 
 In the winter term 98,402 
 
 " " summer term 88,595 
 
 " " whole year 119,489 
 
 Average attendance, winter 71,935 
 
 " " summer 65,251 
 
 " " mean, for the year 68,593 
 
 Total Receipts $1,592,858.11 
 
 " Expenditures 1,552,583.85 
 
 The items of expenditure are as follows: — 
 
 For Teachers' Wages $1,057,242.19 
 
 " Fuel and Incidentals 140,130.42 
 
 " New School-Houses 135,136.46 
 
 " Repairs of School- Houses 77,544.46 
 
 " Library and Apparatus 8,262.15 
 
 " other school purposes, including cost 
 
 of supervision 134,269.17 
 
 Total $1,552,583.85 
 
 Number of Teachers : — 
 
 In winter, males, 721; females, 1,910; total 2,631 
 
 "summer, " 272: " 2,324; " 2,596 
 
 Number of different teachers employed, at ieast, 
 males, 704; females, 2,307; total, 3,011. 
 
 Normal Instruction. — The state normal school, 
 at Xew Britain, was established in 1849, and 
 opened for pupils in 1850. It is supported by 
 an appropriation of $12,000 a year from the 
 state treasury. The number of students, in 1876, 
 was 180; instructors, 7. The design of the 
 school is strictly professional : that is, to instruct 
 , its pupils in the best methods of organizing, 
 governing, and instructing schools, as well as in 
 the various branches pursued in the common 
 schools of the state. Candidates for admission 
 must be at least 1 6 years of age ; must declare 
 their full attention to teach in the public schools 
 of Connecticut, and must pass a satisfactory ex- 
 amination in reading, writing, arithmetic, geog- 
 raphy, English grammar, and the history of the 
 United States. The course of study embraces, 
 
 besides the branches usually taught in the 
 
 schools, school laws, theory and art of teaching, 
 English literature, vocal music, and drawing. 
 The full course requires two years. This school 
 has a library of about 500 volumes ; a collection 
 of models, casts, and apparatus for free-hand 
 drawing ; a chemical laboratory, and a philo- 
 sophical cabinet and apparatus. 
 
 Secondary Instruction. — Of this grade are 
 the high schools and the academies. The ac- 
 count already given of the public schools con- 
 tains the facts in relation to the county grammar 
 schools, which may be regarded as the high 
 schools of Connecticut from 1672 to 1798. The 
 Colony School in New Haven (1659 — 62) may 
 be considered the prototype of these schools. In 
 179S. every school society was authorized to set 
 up a high school; and, in 1856, each town re- 
 ceived similar authority. But very few towns 
 have permanently maintained such schools. In 
 many of the larger villages, the highest depart- 
 ment of a graded school serves as a high school. 
 
 In 1658, Edward Hopkins, who had been gov- 
 ernor of Connecticut, died in London, leaving by 
 will a part of his estate to trustees in New 
 Haven. Hartford, and Hadley, .Mass., to be used 
 " to give some encouragement in those foreign 
 plantations for the breeding up of hopeful 
 youths, both at the grammar school and college, 
 for the public service of the colony in future 
 times." Xew Haven and Hartford received 
 each a few hundred pounds from his estate, with 
 which they laid the foundations of the Hopkins 
 grammar schools. These schools date from 
 1660, though not actually begun till 1664 and 
 1665. The school at Hartford was united with 
 the high school of that town in 1847. but the 
 Hopkins Grammar School in New Haven has 
 retained its separate existence, though most of 
 its present endowment came from other sources 
 than the Hopkins estate. 
 
 In the later years of the 18th century, acade- 
 mies began to be established, and a large number 
 have been incorporated. A general law for their 
 incorporation has been in force since 1838. At 
 present, about 25 academies are in active exist- 
 ence. In the early part of this century, the 
 Plainfield Academy, the Staples Free School, at 
 Easton, and Bacon Academy, at Colchester, 
 were especially prominent, but they have since 
 relatively declined. The most important are 
 now the Episcopal Academy, at Cheshire, the 
 Connecticut Literary Institute, at Suffield, the 
 Norwich Free Academy, the Bulkeley School, 
 at New Ixmdon, and the Morgan School, at 
 Clinton. The last three named have large en- 
 dowments. Bowen Academy, at Woodstock, 
 Lewis Academy, Southington, the Guilford In- 
 stitute. Guilford, and the academies at Durham 
 and ( Jlastonbury are also valuable institutions. 
 
 Besides the high schools and academies, there 
 are numerous private schools, especially in the 
 southern and western parts of the state. Many 
 of these are boarding-schools which receive their 
 pupils chiefly from New York and other largo 
 cities. 
 
176 
 
 CONNECTICUT 
 
 Denominational and Parochial Schools. — 
 There are but few schools of this kind except 
 those established by the Roman Catholics in 
 communities where citizens of that denomination 
 are numerous. In two or three instances, schools 
 thus established have been incorporated into the 
 public school system. 
 
 Superior Instruction. — Although no college 
 was established in Connecticut till 1700, the 
 founders of both the original colonies, and espe- 
 cially of New Haven, were ardent friends of col- 
 legiate education. But Harvard College for a 
 long time needed and received their assistance. 
 The Connecticut colony appropriated money to 
 establish a fellowship there. In every town a 
 committee was appointed to receive and forward 
 contributions in aid of students at Cambridge. 
 New Haven sent 40 bushels of wheat as one 
 year's contribution. But the purpose to found 
 a college at New Haven, was cherished from the 
 outset, and was never abandoned. At a town 
 meeting held early in Kits— less than 10 years 
 ifter the first settlement — , the town directed a 
 committee, appointed to dispose of vacant lots, to 
 "consider and reserve what lot they shall see 
 meet and most convenient for a college', which 
 they desire maybe set up so soon as their ability 
 shall reach thereunto." The subject was repeat- 
 edly discussed both in meetings of the town and 
 in the colonial legislature, but the want of means 
 prevented the gratification of their desire. In 
 1659, a " colony school " was set up, in the h »pe 
 that it might in time become a college, but it 
 was continued only three years. At length, in 
 1699, a plan was devised for establishing the 
 long desired college. The leaders in the move- 
 ment were the clergymen of the colony. 'I'eu 
 of these were selected to act in behalf of the 
 whole number, to found, erect, and govern a col- 
 lege. In 1700, they performed the duty assigned 
 them, and the "collegiate school" was begun. 
 The next year, the legislature bestowed on it a 
 charter and an annual appropriation of 120 
 p< muds for its support. It was first located at 
 Snybrook, but the president (then called rector) 
 lived at Killingworth (now Clinton) a few miles 
 distant, and the students pursued their studies 
 then' under his direction till his death in 1707. 
 Afterward, the senior class was instructed by 
 his successor at Milford, the other classes re- 
 maining at Saybrook, where the successive an- 
 nual commencements were held. In 1716. the 
 trustees decided to remove the school to New 
 Haven, and after much contention this was 
 accomplished the following year. One year 
 
 filer (1718), a generous and timely gift from 
 
 Elihu Yale induced the trustees to give the 
 newly erected building the name of the present 
 institution, Vale College. (See Yu.k College.) 
 Trinity Coll ige, at Hartford, was chartered as 
 Washington College, in L823 j ami instruction 
 was begUD in L824. The name was changed iu 
 L845. (See Trinity COLLEGE.) In addition to 
 these, there is the Wesleyan University, at 
 Middletown, which was founded in 1830; chart- 
 ered in 1831. (See Wesleyan University.) 
 
 Professional and Scietitific Instruction. — Un- 
 jder this head are included Theological Schools, 
 Law Schools, and Scientific Schools, of which the 
 following is an enumeration : The Theological 
 Department of Yale College was organized in 
 1822. For the year 1875 — 6, it had 99 students. 
 The Theological Institute of Connecticut was 
 founded at East Windsor, in 1834, and was re- 
 moved to Hartford, in 1865. In 1876, the num- 
 ber of students was 16. The Berkeley Divinity 
 School was organized in 1851 as the Theological 
 Department of Trinity College. In 1854. it was 
 removed to Middletown, and was incorporated 
 with its present designation. It had 39 students 
 in 1876. In 1784, the Litchfield Law School was 
 established by Judge Reeve, and it soon became 
 the foremost in the U. S., having students from 
 all parts of the country. It was continued about 
 half a century. The Law Department of Yale 
 College was separately organized in 1826, though 
 no class was formally graduated till 1843. The 
 number of students, in 1876, was 76. The Med- 
 ical Department of Yale College was organized 
 in 1813. The number of students, in 1876, was 
 50. The Sheffield Scientific School of Yale Col- 
 lege was begun in 1846, as the Department of 
 Philosophy and the Arts, and graduated its lirst 
 class in 1852. Its rapid growth has been due 
 mainly to the liberality of the gentleman whose 
 name it bears. In 1863, the legislature granted 
 to it the income (88,100) derived from lands 
 given by Congress, the previous year, to provide 
 colleges for the benefit of agriculture and the 
 mechanic arts." The school had 224 students 
 for the year 1875—6. The School of the Fine 
 Arts in Yale College has been quite recently 
 established, and has as yet but few pupils. 
 
 Special Instruction. — The American Asylum 
 for the Deaf and I >umb was established at Hart- 
 ford in 1816, being the first of the kind on the 
 Western Continent. It receives jut pi Is from all 
 the New England States. The average number is 
 usually about 225. The Whipple Home for Deaf- 
 mutes, at Mystic River, makes a specialty of 
 teaching the deaf and dumb to talk, in which it is 
 remarkably successful. The State Reform School 
 for Boys, at West Meriden, was established in 
 1 S51 , and opened in 1 854. It has received in all 
 about 2,350 pupils, and has an average number of 
 aboul 300. The Industrial School for Girls, at 
 Middletown. was incorporated in 1868, and re- 
 ceived its first pupil in January 1870. It has an 
 average number of from 60 to 80 pupils, and re- 
 ceives from the State $3 per week for each pupil. 
 It is designed to be a reformatory institution. 
 The Soldiers' Orphan Homes, two in number, 
 were opened 10 or 12 years ago. at Darien and 
 Mansfield. As the classof children for which they 
 
 were designed is now mostly beyond school age, 
 they can in >t be much longer continued on the 
 original basis, but the school at Darien has already 
 been somewhat transformed. The School for Im- 
 beciles, at Lakeville, was incorporated in 1861, 
 though it had been previously carried on as a 
 private institution. It receives from the state 
 treasury an annual appropriation of $7,000. 
 
conscience 
 
 177 
 
 Educational Literature. — The chief works on 
 the schools of the state are the Report of 1 lenry 
 Barnard, Superintendent of Common Schools, 
 for L853, which contains a. carefully prepared 
 history of education in Connecticut ; and histor- 
 ical accounts of particular institutions which have 
 
 been published front time "to time. Besides these, 
 
 histories of Vale College have been prepared by 
 Several persons; and a full account of Trinity 
 College and the Berkeley Divinity School is con- 
 tained in Dr. K. K. Beardsley's History of the 
 Episcopal (Voire// in Connecticut. The educa- 
 tional journals are very important. The Con- 
 necticut Common School Journal was first issued 
 by Henry Barnard, in August, 1838. Four 
 volumes, Ito, were published in the next 4 years, 
 and -1 vols, more, previous to 1854. From L854 
 to 1866, inclusive. 13 vols., 8vo, were issued, 
 and after an interval of 4 years 1 vols, more 
 (1871—74), the last two being Ito. The whole 
 number of volumes issued is 2o. In January, 
 18";">, all the educational journals of New Eng- 
 land were combined into the New England 
 Journal of Education, published weekly in Bos- 
 ton. The Journal of Education was begun by 
 Henry Barnard, in 1855, and is still continued. 
 The series comprises 27 large 8vo volumes. (See 
 Barnard, I Ienry.) 
 
 CONSCIENCE, Culture of. The feeling 
 of moral obligation, the conviction that certain 
 actions are right and others wrong, the sense of 
 duty, the moral principle, or by whatever other 
 phrase of similar signification we may define con- 
 science, is the most important object of culture 
 in every department and stage of moral educa- 
 tion. The strength of this principle, as an active 
 element of character, differs greatly in different 
 individuals, whether children or adults. As a 
 general fact, however, children are influenced 
 but very slightly by a sense of right or duty ; 
 they are acted upon by a different class of mo- 
 tives. The desire of sensuous enjoyment, the 
 love of approbation, emulation, self-will, the hope 
 of reward, and the fear of punishment, are the 
 usual means by which youthful minds are 
 swayed, and their actions controlled. The appe- 
 tites are strong; the moral sentiments, weak. 
 Hence, to address the conscience of a child as a 
 ruling principle would be a great error; perhaps, 
 a disaster. Still, children should be treated as 
 possessing at least the germ of conscience ; and 
 they should early be habituated to scan their 
 own conduct as well as that of others, and apply 
 to it a certain standard of moral rectitude. 1 low- 
 ever imperfect this standard in a child's mind 
 may be, much will be gained when we have in- 
 duced him to ask. in regard to any of his actions, 
 ' "• Is it right?" The enlightenment of conscience 
 is much easier than its development ; to one who 
 ifi deeply impressed with a sense of duty, a 
 knowledge of specific right and wrong will be 
 very readily acquired. It should be borne in 
 mind that, while the child is really restrained by 
 the lower motives of conduct, such as those above 
 enumerated, the conscience is to be steadily but 
 carefully addressed. Thus, if a pupil, whose love 
 12 
 
 of approbation is strong, has learned a difficult 
 lesson simply to please his teacher, it is right to 
 accord him all the praise which he craves as the 
 reward of his conduct : but let not the teacher 
 fail to impress upon his mind, at the same time, 
 that this praise is given because the action per- 
 formed is good — is right; so that his mind may 
 be drawn from his overweening desire for the 
 approbation of others, and gradually led to ap- 
 preciate more highly the approbation of his own 
 conscience ; and so in respect to all the lower in- 
 centives. If the child is punished for a fault by 
 an angry teacher or parent, he will rather dread 
 the anger than be impressed with the wrongful- 
 ness of his conduct ; and, if sly and deceitful, 
 the only result of the punishment will be to ren- 
 der him more careful to conceal than to avoid 
 similar wrong-doing in the future. Hence, the 
 interposition of the teacher's personality in con- 
 nection with either reward or punishment is an 
 obstacle to the moral improvement of the pupil; 
 because it diverts his attention from the charac- 
 ter of his conduct, as good or bad in itself, to an 
 exclusive consideration of its effects upon the 
 mind of the teacher, as producing praise or cen- 
 sure. Some thoughtless teachers punish their 
 pupils for not telling of each other's offenses, 
 when they should be glad to perceive an ex- 
 hibition of such a sense of honor, and should 
 rather encourage and commend it. Of course, 
 if a pupil who is strenuous in his refusal to act 
 the part of a tale-bearer, as mean and wrong, 
 could be convinced that his duty demanded that 
 he should make known the wrong-doer, he would 
 at once yield ; but, after a simple statement of 
 the case, he should be permitted to exercise his 
 conscience, without any violence or threats being 
 brought against it. A high standard of moral 
 excellence in a child is just as striking an in- 
 stance of precocity, as great intellectual power 
 and attainments ; and is, perhaps, as much to be 
 discouraged. " Be content," says Herbert Spen- 
 cer, " with moderate measures and moderate re- 
 sults. Constantly bear in mind the fact that a 
 higher morality, like a higher intelligence, must 
 be reached by a slow growth ; and you will then 
 have more patience with those imperfections of 
 nature whidh your child hourly displays. You 
 will be less prone to that constant scolding, and 
 threatening, and forbidding, by which many 
 parents induce a chronic domestic irritation, in 
 the foolish hope that they will thus make their 
 children what they should be." 
 
 The conscience is not to be cultivated by 
 simply giving moral precepts. " Moral educa- 
 tion." says Dymond, "should be directed, not so 
 much to informing the young what they ought 
 to do, as to inducing those moral dispositions 
 and principles which will make them adhere to 
 what they know to be right." The highest suc- 
 cess in this is achieved when the pupil is seen to 
 be willing to make self-sacrifice, to practice 
 self-denial, in order to do what he feels to be 
 right. This point of moral excellence having 
 been reached, the individual may, with entire 
 safety, be allowed to control his own actions, 
 
178 CONSTITUTION OF U. S. 
 
 CONVENT SCHOOLS 
 
 with the assurance that lie will not, in any cir- 
 cumstance of life, go far astray. 
 
 The basis of moral rectitude has not here been 
 considered; nor is it necessary to plunge into 
 any speculations as to what constitutes that dis- 
 criminative power between right and wrong 
 which is a part of the original constitution of 
 the human mind. It may undoubtedly be 
 strengthened by religious training of a proper 
 character: and hence, such training constitutes a 
 very important agency in the culture of the con- 
 science. " Parents," says Hartley." should Labor, 
 from the earliest dawniugs of understanding and 
 desire, to check the growing obstinacy of the will, 
 curb all sallies of passion, impress the deepest, 
 most amiable, reverential, and awful sentiments 
 of God, a future state, and all sacred things. - ' 
 (See Moral Education, and Religious Educa- 
 tion'.) 
 
 CONSTITUTION OF TJ. S., a branch of 
 instruction forming part of the course of studies 
 pursued in the common schools of many of the 
 states of the Union. As the object of common- 
 school education is chiefly to prepare for the du- 
 ties of citizenship, it is usually deemed essential 
 to impart a knowledge of the organic law of the 
 nation, as the foundation of those acquirements 
 in political science which every citizen needs 
 in order to be able to discharge his duties with 
 proper intelligence and discrimination. This in- 
 struction, besides making the pupils familiar with 
 the particular instrument studied, may be made 
 the basis for much useful information in regard 
 to the elementary principles of jurisprudence 
 and governmental organization. An analysis 
 of the various provisions pertaining to the three 
 great departments of the government, .showing 
 their respective powers and limitations of power. 
 with an explanation of the underlying principles, 
 cannot but prepare the youthful mind for more 
 advanced studies of this kind, besides being the 
 means of a particular culture of the reason and 
 judgment, of very great value. The practical 
 
 usefulness of the knowledge thus imparted, par- 
 ticularly in boys' schools, is scarcely exceeded by 
 that of any other branch of instruction usually 
 included in a common -school course. Main 
 valuable school text-books on this subject have 
 been compiled ; besides which, those designed to 
 teach the history of the United States generally 
 comprehend also, as an appendix, the ( institution 
 of the United States, arranged and adapted for 
 school study. — See E. I >. Mansfield, American 
 Education (N. Y., L851) ; and (as books of ref- 
 ace) Stobt, On the Constitution of U. S. 
 (N. Y.): Kknt. Commentaries on American 
 Law (Boston); Mansfield, Political Manual 
 (N. V.i: Nordhoff, Politics for Young Amer- 
 icans (N. \ .); Pomerot, Constitution and Law 
 (N. Yd; Shfppard, Constitutional Text-Book, 
 and Firs/ Book of (he Constitution (Phila.) ; 
 Stearns, Constitution of U.S., with Concord- 
 ance and classified Index iV Y.) TOWNSEND, 
 
 Analysis of Civil Government (N. Yd: An- 
 drews, Manual of /he Constitution if the U. S. 
 (<'in.. L874). 
 
 CONVENT SCHOOLS. The convents of 
 the Christian church were originally founded 
 from ascetic and religious, not from literary and 
 educational motives : and, for a considerable 
 time after their first establishment, but little 
 value appears to have been attributed by their 
 inmates to literary culture and education. Basil 
 of Caesarea was one of* the first who re- 
 commended the reception of children into con- 
 vents for the purpose of being educated. The 
 recommendation was complied with by many 
 Eastern convents. Chrysostom, as well as other 
 bishops, expressly ordered that convent schools 
 should be opened also to lay pupils, and admon- 
 ished parents to send their children for ten or 
 more years to convents, in order that they might 
 be brought up in the principles of piety. Next 
 to the East, the convents of southern Gaul, Ire- 
 land. Scotland, and England became the seats of 
 Christian scholarship. Lerinum, in southern 
 Caul, had an ecclesiastical seminary from which, 
 in the 5th and 6th centuries, many authors and 
 scholars proceeded : and. in the British islands, 
 many convent schools which imparted theological 
 as well as other instruction, were especially 
 famous for the number of missionaries whom 
 they educated. 
 
 A new period in the history of convent schools 
 begins with the foundation of the Benedictine 
 order. By introducing a strict monastic rule, 
 Benedict not only developed the idea and organ- 
 ization of monasticism, but also made monastic 
 institutions one of the strong pillars of the 
 church. When, therefore, Benedict and his or- 
 der added the instruction of novices, as well as- 
 of other scholars, to the regular work of the con- 
 vent, he did more for the development of educa- 
 tion among the new states emerging from the 
 ruins of the Boman empire, than any other man 
 up to the time of Charlemagne. (See BENE- 
 DICTINES, SCHOOLS of THE, and CHARLEMAGNE.) 
 From the Mh to the 11th century, the Bene- 
 dictine sid Is. and their rivals, the cathedral 
 
 and collegiate schools (see Cathedral lnd Col- 
 
 LEGIATE Schools), were almost the exclusive re- 
 presentatives of Christian education in western 
 Europe. Some of these schools, especially in 
 Germany, France, and England, attained a high 
 degree of prosperity, and gave a powerful im- 
 pulse to the progress of education by the revival 
 of classical studies. At the time of < Iregory VII., 
 the convent schools began to decline. The new- 
 ideas set afloat by the crusades, found the course 
 of instruction in the Benedictine schools too nar- 
 row and onesided: Franciscans, Dominicans, 
 
 and other mendicant Orders dislodged the IVnc- 
 
 dictines in the affections of the lower classes of 
 society, and, therefore, gathered in their schools 
 
 a large Dumber Of scholars who otherwise would 
 
 have flocked to the Benedictines; several popes, 
 
 as Innocent III., ostentatiously evinced their 
 
 preference for the cathedral schools; and. finally, 
 the rise of the universities displaced the convent 
 
 Schools from their rank as the highest class of 
 
 educational institutions. Moreover, the town 
 schools soon began to make a powerful compe- 
 
COXVKXT SCHOOLS 
 
 CONVERSATION 
 
 179 
 
 tition for public favor, and created a demand for 
 instruction in secular subjects, which led to the 
 foundation of new religious orders; and these, 
 like the Hieronymians, attempted a new depart- 
 ure in the organization of convent schools. The 
 success of the Protestant movement in Germany 
 and in other European countries called forth, in 
 the Roman ( !atholic church, new religious orders, 
 which regarded the establishment of schools su- 
 perior to those of the Protestants as the surest 
 way to obtain a controlling influence over the 
 rising generation, and thus to reconquer the 
 ground which had been lost by the church. 
 Among these orders, the Jesuits, the Piarists, 
 the Ursulines, and the many congregations of 
 school brothers and school sisters are the best 
 known. In the eighteenth century, the convent 
 schools lost ground in consequence of the greater 
 influence winch the state governments exercised 
 in the organization and supervision of schools. 
 They were obliged to submit in many states to 
 the legislation of the state government on school 
 matters : and, by the suppression of the order 
 of the Jesuits, were for a long time deprived of 
 their most illustrious representatives. In the 
 nineteenth century, the convents, though fiercely 
 attacked in many states, and totally suppressed 
 in some, have found for their schools a very large 
 patronage. This is particularly the case with 
 the female convent schools, which count among 
 their pupils many thousands of Protestants. 
 
 Convent school education is based on the prin- 
 ciple that religion should have a predominating 
 influence in the education of the child, and that 
 a complete retirement from the world is condu- 
 cive to the formation of a Christian character. 
 The features which distinguish them as a class 
 from other schools, consist chiefly in the peculiar 
 methods of their management and administra- 
 tion. The course of instruction presents no 
 marked points of difference from that pursued 
 in other schools of the same grade, comprising, in 
 England and the United States, as the prospectus 
 of these institutions generally informs the public, 
 " all the usual branches of a sound English edu- 
 cation," with French, to which a greater promi- 
 nence is given than in the majority of other 
 schools. Instrumental and vocal music, and draw- 
 ing are carefully attended to as necessary accom- 
 plishments; and, in many institutions, the pupils 
 have also the •• advantage of the best masters for 
 dancing." The superior of each of these schools 
 is expected to exercise special care in the su- 
 pervision of the deportment of the pupils, 
 and the greatest possible attention is given to 
 their religious and moral training. The religious 
 atmosphere in which the students live, and the 
 frequency of the devotional exercises, interwoven 
 with the studies, are calculated to produce pro- 
 found and lasting impressions; and it is but 
 natural that a considerable proportion of Prot- 
 estant pupils reared in < 'atholie convents. should, 
 in after life, embrace a religion under the direct 
 influence of which they received their early edu- 
 cation. It is equally natural that Protestant 
 churches should be greatly opposed to convent 
 
 education, and should earnestly warn Protestant 
 parents against placing their children in institu- 
 tions which, in SO many cases, while affording a 
 thorough secul r education, divert the minds of 
 their pupils from the religious faith of their 
 parents. 
 
 CONVERSATION has many claims to con- 
 sideration as an agency in education, both in an 
 active and passive sense. The child may not 
 only receive information by listening to the dis- 
 course of his ciders and superiors, but is taught, 
 through the imitative faculty, to think and speak 
 in a correct, easy, familiar, and pleasing manner. 
 The mere student of books cannot mingle in so- 
 ciety with ease and grace : having been a recip- 
 ient simply, he has no habit of dispensing infor- 
 mation, lie is, as it were. an intellectual bank of 
 deposit, but has no circulating medium. His 
 ideas are either imperfect for the want of an 
 interchange with those of other minds, or they 
 are vague and misty for the want of that prac- 
 tical definition which can alone result from cloth- 
 ing them in familiar language. His views are 
 one-sided and narrow, because they have not been 
 corrected by contrast with those of others. 
 "Conversation," says Bacon, "makesaready man;'' 
 that is, the mind, by the constant use of its stores 
 of knowledge, applies a practical rule in making 
 its acquisitions, and selects that which is available 
 and useful. It does not indulge in mystic specu- 
 lation, but adapts itself to the demands of com- 
 mon sense. The solitary philosopher may, in his 
 seclusion, develop ingenious hypotheses and com- 
 prehensive theories; but it is only wdien he comes 
 forth and discourses with his fellows that his 
 philosophy becomes of any practical use. Young 
 persons should be constantly practiced in conver- 
 sation with each other, or with their elders, upon 
 the subjects of their studies, as well as the inci- 
 dents of their experience ; they should be en- 
 couraged to talk as well as to listen, both for the 
 improvement of their power of ready expression 
 and for the general culture of their minds. The 
 mere reading of books, wdthout talking or writ- 
 ing, may make a learned man, but will never 
 produce a really useful one. Flippancy, cap- 
 tiousness, conceitedness, and forwardness in ad- 
 vancing opinions, or in disputing about them, 
 should of course be repressed, and humility and 
 modesty be cultivated ; candor shoidd always 
 be encouraged, as the best guide to knowledge. 
 In this way, conversation will be not only an 
 important agent in intellectual culture, but one 
 of the most effective means in social education, 
 that is, in training the individual for useful 
 ami agreeable intercourse with his fellows. E. D. 
 Mansfield, in American Education, thus sums 
 ii] > the advantages of conversation as a means of 
 education: "(1) The rapidity and ease of con- 
 versation enables an intelligent person to com- 
 municate information, or suggest ideas, or direct 
 attention, with a readiness and a velocity which 
 it is impossible to do by reading ; (2) It may be 
 done more fully and more accurately, beca 
 there is an opportunity to ask questions, to ex- 
 press different shadesof thought, and to illustrate 
 
180 CONVERSATIONAL METHOD 
 
 COOPER 
 
 in different ways ; (3) Conversation suggests 
 rapidly numerous ideas which can only be ex- 
 pressed in a very limited manner by written in- 
 struction : and (4) Such instruction may thus 
 draw out a sympathy of minds, by which the 
 pupil is enlivened, is led forward without labor, 
 and ascends, enlarges thecircleof ideas, loves the 
 pursuit of knowledge, and inquires into the 
 reason of things, without ever suspecting that a 
 task has been put upon him." 
 
 Conversation brings into play a great variety 
 of faculties, which without it are quite apt to 
 rust from disuse ; but in order to exercise its 
 beet influence, it must be spontaneous and un- 
 restrained, except by a due regard to the amen- 
 ities of social intercourse. It then becomes the 
 genuine inspirer of wit, fancy, and sentiment, 
 which find their best and truest exercise in the 
 gladsome communion of congenial minds. But 
 to have this effect, it must be an interchange, not 
 a one-sided harangue; nor must it be permitted 
 to degenerate into dogmatism or debate. The 
 Hue art of conversation, apart from its intellect- 
 ual requirements, corresponds with the art of 
 politeness, the basic principle of which is, to try 
 to please others by making them pleased with 
 themselves. Hence, however much we may differ 
 in opinion with others, we should still treat their 
 opinions with respect; and if we are obliged to 
 controvert them, we should do it rather by sug- 
 gesting views and considerations in opposition, 
 than by anything bordering on dogmatism or de- 
 nunciation. ( 'andor, charity, and courtesy alike 
 suggest this course, and will be much more apt 
 to produce conviction than positive assertion or 
 heated debate. Conversation has been compared 
 to "a ball, which is thrown from player to player 
 without being allowed to drop, and thus keeps 
 each one in play." I arried on in this way. and 
 upon this principle, it constitutes an educational 
 instrumentality of peculiar value and impor- 
 
 CONVERSATIONAL METHOD. This 
 refers to the mode of giving instruction, in which 
 the lessons, instead of being formal recitations, 
 exercises, explanations, or lectures, consist of a 
 familiar discourse by the teacher, interspersed 
 with questions or remarks by the pupils ; that is 
 to say. in which the lessons partake of the char- 
 acter of conversations, both as to the manner of 
 presenting the subject and the style of language 
 employed. This mode of teaching is especially 
 
 adapted to young children, because it affords the 
 
 teacher a constant opportunity to appeal to their 
 intelligence and experience, and to employ the 
 simplest colloquial expressions. Besides, the 
 utmost Freedom being given to the pupils, they 
 are enabled to .-how by their questions and re- 
 marks to what extent and in what respect they 
 need special instruction and information. In 
 order to arouse and sustain the pupils' interest, 
 their attention is called to such facts in connec- 
 tion with the subject as, although quite obvious 
 
 when shown or explained, are usually overlooked 
 
 by children, who are generally but superficial 
 observers before beim,' trained to close attention 
 
 and carefid investigation. In object teaching, 
 the lessons should always be conversational, the 
 teacher saying oidy enough to lead the pupils to 
 observe, and to talk freely about what they 
 notice. As examples of the conversational 
 method we may refer to the beautiful colloquial 
 lessons contained in some of the works of Dr. 
 Aiken and Mrs. Barbauld. (See Evenings at 
 Home, edited by Cecil Hartley.) That on Hie 
 Leguminous Plants is an excellent example; 
 although the .style is by no means so simple as 
 that which would be used in an actual oral 
 lesson. The lesson is given by the tutor to 
 two pupils, George said Harry, and commences 
 with an exclamation of the former, who has ap- 
 proached a bean-held, and proceeds as follows: — 
 
 G. What a delightful scent! 
 
 H. Charming! It is sweeter than Mr. Essence's 
 shop. 
 
 T. Do you know whence it comes? 
 
 G. O— it is lit .in the bean-field on the other side 
 of the hedge, I suppose. 
 
 T. It is. This is the month in which beans are 
 in blossom. See— the stalks are full of their black and 
 white flowers. 
 
 H. I see peas in blossom, too, on the other side 
 of the field. 
 
 <I. You told us some time ago of grass and corn 
 [wheat] flowers ; but they make a poor figure com- 
 pared with these. 
 
 T. They do. The glory of a corn-field is when it 
 is ripe ; but peas and beans look very shabbily at 
 that time. 
 
 The blossoms of the bean and pea are then 
 brought, and compared by the pupils; and the 
 lesson proceeds. 
 
 T. Do you think these flowers much alike ? 
 
 II. O no — very little. 
 
 G. Yes — a good deal. 
 
 T. A little and a good deal ! How can that be? 
 Come, let us see. In the first place, they do not much 
 resemble each other in size or color. 
 
 G. No — but I think they do in shape. 
 
 T. True. They are both irregular flowers, and 
 have the same distribution of parts. They are of the 
 kind called papilionaceous ; from pajrilio, the Latin 
 word for butterfly, which insect they are thought to 
 resemble, etc., etc. 
 
 All the characteristics are thus successively 
 unfolded in this familiar manner, the explana- 
 tions of the teacher being interspersed with the 
 remarks of the pupils. Hookers Child* Book 
 of Nature presents another excellent illustration 
 of the conversational mode of instruction, to 
 which may be added many others. It is diffi- 
 cult, however, fully to show this method in a 
 book; since its characteristics are freedom and 
 spontaneity, the pupil talking in a child-like 
 manner, and the teacher adapting his words and 
 modes of illustration to the condiiion of the 
 pupil's mind, as shown during the lesson. This 
 method of instruction, ill t lie elementary st.\< 
 is far more effective than that which is given by 
 means of textbooks, much of the language of 
 which usually needs to be translated into such 
 as is suitable to the child's comprehension. 
 
 COOPER INSTITUTE, or Cooper Union. 
 
 See I loOPBB, PETBB. 
 
 COOPER, Peter, an American philanthro- 
 pist and the founder of the "Union for the Ad- 
 vancement of Science and Art.'' a large and hn- 
 
OOOPEB 
 
 181 
 
 portant institution of learning in the city of New 
 York, commonly called after its founder "Cooper 
 Institute," was born in New York, Febr. 12., 
 L791. He was apprenticed at the ace of seven- 
 teen to the trade of coach-making, and soon rose 
 to a conspicuous position anions the manufact- 
 urers of the United States. The development 
 of American industry, has continued, throughout 
 his long life, to be an object of his patriotic 
 aspirations; and. in his later years, there has 
 been hardly a question relating to the industrial 
 interests of the country, in the discussion of 
 which he has not taken a prominent part. But 
 the one great subject which, more than any 
 other, engrossed the attention of his riper years, 
 was the education of the industrial classes. The 
 value of a. good education lie prized all the more 
 highly, because during his youth his own edu- 
 cation had been sadly neglected. Only for a 
 single year had he been sent to school ; all the 
 varied knowledge acquired by him since, was the 
 fruit of laborious self-education. As an earnest 
 friend of education, he took an active part in 
 the development of the public-school system of 
 the city of New York, lie was a trustee and 
 vice-president of the Public School Society, and 
 after this society had been merged in the Board 
 of Education, became a school commissioner. 
 His effort to improve the deficient education of 
 his youth, and the high opinion which he held 
 of the value of education, early inspired him 
 with the wish to found a grand institution for 
 the gratuitous instruction, chiefly of the indus- 
 trial classes of his native city. " I determined,"' 
 he says himself. " if ever 1 could acquire the 
 means, I would build such an institution, as 
 woidd open its doors at night with a full course 
 of instruction, calculated to enable mechanics 
 to understand both the theory and the most 
 skillful practice of their several trades ; so that 
 they could not only apply their labor to the best 
 possible advantage, but enjoy the happiness of 
 acquiring useful knowledge — the purest and 
 most innocent of all sources of enjoyment. By 
 this means, I hoped to contribute to the elevation 
 and the happiness of the industrial classes to 
 which I belonged. Finally, my plan also pro- 
 vided for a school of art suited to the wants of 
 females, during the day, with a reading room 
 and library open to both sexes, from eight o'clock 
 in the morning until ten o'clock at night." This 
 design was carried out by the establishment of 
 the "Cooper Union for the advancement of 
 Bcience and Art," after the erection of a mag- 
 nificent building occupying an entire block be- 
 tween Third and Fourth avenues ami Seventh 
 and Eighth Streets. The deed of trust devotes 
 the institution, with all its rents, issues, and 
 profits, to the instruction and elevation of the 
 working classes of the city of New York. The 
 original cost of the building when conveyed to 
 the trustees was $630,000. The aggregate re- 
 ceipts, from the opening of the institution in 
 L859,to Jan. 1., L875, amounted to $572,291.27, 
 of which $502,720.69 were from rents. $31,93 1.74 
 from dunations, and $37,635.84 from sundry 
 
 other sources. 
 
 i he several departments from L859 to Is",;), 
 were s:>s;!.s ui.27. and the total expenditures 
 on building and education to dan. 1., I87f>, 
 
 The expenditures for carrying on 
 
 $1,213,840.85. 
 
 The course of instruction, as indicated above 
 in the words of the founder, has been gradually 
 and steadily developed ; and the Cooper Union, 
 at present, takes a high position among the in- 
 dustrial schools of thi' country. A thorough and 
 practical course of mathematical and scientific 
 studies in connection with all blanches of practi- 
 cal engineering and chemistry, forms a cur- 
 riculum of five veal's, which entitles the student 
 to the diploma and the medal of the Cooper 
 Union. This course is pursued in classes of free 
 instruction given every evening of the week, ex- 
 cept Sunday and Saturday. The course is open 
 to both sexes. It is entirely free, as is all the in- 
 struction given in every department of this in- 
 stitution. The classes of the scientific depart- 
 ment, are held in the evenings, when the young 
 people who attend can get freedom from the 
 daily occupations in which most of them are en- 
 gaged. In all branches of study, however, both 
 in the scientific and in the art departments, a cer- 
 tificate of proficiency is given to any pupil who 
 has made a certain degree of progress in any 
 special branch of study, independently of the 
 diploma given for proper attainments made in 
 the whole course of studies that belong to the 
 curriculum. The free classes in art are held both 
 in the day-time and in the evening. The day 
 classes are exclusively for women, and the young 
 men attend only the evening classes. In these, 
 may be studied, under careful and thorough in- 
 struction, all those methods of construction and 
 design that lie at the basis of most of the useful 
 arts: — Perspective, mechanical, and architectural 
 drawing, drawing from cast and life, and model- 
 ing in clay. The practical application of these 
 elementary arts of design, is not left entirely to 
 the student ; but classes are organized also for 
 drawing and engraving on wood, and in the vari- 
 ous departments of photography, such as pen- and- 
 ink drawings from which negatives are taken, 
 the retouching of negatives, and painting or 
 crayon drawing on positives. It is contemplated 
 to introduce other applications as soon as practi- 
 cable, so as to bring every department of element- 
 ary instruction close to the practical life and re- 
 munerative employment of each student, while 
 he or she remains at school, or immediately on 
 leaving it. The corps of instructors, hi 1K7">, 
 numbered 20, of whom 3 were ladies, and the 
 number of pupils was 2.S7S. a greater number 
 than in any previous year. The trades and occu- 
 pations most largely represented among the 
 
 pupils of the Union were the clerks and book- 
 keepers (369), machinists and iron-workers (."{(Hi), 
 carvers and turners (293), engravers and lithog- 
 raphers |2lil). teachers and students (140). The 
 free reading room was visited during the year 
 1S74 1st.) I.v ,"isl,7!)s persons, a daily average 
 of nearly 2.0011. In the library there are about 
 L 6,000 volumes, and the books drawn by the 
 
182 
 
 COOTE 
 
 COPYING 
 
 readers numbered 1 29,(»~>r>. The board of trust- 
 ees have also established a department of consul- 
 tation to assist the inventors and manufacturers 
 of new processes; and, during- the year 1*7-4 to 
 187"), more than .'!;"><> persons applied for advice. 
 As the popular lecture is now recognized in 
 America as a standing institution, the trustees 
 have provided that two courses of lectures, from 
 six to twelve each, shall be annually given in the 
 large hall of the Cooper Union, during the course 
 of each six months, on subjects connected with 
 social or physical science. -Men of a high class 
 are selected as lecturers, who being distinguished 
 in their several departments and well-known, 
 draw large audiences, fully taxing the capacity 
 of the hall, though it accommodates more than 
 2,000 people. Besides, there are several smaller 
 halls in the building of the Cooper Union, in 
 which free lectures are given by the several pro- 
 fessors on chemistry, natural philosophy. English 
 literature, elocution and rhetoric, art, and artistic 
 economy. 
 
 COOTE, Edward, a noted English teacher, 
 and the author of the English School-Master, one 
 of the most famous of school-books, first pub- 
 lished in London, in Mi'_'7. A good idea of the 
 character and contents of this quaint old hook 
 may be obtained from the title-page, of which 
 the following is a copy : 
 The 
 ENGLISH 
 School-Master. 
 Teaching all liis Scholars, of what age so ever, 
 the most easy, short, and perfect order of 
 distinct Beading, and true Writing 
 our English-tongue, that hath 
 ever yet been known or 
 published by any. 
 And further also teacheth a direct course, how many 
 unskilful persons may easily both understand any 
 hard English words, which they shall in Scriptures, 
 Sermons, or else-where hear or read; and also be made 
 able to use the same aptly themselves : and generally 
 whatsoever is necessary to be known tor the English 
 speech; bo that he which hath this book only needeth 
 to buy DO other to make him lit from his Letters to 
 the Grammar-School, for an Apprentice, or 
 any other private ase, so far as concerneth 
 English : And therefore it is made 
 not only for * Children, though the 
 first book be nicer childish 
 for them, but also (brother) 
 especially for those that 
 are ignorant in the 
 Latin Tongue. 
 In the next page, the School- Master hangeth forth his 
 Table to the view of all beholders, setting forth some 
 
 oi the chief Commodities ot his profession. 
 Devised for thy sake tint wantesi any part of this 
 skill; by Edward Ooote, Master of the Free-School 
 
 in S:i in t Edmund's- Bury. 
 
 Perused and approved by publick Authority; and 
 
 now tin 10 lime Imprinted: with certain Copies 
 
 to write ''.v. at lite end of this Book, added. 
 
 Printed by A.M. and It. K. for the company of Stationers 
 
 IG80. 
 
 The following verses, extracted from this hook, 
 
 give a picturesque idea of Coote's mode of school 
 management and discipline : 
 
 THE Sr ,|ii i|.-\i\ -I I i: 10 111- S( lit >1. Alts. 
 
 " My child and Bcbolar take good heed 
 unto the worda that here are set, 
 
 Aid aee i hou do ■ ■ ly , 
 
 or else be sure thou si. ait b i neat. 
 
 First, I command thee God to serve, 
 
 then, to thy parents, duty yield ; 
 
 Unto all men be courteous, 
 
 and mannerly, in town and field. 
 
 Your cloathe unbuttoned do not use, 
 let not your hose ungartered be ; 
 
 Have handkerchief in readiness, 
 
 wash hands and face, or see not me. 
 
 Lose not your books, ink-horns, or pens, 
 nor girdle, garters, hat or baud, 
 
 Let shoes l»- tyed. pin shirt-band dose, 
 keep well your hands at any hand. 
 
 If broken-hosed or shoe'd you go, 
 
 or slovenly in your array. 
 Without a girdle, or untrust, 
 
 then you and I must have a fray. 
 
 If that thou cry, or talk aloud. 
 
 or books do read, or strike with knife ; 
 Or laugh, or play unlawfully, 
 
 then you and I must be at strife. 
 
 If that you curse, miscall, or swear, 
 
 if that you pick, filch, steal, or lye ; 
 
 If you forget a scholar's part. 
 
 then must you sure your points uutye. 
 
 If that to school you do not go, 
 
 when time doth call you to the same ; 
 
 Or, if you loiter in the streets, 
 
 when we do inert, then look for blame. 
 
 Wherefore, my child, behave thyself, 
 
 so decently, in all assays. 
 That tlem may's! purchase parents' love, 
 
 and eke obtain thy master's praise." 
 
 Sec !?AK.v\Kn, /v I 'm; it it ,,i i il Biography, 8. t. 
 Ezekiel Gheever. 
 COPY-BOOKS. See PENMANSHIP. 
 
 COPYING, in school education, has several 
 applications: ill Writing or drawing ley imita- 
 tion from tin original, which constitutes an es- 
 sential part of primary instruction, since the eye 
 must be trained to the observation of forms, as 
 well as the hand to execute them. Hence, the 
 first lessons in writing largely consist in practic- 
 ing the pupil in copying ( 1 ) the elements of let- 
 ters, — straight lines, curves, etc.; (2) letters; 
 (3) words; and (4) sentences. In connection with 
 this copying, much incidental instruction is 
 required, all of which, however, is addressed to 
 
 the faculty of imitation. (See PENMANSHIP.) 
 
 Rudimentary instruction in drawing must be of 
 a similar character, beginning with lines in 
 various positions and relations to each other. 
 then passing to simple figures, ami thence to 
 
 more complex forms ; but. in till these, it is the 
 eve that must be trained through the faculty of 
 imitation, simultaneously with the gradual ac- 
 quisition of manual skill by means of constant 
 practice. (See Dr \\\ ing.) 
 
 (II) The copying, from 1 ks, of selected pas- 
 sages in prose and poetry is a very useful exer- 
 cise, if properly and systematically performed. 
 Of course, this belongs to a later stag.' of ele- 
 mentary instruction, that is. after the pupil has 
 learned to write with some degree of facility: 
 and. when the utmost accuracy is insisted upon, 
 it will be found an effective means of imparting 
 habits of correct spelling, punctuation, and the 
 
 use of capital letters: and will also have a very 
 
 beneficial effect upon the pupil's style, impressing 
 
 upon his memory a great variety of words and 
 phrases, and thus aiding him to acquire fluency 
 
 and accuracy of expression. It was on this 
 
 principle that Demosthenes copied the history of 
 
fORPERTUS 
 
 CORNELL UNIVERSITY 
 
 183 
 
 Thucydides so many times ; since he desired to 
 ■catch the style of composition peculiar to that 
 it writer. What is particularly necessary in 
 the use of language, both oral and written, is 
 practice; and, without superseding exercises in 
 dictation and composition, both of which are in- 
 dispensable, copying, as here described, should 
 be treated as an essential part of the school 
 work. 
 
 (Ill) The term copying is also applied to the 
 reprehensible practice, often found to exist in 
 classes and schools that are imperfectly disci- 
 plined, of one pupil's transcribing by stealth 
 what has been written by another. Weak or 
 idle pupils will, if they are permitted, in this 
 way avail themselves of the work of their neigh- 
 bors, thus failing to receive the benefits of the 
 instruction given to the class, and. at the same 
 time, deceiving the teacher. The effects of this 
 practice are. therefore, bad intellectually and 
 morally, and all necessary vigilance should be 
 ezercis sdby the teacher to prevent or suppress it. 
 
 CORDERIUS. Mathurin (/•>. Cordier), 
 a celebrated Protestant school-teacher, born in 
 France, in 1471), and died in 1504. One of his 
 most distinguished pupils was Calvin, who ded- 
 icated to him one of his works. He published 
 several text-books for schools, among which the 
 best known is CoUoquia Sckolastica (Scholastic 
 Colloi»ii 'si, published in 1564. This work was 
 long and extensively used in giving instruction 
 in the Latin language ; and, indeed, is one of the 
 most noted school-books ever published. 
 
 CORNELL COLLEGE, at Mount Vernon, 
 Iowa, under the auspices of the Methodist Epis- 
 copal Church, was founded in 1857 for the edu- 
 cation of both sexes. The institution has three 
 spacious buildings. The college campus, em- 
 bracing about twenty acres, is beautifully de- 
 signed by nature, and commands one of the 
 finest prospects in the country. The college pos- 
 sesses one of the largest and best collections of 
 minerals and fossils in the AVest, a chemical 
 laboratory, and a library of over 4,000 volumes. 
 The college property is valued at $65,000, and 
 the productive funds amount to $40,000. Free 
 tuition is given in the preparatory and collegiate 
 departments to disabled soldiers and orphans of 
 soldiers. Five scholarships, endowed with $500 
 each, have been founded for the purpose of edu- 
 cating destitute young men preparing for the 
 ministry. The beneficiaries are exempt from all 
 charges of tuition and incidental fees. There 
 are a preparatory department, with classical and 
 scientific courses, and a collegiate department, 
 with a classical course, leading to the degree of 
 Bachelor of Arts; a scientific course, leading to 
 the degree of Bachelor of Science; and a civil 
 engineering course, leading to the degree of 
 Bachelor of Civil Engineering. The young men 
 are required to practice military drill under an 
 officer of the army detailed by the secretary of 
 war as professor of military science and tactics ; 
 a system of light gymnastics has been provided 
 for the young women. In 1873 — 4. there were 
 25 instructors, and 405 preparatory and 54 col- 
 
 legiate students. The Rev. Win. F. King,P. D., 
 is ( 1 876) the president. 
 
 CORNELL UNIVERSITY, at Ithaca, 
 N. Y.. was chartered in 1865, and opened in 
 L868. It was named in honor of Ezra Cornell, 
 of Ithaca, who gave for its establishment $500,000 
 and over 200 acres of land, to be used as a farm 
 and as a site for the university buildings. He 
 has since made other donations amounting to 
 Several hundred thousand dollars. The state trans- 
 ferred to the university its agricultural land-scrip, 
 granted by Congress, representing D'.Mi.oon acres, 
 the proceeds to form an endowment for general 
 and industrial science and art. The grounds lie 
 a short distance east of the village, nearly 400 
 feet above Cayuga Lake, and command a splen- 
 did view. The principal buildings are the South 
 Budding, North Bunding, McGraw Budding, 
 Sibley College, laboratory Building, Cascadilla 
 Place, University Chapel, and Sage College for 
 women (the gift of Henry W. Sage, of Brook- 
 lyn), who by the action of the trustees, in 1872, 
 are admitted to the university on the same terms 
 and conditions as men. The value of the build- 
 ings, grounds, and apparatus is $700,000; the 
 amount of productive funds, $1,153,999. The 
 yearly income is $107,500. State students to 
 the number of 1 28 (one from each assembly dis- 
 trict of New York) may be admitted each year. 
 These state students are selected, by yearly com- 
 petitive examinations, from the various public 
 schools and academies maintained by the people 
 of New York. For state students, for students 
 in agriculture, and for all resident graduates pur- 
 suing post-graduate courses, there is no charge 
 for tuition or for the use of the library and col- 
 lections; but for all others the tuition fee is $20 
 a term, or SfiO a year. Some of the students sup- 
 port themselves wholly, or in part, while pursuing 
 their studies, by laboring on the farm, in the 
 machine-shops, or in the printing establishment, 
 for which they receive from the university the 
 usual rate of wages. Skilled labor is mostly in 
 demand. 
 
 The points in which this university differs from 
 most of the other institutions of learning in the 
 United States may be summed up, in brief, as 
 follows: (1) The addition to the ordinary govern- 
 ing faculty of non-resident professors and lec- 
 turers, some of whom deliver each year courses 
 of lectures upon subjects in the investigation of 
 which they have acquired a high reputation; 
 (2) Liberty in the choice of studies ; (3) The 
 prominence given to studies which are practically 
 useful ; (4) The absence of a marking system 
 determining the relative rank of each student in 
 his class; (5) The non-sectarian character of the 
 institution. 
 
 The instruction is comprised in four great 
 divisions : general courses, optional courses, spe- 
 cial courses, and post-graduate courses. The 
 general courses are four in number, namely: in 
 arts, in literature, in science, in philosophy. The 
 course in arts, leading to the degree of Bachelor 
 of Arts, extends through four years. It includes 
 the Greek and latin languages, and is similar to 
 
184 
 
 CORNELL UNIVERSITY 
 
 the usual academic course in the other colleges 
 and universities of the United States. During the 
 first year, no option is allowed in the choice of 
 
 studies. Iii the second year, everything is op- 
 tional, except Greek, Latin, and the exercises in 
 elocution and rhetoric. During the third and 
 fourth years, everything is optional, except the 
 studies 'in the departments of philosophy and 
 letters. During the first and second years, Lit in 
 and < rreet are required four times a week each : 
 and after that they may be pursued through the 
 two remaining years so as to occupy twelve out 
 of the fifteen hours of recitation per week. The 
 course iu literature, leading to the degree of 
 Bachelor of Literature, extends through four 
 years. It differs from the course in arts in re- 
 quiring no Greek, and is characterized by a lar- 
 ger amount of attention to the modern languages 
 and English literature. The course in science, 
 leading to the degree of Bachelor of Science, ex- 
 tends 'through four years, and includes five hours 
 a week,during the last year,devoted to someone 
 science as a specialty. Its peculiar features are 
 the study of mathematics, of the French and 
 German languages, and of the historical, phys- 
 ical, moral, and political sciences. The course ill 
 philosophy, also of four years, is designed to be a 
 scientific course of a higher grade than the pre- 
 ceding. Latin is required for admission, as in 
 
 the courses in arts and literature. It leads to 
 
 the degree of Bachelor of Philosophy. Optional 
 
 courses are those which the student may & 
 for himself. In do course is it necessary, for 
 the attainment of a degree, that the studies 
 should be followed exactly in the prescribed or- 
 der; and, in the general courses, equivalents are 
 accepted, in some cases, for the studies indi- 
 cated, provided they are of the same general 
 character. The special courses differ from the 
 general courses, not only in the studies which 
 they include, but also in the important fact, that 
 
 while the general courses have chiefly in vi « 
 
 the culture of the mind, the special courses aim 
 rather to tit students more immediately for some 
 oik' of the departments of productive industry. 
 There are eleven special courses: namely, (I) 
 
 agriculture, with a full course of four years. 
 leading to the degree of Bachelor of Agriculture; 
 
 'J i architecture, with a full course of four years. 
 
 Leading to the degree of Bachelor of Architecture: 
 (3) chemistry and physics: il) civil engineer- 
 ing, with a full course of four years, leading to 
 the degree of Bachelor of Civil Engineering; 
 (5) history and political science: (6) languages, 
 uprising three schools of the ancient lan- 
 guages, oi living Asiatic and oriental l ang u a ges, 
 and of modern languages; (7) mathematics and 
 astronomy; (8) mechanic arts, with a full course 
 of four years, leading to the degree of Bachelor 
 of Mechanical Engineering; (9] military science: 
 
 (10) natural history, comprising the school of 
 
 botany, the scl 1 of geologj and palaeontology, 
 
 and the school of zoologj ; (11) philosophy and 
 
 letters, with a school of philosophy and a school 
 
 of letters, the latter having a department of 
 Anglo-Saxon and English literature, and a de- 
 
 partment of rhetoric and general literature. No 
 regular post-graduate courses have been arranged. 
 The degree of Bachelor of Veterinary Science is 
 conferred on students who pursue a four years' 
 course in that study in the agricultural depart- 
 ment. The advanced degrees of Master of Arts. 
 Master of Science, Doctor of Philosophy. Civil 
 Engineer, Doctor of Veterinary Medicine, and 
 Architect, are conferred on holders of correspond- 
 ing graduate degrees upon fulfilling certain pre- 
 scribed conditions, and passing an examination. 
 The general faculty is divided into 13 special 
 faculties. The special faculties are those of (1) 
 agriculture, (2) architecture, (3) chemistry and 
 physics, (4) civil engineering. (5) history and po- 
 litical science, (6) ancient and Asiatic languages, 
 (7) North European languages, i 1 - 1 South Euro- 
 pean languages, (9) mathematics. (10) the me- 
 chanic arts, (il) military science, (12) philosophy 
 and letters, (13) natural history. There are 
 professorships of history: South European lan- 
 guages; moral and intellectual philosophy: North 
 European languages; agricultural chemistry: com- 
 parative anatomy and zoology; English litera- 
 ture (non-resident); English history (non-resi- 
 dent); veterinary medicine and surgery: constitu- 
 tional law (non-resident); general, economic, and 
 agricultural geology; botany, horticulture, and 
 arboriculture; mechanical engineering and ma- 
 chine construction: mechanics applied to agri- 
 culture (non-resident): analytical chemistry and 
 mineralogy; German literature (non-resident); 
 organic cnemistry and chemistry applied to man- 
 ufactures (non-resident); Latin language and 
 literature: < '< reek language and literature: rhet- 
 oric and general literature: architecture; Amer- 
 ican history I non-resident | : Anglo-Saxon and 
 English literature; physics and experimental 
 mechanics; military science and tactics: Span- 
 ish and Italian: mathematics; civil engineer- 
 ing: living Asiatic languages: agriculture: and 
 I lebrew and oriental literature and history (non- 
 resident). In L875 — 6, there were 23 resident 
 and 8 non-resident professors. 12 assistant profes- 
 sors, and L0 instructors. The following is a 
 summary of the students for that year: In 
 science L9 I. literature 45, philosophy IT. arts 43, 
 agriculture 1 7. architecture 32, chemistry D3, en- 
 gineering 82, mechanic arts 56, natural history 
 17, resident graduates 12. In the fourth year, 
 or senior studies, there were 81, in junior studies 
 110. in sophomore studies 135, in freshman 
 studies 154. Total, deducting repetitions, 531. 
 At the commencement in 1874, 7 - _' degrees were 
 conferred, namely: B. A.. I ; B. Lit.. I ; B. Ph., 
 3; B. S.. 30; B. Agr., 2; B. Arch.. 6; It. 0. B., 
 L5; B. M. E., 1 : M.S.. "J: C. E., 4; Ph. D.. 1; 
 in L875 the number of graduates was 52. The 
 whole number of alumni at the latter date was 
 
 :t.V_\ The university library contains 17,000 
 
 volumes. The museums comprise valuable col- 
 lections in the departments of agriculture, archi- 
 tecture botany, geology and mineralogy, mili- 
 tary science, zoology and physiology, and in the 
 fine arts. Male candidates for admission must 
 be at leasl sixteen, females seventeen year- oi 
 
CORPORAL PUNISHMENT 
 
 185 
 
 Bge, and must pass a. thoroughly satisfactory ex- 
 amination in the following subjects : (1) geogra- 
 phy. ■-! English grammar, including orthogra- 
 phy and syntax, (3) arithmetic, and (4) algebra 
 through quadratic equations. This general ex- 
 amination will admit them to the university as 
 optional students, or as students in the special 
 courses of agriculture, chemistry, and physics. 
 For other courses there are some additional re- 
 quirements. Andrew D. White, LL.D., has been 
 the president of the university since its opening. 
 CORPORAL PUNISHMENT, or the in- 
 fliction of physical pain as a means of discipline 
 in the education of children, has the sanction of 
 high authority and time-honored example; but 
 in recent times has fallen considerably into dis- 
 repute and disuse. Its necessity and propriety 
 have been much discussed; and there are, prob- 
 ably, but few subjects in connection with prac- 
 tical education upon which more diverse opinions 
 are entertained : some contending that a resort 
 to corporal punishment, in families and schools, 
 is legitimate and necessary, others, that it is a 
 "relic of barbarism," and should never be em- 
 ployed, but that children can be, and always 
 should be, governed by the use of "moral sua- 
 sion," — an appeal to their reason, their sensibil- 
 ities, and their sense of right. Anciently, the 
 propriety of this mode of educational coercion 
 seems to have been scarcely questioned. Sol- 
 omon is emphatic in his approval of it, in proof 
 of which the following citations from the Book 
 of Proverbs are often used : 
 
 • "He that spareth his rod hateth liis son; but lie 
 
 that loveth him, chasteneth him betimes." — xm, 24. 
 
 "Foolishness is bound in the heart of a child ; but 
 
 the rod of correction shall drive it far from him." — 
 
 XXII, 15. 
 
 " Withhold not correction from the child; for if thou 
 beatest him with a rod, lie shall not die. Thou slialt 
 beat him with a rod, and shalt deliver his soul from 
 hell."— xxiii, 13, 14. 
 
 "Correct thy son and he shall give thee rest, yea, 
 he shall give delight unto thy soul." — xxix, 17. 
 
 "Whom the Lord loveth he correcteth ; even as a 
 father the son in whom he delighteth." — m, 12. 
 
 " Chasten thy sou while there is hope, and let not 
 thy soul spare for his crying." — xix, 18. 
 
 " The rod and reproof give wisdom ; but a child left 
 to himself bringeth his mother to shame." — xxix, 15. 
 
 Whether the practice enjoined in these scrip- 
 tural texts is to be considered as sanctioned 
 thereby or not, its existence, if not its usefulness 
 and necessity, has been recognized at all times 
 and in all countries. Horace refers to it when 
 he says, "Memini [carmina] quce plagosum mihi 
 parvo Orbilium didare" (1 remember the verses 
 which Orbilius, my flogging (or feruling) school- 
 master, used to dictate to ine, when a boy). 
 Juvenal speaks of this school discipline as a 
 matter of course: El nos ergo manum ferulce 
 mbdtucimus; or, as translate! 1 by Badham, 
 
 "And we ourselves .nice snatch'd the hand away 
 From prone descending rod, as well as they." 
 
 St. Paul speaks in a similar manner of the use 
 of the rod as a means of family discipline : 
 '• Whom the Lord loveth he chasteneth, and 
 seourgeth every son whom he receiveth ;" and 
 again, - God dealeth with you as with sons ; for 
 
 what son is lie whom the father chasteneth not?" 
 (Hebrews, xii, 6, 7.) St. Augustine says, in his. 
 Confessions, " Discipline is needful to overcome 
 
 our puerile sloth, and this also is a part of tliy 
 government over thy creatures, God, for the 
 purpose of restraining our sinful impetuosity. 
 Prom the ferules of masters to the trials of mar- 
 tyrs, thy wholesome severities may be traced." 
 Mehmclithon confessed that his teacher made him 
 learn by using the rod. {Nihil patiebatur me 
 omiitere; quoties errabam dabat plagas mihi.) 
 And he remarks. " Thus he made me a gramma- 
 rian. 1 le was the best of men ; he loved me like 
 a son, and I loved him like a father, and I hope 
 we shall both meet in heaven." Dr. Johnson 
 uniformly testified in favor of corporal punish- 
 ment in schools. To Langton he said on one oc- 
 casion," My master whipped me very well; with- 
 out that, sir, 1 should have done nothing. - ' Gold- 
 smith said, " It is very probable that parents are 
 told of some masters who never use the rod, and 
 are, consequently, thought the properest instruct- 
 ors for their el li Id ten ; but, though tenderness is 
 a requisite quality in an instructor, yet there is 
 often the truest tenderness in well-timed correc- 
 tion." Ooleridg • s iys, " I had r.^e just flogging;'' 
 the cause being that he told his preceptor, that 
 he "hated the thought of being a clergyman," be- 
 cause he was an infidel. "For this," says he, 
 "Bowyer flogged me, — wisely, as I think, — 
 soundly, as I know. Any whining and sermon- 
 izing would have gratified my vanity, and con- 
 firmed me in my absurdity." (See Coleridge's 
 Table T<dJi.) Locke, who was very much averse 
 to the use of the rod, both in families and schools, 
 says, " There is one, and but one, fault for which 
 I think children should be beaten ; and that is. 
 obstinacy or rebellion. And in this, too, I would 
 have it ordered so, if it can be, that the shame of 
 the whipping, and not the pain, should be the 
 greatest part of the punishment." 
 
 Nothing, however, has been so grievously and 
 shockingly abused by parents and teachers as 
 corporal punishment, in all its various and loath- 
 some forms, — flogging, flagellation, caning, whip- 
 ping, scourging, beating with birch twigs, thongs, 
 the ferule (a flat piece of wood, generally with a 
 hole in the broad part), etc., etc. When the vile 
 and unnecessary cruelties perpetrated upon chil- 
 dren by these various instruments are considered,, 
 it is no wonder that corporal punishment ap- 
 pears to many persons altogether revolting, — a 
 thing to be banished forever. Montaigne says, 
 '• Do but come in when the youths are about 
 their lesson, and you shall hear nothing but the 
 outcries of boys under execution, and the thun- 
 dering of pedagogues drunk with fury;" and 
 again, " I Tow much more decent would it be to 
 see their classes strewed with leaves and flowers, 
 than with bloody stumps of birch !" It is a sad 
 fact that, in whatever countries the rod has been 
 used.it has degenerated into an instrument of 
 cruelty and torture. Says Cooper, in The Jfis- 
 tory of the Rod, ■■ It is recorded of a Suabian 
 school-master that, during his fifty-one years' 
 Superintendence of a large school, he had given 
 
186 
 
 CORPORAL PUNISHMENT 
 
 911,500 canings, 121,000 floggings, 209,000 cus- 
 todes, 130,000 tips with the ruler, and 10,200 
 boxes on the ear. It was further calculated that 
 he had made 700 boys stand barefooted on peas, 
 
 6,l)0<) kneel on a sharp edge of w 1. 5,000 wear 
 
 the fool's-cap, and 1.700 hold the rod." Girls as 
 well as boys, and even young women, in schools 
 of high repute and attended by the children of 
 people of rank and fashion, it was once the 
 custom to subject to the most disgraceful and 
 indecent flagellation. In a poem entitled The 
 Terrors of the Rod, published in L815, the whole 
 scene is depicted. 
 
 " Thi: governess now takes her stand, 
 The birchen scepter in her hand: 
 With lofty air. inspiring awe, 
 Ami upraised arm to inforce the law. 
 She shakes the whistling twigs, and then, 
 Whip — whip— whip — whip — indicts the pain : 
 Mow pauses while miss roars aloud 
 Sad warnings to the little crowd — 
 Crying, 'Ohl dear ma am. pray give o'er, 
 I never will do so no more.' " 
 
 On such occasions, it seems to have been in- 
 sisted that the other children should be witnesses 
 of the pain and disgrace of their fellow-pupil. 
 Thus Shcnst one in The Schoolmistress, describ- 
 ing such a scene, says, 
 
 •■ Brandishing the rod, she doth begin 
 
 To loose the brogues, the stripling's late delight! 
 And down they drop, appears his dainty skin, 
 Fair as the furrj coat "I whitest ermilin." 
 
 I Jut the most touching incident of the affair is 
 the presence of the offender's sister. 
 
 "0 ruthful scenel when from a nook obscure, 
 His little sister doth his peril see." 
 
 And as the punishment proceeds, the sym- 
 pathies of the little girl are painfully excited. 
 
 "No longer can she now her shrieks command. 
 And hardly she forbears, through awful fear, 
 To rusheii forth, and, with presumptuous haud, 
 To stay harsh justice in its mid career." 
 
 The " horsing." as it was called, that is, the 
 mounting of the boy to be punished on the back 
 of another boy, was a practice that must have 
 debased and hardened all concerned. In the 
 Sjurtnh))' (No. L68),the master of Eton School 
 at that time is described as a brutal tyrant. 
 " Many a white and tender hand," says the 
 writer, "which the fond mother had passionately 
 kissed a thousand and a thousand times, have I 
 Been whipped until it was covered with blood; 
 
 fierhaps for smiling, or for going a yard and a 
 lalf out of a gate, or for writing an o for an </, 
 
 or an a for an o." Dr. Johnson, although an 
 advocate of judicious corporal punishment, had 
 been the victim of ite abuse. " The master," he 
 
 said, "was severe, and wrong-headedly severe, I fe 
 used to heat us uiiinercitnll\ : and he did not 
 distinguish between ignorance and negligence; 
 for he would heat a boy equally for D01 knowing 
 a thing as for neglecting to learn it. For in- 
 stance, lie would call a boy up. and ask him the 
 
 latin for candlestick, which the boy could not 
 
 expect to be asked. Now. sir, if a hoy could 
 
 answer every question, there would be no Deed 
 
 of a master to teach him." So necessary was 
 
 the rod deemed, that it was made an instrument 
 of vicarious punishment in the case of princes; 
 for whose offenses other lads, called whipping- 
 
 boys, were made to suffer. Of this numerous 
 instances are sometimes cited. Plutarch gives 
 one in speaking of his tutor Ammonius. " Our 
 master." says he, " having one day observed that 
 we had indulged ourselves too luxuriously at 
 dinner, at his afternoon lecture, ordered hisfreed- 
 man to give his own son the discipline of the 
 whip in our presence : signifying, at the same 
 time, that he suffered this punishment because 
 lie could not eat his victuals without sauce. The 
 philosopher all the while had his eye upon us, 
 and we knew well for whom this example of 
 punishment was intended." Langhome, in the 
 Life of Plutarch, commenting upon this in- 
 cident, remarks. " This mode of punishment in 
 our public schools, is one of the worst remains of 
 barbarism that prevails among us." 
 
 Dr. Cotton .Mather, in his elegy on " Master 
 Ezekiel Oheever" (see Cueevkr), refers thus to 
 the severities of teachers in his time : 
 
 ••Tenuis. Be strict ; But yet be Gentle too: 
 
 Don't l>,\ fierce Cruelties fair Hopes undoe. 
 
 I 'nam not, that they who are to Learning slow, 
 
 Will mend bj Arguments in I'irio. 
 
 Who keeps the Golden Fleece, Oh, let him not 
 A. Dragon be, tho' he tiara Tongues have got. 
 Why can you not to Learning find the way, 
 But thro' the Province of Severia t 
 'Twas Moderates, who taught Origen ; 
 \ Youth which pro v. 1 one of the best of men. 
 The Lads with Honour first, and Reason Bale; 
 Blowes are but for the Refractory Fool." 
 
 The abuses referred to, and especially the 
 strong tendency to cruelty and excess in the in- 
 fliction of corporal punishment, have led to the. 
 most earnest and emphatic denunciation of it in 
 every form, and the advocacy of its total aboli- 
 tion. In some places, all resort to this kind of 
 discipline is strictly prohibited, and expulsion 
 substituted in its place. The opinions of educa- 
 tors in regard to the expediency of this measure 
 are very diverse. Lyman Cobb, an extreme and 
 enthusiastic advocate of exclusive moral suasion, 
 expresses the sentiment of probably the entire 
 class of thinkers to which he belonged. "I con- 
 scientiously believe thai corporal punishment, as 
 a means of moral discipline, is adverse to the 
 proper, full, and happy development of the social, 
 moral, religious, and intellectual character of 
 those who are flogged ; and beca use. also, I be- 
 lieve it has a degrading and hardening influence 
 on those who receive it, and on those who inflict 
 
 it." Here, it will be perceived, the argument is 
 
 twofold, (I) Corporal punishment is hurtful and 
 
 degrading to those who receive it ; (2) It de- 
 grades and hardens the sensibilities of those who 
 inflict it. The lirst proposition cannot be main- 
 tained as generally true: since there are in- 
 numerable examples to prove that those who 
 have been habitually .subjected to the severest 
 discipline of this kind in their youth, have grown 
 up to be men of the highest character for talent, 
 
 benevolence, and worth. (Sec Busby.) The 
 eases of Johnson, I 'oleridge. etc., already referred 
 to, are instances of this. The .second point of 
 
 the argument would seem to be pretty well 
 established by the -history of the rod;" since 
 
 we see persons who have been accustomed to in- 
 flict pain upon others in this way become harsh, 
 
CORPORA I. PCMSHMKNT 
 
 187 
 
 tyrannical, and unfeeling. At any rate, if this 
 is not the invariable rcsult.it appears to be quite 
 generally the effect of an habitual administration 
 
 of this kind of discipline. (Jeorge IS. Knicrson 
 says, " The great objection to corporal punish- 
 ment is the fact that it excites angry passions. 
 not only in the child, but in the master, and 
 more in the latter than in the former. My own 
 experience teaches me that the effect is almost 
 necessarily bad on the individual who inflicts the 
 pain. It excites a horrible feeling in him — a 
 reeling which we might conceive to belong to 
 evil spirits." It must be borne in mind, how- 
 ever, that school-masters, in the past, were en- 
 trusted with an almost unlimited authority and 
 power over their pupils; and few persons are so 
 constituted as to be able to exeereise any such 
 p >wer for a long period, without greatly abusing 
 it. At the present time, no such authority ex- 
 ists; and neither public opinion nor the law 
 would permit teachers to commit with impunity 
 the barbarities charged upon them in former 
 times. Very many, perhaps nearly all. of the 
 arguments against corporal punishment maybe 
 shown to be objections to its abuse rather than 
 to its legitimate use. Thus.it is stated that the 
 punishment is often inflicted in anger, that it is 
 frequently excessive, sometimes administer. 1 
 without proper care and discrimination, or in an 
 improper manner, or with unsuitable instru- 
 ments. All this is true : and, perhaps, it may 
 be truthfully alleged, that where corporal punish- 
 ment is permitted at all, these abuses are, to 
 some extent, unavoidable. The only questions, 
 however, to be discussed are, Is corporal punish- 
 ment ever necessary as a means of discipline ; 
 and. if necessary, in what cases, and under what 
 restrictions, should it be permitted ? The first 
 question being decided in the negative, the sec- 
 ond would, of course, be disposed of ; since noth- 
 ing but necessity can justify the infliction of 
 physical pain upon others. Nor does the show- 
 ing that corporal punishment is useful as a 
 ] an >mpt and expeditious mode of punishing the 
 offenses of children prove its necessity ; all will 
 admit that its concomitants and tendencies are, 
 in many respects, so much to be avoided, that 
 any other effectual mode of discipline is to be 
 preferred. In judging of its necessity, we are to 
 consider il) the nature of the child to be gov- 
 erned, (2) the circumstances under which school 
 or family discipline is to be carried on, and (3) 
 the agents by whom the child is to be instructed 
 ami controlled. All sentimentalism is, of course, 
 to be eliminated, ami the facts of experience 
 alone are to be appealed to. We must take 
 human nature as it is, and not as we would wish 
 it to be. We must consider the selfishness, will- 
 fulness, idleness, and spirit of mischief that must 
 be controlled or exorcised before instruction can 
 accomplish its purpose; and before concluding 
 that corporal punishment is never necessary, we 
 must be prepare 1 to say. that, under all circum- 
 stances, and with all available instrumentalities. 
 this control can be effected without any appeal 
 to physical coercion. Are there not children so 
 
 self-willed, so bent upon mischief, so determin- 
 edly wayward, and at the same time so devoid 
 of sensibility or moral sense, that there is no 
 way of controlling them except through the fear 
 of bodily pain? Most educators say, from their 
 own experience, that there are. The average 
 nature of children is of this character, though 
 varying in degree. They are ruled by their pro- 
 pensities, while the elements of moral restraint 
 are undeveloped, and hence inoperative. Says 
 Dr. Dwight. " The parents' will is the only law 
 to the child; yet, being steadily regulated by 
 parental affection, is probably more moderate. 
 equitable, and pleasing to him. than any other 
 human government, to any other subject. It re- 
 sembles the divine government more than any 
 other. Correction which is sometimes considered 
 the whole of government, is usually the least 
 part of it, a part indispensable indeed, and some- 
 times efficacious, when all others have failed." 
 .John Locke, an enemy to corporal punishment, 
 admits that sometimes children are so obstinate, 
 that they can be subdued by no other means. 
 Mrs. WiHard, for many years principal of the 
 Troy Female Seminary, said in 1847. "I believe 
 that corporal punishment should always be re- 
 ported to as soon as other modes of discipline 
 tail, and I have known some young persons 
 whose consciences were so weak, and who had 
 so much of the animal in them, that the rod 
 would be for them the most beneficial mode of 
 punishment." D. P. Page, an educator of long 
 experience, great moral force, and singular kind- 
 liness of nature, fully admitted the necessity of 
 corporal punishment as a last resort. " I do not 
 hesitate," he says, " to teach that corporal inflic- 
 tion is one of the justifiable means of establish- 
 ing authority in the school-room. To this con- 
 clusion I have come after a careful consideration 
 of the subject, modified by the varied experience 
 of nearly twenty years, and by a somewhat at- 
 tentive observation of the workings of all the 
 plans which have been devised to avoid its use 
 or to supply its place." Horace Mann, one of 
 the most enthusiastic advocates of moral suasion, 
 yet recognized the necessity of corporal punish- 
 ment in some cases. "Punishment," he says, 
 "should never be inflicted except in cases of the 
 extremest necessity : while the experiment of 
 sympathy, confidence, persuasion, encourage- 
 ment, should lie repeated forever and ever." ,\n 
 English teacher says, •• It is necessary for a child 
 to learn that the violation of law. whether of 
 school, society, or Cod. brings inevitable suffer- 
 ing. The sense of right is so imperfectly devel- 
 oped in children, that one of the ways of im- 
 pressing upon a child that right is right, and 
 wrong is wrong, is by showing that suffering fol- 
 lows from one. enjoyment and a sense of satis- 
 faction from the other." ( The Educational Re- 
 porter (Txmdon, .July 1.. 1*74.) Corporal pun- 
 ishment is sanctioned by Kosenkranz in Peda- 
 gogics as <t System. " This kind of punishment," 
 he says." provided always that it is not too often 
 administered, or with undue severity, is the 
 proper way of dealing with willful defiance. 
 
188 
 
 ( << >RPOR AL PUNISHMENT 
 
 with obstinate carelessness, or with a really per- 
 verted will, so long or so often as the higher per- 
 ception is closed against appeal." Under pecu- 
 liarly favorable circumstances. — a condition of 
 things which may be considered ideal, that is. 
 where the home training of the pupils of a school 
 has been judicious and correct, where all have 
 been taught, from their earliest years, to obey 
 their elders and superiors: and this not by vio- 
 lence and severity, but with gentleness and firm- 
 ness ; and moreover, where the teacher or teach- 
 ers of the school are gifted with the same talents 
 for discipline, — under such circumstances, most 
 educators would agree that a resort to corporal 
 punishment would scarcely ever, if at all, be 
 necessary. I hit such are not the circumstances 
 under which children are instructed in school. 
 This point is ably presented by Horace Mann. 
 " The children who attend school," says he. "en- 
 ter it from that vast variety of homes which 
 exist in the state. From different households, 
 where the widest diversity of parental and 
 domestic influences prevails, the children enter 
 the school room, where there must be compara- 
 tive uniformity. At home some of these chil- 
 dren have been indulged in every wish. Haltered 
 
 and smiled upon for the energies of their low 
 propensities, and even their freaks and whims 
 
 enacted into household laws. Some have been 
 
 so rigorously debarred from every in sent 
 
 amusement and indulgence, that they have 
 
 opened for themselves a way to gratification, 
 through artifice, and treachery, and falsehood. 
 Others, from vicious parental example, and the 
 corrupting influences of vile associates, have 
 been trained to bad habits, and contaminated 
 with vicious principles, ever since they were 
 born ; — some being taught that honor consists in 
 whipping a boy larger than themselves; others, 
 that the chief end of man is to own a box that 
 cannot be opened, and to get money enough to 
 fill it ; and others, again, have been taught, upon 
 their fathers' knees, to shape their young lips to 
 the utterance of oaths and blasphemy. All 
 these." as hi' says. " must be made to obey the 
 
 same general regulations, to pursue the same 
 studies, and to aim at the same results." More- 
 over, the teachers who are to control these diverse 
 characters and dispositions, are persons of im- 
 mature age ami experience, with little, if any, 
 special preparation, ami often morally and 
 
 temperamentally unfitted for the work; and, 
 
 therefore, as he further says. "He who denies 
 
 the necessity of resorting to punishmenl in our 
 
 schools, virtually affirms two things: ( I | That 
 this greal uumber of children, scraped up from 
 
 all places, taken al all ages and in all conditions. 
 Can he deterred from tin' wrong and attracted to 
 
 the right without punishmenl ; and (2) That the 
 teachers employed to keep their respective 
 
 BChools, are in the present condition of things, 
 able to accomplish so glorious a work. Neither 
 
 ■ if these propositions I ;it presenl prepared 
 
 to admit. He also prudently remarks, that "it 
 
 is Useless, or worse than useless, to say. that such 
 
 or such a thine can lie done, and done imme- 
 
 diately, without pointing out the agents by whom 
 it can be done." 
 
 These considerations assume, that every avail- 
 able agency has been employed before corporal 
 punishment is resorted to : for all educators are 
 agreed upon the point, that this kind of dis- 
 cipline is only, if ever, justifiable as a dernier 
 ressort; that is, after every possible substitute 
 for corporal punishment has been used. There 
 is then one. and only one, alternative, as far 
 as school discipline is concerned, and that is 
 expulsion. To this it is objected that to 
 expel a pupil, and particularly from a public 
 school, is to acknowledge the inadequacy of the 
 means to restrain him. " The vicious and ig- 
 norant scholar," says 1). P. Page, "is the very 
 one who most needs the reforming influence of a 
 good education. Sent away from the fountains 
 of knowledge and virtue at this, the very time 
 of need ! And what may we expect for him but 
 utter ruin?" In the city of New York, corporal 
 punishment has been prohibited in the public 
 schools since L870, expulsion being substituted 
 for it. In the superintendent's report for L873,the 
 following statement is made : " There is a large 
 class of hoys whom our schools do not and can- 
 not restrain, and whom, therefore, they cannot, 
 benefit, but must send adrift, to find their way 
 inevitably to the reformatories and prisons, after 
 having committed those injuries to the com- 
 munity which our school system was designed to 
 prevent." It is further stated. " There are pupils, 
 the sons of widowed mothers, who cannot be 
 restrained at all at home: and when these are 
 turned from the school they are lost indeed. To 
 these children the city owes an education, and 
 in order to be able to bestow it, it is bound by 
 every obligation of right and duty to govern 
 them: and if its chosen officers expel them, they 
 evade a most solemn responsibility." On the 
 other hand, in Chicago, in which corpora] punish- 
 ment, though not prohibited by positive law. has 
 been abandoned for se\eral years, the superin- 
 tendent states [Annual Report for L874 
 •• Suspensions for misconduct, the greal bugbear 
 in the sight of apologists for the use of the rod. 
 have been far less frequent than in the years 
 when corporal punishment was in vogue. The 
 most favorable year under the old regime gave 
 US one suspension for each 22.0110 pupils in daily 
 attendance. The past year shows but one suspen- 
 sion for each 48,888 pupils in daily at tendance.'' 
 He also states that "a greater good has been 
 secured at less cost than by the old methods. 
 The chief element of cost has been time spent in 
 discipline:" and added to this, is " loss of school 
 time li\ enforced absence." The superinten- 
 dent of St. Louis {Annual Report for 1869 70) 
 Bays " Corpora] punishmenl is still inflicted in 
 
 the schools of our city, but I am glad to Say in 
 fewer eases every succeeding year. . . . Ex- 
 perienced teachers affirm that they think it im- 
 possible to do without it." The Report of the 
 same superintendent for 1873—4 says. "We 
 
 have had but very few cases of corporal punish- 
 ment, when compared with former years, but 
 
CORPORAL PUNISHMENT 
 
 189 
 
 still tlif cumber is quite large when brought 
 together. .. .Our general average is now about 
 
 1,000 rases per quarter for j>5.lil)0 pupils. Six- 
 teen years ago, there was one hundred times (his 
 
 amount pro rata." The superintendent of Balti- 
 more (Annual Report for L875) says, " The rules 
 of the Hoard allow the infliction of corporal 
 punishment by the principals in cases of necessity: 
 hut, it must lie said to their credit, that they 
 have used the power but seldom. .. .It is to be 
 hoped that the day is not distant when corporal 
 punishment will he with us a thing of the past." 
 
 This kind of punishment still survives in most 
 Americanand English schools; but the frequen- 
 cy and severity with which it was formerly in- 
 flicted would not be tolerated at the present 
 time. The opinions of practical teachers are 
 generally in its favor; but the tendency of public 
 opinion is towards its abolition, notwithstanding 
 all that may be said in its support as being, un- 
 der proper regulations, a wholesome and neces- 
 sary means of discipline. In Germany, corporal 
 punishment is permitted in the public schools, 
 for certain offenses, as resistance to the teacher's 
 authority, obscenity, irreverence, etc.; but its in- 
 fliction is limited by strict regulations. In the 
 school law of Prussia, adopted in L845, it is pro- 
 vided that no punishment shall be administered 
 exceeding " the bounds of moderate parental dis- 
 cipline." and that the teacher may be prosecuted 
 fur inflicting any excessive .punishment. Another 
 loeal ordinance provides that " corporal punish- 
 ment may be inflicted, but only after the lessons 
 are over, with parental moderation and a due re- 
 gard to the physical condition of the child." 
 Blows with the fist, or on the head, are strictly 
 prohibited. Similar laws prevail in the cantons 
 of Switzerland. In France, the law of 1850, 
 which is still in force, prohibited all corporal 
 punishment in the primary schools ; and the sub- 
 stitutes for it are such punishments as bad 
 murks, confinement, the imposition of tasks, 
 placing the names of delinquents on a roll of 
 dishonor, etc. In Russia, corporal punishment 
 was prohibited in the primary schools at a very 
 early date ; but, in 1820, was restored under cer- 
 tain restrictions. In 1862, a statute was pro- 
 posed for the government of the schools without 
 corporal punishment ; and this statute was sub- 
 nutted to ( ierman educators for their criticism and 
 suggestions. Of the twenty-one who presented 
 opinions, eleven opposed the abolition of corporal 
 punishment, and two favored it. while eight ex- 
 pressed no opinion on that part of the statute. 
 The statute was finally so modified as to leave 
 the decision of the question to the local boards. 
 
 The school codes of the United States are gen- 
 erally silent in regard to the right of teachers to 
 inflict corpora] punishment; but there are nu- 
 merous judicial decisions in favor of this light. 
 By English and American law, a parent may 
 correct his child in a reasonable manner, and the 
 teacher is in loco parentis (see 2 Kent, 205; 
 1 Blackstone, 453 ; 9 Wendell's Reports, 355 ; 
 27 Maine, 280 ; 32 Vermont, 123 ; 2 Devereux 
 and Battle, 365 ; 4 Gray, 37.) In the last deci- 
 
 sion mentioned, the Supreme Court of Massa- 
 chusetts held that & ferule is a proper instru- 
 ment of school punishment. There are numerous 
 decisions which support this authority even while 
 the pupils are going to or returning from school. 
 In a case reported in 'A'l Vermont, 1 L4, the judges 
 of tin' Supreme Court unanimously held that 
 "the supervision and control of the master over 
 the scholar extends from the time he leaves home 
 to go to school till he returns home from school." 
 The decisions of many of the state superintend- 
 ents have also sanctioned this doctrine. Pupils 
 of all ages are equally amenable to such punish- 
 ment. (See 27 Maine, 266.) 
 
 As to the offenses for which corporal punish- 
 ment should be inflicted, and the proper mode 
 of inflicting it, the following suggestions (of a 
 practical teacher) would probably meet with 
 universal approval from those who claim that 
 this mode of discipline is, in certain cases, indis- 
 pensable: (1) It should be reserved for the 
 baser faults. A child should never be struck for 
 inadvertencies, for faidts of forgetfulness, for ir- 
 ritability and carelessness, or for petty irregular- 
 ities. It is a coarse remedy, and should be em- 
 ployed upon the coarse sins of our animal nat- 
 ure. (2) When employed at all, it should be ad- 
 ministered in strong closes. The whole system 
 of slaps, pinches, snappings, and irritating blows, 
 is to be condemned. These petty disciplines 
 tend to stir up anger, and rather encourage evil 
 in the child than subdue it. (3) In administer- 
 ing physical punishment to a child, the head 
 should be left sacred from all violence. Pulling the 
 hair or the ears, rapping the head with a thimble 
 or with the knuckles, boxing the ears, slapping 
 the cheeks or the mouth, are all brutal expedients. 
 These irritating and annoying practices are far 
 more likely to arouse malignant passions, than 
 to alleviate them. (4) The temper with which 
 you administer punishment will, generally, excite 
 in the child a corresponding feeling. If you 
 bring auger, anger will be excited ; if you bring 
 affection and sorrow, you will find the child 
 responding in sorrowful feelings ; if you bring 
 moral feelings, the child's conscience will be 
 excited. Anger and severity destroy all the 
 benefit of punishment ; love and firmness will, 
 if anything can, work penitence and a change 
 of conduct. — See H. Mann, Lectures and An- 
 nual Reports on Education, new edition (Boston, 
 L872) ; Remarks on the Seventh Animal Report 
 of the Hon. Harare Mian/. hy the Association of 
 Masters of the Boston Public schools (Boston, 
 L844) ; I!< ■/>/>/ to the same, by Horace Mann ( Bos- 
 ton. L844) ; Penitential Tears (Boston, 1845); 
 Lyman Cobb, The Evil Tendeney of Corporal 
 Punishment [N. Y., 1847) ; Cooper, A History 
 of tl/>' Hod (London); K \iu. Rosenkranz, Ped- 
 agogics as a System, trans, by Anna C. Brackett 
 (St. Louis, 1872) ; Hecker, Scientific Basis of 
 Education (N. Y., 1868); CuRRTE, Principles 
 aial Practice of Common-School Education 
 Edinburgh) ; Pillans, Rationale of Discipline 
 Kdinburgh, 1852). (See also Aphorisms, Edu- 
 cational ; Authority ; and Discipline.) 
 
190 
 
 CORVALLIS COLLEGE 
 
 COURSE OE INSTRUCTION 
 
 CORVALLIS COLLEGE (State Agri- 
 cultural), at Corvallis, Benton county. Oregon, 
 was founded by the Methodist Episcopal Church, 
 in 1868, and is still under its control. The state 
 agricultural college was made a department of it 
 in 1872. The value of the college property is 
 $10,000; the endowment consists of 90,000 
 acres of agricultural college land -ranted by 
 Congress. The sum of $5,000 is annually re- 
 ceived from the state. The institution embraces 
 a primary department, a preparatory depart- 
 ment, and a collegiate department. The last 
 comprises the following schools: (1) School of 
 Physics: (2) School of Mathematics; (3) School 
 of Moral Science: (!) School of Language ; (5) 
 School of History and Literature; (61 School of 
 Engineering; (7) Special studies of Agriculture. 
 In chemistry and mathematics there are three 
 classes (junior, intermediate, and senior), and in 
 Greek and Latin two (junior and senior). There 
 are four degrees conferred in this institution : 
 (1) The degree of A. M., conferred on all who 
 complete the course in the study of physics, 
 mathematics, moral philosophy, history, ami 
 literature ami language; (2) The degree of A. 
 B., on such as complete the course in the schools 
 of physics, moral philosophy, mathematics, and 
 ancient languages; (3) The degree of U.S.. on such 
 as complete the course, in the schools of physics, 
 mathematics, moral philosophy, engineering, and 
 the special department of agriculture; (4) The 
 degree of Graduate of a School, on such as com- 
 plete the course in any school. The title Pro- 
 ficient is granted to any candidate for degrees 
 who passes two successful examinations, one of 
 which must be final. Both sexes are entitled to 
 the privileges of the college. The tuition varies 
 from 8(> to $15 (gold) per term, the college year 
 being divided into three terms. An extra fee 
 of S."> is charged for each modern language. The 
 law provides for the free tuition of sixty young 
 
 men, over sixteen years old, who are known 
 as */"/>• students. In 1ST.'! I, then' were <> in- 
 structors and 134 students, of whom 32 were in 
 the agricultural department. The Dumber grad- 
 uating was I (B, S.); the whole number of 
 alumni. Is. B. L. Arnold. A. M., is (187(5) the 
 president. 
 
 COURSE OF INSTRUCTION, or Course 
 of Study, is a seriesof subjects E instruction 
 or study, arranged in the order in which they 
 
 should be pursued, and grouped or divided into 
 les, each to be completed in a certain time. 
 Such an arrangement of studies is sometimes 
 called a graded course, and, especially in superior 
 instruction, a curriculum. When these various 
 subjects are arranged in the form of a daily or- 
 der of exercises, showing the time, or the number 
 
 of lessons, to be given to each Subject, it consti- 
 tutes the school programme. 
 
 In order that the objects of intellectual edu- 
 cation may be fully attained, it is of tin greatest 
 importance that the course of instruction should 
 be judicious in respect to several points: (1) The 
 
 tion of BUbjeCtS : (2) Their order 0T arrange- 
 ment ; (3) The number prescribed for simultane- 
 
 ous study ; (4) The division of the course into 
 grades, with a definite time assigned for the com- 
 pletion of each. The first of these considerations 
 is of paramount importance; since the subjects 
 of study constitute not only the basis of intel- 
 lectual culture, but the source of necessary in- 
 formation. Two points, consequently, are to be 
 considered in this selection : (1) The value of 
 the subjects as means of culture ; (2) Their 
 importance as sources of information. In the 
 early stages of education, the first of these con- 
 siderations should, without doubt, have the 
 preference; but, as education advances, the 
 second claims an increasing degree of attention 
 until, in the sphere of technical and professional 
 edueation.it becomes almost the exclusive aim. 
 We cannot, therefore, decide upon a course of 
 
 instruction without considering the nature of the 
 mind to be educated as well as the objects for 
 which it is to be educated. In elementary or 
 primary education, the necessary subjects of in- 
 struction maybe grouped into the following: 
 (1) Language, including reading and elocution, 
 spelling, the analysis and definition of words, 
 grammar, and composition; (2) Rudimentary 
 Mathematics, including arithmetic, mental and 
 written, algebra, and geometry: (3) Elementary 
 Science, or a knowledge of thin;/*, graded from 
 the simple perceptive facts of object instruction 
 up to the rudiments of geography, natural histo- 
 ry, physiology, physics, astronomy, etc.; (4) 
 History; (5) Graphics, -writing, drawing, etc.; 
 (6) Athletics, — gymnastics or calisthenics. To 
 these may be added music, vocal or instrumental, 
 which constitutes a part of esthetics. In addition 
 to these branches of study, in some cases, the rudi- 
 ments of a foreign language are also taught. The 
 distinction between primary and secondary in- 
 struction not being definitely fixed as to subjects, 
 some of those mentioned above may be deemed 
 (\elusively appropriate to the higher grade. 
 For proper mental discipline, there must, how- 
 ever, be instruction in things as well as words, — 
 the perceptive and coiiccptive faculties must be 
 trained as well as the expressive faculties, so 
 that the mind may be stored with ideas and 
 their representatives in language. A proper 
 discrimination between primary and secondary 
 instruction depends upon (1) the kind of in- 
 struction, and (2) the subjects of instruction. 
 Science taught in the high school is a very differ- 
 ent thing from science in the primary school ; 
 in the one case we address to a much greater 
 extent the higher faculties, abstraction, general- 
 
 ization, reasoning, etc. : in the other, chiefly the 
 perceptive and coiiccptive faculties. The Sub- 
 jects of elementary instruction have beenclassi- 
 lieil by an eminent educator as follows: "(1) 
 Reading • >/"/ Writing — the mastery of letters; 
 (2) Arithmetic the mastery of numbers; (if) 
 Geography the mastery over place; (4i Gram- 
 mar the mastery over the word : (.">) History — 
 the mastery over time." 
 
 In schools of secondary instruction (high 
 Bchools, academies, etc.), the course includes also 
 language — the vernacular, and one or more 
 
COURSE OF INSTRUCTION 
 
 1!)1 
 
 modern languages, and also the rudiments of 
 Latin and Greek, particularly in preparatory 
 schools; mathematics, including algebra, geom- 
 etry, trigonometry, mensuration, etc.; science 
 (taught as such i. including physics and chemistry, 
 astronomy (descriptive, at least), physiology, etc.; 
 to which arc usually added English literature. 
 rhetoric, the elements of mental and moral phi- 
 losophy, etc. What properly belongs to a high 
 school or academic course is, however, far from 
 being settled ; indeed, to tix the line of demarca- 
 tion between primary and secondary instruction 
 has scarcely been attempted ; hence, what should 
 constitute the course of study in schools of this 
 grade is an open question, which is usually de- 
 termined by the circumstances and special aim 
 of the school. Thus, the course for a business 
 college, for example, is very different from that 
 of a collegiate or preparatory school. The theo- 
 ry of the common-school system in the United 
 States requires that the pupil should enter the 
 high school with a good knowledge of the studies 
 already mentioned : — at least, reading, writing, 
 arithmetic, geography, English grammar, and 
 the liistory of the United States ; but it is a 
 great error to suppose that these subjects can be 
 fully mastered by an immature mind. " Until 
 all education." says a thoughtful teacher, "shall 
 agree as to the precise culture power of each 
 study, as well as to the exact value of its impart- 
 ed information, and shall determine, to the satis- 
 faction of all, what particular faculties each calls 
 into activity, and just how the calling into action 
 of these faculties educates a man. it will be im- 
 possible to establish a course of study which all 
 shall acknowledge as absolutely the best." 
 
 In institutions for superior instruction (col- 
 leges and universities), the courses of study are 
 also various, but they all include the departments 
 of classics, mathematics, scientific studies, litera- 
 ture, philosophy, and modern languages. In the 
 American colleges, elective courses have, within 
 a few years, become quite general. (See Boston- 
 University, and Colleges.) The courses of 
 study prescribed in the different cities of the 
 United States for the elementary public schools, 
 differ considerably as to subjects, number of 
 grades, and time assigned for the completion of 
 the course. The states do not prescribe any uni- 
 form course : in regard to which fact Mr. Francis 
 Adams, in 7%e Free School System of the Ui>it>-<l 
 States 1875), says, " It is worthy of remark that 
 American educationists do not appear to recog- 
 nize that the absence of uniformity in study and 
 examina'ion weakens their system. The nearest 
 approach to a uniform course of study which has 
 ever been attempted by any state, is to prescribe 
 the text-books which shail be used, and when 
 this has been done, it has been sometimes re- 
 sented, and the cry of centralization has been 
 raised. It is obvious that it would be a great 
 advantage to statesmen and statisticians, and to 
 the nation at large, if there were some test by 
 which the progress of scholars in each state could 
 be definitely ascertained." The diverse circum- 
 stances, however, uf schools in the rural districts, 
 
 of the larger "union schools," and of schools in 
 chics, appear to preclude the possibility of a 
 state course of instruction, except within certain 
 limits. On the other hand, it maybe said that 
 the prescribing < >f a course of instruction — at least 
 to the extent of defining the subjects to be taught, 
 would go far towards settling the principles of 
 common-school education, and preventing the 
 abusesof which complaint is sometimes made. 
 Thus, Deputy State Superintendent Danforth of 
 New York, in addressing the State Teachers' 
 Association, at the convention of August, 
 1873, said, " Our courses of study, in too many 
 instances, indicate a disposition for the display 
 of ostentatious learning rather than useful cul- 
 ture. The desire for showy acquirements, treat- 
 ing the mind as a receptacle for the storing of 
 facts, irrespective of their use in giving mental 
 nourishment and cultivating power, is a perni- 
 cious evil." The complaint that the courses of 
 study prescribed for the common schools, particu- 
 larly in many of the cities of the Northern 
 States, are burdensome in their requirements, 
 has frequently been made. In this connection, 
 Mr. Francis Adams remarks, " Our [the English] 
 elementary course is generally longer than the 
 American ; and yet ours is nothing like so ambi- 
 tious a course. There is another difference between 
 the two courses. In England, our attention is 
 pretty much confined to the 'three R's ; in Amer- 
 ica, what we call ' special subjects' are taught all 
 along the line. A foreign language is often 
 commenced in the lowest grade of the primary 
 school." In prescribing a course of instruction for 
 elementary schools, the special province of such 
 schools should be kept steadily in view, — to give 
 to their pupils the keys of knowledge, reading, 
 writing, etc., and, at the same time, to discipline 
 their minds so that they will be able to acquire 
 and use knowledge in discharging the duties of 
 their after lives. 
 
 The division of the Course of Instruction into 
 grades is sometimes made by topics, and some- 
 times by text-books; and each method has its 
 advocates. The former, it is claimed, gives more 
 freedom to the teacher — more scope for the ex- 
 ercise of intelligent discrimination and original 
 treatment ; the instruction proceeds to a greater 
 extent from the living teacher, since there is less 
 inducement to confine it to a mere hearing of 
 recitations. The subject is the paramount con- 
 sideration; the text-book, secondary. The teacher, 
 and the pupil also as far as possible, is requi red 
 to consult various books, to compare their state- 
 ments, to correct their errors; and thus, while 
 perhaps a particular text-book is used as a basis 
 for the instruction, a more general knowledge of 
 the subject is imparted than is contained in any 
 single work. Thus, if the study is the history of 
 the United States, to one grade is assigned the 
 Colonial History ; to another, the period of the 
 Rfptthition and the Establishment of the Federal 
 (rorcrirmriit, etc.; while, if the division were by 
 book, it would be necessary that all the schools 
 should use the same, and a certain number of 
 pages would be assigned to each grade. For ab- 
 
192 
 
 COUSIN 
 
 CRAMMING 
 
 solute uniformity, of course, the second plan is 
 preferable ; but some educators claim that uni- 
 formity may be carried too far, constituting a 
 Procrustean standard, and tending to deprive 
 the instruction of one of its most essential qual- 
 ities, — its adaptability to different minds. Evi- 
 dently the topical system makes more demands 
 upon the teacher; and this.it is claimed, con- 
 stitutes its great advantage, since it necessitates 
 better information, higher culture, and more real 
 teaching ability. What kind of development, it 
 is asked, can result from the mere hearing of rec- 
 itations? And what kind of influence can be 
 exerted by a teacher that never goes beyond the 
 narrow scope of the school text-book? Not that 
 the legitimate use of text-books is to be discour- 
 aged, but only a servile dependence upon them: 
 and it is claimed that the prescribing of topics 
 rather than hooks, tends to prevent this. Says 
 I ». I*. Page, in Theory and Practice of Teach- 
 ing, " A teacher who is perfectly familiar with 
 what is taught, has ten times the rivacityof one 
 who is obliged to follow the very letter of the 
 book." For the courses of instruction of com- 
 mon schools in the different cities, see the titles 
 of the same ; the courses in the higher institu- 
 tions of learning are given each under its re- 
 spective title. No attempt has been made here 
 to show what in regard to moral and religious 
 training properly belongs to a course of instruc- 
 tion for public or private schools. The various 
 considerations appertaining to these topics will 
 be found under the titles .Moral Education, and 
 Religious Education. — See How to Teach 
 (X. Y., 1874); Wells, A Gh-aded Course of In- 
 struction for Public Schools (N. Y., 18G2); 
 Francis Adams, The Free School System of we 
 United States (London, 1875); Thomas Hill, The 
 True Order of Studies (N. Y., 187(5). 
 
 COUSIN, Victor, a French philosopher, and 
 the founder of systematic eclecticism in philos- 
 ophy, was born Nov. 28, L792, and died Jan. L5, 
 I 867. He distinguished himself as a student at 
 the Li/fi'i' Churli'undjtw, and in 1*12, was made 
 assistant Greek professor at the Ecole Nbrmale. 
 I lis early studies were rather in the direction of 
 belles-lettres, hut he soon turned his attention 
 to philosophy. Roger Collard had already re- 
 volted against the sensationalism of Locke as 
 deprave. I by Oondillac, and had introduced the 
 Scotch philosophy into Prance. For a while. 
 Cousin was an ardent disciple of Reid ; and. in 
 L815, he became an assistant professor of philos- 
 ophy with Roger Collard, and lectured both at 
 the Ecole Nbrmale sun/A at the Sorborvne. In L817, 
 he visited Germany, and became acquainted with 
 the Kantian philosophy, which badagreal influ- 
 ence upon his later teachings. In L821, his lec- 
 tures were suspected of a bad political tendency, 
 .■ml were indefinitely suspended, in L824, he 
 went to Germany again, .and was arrested in 
 Dresden on the charge of belonging to the Car- 
 bonari, and sent to Berlin, where he was im- 
 prisoned for six months. During this stay in 
 Germany, he became acquainted with Kegel, 
 Bchleiermacher, and Scheuing. In 1820, he re- 
 
 turned to Paris ; and, in 1827, he was appointed 
 professor of philosophy at the Sorbonne. During 
 this period of enforced silence, he published an 
 edition of Proclus and Descartes, and also part 
 of a translation of Plato, which was completed 
 in 1840. After the revolution of 1830, he be- 
 came a member of the Council of Public In- 
 struction, and later a director of the Ecole Nbr- 
 male. In 1840, he became minister of public 
 instruction, which position he held for only a 
 few months, owing to the unsettled condition of 
 politics. He was friendly to the revolution of 
 IMS, but never had any political importance 
 under the empire. His eclecticism was based on 
 the doctrine that philosophy has always been 
 either sensualism, idealism, scepticism, or mysti- 
 cism. I lis constant oscillation of opinion is due 
 to the fact that each of these systems has some 
 truth in it ; and the true philosophical method, 
 doubtless, is to take from each of them the true, 
 and reject the false. Without some standard of 
 selection, the product must be a mere philosoph- 
 ical medley ; and such was the result in this 
 case. Still Cousin's eloquence and his exalted 
 moral views combined to make his lectures very 
 popular. The crowds at the Sorbonne recalled 
 the days when William and Abelard.had dis- 
 puted there. He reorganized the system of 
 primary instruction in France, and arranged the 
 course of studies for the normal school. He also 
 published several very full and valuable reports 
 upon public instruction in Prussia and Holland. 
 These have been translated into English. Cousin 
 was an ardent believer in religious education. 
 Purely secular instruction he thought more likely 
 to do mischief than good. A complete edition 
 of his works is published in French : and trans- 
 lations of his more important works have ap- 
 peared in English. — See Ripley. Philosophical 
 Miscellanies (Boston. 1838); 0. W. Wight, 
 Translation of Cousin's Course of Modern Phi- 
 losophy (N. V.. L855), and his Lech/res on the 
 Trin', die Beautiful, a/idthe (>tiiid(S. Y„ 1857); 
 Cousin's Report on the State if Education in 
 Holland, translated by Homer (London, 1838); 
 and Report on the stale of Public Instruction in 
 Prussia; with Plans of School-Houses, trans- 
 lated by Austin (London, 1834). 
 
 CRAMMING, a term used in regard to edu- 
 cation, to denote the fault of tilling the mind 
 with facts, without allowing it sufficient time to 
 arrange and generalize them, to compare them 
 
 with its previous acquisitions, Or to determine 
 
 their real significance, as related to general prin- 
 ciples. It is thus a kind of mental stuffing, and, 
 consequently, is opposed to the true object of 
 education, which, as the word etymologically 
 considered implies, is Dot to pour something 
 into the mind, hut to bring out, by appropriate 
 exercise, its latent faculties, in college phrase, 
 
 Students are said to eram for an examination, 
 when they make preparation with undue ha-te, 
 
 impressing upon their memory, by repetition, a 
 
 mass of things about which they expect to be 
 questioned, hut which, when the examination is 
 over, they immediately forget. Such a process 
 
CRECHE 
 
 CRIME AND EDUCATION 
 
 193 
 
 is exceedingly injurious to the mind, since it is a 
 misdirection of its powers, wasting them at a 
 time when they should be all steadily employed 
 in the formation of those habits of acquisition 
 
 and thought, which constitute the basis of a 
 sound intellectual character. 
 
 In elementary education, cramming is. there- 
 fore, especially pernicious : and it is at this Stage, 
 that it is the most likely to occur. It may as- 
 sume various forms, but chiefly the following: 
 (1) Crowding the memory with verbal/brwiwfoe, 
 — definitions, rules, statements of facts, names in 
 geography, dates in history, etc. ; (2) Overtask- 
 ing the powers of the mind with a multiplicity 
 of studies, or with such as are not adapted to its 
 immature condition, and, therefore, cannot be 
 comprehended ; (3) Undue haste in instruction, 
 so that the pupils are compelled to commit to 
 memory what they have had no time properly 
 to digest in their minds. Cramming may be the 
 result cither of the ignorance of the teacher, or 
 of circumstances which compel him to violate 
 the correct principles of education for some 
 special end, as the preparation of pupils for a 
 public exhibition in which they may make an 
 imposing display of their superficial acquire- 
 ments. (See Exhibition.) Such a sad perver- 
 sion of the teacher "s work as this implies is of 
 too frequent occurrence ; for parents and patrons 
 are too fond of witnessing such displays, and 
 there are teachers whose eagerness for praise or 
 patronage is sufficient to overcome their sense of 
 the true object of their vocation. They seem to 
 work more for their own petty ambition or 
 pecuniary gain than for the true welfare of their 
 pupils. The evil of this is not alone with the 
 pupil, but is shared by the teacher himself ; for 
 by merely cramming the minds which it is his 
 duty to educate, he fails to realize in himself 
 the best results of giving instruction ; since, 
 while "he may have the exquisite pleasure of see- 
 ing the growth of his pupils' minds, he may also 
 have the higher satisfaction of feeling the growth 
 of his own." — See Blackie, On Self -Culture 
 (Edinburgh, 1875). 
 
 CRECHE, a French word signifying a crib 
 or manger, but used in France, Belgium, and 
 some other countries in Europe to designate a 
 kind of infant asylum (in remembrance of the 
 manger of Bethlehem). These institutions are 
 supported and managed by either private per- 
 sons or corporations. One of the most noted, 
 and a model of its class, is the famous Creche 
 Marie-Henriette, at Antwerp, named after the 
 queen of Belgium. This asylum originated in 
 circumstances caused by the cholera, in 1866. 
 The ravages of the epidemic were very great in 
 Belgium, but especially in the city of Antwerp, 
 causing extreme suffering and distress among 
 the poorer classes of the population. Many 
 children were deprived of one or both of their 
 parents, and thus left helpless and destitute. 
 Others suffered almost as much in consequence 
 of the sudden destitution of their parents. In 
 order to afford relief to these unfortunates, the 
 creche was opened in January, 186 
 13 
 
 through 
 
 the efforts of a number of philanthropic ladies 
 ami gentlemen; and since that time has con- 
 tinued to afford an asylum to hundreds of poor 
 children, both boys and girls. When the parents 
 arc living, a small charge is made for the sup- 
 port of the child according to the amount of 
 their earnings. The institution is not a hospital, 
 sick and diseased children not being received. 
 Every child aged 15 days, or at most 3 years, 
 whose parents reside in the city, can be admitted 
 to the cr&che. The utmost care is taken of the 
 inmates, both as to their nurture and discipline. 
 No corporal punishment is permitted ; and ten- 
 der treatment is enforced by minute regulations, 
 both sanitary and educational. Perhaps, the 
 most important function of the creche is the 
 care taken of young children during the day, 
 while their parent or parents are engaged in 
 their work. Thus, mothers may leave their in- 
 fants in the morning, and take them away in the 
 evening, at a charge of 5 centimes (about 1 cent) 
 per day, or 25 centimes per week in case of pre- 
 payment. This feature of the creche distin- 
 guishes it particularly from other classes of infant 
 and orphan asylums. 
 
 CRIME AND EDUCATION. The rela- 
 tion between crime and education has, of late, 
 engaged the attention of philanthropists, educa- 
 tors, and statisticians. The progress of statistical 
 research, in modern times, seems to have estab- 
 lished the fact that there is a much larger per- 
 centage of illiterates among the criminal classes 
 of society than in the total population of any 
 country. Thus the criminal statistics of France, 
 in 1870, show r ed that the educated criminals as 
 compared with the entire educated population, 
 were in the proportion of 1 to 9,291 ; while the 
 illiterate criminals were as 1 to 41, compared 
 with the whole number of illiterate persons ; 
 thus proving the proportion of criminals in the 
 uneducated classes to be 226 times as great as 
 that of the educated classes. The facts thus far 
 published on this subject are, however, still very 
 incomplete ; but they invariably tend to prove 
 that the uneducated constitute the class of so- 
 ciety most prone to crime. It, therefore, fol- 
 lows, that every advance made toward the re- 
 moval of illiteracy must have a tendency to re- 
 duce also the number of crimes. It is also evi- 
 dent that the more complete the statistical in- 
 formation which can be obtained of the criminal 
 classes of all the countries of the world, the bet- 
 ter will statesmen and educators be enabled to 
 establish with certainty the true relation exist- 
 ing between crime and education. There are 
 still, unfortunately, countries in which it is 
 thought that the government has discharged its 
 duty with regard to the criminal classes, when it 
 has enacted criminal laws for the punishment of 
 crime, and erected prisons and penitentiaries. 
 The criminal is treated more as an offender 
 against society who deserves to be punished and 
 restrained from doing any more harm, than as an 
 unfortunate member of society who should be re- 
 formed. Great progress, however, is of late no- 
 ticeable in the legislation of almost every civil- 
 
194 
 
 CRIME AND EDUCATION 
 
 bed country. The intellectual and moral con- 
 dition of criminals is more thoroughly studied 
 than before ; the causes which lead to crimes are 
 more earnestly investigated, and the agencies 
 
 which are calculated to reform criminals are 
 more eagerly employed. The improvement 
 which has already been achieved is, to a great 
 extent, due to the prison congresses held in the 
 Dinted States, as well as in Europe. The first 
 congress of this kind was proposed by the in- 
 spector general of prisons in Belgium, Ducpe- 
 tiaux, and was held in Frankfort on the Main. 
 in 1845. The must important was the Inter- 
 national Prison Congress, chiefly arranged by 
 Dr. Wines of New York, and held in London, 
 in 1872. A second international congress is to 
 be held in Europe in LS77. A permanent com- 
 mission for the promotion of penitentiary reform, 
 organized by the congress of London, met in 
 1874, at Brussels, and in L875, at Bruchsal, in 
 the grand-duchy of Baden, Germany. In the 
 United States, national prison congresses were 
 held in 1870 at Cincinnati, in 1872 in Balti- 
 more, and in L874 in St. Louis. The labors of 
 these congresses, while being chiefly devoted to 
 
 the improvement of prisons and of prison life. 
 
 have also shed a flood of light on the causes that 
 product; crinics. Beltrani Scalia, one of the 
 foremost prison-reformers of Italy of the presenl 
 century, estimates the illiterates among the con- 
 victs of Belgium, Denmark, the Netherlands. 
 Italy. Saxony, and Sweden at about one half of 
 the entire prison population of those countries. 
 Recent official returns show that the percentage 
 of those who could not read on entiling prison, 
 was 56 in Austria. 49 in Belgium, 87 in France, 
 4 in Baden, 12 in Bavaria. 17 in Prussia, 60 to 
 !>2 in the different provinces of Italy, about 10 
 
 in the Netherlands, and :5() in Switzerland. In 
 Ireland, 22 per cent of males, and <i."5 per cent of 
 females were illiterate. In England, H4 percent 
 of the persons committed to county or borough 
 prisons, were totally ignorant. In regard to the 
 
 United States. Mr. J. B. Sanborne of Massachu- 
 setts, in a report prepared for the International 
 Prison Congress of London, says that the gen- 
 eral condition of American prisoners in point of 
 education is low. yet they are not so extremely 
 
 illiterate as criminals are in many countries, if 
 
 we except the colore! criminals of the South. 
 In Massachusetts, for a period of eight years 
 past, the statistics show very nearly on,' third of 
 all prisoners to be wholly illiterate: yet. in the 
 highesl prison at ( 'harlcstown. the proportion of 
 illiterate convicts, since the beginning of L864, 
 
 has been scarcely more than I in In. Partial re- 
 ports from seventeen states, including only three 
 from the middle and western states, show that 
 of ,iu aggregate of L10,538 prisoners, B2,812 
 
 COUld read and write. ,").!t:',l could read only, and 
 21,650 had no education. The totally ignorant 
 were thus aboiii 22 per cent of the criminal 
 population: inclusive of those who could read 
 Only, they would amount to 25 per cent. A 
 
 large number of those who could read ami write. 
 
 Were also found to be very deficient, and the ag- ! 
 
 gregate number of those " very deficient in edu- 
 cation" was estimated at about 50 per cent of 
 the criminal population. There was a great 
 diversity in regard to ilbteracy among criminals 
 of different groups of states. In New York and 
 Pennsylvania, the totally ignorant, or those un- 
 able to read and write, were 19 per cent; but 
 those very deficient, at least 60 per cent. In 
 five north-western states, the totally ignorant 
 were 40 per cent, the very deficient, 75 per cent: 
 in four states between the Mississippi and the 
 Pacific, the totally ignorant were 21 per cent, the 
 very deficient, 50 per cent ; in rive far southern 
 states, the totally ignorant were <>•• per cent, the 
 veiy deficient. 85 per cent. According to the 
 census of 1870, the number of illiterates above 10 
 yearsof age was, in New York and Pennsylvania, 
 4 per cent of the population; in the central states. 
 
 Hi per cent ; in the western and Pacific states. .'! 
 percent : and in the South. 22 per cent. A com- 
 parison of these figures which give the total num- 
 ber of illiterates, with the number of illiterate 
 criminals, shows that the illiterate classes of the 
 
 population furnish a disproportionately large con- 
 tingent to the number of criminals. The causes of 
 this fact are plain. Ignorance unfits a man. to a 
 considerable extent, for earning bis daily bread, 
 
 and. in most cases, dooms him to abject poverty : 
 the want of intellectual culture is. moreover, gen- 
 erally COUpled with a lack of the feeling of self- 
 respect and moral responsibility, thus leaving the 
 poor victim an easy prey to the many tempta- 
 tions which society offers. That education is a 
 
 force restraining vice and crime, appears to be 
 clearly established by two very important facts: 
 (1) Wherever education is diffused among the 
 
 people, the ratio of the number of criminals to 
 the whole population diminishes: and (2) In all 
 countries, the criminal class is mainly fed by the 
 ignorant class. The conviction that the absence 
 of education tends to increase crime, has induced 
 educators and statesmen to strive to prevent this 
 evil by tin' introduction of compulsory education 
 laws. (See Compulsory Education.] The friends 
 
 of this policy charge such states as fail to require 
 that all children should be educated, with pro- 
 ducing the \ery crime for which the criminal is 
 punished. Opinions differ, however, as to the 
 
 effect of compulsory education in diminishing 
 
 crime, and as to the responsibility of the state 
 government for uneducated criminals. Alison, 
 in the History of Europe, boldly asserts the 
 
 whole doctrine to be a fallacy, and presents sta- 
 tist ies to pro\ c that crimes are more numerous 
 where education, that is. what is usually con- 
 sidered education, is diffused. ■• Experience," he 
 says. •• has now abundantly verified the melan- 
 choly truth, that intellectual cultivation has no 
 effect iii arresting the source- of evil in the 
 
 human heart ; that it alters the direction of 
 ciiinc. but docs not alter its amount." Herbert 
 Spencer asserts, in Social Statics, that " we 
 
 have no evidence that education, as commonly 
 
 understood, is a preventive of crime." Fletcher, 
 in Summary of the Moral Statistics of England 
 and Wales, Says, that the comparison of the 
 
CRIME AND EDUCATION" 
 
 CRUELTY 
 
 195 
 
 fT-iniiiial and educational returns of England and 
 o&er countries of Europe, "lias afforded no 
 sum nl statistical et tdencem favor of, and as little 
 against, the moral effects associated with instruc- 
 tion. as actually disseminated among the people." 
 These are, undoubtedly, extreme views, and can- 
 not be accepted in the light of more recent sta- 
 tistical information. They present, however, a 
 strong argument in favor of improving the qual- 
 ity as well as the quantity of education diffused 
 among the people, and especially of the impor- 
 tance of moral training as well as intellectual in- 
 struction. (See Moral EmJCATlOlT, National 
 Education, and Public Schools.) 
 
 While. every one must hope that the steadily 
 increasing diffusion of education will be found a 
 powerful aid in reducing the number of crimes, 
 all prison-reformers of the present day agree in 
 expecting a reformatory influence upon convicted 
 criminals through the means provided for their 
 instruction. The provisions made in this respect 
 in the United States are still inadequate; but 
 great progress has been made of late years. Li- 
 braries are common, 33 prisons in 1873 reporting 
 50,603 volumes, being an average of 1,535 to 
 each. In some prisons, the convicts have the 
 benefit of schools, individual instruction in their 
 cells, and lectures. Secular instruction is reg- 
 ularly afforded in the prisons of California, Illi- 
 nois, Indiana. Kansas. Kentucky, Massachusetts, 
 New York, New Hampshire, Oregon, Pennsyl- 
 vania, Rhode Island, and Wisconsin. In some 
 of these states, a school is held once a week ; in 
 others, two or five evenings a week. The prisons 
 of most European countries are also generally 
 provided with a school and a library. In the 
 so-called houses of correction, which are intended 
 for the treatment of those convicted of higher 
 offenses, the educational element naturally occu- 
 pies a more conspicuous place than in the state 
 prisons. Still more is this the case in the institu- 
 tions for the treatment of juvenile offenders. 
 (See Reform Schools.) 
 
 An important discovery recently made by sta- 
 tistical science, has sometimes been quoted against 
 those who hope that, as education increases, 
 crime will decrease. It has been found that in 
 the number of crimes committed in a country, 
 the annual reports exhibit the same regularity, 
 as in finances, commerce, and other departments 
 of civilized life ; and the inference has been 
 drawn from this fact, that, however valuable 
 education may be, no notable influence there- 
 from on the amount of crime need be expected ; 
 since that is unalterably fixed. This steadiness in 
 the amount of crime was observed by Madame 
 de Stael, and is made much of by Buckle, in his 
 History of Civilization. Statistically it was 
 proved bythe great Belgian statistician Quetelet, 
 who adduces an aiTay of figures, which appear 
 to render his position impregnable. Some have 
 
 garded this as a law of fatality: but Quetelet 
 himself states, that this apparently invariable 
 proportion depends upon the moral condition of 
 society, and, that if this be changed, the appa- 
 rency uniform proportion of crime will change in 
 
 the same degree. — See Animal Reports of the 
 l r . S. (hmiHissioner qf Education tor 1872,-3, 
 l: Alison. History qf Europe, from 1815 to 
 L851, vol. i., and Miscellaneous Essays, h. v. The 
 Future; Buckle, History qf Civilization in 
 EiKjhtud (London, 1857 — 61); Poktkr, T/ie 
 Progress of the Nation (Lond., 183(5 — 43) ; 
 Spencer, Social Statics (London, 1850) ; Quete- 
 let, La Statistique Month-, in vol. xxi. of Mem. 
 de I'Acad. de Belgique (Brussels, 1848). 
 
 CRUELTY (to Animals)'is a prevailing trait 
 in the characters of children who have not been 
 specially trained to habits of kind, considerate, 
 and humane feeling and conduct. The activity 
 of a child's nature, its love of sport, and its un- 
 developed sympathies predispose it to acts of in- 
 considerate cruelty. Thus, Locke remarks. "Some 
 children, when they have possession of any poor 
 creature, are apt to use it ill ; they often torment 
 and treat very roughly, young birds, butterflies, 
 and such other poor animals as fall into their 
 hands, and that with a seeming kind of pleasure. 
 This should be watched in them, and if they in- 
 cline to any such cruelty, they should be taught 
 the contrary usage, for the custom of tormenting 
 and killing beasts will by degrees harden their 
 minds even towards men ; and they who delight 
 in the suffering and destruction of inferior crea- 
 tures, will not be apt to be very complacent or 
 benign to those of their own kind." The neces- 
 sity of cultivating in children the spirit of 
 humanity, is inculcated by all who have written 
 on the subject of moral training. Says one, " I 
 am far from thinking that the early delight which 
 children discover in tormenting flies, etc., is a 
 mark of an innate cruelty of temper ; because 
 this turn may be accounted for upon other prin- 
 ciples. But most certainly, by being unrestrained 
 in sports of this kind, they may acquire by 
 habit what they never would have learned by 
 nature, and grow up in a confirmed inattention 
 to every kind of suffering but their own. Ac- 
 cordingly, the supreme court of judicature at 
 Athens thought an instance of this sort not be- 
 low its cognizance, and punished a boy for put- 
 ting out the eyes of a poor bird that had unhap- 
 pily fallen into his hands." Hogarth in the 
 series of paintings entitled Tlie Progress of 
 < hruetty, illustrates this vice in its several stages 
 of formation, the first picture showing children 
 engaged in various barbarous di versions. The 
 effect is heightened bythe contrast of a youth 
 who intercedes to prevent cruel outrage to a 
 poor dog, offering a book to the inhuman young 
 tyrant. To this picture the following lines are 
 annexed : — 
 
 What various scenes of cruel sport 
 Tlio infant race employ; 
 
 What future baseness, must import 
 The tyrant in the boy! 
 
 Behold a youth of gentler look ; 
 
 To save the creature's pain, 
 "O tal<e !" lie cries, "here take my book;" 
 
 But tears and book are vain. 
 
 Learn ficom this fair example, you 
 
 Whom Bavage sports delight, 
 Hew cruelty disgusts the view. 
 
 While pity charms the sight. 
 
196 
 
 CULTURE 
 
 All children are not equally addicted to such 
 cruel sports ; but perhaps, if we exclude certain 
 extreme and abnormal cases, it may be said, that 
 this inclination is found to exist in youths whose 
 fearless courage, resolution, and activity, if prop- 
 erly trained, would make them exceedingly use- 
 ful, if not illustrious, in after life. The genus 
 of glory or of infamy exist in the mind of the 
 young child; and, doubtless, in many cases, are 
 precisely the same, expanding into one or the 
 other according to the circumstances by which 
 they are fostered. "It would be curious." says 
 a celebrated writer, " to trace the human mind 
 either to the perfection of greatness or to the 
 completion of crime; to trace the hero from his 
 
 !>lay at 'prisoner's base, where he domineered over 
 hs schoolmates, to the battle by which he gains 
 or loses an empire— the murderer from spinning 
 a cock-chafer, or taking a bird's nest, to the mo- 
 ment when his hand is dyed in the blood of the 
 heart he has stabbed, or the throat he has cut." 
 
 The need of specially educating the sympa- 
 thetic affections in order to counteract this strong 
 tendency in youthful minds, is t bus clearly shown, 
 and many methods of accomplishing this result 
 are suggested by educators. Habitual training, 
 not mere precepts, can alone effect this. Locke 
 points out a number of ways of instilling such 
 habits ; such as accustoming children to be gentle 
 and considerate to their pets, to be kind to each 
 other, and to treat servants and dependents with 
 civility and consideration. "Children." says he, 
 "should be accustomed from their cradles to lie 
 tender to all sensible creatures, and to spoil and 
 waste nothing." Especially should they be cor- 
 rected in cruelly treating those animals whose ex- 
 ternal appearance is repugnant. " Children,"" 
 says Maria Edgeworth," should not be taught to 
 confine their benevolence to those animals which 
 are thought beautiful ; the fear and disgust 
 which we express at the sight of certain unfori - 
 unate animals, whom we are pleased to call ugly 
 and shocking, are observed by children, and 
 these associations lead to cruelty." Another 
 writer, in this connection, remarks. " It might be 
 of service in order to awaken, as early as possible, 
 in children an extensive sense of humanity, to 
 give them a view of several sorts of insects, as 
 they may be magnified by the assistance of 
 glasses, and to show them that the same evident 
 marks of wisdom and goodness prevail in the 
 formation of the minutest insect, as in that of 
 the most enormous leviathan." In the same 
 spirit are the strong lines of Cowper : — 
 
 Ye, therefore, who Love mercy, teach your sons 
 Tolovi It too. The sprin^-timo of our years 
 In Boon dishonored and defiled In most 
 By building ills, that .-isU a prudent hand 
 To i bed them. But, alas ! none Booner shoots, 
 If unrestrained, into luxuriant growth, 
 Than Cruelty, most dev'lish of them all. 
 (See -Moi: \i. Edi LTION.) 
 
 CULTURE, a term used to denote the im- 
 provement of the human character by means of 
 discipline, training, or self-exertion. It is used 
 in both an active and a passive sense; in the 
 former, implying the use of all necessary means 
 and agencies to cultivate the human faculties, 
 
 and in the latter, the result of their operation. 
 ! 'ulture comprehends both development and re- 
 finement; that is. not simply bringing into 
 active exercise the latent powers of the mind or 
 1 « ii ly, but adding thereto a nice and careful dis- 
 crimination as to their proper or improper ex- 
 ercise, with a due regard to the circumstances 
 which require their employment. Thus a man 
 of culture not only is able to express his thoughts 
 in suitable and impressive language, but knows 
 how to adapt his language to the persons, the 
 place, and the occasions winch caD for this ex- 
 pression ; nor does he give utterance to his 
 thoughts except when it is proper to do so. 
 Hence, culture, in its mature stage, not only im- 
 plies power, but restraint, both belonging to the 
 inner nature of the individual. There are as 
 many kinds of culture as there are departments 
 of human nature, or special faculties, to be cul- 
 tivated and improved. Thus, culture may be 
 I ihysieal, intellect via 1. nu >ral. si liritual. and esthetic, 
 according as its scope is the improvement of 
 the powers and susceptibilities of the body, the 
 intellect, the moral sentiments, the soul, or the 
 taste. General culture implies that everything 
 constituting the character of the individual has 
 been brought to as high a degree of improvement 
 as is possible. Special culture has reference to 
 a particular department of human nature, or to 
 the development of power in a certain direction. 
 Thus, the culture of the poet, the painter, the 
 orator, the teacher, the lawyer, or the clergyman 
 is special, developing faculties needed in the par- 
 ticular vocation of each. Special culture, how- 
 ever, does not exclude general culture ; for no 
 man need be merely a practitioner, or worker in 
 any narrow sphere of effort. The object of 
 higher education is to give this general culture 
 as a basis for that which is necessarily special, or 
 technical. 
 
 The real instrumentality, in a certain sense 
 the only one, by which culture can be effected, is 
 self-exertion. None of the faculties, whether of 
 the spirit, mind, or body, can be cultivated ex- 
 cept by exercise. Thus a person can never learn 
 to compose by studying grammar and rhetoric, 
 nor to think and reason by committing to mem- 
 ory the rules of logic. If he would learn to 
 write, or to think and reason, he must write and 
 think and reason, on the same principle and in 
 the same w-ay as a perfon learns to swim, or a 
 child to walk. This exercise is the individual's own 
 work; but the exercise may be unsuitable and 
 injurious, and, therefore, needs, at first, the care- 
 ful guidance of experience. Hence, the need of 
 an educator, until the individual has acquired 
 suiliciciit knowledge and experience indirect the 
 
 exercise himself. This shows the relation of 
 
 education and culture, the one being the handmaid 
 of the other. The instruments of culture vary 
 with its special scope. For those of physical 
 
 Culture, we must learn what a knowledge of 
 
 physiology and experience in gymnastics dictate; 
 
 those of intellectual culture can be judiciously 
 selected only by studying the laws which regulate 
 the operations of the mind. But we are par- 
 
 
OU MBERLA NT) r \ I V ERSITY 
 
 CURTIS 
 
 197 
 
 ticularly to be on our guard in supposing that 
 intellectual culture can spring from the mere 
 study of other persons' ideas. True culture of 
 this kind can alone come from (I) a patient, 
 laborious, and diligent acquisition of ideas of our 
 own, by observation and reflection; and (2) the 
 study of the experience of other minds, and its 
 verification, as tar as possible, by that of our 
 own. "The original and proper sources of 
 knowledge," says Professor Blackie, "are not 
 In inks, but life, experience, personal thinking, 
 feeling, and acting." And again, "All knowl- 
 edge which comes from books comes indirectly, 
 by reflect ion. and by echo; true knowledge 
 grows from a living root in the thinking soul: 
 and whatever it may appropriate from without, 
 it takes by living assimilation into a Living or- 
 ganism, not by mere borrowing." (See Self- 
 Gutture, Edinburgh, ls"5.) This is simply an 
 emphatic and illustrative expansion of the gen- 
 eral principle above stated ; namely, that to cul- 
 tivate our faculties, we must properly exercise 
 them. No moral culture can be secured by the 
 study of ethics ; legitimate objects for the exer- 
 cise of the moral feelings must be sought for and 
 discovered; and. more especially, the will must 
 be trained so that it will obey the voice of rea- 
 son and conscience, even amid the mightiest 
 tempest of passion and desire. Related to this. 
 is the culture of the soul — a culture which is 
 paramount to all, and to which every other spe- 
 cies of culture is subservient ; and just as one 
 can learn to walk only by walking, to think only 
 by thinking, and to live nobly only by acting 
 nobly on every occasion, so one can only advance 
 in spiritual culture by communing, by prayer 
 and contemplation, with the Great Spirit, the 
 Father of mankind, and the Creator of the uni- 
 verse. True Christian culture comprehends the 
 development of a capacity to do right, and to be 
 right, in every relation which we bear to each 
 other, and to our .Maker, simply by applying the 
 general principle herein enunciated, of active 
 beneficence, based upon the simplest principles 
 of moral and religious truth. (See Education.) 
 CUMBERLAND UNIVERSITY, at Leb- 
 anon, Tenn., was founded by the Cumberland 
 Presbyterian Church in L842. The value of its 
 buildings and grounds is $20,000. The institution 
 comprises a business college and telegraph insti- 
 tute (at Nashville) ; a preparatory school ; a col- 
 legiate department, with a classical course of 
 four years, leading to the degree of Bachelor of 
 Arts, and a scientific course of three years, lead- 
 ing to the degree of Bachelor of Science; a 
 Bchool of civil engineering with a two years' course, 
 leading to the degree of Civil Engineer; a law 
 .'■school : and a theological school. The degrees of 
 Master of Arts and Doctor of Philosophy are 
 conferred upon graduates who pursue prescribed 
 post-graduate courses of study. A plan has been 
 adopted, by which non-resident students, through 
 a system of correspondence and examinations, 
 may receive the benefits of the college courses. 
 In L874 — ">, there were 13 instructors and 391 
 students (deducting repetitions) ; namely, com- 
 
 mercial. 127; telegraphic. 38; preparatory, (if, ; 
 collegiate, 85; law, 70 ; theological, 28. The 
 university library contains about 7,000 volumes. 
 The presidents have been as follows : F. If. Cos- 
 sitt, I). I).. L842— 4; J. C. Anderson, l>. I».. 
 L844— 1866; B. W. McDonald, D. D„ LL D., 
 L867— 1872; Nathan Green, A. M.. L. B. 
 (chancellor), the present incumbent, appointed 
 in 1872 . 
 
 CURIOSITY, or the desire to know, is a 
 very important clement of the mind, in its rela- 
 tion to education. The basis of the success of 
 the teacher is the attention of the pupil; and 
 while many instructors may appeal to the sense 
 of fear to compel attention, he only can make a 
 beneficial and lasting impression upon the learn- 
 er's mind, who arouses his attention by awaken- 
 ing a genuine interest in the thing to be learned; 
 that is, by stimulating his curiosity to know that 
 of which lie has become sensible that he is ig- 
 norant. This feeling is natural to children, as 
 being the active principle of their minds. Nature 
 has implanted it for many and wise reasons ; 
 and, therefore, it should not be repressed, but, 
 on the contrary, should be stimulated and en- 
 couraged. This is strongly enjoined by Locke, 
 in Tliomjlils an Education. "As children,'' he 
 says, "should never be heard when they speak for 
 any particular thing they worrld have, unless it 
 first be proposed to them, so they should always 
 be heard, and fairly arrd kindly answered, when 
 they ask about anything they would know arrd 
 desire to be informed about. Curiosity should 
 be as carefully cherished in children, as other- 
 appetites suppressed. - ' Many educators, both 
 parents and teachers, often err in frowning upon 
 children for asking questions, and thus, especially 
 in the case of those who are timid and diffident, 
 seriously impair a mental activity which could 
 have been made an important means of edu- 
 cation. Of course, curiosity should not be allowed 
 to degenerate into inquisitiveness or forward- 
 ness ; but should be kept within its natural and 
 proper limits : that is. as Locke says. " whenever 
 reason would speak, it should be hearkened to." 
 
 CURRICULUM. See Course ok Instruc- 
 tion. 
 
 CURTIS, Joseph, a distinguished friend of 
 education in the city of New York, was born in 
 Newtown, Ct., in 1T82, and died in New 
 York, April 12., 1856. He became a resident 
 of that city at the age of 16, arrd early mani- 
 fested a dispositiorr for active beneficence. He 
 served for several years as the secretary of the 
 Society for the Prevention of Pauperism, and 
 was active in all the public charities of the day. 
 As a member of the Manumission Society, he 
 ardently cooperated with Peter A. day. Cadwal- 
 lader ('olden. Isaac M. Kly, and others in secur- 
 ing the state act of manumission, which was 
 passed in 1817; and he was afterward one of 
 the leading spirits in establishing the New York 
 House of Refuge, of which he took charge for 
 about a year-, thus initiating the then novel en- 
 terprise of attempting to reform juvenile delin- 
 quents (Us2.">). Crevious to this, in 1820, he 
 
198 
 
 CT'RTIUS 
 
 DAKOTA 
 
 was instnimental in opening, at Flatbush, L. I., 
 the first Sunday-school for free blacks. Mr. 
 ( 'urtis was also one of the founders of the Pub- 
 lic School Society of the city of New York, of 
 which he continued to be ;nt active and devoted 
 member until its dissolution in 1853, when he 
 was chosen one of the fifteen members of that 
 society who, for a time, were to represent it in 
 the Board of Education. He had been a diligent 
 and sagacious business man. and always eminently 
 practical; but he suffered great losses through the 
 effects of the war of 1 sl'2 — 15. Few lives have 
 been marked so deeply and constantly with deeds 
 of genuine philanthropy and Belf-sacrificing 
 benevolence, as was that of Joseph < 'urtis. not 
 onlj in his public life, but in the inner circle of 
 domestic privacy. — See \V. ( >. Boi bne, History 
 of the Public School Society (N. V.. 1870); 
 It. K. Pbiece, A Half Century with Juvenih 
 Delinquents (N. V.. 1869); Barnard's Journal 
 of Education, vol. i.: < '. .M. Sedgwick, Memoir 
 of Joseph Curtis, a Model Man i \. Y., 1858). 
 
 CTJRTIUS, George, a German philologist 
 and author of school hooks, was horn at Liiheck. 
 
 in L820,and studied philologyal the universities 
 of Berlin and Bonn. In L842, he was appointed 
 teacher at Blochmann's Institute (see Bloch- 
 manm at Dresden; in L845, he became lecturer 
 
 at the university of Berlin ; in 1849, extraordi- 
 
 nary, and in 1851, ordinary professor at the uni- 
 versity of Prague ; in ls.">4. professor in Kiel; and 
 in 1 S62, professor in Leipsic, where he also be- 
 came one of the directors of the philological 
 seminary. Curtius endeavored to use the results 
 of comparative linguistics to a larger extent than 
 had previously been done in the study of Latin 
 and Greek, and was the first who wrote a gram- 
 mar of the (neck language for schools from thi> 
 stand-point. This work {(.rru'diiscltr Si-huhp'tim- 
 maiik, Prague, L s ">2 : 11th edit.. 1875), is re- 
 garded as one of the best text-books in the prov- 
 ince of the classical languages, and has not only 
 been extensively introduced into the German 
 
 gymnasiums, but has been translated into many 
 foreign languages. The principles which are 
 carried out in this book, are elucidated in a spe- 
 cial work, called Erlduterungen zu meiner grie- 
 chischen Schulgrammaiik (2d ed.. Prague. L870), 
 and in many essays of his Studien zur lateini- 
 schen und griechischen Grammatik (8 vols., 
 Leips., 1808 — 75). In another work. Grundziige 
 der griechischen Etymologie (2 vols.. 4th ed., 
 Leips., L873), he undertook to find a strictly 
 scientific basis for < bvek Lexicography. He also 
 wrote Zur Chronologie der i?idogerrnanischen 
 Sprachforschung (2ded., Leips., 1873), and Das 
 Verbum der griechischen Sprache (1st vol., 
 Leips., 1873). 
 
 DACIER, Andre, a noted French scholar, 
 born at Oastres in 1651, died in Paris, in 1 7212. 
 He published translations of several classic 
 authors, among them, Plutarch's Lirrs. Aris- 
 totle's Poetics, the (Ed i pus and Electra of 
 Sophocles, the works of Horace, and some of 
 Plato's dialogues. He was one of the 39 schol- 
 ars selected to edit the celebrated series of the 
 classics i« usum delphini, prepared by order of 
 I. oiiis XI V.. for the instruction of the dauphin. 
 To this scries he contributed an edition of Pom- 
 ponitis Pestus and of Valerius Placcus. llewas 
 appointed keeper of the library of the Louvre; 
 and. iii L 7 13, became perpetual secretary of the 
 I Vendi Academy. 
 
 DACIER, Anne, wife of Andre Dacier.and 
 illustrious for her extraordinary attainments in 
 classical (especially Greek) scholarship, was born 
 in L 654, and died in 1 7*Jo. Her father was the 
 
 eminent scholar Tanneguy-I A'fevre, by whom she 
 
 was educated. Her marriage. in L683, to Andre 
 Dacier, who had been her fellow-pupil under her 
 lather's instruction, was humorously styled the 
 "mania-cut Greek and Latin." She, with her 
 husband, assisted in preparing classics for the use 
 of the dauphin, contributing editions of Floras, 
 
 KutropiuS, \ melius V ictor, and s< >uic others. She 
 
 published also translations of some of the plays 
 of Plautus and Terence. Homer, Aristophanes, 
 etc. In profound and accurate scholarship, and 
 acuteness of mind, she is generally thought to 
 
 have excelled her h ,IIM«' I llUshalld. 
 
 DACTYLOLOGY (Gr. S&ktuKoc, a finger), 
 a method of communicating ideas by means of 
 signs made with the fingers, composing what is 
 called the manual or finger alphabet, and em- 
 ployed by the deaf and dumb. There are two 
 alphabets of this kind: (1) the single-band al- 
 phabet, the origin of which dates back to Bonet 
 (q. v.), and which is used every-where except in 
 • beat Britain, and is gaining ground there; and 
 (2) the two hand alphabet, which was originally 
 invented by I'algarno (<]. v.). The former Off 
 
 these alphabets was brought to a high degree of 
 perfection by the abbe de I'Epee and the abbe 
 Sicard (q. v.). (See Deaf-Mdtes, and Pkk.t. 
 IIakvkv P.) 
 
 DAKOTA was organized as a territory 
 March '_'.. L861, being formed from the terri- 
 tories of Minnesota and Nebraska. In L868, a 
 portion of the extensive territory of Dakota was 
 taken to form the territory of Wyoming. All 
 this region originally formed a part of Louisiana. 
 
 purchased from Prance in L803. According to 
 
 the census of L870, the area of Dakota comprises 
 1 .">(). 932 square miles: and its population, at 
 that time, was L4,181. The first permanent 
 white settlements were made in L859, in what 
 
 are now the counties of Yankton, ('lay. and 
 
 Union; but there was but little immigration 
 
 into the territory until L866, 
 
 Educational History. The first legislature 
 
 met in March. 1862; but DO School law was en- 
 acted until L867, when an act was passed by the 
 
DAKOTA 
 
 103 
 
 territorial assembly, providing for the appoint- 
 ment of a superintendent of public instruction, 
 county superintendents, district directors, and 
 hoards of Bchool trustees. This law was ap- 
 proved Jan. ;{.. L868. In L869, another law was 
 passed, which directed the election of a territo- 
 rial superintendent, who should report annually 
 to the legislature, and county superintendents, 
 who were to report annually by the loth of 
 November. The immediate government of the 
 Behool-district was intrusted to a district hoard. 
 composed of a director, a clerk, and a treasurer. 
 
 Annual school meetings were to be held in each 
 
 district on the last Saturday in March. The 
 district clerk made the annual enumeration of 
 
 children; and no district that had not maintained 
 a school three months during the year, was en- 
 titled to any portion of the school fund. Politics 
 and sectarianism were excluded from the schools. 
 In 1870, a genera] improvement in the schools, 
 and an increase in attendance, were remarked ; 
 the number of children receiving instruction be- 
 ing 1.1 11. out of a population of 14,181, and the 
 tries of teachers ranging from $25 to $100 per 
 month, .Much trouble, however, was caused by 
 the want of uniformity in text-books. In 1871, 
 the school law was repealed, and a new one en- 
 acted. In 1873, this was amended, the number of 
 schools iu the territory at that time being, by an 
 approximate estimate, 100, and the number of 
 children of school age being 5,31 2. of whom 2,006 
 were reported as enrolled in the schools. About 
 $22,000 were raised that year for school pur- 
 poses. The territorial superintendents have been, 
 James S. Foster, 1869 — 71; J. M. Turner, 1871 
 —3; E. W. Miller, 1873—5; and J. J. Mcln- 
 tyre. elected in 1875, and still in office (1876). 
 
 School System. — The principal school officer 
 under the present law is the superintendent of 
 public instruction, who is elected biennially. He 
 is permitted to choose a deputy who must reside 
 in that portion of the territory north of the 46th 
 parallel of latitude. His duties are to exercise 
 a general supervision over the schools, and to 
 hold, in connection with the county superin- 
 tendents, annual teachers' institutes, attendance 
 upon which is expected from all teachers ap- 
 plying for certificates. To defray partially the 
 expenses of these institutes, the sum of $100 is 
 appropriated from the treasury. The territorial 
 superintendent, also, grants teachers' certificates, 
 fixes the grades of county certificates, prescribes 
 the text-books to be used in the schools, and 
 makes an annual report to the governor. < 'ounty 
 superintendents are elected by the people bien- 
 nially. They divide their counties into school- 
 districts, examine teachers, grant certificates valid 
 for 3 months or a year, apportion the school 
 moneys, and report annually to the territorial 
 superintendent. District-school boards, com- 
 posed of three officers, a director, a clerk, and a 
 treasurer, are elected annually. Deriving their au- 
 thority directly from the people of the district by 
 vote at the annual meetings, their power, within 
 the law, i> supreme in everj thing that relates to 
 the building, purchasing, or renting of school- 
 
 houses, the supply of furniture or apparatus, the 
 employment oil teachers, or the direct govern? 
 ment of the schools of their districts. They are 
 authorized to send scholars from their own dis- 
 tricts to the graded or high schools of other dis- 
 tricts within a reasonable distance, the tuition fee 
 for which may be paid from the teachers' fund. 
 The voters at the annual meeting, or at a special 
 
 meeting called for the purpose, prescribe the 
 
 lengl li of time the s< hools shall be k( | it open each 
 year, and specify whether their portion of the 
 school fund shall lie applied to the support of 
 summer Or winter schools. No district is entitled 
 to any portion of the public fund unless it shall 
 have forwarded to the county superintendent its 
 annual report, within 40 days of the time speci- 
 fied for holding the annual meeting, nor unless 
 it shall have kept open a school for 3 months 
 during the previous year. Each district may 
 raise annually by tax on taxable property a sum 
 for school purposes, not to exceed one per cent of 
 the valuation. County or town assessors are 
 directed to tax every voter $1 annually for the 
 support of the schools, to which is added an ad- 
 ditional tax of 2 mills on the dollar. The schools 
 are free to all children between the ages of 5 and 
 21 years, and the number of such children in 
 each district is made the basis for the apportion- 
 ment of the school fund. 
 
 Educational Condi lion. — The number of or- 
 ganized school districts, in 1875, was 2!)6 ; the 
 number of schools, 172. The school revenue was 
 as follows : 
 
 From county tax $13,138.41 
 
 " district tax 15,512.49 
 
 " other sources . . 3,952.23 
 
 Total $32,603.13 
 
 The expenditures were as follows : 
 
 For teachers' wages $18,045.88 
 
 " buildings, repairs, rent, etc. 9,985.01 
 " incidentals and furniture. . . 4,572.26 
 
 Total $32,603.13 
 
 The following are the principal items of school 
 statistics for 1H75: 
 
 Number of children of school age (5 to 21 years) 8,343 
 
 " " enrolled in the schools 4,428 
 
 Number of teachers, both sexes 208 
 
 Normal Instruction. — No school has yet been 
 estabbshed for the training of teachers, the 
 sparseness of the population not permitting 
 it. An annual teachers' institute, however, 
 is held, the legal session of winch is 10 days. 
 Four such institutes have, thus far, been con- 
 vened, with a general attendance, on the part of 
 the teachers of the territory. 
 
 The provisions made in Dakota for any thing 
 further than elementary instruction are, of course, 
 very limited, the smallnessof the population rend- 
 ering all attempts in this direction, up to the 
 present time, premature. Writing in 1876, the 
 territorial superintendent says: "We have no 
 regularly formed school associations, except in 
 si Hue of the older counties, which are beginning 
 to organize county teachers' associations." The 
 only school of a higher grade than elementary, 
 is an academy at Yankton. 
 
200 
 
 DAI.C ARXO 
 
 DAME SCHOOLS 
 
 DALGAENO, George, an ingenious Brit- 
 ish scholar, teacher, and writer, chiefly noted for 
 his publications on the art of teaching deaf- 
 mutes, lie was born at Aberdeen about 1627, 
 and died at Oxford in L687. He was educated 
 at the university of Aberdeen, and subsequently 
 taught a school at Oxford for about 30 years. 
 His two celebrated publications are Ars Signo- 
 rum, vulgo Character Universalis et Lingua 
 PhUosophica (London, L661), and Didascah- 
 cophus,ot The Deaf-Mute's Tutor (Oxford, 1 081). 
 The former of these was an ingenious attempt to 
 construct a system for representing ideas by ar- 
 bitrary signs, and presents a very full and quite 
 accurate exposition of the principles of deaf- 
 mute instruction ; the latter work was designed 
 "to bring the way of teaching a deaf man to 
 read and write, as near as possible to that of 
 teaching young ones to speak and understand 
 their mother-tongue." I >algarno also invented a 
 two-hand alphabet, from which the one subse- 
 quently adopted in England appears to have 
 been derived. His collected works were re- 
 printed in 1 vol. -Ito, in Edinburgh (1834). — 
 See Chambers, Biographical Dictionary of 
 Eminent Scotsmen ; Edinburgh Review (July, 
 1835); Annals of the Deof and Dumb, vol. ex., 
 in which Didascalocophus is reprinted. 
 
 DAME SCHOOLS, the uame given in Eng- 
 land to small elementary private schools kept by 
 women, and attended by young children, both 
 boys and girls. Schools of this kind formerly 
 abounded, every village and hamlet having its 
 dame school. Shenstone in the School-mistress 
 gives a probably correct, although satirical de- 
 scription of such a school and of the dame that 
 presided over it. 
 
 "In every village marked with little spire, 
 
 Embowered In trees, and hardly known to fame, 
 There dwells, in lowly shed, and mean attire, 
 
 A matron old, whom we school-mistress name; 
 Who boasts unruly brats with birch to tame: 
 
 They grieven sore, in piteous durance pent. 
 Awed by the power of this relentless dame; 
 
 Ami oftentimes, on vagaries idly bent, 
 For unkempt hair, or task um-onned, are sorely shent." 
 
 Although, owing to the present ample provi- 
 sion, in England, for better instruction through 
 
 the national schools, the need of dame schools no 
 longer exists, yet they still linger in large num- 
 bers, and obstruct the proper working of the 
 Education Act. In theSchool Board Chronicle 
 
 of Feb. (I., L875, there is the following suggestive 
 
 complain! : " It is within the power of a few il- 
 literate old people to set the elementary educa- 
 tion act at QOUght,by giving the name of schools 
 to the miserable places in which it is their mis- 
 fortune to dwell, and professing to impart in- 
 struction to children whose parents are desirous 
 of evading the school board's by-laws." This 
 would seem to confirm the descriptions of these 
 schools given by Dickens in some of his novels. 
 of which the following is a specimen : "The pu- 
 pils ate apples, and put straws down one an- 
 other's backs, until Mr. Wbpsle's great aunt [the 
 school-mistress, or dame] collected her energies, 
 
 and made an indiscriminate totter at them with 
 
 a birch rod. A tier receiving the charge with 
 
 every form of derision, the pupils formed in line-, 
 and buzzingly passed a ragged book from hand 
 to hand. The book had an alphabet in it. some 
 figures and tables, and a little spelling; that is 
 to say — it had once. " This description gives an 
 idea of the interior of one of these schools, and 
 the following, from (rood Words, is intended to 
 represent the exterior : 
 
 •■ The less pretentious kind of Dame's School chiefly 
 differs from the brass-plate kind in that it is less pre- 
 tentious, otherwise they are pretty equal in their in- 
 efficiency. The mistress of the humbler school is not 
 called a governess, but "the missis," or "the old lady." 
 The missis not uiifrequently keeps a shop as well as a 
 school : the scrawl announcing that a school is "kept 
 here," appearing in the window in conjunction with a 
 pair of crossed " church-warden pipes," a couple of 
 bottles of sweets, half a dozen high-dried herrings, 
 and a box id' such sundries as thread, tape, and stay- 
 laces, and her school is supported on the same ground 
 as her shop— because it is " close handy." Their 
 "handiness" is the strong point of these schools; if 
 they ceased to be handy they might as well takedown 
 their banner, and close their doors. Hence it comes 
 that one or more of them is to be found in almost every 
 street, of quarters inhabited by the industrious poor. 
 The mothers in such quarters will tell you that they 
 are glad to be rid of their children tor a few hoars in 
 the day, and thankful to have a place to send them to, 
 where they will be out of danger and out of mischief. 
 So they "pack them oil'" to the old holy's." 
 
 The existence of dame schools in England has 
 recently been much complained of. inasmuch as 
 parents can comply with the compulsory attend- 
 ance law . or evade it.^ penalties, by sending their 
 children irregularly to these schools; and large 
 numbers of them (sometimes called private ad- 
 venture schools) have sprung up, within the last 
 two or three years, tor that express purpose. The 
 evil is difficult to control without more stringenl 
 penal legislation than public opinion in England 
 is, as yet. fully prepared for. 
 
 In the United Slates, the country district 
 schools are generally taught by young' women ; 
 but the law requires that they should be regu- 
 larly certificated teachers. To one such the 
 beautiful lines of Longfellow probably refer. 
 which may. with interest, be contrasted with 
 Shenstone's quaint description of the school 
 dame of his time. 
 
 "She dwells by e;reat Kanhawa's side, 
 
 in valleys green and cool, 
 And all her hope and all ber pride 
 
 Are in her village school. 
 
 Her soul, like the transparent air 
 
 That robes the lulls above, 
 Though not of earth, encircles there 
 
 All things with arms of love. 
 
 And thus she walks amid her airls. 
 
 With praise and mild rebukes ; 
 
 Subduing e'en rude \ lllage churls, 
 
 Bj her angl lie looks." 
 
 Some of the private or ■•select" schools of the 
 in ies answer, to a certain extent, to the English 
 dame schools, but are of much higher grade of 
 efficiency. There is no doubt that, as education 
 becomes more diffused among all classes of so- 
 ciety in England, the possibility of •• illiterate old 
 people" keeping a school with the chance of ob- 
 taining any patronage whatever, will become en- 
 tirely a thing of the past. 
 
DANA 
 
 DANCING 
 
 201 
 
 DANA, James Dwight, an eminent Amer- 
 ican scientist, teacher, and author, born at CJtica, 
 N. V.. in 1813. He was educated at Y ale Col- 
 lege, where he afterward served as an assistant 
 tii Professor Silliman, and subsequently (1855) 
 succeeded him as professor of chemistry. He 
 published several works of importance in the de- 
 partments of natural history, geology, and min- 
 eralogy. His school text-books have been ex- 
 tensively used : among which maybe particular- 
 ly mentioned his System of Mineralogy, ">th ed. 
 (1858), and M,niti<d of Geology (1863). Since 
 1846, he has been one of the editors of the 
 American Journal of Science and Arts, founded 
 in 1819, by the elder Silliman. 
 
 DANCING, and Dancing- Schools. Dan- 
 cing, as a means of expressing by movements 
 and gestures of the body the emotions of the 
 mind, is found among all the nations of the 
 earth. In the Old Testament, the fiance is spoken 
 of universally as symbolical of rejoicing, and is 
 often coupled, for the sake of contrast, with 
 mourning. Sacred dances were performed on 
 the solemn anniversaries of the .lews, the per- 
 formers usually being a band of females who 
 volunteered their services, although there are 
 not wanting instances also of men's joining in the 
 dance on these seasons of religious festivity. King 
 David danced on the auspicious occasion of the 
 ark*s being brought up to Jerusalem; and his 
 example was imitated by the later Jews, who in- 
 corporated the dance with their favorite usages, 
 as an appropriate close of the joyous occasion of 
 the feast of the Tabernacles. The members of 
 the Sanhedrim, the rulers of the synagogues, 
 doctors of schools, and all who were eminent for 
 rank or piety, accompanied the sacred music 
 with their voices, and leaped and danced with 
 torches in their hands for a great part of the 
 night, while the women and common people 
 
 I n »ked on. The Jewish dance was performed by 
 the sexes separately. There is no evidence that 
 the diversion was promiscuously enjoyed, except 
 perhaps at the erection of a deified calf, when, 
 in imitation of the Egyptian festival of Apis, all 
 classes of the Hebrews intermingled in the frantic 
 revelry. Among the Egyptians, dancing formed 
 a part of the religious ceremonies, and was also 
 common in private entertainments. In Greece, 
 the gods themselves were represented as pas- 
 sionately fond of the diversion ; and in the 
 
 I I unan empire, it was a favorite pastime, resorted 
 to not only to enliven feasts but in the celebra- 
 tion of domestic joy. It was, however, con- 
 sidered beneath the dignity of persons of rank 
 and character to practice it. Under the patron- 
 age of the Roman emperors, the art was carried 
 to the utmost perfection ; the favorite mode be- 
 ing that of pantomime, which, like that of the 
 modern ahnehs,or Arab dancing women, was often 
 of the most licentious description. In the early 
 Christian church, the dance was introduced on 
 the festival days of martyrs and other saints, as 
 well as on occasions of great ecclesiastical solem- 
 nities. Subserpiently, dances connected with 
 masquerades became a universal habit in the 
 
 Roman Catholic world at Shrovetide, on the 
 day of St. Y it ns (hence the name of St. Vitus's 
 dance), and on thai of Corpus Christi; and the 
 "Jumping Procession" at Echternach, in the 
 
 grand duchy of Luxemburg, which was instituted 
 in honor ot the cessation of the St.Y it ns's dance, 
 
 and w Inch consists in all the participants' jumping 
 
 two steps forward and one step backward, is still 
 celebrated with great solemnities, and attended 
 by large crowds of devout people. In all the 
 Christian churches of Germany, there was, in 
 early times, an elevated portion, which was sepa- 
 rated from the other parts of the churches and 
 called cJ/or (from the (.'reek ,i "/<<"/. dance or dan- 
 cing place, English, choir). Upon this the priests 
 danced every Sunday and festive day. Every 
 church festival had its own peculiar dances; and, 
 on the vigils, the most zealous and virtuous 
 ( hi istians assembled, during the night, before 
 the doors of the churches, for singing and dan- 
 cing. Thus, like other arts, dancing was long an 
 art chiefly in the service of religion. This char- 
 acter it has now lost almost entirely ; but a few 
 small sects in the United States, like the Shakers 
 and Rappites, still observe it as part of their 
 religious worship. 
 
 In proportion as dancing became disconnected 
 from the church and religion, it assumed greater 
 prominence as a social enjoyment, both in the 
 family life and at great popular festivals. At 
 court celebrations, spring and fall festivals, har- 
 vest homes, and especially wedding-feasts, dancing 
 came to be looked upon as an indispensable part 
 of social enjoyment; and peculiar kinds of dances, 
 as the ballet, were introduced into the theaters. 
 Every country, and almost every province, pro- 
 duced its own national dance, reflecting and 
 representing the character of the people. In all 
 these dances, two elements may be observed, the 
 social and the artistic. The latter has attracted 
 the interest of many educational writers who have 
 viewed dancing as a gymnastic exercise especially 
 suited for promoting graceful manners and devel- 
 oping the sense of the beautiful. (See Calis- 
 thenics.) It is, however, chiefly the element of 
 sensuous enjoyment which has given to dancing 
 the prominent position which it holds at present 
 among popular amusements. r ihe characteristic 
 feature to which it owes this prominence, and 
 which, more than anything else, distinguishes it 
 from the dancing of the ancient world, is the 
 participation in its performance of persons of 
 both sexes. Among all classes of society, the 
 dance has thus become the means of affording 
 an occasion to the sexes of forming an acquaint- 
 ance with each other ; and. hence, except when 
 properly restricted, has been viewed as a prolific 
 source of moral danger and excess. Religious 
 writers of all denominations have accordingly 
 ried with each other in warning young persons 
 against the dangers of the ball; still there has 
 been considerable difference in the position 
 taken by different churches in regard to dancing 
 in general. Many of the Protestant churches 
 absolutely prohibii their members from dancing; 
 while the Roman Catholic Church has been less 
 
202 
 
 DARTMOUTH COLLEGE 
 
 strict in its denunciations, raising its warning 
 voice more against the abuses than against the 
 practice itself. 
 
 The prevalence of dancing as a social amuse- 
 ment and the esteem in which it is held as a part 
 
 of the sessary preparation for polite society, 
 
 naturally prompt all parents who have no re- 
 ligious or moral objection to the practice to have 
 their children, especially their daughters, in- 
 structed in (lancing. No provision has anywhere 
 been made for it in any public-school system ; 
 but, in private schools and boarding-schools, il 
 is quite common to tin<l that the prospectus in- 
 cludes dancing among the extras in which in- 
 struction may lie received. This is less frequently 
 the case in Protestant than in Catholic semi- 
 naries, and in American than in European 
 schools. The large majority of pupils, however, 
 who are instructed in dancing, receive their in- 
 struction in special dancing schools or academies. 
 the number of which is immense. It is a matter 
 of course that, as a general rule, this latter class 
 of schools cannot offer so good a supervision of. 
 its pupils as the former. See CzERWINSKI, Gre- 
 schichte der Tanzkunst (Leipsic, 1862). 
 
 DARTMOUTH COLLEGE, at Hanover. 
 New Hampshire, was chartered in L769. The 
 first class graduated in 1771. It originated in a 
 school for Indian youth established at Lebanon, 
 
 Connecticut, by the Rev. I>r. \\ Ik clock, the first 
 
 president, and was named after Lord Dartmouth, 
 who subscribed to a fund for the school. The 
 
 college is not by its charter under the control of 
 any religious denomination, but a large majority 
 
 of the trustees have usually been Orthodox Con- 
 
 -re-ationalists. The buildings front on a line 
 campus on an upland plain near the ( 'onnecticut 
 river. The institution has extensive philosophical 
 apparatus ; and an astronomical and meteorolog- 
 ical observatory, with a telescope, made by Clark, 
 of 9.4 inches aperture and 12 feet focal length; j 
 a museum of geology and natural history: a 
 chemical laboratory; and a gymnasium. The 
 libraries contain 53,900 volumes. It is supported 
 by tuition fees and the income of its endow- 
 ments, which, in all the departments, amount to 
 
 about 0525,000. The college comprises an aca- 
 demic department, the Chandler Scientific de- 
 partment, the New Hampshire college of Agri- 
 culture and the Mechanic Arts, the Thayer 
 
 .school of Civil Engineering, and a medical de- 
 partment. Funds have recently been given to 
 establish a law department. While the college 
 adheres, in general, to the idea of a settled and 
 
 well -balanced curriculum, it admits, to a certain 
 extent, the elective principle. (1) There is a 
 choice, as students enter, between the three UB- 
 
 der-graduate departments, — academic, scien- 
 tific, and agricultural (2) In each of these 
 
 departments, a partial course may he taken, em- 
 bracing two. at least, of the prescribed studies, 
 
 and securing an appropriate testimonial. (3) In 
 the scientific department, there is a choice in the 
 
 last year, and in the agricultural department in 
 the laSl tWO years, between different courses 
 
 i fhere are, also, a number of options between 
 
 particular studies. The course in the academic 
 department is one of four years, and leads to the 
 degree of Bachelor of Arts. The cost of tuition 
 is S!)(l a year. Aid is afforded to indigent stu- 
 dents chiefly in the form of scholarships, usually 
 yielding 070 per annum, but in some cases Slot). 
 Of these there are | 1876) more than 120. Tlie 
 Chandler Scientific Department was established 
 by a resolution of the trustees, in L852, in accep- 
 tance of the sum of 050,000, bequeathed to them 
 in trust by Abie! < 'handler for the establishment 
 and support of a permanent department or school 
 of instruction in the practical and useful arts of 
 life, comprised chiefly in the branches of mechan- 
 ics and civil engineering, architecture and draw- 
 ing, the modern languages and English literature, 
 together with book-keeping, &c. The course is 
 of four years, and leads to the degree of Bache- 
 lor of Science. In the last year, there are two 
 courses, — the general course and the civil en- 
 gineering course. The cost of tuition is 060 a 
 year. At the session of the legislature of New 
 Hampshire in L866, an act was passed establish- 
 ing the New Hampshire College of Agriculture 
 and the Mechanic Arts, on the basis of the con- 
 gressional laud grant, and authorizing its location 
 at Hanover, and its connection with Dartmouth 
 College. 
 
 The course of instruction embraces three 
 years. During the first year, all the students 
 pursue the same studies. At the beginning of 
 the second year, they are required to select either 
 the special course of agriculture or the course of 
 mechanic arts. The degree of Bachelor of Sci- 
 ence is conferred upon those who have completed 
 the entire course of agriculture or mechanic arts 
 and have passed the final examination. The cost 
 of tuition is £.'50 a year. There are twelve free 
 scholarships, covering the charge for tuition, 
 one for each senatorial district, established in 
 connection with the congressional grant. Several 
 scholarships have also been established by the 
 I Ion. John ( 'onant, one for each town in ( 'heshire 
 County. There are other scholarships available to 
 worthy applicants from any part of the state. 
 
 There is an experimental farm of L65 acres in 
 
 the immediate vicinity of the college buildings, 
 
 which furnishes opportunity to the students for 
 
 remunerative labor. The college has also re- 
 cently purchased 200 acres of woodland adjoin- 
 
 ing the farm. The Thayer School of Ci\il En- 
 gineering was established in 1 870, in pursuance 
 
 of a donation of 070,000 from the late Gen. Syl- 
 
 vanus Thayer, for the establishment of a special 
 
 course of instruction in civil engineering. It is 
 
 essentially, though not formally, postgraduate. 
 
 The course of study is of two years. The degree 
 of Civil Engineer is conferred on those whose pro- 
 ficiency is such as to secure a ivcominendat ion 
 from the board of overseers. The cost of tuition 
 is 060 a year. The medical department was 
 
 founded in 1797, and was formerly known as the 
 New Hampshire Medical College. It has mu- 
 seums of anatomy, materia medica, and pathol- 
 ogy. The degree of Doctor of Medicine is oon- 
 Pi ii.d after examination. Every candidate must 
 
 
dayidsox collkck 
 
 DEAF-MUTES 
 
 203 
 
 Number 
 
 of 
 
 Number of 
 
 ins true-tors. 
 
 students 
 
 17 
 
 
 284 
 
 17 
 
 
 76 
 
 14 
 
 
 29 
 
 3 
 
 
 6 
 
 9 
 
 
 84 
 
 in- twenty-one years of age. have attended two 
 full courses of lectures at some regularly author- 
 ised medical school, one of which must have 
 
 been at this institution, ami must give satisfac- 
 tory evidence thai he has devoted three full 
 years to his professional studies, under the direc- 
 tion of some regular practitioner, the time Bpenl 
 at lectures being included. There is a lecture 
 term as well as a recitation term. The fee for 
 lectures is S77. and for recitations S-10. Tin 1 
 statistics for 1ST.") — arc ;us follows : 
 
 Departments. 
 
 Academic 
 
 Scientific 
 
 Agricultural 
 Engineering 
 
 .Medical 
 
 Total (deducting repetitions) 35 479 
 
 According to the triennial catalogue of 1873, 
 the whole numberof alumni was 3,907. of whom 
 2,077 were living. The following is the list of 
 presidents : Eleazar Wheelock, D. I)., 1769 — 79; 
 John Wheelock, LL. I)., 1779 — 1815; Francis 
 Brown, D.D., 1815—20: Daniel Dana, D.D., 
 1820—21; Bennet Tyler, D. D., 1822— 28 ; Na- 
 than Lord. D.D.. LL. D., 1828—63; and Asa 
 D. Smith. D. D.. LL. D., the preseut inciuubeiit, 
 appointed in 1863. 
 
 In 1816, the state legislature vested the prop- 
 erty of the college in a new corporation, and 
 changed its title to Dartmouth University. This 
 act led to the famous Dartmouth College case, 
 in which Daniel Webster made his celebrated 
 argument before the Supreme Court of the 
 United States. That tribunal, in 1819, declared 
 the action of the legislature void, as being in 
 contravention of that clause of the constitution 
 which prohibits any state from passing laws im- 
 pairing the obligation of contracts. 
 
 DAVIDSON COLLEGE is situated in 
 Mecklenburg Co., N. C, on the line of the 
 Atlantic, Tennessee, and Ohio Railroad, twenty- 
 three miles north of Charlotte. The name 
 of the post-office is Davidson College. It was 
 chartered in 1838, and is under the control 
 of the Presbyterians. Its buildings contain spa- 
 cious chapels, society-halls, and lecture-rooms, to- 
 gether with pleasant dormitories sufficient for a 
 large number of students. Its libraries, cabinets, 
 and apparatus are well provided for, and are 
 constantly receiving accessions. The site of the 
 college and of the adjacent village is remarkably 
 healthy, being free from malaria and other local 
 causes of sickness. The value of its grounds, 
 buildings, aud apparatus is SI 50.000 ; the amount 
 of its productive funds. $85,000; of scholarship 
 funds, SI 0,000. The college year is divided into 
 two tenns, and the cost of tuition is $30 for the 
 first term, and Sin for the second. < andidates for 
 the ministry are not required to pay for tuition 
 while under the care of some Presbytery. The 
 college has a classical course of four years, lead- 
 ing to the degree of Bachelor of Arts, and a 
 scientific course of three years, leading to the de- 
 greed Uachelor of Science. Students not wish- 
 
 ing to take a regular course, but to acquire a 
 knowledge of particular branches are permitted 
 to do so at the discretion of the faculty. In 
 1ST.! ^4, there were six professors, one adjunct 
 professor. 1 17 students (classical. 9s ; scientific, 
 15; eclectic, I), 9,000 volumes in the libraries, 
 and 351 alumni. The presidents have been 
 as follows: the Rev. I!. II. Morrison. D. D., 
 1 years; the I lev. Saml. Williamson, D. 1)., 13 
 years ; the I lev. Drury Lacy, D. 1)., 6 years : the 
 Rev. J. L. ELirkpatrick, D. D., 6 years; the Rev. 
 O. W. Mcl'hail. D. D., LL. D.. 5 years. There 
 is now (lsT(i) no president, Prof. John R. Rlake, 
 M. A., having been chairman of the faculty 
 since 1871. 
 
 DAVIES, Charles, a noted American 
 mathematician and teacher, born at Washing- 
 ton, Ct., in 1798; died at Fishkill, X. V., in 
 1876. Lie graduated, in 1 815, at the West Point 
 Academy, and subsequently filled, in the same, 
 the positions of tutor, assistant professor, and 
 professor of mathematics, the latter from 1823 
 to 1837. He afterward occupied a similar position 
 iu Trinity College, J iartford, aud subsequently 
 in the University of the city of New York, and 
 in Columbia College, of the latter of which he 
 was made emeritus professor. Prof. Pavies was 
 chiefly known by his series of school and 
 college text-books in the various departments 
 of mathematical study, which have had a 
 wide circulation. He also published Logic 
 of Mathematics, and in connection with Prof, 
 (jr. W. Peck, a Mathematical Dictionary ami 
 Cyclopaedia of Mathematical Science (X. Y., 
 1855). 
 
 DAY, Jeremiah, a noted American edu- 
 cator and author, and the president of Yale Col- 
 lege from 1817 to 1846. He was born in New 
 Preston, Ct., Aug. 3., 1873, and died in New 
 Haven Aug. 22., 1867. His chief publications 
 were An Introduction to Algebra (1814), Men- 
 suration of Siqierficies and Solids (1814), Plane 
 Trigonometry (1815), and Navigation and Sur- 
 veying (1817); also .4// Inquiry on the Self-De- 
 termining Power of the Will, or Contingent 
 Vol il ion (1838), and An Examination of Presi- 
 dent Edwards's Inquiry as to the Freedom of 
 the 117//(IS41). President Day was a close and 
 vigorous thinker, and as a teacher was distin- 
 guished for the clearness and simplicity of his 
 methods of illustration. His kindness of heart 
 and urbanity of demeanor secured the respect of 
 all who knew him. both friends and pupils. An 
 address commemorative of his life and services, 
 was delivered in L867, by president Woolsey.his 
 successor in Yale College. 
 
 DEAF-MUTES, or Deaf and Dumb, a 
 class of persons, scattered throughout every na- 
 tion in a greater or less proportion, who cannot 
 lieai- the sound of the human voice, and, conse- 
 quently, lose that sympathetic association which 
 exists between the organs of hearing and speech, 
 so that the latter are rendered inactive. The 
 decennial enumerations of the United States and 
 Greal Britain, and the censuses of most of the 
 countries of continental Europe, have supplied 
 
204 
 
 DEAF-MUTES 
 
 statistical information as to the number of deaf- 
 mutes. The proportion to the population is 
 quite diverse, varying in Europe from ,1 in l.nno 
 to 1 in 2,000. In the United States, the average 
 proportion is 1 in 2380; while in England it is 
 about 1 in 2,000. Heme, it is obvious that the 
 actual number of the deaf and dumb is quite 
 large. According to the census of L870, the total 
 number in the United States was L6.205, of 
 
 whom 8,916 were males: and 7,289, females. The 
 number between the ages of 5 and 20 was re- 
 ported as 7,648. In many cases, they are deaf 
 from birth; in others, the loss of hearing is 
 caused by accident or disease at an early age. or 
 in some cases, later in life; but deafness is 
 almost always followed by a loss of speech, from 
 disuse of the organs and a want of ability to 
 modulate the voice. In the first few months of 
 life, little difference can be perceived between the 
 child who lias its hearing perfect, and the one 
 born deaf. The effect of sound is not often 
 thought of by the parents and friends, in some 
 instances, till the child is two years of age : and, 
 even when deafness is suspected, the means em- 
 ployed to ascertain the fact are often such as to 
 confound the nervous condition of the whole body 
 with that of the portion solely connected with 
 the ear. In former times, the little one was con- 
 sidered as a doomed being, and sorrow took the 
 place ot joy in the breast of the parents. Among 
 some nations, deaf persons were regarded as be- 
 ing under the curse of Heaven. Among some 
 barbarous nations, they were called monsters, and 
 put to death when three years old. or as soon 
 as their deafness was satisfactorily ascertained. 
 They were considered by the Romans and some 
 contemporary nations. if not as positive idiots. yet 
 as deficient in intellect, and, consequently, were 
 abridged of their civil rights; as we find in 
 the code of Justinian. Oondillac, at a compara- 
 tively recent period, denied them the faculty of 
 memory and the power of reasoning. Many 
 
 parents, even at the present time, consider them- 
 selves disgraced by having a deal and dumb 
 
 child, ami studiously conceal the fact from the 
 world. Such children have been, in almost 
 
 every age, regarded as beings between man 
 
 and the brute creation with respect to mental 
 
 capacity and endowment ; but, if we reflect but 
 a moment, we shall find that the result of being 
 
 deaf and dumb, is to be ignorant, not to be weak, 
 
 — ignorant of science, ignorant of history, of 
 morality, and. above all. ignoranl of religion, 
 
 and thus virtually "without God in the world.'' 
 The limited circle of purely intellectual ideas 
 
 which these unfortunates possess. i,> a natural 
 
 consequence of their limited intercourse with 
 
 those around them. They are shut out from 
 
 communion with the world in things which in- 
 terest others, from a knowledge of literature and 
 history, and, in many cases, from all mean.-- of 
 
 amusement, in some cases, it has happened 
 
 that they h;i\e beeiiine idiots, consequent Upon 
 
 the Qon-employmen1 of the natural powers of 
 
 the mind. In other cases, they have become de- 
 ranged by the indulgence of headstrong, impel 
 
 uous passion, in the absence of a control of judg- 
 ment : by fretful impatience at the dim percep- 
 tion of unknown or unattainable excellence seen 
 in others; by a total unfitness for nearly all the 
 occupations of their fellow beings ; by an entire 
 exclusion from the vast stores of knowledge dis- 
 played to their view in books; or by an igno- 
 rance of the truths of religion. All these causes 
 operating upon a sensitive nature, may easily un- 
 set tie the reason. 
 
 Such was. and is. the sad condition of the un- 
 educated deaf and dumb, and by many it was 
 asserted to be irremediable. St. Augustine de- 
 clared it was beyond the resources of art, and 
 even the limits of possibility, to instruct the 
 deaf and dumb; and. in proof of it, he quoted, 
 Romans, x. IT. " Faith cometh by hearing, and 
 hearing by the word of <!od." I he poet Lucre- 
 tius expressed in the following lines the opinion 
 prevalent in his time : 
 
 To instruct the ileal', no art can reach: 
 
 No ear.- improve them, and no wisdom teach. 
 
 Pliny, however, mentions that Quintus Pedius, 
 a relative of Augustus, though a congenital deaf- 
 mute, became a distinguished artist. 
 
 But a brighter prospect at last dawned upon 
 these unfortunates. Research, observation, and 
 philanthropy have overturned the opinions held 
 by the ancients. I leaf-mutes are now acknowl- 
 edged to possess intellectual faculties in common 
 with other persons; and, although deprived of 
 
 the sense of hearing and the faculty of speech, 
 they are found to be capable of attention, of re- 
 flection, of memory, of imagination, and of judg- 
 ment, as well as of the ability to communicate 
 their thoughts, their desires, and their wants, to 
 t heir more favored fellows. 
 
 According to the Venerable Bede, St. John of 
 Beverley, bishop of Hagulstadt, taught a dumb 
 man to speak. Bede also described a manual 
 alphabet in his [>*■ Loquda per Gestum Digi- 
 torum. This hook was first printed in L 532, and 
 its plates showing the finger alphabet are prob- 
 ably the earliest illustrations of dactylology in 
 
 existence. Efforts were made in the early part of 
 the 1 6th century, to imparl instruction to the deaf 
 and dumb, but to only a limited number. The 
 first .systematic attempt to educate deaf-mutes 
 
 was that of Pedro I" se de Leon, at Ona, in 
 
 Spain, about L 550, who taught two or three to 
 
 read, write, and articulate. Later, Juan I'ablo 
 
 Bonet, also in Spain, taught a few, and published, 
 in L620, a treatise on the subject, with a manual 
 
 alphabet, the same which is now used in Europe 
 
 and America. (See Bonet.) Some learned men 
 in Italy also taught single persons; as Cardan, 
 
 who instructed the prince of Carignan, and 
 
 I'ietro di Castro, who instructed the Prince oi 
 
 Savoy. A number of works on the instruction 
 ot the deaf and dumb were published in Spain. 
 Italy, and Holland, before L650. In 1653, Dr. 
 John Wallis instructed two deaf-mutes, and was 
 the first practical instructor of the deaf and 
 dumb in England. In L667, Van Belmont, a 
 native of Holland, published a tract, entitled 
 
 Alphabetum Natures, in which he explained the 
 
DEAE-MUTKS 
 
 205 
 
 process of reading from the lips. The two-hand 
 alphabet, now used in England, was invented 
 by Dalgarno, in L680. (See Dalgarno.) In 
 L749, Rodriguez Pereira exhibited some pupils 
 before the ieademyof Sciences, at Paris, who 
 oould read and converse audibly; but lie kept his 
 method secret, ami it perished with him. In 
 L754, Samuel lleinicke taught one pupil suc- 
 cessfully: and, in 1774. he opened a school at 
 Leipsic, which was the first of the kind established 
 by any civil government. This school still exists, 
 and its success in teaching articulation led to the 
 adoption of that system in most of the German in- 
 siiiuti >ns. In 1755, the abbe Del'Epee, through a 
 fortuitous circumstance, commenced his labors 
 among the indigent deaf and dumb, in France, 
 and founded a school in Paris, which, after a few 
 vcars. became the Royal Institution of Prance. 
 Be used the natural language of signs as the in- 
 strument of instruction. He was succeeded by 
 
 the abbe Sicai'd. one of whose pupils, Laurent 
 < Here, accompanied Rev. Thomas 1 1. ( rallaudet to 
 the United States, and aided him in establishing 
 the American Asylum at Hartford. Ct., under 
 the patronage of the New England states; 
 and from that, institutions have sprung up in 
 many of the United States. From these insti- 
 tutions, many deaf-mutes have gone forth into 
 the world, and have become eminent in various 
 walks of life. In our own country, we may 
 name Le ( derc, as a teacher ; Levi S. Backus, 
 as an editor ; <!. \Y. boring and \V. Whiton, as 
 teachers and writers; J. Nack, as a poet; E.J. 
 Maun, J. R. Burnet, and A. Xewsam, as writers ; 
 J. Carlin, as an artist; Alice Cogswell, as a 
 writer ; and Mary T. Peet, as a poetess. 
 
 The following table gives the name, location, etc. 
 of all the institutions in the United States for the 
 teaching of deaf-mutes, according to the Report 
 of the U. S. Commissioner of Education for lb 74. 
 
 Institutions for the Deaf and Dumb in the United States. 
 
 NAME 
 
 American Asylum 
 
 New York Institution 
 
 Pennsylvania Institution 
 
 Kentucky Institution 
 
 Ohio Institution 
 
 Illinois Institution 
 
 Virginia Institution 
 
 Indiana Institution 
 
 Tennessee School 
 
 North Carolina Institution 
 
 Georgia Institution 
 
 South Carolina Institution 
 
 Mi— uuii Asylum 
 
 .Michigan Institution 
 
 Wisconsin Institution 
 
 St. Mary's Institution 
 
 Louisiana Institution 
 
 Iowa Institution 
 
 Mississippi Institution 
 
 Texas Institution 
 
 Colombia Institution 
 
 Alabama Institution 
 
 California Institution 
 
 St. Bridget's Institution 
 
 Minnesota Institution 
 
 National Deaf-Mute College 
 
 Kansas Asylum 
 
 Inst, for Improved Instruction 
 
 Clarke Institution 
 
 Maryland Institution 
 
 Arkansas Institution 
 
 Nebraska Institution 
 
 Pittsburgh Day School 
 
 Bostoo Day School 
 
 Whipple's Home School 
 
 St. Joseph's Inst, for Mutes 
 
 West Virginia Institution 
 
 Oregon Institution 
 
 Inst, for Colored Blind & Deaf-Mutes.. . 
 
 School of Articulation 
 
 Colorado Institute 
 
 LOCATION 
 
 Hartford, Ct 
 
 New York City 
 
 Philadelphia, Pa 
 
 Danville, Ky 
 
 Columbus, 
 
 Jacksonville, 111 
 
 Staunton, Va 
 
 Indianapolis, Ind 
 
 Knoxville, Tenn 
 
 Raleigh, N. C 
 
 Cave Spring, Ga 
 
 Cedar Springs, S. C. . 
 
 Fulton, Mo 
 
 Flint, Mich 
 
 Delavan, Wise 
 
 Buffalo, N. Y 
 
 Baton Rouge, La , 
 
 Council Bluffs, Iowa.. . 
 
 Jackson, Miss 
 
 Austin, Tex 
 
 Washington, D. C 
 
 Talladega, Ala 
 
 Oakland, Cal 
 
 St. Louis, Mo 
 
 Fairbault, Minn 
 
 Washington, D. C 
 
 Olathe, Kan 
 
 New York City 
 
 Northampton, Mass.. . 
 
 Frederick, Md 
 
 Little Rock, Ark 
 
 Omaha, Neb 
 
 Pittsburgh, Pa 
 
 Boston, Mass 
 
 Mystic River, ct 
 
 Fordham, N. Y 
 
 Romney, W. Va 
 
 Salem, Oreg 
 
 Baltimore, Md 
 
 Aurora, N. Y 
 
 Colorado Springs, Col . 
 
 a 
 
 <w o 
 
 053 
 
 a 
 
 1817 
 
 1817 
 
 1821 
 
 1823 
 
 182 
 
 1837 
 
 1839 
 
 ls44 
 
 1*44 
 
 1845 
 
 1845 
 
 1849 
 
 1851 
 
 1851 
 
 1852 
 
 1854 
 
 1855 
 
 is;,.", 
 
 1856 
 1856 
 1857 
 I860 
 1860 
 1860 
 1862 
 1864 
 186ti 
 1867 
 1867 
 1867 
 1868 
 L869 
 1869 
 L869 
 1869 
 |ni;>.i 
 1*70 
 1870 
 1872 
 1871 
 1874 
 
 CONTROL 
 
 Directors 
 
 Corporation . 
 Directors.. . . 
 
 State 
 
 State 
 
 State 
 
 State 
 
 State 
 
 Trustees 
 
 State 
 
 Trustees 
 
 State 
 
 State 
 
 Trustees 
 
 Trustees 
 
 Trustees 
 
 Trustees 
 
 State 
 
 Trustees 
 
 Trustees 
 
 National 
 
 State 
 
 State 
 
 R. Cath 
 
 State 
 
 National 
 
 Trustees 
 
 Association.. 
 
 Private 
 
 State 
 
 Directors . . . 
 
 State 
 
 Municipal . . . 
 School Board 
 
 Private 
 
 Private 
 
 Regents 
 
 State 
 
 Trustees 
 
 Private 
 
 State 
 
 
 
 275 
 584 
 271 
 103 
 468 
 430 
 
 96 
 334 
 136 
 138 
 
 52 
 
 204 
 
 19 
 
 176 
 80 
 51 
 
 157 
 51 
 44 
 
 113 
 68 
 66 
 
 104 
 
 80 
 92 
 
 70 
 104 
 84 
 35 
 43 
 65 
 12 
 40 
 52 
 30 
 12 
 6 
 12 
 
 o 
 
 —1 u a 
 
 -*^ 
 CO 
 
 104,000 
 50,000 
 17,000 
 81,000 
 72,000 
 40,000 
 70,000 
 28,000 
 40,000 
 14,500 
 
 33,000 
 52,000 
 35,000 
 8,500 
 22,000 
 31,000 
 15,000 
 10,000 
 88,000 
 
 1S,(I()() 
 
 36,000 
 26,000 
 16,500 
 
 30,000 
 
 33,000 
 
 h;, 111 in 
 
 2,000 
 
 6,000 
 
 525 
 
 25,000 
 
 10,000 
 
 5,000 
 
 
 .•*} 
 
 a> 
 
 3 
 
 •522 
 
 .a 
 
 250,000 
 543,000 
 325,000 
 125,000 
 800,000 
 340,000 
 160,000 
 685,000 
 150,000 
 50,000 
 40,000 
 
 150,000 
 375,000 
 110,000 
 
 40,000 
 200,000 
 170,000 
 
 50,000 
 
 50,000 
 500,000 
 
 75,000 
 300,000 
 
 125,000 
 
 33,000 
 
 175,000 
 55,000 
 18,000 
 45,000 
 
 35,000 
 60,000 
 
 20,000 
 
 17,000 
 
 7,000 
 
 $175 per pupil from the New England States. 
 
206 
 
 DEAF-MUTES 
 
 DEBATING 
 
 The first institution for the education of deaf- 
 mutes in the United States was opened, as stated 
 before, in Bartford, Ct., April 15., 1817, under 
 the auspices of the Rev. 'I'll. EL Gallaudet. (See 
 Gallaudet.] Associated with him was Laurent 
 ( Mere, one of the most talented of Sicard's pupils, 
 who had accompanied Mr. Gallaudet on his 
 return to the united States after a visit to 
 Europe, which he had made to acquire a knowl- 
 edge of the methods of deaf mute instruction. 
 At first, the Connecticut institution had only 
 7 pupils, but accessions during the year made 
 the number 33. Congress, soon afterward, do- 
 nated tu it a township of wild land, the proceeds 
 of which now form a fund of $339,000. This 
 gift led to its assuming the name of American 
 Asylum. The New York Asylum was opened 
 in 1818. The fundamental principles on which 
 nearly all the American institutions are con- 
 ducted, are those first introduced by De L'Epee, 
 modified as shown to be necessary in order to 
 facilitate the acquirement of language and an ad- 
 vancement in knowledge. There are now about 
 2.">0 schools for (leaf-mutes in the world. In L850, 
 there were 227 in Europe, and 23 in America. 
 MMie greater Dumber in Europe teach articulation 
 alone: while, in America, more dependence is 
 placed upon acquiring the ability to use written 
 language. MMie first regular school for deaf-mutes 
 in Great Britain was that established near Edin- 
 burgh by Thomas Braidwood, and from this 
 have descended the present public institutions 
 for deaf-mute instruction in Great Britain. (See 
 Braidwood, and Peet, II. P.) 
 
 Systems qf Instruction. — Two methods or 
 systems of teaching are in use (with some molli- 
 fications) in nearly all the institutions in the 
 world. One is that of articulation and lip- 
 reading (sometimes called the German method, 
 because used in most of the German schools), 
 the other that of writing, or the sign lan- 
 guage. Both have their special advocates; and 
 each it is claimed, possesses superior facilities, for 
 educating the deaf and dumb. In teaching ar- 
 ticulation, the pupil is placed before the teacher, 
 who begins with the vowels, and requires the 
 pupil to watch the motions he makes with his 
 mouth, lips, and throat : he places the pupil's 
 hand upon his own throat, so as to feel the dif- 
 ferent movements, and then imitate them him- 
 self. When he has succeeded in some degree, 
 the consonants are introduced and practiced for 
 
 a longer or shorter time, according to the ability 
 
 or aptitude of the pupil. Simple words are then 
 introduced, and their meaning illustrated liy 
 
 pointing ou1 the object, action, etc.; and as prog- 
 ress IS made ill this, qualities and actions are 
 introduced. This course must be continued, and 
 
 the lessons repeated, till the pupil can read the 
 lips of the tcadicr. and communicate his own 
 thoughts, in questions and answers, [leading 
 must then be taught ; and the knowledge of lan- 
 
 ge already acquired aids the pupil ill under- 
 standing what he reads. It will be apparent 
 
 that this 18 a work requiring much time and 
 patience on the part of the teacher as well as of 
 
 the pupil, merely to acquire the meaning of the 
 words and their proper pronunciation. Most of 
 the Institutions in the United States give more 
 or less instruction in articulation, generally in 
 special departments. The (Marke Institution, the 
 Boston Day School, the X. Y. Institution for 
 Improved Instruction, and Whipple's Home 
 School make articulation a specialty. This mode 
 of teaching is especially adapted to the condition 
 of semi-niutes, who still retain some remnant of 
 the ability to use spoken language. Experience 
 has shown that children deprived of the sens, 
 of hearing can learn by means of sight and feel- 
 ing, to distinguish the various elements of speech, 
 to read them from the speaker's lips, and to 
 imitate them in articulation. 
 
 The other method, writing and sign-making, is 
 substantially taught in the following manner: 
 An object is shown to the pupil, as for example, 
 a cat. and the natural sign made for it. an out- 
 line is then drawn on the slate, and c-a-t is writ- 
 ten in the outline ; the same sign is applied to 
 the name as was applied to the object and the 
 outline: and the pupil thus learns the word. 
 The object is removed and the outline rubbed 
 out; the same sign is used for the word alone. 
 and the pupil soon associates it with the object. 
 Other objects are presented, and the same proc- 
 ess repeated. MMie color of the cat is then taught: 
 as, if black, that is joined to the name, and black 
 nil is learned ; then action is represented, as 
 
 black r,ii eats ; and then the object follows, 2>&zc& 
 cat eats meat MMie phrases are lengthened as 
 
 the pupil proceeds, and short stories are related 
 by signs, and written down by the pupil, the 
 
 proper distinctions being made at the time, so 
 that the pupil, in a short time, is enabled to use 
 language properly. An important feature of 
 this method is. that the pupil begins at once to 
 learn words which convey meaning, without the 
 slow process of learning the alphabet, the single 
 letters of which convey no ideas; and in this 
 manner the mind is quickened, and incited to 
 redoubled activity by the knowledge gained. As 
 
 this proceeds, the pupil becomes familiar with 
 
 the printed as well as the written characters, and 
 
 soon understands short simple phrases; and then 
 
 only a few months arc required to enable the 
 
 pupil to understand elearly what is related to 
 him. — See John Wallis, Letter to Thomas 
 Beverley in the Philosophical Transactions 
 (»ct.. L698); Joseph Watson, Instruction of the 
 Deaf and Dumb (London. 1809); De YEvkk. 
 La veritable maniere etc (Paris. [784), English 
 translation (London, L801) ; American Annals 
 of the Beaf and Dumb; Svi.i:. .1 Summary 
 qf the Researches etc <f It- P. Peet (Wash. 
 L873); Reportofthe Institution for the Improved 
 Instruction of Deaf-Mutes \ S. V.. 1st I): in the 
 Appendix to which will be found a Statement 
 of the method of teaching articulation and lip- 
 reading: Aniti'.il Reports qf the U. S. Commis- 
 sioner qf Education for 1871, 2, 3, I. 
 
 DEBATING is often employed as an ex- 
 ercise in schools for young men [and sometimes 
 in those for the other sex), in order to afford a 
 
DECIMAL NOTATION 
 
 DEFINITIONS 
 
 207 
 
 means fo* practice in extemporaneous speaking, 
 and an incentive to the study and investigation 
 of subjects of scholastic or general interest. 
 When bo used, it should be carefully regulated, 
 both as to the questions selected for discussion and 
 the manner in which the debates are conducted. 
 The usual rules of debate should be strictly en- 
 forced, and the participants confined to the ex- 
 act subject considered, and required to use lan- 
 guage of undoubted propriety. The rules of 
 parliamentary debate may be made a subject of 
 formal study auxiliary to the practice of debat- 
 ing, and. in this way. the students partly pre- 
 pared for public life. The debating societies con- 
 nected with colleges have usually been considered 
 a very important source of practical culture; 
 -They are.'' says RicElligott, "capable of splendid 
 service in the course of education; and not only 
 splendid, but peculiar; a service, in fact, for 
 which it is impossible to find any sufficient sub- 
 stitute. Their appropriate sphere, morever, 
 us to be in connection with collegiate institu- 
 tions. There, at all events, we have a right to 
 expect from them the best possible results; for 
 there they may have the benefit of wise and 
 constant supervision." — See McElligott, The 
 American Debater (N.T., 1855); and Debatimj. 
 a Means of Educational Discipline, in Bar- 
 nard's Journal of Education, vol. in. 
 
 DECIMAL NOTATION, the ordinary 
 method of expressing numbers on a scale of ten, 
 ten units of any order being equal to one unit 
 of the next higher order. The first lessons in 
 arithmetic should give the pupil a clear idea 
 of the principle of this notation. This can be 
 done by means of the numeral frame (q. v.). 
 
 DECLAMATION, or the formal delivery 
 of set speeches or of memorized pieces of ora- 
 tory, is a school exercise of considerable im- 
 portance, when conducted in a proper manner 
 and with a due regard to its special uses and 
 limitations. The objects chiefly to be gained by 
 exercises of this kind are the following : (1) The 
 training and culture of the voice ; ('_') Practice 
 in elocution ; (3) The habit of speaking in pub- 
 he with confidence, ease, and grace ; (4) The 
 cultivation of a taste for public speaking; (5) An 
 improvement of the pupils' style of composition. 
 In the education of boys and young men partic- 
 ularly, these are all points of great importance, 
 inasmuch as the ability to speak effectively in 
 public is of great value in all civilized commu- 
 nities. The practice of declamation may, how- 
 ever, be carried too far, and may thus engender 
 an artificial style, and a taste for mere verbal 
 and elocutionary display, without sufficient re- 
 gard to the sentiment expressed or to the occasion 
 of their utterance, indeed, it ha- been held by 
 some that those who have excelled as declaimers 
 in school, have rarely become effective speakers 
 in after life : but. if this is the case, it has re- 
 sulted rather from the abuse of the exercise than 
 from its legitimate use. There can be no doubt 
 that long practice in declaiming exclusively 
 memorized pieces may produce a habit that is 
 calculated to interfere with the acquisition of 
 
 the power of extemporaneous speaking; and, 
 consequently, in the advanced stages of instruc- 
 tion there is need of resorting to exercises in off- 
 hand speaking in order to correct this tendency. 
 In declamation, as in composition, the young and 
 uncultured mind is prone to extravagance, pa r- 
 ticularly in the use of ornament. Those tonus 
 of expression and modes of delivery that are ap- 
 propriated to the higher regions of thought and 
 emotion are very apt to be brought in on occasions 
 when their inaptness makes them ridiculous. As 
 in composition, the pupil should be trained to 
 express his thoughts in the simplest and most 
 direct manner; so in declamation, he should be 
 kept from the higher flights, except in special 
 Subjects, and be trained to moderation and self- 
 restraint both in voice and action. 
 
 The following points should be carefully at- 
 tended to in giving elementary instruction in 
 declamation: (1) The piece to be declaimed 
 should be well studied, not only in its language, 
 but in regard to the thoughts, emotions, reason- 
 ing, etc. which it may involve, and the circum- 
 stances under which it was originally spoken, as 
 well as the character of the speaker; (2) Minute 
 rudimentary criticism should be rendered unnec- 
 essary by sufficient preliminary training in 
 enunciation and other departments of elocution, 
 as w T ell as in the use of gesticulation ; (3) The 
 various kinds of gestures having been taught, the 
 pupil should be allowed great freedom in respect 
 to their use ; (4) The spirit, and not simply the 
 form, should be the object aimed at in the in- 
 struction ; and no piece should be assigned to a 
 pupil to speak which is beyond his capacity to 
 understand and appreciate. The pupils of the 
 common schools are generally not sufficiently ad- 
 vanced to receive theoretical instruction in rhe- 
 torical delivery ; but this should find a place in 
 the course of instruction of colleges, academies, 
 and schools of a higher grade in general. Even 
 the pupils of elementary schools, however, may 
 be benefited by appropriate exercises in recita- 
 tion and declamation : thus, the speaking of 
 easy and interesting dialogues by two or more 
 children will be found one of the best methods 
 to impart to young pupils a practical knowledge 
 of the elementary rules of declamation, besides 
 cultivating a natural style of speaking. 
 
 DEFINITIONS, a branch of elementary 
 education, generally used to designate instruction 
 in the meaning of words. The operations of a 
 child's mind naturally lead to a knowdedge of 
 words as representatives of ideas; and. at quite 
 an early age, a child acquires a very extensive 
 vocabulary of terms and the ability to apply 
 them properly, since they are learned not by 
 formal statement or definition, but by hearing 
 them used, and by subsequent practice in using 
 them in connection with tin- actual objects or 
 conceptions which they represent, in this way, 
 the words which young children learn make but 
 little impression upon their minds as words ; but 
 they are so intimately associated with the objects. 
 
 actions, and qualities which they represent, that 
 they convey to the mind the same ideas as the 
 
208 
 
 DEFINITION'S 
 
 DEGREES 
 
 objects, actions, etc. themselves. The school ex- 
 ercises or lessons designed to increase the child's 
 vocabulary, or to teach the meaning of words 
 found in books, often disregard this natural 
 method of acquisition, ami attempt to teach the 
 meaning of individual words by means of their 
 approximate synonyms, without any regard to 
 their application, or use in phrases and sentences. 
 Without an embodiment of words in actual 
 speech, the recitation of formal definitions is of 
 no use. After sufficient illustration of this kind, 
 the pupil should be required to tell, in his own 
 language, the meaning of the word in question, 
 which the teacher can then correct. No exercise 
 in synonyms is of any value, but on the con- 
 trary, rather injurious, until the meaning of 
 words has been thus explained. In oral lessons 
 in definitions to classes, one pupil maybe re- 
 quired to use the given word in a phrase or sen- 
 tence, another to explain its meaning, and an- 
 other to give a brief definition by a synonymous 
 phrase or word. Very simple words, the meaning 
 of which is already known to the child, should 
 not be given for formal definition: since properly 
 to define such words, requires a nice discrimina- 
 tion in the use of language, and a minuteness of 
 analysis beyond the capacity of a young chili 1. 
 A full exercise of this kind should comprise the 
 following: (1) To pronounce it; (2) To use it in 
 the construction of a phrase or a sentence; (3) To 
 define it ; (4) To write a sentence illustrating its 
 meaning and use. |A written exercise for the 
 whole class, each pupil writing a different sen- 
 tence.) Instruction in the derivation of words 
 and the meaning of the common prefixes and 
 suffixes should be commenced at an early stage. 
 (See Etymology.) 
 
 Every subject of instruction has its definitions, 
 or precise statements of elementary truths, con- 
 stituting the basis of the science; and it is an 
 important consideration as to the proper time 
 and method of teaching them. The teacher is 
 very apt to err in requiring them to be com- 
 mitted to memory before the mind has been suf- 
 ficiently Impressed with the elementary ideas 
 which they involve. In I fair to Teach (X. V., 
 L873), we find this quite fully and emphatically 
 expressed: "One of the most serious abuses to 
 which the employment of elementary text-books 
 is liable, is the practice of requiring the pupil to 
 Commit to memory, wrbittini, all tin- definitions 
 of a subject before teaching the subject itself, so 
 BJB I" enable the pupils to understand the nature 
 of the things defined. It is, of course, most 
 logical in the scientific treatment of a subject to 
 place the deli nit inns first, and the reasoning based 
 upon them afterward; but this is not the order 
 of investigation. The definitions are the results 
 of an induction based upon the facts obtained 
 by observation : they are generalizations of those 
 facts, and are unintelligible to those entirely un- 
 acquainted with the facts themselves. Thus the 
 order of investigation is inductive; the treatment 
 is deductive, ami in elementary teaching the 
 method Bhould conform rather to the former 
 
 than to the latter. (Jive the pupil accurate and 
 
 vivid conceptions of the facts, encourage him to 
 observe the phenomena — to collect an experience 
 of his own : tell him. or let him learn from the 
 book, what has been discovered by the experience 
 of others ; and when the facts thus obtained 
 form a sufficient groundwork, lead his mind to 
 the proper induction, after which the definition. 
 principle, or rule, based upon it, comes naturally, 
 and will be thoroughly understood, The defini- 
 tions thus taught should be brief and accurate in 
 language, and, as a general thing, should be com- 
 mitted to memory verbatim,; for great skill is 
 required to construct a good definition, and it is 
 of the greatest value to the scholar and thinker 
 to have bis mind well stored with these land- 
 marks and guide-posts of knowledge.'' The 
 distinction between the description and the de- 
 finition of a thing should be kept in view by the 
 teacher. The former may include a statement 
 of all the qualities and properties of the object 
 described : the latter should include what, being 
 peculiar to the object, distinguishes it from all 
 other objects of the same kind. At first, chil- 
 dren should be taught rather by descriptions 
 than definitions: for the latter, while forming 
 necessary standards of judgment for the mind, 
 generally do not give, of themselves, complete 
 ideas of the thing's defined. 
 
 DEGEEANDO. See GfiRANDO. 
 
 DEGREES are titles of rank conferred upon 
 students in colleges and universities, as evidence 
 of their proficiency in the arts and sciences, 
 or upon learned men as a testimony of their 
 literary merits. At first, the terms master 
 and doctor were applied indifferently to any 
 person engaged iii teaching in the university. In 
 process of time, the term master was restricted 
 to teachers of the liberal arts, and the term 
 doctor to divinity, law, and medicine. When 
 regulations were established to prevent unquali- 
 fied persons from teaching, and an initiatory 
 stage of discipline was prescribed, these terms 
 became significant of a certain rank, and of the 
 possession of certain powers, ami were Killed 
 gradi/s, steps or degrees. The passing of the 
 initiatory stage, said to have been first instituted 
 by Pope Gregory IX. [1227—1241), conferred 
 in any of the four faculties the title of bachelor 
 fbaccalaureus), and an additional course of dis- 
 ci). line and examination was necessary in order 
 to obtain that of master or doctor. A degree 
 intermediate between bachelor and doctor was 
 that of licentiate. This is no longer in use in 
 England, except in Cambridge, as a degree of 
 medicine. In Germany the degree of Liceniiat 
 now exists only in the theological faculty. The 
 title of Master of Arts originally implied the 
 right, and even the duty, of publicly teaching 
 some of the branches included in the faculty 
 of arts; but this custom has now fallen into 
 general disu.se. The title of doctor seems to 
 have been conferred, for the first time, in the 
 1 2th century, at the university of Bologna ; and 
 the ceremonial of investiture was drawn up 
 by the learned Irnerius. The university of 
 Paris almost immediately followed in the foot- 
 
DEGREES 
 
 209 
 
 I is of Bologna, the first reception of doctors 
 Laving taken place in the year L145, in favor 
 dt Peter Lombard and Gilbert de la Porree, 
 the greatest theologians of the day. At a later 
 period, the emperors were accustomed to confer 
 upon the universities the right of appointing 
 doctors of law by their authority and in their 
 name. The example of the emperors was 
 speedily followed by the popes, who conferred 
 the same right in reference to the canon law. 
 In England, the degree of doctor was not given 
 until the time of King John (1207). In the 
 middle ages, the title of Doctor of Laws con- 
 ferred, in some countries, great privileges; and 
 the possession of the title was requisite for some 
 of the higher officers in church and state. In 
 most civilized countries, the acquisition of the 
 title of Doctor of Medicine is still required pre- 
 vious to an authorization, by the state govern- 
 ment, of medical practice. The titles Doctor of 
 Theology and Doctor of Law, or of Laws, have 
 still to be acquired by professors of these branches 
 of learning in universities and colleges ; but they 
 are also conferred honoris causa upon distin- 
 guished theologians, jurists, and statesmen. In 
 the United States, the conferring of degrees is 
 carried to an extent which was formerly unknown. 
 While in Germany there are only about twenty 
 universities which have the right to confer de- 
 grees, and in England a still smaller number, there 
 are in the United States more than 300 chartered 
 colleges which are entitled to this right; and 
 they generally make a very liberal use of it at 
 the annual commencement. All the graduates of 
 American colleges and universities receive the 
 degree of Bachelor of Arts, and after three years 
 standing have the title of Master of Arts con- 
 ferred upon them. The former is made con- 
 tingent in the United States as well as in 
 England, upon the result of a previous ex- 
 amination ; but the latter is conferred, in due 
 course of time, without any further require- 
 ments. In Germany, the title Master of Arts 
 has fallen into disuse, and the philosophical 
 faculty, which corresponds to the faculty of 
 arts in the United States, confers, instead of 
 it, the title of Doctor of Philosophy. In the 
 nineteenth century, and especially in the United 
 States, a number of new degrees have been cre- 
 ated. The diploma of Doctor of Music is given 
 in England, the United States, and Germany. 
 Women have been, until very recently, the re- 
 cipients of academic degrees in only very excep- 
 tional cases : but, with the progress of the supe- 
 rior education of females, and the admission of 
 women to some of the highest institutions of learn- 
 ing, all the degrees which have so long been the 
 monopoly of the one sex. begin to be accessible 
 to both. (See Co-education of the Sexes.) 
 The annual reports of the U. S. Commissioner 
 of Education afford complete statistics of all the 
 degrees conferred each year by American col- 
 leges, universities, and schools. Below is given 
 a list of the various degrees which were conferred 
 in 1 874, with the usual abbreviations employed 
 to designate them. 
 14 
 
 The colleges for females confer, in the place of 
 the title Bachelor (of Letters, of Arts, of Liberal 
 Arts), the title Graduate, though they retain the 
 abbreviations L. !>., A. B., and B. L. A. 
 
 A. B., Bachelor of Arts. 
 
 A. L., Laureate of Arts. 
 
 A. SI., Muster of Arts. 
 
 A. s.. Sister of Arts. 
 
 1!. A.. Bachelor of Agriculture. 
 
 B. Arch., Bachelor of Architecture, 
 
 B. C. K.. Bachelor of Civil Engineering. 
 B. L. A., Bachelor of Liberal Arts. 
 
 B. M. E., Bachelor of Mining Engineering. 
 
 C. E., Civil Engineer. 
 
 C. & M. E.. Civil and Mining Engineer. 
 
 D. B., Bachelor of Divinity. 
 
 D. C. L., Doctor of Civil Laws. 
 
 D. D., Doctor of Divinity. 
 
 D. D. M., Doctor (A Dental Medicine* 
 
 D. E., Dynamic Engineer. 
 
 D. Sc, Doctor of Science. 
 
 L. B. , Bachelor of Letters. 
 
 LL. B., Bachelor of Laws. 
 
 LL. D., Doctor of Laws. 
 
 L. Sc. Laureate of Science. 
 
 M. B., Bachelor of Medicine. 
 
 M. D. Doctor of Medicine. 
 
 M. E., Mining Engineer. 
 
 M. E. L., Mistress of English Literature. 
 
 M. L. A., Mistress of Liberal Arts. 
 
 M. L. L., Mistress of Liberal Learning. 
 
 M. Be, Mistress of Science. 
 
 Mis. Mas., Mistress of Music. 
 
 Mus. B., Bachelor of Music. 
 
 Mas. D., Doctor of Music. 
 
 Ph. B., Bachelor of Philosophy. 
 
 Ph. D., Doctor of Philosophy. 
 
 Sc. B., Bachelor of Science. 
 
 Sc. M., Master of Science. 
 
 S. T. I)., Sacrae Theologiae Doctor. 
 As the title Doctor of Medicine, when con- 
 ferred by a medical faculty, alone entitles its 
 holder in some countries to practice, attempts 
 have, in many cases, been made by incompetent 
 persons to purchase it, and by dishonest persons 
 to make money by selling it. The greatest noto- 
 riety, in this respect, has been gained by a so- 
 called faculty of medicine in Pennsylvania, which 
 carried on the sale of the title of Doctor of 
 Medicine for a considerable time, not ordy in the 
 United States, but all over P]urope, until the 
 legislature of Pennsylvania put a stop to this 
 nefarious business. In Germany, an article by 
 the historian Theodor Mommsen (in Preussische 
 Jahrbucker xxxvn. 1.) severely censured several 
 of the universities of the minor states for pro- 
 moting absent candidates who had merely sent 
 in a written dissertation, and prostituting the 
 honor of German science for mercenary purposes. 
 The article produced a profound impression, and, 
 early in 1876, induced all the incriminated uni- 
 versities to abolish the promotiones in absentia. 
 Many writers, in modern times, have main- 
 tained, that "degrees have always been. and must 
 continue to be, utterly worthless." Among those 
 who severely censured the way in which degrees 
 formerly were and, in general, still are conferred, 
 was Dr. Adam Smith, in his Wealth of Na- 
 tions. The same writer more fully develops his 
 views in a letter on Dr. Cullen, which is given in 
 Dr. McCulloch's edition of that work. He con- 
 tends that the value of a degree must always de- 
 pend on the disinterested character of the parties 
 
210 
 
 DELAWARE 
 
 who confer it, and that, therefore, the system 
 hitherto pursued in universities of having aca- 
 demical distinctions awarded by the parties en- 
 gaged in preparing the candidates to receive 
 them, must be regarded as a wholly inadequate 
 test of literary or scientific merit. A change in 
 this system was inaugurated on the establish- 
 ment of the London I Diversity (q. v.), in which 
 the right of conferring degrees is vested in aboard 
 from «rhich the professors are excluded. In Ger- 
 many, a different reform has been proposed by 
 Prof. Moiinnsen of Berlin, who, after severely 
 denouncing tin- abuses existing in some of the 
 German universities, urges in another essay 
 [Preussische Jahrbucher, April 1876) the estab- 
 lishment of strict uniformity in the conferring 
 of academical degrees. The universities favor- 
 able to reform are called noon to unite, and to 
 request the governments either to recognize ex- 
 clusively the degrees conferred by universities 
 belonging to the union, or to abolish entirely the 
 institution of academic degrees. In France, the 
 right of conferring degrees was one of the mosl 
 hotly contested points of the new law on superior 
 education, adopted by the national assembly in 
 187;"). 'This [aw abolishes the monopoly of the 
 state faculties in conferring degrees, and gives the 
 right possessed by state faculties also to special 
 juries consisting of professors partly of the state 
 
 faculties, and partly of the free faculties author- 
 ized by the new law. 
 
 DELAWARE, one of the thirteen original 
 states of the American Union, having an area 
 of 2,120 sq. m., and a population, in L870, of 
 125,015, of whom 102,221 were whites, and 
 22,794, colons 1 persons. 
 
 Educational History. — The original constitu- 
 tion of the state contained a general provision 
 for the encouragement of education; but, through 
 want of specific enactments on the pari of the 
 Legislature, it was for a long time of little prac- 
 tical value. In L813, the secretary of state. 
 Willard Hall, suggested to the legislature a svs- 
 tem of popular education: bul no immediate 
 action was taken. In L829, a bill providing for 
 the establishment of free schools was passed, 
 
 embodying substantially the views suggested by 
 the secretary of state, who has always been re- 
 garded as the founder of the present system. 
 The law then enacted has remained, in all essen- 
 tial respects, the school law of the state to the 
 
 present day. slight modifications only having 
 
 Been made from time to time. The constitution 
 
 of the state, framed in 1 831, declares il to be the 
 
 duty of the legislature to pro\ ide for " establish- 
 ing schools, and promoting aits and scieni 
 In L 837, the Scl I fund of the stale, established 
 
 in L796, was increased by the additi< f the 
 
 income of the United States surplus revenue 
 fund. Dp io L852, the counties were divided 
 
 into SChdbl-districtS, to each of which full power 
 
 was granted to establish a school or not. accord- 
 ing to its pleasure. In L852, the BChool law 
 was revised by the legislature, bul was not 
 
 materially changed. Educational interests were 
 
 left to the voters in each school district, their 
 
 action consisting in holding an annual meeting,, 
 at which any number of voters constituted a 
 quorum. Their business was to elect a school 
 committee, consisting of a clerk and two com- 
 missioners, and to decide, by a majority vote, 
 what sum should be raised for a school-house, or 
 a free school. The same year, an act was passed 
 by the legislature for the benefit of the public 
 schools in Wilmington, which, by this act, be- 
 came permanently separated from the public 
 school system of the state. In L855, the prop- 
 erty of colored people in Wilmington was ex- 
 empted from taxation for school purposes. In 
 L861, a free-school act was passed, which author- 
 ized the levy of a yearly tax in each district of 
 the State. I'y an act passed March 2.").. 1875, 
 the school system was remodeled, and, in its gen- 
 eral features, assimilated to that existing in 
 most of the other states. The first state super- 
 intendent appointed was James II. Groves, in 
 L875. 
 
 School System. — The state board of education 
 consists id' the secretary of state, the auditor, the 
 president of Delaware College, and the state 
 superintendent of five schools. It holds an an- 
 nual meeting at which the president of Delaware 
 
 College acts as chairman, and the auditor, as 
 secretaiy. It designates what text-hooks shall 
 be used in the schools, settles all controversies 
 between the state superintendent and the school 
 commissioners on the one hand, and subordinate 
 officers on the other, and issues uniform blanks 
 for the use of teachers. The state superintendent 
 i- appointed annually by the governor. He 
 visits each school once a year, examines and 
 licenses teachers, keeps a full and accurate 
 record of the schools, their condition, the num- 
 ber of pupils attending them, tin 1 qualifications 
 of the teachers, methods of instruction, discipline, 
 and all other mat ters 'necessary to the making of 
 an annual report to the governor. <'<>///i/>/ 
 Superintendents, one for each county, are ap- 
 pointed annually by the governor, their duties 
 being, to correspond with school committees and 
 
 teachers, "to aid them with .advice, to supply 
 
 proper forms, to collect information, and tore- 
 port to the general assembly the state of the 
 districts, and such matters as they shall deem 
 
 proper." Three school committeemen are elected 
 
 in each of the districts, one each year, the term 
 of office being three years. Their dutiis are, 
 to assess and levy the annual school tax, to 
 
 i the sites for school buildings, to build 
 
 sd l-houses, to supply furniture ami fuel, to 
 
 employ teachers, and to see that the schools are 
 
 kept open as I' 'lie as the funds w ill permit. 'I he 
 school c immittee levies in each district of New- 
 castle Co. SI (III for the support of the schools: 
 of kenl Co. $50; and of Sussex Co. $30, the 
 maximum additional amount in each being, ac- 
 cording to the law of 1861, $400 for general school 
 purposes, and $500 for the building and repair 
 
 of school-houses. The schools are open to all white 
 
 children over five years of age. In 1875, provi* 
 
 sion was made for the education of colored chil- 
 dren, by the taxation of colored citizens, and the 
 
DELAWARE 
 
 211 
 
 establishment of separate schools, from the pro- 
 ceeds of such taxation, by the Delaware Asso- 
 ciation for the Education of Colored People. The 
 permanent school fund, which consists of the 
 share of the state in the surplus revenue distrib- 
 ute! I by the general government among the sev- 
 eral states, the proceeds arising from marriage 
 and tavern licenses, and from various other 
 sources, has yielded for several years an annual 
 income of about $30,000. 
 
 icational Condition. — The number of 
 schools reported by the superintendent in L875, 
 was 309. The school revenue was as follows: 
 
 From local taxation $159,733.68 
 
 " permanent fund 33,001.37 
 
 Total $192,735.05 
 
 The expenditure per capita of average attend- 
 ance was $9.64. The school statistics show the 
 following : 
 
 Xatuber of pupils enrolled 19,8S 1 
 
 " " teachers employed 430 
 
 average monthly salary of teachers $28.2 
 
 Normal Instruction. — Special training is given 
 to teachers in the Wilmington Normal School, 
 and at Delaware College. Newark, in which a 
 course has been organized for the purpose. The 
 graduates of the former find employment prin- 
 cipally in the schools of the city. It employs 
 .'! teachers, and holds its sessions in the eveniii", 
 and on Saturdays. The course provided for the 
 training of teachers in Delaware College, by act 
 of the legislature, in 1873, is open, free of charge, 
 to 10 students from each county, who shall bind 
 themselves to teach, after graduation, not less 
 than one year in the public schools of the state. 
 The time required for the completion of this 
 course is 3 years. The branches pursued are those 
 included in the literary course of the college, ex- 
 cept Latin and modern languages, with special 
 instruction in methods of teaching. Candidates 
 for admission to this course are appointed by the 
 members of the legislature. They must be not 
 less than 16 years of age, of good moral character, 
 and of average proficiency in English studies. 
 Diplomas are granted at the end of the 3 years' 
 course ; while, for one year or more, but Less 
 than 3 years, certificates are given indicative of 
 the proficiency acquired. The Delaware State 
 Normal University, at Wilmington, was incorpo- 
 rated in ls(;7, for the purpose of supplying an 
 advanced course to teachers. It was authorized 
 to confer all degrees customary with universities. 
 and to grant diplomas. The special degree of 
 Bachelor of School Teaching was conferrable 
 upon such students in the normal department as, 
 upon examination, were found qualified, and 
 the degree of Master of School Teaching upon 
 such as had been actually engaged in teaching 
 for 3 years after graduation. In L871, however, 
 the charter of the university was repealed, but 
 the students held a meeting shortly after, at 
 which it was resolved to continue the institution 
 without state aid. It is divided into 4 depart- 
 ments : a primary school, a select school, a me- 
 chanical and commercial school, and a high and 
 
 normal school. — Teachers' Institutes have been 
 almost exclusively confined to the city of Wil- 
 mington. The new law, however, requires the 
 
 state superintendent to hold one annually in each 
 county for three days, all the teachers of the 
 county being required to attend. The Delaware 
 State Teachers' Association was organized in 
 Wilmington, in December, L875. 
 
 Secondary Instruction. — Graded schools exist 
 in nearly all of the large towns of the state ; and, 
 in the city of Wilmington all of the schools are 
 of this character. 'I he course of study in the 
 latter requires 3 years. The branches taught are 
 those usually pursued in high schools, latin and 
 German having been added to the studies of the 
 course, in 1873, though the study of them is op- 
 tional. Craded schools, also, are in existence in 
 Dover, Smyrna, Frederica, Milford, Georgetown, 
 and Milton. Between 35 and -II) private paro- 
 chial, and charity schools and academies are 
 known to exist in the state, many of which af- 
 ford instruction usually classed as secondary. 
 
 Superior) Instruction. — 1 he only institution 
 which affords opportunities to males for a higher 
 education is the Delaware College (q. v.), at 
 Newark. The Wesleyan Female College, at 
 Wilmington, was organized in 1839. It has two 
 regular courses of study, of 4 years each, a pre- 
 paratory and a collegiate, besides partial courses 
 for special purposes. It has a library of 3,600 
 volumes, and. in 1873, reported 8 professors and 
 instructors, and 137 students. 
 
 Professional and Scientific Instruction. — The 
 agricultural department of Delaware College 
 furnishes instruction to such students as intend 
 to devote themselves to the business of agricult- 
 ure, while they, at the same, time attend to the 
 studies that constitute a liberal education. The 
 grant of 90,000 acres, made by Congress to the 
 state for the founding of an agricultural college, 
 has been given to this institution. It provides a 
 scientific and an agricultural course, admission 
 to which is granted to students of good moral 
 character who are 14 years of age, and who suc- 
 cessfully pass an examination in geography, arith- 
 metic, the elements of algebra, English grammar, 
 history of the United States, and "such branches 
 as form the basis of a complete English educa- 
 tion."' The time required for the completion of 
 each course is 3 years, the instruction in the agri- 
 cultural department being supplemented by 
 practical exercise in farming, gardening, and the 
 work of the nursery. The degree of Bachelor of 
 Philosophy is conferred by the scientific depart- 
 ment; that of Graduate in Agriculture, by the 
 agricultural department. In 1872, the admission 
 
 of females to the college classes was authorized. 
 the conditions of admission being the same as in 
 the case of males. The result is said to have 
 been very satisfactory. No special provision is 
 made by tin- state for the instruction of the deaf 
 ami dumb, the blind or the imbecile; i eh con un- 
 caring for its own. or the state bearing the ex- 
 pense of their care in the institutions specially 
 provided for the purpose by the neighboring 
 state. Pennsylvania. 
 
212 
 
 DELAWARE COLLEGE 
 
 PEXMAKK 
 
 DELAWARE COLLEGE, at Newark, 
 Del., was chartered in 1h(>7 and opened in 
 ls7u. It includes the state agricultural college, 
 established by the congressional land grant. The 
 value of its grounds, buildings, ami apparatus is 
 $50,000; the amount of its productive funds, 
 $83,000; the number of volumes in its libraries, 
 6,000. The farm of the professor of agriculture, 
 embracing about 70 acres of well-improved land 
 adjoining Newark, is used as an experimental 
 farm. Agricultural students have the oppor- 
 tunity of defraying a part of their expenses by 
 labor. The cost of tuition in the institution is 
 $24 for the first term of the year, $18 tor the 
 second, an 1 $28 fur the third. Each county in 
 the state is entitled, by a law passed in 1869, to 
 have ten students educated at the college free of 
 charge for tuition. The members of the legisla- 
 
 ture are vested witli authority to make these 
 
 appointments, each member having the right to 
 make one nomination. 
 
 In 1^7'_'. tin' trustees authorized the admission 
 
 of females to the College classes upon the same 
 
 conditions as male students. There are four 
 courses : the classical, of four years, leading to the 
 degree of Bachelor of Arts; the s %entific, includ- 
 ing agriculture, of three years. Leading to the de- 
 gree of Bachelor of Philosophy; the literary, 
 of three years, leading to the degree of Bachelor 
 of Literature; and the normal, of three years. 
 Those not desiring to take any one of the regular 
 
 courses may pursue selected studies. The lit- 
 erary course is similar to the classical, but omits 
 the higher mathematics, and substitutes one of 
 tlie modern languages for Greek. It is specially 
 designed for female students, but may be pursue I 
 by all such as prefer it to any one of the other 
 courses. The course of stu ly in the normal de- 
 partment embraces all those branches of learn- 
 ing which arc include 1 in the literary course, 
 Willi tlie exception of Latin and the modern 
 languages, for which is substituted instruction in 
 the higher essentials of a thorough English educa- 
 
 tion, and in the best and most approved methods 
 of teaching. Students who obligate themselves to 
 teach in tlie free schools of the state for not less 
 than one year receive tuition free. In L874 — 5, 
 there were 8 instructors and 5 I students in Dela- 
 ware College. At the commencement in 1875,12 
 degrees were conferred ; namely, A. 13., 3 ; Ph. 
 I'.. '.: B. I...:-. William II. I'uruell, LL. D., is 
 ( L876) the president. 
 
 DELPHIN CLASSICS, an edition of the 
 Latin classics prepared for the use of the d auphin 
 (in USU /' jihiiii) by older of Louis XIV., 
 under the editorship of Bossuet and Buet, tu- 
 tors to the dauphin. The compilers, 39 in num- 
 ber, were selected by 1 1 net from the hot scholars 
 of the time. The plan of the work comprises 
 a continuous gloss in the margin, and copious 
 foot-notes, explaining the text. The different 
 works are edited with very unequal merit ; and. 
 
 whole, the series has ceased to have any 
 special \alue iii comparison with more recent 
 
 and more accurate editions. See II M.I.AM. 
 
 Literatur >•/ Europi . vol. n. 
 
 DENISON UNIVERSITY, at Granville, 
 
 Ohio, under the control of the Baptists, was 
 founded in ls.'Jl. The buildings, three in num- 
 ber, are situated on a hill, north of the town, less 
 than 600 yards from the public square, the site 
 containing 24 acres, nearly half of which is oc- 
 cupied by a grove of old forest trees. The uni- 
 versity and society libraries contain about 11.000 
 volumes. The cabinet contains a good collection 
 of shells, and of specimens in geology, mineral' 
 Ogy, zoology, and aiclueology. The value of its 
 grounds, buildings, and apparatus is $90,000; the 
 amount of its productive funds. $190,000. The 
 university comprises a preparatory department 
 and a collegiate department, the latter having a 
 classical course of four years, leading to the de- 
 gree of Bachelor of Arts, and a scientific course 
 of three years, leading to the degree of Bachelor 
 of Science. The cost of tuition in the college is 
 Si:: for the fall term, and $10.50 each for the 
 w inter and spring terms ; in the preparatory de- 
 partment, it is $10 and $7 respectively. Students 
 for the ministry may be received a- beneficiaries 
 of the Ohio Baptist Educational Society, which 
 Supplies them with from $80 to si. "ill per annum 
 besides free tuition. In 1875 — li. there were !* in- 
 structors, and 71 collegiate and S< I preparatory 
 students. The number graduating in L875 
 was!). The Rev. E. Benjamin Andrews, A.M., 
 is (1876) the president. 
 
 DENMARK, a kingdom of Europe, has an 
 area of L4,753 sip m.. and, in 1 874, had a popula- 
 tion of 1 ,874,000. Almost the entire population 
 (over 99 per cent) belongs to the established 
 Lutheran Church ; and all public religious in- 
 struction is. accordingly, based on the original 
 Augsburg confession. — Few countries have un- 
 dergone so many vicissitudes of fortune as Den- 
 mark. During the middle ages, it was one of the 
 most powerful empires ot northern Europe. 
 
 Jutland and the Danish isles became the early 
 home of a warlike Gothic tribe, the piratical 
 Danes or Normans. King Gorm the Old sub- 
 jected all the chieftains to his Sovereignty in the 
 beginning of the 1 Ot li century. < 'anute the Great, 
 
 after 1024, extended the Danish rule over Nor- 
 way, Bouthem Sweden, and. for a short period, 
 even over England. Under the two Walde- 
 
 mars. in the I 2th and I 3th century. Mecklenburg, 
 
 I lolstein, Pomerania.and the present Baltic prov- 
 inces of Russia were added to the empire. 
 During the civil wars following their reigns. 
 many of these compicsts were lost. The so-called 
 
 Calmar Union of L397, by which Queen Margaret 
 
 united Denmark, Sweden, and Norway, was of 
 
 short duration. Under Christian UL, in 1537, 
 
 the Reformation was introduced. In 1 660, south- 
 ern Sweden, and in ISllall Norway wa - reded 
 to Sweden: and by the unfortunate war of 
 1864, against Austria and Prussia, after which 
 
 the duchies of Bchleswig, I lolstein, and l.auen- 
 hurg were re-united with Germany, the area of 
 the kingdom was reduced to iis above-stated ex- 
 tent (e elusive of Iceland, the Faroe isles, and 
 the colonies). Owing to the new liberal eon- 
 stiiittiou of 1849 (revised in L865), the industry, 
 
 
DENMARK 
 
 '213 
 
 commerce, and finances, as weD as the literary 
 and educational institutions of the country are 
 at present in a flourishing condition. 
 
 History of Public Instruction. — With the in- 
 troduction of Christianity, in 965, convent and 
 
 CAthedral schools Were opened: and, since the 
 twelfth century, while Latin was the only written 
 language of the time. •■ Latin schools" for clerics 
 and laymen of the higher classes and trades, were 
 
 established in Viborg, Ribe, Odense, Copenhagen 
 
 (1(>40). ami other towns. These institutions 
 were greatly improved by the church-reformers, 
 after 1.V57. who instituted two grades of Latin 
 schools, both under the supervision of the alergy, 
 those of the lower grade being also thrown open 
 to the children from the country. A third grade of 
 schools forpoorboys and girls, the so-called "writ- 
 ing-schools" [scholce vulgaris), excluding instruc- 
 tion in Latin, were supported and controlled by 
 the municipal authorities. In the rural districts, 
 the only instruction imparted to youth con- 
 sisted in teaching the catechism, in weekly les- 
 sons, given in one of the largest residences, 
 either by pupils of the highest class of the 
 nearest Latin school, on Saturdays, for a remu- 
 neration of free lodging and board, or by the 
 sextons, or by students of theology. The 18th 
 century is marked by a quick succession of im- 
 portant stepstoward the perfection and extension 
 of the system of instruction. Bishop Thestrup of 
 Aalborg cause* 1 six parish schools to be established 
 in < 'opeiihagen. King Frederick I V.i 1699— 1730) 
 had '_'4U substantial school-houses built on the 
 royal domains, each containing a school room and 
 a dwelling for the teacher. A royal decree of 
 17'JL regulated the organization of these schools, 
 fixing the salary of the teachers, making religion 
 and reading obligatory, writing and arithmetic 
 optional studies, and requiring the children to 
 attend school, from their .1th to their 8th year, 
 every day for 5 or 6' hours, and after this period, 
 only half a day. The royal example was followed 
 by many noblemen and landed proprietors, who 
 established similar schools on their estates for the 
 benefit of the children of their tenants. The 
 supervision of all these schools was assigned to 
 the clergy: but a general system of public in- 
 struction was not introduced until 173'.), by a de- 
 cree of Christian VI. (1730 — 174(1), ordaining 
 the establishment of common or parish schools 
 in every larger village, where religion, reading. 
 writing, and arithmetic were to he taught by 
 school-masters qualified before the clergyman. 
 The schools were to be supported by a revenue 
 fund, collections, fines, and a school tax. About 
 •'in Latin schools, in the smaller towns, were abol- 
 ished, and their funds appropriated for the com- 
 mon-school fund. The general introduction of 
 this new system was, however, thwarted by the 
 Opposition of many landed proprietors, who 
 maintained their territorial autonomy in school 
 matters. A new and liberal era was inaugurated 
 under Frederick VI., by the school law of July 
 29., L814, the principal features of which are still 
 in force. It ordained the establishment of ele- 
 mentary schools, each of two classes, in the coun- 
 
 try in every neigborhood capable of supporting a 
 
 school, and of two schools in all the larger villa 
 of an elementary burgher school, and, if feasible, 
 also of higher schools and evening classes for 
 adults in every town. Attendance was made 
 obligatory. Pour new seminaries for the edu- 
 cation of qualified teachers were erected at 
 
 Skaarup, Lyngbye, Jelling, and Ranum, in ad- 
 dition to that of Joenstrup, which was founded in 
 1791. In 1828, gymnastics were introduced 
 into all the schools of the country. A decree of 
 1838 created higher burgher schools in all the 
 towns. In 1850, the gymnasia of Nyborg, 
 Slagelse, Nakskow, Vorsingborg, and Klsinore 
 were transformed into higher real-schools. The 
 laws of 1850, ls(l4.and 1869 regulated the exam- 
 inations for admission to the university of Copen- 
 hagen, which received its fundamental statute as 
 early as 1788. 
 
 Primary Instruction. — The general super- 
 vision of the primary schools is in the hands of 
 the ministry of instruction and ecclesiastical af- 
 fairs, while each one of the seven bishops super- 
 intends the schools in his diocese. They appoint 
 all teachers in the rural districts, while the 
 school board of the Ami (a subdivision of a dio- 
 cese) appoints the teachers in the cities. The 
 ministry of instruction and ecclesiastical affairs 
 consists of two departments, one for ecclesias- 
 tical affairs, the primary schools, the normal 
 schools, and the asylums for the blind and deaf- 
 mutes ; and the other for the institutions for 
 secondary, superior, and special instruction, the 
 libraries, the scientific and art collections, the 
 academy of fine arts, the royal theater, and the 
 general administration of the ministry. A third 
 department was organized temporarily, in 1855, 
 for the elementary schools, but was abandoned 
 again in 1866. 'I he immediate supervision of 
 each school in the country is in the hands of the 
 district school board, composed of the clergy- 
 man and representatives elected from the parish. 
 Above, this is the school board of the Amt. com- 
 posed of the Amtmand (bailiff) and the clerical 
 superintendent. In the cities, the immediate 
 supervision is in the hands of a board consisting 
 of the clergyman, the mayor, and a number of 
 citizens elected to that position. 'I he duties of this 
 board coincide with those of the district school 
 board in the rural district, while the other au- 
 thorities are common to both city and country. 
 Education is compulsory according to the laws of 
 May •_'., L855, and Sept. 30., 1864. Every child 
 must attend school from the seventh year of age, 
 and the parents are forced by fines to comply 
 with this law : but no child is admitted under 
 six years of age. After the thirteenth year, a 
 child may be dismissed upon the wish of its 
 parents, if. in the opinion of the school board, 
 it has received a sufficient amount of education ; 
 and. after the fifteenth year.it must be dismissed 
 Upon the demand of its parents. The school 
 hours are. in summer, from eight to eleven in the 
 morning, and from one to four in the afternoon; 
 and in winter, from nine to twelve in the morn- 
 ing, and from one to four in the afternoon ; but 
 
214 
 
 DENMARK 
 
 few rules are laid down for the management of 
 schools, and only very few schools have printed 
 rules. For disrespect and disobedience, teach- 
 ers may resort to corporal punishment, while 
 laziness and truancy must be reported to the 
 rector or principal of the school, who inflicts a 
 proper punishment in such cases. School dia- 
 ries have been introduced in all the classes ex- 
 cept the highest. For every recitation the 
 scholar receives a mark expressed by a number, 
 6 being the highest, and the lowest. At the 
 end of every month, the marks are added up, 
 and the standing for each ensuing month is thus 
 determined. In the highest class, the daily 
 marks are discontinued, and a monthly report is 
 given instead. While the length of the school 
 term is generally left to the separate school 
 boards, the royal decree of Jan. 27., 1860, fixed 
 240 days in the year as the minimum for every 
 school. A general model course of studies for 
 the kingdom does not exist. Every teacher pre- 
 pares his own course of studies, which must be 
 approved by the school board. An equal free- 
 dom prevails in regard to the choice of text- 
 books, and in the methods of teaching used. In 
 1819, the monitorial or Lancasterian system was 
 introduced into the military school in Copen- 
 hagen, by a young officer who had observed it in 
 France. The king took great interest in the ex- 
 periment, and in 1822 the system was recom- 
 mended for introduction into all elementary 
 schools. It was, however, severely attacked by 
 Diesterweg (see Diesterweg), and gradually feil 
 into disuse, being greatly modified in those 
 schools in which it still exists. Almost every 
 town has, besides the elementary schools, at 
 least one higher primary school, or burgher real 
 school, in which a small fee is charged. The 
 course of instruction in these schools embraces 
 the following subjects: Danish language, religion, 
 arithmetic, penmanship, book-keeping, the rudi- 
 ments of algebra, geometry natural history, 
 natural philosophy, Danish and general history, 
 geography, either German, French, or English, 
 and geometrical drawing, singing, and gymnas- 
 tics. The number of primary schools in the 
 country, in 1867, was 2,781, the number of male 
 teachers 2,929, female teachers 59, the number of 
 children of school age 200,761, the number of 
 children attending public schools 194,198, and 
 the number of children attending private schools 
 13,994, making the total number of children un- 
 der instruction 208,192. The cities had, in 1867, 
 113 primary schools, with 422 male and 54 fe- 
 male teachers, and 23,352 scholars, of whom 
 6,161 attended the burgher real schools. The 
 salaries of the teachers in the cities differ con- 
 siderably from those paid in the country; but 
 both in city and country, they compare very 
 favorably with the salaries paid in other parts of 
 Europe. In the country, the remuneration con- 
 sists of a fixed salary, paid partly in money and 
 partly in grain, which is changed into money ac- 
 cording to the average price of grain for the past 
 ten years, which price is determined annually. 
 Teachers also receive, for their services as sextons, 
 
 the sum of three marks (1 rix-dollar @ 6 marks 
 = $0.55.3), payable by every child; and there is 
 an increase of salary, according to age, of from 
 twenty-five to fifty rix-dollars. Every teacher has 
 a house free, which must be kept in repair by 
 the parish, and a certain amount of school land, 
 and he receives fuel, and such provisions as eggs, 
 milk, etc. Every ten years, the ministry deter- 
 mines for each position the money value of all 
 receipts, based on the average prices for the pre- 
 ceding ten years. In 1867, the total amount 
 thus determined was 1,370,914 rix-dollars, which, 
 for 2, 5 (i(l teachers, gave an average salary of 
 534 rix-dollars. According to the law of 1856, 
 one half of the teachers in every city receive, be- 
 sides free lodging, not less than 300 rix-dollars 
 and 50 tons of barley, while the other half re- 
 ceive not less than 150 rix-dollars and 50 tons 
 of barley, so that no teacher receives less than 
 300 rix-dollars, taking everything into account. 
 The average salary of the teachers in the 
 cities, in 1867, was 690 rix-dollars. Teachers 
 throughout the kingdom are exempt from mili- 
 tary duty. Denmark has five seminaries for 
 teachers, — in Joenstrup, with 51 pupils ; in 
 Skaarup, with 75 pupils ; in Lyngbye, with 31 
 pupils ; in Ranum, with 31 pupils ; and in Jel- 
 ling, with 45 pupils ; making 233 pupils. Every 
 seminary has three classes, the course of each 
 class comprising one year. No pupfl is admitted 
 to the lowest class under 17 years of age. The 
 course of studies is as follows for all three classes: 
 religion ; reading and the Danish language and 
 
 O O OCT 
 
 literature ; arithmetic and other branches of 
 mathematics ; penmanship ; history and geog- 
 raphy ; natural history; lessons on education 
 and instruction ; music ; gymnastics; drawing ; 
 catechisation. For some years past, there have 
 been established, in various parts of the coun- 
 try, Peasants' High Schools, which are attended 
 by young farmers who come together at their 
 own expense during the winter months. In 
 these schools, lectures are delivered on the history 
 and institutions of the kingdom, and the sciences 
 relating to agriculture. The plan of instruction 
 depends chiefly on the wishes of the pupils and 
 the capacity of the teachers, who are generally 
 graduates of the university. Of these schools, 
 there were, in 1874, 49, with 2,132 male and 
 1,003 female pupils. — In Copenhagen, the pri- 
 mary schools have three classes, the two sexes are 
 instructed separately, and the course of studies is 
 a little more extended than that in other cities. 
 According to the law of 1844, modified by that 
 of 1857, the schools are governed by a board of 
 school directors, composed of the chief magistrate 
 of the city, the burgomaster who has charge of 
 school affairs, and a clergyman of the city ap- 
 pointed by the minister of instruction. The im- 
 mediate supervision is in the hands of a super- 
 intendent, who has a seat but not a vote in the 
 , board of directors. Every ward of the city and 
 suburbs has, furthermore, its own school com- 
 mittee of three members. The schools are partly 
 free and partly pay schools. They are of two 
 kinds, — those consisting of day classes in which 
 
DENMARK 
 
 DENOMINATIONAL SCHOOLS 215 
 
 the school time is six hours per day, and half -day 
 classes which are taught only four hours per day. 
 On May 1., 1874, the aggregate number of pupils 
 in the schools of Copenhagen was 22,747, while 
 the number of children of school age was 27,275. 
 Of the 4,428 children who attended no school, 
 4,286 received private instruction. At the close 
 of 1873, there were 149 private schools, with 
 11,729 pupils. Of these schools, thirteen re- 
 ceived aid from the state. School libraries have 
 been introduced in all the schools. They are 
 supported partly by the pupils, and partly by 
 state aid, and are under the control of the teachers. 
 Secondary Instruction. — By the church act of 
 1537, Latin schools, of from three to four classes, 
 were founded in all the cities of Denmark. Owing 
 to the different wars and from other causes, the 
 condition of these schools was not very favoraU* . 
 until, in 1739, Christian VI. considerably dimin- 
 ished their number, and thus obtained the neces- 
 sary means to improve the financial standing of 
 those remaining. At the sanii' time, the course 
 of instruction was extended, and the Danish lan- 
 guage introduced as a study, and in some cases 
 as the vehicle of instruction, while, up to that 
 time, instruction had been given in the Latin 
 language only. Under Christian YIL the 
 course of studies was more definitely regulated, 
 and instruction in the Danish language was 
 introduced into all the schools. The schools 
 then made steady improvement, until, in 1850, 
 they received their present form. The institu- 
 tions for secondary instruction now comprise 
 gymnasia, fashioned after the German model, 
 some of which also have real classes ; burgher 
 schools, corresponding to the German real 
 schools; and private schools. The eourse of in- 
 struction embraces a period of nine years. Pu- 
 pils upon entering must be at least ten years of 
 age, and must pass a satisfactory examina- 
 tion in various branches. The course of study 
 in the gymnasia comprises, besides a continua- 
 tion of the studies of the elementary schools, 
 Latin and Greek, one or more modern lan- 
 guages, natural history, and natural philosophy. 
 The course of study in the burgher schools, com- 
 prises Danish, French, German, English, history, 
 geography, arithmetic, geometry, natural history. 
 penmanship, and drawing. The total number of 
 secondary schools at present is 26, of which 15 are 
 gymnasia, 5 burgher schools, and 6 private schools. 
 The number of teachers, in 1873, was 163 in the 
 gymnasia, 6 in the burgher schools, and 145 in 
 the private schools, making a total of 314. The 
 number of pupils, in the same year, was 1629 in 
 the gymnasia, 410 in the burgher schools, and 1437 
 in the private schools, making a total of 3,476. 
 The amount paid for salaries of teachers, in 1871, 
 was 249,151 rix-dollars. Among the oldest and 
 wealthiest secondary schools of the kingdom, are 
 those of Soroe and Herlufsholm. The school at 
 Soroe was founded in 1580. In 1749, it was 
 •changed into the Knights" Academy. After- 
 wards, a classical school was added ; and, in 
 1849, the academy was discontinued, so that only 
 the classical school remained, which, in 1870, had 
 
 160 scholars. The school at Herlufsholm was 
 founded in 1565, and, in 1870, had 95 scholars. 
 
 Superior Instruction. — The University of 
 Copenhagen was founded in 1478 — 9 ; and at 
 present comprises four facidties, — theology, law, 
 medicine, and philosophy. It has a well equipped 
 laboratory, a botanical and zoological garden, a 
 museum of natural history, an astronomical ob- 
 servatory, and a library of 250,000 volumes. In 
 1873, it had 51 professors and about 1200 students. 
 
 Special Instruction. — The schools for special 
 instruction are as follows : A royal veterinary 
 and agricultural school, with 16 professors; a 
 polytechnic school, with 13 professors; two 
 academies of fine aits ; a technical school ; and 
 Sunday improvement schools. Besides these in- 
 stitutions, all of which are situated at or near 
 the city of Copenhagen, there are eight schools 
 of navigation at various places. 
 
 Iceland, a dependency of Denmark, was first 
 settled about 870; it became subject to Norway 
 in the beginning of the twelfth century, and to 
 Denmark in 1380. The first formal school was 
 established upon the introduction of the Christian 
 religion, near the end of the 10th century (981). 
 At present, the instruction is altogether domestic; 
 but as the clergymen are forbidden to solemnize 
 the marriage of any female who is unable to read, 
 very few natives of Iceland are found who can- 
 not read or write. The only public school in 
 Iceland is the college at lieikiavik, which has 
 six teachers and a library. Latin, French, and 
 German are taught in the college; and it also 
 has a theological course. — See Schmid, Encyclo- 
 jid'lie, vol. x.; Barnard, National Education, 
 vol. II. 
 
 DENOMINATIONAL SCHOOLS are 
 schools either under the control of a particular 
 religious denomination, or that give religious in- 
 struction according to the dogmatic tenets of 
 some particular church or sect. Denominational 
 schools that are under the direction and super- 
 vision of the church authorities of a parish, are 
 called parochial schools (q.v.). The question 
 whether the schools supported by the state should 
 have a denominational character or not, is one 
 of the most important educational controversies 
 of the present age. in the United States as well 
 as in almost every country of Europe. The 
 public-school system has been developed in close 
 connection with both church and state ; and, in 
 Em-ope. until a recent period, it has been the 
 general rule to give to the public school a de- 
 nominational character. The course of instruc- 
 tion of these schools includes instruction in the 
 creed of a particular religious denomination, to 
 which, moreover, all the teachers of the school 
 must belong. The Catholic Church, especially, 
 insists that every school, from the lowest primary 
 up to the university, should bear a distinctively 
 denominational character, and should provide 
 for religious instruction as a part of the regular 
 course. The orthodox and conservative Prot- 
 estants in Germany and in other countries of 
 the European continent, generally take the 
 same view, but more in regard to the common 
 
216 
 
 DENOMINATIONAL SCHOOLS 
 
 schools than to secondary schools and univer- 
 sities. Among the Liberal party, on the other 
 hand, there is a growing demand for the ex- 
 clusion of all instruction in the tenets of a partic- 
 ular religion from the stair schools, and for the 
 abolition of every religious distinction in the ap- 
 pointment of teachers. They demand, in the 
 place of the denominational schools (in Germany 
 called Confessionssckulen)," communal" or "na- 
 tional" schools ; but they differ among them- 
 selves as to whether religious instruction is wholly 
 to be excluded. Some desire that there should be 
 instruction in the general principles of religion 
 and morality, instead of instruction in a denomi- 
 national creed, while others prefer the total exclu- 
 sion of religious teaching. (See Diesterweg.) 
 
 The Catholic cyclopedia of education by 
 ltolfus and Pfister (Real-Encydopadie des AV- 
 ziehungs- und Unlerricktswesen$,airt. t 'ommunal- 
 sclnib'ii) adduces, among others, the following 
 arguments in behalf of denominational schools. 
 The public school is intended not merely to im- 
 part instruction, but to take pari in the work of 
 education. Its educational Function is not of a 
 preparatory or continuing character, but it is to 
 aid and to accompany borne education. The 
 Litter i> based on religion, without which a good 
 education is impossible. A school which does 
 not provide for religious instruction and educa- 
 tion, subjects a child to influences directly in 
 conflict with the education received at borne. — 
 
 Religious instruction is, more than any other 
 
 branch, suited to initiate a child into an under- 
 standing of abstract ideas. It offers the most 
 interesting material for exercises in reading and 
 writing, and for the development of the intel- 
 lectual as well as the emotional faculties of the 
 child. It is unquestionably better suited than 
 
 mere exercises in reading, writing, and arith- 
 metic, to establish a bond of affection between 
 teacher and pupil. In the eyes of the im- 
 mense majority of people, instruction in their 
 own religion is the most important and the most 
 desirable that can be given to their children ; 
 
 and. hence, the authority of a teacher who is not 
 
 permitted to give religious instruction, must be 
 
 lowered in their estimation. The public Bel I 
 
 is supported by those who have the right to 
 
 demand that the subject to which they attach 
 
 the greatest importance should not be excluded 
 from the course of instruction. The strong con- 
 victions of a teacher manifest themselves chiefly 
 
 in his religious belief . Schools, therefore, which 
 
 compel the teacher to repress everything that re- 
 Sects his religious convictions, may be expected 
 
 to have as teachers few persons of linn prin- 
 ciples. Where state and chinch are allied iii the 
 supervision of denominational schools, the state 
 government fully knows what ideas of good and 
 bad, of virtue, or of conscience arc taught; but 
 where teachers are appointed without regard to 
 their religious news, and where the church is 
 excluded from superintending the instruction, it 
 will be impossible to keep out of the schools the 
 Boost destructive views of religion and morality, 
 which teachers without religious principles will 
 
 find it easy to inculcate indirectly on many oc- 
 casions. When undenominational schools are 
 the rule in a community, very many parents are 
 dissatisfied, and private institutions, combining 
 religious with other instruction, flourish. But it 
 is not for the interest of the state that a large 
 portion of the population should, in a demon- 
 strative niiinner. express its want of confidence in 
 state institutions, and patronize schools which 
 have been organized for the express purpose of 
 neutralizing the effect aimed at by the legislation 
 of the state. 
 
 The Protestant cyclopaedias of education 
 edited by K. A. Schmid {EncyclopacHe des Er- 
 ziehungswesens etc., and P&dagogisches Hand- 
 buck, art. Confessions- tend Commimcdschu- 
 A/'i. take the same view. The Padagogische 
 Handbuch says: " Religious school instruction 
 is specially a want of the evangelical child. The 
 church of the Word builds itself up by the un- 
 | derstanding and recognition of the Word ; there- 
 fore her children must be supplied with religious 
 knowledge; Bible history, the most beautiful 
 sentences of the Bible, and the fundamental 
 doctrines of the Gospel must be inculcated for 
 belief and practice in life; the treasure of the 
 songs of the church must be opened to them for 
 edification; and they must Learn to join in the 
 chorus of the congregation. The Catholic 
 Church. with a form of worship which captivates 
 the senses, with its religious ceremonies, into 
 which even small children are introduced, and 
 which are constantly practiced by its members. 
 produces naturally a certain religious habit, 
 which interweaves iiselt with the ideas and emo- 
 tional tendencies, and thus proves a strong bond 
 of union for the church. With us. the mind is 
 chiefly addressed to impress religious convic- 
 tions: and. hence, to exclude religious instruction 
 from our schools must fatally injure the relig- 
 ious, moral, and ideal life of our Protestant 
 
 congregations." 
 
 The advocates of denominational schools also 
 point to the fact that the results llms far 
 
 obtained by the undenominational school have 
 
 failed to satisfy even the most zealous among its 
 defenders. Cue of the leaders of the Liberal 
 
 party of Prussia, Miquel, in a speech made in 
 the Prussian house of deputies, March L2., L875, 
 said : •• The system of undenominational schools 
 in the Netherlands, which prohibits teachers 
 from giving religious instruction, but provides 
 that time and permission be given to the pupils 
 to receive religious instruction from the clergy- 
 men of the several denominations to which they 
 belong, was introduced under the liberal ministry 
 of Thorbecke. This great statesman subsequently 
 saw and acknowledged to me, that the system, in- 
 stead of promoting friendly relations between 
 different religious denominations, had widened 
 the breach. The pupils of the public schools 
 either received no religious instruction at all, or 
 being instructed by clergymen, became more at- 
 tached to denominational differences, than would 
 nave been the case, if the religious instruction 
 
 had been given by the school-teacher.'' 
 
DENOMINATION A I, SCHOOLS 
 
 217 
 
 Hut although the fruits of the undenomina- 
 tional school system in Holland and elsewhere 
 have tailed to satisfy its friends, public opinion 
 in Europe appears to be abandoning more and 
 more the old system of denominational schools. 
 The new school law of Austria, of the year 1S(1S, 
 recognizes the principle of national or communal 
 schools, though it authorizes the churches to 
 establish their own denominational schools. In 
 Bavaria, the new law of L873 gives to town coun- 
 cils the power to consolidate the existing denomi- 
 national schools, and thus to form undenomina- 
 tional communal schools; and many towns have 
 made haste to avail themselves of the privilege. 
 The leaders in the great conflict of the state gov- 
 ernmentsof Europe with the Catholic Church con- 
 cerning the public school, all favor, more or less, 
 the undenominational school. In England, where 
 the traditional distrust of the government in mat- 
 ters relating to the school is still very apparent in 
 the actual condition of school matters, an immense 
 majority of all the schools deriving support from 
 the government, bear a strictly denominational 
 character. The advocates of secularism in state 
 education are. however, becoming more numerous 
 and more powerful ; and even those who favor 
 denominationalism are beginning to endorse the 
 underlying principle of undenominational state 
 education. Says Dr. Higg. in National Educa- 
 tion, ■■ It must be admitted that, if the state is to 
 interfere at all directly in the matter of popular 
 education, its own function and responsibility 
 should certainly be limited to that which is un- 
 sectarian. and, if it were possible, would most 
 conveniently be limited to that which is secular, 
 in instruction and restdts. Here I find myself, 
 in principle, pretty well agreed with the secular- 
 ists. It is where they would forbid the co-ope- 
 ration of ( 'luistian organizations and of Chris- 
 tian teaching, otherwise provided, with the func- 
 tions and work of the state in popidar education, 
 that, in common with most others, I am obliged 
 to differ." 
 
 In the United States, the undenominational 
 character of the public school has always been 
 its most distinctive feature. The teaching of the 
 doctrinal tenets of particidar denominations is 
 every-where excluded from the course of instruc- 
 tion. In many states, as in Arkansas, Illinois, 
 Kansas, Kentucky, Massachusetts, Nevada, Ne- 
 braska. New Jersey, New York, Ohio, South 
 Carolina, and AYisconsin, the constitution of the 
 state expressly forbids sectarian instruction and 
 control. But even where the constitution of the 
 state has not sanctioned the principle by a spe- 
 cial provision, the practice is universally the 
 same. The growth of the undenominational 
 school was the natural fruit of the voluntary 
 system which pervades all American institutions, 
 and which, in particular, excluded the influence 
 of the state from all religious matters. Although 
 in the United States there is no state church, 
 as in the states of Europe, a larger number of 
 religious denominations than are found any- 
 where else, live together in the possession of 
 equal rights. The co-existence of various de- 
 
 nominations in almost every one of the numer- 
 ous small townships which do not need more 
 than one school, would have made the estab- 
 lishment of a number of schools a practical im- 
 possibility. Moreover, the separation between 
 church and state has caused Americans generally 
 to look upon religion as upon something belong- 
 ing exclusively to the family and to the church. 
 The proper places to provide for religious in- 
 struction appeared, therefore, to them to be the 
 family and, especially, the Sunday-school. The 
 only religious element which a very large portion 
 of American educators desire to retain in the 
 common schools, is the reading of a passage of 
 the Bible, and the opening of the school by 
 prayer. Among the Protestants of the United 
 States, this view has still decidedly the ascend- 
 ency ; and several state constitutions expressly 
 provide that the Bible shall not be excluded 
 from the public schools. (See Bible.) 
 
 The most earnest and united opposition to the 
 undenominational American school is made by 
 the Roman Catholic Church. It disapproves 
 the practice of having the Bible without note or 
 comment, read by or to the pupils ; it complains 
 of the reading of a Protestant version of the 
 Bible to Catholic children as an injustice ; but it 
 still more objects to any system of instruction 
 which excludes the teaching; of religion from its 
 regular course. It has, therefore, put forth the 
 claim for a division of the school funds of the 
 state anions; all religious denominations in a fair 
 proportion, in order that it may be used by them 
 for the support of denominational schools. This 
 claim of the Roman Catholics has led to a pro- 
 tracted and interesting controversy, which is not 
 yet ended. The fundamental principle on which 
 the claim is based, that, from an educational point 
 of view, it is desirable to include religious teach- 
 ing in the regular course of instruction, has been 
 conceded by not a few of their opponents; and 
 cases have not been wanting in which Protestant 
 congregations have asked for the support of their 
 denominational schools out of the public funds. 
 Some eminent statesmen also, like Wm. H. Sew- 
 ard, were disposed to recognize the Catholic de- 
 mand as being, in the main, fair, and to concede it. 
 Public opinion, however, in the progress of the 
 controversy, has taken a very determined stand 
 in opposition to the Catholic view and in favor 
 of the undenominational school. The majority 
 of the American people, at the present time, un- 
 doubtedly hold that religion is a matter entirely 
 voluntary and individual, which every person 
 should regulate according to the dictates of Ms 
 own conscience, and in which the public author- 
 ities should in no way interfere ; that churches, 
 in the eyes of the state, are only voluntary asso- 
 ciations of families holding the same religious 
 views; and that the rearing of children in any 
 religious tenets whatever, should, therefore, be 
 left wholly and exclusively to the families and 
 the churches; that the families have it in their 
 power to supply, in Sunday-schools, all the re- 
 ligious instruction they desire their children to 
 receive ; that the state has no right to tax people 
 
218 DENOMINATIONAL SCHOOLS 
 
 DETROIT 
 
 for ecclesiastical objects ; and that the exclusive 
 aim of schools supported by the public funds 
 should be to tit their pupils for the discharge of 
 their civil obligations. To the most interesting 
 episodes of this conflict belongs the religious con- 
 troversy in the city of New York from 1840 to 
 1842. During the absence of bishop Hughes in 
 Europe, the Catholics of the city of New York, 
 in L839, organized an opposition to the public- 
 school system. On his return, bishop Hughes, in 
 1 840, himself took the lead, and drew up a peti- 
 tion to the common council, praying thai seven 
 parochial schools should be designated as "en- 
 titled to participate in the common-school fund, 
 Upon complying with the requirements of the 
 law." I lis demand being rejected by the common 
 council, the matter was brought before the legis- 
 lature; and when he was baffled in his suit there 
 also, he recommended the Catholics to nominate 
 independenl candidates in the ensuing elections, 
 thus commencing a movement which developed 
 into considerable strength. The controversy was 
 finally settled by the passage of the act of April 
 11., 1 s 4 2 . which provided that "no school shall 
 be entitled to, Or receive, any portion of the school 
 moneys, in which the religious doctrines or tenets 
 of any particular Christian or other religious 
 seel shall l>c taught, inculcated, or practiced, or 
 
 in which any book or books containing compo- 
 sitions favorable or prejudicial to the particular 
 
 doctrines or tenets of any sect shall be used." 
 The Catholic bishops have since taken the same 
 ground as bishop Hughes ; and. in many cases. 
 have adopted very decisive measures against the 
 
 public schools. In some places, as in Pough- 
 keepsie. N. V., a compromise has been effected 
 between the common council and the represen- 
 tatives of the Catholic congregations, by means 
 of which thi' parochial schools have been placed 
 under the supervision of the city superintendent. 
 and thus enabled to participate in the school 
 fund of the city ; but on the whole, public op- 
 pinion appears to pronounce itself in favor of 
 fully carrying out the principle of the undenomi- 
 national school, without the slightest compromise. 
 
 When the subject was agitated in Ohio, in the 
 electoral campaign of 1ST I. the state conventions 
 of both Republicans and Democrats formally de- 
 dared in favor of the principle of the unsectarian 
 school. The legislature of New York, in April 
 
 L876, almost unanimously declared itself in favor 
 of the same principle. President Grant, in his 
 message of Dec 7, L875, thought it proper to 
 bring this matter to the attend f Congress, 
 
 and most earnestly recommended thai a constitu- 
 tional amendment should be submitted to the 
 
 Legislatures of the several slates for ratification, 
 making it the duty of each of the states to 
 establish and forever maintain free Bchools ade- 
 quate to afford an elementary education to all 
 
 the children within its limits, irrespective of Bex, 
 
 color, birthplace, or religion, fori lidding the teach- 
 ing, in said schools. of religious, atheist ic,or pagan 
 tenets, and prohibiting the granting of any school 
 
 funds, or school taxes, or any pari thereof. either 
 
 DJ legislative, municipal, or Other authority, for 
 
 the benefit or in aid, directly or indirectly, of any 
 religious sect or denomination. — See S. S. Rax- 
 n \i,i,. History of Common Schools of New York 
 (N. Y.,1871); BoESE, Hi stun/ of the School System 
 of the City of New IW.'lX. V.. IsC'.l :' IIas- 
 SABD, Life of Archbishop Hughes (N. Y., 1866); 
 Potter, Religion in Public Schools; The pro- 
 posed substitution of sectarian for put, lie free 
 schools (New Haven, 1848): Rigg, National 
 Education in its Social Conditions and Aspects 
 ( London, 1873); Mayo, Tlie Bible in the Public 
 Schools (N. Y.. 1870); Bourne. History of the 
 Public School Society (X. Y., 1870): Wimmer, 
 Die Kirche und Schule in Nordamerika (Leips., 
 L853); Dulon, Ueber Schule, deutsche Schule, 
 amerikan isclie Seliulc und deutsch-amerikanische 
 Schule (Leips., 1866); Rolfds, Wider die Com- 
 munahchiden (Mayence. i -'■'■'■ ; Sickixger, Die 
 Communal&chulen (Mayence. Is71 1; Becker, Der 
 Streit zwischen Materialismus und Christen- 
 thum in der Schule (3d edit., Heidelberg, l v 71). 
 DENTISTRY, Schools of. See .Medical 
 
 Schools. 
 
 DEPARTMENTAL SYSTEM, or Sub- 
 ject System, a method of school organization 
 in which each department of instruction or sub- 
 ject of study is assigned to a particular teacher, 
 instead of requiring each teacher to give instruc- 
 tion to a particular class in all the branches of 
 study pursued. This system is rarely employed 
 in schools for primary instruction; but, in those 
 of a higher grade, is nearly universal. In regard 
 to its advantages and disadvantages, as compared 
 with the class system, many considerations are 
 urged; and the experience of instructors seems 
 to be quite diverse as to its success. The chief 
 argument in its favor is, that it would narrow 
 the range of subjects required to be mastered by 
 a single teacher, and. in this way. improve the 
 character of the instruction imparted. For other 
 considerations in regard to this question, see 
 Class. 
 
 depravity. see moral education. 
 
 DES MOINES, University of, at Des 
 Moines. Iowa. was chartered in L865. It is under 
 
 the control of the Baptists, and admits both sexes. 
 
 It occupies a tine park Of five acres, and a four- 
 story brick building on an eminence command- 
 ing aline view 01 the city and vicinity. The 
 
 library contains 2,000 volumes. The value of 
 its building, grounds, and apparatus is $50,000 ; 
 the amount of its productive funds $40,000. In 
 L875 6, there were <i instructors and 139 pre- 
 paratory and L8 collegiate students. The lion. 
 Frederick Mottis (1876) president. 
 
 DETROIT, the principal city of Michigan. 
 situated on the N. \Y. side of the Detroil river, 
 about 18 miles from -Lake Erie. The river is 
 
 only about a half a mile wide at this point : 
 hence the name of the city (Pr. Detroit, narrow). 
 The population of this city, according to the 
 census of L870, was 79,597, Of whom 35,381 were 
 
 of foreign birth, and of these nearly 13,000 were 
 
 natives of Germany. The number of colored 
 
 persons \\as 2,325. The firsl permanent settle- 
 ment on the site of this city was made by the 
 
DETROIT 
 
 219 
 
 French in 1701. In 17fi3, it passed under the 
 government of the Rnglish. 
 
 Educational History. — The earliest school hav- 
 ing any authentic record is that of the Rev. 
 David Bacon, established in 1802. Two years 
 afterward, mention is made of two other 
 schools, but particulars in regard to them have 
 not been preserved. A theological school was 
 opened at this time also; but the fire of 1805 
 caused it to be discontinued. About this time, 
 the firs! tree school in the city was opened, un- 
 der Catholic control, near St. Ann's Church, on 
 Lamed street. It was a girls* school; and an in- 
 teresting fact in regard to it is, that three dozen 
 spinning-wheels were kept in the school, on which 
 the pupils were taught to spin. Information in 
 regard to schools from the time of the great fire 
 of I si >f> to 1816, is exceedingly meager. A so- i 
 called common school was opened on the 10th of 
 June, L816, by a Mr. Danforth of New England; 
 and. in July following, he had 40 pupils. In 
 1817, the governor and judges passed an act to 
 establish the "Catholepisteiniad. or University of 
 Michigania". The energies of the projectors of I 
 this formidable institution, however, appear to 
 have been spent in the production of its name, 
 and the passage of the act authorizing its estab- 
 lishment, as no record of its existence can be 
 found, though the result of the act, known as 
 the ('atholepistemiad Act, was an increase of 
 the public taxes by 15 percent, the establishment 
 of a primary school, and the designation of read- 
 ing, writing, arithmetic, and English grammar 
 as the stui lies to be pursued in it. Instruction 
 in the classical department of this primary school, 
 was begun in 1818. The same year, a Lancas- 
 terian school was established, which in 1823, 
 was committed to the care of John Farmer, 
 who had been specially designated for the work 
 by the trustees of the University of Michigan, a 
 branch of which had been established in Detroit. 
 In 1 834, on the site now occupied by the city-hall 
 was erected a building for a female seminary, 
 which was continued till 1842. In 1836, AY. 
 A. Bacon opened a select school on the site 
 of the present cathedral, which he conducted 
 for 38 years. In 1838, a public school was 
 opened in the second ward; and, in 1841, the 
 first separate coined school was opened, with 88 
 pupils. The unsatisfactory operation of the school 
 law, however, led to the appointment, in 1841, of a 
 ial committee of inspection, which reported 
 that there were 27 schools in the city, furnishing 
 instruction to 714 pupils, at a cost of $12,600; 
 while there were 1,850 children without instruc- 
 tion. The result of this examination was a rec- 
 ommendation that the legislature be petitioned 
 for an amendment of the city charter permitting 
 the creation, by annual popular vote, of a board 
 of education, and direct taxation for the support 
 of the schools. The opponents of this proposition 
 were numerous; but the measure was sustained 
 by the people at an election ordered for the pur- 
 pose, and was embodied in a law Feb. L8., 1842. 
 ' nder this law, with a few amendments, the 
 
 Schools were administered till 1868, when the 
 
 present law was passed. The first board of edu- 
 cation met March lf>. . L842, consisting of twelve 
 members, including the mayor and recorder of 
 the city, ex officio, the former as president. Two 
 years afterward, the Bible question was intro- 
 duced, and led to an exciting discussion which 
 lasted a year, ending in a compromise which pro- 
 vided that any school might be opened by read- 
 ing a portion of the Bible without comment, such 
 reading to be optional with the teacher, and at- 
 tended with the penalty of removal in case of 
 comment. In 1847, the number of children be- 
 tween the ages of 5 and 17, was 2,239. The first 
 graded school, known as the Old Capitol School, 
 was opened in 1848. In L 852, the question of a 
 sectarian division of the school fund was agitated; 
 but the resulting election, in L853, expressed the 
 will of a large majority of the people in opposi- 
 tion to such division, and the question has not 
 been revived. The first high school was estab- 
 lished in 1858. The supervision of the schools 
 was originally confined to the inspectors, and so 
 continued till 1863, when J. M. B. Sill was ap- 
 pointed to the office of superintendent. 1 lis suc- 
 cessor, in 1865. was Duane Doty, who held the 
 office until 1875, when Mr. Sill was re-appointed, 
 and again appointed in 187(5, for 3 years. 
 
 School System. — The care of the schools is in- 
 trusted to a board of education, consisting of two 
 inspectors from each ward, elected by the people 
 biennially, one half going out of office each year. 
 The mayor and recorder are members, ex officio, 
 but without vote. The board appoints annually 
 a superintendent, whose duties are those usually 
 discharged by such officers. The schools are sup- 
 ported by an annual city tax of not more than 5 
 mills on every dollar of real and personal prop- 
 erty. The school year comprises a period of not 
 less than 3 months. The school age is from 5 
 to 20 years. Connected with the system is a 
 public library, the building for which was only 
 recently begun. The schools are divided into 
 three classes : primary, grammar, and high 
 schools. The total' number of schools, in 1875, 
 was 28, including 2 evening schools. The chief 
 items of school statistics for the year are : 
 Number of children of school age (5—20) 34,593 
 
 " " " enrolled 13,739 
 
 Average enrollment (number belonging) 9,294 
 
 " daily attendance 8,760 
 
 Number of teachers, mules 9 
 
 " " " females 212 
 
 Total 221 
 
 Receipts (1875) $211,690.23 
 
 Expenditures (1875) $169,503.69 
 
 Total valuation of school property $735,192.00 
 
 Besides the public schools, there are several 
 Catholic schools, a German Lutheran school, a 
 German-American seminary, and several public 
 libraries containing aboul 40,000 volumes. For 
 information in regard to institutions for higher, 
 professional, and special instruction see Michigan. 
 For details in relation to the early educational 
 history of Detroit, see \V. I). Wilkins, Reminis- 
 cences and Traditions of the Detroit Schools, 
 published in the Twenty-eighth Aim mil Report of 
 the Boardof Education (Detroit, 1871). 
 
220 
 
 DKYKLOPfNU METHOD 
 
 DEVELOPING METHOD is a term in- 
 troduced into the science and practice of peda- 
 fchrough the philosophy of Herhart, and 
 
 popularized among Kurnpean teachers through 
 its greatest followers, Beneke and Biesterweg. It 
 
 means an education of the natural endowments 
 
 of the individual according to the psychologic 
 laws of human development, and to the exclusion 
 of all purposes foreign to such development. The 
 term, in some respects, is a misnomer, as it im- 
 plies far more than it expresses. It means a 
 system, realized in, or applicable to, a variety of 
 educational methods, and based on the fundamen- 
 tal principle, that human nature alone, as devel- 
 oped and shown in its best products through a 
 long historical period, should be the guiding star 
 in all educational efforts. Herhart. who was the 
 first among the German philosophers, in oppo- 
 sition to the prevailing speculative philosophy, 
 to apply the method of induction to philosophy, 
 and who based his system on inductive psy- 
 chology, and treated the latter mathematically, 
 wrote as early as L806 a work on pedagogy, en- 
 titled Vie aUgemeine Pcedagogik, dbgeleitet aus 
 dem Zweck der ffli'ziehung, in which the new 
 drift of educational ideas inaugurated by Rous- 
 seau and Pestalozzi, was reduced to logical prin- 
 ciples, lie was the first in history to render in- 
 telligible the processes in the human soul which 
 lead to memory, comparison, the distinct ion of im- 
 pressions and their growth into mental images, 
 notions, judgment and reason, disposition and 
 will: and. in so doing, he reasoned from the 
 established facts of consciousness, and develope I 
 along scries of mathematical formulae, as evi- 
 dences of his correctness in interpreting the facts. 
 Beneke, more straightforward than I [erbart,gave, 
 in his Lehrbuch der Psychologie ate Naturwissen- 
 schaft (1833), and Erziehungs- und Unterrichts- 
 
 lekre (1835), a very lucid and common-sense ex- 
 position of this new system of psychology, in its 
 application to pedagogy, which, through Diester- 
 weg's practical treatises and school books, grew 
 almost universally popular among the German 
 teachers. What the evolution theory is in modern 
 natural science - an explanation of natural effects 
 from natural causes according to general laws 
 that can be verified by the evidences of the senses 
 
 and logical reasoning, that is the developing 
 
 method with regard to mental facts and laws, in 
 
 matters of education. The founders of this 
 system did not go so far as to reach all the legiti- 
 mate conclusions which may ultimately lie drawn 
 
 from its principle, ami which were drawn by the 
 succeeding generation of teachers. The system, 
 
 aB now taught and practiced by men like hides 
 and some of FroebeTs followers, has undergone a 
 
 series of gradual improvements, and seems capable 
 
 "t many more; since human nature itself is a 
 subject that receives, through the constant im- 
 provement of all the natural sciences, a daily 
 increasing illustration. NOT is there, as yet, 
 
 a tolerably full agreement among the foremost 
 pedagogical writers upon what may be consid- 
 ered the genuine development of human nature: 
 
 but the principle itself, that tin' 8] taneous 
 
 growth of all the faculties of the mind into 
 the greatest possible harmony should be facil- 
 itated according to the laws of normal devel- 
 opment, not counteracted : guided, but not 
 curbed; and all this in the order which is in- 
 dicated by nature herself — this principle seems 
 to be so well established, that, henceforth, only 
 its interpretation can be doubtful. 
 
 This new psychology sails clear of all the rocks 
 of preconcerted systems and of the maelstrom 
 of party strife ; it deals with none but demon- 
 strable facts. Such facts are, that there is no 
 beginning of mental action in the newborn child 
 except by impressions from without; that the 
 latter, called traces, cannot grow into distinct 
 images without a grouping of the traces in an 
 order corresponding to the outward objects; 
 that we can verify by actual experiment, both 
 with animals and men. the laws according to 
 which equal traces strengthen each other, similar 
 ones aggregate and form opposites to dissimilar 
 groups of traces : that fugitive impressions have 
 obscure traces, lasting or often repeated impres- 
 sions, clear traces: that one trace or set of traces 
 is for a time obscured by new ones, and that the 
 consciousness of an image is the effect of either 
 pleasure or pain of the mind in consequence of 
 the impressions, etc., etc. The theory goes on to 
 show that all the higher mental processes are re- 
 petitions of the photographic action of the first 
 traces, in a higher order, and follow with mathe- 
 matical exactness their laws. A normal pedagogy 
 is. therefore, possible, independent of philosoph- 
 ical systems. Disputed questions of physiology 
 and psychology concern only unimportant topics, 
 and, therefore, may be ignored and left to the 
 future development of science; but it is all-im- 
 portant, in pedagogy, to demonstrate clearly all 
 the conditions without which no mind can grow, 
 whatever the nature of mind itself may be con- 
 sidered to be. 
 
 It is, therefore, of the first importance to cul- 
 tivate the action of the senses, the gates to all 
 
 mental development, in such a way as to render 
 them self-active by their appropriate combina- 
 tion with pleasure and pain: next, to offer to their 
 self activity a succession of outward impressions 
 which will leave distinct and. by repetition, 
 lasting traces and the most complete images of 
 objects, accompanied by sensations and impulses. 
 The first consciousness being tliusawakened.it 
 
 follows that a comparison and distinction of the 
 
 representations once produced must lead to both 
 clear notions of their single features and clear 
 consciousness of the mind, without which the 
 origin of self-consciousness would be retarded. 
 and its growth stunted. The latter taking its 
 
 start from the first efforts in speaking, language 
 becomes the chief means Of education, audits 
 proper use 00 the part of the educator, in con- 
 nection with the objects designated, the way to 
 the Subsequent normal development. The gap 
 in this system left between this stage and the 
 first school age was qoI filled until Froebel. 
 Btarting from a somewhat different stand-point, 
 invented his kindergarten play-. 
 
DEVELOPING MKTHOI) 
 
 221 
 
 (Jivat stress is, in this system, laid CO) tin- <^i;ulual 
 progress of education, which, alter all. is little 
 
 i v than instruction, a somewhat one-aided 
 
 culture of the intellect, the imagination, ami the 
 memory. The teacher is to proceed from the 
 simple t<> the compound, from the concrete to 
 the abstract, from perception to reflection in the 
 pupil, from examples to rules, from/acts to laws. 
 II is to be more a guide than a teacher ; he is 
 not to tell his pupils any thing which they can be 
 Jed to find out themselves. He is to present 
 them just mental food enough. and no more, at a 
 time, than can be fully digested ; and that food 
 oindit to be adapted to the age and degree of 
 development. Every kind of mental food ought 
 to be so fully digested as to contribute to the in- 
 crease of every mental faculty. The pupil is to 
 be rendered his own teacher : his self-activity is 
 to he fostered first, last, and at all times. 
 
 The cultivation of the memory at the expense of 
 observation and reflection, which, in all routine 
 teaching, plays so prominent a part, is made un- 
 i ssary by stimulating the mental appetite and 
 digestive power of the pupil : whatever is fully un- 
 derstood will forever remain mental property. All 
 mechanical drill, and all moral preaching, is more 
 hurtful than useful, because skill in the learner is 
 to grow out of repeated self-appropriation con- 
 nected with that pleasure which accompanies 
 the satisfaction of every mental appetite; and 
 b cause an appropriate mental food is conducive 
 to moral power. Development means self devel- 
 opment, guided by well-developed educators. 
 
 It is evident that this new system exacts a far 
 higher standard of abilities and attainments in 
 the educator than ever before had been deemed 
 necessary. This necessity led to a considerable 
 improvement in the course of training of pupil- 
 hers in the German and other normal schools. 
 '• The teacher is the school,'' was the maxim in- 
 culcated there. If he be the proper person 
 destined by natural gifts and prepared for his 
 calling by a careful study of mental phenomena 
 and a long theoretic and practical training, he 
 will make up for the short-comings of text-books, 
 apparatus, and previous education. If he be full 
 of enthusiasm for his sacred task of forming 
 minds, and patient in all his laborious methods, 
 he will mould his pupils' minds and morals by 
 means of their self-development. The rational 
 sobriety of this system w r as greatly aided by the 
 marvelous spirit of self-devotion and educational 
 enthusiasm which had been engendered in the 
 teaching fraternity by Pestalozzi ; and it may 
 be called a fact, that hardly ever, or anywhere, 
 Was there done such intelligent and faithful 
 work in thousands of schools, and for so scanty a 
 remuneration, as in the develo/rhi</-/»ir///od schools 
 up to the period of the " School Regulations " 
 (Schidreg illative). 
 
 Among the reforms in special methods that 
 followed in the wake of this system, must first 
 be mentioned the introduction of phonic or 
 phonetic reading. Spelling was altogether super- 
 seded, and orthographical writing exercises sub- 
 stituted, based on a few rules which the pupils 
 
 had to deduce for themselves from a comparison 
 of examples. Griiser ami Vbgel Improved this 
 method, which is liable to lie too mechanically 
 applied, by combining it with the writing-read- 
 ing and the synihetico-analytic methods. The 
 former begins with analyzing the single sounds 
 of which the words consist and teaching the 
 written signs for them, and continues with 
 writing these and other words; printed words, 
 or rather sentences, are introduced when the 
 pupils can read all written letters, and there- 
 after all that has been read must be faultlessly 
 copied. The latter begins with sentences that 
 must be analyzed into their component words, 
 and the words into their component sounds; 
 the corresponding sigfts (letters) are then given, 
 either in written, or in printed form (or in both — 
 Douais method exemplified in his Rational 
 Readers) and then synthesis-reading begins, ac- 
 companied with constant copying exercises, 
 which must be faithfully controlled. Another 
 improvement has been effected by connecting 
 penmanship exercises witli the first writing exer- 
 cises by means of time-beating (Takischreiberi). 
 The object is to prevent the formation of careless 
 habits instead of weeding them out when formed, 
 which is still further aimed at by reading in 
 concert, alternately with individual reading. 
 In arithmetic, the beginning was made with 
 mental exercises in the analytic method ; but 
 there is a great variety in the methods of con- 
 necting analysis with ciphering, and in the extent 
 to which it is carried. Great importance, how- 
 ever, is universally attributed to a full understand- 
 ing of the value of numbers, both single and in 
 their decimal orders. Some methods, progressing 
 through concentric circles of 1 — 10, 10 — 100, 
 100 — 1000, etc., involve within each circle, all 
 the four ground rules ; some, only addition and 
 subtraction together, and, later, multiplication 
 and division together ; some, only one at a tin^ 
 with larger concentric circles, etc. Some intro- 
 duce the elements of fractions at a very early 
 epoch, dividing them also into concentric circles ; 
 some introduce decimal fractions even before 
 common fractions. Object lessons in special 
 branches according to the older (Pestalozzian) 
 process were to some extent crowded out when 
 all teaching became object teaching; yet spe- 
 cial object lessons in zoology and botany, geom- 
 etry and geography, remained favorite branches 
 in most plans of teaching. The method of teach- 
 ing the mother-tongue is also very variable ; but, 
 through all that variety, a tendency is conspic- 
 uous to make the most of the pupil's self-activity 
 by guiding him to form sentences orally and in 
 writing, whether for orthographical, grammat- 
 ical, rhetorical, or elocutionary purposes. Gram- 
 matical analysis with parsing tills far less time 
 than synthesis. It is a strange fact that the 
 study of Latin and Greek has, only very recently 
 and to a very limited extent, been subjected to 
 the same method; but the modern languages 
 were treated in the analytico-synthetic way (this 
 way ought not to lie confounded with the Ahn 
 or Ollendorf method, from which it is distin- 
 
222 DEVOTIONAL EXERCISES 
 
 DICKINSON COLLEGE 
 
 guished by scientific, pedagogic spirit, and a far 
 greater efficiency). This method may be called 
 wager's method. There is an endless variety of 
 special methods in all branches of primary and 
 secondary instruction, which it is not necessary 
 here to explain. 
 
 It is useless to discuss the merits and short- 
 comings of special methods, since any one of them 
 that lias passed the ordeal of a practical applica- 
 tion in the school room may be called good, be- 
 cause adapted to the genius both of the teacher 
 and his particular class of pupils. No single prac- 
 tical method can claim universal applicability ; 
 everyone will have to be modified to be adapted, 
 not only to every other teacher's peculiar de- 
 velopment, but also to that of every other 
 class or pupil. He is a bad follower of the 
 developing method who treats, year in and year 
 out, every new class of pupils according to a 
 stereotyped manner for each branch of instruc- 
 tion, instead of accommodating himself to the 
 wants of the class. The developing method 
 means nothing more nor less than that there 
 shall be method in all the teacher's doings. — a 
 well-concerted plan, calculated to develop every 
 gift of each pupil by educating him to self- 
 activity in every branch of the curriculum, and 
 to produce a certain degree of uniform general 
 development without neglecting either the for- 
 ward, or the backward portion of his class. And 
 high as this standard of abilities in the true edu- 
 cation may he. experience proves that it will be 
 almost universally realized, if the position of the 
 teacher be sufficiently remunerative, independent, 
 and honored, to attract to the profession all 
 persons born to be teachers. This realization has, 
 moreover, been considerably facilitated by the 
 preparation for the primary classes, which may 
 be obtained from Proebel's Kindergarten. 
 
 DEVOTIONAL EXERCISES. See Re- 
 ligious Education. 
 
 DIARY, School, a daily record of the les- 
 sons, recitations, deportment, etc.,of pupils, kept 
 in a small book which is taken home each day, 
 or each week, to be exhibited to the parents, 
 whose inspection is attested by their signature 
 previous to the diary's being returned to the 
 teacher. Thus, a constant correspondence is kept 
 up between parent and teacher, the former being 
 continuously informed of the child's progress, 
 
 merit or demerit, ami behavior : and thus enabled 
 intelligently to CO operate in his school education. 
 Instead of the diary, some teachers prefer the 
 
 monthly report. (Sec School Records.) 
 
 DICKINSON COLLEGE, at Carlisle, l\i.. 
 was founded in L783. Since L 833, it has been 
 under the control of the Methodist Episcopal 
 Church, prior to which date it was under Pres 
 byterian control. Promihenl among its founders 
 were John Dickinson, firsl governor of Penn- 
 sylvania, and \h\ Benjamin Rush of Philadel- 
 phia. Before the late war. its patronage was 
 
 largely from the South; since that event, it has 
 
 depended for patronage chiefly on the Middle 
 
 Stales. 'The value of grounds, buildings, and ap- 
 paratus is si ."'ii.ooti; the amount of productive 
 
 funds, $175,000. The cost of tuition is merely 
 nominal, being by scholarships, the whole expense 
 of which is #25 for the four years' course. The 
 board of trustees have recently established the 
 following departments of study, and propose 
 to carry out the university principle of elective 
 courses, as far as the means at their command will 
 permit: (1) moral science; (2) ancient languages 
 and literature: (3) pure mathematics ; (4) phi- 
 losophy and English literature, including history 
 and Constitutional law: (5) physics and mixed 
 mathematics, and the application of calculus to 
 natural philosophy, astronomy, and mechanics; 
 ((!) chemistry, and its application to agriculture 
 and the arts: (7) physical geography, natural 
 history, mineralogy and geology : im modern 
 languages; (9) civil and mining engineering, 
 and metallurgy. The scheme embraces much 
 more than can be accomplished in four years. 
 Those students who wish to obtain the collegiate 
 degrees are required to devote the earlier part 
 of their course, as heretofore, mainly to the 
 elements of classical learning and the pure 
 mathematics: but, for the latter part, certain 
 studies are made optional, and those who go 
 through any of the prescribed special courses, 
 obtain the degree of Bachelor of Arts equally 
 with those who complete the classical course. 
 These special courses are the Scientific Course, 
 in which such students as desire arc allowed to 
 substitute practical chemistry for the Latin and 
 Creek of the junior and senior years, and the 
 Biblical Course, in which students preparing for 
 the Christian ministry are allowed to take lie- 
 brew and New Testament Creek in their junior 
 and senior years, in place of equivalent studies, 
 chiefly mathematical. A partial course, of about 
 two years, and embracing such studies from 
 the regular curriculum as bear directly upon 
 any special vocation, can be pursued by stu- 
 dents not intending to graduate. The college 
 has a museum containing specimens in mineral- 
 ogy, geology, and natural history, and a cabinet 
 of ancient coins; valuable philosophical and 
 chemical apparatus; and an astronomical ob- 
 servatory, provided with an achromatic tele- 
 scope. The college library contains about 8,000 
 volumes; those of the I '.elles-l x'tt res Society 
 and the Union Philosophical Society about 
 
 10,000 each. In L874 5, there were 7 pro- 
 fessors and 88 students. There is a law depart- 
 ment under the charge of the professor of law. 
 The presidents of the college have been as fol- 
 lows: Charles Nisbet, D. D., L784- Inn ; Rob- 
 ert Davidson, D.D. (pro tern.), L804 9 ; Jere- 
 miah Atwater, l». D., L809— 15; John McKnight, 
 I). 1). I/toAvh.), Lsifi — 1C; John Mitchell Ma- 
 son. I). It.. L821 I : William Neill, D. D.,1824 
 9; Samuel B. How,D.D.,1830 'J; John Price 
 Durbin, l». D., L833 15 ; Roberl Emory, D. I>., 
 IH i 8; Jesse Truesdale Peck, D. D.. L848— 
 52; Charles Collins. D. D., L852 -60; Herman 
 Merrills Johnson, D. D., L860— 7; Robert L 
 Dashiell, D. 1».. L868 -72; and James A. 
 McCauley, D. I>.. the present incumbent, ap- 
 pointed in IST'J. 
 
DICTATION 
 
 DICTIONARY 
 
 223 
 
 DICTATION, a school exercise in which the 
 teacher reads or speaks (dictates) to the pupils 
 what is to be written by the latter for practice 
 in writing, spelling, etc. Such exercises are very 
 useful, not only to give accuracy and expertness 
 in writing words and sentences, but to train the 
 ear to the read; apprehension of spoken language. 
 In this respect, it supplements copying, which 
 exclusively disciplines the eye. 
 
 DICTIONARY, a book containing a list of 
 all the words of a language, alphabetically ar- 
 ranged, with information in regard to their 
 derivation, meaning, and use. The Greek word 
 lexicon is frequently used to designate a diction- 
 ary of the words of a foreign language; the 
 term glossary, to denote a collection of technical, 
 obsolete, or other words requiring special de- 
 finition or explanation. A dictionary of facts 
 is entitled an eneycLypcedia, if it embraces the 
 consideration of the full circle of sciences, and 
 a cyclopaedia, if it treats of a special depart- 
 ment of knowledge. These two terms are not, 
 however, always used with this discrimination, 
 but are often applied indifferently to any com- 
 plete collection of facts, general or special, ar- 
 ranged under alphabetical headings. To such 
 collections the terms thesaurus and gazetteer are 
 also applied, the latter exclusively to a geo- 
 graphical dictionary. 
 
 The first attempt at a complete collection of 
 the words of the English language was the Uni- 
 versal Etymological English Dictionary (Ixm- 
 don. 1726), by Nathan Bailey, which subsequent- 
 ly formed, in part, the basis upon which Dr. 
 Johnson compiled his great work. Johnson's 
 Dictionary appeared in 1755, after seven years 
 of constant labor, and justly entitled its author 
 to be considered the founder of English lexicog- 
 raphy. It was greatly enlarged by Todd in the 
 editions of 1814 and 1827. The most important 
 dictionaries published in England since the time 
 of Johnson are Walker's (1791), Enfield's (1807), 
 Booth's (1835), Smart's (1836), and Richardson's 
 (1837). The catalogue of works of this kind is, 
 however, very extensive; but the most important 
 is the elaborate work of Dr. Richardson, entitled 
 a New Dictionary of the English Language 
 (2 vols., 4to, London, 1835 — 7). Special atten- 
 tion is given, in this work, to the etymology of 
 words and their illustration by copious citations 
 from standard writers; and the arrangement is 
 in the alphabetical order of the primitives, be- 
 neath each of which its derivatives are grouped. 
 Of this work, Dean Trench remarks, " It is the 
 only English dictionary in which etymology as- 
 sumes the dignity of a science." 
 
 The first dictionary of any importance published 
 in the Dinted States was the firs! edition of 
 Webster's American Dictionary of the English 
 Language (2 vols.. 4to, X. V.,'l828). Of this 
 work, revised and enlarged editions were published 
 in 1840 and L843, during the life of the author; 
 but in 1848, a new edition, revised and enlarged 
 by Prof. Goodrich, was issued at Springfield, 
 Mass., and in 1*(>4. a still larger edition was 
 published in Springfield, with revised etymologies 
 
 and much additional information of great value. 
 This work is a large quarto, of 1840 pages, and 
 contains about 1 1 1.0(1(1 words. The elaborate 
 illustrated dictionary of Dr. Worcester, published 
 in 1860, is also a work of nearly the same size as 
 Webster's, and contains about 104,000 words. 
 This work is more conservative in its orthography 
 and pronunciation than that of Dr. Webster, and 
 is generally followed in the New England states. 
 The authority of Webster's Dictionary is. ho we via-, 
 undisputed in most parts of the United States. 
 
 A dictionary is strictly a work of reference, 
 and is to be employed exclusively as such ; hence, 
 its use as a school book is limited. It was for- 
 merly, in some schools, the custom to require 
 pupils to learn by rote the spelling and definition 
 of words from abridged dictionaries and exposi- 
 tors, the alphabetical arrangement of words be- 
 ing followed in the assignment of lessons; but 
 this absurd practice is now, probably, entirely 
 obsolete. After a certain degree of advancement 
 in learning to read, it is, without doubt, of im- 
 portance that the pupils should be supplied with 
 simple dictionaries, and encouraged to refer to 
 them for information in regard to the meaning 
 of the difficult words which they meet with in 
 their reading books. This will serve to inculcate 
 the habit of frequently consulting the dictionary 
 in their subsequent studies, and will, in this way, 
 lead to a more accurate knowledge of their lan- 
 guage, more especially its orthoepy, in which 
 most persons, even those of considerable culture 
 otherwise, are apt to be quite faulty, in pur- 
 suing this method, the following course of pro- 
 cedure will be found beneficial : (1) The teacher 
 assigns a certain portion of reading matter, or a 
 certain number of selected words, which the 
 pupil is to study critically by the use of the dic- 
 tionary, as far as may be necessary ; (2) The 
 pupil learns, from the dictionary, the meaning 
 or definition of those which he does not under- 
 stand, and next studies how to illustrate their 
 application by using them in sentences, or by 
 citations from standard authors ; (3) In an ai 1- 
 vanced stage, the student gives more critical at- 
 tention to the precise shades of meaning of the 
 words usually deemed to be synonymous, and 
 learns how to make a proper discrimination in 
 the use of such words. For this purpose, such 
 works as Roget's Thesaurus and Crabb's Syn- 
 onyms will be found important auxiliaries to 
 the una! nidged dictionary of either Webster to 
 "Worcester. 
 
 To the teacher, no acquisition is more impor- 
 tant than a critical knowledge of the orthography. 
 pronunciation, meaning, and proper use of words 
 in his own language; and, hence, a good dic- 
 tionary should always be at hand for the deter- 
 mination of those doubtful points which, with 
 even the besl scholar and the most experienced 
 teacher, will sometimes arise. A. dictionary is, 
 therefore, a part of the school apparatus, winch 
 cannot be dispensed with. 
 
 In the study of a foreign language, the diction- 
 ary is needed at a niueli earlier stage than in the 
 Study of the vernacular ; although modern edu- 
 
224 
 
 DICTIONARY 
 
 cators strongly advocate that the process of ac- 
 quiring a foreign language should be made, as 
 much as possible, to conform to the maimer in 
 which the child learns to speak his native tongue. 
 The number of words of the foreign language 
 which can be learned in this way must, however, 
 be always quite limited, and hence the constant 
 need of consulting the dictionary. It is aim!.' 
 worthy fact in this connection, that the science 
 of lexicography has been developed by the need 
 of dictionaries to facilitate the study of foreign 
 languages, not the native tongue. Though the 
 Greeks and Romans, and even some of the 
 oriental nations before them, had vocabularies of 
 the winds of their languages, arranged more or 
 less in alphabetical order, the origin of complete 
 dictionaries is no earlier than the time when the 
 study of the classics was revived in Italy. The 
 most famous, though not the first among these 
 was Calepino (Latin lexicon, Reggio, l.">02),from 
 whose name is derived the French word calepin 
 (a commonplace-book). But the path in which 
 modern lexicographers have gained so much dis- 
 tinction was first opened in \')'.V1 by Robert 
 Stephens (Fr. Etienne or Estienne) by the pub- 
 lication of the Thesaurus Linguae Latinos and 
 Henry Stephens's Thesaurus Lingual Groscoe, 
 published in 1 572, in 5 volumes, but abridged 
 by Scapula, who issued in 1579 Lexicon Grceco- 
 Latinum norma. (See Stephens.) These works 
 were the first notable attempts to develop the 
 various meanings of every word, and to make 
 scientific arrangement no less an essential feature 
 than completeness of vocabulary. Among the 
 most prominent of the succeeding lexicogra- 
 phers, are Forcellini, Scheller, Freund, and 
 Georges for the Latin, and Passow for the Greek. 
 
 Forcellini was chiefly distinguished for illus- 
 trating the meaning of every word by examples 
 from classical authors, and the Germans just 
 named developed this feature to a high degree 
 of perfection. The first Latin-English dic- 
 tionary was edited by Sir Thomas Llyot (Lon- 
 don, 1538); the most famous was that of Ains- 
 worth (q. v.). The work of Forcellini was the 
 basis of the Latin-English dictionary of Leverett 
 (Boston, L836), and that of Freund, of the 
 Latin-English dictionary of E. A. Andrews 
 (New York, L856). The Creek lexicon of Pas- 
 sow is the basis of the Greek-English lexicon of 
 Liddell & Scott (Oxford, L845J and its Ameri- 
 can revision by Drisler (New York, L848). It is 
 a noteworthy fact in the history of English and 
 American education, thai until the present cen- 
 tury the Greek language was studied through 
 
 the medium of the Latin, and there were no 
 
 Greek-Enghsh, but only Greek Latin lexicons. 
 The < lermans,for a considerable time previously, 
 had published lexicons in their own language, 
 and the French had followed their example, The 
 first Greek English lexicon announced (in L81 I) 
 was thai of John Pickering, which was based on 
 the ( Ireek-Latin dictionary of Schrevelius. Bui 
 before Li was published (Boston, L826), a similar 
 work, the Greek and English Lexicon of John 
 Jones (London, 1823), appeared in England. The 
 
 Lexicon of Donnegan (London, 1827) was pro- 
 fessedly, in substance, a translation of Passow's 
 work: and Dunbar's Greek and English Lexi- 
 con (Edinburgh, 1843) was chiefly a reprint of 
 the second edition (1829) of Pickering's work. 
 Great improvements in the adaptation of the 
 classical dictionary to school purposes were in- 
 troduced by [ngerslev's Latin-German Lexicon 
 (1st edit., 1852; 4th, 1876). Before him, it 
 had been the aim of lexicographers in general 
 to attain the greatest possible completeness 
 of words and their different meanings; and 
 the works of smaller compass were condensed 
 abridgements, [ngerslev conceived the idea of 
 a school dictionary in the strictest sense of the 
 term. It was to be limited to those writers 
 whose works are usually read in classical schools, 
 and was designed to explain sufficiently every 
 difficult passage occurring in any of this class of 
 authors. Ry referring in succession to all the 
 synonyms of a word, and only defining the dis- 
 tinctive meaning of the word itself, the syno- 
 nymic element of the language, as far as it is of 
 value for the pupil of a Latin school, is explained 
 in the smallest possible compass. The poetic, later, 
 and ante-classic use or meaning of every word is 
 pointed out by appropriate abbreviations: the 
 remainder is classic. This plan has met with 
 uuiversal approval among German scholars: and 
 a number of other works have since been pub- 
 lished, the most important of which are those 
 by Georges flsl edit.. L864 ; 3d edit.. 1874), and 
 lleinichcn ( Leips.. 1864), for the Latin: and 
 by Benseler (4th edit., 1872), and Schenkl (3d 
 edit., L867] for the (deck. The lexicon of In- 
 gerslev is the basis of the Latin-English lexicon 
 of Crooks and Schem (Philadelphia, lH-~>7). A 
 Luge number of special dictionaries to classic 
 authors, especially those read by beginners, have 
 been prepared, but many educators disapprove 
 
 of the use of books of tliis class. On the other 
 hand, the compilation of an elementary diction- 
 ary specially suited for the study of the Latin 
 writers read by beginners has been recommended, 
 
 and a good work of the kind has been edited by 
 
 < leorges ( Laleinisch-deutsches Schulworlerbuch, 
 Leipsic, 1870). 
 
 The dictionaries of modern languages are 
 either unilingual. intended for the natives of a 
 country, or bilingual, intended for the study of a 
 language other than the vernacular. The former 
 more or less resemble in their history and scope the 
 English works referred to above. Many works of 
 the former class owe their origin to learned socie- 
 ties. Among them is the celebrated Italian diction- 
 ary deUa Orusca (Vocabidario degli accademici 
 dill, i Orusca, first published in 1612). The fame of 
 this work Ls, however, greater than its real merit. 
 for it is, in fact, only a dictionary of the Tuscan 
 dialect, and while regarding the 1 1th century as 
 the Augustan age of Italian literature.it slighted 
 the distinguished writers of the With century. It 
 was subsequently enlarged and unproved (Flor- 
 ence, 1729 -1738), and in this augmented form 
 is still the standard authority for the Italian lan- 
 guage. — Spain also owes its largest dictionary to 
 
DICTIONARY 
 
 DIDACTICS 
 
 225 
 
 the Spanish Academy (6 vols., Madrid, 1726 — 
 1739), which became the absolute standard of 
 Spanish orthography; it was. in the present cent- 
 ury, revised and greatly enlarged by Salva who 
 added more than 20,000 words (1st edit, L846). 
 ■ — France is indebted for the first noteworthy 
 dictionary of its language to Robeii Stephens, 
 who published a French-Latin dictionary in L539. 
 The dictionary of the French Academy was first 
 published in L69 Land soon became the standard 
 lexical authority of the French. It has been 
 from time to time revised: and a seventh edition, 
 under the editorship of Patin, was to be com- 
 pleted in lSTl). The dictionary of the Academy 
 was followed by a considerable number of other 
 works, the most important of which, that of 
 Littre (3 vols., Paris, 1863 — 1873), is regarded 
 as being, in many respects,*even superior to the 
 dictionary of the Academy, and entitled to a 
 place among the very best products of lexical 
 ace. — The history of German lexicography 
 is traced to the 7th century. The first work of 
 lasting value was the German-Latin dictionary 
 of Frisch (Berlin, 1741). Adelung's dictionary 
 (Leips., 1774 — 1781) was, for a time, a classical 
 work; but the standard work of German litera- 
 ture is the dictionary of the brothers Jacob and 
 Wilhelm Grimm, begun in 1852,on a plan more 
 extensive than any other dictionary of any mod- 
 ern language. It is to include every word used in 
 German works from Luther to Goethe. It was 
 continued after the death of the authors by Moritz 
 lleyne. Lutlolf Hildebrand, and Karl \Yeigand : 
 and it is expected that the whole will be ready 
 about 1890. Of other German dictionaries 
 those of Sander's are highly valued and have 
 found a large circulation ( Wijrterbtich tier deut- 
 schen Sprache, 2 vols., Leips., 1859 — 1867 ; and 
 Handworterbuch der denischen Sprache, Leips., 
 1869). — The standard dictionary of the Russian 
 language has been prepared by the Russian Acad- 
 emy (4 vols.', St. Petersburg, 1847). Most of 
 the smaller nationalities of Europe have like- 
 wise their national dictionaries, which, though 
 inferior to the works of Grimm and Littre, are, 
 in many cases, storedrouses of profound learning 
 and indispensable for the philosophical study 
 of the several languages. In the schools of all 
 the countries referred to, the use of this class 
 of dictionaries in the study of the native lan- 
 guage is less frequent than in England. The 
 bilingual dictionaries belong to the same class as 
 the Greek and Latin lexicons, but there are some 
 marked points of difference. The Greek or the 
 Latin lexicon is chiefly, or almost exclusively, 
 used for acquiring the ability to read the classic 
 authors ; a speaking ami writing knowledge of 
 either of these languages has been the object of 
 study in only few cases, and, at present, even 
 more rarely than formerly; therefore, the great 
 majority of students use only the classic-modern 
 dictionary, and but very few the modern-classic 
 dictionary ; indeed, many distinguished educa- 
 tors regard the latter as entirely superfluous. In 
 the study of modern languages, on the contrary, 
 the object of study is to speak and write as well 
 15 
 
 as to read ; and, hence, the native-foreign part of 
 the dictionary is as much needed as the foreign- 
 native, and almost wholly supersedes the latter 
 as soon as a good knowledge of reading has been 
 acquired. As modern languages are living and 
 growing, while the classic languages are dead and 
 fixed, the dictionaries of the former require more 
 frequent revisions and larger additions than 
 the classic lexicons, — a distinction which is of 
 practical importance. The classic languages are 
 studied for educational and scientific purposes 
 only; the modern languages, in most cases, be- 
 cause a knowledge of them is believed to be of 
 practical advantage. As a general rule, a greater 
 degree of scholarship may, therefore, be looked 
 for in the classic lexicon, and a more practical 
 arrangement in the modern dictionary. At- 
 tempts to compile dictionaries containing the 
 words of more than two languages, have not 
 been wanting, but have met with but little 
 favor. The alphabetical arrangement is the 
 universal rule in all dictionaries ; all attempts 
 to substitute any other having always failed. 
 In classical dictionaries, however, for begin- 
 ners the partial combination of the etymolog- 
 ical with the alphabetical arrangement is re- 
 garded by some educators as useful and con- 
 venient. The dictionaries of oriental languages 
 are, to a higher degree than either classical or 
 modern dictionaries, written for the special use 
 of scholars. 
 
 The great progress of linguistics, and, espe- 
 cially, of comparative linguistics, has made it 
 possible for modern lexicographers to develop the 
 etymological department of the dictionary in 
 such a manner as to render works of an earlier 
 date almost useless. There is, however, a great 
 want of agreement as to the extent to which it is 
 desirable to introduce this feature into school 
 dictionaries. In the classical dictionary, it is 
 the general rule, to give at least as much of ety- 
 mological explanation as is of immediate prac- 
 tical value to the pupil. Of the dictionaries of 
 modern languages, some give etymological ex- 
 planations, and some wholly omit them. As a 
 very valuable fruit of the science of comparative 
 linguistics may be mentioned the etymological 
 diet i( diaries of whole families of languages. One 
 of the best representatives of this class of works 
 is the Etymologisch.es Wurterbuch dei- romani- 
 schen Sjirachen by Diez. 
 
 As in the study of languages, whether classical 
 or modern, as well as in the native language, the 
 dictionary is an important school book, the 
 teacher should not omit to familiarize his pupils 
 with the proper way of using it ; and it is there- 
 fore, desirable, as a matter of convenience, that 
 the pupils of a school should be all supplied 
 with the same dictionary. For information re- 
 garding the literature of dictionaries, see V.vit'.r.. 
 LAteratur tier Grammatiken, Leocica und Wbr- 
 tersammlungen aller Spracken der Erde (2d 
 edit., revised by Julg, Berlin, 1847). 
 
 DIDACTICS, the theory of instruction, as 
 distinguished from that of education in its nar- 
 rower sense, implying simply moral education. 
 
226 
 
 DIDACTICS 
 
 DIESTERWEG 
 
 It is commonly treated under two heads : gen- 
 eral didactics, which exhibits the philosophical 
 
 principles of teaching, and the conditions of its 
 success; and special didactics, or meihodics, 
 which applies the general truths to the several 
 branches of instruction, the different ages to be 
 
 instructed, and the various individual characters 
 and their treatment. The distinction 1m 'tween 
 didactics and pedagogy in the narrower sense is 
 made only for the sake of separate scientific 
 treatment, as it is universally conceded that all 
 instruction can be rendered a means of moral 
 education, and that no instruction deserves the 
 same, or can he truly successful, without a cor- 
 responding development of moral power, [n any 
 branch of instruction, the very first beginning 
 presupposes attention on the pari of the pupil, 
 while the progress made will depend on his self- 
 activity, and his ultimate mastership on his full 
 appropriation of all the moralpower inherent in 
 I he branch of art or science concerned. On the 
 part of the teacher, moral power, engendered by 
 such mastership, must be presupposed, if he is to 
 impart to his pupil attention, self-activity, and 
 love for the subject. In regard to the age of 
 the pupil, instruction and moral education bear 
 to each other a changing proportion. During 
 the first age, from earliest infancy up to the 
 eighth or tenth year, the so-called formal pur- 
 pose of education prevails in importance; the 
 several functions of the youthful mind must be 
 made self-active, and the material purpose of 
 didactics, —the acquisition of knowledge or posi- 
 tive learning,must be made a mere means to the 
 former, so that no more of each concentric circle 
 of facts be given to appropriate than can be di- 
 gested for the benefit OI each function. The 
 second age, which extends to the beginning of 
 sexual maturity, is the one during which instruc- 
 tion and education should be, as it were, in equi- 
 poise; while, in the period after sexual maturity, 
 the material purpose, that of the acquisition of 
 
 knowledge and skill, may preponderate. In re- 
 gard to the branches of instruction, general di- 
 dactics shows which of these are adapted to the 
 several stages of the mental and moral develop- 
 ment of the three ages, and which concentric 
 circle of facts and truths of every science and art 
 
 may be introduced at the time when it can serve 
 
 as wholesome mental and moral food. A mosl 
 important distinction is made between the peda- 
 led and the scientific treatment of every sub- 
 ject of instruction, the latter being of necessity 
 systematic and synthetic, while the former should 
 be methodic and analytic first, synthetic last ; 
 that is to say, should introduce every object of 
 
 learning at BUch a time, and in BUCh a manner, 
 that it luav he mentally and morally appropriated. 
 
 Special didactics, commonly designated as me- 
 tkodics, treats of the pedagogical means proper 
 in each branch of instructional each age and 
 
 8 of development. An explanation of the 
 l e important methods of didactics will be 
 
 found under the titles of the various branches. In 
 general, however, we maj state thai all promi- 
 nent educators concur in holding that the teacher 
 
 is every-where the best method, as he is in fact 
 the school itself, if he be a true teacher. It 
 would, however, be a dangerous error to sup- 
 pose, on that account, that every teacher should 
 be left free to invent his own methods, or could 
 be expected to be successful without an acquain- 
 tance with the best methods in use. This error 
 will be avoided by those who, on the one hand, 
 are so deeply imbued with the great responsi- 
 bility of their (Jailing, as to feel that the wisdom 
 of the preceding generations of great teachers 
 cannot be neglected, and. therefore, that the 
 methods devised and practiced by them should 
 be made a subject of faithful and conscientious 
 study: but who. on the other hand, realize the 
 principle that the most approved methods can- 
 not benefit a teacher who has not mentally so 
 appropriated them as to reproduce them accord- 
 ing to his own individuality, and to be able to 
 adapt them to the peculiar wants of his pupils, 
 as well as to all other circumstances in which he 
 is placed. All teaching should be methodical in 
 every aspect: it should be based on the thorough 
 appropriation of a proper system of pedagogy; 
 and it should be a natural outgrowth of the 
 teacher's personality, if it is to perform its proper 
 office in the work of real education. 
 
 DIESTERWEG, Friedrich Adolf Wil- 
 helm, one of the most distinguished educational 
 writers of Germany, in the present century, was 
 born at Siegen, Oct. 29., 1790, and died at Berlin, 
 July 7.. L866. After studying, at the universities 
 of fierborn and Tubingen, theology, philosophy, 
 
 mathematics, and natural science, he became, in 
 INK), a private tutor at Mannheim; in 1811, 
 teacher at the secondary school of Worms, which 
 at that time was French; in lNl.'], teacher at 
 the model school of Frankfort; in 1818, second 
 rector of the Latin school of Elherfcld: and, in 
 1820, first teacher and acting president of the 
 seminary at MeUTS. While in the latter position, 
 
 he gained a reputation both as a teacher and 
 
 as an educational writer, which Spread through- 
 Out ( u'l'inany. Be not Only compiled a huge num- 
 ber of school books, many of which are still in 
 extensive use. but also took an active part in 
 all the educational controversies of the day. In 
 
 I s •_» 7 . he founded the Rheinische Blatter fiir 
 Unterricht und T2rziehung,a quarterly journal 
 
 devoted to instruction and education, with special 
 
 regard to elementary instruction. In 1832, he 
 
 accepted a call as director of the teachers' semi- 
 nary at Berlin, where, as an advocate of sweeping 
 and radical reforms, he had to contend with m. 
 difficulties. In L 836, the Prussian government 
 sent Diesterweg to Denmark, to observe and re- 
 porl on the monitorial system which prevailed in 
 the schools of that country. Diesterwegs report, 
 published under the title of Bemerkunycn und 
 Ansichten auf einer pddaqogischen Reise nach 
 <!<■,, ddnischen Staaten im Sommer L83(5 1 Berlin, 
 1836), was adverse to the Danish system, and 
 called forth replies from /.errenner and others. 
 In L846, Diesterweg took an influential part in 
 
 the celebration, by the German teachers, of the. 
 
 centennial birth- lay of Pestalozzi, and in found- 
 
niKSTKRWKCi 
 
 227 
 
 ■m an institution for orphans, as an appropriate 
 monument to the great regenerator of modern 
 popular education. 
 
 Diesterweg was very obnoxious to the political 
 conservatives and the orthodox Protestants, but 
 maintained himself, amidst constant conflicts, 
 until IS 17. when the minister of educational and 
 ecclesiastical affairs, Eichhorn, suspended him 
 from office. Three years later, in L850, hewas 
 definitely removed, but his entire salary was 
 left to him. Henceforth, he devoted his time 
 partly to literary labors, and partly to the advo- 
 cacy of his views in the town council of Berlin 
 and the Prussian parliament, to both of which 
 bodies the city of Berlin elected him a member. 
 In the Prussian parliament, Diesterweg was the 
 leader of the opposition to the principles which 
 the Prussian government, at that time, endeav- 
 ored to carry into effect, in the state school system. 
 and especially to the famous " three school regu- 
 lations" (Schulregulative), which aimed at sub- 
 stituting for the principles of Pestalozzi the most 
 intimate connection between church and school. 
 Diesterweg was generally regarded by the teachers 
 of Protestant Germany as the leader of the 
 party which demanded an entire disconnection 
 of the school from the church ; and, by his own 
 party, he was looked upon with sentiments of 
 profound love and admiration. When he cele- 
 brated, Oct. 29., 1865, his seventy-fifth birthday, 
 a number of his pupils from all parts of Germany 
 presented him with a silver laurel wreath. 
 
 The views of Diesterweg concerning the rela- 
 tion between religion and education necessarily 
 provoked the determined opposition of those 
 who did not share them, but even his opponents 
 concede the excellence of many of his school 
 books. Among these books, may be mentioned 
 the following: Lehrbuch tier maikemalischen 
 Oeographie und populdren ERmmelskunde (8th 
 edit., Berlin, 1874); Leitfaden fur den Unter- 
 richi in der.For.men- und Gr&ssenlehre (3d edit., 
 Elberfeld, 1836); Praklischer Lehrgang far den 
 Uhterrichl in der deulschen Sprache (Part 1., 
 6th edit., Gutersloh, 1836; Part 2. and 3., 5th 
 edit., 1836); Praktisches Rechenbuch fur Ele- 
 mentar- und hdhere Bilrgerschulen, in connec- 
 tion with Heuser (part 1.. 21st edit,, Gutersloh, 
 1865; part 2., 1 1th edit., L861; part 3., 4th edit., 
 I860); Meihodisches Handbueh fur den Ge- 
 Mtmmtunterricht im Rechnen, also in connection 
 with Heuser (2 vols., 6th edit., Gutersloh, 1864); 
 and the Elementm--(l<'om<'ti'ie (4th edit,, Frank- 
 tort. 1874). As an organ for the dissemination 
 of his views, he established, in L851, in addition 
 to the Rheinische Blatter, his Pddagogisches 
 Jahrbuch, of which one annual volume appeared 
 Jarly until his death. This theory of in- 
 struction and education is fully developed in the 
 Wegweiser zur Bildung fur deutsche Lehrer, 
 which he published in union with Bormann, 
 Luben, Mager, and other teachers (5th edit.. 
 a, 1875). lie treats in this work of the prin- 
 ciples according to which man should be in- 
 structed and educated in general, and of the 
 method which should be observed in teaching 
 
 the different branches of instruction in particular. 
 The literature on every subject is given with 
 critical remarks. As the aim of all education he 
 regards the principle of "self-activity in the ser- 
 vice of the true, the beautiful, and the good." 
 Christianity he regarded as the most perfect sys- 
 tem of religion, and the divisions of Christianity 
 as resulting from the different degrees of culture 
 in the individuals who embraced it. His opposi- 
 tion to the doctrines of the Church gradually 
 assumed a tone of great bitterness, provoked to a 
 great extent by his personal conflicts with the 
 Prussian government. He was outspoken in ad- 
 vocating that the denominational character of the 
 public school should be abolished. and that unsec- 
 
 tarian "communal" or ^national schools" should 
 be established in their place. He did not wish, 
 however, to have religious instruction excluded 
 from the schools, but favored an instruction in 
 the general tenets of religion by the teacher. 
 
 Although Diesterweg devoted his attention 
 chiefly to the elementary schools, he also wrote on 
 the reform of the secondary schools, and still 
 more on that of the universities. In his essay 
 XJeber </<« Verderben avf deutschen Universi- 
 taten, which forms a part of the work Beitrage 
 zur Lebensfrage der Civilisation (Essen, 1836), 
 he severely censured the course of instruction 
 pursued at the German universities, and con- 
 tended that the method of teaching should be 
 made to conform to the wants of the age, 
 and that the studies, as well as the conduct of 
 the students, should no longer remain without 
 superintendence by the proper authorities. The 
 universities were defended against these charges 
 by Prof. Leo, of Halle, in the work Herr Dr. 
 Diesterweg und die. deutschen Universitaien 
 (Leipsic, 1866). 
 
 8oon after the death of Diesterweg, a number 
 of his friends, pupils, and admirers determined 
 to establish, in commemoration of his merits, a 
 Diesterweg-Stiftung, the object of which was to 
 enable a number of competent teachers to devote 
 themselves wholly to educational labors in the 
 spirit of Diesterweg. The Stiflieng embraces with- 
 in the scope of these labors educational lectures, 
 the publication of educational works, inclusive of 
 a continuation of Diesterweg's Jahrbuch ; and 
 the establishment of a national German model 
 school on the basis of Diesterweg's principles. — 
 Sec Knk.ciit, Adolf Diesterweg, sein Leben >ni<! 
 Streben (in Magazin fin- Padagogik, 1869) ; 
 
 LaNGENBERG, .1. Dii'Sti'i'ireg, sein Let/en und 
 
 seine Schriften (Frankfort, 1869 ; this biography 
 contains a complete list of all the writings of 
 Diesterweg). A "Memoir" of Diesterweg has 
 
 appeared in Barnaed's Journal of Education, 
 
 in which are also published translations of sev- 
 eral essays of Diesterweg; as, Catechism of 
 Methods of Teaching, School Discipline and 
 Plans of Instruction, Intuitional and Speaking 
 Exercises. A. selection from the works of Die- 
 sterweg, with a biographical introduction, has 
 been published by Langenberg, under the title, 
 , I. Diesterweg, Lichlstrahlen aus seinen Schrif- 
 ten (Leipsic, 1875). 
 
228 
 
 DIFFIDENCE 
 
 DILWORTII 
 
 DIFFIDENCE, or an instinctive distrust of 
 one's own ability, arising from peculiarities of 
 temperament and mental constitution, very often 
 characterizes both children and adults ; and, when 
 it is excessive, presents a very serious hinderance, 
 in respect to both moral and intellectual educa- 
 tion, to the teacher who fails to study sufficiently 
 the individual characters of his pupils, or who is 
 ignorant of the proper methods of addressing 
 their peculiar traits, so as to guide or correct 
 their natural tendencies. K very teacher of ex- 
 perience is aware that some children are bold, 
 forward, confident, or conceited ; while others 
 are timorous, shy, bashful, and diffident. The 
 former seem to be better subjects of instruction. 
 and make a more gratifying return for the 
 teacher's efforts, because they are ready to make 
 an immediate use or display of their acquire- 
 ments; while the others, however much they 
 may have learned, fail to meet the ordinary exi- 
 gencies of school recitations, examinations, or 
 
 public exhibitions, On account of their excessive 
 self-restraint, and their natural shrinking from 
 any trial of their ability. They fail because 
 they think they will fail, or because they are so 
 sensitive to censure or unfavorable criticism, 
 that they are paralyzed by the apprehension of 
 it. Of this peculiar trait the poet Cowperwas 
 a singular example; and all are familiar with 
 the sufferings which he underwent in anticipa- 
 tion of the performance of his public duties as 
 
 clerk to the house of lords, almost unseating his 
 reason, and compelling him at last to resign the 
 honorable and lucrative position which his 
 friends had obtained for him. 
 
 This peculiar trait of character, according to 
 Spurzheim, is the '•effect of circumspection, 
 combined with secretivencss and intellect;" to 
 which may be added deficient sell' esteem, and a 
 sensitive, impressible temperament. When the 
 feeling of secretive ness, or shyness is predomi- 
 nant, dilli lence assumes the form of hashfulness; 
 when cannon is the leading trait, it is the sense 
 of danger that restrains; and when self-esteem 
 is dcticient.it is humility, modesty, or an extrav- 
 agant impression of inability. All these phases 
 should be subjected by the teacher to a close and 
 discriminating scrutiny, and proper means should 
 be adopted to give tone and balance to the char- 
 acter, as one of the most important results of a 
 
 judicious education. Some of the Inst minds 
 
 have been characterized by diffidence ; but gen- 
 erally they possessed other qualities which coun- 
 teracted its effects, or compensated for the in- 
 firmity. Washington was noted for his modesty. 
 arising, without doubt, from natural diffidence 
 mixed and tempered with firmness a id an un- 
 usually strong sense of moral rectitude ; bu1 he 
 
 wis also distinguished for his fearlessness in ih • 
 
 presence of extreme peril, showing that diffidenc 
 i- by no means inconsis enl w ith intrepidity 
 
 In dealing with children who possess this 
 trait, the teacher should use everj means of en 
 couragei bould be careful not to place the 
 
 pupil in positions in ivhich here is a probability 
 of failure and disgrace, and should aim to con- 
 
 trol his will by an appeal to his affections, his 
 love of approbation, and his sense of right, rather 
 than to his fear or his sense of shame. His self- 
 esteem being deficient, everything should be 
 done to cultivate it, and he should, therefore, be 
 led rather by praise than driven by censure ; but. 
 above every thing else, in a child who is want- 
 ing in self-esteem, should the seeds of moral prin- 
 ciple be planted; so that if he is not governed by 
 pride or a sense of personal honor, he may listen 
 to the dictates of conscience. The principle un- 
 derlying this treatment is. to counteract the bad 
 effects of a deficiency in certain mental qualities 
 by addressing those which are strong or excessive. 
 1 leeker, in The Scit ntific Basis of Education, in 
 this connection remarks, "If the child with whom 
 the teacher is dealing has these restraining facul- 
 ties large, the teacher, on that account, has more 
 difficulty in guiding him, but has the conditions 
 of greater success it he can succeed in doing so. 
 On this disposition depends the character of 
 self-sustained and self-made men." 
 
 DILIGENCE, the virtue of constancy in 
 labor, is an important, though not the sole, means 
 of success in any branch of human calling. It 
 is a function of the will power, as distinguished 
 from intellect and sensation, and is of sponta- 
 neous growth, whereverthe occupation is akin to 
 the inclination and productive of pleasure. It 
 can, therefore, artificially be engendered only 
 by connecting the occupation with pleasurable 
 emotions that are not foreign to the subject. 
 Where the latter art' missing, only dire necessity 
 can keep diligence alive, — either sonic necessity 
 from natural, or from positive law. But then 
 diligence has ceased to be a virtue, though it may 
 continue as a habit, mechanically as it were. In 
 education, diligence is more powerful than nat- 
 ural adaptation, as all the experience derived 
 from the history of great men shows. It is the 
 office of pedagogy to promote diligence in the 
 
 pupils by spontaneous growth, as is done in the 
 kindergarten system of education. Where such 
 spontaneous growth has not been effected by early 
 influences, an artificial growth must be cultivated; 
 but the pleasurable emotions to be connected 
 with the occupation, should he prompted as 
 little as possible by means foreign to the sub- 
 ject, such as. for instance, outward punishments, 
 rewards, purely mechanical discipline, or the 
 
 stimulus of ambition. Whatever the occupa- 
 tion or study in which pupils are required to 
 engage, they should, as soon as possible, be in- 
 duced to take a lively interest in it for its own 
 Bake; because Such an interest will arouse into 
 active exercise a!' the l»st powers of their minds, 
 and thus lead to the most effective and salutary 
 cdueai tonal discipline. Besides, the habit of de- 
 pending upon external incentives. — the love of 
 
 distinction, of praise, of pleasure, or of gain, 
 must necessarily engender selfishness, and thus, 
 narrow and debase the mind which a generouSi 
 earnest zeal in the pursuit of a praiseworthy ob- 
 ject would expand and ennoble. 
 
 DILWORTH, Thomas, an English teacher, 
 and the author of several very successful and 
 
DINTEE 
 
 popular school text-books, among 'which were a 
 \,ir Guide to the English Tongue (London, 
 L 740), which passed through more than forty 
 editions, and a Compendium of Arithmetic (Lon- 
 don, 17:*)-) : also 77/.' Book-keeper's Assistant, 
 Bvo., and the Schoolmaster's Assistant, L2mo. 
 These were among the most noted school hooks 
 of their time. Ddworth died in 17S0. 
 
 DINTER, Dr. Gustav Friedrich, a Ger- 
 man educator, was horn Febr. 29., 1760, at Borna, 
 in Saxony. He received his first education at 
 the Furstenschule of Grimma, where, at that 
 time, the monitorial system was in use. and the 
 best Bcholarsof the upper classes, under the name 
 of ObergeseUen, aided in the instruction of the 
 younger pupils. Dinter greatly distinguished 
 himself as ObergeselL and gave indications of the 
 eminence which he subsequently attained as an 
 educator. After studying theology at the uni- 
 versity of Leipsic, and being for five years tutor 
 in a private family, he was appointed, in L787, 
 pastor of a church in Kit/.scher, near Borna. Here 
 he gratuitously receive! 1 y< rang men into his house 
 in order to educate them as school-teachers, and 
 soon attracted the attention of the highest school 
 boards of the country by the superior knowledge 
 which his pupils showed on entering the normal 
 school. He was, therefore, offered, in 1 75* T. the 
 position of director of the teachers" seminary at 
 Fricdrichstadt-Dresden, which he accepted, al- 
 though it yielded a smaller income, hoping to 
 find there a more extensive field of usefulness. 
 In consequence of his able administration, the 
 seminary attained a high reputation; but. as his 
 health failed, he resumed, in 1807. the charge 
 of a village church. Again he received young 
 men into his house, and prepared them for 
 the gymnasium, employing some of his former 
 pupils as assistants. In 1816, the Prussian gov- 
 ernment, appointed him consistorial and school 
 councilor at Konigsberg. He found the schools 
 which he had to inspect in a deplorable condition. 
 When he made his first tour of inspection, there 
 were forty-two rural and two town schools, in 
 which not a single child was able to write a let- 
 ter. Twelve years later, all the boys who had 
 been regular in their studies, in sixty out of 
 sixty-seven schools, had acquired this ability. 
 One year after settling at Konigsberg, he re- 
 oeived, in addition to his office as councilor, an 
 appointment as professor at the university. He 
 was an indefatigable writer, working, on an 
 average, eighty-three hours a week. He died 
 May 29., I 831 . As a theologian, Dinter belonged 
 to the Rationalists' school, though he never at- I 
 tacked the Evangelical school. His merits as a 
 school inspector, teacher, and educational writer 
 were so conspicuous, and his life was so pure, that 
 even the opponents of his theological views. 
 without exception, recognize the prominent posi- 
 tion which he occupies in the history of educa- 
 tion, lie exerted a considerable influence upon 
 the educational system of Prussia, by introducing 
 into the state school the ideas of Basedow and 
 Pestalozzi, which heretofore had been applied only 
 in private institutions. He was a master of rare 
 
 DISCIPLES OF CHRIST 
 
 229 
 
 eminence in the use of the catechetical method 
 of instruction, which, through his influence, not 
 only came into general use. but was sometimes 
 carried to an extreme. He insisted that women 
 should receive an education not inferior to that 
 of men, since woman bears the most prominent 
 part in the education of the rising generation. 
 Mis views on female education are laid down in 
 a work, entitled Malvina. Although he did not 
 begin his literary activity until he was forty 
 years of age, he is entitled to a place among the 
 most prolific educational writers in Germany. 
 I lis complete works edited by Wilhelm (1841— r- 
 51 ) are contained in 42 volumes. Theyare divided 
 into four sections: the lirst containing hisexeget- 
 ical writings (12 vols.); the second, the catechet- 
 ical (16 vols.). the third, the pedagogical (9 vols.), 
 and the fourth the ascetical works (5 vols.). The 
 most celebrated of his works, the SchuUehrerbibel, 
 has been severely criticised from several points ; 
 but two of his works, entitled Die vorzuglichslen 
 Regebi der Padagogik, Methodik und Schul- 
 meisterklugheit (7th edit., 1836) and, Die vorsug- 
 lichsten Regeln der Katechetik (7th edit... 1827), 
 are regarded as standard works of imperishable 
 value. — See Dinter's Leben, von ilim selbst be- 
 schrieben (Plauen, 1860); Schmidt, Geschichie 
 der Padagogik, vol. iv. 
 
 DIPLOMA (Gr. 6lirfc>u,a, anything doubled, 
 or folded), a term anciently given to a formal 
 certificate of authority, because such documents 
 were usually written on double or folded waxen 
 tablets. In more modern times, the term was 
 applied to a royal charter or to any governmental 
 testimonial of authority, privilege, or dignity. 
 (Hence the science of state documents is called 
 diplomatics.) The term is now chiefly confined 
 to a certificate given by a university, college, or 
 other literary institution, as an evidence that 
 the person upon whom it is conferred has at- 
 tained a certain degree of scholarship ; or, in the 
 case of professional schools, as a license to prac- 
 tice a particular art. 
 
 DISCIPLES OF CHRIST, or as they 
 prefer to be named, " The Church of Christ, 
 a body of Baptists, sometimes called by their 
 opponents " Campbellites," after Thomas Camp- 
 bell and his son Alexander Campbell, who gave 
 the immediate origin and distinctive character 
 to the denomination. The original purpose of 
 Thomas Campbell, who came to the United 
 States, in 1808, from Ireland, as the minister of a 
 Presbyterian denomination known as the Seced- 
 ers, was to unite the various denominations of 
 Christians on the exclusive basis of the Bible. 
 For a time, the congregations organized by the 
 two Campbells attached themselves to a Baptist 
 association: but. in L827, a distinct ecclesiastical 
 organization ws begun. The disciples believe in 
 "baptism for the remission of sins, ' and practice 
 weekly communion. In church government, 
 this denomination is congregational. In 1874, 
 a committee of conference was appointed to 
 confer with the Free Will Baptists on a union of 
 the two denominations. The membership in the 
 United States, chiefly in the Southern and 
 
230 
 
 DISCIPLINE 
 
 "Western states, is estimated at about 500.000 ; 
 in the British Islands, they numbered, in 1874, 
 109 churches ; and congregations have also been 
 established in Canada, the West Indies, and 
 Australia. They have always taken a deep in- 
 terest in education, and have a large number of 
 academies and seminaries, as well as several col- 
 leges of high standing. The must prominent 
 among their literary institutions arc Bethany 
 College, founded by Alexander Campbell, and 
 presided over by him until his death ; Kentucky 
 University, at Lexington, Ky.; the Northwes- 
 tern Christian University, at Indianapolis. Ind.; 
 Abingdon College, at Abingdon, 111.: Eureka 
 College, at Eureka, 111.; and Hiram College, at 
 Hiram, Ohio. Female colleges have been estab- 
 lished at Columbia. Mo.. Versailles and Jlar- 
 rodsburg, ky.aiid Bloomington, 111. Theological 
 schools are connected with the Kentucky Uni- 
 versity and Eureka College. A Bible school for 
 colored ministers was established at Louisville, 
 K\\. in 187 I. The number of Sunday-schools in 
 1874 was 2,450, with 253,000 scholars. For 
 fuller information on the literary institutions of 
 this denomination, sec the special articles on the 
 colleges above mentioned. 
 
 DISCIPLINE (Lat. disciplina, from discere, 
 to learn), a term which, according to its literal 
 acceptation, means the condition of a disciple, or 
 learner; that is. subordination requiring strict 
 obedience to certain directions or rules, or con- 
 formity with a system of instruction, having for 
 its object some kind of training. I tence the word 
 discipline is sometimes used in an active sense as 
 synonymous with training or culture, as in the 
 expression intellectual or moved discipline. Some- 
 times it is employed to denote school govern- 
 ment ; and. frequently also punishment for the 
 commission of offenses. The word, however, 
 should, particularly in education, be confined to 
 its strict meaning as above defined. Iii all teach- 
 ing, there is need of attention and obedience on 
 the part of the pupil ; and as an important aim 
 of education is to instill certain habits as a basis 
 for the formation of character, the learner must 
 be required constantly and punctiliously to con- 
 form to certain rules and general precepts; and 
 the discipline of the teacher is good or bad in 
 proportion as he succeeds in enforcing obedience 
 to these oecessarj rules. In large schools, the 
 system of regulations becomes more complicated, 
 
 and a habitual ready attention to them on the 
 
 ji.ni of tin' pupils produces whal is technically 
 called order. (See Order.) This kind of dis- 
 cipline assimilates to what is required in an 
 army, with the special object of so unifying a 
 
 large number of men that they may be moved as 
 
 a single person. In militarv discipline, the indi- 
 vidual is sacrificed to the genera) object to be 
 
 attained l.y its enforcement : indeed, he has no 
 
 claim to, consideration, excepl what is secondary 
 and subordinate. The danger, in the manage- 
 ment of large schools, is thai the same principle 
 will be applied, the interests of the pupils as in- 
 dividuals being lost sighl of in the endeavor to 
 enforce mere discipline for the purpose of gen- 
 
 eral management or show. In education, how- 
 ever, the interests of the individual should never 
 be disregarded. School machinery, — marching 
 and countermarching, simultaneous movements, 
 J the motionless gaze, or the dead silence of multi- 
 | tudes of children, all perhaps trembling under 
 restraint, certainly constitutes a kind of disci* 
 pline. but a kind, if not absolutely pernicious, of 
 lint little educational value. Order is indispen- 
 sable to the proper working of a school ; but it has 
 been well remarked that "good order involves 
 impression rather than repression : it does not 
 consist in a coercion from which result merely 
 silence, and a vacant gaze of painful restraint; but 
 it proceeds from the steady action of awakened 
 and interested intellect. — the kindling of an 
 earnest purpose and an ambition to excel." 
 Hence, the discipline that is necessary to produce 
 order in a school or class, is of secondary im- 
 portance, in comparison with that which has for 
 its object to train the intellectual and moral nat- 
 ure of the pupils as individuals. "By discipline." 
 says Currie, "we understand the application of 
 the motives which prompt the pupil to diligent 
 study and to good conduct ;" that is, such mo- 
 tives as the desire of the approbation of teacher 
 
 I or parent, emulation, or the desire of distinction, 
 the hope of reward, and the fear of punishment. 
 To what extent these motives should be resorted 
 to, and their comparative efficacy in dealing 
 with children of different temperaments and 
 traits of character, constitute important subjects 
 for careful discussion. (See Government, and 
 Rewards.] 
 
 All moral discipline must be directed to the 
 training of the will : and it is in this connection 
 that the consideration of motives becomes of 
 primary importance. Educators are at con- 
 siderable variance as to the proper methods of 
 controlling the will of children. Some advocate, 
 in all eases, an application of the law of kind- 
 ness, and contend that physical force should 
 never be brought in to coerce or restrain even 
 
 the most self-willed pupil ; others are of the 
 
 opinion, based on experience, as they claim, that, 
 
 in some cases, physical punishment is indispen- 
 sable. (See Corporal Punishment.) The best 
 training is. without doubt, that which brings 
 into play the pupils higher nature, and leaves 
 him habitually actuated by motives derived from 
 it. The child cannot be always restrained by 
 fear, that is. the tear of immediate physical 
 pain ; and. hence, the discipline to which he is to 
 be subjected, should be such as will implant 
 
 motives and principles of c luct that will be 
 
 effective as a means of permanent self control. 
 The mere subduing of the will of children is not 
 sufficient ; indeed, it may be injurious. The 
 aim of the teacher should he to bring the will 
 
 into subjection to conscience and a sense of right; 
 iii the words of a distinguished educator, "to dis- 
 courage the child in the proper development ol 
 
 its nature has a tendency to crush out the life of 
 the child rather than to cultivate that life into 
 
 better methods of thought and action." The 
 motives brought to hear in the school-room 
 
DISPUTATIONS 
 
 DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA 231 
 
 should, as far as possible, be those which will be 
 Operative in after life. Special school incentives, 
 such as merit marks etc., are useful and proper 
 within certain limitations ; but the great aim 
 should be to dispense with them, and substitute 
 natural for artificial motives— motives that will 
 cling to the child during his whole after life. 
 Unnatural, overstrained discipline, that is, the 
 exaction of a precise conformity with the minor 
 regulations of a school, not only crushes out the 
 individuality of the child for the time, but in its 
 reaction engenders a feeling of resistance in his 
 mind, which, having no outward demonstration, 
 naturally results in a habit of deceit. Nothing 
 is so baneful to the nature of a, child as an at- 
 mosphere of tyranny and arbitrary power ; and 
 any system of discipline that is founded exclu- 
 sively upon it. must produce the worst effects 
 possible. After all. the best discipline, even if 
 
 the outward order should not be so exact, is that 
 which is brought to bear upon the ] nipils through 
 the consistent example, and the kindly heart tell 
 sympathies of the living teacher, whose very 
 presence is sunshine to his school, and who quells 
 waywardness by the very sublimity of his pa- 
 tience, firmness, and perfect self- control. (See 
 Conscience, Ci'lti-re of.) 
 
 DISPUTATIONS, the old form of rhetor- 
 ical exercises in which candidates for degrees, in 
 the universities, were formerly required to ex- 
 hibit their powers. Hence the term wrangler 
 as applied in the University of Cambridge, Eng- 
 land, to those who have attained first-class 
 honois in the public mathematical examinations. 
 These disputations occupied a very prominent 
 place in the college work when the formal .Aris- 
 totelian or syllogistic logic (dialectics) was much 
 in vogue, as being the most valuable of all ac- 
 complishments, and the best test of educational 
 progress. They were of two kinds : ordinary, 
 or those performed privately in term time for 
 practice ; and extraordinary, or those performed 
 publicly as the necessary qualifications for a de- 
 gree. The exercise finally became absurd and was 
 held up to ridicule. The following gives a hu- 
 morous description of the method of disputation 
 at Oxford, England, in the last century : 
 
 •• Tlic persons of this argumentative drama are 
 three : namely, the opponent, the respondent, ami the 
 moderator. Tie' opponent is the person who always 
 begins the attack, ami is sure of losing the day. being 
 always as they call it) on the wrong side of the ques- 
 tion ; though oftentimes, that side is palpably the 
 right side, according to our modern philosophy and 
 discoveries. Tin' respondent Bits over against the op- 
 ponent, and is prepared to deny whatever he affirms, 
 and always comes off with flying colors, which must 
 needs make him enter the lists with great fortitude and 
 intrepidity. The moderator is the hero, or principal 
 Character of the drama, and struts about between the 
 two wordy champions during the time of action, to 
 see that they do not wander from the question in de- 
 bate; ami when he perceives them deviating from it, 
 u them -hovt, and put them into the right road 
 in; for which purpose he is provided with a great 
 quantity of subtle terms and phrases of art ; such as, 
 quoad hoc et quoad Mud, formaliter et materioMer, 
 dicamentaliter et transcendentalUei; actualiter et 
 nlialiter, directe et per se, reductive' et per ai 1 - 
 eidens, entitativi et quidditative, etc. 
 
 The same author characterizes the exercise, 
 which was originally designed as a public proof 
 of the student's progress in the art of reasoning, 
 as "no more than a formal repetition of a set of 
 syllogisms upon some ridiculous question in 
 logic, which the students get by rote, or, perhaps, 
 only read out of their caps, which lie before 
 them with their notes in them.'' On which abuse 
 he thus enlarges : 
 
 " ■These commodious* sets of syllogisms are called 
 strings, and descend from undergraduate to under- 
 graduate, in a regular succession; so that, when any 
 candidate for a degree is to exercise his talent in ar- 
 gumentation, he has nothing else to do but to inquire 
 among his friends for a string upon such or such a ques- 
 tion, and to gel it by heart, or read it over in Jiis nap 
 as aforesaid." 
 
 For a long time the study of dialectics, or the 
 art of logical disputation, occupied a prominent 
 
 place in the university curriculum both in Eng- 
 land and on the continent; and young men were 
 allowed to waste their time and intellectual 
 energies upon these useless subtleties. "In the 
 German universities of the 14th and 15th cent- 
 turies." Von Raumer says, "the lectures were 
 accompanied with frequent disputations, in which 
 teachers and scholars took part. The regular dis- 
 putation day was Saturday. Sophismata and 
 qua?sti< »><''*, after the fashion of theses, furnished 
 the basis for the disputing. The purpose of them 
 all seems to have been not so much to deal with 
 the truth of the matter as with the form ; they 
 were dialectic fencing with all the tricks of soph- 
 istry, exhibitions of skill in arguing for and 
 against the same proposition." As scholasticism 
 declined, this learned trifling became obsolete; 
 and where disputations are now required they 
 are merely of a formal character. — See Knox, 
 Liberal Education, vol. n. (11th ed., London, 
 1795); Von Raumer, Geschichle der Padagogik, 
 vol. v., trans, in Barnard's German Universities 
 (N. Y., 1859). 
 
 DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA, the federal 
 district in which the capital of the United States 
 has been located since November, 1800. It orig- 
 inally consisted of portions of territory ceded 
 to the general government by Maryland and 
 Virginia, and forming a square of 10 miles, and 
 hence having an area of 100 sq. m., (i4 on the 
 Maryland side, and .'5(1 on the Virginia side. It 
 was organized in pursuance of an act of ( 'ongress, 
 passed June 28., 1790, which accepted this "dis- 
 trict of territory" for the " permanent seat of 
 government of the United States." and provided 
 that the government should be removed from 
 Philadelphia to that place on the first Monday 
 in November, 1800. The portion on the Virginia 
 side of the Potomac was retroceded in 1846, 
 leasing 64 sq. m. as the area of the District. 
 (harters were subsequently granted to the cities 
 of Washington and Georgetown, and the District 
 was under the direct control of Congress; 
 the people, however, having no representation 
 therein and no voice in the election of the pres- 
 ident of the U.S. In L871,a territorial govern- 
 ment was organized, the charters of Washington 
 and Georgetown were repealed, and the adminis- 
 
232 
 
 DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA 
 
 tration of the affairs of the District was com- 
 mitted to a governor and legislative assembly. 
 By ad of Congress, June 20., L874, the territo- 
 rial government was abolished, and the adminis- 
 tration was vested in three commissioners to be 
 appointed by the President with the consent of 
 the senate. 
 
 Educational History. — The charter of the city 
 of Washington, amended in 1804, first made 
 provision for the ••establishment and superintend- 
 ence of schools" in the District; and au act of the 
 city council, the same year, required the appoint- 
 ment of thirteen trustees to carry these provi- 
 sions into effect. Six of these trustees were to be 
 chosen by those persons who contributed to the 
 support of the schools. Among the trustees elected 
 by the contributors was Thomas Jefferson, who 
 was made president of the firsl board convened. 
 The first action taken by the new hoar. I contem- 
 plated the establishment of schools, a college, and a 
 university — the whole to constitute an institution 
 ■in which every species of knowledge essential to 
 the liberal education at' youth may eventually be 
 
 acquired." As the result of this action, two 
 schools were established, which, in L809, it was 
 resolved to merge into one. About this time 
 (1810), the citizens of < leorgetown applied to the 
 corporation of their city. t<> set apart a lot on 
 which suitable school buildings might be erected. 
 Their application is supposed to have been suc- 
 cessful, as eiidit months afterward the ollieers of 
 the city attended the laying of tic corner-stone 
 of a new school-house; ami. live months after 
 that, a new school, organized upon the Lancas- 
 terian plan, was opened. In L812, the sum of 
 §1,000 was appropriated by the council for the 
 purpose of building an addition in which the 
 female pupils mighl receive separate instruction. 
 The reputation of this school had extended >> 
 
 far, that the committee of the Washington school 
 board, on receipt of a letter from one of the 
 teachers of the < leorgetown school, suggesting the 
 establishment of a similar' school in Washington, 
 acted immediately upon the suggestion, and pro- 
 cured the passage of an order"thal there shall be 
 
 one school in the city of Washington, as near as 
 pracl icable in the center thereof, to he conduct, ■ 1 
 On the plan of, and as nearly correspondent as 
 
 may be with the forms observed in, the Lan- 
 casteriaii School." Congress, meantime, by a joint 
 resolution, authorized the establishment of a lot- 
 tery for raising $10,000 to be used in the organ- 
 ization of two Lancasterian schools. These 
 schools must have been established, as we find 
 the board of trustees, in L813, electing officers 
 and supervisor} committees tor the Eastern and 
 Western schools, and for the Eastern and 
 Western Lancasterian schools. In Is:;:!, the 
 subject of five schools in the District appears to 
 have engaged the attention of Congress, hut 
 nothing decisive was done; and, on the 4th of 
 Slay of that year, the city corporation applied 
 $200 for the relief of the Georgetown school. 
 
 The authorities of the three cities Washington. 
 Georgetown, and Alexandria, in ls:;7. united iii 
 
 an appeal to Congress for an appropriation for 
 
 the endowment of a system of education that 
 should embrace the whole District of Columbia. 
 by which the children of all might equally enjoy 
 the inestimable advantages of a liberal education. 
 The effort, however, was of no avail, and the 
 schools were provided for by private contributions 
 and annual appropriations from the city treasury 
 till 1842, when the corporation of the city or- 
 
 dered that the schools should be -taken under the 
 exclusive care of the corporate authority." To 
 this end, aboard of guardians of the (ieorgetown 
 school was appointed, with full powers to pro- 
 vide for the keeping of said schools, and to man- 
 age the same for the public interest. In 1844, 
 the public-school system was re-organized by the 
 abolition of the two ward boards, and the creation 
 of a new board of twelve trustees with ample 
 power for the complete supervision and control 
 of the schools. These were to be open to all 
 white children between 6 and 16 years of age, 
 on prepayment of a tuition fee of not more than 
 50 cents a month, the pupils furnishing their 
 own books, except in the case of children of in- 
 digent parents, who were taught, and furnished 
 with books five of < ust. 'I lie same act appropriated 
 $3,650 for building two Bchool-houses, ami for 
 renting rooms for school purposes. Between 
 L845 and 1848, ten new primary schools were 
 established, tuition fees were abolished, and a 
 tax of SI was ordered to be annually levied on 
 everywhite male citizen for the use of the schools. 
 The changes during the next five years ( L849 to 
 L853) were, the establishment of 13 new pri- 
 mary schools, the buying of lots, and building ol 
 new school - houses, the increase of teachers*' 
 salaries, and an annual average appropriation of 
 about $15,000. In 1857, an attempt was made 
 
 to bring the public -school System more into 
 conformity with the system which had been 
 adopted with such success by some of the East< rn 
 states, by creating the office of superintendent 
 of public instruction, and making an assessment 
 of lo cents on every $100 of taxable property, 
 but it was not successful. In L860, the attempt 
 
 to pass so much of the original act as related to 
 taxation, was renewed, and with success. a tax of 
 10 cents on the $100 being ordered. Since that 
 time, the progress of the schools has been marked. 
 In 1m; I. the first school for colored children 
 went into operation. The same year, Congress 
 approved an act to organize public schools in 
 the county of Washington, exclusive of the 
 cities of Washington and Georgetown. 'I he 
 first obstacle encountered in the carrying out of 
 this law was a disagreement in the board of com- 
 missioners in regard to the division of the scl I 
 
 fund among the white ami colored schools. A 
 decision was reached in -Inly: and. the same year, 
 two scl Is were opened, affording instruction to 
 
 loft pupils. The following Near, five schools 
 were opened, and the few schools for colored 
 children previously existing were incorporated 
 
 into the public-School system. Since the creation 
 
 of the hoard of guardians in Georgetown, in 
 1842, no changes except those incident to the 
 ordinary routine of a successful school system ares 
 
DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA 
 
 233 
 
 recoided. The act of Congress which, in 1871, 
 placed the District under ;i territorial form of 
 
 government, led to changes in the form and com- 
 position of the board of trustees, ami to many in 
 the details * >t' the management of the schools; but 
 the efficiency of the latter was in no way im- 
 paired. In ls74. the srhool boards of Washing- 
 ton, Georgetown, and the county were consoli- 
 dated into one board of 19 trustees, of whom 11 
 were residents of Washington, 3 of Georgetown, 
 and 5 of the county. In 1869, the office of super- 
 intendent of public schools of Washington was 
 created, Zalmon Richards being chosen to the 
 position. The following year, he was succeded 
 by J. (). Wilson, who has continued to discharge 
 its duties to the present time. The present super- 
 intendent of colored schools for the cities of 
 Washington and Georgetown is G. F.T. Cook. 
 
 School System.— The control of the schools 
 throughout the District rests with the board of 
 trustees already mentioned, who report directly 
 to the triumvirate commission created, in 1874, 
 for the government of the District, This com- 
 mission appi tints a superintendent of white schools 
 in Washington. Georgetown, and the county, and 
 a superintendent of colored schools in Washing- 
 ton atnl Georgetown. No permanent school fund 
 exists, the schools being maintained either by 
 special appropriations by Congress, or by direct 
 taxation and voluntary contributions. The second 
 method — that of direct taxation — has been most 
 •effective, the amount of tax per dollar of aasessed 
 property for the support of the white schools in 
 the District and county having been, during the 
 past year, 3. 1 1 mills for Washington, and 3.7£ 
 mills for Georgetown ; the amount for the 
 colored schools was 3.3 mills in the former, and 
 4 nulls in the latter. Tuition is free, the cost of 
 books only being charged to scholars; but, in 
 case of poverty, this charge is remitted. The legal 
 school age is from 6 to 17 years. 
 
 Educational Condition. — The principal items 
 of school statistics, for the year 1874 — 5, are as 
 follows: 
 
 Number of edncable children, white. . 19, ISO 
 
 colored 9,328 
 
 Total 
 
 Number of children enrolled, white. . 
 " " " colored 
 
 11,241 
 6,489 
 
 28,817 
 
 Total 16,730 
 
 Average daily attendance, white 8,520 
 
 " colored.. 3,924 
 
 it CC 
 
 Total. 
 
 Number of schools, white 
 
 " colored 
 
 166 
 7.5 
 
 12,444 
 
 Total. 
 
 241 
 
 Average number of teachers, males, white.. . 9 
 " " " females "... 164 
 
 Total.. 173 
 
 Average number of teachers, males, colored 2 
 
 " " " " fpmulea " Rfi 
 
 females 
 
 86 
 
 Total.. 88 
 Estimated enrollment in private and paro- 
 chial schools for the year 6,837 | 
 
 The school revenue for the year was: 
 
 Loral taxation for white schools $361,156.99 
 All other sources " " 93,749.67 
 
 Total $454,906.66 
 
 Local taxation for colored 
 
 Bchoola $103,003.92 
 
 All other sources for colored 
 
 schools 71,454,12 
 
 $174,458.04 
 $334,547.36 
 
 Total 
 
 Expenditures 
 
 Normal instruction. — The normal school at 
 Washington was organized in 187.'!, for the pur- 
 pose of supplying the public schools of the 
 city with teachers. The proportion of female 
 teachers in the schools is so large — 95 per cent— 
 that no provision has been made in the normal 
 school for the education of males. The number of 
 pupils is limited to 20. They must have been, before 
 entering, pupils in the female grammar schools 
 of the city, and at least 17 years of age. The 
 course of study is oue year in duration. The 
 number of pupils who received certificates last 
 year was 20 ; the number who received diplomas, 
 11. At the normal department of Howard 
 University, 7 students were graduated. 
 
 Secondary Instruction. — Only one high school 
 is in existence in Washington ; namely, that for 
 colored children, in the north-western section of 
 the city. About 120 private and denominational 
 schools, and academies are reported in the Dis- 
 trict, situated principally in the cities of Wash- 
 ington and Georgetown. Of these schools, 110 are 
 for white children, and 10 for colored. The Wash- 
 ington Business College furnishes instruction to 
 persons of all age and both sexes, who desire to 
 enter mercantile life. 
 
 Superior Instruction. — The colleges and uni- 
 versities are as follows : 
 
 NAME 
 
 Location 
 
 When 
 
 found 
 
 ed 
 
 Denomi- 
 nation 
 
 Columbian University . . . 
 Georgetown College 
 
 Washington 
 Georgetown 
 Washington 
 Washington 
 
 1822 
 1789 
 1858 
 1866 
 
 Baptist 
 K. C. 
 R. C. 
 Non-sec. 
 
 
 Professional and Scientific Instruction. — 
 Schools of law, medicine, and theology exist in 
 connection with colleges and universities; and 
 scientific instruction, also, is to a certain extent 
 given, but no special institution for the last 
 exists. Instruction in theology is given to colored 
 students preparing for the ministry by the 
 Wayland Institute established by the colored 
 Baptists. The National University Law School has 
 3 instructors, and 100 students. The National Col- 
 lege of Pharmacy was organized in 1872. 
 
 Special Instruction. — The Columbia Institu- 
 tion for the Deaf and Dumb was founded by 
 Amos Kendall, and was chartered by < Ymgress 
 in 1857. Its sources of revenue are tuition fees, 
 congressional appropriations, and voluntary con- 
 tributions. In addition to the preparatory depart- 
 ment, it has a collegiate department — the only 
 college for deaf-mutes in the world. Its course 
 extends over 11 years — 7 in the preparatory de- 
 partment, and 1 in the college. 
 
234 
 
 DISTRICT SCHOOLS 
 
 DIVERSIONS 
 
 DISTRICT SCHOOLS. See PlJBMC SCHOOLS. 
 
 DITTES, Friedrich., a German educator, 
 was born Sept. '2:5.. 1829, at Irfersgriin near 
 Zwickau. After studying at the university of 
 Leipsic and obtaining the degree of Doctor of 
 Philosophy, he was appointed director of the 
 teachers" seminary at Gotha, and at the same 
 time " Schviratk " (school-councilor). In 1863, 
 he accepted a call as director of the Pcedago- 
 qium of Vienna, which had just been established 
 by the municipal government of that city. In 
 this position, he took a prominent part in the dis- 
 cussion of all educational questions in Austria and 
 Germany. In L873, the city of Vienna elected 
 him a member of the lower house of the Aus- 
 trian Reichsrath, in which he formed, with only 
 four other members, the "democratic" (radical) 
 party. Dittes is one of the chief representatives 
 of the pedagogical viewsof Beneke (q. \ I, "which 
 he explained and defended in a number of works. 
 The most important are the Following: <<',->nn/- 
 riss der Erziehungs- und Unterrichtslehre (4th 
 edit., Leips., 1874); Methodik der Volksschuh 
 (Leips., 1874); Lehrbuch der Psychohgie und 
 Logik (Vienna, 1874); Geschichte der Erziehung 
 unddes Unterrichts (4th edit., Leips., 1875); and 
 Schule der Padagogik (Leips., iJ-wfi). These 
 ii\ <• works present a complete view of the sci- 
 ence of education and instruction. He has also 
 edited the Padagogische Jdhresbericht. 
 
 DIVERSIONS. An important part of the 
 education of youth consists in affording them an 
 opportunity for natural, unrestrained diversions. 
 in which they may have free scope to exercise 
 mind and body, particularly the latter, accord- 
 ing to their inclinations. During the early 
 period of childhood, no tasks can be or need be 
 imposed to guide or accelerate the natural devel- 
 opment of the mental and physical faculties ; 
 the buds of humanity open of themselves, if 
 their condition is normal, and their growth is 
 not arrested by injudicious interference. At 
 first, nature, as a wise educator, trains through 
 the pleasurable emotions; for the impulses 
 
 which she inspires are all to varied activity, and 
 activity is delight when nerves and muscles have 
 the spring of health and vital energy. A few 
 lessons in conscious restraint are all that this 
 period requires or admits. They are purely 
 negative, checking the violence of natural im- 
 pulse, not urging the child's activity in any par- 
 ticular direction. This is the education of home 
 and parents, when presided over by love and 
 good sense, during the first years of the child's 
 existence, a period of continous diversion. "A 
 
 child, before its fifth year." says Isaac Taylor, 
 
 ••and even later, if in perfect health, does not 
 
 know that the day is long: for the infant mind 
 
 glides down the stream of moments, conscious 
 
 only of the present, ami altogether without 
 thoughl of periods, intervals, and measured 
 seasons of duration; the infant mind has no 
 
 weariness nor disquietude connected with the 
 
 slow numbering of hours, days, weeks, months." 
 
 When the age for serious application begins, 
 the season for tabor, or occupation under con- 
 
 straint, the educator should strive to make the 
 transition as easy and gentle as possible. Fre- 
 quent diversions should be intermingled with 
 formal exercises ; and much will be gained if 
 those exercises be made to partake of the nature 
 of diversions, by having the characteristics of 
 novelty and variety, and by stimulating the 
 child's curiosity. As the age of the child in- 
 creases, passing into youth, the times for regular 
 occupation and for recreation, or diversions, be- 
 come more distinctly separated. The hoy or the 
 girl is gradually led to feel that there are du- 
 ties to be performed, as well as sports to be en- 
 joyed; and that the pleasure received from the 
 latter will be greatly increased by the feeling 
 that it has been earned by a conscientious de- 
 votion to the former. Hence, under no circum- 
 stances, should youth be deprived of their op- 
 portunities for free and innocent recreations, ex- 
 cept as a penalty for misdoing or neglect of 
 duty. The office of diversions is twofold, — re- 
 creation and exercise. The former is absolutely 
 essential after studious employment, to refresh 
 the mind : and the latter is needed to give health 
 and vigor to the body. Those sports arc the 
 best, therefore, which combine cheerful relaxa- 
 tion of the one with the due employment of the 
 other. " Among the Jesuits," says Disraeli, "it 
 was a Standing rule of the order, that after an 
 application to study for two hours, the mind of 
 the student should be unbent by some relaxation, 
 however trifling." I Joys, if left to themselves, 
 will take violent exercise, and thus develop their 
 physical powers and promote their growth : and 
 girls will select sports of a lighter character, — 
 such as are adapted to their different physical 
 constitution. It is a serious error on the part of 
 parents to keep their boys under painful re- 
 straint, and, from solicitude for their safety, to 
 debar them the enjoyment of diversions com- 
 mon to their age, because attended with some 
 degree of danger. Excessive maternal tender- 
 ness and care thus exercised must result in ren- 
 dering hoys effeminate, and unfit to cope with 
 the dangers and trials of subsequent life. The 
 only need of restraint is to keep hoys from 
 vicious actions, low company, petulance and a 
 contentious spirit in their sports, and from too 
 daring and perilous feats of agility and strength. 
 
 Gymnastic exercises may also be made a recrea- 
 1 ion. and. when carried on with some system, they 
 constitute an important part of a regular physical 
 education. (See Gymnastics.) What may be 
 
 called athletics,— rowing, swimming, riding, ball- 
 playing, cricket, etc.. are greatly to be encour- 
 aged in the maturer periods of youth, not only 
 on account of their effect in developing physical 
 vigor, hut because they keep those who actively 
 engage in them from those vicious indulgences 
 which constitute the great peril of that age. 
 Cicero well said. Maxime Inn- cetas </ libidinir 
 bus est arcenda,in labore corporis exercenda. 
 Milton strongly recommends these active exer- 
 cises in his tractate Of Education, and Locke in 
 Thoughts concerning Education especially en- 
 joins "exercises of manual arts." As for the 
 
DOAXE COLLEGE 
 
 DRAWING 
 
 235 
 
 more quiet in-door pastimes, they should be en- 
 couraged with moderation. Cheaa and draughts 
 may be permitted : but. in these games, particu- 
 larly in tlie former, there is great danger of ex- 
 cess; and it has never been demonstrated that a 
 good chess-player is, on that account, good for 
 any thing but to play chess. The game of bil- 
 liards gives training to the hand and the eye, and 
 involves considerable exercise, moderate but 
 healthful : yet it maybe doubted whether youth 
 should be encouraged to engage in it. because of 
 its fascinating character and its tendency to draw 
 their attention from more useful and necessary 
 employments, not to mention the dangerous asso- 
 ciations of the billiard room. 'The old-fashioned 
 amusements of fencing and boxing had much to 
 recommend them, but they belonged to a state 
 
 of society in which they were deemed useful as 
 accomplishments, and encouraged the develop 
 ment of a combative spirit. These games and 
 diversions involve chiefly the exercise of the 
 body; but there are others which require the 
 exclusive application of the mind. Such were. 
 in former times, the Ludi Leibnitiani,inehiddng 
 the Ludus Finium, the Game of Ends (uses and 
 purposes), and the Ludus Remediorum, the 
 Game of Remedies (expedients). These are 
 briefly described by Knox in Liberal Education 
 thus : 
 
 •• One asks, what's the use of this or that '. as, for 
 instance, what's the use of a hat? the other is to find 
 as many ludicrous uses as he can for it. What's the 
 of a hat ? Respondetur, pUeus adhiberi potest ad 
 hauriendam aquam, ad centum excilandum. adpor- 
 tuml'is nuces, poma, etc.: and so of any thing else. 
 Ludus Remediorum, or the Game of Expedients, or 
 making shift, is thus played : Difficult situations and 
 circumstances are contrived, and the answerer is to 
 devise means to extricate himself, or to find sue- 
 lanea for wants — as, how will you write without 
 iuk? etc." 
 
 Sports, however, that have for their express 
 purpose the combining of recreation with mental 
 improvement rarely succeed in their object ; 
 since, as soon as the novelty wears off, they are 
 felt as a task, and hence abandoned. — See DIs- 
 Raeli, Curiosities of Literature, s. v. Amuse- 
 ments of the Learned. 
 
 DOANE COLLEGE, at Crete, Saline 
 county. Nebraska, was chartered in 1872. The 
 first freshman class was formed in 1ST.'!. It is un- 
 der the control of the General Association of 
 Congregational Churches of Nebraska, and is 
 designed for the education of both sexes. Its 
 jHTiiianent buildings are to be erected on a high 
 plateau overlooking the city, the Big Blue River, 
 and a wide reach of prairie beyond, which to- 
 gether present a scene of beauty seldom sur- 
 passed. The college is out of debt and has the 
 following assets: ©18,785 in interest bearing 
 notes: 81,578 in non-interest bearing notes and 
 subscriptions ; 200 acres of land in Polk county; 
 •inn acres adjoining the city of Crete, 320 of 
 which are broken: 58 city lots in Crete: also 
 the academy building and the block on which it 
 stands, valued at $8,000. The college year is 
 divided intii three terms: the cost of tuition per 
 
 term is $7 in the full classical course, $5 in 
 
 higher English and modern languages, and $3 in 
 the common Knglish branches. These charges 
 are remitted in favor of the children of home 
 and foreign missionaries. Boom rent is free. 
 The college has been supported mainly by con- 
 tributions from the friends of education and 
 religion in Nebraska and .Massachusetts. It has 
 made special efforts to reach those wdiose igno- 
 rance of the Knglish language too often consti- 
 tutes a battier to all Christian activity in their 
 behalf. There are (1876) .'! instructors and 58 
 students, nearly all in the preparatory depart- 
 ment. The institution has been in charge of D. 
 B. Perry from its organization. 
 
 DOCTOR. See DEGREES. 
 
 DOEDERLEIN, Ludwig, a noted German 
 philologist and teacher, was born at Jena, in 1791, 
 and died in L863. He was a son of the eminent 
 German Protestant divine and critic, Johann 
 Christoph Doderlein. He studied at several 
 German universities, including that of Berlin; 
 and, in 1815, he was appointed professor of phi- 
 lology at the academy of Pern. He afterwards 
 filled the position of professor of philology at 
 Krlangen. His chief -writings are Lateinische 
 Synonyme "m/ Elymologieen (6 vols., 1826 — 
 38), with a supplement, Die lateinische Wort- 
 bildung (1838); Handbuch der lateiniscken Ety- 
 mologie (1841); Homerisches Ghssarium (1850). 
 All these works were published at Leipsic. He 
 also edited several classical works. 
 
 DONALDSON, John William, an eminent 
 English scholar and teacher, was born in Lon- 
 don, June 10., 1811, where he died in 1861. He 
 was educated at the university of London and at 
 Trinity College, Cambridge, graduating as B. A. 
 at the latter, in 1834. For some time, he held the 
 office of assistant tutor at Trinity College, during 
 which period he published The Theatre of the 
 Greeks, which is still highly valued as a college 
 class book. He, subsequently, held the office of 
 head-master of the grammar school of Bury St. 
 Kdmonds, which he resigned in 1855, and de- 
 livered a course of lectures at Cambridge on 
 Latin synonyms. In 1839, the first edition of 
 the Neir Oratylus was issued, a work of pro- 
 found erudition, embodying the principles of 
 comparative philology as established by the re- 
 searches of Bopp. the brothers Grimm, and other 
 German scholars. This work, as enlarged and 
 improved in the edition <>f L859, i> still the 
 standard English work upon the subject of which 
 it treats. In Varronianus (1846), he attempted 
 to accomplish for Latin philology what the New 
 Oratylus had done for Creek. His other publica- 
 tions were editions of some of the classics, and 
 several theological works— among the latter, 
 Christian Orthodoxy (London, 1867). 
 
 DRAWING has been defined as the expres- 
 sion of thought by means of lines, or as a visible 
 presentation upon a surface of our conception of 
 a form. Hence its usefulness in every depart- 
 ment of mechanical science or effort ; since each 
 of these departments is based upon the Concep- 
 tion of forms and their realization in material 
 products. Drawing is thus supplementary to 
 
236 
 
 DRAWING 
 
 ordinary language, the function of which is to 
 recall ideas to the mind by their abstract repre- 
 sentatives in words: but words ean recall con- 
 ceptions of form only to a very limited extent, 
 and scarcely at all those of an irregular or com- 
 plex character. On the contrary, drawing, by a 
 combination of the simple elements of lines, 
 of various kinds and in various relations to 
 each other, can transfer from one mind to an- 
 other the most complicated conception, whether 
 it be that of an actual object, or the creation of 
 the imagination. Thus the machinist has be- 
 fore him an exact representation of the piece of 
 mechanism which he is to construct ; the archi- 
 tect delineates the elevations and plans of the 
 edifice which the builder is to erect, and the 
 industrial draughtsman represents the designs 
 which are to embellish the varied fabrics of the 
 loom. In short, the uses and applications of this 
 beautiful and expressive form language are in- 
 finite, stamping it as one of the most indispen- 
 sable accomplishments of civilized man, and, con- 
 sequently, one of the most important elements of 
 Ins education. The value of drawing as a de- 
 partment of general or popular education, has 
 been pretty fully treated in the article on ART- 
 EDUCATION, to which the reader is referred for 
 information on this point. In the present article, 
 it is designed to present a brief outline of the 
 relation of drawing to the various grades of 
 education, with practical suggestions as to the 
 
 methods of teaching it. 
 
 Drawing may lie divided into two distinct de- 
 partments, instrumental and free-hand, the for- 
 mer being principally employed in the mechan- 
 ical, engineering, anil architectural branches of 
 industry; the latter, by artists, designers, and 
 others. The two divisions are sometimes re- 
 ferred to as scientific and artistic, because the 
 subjects coming under the first group, are based 
 on scientific principles, and the results obtained 
 are capable of demonstration by geometry; 
 whilst tree-hand work, either in imitation or 
 original design, employs the perceptive rather 
 
 than the reasoning faculties, and its results have 
 to be judged by the standard of taste, in all 
 features which do not involve a question of fact. 
 Instrumental Drawing. The group of sub- 
 jects which come under this division may be 
 classified as elementary or applied; the first 
 
 teaching methods of obtaining accuracy of form, 
 and its appearance under given conditions; the 
 see I. applying this power of drawing to prac- 
 tical purposes, in the arts of planning, construc- 
 tion, ami design. The el mentary subjects are : 
 (1) Plane g etrical drawing: (2) projection 
 
 of solids, (a) radial or perspective, (6) parallel 
 in- orthographic; (3) projection of shadows. 
 
 (a) radial or perspective, (/') parallel or ortho 
 
 graphic ami i8o metric— The applied subjects 
 are: (1) Architectural drawing and building 
 construction : (2) machine drawing, construction, 
 and design; civil and military engineering; 
 
 I.'!) Surveying and topographical drawing: and 
 
 Hi ship draughting, and marine architecture. — 
 The elementary subjects teach the student hoM 
 
 to draw the forms of lines, planes, or solids, either 
 as the eye sees them by perspective, or as they 
 actually exist, by orthographic or isometric pro- 
 jection. The forms usually employed in teach- 
 ing, are regular geometric planes and solids, con- 
 veying, by the instruction given, the principles of 
 representation by lines, on planes of delineation, 
 when the objects are seen in space, or in a de- 
 fined position in relation to the eye. The study 
 of the elements of instrumental drawing is ne- 
 cessary, therefore, because by it we learn how to 
 draw, as a science, which is obviously required 
 before we can apply it to purposes involving a 
 knowledge of the science. The elementary 
 branches may thus be considered purely educa- 
 tional, whilst the advanced or applied divisions 
 may be described as industrial. — In the applied 
 subjects, a knowledge of plane and solid geom- 
 etry prepares the architectural draughtsman to 
 make working drawings for the builder, the 
 carpenter, the mason, and other mechanics em- 
 ployed in the erection and construction of 
 buildings; displaying, by geometrical drawings 
 made to a regular scale, the true forms ami di- 
 mensions of all parts of the fabric: enabling 
 the builder to calculate exactly the quantity of 
 
 materials required in its construction, and each 
 artisan to prepare his share of the work, so 
 that it shall truly fit its place. 'I he science of, 
 projection and perspective is the basis of the lan- 
 guage by which the architect expresses his de- 
 sign for the whole structure, displaying his ar- 
 rangement of the plan, his design for the eleva- 
 tion, the true form of the building in its several 
 aspects, and the appearance of the whole by 
 means of a perspective view. — Again, in mechan- 
 ical engineering, the designer of a machine must, 
 be thoroughly acquainted with projection as a 
 science, before he can express on paper his de: 
 vices for securing the speed and power required 
 
 for his purpose. Working drawings have then 
 
 to be made of the several parts and details, 
 to furnish accurate information to the model 
 maker, by which he may make each part of the 
 machine in wood, to the molder who has to east 
 it in metal, and for the guidance of the fin- 
 isher and fitter who complete the work and erect 
 the machine. So. also, in surveying and topo- 
 graphical drawing, the actual feature.-- of a coun- 
 
 try or estate are ascertained through the appli- 
 cation of plane and solid geometry, and reduced 
 from the natural size to a plan which is. in all 
 respects, like the true plan of the original. 
 although on a different scale. By the use of 
 such scale drawings, railways are planned and 
 
 executed, cities and towns are laid out: ami. by 
 
 civil and military engineers, who employ the 
 Bame means of delineating their work, cities are 
 drained, supplied with water, or fortified and 
 protected, bridges are built to span the river, and 
 piers made to encroach upon the sea, tunnels made 
 to cut through hills and mountains, and embank- 
 ments and viaducts to till the inequalities of val- 
 leys.— The marine engineer or naval constructor 
 is equally dependent upon his knowledge of proi 
 jection, in laying out the lines of his ship or boat,, 
 
i>KA\vr\<; 
 
 2;37 
 
 iii displaying its capacity for freight and model- 
 ing its shape for speed. All those features of his 
 .1 sign are expressed by means of drawings, which 
 arc the application of plane and solid geometry 
 to a special industrial purpose. It will be evi- 
 dent, therefore, that the constructive arts, which 
 bear so important a relation to modern civiliza- 
 tion, and employ so vast a number of persons, 
 arc all dependent upon drawing for the initiation 
 of their schemes. At the foundation of success- 
 ful work, in any and all of their departments, 
 lies a knowledge of elementary drawing, which, 
 regarded as a language, is of such a character, 
 thai it may be efficiently taught in the common 
 schools of America, by the regular teachers em- 
 ployed to give instruction in general subjects, as 
 soon a< this practically useful subject forms a 
 part of all normal-school education. Pure ge- 
 ometry may be considered the study of all these 
 sciences in the abstract, and this is successfully 
 pursued in the schools and colleges ; scientific or 
 instrumental drawing, under the headings called 
 elementary subjects, would be the concrete ap- 
 plication of geometry to the needs of practical 
 education, to be applied at a future time to 
 actual industry. 
 
 /■',■ t-Hand Drawing. — As the name implies, 
 this kind of drawing is the expression, by the 
 unassisted hand, of what the eye perceives, or 
 the mind, or imagination, conceives. Its results, 
 therefore, are dependent upon the truthfulness of 
 observation or power of conception possessed by 
 the draughtsman, and, in some measure, upon 
 his manipulative skill as a workman. As a rule, 
 however, the power of drawing, or expression, is 
 equal to the perceptive power, and imperfect or 
 faulty work proceeds generally from a lack of 
 clear understanding of the subject rather than 
 want of hand skill. — As in instrumental draw- 
 ing, free-hand drawing consists of two groups of 
 subjects, — elementary and applied, the first being 
 educational, and the second, industrial or pro- 
 fessional. In the elementary division, are all 
 those branches of study or exercises which 
 develop the imitative faculties, embracing all 
 kinds of copying from flat examples or round 
 objects, including also the subjects of geometrical 
 drawing and perspective, by which alone the 
 truthfulness of expressed form can be tested. 
 In applied drawing, the language of form is em- 
 ployed to embody new ideas, either as original 
 designs for industrial art and manufactures, or 
 to express the ideal of fine art, the work of the 
 imagination. It will be seen, therefore, that 
 both scientific and artistic drawing, by instru- 
 ments or by the free hand, have a common 
 characteristic; they both involve a knowledge of, 
 and skill in, drawing as a language, before the 
 language can be employed for original purposes. 
 To continue the analogy, and regarding drawing 
 as the language of form, its alphabet consists of 
 two letters, the straight line and the curve. 
 Simple combinations of these, by elementary 
 
 {)ractice, produce, as it were, words of one syll- 
 able; the grouping of several objects in a drawing, 
 may be described as a sentence ; and an original 
 
 design is the same as a composition or essay on 
 a given theme. The artist uses the expression 
 "out of drawing" in precisely the same sense as a 
 scholar employs the term " ungrammatical," and 
 (other terms being substituted] the criticism which 
 has been made on a poem or a work of fiction, 
 might apply exactly to a historical picture or an 
 ideal figure, possessing similar characteristics. A 
 great change has occurred in the opinion of edu- 
 cators, within the] iast quarter of a century (from 
 1850 to 187:")) on the question of the possibility 
 and advisability of teaching drawing to all chil- 
 dren. Before the beginning of that period, it was 
 generally believed that the ability to draw was 
 a rare endowment rather than a power which 
 could be acquired by all intelligent persons; and 
 the sort of picture making, of a nondescript kind, 
 which was then called drawing, could only be es- 
 timated, as it deserved, as a useless waste of time, 
 that might have been wisely employed to better 
 purpose. Experiments, in several European coun- 
 tries, upon large classes of children, and even 
 in whole grades of schools, demonstrated the 
 proposition that every one who could learn to 
 write could learn to draw. In the schools of 
 the Society of Friends in England, drawing had 
 long been taught to every child, before the above 
 conclusion had been arrived at; and there was 
 no more inequality of ability displayed by the 
 children in that subject than in any other. In 
 England, whose display of industrial art in 185] 
 was little less than a national humiliation, the 
 government, seeking after a remedy, took coun- 
 sel of the teachers in the common schools, and 
 requested some of them to try the experiment 
 of teaching elementary drawing, in their classes, 
 to pupils consisting entirely of the children of 
 working men. After a years trial, a convention of 
 school-masters in London, about the year 1852, 
 recorded as their opinion that all children who 
 could learn at all. could be taught to draw, giving 
 as the basis of their conviction that, during their 
 year of experiment, "half of the time previously 
 given to writing had been given to drawing, 
 with the result, that the writing had been better, 
 and the power of drawing was a clear gain." 
 From this time, aided by strong encouragement 
 from the government, the subject came more 
 and more into favor amongst educators, until it is 
 now general in the schools. Concerning the 
 possibility of teaching all persons to draw, an 
 art master of long experience says, " There are 
 but four classes of human beings whom it is not 
 found practicable to instruct in drawing.- They 
 are the blind, the idiotic, the lunatic, and the 
 paralytic. Of the rest of mankind and woman- 
 kind, exactly one hundred per cent can be 
 taught to draw." (Art Education, Scholastic 
 and Industrial; Boston, 1873.) The same opinion 
 is held by those teachers who have tried the 
 experiment in the public schools of Boston, 
 Mass. — Where drawing may have failed as a 
 subject of instruction in the common schools.it 
 has probably been treated as a special subject. 
 taught by special teachers to the older pupils 
 only, in the last year or two of school life. AVhen 
 
238 
 
 DRAWING 
 
 regarded as one of the elementary subjects of 
 general education, and taught by the regular 
 teachers, it has never failed. To unsure success 
 in teaching the subject in the public schools, the 
 following conditions arc necessary : (1) Only 
 those elementary 1 tranches should be taught 
 which are educational in their influence, and the 
 knowledge conveyed by them of general use 
 (such as have been described as being at the 
 foundation of all constructive industry!. (2) In- 
 struction in drawing should begin with school 
 life, and end only when school, college, or uni- 
 versity education is completed. (3) At the, 
 basis of all instruction is geometrical drawing, 
 which illustrates the tacts of regular forms ; and 
 perspective, which determines the appearance of 
 those facts. (4) Original design, either element- 
 ary or applied, should form a part of ' the reg- 
 ular exercises required from pupils, alternating 
 with other exercises, such as drawing from 
 memory, and dictation, ill order to give variety 
 
 to the study. (5) The principles of drawing, and 
 
 of shades and shadows, should first be taught 
 
 from regular forms, and with scientific method 
 
 and accuracy, before the pupils are allowed to 
 draw ami shale irregular forms, with no guide 
 but their own observation. All practice should 
 proceed from the simple to the complex, from 
 the regular to the irregular, from the fact to its 
 appearance. (6) The best preparation for truth 
 and beauty of design, is an intimate acquaint- 
 ance with the greatest works of the past and pres- 
 ent, and a complete mastery of all the methods 
 and vehicles of expression ; so that, on the foun- 
 dation of knowledge and with unhindered skill, 
 the draughtsman and artist, educated by study, 
 and made powerful by practice, may impress on 
 their works the stamp of originality. To illus- 
 trate these propositions, programmes of instruc- 
 tion in drawing are here riven in outline: 
 
 Primary and Grammar Schools. 
 
 lit year. — The names of geometric forms and lines ; 
 drawing straight lines and their combinations into 
 simple forms; also, the same terms from memory. 
 (All work on the slate.) 
 
 '2d year. — Dictation and memory drawing of geo- 
 metric patterns ; simple designs composed of straight 
 lines ami simple corves. (81ate work.) 
 
 3d year. — Practice on paper of what has been 
 previously learned ; also in drawing, with readiness, 
 from memory ami dictation, forms previously drawn 
 from copy. Designing new combinations from copies. 
 
 Uh year. Pree-hand outline design, geometrical 
 drawing, model drawing ofboth curved forms and ob- 
 jects bounded by righl lines. 
 
 ."></; year. — Drawing ornaments and objects oi his- 
 torical character, as Egyptian lotus forms, * [reek vases, 
 the same to be drawn also from memory: geo- 
 metrical drawing of a mere advanced character. 
 
 i',//,, tih, and 8th years.— Free-hand drawing and 
 design, geometrical 'haw ing, model dra^i ins from the 
 soli. I object), and free-hand perspective (developing 
 ideas m preparation for advanced work), dictation 
 ami memory drawing; design with hali-tmt back 
 ands. Botanical name- ami forms. Dolors and 
 
 the tir-t principle-, of their harmony. 
 
 High s> bools. 
 1st year, -Lin pective bj the use of instru- 
 
 ments, parallel: botanical lessons, with diagrams in 
 
 ir, model drawing, ir solids, in light ami shade. 
 
 hali-tint, cross-hatching and -tump. Lessons on archi- 
 tectural style-, u ithout draw in 
 
 2d year. — Linear perspective, angular ; design in 
 harmonious colors, from flowers and foliage : drawing 
 from plants in outline : object drawing in one color, as 
 fruits etc., from flat copies and from casts. 
 
 3d year. — Linear perspective, oblique ; painting 
 from flowers and fruits ; study ot the human figure, in 
 light and shade, from copies; drawing foliage from 
 plaster casts ; applied design for manufactures, such 
 as carpet-, iace. paper-hangings, potter} - , glass, fresco- 
 ing, metal work, etc. 
 
 4/// year. — Lessons in painting landscapes, from nat- 
 ure : drawing the human figure, from casts; lectures 
 in architectural style-, and on schools of painting: 
 also, on the history and practice oi industrial art; and 
 on design applied to manufactures. 
 
 The principle on which every course should 
 be arranged is, that before attempting to draw 
 anything, the pupil should be made to under- 
 stand it : that is. to have as clear a conception 
 of it as possible. Hence, in the first year, the 
 young pupil is considerably occupied in simply 
 learning the names of forms, in order to imp 
 them upon his memory. When this principle is 
 observed, thai the cultivation of the understand- 
 ing should precede drawing, the latter will never 
 be difficult or uninteresting. 
 
 hni STRi ll- Draw ing Classes. 
 
 f. Instrumental Drawing, embracing the following 
 elementary branches : ( 1 ) plane geometrical drawing ; 
 (2) projection ; (3] perspective : and the following ad- 
 vanced subjects: (1) building, construction, and 
 architectural drawing; (2) machine drawing. 
 
 II. Free-hand Drawing, including the representa- 
 tion of objects and ornament from both the Hut and 
 the round, the study of light and shade, color, and 
 original design. 
 
 In each of these departments, some of the 
 knowledge and practice found in the other, will 
 be beneficial to the student. The following 
 course will be proper for each : 
 
 First Fear's Course. 
 
 1st Part. — (1) Freehand outline drawing from 
 copies and blackboard, with exercises in elementary 
 design; (2) plane geometrical drawing, from copies 
 and blackboard. 
 
 2nd Part. — (1) Model and object drawing, from 
 copy and solid ; (2) perspective drawing (for free- 
 ham' I students) ; (.'!) projection (for instrumental 
 students). 
 
 Second Year's Course. 
 
 I. Instrumental Drawing. — (1) Building construc- 
 tion, including the following subjects: joints used in 
 carpentry, deer and window training, construction of 
 Boors, partitions, reel-, and staircases, bond in brick- 
 work, stone-work, arches, fire-proof flooring, designs 
 of plans, elevation-, working drawings, etc.; f 2; ma- 
 chine drawing, including such detail-, as bolts and 
 nut-, plumber-blocks, screws, wheels, etc. 
 
 II. Free-Jiand Drawing. — (1) The drawing of orna- 
 meiii iii outline, from large copies, ol foliage and the 
 human figure; shading the same from copies in pen- 
 cil, crayon, and Indian ink or sepia : designing in half- 
 tint, or several tints ol one color, draw ing from mem- 
 
 OH and dictation, etc.: (2) -hading gc trical 
 
 solids, shading from the cast and natural objects, ap- 
 plied design for industrial purposes and special sub- 
 for particular branches of business, 
 For a description of the necessary fittings and 
 apparatus, see Smith, Art Education, Scholastic 
 and Industrial (Boston, L873). See also Stet- 
 son, Technical Education (Boston, 1876 ; Mod- 
 ern Art Education, translated from the German 
 di Lanql (Boston, L875); Buisson, Rapportsur 
 rinstruction primaire etc (Paris, L875). 
 
DRILL 
 
 DUPANLOUP 
 
 230 
 
 DRILL, a term used in education, particu- 
 larly in school instruction, to denote the strict 
 routine of exercises required either to train pu- 
 pils to the ready performance of mental or phys- 
 ical processes, or to impress upon their memory 
 those arbitrary associations of facts or words 
 which are required in many subjects of study. 
 Thus, a certain amount of drill is required in 
 teaching the arithmetical tables, the paradigms 
 and rules of grammar, the spelling of words, and 
 those facts of geography that pertain to the 
 location of places (memorizing maps). Drill re- 
 quires definite exercises and regular practice in 
 them, continued a sufficient length of time, in 
 order to impart a kind of automatic force to the 
 recollection. Both mind and body, by repetition, 
 acquire fixed habitudes, by means of which 
 thought and muscular action may be accommo- 
 dated to the performance of acts which at first 
 might have seemed impossible. This is the 
 foundation principle of drill. (See Rote- 
 Teaching.) 
 
 DRUEY COLLEGE, at Springfield, Mis- 
 souri, under the control of the Congregationalism, 
 was organized and chartered in 1ST.'!. It derives 
 its name from S. F. Drury. of Olivet, Mich., who 
 contributed liberally toward its foundation. It 
 is under the patronage of the American Col- 
 lege Society of Boston. The institution com- 
 prises a collegiate department, with five cour- 
 ses of four yeare each (classical, scientific. Greek 
 scientific, Latin scientific, and ladies' course); 
 a preparatory department, with classical and 
 English courses of three years each ; a normal 
 department of two years; a model school of three 
 years ; and the Missouri Conservatory of Music, 
 chartered in 1875. Both sexes are admitted to 
 all the departments and courses on the same 
 terms, except that the ladies' course (equivalent 
 to that of the best female seminaries) is designed 
 for such young ladies as do not desire to pursue 
 the severer college courses. The library contains 
 2,000 volumes; the beginning of a cabinet of 
 mineralogy and geology has been made, and a 
 number of specimens of natural history have been 
 secured. The college year is divided into three 
 terms. The regular charge for tuition per term 
 is §1") in the college classes. $12 in the prepara- 
 tory classes, $8 in the model school, and $6 in 
 the normal department. These charges are re- 
 mitted in favor of the children of ministers of 
 any denomination wdio are in active service, 
 and some aid is extended to other deserving 
 students. In 1ST.") — 6, there were 11 instructors; 
 the students were distributed as follows : college 
 classes, 35 ; normal class. 27 ; classical prepara- 
 tory. 75 ; English preparatory, 74; music, draw- 
 in-, and painting, 23; model school. 31 ; total, 
 deducting repetitions. 220. There were 5 grad- 
 uates at the commencemenl of L875. The Rev. 
 Nathan J. Morrison, D. D.. has been the presi- 
 dent from the commencement of the institution. 
 
 DUBLIN UNIVERSITY. See Ireland. 
 
 DULL SCHOLARS, or Dullards, a diss 
 of pupils found in every school and class, whose 
 perceptions are deficient in rapidity, and whose 
 
 mental powers are sluggish. Such pupils need 
 especially the spur of encouragement, and should 
 never be Subjected to blame or derision on ac- 
 count of their slowness. Many teachers often 
 greatly err in dealing with this class of pupils, 
 applying to them such epithets as blockhead, dolt, 
 numbskull, simpleton, dunce, etc. They are, 
 moreover, sometimes neglected by the teacher, 
 who naturally prefers to give attention to those 
 bright, precocious pupils who need but little in- 
 struction. The best powers of the teacher, how- 
 ever, are displayed in developing the latent ca- 
 pacities of these dull scholars ; and very often it 
 has been found that those who bore the character 
 
 of dullness in school have risen to great eminence 
 in after life. The great English poet and novelist, 
 Sir Walter Scott, and the illustrious German 
 chemist Liebig are often mentioned as examples 
 of this fact. 
 
 DUNCE, a term applied to a pupil who is 
 dull, or slow in learning. The word is supposed 
 to be a corruption of the name of Joannes 
 1 >uns Scotus, a very learned man, who lived in 
 the latter part of the thirteenth century (died in 
 1308). From his keen, analytical intellect and 
 acute logic, lie was styled doctor subtilis, the 
 subtle doctor. The name of this great scholar. 
 according to some, was applied to a dullard in 
 derision, just as we often ironically call a stupid 
 fellow a Solomon, or a bully a IL'iior. Trench, 
 however, thinks it became a term of scorn ap- 
 plied to the adherents of the old school-men by 
 the disciples of the new learning, as the latter 
 gained ground during the middle ages. Hence, 
 the expression, "You are a Duns," was a reproach, 
 as implying an advocate or supporter of obsolete 
 and exploded opinions. Butler, in Hudibras 
 thus puns on the word : 
 
 " In school-divinity [he was] as able 
 As he that hight Irrefragable ; 
 A second Thomas, or, at once 
 To name them all, another Du?)ce." 
 
 DUPANLOUP, Felix Antoine Philippe, 
 
 bishop of Orleans and the foremost Catholic 
 writer of France, in the nineteenth century, on 
 educational subjects, was born at St. Felix, 
 Savoy, dan. 3., 1802. He was ordained priest 
 in 1825, attached, for three years, as catechist to 
 the parish of Assumption, appointed in 1837 
 superior of the diocesan seminary of Paris, and, 
 in 184!', bishop of Orleans. His chief attention 
 has ever since been devoted to the educational 
 interests of the < 'atholic < Ihurch. The petit semi- 
 naireoi ( Means entered into a lively competition 
 with the state schools; in his own episcopal 
 palace, he opened a new school , and he took an 
 active pari in all the educational controversies of 
 the time. He continued, with great energy, the 
 
 defense of the " liberty of instruction," which the 
 
 Catholics of France demanded in opposition to 
 the 1 University, and in which he had zealously 
 interested himself even before his appointment 
 as bishop. Me disapproved of the agitation be- 
 gun by Gaume (see Gai he) and others for ex- 
 cluding the pagan classics from Christian schools 
 isee Classics, Christian), and was, therefore 
 violently attacked by the L'uivers. The con- 
 
210 
 
 DURHAM 
 
 DWICIIT 
 
 troversy was, for some time, continued on both 
 sides with considerable severity, untd, at length. 
 the Pope imposed silence upon both parties, lie 
 was consulted in the framing of the law of .March 
 15., 1850, concerning the reorganization of public 
 instruction ; and, after the promulgation of the 
 law, was appointed a member of the Con&eil de 
 Vinstiruction publique. He withdrew from tin's 
 position in 1852, In the National Assembly 
 which met in 1871, after the proclamation of the 
 third republic, he was the recognized leader of 
 the opposition against the liberal views of Jules 
 Simon, the minister of public instruction. The 
 Assembly appointed him president of the com- 
 mittee 3eJ scte 1 to examine and report on the bill 
 in favor of compulsory primary instruction, which 
 had been drafted by Simon: and he not only 
 emphatically declared against the ministerial bill, 
 but presented a counter-project in favor of the 
 "free, religious, and gratuitous instruction of 
 the poor." In 1875, he secured, in the National 
 Assembly, the adoption of a bill in favor of the 
 " freedom of superior instruction." the chief ob- 
 ject of which was the establishment of free Cath- 
 olic universities, in the subsequent organization 
 of which he was the acknowledged leader of the 
 bishops. [See France.) Having been elected, in 
 1854, a member of the French Academy, he re- 
 peatedly prevented by his influence the election 
 of several decided opponents of < latholic doctrines. 
 When, in 1871, Little was admitted to the 
 Academy in spite of his opposition, he resigned, 
 on the ground that he was unwilling to belong 
 to a society which admitted atheists; but Guizot 
 and other friends prevailed upon him to with- 
 draw his resignation. The most important edu- 
 cational work of I hipanloup has been published 
 under the title De I'Education (3 vols., L855 — 7). 
 It treats of education in general, of authority 
 and respect in education, and of superior in- 
 struction. 
 
 DURHAM, University of. See England. 
 
 DURSCH, Martin Georg, a Roman Cath- 
 olic writer on education, was born at Deggingen 
 in the kingdom of Wiirtemberg, Nov. 11., 
 I sot); studied philosophy and theology at the 
 university of Tubingen, and oriental languages 
 at Paris, became on his return prof essor at the 
 gymnasium of ESbingen, and. in ls50, pastor and 
 dean at Rottweil. I lis work on pedagogics or 
 Christian education [Pddagogik oder Wissen- 
 schqft tl'-r dirixUiflii-n Kriii'lnniij, 1851) is re- 
 garded as one of the best on this subject from 
 the Catholic point of view, lie advocate's the 
 
 co operation of church ami slate iii the manage- 
 ment of the public school, and asserts that, with- 
 out this co-operation, the aim of the public 
 school to improve and purify human society can 
 never be attained. 
 
 DURUY, Victor, a French historian, au- 
 thor, and educationist, born in L811. lie was 
 professor of history at Reims, and afterwards 
 at Paris, in the Lyc4e NapolAon, In is;.;:, he 
 i ived the degree of Doctor of letters. He 
 successively served as inspector of the Academy 
 of Paris, inspector general of secondary instruc- 
 
 tion, and minister of public instruction (1863). 
 In the latter position, which he filled till 1869, 
 lie attempted many innovations which were 
 much opposed ; he effected, however, some im- 
 portant reforms. His chief historical publica- 
 tions are Histoire des Grecs, 2 vols.. Histoiredes 
 Remains, 4 vols.. Introduction generate a Fhis~ 
 toire de France, 1 vol., Cours cthistoire, 7 vols., 
 and Histoire de France, 3 vols. These works 
 have been very popular, and have attained an 
 extensive circulation. M. Duruy has also pub- 
 lished valuable reports on the progress of litera- 
 ture and science as shown in ths Exposition Vni- 
 verselle of 1867. 
 
 DWIGHT, Francis, noted for his efforts in 
 behalf of popular education in the state of New 
 York, and as the founder and editor of the 
 District School Journal oi that state, was born 
 in Springfield, Mass.. March 14.. 18(18, and died 
 in Albany, N.Y.. Hec. 15.. Is -|5. For several 
 years he acted as county superintendent of 
 schools for the city and county of Albany, and 
 was successively member of the school board of 
 Albany, and of the executive committee for the 
 care and government of the normal school in 
 that city — the first in the state. The District 
 School Journal was commenced in 1840, and 
 edited by him till his death. This journal was 
 aided by the patronage of the state, and was 
 supplied, at the expense of the common-school 
 fund, to every school district. Its tone and in- 
 fluence were highly commended by the distin- 
 guished educators of the time. It survived him, 
 however, only a few years. — See Barnard, 
 American Teachers and Educators. 
 
 DWIGHT, Timothy, a celebrated Ameri- 
 can theologian and scholar, was born in North- 
 ampton, Mass.. May 14., 1752. and died in New 
 Haven. Ct., Jan. 11.. 1817. His mother was 
 the daughter of Jonathan Edwards. After grad- 
 uating at Yale College, in 1769, he taught a 
 grammar school in New Haven for two years, 
 and. during the next six years, was a tutor in 
 Yale College. During a part of the Revolution- 
 ary war, he served as chaplain in the army, dis- 
 tinguishing himself by the patriotic fervor of his 
 addresses, and by the stirring songs which he 
 composed. He, subsequently, performed the du- 
 ties of pastor of the Congregational church and 
 principal of an academy, in Greenfield, Ct. In 
 1795, he succeeded I >r. Stiles in the presidency 
 of Yale College, which position he held till his 
 death. He was a teacher of great ability, an 
 impressive pulpit orator, and an excellent divine. 
 His presence was commanding, and his manners 
 affable and genial. J lis writings were numerous, 
 bul confined to the departments of theology and 
 
 genera] literature. One who had been connected 
 with him as a student in Yale < !ollege,thus Wears 
 testimony to his character as a teacher: " Alter 
 the lapse of forty years, and after much oppor- 
 tunity of associating with many eminent instruc- 
 tor,. President Dwight is ever present to my 
 mind as the Qreat nodel Teacher."- See 1>km- 
 bon Olmsted, Timothy Dwight, as >i TeacJier, in 
 I'. vi;\ vun's Ameriont Ihiv/wrs ami Educators. 
 
EAR 
 
 241 
 
 EAR, Cultivation of the. "Recent physi- 
 ological researches appeal to leave but little rea- 
 son to doubt that, at birth and for months after- 
 ward, the organs of the special senses exist in 
 only a rudimentary form, and that they owe 
 their gradual development entirely to the ex- 
 ternal influences exerted upon them by nature 
 and society, ll is, therefore, not only probable. 
 hut experimentally demonstrable, that the edu- 
 cation of the senses is more or less efficient ac- 
 cording to the time at which it begins after birth. 
 In the light of modern experience, it is con- 
 sider 1 by some extremely doubtful whether there 
 is really any case of actual congenital blindness 
 or deafness. The tendency to these defects, 
 doubtless, often exists as an hereditary imper- 
 fection, but is scarcely ever of such a nature as 
 to be incurable, if discovered and treated properly 
 soon after birth. Hence, except when an organic 
 malformation exists, it follows that a systematic 
 anil judicious training of the senses, from the 
 earliest infancy, may remedy most, if not all, 
 
 is of such defects as colorblindness, weakness 
 of sight and hearing, etc. .Such indeed is the 
 conclusion derived from the experience gained 
 in infant asylums, kindergartens, and intelligent 
 families. This is an important fact, since it 
 serves to correct the notion, so generally enter- 
 tained, that good speakers and singers must be 
 born .such, and that there are but few persons 
 thus naturally endowed. There is, without doubt, 
 considerable diversity in the sensuous endow- 
 ments of different individuals ; but, at the same 
 time, it is. impossible to fix a limit to the im- 
 provement of which every organ of sense is sus- 
 ceptible by continuous and proper education, and 
 particularly by a cultivation carried on through 
 
 eral successive generations. As regards the 
 ear. this may be considered as historically es- 
 tablished ; since, but three centuries ago, there 
 were but an exceptional few persons who showed 
 an ability to appreciate, and a still smaller num- 
 ber who were able to reproduce, musical melody 
 ami harmony. Of all the ancient nations, the 
 I ■neks alone seem to have been able to enjoy the 
 diatonic scale (but not the chromatic), and to 
 give it expression in their music, other nations 
 never having any other than the scale of five 
 notes (barbaric scale). The progress of musical 
 art among modern civilized nations and partic- ' 
 ularly the diffusion of musical taste among the ' 
 people are striking illustrations of ear culture,; 
 since this progress could not be effected without 
 an organic as well as an esthetic improvement. 
 
 The sense of hearing is the earliest to be devel- 
 oped in infancy, and, at the approach of death. 
 seems to be the last to be extinguished ; it is also 
 the last to be overcome by sleep, and the first to : 
 be aroused on awakening. In reaching objects 
 at a distance, its power is next to that of sight. 
 In the earliest stages of intellectual development, 
 the sense of hearing performs a most important 
 16 
 
 office, since language, the most efficient means of 
 all education, depends upon its exercise. Moral 
 education, no doubt, also begins with the genial 
 accents of the maternal voice, both in speech and 
 song, as heard by the infant ; so that even the 
 lullabies which soothe it to slumber constitute 
 an agency in its development. While, therefore, 
 loud and explosive noises may injure the physical 
 organization of the ear of the child, harsh and . 
 angry tones may affect injuriously the develop- 
 ment of its affect ions and sentiments. All disagree- 
 able sensuous impressions are deeper and more 
 durable than those of an opposite character; and, 
 hence, when often repeated, they tend to destroy 
 the capacity of the ear for the appreciation of 
 beautiful sounds. Otherwise, variety of sound 
 is not detrimental to the infant's ear, but on the 
 contrary, beneficial, especially when the source of 
 each sound is, at the same time, presented to the 
 sight, or touch, or both these senses. From the 
 time the infant begins to understand simple lan- 
 guage, — usually after the fourth month, espe- 
 cially if the words are accompanied with mimicry 
 or gesticulation, care should be taken to articulate 
 distinctly. In families in which there is a negli- 
 gence in tins respect, it will be found that the 
 children either never, or with very great difficul- 
 ty, acquire a distinct articulation. It is a great 
 error, quite common in some families and com- 
 munities, to repress the natural vociferations of 
 children, and to insist on the constant use of low 
 tones in speech. Nature dictates a great deal of 
 crying, shouting, etc., in order that the lungs 
 and vocal organs may be fully developed ; but, 
 of course, all excess should be restrained, since 
 the habit of yelling and shouting in the open air 
 will not only injure the delicate organs of the 
 voice, but will have a bad effect upon the moral 
 development of the child, besides incapacitating 
 him for the perception and appreciation of those 
 delicate distinctions of sound upon which musical 
 harmony and melody depend. To what an ex- 
 tent this nice perception and discrimination of 
 sound may be cultivated, appears from the fact 
 that, in good kindergartens, a child will learn to 
 distinguish blindfolded the voice of any one of a 
 hundred comrades, to tell by what means any 
 one of a hundred different noises is produced, 
 and to estimate with tolerable accuracy the dis- 
 tance of the source of any well-known sound. 
 Very young children may also, by suitable exer- 
 cises, readily acquire the ability to distinguish 
 the intervals of musical notes, and their position . 
 in the scale. By similar kindergarten exercises, 
 even cases of constitutional difficulty in hearing 
 may be considerably alleviated. Thus such a 
 child may be shown how, by closing the mouth 
 and nostrils, the air may be forced into the 
 Eustachian tubes, until the well-known explosive 
 sound of each tympanum follows. After every 
 such exertion, the hearing will be found to be- 
 come somewhat better, until, by frequent repeti- 
 
242 
 
 EARLHAM COLLEGE 
 
 ECUADOR 
 
 tion, its improvement will be quite decided ; be- 
 cause the fine blood-vessels of the organ, in which 
 the circulation had become stagnant, are ren- 
 dered active ; provided, of course, there is no mal- 
 formation or incurable physical defect in the 
 organ itself. (See Senses, Education of.) 
 
 EARLHAM COLLEGE, at Richmond, 
 bad., is controlled by aboard of managers ap- 
 pointed by the Indiana Yearly Meeting of Friends 
 (orthodox). It was chartered in 1857 ; but a 
 hoarding-school for instruction in the higher 
 branches had been in operation in the same 
 building for several years previous. The college 
 is supported by t he income from an endowment 
 of $55,000, by tuition, and by the proceeds of a 
 farm. There is a classical and a scientific course, 
 each of four years. The preparatory school lias a 
 course of two years. Students may pursue selected 
 Studies at the discretion of the faculty, but no 
 degree is given except on the completion of one 
 or the other of the regular courses. The degrees 
 are. A. I!, for the classical and B. S. for the 
 scientific course. Graduates may receive the 
 second degree A. M. or M. S. according to the 
 previous course) either on continuing one year 
 at the college in the satisfactory prosecution of 
 post-graduate studies, or, in regular course, at 
 the cud of three years on passing a successful 
 examination in some selected studies, or on the 
 presentation of a satisfactory thesis. The college 
 has libraries containing over 4,000 volumes ; an 
 observatory supplied with an equatorial telescope. 
 a transit instrument, and an astronomical clock ; 
 and a museum of zoology, a aparative anatomy, 
 geology, archaeology, etc. There are from ten to 
 twelve instructors, including six professors and a 
 principal of the preparatory department. The 
 number of students at present (1876) ranges from 
 220 to 230 per year, about one-third of whom are 
 college students. The number of graduates, in 
 1^75, was "'.». The first president, Prof. Barnabas 
 C. Hobbes, was appointed in L865; he held the 
 office two years and was succeeded by the present 
 incumbent, Joseph Moore, A. M. 
 
 EAST TENNESSEE UNIVERSITY 
 and State Industrial College, at Knoxyille. 
 Tenn., non-sectarian, was chartered in L807. It 
 received a granl of land from the United States 
 
 through the State legislature, from which about 
 •SI'*, 1)011 was derived; and a Further endowment 
 was obtained from the property of P.lount Col- 
 lege, which was merged in it on condition of its 
 
 iblishmenl a1 Cnoxville. It was .suspended 
 during the civil war. and the college property 
 was occupied by the United States army, and 
 
 itly damaged. Exercises were resumed, in 
 1866, in the Asylum for the I leaf and Dumb in 
 l~ 19, the institution received the Congressional 
 land granl to the state for the establishment of 
 an agricultural and mechanical college, and the 
 State Industrial College was organized. New 
 college buildings have been erected, which stand 
 on an eminence near the city. The college farm 
 of 260 acres is about a mile from the buildings. 
 The libraries contain about 1,000 volumes. The 
 cabinets of geology, mineralogy, and zoSlogy have 
 
 been recently commenced, and are constantly 
 receiving accessions. A chemical laboratory has 
 been established. The value of the grounds, build- 
 ings, and apparatus is 8150,000; the amount 
 of productive funds, $396,000. It has a pre- 
 paratory and a collegiate department. The col- 
 legiate studies extend over a period of four aca- 
 demic years, of ten months each, and comprise 
 three distinct courses, as follows: (1) The agri- 
 cultural course, in which prominence is given to 
 the sciences pertaining to agriculture; (2) The 
 mechanical course, in which the principal stud- 
 ies are those which relate to the mechanic arts ; 
 (3) The classical course, in which the Latin and 
 < deck languages are taught. Students completing, 
 with credit, the classical course, receive the de- 
 gree of Bachelor of Arts: those completing the 
 agricultural or mechanical course, that of Bach- 
 elor of Science The students are organized into 
 a battalion ; and military drill and inspections, 
 under the direction of the professor of military 
 tactics, take place daily. The whole college is 
 under military discipline. All able-bodied stu- 
 dents must perform a small amount of labor; 
 but this is principally required of the freshman 
 and sophomore classes. Those who wish addi- 
 tional labor, are, to a limited extent, furnished 
 with work, for which they are remunerated. 
 The cost of tuition is S.'iC a year in the college, 
 and $30 in the preparatory department. Free 
 
 tuition is given to students nominated by mem- 
 bers of the state legislature, each senator haying 
 the right to nominate two, and each represen- 
 tative three. Free tuition is also given to young 
 men who intend to prepare for the ministry, 
 and who bring a certificate to that effect from 
 some church organization. In 1874 — 5, there 
 18 instructors, and L01 collegiate and 214 
 preparatory students. The Rev. Thomas William 
 flumes, S.T. D.,is I L876) the president. 
 
 EAST TENNESSEE WESLEYAN 
 UNIVERSITY, at Athens. Tenn.. under the 
 control of the Methodist Episcopal Church, 
 was chartered, in the winter of 1866 — 7, as the 
 East Tennessee Wesleyan College. The name 
 was changed at the next session of the legisla- 
 ture. It was opened in September, 1867. The 
 main college budding is a substantial brick struc- 
 ture. 70 by 50 feet, and three stories high. The 
 libraries contain about 1,500 volumes. There 
 is an academic, a preparatory, and a collegiate 
 
 department, the las! ha\ ing a classical and a scien- 
 tific course. There are two terms iii the year, and 
 the cost of tuition varies from S<i to 822 per term, 
 
 according to the department. Deductions 
 made in favor of ministers of the Methodist 
 Episcopal Church. In 1874 5, there were 7 in- 
 structors, L6 collegiate students, 35 preparatory, 
 .'{0 academic and 12 music scholars, making a 
 total, deducting repetitions, of 86; the numbef 
 of alumni, up to that time, was 27. The Rev* 
 John F. Spence, A. M.. is i L876) the president. 
 
 ECONOMY, School. See School Economy. 
 
 ECUADOR, a republic of Smith America, 
 having an area of 248,400 sq. m., and a popula- 
 tion estimated, in L875,at 1,850,000. Of thi 
 
ECUADOR 
 
 EDUCATION 
 
 243 
 
 55 per cent were whites ; 42 per cent Indians ; the 
 remainder, negroes and half-breeds. The inhabit- 
 ants sp.-ak the Spanish language and belong to 
 the Roman Catholic Church, the form of worship 
 
 of which is the only one tolerated in public. 
 After the conquest of the empire of the Incas, the 
 kingdom of Quito wasmade a presidency of the 
 viceroyalty of Peru. It remained under Spanish 
 rule up to L822, when it became a part of the re- 
 public of Colombia; and. in L831, became an in- 
 dependent republic under the name of Ecuador. 
 Since then, it has been the scene of numerous 
 revolutions and wars with the neighboring re- 
 publics. 'I'hc schools of all grades have been and 
 still are under the control of the church, which, in 
 this republic, has generally wielded a greater 
 
 1 lower than in any other part of South America. 
 t was especially the aim of the conservative pies 
 ident Moreno (died L875) tb place the entire de- 
 partment of instruction under the immediate di- 
 rection of the church. In 1 86 I. it was resolved to 
 erect a number of new schi m >1s, 1 o be conducted 1 >y 
 the Brothers of Christian Doctrine. The district 
 councilors were empowered to raise in advance 
 a part of the taxes for the support of these 
 schools. At the .same time, an agreement was 
 entered into between the government and the 
 Society of Jesus, according to which the latter 
 assumed the direction of a number of colegios. 
 J low little education is valued, may be seen 
 from the fact that the expenditure for public edu- 
 cation, according to the annual budget, amounts 
 to only about 20,000 pesos (1 peso=$0.96.5). 
 
 Primary Instruction. — The schools are at- 
 tended almost exclusively by the whites, the half- 
 breeds, and the mulattoes; while the Indians, who 
 compose the laboring classes in the cities, do not 
 enjoy the advantage of any education at all. The 
 number of public schools, in 1873, was 244, of 
 private schools, 176; and the number of schools 
 supported by corporations was 11, making the 
 total number of primary schools 431. The num- 
 ber of pupils in the public schools was 17,661, the 
 number in private schools 3,966, and in schools 
 supported by corporations 887, making the total 
 number of pupils 22.464. The course of instruc- 
 tion in the public schools comprises reading, 
 writing, arithmetic, and religion. 
 
 Secondary, Superior, and Special Instruction. 
 — There were, in 1873, six colleges (colegios na- 
 cionales) with 59 professors and 757 students, 
 and one female college with 4 professors and 1 53 
 students. The University of Quito comprises 
 four colegios, the Colegio de San Gregorio, 
 founded in 1586 by the Society of Jesus, and 
 invested with the privileges of Salamanca in 
 1621 ; the Colegio de Santo Tomas de Aquino, 
 belonging to the Dominicans; the Colegio Mayor 
 with which a seminary is connected, and the Co- 
 legio de San /•' run ml.,. The revenue of the uni- 
 versity amounts to from 4,000 to5,000 pesos, and 
 tli'' salaries of the professors to 3,950 pesos. In 
 the colegios, the course of study embraces Latin, 
 and sometimes < Ireek, in addition to the branches 
 taught in the primary schools. The university 
 course comprises the Spanish language and liter- 
 
 ature. T*atin, Creek, law. medicine, etc. Special 
 Instruction is imparted in the following schools : 
 schools of art and industry with 22 ] >r< lessors ; a 
 polytechnic school, with L3 professors and 59 
 students; a military academy, with 5 professors 
 and 2,'{ cadets; seven seminaries supported by 
 the clergy, with 17 professors und 227 students; 
 an academy of tine arts, with 2 professors and 22 
 students, and a conservatory of music, with 8 
 professors and 39 students. In 1872. a pro- 
 spectus was issued ior a school of obstetrics, and 
 also for one of sculpture, to be opened in Quito, 
 under the direction of European professors. An 
 academy of arts and sciences was also to be 
 opened in Quito, and the advantages of the 
 Guayaquil Normal School were to be extended 
 to Indian children. — See Schmid, Encyclqpadie, 
 vol. ix., art, Sudamerika; Wapp^us, Handbuch 
 der Geographie mnl Statistik, vol. i; Report of 
 U. S. Commissioner of Education tor L873. 
 
 EDGEWOETH, * Maria, a gifted English 
 authoress, noted for her educational writings, was 
 born at Hare Hatch, near Reading. England, in 
 ITiiT. ami died at Edgeworthstown, Ireland, in 
 1849. She was the daughter of Richard Lovell 
 Edgeworth, who was quite celebrated both as an 
 inventor and an author, and, to some extent, 
 also as an educationist. He was the author, 
 jointly with his daughter, of Practical Educa- 
 tion (1798), and published Essays on Profes- 
 sional Education (1809), and a continuation of 
 Early Lessons (1815), published originally by 
 his daughter in 1810. In 1822, Maria Edgeworth 
 published Rosamond, a sequel to Early Lessons, 
 which was followed by Harry and Lucy, the 
 Parents' Assistant (a series of juvenile tales), 
 and Frank ; subsequently also Orlandino, which 
 appeared in Chambers's Library for Young 
 People. It was, however, as a writer of fiction 
 that .Miss Edgeworth gained her greatest fame. 
 Her novels acquired a high degree of popularity, 
 which, to a considerable extent, they still retain ; 
 and they were widely circulated both in England 
 and in the United States. They were greatly 
 admired by her illustrious contemporaries Scott, 
 Macaulay, and Jeffrey. The latter said. " It is 
 impossible to read ten pages in any of her writ- 
 ings, without feeling, that not only as a whole, 
 but that, in every part, they were intended to do 
 good."' " She is the author," said Edward Everett, 
 " of works never to be forgotten ; of works which 
 can never lose their standard value as English 
 Classics." In 1820, she completed a Memoir of 
 her father (commenced by him), who died in 
 L817. There are several editions of her works, 
 which still continue to be reprinted. 
 
 EDINBURGH, University of. See Scot- 
 land. 
 
 EDUCATION (Lat. educatio), a general and 
 comprehensive term, including in its signification 
 every thing that pertains to the bringing up of 
 children, and the operation of influences and 
 agencies designed to stimulate and direct the de- 
 velopment of the faculties of youth by training 
 and instruction, and thus to control the forma- 
 tion of their character. Hence, education has 
 
244 
 
 EDUCATION 
 
 been divided into several departments, according 
 to the class of faculties to the development and 
 improvement of which it is directed, including 
 (1) Physical Education (q. v.). or the education 
 of the bodily powers; (2) Intellectual Education 
 (q. v.), that of the mind or intellect ; (3) Moral 
 Education (q. v.), — of the propensities, senti- 
 ments, will, and conscience; (4) Esthetic Educa- 
 tion, — of the taste, musical, artistic, or literary, 
 that is, comprehending the sphere of the imagi- 
 nation (see Esthetic < /Ulture); and (5) Religious 
 or Spiritual Education, — of the religious 
 sentiments, the spiritual instincts; that is, those 
 which concern only the soul as a spiritual and 
 immortal essence, and its relations to the Creator, 
 the Infinite Spirit. (See Religious Education.) 
 Education is also distinguished into home or 
 domestic r<ln<-,iti<>n (q. v.), and public or commonr 
 
 School education (see PUBLIC SCHOOLS), OT, COn- 
 
 sidere 1 as a means for the general enlightenment 
 of the people, popular education; also into pri- 
 vate education, that is, supported by private 
 funds, and national education, — provided for by 
 t lie state. (See National Education.) 
 
 School education, generally called instruction, 
 on account of the more limited character of its 
 scope and the sphere of its operations, is distin- 
 guished, according to its grade, into (1) primary 
 instruction, that is. the instruction given in ele- 
 mentary schools (such as the common schools, — 
 the primary schools of cities representing only a 
 lower subdivision of primary instruction); (2) sec- 
 ondary instruction, — as given in academics. 
 high schools (middle schools] ; (3) superior in- 
 struction, — as given in colleges and universities ; 
 , I) special instruction, — as of the blind, the deaf 
 and dumb, and the imbecile; (5) 'professional 
 a//'/ technical instruction,— -as in art schools, law 
 schools, medical schools, military, naval or nau- 
 fcical schools, theological seminaries, schools of 
 architecture, etc., for information in regard to 
 which see the respective titles. 
 
 Education is to be carefully distinguished from 
 instruction, the latter being only a subordinate 
 part of the great scheme of controlling and 
 guiding the development of a human being. To 
 
 this department of education the term didactics 
 (from the* iivek word SiS&aKStv, to teach) is often 
 applied. (Sec Didactics and Instruction.) In- 
 struction is addressed to the intellect or under- 
 standing: while education comprehends the whole 
 nature of man and the various agencies by means 
 
 of which, in its formative state, i1 may be affected, 
 [ts primary object is to form the character either 
 bj stimulating its development in the normal 
 
 direction, or correcting tendencies to m n-bid 
 
 growth. In respect to the scientific principle, by 
 which its practical operations should be guided, 
 education is a science ; in relation to fch< proper 
 mode of performing those operations so as to ren- 
 der them as eff sctive as possible, it is an art. The 
 science of education is a very complex one. inas- 
 much a i its principles must be drawn from many 
 different departments of Bcience; superadded to 
 m hich,as its own peculiar spin re of mvestigat 
 there is the great body of truths which concern 
 
 the growth and development of mind and body, 
 and which especially constitute the theory of 
 education, or pedagogics, as sometimes called. 
 This article will embrace oidy the general con- 
 sideration of (I) the history of education, and 
 (II) the theory of education, with a reference to 
 sub-titles for fuller information in regard to sub- 
 ordinate topics. 
 
 I. History of Education. — The history of edu- 
 cation is the history of the institutions, prin- 
 ciples, and methods by means of which children 
 and youth of both sexes have been educated, 
 from the earliest period of historic times to the 
 present day. It embraces within its scope an 
 account of the peculiar character which edu- 
 cation has assumed among the several nations of 
 the globe, of the rise and development of the 
 different methods of instruction, of the systems 
 and labors of prominent educators, of the divi- 
 sions and classes of schools, and of the rival and 
 frequently conflicting claims of the family, the 
 church, and the state to a share in the regulation 
 of public instruction. Each of these subjects is 
 treated of in this work under special titles; 
 and the object of this general article can. there- 
 fore, only be to present a brief general view, in 
 outline, of the subject, SO as to show more clearly 
 the relation of its several departments and topics. 
 
 The earliest schools which have any claim to a 
 place in a history of education are met with in 
 ! gypt, China, India, and Persia. In all these 
 countries, it was the aim of the instructor to train 
 the young so that they might become homogeneous 
 members of the community to which they be- 
 Longed, the institutions of whii li were to be pre- 
 served and continued by them unchanged. The 
 claims of individuality were, at that early period, 
 unknown: and the principle of blind and slavish 
 submission to the constituted authorities was the 
 basis of all education. There are. however, some 
 marked points of difference. In China, the dis- 
 tinctive features of education characterize it as 
 family education, in India as caste education, in 
 Persia as state education, and in Egypt as priest- 
 ly education. In China, every child is reared in 
 absolute obedience to the head of the family, 
 and every family submits as a child to the com- 
 mon father of all. the Emperor. The excessive 
 veneration of ancestry makes the character of 
 the people essentially stationary, and education 
 assumes pre-eminently the character of mechanical 
 training. In India, every child belongs by his 
 birth to one particular caste: and the foremost 
 aim of the instruction given is to teach him the 
 rights and duties of the caste. The leading prin- 
 ciple of Indian education is habit. In Persia, 
 every kind of power and authority centers in 
 king : the children belong more to the state than 
 to their parent8, and the germs of a strictly na- 
 tional education may. therefore, be found in the 
 institutions of that country. In Egypt, the 
 priest is the chief represent tive of education 
 
 and the only teacher. (See ClUl l, 1 '.< YVT, INDIA, 
 and PeRSI \.) 
 
 The classic nations of the ancient world, 
 Greece and Rome, began a new period in the 
 
F.nnwTiox 
 
 245 
 
 history of education. While the oriental child 
 was taught to become a docile member of the 
 family, the caste, the state, or the religion, Greece 
 ami Rome conceived the ideaof individual educa- 
 tion : man was n<>t merely expected to fi< himself 
 for the place which the family, the caste, the state, 
 or religion assigned to liiin. but lie was to choose 
 bis own vocation, and by aspiring to the highest 
 place of honor in political life, in art, or in sci- 
 ence, to advance beyond his ancestors. Mechan- 
 ical training failed to satisfy those who interested 
 themselves in the cause of education ; the first 
 theories of education were developed, and the 
 harmonious development of the body and the 
 mind was held up to the young as the worthiest 
 aim of their youthful ambition. Lycurgus and 
 .Solon as lawgivers, Pythagoras and Socrates as 
 practical educators, and Plato and Aristotle as 
 writers on education, propounded and brought in- 
 to circulation a number of new ideas, with which 
 not only did the older nations of the ancient 
 world have nothing to compare, but which have 
 remained among the most potent agencies in the 
 progressive education of mankind. A beauti- 
 ful individuality was, to the Greek, the aim of 
 life, and the ideal of education was expressed by 
 the word KctXoKaya&ia, the beautiful and the 
 good. The Spartan system of education con- 
 stituted, to a considerable degree, an exception to 
 this general characteristic of Greek education. 
 The Romans attention, from his early childhood, 
 was directed to the affairs of a commonwealth 
 which was constantly engaged in war, and those 
 who reared him naturally designed to make him 
 a practical man. The development of a practical 
 individuality became the aim of Roman educa- 
 tion. Less time was found for', and less interest 
 felt in, the study of science and art ; but there 
 was a notable progress in the appreciation of 
 home education, involving a higher regard for 
 marriage and for a more dignified and freer po- 
 sition of woman in society. In every family, 
 the mother was to begin and the father to con- 
 tinue the work of education, which came to be 
 looked upon as a part of parental duty. Both 
 parents co-operated in nursing, in the minds of 
 their children, the feeling of patriotism; and a 
 part of the education which the young Roman 
 received under the parental roof was the desire 
 to Income a useful, honest, and illustrious citizen 
 of the commonwealth. Qnder these influences, 
 the will was more developed than either the 
 emotional nature or the intellect. The only sci- 
 ences which interested the Roj nans were almost 
 exclusively those of a strongly utilitarian charac- 
 ter, — rhetoric, Roman history, and military sci- 
 ence; since every noble and talented youth 
 aspired to become a leading politician or a great 
 general. The characteristic virtue of the ancient 
 Romans, before the decline of the Republic, was 
 stern and inflexible integrity in political life ; 
 but all their intellectual and moral aspirations 
 were circumscribed by the narrow horizon of 
 their own nationality, and a due regard for those 
 outside of it appears to have been unknown to 
 them. When an acquaintance with the institu- 
 
 tions of conquered Greece revealed to the Ro- 
 mans a progress in art, science, and literature, 
 which they as yet had not even conceived, and 
 
 thus awakened a thirst for higher literary culture, 
 the political and social system of the republic 
 had already entered upon the period of its de- 
 cline. Higher instruction, often imparted by 
 despised slaves, was an inadequate compensation 
 for the decline of home education : and scientific 
 and literary culture proved utterly unable to ar- 
 rest the flood of corruption which finally over- 
 whelmed the free institutions of Rome. The 
 lines of Horace, so often quoted, have thus an 
 impressive significance : 
 
 Graecia capta ferum victorem cepit, et artes 
 Intnlit agresti I.atio. 
 
 Under the empire, the old landmarks of na- 
 tional education were entirely swept away. 
 ( J reek tutors, and Greek high schools, at Athens 
 and Constantinople, were expected to supply the 
 highest instruction ; but the enervated Roman 
 was no longer able to grasp the ideal of a uni- 
 versal higher education, and the Roman Empire 
 of the West was destroyed by the barbarians 
 without having developed any systems or forms 
 of education. As Roman education, from the 
 foundation of the city to the downfall of the 
 empire, was of a predominantly utilitarian char- 
 acter, Rome never produced any writers on edu- 
 cation like Aristotle and Plato; yet the works 
 of Cicero, and especially of Seneca and Quin- 
 tilian, contain many suggestions of great prac- 
 tical value. 
 
 A peculiar position is occupied by the 
 Hebrews, the only theocratic people of antiquity. 
 Their children were to be educated, not for the 
 family or caste, not for the state or for personal 
 distinction in art and literature, but to be the 
 obedient servants of the God of Israel. As Je- 
 hovah was represented to the people as their 
 sovereign, so he was their only teacher. Educa- 
 tion was a corollary of religion. The head of a 
 family was both its teacher and priest, and gave 
 to the children a religious instruction ; reading 
 and writing were learned only by the children of 
 the wealthy. The first organized schools were 
 the schools of the prophets for training expound- 
 ers of the law of Jehovah ; after the exile, the 
 rabbis organized a number of schools, to which 
 children from their 5th year could be sent. The 
 instruction was for a long time entirely oral, 
 and at first also limited to the tenets of the Jew- 
 ish religion ; but gradually the course of instruc- 
 tion was enlarged, and. during the middle ages, 
 many Jewish schools obtained a high reputation 
 for the number of scholars whom they educated. 
 
 The advent of Christianity was a great turn- 
 ing-point in the history of education, no less 
 than in the general history of mankind. For a 
 considerable length of time this was far from 
 being recognized. To the educated and wealthy 
 Romans, especially to those holding a high rank 
 in scholarship and literature, the ( 'hristians ap- 
 peared as a humble, insignificant, and despised 
 sect. The energies of the Christians themselves 
 were so greatly absorbed in the effort to live up 
 
246 
 
 EDUCATION" 
 
 to the requirements of their religion, anrl to 
 develop the constitution of their church, that 
 but little attention seems to have been devoted 
 to the cause of education. They had no literary 
 institutions of their own, and, consequently, their 
 children were often sent to pagan schools for sec- 
 ular instruction. The tirst Christian schools 
 were founded to instruct the catechumens in the 
 doctrines of Christianity, and to enable them to 
 vindicate their religion from the attacks of 
 pagan philosophers. The most famous of these 
 schools, thai of Alexandria (see Alexandrian 
 School), gradually developed into the first school 
 of Christian theology. Its great teachers, espe- 
 cially ( 'lenient and Origcn. not only freed Chris- 
 tianity from the charge, until then very common, 
 of being the faith of the ignorant and illiterate. 
 
 but, by conceiving the idea of demonstrating the 
 agreement of Christian doctrines with Platonic 
 philosophy, attempted to revive the educational 
 ideas of the Greeks, the mosl advanced in ante- 
 
 < Ihristian times, and to resume the work of e lu- 
 
 cational development where the great masters of 
 aneient Greece ha I left off. This attempt, how- 
 ever, failed in consequence of the passionate op- 
 position made to it by another school of Chris- 
 tian theologians, who saw in the world outside of 
 the Christian revelation nothing but darkness 
 and sin, and did not believe that any good could 
 be derived from the study of pagan literature. 
 Tertullian rejected any connection between 
 Christianity and philosophy with the harsh re- 
 mark, "What have Athens and Jerusalem, the 
 Academy ami the Church, in common ?" Sim- 
 ilar views were expressed by Ireiueits, ( 'yprian, 
 
 and Arnobius, while other writers, especially at 
 Rome, endeavored to compromise between the 
 Alexandrians and their opponents. When, three 
 
 hundred years after its rise, Christianity sup- 
 planted paganism as the official religion of Rome, 
 the detestation of pagan learning was sufficiently 
 predominant in the < Jhristian ( !hurch to cause the 
 decline, and, subsequently, in the fifth century, the 
 extinction, of the Alexandrian school. With it 
 the study of the literature of ancient Creece 
 ceased, and the treasures which are contained in 
 the educational works of Plato and Aristotle, 
 were for a long time hidden. The only schools 
 to be met with at that time in the Christian 
 world, were several schools of theology, like th ee 
 of Antioch, Edessa, and Nisibis; and even these 
 
 declined. . simultaneously with or soon after tin 1 
 closing of the school 01 Alexandria. The mass 
 
 of the Christian people derived its entire edu- 
 cation from the family and the church. I'pon 
 this field, however. Christianity had produced 
 
 wonderful results of regeneration. While pagan 
 
 society was irresistibly collapsing, from vice and 
 
 corruption, the Christian congregations excited 
 the admiration of the world by the strength of 
 their faith and the depth of their religious feel- 
 ing. The organization of Christian schools 
 
 Other than those of a theological character is 
 chiefly due to the monastic orders. Both in the 
 east and in the we-l provision was made for 
 
 instructing doI only the candidates for monastic 
 
 life, but also children who were sent there by 
 their parents. In the East, the attention of the 
 monks was, however, so completely absorbed 
 in subtle metaphysical questions and controver- 
 sies, that little was accomplished deserving a 
 mention in the history of education. In the 
 west, Benedict and his followers gave to monas- 
 tic education a more practical basis, and com- 
 bined agricultural and mechanical occupations 
 with the study of theology. The importance of 
 these convent schools (<pv. greatly increased when 
 the barbaric tribes overpowered western Europe, 
 and rudely destroyed the last remnants of Ro- 
 man civilization. The convents then became al- 
 most the only refuge of learning, and were thus 
 
 enabled to extend their educational labors. Their 
 success and the growing demand for instruction 
 called into life the cathedral and collegiate 
 schools (q. v.), which, in the main, pursued the 
 same course of instruction. By far the most 
 celebrated among all the convents of Europe 
 were those of Ireland and England, which not 
 only sent the greatest number of missionaries 
 for the conversion of the pagan portions of 
 Europe, but also educated the best leachers. The 
 most vigorous impulses given to the progress of 
 education in that period did not. however, pro- 
 ceed from any monk or convent, but from the 
 great monarch* in the ninth century. Charle- 
 magne d|. V.) and Alfred (ij. v.). who by wise 
 laws, greatly increased the number of schools 
 and improved the course of studies, which were 
 divided into the trivium and quadrivium. 
 Charlemagne was the first who conceived the 
 idea of organizing instruction for the whole 
 people : but his efforts in this direction were not 
 successful, as. after his death, only few men could 
 be found who were both willing and able to 
 carry on the work of the great emperor. The 
 people of the towns and rural districts did not 
 appreciate the value of education, and a large 
 portion of the clergy looked with disfavor at the 
 attempt to cultivate in schools the language of 
 the people at the expense of the Latin, the uni- 
 versal language of the church. Of the emperors 
 and kings of the middle ages, not one resumed 
 the educational ideas of Charlemagne; their 
 energies being chiefly used, and to a large extent 
 wasted, in their conflicts with the church and 
 with the nobility. Since the authority of the 
 church as the infallible teacher of religious truth 
 was recognized in all Christian countries, it was 
 to be expected that science and education would 
 be, to a large extent, influenced and controlled 
 by the church. Theology, actuated by the su- 
 preme desire to defend the rule of the church, 
 developed into scholasticism (q. v.), which reached 
 its greatest prosperity in the twelfth and thir- 
 teenth centuries. The methods of instruction 
 pursued in the ecclesiastical schools were me- 
 chanical, the pupils endeavoring to reproduce,™ 
 literal recitations, the explanations and lectures 
 of their teachers. School discipline was not only 
 
 severe, bul often cruel, and corporal punish- 
 ment was generally approved. and frequently ap- 
 plied. The tirst departures from the educational 
 
EDUCATION 
 
 24T 
 
 methods of the church schools are met with in 
 the education of young nobles, and in the estab- 
 lishment of town schools. In neither case was 
 there any formal denial of the authority of the 
 church, but very great attention was given to 
 certain features 01 education which not only 
 found no place in the church schools, but were 
 frequently censured by the representatives of 
 those schools as dangerous innovations. Thus, 
 the attention given to gymnastic exercises in (he 
 education of young nobles, and the worshipful 
 attention shown to noble women, gave to the 
 aristocracy of the middle ages a training quite 
 different from what it would have received in 
 the church schools. The establishment of town 
 or burgher schools, which assumed large dimen- 
 sions after the twelfth century, made the acquisi- 
 tion of such knowledge as was most nee; led 1 >y the 
 business man and mechanic, especially reading, 
 writing, and arithmetic, the leading object of 
 instruction. They were sometimes called writing- 
 schools, as they aimed at lifting their pupils for 
 writing letters and business compositions. These 
 Bchools not only served to develop the idea 
 of secular instruction in the place of merely 
 ecelesiastieal education, but, when town mag- 
 istrates were the patrons of the schools, led to 
 the appointment of lay tea. -hers, and, gradually, 
 caused teaching to be regarded as a special pro- 
 fession. The beginning of this profession was 
 sufficiently humble. Even at the close of the 
 middle ages, special school-houses could be found 
 in ouly a few towns. Instruction was generally 
 given in some building used for ecclesiastical or 
 municipal purposes, or in hired rooms. When 
 magistrates had the control of a school, they en- 
 gaged a school-master, generally for the term of 
 one year. The school-master chose his own as- 
 sistants, and. if his contract was not renewed, 
 master and assistant traveled from town to town, 
 until they found a new engagement. They were 
 sometimes accompanied by crowds of boys and 
 youths (see Bacchants), whose vagrant habits 
 were, however, by no means calculated to in- 
 crease the reputation of school education. — The 
 greatest among the educational achievements of 
 the Christian world, during the middle ages, 
 was the establishment of the universities, in 
 which every department of science was to be 
 developed to its highest perfection. The plan 
 of these institutions, which were to be the centers 
 of the literary labors of the entire Christian 
 world, and in which, therefore, the progress 
 made in any one science was to benefit all, was 
 in itself an immense progress. The development 
 of the universities was greatly promoted by the 
 revival of classical studies (q. v.), which began 
 in Italy in the 1 1th century, and by the discov- 
 ery of the art of printing in the 15th century, 
 which greatly facilitated a general diffusion of 
 even- kind of knowledge. The foremost rep- 
 resentatives of this new period of intellectual 
 activity were Erasmus, Reuchlin, and Melanch- 
 
 thon. A striking feature in the educational 
 history of Christian Europe, from the rise of 
 I hristianity to the end of the middle ages, is the 
 
 controlling influence of a universal church, with 
 one visible head, the Pope, and one literary lan- 
 guage, the Latin. In ancient Egypt, China, India, 
 Persia, (Greece, Rome, and among the Jews, 
 the aim of education had always a strictly 
 national bearing, and the same word was gener- 
 ally used to denote the ideas of foreign and 
 hostile. ( 'hristianity, winch became the religion 
 of the Roman state; at a time when the great 
 empire had begun to shake to its very founda- 
 tion, soon witnessed its destruction and the rise- 
 of a number of independent states, and regarded 
 it as a divine mission to unite these conflicting 
 nations in a common submission to the supreme 
 authority of the one true religion. Thus not 
 only was secular education made subordinate to 
 moral and religious education, but the submission 
 of so many nations to one spiritual authority 
 tended to develop ideas of universal rather than 
 national education. The Eastern Empire had 
 no part in the educational progress of western 
 Europe, and was in a completely petrified and 
 exhausted condition when it was destroyed, in 
 the fifteenth century, by the Mohammedan 
 Turks. Mohammedanism, at that time, had been 
 in existence for about 800 years. It had become 
 the predominant religion in a large portion of 
 Asia and Africa, and, for several centuries, had 
 ruled in Spain. Its influence upon the progress 
 of education, at one time, appeared to be even 
 more favorable than that of Christianity ; and 
 the Mohammedan high schools of Spain not only 
 attracted a large number of students from Chris- 
 tian countries, but in many sciences, as mathe- 
 matics, philosophy, and natural history, became 
 the teachers of all Europe. In the twelfth cent- 
 ury, these schools began to decline; and, from 
 that time to the present, education in the entire 
 Mohammedan world has been in a most depressed 
 condition. 
 
 At the close of the fifteenth and the beginning 
 of the sixteenth century, a series of remarkable 
 events indicated the entrance of mankind into a 
 new period of its history. One of special im- 
 portance in regard to the progress of education 
 was the overthrow of the Catholic Church in a 
 large portion of Europe. As Luther, Zwingli, 
 < 'alvin. and other leaders of the religious move- 
 ment appealed from the judgment of the Church 
 which condemned them, to the Bible, it was their 
 natural desire that every Christian family should 
 he sufficiently instructed to be able to read the 
 Bible. The governments of several Protestant 
 States issued laws which were intended, after 
 the example of Charlemagne, to bring the entire 
 population under educational influences. In this 
 way, education became more widely diffused 
 than it had ever been in the middle ages ; and it 
 remained, henceforth, to a higher degree than 
 before, the subject of serious study for many 
 Legislators; but there was no substantial change 
 in the methods of instruction, and the subservi- 
 ency of secular to theological education remained 
 as complete as before. The desire to preserve 
 the Catholic Church from further defection, 
 and to recover the ground already lost, led to 
 
248 
 
 EDUCATION 
 
 the establishment of the order of the Jesuits, 
 who tried, for this purpose, to obtain a control 
 of the education of the higher classes. The 
 
 schools of the .Jesuits (q. v.) attained a great 
 celebrity, a large attendance, and the admiration 
 of many of the must eminent Protestants. In 
 consequence of the close connection between 
 schools of every description and the church, all 
 the great religious movements were reflected in 
 education. Thus, when the German Pietists 
 charged the Protestant Church of their time 
 • with laying too great stress on a rigid orthodoxy, 
 and with undervaluing the emotional element of 
 religion, the schools influenced by them were so 
 shaped as to aim more at the education of 
 practical than orthodox Christians. Germany 
 is indebted to these Pietists for one of its greatest 
 philanthropists and most practical educators, A. 
 IT. Krancke (q. v.). whose fame in the history of 
 education rests more on the excellent institutions 
 which were founded by him, than on any new- 
 theory or literary work on education. 
 
 A radical reform in education had. in the 
 meantime, been introduced by Comenius (q. v.), 
 
 a bishop of the Bohemian Brethren and one of 
 the greatest educators of all time. Influenced 
 by the inductive method of Bacon dp v.), and 
 the works of Ratich (q. v.) on the necessity and 
 importance of an independent art of teaching, 
 Comenius conceived the idea of a harmonious 
 development of all the faculties of man. and 
 proposed a grand system of popular education 
 which is still a linircl by all educators as a work 
 of lasting value. The views of Comenius on 
 vernacular schools, on the return from dead 
 books to the live book of nature, on intuitional 
 teaching and the value of analytico - synthetic 
 methods met with general approbation and led 
 to immediate reforms. The movemenl begun 
 by Comenius was greatly strengthened by the 
 writings of John Locke (q. v.). who applied 
 Bacon's inductive method to the study of the 
 human mind and became the founder of empir- 
 ical psychology. Locke specially exceeded former 
 writers in recognizing the importance of physical 
 education: his ideas in regard to this subject 
 have exercised a marked influence on modern 
 
 school legislation. The new principles thusdevel 
 
 oped were welcomed by the powerful opposition 
 which, in the seventeenth century, arose in the 
 literary world against the influence of both 
 
 orthodox Protestantism and the < 'atholic < Ihurch 
 
 upon society, and which had its chief represent- 
 atives in the French Free-Thinkers, the English 
 
 Deists, and the German Rationalists. It became 
 
 the general tendency of the age to look upon 
 
 education as one of the most important depart- 
 ments of state administration, and. in most of 
 the states, ministries of education, school boards, 
 and school commissions were appointed. In 
 
 Germany .and a number of other countries, coin 
 
 pulsory education was introduced. The chief 
 
 difference among the leading educators concerned 
 die question whether instruction should chiefly 
 aim at imparting positive and useful knowledge. 
 or at exercisinc and traininc the mental faculties. 
 
 The advocates of the latter principle, who were 
 called the Humanists, attributed very great 
 educational importance to the study of the clas- 
 sical languages; while those of the former, called 
 Realists, from their utilitarian point of view, 
 thought more of natural sciences, modern lan- 
 guage s. gi ■< igraphy, and history. Among the writ- 
 ers on education in the eighteenth century, none 
 became so famous as Rousseau, an enthusiastic 
 idealist who looked upon the entire civilization 
 of his age as an aberration from nature, and pro- 
 posed to erect upon its ruins an entirely new 
 society. The means by which he desired to effect 
 this change was a radical reform in the system of 
 public education. Neither he nor any of his ad- 
 mirers was able to cany his radical theories into 
 practice; but many of his ideas, especially on 
 physical education and the cultivation of the in- 
 tellect, are now accepted as correct by all edu- 
 cators. He is regarded as the father of the an- 
 thropological principle in education which insists 
 that the educational functions of a teacher should 
 begin with his study of the individual nature of 
 his pupils. Basedow (q. v.) and other Philan- 
 thropists (see Philanthropic), attempted to 
 
 establish model boa rding- schools on the basis 
 of the ideas of Comenius, Locke, and Rousseau. 
 The great hopes which they raised were never 
 realized ; but many of their pupils have risen 
 to considerable eminence. 
 
 The most famous and influential of modern 
 educators was I'estaloz/.i. The eminent position 
 which he occupies in the history of education is 
 not BO much due to a perfect method of instruc- 
 tion. to a superior talent of organization and man- 
 agement, or to the foundation of great educational 
 institutions, for in all these respects Pestalozzj 
 has been excelled by other educators; hut he 
 has secured the admiration of all time by his 
 fervid enthusiasm in the cause of education, lie 
 gave a greater impulse to the improvement of 
 popular education than any of his predecessors; 
 and it was his special merit to have called at- 
 tention to the ethical and psychological founda- 
 tion of education. The followers of I'estalozzi 
 
 called into existence a number of practical re- 
 forms, the most important of which is the kiu- 
 dergarten (q. v.), founded by Froebel (q. v.), a 
 
 System for the education of young children be- 
 fore their admission to the primary school. 
 
 Many of the en i incut philosophers of the eight- 
 eenth and nineteenth centuries have discussed 
 the great problems of pedagogy ; and conflicting 
 as their views may be on many important ques- 
 tions, the principle thai education should he a 
 
 natural and harmonious development of inde- 
 pendent individualities is generally recognized. 
 Of special interest lor educators are the systems 
 
 of Herbart, Beneke, and Herbert Spencer. 
 I lerbart (q. v.) rejected the traditional "\ iew of a 
 number of different powers constituting the 
 human soul, which on the contrary is regarded 
 by him as a simple entity and as not .subject to 
 
 any change in its quality. Beneke (q. v.) pro- 
 posed a system of education wholly based on 
 
 psychology, to which he attributed the character 
 
KIH'CATION 
 
 249 
 
 of a wholly empirical science. 1 [erbert Spencer 
 (q. v.) claimed for the developmenl of the soul 
 an organic growth subject to the ordinary laws of 
 organic development, and made psychology strict- 
 ly a natural science. 
 
 The development of educational ideas, as it 
 has here been briefly traced, undoubtedly shows, 
 that in every department of the subject a won- 
 derful progress has been made in the course of 
 the last three centuries. This progress is uni- 
 versally recognized, and there is not at present a 
 civilized state which does not reflect it in its 
 school legislation. (Seethe articles on the several 
 countries and states.) Official statistics prove 
 that school attendance is becoming more and 
 more general, that illiteracy is on the wane, and 
 in some countries scarcely known, and that the 
 diffusion of education tends to the diminution 
 of crime. Still, on many great questions, there 
 continues to exist a marked difference of opinion. 
 Has the state government a right only to recom- 
 mend and promote, or may it compel the educa- 
 tion of children? (See Compulsory Education.) 
 Should instruction in the state schools be gratui- 
 tous ? i See Public Schools.) Are the two sexes 
 to be educated in separate or in mixed schools? 
 (See Co-education of the Sexes.) Is religious 
 instruction to be given in or out of the state 
 schools? (See Denominational Schools.) All 
 these questions are fully treated of, in this work, 
 in special articles. 
 
 The outlines of a history of education are con- 
 tained in the works on education in general by 
 Bchwarz, Nierneyer, Grafe, and Rosenkranz. 
 See literature at the end of this article.) Special 
 works on the history of education have been 
 written by Wohlfarth (Geschichte des gesamm- 
 ten Erziehungs- >m<l Unteri'ichlswesens, 2 vols., 
 1853 A- is.").")); Korner [Geschichte der Padago- 
 gik, 1857; Karl Schmidt (Geschichte der P&aa- 
 gogik, 3d edit., by Lange, 4 vols., 1872 — 1876); 
 Pittes (Geschichte der Erziehung void des Un- 
 terrichts, 4th ed., 1875); Fritz (Esquisse dun 
 systeme comph't d 1 instruction et d' education tt 
 de leur histoire, 3 vols., Strasburg. 1841 — 1847); 
 II. J. Schmidt (History of Education, New 
 York, 1842) ; Hailman (History of Pedagogy, 
 Cincinnati, 1874). A history of education from 
 the revival of classical studies to the present 
 time has been written by Karl Raunier (4 vols., 
 1844 — 1852). Of this there is an English trans- 
 lation in Barnard's American Journal of Edu- 
 cation ; the larger portion of the translation of 
 the first two volumes has also been published 
 separately under the title. Memoirs of Eminent 
 I ><■/,, rs and Educators in Germany ; and the 
 translation of the fourth volume, under the title, 
 The German Univei'sities. A history of edu- 
 cation before < hrist is given in Cramer, Ge- 
 schichte der Erziehung und des Vhterrichts 
 (2 vols.. 1832 and 183*1. 
 
 II. Theory of Education. — The word educa- 
 tion is derived from the T,atin verb educo which 
 is properly used to designate the sustenance and 
 care bestowed by a nurse on a child : and it is.no 
 doubt, connected etymologically with the Latin 
 
 verb educo, to lead out; but it never has this 
 literal sense, and it is extremely unlikely that 
 
 the Etomans connected the idea of drawing out 
 with that of educatio. In order to get at a true 
 idea of education, we must look at the circum- 
 stances of the case. We proceed by way of 
 analogy. We know in regard to the seed of a 
 plant that it contains a peculiar and special 
 power within it. Place it in the proper soil, 
 with the proper temperature, and it will burst 
 forth into active life. It will gather from earth 
 and air the means of support and increase. It 
 will fashion the elements which it lays hold of 
 into a definite shape, and it will pass through 
 various stages of progress until it withers away, 
 leaving, however, behind it the means of con- 
 tinuing the species. Within certain limits, the 
 plant has a definite form of its own, and its 
 mode of life is also uniform ; and, within these 
 limits, there lies a perfect form and a perfect life 
 for the plant, It may not be easy to say what is 
 that perfect form and perfect life, but it is plain 
 to every observer, that it, as it were, strives after 
 an ideal form and an ideal progress, to which it 
 approximates more or less closely. Man is like 
 the plant, The living power within him strives 
 to attain a particular form, and to go through a 
 particular progress, and it continually strives to 
 attain an ideal of these, within certain limits. 
 The difference between the plant and the man 
 is, that the limits of his condition and progress 
 are much wider, and that he can consciously 
 form an ideal for himself, and strive after it. 
 Now education, in its proper sense, is the delib- 
 erate effort on the part of one conscious being 
 to clear the way so as to enable another to attain 
 this perfect condition of life and this normal prog- 
 ress. It is assumed that the man naturally strives 
 after perfection. It is assumed that he must 
 move in some direction, whether forward, or zig- 
 zag, or backward ; and the educator endeavors to 
 keep the movement in the right direction. 
 
 The word education is used in a variety of 
 senses, connected but not always compatible with 
 the true idea. Thus man is viewed as being, in 
 his earliest stage, a kind of compressed mass of 
 faculties, and education is the drawing out of 
 these faculties. Again, every thing that acts on 
 man's nature is sometimes said to be educative, 
 whether the result is beneficial or not. Other 
 instances could be adduced of the use of the 
 word in the vaguest manner : but by stating tin- 
 true idea we oppose ourselves to the vague uses 
 of the word. It is enough, therefore, to state 
 first that man must be viewed, not as passive but 
 as active, not as being drawn out, but as striving 
 to act, and that no act is truly educative which 
 does not help him to strive after actions that are 
 becoming to his nature, or, to express it object- 
 ively, to strive after what is good, beautiful, or 
 true. 
 
 But, in thus stating the work of education in 
 a general proposition, we have done very little 
 towards explaining its true nature. Education 
 sets before it an ideal. How are we to form 
 anything like an adequate conception of this 
 
250 
 
 EDUCATION 
 
 ideal ? Only by a minute and careful study of 
 human nature ; and. therefore, every educator 
 must necessarily devote a great deal of his atten- 
 tion to the phenomena of body and mind, and 
 to man, the combination of both. The ideal is 
 a unity, but it is a composite unity, made up of 
 the perfect accomplishment of endless detailed 
 actions, and we must, therefore, examine all the 
 < let ails before we can attain to a clear notion of 
 the whole. 
 
 The subject may be viewed in another light. 
 Every portion of man is made or preformed for 
 a special function or functions. Thus the eyes 
 are made for seeing, the hands for grasping, the 
 skin for touch. For what is the whole body 
 made? For what is man. body and soul, made? 
 It is the work of the educator to help him whom 
 he educates to discharge the functions for which. 
 as man, he has been made or preformed. Ac- 
 lingly, most of the definitions of education 
 which have been given, have been based on the 
 
 answer to the question, what is the chief end — 
 the summum bonum — the destiny of man? 
 This was a question which occupied the atten- 
 tion of the ancients much, and < 'lemens Alexan- 
 drinus has gathered together a large number of 
 the answers which ancienl philosophers gave to 
 the inquiry. These; are interesting to the edu- 
 cator, because they suggest different points of 
 view from which to look at the problem. In 
 more modem times, the form which the answer 
 has most frequently taken is the statement thai 
 it is the work of e Lucation to produce, as far .-is 
 it can. an equable and harmonious developm 
 of all the powers of man. Ilerbart and his 
 school object to this way of expressing the aim 
 of education. The term powers is apt to mis- 
 lead. There are no separate and special faculties 
 in man's mind. All the best psychologists admit 
 that these faculties are fictions ; and, therefore, 
 the aim of education must be defined apart from 
 these. I let hait himself defined the aim of edu- 
 cation to be morality; but he used the word in a 
 truly philosophical sense, in which it is not un- 
 derstood by the masses, and. therefore, he pre- 
 ferred to state the object of education to be, to 
 produce a well-balanced many-sidedness of in- 
 terest. The emphasis laid on interest has been 
 productive of much rich fruit in educational in- 
 vestigation and experience; but, practically, 
 
 Eerbart's definiti somes to the same as the 
 
 other. Man is viewed as destined to a series of 
 activities closely connected the one with the 
 other. These activities may be in harmony with 
 
 his nature, or his ideal nature, as we may call it, 
 OT they may be more or less alienations from it. 
 
 The business of the educator is to prevent the 
 
 alienations, and to help those activities which 
 are in harmony. Tims,- activities which are in 
 harmony find their sphere in nature, in man. in 
 
 God. It is important thai all these activities 
 
 come into play. Man does not pursue his ideal 
 
 course, if they do not come into play. Be must 
 be fully developed. Bui if his activity comes 
 into plaj on these subjects according to the right 
 method, his interest in them is awakened and 
 
 becomes stronger and stronger ; for all pleasure 
 is the accompaniment of the vigorous discharge 
 of some function, and all pain is the accompani- 
 ment of the weak discharge or hindrance of 
 some function. If the organ which discharges 
 the function is exercised too powerfully, as may 
 be the case with our bodily powers and lower 
 mental energies, there is first intense pleasure; 
 but the over-tension impairs the healthiness of 
 the organ temporarily, or it may be permanent- 
 ly, and then the impaired activity is followed by 
 pain. And the pleasure that may arise, may 
 arise from the exercise 1 of what we call lower 
 functions, when higher are neglected. Thus the 
 lazy man desires true pleasure, as far as it goes, 
 from the vigorous exercise of his vital or vege- 
 tative powers. J'ut whatever pleasure does exist, 
 exists from the efficient discharge of function, 
 or in other words from healthy activities of body 
 or of mind. This pleasure may not be con- 
 sciously before the mind, as in the highest intel- 
 lectual operations when the student does not 
 feel how intense has been his enjoyment, until 
 the enjoyment is over.. This accompaniment of 
 all our healthy actions is cumulative. It grows in 
 degree, in proportion as the actions are repeated 
 in a healthy or proper manner. And. hence. our 
 interest increases with the healthy repetition of 
 
 the activities on the objects. Berbart's defini- 
 tion becomes, therefore, nearly synonymous with 
 the other, but directs the attention to the ex- 
 ternal sidi' of man's activity, to the objects on 
 which the mind works. Both sides must be 
 carefully considered by the educator: for, in the 
 activity of man. they are invariably conjoined. 
 The distinction between formal and material in 
 education has to be made with great caution; 
 and it has always to be remembered that form is 
 impossible without matter, and matter impos- 
 sible without form, that while there can be no 
 righl activity, if the mind does not act in a right 
 manner, it is equally true thai there can be no 
 right activity, if that on which the action takes 
 place is not a right object for the mind to act upon. 
 
 After having thus generally discussed the aim 
 of education, we should now enter minutely into 
 
 particulars, for the general is of slight use with- 
 out the particular; but this would be to write a 
 treatise on the laws ( t the activity of the human 
 mind, and the modes to be adopted by men to 
 
 direct these activities aright in the young. W e 
 must, therefore, confine Ourselves to hints which 
 may suggest to the reader the subjects which de- 
 serve his careful and minute examination. 
 
 A chilil gazes at an apple on a tree. AYhat 
 are the operations of the child's mind'.' First, 
 we have the exercise of the bodily organ. Then 
 the apple produces an impression on the child's 
 mind. This impression we call a sensation. The 
 
 child feels something. Some change has taken 
 place within him. Cut.it' this is not thi' first 
 impression which the apple has made on the 
 child, we can observe that the sensation has at 
 tained in its complexity to three phases: first. 
 the child has the feeling of pleasure in seeing the 
 
 apple; second, he sees that there is an object 
 
EDUCATION 
 
 251 
 
 before him which he rails an apple; and. third, if, 
 on a previous occasion, he has tasted apples and 
 enjoyed them, the recollection ol that enjoyment 
 comes hack, a desire arises within him, and he is 
 under an impulse to make an exertion to obtain 
 the apple. In this one instance, we have the 
 various phases of man's activities, lie is. first 
 of all. a physical being; then he is capable of 
 feeling, — has an emotional nature: then he is 
 capable of perceiving, — has an intellectual nat- 
 ure : and. finally, he is capable of desiring, of 
 striving after, and. tht% has a practical and 
 moral nature. Though we speak of him thus 
 as if he had four natures, he really possesses but 
 one. All the distinctions, except perhaps the 
 first, are distinctions made by the mind, but the 
 facts do not exist separately. The emotional, 
 intellectual, and volitional are blended with each 
 other in the actual human mind. The mind 
 cannot exist without them. There can be no 
 absolute separation of them : since they stand in 
 the closest relation to each other. Vet it is es- 
 sential to .separate these elements in our discus- 
 sion of them : for they 'may blend with each 
 other in different degrees. The one phase may 
 predominate to the injury of the others. A man 
 may have a clear head, but a hard heart and a 
 Stubborn will. Another may be too emotional, 
 ready to melt before the slightest distress, and 
 yet possessing almost no capability or inclination 
 to relieve the distress. The true aim of man is 
 to bring out all the elements in harmonious pro- 
 portion, and the work of the educator is to help 
 each child to accomplish this difficult task for 
 himself. 
 
 First, then, there is physical education. The 
 aim and end of physical education is to produce 
 health, not strength in particular organs, but a 
 general healthiness of all the organs. This aim 
 is accomplished by a careful examination into 
 the nature of the human body, an exposition of 
 the laws of health which arise from this study, 
 and the exhibition of the reasons which ought to 
 lead us to give all due care to the body. This 
 subject is treated under the head of physical 
 education. Secondly, there is intellectual <'<hn-<i- 
 iion. This education is based on a careful inves- 
 tigation into the laws which regulate the gradual 
 progress of the mind from its earliest weak state 
 of mere sensation til! it reach the power of deal- 
 ing with the most abstract ideas. (See Senses, 
 Education of. and Instruction.) Thirdly, we 
 have the education of the emotional nature. 
 And here we enter upon a inoi'e difficult sphere 
 —one in which the educator has often to grope 
 in darkness : for the emotions are not directly 
 Under his control, and the movements of the 
 mind in regard to them are hid in such secrecy, 
 that sometimes an influence which seems to us 
 likely to produce one emotion, actually produces 
 the opposite; as, for instance, efforts to beget 
 love may have for their result the production of 
 dislike. We shall here take a short -lance at this 
 important subject. 
 
 The first point to which the attention of the 
 educator may be directed is a general result at 
 
 which he may aim. The broadest division which 
 can be made of the feelings is into those of pleas- 
 ure and those of pain. The mind assumes a 
 particular attitude in consequence of its experi- 
 ences of these. We shall take a case. A child 
 performs a mental act, He does it successfully. 
 I le feels pleasure. He performs another success- 
 fully. The recollection of the past pleasure unites 
 with the present feeling, and the feeling is 
 Stronger. Others thus blend until the child has 
 a permanent state of feeling; or. as we may call 
 it. a mood. He looks forward with hope ; he ex- 
 pects to be successful ; but he may fail. A fail- 
 ure takes place ; he feels pain. The feeling of 
 pain now acts antagonistically to his feeling of 
 pleasure ; and, if these painful feelings recur, 
 the one set strive for the mastery over the other; 
 and the result will be, that the mind will ulti- 
 mately lie in a bright and cheerful mood, or in 
 a dark and gloomy one; it will either be 
 full of hope or lie given to despair; or, at the 
 least, have a tendency to go in the one direc- 
 tion or the other. There can be no doubt that 
 it is the business of the educator to produce the 
 bright, cheerful, hopeful mood. This is the nat- 
 ural mood, if we use the word natural as ex- 
 pressive of the ideal after which nature strives. 
 This mood is the result of the successful discharge 
 of all the functions : and it is of immense conse- 
 quence for the child to have this mood. The 
 mind communicates its tone to every thing around 
 it ; and so the cheerful mind sees good in every 
 thing, catches the bright side, and strengthens 
 all the powers; for the cheerful mind becomes 
 the strong mind. Obstacles, pain, failure are 
 sure to come ; but the cheerful mind casts them 
 all aside, rises superior to them, and, after tem- 
 porary depression, sees again with the same clear- 
 ness, and hopes with the same steadfastness. The 
 methods by which the educator can help to pro- 
 duce this state of mind in his charge are various, 
 and must all be used. First of all, he must 
 himself be of this cheerful and hopeful mind. 
 There is no direct teaching on excitation of the 
 emotions; but they are often produced, in the 
 proper circumstances, by what we may call in- 
 fection. Love begets love ; we catch admiration 
 from those who have felt the admiration liefore 
 us: and, no doubt, the sweet, gentle, loving 
 smiles of a mother who is uniformly kind to 
 her chilil, have a powerful influence on his whole 
 destiny, a more powerful influence than they are 
 generally believed to exert. Secondly, health is a 
 mighty agent in the earliest stages of life, before 
 it can be expected that the mind should triumph 
 over bodily evils ; and. therefore, special care 
 should be taken to render the infant healthy. 
 And, thirdly, after a certain stage has been 
 reached, some truths reached by the intellect 
 can come powerfully to the aid of the emotional 
 nature: such, for instance, as a belief that the 
 arrangements of this world are in favor of man. 
 that the amount of happiness in the world is 
 much greater than we may suppose, that God is 
 working all things to wise and noble ends, and 
 that man's destiny i> for virtue and love. When 
 
252 
 
 EDUCATION" 
 
 we pass from this general consideration to the par- 
 ticular feelings, we find ourselves in a labyrinth. 
 
 A feeling is a phase of mind which arises from 
 the consciousness of having passed from one 
 state into another; and, accordingly, no mental 
 act can take place without a feeling. Hence we 
 have feelings connected with the body, feelings 
 connected with the intellectual operations, and 
 feelings connected with the practical ami moral 
 nature. Or we might speak of the feelings ac- 
 cording to the objects which give rise to them; 
 as those that arise in connection with nature, 
 with one's own self, with man, with God. We 
 select out of these, two classes of feelings that 
 especially deserve the attention of the educator. 
 The first class deserve attention principally be- 
 cause they are in danger of being neglected, ow- 
 ing to the character of the present age. The edu- 
 cator should awaken and keep alive the feelings 
 of admiration and mystery. A child naturally 
 wonders and admires, and these feelings must 
 not be allowed to die out. .Moreover, the sense of 
 mystery, closely connected with these, will be a 
 source of gnat blessing to him. The practical 
 man is apt to look on all things as definite and 
 fully known: but the fad is, that nothing is 
 completely known. We know neither the be- 
 ginning nor the end of any thing. The Smallest 
 object and the largest are equally invisible to us. 
 Our knowledge is limited by a boundary that lies 
 far within the infinitesimally greal and the infin- 
 itesinially small; and so all knowledge attained 
 points to an infinite region the depths of which 
 we have not sounded. A consciousness of this 
 is closely connected with a humble spirit, and 
 true humility generally allies itself with love. 
 The second class of feelings is that which relates 
 to the beautiful. The sense of the beautiful is 
 the power to feel the loveliness of symmetry, of 
 proportion, of harmony. This power is to be 
 acquired only by the exercise of it. The sym- 
 uii try and loveliness exist in nature. They are 
 Calculated to produce an effect on the soul of 
 man, but the soul of man must be brought 
 into contact with them, before it can feel them. 
 Therefore, in regard to the cultivation of th • 
 feeling for the beautiful, the one essential condi- 
 tion is. that beautiful objects be placed before 
 the person in whom the sense is to he awakene I 
 
 and strengthened, and that they be placed fre- 
 quently ami at proper intervals: because the sense 
 of the beautiful Lb awakened only by slow degrees, 
 and it expands, passing from the external and 
 simple to the harmonies which prevail amidst 
 the grandest spheres of thought and intelligent 
 ^y existences. But it can be broughl before the 
 
 pupil in every form at an early stage, in beauti- 
 ful pictures, in beautiful rooms, in beautiful 
 
 landscapes, in order, in gentleness of tone, in 
 noble action, and in many other ways, so as to 
 induce within himself a love of all that is orderly, 
 harmonious, and peaceful. 
 
 Two cautions may be specially urged in con- 
 nect i<>u with the cultivation of the feelings. The 
 first is. that it is possible to render a human be- 
 ing too sensitive, to give feeling too greal a pre- 
 
 ponderance in the individuality of the person 
 educated. Such a person becomes .sentimental. 
 IS easily moved to joy or tears, is sympathetic in 
 the highest degree, but the sympathy does not 
 lead to action. The educator has to take care 
 that every train of feeling be strengthened and 
 guided aright by clear and well-reasoned convic- 
 tions, and be followed by appropriate action. 
 The second danger is, that the feeling of self 
 may Income so strong as to harden every other. 
 Naturally every one bestows a great deal of at- 
 tention on himself, and there is a tendency to 
 feel only when the circumstances relate to one's 
 self. Here, again, what has to be done is, to 
 prevent the mind's being occupied too much 
 with self, and to interest it in the thoughts and 
 circumstances of others. Both these cautions 
 point to the next division of the sphere of edu- 
 cation — that of the will or of the practical 
 powers. The exercise of these is closely con- 
 nected with the intellect and the feelings, and 
 indeed ordinarily results from them. Man is 
 naturally a striving or desiring being. lie is 
 a force, and by a force we mean something 
 that strives to exert itself. Accordingly man's 
 first act is an effort. And the powers which he 
 ;;t anytime possesses strive for spheres of action. 
 But these spin res are in the main d t.rinined 
 by the results of the action of his intellect and 
 the motive power of the feelings. A child docs 
 
 something which gives him pleasure. He has 
 finished the action. He turns to something else. 
 
 What remains of the piv\ ious action '.' A re< ol- 
 
 leetion of something pleasant: but the recollec- 
 tion of something that is pleasant excites the 
 desire to enjoy it again. Thus arise desires in 
 the mind: and as these desires arise again and 
 
 again in connection with objects belonging to 
 separate classes, groups of desires or inclina- 
 tions arise, and we call these -roups by general 
 nanus, such as the love of money, the love oi 
 honor, the love of fame. These desires grow- 
 in intensity according to the amount of time 
 during which they are allowed to continue in the 
 mind, ami the amount of spaCQ they are allowed 
 to occupy in it. Add to this fact that we natu- 
 rally put a value on the things which we desire. 
 and' regard some as higher than others, and we 
 enter the region of morals. Two or three func- 
 tions of mind lie before us which we are able 
 
 to discharge at the time. We weigh these func- 
 tions in tiie balance. We pronounce one of a 
 higher nature than the others. This is the one 
 which we feel bound to perform. Thus the func- 
 tion of the eye is a nobler one than that of the 
 the nose or the taste: and, hence, the educator 
 who trains the child to see is performing a nobler 
 function than he who indulges a child's taste for 
 sweets. All functions may b. necessary, hut 
 each must have its own place in a well-arranged 
 
 and systematic order of gradation. 
 
 The first essential, then, to ;t good practical 
 training is to impress on the pupil the true value 
 
 of all actions and tilings. lie is enabled to at- 
 tain to this only by having a (dear intellect and 
 a right state of feeling, and. therefore, it cannot 
 
EDUCATION 
 
 253 
 
 be too strongly urged, that a thorough intellectual 
 education is an important element in the at- 
 tainment of a sound moral character. But, be- 
 sides this, we learn to act by acting. There is a 
 natural instinct to act. and this instinct must 
 not be resisted or blunted. It is by one action 
 that we rise to the power of doing a greater. 
 I [ere the same kind of fiction as that which we 
 have noticed in the case of the mental faculties 
 is apt to mislead. Man is often spoken of as 
 possessing a will ; but man has not one will, but 
 many wills. The word will is used to denote 
 the complicated power which man possesses, 
 through his original faculties and the exercise 
 of them, to will for the future. But, if this 
 be the case, the strength of the power to will 
 in any particular case depends upon the pre- 
 vious exercise which the mind has had in will- 
 in- similar actions; and so a man may have a 
 rng will in one direction, and a weak will in 
 another. Hence, the educator must take care to 
 bring into activity the willing power of his pupil 
 in as many directions as he can, without impair- 
 ing his strength of will in the most important di- 
 rect ions. Moreover, in action, we are influenced 
 Btrongly by the action of others, just as in feel- 
 ing by the feeling of others. The teacher who 
 wishes to lead his pupils to action, must himself 
 act first. The influence of example is all-power- 
 ful in this matter. And, finally, as willing de- 
 pends first upon fixing an appropriate aim, and, 
 secondly, on selecting the right means, the pupil 
 must be trained, in all cases, to use the right 
 means. The clear insight into the true value of 
 actions, that is, into the aims which should guide 
 us, may be of comparatively little use, if we 
 have not the good sense to employ the suitable 
 means for our purposes. These are the general 
 rules which regulate practical education. It 
 woidd be impossible in an article like this to go 
 into the particular phenomena which must be 
 investigated before the educator can have a 
 proper grasp of the subject. Just as in the case 
 of the feelings, desires and inclinations arise in 
 connection with all the activities of man, — with 
 the physical, the intellectual, the emotional, and 
 the practical forms of man's energy ; and they 
 embrace the same extent of objects. They con- 
 nect themselves with nature, with one's own self, 
 with other men, with God. But, they have wider 
 ramifications, and a more potent influence than 
 the feelings, and open up, therefore, a wider field 
 for investigation ; and, in this subject, the aber- 
 rations demand the closest attention. The edu- 
 cator has continually to guard against the forma- 
 tion and the strengthening of inclinations which 
 are dangerous to the well-being of the individual 
 and the race. 
 
 Lastly, there is religious education, embracing 
 within it intellectual, emotional, and moral as- 
 pects. Religion may be said to arise in a feel- 
 ing. We feel our weakness and littleness. We feel 
 that we are limited in power, in knowledge, in 
 vital energy. We feel surrounded, on every hand, 
 by powers that are stronger than we are, and 
 hemmed in by irresistible forces. If this, how- 
 
 ever, were the only feeling, despair would lay hold 
 of us. But, we come to feel that the irresistible 
 forces are not antagonistic to us, that we can 
 come into harmonious relations with the super- 
 natural, that, to use the Christian mode of 
 thought, we can trust in a God of justice and 
 love. It is when we gain this feeling of trust that 
 we attain to a religion. But, a religion advances 
 beyond the mere feeling; it sets down God or 
 gods, as possessing a certain character, and, 
 therefore, enjoining a certain kind of worship. 
 Especially does the Christian religion present 
 definite conceptions as to the character of God, 
 and enjoin, as the first condition of worship 
 and as the great law of life, love to God and 
 love to man practically exhibited. The Christian 
 religion thus brings into play the feelings as the 
 foundation of religion, the intellectual powers in 
 apprehending its great truths, and the inclina- 
 tions and practical powers in carrying them out. 
 'Idie discussion of this subject belongs to the 
 article on religious education. 
 
 The subject of education is discussed in a 
 great variety of treatises. The most satisfactory 
 discussion, in our opinion, is contained in the 
 works of Herbart and Beneke. Herbart 's edu- 
 cational writings have been collected and pub- 
 lished recently in two volumes (Leipsic, 1873 
 — 1875) under the editorship of Otto Will- 
 mann. Beneke's great work on the subject is 
 Erziehungs- und Unierrichtslehre (2 vols., third 
 edition, Berlin, 1864). The first volume is de- 
 voted to Education, the second to Instruction. 
 Of the followers of Herbart, Ziller's wprks de- 
 serve special mention; and of those of Beneke, 
 the works of Dittos and Dressier. The educator 
 will also derive much good from the study of the 
 best works on psychology. Both Herbart and 
 Beneke have written handbooks of psychology; 
 and, in English, special mention may be made of 
 the writings of Sir William Hamilton, Dr. Morell, 
 Prof. Bain, and Mr. Herbert Spencer, the last 
 of whom has a work specially devoted to edu- 
 cation [Education : Intellectual, Moral, and 
 Physical). See also Niemkyer, Grundsdlzeder 
 Erziehung und des Unlerrichis (9th ed., 1845); 
 Schwarz, Erziehungslehre (3 vols., 2d ed., 1829), 
 and Lehrbuch der allgemeinen Pddagogik 
 (2 vols., 4th ed., by Curtmann, 1843) ; Gr^efe, 
 Allgemeine Pddagogik (2 vols., 1845); Palmer, 
 Evangelische Pddagogik (3d ed., 1864); Bosen- 
 kranz, Die Pddagogik als System (1848; En- 
 glish translation by Anna C. Brackett, St. Louis, 
 1873); Dittes, Schule der Pddagogik (1876J. 
 
 The most comprehensive cyclopaedia of edu- 
 cation is the Encyclopddie des gesammten Er- 
 ziehungs- mill Unterrichtswesens, by Schmid, 
 (11 vols., 1857 — 77). A second edition, revised 
 and enlarged, of the first volume was issued 
 in 1876. A compendium of this work in 2 vols., 
 under the title Padagogisches Hdndbuch, was 
 begun by the same editor in 187"). The h'eal- 
 Encyclopddie des Erziehungs- mnl Unterrichts- 
 wesens, by Rolfus and Pei'ster (4 vols., 2d ed.. 
 1871 — 5), has been prepared from the Catholic 
 point of view. 
 
254 
 
 EDUCATION 
 
 EGYPT 
 
 EDUCATION, Female. See Female Edu- 
 cation. 
 
 EDUCATION AND CRIME. See Crime 
 am> Education. 
 
 EGYPT, a dependency of the Turkish em- 
 pire, in N". B. Africa: having, with its recent con- 
 quests, an area of >ii!i..'!.'i - J sq. in., and a popula- 
 tion, in 1875, of 16,922,000. The area of Egypt 
 proper is 212,60*7 sq. m.; and its population. 
 5,252.000. The principal races of people 
 represented in Egypt, are Arabs or Bedouins, 
 Turks, Armenians, Berbers or Nubians, .lews, 
 tlic Copts, who are the recognized descendants 
 of the ancient Egyptians. Europeans of different 
 nationalities, and, in the newly conquered prov- 
 inces, negroes. The religion of the large ma- 
 jority of the inhabitants is Mohammedanism. 
 There are, besides. 350,000 Copts or native 
 ( 'hristians. and 250,000 others who profess < 'hris- 
 tianity. Egypt was. in ancient times, the seat of 
 a wonderful civilization, its history reaching 
 farther back than thai oi any other nation. 
 After having been ruled by a number of native 
 dynasties, and having been part of the Persian 
 ami Macedonian empires, it became, in 30 B.C., 
 a Etonian province, and afterwards formed part 
 of the Eastern Empire. Christianity was intro- 
 duced during the first century; and Egypt, par- 
 ticularly Alexandria, became a noted seat of 
 theological Learning and institutions. In 683, if 
 was conquered by the caliph Omar, who intro- 
 duced Mohammedanism. In L517, it came under 
 the rule of the Turks, under whom it has. actually 
 or nominally, remained ever since. In 1806, Me- 
 heinet Ali was appointed pasha and governor of 
 
 Egypt. He made hims 'If virtually the absolute 
 
 ruler of the country, and was prevented only by 
 
 the European powers from proclaiming his entire 
 independence of the Turkish sway. Under his 
 successors, who continued . i pi iote the wel- 
 fare of the country, and to effect reforms in the 
 administration, the country prospered greatly. 
 At the present time, its dependence upon Tur- 
 key is merely nominal, and the complete sever- 
 ance of the tie appears to lie only a question of 
 time. Immense tracts of land in the south and 
 BOUth-West have, of late, been annexed: BO that 
 if it were an independent empire, ii would now 
 | L876) rank as the seventh nation of the world 
 in regard to area. 
 
 Educational History. — This will be treated 
 
 under two heads : (I) Ancient Egypt, (II) Mod- 
 ern Egypt. 
 
 I. Ancient Egypt. In respect to education. 
 Egypl Ill-tore the Christian era occupied a pecu- 
 liar position. With China. India, and Persia 
 the articles on these countries), it was one oi 
 the chief representatives of orientalism. While, 
 in common with the other oriental nations, it 
 aimed at a national not an individual education, 
 it is to be considered as presenting a connecting 
 link, in this respect, between the extreme eastern 
 
 institutions and the educational systems of 
 
 Greece and Rome. To a greater extenl than in 
 any other oriental country, national education 
 w.i under the controlling influence of the pi i 
 
 hood. The priests and the warriors were privi- 
 leged classes; but. in their education, the priests 
 enjoyed several prerogatives over the warriors. 
 There were schools for priests and warriors at 
 Thebes. Memphis, and Ileliopolis. In these 
 schools, there were two systems of instruction, — 
 an exoteric course, for those who were not pre- 
 pared for higher instruction, and an esoteric 
 course, to which only those youths were admitted 
 who belonged to the priestly caste. The instruc- 
 tors in both classes of schools were priests. The 
 subjects of instruction were language, mathemat- 
 ics, geometry, astronomy, natural history, music, 
 and religion. The princes were educated by the 
 best instructors. and only with the sons of priests, 
 who were twenty years of age, and noted for 
 their good manners, so that the royal students 
 might not come in contact with any thing im- 
 pure. The education of other castes was of a 
 very low order, as was that of females; but com- 
 mon institutions of learning were not entirely 
 wanting. Plato tells us that the children of the 
 Egyptians learned to read, while Diodorus Sicu- 
 
 lus says that they learned a little of reading and 
 
 writing, but adds that all did not enjoy these ad- 
 vantages, but chiefly those preparing for a pro- 
 fession. The Common people, be says, received 
 some kind of an education from their parents. 
 In writing, the bark of the papyrus and black 
 or red ink were used. In writing as well as in 
 reading, there seems to have been a separation 
 
 into castes, since of the three modes of writing, 
 the demotic, hieratic, and hieroglyphic, the 
 latter belonged to the priests only. Arithmetic 
 and mathematics were studied throughout the 
 country with great attention, and the methods 
 employed in teaching these studies were ex- 
 cellent. According to Diodorus, gymnastics and 
 i. sic were not comprised in the general plan of 
 education, because it was believed that the for- 
 mer was dangerous to the youths, and that the 
 latter was not only useless but hurtful. In 
 Chemmis, however, considerable attention was 
 given to gymnastics, as well as to music, the lat- 
 ter being devoted to religious purposes. The 
 Egyptians, even in the most remote ages.seein to 
 ha\e had a great regard for the influence of edu- 
 cation : for. according to Diodorus, the father of 
 Scsostris had all the boys assembled who were 
 born on the same day as his son, and arranged 
 that all should receive the same education, in the 
 
 belief that those who Were educated together, 
 would prove the best friends and comrades in 
 war. The physical training of children was 
 very severe ; they were obliged to go barefooted 
 
 and almost entirely naked, and were brought up 
 with such economy, that the entire education of 
 the child cost oily a small pittance. The educa- 
 tional system of Egypl was entirely remodeled 
 
 when Psammetichus (670 to 616 B. C.) under- 
 took a thorough reform by introducing Greek 
 and Phoenician elements into the institution- oi 
 the country, and for that purpose formed alli- 
 ances with the Athenians and other Greeks, ami 
 afforded aid and encouragement to all foreigners 
 who came into the country. He entrusted the 
 
EGYPT 
 
 2.V> 
 
 education of Egyptian children to Carians and 
 Ionians, by whom they were also instructed in 
 the Greek language and fitted for the office of 
 interpreters, otherwise, foreign languages were 
 not taught in Egypt ; but the princes who ruled 
 over different tribes seem to have understood 
 their respective languages. Thus Cleopatra is 
 said to have spoken Hebrew. Arabic, Ethiopic, 
 Byriac,etc. Alexandria became, in course of time. 
 the principal emporium of the ancient world, 
 and subsequently also the center of learning and 
 education, ruder the Ptolemies, a strong im- 
 pulse was if i ven to the arts and sciences, espe- 
 cially to those which had a practical application; 
 as mathematics, astronomy, medicine, grammar, 
 and history. Indeed, there is scarcely another 
 period in the world's history in which science 
 was held in greater honor than by the Ptolemies 
 in Alexandria. The museum, a royal palace, 
 formed the residence and seat of instruction for 
 the learned men of Greece, who had emigrated 
 to Egypt. This institution was founded in '-l'2'2 
 B. C, and was at the highest point of its celeb- 
 rity from 232 to 30 B. 0. After Egypt be- 
 came a Roman province (30 B. C), this school 
 gradually declined. About the end of the sec- 
 ond century. Alexandria became the birthplace 
 of a new philosophical school, — that of neopkt- 
 tonism, which cave a considerable impulse to 
 philosophical and theological studies, without, 
 however, exerting a direct influence upon the 
 development of education. (See Alexandrian 
 School.) With the introduction of Christian- 
 ity as the state religion, the last remnants of the 
 old civilization were destroyed. (See Schmidt, 
 Geschichte der Pddagogik, vol. i.) 
 
 II. Modern Egypt. — Since the establishment 
 of Mohammedanism in Egypt, its educational 
 history has been substantially the same as that 
 of other Mohammedan countries. (See Arabian 
 Schools.) Instruction of every grade was based 
 on the Koran, and school and church have never 
 been more intimately connected in any country. 
 The strict Mohammedan has always believed, 
 with the Prophet, that "every thing worth know- 
 ing is contained in the Koran," and that " much 
 investigation is heresy." The schools were ex- 
 clusively intended for boys, and most of them 
 were connected with the mosques ; in smaller 
 places, private schools were frequently founded 
 by fakihs, or jurists of the lowest rank. These 
 schools were generally of the most rudimentary 
 character, the only school book used being the 
 Koran. Most of the high schools [medrissas), 
 which were founded in the hrst years of the 
 caliphate, and at which Mohammedan theology 
 and law. philology, philosophy, logic, mathemat- 
 ics, medicine and alchemy, astronomy, history. 
 geography, and rhetoric were taught, have disap- 
 peared in the course of time. At the beginning 
 of the present century, Mehemet Ali attempted 
 to reform the schools of the country, chiefly with 
 the desire to have a better class of public officers. 
 He founded about "><• primary schools, which 
 were scattered over the country, and contained 
 about 5,000 pupils. Secondary schools were 
 
 founded at Cairo and Alexandria, and had. at 
 one time, about '2.000 pupils, who were both in- 
 structed and supported at the expense of the 
 government. I le also founded a number of spe- 
 cial schools, in which it was designed that Egyp- 
 tian youth should be educated after European 
 methods, and partly by European teachers. Of 
 
 this class of schools were the medical school at 
 
 Abu-Zabel, the cadet school at * rizeh,the marine 
 
 school at Alexandria, the school of engineers at 
 Khanke, the medical college of Kasrel-Ain. the 
 artillery school of Turrah. the veterinary school, 
 now at Kubbeh, and the musical school in the 
 citadel of Cairo. A college for young Egyptians 
 was also founded at Paris, but only a few of the 
 young men who were educated there at the ex- 
 pense of the government, subsequently devoted 
 themselves to the cause of education. The most 
 distinguished among them is Sheikh Refah, who 
 was sent to Paris in 1826, and, after his return, 
 endeavored for many years, both as a writer and 
 as an educator, to make his countrymen ac- 
 quainted with the intellectual and educational 
 condition of Europe. Most of the schools which 
 had been founded by Mehemet Ali, were abol- 
 ished by his successors, Abbas Pasha (1849 — 
 1854), and Said Pasha (1854—1863). Under 
 the government of Ismail Pasha, the present 
 Khedive (1876), very praiseworthy efforts have 
 been made to effect a radical reform in educa- 
 tion, by the establishment of government schools. 
 A council of instruction has been established at 
 ( 'airo, which has the control of all the schools of 
 the country. The course of instruction adopted 
 for the new schools is a kind of compromise be- 
 tween traditional Mohammedanism and modern 
 civilization as developed in the Christian world. 
 It has awakened among the friends of educa- 
 tional progress great hopes for the future ; but, 
 as yet, every thing depends on the favorable dis- 
 position of the actual ruler. Only the establish- 
 ment of a connection between the communes 
 and these schools would be able to place the lat- 
 ter on a firm basis. The new government 
 schools embrace primary, secondary, and special 
 instruction. They were first erected in 1868, 
 since which time they have made rapid progress 
 in the large cities. The number of pupils, in 
 1870, was about 4,000; in 1873,8,000. They 
 received not only gratuitous instruction, but 
 support, inclusive of clothing. Primary in- 
 struction embraces the reading and writing of 
 Arabic, arithmetic, drawing, and French or 
 some other foreign language. From the primary 
 classes the pupils pass into the secondary schools, 
 which are composed of a preparatory school, em- 
 bracing, in a three years' course, the study of 
 Arabic, Turkish. English, French. German, 
 mathematics, drawing, history, and geography; 
 and the special schools, into which the pupils 
 enter after finishing the above course. These 
 special schools are the following : ill The Poly- 
 technic School, the pupils of which, after finish- 
 ing a course of tour years, may choose, as in 
 France, between a civil and a military career; in 
 the former case, they attend for two years the 
 
256 
 
 EGYPT 
 
 School of Administration, and then enter the 
 Bervice of the state ; in the latter case, they en- 
 ter the military academy of the Abassieh, at 
 Cairo. (The former of these institutions, in 
 L871, had 75 pupils ; the latter, 750. In 1871, 
 the polytechnic school had 80 pupils.) (2) The 
 Law School, embracing a course of four years, in 
 which, besides the Mohammedan law, the Roman 
 law and that of the Christian nations in general 
 are taught; (3) The Philological and Arithmet- 
 ical School, giving instruction in philology, 
 mathematics, rhetoric, prosody, and drawing: 
 ( 1 1 The School of Arts and Industry, in Balak, 
 established by Mchetnet Ali, and greatly im- 
 proved under Ismail Pacha (it has a course of 
 three years, and had, in 1871, about LOO pupils); 
 
 (5) The Medical School, with 75 pupils, in L871, 
 to which is attached a school of midwifery (the 
 only one in the East), with 65 pupils. (The 
 Khedive, in 1871, offered the people of Syria to 
 receive twenty-five students from that province 
 into the Medical School, irrespective of race or 
 religion. A large number of candidates pre- 
 sented themselves, but there was not one Mo- 
 hammedan among them, all being Christians.! 
 
 (6) The Naval School, in Alexandria, with 85 
 pupils, in L871. In L871, the Egyptian govern- 
 ment called to Cairo prof essor 1 1 enry Brugsch, 
 of the university of < idttingen, to establish there 
 an academy for archaeology, and, in particular, 
 for Egyptological studies. The Khedive is also 
 endeavoring to eradicate the prejudice existing 
 against female education; and, for that purpose, 
 has founded a girls" school at Cairo, in which, 
 besides receiving an elementary education, Ihe 
 pupils are instructed in sewing, washing, and 
 dress-making. In L875, the Egyptian govern- 
 ment resolved to establish a teacher's seminary 
 alter the German model, and applied to the 
 Prussian ministry of education for two teachers 
 to take charge of the institution. The voluntary 
 schools, in opposition to the government schools, 
 arc annexed to the mosques, and intended for 
 
 elementarj instruction. If the statistical reports 
 can be relied upon, these contained, in L870, 
 60,000 pupils.and.in L873, 82,000 pupils, among 
 whom were many adults. These figures would 
 indicate a rapid progress since the time of Me- 
 hemci Ali. when only one in a thousand of the 
 entire population received instruction. From an 
 official report on the voluntary school at Alex- 
 andria, which was opened April 1., L868, under 
 the protectorate of the heir apparent, Mehemet 
 
 Tefvik Pasha, il appears that this school, on the 
 
 opening of the adult classes in April, numbered 
 30 pupils; in dune, Tii; in July, 150 ; in No- 
 vember, 240; of the latter of whom 59 were 
 Egyptians, 52 Italians, 21 Frenchmen, 20 Greeks, 
 24 Englishmen,32 Syrians, etc. The elementary 
 schools for children were opened in April L868 ; 
 and, iii November, the number of pupils 
 
 amounted to 269. The languages in which the 
 
 instruction is Imparted, are Arabic, French, and 
 
 Italian. Most of these schools are supported l>\ 
 
 the mosques, some bj the divan of wakufs (re- 
 ligious donations); some have property oi their 
 
 ( >wn ; some receive aid from the ministry of 
 finance, and some defray their expenses by means 
 of subscriptions and by school money. 
 
 The university of Cairo, called EUAshar (the 
 blossom) after the name of the mosque with 
 which it is connected, was once a really flourish- 
 ing center of Arabic science and scholarship. 
 At present, like the other famous mosque high 
 schools of the East, at Damascus, Mecca, and 
 Bagdad, it teaches little more than Mohammedan 
 religion and law, grammar, arithmetic, logic, and 
 rhetoric ; but it still preserves its former repu- 
 tation throughout the East, and is visited by 
 students from Turkey and Asia Minor, from dif- 
 ferent parts of Africa, from Arabia, and even 
 from India and the Sunda Islands. The number 
 of students, in 1871, was reported as ;u'>i»s. In 
 the preparatory classes, about 2,000 pupils are 
 clothed and supported at the expense of the wa~ 
 kufs ; instruction is given by 260 teachers or 
 kattabs, of whom l(i<» are likewise supported 
 from the revenue of the wakufs. The students 
 in the higher classes are taught by about 40 pro- 
 fessors, most of whom, beside-, hold some other 
 ecclesiastical or legal office. The lectures are 
 given gratuitously. At the time of its greatest 
 prosperity, the university sometimes numbered 
 more than 20,000 pupils. The first school for 
 
 the blind was founded a few yen-.- ago by Moham- 
 med Effendi Onsy, and is conducted by him at 
 
 his own expense. It is doing a gnat amount of 
 good, as a large number of persons lose the use 
 of their eyes by the so-called Egyptian disi 
 (a kind of ophthalmia). The annual examinations 
 held in arithmetic, reading, and different kinds 
 of handiwork, exhibit considerable proficiency on 
 the part of the pupils. 
 
 Missionary and Foreign Schools. — The num- 
 ber of foreign residents, in 1872, was 79,696, of 
 whom -I7..'il('» were inhabitants of Alexandria, 
 and 19,120 of Cairo. As they are the wealthiest 
 and best-educated class of the population, a 
 number of schools have been established for the 
 education of their children. The French School 
 Brothers and Lazarists have day and boarding 
 schools; and female schools are conducted by 
 French Sisters of Mercy and other religious 
 orders. With one of these institutions at Alex- 
 andria, v Inch has from 400 to 500 pupils, an 
 orphan house and a foundling institution are 
 connected. Instruction in these schools is given 
 
 in the French language. The Greek lyceum in 
 
 Alexandria in 187.".. had 70 pupil-: and the 
 Cottegio Italiano, L20 pupils. There are also 
 several Greek, Italian, and Herman elementary 
 schools. Presbyterian missionaries from the 
 United States have established a number of 
 mission schools. a8 well as an academy and a 
 theological seminary, both at Sioot, the leading 
 town in Upper Egypt, See Stephan, Das heu- 
 tige Aegypten (Leips., l^T'Ji; Adams, The Land 
 qf the '.V//c (London. 1 st 1 (; Reqny, Statistioua 
 de VEgypte (fifth annual publication. Cairo. 
 L875) ; I.mtiki:. Aegypten 1 s Neue Zeii (2 vols.. 
 Leips.. L873) ; Dorr, L' 'Instruction Ptibliqw • 
 Egypte (Paris, 1873). 
 
ELABORATLVE FACULTY 
 
 EMERSON 
 
 257 
 
 ELABORATIVE FACULTY, a term 
 often used, at the present time, to indicate that 
 function of the mind by which it employs the 
 materials supplied by sensation, perception, con- 
 ception, and consciousness (or the inner sense), 
 and builds them up into systems or chains of 
 thought and reasoning. The different processes 
 that, according to this nomenclature, are elabo- 
 rative. are eotnparisi >n, abstraction, generalization, 
 lodgment, and reasoning. To these particular 
 processes the term thought is now often restricted, 
 instead of being applied, as formerly, indifferently 
 to every intellectual operation. Dr Hopkins, 
 in An Outline Study of Man (N. Y., 1876), thus 
 describes this faculty and its functions: '-The 
 processes of the elaborative faculty hold the 
 same relation to the materials brought into the 
 mind that the processes of building and repair- 
 ing hold to the materials which are brought 
 into the body. The building and repairing 
 systems take hold of that which is brought into 
 the syst >m an 1 elaborate it; they transform it, 
 and make of it another thing. The elaborative 
 system does the same thing in the mind. It takes 
 the material given by the presentative faculty 
 [sensation, perception, etc.], and performs the 
 operations of comparison, abstraction, etc." Dr. 
 Porter, in The Human Intellect (N. Y., 18(59), 
 thus defines the office of the elaborative faculty: 
 "The thinking power has been treated as two- 
 fold, and been subdivided into two : the elabora- 
 tive faculty, as performing the processes, and the 
 regulative, as furnishing the rules, or more prop- 
 erly as prescribing the sphere and possibility of 
 thought. These are named also the dianoetic 
 and the noetic faculty. By some writers they 
 are distinguished as the understanding and rea- 
 «on, in a usage suggested by Kant, but deviating 
 materially from his own. Milton and others 
 call them the discursive and instinctive reason." 
 (See Intellectual Education.) 
 
 ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS, etymolog- 
 ically, schools in which the elements of instruc- 
 tion are taught. The name is used in Germany 
 [Element/ irsckiden) sometimes as synonymous 
 with public schools in general, but more fre- 
 quently and correctly to designate the lower or 
 primary departments of the public schools. Some 
 writers think that the name elementary instruc- 
 tion should be only applied to the lowest class of 
 a school. \\\ Sweden, a peculiar meaning is given 
 to the word, as it denotes institutions of a higher 
 grade in opposition to the people's or lower 
 schools. In England, according to the " New 
 Code of Regulations*', 1876 (Art. 4), an element- 
 ary school is a school, or a department of a 
 school, in which elementary instruction is the 
 principal part of the instruction given, and does 
 not include any school or department in which 
 the ordinary payment for tuition, from each 
 pupil, exceeds nine pence a week. (See Pri- 
 mary Education.) 
 
 ELEMENTARY SCIENCE. See Sci- 
 ence, Teaching of. 
 
 ELLIS, WILLIAM, an eminent English 
 writer and educationist, born in the vicinity of 
 17 
 
 London, in 1800. His labors have been specially 
 given to the advancement of social science, 
 which, through his efforts, was introduced as a 
 luanch of elementary instruction in the London 
 schools. His chief writings are Outlines of So- 
 viitl Economy, Progressive Lessons in Social 
 Science, Phenomena of Industrial Life, and 
 Education as a Means of Preventing Destitu- 
 tion (London, 1851). — See Knight's English 
 Cyclo/xrdia. 
 
 ELOCUTION, the utterance or expression 
 of thought in reading and speaking, is an im- 
 portant part of a scholastic education, because of 
 the constant need of such vocal utterance in the 
 ordinary circumstances of both private and 
 public life. The departments into which this 
 subject naturally divides itself are the following: 
 (1) Articulation, or the proper and distinct 
 enunciation of the elementary sounds as usually 
 combined in words; (2) Pronunciation, as de- 
 pendent upon a knowledge of the various sounds 
 represented by letters and their diverse combi- 
 nations in words, and upon accentuation ; (3) 
 Emphasis, or the placing of a stress of the voice 
 upon a particidar word or words of a sentence, 
 so as to bring out the meaning fully, and to give 
 life and spirit to the delivery ; (4) Yoice inflec- 
 tions, — upward, downward, or waved, also as a 
 means of giving a particular significance to 
 words or sentences., and as auxiliary to emphasis ; 
 (5) Tones, or those variations of the voice in 
 pitch, force, and quality, by which it is mod- 
 ulated to the expression of particular sentiments 
 and emotions. (See Reading, and Voice, Cult- 
 ure of.) 
 
 ELPHINSTON, James, a noted Scottish 
 teacher and grammarian, was born in Edinburgh 
 in 1721, and died at Hammersmith, near London, 
 in 1809. For many years, he was the principal 
 of a school at Kensington, near London, and 
 was an intimate associate of Dr. Johnson, by 
 whom he was greatly esteemed. During his res- 
 idence in Edinburgh, he superintended an edi- 
 tion of the Rambler. His efforts to reform the 
 orthography of the English language, by the in- 
 troduction of phonetic spelling, made him noted, 
 but brought upon him considerable ridicule. 
 This system he carried out in a translation of 
 Martial (1782), which Dr. Beattie called "a 
 whole quarto of nonsense and gibberish ;" and a 
 further explanation of the system was given in 
 Propriety Ascertained in her Picture (1786), 
 which was followed by English Orthography 
 Epitomized (1788), and Fifty Years' Corre- 
 spondence, Inglish, French, and Lattin, in 
 Proze and Verse, between Geniusses ov booth 
 Sexes < n> ' I James Elphinston (1794). He also 
 published Education; a Poem (1763), and En- 
 glish Grammar reduced to Analogy (1765). — 
 See Chambers, Biographical Dictionary of 
 Eminent Scotsmen; Boswell, lAfe of Johnson. 
 
 EMERSON, George Barrell, a distin- 
 guished American educator, born Sept. 12., 
 1797, in what is now Kenncbunk, York Co., Me., 
 then a part of the town of Wells. In 1817, he 
 graduated at Harvard College ; but while pass- 
 
258 
 
 EMINENCE COLLEGE 
 
 EMORY COLLEGE 
 
 ing through his college course, he employed some 
 of his winter vacations in teaching district 
 schools, in which he gained a great deal of prac- 
 tical experience. After his graduation, he took 
 charge of an academy in Lancaster, Mass.; and, 
 from 1819 to ls'21, he was tutor in mathematics 
 and natural philosophy in Harvard College. In 
 this position he had unusual advantages for cult- 
 ure, since he was associated with some of the 
 most eminent scientific and literary men of that 
 time, among whom may be mentioned Dr. Kirk- 
 land, Prof. Farrar, and Edward Everett, then 
 Eliot professor of Greek. In 1821, he was se- 
 lected to take charge of the English High School 
 for boys, then called the English Classical School, 
 which was established that year by the town of 
 Boston, lor the purpose of affording the means 
 of a higher education to those who did not intend 
 to pursue a college coins'. This was the first 
 Rngliah high school established in the United 
 States. Two years afterward. Mr. Emerson 
 opened in Boston a private school tor girls ; an I 
 of this he continued to take charge till L855, 
 when In- retired from the profession of teaching. 
 This school was eminently successful ; and Mr. 
 Emerson showed, in the system of instruction 
 which he pursued, the highest qualities of an 
 earnest, conscientious, and skillful teacher. In 
 1830, he took an active part in the establishment 
 of the American Institute of Instruction, before 
 which he delivered, in L831,a lecture on Female 
 Education : and, in I s 12, one on Moral Educa- 
 tion. In 184;?, he wrote The ScJioolmaster, be- 
 ing part second of The School "ml Schoolmaster, 
 the first part being written by the Rev. Dr. Put- 
 ter, afterwards bishop of Pennsylvania. This 
 work was composed <>n the invitation of the 
 benevolent dames W'adsworth. of I ieneseo, N. Y., 
 
 who paid the expense of printing and distribut- 
 ing gratuitously L5.000 copies of the work. 
 Through means afforded by Mr. Brimmer, of 
 
 Boston, a Copy of this hook was placed in each 
 of the district schools of Massachusetts. The 
 
 object of the work was to afford information of 
 a practical character in regard to the various de- 
 partments of elementary education, more partic- 
 ularly in respect to the organization, discipline, 
 instruct ion, ami management of common schools. 
 The style in which it is written, its tone of sen- 
 timent, and the wisdom of its suggestions are 
 
 worthy of its distinguished authors. Mr. Emer- 
 son served ha' two years in the School Commit- 
 tee of Boston, and, from 1848 to L855, in the 
 Massachusetts Hoard of Education. lie was 
 also a prominent member of the Boston Society 
 <>f Natural History, and was appointed by Gov. 
 Everett chairman of the commission to whom 
 was intrusted the making of a zoological and 
 
 botanical survey of the state of Massachusetts. 
 
 I le has published also a "Report <>n th Trees "ml 
 Shrubs growing naturally in //>>■ Forests of 
 Massachusetts (Boston, L 846), and a Manual of 
 See B irnakd, Educational 
 Biography i \. Y.. I 861 . 
 
 EMINENCE COLLEGE, at Eminence, Ky., 
 a lion sectarian institution, was founded in L857 
 
 for the education of both sexes. It is supported 
 by tuition fees. The buildings stand upon an 
 elevated site, and the grounds are tastefully laid 
 out and ornamented with evergreens and forest 
 trees. The libraries contain about 1.800 vol- 
 umes. The institution has philosophical and 
 chemical apparatus and the beginning of a min- 
 eralogical and geological cabinet. There is a pre- 
 paratory and a collegiate course, the latter com- 
 prising six departments: namely, ancient lan- 
 guages, mathematics, physics and chemistry, 
 mental philosophy, Biblical literature, and mod- 
 ern languages. When a student has under-one 
 ] a satisfactory examination in any particular de- 
 partment, he or she is entitled to a certificate of 
 graduation in that department ; and the poss 
 sion of certificates from the various departments 
 of the curriculum entitles the holder to the de- 
 gree of A. B. The degree of B. S. is conferred 
 on those students who complete the scientific 
 part of the course, and have a certificate to that 
 effect. There is also a special course for females 
 similar to that of female seminaries, upon the 
 completion of which a diploma is granted. The 
 regular charge for tuition is $25 in the collegiate, 
 and $20 in the preparatory course of twenty 
 weeks. The daughters of all regular preach 
 and of widows of limited means, are received at 
 a discount of thirty per cent. Voting men pre- 
 paring for the ministry ;ue admitted free of tui- 
 tion. In 1874 — 5, there were 7 instructors. \'1>\ 
 matriculates (58 males and 68 females), and 125 
 alumni. The whole number of pupils, in 1875 
 — 6, was 190. S. G. Mullins was the president 
 from September. 1857, to June. 1858, since 
 which time \Y. S. ( riltner has been the president. 
 EMORY COLLEGE, at Oxford, Newton 
 county. Ga. under the control of the Methodist 
 Episcopal Church, South, was founded in 1837. 
 It is supported by tuition fees and an endow- 
 ment of $20,000. The value of its grounds, 
 buildings, and apparatus is $70,000. The in- 
 stitution has an academic and a collegiate de- 
 partment, the latter comprising a classical course 
 of four years and a scientific course of three 
 years. The degrees of Bachelor of Science ami 
 of English Literature, of Bachelor of Arts and 
 Master of Arts, are the regular degrees con- 
 ferred by this institution. The cost of tuition 
 in die college is $25 for the fall term and 
 $35 fur the spring term : in the academic de- 
 partment, it varies per term from §15 in the 
 primary classes to $31 in the academic class 
 There is a fund of five thousand dollars, the 
 interest of which is used in paying the tuition, 
 and, in some Cases, the hoard of young men of 
 limited resources, who are preparing \><i- the 
 Christian ministry in the Methodist Rpiscopal 
 Church. South. The libraries contain about 
 7 000 volumes ; the mineral cabinet is one of the 
 finest in the South. In L873 I. there were 
 student-, of whom 100 were of the collegiate 
 grade, including II in the scientific course ; and 
 55 were in the academic department ; the number 
 of alumni was 544. In L875 6, there were 6 
 instructors and L55 students. The presidents oi 
 
EMORY AND HENRY COLLEGE 
 
 EMPIRICAL METHODS 
 
 209 
 
 the college have been as follows : Rev. Ignatius 
 
 A. Few, D. 1)., LL.D., 1837 to 1839 ; Rev. A. 
 
 B. Longstreet, LL. D., 1839 to 1848; Rev. 
 Geo. F. Pierce. I). !>., LI, I)., isis to 1854; 
 Rev. A. Means. I). D., LL.D., 1854 to L855; 
 Rev. J. R. Thomas, D.D., 18j"> to 1867; Rev. 
 Luther M. Smith. D. D., L867 to 1871; and 
 Rev. 0. L. Smith, D.D., the present incumbent 
 (1876), appointed in 1871. 
 
 EMORY AND HENRY COLLEGE, 
 at Emory. Washington Co., Va., founded in 
 1838, is antler the control of the Methodist 
 Episcopal Church, South. It has no endow- 
 ment, and is supported by tuition fees, which, in 
 the collegiate course, are $30 per term of 20 
 weeks. The value of its grounds, buildings, an I 
 apparatus is $125,000. The college library con- 
 tains 4,580 volumes, and those of the two litera- 
 ry societies 9.000. The college has collections of 
 minerals and fossils, philosophical and chemical 
 apparatus, etc. It comprises preparatory courses, 
 the ordinary collegiate course, and a scientific an I 
 a business course. In 1875 — 6, there were (i in- 
 structors, 163 students (80 collegiate, an 1 83 
 scientific and preparatory), and 332 alumni. 
 The presidents have been the Rev. Charles 
 Collins, !>. 1)., 1838—52. and the Rev. Ephraim 
 E. Wiley, D. D., appointed in 1852 and still 
 (187(5) in office. 
 
 EMOTIONS are those conditions of the 
 mind in which the sensibility is excited, so as to 
 ' act upon the will, and with the tendency to out- 
 ward manifestation in bodily acts. The differ- 
 ence between emotions and passions is rather 
 quantitative than qualitative ; the former, while 
 characterized by an intensity of feeling, still leave 
 a considerable scope for the exercise of reason 
 and judgment ; the latter, for the time beinu;, 
 disturb the equilibrium of self-consciousness, and 
 produce a condition in which the mind is over- 
 mastered and controlled by the particular feel- 
 ing, and is borne along by its force, helpless and 
 suffering (hence the name passion, meaning suf- 
 fering). Of this, we have illustrations in the 
 effects of extreme anger, love, hatred, and re- 
 venge. Emotions are also to be distinguished 
 from sentiments, the latter being to a greater ex- 
 tent based on mental discriminations, and more 
 steady and durable in their nature. Thus, he 
 who has cultivated the sentiment of patriotism, 
 cannot but feel an emotion of joy at a victory 
 gained by his country over her enemies. Emotions 
 are likewise to be distinguished from feelings, or 
 the immediate sensations of the physical organ- 
 Ism, giving rise to mental perceptions, or to 
 bodily pleasure or pain. The nature of children 
 is more emotional than that of grown persons, 
 msethe restraining principle of the mind is less 
 
 active, and the sensibility more fresh and ■ 
 
 acute. Tin's is particularly true of certain kinds 
 of temperament and mental constitution. The 
 office of education is to recognize every principle 
 of the human being, and to employ it or appeal 
 to it in the educative processes. An emotional 
 nature should be cherished ; inasmuch as one 
 who is deficient in this respect is apt to be cold, 
 
 selfish, and unsocial. The emotions are not only 
 compatible with, but necessary to, the best ele- 
 ments of man's moral nature ;' and the educator 
 should strive to connect them with moral mo- 
 tives. Habit has much to do in laying the foun- 
 dation of a rich emotional nature in the mind 
 of a child ; but example, and the natural sym- 
 pathy with the mind of an educator thus cul- 
 tivated and enriched, has very much more. To 
 cultivate the emotions there must lie means for 
 their exercise. 'I he attempt to awaken emotion 
 
 in the minds of children by mere sentimentality 
 is futile and ridiculous. Stirring stones of hero- 
 ism, endurance, patriotism, generosity, self denial, 
 filial affection, etc. will awaken corresponding 
 emotions; and when properly applied constitute 
 a means of emotional culture ; but youth should, 
 as far as possible.be permitted to yield to the 
 natural emotions to which the ordinary circum- 
 stances of their lives give rise; they should 
 witness emotion in others, under restraint, but 
 still expressed ; and by imitation, as well as in- 
 stinctive impulse.be habituated to ardor in their 
 feelings toward all that is beautiful, true, and 
 good in natural objects, historical incidents, or 
 the conduct of those with whom they meet in 
 their daily lives. 
 
 EMPIRICAL METHODS, those methods 
 of instruction or education which are based not 
 on theoretical principles, but on the effects of 
 practical operations as learned by experience. 
 Hence the term (from Gr. i/iTreipia, experience). 
 When the application of scientific methods, or 
 those derived from general principles, is possible, 
 the use of empirical methods becomes a cause of 
 reproach, and is to be condemned. The science 
 of education is, however, too unsettled and in- 
 complete to justify such condemnation, except to 
 a limited extent. Methods that have stood the 
 test of actual experiment, and have proved 
 effective, are not to be discarded merely because 
 the principle underlying them is not understood, 
 or because they seem to contradict some favorite 
 theory. Such experimental processes are the 
 source of much valuable experience, and the 
 facts thus obtained should be generalized so as 
 to supply additional scientific principles, or cor- 
 rect those already deduced. In this way, the 
 practical experience of educators may be em- 
 ployed to improve and extend the science of edu- 
 cation. On the other hand, it is undoubtedly 
 true that teachers are too apt to follow 
 empirical methods blindly, without concernin$tffc 
 themselves with principles. The complaint \7j^ 
 often and justly made that education is not sci- 
 entific; and. that, consequently old methods and 
 
 processes are often employed, when the circum- 
 stances render them entirely inapplicable. This 
 
 would naturally be the result of adhering to em- 
 pirical methods, since principles alone can guide 
 
 to a just discrimination as to practical processes. 
 
 The 'rule of thumb" may answer when the oper 
 ator is confined to a very narrow sphere of his 
 art. ami i- never obliged to depart from it; but 
 is entirely inadequate to grapple with t he difficul- 
 ties presented in a varied and enlarged sphere of 
 
260 
 
 EMULATION 
 
 practical effort, whatever the art or profession 
 maybe. This is particularly true of education, 
 since the elements with which it lias to deal are 
 as innumerable in their combinations as the 
 phases of human character. In proportion as 
 education emerges from this condition of em- 
 piricism, and assumes a settled scientific status, 
 its practical operations will rise to the dignity of 
 a profession, and those engaged in it will receive 
 the consideration which appertains to the pro- 
 fessional character. 
 
 EMULATION (Lat. cemuiatio, from a&nulus, 
 a rival), the desire to excel, is a principle of 
 action which has had a very general application 
 in practical education, being one of the most 
 common incentives brought to bear upon chil- 
 dren and youth to induce exertion in study. The 
 various systems of merit marks, prizes, etc., are 
 based upon this principle, inasmuch as they def- 
 initely recognize and reward superiority or ex- 
 cellence. 
 
 Scarcely any subject has been more thoroughly 
 discussed than the propriety of resorting to emu- 
 lation as a school incentive. On the one hand, 
 it has been held that the human mind, partic- 
 ularly in its immature state, needs the stimulus 
 of secondary motives to awaken its dormant 
 
 energies, especially for the ac< iplishment of 
 
 tasks in which it takes only an imperfect inter- 
 Naturally, children are but little prone to 
 v, their loudness being rather For act 
 spurts and amusements ; and, hence, the awaken- 
 ing of an interest in the Studies themselves, 
 while an important object of the teacher's efforts, 
 cannot be depended upon to incite the pupil to 
 continuous industry. While there are BOme 
 minds and temperaments that feel an almost in- 
 nate desire for the acquisition of knowledge, and 
 hence a love of study, on the other haul, the 
 great majority of children have no such de 
 until it is engendered by the force of secondary 
 motives, that is, by holding out inducements to 
 Study based upon the attainment of dungs in 
 which they do take an interest. All children 
 are, moiv or less prone to emulation ; they love 
 to excel others, particularly in things that bring 
 commendation and honor, in this respect re- 
 sembling those of maturer years; for this prin- 
 ciple of action has been recognized as leading to 
 eminence in every department of human effort 
 Thus ( 'icero llonos alit artes omnesquo 
 
 incenduntur ad studia gloria, jacentque ea sem- 
 per quae apud quosque improbantur." Hence, 
 in schools and colleges, emulation is an impor- 
 tant and valuable incentive which the educator 
 by no means, cast aside. Of course, il is 
 not to be allowed to degenerate into personal 
 strife, animosity, or jealousy ; nor is it tobein- 
 dulg I in such a manner as to obliterate the pu- 
 pil's ■ ii interest in the study pursued. It is 
 
 always to be impressed upon the student's mind 
 
 thai he is working in b good cause, and thai he 
 should Btrive to attain to the highest po 
 i\r^ i ■ exc silence in ii . higher, it' he can, 
 than that which he Bees has been attained by any 
 
 of bJS fellow Students. Thus what oih ra a -ii 
 
 becomes the measure of what can be done by 
 him if he exerts himself to the utmost, and also 
 the standard beyond which he is to go in order 
 to obtain the prize of excellence. Whewell, in 
 English University Education, remarks, "A 
 combination of direct and indirect instruction 
 appears to be desirable. The love of knowledge, 
 and the love of distinction with the fear of dis- 
 grace, are the two main springs of all education, 
 and it does not appear wise or safe to try to dis- 
 pense with either of them." Contention, per- 
 sonal rivalry, and envy need not, it is said.be 
 the offspring of a noble emulation : and no other 
 emulation than this should be encouraged or 
 permitted by the educator. 
 
 On the other hand, an appeal to emulation as 
 a school incentive, has been either wholly or 
 partly condemned by a numerous class of educa- 
 tors of the highest distinction. Dr. Dwighl said, 
 "Emulation 1 condemn. I think it is a wicked 
 passion, and the cause of great evil. I wish to 
 see all actuated by this desire — to do the best 
 they can for the glory of their Creator." But 
 he also said, " On this subject I have often re- 
 flected. I have attended to all the arguments; 
 and, for aught 1 know, impartially. I would 
 carefully avoid emulation : 1 would gel along 
 without it as far as possible, and as long as 1 
 could : but how we can prevent its existence en- 
 tirely I do not know.'' .Miss C. E. Beecher said, 
 " Emulation always affects those the most, who 
 I tast need excitement, and leaves unaffected those 
 who most require it. Another evil is. that it 
 renders those who come under the influence of 
 this principle, less susceptible of better influence." 
 Annals of Education, vol. in., p. 28.) This 
 writer defines emulation as the " method of ex- 
 citing others to exertion by rewards and punish- 
 ments based on comparative excellence." or 
 "giving rewards to those who are decided to be 
 better than their companions, in any of tl 
 particulars for which rewards arc offered. " 
 S. \[. Hall, in Annals of Education, vol. n.. 
 thus sums up the results of his experience in 
 employing emulation as a school incentive : 
 ■i I | A small part of the scholars applied them- 
 selves to their lessons with great correctm 
 
 They aimed to get the lessons for recitations, 
 but thought little of learning them for the pur- 
 pose of applying knowledge to the practical pur- 
 
 s of life : (.'!) Efforts were relaxed whenever 
 the prospect of ' beating ' became faint ; (4) Those 
 near the head were usually jealous of each other, 
 and not unfrequently exhibited envy ami ill-will; 
 
 L'hose often obtained the prize, who were the 
 
 least ing of it; (6) Those who had be- 
 
 come considerably acquainted with a study had 
 greatly the advantage of others in their cla 
 who had enjoyed less opportunity; (7) Parents 
 were frequently led to take the part of their 
 children, and to believe they were treated un- 
 fairly." Cowper, in Tirocinium, or a Review <f 
 Schools, gives the following condemnatory de- 
 scription .if emulation : 
 
 ■• \ principle, whose proud iirrteusious pass 
 Unquestioned, though tUo jewel bu but glass— 
 
ENCOURAGEMENT 
 
 ENGLAND 
 
 261 
 
 That, with a world tint often over-nice, 
 
 Ranks :is a virtue and is just a vice; 
 Or rather a gross compound, — justly tried, — 
 Of envy, hatn d, jealousy, and pride — 
 Contributes most, perhaps, to enhance their fame; 
 
 \ini Emulation is its specious came." 
 
 .Most of tlic severe condemnation passed upon 
 emulation seems, however, to be based upon a 
 definition of it that includes too much of per- 
 sonal rivalry, of the selfish desire for reward, 
 and of the mere craving for approbation, the 
 natural concomitants of which are "envy, hatred, 
 and jealousy:'" whereas, the desire of attaining 
 
 excellence in worthy things does not necessarily 
 include these baser motives, although, it must be 
 confessed, the tendency is in that direction un- 
 less it is carefully regulated. " Emulation," says 
 a distinguished educator, '' is a generous ardor 
 which nature herself kindles and nourishes. 
 There may be minds so indolent, so unhappy, as 
 never to have warmly felt its influence. There 
 may be whole schools in which, thanks to bad 
 organization, the indifference of the master, or 
 other circumstances, emulation is only weakly 
 manifested; but in the school, as elsewhere, it 
 exists naturally, and there is less need of excit- 
 ing it than of directing it aright." In this, as 
 in most other respects, the educator has great 
 need to watch the indications of character in 
 his pupils. Sonic minds, largely affected by ap- 
 probativeness, or having excessive sell-esteem, 
 may be greatly injured by a system that tends to 
 foster these qualities; others may need the in- 
 centive of emulation to bring out their powers. 
 The prevailing system of treating all minds and 
 dispositions alike must often do irreparable in- 
 jury. " There is no ground," says ( iurrie, in The 
 Principles mnl Practice of Common-School 
 Education, "for confining the application of 
 this principle so exclusively as we do to the 
 work of instruction. It is true that, in school, 
 intellectual occupation is the chief work of the 
 pupil, and that, therefore, to it there must be the 
 nn ist frequent occasion of applying the principle. 
 Nevertheless, the teacher is supposed to have in 
 view the moral training of his pupils, whilst con- 
 ducting their instruction ; and if he is only im- 
 pressed widi a due sense of its paramount im- 
 portance, lie will find many opportunities of 
 directing their attention to acts of virtue per- 
 formed under their observation, and of exciting 
 a spirit of emulation in this sphere of the same 
 active kind as that by which he helps forward 
 their intellectual work, 'i he application of this 
 principle to moral actions ought to vindicate it 
 against the indiscriminate condemnation with 
 which we maybe tempted to visit it, when we 
 diink only of its extreme exhibition in the ac- 
 quisition of knowledge." 
 
 ENCOURAGEMENT, as an educational 
 incentive, is of indispensable importance in deal- 
 ing with a eei-tain elass of minds, particularly 
 with those characterized by an excess of caution, 
 timidity, and diffidence. (See Diffidence.) Many 
 teachers repress the exertions of their pupils by 
 failing to discern their true character, so as to 
 be able to ascertain the amount of effort they 
 may have put forth in order to accomplish an 
 
 assigned task, or to avoid a temptation to do 
 wrong. Adopting an arbitrary standard, they 
 Bometimes condemn alike all who fail to attain 
 it, making no allowance for diversity of talent, 
 opportunity, or the power of will; whereas the 
 true test of a pupil's merit is not the accomplish- 
 
 nient of the task, but the exertion put forth and 
 the self control exercised in the endeavor to com- 
 ply with the teacher's precepts or direct ions. 
 Encouragement consist sin adjusting the standard 
 
 of success to the peculiar circumstances and traits 
 
 of the pupil. If the latter is dull, indolent, self- 
 indulgent, feeble in will, and yielding easily to 
 temptation, the educator who recognizes these 
 traits, accepts with satisfaction the feeblest efforts 
 at amendment which he sees have been put 
 forth, and by judicious commendation induces 
 stronger and more persistent ones, until the 
 foundation of moral or intellectual strength has 
 been safely laid. Timid children must be en- 
 couraged to lay aside their fears by being shown 
 that they are groundless. They must not be re- 
 pressed by harsh words of censure, or by those 
 forms of punishment which should be the ex- 
 clusive penalty of willful wrong-doing. On the 
 contrary, they should be made to feel that, even 
 if they have failed, they have won their teach- 
 er's approving smiles by their honest efforts. All 
 the various forms of encouragement, within the 
 power of a teacher of skill and experience, will 
 find occasions for employment in dealing with 
 the endless diversities of character presented by 
 the pupils of a large class or school. Some 
 minds, on the other hand, need rather urging 
 than gentle encouragement ; and the latter, in 
 the form of excessive praise, to talented pupils 
 is often a means of flattering their vanity, and 
 thus operates as a kind of moral poison, destroy- 
 ing the force of every true stimulus to activity. 
 The following are the suggestions of practical 
 educators : "Encouragement inspires confidence, ' 
 and children, more than otheis, need it. Let it 
 be given in all cases where this can be honestly 
 done. To a want of this in the discipline of 
 classes are to be ascribed the timidity and reserve 
 so often manifested among pupils by a hesitating 
 manner, a low voice, and a lone of inquiry in 
 response, especially to strangers. A proper de- 
 gree of encouragement renders them confident 
 and spirited, eager to tell what they know, and 
 in an audible tone of voice. Encouragement has 
 a peculiar influence in promoting both mental 
 and moral improvement." — (How to '/'<<</■}/. N.Y., 
 lb7:5.) 
 
 ENGLAND, an important European coun- 
 try, forming with Wales the southern portion of 
 
 the island of Great Britain, and being the prin- 
 cipal member of the United Kingdom of (.real 
 Britain and Ireland. It has an area of 58,320 
 sq. miles, and a population, according to the 
 census of L 871, of 22,712,266. On the basis of 
 
 i lie official lists of births and deaths, the popula- 
 tion, in L875, was estimated by the registrar 
 general at 23,944,459. The last official census 
 contains no information of the number of per 
 sons belonging to the established Church of 
 
262 
 
 ENGLAND 
 
 England and other religious creeds. The pop- 
 ulation connected with the established church is 
 variously estimated at from 55 per cent (Martin's 
 Yearbook) to 77.8 per cent (Ravenstein's De- 
 nominational Statistics of England and Wales). 
 The Roman Catholics are estimated at 4.6 per 
 cent of the population. 
 
 Educational History. — The history of educa- 
 tion in England is a subject which deserves bet- 
 ter ami fuller treatment than it lias yet received. 
 Probably, some system of education existed in 
 Britain, or at least in the southern portion of it, 
 before Julius Csesar visited its shores. Afterthe 
 Romans had resolved on making Britain a per- 
 manent addition to their empire, education was 
 one of tlie means which they employed to render 
 their possession stable. Tacitus tells us thai 
 Agricola had the sons of the chief men instructed 
 in the liberal arts, and the result was, that the 
 Britons showed great ability, ami devoted them- 
 selves with ardor to the new pursuits. The Wo- 
 man scl Is probably remained in existence 
 
 alter the Romans abandoned the island. At any 
 rate, when < 'harlemagiie conceived the great idea 
 of spreading knowle Ige among all classes, it was 
 in an Englishman, Alcuin, that he found his 
 principal -aide, as well as his own instructor. 
 It is well known that Alfred theGreat did much 
 for the sprea I of Learning and for the English 
 
 universities, and many of the grammar Schools 
 
 were founded in the middle ages. Carlisle 
 school, for instance, was established in the time 
 
 of William II.; Derby, about the year I Kid; 
 
 Salisbury, in L319 ; and Winchester, the oldesl 
 of the so-called nine Public Schools, in L387. 
 These schools were generally connected with 
 cathedrals or monasteries. Their object was 
 mainly to train either for the priesthood or for 
 .some lower service in the church, as for the 
 choir. Speaking generally, the subjects of in- 
 struction were grammar and music. Many of 
 these school-, were reorganized at the Reformation, 
 and very many additional ones were formed. 
 The range of instruction was considerably 
 widened, and most of them were free; but the\ 
 helped to educate only a, small portion of the 
 community ; and. while the universities and a 
 
 few of the schools rose to eminence, most of fches i 
 schools were ueglecte I. In process of time. too. 
 the endowments of these schools were greatly 
 abused; and when a commission was appointed 
 to inquire into their condition (December 28., 
 
 l^i', h, mailers were found in an exceedingly un- 
 satisfactory slate. The commissioners excluded 
 from their examination the nine schools which 
 
 had been already reported on. The number of 
 
 schools which came under their observation, ami 
 
 which they speak of as endowed, was aboul 
 
 TIM); Imt they examined 82 other schools doing 
 similar work, so that the entire number was 
 
 782, in regard to which they make the follow- 
 ing statement: " The aggregate net income from 
 endowments of the grammar and other sec- 
 ondary scl Is included in our list is £195,184. 
 
 The gross inc • of the Bchools and charitable 
 
 foundations, including grammar schools, is 
 
 £336,201 . The annual value of exhibitions to 
 which the schools have a claim, but which are 
 not included in these amounts, is at least 
 £14,264. The total number of towns of more 
 than 2,000 inhabitants, according to the census 
 of 1861, which have endowments for a grammar 
 or other secondary school, is 304. Many of these 
 endowments are now applied to primary schools 
 only. There are 228 towns of that size without 
 any such endowment.'* 
 
 The most singular feature in the residts of the 
 inquiry was. that, in many places, the endow- 
 ments had come to be regarded and treated as 
 private property. The school-master often drew 
 the income without having a single pupil, and 
 many school-masters seemed to feel that the 
 fewer scholars they had. the more comfortable 
 would it be for themselves. We quote some out 
 of the very numerous examples which the Report 
 furnishes: -At Bosworth (net income of school 
 £792 a yean, the head-master taught three 
 hoarders and no others: the under-master only 
 attended when he chose: the usher taught an in- 
 ferior village school. Thame had two masters 
 receiving £300 between them, one of whom had 
 a good house also. Mr. Fearon found one boy 
 in the school. .V private school close by had Ml 
 hoarders and 40 day scholars, paying higher 
 than the grammar school fees. At Witney, the 
 head-master contented himself with teaching 
 Greek to one boy. Reading had three scholars. 
 and there was no hope of the school's reviving 
 
 under the then master. Aynhoe had five schol- 
 ars, the master having once had a flourishing 
 school at Banbury, and having come to Aynhoe 
 for retirement. North Walsham (£266) had 
 only 11 pupils, and 'the whole place wore an 
 aspect of decay and desolation.' but the master 
 objected to a new scheme's being procured." 
 
 In consequence of this report, an executive 
 commission was appointed to prepare .schemes 
 for the improvement of these endowed schools, 
 and to see them carried into effect. This coin- 
 mission worked with greal vigor, and naturally 
 aroused the opposition of those who looked upon 
 the endowments as belonging to them by vested 
 right. The present government listened to 
 these complaints and introduced an Amended 
 Kndowed Schools Bill, which transferred the 
 power of the commission to the Charity Com- 
 missii tiers. But the personal element in the 
 
 administration was not greatly altered, and the 
 
 Charity Commissioners are going on with the 
 work of reformation in an earnest spirit. There 
 was much need of it. These schools were the 
 only endowed institutions which the country 
 possessed for secondary education. In consequence 
 of their failure to do this work, proprietary 
 
 and private adventure schools had arisen in great 
 
 numbers. The private adventure schools were 
 for the most part boarding-schools. They were 
 conducted by a single person as a money specu- 
 lation; and. though some of them were admirably 
 managed, most of them were utterly unfit to 
 educate. The Yorkshire schools have been de- 
 scribed with wonderful humor by Dickens in his 
 
ENGLAND 
 
 263 
 
 Nicholas Nickleby ; but schools equally bad 
 existed over the whole country; and some exist 
 to this day. The proprietary schools were estab- 
 lished by a number of gentlemen who combined 
 together in their own districts to erect, maintain, 
 and manage them. They were much better, on the 
 average, than the private adventure schools: but 
 many glaring defects were brought to light by the 
 inquiry of the Endowed Schools' Commission. 
 
 These were the means which England had for 
 her secondary education. They were marked by 
 the two following characteristics: (1) Whether 
 endowed, proprietary, or private, they had no 
 connection with the state ; the state did not con- 
 trol, examine, appoint masters for, or in any way 
 interfere with, or take the slightest superintend- 
 ence of , these schools; {'!) They were to a large 
 extent hoarding schools. The boys left their par- 
 ents' home at an early age, and live 1 in houses 
 where only boys^ and male masters lived; these 
 schools were thus essentially monastic institutions, 
 and the public opinion prevalent in them was 
 the opinion upheld by the majority or by the 
 strongest of the boys. Hence an inordinate love 
 of outdoor games and such peculiar customs as 
 that of fagging. These peculiarities still attach 
 to the schools. The state has interfered with 
 the endowments, and claimed, in consequence of 
 these, the right to settle the nature of the govern- 
 ing bodies ; but, after having once settled this, 
 the state will withdraw and leave the schools 
 -entirely in the hands of the managers. 
 
 At the Reformation, no provision was made 
 for the education of the masses, and nothing was 
 really done for them until the end of the last 
 and the beginning of the present century. A 
 very common idea prevailed, that it was better for 
 the working classes to be ignorant. They would 
 be more contented, it was argued, and would con- 
 fine themselves to their ordinary toils, deriving 
 ample happiness from these in their humble 
 sphere, if they could neither read nor write, and 
 knew little or nothing of theories of government, 
 laws of trade, and the movements going on in for- 
 eign countries. Knowledge would only make them 
 restless. This feeling has continued down to the 
 present day, though it is not often that utterance 
 is given to it. The first vigorous effort made to 
 educate the masses was due to the zeal of Robert 
 I: ilkes (q. v.). who, in 1780, established Sunday 
 ols. The manner of the commencement of 
 these is noteworthy. The movement arose out 
 of religious feeling; and this has characterized 
 English education in an eminent degree. In 
 other countries, education has gradually become 
 a subject of interest to all. and governments, 
 cially, have deemed their interference essen- 
 tial. In England, on the contrary, the effort 
 to educate has mainly arisen with the churches, 
 and the state has. even to this day, obtained 
 "nly a subordinate position in the manage- 
 ment of the schools. The entire history of the 
 question nil] bring out this curious aspect of 
 English education. It is certainly brought out 
 prominently in the next stage. Lancaster (q.v.), 
 a man -of strong impulse and generous heart, was 
 
 eager to educate the masses. lie made the ex- 
 periment, and was well supported in it by the 
 community ; but his success soon awoke suspicion. 
 Lancaster wasa Quaker, and solved the religious 
 difficulty by confining his religious instructions 
 to the reading of the Bible. Some saw in this 
 a secret plot to undermine the Church of Eng- 
 land; and an effort, they felt, must he made to 
 repel this insidious attack. Lancaster had gained 
 distinction by the adoption of the monitorial 
 system. Another educationist. Dr. Bell (q.v.), 
 laid claim to having practiced this system before 
 Lam aster, ami a furious dispute arose on that 
 
 question, but sides were formed according to 
 
 churches. Dr. Bell was a clergyman of the 
 Church of England, and those who were afraid 
 for the safety of that church naturally looked to 
 him to organize an education which should effect- 
 ually oppose the Lancasterian movement. Out of 
 this antagonism arose two societies. — the one. the 
 British and Foreign Society, in L808 : the other, 
 the National Society, in L811. The National 
 Society was formed to establish schools in which 
 the principles of the Church of England should 
 be taught, and over which the church should ex- 
 ercise control. The British and Foreign Society 
 followed Lancaster's system of teaching religion 
 from the Bible, and the Bible only, dhese two 
 societies proved themselves active in the work 
 which they undertook, and schools arose in all 
 parts of the land. But they were utterly unable 
 to cope with the terrible destitution that pre- 
 vailed, and the number of neglected and unedu- 
 cated children was enormous. The religious dif- 
 ficulty, however, always intervened to prevent 
 legislation. The House of Commons was so 
 deeply impressed with the importance of the 
 subject, that it passed Mr. Whitbread's Parochial 
 Schools Bill in 1807; but the bill was thrown out 
 in the House of Lords, and none was more earn- 
 est in his opposition than the Archbishop of 
 Canterbury. Brougham was the next states- 
 man that attempted to grapple with the question. 
 He made two distinct efforts, one in 1816, and 
 one in. 1820. Brougham's ideas were compre- 
 hensive. He wished to see a national system of 
 education, embracing the universities at the one 
 end, and at the other, parochial schools which 
 should furnish an elementary education tit for 
 the humblest of the people. But. though he 
 labored with unremitting toil and with great 
 ability. Parliament did nothing. Meantime. out- 
 side of Parliament, there was considerable agita- 
 tion in regard to the subject, mainly under the 
 leadership of Brougham. Infant schools were 
 established. The Society for the Diffusion of 
 Useful Knowledge ordered the circle of Readers. 
 The Central Society devoted its energies to the 
 circulation of sound opinions on education, and 
 gave information as to the progress and methods 
 of education in foreign countries. It was not, 
 however, until 1833, that Parliament was in- 
 duced to do any thing for education, when a grant 
 of £20,000 was voted for distribution between 
 the National Society and the British and Foreign 
 Society, to aid in the erection of school build- 
 
264 
 
 ENGLAND' 
 
 ings. During this period, and for some time 
 subsequent to it, various inquiries were made 
 into the educational condition of the laboring 
 
 classes, and the results were found to be unsatis- 
 factory in the highest degree. The results of 
 the inquiry tarried on by the committee of edu- 
 cation of L838 were as follows : (1 j That the kind 
 
 of education given to the children of the working 
 classes was lamentably deficient; (2) That it ex- 
 tended, bad as it was, to but a small proportion 
 of those who ought to receive it; (3) That, 
 without some strenuous and persevering efforts 
 on the part of the government, the greatest 
 evils to all classes might follow from this neglect. 
 The time was ripe for further progress ; and. 
 accordingly, in L839, the liberal government 
 appointed an educational committee of the 
 Privy Council; and the House of Commons 
 voted a sum of £30,000, to be distributed by 
 this committee. With this sum, little could be 
 done; but, at any rate, there was something 
 like a government department for education. 
 The best thing the committee did w as to appoint 
 Mr. .lames Kay, afterwards Sir .lames Kay 
 Shuttlewortli, to be their secretary. JleAvas 
 pre-eminently fitted for the peculiar position. 
 The committee arranged a system of inspection; 
 and if nothing more was done, at least the true 
 state of matters was ascertained. The committee 
 also attempted to found a training college for 
 hers, but they were baffled in tins effort by 
 the religious difficulty. Sir J. K.. Shuttleworth 
 resolved to set up such an institution without 
 the aid of government, and he succeeded The 
 various religious bodies followed his example ; 
 and, '■within six years, fifteen training schools 
 were founded." The result is, that, up to this 
 day, all the training schools are under the con- 
 trol of the churches ; but one body, the Inde- 
 pendents, took no distinct part iii the work of 
 education, except in founding and maintaining a 
 training school tor teachers; namely, Bomerton 
 College. In 1846, the Committee of Council 
 aaade a still greater advance. A elaborate sys- 
 tem of inspection, with grants, was established, 
 much encouragement was given to pupil-teach- 
 ers an I the profession of teacher rose in public 
 estimation. Bui each year, under this system. 
 the grants increased. They amounted, in L846, 
 
 to CI 00.000; in L859, they had inereascl to 
 
 1836,920; and there appeared to be no limit to 
 
 this increase. A commission of inquiry was 
 
 again appointed. Investigations of a most 
 tSorough nature were prosecuted, and the report 
 
 was presented in six volumes. Mr. Lowe was 
 
 at this ti vice president of the Committee of 
 
 Council on Education, and was resolved to be 
 economical. The plan which suggested itself to 
 him as the most likely to serve the purpose, was 
 
 which he had seen employed on the convicts 
 
 in A ust l-.i I i,i . 'The grants had been given to 
 schools, before this time, on account of general 
 efficiency. The inspector reported on the entire 
 
 appearance of the bcI 1: note was taken of the 
 
 discipline, and of the success of tin 1 pupils in all 
 departments; but especial praise was given when 
 
 a school seemed to be imparting a good intel- 
 lectual and moral training. .Mr. Lowe thought 
 that government should jay only for teaching 
 
 the three lis: and the plan he proposed was to 
 devise various standards in reading, writing, and 
 arithmetic, to suit the progress which scholars 
 might be supposed to make in one year, and to 
 assign a money value for each of these subjects, 
 paying to the managers of the school a sum 
 of money according to the number of passes 
 which the pupils hail gained in the examination. 
 This plan was followed by evil consequences. 
 The higher branches were neglected, the profes- 
 sion of teaching was lowered, and the instruc- 
 tion became mechanical, and passed into mere 
 cram for the purpose of the passes. The one 
 -cod feature in the plan was individual exami- 
 nation — a feature which had existed to some ex- 
 tent before, and could well exist, if the plan were 
 given up. The essential peculiarities of this 
 plan still exist, but the details have been modi- 
 fied. E very year sees changes in the Code, the 
 name given to the document which contains the 
 regulations in regard to the standards and the 
 passes. Tin' higher subjects have received rec- 
 ognitdon, and various other improvements have 
 been introduced; bul the code method must be 
 continued as long as the religious difficulty bare 
 the way to a comph tely national system. An 
 effort in the direction of a national system was 
 made by Mr. bolster, in his bill of 1870. This 
 act contains provisions by which local school 
 
 boards may lie established, rates may be imposed, 
 
 and compulsory clauses enacted. It prescribes 
 that the religious instruction shall take place at 
 the beginning or end of the school day, and that 
 no catechism or religious text-book shall he used. 
 It was thus only a half measure. I be grants 
 were continued to the denominational schools. 
 The establishment of school hoards, the imposi- 
 tion of rates, the employment of compulsion, 
 and the teaching of religion, were all to be 
 settled by the special localities. Many localities 
 
 have taken advantage of the powers thus granted 
 
 them, and some, such as the London school 
 board, have done incalculable good ; but there 
 has been considerable rivalry between the school 
 hoards and the churches, and much display of 
 bitter religious animosity. 
 
 The elementary education actoi 1873 was de- 
 signed to supplement, by some essential provi- 
 sions, that of INTO; but more important changes 
 have been introduced by that of !>7<i. Thecoin- 
 pulsory attendance provisions are strengthened, 
 the law declaring that " it is the duty of the 
 
 parent of every child to cause such child to re- 
 ceive an efficient elementary education'; and. 
 not only, as in the previous act. are the school 
 boards vested with the power to make compul- 
 sory by-laW8, but provision is made for the ex- 
 tension of this authority by means of school- 
 attendance Committees, to lie appointed, in a 
 borough, by the town council, and, in a parish, 
 by the guardians. The act of lSTtiaL" provides 
 for the establishment of day industrial schools, 
 in which elementary e lucation, combined with 
 
ENGLAND 
 
 265 
 
 industrial training may be carried on, the pupils 
 being supplied with one or more meals each day. 
 Tins is designed to encourage and facilitate the 
 education of a large class ot neglected children 
 whom the previous provisions did not succeed in 
 reaching. A new * lode of Regulations lias been 
 issued in pursuance of this act. 
 
 The following table, compiled from official re- 
 turns relating to the elementary schools of Eng- 
 land and Wales (including those of the Isle of 
 Mam. gives a view of the progress of education 
 between the years 1864 and 1*74. 
 
 
 Number of] Number of chil- 
 
 Average number of 
 
 Veak 
 
 schools 
 
 dren that can be 
 
 children in attend- 
 
 
 inspected 
 
 accommodated 
 
 ance 
 
 
 
 7.134 
 
 1.510.721 
 
 919,922 
 
 1867 
 
 7.601 
 
 1,605,409 
 
 978,332 
 
 1868 
 
 8,051 
 
 1,724,569 
 
 1,060,082 
 
 1869 
 
 8,593 
 
 1,888,416 
 
 1,153,572 
 
 1870 
 
 s.'.im; 
 
 1,950,641 
 
 1,255,083 
 
 1871 
 
 9,621 
 
 2,092,984 
 
 1,345.802 
 
 1872 
 
 10.7.-.1 
 
 2,397,745 
 
 1,445,326 
 
 1873 
 
 11.951 
 
 2,665,467 
 
 1.570,741 
 
 1874 
 
 13.243 
 
 2,982,981 
 
 1,774,143 
 
 Elementary K lunation. — National System. — ■ 
 Appropriations are annually made by parliament 
 for •' public education in England and Wales"; 
 ami the grants thus made are administered 
 by the Education Department, which consists of 
 the Ix>rds of the Committee of the Privy Coun- 
 cil on Education. The object of the grant is not 
 to make full provision for the support of schools, 
 but to aid local exertion, under certain condi- 
 tions, to maintain (1) elementary schools, and 
 
 (2) training colleges for teachers. Public element- 
 ary schools must be conducted according to the 
 following legal regulations : (1) No religious ob- 
 servances, or attendance at any church or Sunday- 
 school, must be imposed as a condition of ad- 
 mission to the school ; (2) Religious observances, 
 and instruction in religious subjects, must be 
 either at the beginning or at the end of the 
 school session, and must not be compulsory ; 
 
 (3) The school must be open at all times to the 
 visits of the government inspectors ; but the lat- 
 ter are not permitted to take any cognizance of 
 religious instruction. Unless the school is con- 
 ducted according to the legal provisions, it can- 
 not obtain any portion of the parliamentary 
 grant; and no grant is paid to any school, except 
 on a report of an inspector. These inspectors 
 are appointed by the ( 'rown, on the recommen- 
 dation of the education department. In order to 
 obtain participation in the grant, the school 
 must be placed on the list for inspection, after 
 application to the Department by the school 
 board or other managers. The school premises 
 are required to be "healthy, well-lighted, warmed] 
 drained, ami ventilated, properly furnished, sup- 
 plied with suitable offices, and to contain, in the 
 principal school room, and classrooms, at least 
 80 cubical feet of internal space, and 8 square 
 feet of area, for each child in average attendance." 
 The principal teacher must lie certificated. If, 
 on the inspector's report of any school, there ap- 
 pears to be any serious objection, the grant may 
 he withheld ; but a second inspection, by another 
 
 inspector, is always made. There must be I 
 
 Less than loo morning and afternoon sessions 
 
 of tlie school during the year. The grant is 
 
 based on the average attendance and the proficien- 
 
 c\ of the pupils in Certain branches, that is, 
 
 so much i I s.) for each pupil in attendance, and 
 so much for each pass in reading, writing, arith- 
 metic, geography, grammar, history, etc. \\ 1 let her 
 the mode of examination shall lie oral or writ- 
 ten, is left to the discretion of the inspector. 
 
 The girls must be taught "plain needle-work and 
 cutting out" as a regular branch in the day 
 schools; and to show the proficiency acquire* I. 
 specimens must be worked on the day of the in- 
 spection. The evening schools must hold at least 
 1 5 sessions during the year, and are similarly 
 inspected and paid for. Attendances must not 
 be reckoned for any pupil in a day school, under 
 3 years of age or above 18 ; or, in an evening 
 school, under 12 or above 21. The standards 
 are six (from I., the lowest, to VI., the highest), 
 and minutely prescribe the degrees of proficien- 
 cy to be attained in reading, writing, arith- 
 metic, grammar, geography, and English history. 
 Reductions are made in the grants for various 
 reasons, including an unfavorable report of the 
 inspector, or the want of a sufficient number of 
 pupil-teachers, who are prescribed as follows: 
 for the first GO pupils, none ; for any number 
 between 01 and 100, inclusive, one; between 
 101 and 140. two, etc. The recognized classes 
 of teachers are three : (1) certificated teachers; 
 (2) pupil-teachers ; (3) assistant teachers. Cer- 
 tificates are obtained on examination, which is 
 open to (1) students who have resided for at 
 least one year in training colleges under inspec- 
 tion, or (2) candidates who are upward of 21 
 years of age, and have either completed satis- 
 factorily an engagement as pupil-teacher, ob- 
 tained a favorable report from an inspector, or 
 served as assistants, for at least six mouths, in 
 schools under certificated teachers. These exam- 
 inations are held, in 1 lecember of each year, at 
 the several training colleges under inspection, 
 and " at such centers as may be necessary": and 
 the list of successful candidates is published. 
 Each certificate records the relative proficiency 
 of the candidate receiving it. Candidates must, 
 after examination, serve as teachers under pro- 
 bation, before receiving certificates. The certifi- 
 cates are of three classes ; and no certificate 
 above the second class is originally issued: the 
 third (lowest) includes special certificates for 
 teachers of infant classes. '««/ service alone 
 entitles any teacher to a certificate of the first 
 class. Those of the second class remain in force 
 ten years. Pupil-teachers are boys or girls em- 
 ployed to serve in a school, under certificated 
 teachers. They must be ai least L3 years of age : 
 and not more than four must be engaged for 
 every certificated teacher. At the close of their 
 engagement, these pupil-teachers may become 
 
 assistants, or thej maybe examined for admis- 
 sion into a training college, or be provisionally 
 certificated for immediate service in small schools. 
 — A training college includes both a "college 
 
266 
 
 ENGLAND 
 
 for boarding, lodging, .and instructing candidates I 
 for the office of teacher in elementary schools," 
 and a " practicing school, in which candidates 
 may learn the i-xeicise of their profession". An- 
 nual grants are made to these institutions on the 
 same conditions as to public elementary schools. 
 Each college is entitled to £100 for every master, 
 and £70 for every mistress, who, after two years' 
 training, completes the prescribed period of pro- 
 bation, and becomes qualified to receive a teach- 
 er 3 certificate, or who has completed a like period 
 K)d service as an elementary teacher in the 
 army, royal navy, or in the poor-law schools, cer- 
 tified industrial schools, or certified reformatories. 
 Examinations for admission are held annually. 
 and are open, without restriction by the educa- 
 tion department, to pupil-teachers, and others 
 who intend band fide to adopt and follow the 
 profession of teacher in elementary schools. All 
 candidates, before a Imission, must be passed by 
 the in ■ li'-al officer of the college, who must cer- 
 tify that they are in good health and free from 
 
 his bodily defect or deformity. If candidates 
 are admitted in violation of the rules, the edu- 
 cation department refuses to -rant them certifi- 
 cates. -Pensions are granted to teachers in cer- 
 tain cases, the maximum number and value 
 
 ivable at > time, in England and Scotland 
 
 together, being 270, as follows : 20 of £30 each: 
 
 LI f £25 each: and L50 of £20 each: all of 
 
 which, with special gratuities and donations, 
 amount t > 66,500. 
 
 Besides the schools that receive grant- of 
 public money, according to the Code, there are 
 
 iols thai are inspected, but receive no grant, 
 and private schools, the latter, however, rapidly 
 diminishing in number. The school boards, con- 
 stituted under the ad of 1870, consist of not 
 less than ."> nor more than I j members, elected, 
 in the boroughs, by the persons on the burj. 
 roll; in a parish, by the rate-payers, except in the 
 metropolis. Every voter may give all his vote- 
 to one candidate, or distribute them among the 
 candidates as he thinks tit. Boroughs and par- 
 ishes may be united by the education depart- 
 ment so as to form a united school-district. The 
 societies which have the charge of the inspected 
 
 BCl Is, besides the school boards, are the fol- 
 
 Iowing : (1) The British and Foreign School 
 Society, supported by Christians of all denomi- 
 nations; l-i The National Society fo] the edu- 
 cation of the poor in the tenets and ob.-crv- 
 
 ances of the established church: (3) Diocesan 
 Boards of Education which, in connection 
 with special dioceses, look after the education 
 
 en in church schools ; (I) The Church of 
 England Education Society, consisting of mem- 
 bers of the Evangelical party, which gives aid to 
 Bchools, but does aol establish any; (5) The < !om- 
 mittee appointed by the Roman < latholics to 
 watch over the education of the pour; (6) The 
 
 era! Committee on Education, appointed h\ 
 the VVealeyans, for the firsl time, in 1840. There 
 are other societies of less note, such as the I loine 
 and Colonial Society, the London RaggedSchool 
 ' Inion, the London < lommittee of the British 
 
 Jews, and the Voluntary Society. The educa- 
 tion furnished by the school-board schools ap- 
 pears to be the best, the reports showing, on the 
 whole, a larger percentage of passes in the 
 standards. The teachers of the board schools 
 are better paid, and of superior efficiency. The 
 income of all the schools, except the board 
 schools, arises from the following sources: 
 (1) voluntary subscriptions; (2) fees; (3) govern- 
 ment grants according to the Code. In the board 
 schools, instead of the voluntary subscriptions, 
 there is the rate. Fees and government grants 
 are common to all. — There are also schools for 
 special classes: (1) Ragged Schools, (2) Indus- 
 trial Schools, (3) Reformatories. Ragged schools 
 are supported entirely by voluntary contribu- 
 tions, and consist, as the name denotes, of neg- 
 lected, but not criminal children. The industrial 
 schools give both intellectual and moral training 
 and instruction in the industrial arts. These 
 schools are subsidized by the government. Re- 
 formatprii s are Largely supported by the govern- 
 ment , being intern Lei 1 f< »r juvenile offenders. There 
 are also schools connected with work-houses. 
 Schools for the children of soldiers, and training 
 ships, in which boys are trained for marine ser- 
 \ ice. -Special notice should also be taken of the 
 Science and Art Department, which, under the 
 fostering care of the Late Prince Albert, has 
 done so much to spread a knowledge of science 
 and art over the country. Art schools have been 
 established in various cities, and prizes offered 
 and awarded. Examinations in science maybe 
 held iii any town in which a committee can be 
 formed ; certificates arc granted to those who 
 
 pass, and the teacher receives a sum of money 
 for each pupil thai passes. 
 
 Educational Statistics. — The following statis- 
 tics, for the year 1ST"), show what progress has 
 been made in national elementary instruction: 
 
 Expenditure from Education Grants. 
 
 (TABLE A — Classified according to Object of Grant. 
 
 1. Iii annual grants to elementary £ s. d. 
 Bchools under the new cede, viz.: 
 
 For day scholars 1,074,411 1 3 
 
 For evening scholars 1s,;ii;t 17 5 
 
 2. Grants to school boards 317 10 11 
 
 3. Toward the building and tarnish- 
 ing of school premises 34,491 13 2 
 
 4. In grants to training colleges.... '.i-l,:>7ii i;> 4 
 ■. Unexpired pensions His i;, o 
 
 6. Administration: — £ b. d. 
 
 For inspection. .79,527 L8 L0] 
 For office and > 
 
 contingencies, 16,613 11 7) 126,141 10 5 
 
 7. Organization of districts, etc 7, mil 11 11 
 
 Total 1,356,746 19 5 
 
 Table B) —Classified according to Denomination. 
 
 On Bchools connected with Church £ s. d. 
 
 of England 822,565 9 5 
 
 On British, Wesleyan, and other 
 
 Bchools ". 235,887 6 6 
 
 On Roman Catholic Schools 7:s,ssl 19 , r . 
 
 On Board Bchools 90,231 10 10 
 
 (in Parochial Union Schools 120 
 
 Administration (as in Table A) 126,141 10 5 
 
 Organization of districts, etc 7,601 11 11 
 
 Grants to School beards ;;i7 in 11 
 
 Total 1,356,746 19 5 
 
ENGLAND 
 
 26T 
 
 The number of certificated male teachers in 
 the schools receiving grants was 1 0,1*2 1 ; of fe- 
 male certificated teachers, 11,731; of male as- 
 sistant teachers. 872 ; of female assistant teach- 
 ers, l,i 549 ; of male pupil-teachers, L0,886; and 
 of female pupil-teachers, 18.406. The number 
 of schools actually inspected daring the year 
 ending August 31., 1875, and the number of 
 pupils, according to the denominations that edu- 
 cate, are given in the following tables. 
 
 NUMBER OF SCHOOLS. 
 
 DENOMINATIONS 
 
 I»a\ 
 
 Schls. 
 
 Night 
 Schls. 
 
 Total 
 
 Schools <■( >i 1 1! c . ■ t . . 1 with National 
 Society or Church of England. . 
 
 British Wesleyan and other 
 schools not connected with the 
 
 School-Board Schools 
 
 9,449 
 
 2,034 
 
 598 
 
 1,136 
 
 17 
 
 52 
 4 
 
 9,466 
 
 2.0S6 
 598 
 
 1,140 
 
 
 
 Total 
 
 13.217 
 
 73 
 
 13,290 
 
 NUMBER OF PUPILS LN AVERAGE ATTENDANCE. 
 
 DENOMINATIONS 
 
 Schools connected with Na- 
 tional Society or Church of 
 England 
 
 Brit. Wesl. and other Schools 
 not connected with the 
 Church of England 
 
 Roman Catholic Schools 
 
 School-Board Schools 
 
 Total 
 
 Day Schools 
 
 Boys Girls Total 
 
 643,971 
 
 190,802 
 5 1,074 
 
 128,036 
 
 531,318 
 
 137,378 
 53.352 
 98.649 
 
 1,175,289 
 
 328,180 
 100,426 
 
 1,016,483 820,697 1,837,180 
 
 i . __ 
 
 Night Schools 
 
 Schools connected with Na- 
 tional Society or Church of 
 England 
 
 Brit. Wesl. and other Schools 
 not connected with the 
 Church of England 
 
 Roman Catholic Schools 
 
 School-Board Schools 
 
 Males Females Total 
 
 23,418 
 
 10,207 
 1,737 
 3,235 
 
 5,081 
 
 2,707 
 
 1,136 
 
 861 
 
 28,499 
 
 12,914 
 
 2,873 
 4,096 
 
 Total 38,597 9,785 148,382 
 
 The following table gives the number of 
 pupils on the school registers, and the number 
 of pupils for whom accommodation is provided 
 at 80 cubic feet of internal space, and 8 square 
 feet of area per pupil : 
 
 DENOMINATIONS 
 
 Schools connected with Na- 
 tional Society or Church 
 of England 
 
 British Wesleyan and other 
 schools not connected 
 with Church of England. 
 
 Roman Catholic Schools... 
 
 School-Board Schools 
 
 Scholars on 
 the school 
 registers 
 
 Scholars 
 
 that may be 
 
 iccommodated 
 
 1,735,895 
 
 492.588 
 351,967 
 
 2,011,434 
 
 571.582 
 387,227 
 
 Total 2,744,300 | 3,159,47'.) 
 
 _ Of the pupils, 64 percent attended the Na- 
 tional Society schools; L8 per cent, the British 
 Wesleyan schools; 5.5 percent. Roman Catholic 
 
 schools; and 12.5 per cent, the Board schools. 
 
 The pupils on the school registers were divided 
 in regard to aye as follows : 
 
 AGE 
 
 No. of scholars 
 
 Per cent 
 
 
 19.358 
 111,409 
 
 70 
 
 Between 3 and 4 years 
 
 4.06 
 
 4 •• 5 " .... 
 
 232,680 
 
 8.48 
 
 5 •' 6 « .... 
 
 297.1:; I 
 
 10.83 
 
 6 " 7 " 
 
 323.404 
 
 11.79 
 
 " 7 " 8 " 
 
 320, tl 2 
 
 11.68 
 
 " 8 " 9 •' 
 
 324.901 
 
 11.74 
 
 9 " 10 " 
 
 315.496 
 
 11.49 
 
 10 " 11 '• .... 
 
 292,72 1 
 
 10.67 
 
 11 " 12 •' .... 
 
 242,012 
 
 8.82 
 
 12 "13 " .... 
 
 172.449 
 
 6.28 
 
 13 "14 " .... 
 
 65,307 
 
 2.38 
 
 
 26,944 
 
 0.98 
 
 London School Board — Of all the school 
 boards created by the act of 1870, that of the 
 metropolis had the heaviest task imposed upon 
 it; and it has, accordingly, accomplished the 
 greatest results. The first board (elected Nov. 
 29., 1870) contained many eminent members, 
 among them Prof. Huxley, and Dr. Elizabeth 
 Garret-Anderson. r lhe School-Board district 
 embraces a population of 3.400,000, out of 
 4,200,000 people inhabiting what is now called 
 Greater London, which covers 698 square miles. 
 The number of school districts is 10. which are 
 represented in the board by 49 members, elected 
 by ballot. The population of London, in 1871, 
 was 3,265,005, of whom 681,107 were children 
 between the ages of 3 and 13; and of these, it 
 was estimated that more than 200,000 needed 
 school provision. Up to November, 1875, the 
 number of new schools opened by the board was 
 102, and 33 were in course of erection. There 
 were, at that time, under the control of the 
 board, 199 school-houses, in 436 departments, 
 containing 112,901 pupils. The school-houses 
 have been erected with great care, and upon the 
 most approved principles of school architecture. 
 (See Robson's School Architecture, 1875, and R. 
 T. Smith's School Buddings and Fittings, 1875.) 
 " The result of the School Board action," says 
 Sir Charles Reed, the chairman of the Board, "has 
 been to add over 60,000 children now (1875) in 
 attendance at the board schools, and about 
 45,000, to the denominational schools." 
 
 Teachers' Associations. — The teachers of 
 England have formed various associations at dif- 
 ferent times, of which the most effective is the 
 College of Preceptors (see Preceptors, Col- 
 lege of), which holds meel ings and examinations, 
 gives diplomas, and more recently, has instituted 
 a professorship of education. Since 1870, the 
 elementary teachers have formed an association 
 called the National Union of P^lementary 
 Teachers, which is increasing in influence. 
 
 Secondary Education.- — The schools for second- 
 ary education in England comprise the great 
 endowed or foundation schools, including the 
 nine so-called public schools ; the proprietary 
 schools; and the Ladies' Colleges. 
 
 The public schools* or colleges, nine in num- 
 ber, are Eton, Winchester, Westminster, - 
 Caul's School, Merchant Taylors' School, Char- 
 terhouse, 1 1 arrow, Rugby, and Shrewsbury. Iu 
 
268 
 
 ENGLAND 
 
 18G1, the government appointed a commission 
 to inquire into the revenues and management 
 of these schools ; and the results of the inquiry 
 were published in four volumes (1864) ; and, in 
 1868, a Public Schools Art was passed, giving 
 the commission power to frame statutes and 
 .illations for these schools. They were accord- 
 ingly remodeled, upon a new and uniform plan. 
 The chief features are here presented. — (1) Man- 
 agement IV tore the appointment of the com- 
 mission bodies quite different in character were 
 the managers. Tims, at Eton, the managers were 
 
 the provost and fellows of the college ; at Win- 
 chester, the warden and fellows; but the head- 
 master had nearly absolute control. The Court 
 of Assistants to the Mercers' Company were the 
 
 governors of St. Paul's; and the Courl of As- 
 sistants to the Merchant Taylors, of the school 
 of that name. Harrow. Rugby, and Shrewsbury 
 were governed by trustees. The new statutes of 
 tin: commission have established something like 
 a system in the mode of electing the various 
 governing bodies, without entirely removing the 
 peculiarities of each school. Thus, the govern- 
 ing body of Eton is now composed of (1) the 
 provost of Eton, (2) the provost of King's * !ol- 
 iege Cambridge, (3) (me member to he elected 
 by the hebdomadal council of < Ixford ' Imversity, 
 1 1 oii'\ by the council of the senate of Cam- 
 bridge, (5] one. by the council of the Royal 
 Society, (6 one to he nominated by the Lord 
 
 Chief -1 list ice. 7 on,' to be i lected by the head. 
 
 lower, and assistant masters, (8) not less than 
 
 two. nor more than four, to he elected by the 
 
 governing body it-elf. The governing bodies of 
 
 the other schools are constituted in a similar 
 manner, having regard to the peculiarities 
 
 of each locality. These managers have entire 
 
 control over the endowments, make regula- 
 tions iii regard to the buildings, and elect and 
 
 dismiss the head-master. They are subject to 
 
 no supervision excepl that ol the Visitor, who 
 
 i- always a person of great eminence. — 
 
 2 '/' tchers. The head-master appoints all the 
 
 masters and other persons engaged in teaching 
 
 in the school, and all hold their positions during 
 
 his pleasure. The exercise of the power of dis- 
 missa] by the head-master has. however, given rise 
 to several disturbances. The masters, in these 
 
 Schools, occupy a peculiar position. They ari' 
 
 keepers of boarding-houses, as well as teachers : 
 and their incomes are mainly derived from the 
 
 former. The expenses at the various BCl Is dif- 
 fer. Those at Barrow are given asa specimen: 
 
 d and Bcho '1 charges (per annum), 
 : private tuition ( per annum), £15 : board, 
 washing, etc., nt head-master's boarding-house (per 
 annum), v.- ; entrance fees, £12. The other board- 
 e divided into two cilassea, — large /e<«s< s. 
 in « liieli the annual charge for board etc. i- £90, and 
 small houses, in which are received private boarders 
 :it in .iiiiiu il rli irge of £135. 
 
 Instruction. Classical instruction has al- 
 ways I' sen the pi- incut Feature of these schools. 
 
 • Mh.T branches, such as mathematics, geography . 
 history, and modem languages were formerly 
 more or less neglected. The methods of teach 
 
 in- were had. The tone of feeling prevalent 
 discountenanced study. The boy who wished 
 to gain the respect of his fellows, was compelled 
 to distinguish himself in the cricket field, or in 
 other athletic sports. If he tailed in thi 
 success in study brought him into contempt, 
 instead of respect. The Public Schools 
 Act has introduced greal changes, and an ap- 
 proach to a uniform system. The following 
 subjects are prescribed by the statutes for Eton: 
 religion, classics, writing, arithmetic, mathe- 
 matics, history, geography, and English; French, 
 for hoys who have attained the middle division 
 a/ tin ft Hi form, but German or Italian may he 
 taken instead: natural science, for all after en- 
 tering the middle division <f tin- fifth form, 
 and for every hoy in the school whose parents 
 desire it. After a hoy has come within the first 
 hundred, facilities are afforded him for pursuing 
 special branches.— The age of admission is not. 
 exactly the same at all the schools ; but, on the 
 average, it may he said that no one is admitted 
 below 10 years or above 15; and no one is al- 
 lowed to remain beyond the age of 19. A pre- 
 liminary examination is- required. The number 
 of classes, or firms, varies in the different 
 schools. Each school is divided into two parts, — 
 
 an upper and a lower school. The upper si 1 1 
 
 of Eton is thus divided, the Sixth class being 
 the highest: (I) Fourth, consisting of (1) Lower 
 Remove, (2) Middle Remove, and (3) ('/>/»r 
 Remove) II Remove, consisting of (1) Upper 
 Remove, ami (2) Lower Remove] (III) Fifth, 
 consisting of (1) Lower Division, (2) Middle 
 Division, and (3) Upper Division (the lower 
 and middle divisions being each subdivided into 
 a lower and upper remove) ; (IV) Sixth. 
 
 Before the commission sat, there was a great 
 diversity in the numbers allowable in a division. 
 At present, the statutes strictly limit this. In 
 Eton, there must be not less than one classical 
 
 master to every LOO hoys in the school. In 
 
 Rugby, there is to be at hast one master for 
 i vei\ 'jn hoys, including the head-master, and no 
 
 class of hoys under inst met ion. except the 
 Sixth furm. musl exceed 32 in nuiuhcr. with- 
 out permission of the governing body. — 
 Annual examinations of these schools are con- 
 ducted by examiners appointed by the govern- 
 ing bodies. In all these schools, the pupils are 
 divided into two classes,—; foundationers ami 
 non-foundationers. The former, as the name 
 implies, in sonic schools, receive their education 
 
 gratuitously; in others, both their education and 
 maintenance. * tften, they have to gain admission 
 to a foundation by a competitive examination. 
 
 The Others arc hoarded with the master, and 
 sometimes, as tit Harrow and Rugby, they re- 
 side with their parents. In the masters' houses, 
 the masters act as tutors. Fagging (q. v.) is a 
 
 custom peculiar to these schools ; hut the right 
 to fag belongs, in most schools, to onl\ a .-mall 
 Dumber of seniors. At present, this custom is 
 not w holly condemned. Indeed, the commission, 
 after a strict investigation, reported that, "on 
 
 the whole, it is a popular institution." 
 
ENGLAND 
 
 269 
 
 The location and date of foundation of each 
 of these schools are here given: 
 
 NAME 
 
 Location 
 
 London 
 
 Eton opp. Windsor) 
 
 Harrow-ou-the-Hill 
 
 Charterhouse 
 
 Ktoii 
 
 Harrow 
 
 Merchant Taylors' London 
 
 Rugby Rugby 
 
 St. Paul's London 
 
 Shrewsbury Shrewsbury 
 
 Westminster Westminster 
 
 Winchester Wincliester 
 
 \\ hen 
 
 founded 
 
 Hill 
 1440 
 1571 
 1501 
 1507 
 1512 
 1551 
 1500 
 1378 
 
 Other endowed schools are Christ's Hospital 
 (q. v.), Dulwich College, at Dulwich, a suburb 
 
 of London, founded in 1619; Queen Eliza- 
 beth's School, at Ipswich (1565); the Free 
 Grammar School at .Manchester, founded in the 
 reign of Henry VIII.; St! Andrew's College, at 
 Bradfield, near Reading; the Tonbridge Free 
 Grammar School (1552) ; Repton School (1557); 
 King Kdward's School, Birmingham (1552) ; 
 Wellington College, near Wokingham, Berk- 
 shire, founded by public subscription, in honor 
 of the duke of Wellington, for the education of 
 the sons of deceased military officers ; and the 
 City of London School, incorporated in 1834. — 
 According to the Grammar Schools Act, gram- 
 mar schools include all endowed schools main- 
 tained for the purpose of teaching Latin ami 
 Greek, whether the instruction be limited to 
 these, or extended to other blanches, either of lit- 
 erature or science. The purpose of these schools, 
 as stated, is to give "an education higher than the 
 rudiments, conducted under religious influences, 
 within the reach of all classes, but with an 
 especial preference for the poor boy who is apt 
 to learn, and frequently also for some particular 
 locality." The amount of endowment of the 
 schools ranges from that of Christ's Hospital, the 
 largest (over £42,000 a year), to some consisting 
 simply of a rent charge of about £5 a year. 
 Usually, the school possesses a school-house, a 
 master's house, and an annual income. There are 
 15 grammar schools which have net incomes ex- 
 ceeding £2,000 a year; 13, at least £1,000 a 
 year; 55, at least £500 ; 222, at least £100; and 
 the rest are under £100 a year. The date of 
 the oldest of the existing endowed schools is 
 1216 A. D. The endowed collegiate and gram- 
 mar schools are 782 in number ; and other en- 
 dowed schools number 2,559 ; but, including 
 those that have small endowments, the total is 
 given at 4.021. The Endowed Schools Act 
 (1869) intrusted to a commission the task of re- 
 organizing these schools, chiefly in the direction 
 of extending the benefits of the endowments. — 
 The proprietary colleges and schools arc of the 
 same grade and character, as educational institu- 
 tions, as the public schools. The most important 
 are the following: Marlborough College, Chel- 
 tenham College, Haileybury College, Clifton 
 College, Brighton College, Lexington College, 
 and Rossall School, near Fleetwood, Iancashire. 
 Besides these, there are King's College School 
 and the University College School, at London, 
 which are partly preparatory schools. The gram- 
 
 mar schools in the Metropolis are quite numer- 
 ous, and some of old foundation, as the Mercers' 
 Company's School, founded in L542; St. Sa- 
 viour's, Southwark, in 1562; and the Brewers' 
 Company's School, in 1687. 
 
 Ladies* < 'oUeges. — Queen's ( lollege, Harley St., 
 London, incorporated by royal charter in L853, 
 was instituted for the general education of 
 ladies, and for granting certificates of knowledge. 
 Queen's College School, for children from 5 to 
 14 years of age, is attached to the college. — Bed- 
 ford College, London, was founded in 1st!), and 
 incorporated in 1869. The affairs are adminis- 
 tered by a council of management, and the lady 
 president; and the members of the college (26 
 male, and 32 female) include many eminent 
 educationists. — North London Collegiate School, 
 established in 1850, is endowed by a grant from 
 the estate of Alderman Richard Piatt. It pur- 
 sues the course of study preparatory for the uni- 
 versity examinations tor women. The Camden 
 School for Girls, established in 1871, is under 
 the same governorship. — The ( heltenhain Ladies' 
 College was established in 1854, and now num- 
 bers 320 pupils. The object of the institution is 
 "to provide for the daughters of gentlemen a 
 sound and religious education of the highest 
 order, and on moderate terms.'' — Girton Col- 
 lege, Cambridge (incorporated in 1872), was 
 opened at llitchin. in 1869 ; and, in 1873, 
 entered on the occupation of the present 
 buildings, which had been erected by public 
 subscription. The capital fund is now above 
 £20,000. The college is designed to hold, in 
 relation to girls' schools and home teaching, a 
 position analogous to that occupied by univer- 
 sities toward the public schools for boys; and 
 the promoters seek to obtain for the students 
 admission to the examination for degrees of the 
 University of Cambridge, and to place the col- 
 lege in connection with that university. The 
 course occupies about three years, half of each 
 year being spent in the college. — The Ladies' 
 College, Southampton, was established by the 
 Ilampkin Association for promoting female 
 education, with the view of raising the tone 
 of female education in the south of England. 
 
 Superior Instruction. — The universities of 
 Oxford and ( 'ambridge long stood alone as 
 university representatives of higher education. 
 (See Cambridge and Oxford.) The growing 
 wealth and importance of the provinces how- 
 ever, and the increasing demand on the part 
 of the prosperous middle classes for the more 
 advanced education, from which they were 
 practically shut out by the cxehisivencss and 
 cxpensiveness of the great seats of learning, 
 have led to the establishment of colleges in dif- 
 ferent parts of the country. Indeed, the old 
 universities have begun to recognize the neces- 
 sity for an extension of their own influence and 
 usefulness. In 1873, the Cambridge senate organ- 
 ized a scheme of local lectures ; and. at the end 
 of 1873. and again at the beginning of 1874,* 
 session of twelve weeks was held in Nottingham, 
 Derby, and Leicester ; — the subjects taught be- 
 
270 
 
 ENGLAND 
 
 ing political economy, physical science, constitu- 
 tional history, ami English literature, and the 
 Dumber of students ranging from 30 to 500. In 
 L874, the scheme was extended to Bradford, 
 Halifax, Keighley. and Leeds; and, in 1874 — 5, 
 applications were received from Derby, Not- 
 tingham, Leeds. Bradford, Halifax. Keighley. 
 Liverpool. Birkenhead, New Brighton, Leicester, 
 Burslem, Hanley, Newcastle-under-Lyne, and 
 Stoke-upon-Trent. Three conditions were in- 
 sisted on : (1; a standard of excellence to give 
 definiteness an 1 thoroughness to study ; (2) - 
 ttlar and systematic class teaching ; and (3) a 
 system of examination, regulating the granting 
 of certificates. The reports of the examiners 
 were highly satisfactory. 
 
 The University of Durham was instituted in 
 L 832, under an act of parliament empowering 
 the dean and chapter of Durham to appropriate 
 an estate at South Shields for the establishment 
 and maintenance of a university in connection 
 with the cathedral. The management was in- 
 trusted, under the bishop as Visitor, and the 
 •lean and chapter as Governors, to the warden, 
 a senate, and a convocation, -the senal • being 
 composed of the ward m. the professors of ( Ireek, 
 mathematics, ami divinity, the two proctors, 
 and live other members of the convocation. 
 The convocation originally consisted of gradu- 
 ates of Oxford and Cambridge, who arc now re- 
 inforced by the graduates of the university it- 
 self. The office of warden is permanently an- 
 nexed to the deanery of Durham; and a can- 
 oncy in the cathedral to each of the professors 
 
 in divinity and Greek. University College was 
 
 formed, at the opening of the university, for tli • 
 purpose of uniting a system of domestic disci- 
 pline with academical instruction. The Castle 
 of Durham is held in trust for the University, 
 its hall being used as a college hall, ami its 
 chapel as a college chapel. To extend the 
 
 !'n Gits of residence to persons of limited means, 
 Bishop Hatfield's Hall was founded in 1846 ; 
 and Bishop Cosin's Hall, in L851 ; the students 
 of the latter, however, were transferred to the 
 former in L864. The general academical in- 
 struction is similar to thai of Oxford and Cam- 
 bridge : and the l'». A. degree examination is held 
 at the end of two years, of 26 weeks each. There 
 is a special course of theological study, and a 
 License in Theology, granted on examination; 
 and in the theological faculty alone is there any 
 isl or subscription. In ls7o, the 
 
 ' le up mi - Tyne < lollege of Medicine 
 
 (founde linl851 bet ame the Durham University 
 •'"II ■- ■ of Me licine, and its Btudents arc mem- 
 fa s of the University. To obtain a license in 
 
 medicin • in surgery a student must spend 
 
 four years at some approved medical school, 
 
 '. at this college), and | 
 two prof sional examinations. The College of 
 Physical Science, Newcastle-upon-Tyne, was 
 foun led in 1871 . and incorporated with the 
 I niversity of Durham, in L87 I. The endowment 
 of the college was provided partly by the uni- 
 ity. and partly by the leading landed proprie- 
 
 tors, employers of skilled labor, etc. in the 
 North of England. There are chairs of pure 
 and applied mathematics, chemistry, physical 
 and experimental philosophy, geology, and 
 biology and physiology ; and lectureships in 
 (lassies. French, German, English literature, and 
 mechanical drawing. The course lasts two years, 
 and successful students graduate as associates in 
 physical science. The general government is in 
 the hands of 17 members, partly ex officio, and 
 partly elected : and the ordinary administrators 
 are a council of 15, elected out of, and by, the 
 governors. In L875, Codrington College, Bar- 
 bados, was affiliated to the University.— Owens 
 College, -Manchester, opened in 1851. (See 
 OWENS COLLEGE.) The Yorkshire College of 
 Science was established in 1*7-1. to supply in- 
 struction in those sciences which are applicable 
 to the manufactures, engineering, mining, etc. — 
 The University of London was chartered in 
 1836. (Sec London, Untvebsity op.) There is 
 aboard of governors, life, elected, and representa- 
 tive; and a council of '21 members, elected from 
 and by them, for the administration of the college 
 affairs. 'I here are (hairs of mathematics and ex- 
 perimental physics, chemistry, geology and min- 
 ing, biology, and civil and mechanical engineer- 
 ing; and an instructor in textile industries. The 
 title of Associate in Physical Science is conferred 
 on students who attend (lasses, in not less than 
 three departments, for each of two entire sessions, 
 and who pass a special examination in each class 
 
 at the end of their course. These departments 
 are mathematics, physics, chemistry, geology, bi- 
 ology, and civil and mechanical engineering. In 
 
 the session of] 875- (i. there were 85 day students 
 (of whom 28 were students of chemistry belong- 
 ing to the Leeds School of Medicine), and 246 
 evening and occasional students. — University 
 College, Bristol, was instituted, in 1876, to sup- 
 ply, lor persons of both sexes above the ordinary 
 school age, the means of continuing their studies 
 in science', languages, history, and literature, 
 and more particularly to afford appropriate in- 
 struction in those branches of applied science 
 which are employed in the arts and manufact- 
 ures. There are both dav and evening lectures 
 and classes: and medical education IS provided 
 
 by the Bristol Medical School, which is affiliated 
 t > the college. 
 
 Professional and & >■ nlific Instruction. The 
 institutions for theological instruction are very 
 numerous including those of the various denomi- 
 nations : 1 1 : Church of England, as follows: St. 
 Aidan's College, Birkenhead (founded in 184 
 the Missionary College of St. Augustine, Canter- 
 bury (founded as an abbey in 605 A. D., sup- 
 prosed in 1538, restored in 1848); Chichester 
 Theological ' lollege I I 839); < 'uddesdon 'I heol 
 ical College, Wneatley, Oxfordshire (1854); Lon- 
 don College of Divinity, St. John's Hall, High- 
 burj i 1863); Lichfield Theological College (181 
 Gloucester Theological College (1869 ; St. Bees 
 ( lollege, ( umbel-land (181 6) : Salisbury Theoli 
 ical College I L860 ; Wells Theological College 
 (1840); St. David's College, Lampeter (1822; 
 
ENGLAND 
 
 271 
 
 chartered, 1828), which prepares for the civil 
 service and other professions, as well as holy 
 orders; The Queen's ( tollege, Birmingham (facul- 
 ty of theology, founded in 1852) ; and Church 
 Missionary College, Islington. (2) We&leyan; 
 Wesleyan Theological Institution, near Manches- 
 ter I 1 - 34); Wesleyan Theological Institution, 
 Leeds (1868); Richmond College (1843), for 
 training missionary students; Primitive Method- 
 ist Theological Institute. Sunderland (1868); and 
 United Methodist Free Church Theological In- 
 stitute (lsT2). (3) Congregational: Hackney 
 College (1803); The Countess of Huntington's 
 College, Cheshunt, Berts (1768); Spring Bill 
 i lollege, Birmingham (1 831 ); Rotherham College, 
 Yorkshire (1756); New College, London, founded 
 in 1850 by the union of several other Colleges : 
 Lancashire Independent College, near Manchester 
 (181 •'•); and Bala Independent College, founded 
 in 1842. (4) Roman Catholic: College of 
 St. Peter and Paul, Bath (1867), designed to 
 furnish a liberal education for the higher classes, 
 based on the principles of the R. C. Church, its 
 course in philosophy and theology embracing 
 5 years; St. Mary's College, Birmingham (1793), 
 which affords a classical education, as well as 
 professional instruction; and St. Bruno's College, 
 St. Asaph, designed exclusively to prepare candi- 
 dates for the priesthood. (5) Baptist: New Col- 
 lege, London (1810) ; North \Yales Baptist Col- 
 lege, Llangollen (1802) ; Baptist Theological In- 
 stitute. Pontypool, Monmouth (1807); The Bap- 
 tist College, Haverford-west (1839) ; Pastor's 
 College, instituted at Camberwell in 1856, re- 
 moved to Metropolitan Tabernacle, in 1861 ; 
 Bristol Baptist College (1770) ; General Baptist 
 College, Chilwell, near Nottingham (1797) : and 
 Rawdon College, near Leeds (1804). (6) Pres- 
 byterian: Carmarthen Presbyterian College 
 (1719) ; and Theological College, London (1844). 
 (7) Unitarian: The Unitarian Home Mission- 
 ary Board, Manchester (1854). (8) Calmnistic 
 Methodist: Trevecca College, near Talgarth, 
 Wales; (9) Free Religious Thought: Manchester 
 New College (1786). 
 
 There are four Inns of Court, qualified to call 
 students to the Bar : (1) Lincoln's Inn, (2) the 
 Middle Temple, (3) the Inner Temple, and 
 (4) Gray's Inn. Each of these nominates two 
 benchers, and the eight benchers constitute the 
 Council of Legal Education. The council appoints 
 five readers, who deliver lectures in each term, 
 and guide the professional studies of young men 
 preparing for the Bar. — There are medical schools 
 connected with the universities ; also the Royal 
 College of Physicians, the Royal College of Sur- 
 geons, the Society of Apothecaries; Metropolitan 
 'hospitals and schools of medicine: St. Barthol- 
 omew's, Charing Cross, City's. King's College, 
 Middlesex, St. George's, St. Mary's. St. Thomas's, 
 I niversity College; and the following provin- 
 cial schools: Queen's College, Birmingham ; Bris- 
 tol Medical School; Cambridge Medical School; 
 Leeds School ; Liverpool Royal Infirmary and 
 School; Manchester Royal School; Newcastle- 
 upon-Tyne (Durham) ; and Sheffield Medical 
 
 School. — Scientific instruction is given in the 
 Science and Art Department of the Committee 
 of Council, South Kensington, which administers 
 a sum of money voted annually by parliament 
 to promote instruction in science, especially 
 among the industrial classes. Science schools or 
 classes may be formed in any locality under the 
 
 management of a local committee. The aid is 
 given in the form of (1) public examinations, 
 held annually, in which Queen's prizes of books 
 and instruments are awarded; (2) payments 
 (from £1 to C4 per student) to teachers or com- 
 mittees, on the result of the examinations; 
 (3) Scholarships and exhibitions; (4) building 
 grants; and (5) grants toward the purchase -of 
 fittings, apparatus etc. 'I he science schools ex- 
 amined in May, 1876, numbered as follows : in 
 England, 1,206; in Scotland. 113; and in Ireland, 
 165; having an aggregate of 4,559 classes, and 
 52,330 students. The schools of art in the 
 United Kingdom, in 1^75, numbered L36, with 
 23,381 students; and the night classes. 57!) (in 
 England alone, 543), with 21,601 students. 
 Other scientific schools are the following : 
 
 (1 ) the Agricultural College, ( !irencester, founded 
 in 1842, which has a farm of 500 acres. The 
 teaching staff comprises professors of agricult- 
 ure, chemistry, veterinary surgery, natural his- 
 tory, mathematics and surveying, and drawing. 
 
 (2) The Royal School of Mines, founded in 1851, 
 having grown out of the Geological Survey of 
 the United Kingdom, commenced in lb34, by 
 the late Sir Henry de la Beche. its first professors 
 being the officers of the Survey. There are vari- 
 ous exhibitions, scholarships, and free admissions 
 attached to the school. (3) The Royal Academy 
 of Arts, founded in 1768, removed to the Na- 
 tional Gallery, in 1838, and to Burlington Home, 
 in 1869. (4) The Royal Academy of Music, 
 founded in 1822, receives an annual parliament- 
 ary grant. (5) The Royal Military Academy, at 
 Woolwich, founded in 1745, and the Royal Mili- 
 tary College, at Sandhurst, in 1799. also the 
 Royal Military Staff College. (6) The Royal 
 Naval College at Greenwich, founded in 1873, 
 and (7) Eastman's Royal Naval Academy. South- 
 sea, founded in 1851. — See Sir J. K. Shuttle- 
 WORTH, Public Education, 3 vols. (1853) ; Four 
 Periods of Public Education (1862) ; and 
 Thoughts and Suggestions on Certain Soda/ 
 Problems (1873) ; Ernest Wagner, Vblksschul- 
 in sen in England (1864); Donaldson, Lectures 
 on Ed mutant in Prussia and England (1874). 
 In regard to secondary instruction, see Report 
 of Her Majesty's Commissioners appointed to 
 inquire into the Revenues and Management of 
 certain Colleges and Schools, etc, 1 vols. (1864); 
 Return- -Public Schools (statutes, etc.), printed 
 by order of the Bouse of Commons (1876); 
 Demooest and Montdcoi, De lenseignement se- 
 condaireen Angleterreeten 11 • - I Paris, 186 
 Staunton, The Great Schools of England 1 1 8651; 
 Maxwell, -1 History of Eton College (1875); 
 Turner, Educational Legislation (bond.. 1876); 
 Pascoe, .1 Handbook to the Schools of England 
 (Lond., 1 877). (See also Cambridge, and Oxford.) 
 
272 
 
 ENGLAND 
 
 ENGLISH 
 
 ENGLAND, Church of. See Episcopal 
 Church. 
 
 ENGLISH, The Study of. The mother- 
 tongue has peculiar relations to education. Lan- 
 guage baa a twofold nature, — on the one side, 
 Voice, on the other, thought. Early thought is 
 almost all stimulated, guided and supported by 
 the mother-tongue. All early acquisition of 
 knowledge may be regarded as the study of the 
 mother-tongue; and, even in civilized nations, few 
 persons ever advance beyond the knowledge store I 
 up for them in their native speech. The mother 
 ■■•li is also tli ■ means of communicating with 
 others, and of influencing them; so that the 
 study of it as an art includes the study of rhet- 
 oric and oratory, and of the art of poetry. 
 
 It would seem then that there are four chief 
 direct uses in studying English : (1) To under- 
 stand what is spoken or written in that langu 
 (2) To speak it well; (3) To write it well ; an 1 
 ( I To master English literature. And there are 
 three remoter ends : (I) To master the languag i 
 ntifically; (2) To acquire the knowledge of 
 language in general ; an I (3) General culture. 
 
 Early study, in infant Softools, kindergartens, 
 and primary schools. — The me ming of wor Is 
 istb thing children learn of languages. Tha 
 
 nam ss of a few familiar objects and acts are re- 
 peated in connection with the objects and 
 themselves bo often, that the infant's thought 
 passes promptly from the sound to the thing. 
 Thus papa, mamma, kiss, laugh, make the child 
 think of the person or act before it can speak 
 
 any words. Many words are also attached to 
 
 thoughts by being often hear I connected with 
 other wor Is in discourse. Such knowledge, 
 caughl by the child rather than taught to it, is 
 for th ■ in ><t pari very indefinite and inexact, 
 but qo pari of education is more important. 
 
 The objects named shoul I be objects worthy 
 of thought. Good and bad qualities should be 
 marked by such tones and manner as will 
 give their names correct and powerful associa- 
 tions. The means of expressing the affections 
 
 .should be carefully taught. In the kindergarten 
 or other infant school, care should be methol- 
 
 tcalrj bak sn to teach the words which accurately 
 
 name the olij eels and processes that the children 
 
 learn; unnamed objects and pro s, however 
 amusing or ingenious, enter little into thought 
 
 and contribute little to culture. A leading pur- 
 
 in all objecl tea shine should be to give val- 
 uable ideas; hut thai is the same as giving 
 
 familiarity with good words. Teachers of infant 
 
 Bcho i good hooks, containing classified 
 
 important words, with directions how to 
 
 h them by means of well-chosen object 
 
 less,, li-. and amusing occupations. See Cindsr- 
 
 >i n an I Object Teaching.) Pot children of 
 
 •■i larger growth, we have a great Dumber of 
 
 lers and Definer8, and small dictionaries 
 
 which teach the meaning of English words. The 
 latter should be constantly used. 
 The Btudyof meanings in such manuals is, 
 
 however, of little worth, unless supplemented by 
 object teaching on the one hand, and by the 
 
 study of discourse on the other. Manuals of 
 object teaching arranged for the purpose are 
 wanting. Object teachers often contrast the 
 study of words with the study of things, and 
 condemn the study of words, instead of teaching 
 them through their exercises. There are many 
 bonks made up of progressive selections of dis- 
 course, intended to introduce young pupils to 
 words. Most Primers and Readers attempt- 
 something in this way, and some are skillfully 
 preparel with notes and exercises for this pur- 
 pose. (See Primer, and Reading.) 
 
 To speak well requires a knowledge of the 
 meanings of words and of the combinations in 
 which they are actually used, of the meanings 
 and uses of grammatical prefixes and suffixes, and 
 of the exact sounds which are made by good 
 speakers. Speaking must go on at a certain 
 speed : and, therefore, thoughts, Avoids, and the 
 movements of the vocal organs must be closely 
 associated, so as to follow one another without 
 effort and with great rapidity. Much practice 
 in speaking is necessary in order to speak well ; 
 and, in general, practice in the very kind of 
 -peaking in which the excellence is desired. In 
 the early stages of education, this must be almost 
 wholly imitative practice. Children catch and 
 w^v the sounds and forms which make the live- 
 liest impression on them, ami which they hear 
 oftenest ; to use a form or sound once, makes it 
 most likely to occur to the mind again. Teachers 
 should, therefore, train by inducing imitation of 
 their own speech. Exercises may be used in 
 i. peating after the teacher the elementary 
 sounds, and afterwards difficult words, and then 
 familiar dialogues, and finally passages of poetry, 
 or elevated prose, which the teacher likes and 
 can repeat with feeling. Incorrect articulation 
 and bad grammar should be constantly corre< ted, 
 not by repeating and caricaturing what is faulty 
 but by substituting the correct expression. Chil- 
 dren should also be encouraged to talk, at proper 
 times, to repeat the explanations of the teacher, 
 not verbatim throughout, but yet with a con- 
 stant, close, and correct use of the technical 
 terms or important words ; nor is it unscientific 
 to commit to memory formulas of permanent 
 importance, to be fully comprehended afterwards; 
 such as the multiplication table, catechisms of 
 moral and religious truth, and noble utterances 
 which it does men good to haw fast in the 
 memory. The youth should be led on by lan- 
 guage faster and farther than his own thoughts 
 could have gone alone. Practice of this kind 
 Mill naturally go along with reading. 
 
 Learning t<> read should begin early. The 
 monstrous spelling of the English language makes 
 
 this much more difficult than to learn to read 
 German; and teaching the names of the letter, 
 and (he sounds of the syllables as if made up of 
 them, has a mischievous effect on the reason of 
 the learners. Several methods arc used in our 
 schools to overcome (lie difficulties. The word- 
 method (a. v.) is one. In this, children are taught 
 
 to recognize words as wholes before learning the 
 letters. In skillfully prepared books, with pic- 
 
English 
 
 273 
 
 torial illustrations, children learn to read very 
 rapidly by this method, l>ut not so accurately; 
 and it is very hard to teach them to spell. Skill- 
 ful teachers will use a judicious combination of 
 the two methods. Books are also prepared with 
 an alphabet in which each letter has always the 
 Bame sound, a proper phonetic alphabet, and with 
 classified examples of words, and reading extracts, 
 spelt in the phonetic alphabet wholly at first, 
 and gradually passing to our standard spelling. 
 These have been used for some years in Xew 
 York. Boston, St Louis, and elsewhere, and are 
 reported to save one half of the time usually de- 
 voted to Learning to read. There isnowanactive 
 movement for the reform of our spelling which 
 it may be hoped will save the next generation 
 much time and toil. (See Orthography, and 
 Phonetics.) Books of this kind are Leigh's 
 edition of various elementary reading-books; also 
 Davis's American Primer, Douai's Rational 
 Phonetic Primer, Loxgley's America n Phonetic 
 Primer. Sheldon's Xew Phonetic Primer, 
 Shearer's Combination Speller, Vickroy's Pho- 
 iii tie First Reader. Primary cards and charts 
 to aid in this early instruction are to be had in 
 1 variety. Practice in writing is one of the 
 best aids in learning to read and spell, and hence, 
 copying choice extracts, and then writing them 
 down from memory, is quite useful. Soon after 
 lessons in penmanship begin, grammar should be 
 taken up. 
 
 Grammar is often used as a name for the 
 whole science of language and the art of using 
 it ; but by masters of the science of language, it 
 is now confined to the classification of words 
 into parts of speech, according to their uses in 
 discourse, the description and exposition of the 
 changes of form called inflections, and the uses 
 of these in the correct construction of sentences. 
 There woidd be some advantage in dropping the 
 old traditional definitions, which lead teachers 
 and pupils to expect that the study of English 
 grammar will make them able to speak and write 
 the English language correctly. It is only one of 
 the helps to correctness in speaking and writing. 
 The attempt by makers of school grammars and 
 by teachers to do too much is one reason wdiy the 
 study is so much neglected and abused. Descrip- 
 tive grammar consists of definitions of the parts 
 of speech, paradigms, and rules of syntax. With 
 children, a careful selection of simple and typ- 
 ical matter should be made, just as in botany or 
 in any other science. This matter should consist 
 of definitions and rules, stated in accurate sci- 
 entific language, but simply and briefly ; and of 
 selections of words and sentences, also simple and 
 clear, and suited to illustrate the definitions and 
 rules. This matter should be managed by the 
 teacher so as to use mere verbal memory as little 
 as possible, and to train the pupil to see. hear, 
 and think as much as possible. The definitions 
 and the rules should be learned like rules in 
 arithmetic, but the main work should be the ap- 
 plication of them to examples. The scholar 
 should every day hand in written grammar 
 Work on the slate or on paper, like sums in 
 18 
 
 arithmetic; and the preparation and explanation 
 of this work should be the main grammar lesson 
 in the early years. This method needs some 
 system ot notation by which any sentence may 
 be put on paper or on the blackboard with its 
 words SO designated by signs, or by an arrange- 
 ment in diagrams, that the analysis and parsing 
 of it may be made plain to the eye. Such systems 
 are found in several books. A considerable Dum- 
 ber of our best teachers use substantially this 
 method, many of them, without a book, dictat- 
 ing, day by day, definitions which the pupils are 
 to remember, and giving out words and sentences 
 to be classified and analyzed, also proposing trials 
 in collecting and inventing words and sentences 
 of the kind to be studied. Looks are often whol- 
 ly condemned by these teachers, who collect, year 
 by year, in their own note-books, or memories, 
 a store of happy questions and examples, as well 
 as carefully considered definitions and rules ; and 
 it would obviously be a great help to young 
 teachers, as well as to pupils, to get a good note- 
 book of tliis kind, neatly printed, and there are 
 some books for beginners which are, in substance, 
 such note-books; we mention A Parser ami 
 Analyzer for Beginners with diagrams and 
 suggestive pictures, by F. A. March (New 
 York), and Greene's Analysis (Phila.). (See 
 A nalysis, Grammatical.) 
 
 Advanced Study in High Schools and 
 Colleges. — Students entering the high school 
 should have been taught general descriptive 
 grammar thoroughly, so as to be able to apply 
 its definitions and rules promptly and accurately 
 to sentences wdiich they understand, and which 
 have no strange idioms. They should also have 
 mastered some system of notation to set forth 
 their grammatical knowledge in writing. They 
 should have also been trained in articulation and 
 in the idioms of common conversation, and should 
 have had some practice in writing compositions. 
 The study of English will now be directed to 
 acquire skill in speaking and in writing, and a 
 mastery of English literature, and the philos- 
 ophy of speech. Each of these demands special 
 study and practice. 
 
 I. Skill in Speaking. — This should be cul- 
 tivated in various ways : (1) By free conversa- 
 tion on topics at set times, when the teacher may 
 act as a model and censor; (2) By the declamation 
 of selections from standard authors ; (3) By trans- 
 lating from foreign languages, the student being 
 required to give the thought of the author in his 
 own English with the common rapidity and in- 
 flections of his own discourse ; (4) By recitations 
 by topics. (In all studies which admit of it, the 
 scholar should be made to stand up, face his 
 audience, and speak to them on the topic on 
 which he is to recite. This is probably the most 
 efficient means of giving power of connected dis- 
 course.) (5) By debates on assigned topics ; (6) 
 By the study of grammar. Some larger gram- 
 mar which gives a minute exposition of all the 
 idioms of the language should be taken up. A 
 historical and scientific grammar is the best. But 
 for immediate use in speaking, correct and clearly 
 
274 
 
 ENGLISH 
 
 stated generalizations of the facts of the language 
 are what is wanted. A knowledge of these is 
 necessary to correct speaking. It is a great 
 stake to suppose that if one never heard 1 tad 
 English, lie would always speak correctly. In 
 the mother-tongue, every one generalizes instinct- 
 ively. The child makes all its plurals in s, and 
 says mouses fur mice, mans for men : so it says 
 buyed for bought, and the like, making its in- 
 stinctive and incorrecl generalizations continu- 
 ally. This process is active with every speaker 
 until accurate generalizations, i. e., grammatical 
 knowledge, are substituted for the instinctive 
 work of association. The subject usually pre- 
 cedes a verb; hence, the instinctive talker uses 
 who for whom before the verb. The object usually 
 follows a verb; the instinctive generalization 
 suggests it is me, for it is /. In the households 
 of educated people, a continual correction of the 
 young folks is kepi up, until they learn the most 
 common words and phrases pretty thoroughly ; 
 but. in the less common literary style, in which 
 
 abridged constructions, tropical expressions, and 
 relics of obsolescent forms occur continually, no 
 one ever speaks with uniform correctness, un- 
 less he studies grammar carefully. The greatest 
 feniuses are qo exceptions. < !haucer, Ben Jbnson, 
 lilton, and Addison for example, were careful 
 students of grammar. The text of Shakespeare's 
 plays has to be corrected like a school boy's 
 theme. Moreover, all of us bear much bad 
 English, and need carefully and intelligently to 
 
 Study the laws of the language, in order to dis- 
 tinguish the good from the bad. This kind of 
 study should he constantly applied in the criticism 
 of the speech and writing of pupils at school, and 
 of printed matter. A knowledge of descriptive 
 grammar is also needed for intelligent conversa- 
 tion upon the meaning of obscure sentences. 
 
 Anion-' the many g 1 descriptive grammars of 
 
 modern English, we may mention Brown's, Bul- 
 lion's. Butlers, Clark's, Oovell's, I'Ywsniith's, 
 Greene's, Mart's, Kerl's, Murray's. Pinneo's, 
 Weld's. Quackenbos's, Viekroy's, and Whitney's. 
 We shall mention, farther on, works in which a 
 
 historical view of English grammar is presented. 
 II. Skill in writing demands practice in writ- 
 ing. Prom the time of entering the high school 
 
 the Student should write often and carefully. 
 To study without pen in hand is to dream. I'>c- 
 
 ~\'l' the writing of grammatical exercises as 
 ■. e described, those who have their future oc- 
 cupation decided, should he trained in the writ- 
 ing needed in that occupation. Future business 
 men should practice the writing of imaginary 
 
 business Letters, answers to advertisements in the 
 
 newspapers, and the like. Any student may 
 keep a journal, may write descriptions of build- 
 ings, machines, scenery, persons, meetings, con- 
 versations, 1 b ' prepare reports on such 
 
 matters examined l>\ committees forpri- 
 
 vate corporations, or public meetings. They 
 should also write in connection with their stud- 
 ies, preparing careful statements upon assigned 
 topics, notes of lectures, written examinations 
 
 on general SUbjeCta, and the like. Then there 
 
 are more elaborate, ornate, rhetorical perform- 
 ances, and elegant essays, and metrical compo- 
 sition. 
 
 Two periods may be mentioned in the mastery 
 of language. In the first, the ruling idea is 
 imitative, the writer seeks to fashion his speech 
 after that of the authors or persons whom he 
 admires. 1 le aims to have every expression bear 
 the current stamp, and will reject every phrase 
 not familiar in good books. Most writers never 
 pass out of this stage. The source and model of 
 good writing to them is an intimate acquaint- 
 ance with literature. But great writers, original 
 thinkers, learn that the current phrases do not 
 convey their peculiar thoughts, and they advance 
 to invention according to their own ideals. Vital 
 signs should not be neglected even in school 
 days; it is by following these that the most per- 
 teet mastery of the language is to be attained: 
 hut school work will lie mostly in the first stage. 
 Active and careful practice in writing is generally 
 the hot stimulus and help to the thorough study 
 of English. Imitative work has its value. Fix in 
 the memory the thought of an admirable pa- 
 in a classic author, then write it as well as pos- 
 sible, and compare the result with the original. 
 There are some good books prepared as aids to 
 the young writer: Abbot & Seelev's English 
 Lessons (X. Y.) : Swinton's Language Lessons 
 i X. Y.i: A bbot's Bow to Write clearly | Boston); 
 Crosby & Li dlow's First Lessons; Day's Young 
 Composer, English Composition, and other 
 works (X. Y.i : Parker's Aids to Coiujuisition 
 (X". Y.); Quackenbos's First Lessons in Compo- 
 sition (X. Y.), and other works by Cox. Drew, 
 Frost, Harper, Hart. Kerb Pinneo, Sprague. 
 These lead on to rhetorics, like those of Bain, 
 Blair, Day, Spencer's Philosophy if Style, 
 Shedd, Wnately, and the like. A great part of 
 the writing should, however, be the record of 
 thought and research in the study of English 
 literature. 
 
 III. The philological study of English is the 
 
 study of the language as used in literature, i. <■., 
 
 as shaped by the idea of the beautiful. The lan- 
 guage of literature is an ideal language of men 
 of genius. It is to he studied in their writings. 
 The main object of the study is to rethink their 
 thoughts. Every classic language contains in its 
 literature the record of the noble thoughts ami 
 acts of thousands of years, expressed in thousands 
 of happy and harmonious phrases, the invention 
 of thousands of men of genius. This is the 
 richest inheritance of a cultured race. Youth 
 who, if they had no classic speech, could (\o 
 nothing better than watch birds and hugs, to 
 snare and kill them. can. by means of speech, 
 rise, almost in childhood, to the bighesi thoughts 
 
 of all thi' ageS before them. The Studj of these 
 
 masterpieces of literature may be carried on by 
 two methods. One is rapid reading, enjoying 
 ami emphasizing special Beauties, and making 
 ional esthetic and explanatory criticism, 
 but avoiding all minutq researches, especially all 
 grammatical and scientific labor, which might 
 rive a distaste tor the lesx m and the author. 
 
ENGLISH 
 
 275 
 
 The Other method is that of giving minute and 
 profound study, linguistic and philosophic, to the 
 representative passages of representative works. 
 The first method gives a delightful occupation 
 to sympathetic pupils, and proves especially 
 valuable in the education of women. Tlic un- 
 sympathetic and hard-headed are unaffected hy 
 it; and it is, at its best, but an introduction to 
 the authors, leaving the real philological mastery 
 of them yet to lie attained. 'This comes, if it come 
 at all. from long dwelling, and much study, line 
 by line, word by word, such as is bestowed on 
 the noble passages of Greek or Latin writers. In 
 studying the literature of the mother-tongue, it 
 
 is hard to get this concentrated and prolonged 
 attention. The familiar words slip rapidly 
 through the mind, and delude the young student 
 with the impression that he thoroughly under- 
 stands them. There is a fatal facility in extem- 
 porizing the lessons. This difficulty is overcome 
 by making the text the foundation of further 
 study, and by requiring written papers. What- 
 ever is necessary to comprehend all the thoughts 
 and allusions, matters of history, biography, 
 mythology, geography, physics, metaphysics, 
 theology, and the like, will, of course, be care- 
 fully looked up. The history of the book which 
 is being studied, should also be learned, both as 
 to its growth in the mind of the author, and its 
 reception and influence. The character of the 
 author and his life and times should be studied, 
 as essential to a comprehension of his work and 
 speech, so as to see the man as a representative 
 man. and the work as a representative work. 
 The rhetorical laws, and the principles of poetic, 
 epic, and dramatic art should be applied word by 
 word, line by line. Then there is the study of 
 the words, their exact meaning and associations 
 in the mind of the writer, to be learned partly 
 by gathering up his different uses of them, an 
 easy and delightful labor in those authors for 
 whom a concordance has been made, as Shake- 
 speare, Milton. Pope, Tennyson ; it implies also 
 a study of the general usage of the time of the 
 writer. The study of synonyms also comes in, 
 and of derivations, as a guide and aid in fixing 
 the exact meaning of words. Written analyses, 
 derivation papers, synonym papers, and tables of 
 rhetorical figures, will make sure that the work 
 is done. Happy phrases and notable sentences 
 may be learned by heart; and by studying many 
 works, the knowledge of English as a record of 
 culture may be attained, which is the purpose 
 of classical philological study. 
 
 rv. Comparative philology, as the science of 
 language is often called, Buggeste still further 
 
 © Op 
 
 study. It sets before us English as a member of 
 a great family of languages, having a history, 
 and laws of growth, and made up 01 words and 
 phrases, each of which has its own history, to be 
 Understood in view of the laws of thought and 
 voice. It calls for the study of the physiology of 
 the organs of speech as the basis of the classifica- 
 tion of the vocal sounds made in English, and for 
 the study of psychology to explain the meanings 
 of the sounds. The English speech, as far as its 
 
 grammatical forms are concerned, is a develop- 
 ment of the Anglo-Saxon; in its vocabulary, it is 
 a mixed language, made up originally of Anglo- 
 Saxon and Norman-French, and later enriched 
 
 by contributions from Latin, Greek, and many 
 
 ot her languages. The languages which are nearest 
 of kin, and throw most light on it, are Friesic, 
 Gothic. Icelandic, and High German on the one 
 side : French and Latin, leading on to I neck and 
 Sanskrit, on the other. 
 
 Phonology gives a history and exposition of 
 the sounds of English. It shows that the present 
 
 sounds of most words are changed from earlier 
 ones, and it seeks the laws which govern the 
 changes. It also points out and explains the re- 
 lations of these sounds to those in other lan- 
 guages. The fullest discussion of historic pho- 
 nology in any available text-books for schools is 
 in .March's Comparative Grammar of the Anglo- 
 Saxon. Ellis's Early English Pronunciation 
 (London), still incomplete, is the gnat store- 
 house of facts. Sweet's History of English 
 Sounds (London), and the historical grammars 
 mentioned below, are also worthy of study. 
 
 Grammatical etymology seeks to explain the 
 origin of all the inflections. In modern English, 
 cases and tenses, and the like, seem to be formed 
 by adding letters, or changing vowels at pleas- 
 ure ; we add s to form the possessive John's, 
 d to form the past loved; we change a to e to 
 form the plural men, o to e to form the past 
 held. When we follow these words back to 
 Anglo-Saxon, we find that our monosyllables are 
 there polysyllables, and many of them obvious 
 compounds, whose meaning we see at once ; lorn/, 
 is there a trisyllable, compounded of love and 
 did. But many words are not soluble in Anglo- 
 Saxon, and we turn to other languages for aid. 
 Gothic is the first great source of light. Anglo- 
 Saxon is of the 9th century, but in Gothic we 
 have the forms of the 4th century of a nearly 
 kindred speech, and the gain is great : held, 
 which is an obscure monosyllable in Anglo- 
 Saxon, in Gothic shows haihald, a reduplicated 
 root. The Gothic, however, often fails to solve 
 the problem, but it generally serves to identify 
 the forms with some like form in Latin and 
 Greek, which may, perhaps, give the key, or, if 
 not, lead us on to the Sanskrit, where so large a 
 number of inflection forms and affixes of deri- 
 vation, are seen to be compound words, that the 
 philologist works on the theory that they all are, 
 and thus makes large progress in their solution. 
 These languages. — Anglo-Saxon. Gothic, Latin, 
 Greek, and Sanskrit, have been most laboriously 
 
 studied; and excellent manuals of comparative 
 
 grammar and ety logical dictionaries of each 
 
 are at band, at least to the German scholar, for 
 the titles of which see the articles on these lan- 
 guages. Icelandic, or Old Norse, is also of great. 
 aid in Studying the forms of English, especially 
 
 in the transition period from Early Anglo Saxon. 
 All these the earnest scholar may study. The 
 High German also has been much worked over, 
 and Strengthens the inductions made from mw 
 nearer kin, occasionally throwing light on a doubt • 
 
276 
 
 ENGLISH 
 
 ful point. The comparative study of derivation, 
 syntax, and prosody leads through the same 
 historical course. Parallel with tin- external his- 
 tory of the forms, runs a history of their mean- 
 ing, a history of thought, and its laws of change 
 and progress in connection with language. The 
 science of language does not stop with the Indo- 
 European family, but for a perfect understanding 
 of English compares it with the other great lan- 
 guages of the world, — with the Semitic, the 
 Chinese, and the aboriginal tongues of America. 
 It seeks to determine its relations to all lan- 
 guages, and to an ideal form of speech. 
 
 How much of this study should lie attempted 
 
 in our schools and colleges, and in what method, 
 
 an- ted questions with educators. Germany 
 
 has. heretofore, been the chief seat of this learn- 
 ing, and it has been given in lectures to select 
 classes in the universities. It is gradually work- 
 ing its way. through our best grammars and 
 teachers, especially of Greek, into the common 
 stock of linguistic knowledge and teaching. A 
 considerable Dumber of the American colleges 
 give a few lectures on the subject in the senior 
 year, or study Whitney's Language mnl !],<■ 
 Study of Language. In L855, a department of 
 tin' Knglish language and comparative philology 
 was established in Lafayette College, and an ar- 
 rangement of all the linguistic studies of the 
 college attempted, by which the topics of com- 
 parative philology might be gradually introduced 
 to the students, in connection with the recitations, 
 in reading the classic authors of each language. 
 Phonology is taken up the first term, lessons 
 in the pronunciation oi Latin, (J reek, or other lan- 
 guages, are given, with the history of the sound,-, 
 and the laws of letterchange. Then. at tin' daily 
 Lesson in reading, attention is called to such illus- 
 trations of these laws as occur in the text, and 
 the facts of each language are compared with 
 English. A special examination in these mat- 
 ters is held at the end of the term. In suc- 
 
 ive terms, the etymology of the verb and the 
 noun, derivation, syntax, and prosody, are taken 
 up in the same way, from the point of view of 
 comparative philology, with daily application to 
 the text. The languages are studied, in the clas- 
 
 meal course, in the following order: Latin and 
 
 Greek, French, German, Anglo-Saxon, English. 
 In the scientific course, the early work is through 
 a comparison of words in English, French, and 
 German; then come Anglo-Saxon and higher 
 English. It goes on ii nection with a literary 
 
 and critical .study of the authors, and ends with a 
 8J OOptical general course, including, in one tern i. 
 
 tin- science of language, and in another a sum- 
 mary of English literature. This course has been 
 eery successful at Lafayette College, and has been 
 introduced, in its application to Anglo Saxon and 
 
 lish, into some other i nst it ut ions, and has at- 
 tracted interest and eotiiineiidat ion in Europe. 
 
 Perhaps no study, certainly no linguistic study, 
 has grown more rapidly, within i he last 15 years, 
 than that of English. Previous to that time, there 
 
 was |1„. i, hardly an attempt at the scientific his- 
 torical study of it in England or America. There. 
 
 were no text-books, — historical grammars or 
 other histories of the language, nor good etymo- 
 logical or historical dictionaries, nor editions of 
 classic English authors with philological ap- 
 paratus for study. Now, all our good colleges 
 and universities, and many of our best high 
 schools and academies, attempt a course of En- 
 glish, and a fair supply of textdbooks of every 
 kind is to be had. Of these the following is a 
 summary: Method of Philological Study of the 
 English Language, by Francis A. March, 
 New York, 1865). This gives minute directions 
 for carrying out a course of study like that al » >\ 
 described. It begins with Bunyan, and sets forth 
 topics for an introductory essay on his life and 
 works, with bibliographical references. Then it 
 gives an extract from The Pilgrim's Progress, 
 and references to parts of the grammar to be stud- 
 ied, accompanied by questions applying the mat- 
 ter to the text. given in full, like a verbatim report 
 of a recitation, six pages of questions on twelve 
 lines of text. Synoptical questions and topics 
 for essays follow. Milton comes next, and then 
 foil »w Shakespeare, Spenser, and ( 'haucer. treatei 1 
 in the same way, but with a progressive series of 
 grammatical and philological topics. This method 
 has been used in several high schools and col- 
 leges with good success. The work is also to be 
 had bound in one volume with Fowler's ( '> ram- 
 mar, to which frequent references are made. 
 Spragoe's Masterpieces of English Literature 
 i New York) is prepared for the same kind of 
 study; it contains selections from Chaucer. Spen- 
 ser, Bacon, Shakespeare, Milton, and Bunyan, 
 with notes for progressive grammatical, phil- 
 ological, and rhetorical study, beginning with 
 phonetics in connection with Chaucer, and end- 
 ing with comparative philology in connection 
 with Bunyan. Day's Introduction to English 
 Literature (New York) is of similar content 
 and method. Craik's English of Shakespeare 
 [London and Boston) consists of the text of 
 Julius Ca>sar, prepared with copious notes on 
 
 philological matters suggested by the text, and 
 other apparatus for thorough study, — an excellent 
 book. To these maybe added Greer's Studies 
 in (he English of Bunyan (Phila.); and Car- 
 penter's English of the XIV. Century (Boston). 
 From American editors, we have the following 
 series of classics pre] tared for school use, with 
 more or less annotation: Boyd's Series (New 
 Yorki. including Cowper's Task, Milton's Para- 
 dise Lost, PoSok's Course of Time, Thomson's 
 Seasons, Young's Ntght Thoughts, and Bacon's 
 Essays; Hudson's Series (Boston) a valuable 
 
 one; the note- and other apparatus are. in the 
 main, directly explanatory or critical, primarily 
 for rapid reading; it includes plays of Sfiake- 
 
 speare; A Textbook of Poetry, consisting of 
 selections from Wordsworth. Coleridge, Burns, 
 Beattie, Goldsmith, and Thomson; .1 Text-book 
 Prose, containing selections from Burke, 
 Webster, and Bacon ; Rolfe's Series, New York, 
 including Shakespeare's Merchant of Venice, 
 The Tempest, Henry VIII., and Julius Co?sar; 
 and Goldsmith. (Sec Enqlish Literati re.) 
 
BNGUSB 
 
 KX4JIJSII LITERATURE 
 
 277' 
 
 From the Clarendon Press, Oxford, England, 
 are issued for students of Bngliflh, Chaucer, by 
 \V~. W. Skeat; Specimens of Early English,by 
 ]{. Morris and W. W". Skeat; 77/ c \'isiau </ 
 William concerning Piers the Plowman, by 
 \\\ W. Skeat : Shakespeare, — Hamlet,by \N r . G. 
 Clark; The Tempest,by W. Aldis Wright; 
 King Lear,byW. Aldis Wright; Milton, — The 
 Areopagitica, by J. W. Hales; Addison, — sv- 
 lectionsfrom the Spectator, by T. Arnold : 7///<- 
 /,•// Selections from the Sixteenth to the Nine- 
 teenth Century, with notices mid notes; Speci- 
 mens of Lowland Scotch and Northern English, 
 by J. A. H. Mrm; w; also a series of English clas- 
 sics for students, especially for ladies' schools and 
 middle class schools, under the superintendence 
 of Rev. J. S. Brewer, M. A., professor of En- 
 glish literature at King's College, London, in- 
 cluding Parts of Chaucer, of Spender's Faerie 
 Queene, Hunker's Ecclesiastical Polity, Book l, 
 Shakespeare^ Merchant of Venice, Richard 
 tlii> Second, and Macbeth; Bacon, — Advancement 
 of Learning, and Essays; Mi Hon, — Poems; 
 parts of Dryden, Bunyan, Pope, Johnson, 
 Burke, and Gowper. 
 
 Grammars, Historical and Comparative, for 
 the earliest period are: .March's Comparative 
 Grammar (New York) (see Anglo-Saxon); 
 Hadley's Brief History of the English Lan- 
 guage (Springfield); Compendium of ike Com- 
 parative Grammar of the Indo-European Lan- 
 guages, Sanskrit, Greek, and Latin, by A. 
 Schleicher, translated by H. Bexdale (London); 
 A Comparative Grammar of the Teutonic Lan- 
 guages, by J. Helfenstein (London); Historical 
 Outlines of English Accidence, by R. Morris, 
 (London): Elementary Lessons in Historical En- 
 
 ih Grammar, by R. Morris (London); ^1 
 Shakespearian Grammar, An Attempt to illus- 
 trate some of the differences between Elizabethan 
 and Modern English, by Rev. E. A. Abbott. 
 (London): Handbook of the English Tongue,by 
 J. Angus | London); Latham's English Language 
 (London and New York); Fowler's English 
 Language (New York); IFaldeman's English 
 Arfi /•»>■ 1 1 'hi la.) The great German-English gram- 
 mars are M.etzner's, now translated in London, 
 and Kocu's, fur which see Anglo-Saxon. 
 
 Dictionaries. — Webster's Unaiiridged Dic- 
 tionary of ///c English Language (Springfield, 
 1 865 . : Wi mm ester's Dictionary (Boston); Shake- 
 speare-Lexicon, by I>r. Alexander Schmidt 
 Berlin and London, 1875); Halliwei.l's Diction- 
 ary of \. Irchaicand Provincial Words ( London); 
 .1 Dictionary of the Old English Language, 
 I2th—15lh Centuries, by V. II. Stratmann (2d 
 ■ i.. London, L873); .1 Dictionary of English 
 ■ Etymology, by H. Wedgwood (2ded., London, 
 L872); Etymologisches Wbrterbuch der engli- 
 schen Sprache,by Ed. Mueller (Kothen, L865); 
 Jamieson's Dictionary of the Scottish Language, 
 ed. by Lonomuir (Edinburgh, L867); Bartlett's 
 Dictionary of Americanisms ( Boston). 
 
 Further aids are: Lectures on the English 
 Language (New York); and Lectures on 
 the Origin and History if the English Lan- 
 
 guage, by G. P. Marsh (New York): Eladley's 
 Essays, Philological and Critical" (Ken Fork); 
 
 \\ hitm-'.y's Oriental anil Linguistic studies 
 (New York): Muller's /.rehires on die Science 
 of Language, and Chips froma German Work- 
 shop (1 don and New Fork); Shepherd's* 
 
 History of the English Language (New York); 
 De Vere's Studies in English (New Fork); 
 Gould's Good English (New York); Swinton's 
 Rambles in Words (N ew York): Select Gloss- 
 anj of English Words used formerly in Senses 
 different from the present, by R. C. Trench 
 (London); ThePhilotogy of die English Tongue, 
 I iv •!. Earle (London); On, the Study of Words, 
 and English fast and Present,by R. (/.Trench: 
 alford's Queen's English (Lond. and N. Y.L 
 and Moon's Dean's Emjlisli (Lond. and X. Y.), 
 and Bad English (Lond.); White's Words and 
 their Uses (N. Y.); Outlines of the History of the 
 English Language, by G. L. Craik (London); 
 Sources of Standard English, byOLiPHANT (Lon- 
 don): Changes in the Emjlisli Language be- 
 tween the publication of Wiclifs Bible and that 
 of the authorized Version, A. D. 140(1 to A. D. 
 1600, by H. T. W. Wood (London); English 
 Writers, by H. Morley (London); History of 
 English Sounds, by II. Sweet (London). 
 
 ENGLISH LITERATURE. To know 
 the writings and the lives of the best English 
 authors, to learn what past or foreign literature 
 influenced their minds and culture, to be able to 
 trace a certain development of thought and style 
 from the period of the Beowulf down to the 
 time of Tennyson and Browning, to know a 
 writer's place among his contemporaries, to be 
 able to give the period and even the author of 
 a passage seen for the first time, — to have in 
 one's head, in short, some kind of historical view 
 of the whole of our great literature, is a large 
 ambition, which — like many other ambitions — 
 has a strong tendency to "overleap itself." But, 
 if wisely begun at school, and followed out with 
 zeal at the university, it is found to be a kind of 
 knowledge as solid as most others, and far ex- 
 celling many in its sources of delight, inspiration. 
 and strength. But the subject is an enormously 
 large one for school purposes; indeed, its very 
 magnitude would seem to shut it out from the 
 list of school subjects. The whole cycle of liter- 
 ature is no more to be known by one person than 
 the whole circle of the sciences, still less by 
 young people at school. The impossibility of 
 achieving the whole task being seen, two ques- 
 tions at once arise : (1) What shall we teach and 
 what leave untaught'.' and (2) How shall we 
 teach it '! 
 
 In attempting to answer the first of these 
 questions, we can find some guidance from an- 
 alogy ; and the school subject which appears, in 
 
 its vast size and the enormous contents of its 
 
 wealth, to have the closest resemblance to liter- 
 ature is the subject of geograjih)/. Now, in 
 geography, we do not burden the attention and 
 overload the memory of our pupils with the in- 
 finite number of names of small towns, insignifi- 
 cant rivers, diminutive lakes, and unimportant 
 
278 
 
 ENGLISH LITERATURE 
 
 headlands ; but we take only the most prominent 
 and. as it were, the central features of the world, 
 and round these we group the knowledge which 
 is intended to abide with the pupil, and to serve 
 as a nucleus for his subsequent accumulations. 
 In the same way. there are certain nanus which 
 the sifting of time has caused to stand out with 
 always increasing clearness: there arc certain 
 books which have been, and which continue to be, 
 forces in the development of civilized humanity; 
 and it is with these authors and with these 
 books that the teacher should make the pupil 
 acquainted. Thus stated, the path seems to be 
 plain -so plain thai no good teacher can miss 
 it. Bui there arc two dangers — two besetting 
 sins, which await the teacher in bis attempts 
 toward the systematic treatment of a subject BO 
 
 large; and these are the vices of encyclopcedism 
 and abridgment. Looked at more closely, both 
 
 these vices arc seen to be only two sides of the 
 same central error- an error which pervades all 
 kinds of teaching, and w hich is. indeed, the most 
 prevalent educational error of the present day. 
 By encyclopa?dism,is meant the desire to include 
 too many tacts - and. in the present instance. 
 too many authors -within the ranee of the 
 
 pupil's mental vision; and the consequence is a 
 pressure which results in an abridgment of the 
 closest kind— an abridgment in which nothing is 
 said of no tacts aiv given about -the author, 
 but when he was horn, and when he died, and 
 the name of his best-known hook. It is plain 
 that such knowledge is no knowledge al all. and 
 is of no more value than an acquaintance with 
 the street directory. The desire to teach too 
 
 much ends in achieving too little; the attempt 
 to learn everything results in nothing. He- 
 sides, the pupil must have a living and in- 
 terior knowledge of English literature, and not 
 a dead and external acquaintance with its mere 
 busk, appendages, and circumstances, lie must 
 be trained to know -and that is to love- 
 Chaucer and Spenser, Dryden and 1 'ope. Words- 
 worth and Coleridge; and the question which 
 
 presses upon the teacher is therefore : How is this 
 
 to be done.' Before answering this question, the 
 
 teacher must have Settled with himself wJlOtis 
 
 to be done. 
 
 (I) Let us suppose that, seeing the impossibil- 
 ity of embracing all the details of so large a field, 
 he has resolved upon making a selection of the 
 besl writers in prose and verse in each epoch. 
 
 Round each of these he will then collect the most 
 
 able of his contemporaries, and explain to bis 
 class their relations and the influence which each 
 had upon the other, and winch the requirements 
 
 and spirit of the period had upon them all. The 
 
 teacher will then, probably, select Chaucer as 
 the type of the chivalric period of English Liter- 
 atim 1/ udeviUe as the "Father of English 
 Spenser as the richest poet of the 
 Elizabethan era; Shakespeare as the greatest 
 dramatist of the period when the drama was al 
 its highest; Hooker as the type of the ornate 
 and elaborate prose style of the sixteenth century; 
 B con as the most compact ami thoughtful 
 
 English essayist; Milton — as the poet of the 
 Reformation, and the master of the most sublime 
 rhythms in the language, and in his prose works 
 the most elaborate of sentence-makers; Butler 
 lin parts) — as the antipode of Milton; Jeremy 
 Taylor — as the sweetest prose-writer of the 
 seventeenth century ; Dryden — as the herald of 
 a new and more " popular'' style : Pope — as the 
 culmination of the most polished, clear-cut, and t 
 sparkling English; Swift — as the most powerful 
 intellect of his time; Johnson — as the representa- 
 tive of the massive common-sense of his coun- 
 try, too ponderously, though characteristically. 
 
 expressed; Goldsmith — as the most charming 
 writer of his generation: Burke- as the most 
 brilliant rhetorician that the modern world has 
 seen: Cowper — as the transition and the link 
 
 between the age of I 'ope and the nineteenth 
 century- Wordsworth— as the dawn and the 
 bright shining of the new day of English liter- 
 ature, and De Quincey, as the most wonderful 
 prose-writer of the nineteenth century. 
 
 2) Bui it is evident that all the works of 
 these writers cannot be read in school; and a 
 selection from them is, therefore, necessary. Here 
 again common repute comes to our aid and maps 
 out our course for us. in Chaucer, we should 
 probably find it sufficient to read the Prologue, 
 or the KniglUes '/'"A.orthe Mmi qfLawes Tale; 
 in Mandeville, a few chapters of his True 
 in Spenser, a hook or two of the Eaeru Queene; 
 in Shakespeare, one or two plays, such as the 
 Merchant of Venice or King Lear (Hamlet is too 
 difficult and super-subtle, while the subject of 
 
 Othello must always keep it out of schools) ; in 
 Hooker, the first Book of his Ecclesiastical 
 
 Polity; in Bacon, twenty of his best h'ssm/s, 
 
 such as those on Envy, Great Place, or Travatle; 
 in Milton, the Lycidas, the Gomus, the Hymn 
 t<> the Nativity, and his other minor works, with 
 perhaps one book of the Paradise Lost; in 
 Butler, one or two Cantos of the Hudibras; in 
 Jeremy Taylor, a few chapters of the Holy Liv- 
 ing and perhaps a Sermon ; in Dryden, the ^1A- 
 S'llum and Achitophel and the Mac Flechno\ : 
 in Pope, the Rape of the Lock and the Essay 
 en Criticism; in Dr. Johnson, two or three of 
 bis Lives of the Poets and the Prefaa to the 
 Dictionary, with perhaps Rasselas; in Gold- 
 smith, the Vicar </ Wakefield, the Traveller 
 and the Deserted Village; in Burke, the Reflec- 
 tions in, the French Revolution and one of bis 
 speeches; in Cowper, the Task, the Progress qf 
 Error, Truth,8Jaa some of his minor poems, 
 
 while biS Letters should be read. Were it only 
 
 for their style; in Wordsworth, the best of his 
 Sonnets, the Lines on Tintern Abbey, Laodamia, 
 and man] of his minor poems; and in De Quin- 
 cey, bis Suspiria <//■ Profundis, his Vision of 
 Sudden /)>■<!//,. and some of bis criticisms. 
 
 But, even after all this ha.- been done and well 
 done, there arc still two things to do. The first is 
 i" give the pupil an intelligible and striking view 
 of our literature before Chaucer — that is. from 
 the Beowulf of the 5th centurj a poem which, 
 like the Ihad. existed only in the memorj and 
 
ENGLISH LITERATURE 
 
 279 
 
 not in a written form, for several hundred years 
 — down to C'aedmon, Beda, and King Alfred, to 
 the Saxon Chronicle and Chaucer. This ought to 
 be done orally by the teacher, who should, at 
 the same time, write upon the blackboard short 
 characteristic extracts from the works of these 
 authors, and explain and illustrate the growth 
 of the oldest English, with its highly inflected 
 forms, into our present English. The second 
 thing to be done is, to connect every-where the 
 appearance and the work of a •writer with the 
 social condition and the political events of the 
 age in which he lived, and to show — as far as this 
 can be shown to a young audience — how these 
 influenced the character and the feelings of the 
 writer. Nothing, for example, can be clearer or 
 more easy to explain than the influence of the 
 two opposite views of politics upon the writings 
 of the two contemporaries, Milton and Butler. 
 
 The stan ling difficulty and perpetual tempta- 
 tion — a difficulty with which the teacher will have 
 constantly to fight, and a temptation which he 
 will have at every moment to resist — is to present 
 to his pupils conclusions the data for which have 
 not been given, and critical results the steps to 
 which have never been taken by the pupils them- 
 selves. There is nothing more prejudicial to the 
 young mind — nothing so fatal to its kindly and 
 harmonious growth, as the presence within it of 
 ready-made thoughts, of alien ideas, and of too 
 easily accepted results. The pupil may seem to 
 be in possession of such ideas and conceptions, 
 but he is not ; they may seem to be the fruit of 
 his own mind, but they are really dead artificial 
 apples — the witnesses, not of a vigorous, sponta- 
 neous life, but of mental poverty and death. The 
 second-hand is the deadly foe of original life. 
 
 A large part of the benefit of a course of 
 literature will be lost to the pupils, if they are 
 not required, always and every-where, to react 
 with their own mind upon the material they re- 
 ceive, and the forms which they are asked to con- 
 template. This view demands that, accompany- 
 ing every step of the course, there should be a 
 well -selected and judiciously chosen set of exer- 
 cises .Such exercises might include the following: 
 
 (1) An account of a poem such as Chaucer's 
 Prologue, in the pupil's own words, — always 
 avoiding the vile practice of "paraphrasing." (2) A 
 short life of an author, from memory. (3) An 
 abridgment of an important chapter from some 
 prose work. (4) The turning into modern 
 English of a passage from a writer of the 11th or 
 12th century. (5) A critical comparison be- 
 tween the treatment of the same subject by two 
 different writers. (Thus Autumn has been treated 
 both by Keats and Shelley ; the Nightingale by 
 Milton, Keats, and Matthew Arnold ; the Death 
 of a Friend by Spenser — in his Astrophel — and 
 by Shelley — in his Adonais ; an Escape by 
 Shelley — in his Fugitives, and by Campbell, in 
 his Lord Dl/in's Daughter) (6) The discussion 
 of separate literary dicta — like the following by 
 Russell Lowell : " Style, like the grace of perfect 
 breeding, makes itself felt by the skill with which 
 it effaces itself, and masters us at last with a 
 
 sense of indescribable completeness." (This 
 might be at first discussed in the class-room ; and 
 then the line of argument and the results would 
 be given in the form of an essay or paper.) 
 (7) The story of a play of Shakespeare. (8) The 
 analysis of some character in a play. There are 
 many others which will naturally occur to the 
 teacher in the course of his work. 
 
 The steady purpose to be kept in view in this 
 instruction is to deposit in the pupil's mind a 
 few nuclei of thought, and to collect around 
 these nuclei as large an accretion of cognate 
 ideas from different writers and from different 
 ages as possible. The existence of these nuclei 
 will enable the teacher to preserve unity in his 
 teaching — to link together his lessons with bonds 
 of " natural piety;" and thus to make the thought- 
 ful child the father of the wise and instructed 
 man. And, from the point of view of intel- 
 lectual training, they will enable him to keep 
 true to the central principle of repetition with- 
 out monotony. 
 
 The study of English literature is incomplete 
 unless it include a view of the works of Amer- 
 ican authors, by whom many departments of the 
 literature of the English language have been 
 greatly enriched. Thus, in poetry, the chief pro- 
 ductions of Poe, Whittier, Longfellow, Willis, 
 Bryant, etc., should be classified and criticised, 
 and compared also with the productions of En- 
 glish poets in the same departments. In history, 
 due attention should be given to Prescott, Hil- 
 dreth, Bancroft, and Motley ; and, in general 
 literature, including essays, fiction, etc., Irving, 
 Poe, Hawthorne, Emerson, Tuckerman, Whipple, 
 and a host of others, claim attention. The 
 principles and methods suggested in regard to 
 English authors, in this article, are equally ap- 
 plicable to the American literature of the En- 
 glish language. 
 
 Many valuable books of reference have been 
 published on this subject which the teacher 
 should have at hand for consultation. In English 
 literature proper, we may refer to Chambers, 
 Cyclopaedia of English Literature (3d Ed., 1876 
 — 7); Alliboxe, Critical Dictionary of English 
 Literature (3 vols., Phila., 1858 — 73) ; Craik, 
 History of English Literature and Language 
 (London, 1861); Taine, Histoire de la litteralure 
 anglaise (Paris, 1864), English translation (N.Y., 
 1871); Spaldixg, History of English Literature 
 (N. Y., 1853), a brief manual, good in parts, but 
 very dry, and abounding in conceptions, views, 
 and criticisms which only a mature and widely 
 read person can appreciate ; Arnold, Manual 
 of English Literature (London, 1862), — this has 
 many good points, but is a little confused, and 
 wants perspective ; the latter half of the work— 
 the Critical Section — is very much like Spalding; 
 Shaw, A Complete Manual of English Literature, 
 edited by Wm. Smith, LL. !>., with a sketch of 
 American literature, by ILT. Tuckerman (X.Y., 
 L867) ; Morell, Biographical History of En- 
 glish Literature, full of lessons useful to young 
 ns: Collier, .1 History of English Liter- 
 ati//^ (N.Y., 1867), a brief and useful manual; 
 
280 
 
 ENTHUSIASM 
 
 EPISCOPAL CHURCH 
 
 Cleveland, -4 < 1 i>/n/><',i,Iimn of English Liter- 
 at>in>. from Mandcville to Cowper (Phila., L848), 
 and English Literature of the Nineteenth Cent- 
 ury (Phil.. L852}, also 'Compendium of Amer- 
 ican TAterature (Phila., L859) ; Underwood, .1 
 Hand-Bpok of English Literature — British 
 . I athors i l>oston, 1871), and Amerirmi . I uthors 
 (Boston, 1872); Duyckinck, Cydopcedia of 
 American Literature (2 vols., N. Y., 1856). Of 
 series, t lie following may be mentioned: The 
 Clarendon Press Series, one of the best pub- 
 lished, is edited by men who know the En- 
 glish language and understand their subject ; 
 Chaucer, by It. Morris, is one of the most care- 
 fully edited books in any language ; the Shake- 
 speare Plays are also well done. Starr's .S'c/vVs 
 is also excellent : many of the books are edited 
 by teachers, who understand best where pupils 
 are liable to meet with difficulty. Of the London 
 Series, only one book has. as yet, appeared — 
 Bacon's Essays, edited by K. A. Abbott. This is, 
 however, a model of its kind, showing how a 
 
 work like the Essays, full of weighty thoughts 
 and precious English, ought to be edited. — Sec 
 also .M \i;sn. The Origin and History of the 
 English Language (N. V„ L862); and Reed, 
 Lectures on English Literature ( Phila., L855). 
 
 ENTHUSIASM is an emotion of so strong 
 a kind as to beget Belf-forgetfulness, and to 
 awaken the most powerful energies of the mind. 
 
 When made to rest 11)11,11 an admiration of the 
 good, the tine, and the heant il'ul. it becomes an 
 educational stimulus of a very useful and effect- 
 ive character: it. must not. however, be per- 
 mitted to supersede the exercise of conscience, 
 or the sense of what is right, and thus de- 
 generate into moral weakness. Earnestness, 
 rather than enthusiasm, should be the qual- 
 ity inspired by the educator; and this is to be 
 effected I hrough the force of example, because the 
 sympathetic influence of the true teacher upon 
 the mind of his pupil is almost without limit. 
 Especially should that spurious kind of enthusi- 
 asm be repressed which is characterized by a 
 
 habitual excitement about every thing thai is 
 new, and which tends to destroy every thing 
 that is rational and stable in the character. En- 
 thusiasm is an exceedingly important quality in 
 the teacher as well as in the pupil: indeed, a 
 teacher can scarcely meet with any true success 
 in his profession vJ,,, j s not enthusiastic in his 
 devotion to it. While this is true of those en- 
 gaged in any vocation, it is peculiarly the case 
 with the educator; since the effectiveness of 
 his work depends so largely upon his personal 
 
 zeal. The best results, perhaps, of his labors are 
 those which he accomplishes by what has been 
 
 aptly called unconscious tuition, 
 
 EPEE, Charles Michel, Abbe de 1', a 
 noted French teacher of deaf-mutes, and the 
 founder oi the Bystem of instructing the deaf and 
 dumb by means of a language of signs, was born 
 at Versailles, Nov. 25., 1712, and died in Paris, 
 
 Dec. 23., 1789. lie was at first an ecclesiastic. 
 
 but was suspended from the priesthood in conse- 
 quence of his .lanseni.-t opinions. While living 
 
 a life of literary leisure in Paris, he, in 17.">.V 
 chanced upon two deaf-mute sisters whose edu-' 
 cation had been commenced by Pere Yanin. but 
 who were then, in consequence of his death, 
 without the means of instruction. I>e I'Epee 
 took so great an interest in their condition, that 
 he determined to undertake the task of teaching 
 them. lie at first continued the method of 
 Yanin. that of pictures, and then tried articula- 
 tion ; but being dissatisfied with these methods. 
 he conceived the idea of using a system of signs. 
 lie succeeded so well that he took others under 
 his instruction, and soon organized a school 
 which he continued, at his own expense, till Iris 
 death. It is said that, even in his 7<ith year, he 
 deprived himself of fuel in order to support his 
 school. Joseph II. of Austria and Catherina II. 
 of Russia offered him royal gifts, but he declined 
 them; as his great wish was to obtain the royal 
 endowment of an institution for deaf-mute edu- 
 cation. I lis desire was not realized till after bis 
 death. A bronze statue has been erected at 
 Versailles to the memory of De I'Epee, and a 
 bas-relief placed by citizens of Sweden in the 
 church of St. Sulpiee. In L855, the centennial 
 anniversary of the establishment of bis school 
 was celebrated at Paris by a large concourse of 
 persons, including delegations from many of the 
 countries of Europe, lie wrote a work entitled 
 Institution des sourds et muets (2 vols., Paris, 
 I 77 I 1. which was revised and republished under 
 the title of 7w veritable maniere d'instrtiire les 
 sourds et muets (Paris. L784). P. Berthier, a 
 deaf-mute, wrote bis biography [L'Abbe de VE- 
 p4e, sa Pie, son Apostolat, etc., 1852). — See 
 
 also I. VALETTE, 17c «/c /'.|////e 1/.' /7.'/» : 1 I'aris. 
 
 L857) ; and Bebian, Eloge de C. dl.de VEpee 
 (1833). 
 
 EPISCOPAL CHURCH, in the wider 
 sense of the word, is applied to any church hav- 
 ing an episcopal form of government. In a nar- 
 rower sense, it is commonly used as the collect ive 
 nunc of the churches which had their origin in 
 the English Reformation under Henry VIII. The 
 
 most important of these bodies are the Church 
 of England, the Church of Ireland, and the 
 Protestant Kpiscopal Church of the United 
 
 States. The church of England and the Church 
 
 of Ireland constituted, from L801, in which year 
 the Act of Union between England and Ireland 
 was passed, until dan. I .. Is71 , when the Church 
 of Ireland was disestablished, only one body 
 under the name of the United Church of Eng- 
 land and Ireland. Now each of these churches 
 is an independent body, as are also the Scotch 
 Episcopal Church and the Protestanl Episcopal 
 ( lunch of the United States. In L867, the 
 
 bishops of all these churches assembled ill a 
 
 Pananglican Council, under the presidency of 
 
 the Archbishop of Canterbury, to deliberate on 
 
 the common interests of these bodies. \\ e shall 
 treat of these churches separately. 
 
 I. The Church of England The parent 
 body is the Church of England. When its con- 
 nection with tin' see of Rome was severed, under 
 Benry VIII., the avowed intention was to return 
 
EPISCOPAL CHURCH 
 
 281 
 
 to the purity of the primitive church and to re- 
 tail! its creed and its discipline. The doctrinal 
 standards of the church are. after the Scriptuj ss, 
 the Book of Homilies, the Thirty-Nine Articles, 
 
 and the Prayer-Hook. There arc within the 
 church three widely differing schools, known as 
 the High Church, the Low Church, and the 
 Broad Church. The High Church men regard 
 
 the apostolical succession in the three orders of 
 the ministry as a divine institution: the Low 
 Church men generally look upon episcopacy as 
 not essential to the being of the church, and 
 recognize the claims of dissenters to he members 
 of Christ's body. The Broad Church, which is 
 of more recent origin, is tolerant of doctrinal 
 difference : and. while its own tendency is toward 
 what is called liberal Christianity, it would keep 
 the platform of the church sufficiently broad to 
 have room also for the high and low church 
 parties. The Church of England is the established 
 church in England and Wales, and the king is its 
 supreme head on earth. England as an ecclesi- 
 astical territory is divided into two provinces, 
 Canterbury and York, with an archbishop in 
 each and 25 bishops. Each province has a pro- 
 vincial synod, called a convocation and consist- 
 ing of two houses, the upper house, which com- 
 prises all the bishops of the province, and the 
 lower house, which comprises the deans, arch- 
 deacons, proctors of chapters, and proctors for 
 the parochial clergy. The convocation is sum- 
 moned by the archbishop at the command of the 
 kin-', and its decisions have no legal force, since 
 the regulation of all church affaire belongs to 
 Parliament. As no religious census is taken hi 
 England and Wales, there are no official state- 
 ments of the numerical strength of the church ; 
 the population connected with it is variously 
 estimated at from 50 to 77 percent of the entire 
 population. As the Church of England is estab- 
 lished by law, most of the great institutions of 
 learning, including; the national universities of 
 Oxford. Cambridge, and Durham, and King's 
 College. London, are under its control. All these 
 four institutions have a number of theological 
 chairs, and until recently (1856) academic de- 
 grees were conferred by them only upon candi- 
 dates who had subscribed to the thirty-nine ar- 
 ticles. All the Great Public Schools and the 
 large majority of Grammar Schools are under 
 the management of clergymen of the Church of 
 England. The study of theology can now 
 be pursued at any of the universities which 
 have been named, or in one of the theological 
 seminaries which have been founded by the 
 bishops since the beginning of the present centu- 
 ry. According to the " Kalendar of the ( /hureh 
 of England for 1876." the Church of England 
 had. in 1^75, theological seminaries at Birken- 
 head (St. Aidan's, founded L846), Birmingham 
 (theological department of the Queen's College), 
 Canterbury (St. Augustine's Missionary College, 
 founded in lido, suppressed in L 53^, restored in 
 1848, to educate ministers for the distant depen- 
 dencies of the empire); Chichester (1859); Cud- 
 desdon(1854); Cumberland (St .Bees, L816); Lam- 
 
 (St. David's College, incorporated 1822); 
 Lichfield (1857); Balfebury (1860); Wells(1840). 
 
 There were in the same year, under the control 
 
 of the Church, 2.'i colleges and scl Is for the 
 
 training of school-masters and school-mistresses. 
 The educational societies connected with the 
 Church are (1 i The Society for promoting Chris- 
 tian knowledge, founded in 1698; ('-') The Na- 
 tional Society for promoting the education of the 
 1 'cor in the Principles of the established < 'hureh 
 throughout England and Wales, instituted in L811, 
 incorporated in 1817; (3) Home and Colonial 
 School Society, for training teachers and for the 
 improvement and extension of education in I 'hris- 
 tian principles, instituted in 1836; (4) Church 
 of England Education for the maintenance of 
 schools in poor districts. The number of colonial 
 and missionary dioceses of the ( 'hureh of Eng- 
 land has rapidly increased during the present 
 century, and in connection with them a large 
 number of educational institutions have been 
 established. The first colonial see established 
 was that of Nova Scotia, in 1787. In 1875, 
 the whole number of dioceses was 60, of which 
 5 were in India, 6 in the West Indies. 12 in 
 Africa, 16 in Australasia, and 15 in North 
 America. For further information in regard to 
 the schools of the Church of England in the 
 colonies see the articles on the several provinces 
 of Canada, on India, and on Australasia. 
 
 II. Tlie Church of Ireland. — Although sepa- 
 rated from the Church of England in point of 
 administration since its disestablishment, in 
 1871, it fully agrees with it in doctrine. The 
 (hureh has two archbishops, at Dublin and at 
 Armagh, and ten bishops. It is governed by a 
 general synod, meeting annually in Dublin, and 
 consisting of a house of bishops and a house of 
 clerical and lay delegates. The population con- 
 nected with the Church was, according to the- 
 census of 1871, 683,295, or over 12 per cent of 
 the total population. The largest and richest edu- 
 cational institution of Ireland, the University of 
 Dublin, also called Trinity College, is in close 
 connection with the Church of Ireland, to which 
 its officers and professors belong. As religious 
 tests have been abolished, the General Synod 
 has resolved to establish, under the direct man- 
 agement of the Church, a new divinity school. 
 The college of St. Columba, at Rathfarnham, 
 near Dublin, was founded in L843, to afford a 
 good English education, and to inculcate the 
 principles of this church. The education com- 
 mittee of the General Synod specially designs 
 " to add to the secular training of teachers in 
 the central school of the National Hoard of Edu- 
 cation, as efficient religious instruction as they 
 can impart in the very limited time at their dis- 
 posal." 
 
 III. Protestant Episcopal Church i" tl/<' 
 United States. — The organization of the "Church 
 of England people" in the United States into an 
 independent ecclesiastical body was not com- 
 pleted until 1785 : but, before this, Dr. Seabury 
 had been elected by the Episcopalians of Con- 
 necticut to be their bishop and had been conse- 
 
282 
 
 EPISCOPAL CHURCH 
 
 ERASMUS 
 
 crated, Nov. 14., 1784, by three Scottish bishops. 
 The doctrinal standards of the Church of Eng- 
 land were retained, and in the few alterations 
 which were made in the English formularies, it 
 was expressly stated that "this church is far from 
 intending to depart from the Church of England 
 in any essential point of doctrine, discipline, or 
 worship, or further than local circumstances re- 
 quire." The dioceses formerly corresponded in 
 number and extent with the states ; but, in 1834, 
 a division of the state dioceses began. Each 
 diocese has a diocesan convention, which meets 
 annually and is composed of the bishop, clergy, 
 and delegates chosen by the laity. The General 
 Convention, which meets triennially, is composed 
 of all the bishops, who constitute the upper 
 house, and four clerical and four lay delegates 
 from each diocesan convention, who constitute 
 the lower house. The Report of the U. S. Com- 
 missioner of Education for 1874 mentions the 
 following universities and colleges as being under 
 the control or influence of the Protestant Episco- 
 pal Church: College of William and Mary, at 
 Williamsburgh, Va., organized in L693; Colum- 
 bia College, in the city of New York, organized 
 in 1754 under the name of King's Collej 
 Trinity College, Hartford, Ct., L823; llobart 
 College, Geneva, N. Y., L824 ; Kenyon Coll 
 Gambier, O., 1826; Norwich University, North- 
 field, Yt., 1834; Burlington College, Burlington, 
 N. J., 1846; St. Paul's College. >almyra.\\Io., 
 1848; Racine College, Racine, Wise., L852; St. 
 Stephen's College Anandale, N. Y., 1858. Ne- 
 braska College, Nebraska City, Nebr., 1865 ; 
 Lehigh University, S. Bethlehem, Pa., L866; Mis- 
 sionary College of St. Augustine, Benicia, Cal., 
 1868; University of the South, Suwanee, Tenn., 
 1868. Columbia College, N. Y., which is enumer- 
 ated in this list, has not, however, a strictly de- 
 nominational character, as different religious de- 
 nominations are represented in the board of 
 trustees ; but the majority of the board and the 
 presidents of the institution have always belonge I 
 to the Protestant Episcopal Church. Beside these 
 institutions. 14 schools for the superior instruction 
 of women are classified as Protestant Episcopal, 
 with a considerable number of academies and 
 seminaries. The oldest theological school of the 
 church is the General Theological Seminary of 
 New- York City, which was organized in I 
 and is under the immediate control of the ' ieneral 
 Convention. The board of trustees consists of 
 all the bishops of the Protestant Episcopal 
 
 ( 'hureh, of Olie trustee from each diocese, of one 
 
 additional for every eight clergymen, of one more 
 
 trustee for every $2,000 contributed, until the 
 
 ne amounts to $10,000; and one for every 
 
 additional $10,000 < tributed. Since then. 9 
 
 other schools of tl logy have been organized. 
 
 The Sunday Si hools of the church had. in L875, 
 
 235,943 scholars taughl by 23,4 18 teachers. The 
 
 denominational societies for educational purpo ee 
 arc (1) The P. E. Society for the Promotion of 
 Evangelical Knowledge; (2) The P. B. Evan 
 ical Education Society; (3) The General P. E. 
 Sunday-School Union and Church Hook Society. 
 
 The General Convention, at its triennial meet- 
 ings, regularly appoints a joint committee on 
 Christian education. 
 
 EPISCOPAL METHODIST COLLEGE, 
 at I-ewistown, 111., an institution for the edu- 
 cation of both sexes, is under the control of the 
 Methodist Episcopal Church, South. It was 
 opened in 1873, and incorporated in 1875. It 
 has a preparatory, an academic, and a collegiate 
 course. Instruction is given in French. German, 
 music, drawing, painting, and book-keeping, for 
 which, except the last, an extra charge is made. 
 The regular tuition fee varies from $20 to $50 
 per year. For the special business course, pur- 
 sued separately, the fee is 840 a year. In L874 
 ■ — 5, there were 6 instructors and 89 students 
 preparatory. 27 academic, 13 collegiate, and 
 I 1 in special branches). W. S. McKinney is 
 
 (1876) the president. 
 
 EQUATION. Sec Algebra. 
 
 ERASMUS, Desiderius, was bom in Rot- 
 terdam, Holland, ( let. 28., 1467, and died in Basel, 
 duly 12., 1536. His original name, Gerard, he 
 translated into its supposed Latin and Greek 
 equivalents, Desiderius and 'Epdauwg; these he 
 united to form the new name which he after- 
 wards assumed. In the convent school of Deven- 
 
 ter, \\ here he was educated, he distinguished him- 
 self so much, that even then it was predicted 
 that he would become the most learned man of 
 the age. After the death of his parents, his tutors 
 sent him to a school at Bois-le-Duc to prepare 
 himself for the priesthood; and. in L486, a friend 
 persuaded him to enter a convent near Gouda. 
 In 1492, the bishop of Cambray took him into 
 his service, and he was ordained to the priesthood. 
 Five years later, he left for the University of 
 Paris; and thenceforward, he lived in France, 
 England, the Netherlands, and Italy, for the most 
 part independent, or supported by distinguished 
 patrons, lie acted as a private teacher here and 
 there, and was for a short time professor of theol- 
 ogy and Greek at Cambridge; but he soon re- 
 signed, and avoided after that any fixed position. 
 The fame of his learning spread throughout the 
 civilized world, and honorary degrees were con- 
 ferred upon him by several universities. Hi' bold- 
 ly attacked Scholastic theology, and worked most 
 powerfully to revive classical learning. This he did 
 as well by the clearness of his own style and by 
 
 his classical knowledge as by the satire and rid- 
 icule which he directed against the Scholastics. 
 For a long time the Reformers regarded him as 
 
 in sympathy with them, but he soon separated 
 from them and was even involved in a literary 
 
 conflict with Luther. In personal character, he 
 was egotistic, timid, and undecided, — faults 
 which became especially prominent at that 
 period of the Reformation. He contributed 
 
 little to the profound tint. king of his time, but 
 was a critic and a scholar rather than a phi- 
 losopher : nevertheless, his unbounded powers of 
 satire served to wrench men violently out of 
 their accustomed mode of thinking, and. in this 
 
 way, he acted as a powerful ferment, especially 
 
 in the revival of classical studies. His great 
 
ERASMUS 
 
 'ERIGENA 
 
 283 
 
 acquaintance with classical authors and his 
 mastery of the Latin language made his ridicule 
 t In- most effective possible against the dense 
 ignorance of his opponents. His two moat 
 
 famous works in this direction were his MoriCE 
 Encomium (Praiseqf Fotty), published in L512, 
 and the Couoquia Puerilia (Children's Talks), 
 in 1518. The former derided the dialectical 
 
 labyrinth in which the theologians had lost 
 themselves, the syllogisms of the Scholastics) 
 
 and the zeal with which they persecuted and 
 condemned every opinion which differed from 
 their own. The latter contains conversations upon 
 almost every thing, but, at the same time, is full 
 of satires upon the monks, a cloister life, pilgrim- 
 ages, etc. 'This book was condemned by the 
 Sorbonne, forbidden in Prance, burned in Spain, 
 and prohibited in Rome to all Christendom: 
 nevertheless, both works exerted a tremendous 
 influence. In 1516, Erasmus published an edi- 
 tion of the Greek New Testament with a Latin 
 translation, which worked powerfully in the in- 
 terests of the Reformation. Of his educational 
 works, the most important are: Adagia (The 
 Adages , published in L500; De Ratione Studii 
 (Of the Order of Studies), in L512; the trans- 
 lation of Theodore Gaza's Greek grammar; and 
 Instiiutio Principis GhrisUani (Education of a 
 Christian prince) in 1516. In 1526, he pub- 
 lished a book upon Christian matrimony, the 
 last section of which treats of family culture. 
 
 Erasmus divides education into four parts: 
 (li Religious-ethical culture; (2) Intellectual 
 culture: (3) Material culture; (4) Formal cult- 
 ure. By the third division is meant cleverness 
 or skill in our daily labors ; and. by the fourth, 
 a knowledge of the amenities of cultured society. 
 This division, however, was not very strictly ob- 
 served by him. He regarded the institution of 
 marriage as of the highest importance for the 
 proper culture of children. He gives many rules, 
 partly medical and partly moral, upon the way 
 in which matrons should live in order to secure 
 the Inst results for their children. The greatest 
 car. he asserted, should be taken with young 
 children to prevent vanity and vice from spring- 
 ing up. Good birth is much, but good education 
 is nmre. In the weight which he placed upon edu- 
 cation in comparison with inherited tendencies, 
 Erasmus incurred the charge of Pelagianism. 
 Indeed, in his work 1)*' Pueris statim ac 
 liberaliter instituendis, he expressly refers the 
 chief part of so-called original sin. to temptation 
 and bad example. Instruction proper should 
 no1 begin before the seventh year. Upon the 
 subject of teachers and school-houses. Erasmus is 
 never tired of pouring out a flood of ridicule. 
 The greatest care should be taken in the selection 
 of teachers ; and if possible, instruction should be 
 
 private. The contagion of great schools oughl to 
 be guarded against. A clear pronunciation, as well 
 as facility in reading and writing, is an absolute 
 necessity for all classes. Rich parents, however, 
 should not fail to teach their children some 
 trade. The study of language Should precede 
 the study of things, as a knowledge of things can 
 
 be reached only through language. The first 
 thing to study is Greek and Latin grammar, for 
 
 nearly every thing worth knowing is found in 
 these languages. They should also be studied 
 together, as their near relationship lightens the 
 labor of acquiring them. The grammatical rules 
 must be as i'i'\\ and precise as possible; and the 
 study of language should be carried on rather by 
 leading than by learning rules by heart. As soon 
 
 as anyone has a. fair foundation in the languages, 
 
 he should proceed to study things. The best 
 sources for this study are the Greek authors. 
 Care should be taken to strengthen the memory, 
 and the best means are a right understanding of 
 the subject, a proper order of thought, and 
 careful distinction. The notion that all Latinity 
 must be Ciceronian filled him with incredible 
 disgust. The study of Latin ought to include 
 all the authors, and those pretended Ciceronians 
 who will hear of nobody but ('ieero were in- 
 tolerable. The pseudo-classical enthusiasm which 
 could find nothing valuable in any other litera- 
 ture also came in for condemnation. Above ami 
 before all else, is religious instruction important. 
 The minds of children must be so oiled with 
 the great facts of the Christian religion, that it 
 shall seem to them the greatest reality of life. 
 The world and life must always be spoken of as 
 under the immediate control of God. If good 
 seed be sown in this way. the best fruit may be 
 looked for ; still the most important means of 
 teaching morality is by example. 
 
 Erasmus insisted also upon similar instruction 
 for girls. It is sufficient according to many, he 
 says, to keep a girl shut up and away from men 
 until she is married, while often enough she is 
 more injured by shallow women than by an as- 
 sociation with men. Chastity must of course be 
 maintained ; but she alone is chaste who knows 
 what chastity is, and how to maintain it. Inno- 
 cence suffers chiefly from bad example ; and 
 parents ought to be careful to do nothing unbe- 
 coming in the presence of even their youngest 
 daughters. He also inveighs severely against 
 love songs and romances, lascivious dances 
 and pictures. Girls, too. ought to receive a 
 liberal education. The multitude holds it to be 
 folly, but wise men know that nothing is more 
 advantageous to the morals of women than ex- 
 tended knowledge. 
 
 An edition of the works of Erasmus was 
 published, after his death, by Uheiianus. at P>asel 
 (9 vols.. 1540 — 11): a more complete edition 
 
 was published by Le Clerc, in Leyden (1<» vols., 
 fob. 17(13 — 6). Biographies of Erasmus haw 
 been published in English by Jortin, Knight. 
 Charles Butler, and lb B. Drummond (2 vols., 
 
 London. 1 873 I. 
 
 ERIGENA, John Scotus, one of the great- 
 est philosophers and scholars of the middle ages, 
 was born in the beginning of the 9th century in 
 One of the British Islands (probably Ireland), and 
 died about SMI. Charles the Laid appointed him 
 
 head-master to the court school of Paris, which 
 under his direction made so great progress, that it 
 was no Longer called schola PalcUii, but Palatium 
 
284 
 
 ERNESTI 
 
 ESTHETIC CULTURE 
 
 pi 
 
 T 
 
 sckolce. His instruction, which was confined 
 chiefly to philosophy and the classics, (fare a 
 great impulse to the progress of philosophical 
 studies. As his own philosophical views re- 
 sembled, in some respects, those held by the 
 Neoplatonista of Alexandria, he has been called 
 the fast of that school : at the same time, he is 
 rded as (he first forerunner of the Scholas- 
 tics. Special works on Erigena have been written 
 by Staudenmaier (1H34), Taillandier (1843), and 
 Huber (1861). 
 
 ERNESTI, John August, a German 
 ihilologist ami educator, horn August 4., 1707, in 
 ennstiidt, Thuringiajdied September LI., 1781. 
 In 1731, lie became connected with the Thomas 
 School at Leipsic; and. in 1 711*. he was made 
 professor at the university of the same city, in 
 which position he remained until his death. His 
 chief fame rests upon bis philological studies and 
 writings. He edited a great many classical works, 
 and was a most enthusiastic Humanist. His 
 work on the interpretation of the New Testa- 
 ment [InstitvMo Tnterpretis Nbvi TestamenH, 
 3d edit.. 17"."): English translation by ( '. II. 
 Perrot, Edinburgh, 2 vols.. L833 13) opened the 
 way to a freer exegesis of the Scriptures, and is 
 regarded as a forerunner of the later rationalistic 
 criticism. The sum of all culture lay. for him. 
 in the classics. "They unite beauty of conl 
 with beauty of form : and out of them one wins 
 political sagacity, practical wisdom, and moral 
 culture." According to his method, less weight is 
 
 placed upon grai atical rules than upon diligenl 
 
 reading, which he thoughl th ■ best way to learn 
 to read and write Latin fluently. This reading, 
 too, should be rapid, taking in whole hooks in a 
 short time; thishethoughl a betterwayof acquir- 
 ing the spirit of a language than spending weeks 
 
 upon single sentences with grammar and diction- 
 ary. Literal translation he banished, and in- 
 sisted upon an acquaintance with the public life 
 of the ancients, in order to understand them 
 rightly. Besides his classical works. Ernesti 
 
 published a book upon tin' elements of various 
 
 studies (Initio Doctrince Solidioris). It treats 
 
 of arithmetic, geometry, and the elements of 
 philosophy. These are divided into five parts : 
 
 1 1 ) Metaphysics, embracing ontology, psychology, 
 
 ami natural theology; (2) Dialectics; (3) Morals, 
 
 embracing ethics and the law of nature: ill 
 
 Politics ; (5) Physics. The high estimation in 
 
 which Ernest] was held in Saxony, is shown by 
 
 the fact that his system was adopted by the 
 state Latin schools in 1 77.".. and remained almost 
 entirely unchanged until I 835. 
 
 ERSKINE COLLEGE, at Due West. Ab- 
 beville Co., S. C, under the control of the Re- 
 formed Presbyterians (the Associate Reformed 
 Synod of the South), was founded in L839. It 
 has large and commodious buildings ; libraries, 
 containing 12,500 volumes; a well selected 
 ological cabinet ; a philosophical and chemical 
 apparatus: together with an excellent equatorial, 
 refracting telescope, mounted in an observatory 
 which affords a magnificenl view of the heavens. 
 The amount of its productive funds i.- $45,000. 
 
 There is a preparatory course of two years, and 
 a collegiate course of four years. In 1874 — 5, 
 there were ■ > professors. 77 students (56 collegiate, 
 13 preparatory, and 8 irregular), and 356 
 alumni. The Lev. W. M. Grier, 1>. P.. is 
 
 i I 876) the president. 
 
 ESTHETIC CULTURE. Esthetics (Gr. 
 al<T&ijTiK6g, from aitr&aveo&cu, to perceive!, the 
 
 science which treats of taste and its object, the 
 beautiful in nature and art. has been recog- 
 nized, since the middle of the last century, as 
 an independent branch of philosophy. Depend- 
 ing, as it does, upon the exercise of a special fac- 
 ulty of the mind, it forms a part of the basis of 
 a complete and harmoniou> education. How- 
 ever well the intellect, the will, or the conscience 
 of an individual may have been trained, if es- 
 thetic culture is wanting, he must continue rude 
 and unrefined; ami. hence, in a comparison of 
 nations which are esthetically cultivated with 
 such as are deficient in this respect, we find a 
 marked difference in the degree as well as in the 
 general character of the civilization which they 
 respectively present. The esthetic element. how- 
 ever, cannot lie wholly wanting. Even the rud- 
 est nations or the most barbarous tribes manifest 
 delight in those objects which satisfy their nat- 
 ural sense of the beautiful. Like children, they 
 fci| an intense fondness for showy ornaments, 
 uncouth pictures and images, harsh and dis- 
 cordant music, and grotesque dances. The love 
 of these things BpringS from the esthetic prin- 
 ciple in their minds, in its uncultivated and 
 partly undeveloped condition. Their percep- 
 tions of the beautiful are. like their thoughts and 
 
 their reasonings, processes unregulated and mis- 
 directed. They have, also, the moral sense- the 
 sense of right and wrong, but not knowing how 
 to distinguish right from wrong, thev often eon- 
 Bcientiously perform acts which, judged by a 
 proper standard of rectitude, are reprehensible 
 
 in the highest degree; for conscience is only the 
 general impression that a distinction between 
 right and wrong exists, not a power to discrim- 
 inate between specific right ana wrong. In the 
 
 Same manner, the esthetic principle is the sense 
 
 by which the mind, in a general way. distin- 
 guishes between what is beautiful and w hat is 
 ugly; but ii does not teach specifically what ob- 
 jects tire beautiful. Hence, however advanced 
 pel-sons may he in esthetic culture, they will still 
 
 differ to some extent iii this specific discrimina- 
 tion. This difference we attribute to a diversity 
 
 of taste, the word taste being used to designate 
 
 the esthetic principle or faculty of the mind. 
 We find, also, the same diversity in the exercise 
 
 ot the moral sense, in the absence of a settled 
 
 standard, some persons regarding as worthy of 
 
 approbation the same act that others look upon 
 as decidedly sinful. 
 
 The aim of esthetic education must, therefore. 
 
 be to cultivate the sense of the beautiful, i. e.,the 
 taste, 1 1 i by Bhowing what the elements of beau- 
 ty are, and thus establishing in the mind a proper 
 standard of the beautiful: (2) by presenting to 
 the mind simple forms of beauty, tor the purpose 
 
ESTHETIC CULTURE 
 
 285 
 
 of illustrating this analysis of the elements, ami 
 
 also impressing tliein deeply upon the mind, as 
 the Foundation of esthetic culture; and (3) by 
 practice in criticism, so that the mind may be 
 trained to judge whether in any complex object, 
 
 either of nature or art. the elementary principles 
 of beauty are present, and in their normal or 
 proper combination. The elements of beauty 
 are to lie sought for in the constitution of the 
 human mind; and. therefore, our knowledge of 
 what they are and how they are to be combined 
 must lie derived from experience and observation, 
 upon the results of which esthetics as a science 
 must be based. The educator must, antecedent- 
 ly to the exercise of his professional skill, have 
 acquired a knowledge of this, just as the teacher 
 of mathematics or of physics must be versed in 
 those branches, b fore lie learns how to teach 
 them : but with this difference, that in esthetical 
 culture, it is the faculty that is immediately ad- 
 dressed, the primary object being disciplinary ; 
 while in most other departments of instruction, 
 discipline is a secondary object, the primary aim 
 being to impart a knowledge of the subject 
 taught. To illustrate, we do not, in elementary 
 schools, teach esthetics as such ; but we strive to 
 cultivate the esthetic faculty by instruction in 
 drawing, painting, music, etc. (See Art-Educa- 
 tion. Drawing, and Music.) In this department 
 of teaching, the practical value of the subjects 
 themselves is a consideration of great importance, 
 but the development of the pupil's taste is in- 
 dispensable to any true progress, and, therefore, 
 during the earlier stages at least, must be the pri- 
 mary aim of the educator. When the mind has 
 become enriched with varied forms of beauty, the 
 mechanical skill will soon advance to the degree 
 requisite to give them expression. This work 
 commences in the kindergarten, and is continued 
 in the object lessons of the primary school, by 
 means of varied exercises in form (q. v.) or 
 color (q. v.) The most rudimental exercises in 
 drawing should have a strict reference to this 
 principle; that is to say, the pupils should be re- 
 quired to delineate not uncouth figures, but 
 simple forms of beauty. The hand and the eye 
 may be trained, it is true, by practice in drawing 
 any forms, whether beautiful or not ; but the 
 taste is to be developed and cultivated as well ; 
 and, therefore, only such forms as appeal to the 
 esthetic sense should lie, at first, presented. The 
 elementary forms of the script letters are illus- 
 trative of the esthetic principle ; and, hence, 
 writing is a means of esthetic culture. The let- 
 ters themselves being, however, complex forms, 
 it is held that rudimentary drawing should pre- 
 cede writing. "The experience of many good 
 teachers," says Wickersham, " seems to prove 
 that pupils should receive instruction in the ele- 
 ments of drawing before they begin to write, 
 and that such lessons are better calculated than 
 any others to aid the pupil in attaining the 
 power of conceiving forms correctly." 
 
 Esthetics is not only concerned in the beauty 
 of forms; it embraces the objects of every bodily 
 sense, and also of what may be called the inner 
 
 sense, a discriminative consciousness of the 
 beautiful ill thought and action, which the rhet- 
 orician, the poet, and the orator recognize and 
 address in their several spheres of activity. That 
 
 pari of esthetics which depends upon the ob- 
 jects of hearing is cultivated by means of music, 
 which is the expression of the beautiful in 
 sound. The same guiding principle is appli- 
 cable to instruction in this as to the teaching of 
 form. Simple melodious combinations, regular 
 and beautiful in themselves, should be constantly 
 employed; all that is harsh and dissonant should 
 be avoided. (See Music] The beauty of com- 
 position, that is, rhetorical beauty, depending up- 
 on subtler principles, requires a more careful 
 treatment in education. Habit and association, 
 however, play an important part in this branch 
 of esthetic culture; and, therefore, the child, 
 even from its earliest years, should be accus- 
 tomed to hear only chaste, pure expressions; and 
 the most familiar colloquialisms should be en- 
 tirely tree from what is coarse and vulgar, and 
 especially from slang. The esthetic element in 
 poetry cannot be addressed until an advanced 
 stage of culture has been reached. Poetiy is 
 the expression of the beautiful by means of 
 words ; it embraces rhetorical beauty, and the 
 beauty of thought and action, as well as of ex- 
 ternal forms. 
 
 From what has been said, it will be quite ob- 
 vious that teachers themselves should possess 
 esthetic culture, and should fully understand the 
 peculiar function of this department of educa- 
 tion in a harmonious development of the human 
 mind. Nothing with which the young pupil i;- 
 brought in contact should be of such a character 
 as to offend the finest taste. What may be 
 called the esthetics of the school-room should re- 
 ceive the most careful attention. There are, in 
 every school-room, resources for producing pleas- 
 ant impressions. The furniture should be neat 
 and tasteful, and should be kept in precise order; 
 the apartment should be scrupulously clean; and. 
 as far as possible, should be embellished with 
 pleasing natural objects, such as flowers, plants, 
 shells, etc.; as well as with simple works of art, — 
 pietures, busts, etc. Maps, globes, and other 
 school apparatus, kept in good order, and ar- 
 ranged in the school-room in a proper maimer 
 and ready for use, will have a pleasing and happy 
 effect on the minds of the pupils. The following 
 are. the observations of a practical teacher who 
 has evidently learned to apply the esthetic 
 culture of her own mind to the simple purposes 
 of district school instruction: "Much can be 
 done toward making a room pleasant by a skill- 
 ful seating of pupils. There are harmonies of 
 proportion and color to be observed. A girls' 
 school always seems brighter than a boys' school. 
 The colors of the dress of girls give warmth to 
 the room in winter, and the light clothing of 
 summer gives an air of freshness and coolness. 
 The eye requires that the pupils shall be graded 
 from rear to front according to size. A hap- 
 hazard arrangement in this regard is never satis- 
 factory But, after all, the soul of the teacher 
 
28<» 
 
 ETIEXXE 
 
 EVENING SCHOOLS 
 
 has greatly to do -with the beauty of the school. 
 A light clows in the face of the conscientious, 
 gentle, sympathetic teacher, which illuminates 
 all the room with its brightness. In the reflec- 
 tion of her own character, she sees in the Beats 
 truthfulness, confidence, respect, and love: and 
 so the spiritual beauty sanctities and glorifies all 
 the beauty secured by ornamentation, by any 
 and everydevice in material things." 
 
 Among the foremost writers on esthetics, are 
 Baumgarten, who first established the claims of 
 
 esthetics to he classed as a separate science, I le- 
 
 gel, Schiller, Vischer, Carriere, in Germany; 
 < krasin, Jouffroy, and Taine, in France : Dugald 
 Stewart. Bntchison, Alison, Jeffrey, and Payne 
 Knight, in England; and Henry N. Day (Tlie 
 Science of Esthetics, New Haven, L872) and 
 Bascom [Lectureson Esthetics, New York, L872), 
 in the United States. A critical history of 
 esthetics, from Plato to the present times, has 
 been written by Schuster [Eritische Geschichte 
 d( r Aesthetik, Berlin, L872). 
 
 ETIENNE, or Estienne, Henry and 
 Robert. Sec Stephens. 
 
 ETON COLLEGE. See England. 
 
 ETYMOLOGY (Gr. hvfioXayia, from irv- 
 fiov,ihe true meaning of a word), a depart- 
 ment of philological science which explains the 
 derivation of words and their literal meaning. 
 'This is historical etymology. (See English, 
 Study of.) The term etymology is also ap- 
 plied to that part of grammar which relates to 
 the classification of words as parts of a sen- 
 tence, and their various inflections, used to in- 
 dicate their relations to one ; fcher, or modifi- 
 cations of the general ideas which they express. 
 This is grammatical etymology. (See Grammar.) 
 Asa branch of elementary instruction, it teaches 
 the component parts of words.— root, prefix, and 
 suffix, and by explaining the primitive meaning 
 of these parts in the language from which they 
 
 are derived, shows the exact literal meaning of 
 the words. (See WORDS, ANALYSIS OP.) 
 
 EUREKA COLLEGE, at Eureka, Wood- 
 ford county, 111., under the control of the 
 Church of the Disciples, was founded as an 
 academy in L849, and chartered as a college in 
 L855. The college campus is in a spacious grove 
 of forest trees. There are two substantial brick 
 buildings. The endowment fund is Dearly 
 850,000, only about half of which is now avail 
 able. The institution has libraries containing 
 2,500 volumes, apparatus for the illustration oi 
 the physical sciences, and a museum of geology 
 and natural history. It comprises live depart- 
 ments; namely, college, Bible (preparatory to 
 the ministry), normal, business, and music The 
 college department comprises a preparatory, a 
 
 ■ ■a laureate (similar to the ordinary colic-.' 
 COm ieniitie. and an academic course. 
 
 The scientific course differs from the baccalaure- 
 ate in omitting the Greek and one half of the 
 Latin. The academic course omits the Greek, 
 one half of the Latin, two terms in algebra, an- 
 alytical ge !trj and the calculus, and adds 
 
 French or German. French or German may 
 
 be substituted for the Latin of the scientific 
 and the academic course. The college year is 
 divided into three terms, and the tuition fee 
 per term is as follows : preparatory course, $8 ; 
 Bible, free: college, 810: normal. $10. In 
 1-7 I — 5, there were (i professors, 215 students 
 in the College department. 27 in the Bible de- 
 partment. 68 in«he commercial department, and 
 47 in the music department; total, deducting rep- 
 etitions, 234, of whom 146 were males and 88 
 females: the number of alumni was 71. The 
 presidents have been as follows: W'm.M. Brown, 
 George Callender, C. L. Loos, B. W. Johnson, 
 H. \\ . Everest, A. M. Weston, and B. J. Bad- 
 ford, the present incumbent. 
 
 EVANGELICAL ASSOCIATION, a re- 
 ligious denomination in the United States, which 
 took its rise in Pennsylvania in 1800, through the 
 labors of the Rev. Jacob Albright, who desired 
 to reform the German churches in eastern Penn- 
 sylvania. 'I he confession of faith and the polity 
 of this church are so similar to that of the Meth- 
 odist Episcopal Church, that it has sometimes 
 
 been called the German Methodist Church. Like 
 the Methodists, it has annual conferences and a 
 general conference, which meetsevery four years. 
 
 The form of government is episcopal, but its 
 
 bishops are elected only for a term of four years, 
 not. as among the Methodists, for life. For 25 
 
 years, the church had to struggle against violent 
 
 opposition : hut since then it has made rapid 
 
 progress ; so that, in 1875, it had 1 9 annual con- 
 ferences with 836 itinerant preachers, 519 local 
 preachers, 95,253 members, and L ,233 churches. 
 
 The church arose among the Germans, and has 
 remained to a large extent a German-speaking 
 body. Two of the annual conferences are out- 
 side of the United States, the one in Canada, 
 
 and the ot her in Germany. The first college of 
 
 the church, the Noort h-ucstem College, was or- 
 
 ganizedal Plainfield, Will Co.. 111., in L861,and 
 received a charter in L865. In 1870, the coll 
 was removed to Naperville. I >u Page Co.. 111., 
 and has now an endowment fund of 9100,000. 
 rts annual expenditures amount to about SI 4.000. 
 (See North-western College.) A theological 
 school, The Union Biblical Institute, has bees 
 established in connection with the college, at the 
 same place, having an endowment fund of 
 $30,000. Other educational institutions under 
 the control of the church are the Union Semi- 
 nary, at New Berlin, Pa., and the Ebenezer 
 Orphan Institution, at Flatrock, Ohio. Great 
 
 attention is given to the Sunday-school cause. 
 
 The Dumber of schools of this class was re- 
 ported, at the General Conference of L875, as 
 1,509, with 16,875 officers and teachers and 
 
 90,090 scholars. 
 EVENING SCHOOLS, or Night Schools, 
 
 have been established in many count ric-. gener- 
 ally in large cities, as a part of the public-scl 1 
 
 Bystem, for two purposes: (I) to give to those 
 
 of (he school population w ho cannot avail them- 
 selves of the advantages of the day school, an op- 
 portunity to obtain an elementary education: 
 and. i '.' i to enable adults who have finished the 
 
EVENING SCHOOLS 
 
 287 
 
 oonrse of instruction in the public flay school, to 
 acquire additional knowledge, especially on sub- 
 jects relating to their particular occupations or 
 professions. In England, France, Italy, and 
 Germany, there are elementary evening schools 
 for children employed in factories; in the 
 United States, a large portion of the pupils of 
 evening schools consists of persons who have 
 passed the school age. In most cases, the school 
 regulations exclude all children below a certain 
 age, and also provide that no pupils shall be ad- 
 mitted who are not engaged in a useful occupa- 
 tion during the day. In those countries where edu- 
 cation has been made compulsory, the evening 
 schools are almost exclusively schools for adults, 
 being chiefly intended to give to young apprentices, 
 mechanics, clerks, or peasants an opportunity to 
 continue their school education. (See Adults, 
 Schools for.) In Germany, the Sunday-schools 
 inn- served for this purpose, as the keeping 
 of evening schools on week-days is of com- 
 paratively recent origin. But wherever even- 
 ing schools have been established, they are pre- 
 ferred by a large number of pupils. In some 
 countries, the Sunday school and the evening 
 school are combined, the pupils being taught in 
 some subjects, such as drawing, on Sundays, and 
 in others on the evenings of the week days. Even- 
 ing high schools, which offer instruction in the 
 higher 1 (ranches of study, or afford technical in- 
 struction to artisans and others, are compara- 
 tively rare. Such are the Evening High School 
 and the schools of the Cooper Union (q. v.), of 
 the City of New York, the Maryland Institute 
 Art Night Schools in Baltimore, and the O'Fal- 
 lon Polytechnic Institute of St. Louis. In some 
 of the large cities of the United States, foreigners 
 derive very great benefit from the evening scho< >ls, 
 in the instruction afforded in the English lan- 
 guage by teachers who speak the language of 
 the students. Free evening drawing schools 
 are quite numerous in many parts of the United 
 States as well as in some of the countries of 
 Europe. For statistics in regard to the evening 
 schools in the different cities, see their respective 
 titles, hi England, according to the " New Code 
 of Regulations," of 1876, the managers of an 
 evening school which has held not less than forty- 
 five sessions in the course of a year, may claim a 
 government grant. Special provisions regulate 
 the examination of each of these schools. The 
 number of night schools in England, in 1875, 
 was ~:>, with 38,597 male pupils, and 8,785 
 females. In Wurtemberg, local magistrates are 
 authorized to enforce the statutes by which all 
 mechanics who have attained the 16th year are 
 required to attend the technical complementary 
 evening schools, thus making evening school in- 
 struction compulsory, fn the city of St. Louis, 
 evening school pupils are rewarded for regular 
 and punctual attendance, good behavior, and at- 
 tention to study, by a years free membership in 
 the public library. More than L,000 of these 
 pupils have obtained this award during a single 
 term by attending sixty evenings out of the sixty- 
 four. 
 
 In the organization and management of even- 
 ing schools, great care should lie taken to adapt 
 the subjects and processes of instruction to the 
 age, character, and circumstances of the pupils. 
 Those methods which are particularly appropri- 
 ate for the education of children, and most of the 
 machinery of school-keeping which is associated 
 with childhood should be discarded as distasteful 
 
 to the more mature years and more serious pur- 
 pose of evening school students. The studies 
 pursued should be practical, and, as far as pos- 
 sible, should have an immediate reference to the 
 pursuits and occupations of the students. The 
 usefulness of the knowledge imparted inthisclass 
 
 of scl Is, is paramount, to any consideration of 
 
 mental discipline, the latter being of secondary 
 importance. On this principle, drawing, book- 
 keeping, penmanship, and phonography, have 
 proved eminently popular branches of study. 
 The same principle should guide in the selection 
 of teachers, none but those of superior tact, ex- 
 perience, and skill being appointed to this work. 
 They should also be of mature years and char- 
 acter. A young man or a young woman who 
 attends school with an earnest desire for self- 
 improvement, is not willing to submit to trivial, 
 perfunctory, or formal school-teaching ; and 
 the very seriousness of the student's purpose 
 renders his judgment of the teacher extremely 
 critical and severe. Mere amateurs in teaching 
 should never be allowed to trifle with the time 
 of evening school students. When the teaching 
 is of a right character, the discipline will take 
 care of itself, provided the organization of the 
 school is correct, and the rules proper and judi- 
 cious. None but those who are zealous in study 
 should be permitted to attend these schools. 
 Evening schools cannot be efficient reformatory 
 institutions unless especially organized for that 
 purpose. In the Report of tho Superintendent 
 of Schools of the City of New York for 1871, 
 there is found an enumeration of the difficulties 
 experienced in conducting the evening schools of 
 that city, probably experienced also in most 
 other places. These are, briefly, as follows : (1) 
 The difficulty in obtaining for these schools 
 teachers of the requisite capability (the super- 
 intendent remarking, that "teachers of mature 
 judgment, extensive general information, tact in 
 management, and, above all, an earnest spirit, 
 are especially needed ; (2) The imperfect organ- 
 ization of these schools, owing to the haste with 
 which pupils are admitted, and the consequent 
 inaccuracy of their classification ; (3) Pupils are 
 admitted at too early an age; very young boys 
 and girls (under 12) do great injury to the school, 
 being generally in a, physically exhausted con- 
 dition, and so unlit for any mental exercise as 
 to be often found asleep at their desks ; besides, 
 
 the older pupils are disgusted and repelled by 
 
 being classed with these young children ; (4) The 
 exercises are dull and uninteresting to that large 
 
 class of fche pupils who. feeling deeply t he neei I 
 
 of elementary education, are willing to devi 
 
 themselves lal loriously, during the winter even- 
 in--, to obtain it ; (5) The absence of instructive 
 
288 
 
 EVERETT 
 
 EXAMINATIONS 
 
 and interesting lectures, calculated to make a 
 deep impression upon the minds of the pupils, 
 enkindling an ambition for excellence and a love 
 of rectitude and truth. This statement of defi- 
 ciencies may very well serve to show what con- 
 ditions and characteristics are requisite to insure 
 efficiency in this class of schools. There can be 
 no doubt that such schools constitute an essen- 
 tial part of every common-school system, partic- 
 ularly in large communities, in which many chil- 
 dren are obliged to leave the day school before 
 they have acquired even the rudiments of an 
 education. The office of technical schools, while 
 different, is no less important, since an increase of 
 skilled labor in any community is one of the hk ><t 
 valuable elements of its wealth and prosperity. 
 
 EVERETT, Edward, an illustrious Amer- 
 ican orator and statesman, distinguished for his 
 advocacy of common schools, and his liberal and 
 
 enlightened views in regard to education in gen- 
 eral, lie was born in Dorchester, Mass., April 
 11., 1794, and died in Boston, Jan. 15., L865. 
 At the early age of 1 7. he graduated at 1 [arvard 
 Coll ii the highest honors, and became a 
 
 tutor in that institution, at the same time pur- 
 suing divinity studies. In L813, he was settled 
 as pastor of a church in Boston, and soon became 
 distinguished tor the eloquence of his sermons. 
 Subsequently, he was for several years Eliol pro- 
 fessor of Greek in Harvard College. J lis public 
 life began in I siM, when he was elected to Con- 
 gress, m which he served continuously for ten 
 years. In is,'!."), he was elected governor of 
 Massachusetts, and was three times re-elected. In 
 L840, he was appointed minister plenipotentiary 
 to England; and in this position, was enabled 
 to perform very important services for the Uni- 
 ted States. On his return, in L845, he was 
 elected president of Harvard College. In 1852, 
 he was appointed to succeed Daniel Webster as 
 secretary of state. on the decease of that eminent 
 statesman, and served during the last four 
 months of Fillmore's administration. The nexl 
 
 year, he was elected to the United States senate; 
 but, in consequence of ill health, he resigned his 
 
 Beat the year after. In 1HG0, he received the 
 nomination of vice) president of the United 
 States, on the ticket w ith John Bell of Tennessee 
 as president. 1 1 is oration on Washington, re- 
 peated about L50 times in various parts of the 
 United States, added greatly to his fame as an 
 orator as well as a patriot, inasmuch as the pro- 
 ceeds from its delivery were in the main COD 
 triliutcd to the Mount Vernon fund. During 
 the civil war, Everetl adhered strongly to the 
 cause of the Union, which be benefited by many 
 eloquent and patriotic speeches. In L863, he 
 
 delivered the address at the consecration of the 
 
 national cemetery at Gettysburg, Pa His last 
 address was delivered in Paneuil Ball, Boston, 
 
 in behalf of the Buffering people Of Savannah, 
 
 only a few days before his death. It is not in- 
 tended here to give mon- than a brief reference 
 
 to his career as a statesman ; as an orator, he 
 Was distinguished for dignity and elegance- in de- 
 livery; and his published orations, which till 
 
 four large volumes, contain an amount of intel- 
 lectual' wealth of priceless value, still further en- 
 riched by a style of unsurpassed elegance. In 
 relation to education, the most valuable of these 
 addresses are. The Education of Mankind, de- 
 livered in 1833 ; Education favorable to IAb rrty, 
 Moral*, mul Kiiitir/i'i/i/i', in 1835 ; Superior and 
 Popular Education, in 1837; Education the 
 Nurture of the Mind, in 1838 ; Importance of 
 Education in a Republic, in 1838; Normal 
 Schools, in ls3(), in which he reviewed the his- 
 tory of normal-school instruction, and advocated, 
 in the most intelligent and eloquent manner, the 
 necessity of special training and instruction for 
 teachers: Urn' remit// Education, in 1846 ; Con- 
 ditions of a Good School, in 1851 ; Education 
 ami Civilization, in 1S52; and Academical 
 Education, L857. His various utterances in 
 regard to education have been collected and pub- 
 lished in a single volume. A full collection of 
 his Orations and Speeches on Various Occa- 
 sions has been published in four volumes 
 (Boston. 18(59). 
 
 EXAMINATIONS constitute an important 
 part of the educator's work in order to test the 
 result of what has already been accomplished, 
 and to incite his pupils to additional efforts. 
 
 While it is perfectly true that the best effects of 
 educational training can be but imperfectly, if at 
 
 all, tested by any personal examination; yet. 
 there is no other ready and definite method of 
 
 ascertaining the efficacy of the teacher's work 
 
 and the proficiency of the student. Examina- 
 tions, moreover, are of great educative value, if 
 they are conducted on sound principles. The 
 judicious examiner who is master of the subject, 
 while ascertaining what the student has learned, 
 necessarily, to some extent, shows him what he 
 has failed to learn, either in consequence of an 
 imperfect method of Study or a lack of attention 
 to certain important parts of the subject. Thus 
 he is taught how to make his future efforts more 
 Successful ; and, further, by coining in contact 
 with a mind more mature in its operations and 
 attainments, he obtains views of the subject 
 which no amount of study of his own could im- 
 part. On this account, examination and recita- 
 tion should go hand in hand, the student show- 
 ing, in the first place, what he has learned of the 
 leSSOn assigned to him. and the teacher then, by 
 skillful examination, demonstrating to him his 
 ignorance on certain points, and in this way in- 
 structing him in Such things as maybe beyond 
 the grasp of his unaided research. Examinations 
 of this kind form an indispensable part of in- 
 struction itself; those which occur at the end of 
 
 certain periods, either for promotion, or for grad- 
 uation, have in view the exclusive aim of testing 
 the actual progress of the pupil. Indirectly, 
 however, such examinations being anticipated by 
 the student, guide and stimulate his efforts, both 
 
 in acquirine and remembering. The considera- 
 tions to be presented in this article will be dis- 
 tributed under (I) Examinations of Schools; 
 (Mi Examinations of Teachers; (III) College 
 and University Examinations. 
 
EXAMINATIONS 
 
 289 
 
 I. Examinations cf ScJ/nnfc. — This includes 
 (1) examinations for classification and promo- 
 tion, in which the merits of individual pupils 
 are tn be carefully ascertained and compared 
 with a certain standard of attainment, ami 
 
 _' examinations for official supervision, the ob- 
 ject of which need be only tn ascertain the 
 methods and skill of the teacher, and the gen- 
 eral efficacy of his work, the relative standing of 
 the different pupils of a grade or class not com- 
 ing under consideration. The latter (inspectional 
 ■ caminations) are of great value in every system 
 of instruction, particularly in those in which 
 large masses of children arc to be educated, 
 and. of course, a great number of teachers to 
 be employed, for the following reasons : (l)They 
 promote uniformity of instruction; (2) They 
 stimulate the teacher, and guide his efforts; 
 (3) They prevent negligence on the part of those 
 whose duty it is to instruct, train, and discipline 
 the children : and (4) If the results are def- 
 initely and discriminatively published and made 
 the liasis of commendation or censure to the 
 teacher, they promote emulation among the 
 teachers, and thus incite them to exertion, in 
 order to attain the standard fixed by the course 
 of instruction and the method of the examiner. 
 It is. thus, not only a means of supervising the 
 teacher's work, but also of instructing the teach- 
 ers themselves. "The teacher," says Beale. "may 
 be very earnest, but an experienced critic of his 
 work may be able to point out where and why he 
 has failed, and. from a larger experience, to sug- 
 gesl improved methods." (See Supervision-.) 
 
 II. Examinations of Teachers. — As a prelim- 
 inary to their employment in public schools, 
 teachers are required by law to be licensed or 
 certificated. The license is the legal permission 
 to teach ; the certificate is the written or docu- 
 mentary evidence that such permission has been 
 given by the properly constituted authority. 
 (See License, Teacher's.) This permission is 
 granted usually after an examination in certain 
 prescribed branches of study. The examination 
 is generally conducted, in the different states of 
 the Union, by the state superintendent of public 
 instruction, the superintendents or boards of 
 education of cities, or the county commissioners 
 of schools. In some places, public examinations 
 are appointed at certain times, and all who desire 
 to obtain the certificate, attend as candidates. 
 In such cases, the examination is generally not 
 competitive, but only qualifying, all who show 
 the degree of scholarship prescribed obtaining 
 certificates. The methods of conducting these 
 examinations are almost as various as the indi- 
 viduals conducting them. When, as is some- 
 times the case, particularly in the rural districts, 
 the licensing officer has no technical knowledge 
 of education or of schools, the kind of examina- 
 tion (generally oral) is far from being such as is 
 required to test properly either the teacher's 
 knowledge, professional training, or special skill. 
 Perhaps some peculiar vagary or conceit of the 
 examiner, who may be a lawyer, physician, mer- 
 chant, or perhaps a farmer or mechanic, is made 
 
 19 
 
 to serve as a procrustean standard by which the 
 merits and defects of all who present themselves 
 are judged. Graduates of state normal schools 
 
 are generally, ipso facto, licensed teachers; inas- 
 much as the state superintendent has the super 
 
 vision of these schools as a part of the common- 
 school system of the state. 
 
 III. College and University Examinations. — 
 
 In the higher institutions of learning, periodical 
 
 examinations constitute an essential part of the 
 process of education, which, in recent years, has 
 received much more attention than formerly. 
 ''Ours is an age of examinations." says Toil- 
 hunter, referring to the rapid institution of thffi 
 system of scholastic iinpiiry, in various forms, in 
 connection with the English universities. Every 
 point in regard to this system has been carefully 
 discussed, to the most important of which we 
 here refer: (1) The general usefulness and ex- 
 pediency of university examinations; (2) The 
 relative value of written and oral examinations; 
 (3) Also of competitive and qualifying examina- 
 tions ; (4) The mode of estimating and marking 
 the results of written examinations. 
 
 (1) Most educators are agreed that there are 
 serious evils connected with the examination 
 system, as there are, indeed, in all systems that 
 incite the diligence of the student by indirect 
 means. Undoubtedly, a deep interest in the 
 subject studied can alone insure the lust results; 
 but it is obvious that this cannot generally lie 
 awakened in the mind of the student previous 
 to his engaging in the study ; and hence the 
 necessity of bringing into play some indirect 
 force. " The love of knowledge and the love of 
 distinction, with the fear of disgrace," says 
 Whewell, " are the two mainsprings of all edu- 
 cation, and it does not appear wise or safe to try 
 to dispense with either of them;" but he further 
 remarks with great propriety." We cannot make 
 the examinations every thing to our students 
 without making the love of knowledge nothing." 
 
 © © © 
 
 Examinations, it must be borne in mind, are 
 only a means to an end ; namely, a good educa- 
 tion, comprehending a sound liberal culture of 
 all the mental faculties ; and. consequently, ex- 
 aminations cease to be a benefit when they inter- 
 fere with this object. On this point. Whewell, 
 in English University Education, remarks as 
 follows: "Examinations, or something equiva- 
 lent, must exist in a university ; but when they 
 are considered as the only means of university 
 education, it is easily seen that the education 
 must be bad. For their requisitions must be 
 lowered to the level of the average power of 
 mind and of application which young men pos- 
 sess, in order that university degrees may be the 
 general mark of a liberal education; and, hence, 
 the substance of such examinations cannot be 
 sufficient to exercise and improve the quicker 
 and more capacious intellects. Moreover, for 
 reasons already stated, the knowledge which is 
 acquired for examinations operates less as cult- 
 ure, than that which is obtained under other cir- 
 cumstances. And when the examination is a 
 compulsory one, there is a servile and ignoble in- 
 
•290 
 
 EXAMINATIONS 
 
 fluence breathing about it, since it acts not on 
 the hopes,, but on the tears: and hoicks disgrace 
 and degradation before the eyes of the candidate. 
 Such examinations may be necessary, hut they 
 can never be more than a necessary evil ; and 
 that system would, indeed, be unworthy of a 
 great and highly civilized nation, in which the 
 machinery of education was all of this structure." 
 
 In the same connection, Todhunter remarks. •■ It 
 is easy to refine and elaborate our examination 
 machinery ; but the results will scarcely repay 
 the expenditure of money, time, and ability. 
 We cannot by our examinations create learning 
 or genius; it is uncertain whether we can in- 
 fallibly discover them : what we detect is simply 
 the examination-passing powerof the candidates, 
 and this can be adequately appreciated by sim- 
 pler and less costly processes." This remark can 
 
 have hut little application to the " local examina- 
 tions" recently founded by the English univer- 
 sities; inasmuch as these tests, while determining 
 the " examination-passing power" of the candi- 
 dates, also ascertain their special scholarship : 
 and, besides, operate as a powerful stimulus to 
 
 Studious exertion, in the case of thousands of 
 
 persons anxious to obtain cert ificatea of Learning, 
 as well as the things to which they are a passport. 
 Thev also exert a, very important influence on 
 education at Large, and tend to elevate the qual- 
 ifications of teachers. Indeed, it was for this 
 
 express purpose, that these examinations were 
 
 established in L858 ; and it is acknowledged, 
 that they have been highly successful "in raising 
 
 the tone of middle-class schools, as well as in 
 
 widening the area of the influence of the uni- 
 versities." In December, L875, 1. 1 it.") candidates 
 
 of both sexes underwent the local examinations 
 
 of Cambridge, and, in June, 1876, 2,141 those 
 of Oxford. "The local examinations," says Beale 
 [University Examinations for Women, Lon- 
 don, l8T")j. " have been very useful, especially 
 in girls' schools, bringing them into relation 
 with tin' national centers of education. The 
 old-fashioned parrot-learning, and slovenly, in- 
 exact work have been shown to he worthless, 
 .■mil a better curriculum has been introduced." 
 of the higher university examinations in Eng- 
 land, several are open to women over eighteen 
 years of age. (See Female Education.) 
 
 In the German universities, less resort has 
 
 been hail to examinations than in the United 
 ee of England, more dependence being placed 
 
 on the lecture system, or on the Greek mode of 
 
 teaching by dialogue. University examinations 
 have been emphatically condemned by Borne dis- 
 tinguished German educators; hut by others 
 they have been advocated as necessary to check 
 idleness on the part of the students, many of 
 whom, it was found, failed to attend the lectures. 
 
 and others, although present, gave little or no at- 
 tention to them. Against thi Se examinations in 
 
 the German universities various objections have 
 been urged ; as, 1 1 - that they do not incite to 
 the right kind of study; (2) thai they are for 
 school-boys, and, therefore, il is an indignity to 
 
 subject university students to them; (•'<) that 
 
 the number of candidates is too large to admit 
 of a thorough and impartial examination (the 
 oral method being used); (4) that a large share 
 of the examiners lack the requisite skill in ex- 
 amining : and (5) that the results are unreliable, 
 because the students so greatly differ in disposi- 
 tion, temperament, etc.. a bashful, though ex- 
 cellent student, being likely to fail, while the 
 confident one. with less merit, comes off tri- 
 umphantly. Most of these objections are ob- 
 viously weak, ami are satisfactorily answered by 
 Von Raumer (German Universities, English 
 translation, by Barnard). 
 
 i - 1 The comparative value of written and oral 
 (or viva voce) examinations as tests of proficiency 
 litis been much discussed ; of course for the pur- 
 pose of instruction, the viva voce method is in- 
 dispensable. The object of the examination is 
 an important element in determining this ques- 
 tion. When it is simply desired to ascertain the 
 qualifications, — the scholarship, culture, and gen- 
 eral characteristics of the person examined, with- 
 out regard to any precise standardof attainment. 
 the oral method is often preferred; hut there 
 are usually some written tests as well. A skillful 
 examiner, who is master of the Subject under 
 
 consideration, can by a few judicious, well- 
 arranged questions ascertain very speedily both 
 the quantity and the quality of the candidate's 
 knowledge; but, of course, this requires skill 
 and experience, as well as good sense and judg- 
 ment, on the part of the examiner. In the ex- 
 amination of teachers, where there is so much 
 besides mere scholarship to test, the oral method 
 
 OUght not to be entirely excluded. The objec- 
 tions urged against oral examinations may be 
 briefly stated as follows: (1) They are wanting 
 
 in fairness and thoroughness, because they are 
 necessarily very brief and hurried, and when 
 chisses are examined the questioning is uneven. 
 
 so that a poor student may pass while a meri- 
 torious < >ih' tails, particularly if the latter is dif- 
 fident and timid: (2) The questions cannot be 
 carefully prepared, and hence may be quite im- 
 perfect tests: and (•'!) The candidate has no time 
 for proper deliberation, and therefore must often 
 fail to show what his real attainments are. <>n 
 the other hand, the advantages of a written ex- 
 amination are the following: ill The same 
 questions are given to each candidate, and, con- 
 sequently, the test is even: (2) The candidates 
 are left entirely to themselves, without sugges- 
 tion or aid from the examiner; (3) Thequestions 
 can be more carefully prepared; i li The candi- 
 date has more time for deliberation in answer- 
 ing; and (5 The examiner has a better oppor- 
 tunity to consider the answers, and to form a 
 just conclusion as to the merits of the candidates. 
 The question of written or viva voce examina- 
 tions in universities has been much discussed in 
 
 England; and the superior value of the latter 
 
 has been particularly urged by various eminent 
 professors in the University ot Cambridge. In 
 
 this connection, Todhunter remarks. "1 will 
 acknowledge thai if only two or three candidates 
 
 have to be examined, and we have the command 
 
EXAMINATIO? S 
 
 EXAMPLE 
 
 291 
 
 of unlimited time and of adequate examining 
 force, then whatever may be the subject of ex- 
 amination, the viva voce method may be not on- 
 ly allowed bu1 strongly recommended. We may 
 ascertain with reaped to each candidate both 
 what lit' knows ana what he does not know, and 
 whether he shows evidence of independent 
 power." Still, mi the whole, considering the 
 subjects of the examinations and the circum- 
 stances under which they occur, he strongly 
 prefers the written method, which is favored by 
 most authorities both in theory and practice. 
 
 (3) The remarks already made afford sufficient 
 materials for a judgment as to the comparative 
 importance of competitive and qualifying exami- 
 nations. The aim of the examination may or 
 may not necessitate any comparison of the merits 
 of different candidates ; but when such a com- 
 parison is necessary, there is no doubt that a 
 written examination by entirely equal tests 
 should be exclusively employed. For such a 
 purpose, however, the construction of the exami- 
 nation questions should be such as to bring out 
 more than the mere accuracy of the knowledge 
 of the candidate. There should be considerable 
 diversity, some of the questions requiring only 
 brief statements of facts ; while others, of a 
 topical character, necessitate fuller expositions, 
 showing the relations of facts to each other and 
 to principles, and tints giving scope for the dem- 
 onstration, by the student, of his power of 
 reasoning and analysis, as well as of expression. 
 The general requisites for a set of examination 
 questions are (1) that they should be free from 
 ambiguity, (2) that they should strictly refer to 
 what the candidate may be expected to know, 
 (3) that they should be judiciously arranged 
 (difficult questions, for example, not being placed 
 first), and (4) that they should not require more 
 time than is to be given to the particular ex- 
 ercise, so as to make the candidate feel hurried 
 and nervous. 
 
 (4) The manner of estimating and marking 
 tin' results of written examinations requires a 
 careful consideration. The value of each ques- 
 tion as a test should be exactly estimated, and 
 the character of the answer given marked ac- 
 cordingly. Any scale may be adopted, but that 
 of 1 00 is the most convenient and the most gen- 
 erally chosen. Whatever number may be an- 
 nexed to each question as its specific value, the 
 result can be readily reduced to a per cent, which 
 will thus show the absolute, as well as relative, 
 value of every paper. The system of negative 
 marks is advocated by Todhunter ; that is, to 
 give marks for correct work, and to subtract 
 marks for errors. The justice of this method 
 h'' illustrates as follows: "Suppose that one 
 candidate has solved twenty questions all cor- 
 rectly; and suppose that another has also solved 
 twenty questions all correctly, and has attempted 
 four more and failed completely in them : then, 
 assuming that the questions are. on an average, 
 of equal value, the two candidates would lie 
 pronounced equal on our actual method. Yet, 
 it may happen that the four failures betray such 
 
 ignorance and incapacity as to demand some 
 mine decisive condemnation than simple want of 
 
 notice." This method would probably be found 
 
 impracticable, and the tendency would be to in- 
 justice: DOT does it seem necessary if the ques- 
 tions are properly weighted, since the omission 
 to answer, or the failure in answering, a difficult 
 question would cause the loss of a large number 
 of marks, and negative mark.- would be duplicat- 
 ing this loss.— See W hewell, English Univer- 
 sity Education (London, 1838) ; von Raumer, 
 German Universities, English trans., edited by 
 Barnard (X. V.. L859); Todhi nter, The Conflict 
 of Studies etc.,&. v. Competitive Examinations 
 (London, isT.T) ; Beale, University Examina- 
 tions for Women (London. L875 
 
 EXAMPLE, the Influence of. This de- 
 pends upon imitation and sympathy, two prin- 
 ciples of action which are exceedingly potent in 
 the minds of all persons, but particularly in those 
 of children. Its influence among men is shown 
 by the existence of national customs, prejudices, 
 vices, fashions, etc., and by the use of language, 
 which would be scarcely possible without the 
 force of imitation or example. In infancy and 
 early childhood, this principle is the almost ex- 
 clusive means of education, and the impressions 
 which it makes are so strong and durable, that 
 they are hardly ever obliterated in after life. I 'ar- 
 ents very rarely appear to realize that they are, 
 by a kind of " unconscious tuition," educating 
 their children simply by what they say and do in 
 their presence. Locke says, "He that will have his 
 son have a respect for him, and his orders, must 
 himself have a great reverence for his son. Max- 
 ima debetur pueris revere////". You must do 
 nothing before him, which you would not have 
 him imitate;" and also, " Of all the ways where- 
 by children are to be instructed, and their man- 
 ners formed, the plainest, easiest, and most effi- 
 cacious, is to set before their eyes the examples 
 of those things which you would have them do, 
 or avoid. . . . The beauty or uncomelinessof many 
 things, in good and ill breeding, will be better 
 learnt, and make deeper impressions on them, in 
 the examples of others, than from any rules or 
 instructions that can be given about them.'' 
 (See Thoughts Concerning Education.) The 
 power of example has an important application 
 in the education of the intellect ; since, in giving 
 instruction in any department of science or art, 
 the illustrative power of the teacher, in showing 
 to the pupil what it is desired that he should ac- 
 
 i plisn, has great efficacy in sti mu lating his 
 
 efforts, and more especially in fixing in his mind. 
 a definite standard to the attai cut of which 
 
 he may direct his aim. Indeed, in every branch 
 of instruction, imitation is one of the most im- 
 portant principles for the teacher to recognia 
 and employ. I!ut it is in moral education thai 
 
 the force of example has its chief sphere of 
 activity. In it is comprehended all that we 
 mean by the personal influenceoi the instructor. 
 I lis manners, his modes of action and speech, tin 
 expression of his countenance, and the tones of 
 his voice, all are constituent elements of this in- 
 
 </ y o? Tiri-, 
 
 
292 
 
 EXCHANGES 
 
 EYE 
 
 fluence. This personal power, it has been well 
 said, is an "emanation Bowing from the very 
 spirit nt the teacher's own life, as well as an in- 
 fluence acting insensibly to form the life of the 
 scholar." See Unconscious Tuition, by Prof. 
 Huntington, in Barnard's Jour mil of Edu- 
 cation. 
 EXCHANGES, Educational. See Hol- 
 
 BBOOK, JOSIAH. 
 
 EXHIBITIONS, School, are arranged for 
 the public display of some of the ornamental ac- 
 complishments of the pupils, such as music, rec- 
 itation, and declamation, and of other exercises 
 that admit of a ready performance in public, 
 and can be made attractive, Buch as reading, 
 composition, calisthenics, etc. Exhibitions of 
 this kind are given for the purpose of bringing 
 the school before the public, and popularizing it. 
 Many parents take great delight in serin- their 
 children participate in these public exercises; 
 and, hence, they generally attract a large audi- 
 ence. While they are, in some respects, valuable, 
 their general tendency as they are usually given, 
 is injurious. They pervert not only the regular 
 order of exercises of the school into a special 
 preparation for display, but also the proper aim 
 of the pupils, which should be to make progress 
 in their studies, not to gratify their vanity by 
 the exhibition of superficial accomplishments. 
 Children whose special talents lie in this direc- 
 tion, are apt to be greatly injured by excessive 
 praise for these efforts at display, and arc in 
 this way unfitted for any steady exertion. Many 
 teachers, on this account, entirely avoid giving 
 
 public exhibitions or receptions. Besides, an 
 exhibition does nut present the best results of 
 
 thi' instruction given, but, chiefly, such accom- 
 plishments as are showy. The reading of essays 
 and other cniniiositions.it is true, shows some- 
 thing of the culture, intelligence, and power of 
 
 expression of the pupils; but, in elementary 
 
 schools, this must be very limited. In college 
 CO lelieeinelits. t he essays being of a higher 
 
 character, show to a greater extent the students' 
 intellectual development ; but, still, they do not 
 at all exhibit their special scholastic attainments, 
 upon which their time and study have been 
 principally expended. On this account, some 
 educators have endeavored to devise a method of 
 
 Bhowing these attainments in school exhibitions, 
 and in some eases with considerable success. 
 When the classes are so well trained that they 
 can be presented in public with an invitation to 
 ; 1 1 1 \ competent person in the audience to examine 
 them, the effect is very interesting, and quite 
 Batisfactorj . because every suspicion of unfairnesE 
 i.- prevented. The following is. in part, the sug- 
 
 gestii f a teacher as to the method of gri ing a 
 
 school exhibition: (1) Engage a large hall, or 
 use your school room If necessary; (2) Spread 
 
 out upon tables a portion of the work of the 
 
 pupil- specimens of penmanship, written ex- 
 ercises in arithmetic, etc.) ; (3 Place upon the 
 walls the mails and drawings, herbariums, etc., of 
 the pupils, in charge of suitable persons to ex 
 plain :,i Let the pupils exhibit cabinets, philo- 
 
 sophical apparatus, etc., of their own collection or 
 construction; (5) During the exhibition have 
 the pupils display their musical attainments by 
 singing. etc.: [6) Intersperse dialogues. recitations, 
 declamations, etc., or class examinations, of a 
 suitable character. In this way an exhibition 
 maybe made not only interesting to an audience 
 but a useful incentive to the pupils. 
 
 The term exhibition, in the English universi- 
 ties and Public Schools, is used to denote an 
 allowance, or bounty, paid to the students, under 
 certain conditions, for their maintenance while 
 pursuing their studies in the university. Hence 
 such students are called exhibitioners. (See 
 England.) 
 
 EXPULSION is often resorted to in schools 
 in the case of pupils who, by their willfulness, 
 insubordination, reckless and disorderly conduct. 
 
 general depravity, a ase to be amenable to the 
 ordinary regulations of the school, or are likely 
 to contaminate the manners and morals of the 
 other pupils. Tt is an extreme measure ; and, in 
 public schools, should not lie taken until all other 
 proper means to control the pupils have been 
 
 employed; because it generally deprives these 
 
 pupils of all opportunity of receiving the educa- 
 tion for which the laws of the state provide. 
 Two circumstances can alone justify it : (1) That 
 the pupil is utterly uncontrollable by any of the 
 ordinary means of school government ; (2) That 
 the depraved character of the pupil is such as to 
 imperil the welfare of the other pupils. Expul- 
 
 aon, in some places, is used as a substitute for 
 
 corporal punishment ; but the propriety of this 
 has been called in question. (See CORPORAL 
 
 Punishment.) In view of the fact that the ex- 
 pulsion of incorrigible pupils must be occasion- 
 ally necessary under all circumstances, it would 
 appear that a reformatory institution constitutes 
 an essential part of every public-school system. 
 
 (See Reform Schools.) 
 
 ■■) 
 EYE, Cultivation of the. The sense of 
 
 sight is capable of an almost incredible improve- 
 ment by culture; of this, modern scientific in- 
 vestigations lea\e lio doubt. We see improve- 
 ment in this respect not only in individuals but 
 
 in the general visual capacity of whole nations. 
 
 There .ail In' no question, for example, that. 
 3,000 years ago. when the civilization of the 
 Chinese came to a stand-still, they were very de- 
 ficient in the power of seeing perspectively ; so 
 
 that, in spite of all their skill in drawing and 
 painting, their pictures show all objects on the 
 same plane, without any variation of size, or of 
 lighl and shade, in Older to represent the dis- 
 tances and relative positions of the objects de- 
 picted. Many proofs alight be adduced to show- 
 that, in the course of centuries, the human eye 
 has improved in power. The aim of education 
 in this respect is twofold: (l) To improve the 
 
 physiological conditions of sight, by renio^ ing any 
 causes oi a morbid state, or by strengthening the 
 physical organ of vision; (2) To cultivate, by 
 
 judicious practice, the sense of sight, so as to 
 tender it more observant, and able to receive 
 more full and accurate impressions of the objects 
 
EYE 
 
 293 
 
 which [muss before it. This is of special impor- 
 tance, as of all the senses that of sighl is, with- 
 out doubt, the most far-reaching, and leads to 
 the most numerous ami vivid conceptions. 
 
 'I'he cultivation of the eye should begin soon 
 after birth, and. for a tew weeks, should lie COn- 
 tined to keeping the infant from all excessive 
 glare of light; but, at the same time, allowing 
 ii sufficient light properly to excite the nervous 
 activity. Children, like plants, need a great ileal 
 of sunlight, which, provided it is not dazzling, is 
 the most important agent of both bodily and 
 mental growth. At the first, it should be a re- 
 flected, diffuse, and mild light, direct sunlight 
 being admitted only after several weeks, and 
 then gradually. Weak eyes may also be caused 
 by surroundings of but one color, particularly 
 if decidedly brilliant. Hence, it is well to re- 
 lieve the impression made by a single color, by 
 alternation with its complementary. Red or blue 
 curtains should never be allowed continuously to 
 throw their tinge upon the infant's eve ; but, as 
 a rule, subdued colors shoul l be preferred. The 
 power of distinguishing both outlines and shades 
 of color is susceptible of cultivation by means of 
 the slow movement of bodies of different hues 
 before the child's eves This is an exercise which 
 i> employe 1 in Froebel's nursery education, and 
 is very properly accompanied by singing, because 
 the sense of hearing, having an earlier develop- 
 ment, is well adapted to excite the action of 
 sight. After the second or third month, when 
 the infant can wield its hands and arms, the 
 sense of touch should be called into activity in 
 order to correct the impressions made on the 
 eye. Various contrivances may lie resorted to 
 for this purpose, among them the suspende 1 
 wooden globe and colored balls which Froebel 
 sii-- sts for use at this stage of education. As the 
 chill learns the meaning of simple language fully 
 one or two years before it is able to repeat the 
 words, it is safe to let it hear the names of the 
 things which it sees an 1 handles, but always in 
 connection with the objects themselves. Thus 
 language fixes, at the age of infancy, the various 
 impressions of the senses, which impart a definite 
 me ining t i every word, and thus secure the proper 
 expressions when the child begins to speak. 
 When language has been acquired to some ex- 
 tent, the teacher shoul 1. by means of skillful 
 questioning, attract the child. s attention to those 
 visible properties and peculiarities of things 
 which, without a trained observation, are gener- 
 ally passed by without notice. It is surprising 
 how much may be instantaneously perceived by 
 a train • 1 eye, and how delicate and far reaching 
 sense of sight may become, under circuni- 
 Btances requiring its constant exercise. Thus 
 the practiced astronomer is able to notice the 
 most minute points of light, which the ordinary 
 observer utterly fails to detect. On the other 
 band, the eye is, of all our organs of sense-per- 
 ception, th- most delusive if it is permitted 
 habitually to gaze at objects without any com- 
 
 Erehensn ; or discriminative view of their pecu- 
 arities and less obvious details. It is on this 
 
 accounl,, that Froebel invented that well-arranged 
 
 system of kinder-art en occupations, by which 
 
 the free self-activity of the child, stimulated by 
 
 agreeable intercourse with those of his own a 
 
 learns how to employ his sense of sight in an 
 endless variety of pleasurable work, that never 
 ceases to educate both mentally and morally. 
 (See Kindergarten, and Object Teaching.) 
 
 Without any special or technical aid. the 
 t aeher may readily discover whether any of his 
 pupils are color-blind, by a proper use of color- 
 charts or color-tablets. Every child that cannot 
 select from among the tablets the exact color 
 which is pointed out on the chart is, of course, 
 more or less color-blind, and should have the 
 benefit of frequent exercises with (1) the three 
 primary colors, and (2) with their double and 
 triple combinations. By using very strong and 
 brilliant colors alternately with those comple- 
 mentary to them, this kind of defect in sight 
 may be. in part at least, removed. (See < !oLOR.) 
 
 Teachers should not permit their pupils to 
 stoop while engaged in reading, writing, or draw- 
 ing; since this tends to injure the sight. It is 
 also advisable to accustom the pupils to use 
 their eyes, at changing distances of the object, 
 with an equal degree of perfection especially 
 in reading, writing, and drawing. Then, if 
 the eye be tired at a given angle of sight, it 
 may continue its work, without injury or dis- 
 comfort, at a smaller or larger angle, and thus 
 be enabled to do more work without detri- 
 ment to the sight. Many of the ordinary school 
 arrangements are more or less injurious to the 
 organ of sight. '■Short-sightedness." says I.ieb- 
 reich {School L ife in its Influence on Siglit, Lon- 
 don, 1872), '-is developed almost exclusively 
 during school life; rarely afterwards, and very 
 rarely before that time. Is this coincidence of 
 time accidental, — i. e., does the short-sightedness 
 arise at the period about which children go to 
 school, or has school life caused the short-sighted- 
 ness''' Statistical inquiries prove the latter to 
 lie the case, and have shown, at the same time, 
 that the percentage of short-sighted children is 
 greater in schools where unfavorable optical con- 
 ditions prevail." There are. according to this 
 writer, three changes in the functions of the eve, 
 which are immediately developed under the in- 
 fluence of school life : (1) Decrease of the range 
 of vision — short-sightedness [myopia), (2) De- 
 crease of the acuteness of vision (amblyopia). and 
 (3) Decrease of tic endurance of vision {astheno- 
 pia). Thes ■ are chiefly caused by such arrange- 
 ments as afford cither insufficient light, or admit 
 it in an improper manner. The following is an 
 important practical direction in this respect: 
 •• The light must be sufficiently strong, and must 
 fall on tin' table from the left-hand side. and. as 
 far as possible, from above. The children ought 
 to sit straight, and not have the book nearer to 
 the eye than ten inches at the least. Besides 
 this, the book ought to be raised 20° for writing, 
 
 and about 10° for reading. -SeeFAHRNER, '/' 
 Child and the Desk. (See Hygiene, School, 
 and Senses, Education ok.) 
 
294 
 
 FACTORY SCHOOLS 
 
 FACTORY SCHOOLS are, as the name 
 indicates, elementary schools for the instruction 
 of children employed in factories. They are 
 established in the factory buildings, and gener- 
 ally supported by the owners of the factories. In 
 proportion as legislators, in modern times, have 
 become desirous to extend the benefit of edu- 
 cation to all the children of the state the school- 
 ing of factory children has attracted their atten- 
 tion; and the question, what can and should be 
 done to secure to these children the benefits of 
 education, now often engages the attention of 
 the legislatures of civilized states. With the 
 recent development of the factory Bystem, the 
 employment of children in fa stori ss has assumed 
 large dimensions. They have been found to be 
 useful helpmates in many mechanical proa 
 in some even indispensable ; and th y hav i 
 employed to a large extent in house industries, 
 mining, pottery, agriculture, as well as in all 
 kinds of factories: and aowhere more than in 
 
 Great Britain, where formerly children, som 
 young as six yearsof age, were severely empl 
 sometimes for 1 -. If. I 6, or 1 8 hours a day, or, by 
 a relay system, during all the night, and frequent- 
 ly at very exhaustive work, under unwholesome 
 con litions and in morally dangerous surround- 
 ings, while no time for school or home education 
 was granted. The inhumanity and the dangerous 
 effects of this practice began to lie publicly dis- 
 cussed more than a century ago ; but it led to 
 no concerted action, until the abolition of the 
 conspiracy laws against the coalition of laborers 
 in England, in 1813. The first efforts to counter- 
 act these baneful influences were made by asso- 
 ciations of English laborers, and by their repeated 
 petitions to Parliament, which led (1S1!') to 
 enactments regulating children's factory labor. 
 These were, however, entirely disregarded, no 
 
 agency being ordained for their enforcement. 
 
 a-ainst the greed of profit on the part of em- 
 ployers, and the necessities of poor families. A. 
 constantly repeated agitation by the workmen 
 brought aboul a parliamentary commission of 
 inquiry and the enactment of the law of L833. 
 This related only to factories in a very nai 
 -.-. confine I the work-lay within the houi 
 LM. and 9j P. M., and the working time of 
 ons from 13 to L 8 years of age to 12 hours, 
 liildren from 9 to L 3 years of age to 8 hours. 
 
 and allowed the employment of children of 
 than 9 years in exceptional cases only. The latter 
 two classes of children were to be employed only 
 mi ler the condition that they could show by some 
 certificate, thai they had enjoyed or were enjoy- 
 ing bcI 1 advantages amounting to 150 hours 
 
 in the year. This latter clause was illusory, and 
 could be easily circumvented like the rest of the 
 law : \et it vvas stricken out in a new enact- 
 ment (Sept. lo.. |s it;, win,!, allowed only Hi 
 
 honi \ork day for children above I.'!, and 
 
 ■ '.i hours for those below I '■'• years 
 vi age. rin-, law v, ain have remaine 1 a 
 
 dead letter but for the appointment of factory 
 inspectors, with very restricted powers, among 
 whom was a man of extraordinary merit, Leonard 
 Horner (1833 — 59), who. together with the 
 trade unions and some few philanthropists. 
 worked with untiring energy, to accumulate, in 
 his reports to Parliament, a huge mass of evidence 
 in relation to the abuses of the factory system, 
 and especially its direful influences on women 
 and children. Later legislation gradually ex- 
 tended the benefit of the factory laws to chil- 
 dren employed in most kinds of industry, and 
 slightly restricted their laboring time, chiefly by 
 confining il within the hours of the day (Chil- 
 dren's Employment Act of L867J ; but thefactory 
 schools, being dependent on the school fees of 
 parents, voluntary private donations, and denom- 
 inational Sunday-Schools, continued to be of the 
 ; inadequate character down to the new 
 
 scl 1 act of I 870 ; and this still left much to be 
 
 red in respect to working children. 
 
 The legislation of all the other countries in 
 
 which modern industry is largely developed, is, 
 
 more or less, a copy of the English, with hardly 
 
 a sir are of improvement upon the latter 
 
 a- regards the restriction of children's employ- 
 ment, and with tin; disadvantage that there is 
 
 r no board of factory inspectors provided, 
 
 or where there is, or was (in Prance it has been 
 
 abolished), that the inspection is of no value. In 
 Germany, Switzerland, and Belgium, however, a 
 
 Bufficieni provision exists for schools which are 
 
 accessible to. or even compulsory on. every facto- 
 ry child, thus affording a s< hoofing facility which 
 
 extends from the earliest childhood up to the 
 adult age. or is about being so far extended. 
 Prussia was the second state to regulate the 
 hours of children's labor in factories, with the 
 view to afford opportunity for school attendance. 
 The laws of 1839, mere copies of the English act 
 
 (if 1833, were, in L853, SO far improved as to ex- 
 clude from factories all children below 1 '_' years 
 
 of age, permitting those below 1 l to work only 
 
 6 hours in each half day. tinder the condition of 
 ."hours' attendance at school. The law of tin' 
 
 new German Empire (Nov. 10., 1871) is. in all 
 
 ntials, th" same. France followed Pru 
 with a law (March 22., 1841 which entirely ex- 
 cluded children below eighl years and required 
 
 ::H below I ■> to prove some attendance at school : 
 
 hut the law. having no enforcing clauses, was 
 
 altogether disregarded. The Austrian factory 
 
 law approves of the labor of children above lo 
 years or age; and thence up to I I. it allows an 
 ascending scale from six to l (| hours, and be- 
 tween I l and 16 years. 12 hours; exceptionally. 
 I I hours. The legislature of the Netherlands 
 adopted, in 1875, a law akin to the modern En- 
 glish law, bu1 without any enforcing provisions. 
 
 In Belgium, there were, according to the latest 
 
 reports, 900 factory schools, comprising 158,060 
 
 children of all ages, and schools e iceted with 
 
 i rerj factory in which young children, to the 
 
FACULTY 
 
 FALK 
 
 205 
 
 Bomber of 33,878, were instructed. The law reg- 
 ulates tlif attendance at school, but does nol es- 
 sentially restrict tlif maximum time of employ- 
 ment. An attempt, made in L855, by the city 
 council of Berlin to establish four factory schools, 
 
 failed, as the school had to lie discontinued after 
 one year's existence. Belgium is the only coun- 
 try in which the state law has made provision 
 for the establishment of factory schools. In 
 Massachusetts (General Statutes, 1863, eh. 12), 
 the law ordains: " No child under the age 
 of 12 years shall be employed in any manu- 
 facturing establishment more than 10 hours 
 in a day." The official labor statistics of that 
 state show that the law is, almost every- 
 where, a dead letter. The law of New Jersey 
 (March II.. L855)says: "No children under 10 
 years shall be admitted in any factory, and no 
 minor tor more than 10 hours a day." The Re- 
 vised Statutes of Rhode Island (1857, eh. .'ill) 
 say: " No minor who has attained the age of L2 
 years and is under the age of 15 shall be em- 
 ployed more than 1 1 hours, nor before 5 A. M., 
 nor aftei 7. •'!() P.M." The enactments of ether 
 states are similar; but there is nowhere an effi- 
 cient provision for the enforcement of the laws. 
 The legislation of most other states only requires 
 that factory children should attend school for a 
 specified length of time. It is easy to see, and 
 is generally admitted, that factory children are 
 not so situated that they can avail themselves 
 of the public schools. Their attendance at the 
 day schools will always be irregular and of short 
 duration. The larger children may, to some ex- 
 tent, enjoy the advantage of evening schools and 
 Sunday-schools ; but, as long as children are em- 
 ployed in factories, they will have to obtain their 
 education in schools especially adapted to their 
 wants. Many schools of this class have been 
 established by the proprietors of large factories, 
 of which the best known, in Europe, are those 
 connected with the Krupp establishment in 
 Essen, with that of I )olf uss in Miilhausen, Alsace, 
 ami that of Greg, Co. of Chester, England. The 
 latter is a fair example of most of the schools. 
 The proprietors of the factories assume the entire 
 care of the children, chiefly orphans and poor- 
 house pupils, clothe, feed. and lodge them, and edu- 
 cate them in special schools. — See Vox Pi.kxer, 
 The English Factory Legislation, English trans., 
 with I nt rod. by A. J. Mundella ( London); HuBEK, 
 Reis briefe aus England im Sommer (1854). 
 
 FACULTY (Lat. facultas), a term originally 
 applied to a body of men to whom any partic- 
 ular privilege! or right is granted ; hence, in a 
 college or university, the faculty consists of those 
 upon whom has been conferred the right of 
 i aching as professors of specific subjects \faculr 
 tas prqfilendi et docendi.) The faculties of a 
 university are subordinate corporations, each 
 consisting of a body of teachers, or professors, in 
 some particular department of knowledge. At 
 
 first the European university (that of Paris) 
 
 comprised but two faculties, -that of arts (q. v.) 
 and that of theology, to which, in the L3th cent- 
 ury, those of canon ami civil law and of medi- 
 
 cine were added. The division into four facul- 
 ties was transferred from the Pniversity of Paris 
 
 to the German universities; the faculty of arts 
 was afterwards named the philosophical faculty. 
 Many changes have been introduced in this part 
 of university organization since that time. In 
 American universities and colleges, the faculty 
 consists of the body of professors, with the presi- 
 dent at its head, and has the power of conferring 
 
 degrees. 
 
 FAGGING, a peculiar custom which has 
 existed, from the earliest times, in the great 
 public schools of England — Eton, Harrow. Rug- 
 by, etc., according to which boys of the Lower 
 forms (classes) perform certain personal services. 
 
 for those of the higher. These services are either 
 due to a particular student- the special master — 
 or to the whole higher class. The former are 
 such as carrying the master's messages, preparing 
 his breakfast, waiting upon him at dinner, stok- 
 ing his fire, etc.; and the general duties are to 
 attend at the games, in cricket, for example, 
 standing behind the wickets to catch the balls, 
 and other such minor services. While many of 
 these services appear to be of a menial character, 
 they are not considered such, inasmuch as, with- 
 out a fag, the boy would be obliged to perform 
 them for himself. The system of fagging, like 
 pennalism, in the German universities, has been 
 the means of great abuse and tyranny exercised 
 upon the younger students, yet 'it has strenuous 
 defenders, as being, on the whole, beneficial. 
 (See England.) 
 
 FALK, Johann Daniel, a German educator 
 and philanthropist, born in Dantzic, in 1770, and 
 died in 1826. After studying at the university 
 of Halle.. he distinguished himself as the author 
 of several satirical poems, and was introduced 
 by Wieland into the literary circles of Weimar. 
 He founded, in that city, a children's aid society 
 and the first German house of refuge. He had 
 great faith in the efficacy of music and labor as 
 educational agencies, and was very anxious to 
 foster in the minds of his pupils a spirit of cheer- 
 fulness. At the request of the Pedagogical So- 
 ciety of Leipsic, of which he was a member, he 
 wrote an essay on common schools ( Ueber die 
 Gtrenzen der Vblks- und Gelehrtenschule, 1821), 
 which is still highly valued. In an appeal to 
 the diet of Saxe-Weimar and the entire German 
 people [Aufrvf zundchsi mi die Landstdnde des 
 Grossherzogthums Weimar >'/<■.. L819), he warned 
 the German people against confounding popular 
 
 education with popular instruction. His institu- 
 tion (Falkisches Jnslitut) was carried on after 
 his death by his widow, until 1829, when the 
 state government took charge of it. — See A. 
 W \i;xi'.H, Fit///* Liebe, Leben, und Leiden in 
 Gott (1818). 
 
 FALK, Paul Ludwig Adalbert, Prussian 
 Secretary of State for the Department of Edu- 
 cational, Ecclesiastical, .and Medical affairs, born 
 An-. H».. L827, at -Metschkau. Province of Sile- 
 sia, Prussia, is the son of a Protestant clergy- 
 man, lie received his first educational Schweid 
 
 nitz and Landshut, attended the Friedrich's- 
 
296 
 
 FALK 
 
 Gymnasium at Breslau, and. after graduation, 
 studied for the legal professional t lie university 
 at . the same city, also paying great attention to 
 history and natural philosophy. Be entered the 
 Prussian state service in 1847, received the de- 
 gree of LL. I ».. in the same year, and, after having 
 abandoned his original intention of preparing 
 himself for a professorship in laws, and passed 
 through the intermediate stations of liis career, 
 he obtained, successively, the appointment of 
 istant state attorney at Breslau. and (1853) 
 that of state attorney at Lyk. In 1858, he was 
 elected to the Prussian Chamber of Deputies 
 and acted as a member of the Committee on 
 Petitions, Budget, and Military affairs during 
 the legislative period of L858 — 61. In L861, he 
 was appointed state attorney at the Kammerge- 
 riihi in Berlin, and, iii the following year ( L862), 
 councilor of the court of appeals in Glogau, 
 Silesia. During this time, he took part, with 
 other eminent jurists in the edition of several 
 standard works on law. Although not engaged in 
 practical polities, which he studiously- avoided in 
 consideration of his judicial office, he was elected 
 
 (1867) to represent the district of Glogau (Sile- 
 sia) in the provisional Parliament of the North 
 German Union, but peremptorily declined a re- 
 election. In L868, he was appointed privy 
 councilor of justice [Geheimer Justiz-Raih) and 
 Referent in the state ministry of justice, in which 
 position he took a very important part in the 
 new codification of laws for the North German 
 Union, and, subsequently, for the German Em- 
 pire. In L871, King William appointed Falkone 
 of the representatives of Prussia in the Federal 
 < louncil i Bundesrath,OT Upper I [ouse of the Ger- 
 man Parliament), where headed as chairman of 
 the committee of justice, in which capacity he ren- 
 dered very important services in the re-organiza- 
 tion of the system of legal proceedings, adapted 
 to the new order of things in Germany. In 
 January, L872, Von Muhler, the Secretary of 
 State for Ecclesiastical, Educational, and Medical 
 affairs, resigned his office, and Falk was ap- 
 pointed his successor by ting William. From the 
 \ei\ beginning of his administration, a fresh and 
 
 energetic spirit seemed to be imparted to the 
 
 management of this important branch of the 
 state government. The new minister found 
 
 himself the inheritor of all the difficulties which, 
 
 at that time, beset his department, arising from 
 the differences between the authorityof the state 
 
 ami the church in regard to the supervision of 
 
 the schools, public and private, a conflict which 
 had already Btrongly manifested itself during the 
 administration of his predecessor in office. In 
 February, L872, Minister Falk introduced a law, 
 which w I March 1 1 . of the same year, 
 
 according to which the supervision of all schools 
 was declared to be the exclusive prerogative of 
 the state. This law was carried against the 
 united efforts ol the Catholic and Conservative 
 Protestant panics of the Prussian parliament. 
 It provided that the supervision of all educa- 
 tional institutions, public or private, in opposi- 
 tion to the laws of some of the provinces of the 
 
 kingdom, should be the sole prerogative of the 
 state : that all officials or corporations charged 
 with such supervision should be considered as- 
 state commissioners; and, finally, that this law 
 should not affect the co-operation in the super- 
 vision of such institutions, on the part of com- 
 munities ami their constitutional organs, as 
 authorized by statute. 
 
 In a rescript, dated March 13., 1872, and pub- 
 lished in the official Gentralblatt fur die Vnier- 
 riehlsverwattung, Falk explained the radical 
 change which the new law effected in the rela- 
 tion of the public schools to the state churches. 
 " 1 leretofore." the minister says, " the inspection 
 of schools was immediately vested in the church 
 officers, the pastors of the united Evangelical 
 Church and of the Roman Catholic Church, these 
 being inspectors of schools, in virtue of their 
 offices. By the operation of the new law. the 
 right of inspecting schools belongs exclusively to 
 the state: and all authorities and officers to whom 
 this inspection is entrusted, act in the name of 
 the state." The new law vacated nearly all the 
 offices of school inspectors in towns ami •• circles '* 
 (subdiv idotis of provinces): but. to guard against 
 interruption, all the incumbents were to con- 
 tinue provisionally the discharge of their former 
 duties. 'The minister declared, however, that no 
 person would be allowed to remain in this office, 
 or would be appointed to it. who was not known 
 to be faithfully devoted to the interests of the 
 state. The inspectors in the Polish districts of 
 the state were. Inoivov er. expected to take special 
 
 care that the teaching of the German language 
 was not neglected. This law has since been 
 gradually carried into practice, and the number 
 of lay school inspectors who take the place of 
 clergymen has steadily increased. 
 
 The Catholic bishops made a determined op- 
 position to the new policy of the government. 
 In a joint pastoral letter to the clergy, they in- 
 structed them not to lay down their offices as 
 school inspectors without previously consuH 
 the diocesan bishop : and. in a memorial ad- 
 dressed to tin' government, they solemnly de- 
 clared that they regarded this law as an incroach- 
 
 nient upon the inalienable, holy right of the 
 Church as to the public schools, and that they 
 expected from it disastrous consequences both to 
 
 church ami state, balk, however, continued, by 
 a number of measures, to assert the exclusive 
 right of the state to legislate in all school affairs. 
 A rescript of June L5., 1 8 72, excluded members 
 
 of ecclesiastical orders and congregations from 
 
 holding positions in the public schools: a decree 
 dated .Inly I., abolished the so called Mariauie 
 
 congregations, ami forbade the pupils of state 
 
 institutions to participate in them. 
 
 In January, L873, Minister Falk proposed and 
 defended an ad in relation to the scientific re- 
 quirements exacted by the state for the admis- 
 sion of candidates to ministerial functions, re- 
 quiring an examination of maturity from a gv ui- 
 Qashim, an academic triclinium, and a scientific 
 state examination of candidates, with proper ex- 
 emptions ; also conferring upon the state the 
 
FAU.MEirs COLLEGE 
 
 FEAB 
 
 207 
 
 right of supervising Catholic seminaries, and of 
 appiw ing appointments to office by the bishops. 
 The acl was passed by both houses of the Prus- 
 sian Parliament, and became a law by nival 
 sanction, May 11.. L873. It is the first of the 
 famous May laws. Other difficulties arose in 
 the province of Posen, where a large proportion 
 of the inhabitants are of Polish nationality ami 
 profess the Catholic religion. A decree of the 
 state ministry prescribe! I that, in all higher educa- 
 tional institutions in which the German language 
 was ordinarily used, religious instruction should 
 likewise be imparted in German. Archbishop 
 Ixdochowski of Posen instructed his subordi- 
 nates to disregard this decree, and to use the 
 Polish language exclusively in religious instruc- 
 tion. The government, at first, did not proceed 
 against the prelate directly, but suspended a 
 number of Catholic clergymen and instructors 
 who obeyed the archiepiscopal ordinance in pref- 
 erence to the ministerial decree. The persistent 
 opposition of the archbishop led to further 
 measures against him, and, ultimately, to his 
 being sentenced to imprisonment for two years 
 (Febr. 3., 1874). Before the year 1873 ended, 
 the Prussian government found itself involved 
 in similar proceedings against the other bishops 
 of the kingdom, all of whom, without exception, 
 refused obedience to the so-called May laws. 
 These proceedings terminated in the same way: 
 and the bishops who next followed the Areh- 
 ■ bishop of Posen into prison were the Bishop of 
 Treves and the Archbishop of Cologne. Other 
 re measures followed, and the Archbishop of 
 Posen was deposed (April 15., 1874). In May, 
 L874, the Prussian chambers passed a law regu- 
 lating the administration of all Catholic bishop- 
 rics which may be vacated by incumbents thri >ugh 
 legal decisions. The contest between the state 
 and church authorities is. however, not yet ended 
 (1876). 
 
 While substituting for the former co-operation 
 of state and church, in the inspection of the 
 public schools, the sole right of the state, Fa Ik 
 also conceived the plan of a total re-organization 
 of the school system. Twenty prominent men, 
 representing all the different parties, were called 
 to Berlin to discuss a draft which had been pre- 
 pared by the minister. The conference lasted 
 from June 11. to dune 20., 1872 ; and, on the 
 basis of its deliberations, the minister, Oct. 1.").. 
 L872, issued general regulations concerning the 
 public schools and teachers' seminaries. These 
 regulations were intended as a forerunner to a 
 new school law; and they were regarded as 
 modifying, in very many essential points, the 
 principles on which the former school regulations 
 oi Prussia were base I, and as requiring a return 
 to the educational principles advocated and 
 practiced by Pestalozzi. 
 
 FARMERS' COLLEGE, at College Hill, 
 Hamilton Co., Ohio, near Cincinnati, was char- 
 tered in 1846. It is supported by the interest of 
 a fund of about .S<i7.n(i(i. The institution belongs 
 to the contributors to its funds; each contributor 
 to the amount of $100 receives a certificate en- 
 
 titling him perpetually to the education of a 
 
 pupil free of charge for tuition. The holders of 
 
 these certificates elect trieiuiially 1 ."> of their 
 
 number directors to manage the college. The 
 
 college has a preparatory and a collegiate depart- 
 ment, the latter having a classical and a special 
 course. Facilities are afforded for instruction in 
 drawing and music. Both sexes are admitted. 
 Libraries of over 2,000 volumes are connected 
 with the institution. The cost of tuition is $10 
 per term of 20 weeks. In L875 — 6, there were 
 8 instructors and "•'> students (38 male and 38 
 female). of whom "J 1 were in the collegiate depart- 
 ment. The presidents of the college have been 
 as follows: Freeman G. Cary, 1847 — 53; Isaac 
 I. Allen, 18f>3 — 6; Freeman G. Cary. jn-o tern., 
 1856 — 7; the Lev. Dr. Charles N. Mattoon, 
 L857— 60 : Jacob Tuckerman, 1860—6 ; Charles 
 Curtis. L866 — 70; J. S. Lowe, the present in- 
 cumbent (1870), elected in 1873. During 1870 
 — 73, rival boards of directors were at law, and 
 the college was closed. 
 
 FEAR, a sense of danger, the apprehension 
 of coming injury, or the anticipation of pain, is 
 ;;n emotion of the mind which the educator 
 often finds it necessary to excite, in order to con- 
 trol the actions of his pupil, but which lie 
 should address with extreme care and only after 
 other means of persuasion have failed. There 
 are two kinds of government. — that of influi i 
 and that of force ; and the former should always 
 be preferred to the latter, because it addn 
 the inner nature and produces a permanent effect 
 upon the character, while the latter can be only 
 temporary. By the one. the will of a child is 
 trained, and a self-controlling power is fixed in 
 the mind; by the other the misdirected, per- 
 verted will is still left a prey to vicious propen- 
 sities, the operation of which is checked only as 
 long as the external restraint continues. Some 
 dispositions, however, need to be restrained by 
 a sense of fear before other influences can be 
 brought to bear upon them. Many children are 
 inconsiderate, rash, and impulsive, and accord- 
 ingly yield at once to their propensities. Phys- 
 ical punishment seems to be needed in order to 
 produce any conscientious observation of their 
 own conduct ; but, without great care on the 
 part of the educator, in inflicting pain for this 
 purpose, much injury may lie done to the child. 
 Unless the educator's personality in this inflic- 
 tion can be subordinated, in the child's mind, to 
 the sense of deserved punishment for wrong- 
 doing, he will antagonize the child, and destroy 
 all means of controlling him by personal influ- 
 ence. -'The moment a child's mind is strongly 
 affected by fear." says Horace Mann, •• it flies in- 
 stinctively away, and hides itself in the deepest 
 
 recesses it can find, often in the recesses of dis- 
 ingenuousness and perfidy and falsehood. In- 
 stead of exhibiting to you his whole conscious- 
 ness, hi' conceals from you as much of it as he 
 can ; or he deceptively presents to you some 
 Counterfeit of it, instead of the genuine. No 
 frighted water fowl whose plumage the bullet of 
 the sportsman has just grazed, dives quicker be- 
 
298 
 
 FELBIGER 
 
 neath the surface than a child's spirit darts from 
 your eye when you have filled it with the senti- 
 ment of tear.'' This is especially true of certain 
 dispositions; and, hence, this appeal to fear 
 should not be made without very careful dis- 
 crimination. Becker, in the Scientific Basis of 
 Education fN. Y., 1868), says, " If cautiousness 
 is too large, seek to influence the child through 
 his affections. Fear will paralyze such a mind. 
 To make this faculty useful where it is pre- 
 dominant, the teacher must get the affections of 
 the child, and he can then, by proper direction, 
 make fear an intelligent restraint." Formerly, the 
 idea of school government was identical with 
 that of absolute tyranny, — arbitrary power in 
 the teacher, and unthinking obedience in the 
 pupil, enforced bythe greatest severity of punish- 
 ment. Dr. Johnson, in the defens • of the school- 
 master I lastie, said. " ( !hildren being not reason- 
 able, can be governed only by fear ;" hut educa- 
 tors do nor And all children without reason and 
 conscience, and. therefore, the proposition was 
 
 too sweeping. When Boswell repealed toJohn- 
 son the following sentence of a speech of Lord 
 Mansfield: ' My Lords, severity is not the way 
 to govern either hoys or men." he replied. •■ Nay. 
 it is the way to govern them. I know not 
 whether it be the way to mend them." Bui no 
 school government can be approved that is not 
 intended to amend as well as to control. Chil- 
 dren should be made to fear to do wrong ; and 
 
 this should be brought about as much as possible 
 by what Berber! Spencer calls the method of 
 nature, tih&i is, by making punishment the neces- 
 sary consequence of the wrongful act, on the 
 principle involve I in the maxim, "The burnt 
 child dreads the fire." This eliminates the per- 
 sonal element in the fear implanted in the mind 
 of the child He does not tear the teacher, but 
 he fears to offend,— to do wrong. The same 
 consideration excludes from discipline, all threat- 
 ening, scolding, and harsh words, for the purpose 
 of engendering fear, and, especially excludes anger 
 
 in punishment. 'The fear to be excited in the mind 
 
 of the chilli should not be an apprehension of 
 
 personal safety, leading to meanness, cunning, 
 
 and deception as a means of self protection, but 
 should be akin to that feeling which Solomon 
 referred to when he said, •• The fear of the Lord 
 
 is the beginning of wisdom." This is not incon- 
 sistent with a constant appeal to the higher 
 motives and finer feelings of human nature, but 
 may be made a means of their development, 
 
 which is the true end of all moral education. 
 
 FELBIGER, Johann Ignaz von, one of 
 the fore al reformers of the public-school sys- 
 tem of Austria. W as Worn in L724, at GrOSB- 
 
 glogau in Silesia, and died at Presburg, Hungary, 
 i' 1 1788. \tier studying Catholic theology, he 
 
 entered th • order of St. Augustine, and. in L758, 
 became abb 't of the house of his order in Sagan, 
 
 Silesia. In this position, it was his duty to 
 
 superintend the churches and schools of Sagan 
 .and some of the neighboring villages. The wretched 
 
 Condition in which he found th,' schools, induced 
 
 1 to risil Berlin secretly, in order to acquainl 
 
 himself with the new real school of that city and 
 the tabular and literal method of Uiihn (q. v.). 
 As the result of this visit was entirely satisfactory 
 to him. he not only repeated it several times. but 
 sent a number of young men there to be edu- 
 cated as school-masters. After the end of the 
 Seven Years' war, he displayed great activity in 
 founding: new schools, some of which were organ- 
 ized as model schools: he also drew up several 
 courses of instruction, and prepared a number 
 of school books, "which were printed at his own 
 printing establishment, and obtained a very large 
 circulation. Halm's method became, through 
 his efforts, predominant in all Silesia, and was 
 often called after him Felbiger's or the Sagan 
 method. In 1774. he was appointed by the 
 Empress Maria Theresa chief director (Ober- 
 director) of the German schools: and. Dec. 6., 
 1774. thi' empress sanctioned the general regula- 
 tion tor tin' German model, head, ami trivial 
 schools which had been drawn up by Felbiger. 
 This regulation marks the beginning of a new 
 period in the history of Austrian schools. It be- 
 gins with the following significant sentence : 
 ••The education of youth of both sexes is the 
 mosl important basis of the true happiness of 
 nations." Though it did not make education 
 compulsory, it expressed the expectation that all 
 
 Children of both sexes who did Hot receive pri- 
 \ate instruction, would attend the German 
 school for six or seven years, beginning with the 
 Bixth year of age. Public education was treated 
 as a state affair : the methods of instruction and 
 discipline and the course of instruction wen' 
 regulated, a proper classification introduced, and 
 provision made for the erection of school-houses. 
 for cheap and good schoohbooks. and for the 
 better education and compensation of teachers. 
 In regard to salaries, the provisions were, how- 
 ever, far from being satisfactory, as may be in- 
 ferred from the fact that the regulation expressly 
 allows teachers to work in their leisure hours as 
 book-binders, joiners, shoe-makers, tailors, and 
 weavers. They were, however, absolutely for- 
 bidden to keep taverns. In order to elevate the 
 school-teachers to a higher social position, the 
 
 regulation assigned to them a comparatively 
 
 high rank among public functionaries. As re- 
 gards the different clashes of the common schools, 
 i town, market - town, and parish was to 
 receive a trivial school, which had only one 
 teacher, and imparted instruction in reading. 
 
 writing, arithmetic, and the elements of agri- 
 culture. In each circle, at least one head school 
 (Hatiptschule) was to be established, which 
 should have three classes, three teachers, and a 
 director, and teach, besides the subjects of the 
 trivial school, German composition, drawing. 
 
 surveying, history, and geography (especially of 
 the native country), and also the elements of the 
 Latin language. Wherever circumstances would 
 
 allow it. female schools were established, besides 
 
 the head schools for boys. Every province waa 
 to have at least one normal school, which was 
 to combine the character of a model school and 
 
 of a teachers' seminary. The course of instruc- 
 
FELBIGER 
 
 FEMALE EDFC/ATION 
 
 299 
 
 Soon after 
 an end to 
 of military 
 rejected by 
 
 tion embraced all the subjects of the head school, 
 and. besides, natural Bcience and physics, Latin, 
 the history of arts and trades, architecture, 
 and mechanics. The establishment of a German 
 school book publishing office, in connection with 
 the Vienna Normal School, gave a powerful 
 impulse to educational literature. The empress. 
 in 1777, induced Felbiger to relinquish alto- 
 gether his citizenship in Prussia, and. at the 
 game time, appointed him provost at Presburg. 
 
 this, the death of the empress put 
 
 his educational labors. The plan 
 schools, which he had drawn up, was 
 Joseph 1 1.. and he was removed from 
 the chief direction of the Vienna Normal School. 
 He was directed to remain at Presburg,and labor 
 for the improvement of public instruction in 
 Hungary. He was, however, unable to accom- 
 plish much, and died almost forgotten. Felbiger 
 wrote a number of school books, and a manual 
 explaining his method of instruction to teachers 
 (Eigenschaften, Wissenschqften, und Bezeigen 
 iffener Schulleute). The best biography 
 of Felbiger is found in Helfert, Die ostreichi- 
 Volfcsschule, vol. i. 
 FELLENBERG, Philipp Emanuel von, 
 a Swiss educator and philanthropist, was burn 
 in Bern, June 27., 1771, and died there. Nov. 21., 
 1844. J lis father being a friend of Pestalozzi, 
 he early conceived the idea that society can be 
 protected against revolution only by an im- 
 proved system of education. He believed that 
 he had discovered the basis of a radical reform 
 in the connection of education with agriculture. 
 He bought, in 179D. a large estate near Bern, 
 the Wylhof, called by him Hofwyl, and there 
 founded, in 1804, his first school, for the purpose 
 of educating poor boys, and even convicts, as 
 agriculturists. Fellenberg endeavored to make 
 tins school self-supporting, and to cause instruc- 
 tion to be regarded by the pupils as a recreation. 
 His institution proved a great success. All the 
 visitors were struck with the cheerfulness and 
 the eagerness to learn which were shown by the 
 pupils generally ; and a number of the pupils 
 subsequently distinguished themselves as edu- 
 cators and teachers. Fellenberg also believed 
 that his institutions fully supported themselves 
 by the labor of the pupils: although, as liberal 
 contributions were received all the time from 
 friends of education, this has been doubted by 
 many. Twice (in 1804 and 1.817), Pestalozzi 
 was, for a short time connected with the institu- 
 tions of Fellenberg. but they found it impossible 
 to agree. Fellenberg, being descended from a 
 noble family ami having himself filled high posi- 
 tions in the state, was accustomed to rule and 
 had dictatorial manners: while Pestalozzi. who 
 as a practical educator was greatly his superior, 
 to act as a subordinate to him in 
 matters. The fame of the school of 
 Hofwyl was. to a large extent, due to Wehrli (q. 
 
 V.), wild became connected with it, in L810. In 
 the mean time, several new institutions for poor 
 children had been established by Fellenberg. In 
 1807, he opened, in buildings which the govern- 
 
 was unwilling 
 educational 
 
 mentof Bern had presented to him. a special school 
 of aio-icult urc. with which. in \H{)H,ap//ilnnlhropin 
 for children of wealthy parents was connected. 
 
 This school, in L825, had eighty pupils, taught 
 by twenty-two teachers. Among those who suc- 
 cessively taughl in the institutions of Fellenberg, 
 
 were some of the foremost educatorsof Germany, 
 as llcrbart (q. v.) An institution for females, 
 which was subsequently added, under the man- 
 agement of the wife and daughtersof Fellenberg, 
 was. like the original school of Hofwyl, chiefly in- 
 tended for the i r. In 1830, a real school, de- 
 signed tor the education of the children of the 
 middle classes, was established, and still later an 
 infant school. As the education of teachers had 
 been sadly neglected in the canton of Pern, Fel- 
 
 lenberg, with the approval of the government, 
 
 called forty teachers to Hofwyl for a three 
 months' normal course. The next year, the 
 government denied i(s consent, as it feared 
 that Fellenberg would obtain, in this way, too 
 great an influence in the affairs of the canton. 
 In 1833, the government again arranged for 
 holding a teachers' institute in Hofwyl: but. as 
 the arrangements were not entirely satisfactory 
 to Fellenberg. he opened another normal course 
 for one hundred teachers at his own expense. 
 The institutions of Fellenberg were celebrated 
 throughout Europe, and were even visited by 
 some of the reigning princes. A number of 
 other institutions were f< utnded after their m< >i lei. 
 After Fellenberg's death, the institutions were for 
 a time continued by his son. Wilhehn Aon Fel- 
 lenberg, but were afterward abandoned. In his 
 religious views, Fellenberg shared the rational- 
 istic principles which at that time were pre- 
 dominant in Germany and .Switzerland; but, 
 unlike most of the Philanthropists, he attributed 
 great importance to the religious element of 
 instruction, and devotional exercises were strictly 
 and solemnly observed in all his institutions. — 
 See W. Hamm, Fellenberg's Leben und Wirken 
 (Bern, 1845b American Annals of Education, 
 vol. i. (1831). An interesting account of the 
 school of Hofwyl may also be found in the auto- 
 biography of one of its American pupils, Bobert 
 Dale Owen (Threading My Way, N. Y., 1874). 
 (See also Hofwyl.) 
 
 FEMALE EDUCATION. This subject 
 will be treated in two sections: (I) The history 
 of female education, and (II) the discussion of 
 its principles, or theory. 
 
 I. History. — The history of education in the an- 
 cient world almost exclusively refers to the educa- 
 tion of the male sex. In the ancient monarchies 
 of Asia and Africa, no provision was made for the 
 instruction of girls in educational institutions. In 
 China, the daughter, after the 10th year of age, 
 was confined to the house. There she was 
 taught to behave modestly and politely, to listen 
 and to obey. She had to sew and to weave in hemp 
 and silk, and to learn how to prepare the meals. 
 At the age of fifteen, when she was betrothed, 
 she received the ornament of the head-needle; 
 and. at the age of twenty, she was married. In 
 education, as well as in all other departments of 
 
300 
 
 FEMALE EDUCATION 
 
 life, China has remained stationary: and the 
 education of girls is now substantially the same 
 
 it was thousands of years ago. While the 
 instruction of boys is quite general, nine-tenths of 
 all the women can neither read nor write: and 
 it is only the daughters of the wealthiest families 
 thai receive even a meager education. In India, 
 the instruction of the female sex was also totally 
 negleeteil. An exception was made only in the 
 case of public dancers, or bayaderes. The latter 
 are daughters of poor parents, and. in ehildhood, 
 are kept for the service of the temple. The 
 priests teach them to read and write, and have 
 them carefully taught music, dancing, singing, 
 and all the ways of female coquetry, in Persia, 
 which had a system of national schools, the girls 
 were generally excluded from public instruction. 
 Still there seem to have been exceptions ; for the 
 plot of a Persian novel is base 1 upon the love pf 
 two persons, which is represented as beginning 
 at school. In Egypt, the female sex occupied a 
 more dignified and independent position than in 
 the other oriental nations, attending to the 
 business of the market ami to commerce: hut 
 no provision was made for their instruction. 
 
 Cleopatra is, however, reported to have been one 
 of the most accomplished women of antiquity, 
 ami to have spoken Hebrew, Arabic, Ethiopic, 
 Syriac, and other languages. The legislation of 
 Sparta excelled, in this respect, not only every 
 oriental country, lmt also every other Hellenic 
 state. The Spartans hell a very high opinion 
 
 of the dignity of the family, and the wife 
 and mother was the center of family life. 'Hie 
 wife was held in especially high esteem ; she was 
 
 called dearroiva, mistress, ami exerted a consider- 
 able influence over her husband. This social 
 position of woman required that her education 
 should be similar to that of the other sex. 'I he 
 Spartans thought that free, noble men could only 
 spring from noble, well-formed, healthy mothers; 
 
 ami the gills, therefore, participated, though w ith 
 some modifications, in the peculiarities of Spartan 
 education. They were to he inspired with feel- 
 
 ingsof morality ami patriotism no less than men. 
 
 The society of experienced matrons was one of 
 the chief means of their education; ami exercises 
 
 ill singing, the stilly of the poets, and the learning 
 
 of choruses were used to pr ote their general 
 
 culture. They practiced gymnastic exercises, 
 
 on arenas specially provided for them, ami grace- 
 ful mimetic dances. At certain festivals, they 
 
 and danced in public. Young men were 
 
 usually presenl at these exhibitions ; and females 
 attended those given by the males. Thus a 
 rivalry arose 1> 'tween the two sexes, which hail 
 a beneficenl influence upon the education of 
 
 both. \s the result of this education, the young 
 
 women of Sparta manifested a bodily vigor and 
 beauty, and a national pride, which were admired 
 by all foreigners. The school of Pythagoras 
 which, like the Spartans, represents the peculiar 
 development of the Doric tribes, produced 
 several female writers on education (Theano, 
 Phintys, Periktione), whose writings are by far 
 the best that can he found on the subject in the 
 
 literature of the ancient world. The Dorians re- 
 garded piety as the basis of self-control, and 
 music and gymnastics as means for attaining it. 
 This and a due harmony between the intellect 
 and the will were viewed by them as the chief 
 results of all sound female education. In Athens, 
 female education was not so well provided for as 
 in Sparta, and the elevated position which the 
 Spartans conceded to their wives was derided by 
 the Athenians as gynocracy, or female govern- 
 ment. With them, the wife was not the 
 deonoiva, or mistress, but, in fact, the servant of 
 the house. Only in exceptional cases, did the 
 daughters of a family receive instruction ex- 
 tending beyond the usual domestic duties : female 
 schools were unknown. Women appeared in 
 public only at public festivals, and it was only 
 the educated keta?ra that the intelligent Athe- 
 nian could meet in society. The Romans had a 
 very exalted idea of the dignity of family life and 
 the position of woman. In no nation of antiquity 
 was monogamy so strictly observed as in Rome, 
 The kings, according to popular tradition, and 
 afterward the decemvirs, were expelled from 
 power on account of attacks made upon female 
 virtue. The mother of the family [mater familias) 
 presided over domestic affairs as a venerable 
 
 priestess, and regarded the education of all her 
 
 children, boys a.- well as girls, as her most sacred 
 and most important duty. Thus the girls received 
 an excellent home education: and it would 
 seem that they also attended schools, for we read 
 
 that Virginia was seized by order of the decem- 
 vir Appius Claudius as she was going to school. 
 The influence of Christianity upon female 
 education shows itself, for several centuries. 
 
 only in the regeneration of family life. The 
 firsl places in Christian countries in which in- 
 struction was provided for girls, outside of their 
 families, were the convents. The nuns, as we 
 see from the correspondence of Boniface, not only 
 
 copied the Biblical books, lmt also taught secular 
 sciences. The number of girls w ho were < ducat- 
 
 ed in these schools was, however, small in com- 
 parison with that of hoys. The daughters and 
 sisters of Charlemagne, as appears from their cor- 
 respondence with Alcuin. took an active part in 
 
 the learned studies which distinguished the court 
 of that great emperor: and their example was sub- 
 sequently followed by several other princesses and 
 
 nuns: still no steps were taken toward a general 
 
 provision for female instruction, during the first 
 
 part of the middle ages. The development of 
 
 knighthood organized a system of instruction for 
 
 a small but very influential portion of female 
 youths, the daughters of the nobility. No 
 
 special institutions were founded for them : but 
 
 it was conn iiou to have a number of tin in brought 
 
 up together iii the castle of a count or other 
 nobleman. The pupils, in this case, inhabited 
 
 111 e. iion a separate part of the building, were 
 
 placed under a common -ov ermss. and received 
 instruction from a priest, sometimes also from 
 traveling artists, singers, and poets. Reading 
 and writing were the principal part of this in- 
 struction, and the young ladies were called upon, 
 
FEMALE EDUCATION 
 
 301 
 
 En the long winter evenings, to read to the family 
 or to a select company new songs, Legends, and 
 stork's. Sometimes they also acquired a knowl- 
 tedge of foreign languages, especially of French 
 and Latin. They were also instructed in singing, 
 and playing upon musical instruments. When the 
 towns -rcw strong, in their struggles against Icings 
 and nobles, important progress was made by 
 the establishment of female schools. In Brussels, 
 we find, at the beginning of the fourteenth century J 
 a school for small girls, with four female teachers ; 
 and boys and girls who were brothers and sisters 
 were often allowed to attend the same school. 
 Similar schools were found in some of the other 
 cities, hut only in a limited number. In the 
 convents, only those girls received instruction 
 in reading and writing who intended to enter 
 the on lei. In some of the towns, the girls 
 were allowed to attend boys' schools. The 
 r impulse which was given to the extension 
 of female, schools by the Reformation, in the 
 16th century, is generally recognized, even by 
 Catholic writers. Luther, in his appeal to the 
 magistrates of the German towns, urged them to 
 establish schools, not for boys only, but also for 
 girls. All the church and school regulatii >i is which ! 
 were issued during this period recognized the need 
 of establishing female schools. The chief reason 
 adduced for the demand was the duty of women 
 as well as of men to read the Scriptures. The 
 greatest zeal for the establishment of female 
 schools was displayed by Bugenhagen (q. v.), who 
 demanded these schools not only for the towns 
 hut also for villages. The course of instruction 
 embraced reading, writing, arithmetic, catechism. 
 Bible history, and singing. Although the ideas 
 of the reformers were not carried out to their 
 full extent, the number of schools for the in- 
 struction of girls, established at the time of the 
 Reformation, was very large. They were partly 
 parish schools which were attended by both boys 
 and girls, and partly schools for girls exclusively, 
 which aimed to impart a higher education than 
 could be found in the parish schools. Little 
 progress was, however, made in the second half 
 of the Kith and in the 17th century*; and, after 
 the devastations of the Thirty Years' War, female 
 schools were, in Germany and other countries of 
 the European continent, in a less flourishing 
 condition than at the time of the Reformation. 
 The work was resumed in the 18th century; but, , 
 at first, withonlyslow progress. (Gradually, how- 
 ever, the adoption of the principle of compulsory 
 education (q. v.) prepared the way for the univer- 
 sal education of female youth in public elementary 
 schools. In some of those countries of Europe 
 where the principle of compulsory education has 
 not yet been adopted or carried out, a largo 
 portion of the female youth still grow up with- 
 out any instruction. Among the most backward 
 countries in this respect, is Russia. While, in 
 1874, the number of boys attending school in 
 proportion to the entire school population varied 
 in the nine school-districts into which the empire 
 is divided from 1:1..") (in Dorpat) to 1:10.5 (in 
 Moscow); the proportion of girls attending school 
 
 was as follows: Dorpat, 1:2.1: Warsaw. 1:6; 
 St. Petersburg, L:19; Odessa, 1:2:!: Wilna, L:51; 
 Kharkof. L:5l; LCasan, 1 :•'{.'{; Kief, L: 65.8; .Mos- 
 cow, 1:49.4. Among the seventeen provinces 
 into which Austria proper is divided, there were, 
 in 1874, four (Lower Austria. Upper Austria, 
 Salzburg, and Vorarlberg) in which the number 
 of girls attending the public schools exceeded 
 that of boys, seven in which the number of girls 
 was a little inferior to that of boys, and six in 
 which it fell considerably below that of boys; 
 namely, Triest, boys 6,188, girls i.'M'l; Goritz 
 and Gradisca, boys 8,183, girls 6,4 1 1 ; [stria, boys 
 7,961, girls, 4,146; Galicia, boys, !).'!. 756, girls, 
 60,193; Bukovina, boys. 6,858, girls, 2,957 ; Dal- 
 matia, boys, 8,436, girts, 1,898. Other statistics 
 of this class may be found in the articles on the 
 several countries of Europe. 
 
 The need of schools providing a higher than 
 elementary education for girls was very generally 
 and deeply felt, especially when England, France, 
 and ( Germany entered successively into the golden 
 age of their national literature. An excellent 
 institution of the kind was founded by A. H. 
 Francke (q. v.), but there was a great diversity 
 of opinion in regard to the course of instruction to 
 be prescribed for the higher education of females. 
 The large majority of the schools of this class 
 have ever since been private institutions ; but, in 
 Germany and several other European countries, 
 the state governments as well as the municipal 
 authorities have, in the nineteenth century, begun 
 to establish female schools of a higher grade. In 
 England, the education of the daughters of 
 wealthy parents at home by governesses is more 
 general than in any other country of the Christian 
 world ; but, recently, considerable progress has 
 been made iu the establishment of female schools 
 of a higher grade. (See England.) — In Catholic 
 countries, a very great majority of the female 
 schools of a higher than elementary grade have 
 been under the control of female religious orders. 
 The number of these schools has largely in- 
 creased since the beginning of the 16th century. 
 When the Cardinal Archbishop, Carlo Borromeo, 
 of Milan, died, in 1584, there were, in his diocese 
 alone, 600 Ursuline nuns, in 11 houses, who 
 devoted themselves to the instruction of girls. 
 During the last three centuries, a number of new 
 religious orders have been formed for the purpose 
 of affording girls a higher education. There are. 
 at present, more than 30 orders of this class, with 
 several thousand members; and their schools are 
 not only attended by < 'atholic, but also by large 
 numbers of Protestant girls. (See Roman ( 'vru- 
 oi.ns.) For statistics relating to female schools 
 in Europe, see the articles on the several coun- 
 tries. — The U. S. Commissioner of Education, in 
 his report for 187 1. enumerates 214 institutions 
 for the superior instruction of women, of which 
 1 1 4 were authorized by law to confer degrees. 
 These are in part styled colleges, and in part semi- 
 naries, iits/it»J<'s, etc. The oldest of these institu- 
 tions is the Bradford Academy, at Bradford. 
 Mass.. chartered in 1K04; the oldest having the 
 title of Coll'ye&re the Maine Wesleyan Seminary 
 
 
302 
 
 FEMALE EDTJ CATION 
 
 ami Female College, at Kent's Hill, Me., and the 
 i rranville Female < !ollege,at < rranville, * >hio,char- 
 teredin L821 and L834, respectively. The progress 
 of the higher education of women is illustrated by 
 the following tacts: in 1870, the number of these 
 institutions in the United States reporting to the 
 Bureau of Education was •"!■'!. the number of in- 
 structors 378, and the number of students 5,337 ; 
 while in L874, the number of institutions is re- 
 ported at 209; the number of instructors. 2,285, 
 and the number of students. 23,445. These 
 institutions commonly comprise a primary, a 
 preparatory, and a collegiate department. The 
 Last extends through a course of three or four 
 
 years, and embraces the higher English branches, 
 
 with the addition generally of Latin and French, 
 frequently of < rerman, and sometimes of < Ireek, 
 
 Spanish, and Italian. Facilities are afforded, in 
 most if not in all cases, for instruction in vocal 
 and instrumental music, drawing and painting, 
 etc. The principal degrees conferred by female 
 colleges are Graduate in Arts (A. BA Graduate 
 in Science (B. Sc), Sister of Arts I A. S.), .Mistress 
 of Liberal Arts (M. L A..), Mistress of liberal 
 Learning (M. L. L.), Mistress of Science (M. Sc. . 
 Mistress of English Literature (M. E. L.), and 
 Mistress of Music .Mis. Mus.). In some of the 
 higher co-educative institutions, there is a separate 
 course for females [Ladies' Course) similar to 
 that of most female colleges ; in others, there is 
 
 no distinction, females being admitted to the 
 same classes, and on the same terms, as males. 
 Among higher institutions for females exclusive- 
 ly. Vassar College q.v.),a1 Poughkeepsie, \. V.. 
 Smith College, a1 Northampton. Mas-, (organized 
 in L875), ami Wellesley College, at Wellesley, 
 Mass. (organized in 1 875), hold a high rank. 
 
 II. Theory of Female Education. — This is a 
 subject which, especially in recent years, has very 
 greatly engaged the attention of practical educa- 
 tors, scientific educationists, physicians, and all 
 others who have either written or spoken on 
 questions concerning the present condition and 
 
 future prospects of human society and human 
 welfare. The proper education of woman has 
 
 been recognized as an important, perhaps the 
 chief, factor of social progress, fn former times, 
 both ancient and modern, as we have seen, woman 
 in general, occupied a secluded state; and it was 
 only in the extreme privacy of the home circle 
 thai she exerted the potent influence inseparable 
 
 from her sex. whether as daughter, wife, or 
 mother. The Roman matron, within this narrow 
 limit, was an educator of her daughters always, 
 and sometimes chiefly of her sons, as in the case 
 of Cornelia, only illustrious as the " mother of 
 
 'lie Gracchi." Ancient history affords many 
 
 t women who, breaking through the 
 
 barriers of social custom, became illustrious for 
 
 their learning ami eloquence. Such were Aspasia 
 
 of Athens, and I Ivpatia of Alexandria. The Career 
 
 of such women illustrated the intellectual capacity 
 ot their sex under circumstances permitting oren- 
 coin culture. Female education, however, 
 
 has always been viewed as radically distinct from 
 that of males, — as presenting entirely different 
 
 aims, and requiring different processes of train- 
 ing and instruction, and a widely different cur- 
 riculum of study. Much has been said and 
 done in recent years to modify very greatly this 
 view; but it is still generally entertained, and is. 
 at the present time, the principle on which most 
 schemes for the education of females are based. 
 "A system of education," saysMaudsley, "adapted 
 to women should have regard to the peculiarities 
 of their constitution, to the special function in 
 life for which they are destined, and to the range 
 and kind of practical activity, mental and bodily. 
 to which they would seem foreshadowed by their 
 sexual organization of body and mind."' " From 
 the beginning of the eighth year." says Schwarz, 
 "the two sexes require, in almost every reap 
 a different education." "The culture of girls," 
 Bays Vim Raumer, commonly requires a process 
 of instruction entirely different from that of 
 boys.'* Alonzo Potter, in the School and the 
 SchoolmasU r I X. V.. L842), emphasizes this prin- 
 ciple: "One cannot look at the female — with less 
 muscular vigor and more nervous sensibility 
 than the other sex; with more timidity and 
 gentleness; with deeper affections and more 
 acute sensitiveness — without perceiving, that she 
 has been appointed to a sphere very different 
 from that of man. Her appropriate empire is 
 over the family, where she not only lays the 
 foundation, during childhood, of individual char- 
 acter, but where she ever exerts, through her ac- 
 quaintance, and especially through her husband 
 and children, a humanizing influence over the 
 
 world." " Hence." he armies, "there should be, 
 
 in the education of females, a special reference 
 
 to their sex and condition of life." "The best 
 educational (raining for a boy," says Dr. Clarke, 
 in Seat in Education (Boston, lb"H). "is no! the 
 best for a girl, nor that for a girl best for a 
 boy." Such are the views upon which the 
 education of females has been based. Ar- 
 ranged, as it has been by the other sex. the 
 only considerations that have dictated its meth- 
 ods and processes have been the average phys- 
 ical weakness of women as compared with men, 
 and the accomplishments they nii.uht need as 
 wives and matrons. It is not difficult to per- 
 ceive that were the education of men arranged 
 by the other sex from an analogous stand-point.it 
 would also be narrowed in its scope and proc- 
 esses. During the last few years, the questions 
 
 pertaining to female education have been vig- 
 orously discussed by writers of both sexes ; and 
 much experience lias been gathered, which 
 
 appeal's to show that the necessity tor a modified 
 
 system of education for females is by no means 
 
 real as has been supposed and asserted. (See 
 Co-Education ok the Sf.xk.s.) We say modified 
 
 System of education, because just as it is necessary 
 to adapt the educational processes to individual 
 
 traits, so is it equally necessary, upon the same 
 principle, to adjust the training and teaching 
 
 processes to male and female, as far as they 
 
 severally present peculiar characteristics. In 
 
 home education, these proper discriminations 
 must naturally be made. The girl is treated as 
 
FEMALE EDUCATION 
 
 :\u:\ 
 
 a girlj ami the boy as a boy in manners, habits, 
 amusements, and accomplishments. Over the 
 Conner the mother exercises a peculiar care. 
 The ueed of this all educators recognize. "tin-Is." 
 says Schwarz, "require chiefly the guidance of 
 the maternal hand, in order that their tender 
 nature may 1 1> >t lie rudely handled, their purity 
 not invaded, and the appropriately female direc- 
 tion of their development not interfered with. 
 Their understanding and their feelings should be 
 exposed to no rude touch, that, like the rosebud, 
 they may develop themselves purely from with- 
 in, and like the chaste mimosa, shrink from 
 even the least contact." Such accomplishments 
 are taught as are properly feminine; such as 
 Bewing, embroidery, the methods of household 
 management, which every woman should under- 
 stand, to which may be added music and dancing. 
 In every thing- thus taught, the future destiny of 
 the girl, as a member 01 society, should be kept 
 in view ; not, as has been usually advocated, 
 that her education is to be exclusively such as 
 will fit her to perforin the duties of wife and 
 mother, but such as will enable her to live in- 
 dependently of these relations, should such be 
 her destiny. " As the general rule," says Miss 0. E. 
 Beecher, -every true woman would prefer to be 
 a wife, mother, and housekeeper, could her ideal 
 be fully met. But in multitudes of cases this 
 can never he. and so every woman should prepare 
 herself not only for the ordinary duties of the 
 family state, but also for some profession to 
 secure an independent livelihood." 
 
 In public elementary instruction, as shown in 
 the article on Co-MIucation of (lie Sexes (q. v.), 
 girls and boys are frequently instructed not only 
 in the same schools, but in the same classes. 
 There are, however, numerous private female 
 seminaries, many of which are boarding-schools. 
 In such institutions, the discipline, instruction, 
 and studies are all specially adapted to impart 
 that culture and confer those accomplishments 
 which an' deemed to be proper for the female sex. 
 The benefits of this one-sided training have been 
 much called in question; many contending that 
 the sexes should never be entirely separated in 
 education. In this connection Mrs. Willard, an 
 experienced educator of females, says : "Feminine 
 delicacy requires that girls should be educated 
 chiefly by their own sex. This is apparent from 
 considerations that regard their health and con- 
 veniences, the propriety of their dress and 
 manners, and their domestic accomplishments." 
 In her Address in the Public (1819) in relation 
 to female education, she discussed very ably and 
 fully its defects, and thus enumerated in particular 
 those of boarding-schools for girls: (1) A want 
 of suitable accommodations, as well as of neces- 
 sary apparatus for instruction; (2) Incompetency 
 of instructors, those who keep these schools 
 being unable, and sometimes unwilling to pay 
 for properly trained and cultured teachers; 
 (3) Imperfection of organization; (4) Tendency to 
 teach showy accomplishments rather than such 
 as are solid and useful, the immediate and soli- 
 object being profit, and hence a wish to gratify 
 
 the caprices and vanity of ill-judging parents, 
 female seminaries of all kinds have especially 
 been subject to the latter reproach; but the 
 Circumstances that have given occasion to it were 
 due. in great part, to the false system ,,f female 
 education so long prevalent. Hannah More, in 
 
 this connection, remarked: "Not a few of the 
 
 evils of tin- present day arise from a new and 
 perverted application of terms; among these, 
 perhaps, there is not one more abused, misunder- 
 stood, or misapplied, than the term accomplish- 
 ments. This word, in its original meaning, 
 signifies completeness, perfection ; but I may 
 safely appeal to the observation of mankind, 
 whether they do not meet with swarms of youth- 
 ful females, issuing from our hoarding-schools, 
 as well as emerging from the more private scenes 
 of domestic education, who are introduced into 
 the world under the broad and universal title of 
 accomplished young ladies, of all of whom it 
 cannot very truly and correctly be pronounced, 
 that they illustrate the definition by a complete- 
 ness which leaves nothing to be added, and a 
 perfection which leaves nothing to be desired." 
 I Jut at the period in which this was written, women 
 of scholastic or professional attainments or 1 i t < -r; uy 
 ability were quite exceptional. Once, the chief 
 social employment of young ladies was a kind of 
 fancy embroidery or needle-work, which con- 
 sumed, or wasted, a vast amount of time. Of 
 this, Miss Edgeworth, in Practical Education, 
 says, "Our great-grandmothers distinguished 
 themselves by truly substantial tent-work chairs 
 and carpets, by needle-work pictures of Solomon 
 and the queen of Sheba. These were admirable 
 in their day, but their day is over ; and these 
 useful, ingenious, and laborious specimens of fe- 
 male talents are consigned to the garret, or pro- 
 duced but as curiosities to excite wonder at the 
 strange patience and miserable destiny of former 
 generations." As late as 1873, Rev. S. Van Bok- 
 kelen remarked, " I think we may venture the 
 opinion that all over the United States the 
 academic education of young women is mul- 
 tifarious and desultory. It is comprehensive, 
 embracing a little of every thing, but accurate in 
 almost nothing. This is because it has no well- 
 defined purpose. When our young women, in- 
 stead of closing their books at 17, aim to prepare 
 themselves for a college course, their shams will 
 give place to realities, and the public exercises of 
 our own best seminaries for girls will present a 
 more substantial programme than music and senti- 
 mental essays, and have a higher purpose than to 
 display the skill of the mantua-makers." (The 
 Education of Women, a paper read before the 
 N". Y. State Teachers' Association, duly. lS7.'i.) 
 The subject of the higher education of women 
 has been chiefly discussed with reference to the 
 question of their physical ability to undergo the 
 continuous labor required to pursue a full college 
 or university course of study. (See ( !o-Education 
 OF THE Sexes.) The objections on this account, 
 it may probably be said, have all Leu answered 
 
 either by actual experience, or by the cogent 
 reasoning of such writers as Anna C. Brackett 
 
304 
 
 FEMALE EDUCATION 
 
 FEMALE TEACHERS 
 
 (Education of American Girls), Caroline H. 
 I)all (The Other Side), Mary P. Jacobi, M. D. 
 (Mental Action and Physical Health), Mis. E. B. 
 Duffey (No Sex in Education) , and many others. 
 The ability of young women to compete with the 
 other sex, as university students, and without 
 physical injury, appears to be pretty fully 
 established ; and, hence, the doors of universities 
 and other higher institutions of learning are grad- 
 ually being thrown open to women. This has 
 been done only after the most strenuous opposition, 
 and by stemming the adverse current of public 
 opinion. Tn 1802, Mr. Grote strongly advocated 
 that the University of London should admit 
 women to degrees. "In refusing degrees," he ar- 
 gued, "the Senate was called upon to say. ' We 
 consider our studies laudable and deserving en- 
 couragement oidy for men ; they are not laudal >le, 
 and we intend to discountenance them for women. 
 We cannot grant academical honors and advant- 
 ages which will tend to encourage what is a bad 
 and wrong type of education for women.' I 
 maintain this is an answer which the Senate is 
 not warranted in returning. This would be to 
 usurp the right of determining by authority a 
 point which individuals have a full discretion to 
 determine by themselves. I contend that every 
 woman has a right to choose for herself among 
 the various types of education; if among these 
 she prefers that which coincides with our cur- 
 riculum, we ought to be the last to discredit her 
 for so doing.'' The Senate of the university, how- 
 ever, positively refused to grant degrees to wom- 
 en, on the ground that the strain necessary for 
 passing the examination would be injurious to 
 their health. To encourage women to compete 
 for degrees, it was stated, is to invite them to 
 self-destruction. Actual experience in the United 
 States disproves the latter assertion. (See Co- 
 Education of the Sexes.) In that country 
 about fifty institutions for superior instruction 
 are open to both sexes, besides which there is a 
 large number for females exclusively. 
 
 The progress already made in the complete 
 education of women, as well as that which is 
 promised in the future by the continued opera- 
 tion of the same causes that have worked so 
 great a change in the past, cannot but redound 
 to the benefit of our race, and shed a genial in- 
 lluence on modern civilization. "Already.'' says 
 \ an Bokkelen, "an impulse has been given to 
 society by the education of women ; yet no truly 
 womanly duty has been neglected, nor are wom- 
 en less disposed to accept the cares of domestic 
 life, or yield to the claims of conjugal or maternal 
 affection." "Will woman's smiles,'' he asks, 
 "cease to be attractive when they are brightened 
 by intelligence ? Will her conversation lose its 
 power when strengthened by words of wisdom i 
 W ill her beauty of form and feature vanish amid 
 metrical and metaphysical problems? Will 
 
 her kingdom be circumscribed as her knowledge is 
 enlarged? Will her companionship be less valued 
 
 as her ability to counsel w is.lv and control judi- 
 ciously is increased?'' "Girls too." said Krasmus, 
 •' ought to receive a liberal education. The mul- 
 
 titude hold it to be folly, but wise men know 
 that nothing is more advantageous to the morals 
 of women than extended knowledge." "Educate 
 all the men of a generation," says G. B. Emerson, 
 "and leave the women uneducated, and every 
 child under their influence begins his public edu- 
 cation with all the disadvantages of his father. 
 Educate all the females, and you will give a per- 
 manent impulse to the onward movement of the 
 race, which it can never lose. Each individual 
 begins his progress from a higher level, and, with 
 equal exertion, will bequeath a richer inheritance 
 of knowledge and wisdom to his successors." — 
 Fenelon, Trade de V education desfilles (1687) ; 
 Beaudoux, La Science Maternelle (Paris, 1844) ; 
 Schwabz, Erziekungslehre (Leipsic, 1829) ; H. 
 More, Strictures on the Modern System of 
 Female Education (1799) ; Edgeworth, Prac- 
 tical Education (London, 1798), and Lettei-s on 
 Female Education (London, 1832); H.I. Schmidt, 
 History of Education, part u. (X. Y., 1842) ; 
 Geo. B. Emerson*, On the Education of Females. 
 a lecture delivered before the American Institute 
 of Instruction, August, 1831 ; Emma Willard, 
 An Address to the Public, proposing a Plan 
 for improving Female Education (1819), re- 
 printed in Proceedings of N. Y. University 
 Convocation (1870) ; Emily Davies, Higher 
 Education of Women (London, 1867); Barnard, 
 Studies and Conduct, s. v. Education of Girls 
 (Hartford, 1873); E. 1>. Mansfield, American 
 Education (N. V., 1851); C. E. Beeciier, Educa- 
 t ion nl Reminiscences (X.Y.,1874); Omos, Libe)'- 
 al Education of Women (X.Y., 1874); Markby, 
 Practical Essays on Education, s. v. The Educa- 
 tion of Women (London, 1868) ; Brackett, Tlie 
 Education of American Girls (X. Y., 1874) . 
 Beale, University Examinations forWomen, a 
 paper read before the Social Science Association 
 (London, L875); Report of the U. S. Commis- 
 sioner of Education for 1874. 
 
 FEMALE TEACHERS. As long as female 
 education continued to be neglected, the work of 
 instructing pupils in schools devolved upon the 
 other sex ; but inasmuch as girls were taught 
 only in the household, these schools were com- 
 posed exclusively of boys. A woman capable of 
 teaching was an intellectual and social phenom- 
 enon; for the posit ion of females rendered the ac- 
 quisition of learning unnecessary. A writer of the 
 13th century enumerated, as the end and aim of 
 female education, " the knowing how to pray to 
 I iod. to love man, and to knit and sew." In pro- 
 portion, however, as women were set free from 
 the social bonds that prevented their receiving 
 tin- due culture of their faculties, it was perceived 
 that they were well fitted to take a due share in 
 the work of elementary education. In the United 
 States, the number of female teachers by far 
 exceeds that of male teachers. According to the 
 census of 1870, out of 169,577 teachers, 126,822, 
 or about 74 percent, were females. In the Xew 
 England states the excess of female teachers over 
 males is very great. Thus, in Massachusetts, 
 during L874 — 5, the number of female teachers 
 employed in the public schools was 8,047 out of 
 
FEMALE TEACHERS 
 
 FENELOK 
 
 30. r > 
 
 an aggregate of 0.21 (i, or nearly 88 per oeni ; in 
 Maine, the proportion, in summer, is about !)T 
 per cent, in winter, only 55 per cenl ; in Con- 
 aecticut, the proportion is nearly as great ; in 
 Vermont, in 1< S 7.'>. out of 4,406 teachers. '.i,~'M, 
 or nearly 90 per cent, were females. In the 
 state of New York, about 67 percent of all the 
 teachers employed are females; in the city of 
 New Fork, out of .'5.14(1 teachers employed in 
 
 the public schools, in 1ST"), 2,842, or nunc than 
 90 per cent were females. In the other large 
 cities of the Union, the preponderance of female 
 over male teachers is very great. In lite city of 
 Boston, for example, out of 1,289 teachers em- 
 ployed in 1874, L,091, or about 85 per cent, were 
 females. In most of the western states, there is 
 a smaller percentage of female teachers. Tims, 
 in Ohio, in IsT.'i, the number of female teachers 
 was 12.110 out of 21,899; in Missouri, Ken- 
 tucky. Tennessee, and Kansas, the number of 
 li, ale teachers is in excess of that of female 
 teachers. In some of the European countries, 
 the number of female teachers shows a similar 
 preponderance : hut. as a, rule, the male teachers 
 are in a majority. Especially is this the ease in 
 most of the German states. Thus in the public 
 elementary schools of Prussia, there were, in 1 857, 
 31 ,4(17 male and only 1,523 female teachers. 
 
 The reasons given for employing' a large num- 
 ber of female teachers are chiefly the following : 
 (1) The peculiar fitness of women for the work 
 of instructing children; (2) The limited number 
 of employments in which women can engage ; \ 
 {'■'<< the superior compensation paid to female 
 teachers, in comparison with that paid in other 
 occupations, such as sewing, copying, etc.; (4) The 
 fact that men of talent and enterprise can obtain 
 a larger compensation in other fields of labor, in- 
 duces most to quit the work of teaching at an 
 early age ; (5) Women are often preferred to 
 men by superintendents and school officers on 
 account of their being more tractable, and more 
 willing to comply with the regulations and 
 to carry out the policy of special systems ; and 
 (l>) Considerations of economy, the salaries paid 
 to female teachers being considerably smaller than 
 those paid to males. The last mentioned reason, 
 though generally very influential, in a few cases 
 does not exist. The question of equal compen- 
 sation for equal service has been much discussed, 
 but has rarely been decided in favor of the female 
 claimants for equal salary. The city of St. Louis 
 makes no discrimination between male and female 
 teachers in fixing their salaries. The California 
 legislature of L873 enacted that "females employed 
 as teachers in the public schools of the state 
 should, in all eases, receive! the same compensa- 
 tion as is allowed to male teachers for like services, 
 when holding certificates of the same grade.'' 
 
 -Much has been said, in addition, as to the com- 
 parative value of the services of male and female 
 teachers; and there is a wide difference of opinion 
 on this point. Many contend that it is "woman's 
 Bpecial mission" to' teach, and that, therefore, the 
 whole field should be left open to her without 
 any competition from the other sex ; and some 
 20 
 
 of the School systems of the states and cities of 
 the I'nion have been based, wholly or in part, 
 upon this principle. In some of the city systems. 
 
 all those regularly engaged in teaching are women, 
 male principals being employed only for executive 
 duty in the general management. These schools 
 arc however, mainly or wholly, elementary 
 
 schools. It is the opini if most educators 
 
 that the masculine clement should bave as effect- 
 ive scope in education as the feminine. A writer 
 
 in the Massachusetts Teacher (April, ls?4) ex- 
 pressed this principle in the following manner : 
 
 "Ass i as our youth have passed beyond the 
 
 primary stage of instruction, their minds should 
 come systematically ii! contact with teachers of 
 both sexes, to such an extent that the teaching. 
 character, and influences of one sex shall fairly 
 supplement and qualify those of the other.'' 
 A number of German educators, as '■. I! mil 
 GrundzUge (/>■/• Elrziehungslehre), Palmer, 
 Evangelische Pddagogik), and Beneke [Erzie- 
 kungslehre),axe generally opposed to the appoint- 
 ment of female teachers; but their views have 
 not prevailed, and in Germany as we'll as in most 
 of the other European countries, the scale on 
 which female teachers are employed is steadily 
 enlarging, and the number of training schools for 
 female teachers correspondingly increasing. (See 
 Training Schools). It is sometimes said that 
 female teachers are more earnest and devoted 
 than male teachers, and consequently that their 
 work is more successful. This might be antici- 
 pated from the fact that women pursue teaching 
 more as a steady employment : while there are 
 but few young men engaged in elementary schools, 
 who are not looking forward to more lucrative 
 ami more influential occupations. In this con- 
 nection, Adams, in The Free s,-hf>t>I System of 
 llf United States (1875), remarks: '"The large 
 preponderance of female teachers in the States 
 will always render the occupation of teacher 
 more or less a temporary one. As a matter quite 
 of course, women do not look to teaching as a 
 lifelong career. In England, scarcely one in 
 twenty of the female teachers reaches her tenth 
 year of service. Of the female teachers trained 
 at Bishop's Stortford, it has been ascertained 
 that their average school life was under five 
 years. The proportion of female teachers in 
 America is ten times greater than in England. 
 Female teachers may have other advantages over 
 males, and in the United States are generally 
 conceded to have, but the length of their school 
 life is not one of them.'' 
 
 FENELON, Francois de Salignac de la 
 Mothe, a celebrated French educator and prel- 
 ate, was born Aug. (i., L651 ; died .Ian. 7., 1715. 
 
 lie was, in KiT I, ordai 1 a priest, and four 
 
 years later appointed aumonier of a society of 
 French ladies for instructing Protestant girls in 
 the Catholic faith. His experience in this posi- 
 tion induced him to write a work on female 
 education, one of the first systematic winks 
 written on the subject. When the Duke of 
 Beauvilliers was appointed governor of the 
 royal princes, he procured the appointment of 
 
300 
 
 FERULE 
 
 FICTION 
 
 Fenelon as one of their educators. The results 
 of his labors in this position gained for him a 
 reputation as one of the most successful educators 
 of princes that ever lived. The oldest of the 
 princes, the Duke Louis of Burgundy, who when 
 Fenelon was appointed was only seven years old, 
 hut already noted for a propensity to violent 
 anger and stubbornness, became, under the in- 
 struction of Fenelon, the model of a meek, docile 
 young prince, and was enthusiastically attached 
 lis teacher. In l(i'J.">, the king appointed him 
 Archbishop of Cambray ; but, two years later, 
 he fell iut<> disfavorwith the kin- in consequence 
 of theological controversies with Bossuet, and 
 was removed from his position of educator. His 
 famous work, Les Aventures de Telemaque, is 
 an educational novel, the chief object of which 
 is to develop the principles thai guided Fenelon 
 in the education of the three princes. It was 
 completed about the time his personal intercourse 
 with the princes ceased. It was published 
 against his wish, the manuscript having been 
 3tolen by a servant. The best edition of his 
 
 educational works is that of Didot (Paris, 1850) ; 
 the besl English translation of TeUmaque is that 
 of Hawkesworth (4to, Ixnidoii, 17(is, and 12mo, 
 New York, 1859). — Sec also De Bausset, Histoire 
 de F&niUm i Paris, 1808). 
 
 PEB.TJLE (Lat./er^,from/erire, to strike), 
 an instrument used in inflicting corporal punish- 
 ment in schools. Allusion is made to it by Hor- 
 ace and Juvenal; by the latter in the remark, 
 nimt a in ferulaz subduximus. Among the Ro- 
 mans, this was the instrument tor the lightest 
 
 kind of punishment; of a much severer kind 
 were the sruticu, made of twisted strips of parch- 
 ment, and the terrible fiageUurn, a w hip consist- 
 ing of thongs of hard ox-hide. 'The exact form 
 of the ferula as used by the Romans is not 
 known; in modern tiines.it was a Hat piece of 
 wood, narrow at the handle, generally with a 
 small hole in the middle of its broad part, for 
 the purpose of raising a blister on the offender's 
 hand. Sometimes, it was a broad leather strap, 
 about ten inches long, and at its broad part 
 about four or five inches wide, fastened to a, 
 wooden handle. The Scotch ferule, called the 
 
 taws, was a leather strap with one end cul into 
 
 Strips and hardened in the tire. Sec COOPER, 
 
 History of the Rod. (See also Coki'or.yl IYx- 
 
 ISIIMI 
 
 FESTIVALS, SCHOOL. See School Fes- 
 
 i IV \l.-. 
 
 FICHTE, Johann Gottlieb, one of Ger- 
 many's greatest philosophers, ami one of the most 
 
 noted writers on the Bubjed of national educa- 
 tion, was born May L9., L762, and died Jan. 28., 
 L814. Be was, for some time, professor of phi- 
 losophy at Jena; hut being charged with athe- 
 ism by some persons who had completely mis 
 understood him. he let! that university, and went 
 to Berlin, w here he afterward became a professor. 
 Eiis philosophy is a development oi that of Kant, 
 
 and rests ei 1 1 iivlv upon the notion that the mind 
 
 constructs its objects by an internal necessity . All 
 activity, as well a the condition of the existence 
 
 of all things, depends upon the ego. Very many 
 profound remarks and line psychological anal- 
 yses occur in his philosophical writings. His 
 bent of mind was strongly ethical; he viewed 
 nature as valueless except as a means for devel- 
 oping the moral character of the individual. 
 Like Kant he had the greatest abhorrence of all 
 utilitarian ethics, and would not sanction any at- 
 tempt to reduce the moral law to a means of 
 gaining either happiness or heaven. His ad- 
 dresses to the German nation, delivered while 
 Napoleon was in Berlin, are full of this ethical 
 rigor, and are so stirring, that it is a wonder 
 that Napoleon suffered him to deliver them. 
 I lis connection with pedagogy consists in his 
 emphatic enunciation of the doctrine that edu- 
 cation must be an unfolding of the whole nature, 
 moral as well as mental. The mere acquisition 
 of knowledge he viewed as the smallest part of 
 education. The great aim of instruction is to 
 make good men ; or, since will was the man 
 with him, to develop a will to do right. His hatred 
 of selfishness — which was probably much in- 
 creased by the political events of his time — 
 brought him into sharp antagonism with the pre- 
 vailing theories both of education and of religion. 
 He complained that the aim of the schools was 
 simply to make men knowing, and that they 
 were utterly indifferent to their moral develop- 
 ment. Religion itself, he said, as taught, ministers 
 toselfishnessliy its theory of rewards and punish- 
 ments. Selfishness was. for him, the root of all 
 evil, and tainted the old methods in church, school, 
 and state. The new education, therefore, must 
 aim to produce complete and unselfish men. 
 This demand for unselfishness led I'iehte, in his 
 Addresses i<> the German Nation (the hook 
 
 which contains his leading utterances on educa- 
 tion) to lay down a theory of state or national 
 education, in which the rights of the individual 
 do not receive proper recognition. This was a 
 necessary revolt from the individualism of the 
 previous century, but it W8S no less one-sided, 
 and prepared the way for the opposite theory of 
 Ih i hart. Concerning i'iehte as an educator, 
 see Schmidt, Qeschichte der Pddagogik; and 
 Stbuempell, Die Pddagogik der rhilosophen 
 Kant, F-ichte, Herbart (1843). See also Fichte's 
 Leben und Briefwechsel, edited bj his son, J. II. 
 Fichte (2 vols., 1830 31); and Dittes, Schida 
 der Pddagogik (Leipsic, h s 7<'>). 
 
 FICTION, Works of, constitute an import- 
 ant part of the literature used in the education 
 
 of children. The young mind delights in inter- 
 esting tales, and receives impressions therefrom, 
 deeper and mole durahle perhaps ilian those 
 derived from any other source. W bile it instim -' 
 tively perceives what is fictitious in the scenes 
 and incidents of the story, it imbibes as true the 
 characters of the personages and their relations; 
 
 that is, it feds that such characters and relations 
 may, possiblj or actually, exist in real life. 
 Hence, the awe with which children listen to 
 
 supernatural narratives is due nol only to the. 
 excited condition of their imagination, hut to tbo 
 feeling that had such things never existed they 
 
FICTION 
 
 307 
 
 would not have formed part of the story; for 
 Btoriee are felt to be senseless and idle thai till 
 of things entirely impossible. Tin's principle may 
 serve to guide the educator in selecting or reject- 
 ing works of fiction for the young. They must 
 be looked upon as powerful instruments in either 
 benefiting or corrupting the minds of children. 
 The writings of Mrs. Barbauld, Miss Edgeworth, 
 Berquin, and in part those of Bans Andersen, 
 are- illustrative of this principle. Some of the 
 stories of the latter must be classed among the 
 impossible, and hence are much less instructive 
 and interesting to children. Nor do children take 
 any real interest, in those stories usually found 
 in Sunday-school books, which are designed 
 to improve their moral and religious nature 
 by presenting examples of juvenile virtue and 
 goodness, such as they never behold in real life, 
 and which they, therefore, look upon as senti- 
 mental and of no account. "There is. " said 
 Margaret Fuller, - too much amongst us of the 
 French way of palming off false accounts of 
 things on children, 'to do them good', and show- 
 ing nature to them in a magic lantern, 'purified 
 for the use of childhood', and telling stories of 
 sweet little girls and brave little boys, — O, all so 
 good, so bad ! and, above all, so Utile, and every 
 thing about them so little ! Children accustomed 
 to move in full-sized apartments, and to converse 
 with full-grown men and women, do not need so 
 much of this babydiouse style of literature. They 
 like, or would like if they could get them, better 
 things much more. They like the Arabian 
 Nights, and Pilgrim's Progress, and Bunyan's 
 Emblems, and Shakespeare, and the Iliad and 
 Odyssey, — at least, they used to like them : and 
 if they do not now, it is because their taste has 
 been injured by so many sugar-plums." In the 
 same spirit, Rosenkranz says, "The purest stories 
 of literature designed for the amusement of 
 children from their seventh to their fourteenth 
 year, consist always of those which were honored 
 by nations and the world at large. One has 
 only to notice in how many thousand forms the 
 stories of Ulysses are reproduced by the writers 
 of children's tales. Becker's Tales of Ancient 
 Time*. Gustav Schwab's most admirable Sagas 
 of Antiquity, Karl Grimm's Tales of Olden 
 Times, ko,. — what were they without the well- 
 talking, wily favorite of Pallas, and the divine 
 swineherd? And just as indestructible are the 
 stories of the old Testament up to the separation 
 Of Judah and Israel. These patriarchs with their 
 wives and children, these judges and prophets, 
 these kings and priests,are by no means ideals of 
 virtue in the notion of our modern lifeless moral- 
 ity, which would smooth outof its pattern stories 
 for tin 'dear children' every thing that is hard 
 and uncouth." 
 
 By means of suitable works of fiction, the 
 minds of children and youth may be cultivated 
 in several respects : (1) By imparting vivid con- 
 ceptions of persons and things: (2) By impress- 
 ing upon them sentiments of virtue, courage, and 
 patriotism; (3) By developing and training the 
 imagination and the taste. Such were the reasons 
 
 which prompted Fenelon to write Tilemaque, 
 and probably Xenophon in the composition of 
 the Cyropo>dia; and this office of fiction as a 
 vehicle of instruction and moral elevation has 
 been recognized by most, if not all,grea1 educa- 
 tors. Pestalozzi selected it as the most effective 
 means of reaching the popular mind. In his 
 Leonard and Gertrude (1784), he laid the 
 foundation lor a national pedagogical literature. 
 ••As real history," said Lord Bacon, in The Ad- 
 vancement of Learning f /)■ Augmentis Scienli- 
 arum), "disguste as w ith a familiar and constant 
 similitude of things, fiction relieves us by unex- 
 pected turns and changes, and thus not only de- 
 lights, hut inculcates morality and nobleness of 
 soul. It raises the mind by accommodating the 
 image of things to our desires, and not, like his- 
 tory and reason, subjecting the mind to things." 
 There are. however, dangers to be avoided in us- 
 ing fiction as an educational agent, which we 
 may thus briefly summarize : (1 ) By its exciting 
 character, it may so occupy or intoxicate the 
 mind, as to destroy the taste for more solid and 
 useful reading. Such is uniformly the result of 
 permitting children to read the wild, romantic, 
 and startling stories, with which some of the 
 juvenile periodicals of the day are filled. The 
 constant perusal of such narratives is baneful ; 
 like ardent spirits, it intoxicates but does not 
 nourish. (2) In the case of narratives which 
 present instances of suffering, the sympathies 
 are expended upon fictitious objects, and pity 
 thus becomes habitually a mere sentiment, instead 
 of prompting to active beneficence. "In the 
 healthy state of the moral feelings,'' says Aber- 
 crombie, "the emotion of sympathy excited by a 
 tale of sorrow ought to be followed by some ef- 
 forts for the relief of the sufferer. When such 
 relations in real life are listened to from time to 
 time without any such efforts, the emotion gradu- 
 ally becomes weakened, and that moral condition 
 is produced which we call selfishness, or hardness 
 of heart." (3) By presenting to the young mind 
 fictitious scenes of immorality, vice, or crime, it 
 becomes familiar with their associations, and is 
 thus depraved. (4) By impressing upon the 
 mind false conceptions of the enjoyments, duties, 
 and objects of life, itmay be the means of pro- 
 ducing a kind of infatuation, unfitting for every 
 sphere of useful employment. Johnson, in Rus- 
 selas well describes this mental condition : "The 
 mind dances from scene to scene, unites all pleas- 
 ures in all combinations, and riots in delights, 
 which nature and tort line, with all their bounty, 
 cannot bestow. In time, some particular train 
 of ideas fixes the attention; all other intellect- 
 ual gratifications are rejected: the mind, in 
 weariness or leisure, recurs constantly to the 
 favorite conception, and tea-Is on the luscious 
 
 falsehood whenever she is offended with the bit- 
 terness of truth. By degrees the reign of fancy 
 is confirmed ; she grows imperious, and in time 
 despotic. Then fictions begin to operate as re 
 alities, false opinions fasten upon the mind, and 
 life passes in dreams of rapture or of anguish.' 
 Sec Imagination, Culture ok.) 
 
308 
 
 FINE AIM'S 
 
 FINLAND 
 
 FINE ARTS, a term which lias, of late, 
 undergone considerable modification. Formerly, 
 it was the collective name of all those arts which, 
 through the power of invention or imitation, arc 
 designed to produce pleasure in the mind ; Buch 
 as poetry, music, etc. Pine arts, in the widest 
 sense of the word, constitute an important 
 agency in every complete system of education; 
 tor the clement of beauty, which exists in the 
 human mind and should be trained no less than 
 the intellect, the will, or the conscience, depends 
 for its development, to a great extent, on the 
 proper application of the arts of poetry, music. 
 and drawing. (See Esthetic Ciltuee, and Akt- 
 Education). More recently, the meaning of the 
 term Fine Arts has been restricted to painting, 
 sculpture, engraving, ami architecture, which 
 influence us through the eye. In a still narrower 
 sense, it is somtinies applied to painting and 
 sculpture exclusively. 
 
 Special art schools may he divided into two 
 large classes,— schools of a lower grade, chiefly 
 intended for industrial purposes, and embracing 
 instruction in drawing, modeling, and design ; 
 and schools of higher grade, specially intended 
 h>r the instruction of young artists in the line 
 arts, according to the mure restricted 
 thai term. The former class has been fully 
 treated of under the head of art-education (q.v.). 
 The scIkmiIs of the latter class have generally 
 been designated by the name Aca lemies of Art. 
 In ancient times and in the middle ages, sch 
 of this kind were unknown; and the young 
 artist was educated in the atelier of his master. 
 by being trained to take an immediate and active 
 
 pari in the master's work. The first institution 
 
 which hears a similarity to our present academies 
 
 of art, was founded at Padua by Squarcione, 
 who, by his collection of antique works of ari 
 and by encouraging a thorough study of antique 
 
 art. exerted a powerful influence upon the Italian 
 artists of the L5th century. The school which 
 w;is opened by Leonardo da Vinci at Milan. 
 is designated by the name of academy, and 
 
 even at thai early period contained the principal 
 
 features of the modern academy of art, the 
 persona] element of the atelier being enlarged by 
 general instruction. The entire separation of 
 the academy of art from the atelier began in 
 the Bchool of Bologna, founded by Lodovico 
 Caracci, and soon met with general approbation. 
 The influences proceeding from Louis XIV., 
 sly attached ;irt to the r,y;d courts, and con- 
 verted the academies of art, to a large extent. 
 into court institutions. Among the most Famous 
 
 institutions Of this kind, were the scl Is of 
 
 Paris, founded in Hi is, of Berlin, in L694, 
 Men. in L697, and Vienna, in L726. The 
 n \ i\al of the line arts, in modern times, caused 
 dso a revival of the academies of art and raised 
 them to a higher standard. It. moreover, re- 
 established the close connection which formerly 
 existed between instruction and the work of the 
 ateliers. Great celebrity, in modern times, has 
 been attained bj the schools of Munich and 
 Dnaseldorf. In Great Britain and Ireland, 
 
 ' there are also schools for artists, located in 
 London. Edinburgh, and Dublin. France has 
 3 schools of tine Arts; and Italy, 25 academies 
 and institutes. Russia has imperial academies of 
 ari at St. Petersburg and Warsaw, and a 
 
 School of painting and sculpture at Moscow. 
 
 The schools for artists in the United States have 
 already been mentioned in the article on Art- 
 Education. 
 
 FINLAND, a grand duchy in the north- 
 western pari of the Russian Empire, having an 
 ana of II L258 square miles, and a population, 
 in 1st - -', of 1,835,138. Of this number, about 
 five-sixths are Finns ; and of the remainder 
 aboul 30,000 are Swedes, and 4,000 Russians. 
 The great majority of the inhabitants belong to 
 
 the Lutheran Church, very few of the native 
 
 Linns having joined the < rreek church. Less 
 is known of the early history of Finland than of 
 any other country of Europe. It was originally 
 governed by independent kings; but, in the 
 middle ol the 12th century, it became subject to 
 the kings of Sweden, who introduced Christian- 
 ity, and retained their hold upon it up to 1809, 
 when it was ceded to Russia. The Swedish 
 language had taken such a deep root, however, 
 
 that the Russians have not been able to eradicate 
 
 it up to the present day. Very little was done 
 
 for education in Finland up to the 17th century. 
 In 1826, a gymnasium was founded in Abo, the 
 pupils of which were educated to serve as clergy- 
 men : but, in their learning and manners, they 
 
 were not much better than the great mass of 
 the people. In 1640, Abo obtained a university : 
 but the great obstacle to the spread of education. 
 
 was the want of books. In 1642, a Finnish Bible 
 was published at the expense of the government; 
 and, by the efforts. of the governor, Peter Brahe, 
 the schools were greatly improved. Duringthe 
 
 northern war, which lasted up to 1721, Finland 
 suffered very much; but. after the conclusion of 
 peace, education was revived, both in the Swed- 
 ish and Russian parts of the country: and insti- 
 tutions of learning were every-where established. 
 At the present lime, education is well cared for, 
 
 ami the Finnish language, which had been 
 neglected under the Swedish rule, is encouraged 
 by the Russian government. A large number 
 Of native Finns were sent to Germany and 
 
 Switzerland, in order to study the educational 
 .systems of those countries, and to become ac- 
 quainted with them, both theoretically and 
 practically. Among them, one of the most 
 
 prominent was L no < 'yguaus. who. on his return. 
 advocated manual labor as a meansof education; 
 and, in his proposition for the organization of a 
 public-School system for Finland, he embodied 
 this idea. In L863, he was intrusted with the 
 
 organization of a Finnish seminary for public- 
 
 Bchool teachers in .1 \ \ :bk\ lib This met with so 
 much BUCCeSS, that in L871, two more were 
 
 inized for Swedes, one at Ekeniis for female 
 teachers, and the other at Ny-Karleby for male 
 
 teacher8. According to the latest accounts, 
 there weri' 71 elementary schools, with about 
 9,000 scholars. Secondary instruction is im- 
 
FISK CTNIVERSITT 
 
 FLORIDA 
 
 309 
 
 parted in 6 gymnasia ; and, for superior instruc- 
 tion, there is one university at Helsingfors, with 
 48 professors. Special instruction is provided 
 tor in the following schools: one cadet corps al 
 Frederikshamn r three navigation schools, three 
 technological schools, three commercial schools, 
 one institute for rural economy, at Mustiala. ten 
 agricultural schools, six industrial schools for 
 girls, ami one female academy, or high school, at 
 Helsingfors. — See Bosch, BeUrdge zur Ge- 
 schickte und Statistic des Kirchen- und Schul- 
 wesens des Grossfiirstenikums Finnland {1814 |. 
 
 FISK UNIVERSITY, at Nashville. Tenn., 
 was established by the American Missionary 
 Association in 1866. The name was given in 
 honor of Gen. Clinton B. Fisk. then chief of t!i" 
 Preedmen's Bureau for Tennessee, who aided in 
 its establishment. It was known as the Fisk 
 School till 1867, when it was incorporated as a 
 university. It makes no distinction of race or 
 sex, but the institution was especially designed 
 for colored youth, and the students are mainly 
 colored. It has received some aid from the 
 Freedmen's Bureau and the Peabody Fund, and 
 ,-i gift of between three and four acres of land 
 from the United States: but its support is 
 chiefly derived from the Association. In 1871, 
 a number of the students were organized as a, 
 singing; band, known as the " Jubilee Singers." 
 These and their successors, by concerts in the 
 Northern states and in England, earned cleat' of 
 expenses $130,000, which was devoted to the 
 purchase of a permanent site for the University, 
 comprising 25 acres, in a beautiful situation in 
 the suburbs of the city, and to the erection of 
 a fine building (dedicated Jan, 1., 1876), called 
 Jubilee Hall. The singers are now (1876) in 
 England, engaged in the effort to raise an en- 
 dowment of $100,000 for the institution. The 
 prop Tiy of the university is valued at $176,000; 
 its library contains 1,300 volumes ; audit has 
 chemical and philosophical apparatus, and a col- 
 lection of over 3,000 specimens in natural history, 
 geology, and zoology. Six courses of study have 
 been organized; namely, a collegiate, a college pre- 
 paratory, a higher normal, a theological, a nor- 
 mal, and a primary course. Other courses, in- 
 cluding law and medicine, are to be added as soon 
 as they are required. The first college class, con- 
 sisting of I students, graduated in 1875. In 1875 
 — 6, there were 14 instructors. The number of 
 students was as follows : in th ■ college course. 1 1 ; 
 in the college preparatory, 38 ; higher normal. I •'>; 
 theological, 13; normal, 93; primary, 63; total, 
 deducting repetitions. '2\2. The tuition fees 
 vary from $9 to $13 per year. Prof. John 
 Ogden was principal of the institution from 
 L866 to L870; and Prof. A. K. Spence, M. A., 
 from L870 to 1875. In 1st:,, the Rev. E. M. 
 Cravath, M. A., was elected president. 
 
 FLATTICH, Johann. Friedrich, a Ger- 
 man educator of the Pietistic School, was born 
 October 30., L713, at Baihingen. near Ludwigs- 
 burg. He was successively garrison chaplain at 
 Uohenasperg, and pastoral Metterzimmern and 
 at Munchingen, at the latter of which places he 
 
 died, June 1.. 17!)7. lie was generally regarded 
 in Germany as one of the most successful educa- 
 tors in the country: and there were always, at 
 his parsonage, classes of pupils of all ages and 
 various grades of advancement, lie seemed to 
 prefer as pupils those children whose parents 
 were unable to manage them, or who seemed 
 defective in mind or maimers. He Bought to 
 avoid severity in discipline, and to govern by 
 love. He objected to the use of the rod. not. he 
 said, because it was not necessary with many, 
 hut because it was difficult to use it aright, lie 
 believed that the methods of instruction should 
 he adapted to each child, according to his special 
 
 disposition and endowments, the circumstances 
 of his age. his bodily and mental strength, his 
 disposition, his family condition, and tlie calling 
 to which In wa> destined. Progress in instruc- 
 tion should he made by slow steps, beginning 
 with teaching of a simple character, and grad- 
 ually building up the understanding, and strength- 
 ening the mental powers. Flattich's fame rests 
 not so much on his actual work as a teacher, on 
 the distinction attained by any of his pupils, or 
 even on his written works, as on the pithy maxims 
 in which he expressed his views on education. 
 These maxims are often quoted in Protestant 
 works on the subject, and have had considerable 
 influence in molding the theory of teachers. 
 See Ledderiiose. Leben und Schriften des M. 
 Johann Friedrich Flattieh (4th edit., Heidel- 
 berg, 1859) : Scilf.fki;. Flattieh "ml sein pdda- 
 gogisches System (Frankfort, L871). 
 
 FLORIDA w;h ceded to the United States 
 by Spain, by a treaty concluded in Washington 
 in 1819, but not ratified till 1820. In 1821, the 
 United States authorities took formal possession 
 of its new dominions: and in L822, President .Mon- 
 roe appointed William Duval of Kentucky gov- 
 ernor of the territory. It was admitted into 
 the Union as a state, .March .'!.. 1845. Its pop- 
 ulation, in 1830, was reported to he 34,730, of 
 whom 15,501 were slaves; in 1870, according to 
 the census of that year, the population was 
 187,748, of whom 91,689 were tree colored per- 
 sons. The number of inhabitants, of all races, 
 lo veais old and upward, unable to write, was 
 
 71,803. Of these 18,904 were whites, ot whom 
 5,083 were from 10 to 15 years old. and 1,345 
 from 15 to 21. Of the colored inhabitants 
 52,894 were reported as illiterate. The area of 
 the state is 59,268 square miles. 
 
 Educational History.— As early as 1839, a 
 provision was inserted into the proposed consti- 
 tution that the lands received for •'the Use of 
 
 schools and seminaries of learning" should be 
 held inviolate: hut there was no efficient Com- 
 mon school system in the state previous to 1869. 
 In is pi. live years before the admission of Flor- 
 ida into tin 1 nion, there were L 8 academies and 
 grammar schools, with 732 students, and 51 com- 
 mon and primary schools, with 925 pupils. Ac- 
 cording to the census report of I Sad. there w 
 1(1 academies and 69 common or public schools. 
 
 In I860, the census report gave Florida 1*7 pub- 
 lic schools, widi 2,032 pupils; and 138 acade- 
 
310 
 
 FLORIDA 
 
 lilies and other schools, with 4,486 pupils. The 
 whole educational income was $75,412, of which 
 $2,045 was from endowments. The constitution 
 of 18G5 contained a provision designed to secure 
 for the benefit of the schools of the state the in- 
 come derived from the school lands: but little 
 was done to promote the cause of education till 
 the passage of the school law, Jan. 30., L869, on 
 which the present school system is based. 
 
 State Superintendents. — The first state super- 
 intendent of public instruction was C. Thurston 
 Chase, appointed Aug. 13., L868, under whose 
 advice and direction the school law of the fol- 
 lowing year was enacted, lie held the office 
 until his death Sept. 22., 1870 ; and Rev. Charles 
 Beecher was appointed tosucceed him March L8., 
 1871, who served until -Ian. 23., 1873, when, a 
 new administration coming into possession of the 
 state government,he was superseded by Jonathan 
 
 C. Gibbs. The latter held the office till his 
 death, which occurred Aug. LI., L874. William 
 Watkin Hicks, the present incumbent, was ap- 
 pointed March I .. L875. 
 
 School System. The school lawprovides for 
 the establishment of a uniform system of public 
 instruction tree to all children between the ages 
 of (i and i'l years. The officers of the depart- 
 ment of public instruction consist of a superin- 
 tendent, a state hoard of education, a board of 
 public instruction for each county, a superin- 
 tendent of schools for each county, local school 
 trustees, treasurers, and agents. Each county 
 hoard of public instruction consists of not more 
 than five members, appointed by the state board 
 of education. 'The hoard of education consists 
 of the superintendent of public instruction, the 
 
 secretary of state, and the attorney general, the 
 superintendent being the president of the hoard. 
 Its duties are. to take charge of and control the 
 sale or rental of all lands granted to, or held by, 
 the state for educational purposes; to have 
 
 charge and direct the use of all educational 
 funds of the state: to audit the accounts of the 
 superintendent ; to decide questions and appeals 
 referred to them by the superintendent ; to re- 
 move subordinate Officers for cause ; and to keep 
 in view the establishment of a university, the 
 object of which shall he to impart instruction in 
 
 the professions of teaching, medicine, and law, 
 
 in natural science, the theory an I practice of 
 
 agriculture, horticulture, mining, engineering, 
 and the mechanic arts ; also in the ancient and 
 modern languages, higher mathematics, literature. 
 
 ami in such useful ami ornamental branches as 
 
 are not taught in the common schools. The 
 superintendent holds office four years, ami is re- 
 quired to have the oversight, management, and 
 '■liar-.- ..i ill matters pertaining to public lands, 
 school buildings, grounds, furniture, libraries, 
 
 i>m t ks, and apparatus ; to furnish all school 
 
 officers with the necessary blanks tor official re- 
 turns, ami information regarding the proper dis 
 
 charge of their duties; to provide plans ami 
 
 specifications for the construction and furnish 
 iug of school buildings; to call meetings of 
 counts superintendents and othei officers for the 
 
 purpose of advising and instructing them as to 
 their duties : to grant certificates to successful 
 teachers, and to fix the grades and standards of 
 qualification of teachers in general ; toapportion 
 the interest of the school fund and that raised 
 by the one-mill tax among the counties in pro- 
 portion to the number of children residing there- 
 in between the ages of 6 and 21 ; to decide 
 questions and appeals arising under the school 
 act, or to refer the same to the hoard of education ; 
 to collect and preserve useful educational and 
 historical documents, and specimens of natural 
 history. Each county board is constituted a 
 corporate body, and may take and hold real and 
 personal property for educational purposes, lis 
 duties are to have charge of all educational prop- 
 erty in the county: to locate and maintain 
 
 -el Is where needed, so as to accommodate all 
 
 the children of school age in the county, not 
 less than three months of each year: to examine 
 candidates for teachers' licenses, and grant certif- 
 icates to those found competent : ami to keep 
 a record of its official proceedings. The county 
 superintendent is secretary ex officio of the 
 hoard of public instruction : and. in addition to 
 keeping the records, he is required to make him- 
 self acquainted withal! parts of the county, and 
 to keep himself informed of the needs and wishes 
 of the people in regard to schools; to visit each 
 
 school at least once in each term, and t< nfer 
 
 with and direct the teachers in their work; to 
 exercise a supervision over the trustees, the gen- 
 eral management of the schools, and do all in his 
 power to awaken an increased interest in parent.-, 
 trustees, and teachers, in regard to every thine 
 pertaining to the welfare of the schools ; also to 
 select persons for trustees, whose characters, 
 qualifications, and sympathy with education 
 specially commend them for such positions; to 
 decide questions in dispute, or refer them to 
 the hoard of public instruction : to keep a record 
 of the name, description, and locality of every 
 school established : and to perform the duties, as 
 
 far as may he necessary, of the hoard of public 
 
 instruction, in case such a body should not be 
 organized, or should fail without good cause to 
 perform its duties. The school trustees are re- 
 quired to take special charge of the schools in 
 their respective localities, to see to 'he construc- 
 tion and .-ate keeping of the school buildings and 
 other property, to co-operate with the teachers 
 in maintaining order and discipline, to suspend 
 
 or expel pupils for misconduct : and to make a 
 
 quarterly report to the county superintendent. 
 
 Certificates of qualification to teach, valid 
 
 for one year, may be granted by the county 
 hoards of public instruction, also hy the .-late 
 
 superintendent to graduates of the Department 
 of Teaching, and to eminently successful teach- 
 ers, valid in any part of the state during the 
 time specified. These certificates are of three 
 grades, the standard for each being fixed by the 
 
 state superintendent. A certificate may he an- 
 nulled by the authority which issued it. tor any 
 cause which would disqualify a candidate for 
 a License. 
 
FLORIDA 
 
 FOREIGN EDUCATION 
 
 111 
 
 Teachers are specially directed to labor ear- 
 nestly and faithfully for the advancement of the 
 pupils in their studies, and to inculcate by pre 
 cepl and example the principles of truth, hon- 
 esty, patriotism, and the practice of every chris- 
 tian virtue; to require the pupils to observe 
 personal cleanliness, order, and good manners, to 
 cultivate in them habits of industry and economy, 
 a regard for the rights and feelings of others and 
 for their own responsibilities and duties as 
 citizens ; to see that the buildings and furniture 
 are not unnecessarily defaced or injured: toenforce 
 needful discipline, avoiding unnecessary severity 
 and measures degrading in their tendency; to 
 suspend pupils from school for ten days for gross 
 immorality, misconduct, or persistent violation 
 of the school regulations ; and to hold a public 
 examination each term. The leading of the 
 Bible and short devotional exercises of a non- 
 seetarian character, at the opening of the school, 
 are not to be prohibited; but no pupil is to be 
 required to engage in them against his conscience, 
 or contrary to the wishes of his parents or 
 guardian. 
 
 A school day is defined to consist of six hours 
 exclusive of recesses; a school month, of twenty- 
 two days, exclusive of the first and last day of 
 each week: a school term, of three months ; and 
 a school year, of three terms. 
 
 School Finn I. — The school fund consists of the 
 Kith section of the various townships set apart 
 by act of Congress for common-school purposes, 
 the original amount of which, in Florida, was 
 704,692 acres, of which 115,184 have been sold 
 1 1 875) : state bonds amounting to $205,252,63 ; 
 and various donations by individuals for educa- 
 tional purposes. Besides the income from these 
 sources, there are appropriations by the state ; 
 the proceeds of all property granted to the state, 
 when the purpose of the grant is not specified ; 
 all moneys which may be paid for exemption 
 from military duty ; all fines collected under the 
 penal laws of the state ; such portion of the per 
 capita tax as may be prescribed by law for ed- 
 ucational purposes; twenty-five per cent of the 
 proceeds of the sales of public lands which are 
 now or may hereafter be owned by the state : a 
 
 m ial tax of not less than one mill on the 
 
 dollar upon all taxable property in the state, to 
 be levied and apportioned annually for the 
 suppun of common schools : a comity tax to be 
 raised by each county, annually producing a sum 
 not less than one-half of the amount apportioned 
 to each county from the income of the common 
 school fund. 
 
 The seminary lands were granted by ( longress 
 for the support of two seminaries, one to be 
 located east, and the other west of the Suwanee 
 River, and amounted originally to 85,714 acres. 
 Of these about 38,000 acres remain unsold. The 
 sum realized by the sale of these lands has 
 amounted to aboul $100,000; and the estimated 
 value of the remainder is about $75,000. In 
 addition to this, there are Florida 6,7, and 8 per 
 vent bonds, amounting to $81,492.45. There is 
 uo uniform course of instruction established as 
 
 yet in the state. In the high schools, the usual 
 higher English and classical studies are pursued; 
 
 also the modern languages. The salaries of 
 teachers, in the high schools, range from $75 to 
 $17:") a month : and. in the common and primary 
 schools, from $20 to $60 a month, according to 
 the number of pupils and the qualifications of the 
 teachers. 
 
 Educational Condition. — There are three 
 grades of schools. — high, common, and primary, 
 in tin' principal towns: in the country schools no 
 grading is at present possible. The whole number 
 of schools, in 1874, was f>.~>7, all of which were 
 common or primary except H high schools, located 
 as follows: in Jacksonville, 2, — Duval High 
 School and Staunton Institute: in I'ensacola, 1; 
 in Key West, 1 ; in Monticello, 1 ; and at Fort 
 Reid, 1. 
 
 The following are the principal items of the 
 school statistics for 1*7 I : 
 
 Number of pupils enrolled 21,196 
 
 Average daily attendance lo.s'.i? 
 
 Number of teachers, male and female 650 
 
 Receipts from all sources $103,774.53* 
 
 Total expenditures $139,870.61 
 
 There are no city -school systems proper in this 
 state, the management of all the schools in each 
 county being in the hands of the county board 
 of public instruction. 
 
 Seminaries. — The Middle Florida Seminary, 
 located at Gainesville, and the West Florida 
 Seminary, at Tallahassee, are supported by the 
 special funds above mentioned. They are free 
 to all the youth of the counties in which they 
 are situated, and to those of the adjoining 
 counties. The course of study includes common 
 and higher English branches, with the classics 
 and the modern languages. There are also several 
 private and denominational schools in various 
 parts of the state. 
 
 Superior Instruction. — There is no institution 
 for superior instruction in Florida ; but a state 
 agricultural college has been planned and provided 
 for by law, and was to have been inaugurated 
 some time ago ; but this has been delayed by pend- 
 ing litigation in regard to the constitutionality 
 of the state bonds in which the college funds 
 had been invested. Of this college when estab- 
 lished the state superintendent of public instruc- 
 tion will be ex officio the president. 
 
 Educational Literature. — The Femandina 
 Observer is the official organ of the state educa- 
 tional department. 
 
 FOREIGN EDUCATION. By this is 
 meant the education of children in foreign coun- 
 tries. Parents in the I'nited Stales sometimes 
 send their children to France or Germany to be 
 
 educated, in preference to having them instructed 
 
 in i he scl Is of their native country. The custom 
 
 also exists to some extent in Great Britain. The 
 motive which prompts this course is the desire 
 that their children shall have the best means of 
 instruction, and the impression thai this is af- 
 forded by the teachers and schools of Europe. 
 
 * Including $8,000 from the Peabody fund. 
 
312 
 
 FOREIGN EDUCATION 
 
 FORM 
 
 Very frequently, liowevcr.it arises from the wish 
 on the part of parents to accomplish their children 
 in foreign languages, particularly French and 
 German. "Some parents." says Von Raumer. 
 ■ who think no attainment valuable in compar- 
 ison with a facility in speaking French, send their 
 daughters to French or Swiss schools, where 
 they can hear and speak nothing but French. In 
 such a foreign atmosphere they too often become 
 estranged from their native home and country.'' 
 "For our youth," says B. G. Northrop, "Ameri- 
 can schools are better than European. To send 
 our boys and girls away to a foreign boarding- 
 school is a great mistake, or rather one of the 
 fashionable follies which is just now having its 
 day." Parents who adopt this course, seem t<> 
 lose sight of the important fact that the school is 
 not the only educator, nay, is not generally the 
 most effective means of education. The influences 
 that cluster around the home-circle, and that 
 emanate from the peculiar laws, customs, man- 
 ners, and institutions of the country in which the 
 child lives, leave their indelible impress upon the 
 plastic character of youth; ami these influences 
 shoidd be such as to form a character in har- 
 mony with the life of the nation of which the 
 child when grown up is to form a part. Lin- 
 guistic ami esthetic training cannot he a satisfac- 
 tory substitute fortius national culture. It is of 
 little use that young men or women know howto 
 speak fluently and correctly French, German, 
 Italian, or any other foreign language, or excel 
 in either judging or executing works of art. if 
 they are ignorant of, or indifferent to, the lan- 
 guage and institutions of their own country. 
 ( hildren gro\i ing up in a foreign land must nee 
 essarily imbibe a predilection for foreign man- 
 ners, customs, and sentiments, because these are 
 inseparably associated with the most delightful 
 part of their existence. Every one reverts with 
 pleasure to the scenes of childhood, consecrated 
 in the mind, as they are, by the memory of the 
 enjoyments peculiar to that age. It is this that 
 renders the foreign education of children so dan- 
 gerous, as tending to unlit them for the duties of 
 Special citizenship. I low often do we hear the 
 
 most unfavorable criticism pronounced upon the 
 institutions and customs of the native country 
 by those whose notions, associations, and mo 
 of thought have been formed by a, foreign educa- 
 tion! " The experience of American colleges." 
 says B. G. Northrop, "is believed to be nearly 
 uniform, a to the superiority in the qualifica- 
 tion of candidates trained at home o\er our 
 youth prepare I for college abroa I. The number 
 <>f the latter class is relatively small ; but the 
 instances of eminent success, cither in col' 
 studies or practical life on the pari of American 
 boys chiefly educated abroad, are rare and excep- 
 tional." 
 
 These objections, of course, do not apply to 
 the practice of sending abroad young men and 
 women of more mature age, either t<> finish their 
 education in foreign Bchools or universities, or to 
 acquire a knowledge of some special arts in tech- 
 nical schools, because the national character hav- 
 
 ing been once fully formed, is not easily affected 
 by later influences and conversations. Young 
 men. among the Romans, particularly in the later 
 periods of the republic, were often sent to Greece 
 and other countries to finish their scholastic or 
 literary education. Thus Cicero addresses his 
 De officii* to his son Marcus, then a young man 
 of 2\, who had been for some time pursuing 
 his studies in the schools of Athens. In the same 
 manner and with equal propriety, a young man 
 may be sent from the United States to any of 
 the great European universities, either in (Jreat 
 Britain or on the continent, to pursue linguistic, 
 scientific, technical, artistic, or other studies, for 
 which those institutions are able to afford greater 
 facilities than are offered at home. 
 
 Foreign travel constitutes an important part 
 of a complete education, and is not at all subject 
 to the objections which are urged against a 
 foreign elementary education. Nothing more 
 enlarges the mind than the observation of the 
 manners, institutions, etc., of foreign countries. 
 New and vivid ideas are impressed upon it; 
 narrow prejudices are removed; and a founda- 
 tion is la ill for just and liberal thought. This, 
 however, should occur at a comparatively mature 
 age. and should be preceded by sufficient educa- 
 tion to fit for the observation of things abroad. 
 .. Foreign travel." says Bishop Watson (cited in 
 Knox on lAbernl Eiluaitioii), "is of great use 
 when it is undertaken by men who have learned 
 to bring their passions under the control of 
 reason and religion ; who have had some experi- 
 ence in life, acquired some knowledge of the 
 manufactures, policy, revenues, and resources of 
 their own country." — See Northbop, Education 
 of Americans abroad (New York). 
 
 FORM, one of the most important branches 
 of object teaching, since, from the lirst dawn of 
 intellect, the endless variety of forms presented 
 to the child's sight constitutes perhaps the most 
 effective means of awakening and exercising its 
 perceptive faculties. The first comparison which 
 the young child makes between the objects of its 
 perception must be based upon their resemblam 
 the conscious perception of differences occurring 
 
 somewhat later. 'I his arises from its need of 
 forming general ideas as preliminary to the exer- 
 cise of its thinking powers. (See Int. Ed'n.) The 
 diversity of forms, like that of color, as seen by 
 the child, very greatly interests it and attracts 
 its attention ; and, hence, when formal education 
 begins, the child has already accumulated in its 
 mind, in a rude and indefinite way. many 
 materials which the expert teacher will use, in 
 guiding his pupil to more exact knowledge. 
 The untaught child's vocabulary of terms to 
 denote the various forms which it has seen is 
 Very meager; and, hence, its conceptions are too 
 indefinite to form the materials for conscious 
 
 thought. They are, as it were, only embryotic 
 thoughts, to lie developed by the power of 
 
 language. Hence, an important office ^>^ the in- 
 structor is to teach the proper term, or word, by 
 which each particular object of the child's atten- 
 tion is to be designated, and in this way clearly 
 
FORM 
 
 FOUNDLING ASYLUMS 
 
 313 
 
 individualized. For example, a young child 
 intuitively perceives the difference between the 
 form of a round object and a square cue: bul 
 before the terms round and square have been 
 learned as the names of these forms, tbey cannot 
 be used by the mind in any process of thought. 
 Besides, the young mind, in the exercise of its 
 unaided powers, is chiefly occupied with the 
 observation of resemblances and analogies, and 
 only after the guidance of the teacher, comes to 
 recognize clearly points of difference, the sense of 
 analogy, as it has been called, taking the lead in 
 the firsl stages of mental development. 
 
 In making use ui/hrm as a basis for training 
 the observing faculties the teacher should be 
 guided by the following principles: (1) Resem- 
 blances are perceived before differences; (2) The 
 concrete precedes the abstract; (.'5) Every object 
 is perceived as a whole before its component 
 parts are noticed : (4) Every idea must have its 
 pro[>er verbal designation to be clearly and 
 permanently fixed in the mind. The teacher 
 should, therefore, begin with simple regular forms, 
 such as the cube, prism, parallelopiped, pyramid, 
 sphere, cone, and cylinder. These, at first, should 
 be all alike in material ami color, and about 
 the same in size, so that the teacher may clearly 
 develop the idea of form, as the rudimental step 
 in the instruction. At first the process should 
 be very slow. Tims the teacher holds up to the 
 view of the pupils a cubical block of wood [one 
 fof the box: of solids usually employed in such 
 lessons], and asks. •• What is this." And the 
 children probably reply, "A piece of wood." 
 Then the teacher presents successively the sphere, 
 cone, cylinder, etc., asking the same question and 
 obtaining the same answer. The teacher then 
 says. "Each of these is a piece of wood; are 
 they all alike ? " To which the children answer. 
 "No." "Do they differ in color?" -No. " 
 "In size?" "No." This leads the teacher to 
 show, in a very general way, not by giving names 
 at first, but by directing the pupils' attention, 
 that the objects differ inform ; that is, each has 
 its own peculiar form. The teacher may then 
 go back to the cube, and ask the pupils to men- 
 tion any other things they have seen which have 
 the same form as the block of wood ; and so on 
 with the other forms. This exercise being a 
 perfectly natural one will awaken interest, 
 besides familiarizing the children with the par- 
 ticular forms presented. The next step will be 
 to lead the children to observe the points of 
 difference between these forms: and. in order to 
 do this, the analytic process must begin. Thus, 
 the teacher develops the idea, of side ox face, and 
 the pupils perceive that the <■,,]„■ lias six faces; 
 the edges, < orners, and equality of faces and 
 edges may then be observed. When the pupil 
 hits perceived the distinctive characteristics of 
 the form, its name, as cube, prism, etc., may be 
 taught. This method requires the teacher to 
 begin with solids (as the concrete) and to deduce 
 from the observation of them the ideas of sur- 
 face, line, and point (as the abstract), in accord- 
 ance with the principle (2). After these ideas 
 
 have been thus developed, and the method of 
 
 representing lines and figures on the blackboard 
 
 shown to the pupil, he is prepared for varied 
 
 slate and blackboard exercises on the positions 
 and combinations of lines both straight ami 
 curved, to lie followed by similar exercises on 
 plane figures. '1 he study of form thus pat 
 into that of drawing, in connection with which 
 inventive exercises of a simple character may be 
 
 employed, the children being shown how to 
 combine lines and figures into simple patterns or 
 designs. Of a similar but more elementary 
 character are Mock combinations, which will 
 serve to interest and instruct very young children. 
 Boxes of blocks made tor this purpose, with de- 
 signs for construction, can be readily obtained. 
 < harts containing diagrams of plane figures will 
 also be found very useful in giving lessons on 
 form. These lessons should be systematic. U01 
 desultory, but regularly arranged, with the under- 
 lying principle kepi steadily in view. Especially 
 should the teacher guard against requiring 
 pupils to commit to memory formal geometrical 
 definitions, the chief point to be attained being 
 the discipline of the observing faculties. — See 
 ( !urrie, Principle s and Practice of Early School 
 Education (Edin. and Lond.) ; Hailman, Out- 
 lines of Object -Teaching (N. Y., 1867); Calkins, 
 Primary Object Lessons (X. T., lttTJj ; How to 
 Teach (N. T., 1874). 
 
 FORT WAYNE COLLEGE, at Fort 
 Wayne, Ind., founded in 1846, is under the 
 patronage of the North and North- West Indiana 
 Conferences of the Methodist Episcopal Church. 
 It is situated in the most pleasant part of the 
 city, and occupies a large and commodious edi- 
 fice. It comprises six departments : the college 
 (with a classical and a scientific course), the 
 normal, commercial, and academic departments, 
 and those of music and art. It is supported by 
 tuition fees, and both sexes are admitted. In 
 1875 — 6, there were 11 instructors and 132 
 students. The Rev. Reuben D. Robinson, D., D., 
 is the president of the college (18TG). 
 
 FOUNDLING ASYLUMS are institutions 
 in which children are received who have been 
 abandoned by their parents. The Christian 
 Church, in the earliest period of its history, pro- 
 vided for foundlings; and, as early as the sixth 
 century, a foundling asylum is said to have ex- 
 isted in Treves. Hut the first institution of this 
 kind of which we have any authentic informa- 
 tion is that of .Milan, founded in T>7. Others 
 followed in course of time, and they spread 
 
 rapidly. Later, they disappear from the Ger- 
 manic countries, and principally from those in 
 which the Protestant faith prevailed: while 
 
 they continued to spread in the Catholic and 
 Romanic countries. Particularly have they in- 
 creased in France, and wherever French influence 
 has predominated. Thus in France the number 
 of foundlings received in asylums increased 
 from 40,000, in L784, to 129,700 in L834. In 
 Austria proper, there were, in 1872, 15 foundling 
 
 asylums, taking care of 13,725 children in the 
 
 institutions, and 12,460 outside. The number of 
 
314 
 
 FOURIER 
 
 FRANCE 
 
 foundlings annually received in Rome is esti- 1 
 mated at 3,000; in Naples, at 2,000; and in Tus- ' 
 cany, at about 12,000. Spain had, in lsfiO, 149 
 asylums, with 53,464 foundlings. Portugal had, 
 in tin same year, 21 asylums, with 33,500 found- ' 
 lings. L 6,000 being received annually. England 
 has foundling asylums in London and Wanstead. 
 The institution in London, in 1870, maintained 
 504 children. The only asylum in Dublin was 
 closed in L835. Norway lias several institutions 
 of this kind, and the number of foundlings has, for 
 some years, been more than 9 per cent of the total 
 number of births. Sweden has also an asylum at 
 Stockholm. There are but few foundling asylums 
 in the I 'nited States, the children being generally 
 brought to the alms-houses. In New York, a 
 Catholic asylum was founded in 1869, which re- 
 ceived considerable aid, in money and grants of 
 
 land, from the state. Resides this institution, 
 there are several others in the same city, all. how- 
 ever, established and controlled by private char- 
 ity. The Nursery and Child's Hospital, founded 
 in 185 1, has, however, a school, which is partly sup- 
 ported from the state sehoul fund. This asylum 
 has a country branch on the north shore of Staten 
 Island. Nowhere, in the United States, has the 
 government taken any further part in the erec- 
 tion of foundling asylums, than to aid them with 
 
 money ami giants of land. Considerable differ- 
 ence of opinion exists as to the utility of found- 
 ling asylums. One of the chief objections raised 
 a ga i list them is the excessive mortality of the chil- 
 dren : hut this has been greatly reduced by Bend- 
 ing the children into the country, and boarding 
 them out in private families. Very little has 
 
 I ii done for the education of foundlings, at 
 
 least in the asylums, as they are sent to other in- 
 stitutions for instruction, and continued there 
 Up to their thirteenth or fourteenth year, after 
 which they are provided with places of employ- 
 ment, generally as apprentices to fanners and 
 others. In Koine, a large number of the chil- 
 dren are educated in families. The hoys that 
 return to the asylum, are sent to the foundling 
 
 asylum in Viterbo, where they learn trades up 
 to their twenty-first year, when they are dismis- 
 sed with a present of 1(1 SClldi. If they remain 
 in the families, they are educated ill the same 
 
 manner, and. when of age, receive a similar 
 present. The girls are kept in the families or in 
 the asylum until they marry, when they receive 
 a dowry of loo scudi. In Russia, foundlings 
 are e Lucated for a trade or profession ; and those 
 who show particular talents are sent to the uni- 
 versity. Mere also the children are hoarded in 
 private families as much as possible. In Russia 
 and Prance, agricultural colonies have also Keen 
 established, where the hoys are brought upas 
 farmers. See Hueqel, Die Findelh&user »«</ 
 das Find elwesen Europa'a (1863). 
 
 FOURIER, Pierre, the founder of an edu- 
 cational order of the Catholic < !hurch, was born at 
 Mirecourt, Lorraine, in 1565, and died in Gray, 
 
 I l.lllclie-1 'omte, ill I 6 10. | |e studied, for ,1 time. 
 
 in tin' university of Pont-a-Mousson, where 
 lie led a rery Btrid life. At the age of seven 
 
 teen years, he began to teach in the highest 
 families, and conceived the plan of devoting his 
 entire life to the education of youth. He entered 
 the order of Premontre; and when the dissolute 
 monks compelled him to leave the order, he be- 
 came the parish priest of Mataincourt, where he 
 gained a great reputation as an educator. In lf>98, 
 with Alice I.e (leie and other nuns, he formed 
 an educational institution for girls. In 1603, he 
 obtained a papal bull for the organization of the 
 society of Ifbtre Dame de Lorraine, of which 
 Alice Le Clerc was the first abbess: and this 
 society was confirmed by Raul V.. in 1616. The 
 order spread rapidly and has. at present, flourish- 
 ing establishments in France, Hungary. Canada, 
 the New England States, and ( hili. with its 
 ri ntral house for America in Montreal. He also 
 reformed the canons of the order of Prhnoniri, 
 who bound themselves to the education of 
 christian youths. In 1632, he was elected superior 
 general of the new society, which called itself 
 St. Sauveur ill' Lorraine. He was beatified -Ian. 
 '_".».. 1*730, ami is generally styled the Blessed 
 Peter Fourier.— bee Ritter, Der selige P. 
 Fourier (Lin/.. 1855). 
 
 FRACTIONS. See ARITHMETIC. 
 
 FRANCE, one of the principal countries of 
 Europe, having an area of 204,090 sq. m., and 
 
 a population, according to the census of l>>7'2,of 
 
 36,102,921. Formerly France had immense pos- 
 sessions in America, far exceeding those of ( Ireat 
 Britain; but of these she. at present, retains but 
 a very small part. During the present century, 
 however. French rule has been extended over 
 considerable territories in northern Africa. Far- 
 ther India, and the insular world in the Pacific. 
 The total area of the French colonies and de- 
 pendencies, inclusive of Algeria, was estimated, 
 in 1875, at about 373,000 sq. m., having a popu- 
 lation of about 6,600,000. Including its colonies 
 and dependencies, France occupied, in 1876, the 
 fifth rank among the nations of the earth in 
 regard to population, and the twelfth in point of 
 territorial extent. The people of France proper 
 
 are remarkably homogeneous in language and 
 
 religion, Almost the entire population speak 
 the French language, and more than 98 per cent 
 
 are actually or nominally connected with the 
 
 Catholic Church. 'I lms France is the chief re- 
 presentative, among the countries of the earth, 
 of what is sometimes called the latin race: 
 
 and its language is foremost among Romanic lan- 
 guages, as it- people are chief among the supporters 
 
 of the Catholic Church. — 'I he present territory 
 
 ol France, in the earliest historic times, was in- 
 habited by the Cauls, a Celtic tribe. The country 
 
 became a Roman province 58 51 B.C. During 
 the 5th century A. D., it was conquered by the 
 Franks, a German tribe, who built up an empire. 
 which, under Charlemagne, reached its greatest 
 
 territorial extent, embracing, besides modern 
 France, a large portion of Germany and Italy. 
 
 With the division of this empire, in 843, by the 
 
 treat] of Verdun, begins the separate bistorj w 
 France and Germany. The kingdom of Prance. 
 slowly consolidating itself by the absorption of 
 
FRAMT. 
 
 315 
 
 the territories of numerous petty princes, at- 
 tained the summit iof its glory under l>mis XIV. 
 (1643 — 171")); but. tired at last of the long-con- 
 tinued oppression of the kings and the priv- 
 ileged classes, the people, in 1789, rose in a 
 mighty insurrection, proclaimed the republic in 
 L792, and executed King Louis XVI. in 17915. 
 The republic was overthrown by Napoleon I.. 
 who made himself emperor of France, in 1 804, 
 and established the greatest empire of modern 
 times, subjecting to his direct or indirect rule 
 all Europe except England and Russia. With 
 his final dethronement, in L815, this empire 
 came to an end ; and the re-instated Bourbons 
 only ruled within the former limits of the king- 
 dom of France. In 1848. a second republic was 
 proclaimed, and Louis Napoleon was elected 
 president, who. in 1852, proclaimed himself em- 
 peror under the title of Napoleon III. His de- 
 feat, in 1870, by the united German states led to 
 the deposition of bis dynasty and the proclama- 
 tion of the third French republic. 
 
 Educational History. — Little is known of the 
 state of education among the Celts of ancient 
 Gaul; but < !sesar says of the Druids that they 
 'held a great many discourses about the stars 
 and their motions, about the extent of the 
 universe' and of various countries, about the 
 nature of things, and the power of the immortal 
 gods," and "transmitted their opinions and 
 knowledge to the young." In the flourishing 
 Greek colony at Marseilles, a school was estab- 
 lished long before the time of Caesar, which at- 
 tracted a large number of pupils. Under the 
 rule of the Romans, the cause of education made 
 considerable progress. Lyons, Narbonne, Bor- 
 deaux, Toulouse, Aries, Besancon, Treves, and 
 other centers of population, had both public and 
 private schools, in which the Greek and Roman 
 classics were read. The teachers of these schools 
 enjoyed many privileges. They drew their salaries 
 from the imperial treasury, and, before entering 
 upon their office, had to undergo a public com- 
 petitive examination. The scholars were divided 
 into three classes: externi, living outside the 
 institution, convictores, boarders, and alimen- 
 tarii, those supported in the institution by pub- 
 lic or private stipends. When, in the course 
 of the- 5th century, the education and civilization 
 of pagan Rome gradually decayed, and finally 
 disappeared before the advance of Christianity. 
 Christian schools sprung up in connection with 
 many monasteries, and France soon t < >< >k: aprom- 
 inent part in the establishment of cathedral, 
 collegiate, and convent schools. Among the 
 cathedral schools, those at Aries, Bourges, 
 Clermont, Le Mans, Paris, Poitiers, and Vienne, 
 and among the convent schools, those of Luxence, 
 and of St. Vaudville. in Normandy, were espe- 
 cially famous. During the 7th century, dense igno- 
 rance prevailed ; but Charlemagne infused new- 
 life into the existing schools, and founded many 
 new ones. Through the efforts of Alcuin, the 
 court school (schola palaHna), in which the sons 
 of nobles were educated, became a model school 
 for all ecclesiastical institutions. The reign of 
 
 Louis le Debonnaire was not favorable to this 
 school, but its prosperity revived under Charles 
 the Bald, when it counted John Scotua Erigena 
 among its teachers. After the death of I harles 
 
 the Laid, the efficiency of the school departed 
 lor ever, and theological seminaries and convent 
 schools were the only institutions in which an 
 education could be obtained. The feudal wars 
 which followed entirely prostrated all educational 
 institutions. In the llth and L2th centuries, 
 the reformatory movements among the clergy 
 favorably reacted upon education, and many of 
 the clerical schools regained new luster. Fan's 
 became the great center of learning, and many 
 were the distinguished teachers who added to 
 the reputation of the Parisian schools. The 
 most illustrious among all the French teachers 
 of this period was A belaid (q. v.). Besides the 
 episcopal schools of Notre Dame and Genevieve, 
 in Paris, those of Reims and Chartres. and the 
 convent school of Bee, in Normandy, were 
 especially famous. In 1200, a royal decree which 
 exempted the teachers of Paris, the students and 
 their servants, from the jurisdiction of the city. 
 prepared the way for a corporate organization 
 of teachers and students, and. consequently, for 
 the establishment of the Paris university, which, 
 after animated controversies with the chancellor 
 of the chapter of Notre Dame, in 1203, had 
 its independence recognized and permanently 
 secured by Papal privileges. The reputation 
 and influence of the new university increased 
 with marvelous ra j iklity, and attracted thousands 
 of students from all parts of Europe. In 1233, 
 another university was established at Toulouse, 
 which received from Gregory IX. privileges 
 equal to those of Paris. A third university was 
 founded at Montpelher, where, probably, the 
 scholarship of the Arabian schools in the neigh- 
 boring Spain were exerting a favorable influence. 
 In the natural course of development, these in- 
 stitutions became the only seats of the higher 
 studies, while cathedral and convent schools re- 
 mained almost exclusively training schools of 
 candidates for the priesthood. The controversy 
 of the university of Paris with the powerful 
 orders of the Franciscans and Dominicans led 
 to the organization of the theological faculty, 
 which was gradually succeeded by the division 
 of the entire university into four faculties. As 
 the example of Paris was followed in most 
 countries of Europe, the establishment of distinct 
 faculties marks a new departure in the history 
 of the European universities. (See University.) 
 
 Another educational movement of great impor- 
 tance was begun in I'aris by the establishment of 
 
 colleges in connection with the university. These 
 
 institutions were, at first, intended 1o give to 
 students from the French provinces, and from 
 foreign countries, lodging and hoard, and s c 
 
 of them were founded even before the establish- 
 ment of the university. But their character as 
 preparatory and auxiliary schools was only de- 
 veloped in connection with the universii 
 Among the oldest and most renowned Parisian 
 colleges, were those of St. Thomas, the Danish 
 
316 
 
 FRANCE 
 
 College, the College of the Dix-huil, the Greek 
 ( lollege ( 1206), and the Sorbonne (1253). Besides 
 these colleges, which, however, were numerous 
 only in Paris, the universities conducted also 
 independent middle schools to meet the growing 
 demand of large classes of the population for in- 
 struction. Pans, at this time, had even a system 
 of parochial or elementary schools, under the 
 Grand Chanter, or master of singing. In L380, 
 the male and female teachers oi Paris held a 
 general meeting, from the proceedings of which 
 it appears that there were, at that time, in Paris 
 
 at least 41 male, and -'2 female teachers. Of the 
 former, many had the degree of bachelier or 
 mailre-es-arts. In the course of the L4th and 
 1 5th centuries, the desire for knowledge and edu- 
 cation became quite general among the nobility 
 and the population of the towns. The number 
 of students rapidly increased in all parts of the 
 country. New universities arose at Orleans, 
 Cahors, Perpignan, Angers, .\i\. Caen, Poitiers, 
 Valence, Nantes, Bourges, and Bordeaux. The 
 kings recognized their importance, conferred 
 upon them many favors, and by gradually with- 
 drawing them from papal and placing them 
 unil.T royal jurisdiction, substantially changed 
 their character. Strict, conformity with the 
 teaching of the church was no longer, to the 
 same degree as before, the highest aim kept in 
 view, and amor 1 position was accorded 
 
 to i lie foremost representatives of the high 
 
 schools in both church and state. Among the 
 grandest triumphs of the university was the 
 leading part which it was called upon to take in 
 the termination of the papal si hism. The trans- 
 fer of the lectures from the hails of the univer- 
 sity to the colleges was an innovation which 
 has not proved conducive to the progress of edu- 
 cation. By making the colleges the centers of 
 university instruction, instead oi pn paral 
 and auxiliary schools, ii retarded the sharp dis- 
 tinction between secondary and superior instruc- 
 tion, w bich has greatly promoted the educational 
 development of other European countries. The 
 
 ecclesiastical seminaries and convent schools 
 
 greatly suffered, toward the close of the middle 
 
 ages, from t he disorders prevailing in the church; 
 but the pelites icoles, or small Latin schools, 
 which were conducted by clergymen in all the 
 larger towns, attained a high degree of prosper- 
 dnder Louis XI. (I id -] 1.-:;,, the sub- 
 ion of all the non clerical schools to the 
 
 supreme jurisdiction of the stale government 
 was completed. In L529, Francis 1. founded the 
 
 i School tor the study of the 
 
 humanities, which were too muchm glected by the 
 university. The new school flourished in spite of 
 all opposition, and attained a very honorable 
 position among the high schools of trance. The 
 university . on the other hand, lost, to a great ex- 
 tent, ii^ i irmer influence and prestige, while im- 
 morality made alarming progress among the 
 students, especially between L548 and 1" 18. 
 The governmenl took occasion, from the deplor- 
 able condition of the university, to curtail its 
 privil I ■ ctor, instead of being the 
 
 head of an independent organization, became an 
 officer of the king. After the conversion of the 
 universities into state institutions had been com- 
 pleted, the government deemed it expedient to 
 extend their educational influence, and. to that 
 end, conferred upon them the exclusive privilege 
 of preparing students for the academic degrees 
 and for the state examinations. The powerful 
 competition which existed between the schools 
 of the Jesuits and the universities, was an effi- 
 cient spur for the latter, but, when Louis XIV. 
 took the Jesuits under his special protection, 
 their influence upon the educational institutions 
 of the country became, for a time, all-powerful. 
 Another religious order, the Oratorians, were 
 active and zealous in the management of town 
 schools, while primary education, in the rural 
 districts, appears to have been, on the whole, in 
 a very unsatisfactory condition. After the ex- 
 ample of the Jesuits and Oratorians, a number 
 
 of other religious orders devoted their chief or 
 
 even exclusive attention to teaching schools of 
 different grades; and no other country of the 
 World showed itself SO prolific in the formation 
 of new congregations of school brothers and 
 school sisters as fiance. (See KOMAN CATHOLKJ 
 
 Church.) The philosophy of Descartes emanci- 
 pated the French high schools to a considerable 
 extent from the rule of scholasticism, w hich until 
 then had been generally prevalent, and through 
 the petL i of Port Loyal, its influence 
 
 Sied even the primary schools. The petiies 
 ecoles oi Port Loyal wen; not of lone,- duration, 
 but their school books were continued in use for 
 along time. Rollin, the celebrated Lector of 
 the Paris University, followed closely in the 
 
 steps of Port Royal, and France is indebted 
 to him for several important reforms, 'i he rigid 
 centralization which, under Louis XTV., began 
 
 to be established in all departments of public 
 life, was also applied to the educational institu- 
 tions. A closer connection was established 
 anion-- the colleges, a general course of studies 
 
 was draw n up, new studies were introduced, and 
 the training of teachers was improved. Many 
 distinguished educators found, however, in the 
 
 educational methods of the French schools too 
 
 much of a mechanical formalism : and Rousseau 
 
 violently attacked the pedagogy of his time as 
 
 lifeless and weak, perverse and inefficient.- 1 he 
 
 influence of the great revolution of L789 showed 
 itself first iu an attempt to introduce the prin- 
 ciples of the revolution into all the schools of 
 the country. Several plans were tried, but with- 
 out satisfactory results. Talleyrand, in L791, 
 
 submitted an elaborate and c prehensive plan 
 
 of national education, but. the Constituent As- 
 sembly confined itself to sanctioning two prin- 
 ciples: I public instruction shall he estab- 
 lished common to every citizen, and gratuitous 
 in respect to those branches which are necessary 
 lo all, and its establishments will be grad- 
 ually arranged in accordance with the divisions 
 of the kingdom; and (2) national holidays will 
 be appointed. In L792, the philosopher Con- 
 
 dorcet submitted another elaborate plan to the; 
 
FRANCE 
 
 317 
 
 Legislative Assembly, which, however, was like- 
 wise prevented, by the gravity of political events, 
 from completing the reconstruction of public 
 education. In September of the same year, the 
 Convention pronounced the abolition of all the 
 colleges, and of the faculties, turning instruction 
 over to private enterprise. As the consequences 
 of this measure proved to be very injurious, the 
 Convention founded, in L794, the Ecole Centrale, 
 subsequently named Ecole Polytechnique ; and, 
 in 1 7!C>, the Ecole Nbrmcde, which was aban- 
 doned after three months, and one hundred cen- 
 tral schools, a kind of real gymnasia, which 
 likewise did not prove a success. A general nation- 
 al school law was likewise proclaimed in 1795, 
 but it never took effect. Real progress in re- 
 construction was made by the Consulate, which, 
 in L800, established tour large colleges called 
 prytaneums,sA Paris, Versailles, Fontainebleau, 
 and St. Germain, to which were afterwards 
 added one at Brussels, and one at Compiegue, 
 the latter for mechanical arts and navigation. 
 A general revival of education began in 1802, 
 and in L805, Prance again possessed 30 lyceums 
 and 250 communal colleges. At the same time, 
 the government restricted the absolute freedom 
 of teaching, and subjected the entire educational 
 Bystem to a stricl supervision. In 1808, Napo- 
 leon abolished the old provincial institutions, 
 and united all the teaching forces of the country 
 into one educational corporation, which he 
 called Universite de France. Be comprised in 
 this one organization all the educational insti- 
 tutions, from the primary school to the uni- 
 versity. The chief peculiarity of this organ- 
 ization was that the university alone possessed 
 the right of teaching, and that in this way every 
 body was forced to receive its teaching. The 
 supreme direction was placed in the hands of a 
 Grand .Master, and a Council of the University. 
 In 1815, after the overthrow of the Empire, this 
 grand master and the council of the university 
 were abolished, ami their powers wen; transferred 
 to a royal commission acting under the authority 
 of the minister of the interior. The commission 
 was, in 1820, changed into a royal council of 
 public instruction, the president of which again 
 received,in 1822, the title of Grand .Master of 
 the University, and in IS'24, that of Minister of 
 Public Instruction and Ecclesiastical Affairs. 
 The Gharte of 1830 promise 1 a new educational 
 law, as well as a law on freedom of instruction ; 
 these provisions were, however, only carried out in 
 part. In 1833, a new law on primary instruction 
 appeared, which introduced important reforms. 
 Sir. Guizot, the minister of public instruction, 
 addressed, in connection with this law, a circular 
 letter to the primary teachers, which was trans- 
 lated into all the languages of Europe, and 
 gained for its author hosts of warm admirers. 
 The bishops regarded the existing school legis- 
 lation, and especially the privileges of the uni- 
 versity, as detrimental to the interests of the 
 < 'atholic Church. and accordingly began a vigorous 
 agitation for freedom of instruction. In 1845, 
 the minister of public instruction, Salvandy, 
 
 consented to a change in the composition of the 
 Council of Studies, by appointing, in addition 
 to the life members of which it was formerly 
 composed, some members for a term of years. 
 In April 1847, Salvandy drew up this drafl of a 
 new law which substituted for the I louncil of the 
 University a Superior < louncil of Public Instruc- 
 tion, which was to contain, beside the members 
 
 Of the University, representatives of the state 
 
 government, of the bishops, of the Protestant 
 
 consistories, of the Jewish and of the private 
 schools. Only a few provisions of this law had 
 been carried into practice, when the revolution 
 of 1848 interrupted its further execution. In 
 
 1850, a new law was passed which substantially 
 
 granted the demands of the Catholic party as to 
 
 the composition of the superior council. This 
 body was henceforth to be composed of arch- 
 bishops, bishops. Protestant clergymen, council- 
 ors of state, and members of the Institute of 
 France, all elected by the free suffrage of their 
 colleagues; Under the second empire, this mode 
 of election was abolished; and the government 
 claimed the right of appointing all the members. 
 In making the appointments, the government 
 showed itself, however, anxious to give no offense 
 to the church. Bythe law of L854, sixteen acad- 
 emies were established, to which one was added 
 afterward. These academies were subdivisions 
 of the University, and comprised all the insti- 
 tutions of a district, faculties, lyceums. colleges, 
 and primary schools. For each academy a coun- 
 cil was appointed, composed of the inspectors, 
 the deans of the faculties, a bishop, two clergy- 
 men, two magistrates, and two other state officers 
 of the academic district, the seven last being ap- 
 pointed by the ministry. After the overthrow 
 of the second empire, Jules Simon, one of the 
 most distinguished educational writers of France. 
 became minister of public instruction. The 
 chief aim of the new minister was to make 
 primary instruction as general as possible, and 
 to raise the French schools of all grades to a 
 level with the best in any country of the world. 
 I?y a law of 1873, the council of public instruc- 
 tion was again made elective. As the majority 
 of the legislative assembly were favorable to the 
 demands of the < hnrch, superior instruction was. 
 in 1875, so regulated as to make it possible for 
 the Catholic Church to establish free Catholic 
 universities. In L876, the chamber of deputies 
 passed a bill to restore to the university the sole 
 right of conferring degrees, but it was not con- 
 curred in by tin' senate. 
 
 Primary Instruction, — The policy of estab- 
 lishing public primary schools under the control 
 of the state, in which all children might receive 
 instruction, was not incorporated into the legis- 
 lation of France until after the law of dune 28., 
 1833, under the administration of M.Cui/.ot as 
 minister of public instruction. The attempts 
 made during tin- revolutionary period, and un- 
 der the empire, to provide a national system of 
 
 instruction, had lasting results only for secondary 
 
 and superior instruction, but not for primary 
 schools. One of the great scholars of that time, 
 
318 
 
 FRANCE 
 
 M. Cuvier, made an extensive tour through 
 Holland, Germany, and Italy, to study the edu- 
 cational systems of those countries: and his re- 
 port, published in L811, which specially com- 
 mended the elementary schools of Holland for 
 their sound practical organization, excited a 
 lively interest, and led to regretful comparisons, 
 but not to any real improvement. M. Guizot, 
 in a brief review of the educational history of 
 Prance, commends the heads of the educational 
 department under the Restoration for their good 
 intentions; hut of the educational condition of 
 the country, from L814 to L830, he can only 
 state : " It cannot be said thai elementary in- 
 struction did not suffer from political attacks ; 
 hut still it did not completely perish in the dan- 
 gerous contact." The government of L830 
 proved itself, from its commencement, highly 
 favorable to elementary instruction. The exec- 
 utive government and the chambers vied with 
 each other in the promotion of this object. In 
 Is.'! I. .M. Cousin, one of the ablest scholars of 
 France, was sent to Germany to study the edu- 
 cational system of that country; and. in the 
 report published on his return, he carefully dis- 
 cussed all questions which the new law on 
 primary education, then in preparation, was to 
 settle. M. (biizot, who was appointed minister 
 of public instruction, in 1832, was supported in 
 the preparation of the new law. by a number of 
 eminent men, among whom, besides M. Cousin, 
 may 1"- especially mentioned .M. Yillemain, M. 
 Thenard, and M. Rendu, on account of their 
 reputation as scholars or educational writers. 
 The conscientious care with which the law of 
 L833 had been prepared, is now recognized on 
 all sides, as is also the beneficent influence 
 which it has exerted upon the progress of pri- 
 mary ediicat ion. In L826, there were I 1.009 com- 
 munities which had no elementary schools ; and. 
 in L 832, there were in Paris 30,000, among the 
 To.ooo children of school age, who received no 
 instruction. Pour years alter the promulga- 
 tion of the law of L837, as many as 29,613, 
 of 35,280 communities in the country, had 
 
 their own school houses. On the basis of the 
 new law. the primary-school system was iv 
 
 fully developed by the law of March 1.").. L850, 
 the organic decree of March '.»., L852, and the 
 
 law of .Ian. II., L854. These laws supplement 
 each other, and contain the chief principles 
 which arc still in force The primary schools of 
 
 each commune are under a local board, consisting 
 
 of the mayor, the parish priest, and a few citizens 
 
 elected by the ollicelS of the , / rm,,i I ' is.-i'ii/rii I '. 
 
 This board superintends both public and private 
 
 primary 3chools. It cannot appoint teachers: 
 
 but. in case of a vacancy, it can decide whether a 
 lay teacher or a member of a religious congrega- 
 tion shall be appointed, In urgent cases, the 
 mayor has the power to remove teachers, but he 
 must give immediate notice to the inspecteur pri- 
 maire. The inspectors are generally experienced 
 teachers; and it is their duty to visit and ex- 
 amine the Bchools, and to attend the examina- 
 tions of candidate. They make annual reports 
 
 ! to the inspector of the academy. The highest 
 : school authorities in a department are the rector 
 [ of the academy and the prefect. The former 
 supervises tin- instruction, has charge of the 
 normal schools and of the examinations of teach- 
 ers, and has all this done through his inspectors, 
 of whom he has one tor every department in 
 the academic district. He makes an annual 
 report on the condition of the primary schools 
 in his district, both public and private, to the 
 minister of education. The prefect has charge 
 of the entire external administration of the 
 
 schools, lie sees to the erection of the school- 
 houses, has charge of the finances, can appoint, 
 remove, or reprimand teachers, and is assisted in 
 these duties by the inspector of the academy of 
 his department. Four inspecteurs gen&raux are 
 appointed by the supreme council of public in- 
 struction, to superintend the primary institutions 
 of the entire country. Besides these, there are 
 six inspecteurs generaux for the lyceums and 
 colleges, and eight for the faculties. Any French 
 citizen, twenty years of age or over, may give 
 primary instruction in public or private schools, 
 provided he has the necessary certificate. The 
 salaries of the French teachers are very .-mall, 
 though they have been raised seven times since 
 L833. The lowest class of teachers, in IS.'!."}, re- 
 ceived 200 francs: 250 francs, in 1844 ; '2 75. in 
 L847; 454, in L849; and (loo, in 1867. Accord- 
 ing to a law of July 19., 1875, the salaries of 
 the teachers are regulated as follows: .Male 
 teachers are divided into four classes, according 
 to their term of service, and the size of the cities. 
 The first class receive 1,200 francs: the second. 
 1,100; the third. 1.000; and the fourth. 900. 
 Female teachers are divided into three classes, 
 and receive !>oo. Mid. and 700 francs. respectively. 
 Tin' course of studies comprises religion, read- 
 ing, writing, grammar, arithmetic, the elements 
 
 of French history, and geography. Teachers 
 
 may add to these studies the elements of natural 
 history, natural philosophy, agriculture, hygiene, 
 singing, and gymnastics. Only in recent years 
 have reforms been introduced ill the methods of 
 
 teaching. As late as L843, there were still 6,484 
 primal v schools pursuing the so-called individual 
 method [mode individuel), each child being 
 called to the desk, and instructed separately. 
 This method, as well as the monitorial system, 
 
 which found many admirers in Prance, is now 
 
 abolished. The method most generally employed 
 
 at the present time, is the simultaneous method. 
 by which the children are divided into three 
 divisions, all the pupils of one division receiving 
 instruction at once Those who are not able to 
 take part in anv of the three divisions, are placed 
 
 under the charge of the best pupil in the school. 
 
 The total number of schools, in L875, was 53,350, 
 with 3,477,542 pupils, of whom L ,366,360 wi 
 
 five scholars. Of the' Schools, 19,044 were for 
 
 boys, and 6,399, tor girls, besides which there were 
 
 I 6,570 mixed schools. The number of pupils in 
 the lay schools vva- •_'..'! 10..'! I I . of whom 704,028 
 were tree scholars. ( >f the convent schools. 1.970 
 were for boys, 8,322, for girls, and 1,099 were 
 
im: wii: 
 
 319 
 
 mixed schools. The number of pupils in tin- 
 convent schools, was 1 .1:57.1 9S, of whom 662,352 
 
 wen- free scholars. Infant asylums and schools 
 were firs! established in L808, bui met with little 
 
 success. In 1827. they began to increase and 
 flourish, until, in I860, there were 3,517, of 
 which. 1 .OSS were private. The public asylums 
 were attended by 344,381 children; the private, 
 by 74,380; in all, 118,761. Of these. 307,556 pay 
 no fees : ami "J. tilts asylums, private and public. 
 with 323,460 children, were directed by religions 
 orders. The instruction given, consists of the 
 first principles of religion, of reading, mental 
 arithmetic and linear drawing; manual occu- 
 pations, and other exercises appropriate to the 
 age of the pupils; the singing of hymns, and 
 moral and physical training. The decree of 
 1864 placed them under the patronage of the 
 empress, and created, in the ministry of educa- 
 tion, a central committee of patronage, for the 
 increase and superintendence of these schools 
 In every academy, there is an inspectress, paid 
 by the government, to inspect all the public and 
 private asylums. Besides, there are two delegates 
 connected with the central committee, wdio go 
 wherever they are called. — As soon as primary 
 instruction had made some progress in France, 
 it was found necessary to open schools for adults, 
 in order to complete the instruction of some, 
 and to begin that of others. The first school 
 for adults was opened by M. Delakaye in Paris, 
 in 1 820. An evening school was opened by the 
 Christian Brothers, in 1830. In 1833, M. Guizot, 
 minister of public instruction, alluded to them 
 in an order of the department ; and, in 1835, 
 they were formally recognized and aided by the 
 government, but were not incorporated into the 
 public-school system of the country until 1867. 
 During the winter of 1865 — 6, there were 24,686 
 courses for adults, in 22,947 communes. They 
 were attended by 42,567 women and 552,939 
 men. — The first normal school in France was 
 founded in 1810, in Strasbourg. Under Napo- 
 leon I. and the Restoration, they greatly flour- 
 ished; but soon, objections were raised against 
 them, and, after the promulgation of the law of 
 1850, its authors considered normal schools not 
 only unnecessary, but even dangerous. It was. 
 consequently, proposed to abandon the normal 
 schooLs, and to recruit the ranks of the teachers 
 from a certain number of pupil-teachers, who 
 were to receive their training in the best com- 
 munal schools. This plan, however, proved a 
 failure, and the pupil-teacher schools were grad- 
 ually abandoned, and normal schools again came 
 into favor. Their number, in 1875, was 81, of 
 which that of Xancy is considered the best. 
 •Recently, efforts have been made to connect a 
 library with every school, particularly in the 
 country. The system was first organized by a 
 decree of M. Rouland, in 1*02. The books. 
 which are of two classes, — classics, reading-books, 
 and arithmetics, and books of general reading — 
 are the property of the commune, and are placed 
 under the charge of the teachers. France (ex- 
 clusive of the department of the Seine), in 1875, 
 
 had 15,623 libraries connected with schools, com- 
 prising 1,474,637 vol ni ih's. The number of books 
 loaned, in 1873, was 925,35s. 
 
 Secondary Instruction. — Secondary instruc- 
 tion is imparted in the lyceums and communal 
 
 colleges [colleges communaux). The lyceums are 
 composed of eight classes, and correspond to the 
 German gymnasia. Classes 8 and 7 compose the 
 
 elementary division ; 6, 5, and 4, the grt iar 
 
 division; and .'!. '_', lb. and la, the superior 
 division, to which is added, in some lyceums, a 
 mathematical school. The studies taught in the 
 elementary division are French, Latin, Biblical 
 
 history, geography, arithmetic, linear drawing, 
 
 and penmanship. In the grammar division, 
 Greek is added to the above studies. In the 
 superior division, the system of bifurcation has 
 been introduced, so that it comprises two courses, 
 — the literary and the scientific. The studies 
 of the literary course are Latin, Greek, geome- 
 try and stereometry, natural philosophy, chem- 
 istry, natural history, and logic. The scientific 
 course comprises arithmetic, algebra, geometry, 
 trigonometry, natural history, natural philos- 
 ophy, chemistry, and plane and linear drawing. 
 Common to both are the French language, 
 history, geography, and German or English. 
 Most of the lyceums are also boarding-schools. 
 The censeur is the head of the boarding-school. 
 Corporal punishment is not allowed, and re- 
 proofs are required to be administered without 
 harshness. The communal colleges were estab- 
 lished in 1802. They are founded and sustained 
 by the towns, with the approbation of the govern- 
 ment. Most of them have a boarding-school at- 
 tached. Some of them comprise the lowest 
 classes of the lyceums; others, the lowest and 
 middle classes; and still others, besides these, one 
 or two of the higher classes. In addition to these 
 public schools, there are many private secondary 
 institutions [etablissements Hbres), partly of a 
 classical, and partly of a realistic, or scientific, 
 character. Included in this class of institutions 
 are the so called peiits s&minaires, or the ecoles 
 secondaires ecclesiastiques (ecclesiastical insti- 
 tutions), which are superintended and conducted 
 by the bishops, and, in many respects, resemble 
 the lyceums. The number of secondary schools 
 of each class, with the number of students in 
 each, as given by BracheUi [Die Staaten Eu- 
 ropa's, L876), is as follows: 
 
 Schools. Students. 
 
 Lyceum, (1872) 80 36,756 
 
 Communal colleges (1872)... .244 32,744 
 
 Private institutions (1865) 935 74,585 
 
 Total 1,259 144; 
 
 A superior normal school for the education 
 of teacher- of secondary schools has been estab- 
 lished in Paris. It is composed of twodepart- 
 mentS, a literary and a scientific, each compris- 
 ing a three years' course. 
 
 Superior Instruction. Prance has. at present, 
 five classes of faculties; namely, for theoloj 
 law. medicine, mathematics and natural science 
 [facuttes de sciences), and literature or philo- 
 sophical, historical, and philological science 
 
320 
 
 FRANCE 
 
 \ 
 
 (facutte des lettres). These faculties, which are 
 state institutions, arc DOt, as in other countries, 
 united into complete universities, but each is an 
 isolated and independent institution. Among 
 the schools of superior instruction, arc also 
 counted the high schools for pharmacy, and the 
 schools for medicine and pharmacy. The organi- 
 zation of medical faculties was begun in lT'.U: 
 of law faculties, in 1804; and the others, in 
 1808. There were, in 1876, six faculties 
 of theology (Paris, Bordeaux, Lyons, Aix, 
 Rouen, and Montauban, the 5 former being 
 Catholic, the latter Reformed); L2 for law 
 (Paris, Bordeaux, Lyons, Nancy, Aix, Caen, 
 Dijon, Grenoble, Poitiers, Reniies. Toulouse, and 
 Douai); U for medicine (Paris, Bordeaux, Lyons, 
 Nancy, Montpellier, and Lille); 15 for sci< nee 
 (Paris, Bordeaux, Lyons, Nancy, Caen, Dijon, 
 Grenoble, Poitiers, Rennes, Toulouse, Montpel- 
 lier, Clermont, Besangon, Lille, and Marseilles); 
 I 5 tor lettres (Paris. Bordeaux, Lynns. Nancy, 
 Aix. Caen, Dijon. Grenoble, Poitiers, Rennes, 
 Toulouse, Montpellier, Douai, Clermont, and 
 sancon); •''■ higher schools tor pharmacy I Paris, 
 Nancy, and Montpellier); and 2 higher schools 
 for medicine and pharmacy. The medical facul- 
 ties a1 Bordeaux, Lyons, and Lille are also in- 
 tended lor pharmacy. Inclusive of preparatory 
 scl Is for medicine and pharmacy, and ! pre- 
 paratory schools for instruction in science, these 
 institutions for superior instruction, were, in 
 L 8 72, attended by I L572 students: and the ag- 
 gregate number of professors and teachers was 
 121. -The law of .luly 2ii.. \^~'k authorized the 
 establishment, by private citizens or associations, 
 of iVee institutions for higher instruction (free 
 
 faculties), which, if three of them are united. 
 
 may assume the name of free universities. At 
 the beginning of 1876, the bishops of France 
 founded three free Catholic universities, at 
 Paris, Angers, ami Lyons. — The Cottege de 
 France, which provides for lectures on many of 
 the university studies, and the Practical School 
 for Higher Studies, which, in five different 
 ctions, prepares its students for the higher 
 study of mathematics, physics, chemistry, natural 
 history, the historical sciences, ami philology. 
 
 are also institutions of this grade. 
 
 Special and Professional Instruction. — The 
 
 Polytechnic School, at Paris, is an institution 
 
 having a military organization, and prepares its 
 
 pupils for the higher technical institutions, both 
 
 tary and civil. The latter class comprises the 
 
 ntrale des arts et manufactures, for the 
 
 education of civil engineers, and of directors of 
 
 -works and factories, the Ecole des ]><>„/* if 
 
 ckaussees, for the education of road engineers, 
 and the Conservatoire des arts et mdtiers, all 
 in Paris. The Polytechnic School, in 1st;'., had 
 19 professors and teachers, 20 assistants, and 426 
 pupils. Roman Catholic theology is taught in 
 i he diocesan seminaries, which are established in 
 i he principal town of every French diocese. The 
 numerous religious orders for males have gen- 
 erally theological schools of their own for the in- 
 struction of their novices. The Lutheran Church 
 
 has a seminary at Paris ; and. in the same city, 
 there is a Free Theological School, founded by the 
 Live Evangelical Church. The Ecole des ckartes, 
 at Paris, educates paleographists and archivists. 
 I'm- technical instruction, there are 12 ecolespro- 
 fessionneUes, 3 icoles des arts et metiers, at Aix. 
 Angers, and Chalons sur Maine ; schools for 
 watch-makers, at Pluses, in Upper Savoy, and at 
 Besancon, a school for manufacturers of tobacco,-' 
 and a higher commercial school, at Paris, many 
 lower commercial schools, 42 hydrographic schools 
 for educating seamen for the mercantile marine, 
 ami many other schools and courses of study. 
 Agriculture is taught in .1 high schools, at 
 Grignon, near Versailles, Grandjouan, in Loire- 
 [nferieure, and Montpellier, and in I.'! fermier- 
 s, or agricultural schools of a lower grade: 
 besides these, there is a school of forestry at 
 Nancy. The principal mining school is the Na- 
 tional School of -Mines, at Paris, besides which 
 there are mining schools at St. Etienne and Alais. 
 For instruction in the fine arts, there are .'! na- 
 tional schools of fine arts,— at Paris. Lyons, and 
 Dijon, the National Conservatory of Music and 
 
 Declamation, at Paris, and many other institu- 
 tions. Military instruction is imparted in the 
 Staff-school, at Paris, the School or Artillery and 
 -Military Engineering, formerly at Met/, now at 
 Pontainebleau, the Special .Military School at 
 St. Cyr, near Versailles, the schools of artillery 
 at Valence and Nimes, the school of infantry 
 at the Camp d'Avor, the naval school at Brest, 
 
 the school of military medicine and pharmacy in 
 Paris, the school of cavalry at Saumur. the Mili- 
 tary Pyrotechnic School, at Bourges, the Normal 
 School for Gymnastics, at Vincennes, the Prac- 
 tical School of .Maritime Engineering, at Cher- 
 bourg. — There are ,'>1 I orphan asylums, in which 
 15,745 orphans were educated. The salles cFasi- 
 les, of which there were 2,950 (2,068 public and 
 882 private), were attended by 307,000 children, 
 and bad an annual budget of about 2,000,000 
 francs. Moreover. f'T.'l ouvroirs give almost 
 gral uitously an industrial education to 1,27 7 hoy - 
 and L8,695 girls. See Si hmtd, Ehicyclopadie,art. 
 Franhreich (by Dr. Bucheler); Barnard, Na- 
 tional Edvcation,v6Lii.\ Thebt, HistoiredeYidu- 
 cation en "France l Paris, 1858,2 vols.); Jules Si- 
 uon,L'Ecole (8th edit.,1874); Annuaire deVin- 
 struction publique (Paris). Among the school 
 journals, the Revue de Yinstruction publique 
 tablished in L842) is regarded as the most impor- 
 tant for secondary, and the Manuel gen&ral detin- 
 struction primaire, as the foremost for primary 
 instruction. A complete collection of all the 
 laws and regulations which have been issued in 
 Prance relative to primary instruction from 1 789 
 i" 1-7 1 has been published by Greard, La legis- 
 lation de Yinstruction primaire < n Francedepuis 
 L789 jusqu'a nos jours (3 vols., Paris, 1874). 
 The history of primary-school inspection is given 
 in Broi \i;i> and Defodon, Inspection de& tea 
 primaires I Paris, 1874). A very full account of 
 the primary schoools of Paris and of the Depar- 
 tement de la Seine is given in Greard, Yinstruc- 
 tion primaire d Paris en l s 7."> (Paris. 1876). 
 
FRANCISCAN COLLI* J K 
 
 FRANCKE 
 
 321 
 
 FRANCISCAN COLLEGE, a Roman 
 Catholic institution at Santa Barbara, Cal., was 
 founded in ISliS. It is conducted by the Fathers 
 of the Order of St. Francis. Iii 1st:! t, it had 
 15 instructors, 75 students, ami a library of 
 2,500 volumes. The Rev. J. J. O'Keefe, 0. S. 
 P., is (1876) the president. 
 
 FRANCKE, August Hermann, a distin- 
 guished German educator whose name is insepa- 
 rably associated with a cluster of orphan houses 
 and schools at Halle, and with the development 
 of pietism as an educational influence, was born at 
 Liibeck, Match 22., L 663, and died June 8., L727. 
 After studying, with great success, theology and 
 the oriental languages, at the universities of Er- 
 furt and Kiel, he fell under the intluenee of 
 Spener, then court-chaplain at Dresden, and re- 
 ceived from him impressions which largely affect- 
 ed the motives and character of his future life. 
 He began his labors as an educator in L687, by 
 opening an infant school at Hamburg. Realizing 
 the importance and difficulty of teaching children, 
 he resolved to devote himself to the improvement 
 of schools and methods of instruction. The results 
 of his experience he afterwards embodied in a 
 work which he published under the title. Upon the 
 ntioii of children to piety and christian wis- 
 dom. In 1 692, he became professor of the Greek 
 and oriental languages in the university of Halle, 
 and pastor of the Glaucha church. Here he re- 
 niaine 1 till his death, July 8., 1727, highly 
 respected, but removed from the sympathy of his 
 colleagues on account of his religious views. His 
 orphan and charity schools originated in connec- 
 tion with his pastorate. The poor of the parish 
 came to the j >arsonage on Thursdays for bread. He 
 called them in, taught thern religious doctrines, 
 anl prayed with them. He formed the children 
 into a class, and hung out a poor-box for contribu- 
 te >ns. Fiiii ling seven florins in the box one morn- 
 ing, he decided to found a permanent school. He 
 soon had to enlarge the school; and circumstances 
 led to the further development of his enterprises, 
 and the organization of other institutions, until 
 there grew up under his charge the Orphan House, 
 the Pcedagogium, the Burgher School, the Insti- 
 tution tor Women, the Bookstore and Printing 
 Office, the Apothecary's Shop (established with a 
 legacy left by one Burgstaller),the Canstein Bible 
 House (the fruit of a gift by the Baron von Can- 
 stein for the purpose of printing one hundred 
 thousand copies of the Bible), and the Mission 
 Institute. At the time of Francke's death, these 
 institutions comprised the following : The Pceda- 
 gogium, having 82 scholars and 7(> teachers; the 
 Latin school of the Orphan House, .'} inspectors. 
 32 teachers. LOO scholars and 10 servants ; the < >Vr- 
 luan Burgher School. -1 inspectors. 98 teachers. 
 
 8 t. male teachers, L728 hoys and girls; the Or- 
 phan House. 100 boys, 34 girls, ten overseers; 
 the Free Table. 255 students. .'Jlill poor scholars; 
 the household of the Apothecary's Shop and 
 Bookseller's Shop. 53 persons; the Institution 
 for Women and < J iris, with 1 5 persons in the girls' 
 department, 8 in the boarding-house for young 
 women, and 6 widows. In 1876, they included 
 21 
 
 nine schools with three boarding-houses and an 
 orphanage, and with property valued at 313,266 
 
 thalers. Since their foundation. 1(1,000 teachers 
 and more than 200,000 children have been taught 
 
 in them. In the orphanage proper, more than 
 70011 orphans have been cared for. These in- 
 stitutions furnished the model after which those 
 
 of a similar character were founded in other 
 parts of Germany. They were carried on after 
 Francke's death by his son. Gottlieb August 
 Fiancke. 
 
 The governing ideas, in Francke's work and 
 teaching, were trust in God, and the cultivation 
 of the love of God in the heart. He built his 
 institutions upon trust, relied upon prayer as his 
 strong support, and regarded the help and gifts 
 which he received as direct bounties from the 
 hand of the Almighty. He regarded piety as 
 the chief thing needful ; without it. till knowledge, 
 wisdom, and worldly culture were more harmful 
 than useful. He taught that, in bringing up 
 children, the teacher should first look to the im- 
 provement of the heart and the removal of faults. 
 While paying due regard to the peculiarities of 
 the child's nature, he should seek to banish 
 whatever interferes with the higher development. 
 The inculcation of godliness was likewise 
 Francke's predominant object in discipline. 
 On this subject, he observed. (1) that system 
 must be followed in discipline, and (2) that 
 chastisement must be administered not in anger, 
 but in love. The schools, in all their departments. 
 were characterized by the prevalence of religious 
 zeal. Prayer was faithfully observed in what 
 was done outside the school as well its within it. 
 The Scriptures and religion received precedence 
 in arranging the courses of instruction. With 
 all this, the ordinary studies had their allotted 
 place in each school according to its grade. 
 The course of the higher Latin school included 
 reading, writing, arithmetic, Greek (chiefly of 
 the New Testament), Hebrew, mathematics, 
 history, geography, music, physics, anatomy, 
 oratory, and logic. The Pcedagogium had at- 
 tached to it a botanical garden, a cabinet of 
 natural history, philosophical apparatus, a labo- 
 ratory, conveniences for anatomical dissections, 
 turning-lathes, and ^lass-cutting machinery. The 
 evidences of Christianity, Latin, Greek, Hebrew, 
 and French were taught in it. The system of 
 classification in the schools allowed the pupils 
 to be graded according to their advancement in 
 particular studies. so as to occupy different ranks 
 
 in the several classes. The number of regular 
 teachers employed was relatively small ; because, 
 
 for the most part, the teaching was done by select- 
 ed pupils. The teachers lived with the scholars. 
 
 and Francke himself exercised a constant super- 
 vision over all. Besides Zinzendorf, Francke's 
 
 best known pupilsweic the two Ficylinghausens : 
 namely. John A nastasius. Francke's son-in-law. 
 
 and his son, Gottlieb Anastashis; J. G. Knapp; 
 Joachim Lange ; Jacob Rambach ; II. Frever ; G. 
 Sarganeck ; Johann Julius 1 [ecker, who founded 
 
 the famous Berlin real school: and Anton Bu- 
 sching. Francke is regarded by some as ih, 
 
322 
 
 FRANKLIN COLLEGE 
 
 FREE SCHOOLS 
 
 greatest practical educator that ever lived, and 
 even those who are opposed to the religious basis 
 of his educational theories do not hesitate to hold 
 him up as a model for all time. I lewas the author 
 of the orphan and charily schools of I'rotestant 
 
 Germany; and his ideas on superintendence, 
 
 inspection, and examination exerted great influ- 
 ence upon the development of the public-school 
 system in Germany. The flourishing institutions 
 of the Moravians (q. v.), whose founder, Count 
 Zinzendorf, had been educated by Francke, were 
 for a long time conducted in accordance with 
 Francke's principles. About 1770, the institu- 
 tions began to decline; but the entrance of A. II. 
 Niemeyer. a great-grandson of Francke, into the 
 directory, ushered in a new period of prosperity, 
 which still (1876) continues. -See Guericke, 
 A. II. Francke (Halle. L827) ; Eckstein, Die 
 Gestaltung <I<t Volksschvle durch <l'i< Francke- 
 schen Pietismus (1867). (See also Germany.) 
 
 FRANKLIN COLLEGE, at Franklin. Ind.. 
 is under the control of the Baptists. In L834, 
 a number of Baptist ministers and laymen met 
 
 at Indianapolis to form an education society. 
 Bids were advertised for a site on which to 
 plant a school. 'The institution was first called 
 the Baptist Manual Labor Institute. About the 
 year 1844, the name was changed to Franklin 
 ' 'ollege, a college charter was secure 1. and college 
 instruction begun. This name it has ever since 
 
 retained, although it has had one suspension of 
 five years, and another of as many months. The 
 present organization dates from 1871. The col- 
 lege has two large brick edifices, a campus of 1 '_' 
 acres, a dwelling-house, and philosophical and 
 chemical apparatus, the whole valued at $40,000. 
 The endowment amounts to $85,000. The libra- 
 ries connected with the institution contain about 
 .'5,0(10 volumes. It has both a preparatory and a 
 Collegiate department, with a classical and a 
 scientific course. Facilities are offered for in- 
 struction in music ami painting. Both Bexes 
 
 are admitted. The cost of tuition in the college 
 i- $28 per year: in tin- preparatory department, 
 $23 per year. In 1875 -6, there were in- 
 structors and '.I!) students, of whom Is were in 
 
 the collegiate department. The presidents have 
 
 been the Rev. G. C. Chandler. I >. I».. Silas Bailey, 
 l>. I>., and the Rev. W. T. Stott, I >. I>.. the 
 present incumbent ( 1 876 ). 
 
 FRANKLIN COLLEGE, at New Athens, 
 
 Harrison Co., Ohio, was chartered in IS'_'.">. It 
 
 ■ out (if the Allna \eademy. which had been 
 
 conducted for some time under the auspices of 
 
 the Rev. John Walker, a Presbyterian minister. 
 The college was early involved in the anti-slavery 
 controversy, and, in I 8 10, became distinctively an 
 anti-slavery institution. It comprises a prepara- 
 tory and a collegiate department, the latter having 
 a classical and a scientific course. Both Bexes are 
 admitted. The library contains 3,000 volumes. 
 In 1-7 : — I. there were s instructors and 148 
 students (21 collegiate and 12] unclassified). In 
 I B75, there were -il '.' alumni. The presidents i A 
 the college have been as follows: The Rev. Dr. 
 Wm. McMillan, L825 32; the Rev. Richard 
 
 Campbell. L832— 5; the Rev. Johnson Welsh 
 1835—6; the Rev. Dr. Joseph Smith. L837— 8; 
 the Rev. Jacob Coon, pro tern., L838 — !' ; the 
 Rev. Mr. Burnett, 1839 — 10; the Rev. Edwin 
 H. Xevin. 1840 — 5; the Rev. Dr. Alexander 
 I), dark. L845 -61 : the Rev. R. G. Campbell. 
 18fi7 — 71 : and A. F. Ross, LL. !».. the present 
 incumbent (1876), appointed in 1871. During 
 the civil war, there was qo regular president. 
 
 FRANKLIN AND MARSHALL COL- 
 LEGE, at Lancaster, I'a.. is under the control 
 of the Reformed (German) Church. This insti- 
 tution was founded in 1853, by the consolidation 
 of two older institutions. - Franklin College, 
 established in 17. s 7.at Lancaster, mainly through 
 the exertions of Benjamin Franklin, who also 
 contributed liberally to its endowment, and 
 Marshall College, founded in L836, and trans- 
 lated for the purpose of this union from its former 
 location at ^Iercersburg, Franklin Co. It has 
 an endowment fund of a little over $100,000. 
 The cost of tuition is $39 per annum, but most 
 of the students receive tuition free on Standing 
 scholarships. The curriculum is the ordinary 
 four years' classical course of American colleges. 
 There are no optional courses of study, in which 
 the Student is allowed to choose for himself what 
 he shall learn. The college receives no irregular 
 students, as they are called, and has no provisional 
 
 or mixed classes. The college and society libra- 
 ries contain about 11,000 volumes. Connected 
 with the college are the Franklin and Marshall 
 
 Academy and the Theological Seminary of the 
 
 Reformed Church. The academy is designed as 
 
 a training school for those who desire to prepare 
 for college, and also to furnish a complete aca- 
 demical course tor those who do not propose to 
 take a full collegiate course of study. The full 
 course is six years. The full course in the Theo- 
 logical Seminary is three years. Tuition is tree. 
 The library comprises from 7,0(10 to 8,000 vol- 
 umes. In 1875 — (i, there were I "J instructors 
 (college. 7 : academy. 'J: seminary. 3), and 135 
 students (college, 07: academy, 36; seminary, 
 32). The Qumber of alumni of Marshall college 
 was 182: of Franklin and Marshall College 35H ; 
 total 540. The tirst president of Franklin ami 
 Marshall ('ollege was the Rev. Finnianuel V. 
 
 Gerhart, D. D., appointed in 1855. lie continued 
 in office till 1866, when he was succeeded by the 
 Rev. John W. Nevin, l». D., Id,. I>.. the present 
 incumbent ( L876). 
 
 FREDERICK COLLEGE, at Frederick, 
 Md., was organized in 1 7 '. » T . It has a valuable 
 mineralogies! cabinet, philosophical and chemical 
 apparatus, and a library of 3,000 volumes. There 
 are three departments : The classical department, • 
 including the Latin and Greek languages, also 
 the German, with related subjects: The math- 
 ematical and higher English departments; and 
 the elementary department. The cost ol tuition 
 in these departments is. respectively, $60, $40, 
 and $25; but there is an extra charge of $20 
 per annum for German. G. C, Deaver, A. M., 
 
 i- I v 7ic the president. 
 
 FREE SCHOOLS. See Public Schools. 
 
FRKEDMEXS SCHOOLS 
 
 FREEWILL BAPTISTS 
 
 323 
 
 FREEDMEN'S SCHOOLS. A proclama- 
 tion issued by Presidenl Lincoln, Jan. L, L863, 
 abolished slavery in the United States, and the 
 colored people Bet tree by the proclamation re- 
 ceived the name of freedmen. As nearly the 
 whole of this population was illiterate, various 
 
 charitable and religious organizations of the 
 North began at once to exert themselves to aid 
 in establishing schools and employing teachers 
 for them. * hi March 3., 1865, an act of Congress 
 was passed establishing a special "Bureau of Ref- 
 ogees, Freedmen, and Abandoned Lands." after- 
 wards known as the •• Freedmen's Bureau." It 
 remained in operation until Dec. 31., 1868, when 
 its functions ceased, with the exception of the 
 educational department, which continued until 
 July L. L870. After the organization of the Bu- 
 reau, the schools already existing were taken in 
 charge by it. and in some stales were carried on 
 entirely by aid of its fund and under its provisions. 
 A. number of benevolent and religious societies 
 continued to co-operate with the Bureau in the 
 establishment of schools, and most of the Amer- 
 ican churches expressly included the care of the 
 freedmen's schools among the objects of their 
 home missionary societies, or of special Freed- 
 men's Aid Societies or Committees. A general 
 superintendent, appointed by the commissioner 
 of the Bureau, traveled through most of the 
 Southern states, and provided for the establish- 
 ment and supervision of their schools. The fol- 
 lowing table gives the number of day and night 
 schools from which regular reports were received 
 by the Bureau during the years stated ; besides 
 which there were many Sunday-schools, industrial 
 schools, and day and night schools, that made 
 only occasional reports to the Bureau. 
 
 Year 
 
 Day & Night 
 Schools 
 
 Teachers 
 
 Pupils 
 
 Total number 
 of pupils 
 
 B66-... 
 1867.. .. 
 
 1868.... 
 1869.... 
 1870.... 
 
 975 
 1,839 
 1,831 
 2,118 
 2,039 
 
 1,405 
 2,0s? 
 2,296 
 2,455 
 2,563 
 
 90,778 
 111,442 
 
 104,327 
 114,522 
 114,516 
 
 150,000 
 238,342 
 241,819 
 250,000 
 247,333 
 
 Of the schools reported in 1 870, 1 ,324 were sus- 
 tained wholly or partly by freedmen, who owned 
 592 school buildings; 74 schools, with 8,147 
 pupils, were high or normal schools. Of the 
 teachers, 1,251 were white, and 1 ,312 colored. The 
 whole number of schools, of all kinds, was 4,239, 
 with 9,307 teachers; of these. l.."i(i'2 were Sunday- 
 schools, with O.tlOT teachers and 97,752 pupils, 
 and 61 industrial schools, with 1,750 pupils. 
 The whole amount expended for educational 
 purpose-, to Aug. 3] ., 1.^71 , was 83,71 1 ,26 I. the 
 iter portion of which was for the erection 
 and renting of school buildings. The Freedmen's 
 Bureau also aided in the establishment of a con- 
 siderable number of schools of a higher grade for 
 the colored population, in some cases co-operating 
 for this [impose with one of the religious denom- 
 inations. Among the institutions thus found- 
 ed, were Howard University, Washington, I». C. 
 (unsectarian) ; Atlanta University, Atlanta, Ga. 
 (unsectarian); Claflin University, Orangeburg, 
 
 S.C. (Method. Episc.); Straighl University, New 
 Orleans. La. (Congregational) ; Fisk University 
 (Method. Epis.), and Central Tennessee College 
 (unsectarian), both at Nashville, Tenn.; Wayland 
 Seminary (Baptist Theological), Washington, l>. 
 C; and the Hampton Normal and Agricultural 
 Institute, at Hampton, \ a. All these institu- 
 tions still exisi (1876). Since the abolition of 
 the Freedmen's Bureau, efforts for maintaining 
 and enlarging these Bchools have chiefly I 
 made by the American churches, nearly all of 
 which support churches as well as schools for the 
 benefit of the colored population. The impor- 
 tance of a good education tor a population which 
 numbers several millions, and which, although 
 
 only just emerging from a c lition of absolute 
 
 illiteracy, has been invested with all the rights 
 and duties of citizenship, is now fully recognized 
 by all parties in the country, though there may 
 be considerable difference of opinion as to the 
 best means to reach this aim. (See COLORED 
 Schools.) None of the American churi lies ha.s 
 carried on operations in behalf of the freedmen's 
 schools on so large a basis, as the .Methodist Epis- 
 copal Church. At the anniversary of the Freed- 
 men's Aid Society of the M. E. Church, held in 
 Dec. 1875, it was reported that the total disburse- 
 ments of that society, during the eight years of 
 its operations, had been $523,000. The receipts 
 of the last financial year (ending May 31., 1875) 
 were $86,000. The Society has aided in the 
 establishment and support of fourteen institutions 
 of a higher grade in the Southern states. It has 
 also aided in the support of many common schools. 
 It is claimed that fifty thousand children have 
 been taught in its day schools, and a still larger 
 number in its Sunday-schools ; that more than 
 a hundred ministers, and over a thousand teach- 
 ers, have been instructed in the institutions it 
 has established and sustained, and that upward 
 of forty thousand children have been taught by 
 persons whom it has trained. Besides receiving 
 this aid from the several American churches, the 
 schools for freedmen have had considerable sup- 
 port from tin' Peabody fund. (See Peabody.) 
 FREEWILL BAPTISTS, a section of 
 Baptists, which commenced in North America 
 in L780. The name was reproachfully given by 
 their calvinistic brethren to Benjamin Randall 
 
 ami a, few other Baptist ministers who gave spe- 
 cial prominence to the doctrine of the freedom of 
 the will in the work of salvation. Randall and 
 those who agreed with him accepted the distinc- 
 tive name, and used it alter the separation from 
 their brethren had taken place. At present, they 
 
 are in opposition to the Regular Baptists chiefly 
 on the Communion question, the Freewill Bap- 
 tists being Open Communionists. (See Baptists.) 
 A number of churches, conveniently located. unit< 
 as an association, and hold a meeting bj delega- 
 tion four times a year, which is called a Quarterly 
 Meeting. Several Quarterly Meetings, similarly 
 situated, unite and meet annually; und this as- 
 sociation is called a Yearly Meeting. All th( 
 Yearly Meetings Send representatives to the 
 General Conference, which meets once in threi 
 
32 l 
 
 FRENCH LANGUAGE 
 
 years. They agree almost wholly in doctrine 
 with the GeneraJ Baptists in England. Inlsll. 
 oearly the whole body of another Baptist de- 
 aomination,the Free < lommunion Baptists, chiefly 
 belonging to the state of New York, united 
 with them; while, on the other hand, their 
 congregations in North Carolina left them, and 
 
 rai thousands of Baptists ill Kentucky and 
 other Southern states, who agreed with them 
 on doctrinal points, were refused admission to 
 their communion in consequence of the very de- 
 cided position which the church assumed against 
 slave-holding. More recently. negotiations have 
 been begun to bring about a union with the 
 Church of God (q.v.),as the two churches are 
 essentially one in principle: bul from a report 
 made to the Freewill Baptist General Confer- 
 ence in L874, it appears that the Church of God 
 is unwilling to give up its present name. The 
 Freewill Baptists reported, in L875, 38 yearly 
 meetings, L,399 churches, L,185 ordained preach- 
 ers, and 72,128 members. Of the yearly m 
 ings, one is in British America and one in India: 
 the others are in the United States. The Free 
 ! -a pt ists of New Brunswick and Nova Scotia are 
 in full agreement, though not in organic union, 
 with the Freewill ! aptists;the former, in L875, 
 had L38, the latter, 30 churches. The Freewill 
 Baptists have 2 1 literary instit utions for second- 
 ary or higher instruction, six of which are col 
 leges; namely, Hillsdale College, at Hillsdale. 
 
 IVfich. (organized in L855); Bate College, at 
 Lewiston, Me. (1863); Ridgeville College, 
 Ridgeville, Ind. (1867); West Virginia 
 College, at Flemington, W. Va. (1."" 
 Storer College, at Harper's Ferry, W. Va. ; 
 and Wolsey College, at Peach Grove, Tenn. 
 
 Theological schools are connected with Hills- 
 dale and Bates colleges. The Freewill Baptist 
 Education Society has invested funds to the 
 amount of $45,000, the interest on which is 
 chiefly devoted to sustaining theological instruc- 
 tion in Hates and Hillsdale colleges, it makes 
 liberal provision in aid of young men preparing 
 
 for the ministry. This denomination, from the 
 
 beginning of the anti-slavery Btruggle, main- 
 tamed an unwavering and strenuous opposition 
 to slavery, and is still doing good service for the 
 
 tier. linen, especially in the Shenandoah and Mis- 
 
 sissippj valleys. Among the newspapers issued 
 by the denomination, are two Sabbath-school 
 
 papers, which. Iiy alternating with each other, 
 furnish a weekly issue, It.» Sabbath-school work 
 i-. pursued with much interest and vigor. 
 
 FRENCH LANGUAGE. 'Hie French 
 language is universally recognized as standing, 
 
 w ith the English and < ieriuan. at the head of the 
 
 languages of the civilized world. Where^ 
 knowledge of any other than the native lan- 
 guage is valued, French is sun' to have its claims 
 considered. I fence, in the schools of the English- 
 speaking world.ii usually occupies, with the Ger- 
 man language, a place in the course of instruct ion. 
 W hatever should be said of the study of modern 
 foreign languages ingenerahand especiallj of the 
 languages of great nations, like those of France 
 
 and Germany, is reserved for the .article Modem 
 Languages, this article treating only of what be- 
 longs to the French language exclusively. 
 This language is one of the so-called Romanic 
 
 languages (q. v.!. which, after the destruction 
 of the Western Roman empire, sprang from the 
 development of the provincial dialects of the 
 
 empire, and from the Latin colloquial language 
 [lingua Romuna rustica), which continued to 
 exist by the side of the refined language [sermo 
 urban us), and was carried by the victorious 
 armies into south-western Europe. In Gaul, the 
 Latin colloquial language, in consequence of the 
 conquest of the country by the German tribes, 
 soon became the only medium of conversation 
 between the people of the various tongues ; and. 
 
 by the close of the Tth century, displaced all the 
 
 other languages, except in a small district of the 
 north-west, apart of Brittany, where a Celtic lan- 
 :••. like that of primitive Gaul, maintained it- 
 self. Tin- name French language, which is derived 
 
 from the Franks, a < Vi-man tribe, w ho established 
 
 i" Ives in Gaul, in the 5th century, did not 
 come into general use. until the language of the 
 Franks (which, for a considerable length of time. 
 co-existed with the latin provincial dialects in 
 
 the northern and eastern parts of the country 
 became extinct. The dialects which could lie dis- 
 
 tiished in the language thus formed grouped 
 themselves into two classes, the South French 
 [roman provenpal, langue d'oc) and the North 
 French [roman wallon, langue doilor d'oui). 
 Both d iveloped a literature, chiefly poetical ; but 
 gradually die South French, in which the Latin 
 element had a more thorough predominance, 
 lost ground, and the North French, which was 
 more largely mixed with German elements, be- 
 came the language of the entire country. In 
 the L6th century, Francis 1. made it. in place of 
 the Latin, the language of public transactions, 
 
 and thus elevated it to the position of a national 
 language. The first work in genuine French was 
 
 published in the 1 Ith century. Since the With 
 
 century, the development of the language made 
 rapid progress. Richelieu etablished the acade- 
 mie frangaisi for regulating all questions relative 
 
 to the national language; anil under Louis X 1 V .. 
 it attained a high scholastic authority. Even in 
 
 the middle ages, the French language was known 
 and spoken far beyond the boundaries of its native 
 country. It was the court language of England 
 and Scotland, was generally understood in south- 
 ern Italy and by the German uobility, and was 
 also the chief language of the merchants in the 
 
 Last. At the peace of Nimemien (16<8), it 
 
 was. f,,r the first time, used as the language of 
 European diplomacy; and this position it has 
 maintained to the present day. It is the national 
 language in all France, and in most of the French 
 Colonies, as well as in south-western Switzerland, 
 and also in llayti. In Belgium, though spoken by 
 only about one half of theentire population, it is 
 
 the prevailing language. It is also spoken as a 
 native language by most of the inhabitants of the 
 pio\ ineeoi Quebec, and. other parts of the I domin- 
 ion of Canada; and in a part of Lorraine which. 
 
FRENCH LANGUAGE 
 
 325 
 
 in 1st I . was ceded tot lermany. It has, to 
 extent, maintained itself in that part of the 
 United States, which formerly belonged to France, 
 especially in Louisiana and Missouri ; hut there 
 it has gradually receded before the a Ivance of the 
 English language, and will doubtless soon be ex- 
 tinct. The inhabitants of the English Channel 
 islands speak mostly ;i Franco-Norman dialect; 
 the upper classes, however, use pure French. 
 About twenty different dialects and patois of 
 tlu' French language are still distinguished. 
 Even at present, no language is probably 
 studied to so great an extent by foreigners as 
 
 the French : ami. therefore, travelers find the 
 
 knowledge of French more useful than that of 
 any other modern language; although, in this 
 respect, it is at present far le.-.s important, as com- 
 pared with the English ami German languages, 
 than it \vas a hundred years ago. The instances 
 are also now very rare in which distinguished 
 writers ami scientists, like Leibnitz, Humboldt, 
 Frederick the Great, Gibbon, Beckford, and Sir 
 William .Ions, write their works in the French 
 language, in preference to their vernacular, either 
 a- a niancr of taste or to insure to their writings 
 a wider circulation. 
 
 There is a sufficient number of literary docu- 
 ments extant of every period of the French lan- 
 guage, by which its gradual growth may he traced 
 from its first formation to the present time. It 
 has been a general opinion with philologists, 
 
 cially classical scholars, that the origin of the 
 French, as well as the other Romanic languages, is 
 to be found in the gradual corruption of the Latin 
 language, which was finally shattered to pieces by 
 the German conquest : ami tint, when these frag- 
 ments were used for the building of new lan- 
 guages, the French withdrew farthest from the 
 Latin source. More recently, the researches of 
 comparative linguistics have shown, in the growth 
 of the French and other Romanic languages, 
 tlie working of the great natural laws which reg- 
 ulate the formation and development of new 
 languages; and, in the light of these researches, 
 much that formerly was looked upon as a deteri- 
 oration, now appears as a development and an 
 improvement. If we see, for instance, that from 
 
 Latin word kora, the new French language 
 formed a Ion-' seriesof words, as or, tors, des-lors, 
 
 •s, lorsque, incur", dorenuvant, desormais, 
 heure,keures, horaire, each with a different idea : 
 it is obvious that, in the origin of the French 
 language, there was not only the decay of the I«it- 
 
 Ul, but the creative power of new idea-;. The 
 
 abundance of simple words in French, where the 
 English and Germans have to use compounds, is 
 orally couce led to be an advantage; as French, 
 pommier, vigne; English, apple-tree, vineyard. 
 Am commendable qu uities of the French 
 
 language, are generally enumerated its logical 
 precision, neat i ss, and perspicuity ; while. on the 
 other hand, the monotony of accentuating the 
 final syllables, and the frequent occurrence of the 
 nasal sound mak euphonious and rhyth- 
 
 mical than other Romanic languages. Its excel- 
 lencies, therefore, appear to greater advantage in 
 
 prose than in poetry.and it is also admirably 
 suite! for conversation. In common with most 
 other Romanic languages, it has introduced from 
 the Teutonic languages the use of auxiliary verbs 
 
 with personal pronouns in the place of the Latin 
 inflections; asj'aiaime (German, ick h<th>- ge- 
 '. for amavi, I have loved; also the use of two 
 articles. a definiteand an indefinite, the material 
 • >f Loth being taken from the Latin (A . /,/ from 
 Vie, iUa; mi, une from unus, una); as lepere.the 
 father, lamere, the mother; un pere,a father.; 
 une mere, a mother; for (Latin) patm-, father.; 
 mater, mother (German, der Voter, die Mutterj 
 ein Voter, eine Mutter). Like its Romanic sisters, 
 it appears less inllected than any Teutonic lan- 
 guage, l>y the entire loss of case-endings in nouns, 
 as du pere, the father's (German, des Voters,; 
 Latin, patris). 
 
 The French language is studied in most of the 
 secondary and higher schools of English-speaking 
 nations, besides being taught by a host of private 
 teachers. In a huge number of schools, it is still 
 the only modern language studied; in many 
 others, in which provision is also made for Ger- 
 \ man and other modern languages, special promi- 
 nence is assigned to French. Especially is this 
 the ease in female colleges, seminaries, and acad- 
 emies, both in England and in the United States ; 
 and in these institutions particular stress is usu- 
 ally laid, in the prospectus, on the opportunity af- 
 forded to obtain a thorough knowledge of French. 
 The German language is. however, competing 
 with the French. a\u\ now frequently holds a 
 place by the side of it in many institutions in 
 which formerly, dining many generations, the 
 latter was exclusively pursued. As the secondary 
 and higher institutions of Loth England and the 
 United States are not regulated by a central 
 government, but are more or less independent in 
 the arrangement of their courses of instruction, 
 the study of French is not pursued, in any large 
 class of institutions, according to a uniform plan : 
 but its regulation has been, to a very great extent, 
 influenced by habit and fashion. As French is 
 pre-eminently looked upon as the language of 
 a refined people, ami is the favorite foreign 
 language of the upper classes in mosl civilized 
 c luntries, principals of schools are in luce I, more 
 than iii the case of anj oth ir foreign language, to 
 embody it in the couise of studies merely as a 
 means of eomnieii b'ng their scho Is to favor and 
 patronage. In such s bools, the time and attention 
 given to this study are generally insufficient t" 
 cure any progress of importance, and, cona quently 
 in great part, wasted. Where the study of 
 French is dictated bypropi r motives, the mistak 
 frequ< ntlymadein providing for it a course of only 
 one. two. or i bree years, sometimes with only one 
 recitation a. week ; and in discontinuing it in the 
 higher classes. The aim in all these institutions. 
 
 without doubt, should he to impart, besides the 
 
 correct foreign pronunciation. a knowledge of the 
 principles of the language, with a constant refi t 
 ence to the English, and to furnish the key for 
 the understanding of its truly magnificent liter- 
 ature. It is desirable to use the French, as far 
 
326 
 
 FRENCH LANGUAGE 
 
 as possible, in the recitations, in order to famili- 
 arize the ear of the student with the spoken 
 language, and also to afford him some practice in 
 speaking it. The ability to speak the French 
 language, however, cannot be acquired in school 
 except within very narrow limits. To discontinue 
 the study after a fair knowledge of grammar and 
 reading has been acquired, is a serious educational 
 error. Where the Study is introduceil.it should be 
 continued without interruption until the com- 
 pletion of the school course. When it is intended 
 to teach pupils. to Speak French fluently, a course 
 of instruction of at least four years should be 
 provided, with daily exercise, and constant inter- 
 course with a French teacher. The French, in 
 this respect, does not differ from any other mod- 
 ern Iangage. (See Modern Languagi 
 
 Instruction in French, as in every other foreign 
 language, begins with the acquisition of a correct 
 pronunciation. Next to English, French is the 
 least phonetic of all languages; and. there- 
 fore, a large number of rules must be learned 
 before the pupil is able to pronounce ordinary 
 words. It is important that this pronunciation 
 should be learned, partly at least, by means of an 
 imitation of the teacher's pronunciation. Memoriz- 
 ing lessons, before the correct pronunciation has 
 been acquired ispositively injurious. The French 
 grammar offers mil few peculiarities and difficul- 
 ties. The absence of case-endings and of many 
 other inflections, and the paucity of simple tenses 
 and of changes in the radical part of irregular 
 verbs, facilitate the reading of a French author at a 
 very earh stage of instruction. The chief peculiar- 
 ities, such as the interrogative .and negative form 
 of sentences, ought to be frequently practiced. 
 Attention should be called to the relationship 
 ■which the Latin and the Norman elements of 
 the English language b'ar to both English and 
 French. Simple exercises in etymology rnaygreat- 
 ly facilitate the early acquisition of a sufficient 
 number of words, to enable the pupil to read easy 
 writers without a too frequeni use ot the dic- 
 tionary. If French is studied by pupils who pos- 
 sesa some knowledge of Latin, this knowledge can 
 be used togreaf advantage in etymological illus- 
 tration, and in giving a clear view of the peculiar 
 character of the Romanic languages. The under- 
 standing of French authors can be made quite 
 
 easy for mOSl pupils, who soon find that the 
 
 majority of the wor Is have equivalents from th ■ 
 same roots in their own language. The reading 
 should, therefore, he rapid and not too much inter- 
 rupted by grammatical or literary remarks. The 
 aim. at first, should lie to make the langC 
 familiar to the pupil : as he advances, it will lie 
 
 easy, without any sacrifice of time, to call at- 
 t ntion to the rhetorical excellencies of the 
 
 I I inch classics. < 'lassie prose should precede 
 
 poetry, and should be read to a much larger ex- 
 tent. The great prose writers of the 1 7th and 
 lsih centuries have some claims to the privilege 
 
 Of being lead firSl ; at all event-, they should ma 
 
 be neglected. French literature is exceedingly rich 
 in works suited, in every respeel , for beginners : 
 and there is no reason why modern writers should 
 
 deprive Fenelon's Telemaque and Voltaire's 
 Charles XII oi the deserved popularity which 
 they have so long enjoyed. In selecting modern 
 writers, teachers should exercise the greatest care 
 to avoid all works the contents of which are ob- 
 jectionable. In general, the reading of foreign 
 authors who in a marked manner reflect the 
 national peculiarities of their country, is to 
 be preferred; but whenever there is reason 
 to apprehend that the impressions thus made 
 upon the pupil's mind may weaken his patri- 
 otic sentiments, there will be need of the ex- 
 er ise of caution. — There is. generally, too little 
 time in English and American institutions for 
 the study of French literature. In most cases, 
 the time devoted to it maybe more profitably 
 spent in improving the pupil's technical knowl- 
 edge of the language. Of course, advanced 
 pupils should become acquainted with the most 
 celebrated authors as well as a rudimentary out- 
 line of the literary history of France ; but most 
 of this can best be learned as an introduction to 
 the reading of the standard writers. Good French 
 reading -books, with literary introductions to the 
 different authors, may he used for this purpose, es- 
 pecially iii advanced classes, with great advantage. 
 Tlie reading of selections which would make the 
 pupil acquainted with the peculiar style ami ex- 
 cellencies of ( orncille. Racine, Moliere, Boileau, 
 Fenelon, etc. of the age of Louis XIV. : of Vol- 
 taire. Rousseau, Montesquieu, Florian, &c, of the 
 philosophical century; of Chateaubriand, Be- 
 ranger, Lamartine, V. Hugo, 6. Sand, Guizot, 
 Thiers. Michelet, Ac, of modern times, is prefer- 
 able to the exclusive reading of one or two entire 
 works of French literature. — When colloquial ex- 
 ercises constitute the chief part of French instruc- 
 tion. and to acquire fluency of speech is the chief 
 aim. caiv should be exercised that the command 
 of the language thus obtained may give to the 
 pupil something more than a collection of trivial 
 phrases and unmeaning expressions of politeness. 
 Eminent educators have often called attention 
 to the dangerous influence which a knowledge, 
 so exclusively formal and without substance, may 
 exercise upon the pupil's mind. 
 
 The first grammar of the French language was 
 written by an English author. Palsgrave i/As- 
 clai'cissement de lalangnejranpoyse, Loud. ,1530; 
 new edit, by ( renin, Paris, 1 852). It was followed 
 by another grammar likew ise for English persons, 
 ly <dles dii Guez (likewise edited by Genin). 
 
 The tir.M -laminar published in France, by JaC- 
 
 <|iies Dubois (Sylvii in linguam Gallicam isagoge, 
 Paris, L531), was written in the Latin language. 
 Great progress was visible in the works of 
 Robert and Henry Stephens (q. v.). Among the 
 later grammars published by French scholars the 
 most highly valued are those by the Port-Royal 
 
 writers. Lancelot and Arnauld (1660), de Wailly 
 (1754), Girault-Duvivier (1811), Landais (1836), 
 Bescherelle, Noeland < ihapsal, Poite> in. Boniface, 
 I. t llier and l.aroiissc Among the grammat- 
 ical works on the French language written by 
 foreigners, the works by Matzner, (Syntax der 
 n ufranzdsischen Sprache, 2 vols. Berlin, L843 — 
 
FRIENDS 
 
 327 
 
 1845, and Franz&sische Grammatik, Berlin,] 856) 
 ate especially esteemed by French scholars. -The 
 first noteworthy dictionary of the French language 
 was published by Robert Stephens | Dictionnaire 
 franpais-latin, 1539). It went through many 
 editions, and received additions from several 
 authors, the most prominent of whom was .lean 
 Nicot (1573). The dictionary by Richelet (Ge- 
 neva, L680) embraced etymology within its scope, 
 and gave quotations from French authors. 'I be 
 Dictionnaire universel by Antoine Furetiere 
 (Hague. l(i!MI) was a kind of general encyclopae- 
 dia. A revision of this work, made by the Jesuits, 
 became celebrated under the name Dictionnaire 
 de Jrevoux (1704), but was declared by the 
 French Academy a plagiarism. The first edition 
 of the Dictionnaire de YAcademie FYancaise 
 appeared in L698, and was at once accepted by 
 the country as the standard lexical authority. 
 The 6th edition appeared in 1835; supplements to 
 this edition were published by Raymond (1836), 
 Landais i L837), Barre, 18 L2, and others; a 7th edi- 
 tion, to be completed in 2 vols., was in progress in 
 l-s7(i. It is edited by Patin, with whom de Sacy, 
 Sandeau, C. Doucet, and Mignet are associated. 
 On the basis of the dictionary of the French 
 Academy, numerous smaller works have been 
 constructed, the most noted of which are those 
 by Boiste (1801), Landais, Bescherelle (2 vols., 
 1851), Poitevin (1854), Dochez (1860), Larousse 
 i L865). The new work by Littre (3 vols., Paris, 
 L863 — 73) is regarded as the best of all diction- 
 aries of the French language. A historical die- 
 tionary of the French language, on a grand scale, 
 lias been begun by the French Academy, The 
 first volume, published in 1858, contains only the 
 articles from A to Abu. — -Dictionaries merely 
 etymological have been published by Menage, 
 Borel, du Fresne, Pongens, Roquefort (1829), 
 Noel and Carpentier 1831), Charrasin (1842), 
 Mazure (18(53), Scheler (1862).— The best works 
 en the history of the French language are those 
 by Wey [Histoire des revolutions du langage 
 en France. Paris, 1848), Genin (Des variations 
 du langage frangais depuis le \1me siecle, Paris, 
 Is l.")).and Littre ( Histoire de la languefranpaise 
 3 vols.. Paris, 1863). — The standard works on 
 French synonyms are those by Girard (1736), 
 Beauzee il7ti!i). Roubaud (1785), and Guizot 
 (1809 — 22). — Complete histories of French 
 literature have been published byNisard (4 vols. 
 L846 —HI i. Demogeot (3vols.,1857),andGeruzez 
 ('-' vols.. 1852). — In connection with the other 
 Romanic languages, the French has been, gram- 
 matically and lexically, treated in the standard 
 works of Diez on these languages. [Grammatik 
 </•■/■ riimaiiisrlti'ii Sprarlii'it, 3 vols., 1836 — 12, 
 -1th edit., 1876 ; and Etymologisches fV&rterbuch 
 tier roman. Sprachen, 1853, 3d edit. 1869,Engl. 
 trans, by Donkin, 1864). 
 
 FRIENDS, Society of, commonly called 
 </ i ikers, a religious denomination which was 
 organized in England, in the 17th century, by 
 George Fox. lie began his religious reform in 
 1647, and only a few years later, in L 655, the 
 first of his followers came to America. In ! 827, 
 
 a schism took place in the Philadelphia Yearly 
 Meeting, which afterwards extended to most of 
 the other yearly meetings in America. Both 
 parties claim the exclusive right to the denomina- 
 tional title of the Religious Society of Friends. 
 One division is known as Orthodox, a title 
 which they claim as being nearest the original 
 Friends in their religious views ; and the other 
 division is called llicksite. from Elias I licks, a 
 leading member of that branch ; but these disdain 
 that title, and call themselves only Friends, ac- 
 knowledging no man as their leader. The fol- 
 lowers of Hicks do not insist on uniformity of 
 belief in some of the tenets which the t hthodox re- 
 gard as the fundamental doctrines of Christian- 
 ity, but desire that every one should be fully per- 
 suaded in his own mind. They are, in particular, 
 charged by the Orthodox Friends with holding 
 Socinian views in regard to the doctrines of the 
 Trinity and of Satisfaction. The Friends recog- 
 nize only a ministry of Divine appointment, 
 and regard it as unchristian to take an oath or 
 to go to war. As they do not have clergymen, 
 they can allow r no system of theological training, 
 and are, therefore, entirely without theological 
 schools. The Orthodox Friends have twelve 
 yearly meetings, the oldest of which, that of 
 London, is regarded by the others with respectful 
 affection as the mother of yearly meetings. The 
 number of members in England and Ireland is 
 about 17,000. There are settlements of Friends 
 in France. Germany, Norway. .Madagascar, and 
 in several parts of Australasia. all of which make 
 annual reports to the London Yearly Meeting, and 
 acknowledge subordination to it. The member- 
 ship in the United States is about 60,000; in 
 the entire world, 85,000. The other party (the 
 Hicksites) have six yearly meetings with about 
 35,000 members. The Orthodox Friends have, 
 in, the United States, four colleges ; namely, 
 Haverford College, in Pennsylvania (organized 
 in 1830); Earlham College, at Richmond, Ind. 
 (1859), Whittier College, at Salem, Iowa (1868), 
 and Penn College, at Oskaloosa, Iowa. They also 
 have large boarding schools, the most noted of 
 which are those of West Town, Pa., Provi- 
 dence, P. I., Union Springs, N. V., and Xew 
 Garden, N". * '. in England and Ireland, there 
 are also several educational institutions of merit 
 under the care of the society. Considering 
 the small number of Friends in Great Lritain 
 and Ireland, the educational advantages of the 
 society are unequaled by any religious com- 
 munity. The Flounders College, at Ackworth 
 near Pontyfract. is the only college belonging 
 to the Friends. It was founded in L784, has 
 an endowment of £40,000, and is exclusively de- 
 voted to the training of young men for teachers 
 in the Friends' educational establishments, or 
 in their families. Ackworth School, also at Ack- 
 worth. is the chief public school of the society. 
 and has an endowment of £37,000. All the 
 pupils (about I so boys and 120 girls) are board- 
 ers. Besides Ackworth, the Friends posj 
 
 public scl Is at Croydon (endowment £30,000), 
 
 Sidcot (£15,000), VVigton (£12,000), Rawden, 
 
:52s 
 
 FROEBEL 
 
 FURMAN UNIVERSITY 
 
 r Leeds I £5,000), Penketh, near Warrington 
 
 ( £4,000), Sibford £10,0 Ayton, near Dar- 
 
 lington £14,000), Newton, Waterford; Mount- 
 meUick (£9,000), Lisburn (£11,000), Brookfield 
 ,000). First-day schools (Sunday-schools) are 
 conducted in all the yearly meetings with zeal 
 and efficiency, and North Carolina has taken the 
 lead in the establishment of a normal first-day 
 school. The other branch (the Hieksites) have, 
 in the cities of New Fork, Philadelphia, Bal- 
 timore and Richmond, bad., extensive and well- 
 conducted schools, adapted to a high standard 
 of useful and practical education. There are also 
 numerous schools of varie 1 character through- 
 oat the yearly meetings. Swarthmore College, 
 near Philadelphia, was organized in L869, and is 
 intended for three hundred pupils of both sexes. 
 FROEBEL, Friedrich, a celebrated < rerman 
 educator, and the inventor of the kindergarten 
 system of school instruction, was born in Ober- 
 weissbach, Thuringia, April 21., L782, and died 
 in Marienthal, June 21., 1852. Ee was the son 
 of a Lutheran clergyman, but had few oppor- 
 tunities for education, leaving homo at the early 
 age of L 3, to become a forester's apprentice. As 
 such he learned the elements of geometry and 
 surveying, and acquired the means to pre] 
 himself for the university of Jena ; but his funds 
 being exhausted, he was compelled to shift for 
 himself in various stations, until, in L803, he 
 was employed as a teacher in a model school in 
 Frankfort on the Main. To acquaint himself 
 witli the details of Pestalozzis reforms in educa- 
 tion, he became his associate iu the school at 
 Everdun, Switzerland, from L807 to L810. lie 
 then continued his studies at the universities of 
 
 Gottingen and Berlin; hut. in L81?, he took pari 
 as a volunteer in Lutzow's celebrated campaign 
 against Napoleon I. En the same year he was ap- 
 pointed assistant inspector of the mineralogies] 
 museum in Berlin; hut he resigned that posi- 
 tion in 1816 to found in Griesheim, Thu- 
 ringia, a school, which he soon after transferred 
 
 tO keilhau. near Ludolstadt. His system of 
 education, as practiced here for fifteen years, was 
 
 based on the principle of cultivating the self- 
 activity of the pupil, by connecting manual 
 labor with everystudy. Not fully satisfied, how- 
 ever, with the results of his experiments, he left 
 his school to the guidance of three devoted and 
 excellent assistants. - Middendorf, Barop, and 
 
 Langethal, and went to Switzerland, where he 
 
 hoped to find more support in his reformatory 
 plans. He founded a school first in Willisau, in 
 12, anil afterwards another in Burgdorf, in 
 1835, which lie again left to he carried on by 
 M iddendorf ami Langethal, and returned to < rer- 
 mauy in order to realize his plan of kindergarten 
 .schools, lie had become entirely convinced 
 that no thorough educational reform could he 
 effected, without changing the methods of the 
 earliest instruction. The powers of the infant's 
 mind, before they become stunted by neglect, 
 
 lie held, mUSl he harinoli ioiid v developed, i ' I .ill ill- 
 
 rtitut specially adapted to prepare these young 
 
 minds for i he ordinary processes of school instruc- 
 
 tion. In this institution, teachers were also to he 
 trained for the special work of infant education. 
 Such a school he calle 1 a Kindergarten, that is, 
 a garden for children, partly because it was to he 
 located in a hall within a garden, and, partly, he- 
 cause the children were to he treated like plants, 
 being carefully tended, and aided in the natural 
 development of their powers. His first attempt 
 at a practical realization of this scheme, was made 
 in Blankenburg, Thuringia, in 1840; the second, 
 at the invitation of the Duchess of Meiningen, 
 in Liebenthal, in 1849, in the latter of which 
 places In- began the training of young women to 
 be kindergarten teachers. Other kindergartens 
 were opened in several of the German cities — 
 Dresden, Hamburg, etc.. previous to Froebel's 
 death, in L852. Before his death, he had the 
 mortification to find the establishment of state 
 or public kindergartens forbidden by the Prus- 
 sian .Minister Yon Pannier, who supposed their 
 founder to he Karl Froebel, his nephew, who was 
 charged with being a democratic agitator and so- 
 cialist. Like all self-educated persons. Froebel was 
 deficient in logical clearness, especially in writ- 
 ing, when a Hood of ideas overwhelmed him: as 
 a practical teacher, he was wonderfully impress- 
 ive and clear. Awkward in appearance, indif- 
 ferent to the conventionalities of life, and always 
 filled with one interest, one range of ideas and 
 
 efforts, he. nevertheless, exerted on all genuine 
 educators who came in contact with him. irre- 
 spective of creed, station in life, or party, an 
 almost magical influence. Although a devout 
 Christian and religionist, lie was entirely un- 
 sectarian; although a revolutionary thinker in 
 most respects, lie kept free from all attempts at 
 practical revolution; although a cosmopolitan 
 and lover of mankind, he was an ardent national 
 German; ami although in theory he was most 
 uncritical, in speech incoherent and hardly in- 
 telligible, his system of methods for the develop- 
 ment of the mind is eminently practical, syste- 
 matic, and effect ive. The most complete biog- 
 raphy Of Froebel is that written by A. I'». 1 1 insch- 
 vi.vw (Eisenach, 1874); shortei ones are found 
 in W'nn vim Lange's complete edition of Froe- 
 bel's pedagogical works (3 vols. Berlin, L862),in 
 Dibsterwbo's RJieinische Blatter (1860), in the 
 journal Wrziehung der Gegenwart (1874,sq.) hy 
 the Baroness Marenholtz-Buelow. and in A.ua. 
 i\(K:u.Ki;'s Praxis des Kindergartens (3 vols., 
 Weimar). An excellent biographical sketch has 
 also been written by Matilda II. Kriege (New 
 York. L876). (See Kindergarten.) 
 
 FURMAN UNIVERSITY, at Creenville, 
 S. »'.. founded in L850, is under Baptist control. 
 It has ample buildings beautifully located on a 
 tract of land, of some forty acres, its endow- 
 ment was almost wholly lost by the war. The 
 remnant spared has recently been augmented by 
 
 an addition of $200,000 in 1 ds bearing 7 per 
 
 cent interest. Hereafter tuition will be freefor 
 
 III years. The university has an educational 
 fund of about $10,000, the interest of which is 
 to aid young men who are preparing for the 
 ministry. It comprises eight schools: namely, 
 
GALES VILLK UNIVERSITY 
 
 CAM ES 
 
 329 
 
 Roman literature: Greek language and litera-! 
 tur»- : mathematics and mechanical philosophy; 
 natural philosophy; chemistry and natural 
 history; logic, rhetoric, and the evidences of 
 Christianity; metaphysics; and English litera- 
 ture. Students are allowed entire freedom in 
 
 the selection of the schools which they desire to 
 
 attend. The t'nl I course tor a degree of A. I!. 
 extends through tour years. The preparatory 
 department was discontinued in L 869, and has 
 be^n succeeded by the Greenville High School. 
 
 The theological departmenl was abandoned some 
 
 years after the organization of the university, in 
 older to make ii the germ of the Southern Bap- 
 tist Theological Institution, which holds its ses- 
 sions ai Greenville, and has ."> professors. The 
 university, in 1*71 -5, had •"> professors. ."> I stu- 
 dents, and Tit alumni. The Rev. James < !. I 'ur- 
 man, D.D., has been the presiding officer of the 
 
 institution since its opening. 
 
 FURNITURE, SCHOOL. See School 
 Furniture. 
 
 GALESVILLE UNIVERSITY, at Gales- 
 ville. Wis., chartered in L859, is under the con- 
 trol of the -Methodist Episcopal Church. Both 
 
 se\es are admitted. It is supported by tuition 
 fees and an endowment of $15,000. It has a 
 library of over 4,000 volumes, a cabinet of natural 
 history, and apparatus for the illustration of nat- 
 ural philosophy, chemistry, and astronomy. It 
 has a preparatory anil a collegiate department 
 with a classical and a scientific course, and a course 
 in modern languages and in music. The cost of 
 tuition in the preparatory department is 8-1 per 
 year. and. in the collegiate department. 827. In 
 1874 — ;"i. there were 7 instructors; and the num- 
 ber of students was as follows: in the collegiate 
 department. '!'.>■. in the preparatory, 96; in music. 
 "J~: total, deducting repetitions, 135. The Hon. 
 George (ode. LL. 1).. was the president of the 
 university from !*.">!» to 18(14, when the Rev. 
 Harrison Gilliland, D.D., the present incumbent 
 76), was elected. 
 
 GALL, Franz Joseph, a German physician 
 ami the founder of phrenology, was born at 
 Tiefenbronn, in Baden, March 9., 1758, and 
 died at Montrouge, near Paris, Aug. 22., 1828. 
 The first impulse to his phrenological inves- 
 tigations was given by tin' observation made by 
 him. when a boy, that all pupils who excelled 
 in committing pieces to memory had prominent 
 eyes. Gradually proceeding in his observations, 
 he thought he perceived in the human head 
 external marks of other intellectual and moral 
 faculties: and. after twenty years of uninterrupt- 
 ed study, he believed that he hail discovered 
 about twenty organs of different faculties, in 
 179(i. he began to lecture on his peculiar theory 
 in Vienna : but, in 1*0'.!, the Austrian govern- 
 ment interdicted his lectures on the ground that 
 they were dangerous to religion. This charge, 
 which has since been often repeated, against the 
 phrenologists, was stoutly denied by Gall, who, 
 on the contrary, contended that training in 
 early youth could overcome a vicious disposi- 
 tion, and that, therefore, a knowledge of phre- 
 nology, which revealed better than any other 
 means of observation, the good and bad disposi- 
 tions of men, was of great importance to every 
 educator. Gall had many followers, the most 
 noted of whom was Spurzheim, the author of 
 A View of tin' Elementary Principles of Edu- 
 cation I l-'.din, 1821 ), and other important works. 
 
 GALLAUDET, Thomas Hopkins, a noted 
 teacher and philanthropist, was born in Phila- 
 delphia, Dec. Id., 17*7, and died in Hartford, 
 Ct., Sep. 9., 1851. He graduated at rale College 
 in 1805, entered the theological seminary at 
 Andover, in 1*11. and was licensed to preach in 
 1*14; bulj, becoming interested in the instruction 
 of deaf-mutes, he turned his attention almost 
 entirely to that subject. Soon after, lie was 
 appointed superintendent of an institution 
 founded for the purpose at Hartford, and in 
 L815, visited Europe in its behalf. Finding 
 that the accomplishment of his purpose to enter 
 the London Asylum as a pupil would lie de- 
 layed, and a similar purpose for the institution 
 at Edinburgh entirely thwarted, he sought an 
 introduction to the abbe Sicard, then in Lon- 
 don, and was invited by him to visit Paris, 
 where every facility was afforded him to study 
 the system of deaf-mute instruction there in 
 vogue. In July 1816, he returned to this country 
 with Mr. Laurent Clerc, one of the ablesi 
 pupils and assistants of the abbe Sicard. ami 
 founded, with a class of seven pupils, the Amer- 
 ican Asylum at Hartford — the first institution 
 of the kind in this country. After thirteen 
 years' superintendence, he resigned, in 1830, his 
 position as principal, on account of failing health. 
 From that time till his death, in L851, be gave 
 his attention liberally to all educational ami 
 benevolent pursuits, speaking and writing more 
 particularly on female education, and the treat- 
 ment of the insane. His most important works 
 are. Child's Book on the Soul, Mother's Primer, 
 Defining Dictionary, Practical Spelling-Book, 
 The Ercrii-Thiji Christian. Letters of a Father, 
 and Public Schools, Public Blessings.- See 
 Barnard, American Teachers and Educators ; 
 and Tribute la GaUaudet (Hartford, L852) ; H. 
 Humphrey, Life of T. II. GaUaudet; North 
 American Review for October. 1858. 
 
 GAMES are formal methods of sport or 
 diversion, which constitute, in an especial man- 
 ner and degree, the peculiar life of childhood. 
 
 Play may he regarded as a pari of that spon- 
 taneous exercise of the bodily organs of an 
 
 animal, which pr OteS its growth and adapts 
 
 it to its surroundings : and games, as convention- 
 ally established modes of play. These games 
 may he more or less in harmony with the nat- 
 ural wants of those who engage in them : but it 
 
330 
 
 GAMES 
 
 GAUME 
 
 •will be found that the more nearly they agree 
 ■with these natural wants, the more generally 
 they have prevailed in every period of the his- 
 tory of mankind. Thus modern research has 
 shown that the best games, both of children and 
 of adults, were practiced, with certain variations 
 occasioned by differences of climate, soil, and 
 national character, thousands of years ago. 
 With the progress of civilization, these games 
 Undergo certain modifications' so as to be adapted 
 to the age : and thus, like language, become the 
 characteristics or exponents of special degrees 
 anil kinds of national culture. Children's games 
 arc, in part, imitations of those of adults; and, 
 indeed, sometimes, in an imaginative way. of the 
 serious occupations of the latter. Thus the 
 child "plays school" with other children as 
 scholars, or assumes the functions of the head of 
 the household, or of the lawyer, the doctor, the 
 mechanic, etc., this disposition resulting from the 
 
 activity of the coneeptive faculty peculiar to 
 
 children, [t has been asserted that the educator 
 should not meddle with the plays and games of 
 children, at least not in a positive manner ; be- 
 cause to be really interesting they should be 
 spontaneous. This principle is undoubtedly cor- 
 rect in regard to play in general, as far as it is 
 not prejudicial to mental or physical health, or 
 
 Unsuited to the age of those engaged in it : but 
 parents, and other educators, can exert very 
 
 it influence over their children or pupils l>\ 
 
 joining in their games: and. in this way. they 
 may regulate the games themselves, and thus 
 make them an instrument of training and in- 
 struction. The principle which should limit all 
 interference is obvious: the self-activity of the 
 child's powers should be fostered and directed, so 
 
 that amusement may he not only the means of 
 stimulating their growth, but aiso a result of 
 that growth. In what way this may be done. 
 from the earliest childhood, by means of plays 
 and games, such as have been employed forages, 
 has been demonstrated by Froebel, and by thoss 
 who have practiced his method in the household 
 
 or the kindergarten. The latter, however, ap- 
 proaches perfection chiefly through the surpris- 
 ing ability of the children, when stimulated by 
 that method, to invent an endless variety of 
 beautiful plays and games for t hemselves. an 
 ability which not only interests and amuses 
 
 them as children, but prepares them for many 
 spheres of useful activity in afterlife. Experi- 
 ments to adapt froebel s means of occupation, 
 and his games, to pupils from the seventh Or 
 eighth year upward, are now being made in a 
 number of schools in Germany and the United 
 Mates. These comprise a great variety of ball 
 
 games, gardening occupations, light gymnastics, 
 
 and movement games; as well as those of a more 
 
 mental character, such as charades, puzzles, and 
 rebuses ; an. I also construction games by means 
 
 ot geometrical solids, cutting, weaving, folding, 
 and twining, w ith paper, leather, etc. The peculiar 
 charm connected with these amusing occupations 
 tuusl ten. I to keep children from rough. boisterous. 
 and dan ports, and will also obviate the 
 
 need of purchasing costly and elaborate toys, in 
 which children take but a transient interest. More 
 particularly will it dissuade from supplying 
 children with contrivances for such games of 
 chance as tend to foster the spirit of gain and 
 gambling. Children should be led to make their 
 own toys, and to contrive their own games and 
 plays as much as possible. 
 
 The importance of games in the education of 
 children was recognized by Plato and Aristotle. 
 The former proposed that the children, assembled 
 in the temples, should be trained, under female 
 direction, to imitate actual life in their plays, 
 and thus to develop a taste or inclination tor 
 particular vocations. Aristotle praised games as 
 the means of exercise, and as preventing or 
 counteracting idleness: but he based them too 
 exclusively on the principle of recreation. Quin- 
 tilian also recognized the developing power of 
 certain games. In tin- middle ages, only the 
 knights appear to have appreciated the value of 
 games for physical and social culture. Luther 
 was favorable to the games of children: fait the 
 schools of the Kith and 17th centuries are. in 
 general, noted for their gloomy neglect of this 
 i beerful clement in the education ot youth. The 
 schools of the Jesuits were, in this respect, 
 conducted on more reasonable principles than 
 
 most others. Montaigne advocated games for 
 
 children, and ComeniuS likewise favored them. 
 
 Locke commended them, bul particularly enjoined 
 
 that children should be required as far as 
 possible to make their own playthings. "All 
 the plays and diversions of children.'" he says. 
 "should be directed towards good and useful 
 habits. or else they will introduce ill ones. What- 
 ever they do leaves some impression on that ten- 
 der age. and from them they receive a tendency 
 to good or evil ; and whatever hath such an in- 
 fluence ought not to be neglected." Rousseau 
 
 showed himself unable to appreciate the value of 
 children's games. In the L9th century, no one 
 has done so much to call attention to their 
 importance as Froebel : and. at the present time. 
 
 no educational system can be considered complete 
 
 which docs m it embrace a consideration of every 
 thing pertaining to the rational amusement of 
 
 children as well as what belongs to their formal 
 instruction. A Large number of books in the 
 
 English language bave been published, contain- 
 ing a full description of every variety of games 
 and amusements tor both boys ami girls, and 
 much labor and ingenuity have been expended 
 in inventing interesting and instructive in-door 
 games for children, and in constructing material 
 
 f..r them. For a thoroughly exhaustive treat- 
 ment of this subject, from an educational point 
 of view see Sen \u.ri;. Das Spiel mul die Spiele 
 
 | I 861 I. (See I hvri;sio\s.) 
 
 GAUME, Jean Joseph., a French ecclesi- 
 astic and author, especially noted for his earnest 
 opposition to the use of the pagan clashes in 
 
 education, was born in L 802, and died in L869. 
 
 Me received holy orders at an early age. and. in 
 I >'JT. was appointed professor of theology ill the 
 seminary of Ne vers, of which institution he was 
 
GEDIKE 
 
 (.'("XIUS 
 
 :;:;i 
 
 afterwards the director. Subsequently, he be- 
 came canon of the cathedra] and vicar-general. 
 In his Le ver rongeur des sncii ; f< : .< modernes 
 — The Canker-worm <>f Modern Society (Paris, 
 L851), he endeavored to show that all the so- 
 cial evils of the last four centuries could be 
 traced to tin revival of pagan art and literature. 
 
 The publication of this hook gave rise to an ex- 
 Citing controversy in which Bishop Dupanloup 
 strongly opposed the views of Gaume. (See 
 Dopanloi i'.) In 1852, Qaume published LeUres 
 a .1/'//'. Dupanloup sur le paganisme dans 
 riducation, contending that only expurgated 
 editions of Latin and Greek authors anterior 
 to the 4th century A. I). should be read in the 
 schools. In order to carry out this idea, he 
 issued Bi/>lio/hi' j </»>' des classiques chre'tiens, l<<- 
 tn<« et grecs (30 vols., Paris. 1 852 — 5) and Poetes 
 ii prosateurs profanes completement <:r/>>frt/t : s 
 (2 vols.. 1 S ."> 7 ) . In 1841, he was made a knight 
 of Sylvester by Gregory XV I., and, in 1854, a 
 prothonotary apostolic by Pius IX. (See Clas- 
 sics, Christi in.) 
 
 GEDIKE, Friedrich, a Herman educator, 
 horn in 1755, died in L803. lie studied at the 
 university of Frankfort on the Oder, was 
 appointed sub-rector of the Friedrichswerder 
 Gymnasium in Berlin, in 177(>, and director of 
 that institution, in 1779. His success in this 
 position was very great; and the organization 
 which he introduced into his gymnasium, became 
 a model for all similar institutions in Prussia. 
 His principal reform is described by himself as 
 follows: •• As it frequently happens that a young 
 man does not make equal progress in all his 
 studies, but advances more rapidly in some than 
 in others, it would be unreasonable to let him 
 attend to all the studies in the same class. Our 
 plan is. therefore, arranged in such a manner that 
 a scholar can attend one lesson in a higher, and 
 another in a lower class, without missing a study 
 otherwise necessary." In his position as chief 
 school councilor ( Oberschn I rath) , to which he was 
 appointed in 1787, he also showed great talents 
 as .in organizer. The creation of the Supreme 
 School Board (Oberschidcollegium) and the in- 
 troduction of the examination of candidates for 
 luation in the gymnasia I Abtturientenexamen i 
 were chiefly his work. In 1767, he established a 
 teacher's seminary for the instruction of teachers 
 of classical schools, the direction of which he 
 retained until his death, lie published a collec- 
 tion of his Schul&cliriften (Educational Work- 
 in two volumes (1789-05). 
 
 GENETIC METHOD, in instruction, is 
 hut another name for what is more frequently 
 called the developing method. The term genetic 
 implies that the mind of the pupil is to be guide. 1 
 by the teacher in such a way that it will be able 
 to perceive the genesis of the truths communi- 
 cated, that is. their development from fundamen- 
 tal principles ; or that it will be led to construct 
 for itself general principles from observed facts 
 as antecedents. This method recognizes the need 
 of a genesis, or development, of actual concep- 
 tions in the mind of the pupil, as tin- hasis for 
 
 every other educational process. (See Develop- 
 ing Method.) 
 
 GENEVA COLLEGE, at West Geneva, 
 Logan Co.. Ohio, under the control of the Re- 
 formed Presbyterian Church, was organized in 
 1 849, and chartered in 1853. It includes a pre- 
 paratory and a collegiate department. In 1*7.'5 — 4, 
 there woe 7 instructors and 170 students (100 
 males ami (II females). The cost of tuition for 
 preparatory and scientific studies i> si'i per year; 
 tin' classical studies, $30. The Rev. II. ELGeorge, 
 !>.!».. is (1876) the president, having held this 
 position since L872. 
 
 GENIUS (Lat. genius, innate power or 
 capacity, from gignexe, to produce), as used in 
 modern times, has been variously defined by 
 many writers, who. though differing widely as to 
 its essential quality, are agreed as to its out- 
 ward, distinguishing manifestation : namely, un- 
 usual mental ability coupled always with great 
 intuitional or creative power. Absolute creative 
 power cannot, of course, be claimed for it. since 
 it does not create the elements with which it 
 works ; but that it is creative in the sense of re- 
 combining these, and discovering new and subtle 
 relations between them, which we instinctively 
 recognize as both real and novel, and hence view 
 with admiration and delight, is generally ad- 
 mitted. Originality is its distinctive feature. 
 In whatever held of human inquiry, therefore, it 
 is exerted, its action and results are always the 
 same, — it masters intuitively, or by a study so 
 rapid as to seem intuitive, all that is known in 
 that particular field, and, leaving talent by the 
 wayside, reaches out into the great unknown 
 which surrounds us on every side, rescues some- 
 thing from that shadowy realm, and adds it to 
 the domain of positive knowledge. Thus, with 
 Beethoven, it listens as if to celestial harmonies, 
 and transcribes them for mortal ears; with 
 Newton, it follows the falling apple till worlds 
 and atoms proclaim the same immutable and 
 unerring law ; it broods with Xapoleon over the 
 camp fire, and, scorning experience as its guide, 
 gathers sudden and overwhelming victory from 
 the veiy held of disaster : it paints the heroic 
 past with the simplicity and grandeur of nature 
 herself, as in Homer, or probes, as in Shakespeare. 
 
 the mysteries of the human heart with a power 
 
 and vividness which ages cannot antiquate. Tran- 
 scending thus all contemporaneous effort, it is 
 
 always a, lawgiver; while talent deduces from its 
 works the rules by which alone excellence may 
 be attained. Disdaining all present attainment. 
 and living too exclusively in the future, it 
 quite often happens, however, that the man of 
 genius falls out of harmony with the age in 
 which he lives. And here the duty of the educa- 
 tor towards him must be considered. Our first 
 question, therefore, is, How far can the teacher 
 influence genius 1 If genius he. as many think. 
 only an abnormal development of one faculty at 
 the expense of the others as the ear becomes 
 exquisitely acute by the loss of sight — the 
 method to he adopted by the teacher IS plain : 
 
 namely, a repression of the abnormal faculty and 
 
332 
 
 GENIUS 
 
 <;i;<h;kapiiy 
 
 a careful cultivation of the others. Whether this 
 process would result in a reduction of them all 
 to mediocrity, or a harmonious and powerful 
 development of them all. remains to be con- 
 sidered, [f, on the other hand, genius be, as it 
 has sometimes seemed, an irrepressible impulse, 
 an apparently higher power, acting from with- 
 out, and impelling its possessor, almost in spite 
 of himself, in a given direction, any attempt to 
 change its course by education, must bring only 
 injurious irritation and disgust to the pupil and 
 discouragement to the teacher. History furnishes 
 many instances in which genius, thwarted in its 
 
 legitimate aim. and not suspecting its own power, 
 
 has passed for Stupidity, till a fortunate chance 
 lias disclosed its real nature. Perhaps, the ques- 
 tion how far genius can be profitably influenced 
 by education, must wait for an answer till a 
 better system of psychology than we now possess 
 
 has laid down the principles according to which 
 
 tin' experiment must lie conducted. 
 
 Our second question is. How far is it desirable 
 that genius should be influenced by education? 
 Perhaps it is not too much to say that the last 
 and besl result of education is to make men 
 happy, [f happiness he the only consideration, 
 mil ii happiness, according to an extensive 
 modern school of philosophy, consists in bringing 
 man into harmony with his surroundings, and if 
 further it be granted, that the mind thus gi 
 can he harmoniously developed and retain all its 
 original power, the duty of the educator is again 
 
 plain — the race would he benefited by Mich 
 development, and the man of genius made more 
 happy by eliminating from his mental constitu- 
 tion all those jarring differences which arise from 
 inharmonious development, and which take the 
 form of eccentricities. There then arises the 
 broader consideration, how far tin 1 permanent 
 
 welfare of the human race is concerned in the 
 harmonious development we have been discussing. 
 This question, however, in (he present state of 
 our knowledge, is. perhaps, beyond our power to 
 solve. Akin to genius are those special aptitudes 
 which are manifested, some times at quite an early 
 
 age. These, as constituting a part of the char- 
 acter, should he recognized by the educator ; and 
 while they should not form the basis of general 
 framing or discipline, should he allowed their 
 
 specific exercise; and. in the more advanced 
 steps of education, should Incline distinct objects 
 
 of culture. The existence of this special talent, 
 or of genius itself, should not he permitted to 
 
 '■'the necessity of industry and applica- 
 tion. As far as possible, the tad^s imposed by 
 the instructor should hear a proper relation to 
 
 the Special ability Of the students, those who are 
 
 of brilliant parts being required to accomplish 
 more than those who are comparatively dull and 
 slow to acquire. Many youths of great promise, 
 in La aie often seriously injured by 
 
 insufficient requirements, lapsing into sloth or 
 
 had habits by the want of full occupation. This 
 
 principle is of great importance; though its 
 application in bcdoo] and college education is 
 
 nipanied with many difficulties. The true 
 
 educator will, however, recognize it. and allow it 
 to guide and regulate many of his operations. 
 The possession of the brightest genius cannot 
 supersede the necessity of industry and study. 
 ''Invention," said Sir Joshua Reynolds, "is one of 
 the great marks of genius; hut. if we consult 
 experience, we shall find, that it is by being con- 
 versant with the inventions of others, that we 
 Learn to invent, as, by reading the thoughts of 
 others, we learn to think". 
 
 GEOGRAPHY (Gr. yia, ;>;. the earth, and 
 eiv, to write) has in its own name a concise 
 yet comprehensive definition. Strictly speak' 
 ing, modern scientific geography necessarily in- 
 cludes a great part of the results and many of 
 the details of the several natural and physical 
 sciences. We must look to astronomy for an ex- 
 planation of the phenomena of day and night and 
 of the seasons: and for the means of determining 
 the true form of the earth, its magnitude, and 
 
 the relative position of places upon its surface. 
 
 Geology must explain the phenomena of eleva- 
 tion and contour, and their incessant though slow 
 mutations. Physics only, can enable us tn con- 
 sider intelligently the conditions of climate, the 
 origin of the wind and ocean currents, the rain- 
 fall, the relations of temperature to elevation. 
 
 and the mysteries of terrestrial magnetism. 
 And. t'u ally, biology, in its various departments, 
 must help us to comprehend the geographical 
 distribution of plants and animals, and to un- 
 derstand the nature and origin of those impor- 
 tant factors in modern civilization,— petroleum 
 and mineral coal. Geography combines con- 
 ations from all these and many other depart- 
 ments of human knowledge, and subordinates 
 them to its own chief purpose.- a knowledge of 
 mankind, and of their distribution, of the pecu- 
 liarities of the countries which they inhabit, and 
 he effects of their physical environment up- 
 on their social development and their condition; 
 also a knowledge of their resources, industries, 
 and government : and of the commercial rela- 
 tions of nations. It is evident that a subject 
 s. vasi and comprehensive cannot he exhaus- 
 tively treated in any ordinary school course of 
 - ady. As in the science of arithmetic there 
 are very many things which cannot possibly be 
 included in an elementary or " practical " busi- 
 ness course, so iii the study of geography, a very 
 Large part of the entire subject must oecessarilj 
 he omitted, partly because of tin' immaturity 01 
 the pupils mind, and partly because <'t the pres- 
 sure of other Subjects upon his time and atten- 
 tion. The contents of the modem daily news- 
 paper furnish, perhaps, the besl general indica- 
 tion of what should constitute a proper course 
 in geography tor ordinary schools. \\ ith most 
 persons, the newspaper furnishes by tar the 
 
 h r pari of their reading, and is the chief, it 
 not the only, source of their stock of general in- 
 formation. None can safely dispense with it; 
 and. in the not distant future, with the general 
 increase of the number of intelligent readers 
 through improved systems of instruction, 
 daily journal must become more and more the 
 
GEOGRAPHY 
 
 333 
 
 medium for spreading a knowledge of the things 
 which every one should know." Its telegrams, 
 
 editorials, and communications, as well as the ad- 
 vertisements, relate to every great human inter- 
 est, political ami commercial, social and religious. 
 They arc from every part of the world; ami 
 those of chief interest involve geographical 
 knowledge which the editor must necessarily as- 
 sume to he already possessed by the reader. In 
 order to be truly practical, a proper course of 
 study in geography should recognize the fact 
 that, after reading, writing, and elementary 
 arithmetic, a knowledge of no other subject 
 studied in school, perhaps not of all others taken 
 together, is so frequently called into practical 
 as a knowledge of geography. 
 
 In view of the limited time that can usually 
 be given to the subject in school, it is obvious 
 that, if a text-book be used, it should be clear 
 and concise, and should chiefly direct the atten- 
 tion of the pupil to those matters which will 
 afterwards be most needed. All unimportant 
 details should be omitted. It is a matter of no 
 consequence that the pupil should know the de- 
 tails of Arctic geography, or lie able to describe 
 minutely, and by long formulas, the courses of 
 rivers, the precise boundaries of countries, or 
 the exact location of a large number of towns 
 and cities of the third and fourth orders. Gen- 
 eral but substantially correct ideas are all that 
 are here necessary ; and, in nearly every case, 
 these will be nearly all that will remain in the 
 pupil's mind, after all the labor and time ex- 
 pended upon details. A knowledge of local geog- 
 raphy is indispensable as a basis for the proper 
 study of the more important descriptive geog- 
 raphy ; but great care should be taken to make 
 it no mere than a well-selected outline, such as 
 the average mind is likely to retain. When 
 judiciously pursued in the school room, geography 
 becomes a lifelong study, full of pleasure and 
 profit; badly taught, it is perhaps more than 
 any other subject, "stale, flat, and unprofitable." 
 Geography, like all other subjects, cannot be 
 taught by any one who is not specially prepared 
 to teach it. The teacher should know a great 
 deal more about it than the brief statements of 
 the t. xt-book. lie should have a fund of illustra- 
 tion from books on history, travel, commerce, and 
 other collateral subjects, so as to fill up and en- 
 liven the simple outline of the book. There are 
 few more common or more distressing illustra- 
 tions of incompetency in the school room than 
 that of the misnamed "teacher," with his eyes 
 fastened upon the book, now following with his 
 finger the printed question, and then doubtfully 
 poring over the map, or over the printed answer 
 in the descriptive text, to sec if the pupil "knows 
 his lesson." Pupils arc ipiick to estimate such a 
 teacher at his proper value. 
 
 Geography is. comparatively speaking, a mod- 
 ern science. The Phoenicians, the Egyptians, 
 the Greeks, and the Carthaginians, in the prog- 
 
 - of their commercial enterprises, made a 
 tew discoveries, principally confined to the shores 
 of the Mediterranean Sea : and the great mili- 
 
 tary expeditions of Alexander, in the Ith century 
 B. < '.. added somewhat to this knowledge, which 
 Eratosthenes (aboul 200 B. C.) first reduced to 
 a scientific form. The treatises of Strabo and 
 Ptolemy contained nearly all the geographical 
 information possessed by mankind for centuries. 
 \\ hen Columbus embarked on his daring voyage, 
 little addition had been made to geographical 
 knowledge, excepl what had been gamed during 
 the 1 5th century,by the voyages of the I Portuguese 
 alongthecoast of Africa, stimulated by that noble 
 prince, Henry of Portugal, surnamed the Navi- 
 gator. The first attempt at a de& riptiOD of the 
 earth, subsequent to this, was thai of Sebastian 
 Franckf Welibuoch,! 554). The workB of Sebastian 
 
 Minister. Ortelius. < iluver, Meiian. and others fol- 
 lowed. J.Bergmann(died L787) was the founder of 
 physical. A. P. Busching 1 1 754), of politico-statis- 
 tical geography. It was. however, the labors of 
 Karl Bitter, that first gave geography a truly 
 scientific character. A new and important era of 
 geographical discovery began just before the 
 middle of the 19th century, and is still in prog- 
 ress. The geographical society of Paris was 
 founded in 182] : that of Merlin, in 1828 : the 
 Royal Geographical Society of London, in 1830; 
 and the American < ieographical Society, in 1852. 
 There are now (1876), at least thirty-four such 
 societies, differing, of course, in extent, activity, 
 and importance. W ithin a 1 >rief period, and under 
 their advice, direction, or encouragement, pro- 
 digious results have been accomplished. A few 
 years ago, more than one-half of the map of 
 Africa was a blank : and of the 17 millions of 
 sq. m. of Asia, more than 12 millions was either 
 entirely unknown, or wholly cut off from all 
 intercourse with mankind. Twenty-five years 
 ago, a geographer wrote of Australia, "a corner 
 of this huge mass of land is all that is known." 
 Besides the newly opened empires of China and 
 Japan and the recent vast conquests of the Rus- 
 sians, nearly every other country of Asia has 
 been visited by scientific explorers, eager to 
 notice every fact relating to physical or political 
 geography, ethnology, geology, botany, or 
 zoology, and to discover the various agricultural, 
 mineral, and other physical resources, developed 
 or undeveloped, which play so important a part 
 in modern civilization. In the same spirit, the 
 limits of the unexplored regions of Africa and 
 Australia have been greatly reduced : the Arctic 
 Ocean has been penetrated nearly to the 83rd, 
 and the Antarctic to the 77th. degree of latitude : 
 and the vast and almost unknown regions in the 
 heart of South America have been visited, again 
 and again, by enthusiastic observers. Twenty- 
 five or thirty years ago, the greater part of the 
 area of the United States, more than '1 millions 
 of square miles, was inhabited only by savages. 
 
 and was almost unknown: now, although a great 
 part yet remains unexamined, the admiration 
 of the world is fixed upon "its great mountain 
 ranges, extraordinary canons, wonderful geysers, 
 and prehistoric ruins; upon its lakes, rivers, 
 majestic cataracts, and broad areas of culturable 
 land : its untold mineral treasures of even' kind 
 
334 
 
 GEOGRAPHY 
 
 and the rapidity with which its ancient solitudes 
 are becoming the homes of an advanced civili- 
 zation." (President Daly's Annual Address, 
 1876.) 
 
 The study of geography in schools is, compar- 
 atively speaking, of recent introduction. The 
 first text-books appear to have been modeled in 
 part upon the extensive descriptions of Strabo. 
 and in part upon the briefer work of Ptolemy, 
 much of which consists essentially of mere lists 
 of places. Until the latter part of the last cent- 
 ury, nothing had been done in the United 
 States to popularize the subject and adapt it to 
 school instruction. The first text-book on the 
 subject published in that country was a small 
 18mo manual by Jedidiah Morse, issued in L784. 
 This work Avas of little use beyond affording a 
 means of giving some slight geographical informa- 
 tion to the pupils of elementary schools ; but. pre- 
 vious to the publication of the work of William 
 0. Woodbridge and Mrs. Emma Willard as joint- 
 authors (77/'' Woodbridge and Willard Geog- 
 raphies and Atlases, 1822), it continued to be 
 the chief text-book in use on the subject. "Up 
 to this period," says l>r. Aleott. in his biography 
 of William * '. Woodbridge, "geography as a 
 science had received but little attention in the 
 public schools of New England ; with the excep- 
 tion of a few of the more favored of the larger 
 schools, spelling, reading, ami writing were nearly 
 all the branches that received special attention. 
 As for geography, some few schools studied 
 Morse ; a few others used as a sort of reading- 
 book, Nathaniel Dwight's System of Geography, 
 which was arranged in the form of question and 
 answer. The vast majority, however, paid no 
 attention to the subject." Mrs. Willard thus de- 
 scribes the method of teaching geography in L814, 
 and for some years subsequently: "In geography, 
 the eye was not made the sole or the chief me- 
 dium of teaching the signs of external things, as 
 the forms, proportions, and situation of countries, 
 rivers, etc.; for though maps existed, yet they 
 were not required to be used ; but the boundary 
 was learned by the words of the book, and the 
 latitude by numbers there set down." This pre- 
 sents a very striking illustration of the error, 
 once so prevalent, of addressing the mere mem- 
 ory (and generally the memory of words), with- 
 out any endeavor to develop the intelligence. 
 The attempt to teach the situation of places 
 (topography) by mere verbal description was 
 perhaps the mosl absurd error which the historj 
 Lucation presents. William < !. Woodbridge, 
 
 who had been fur some time engaged in leaching 
 • deaf-mutes, and Mrs. Willard. of 
 
 the 1 1 ■ >> Female Seminary, appear to have been 
 simultaneously impressed with the absurdity of 
 the method in use, and with the need of reform 
 in teaching geography; and both proposed to 
 publish texi books on the subject, and on plans 
 substantially identical. This led to the union of 
 authorship already referred to. The application 
 of a principle of scientific generalization to geog- 
 raphy, whether apprehended by them flr not, 
 was not introduced into their text -books; nor 
 
 was it in the work published about the same 
 time by Sidney E. Morse LW/r System of Mod- 
 em Geography, 8vo,1823;. nor in the subsequent 
 editions of that work, which had a wide and 
 Long-continued circulation. The improvements 
 of Woodbridge and Willard, adopted and added 
 toby Morse, Olney, Smith, and many other au- 
 thors, obliged the pupil to make the maps the< hief 
 study, and to describe in his own language, 
 though by given formulas, the boundaries of 
 countries, the courses of rivers, the situation of 
 towns, etc., lists of which were furnished for 
 this purpose. Although nearly all of the text- 
 books then, and subsequently, contained a de- 
 scriptive text relating to matters not represented 
 on the map : such as the soil, climate, and pro- 
 ductions of countries: yet the prominence given 
 to the map studies, and their greater relative 
 convenience for recitation and home study, veiy 
 generally led to a practical neglect of the de- 
 scriptive text. In some works, as that of Hart, 
 which was in extensive use in American schools 
 for many years, all exercises but those upon the 
 maps, and a few preliminary definitions, were 
 omitted as not strictly belonging to the subject. 
 The evils of such a method of instruction must 
 be obvious. When the convenient plan of print- 
 ing maps and text in one volume was adopted, 
 the pages opposite the maps were largely, and in 
 some cases exclusively, given up to map exercises, 
 chiefly consisting of lists of islands, capes, rivers, 
 etc.; this, though convenient for map study, was 
 very apt to be abused. In L849, Arnold Guyot 
 (<[. v.) published a small volume of lectures, en- 
 titled Earth and Man, which was the first 
 presentation to the American public, in a pop- 
 ular form, of the geographical labors of Ritter 
 and Humboldt. This work gave a powerful 
 stimulus, in the United States, to the study of 
 geography as a science, and led to many changes 
 in school text books on the subject, as well as 
 more rational methods of presenting it in the 
 class room. Geographical study in one of its most 
 interesting departments, hydrography, was stim- 
 ulated by the researches of M. F.Maury, the results 
 of which he published in Physical Geography of 
 !//-' Sea. (N.x.,1 856) ; also by the famous wind and 
 current charts, constructed by him. The labors of 
 Hitter and Humboldt have influenced the treat- 
 ment of the subject in European schools, partic- 
 ularly in those of Germany. An outline of geog- 
 raphy, however imperfect . early formed a part of 
 the studies, in some at least of the schools of that 
 
 country. In 1590, we find The Cosmography, 
 
 probably that of Sebastian M ii lister, recommended 
 as a useful reader in certain schools of llesse- 
 Darmstadt. The school regulations for Saxe- 
 Gotha, in L680, provide for a simple geographical 
 
 outline, in schools where there were more than 
 
 one teacher. In L763, the school regulations for 
 Prussia, drawn up by Becker, furnish a brief 
 
 outline of geography, and order its ust'. Similar 
 
 provisions were made in Silesia and some other 
 countries. The method followed in all appears to 
 
 have been that of oral instruction by means of 
 a few outline maps, beginning with the native 
 
 <"N 
 
CKOtiKAL'lIY 
 
 335 
 
 village and province. Yet notwithstanding these 
 directions and pn>\ isions, I >i tics says [Sckule der 
 P&dagogik, Leipsic, lsT(i). "As late as the be- 
 ginning of the L 9th century, there was still, in 
 schools, scarcely any geographical instruct ion : 
 and when it was given, it was confined to a tew 
 
 lessons on the continents, the principal countries. 
 
 and their capitals. Even in the higher schools. 
 
 but little geography was learned. " — Notwith- 
 standing all that has been done to facilitate this 
 study, and the costly geographies, richly adorned 
 with maps and pictorial illustrations, which are 
 supplied to the pupils, teachers quite generally 
 complain that the results of teaching it are very 
 unsatisfactory. The vast multitude of tacts which 
 it embraces, imperfectly generalized, or not at 
 all. and bound together by no obvious relations, 
 drop from the pupil's memory almost as soon as 
 Committed to it. Candidates for admission into 
 colleges and universities, it is said, stand much 
 lower in this branch than in any other; although 
 none receives so much attention in the element- 
 ary schools, except reading, spelling, and arith- 
 metic. To what causes this is to be attributed 
 has been already in part considered and will be 
 further noticed as we proceed. In treating of 
 geography as a branch of elementary instruction 
 (for such it exclusively is at the present time), 
 we shall consider (I) what are the faculties which 
 are specially 5 exercised in studying it ; (II) the 
 different stages into which the instruction should 
 be divided, and what is proper to each; (III) the 
 age at which the study should be commenced ; 
 and (IV) the proper methods of teaching it. 
 
 I. Geography seeks to present to the mind 
 conceptions of countries and peoples that we 
 have never visited, analogous to those which we 
 have acquired in relation to regions which we 
 have actually seen. It further seeks to com- 
 bine and generalize these conceptions into a 
 systematic view of the earth as a whole, and as 
 the abode of mankind. — The fundamental con- 
 ceptions, therefore, which are to be thus ampli- 
 fied, combined, or otherwise modified, must be 
 based upon objective presentation. A landscape, 
 the more varied the better, or in default of this, 
 a good pictorial representation, as its nearest 
 equivalent, must furnish most of the basic ele- 
 ments. The first, though limited, steps must, 
 therefore, be made through an appeal to the per- 
 ceptive faculties. The second stage must consist 
 in an exercise of the conceplive faculties in 
 vividly recalling and combining the impressions 
 which the objective presentation has made upon 
 the mind. The pupil must be trained to recall 
 the image of the mountain, the island, the forest, 
 the placid hike, the verdant plain, or the flowing 
 river ; to see again, as it were, the tossing ocean 
 and to hear the roar of its waves as they break 
 
 upon the beach ; and to picture to himself in 
 
 season of the year the aspect of nature in an- 
 other. These and other analogous impressions, 
 already obtained from physical phenomena, must 
 furnish the indispensable basis for any true prog- 
 ress in geographical knowledge. — Hut all this 
 training is not the teaching of geography, hut 
 
 only the necessary preparation for it. These con- 
 ceptions are to geography hut as the syllables to 
 
 language, or as the gamut to melody. Through- 
 out the teaching of geography, another menial 
 faculty, the imagination of the pupil, must be 
 broughl into exercise. These conceptions of 
 phenomena and of regions that he has actually 
 seen must now be modified, amplified, and com 
 bined. to form conceptions of phenomena and 
 
 regions that he has not seen. The conception of 
 the rivulet must be expanded to that of the 
 mighty river; the little lake or pond must had 
 the mind to the broad ocean; anil the little hills. 
 to mountain ranges. The low sun and snowy fields 
 
 of winter must be modified into an antic- land- 
 scape; ami the verdant meadow, into the bound- 
 less prairie. If this is properly done, and especially 
 if pictorial representation is properly employed. 
 the name of the Amazon will not recall to the 
 pupil the conception of a long and crooked black 
 mark, widening towards the right-hand side of 
 his map; but his imagination will at once picture 
 the broad surface and turbid waters of that vast 
 river, its hot and humid climate, and its limit- 
 less forest solitudes with their tangle of giant 
 vines, and their troops of chattering monkeys. 
 When, at the proper stage, the study of maps is 
 introduced, the discipline of the memory is ad- 
 ded to that of the perceptive, conceptive, and 
 imaginative faculties, as in remembering the 
 location of mountains, islands, rivers, and towns, 
 and the various facts associated with them ; 
 while an appeal is also made, with increasing 
 frequency, to tins judgment, in tracing the neces- 
 sary relation of the location of cities to rivers 
 and coast-lines, and in connecting the general 
 course of a river with the elevations and slopes 
 of the country wdiich it drains. 
 
 II. The successive stages of geographical in- 
 struction have been already, in part, indicated. 
 The conceptions and distinctions of mainland 
 and island ; of mountain, hill, and table-land ; of 
 lake, river, basin, valley, peninsula, and cape ; of 
 climate, vegetation, race, and other geographical 
 elements, should first be fixed, and then the terms 
 wdiich embody them should be described by the 
 pupil himself. Too much stress is usually placed 
 upon the precise and formal definitions of these 
 terms. Some of them, such as sea. gulf. hay. and 
 lake, as actually used, defy all sharp differentia- 
 tion ; and Others, such as continent and water- 
 shed, are variously used by standard authorities. 
 It must he home in mind that the definitions in 
 geography have a totally distincl function from 
 
 those of mathematics, grammar, and other logic- 
 al or deductive sciences. In these, the cornet 
 conception OI a term, such as parallelogram or 
 
 adjective, is to he obtained from its definition; 
 whereas, in geography, the definition, if required, 
 
 musl he developed from a correct conception ot 
 the ohjeet defined. The formal definitions ot 
 geographical terms have, indeed, their place ; but 
 
 this is not in the first stage of the subject. The 
 geographical terms and their association should 
 be followed by ideas of direction or relative 
 position, that is, a knowledge of the cardinal 
 
336 
 
 GEOGRAPHY 
 
 points; after this, the construction and inter- 
 pretation of a simple map of limited and known 
 localities, beginning perhaps with a plan or map 
 of the school room itself , followed by a map of 
 
 the immediate neighbor!) L, then by thai of the 
 
 county as it would appear if seen from a balloon. 
 When the pupil has been thoroughly trained to 
 
 understand the symbols of the map. and readily to 
 picture to himself the things thai are symbolized 
 by the various lines, dots, and other marks, he is 
 in possession of all the elementary ideas essential 
 
 to the subject. — Either of two opposite courses 
 may now be pursued in giving the outline of 
 geography itself which is usually included in a 
 primary or elementary course for beginners. One 
 of these plans, known as the synthetic, begins 
 with the study of a map of the locality of the 
 pupil's home or neighborhood; it takes next the 
 map of the county, then of the state or district, 
 
 and. finally, of the whole country in which the 
 
 pupil resides. Alter this, follows the study of 
 the simple outlines of the continent of which the 
 country forms a part : then the outlines of the 
 
 other continents or grand divisions, in some pre- 
 ferred order, and finally a general review, which 
 completes and combines all that has preceded it 
 into a brief view of the world as a w hole. The 
 other, or analytic system, pursues, at least in its 
 early stages, an exactly reverse course. From 
 the consideration of certain common phenomena 
 
 and other well-known facts, the pupil IS first led 
 
 to form a conception of the earth as a gigantic 
 
 globe Or ball ; then of the primary divisions of 
 its surface into land and water; and then of 
 
 the leading subdivisions of these primary ele- 
 ments. After learning the climatic division of 
 the earth into zones, the pupil studies the conti- 
 nents, each in its turn, as in the other system. 
 Both of these systems have their strong points, 
 
 both have been successfully followed, and both 
 have earnest advocates. Excepting in their in- 
 itial and terminal stages they have much in com- 
 mon. One great advantage of the analytic system 
 
 is, that it more readily admits the early intro- 
 duction of the terrestrial globe, and requires its 
 
 frequenl use throughout. In no other way can 
 
 certain serious misconceptions be thoroughly 
 
 prevented. The use of maps of different scales. 
 together with the inherent faults of projection, 
 
 leads to erroneous ideas in regard to the relative 
 
 size of countries, and to wrong conceptions of their 
 
 relative positions. These first impressions are 
 
 hard to correct, and, in the majority of cases, 
 are never corrected. The globe should have 
 tin' leading place in teaching elementary geog- 
 raphy. It should be used to fix the idea of the 
 
 Bpherical shape of the earth, its dimensions, and 
 the division of its surf ace into land and water. 
 It should give the fire! view of its division into 
 continents, oceans, islands etc.. and just concep- 
 tions of their relative position and magnitude. 
 By no other means can the astronomic elemi 
 <'f primary geography be <,, simply and correctly 
 
 Jit ; such as the causes of day and night, and 
 
 ins, the /dues, the nature of Latitude 
 and longitude and the need of these measurements. 
 
 The final statre of geography, as a branch of ele- 
 mentary instruct ion. is much more comprehensive 
 than the preceding Stages, and makes more fre- 
 quent appeals to the judgment and the memory. 
 The outline already given is to be reviewed and 
 tilled up. Political or social geography is then to 
 be more fully and systematically taught; and the 
 whole subject of the peculiarities and resources, 
 together with the commercial and other relations! 
 of all the most important countries of the globe, is 
 to be more fully shown. < :eoeraphical definitions 
 are now desirable. These should be followed by 
 a review of the outlines of astronomical geog- 
 raphy, and then by a thorough training in the 
 outlines of comparative physical geography as 
 furnishing the only scientific basis, ami the only 
 line principles of scientific generalization, for the 
 facts of political geography .This training should 
 include, at first, well-arranged exercises i »n simple 
 physical maps of the hemispheres, great care 
 being taken, at this stage, to furnish only so much 
 of topography as is necessary tor the lessons on 
 descriptive comparative physical geography, which 
 should immediately follow. These descriptive 
 
 lessons should be brief and clear, and should sub- 
 stantially include the following points in their 
 proper order: (1) a comparison of the continents 
 or grand divisions of the land in regard to posi- 
 tion, form, size, and principal horizontal projec- 
 tions; (2) the comparison and classification of 
 islands, the chief mountain systems, table-lands, 
 and lowland plains; (3) the oceans and ocean 
 currents, and the great rivers and lakes; (4) cli- 
 mate as affected by latitude, by elevation, and by 
 winds and ocean currents; and (5) the genera] 
 
 distribution of characteristic plants and animals, 
 and of the races of mankind. All. or nearly 
 all. of these may be profitably taught simply 
 as physical \',ir\s to lie known by observation. 
 The study of tin' explanatory theories belo 
 to a higher stage of geographical knowledge. 
 Each of the six grand divisions should now he 
 
 considered in turn : first, in relation to the lead- 
 in- facts of its physical geography, including its 
 surface, drainage, climate, and characteristic 
 plants and animals, indigenous or exotic: and 
 secondly, on the basis of these physical facts, in 
 relation to the separate political Subdivisions) 
 their inhabitants, towns and cities, resources. 
 commerce, industrial development, government, 
 ami general social condition. Finally, a brief but 
 comprehensive general review should bring out, 
 in strong relief, the various interrelations of the 
 different countries in regard to commerce, gov- 
 ernment, race, language, ami religion. 
 
 111. As a general rule, the pupil should not 
 
 begin the study of geography, at least, not what 
 maybe called map geography, until ten or eleven 
 years of age. There are, however, geographical 
 
 lessons, of a very simple character, which may 
 be profitably given to younger children. Thi 
 should, according to the principles already 
 stated, be pictorial and di scriptive. approximat- 
 ing to object-lessons, in being designed to develop 
 ideas rather than to impart knowledge. In rela- 
 tion to this Btage of the instruction. < 'urrie says, 
 
GEOGRAPHY 
 
 :;:;7 
 
 in Principles qf Early School Education, " The 
 j igraphy of the infant school is a scries of ob- 
 ject-lessons connected by a geographical link. It 
 but prepares materials tor the formal study of 
 geography. It may he thought that the use of 
 the map would facilitate this instruction; but it 
 is quite immaterial whether the map be in the 
 Bchool or not. It is the business of the next 
 stage of progress to localize all that has been 
 learnt: which it does by going regularly over 
 the map, and fixing down in position the coun- 
 tries, which as yet are only names to the children. 
 The utmost use of the map that should lie made 
 
 in the infant school is to go over with the elder 
 
 infants, if time permit, at the end of their course. 
 on a physical map of the world, distinctly out- 
 lined so as to show the features of districts, the 
 general outline of what they have learnt." If it 
 were not for the early period at which most 
 children leave school, the regular study of g 
 raphy might he profitably deferred considerably 
 longer. The prevalent practice of thrusting the 
 study of maps upon the time and attention of very 
 young children has much to do with the general 
 disgust of both pupils and teachers with the usual 
 D st results of its study. The introductory course 
 should occupy from a year to a year and a half; 
 the subsequent course, from two and a half to 
 three yen-. 
 
 IV. The principles which should guide in the 
 selection of methods of teaching this subject, 
 have already been explained, and the difference 
 between the synthetic and analytic systems has 
 been defined. The following suggestive hints 
 will prove valuable to practical teachers : (1) the 
 memorizing of the details of maps without suffi- 
 cient descriptive matter, will leave no permanent 
 impression on the mind; hence, (2) let the study 
 of the map be subordinated to that of the other 
 important facts, such as soil, climate, productions, 
 etc., relating to the separate countries ; and 
 (3) let these facts be presented and studied in a 
 uniform order, so that the pupil's mind will 
 always have a guide, both for investigation and 
 oral description. A special order of topics for 
 this purpose has already b^en suggested. It must 
 always be borne in mind, that in proportion as 
 the pupil becomes interested in the particular 
 country studied, he will desire to know more of 
 its geographical details, and will remember them 
 longer. I ience, the exhaustive study of the map 
 should not precede all other lessons. After fully 
 locating the country to be studied, by means of 
 its boundaries, etc., the teacher may proceed with 
 a description of some of its most striking 
 features, passing from these to the more minute 
 details of topography, as tiny are brought out 
 by this description, until all the topographical 
 and descriptive details are sufficiently learned. 
 In considering the methods to be pursued in 
 the study of geography, reference must also be 
 male to the necessary appliances. For the first 
 stages of the study a simple terrestrial globe and 
 good wall-maps are indispensable. Relief maps 
 and relief glohes, as now constructed and used, 
 are of great value in giving correct ideas of the 
 22 
 
 superficial configuration of differenl countries. If 
 a text-booi is used, it should be chiefly a well-illus- 
 trated reading-1 k. using the simplest language 
 
 the subject will allow, with very brief map exercises 
 designed to. sum up and locate the substance of the 
 
 reading lessons. As far as possiUe.eaeh locality 
 should have some associated idea interesting to the 
 
 pupils. Whateveris taught should he frequently 
 and systematically reviewed by careful question- 
 ing, so that the impressions made may he definite 
 
 and lasting. In the fust stage of geographical 
 study, the teacher is obliged to do a large part 
 
 of the work: in the later Stage, the pupil should he 
 trained to do as much as possible tor himself. 
 This subject, when properly taught, furnishes an 
 excellent and necessary discipline for the memory. 
 The illustrations of the text-hook should be 
 supplemented, if necessary, from other sources. 
 Hooks of travel may be made one of the most 
 powerful of auxiliaries in teaching geography. If 
 the school possesses a cyclopaedia or gazetteer, it 
 should be used for illustration or additional facts. 
 No element in the successful teaching of geog- 
 raphy is of greater importance than thorough re- 
 views. These may take any one or more of a 
 variety of forms too well known to need de- 
 scription. Cartography, or the drawing of neat 
 and minutely accurate maps, is esteemed by 
 many experienced teachers as a valuable adjunct 
 in geographical teaching ; yet it is at least 
 questionable whether the large expenditure of 
 time required is fairly repaid by the value of the 
 results. The necessary topography may be much 
 more effectively memorized and reviewed by 
 spirited exercises in drawing, or rapidly sketch- 
 ing, outline maps from memory. Of systems of 
 map-drawing, for this purpose, there is a con- 
 siderable variety, all having more or less merit ; 
 but the great desideratum in this part of the in- 
 struction is, that the relative sizes of countries and 
 distances of places should, by means of it, be per- 
 manently impressed upon the memory. This 
 constitutes what is sometimes called the con- 
 structive metltod of teaching geography ; upon 
 which much dependence isplaced in the German 
 systems of instruction. For the aid of the pupil 
 various devices are resorted to, some using the 
 square, others a series of triangulations. and still 
 others a combination of these, in connection w ith 
 arbitrary measures. — See Catechism on Methods 
 of Teaching, translated from Diesterweo's 
 Almanac for L855- 6, in Barnard's Journal qf 
 Education] Gotsmuths, Versuch einer Metho- 
 
 dik des geogropliiscl/en l'nt< rric/its- h'sso// on 
 Methodical Instruction in deoi/ro/ih)/ (1845) ; 
 
 Diesterweg, Anleitung m einem methodischen 
 Vhterricht in tin- Geography — Introduction to 
 Methodical Instruction in Geography (1833) ; 
 Raumer, Geschichte der P&dagogik; Dittks. 
 Schuleder P&dagogik (1876) : Hi isso\. Rapport 
 sur ^instruction primaire a V exposition univer- 
 selle ite Vic n nc en l.sT.'i (Paris. 1 *~:V), containing 
 information both as to methods ami appliances 
 in present use ; Currie, Principles ana Practice 
 qf Common-School Education (Edin.and bond. ; 
 WlCEERSHAM, Methods of Instruction ( Phil.,1865 • 
 
338 
 
 oeolo<;y 
 
 GEOLOGY (Or. yrj, the earth, and 'K&yoq, a 
 discourse), the science- which treats of the history 
 of the earth. Mure exactly, it consists of a 
 group of sciences which treat of the materials of 
 which the earth is composed, and of the arrange- 
 ment of these materials, whether superficial or 
 deep-seated, and of their relations to one another: 
 of the changes which the earth is undergoing at 
 present, and of the series of changes through 
 which it has heretofore passed. Nay more, the 
 inorganic changes that have, in the course of time, 
 resulted in the present physical geography and in- 
 ternal condition of the globe, have been accom- 
 panied, through the latter part of the series, by a 
 corresp ling series of appearances and mollifi- 
 cations of organic forms ; and these two sets of 
 phenomena, organic and inorganic, have been SO 
 
 interdependent,. that it is impossible to separate 
 
 thv history of the earth from the history of the 
 life it supports. It will thus be seen, (1) that 
 geology is intimately connected, both by the facts 
 of its own genesis as a science and by the light 
 it throws, in return, on the origin of existing con- 
 ditions, with physical geography ; and, (2) that. 
 while in its branches, mineralogy, Ethology, and 
 pal&ontology, it has its descriptive and classi- 
 
 ficatory elements, these are. in fact, only subor- 
 dinate to that element, which, by the aid of 
 dynamical {/''>?<>:///. weaves the material facts in- 
 to a web of cause and effect, — a continuous his- 
 torical argument. It is important to observe 
 here that the part of geology which treats only 
 of the material conditions, without regard to the 
 reasoning which connects them into historical 
 sequence, is recognized as 'jrotjnosy,* term, how- 
 ever, that is hut little used by English or Amer- 
 ican writers. Palaeontology is really a natural- 
 history science, bearing much the same relation 
 to zoology, that geology does to physical geog- 
 raphy, (ieology, however, cannot be read with- 
 out its aid: and it might perhaps be well to re- 
 suscitate the term oryctology for this application 
 of palaeontology to geological interpretation 
 
 If the highesl aim of man. in the acquisition 
 of material knowledge, is to obtain the fullest 
 attainable insight into his true position in the 
 
 great scheme or existence, and into the respon- 
 sibilities which that position implies, assuredly, 
 
 geologj must be one of the fields ill which he 
 may hope to gain most important information: 
 as the (ruths of this science, in throwing light 
 upon the history of his surroundings and their 
 
 antecedents, of the earth which supports him. 
 ami of the life of which he is a part, must in- 
 evitably throw light upon the history and rela- 
 tionships of man himself. A science so com- 
 pletely underlying all the tacts of our existence, 
 aev< loping ro multifariously our dependence up- 
 on all put- of die scheme of which We seem t I 
 
 be the temporary culmination, should surely 
 
 COn inl itself to the educator. should be beyond 
 
 ' be its important e a I as an 
 
 tor in the problem of universal edu- 
 cation. Fet, as a matter of fact, the simplest 
 teaching ot geology, even to-day, is generally 
 looked up,, ii a- supererogatory. Whether the 
 
 world ia six thousand years old, or of incalcu- 
 lable antiquity ; whether it always has been as 
 
 it is at this moment, or whether it has passed 
 through a vast series of changes: whether life 
 has or has not had its progress: whether the 
 facts that are taught us by every pebble and 
 
 every rain-storm are not worth thinking upon, or 
 
 whether they lead to conclusions more wonder-' 
 fill than the strangest dreams of the ancients. 
 implying mote power than the boldest myths 
 ever imagined, and illustrating the rule of law so 
 universally that even the minutest -rain of sand 
 proclaims its control ; — these arc questions on 
 which most parents and teachers have thought it 
 
 scarcely worth while to enlighten the minds of the 
 
 children placed in their charge. Since the answer 
 
 will aid the purpose of this article, it is impor- 
 tant to ask. why this neglect of so important a 
 science'.'' In the first place, the reply comes, 
 geology is a young science, begotten in the last 
 century. and brought forth in the commencement 
 of the present, an offspring of the second -rear 
 Reformation, the reformation not of creeds but 
 of philosophy. Secondly, geology has had to 
 fight its way a- an intruder, as a disturber ot old 
 received notions, of deeply ingrained prejudices: 
 its claims in the realm of thought were seen to 
 be stupendous, and the possible consequences of 
 their admission beyond all calculation. Thirdly, 
 although, as in all reform movements, it has 
 derived genuine strength from persecution by 
 its foes, its progress has been all alone greatly 
 impeded by the too hasty zeal of many of its 
 \otaries. i For the history of the gradual devel- 
 opment of geology, until, by Playfair's Illustra- 
 tions of Hutton, and the patient researches of 
 William Smith, the clues were given by which 
 its accumulated facts could be systematized into 
 a scientific form, see a concise account in the 
 i\vs\ four chapters of I .yell's Principles of Geol- 
 ogy.) Excluding the almost invincible vis iner- 
 tice of ancient prejudice, t he third cause has. per- 
 haps, been the most potent in retarding the ac- 
 ceptance of geological discoveries; because some 
 
 hypotheses, which had been accepted by numer- 
 ous and. perhaps, influential geologists, were 
 ultimately proved to be untenable, therefore the 
 
 significance of truths that wen- incontrovertible 
 
 was unfairly belittled. It is. even to this day. a 
 frequent argument against geology, that there is 
 
 SO ii inch in connect ion with it that is uncertain : 
 but those who make t his object ion are unwilling 
 to admit -will not allow themselves to realize, 
 how much of proven truth there is in the science, 
 and how thoroughly it is founded upon fa 
 which need only the proof of observation. Per- 
 haps, the best way in which, in this brief article, 
 the fundamental ideas upon which geology is 
 based may be presented, will be to put them in- 
 to the form of simple siateiuents. or axioms, 
 
 which, though incapable of proof, it would be 
 
 absurd to deny, because their truth may h.' 
 
 seen at a -lance: (I i It is a matter of observa- 
 tion, that wherever on the surface of the earth 
 
 there is moisture, there, under the influence of 
 changes of temperature, will be chemical and 
 
GEOLOGY 
 
 839 
 
 mechanical changes in progress, in the rocks ex- 
 posed to its action. In other words, thai rocks 
 exposed a1 or ni ar the Burface arc forever under- 
 going destruction by the action of moisture in 
 the atmosphere, of running water, waves, frost, 
 moving ice, etc. (2) The results of this destruc- 
 tion, in tin' form of gravel, sand, and finer part- 
 icles, of day or of calcareous rocks, are continu- 
 ally moved onwards by this same agent water 
 from higher to lower levels, until they finally 
 sink to rest in the quiet depths of the ocean. 
 
 If this process of the degradation of the dry 
 land were continued a sufficienl Length of time, 
 it would result in the ultimate destruction of 
 every island and every continent. and in the fill- 
 ing up, in part, of the depressions in the bed of 
 the ocean ; unless some counteracting ag sney be 
 at work re-elevating the deposits thus accumu- 
 lating beneath the sea level. (4) A large part of 
 existing dry lands are formed of conglomerates, 
 sandstones, clays, and limestones, the very con- 
 stitution of which shows that they were origi- 
 nally sediments deposited from water; a fact that 
 is siill more clearly evidenced by the shells and 
 other organic remains which they contain ; and 
 they thus show that continents have either been 
 elevated out of the water, or that water has been 
 withdrawn from over them. (5) Careful and 
 extended examination has shown that altera- 
 tions in the relative level of sea and land are 
 die rule, and not exceptional cases, along coast- 
 lines ; that these movements are not necessarily 
 connected, directly at least, with volcanic phe- 
 nomena; that they are exceedingly gradual; 
 and, finally, the undoubted existence of move- 
 ments of elevation and depression in opposite 
 directions, in adjoining areas, at the same time, 
 proves conclusively that these are movements of 
 the crust of the earth, and not apparent oscil- 
 lations due to the rising- and falling of the sur- 
 rounding waters. (6) As, moreover, we meet 
 with many series of sedimentary rocks, overlying 
 one another, in the same continent, we see that 
 tln> same region must have been repeatedly sub- 
 merged, and that the dry land has thus been 
 gradually built up by successive additions. We 
 have also clear evidence that intervals of sub- 
 aerial elevation intervened between the submer- 
 gencies — as the older deposits had evidently 
 been partially denuded before the later sedi- 
 ments were laid upon them. (7) We have thus 
 evidence of a force at work within the earth, 
 capable of elevating the sediments resulting 
 
 a i!i ■ destruction of one continent, so that a 
 new continent shall he formed from them : and 
 our existing lands are in fact built up of the 
 debris of older and destroyed continents, up- 
 heaved by this subterranean power. (8) Prom the 
 observation of volcanoes and the volcanic phe- 
 nomena of hot spring3,and of the temperature of 
 mines and deep borings, we hive evidence of 
 the existence either of a highly heated interior 
 of our globe, or of local areas of elevated tem- 
 perature at a greater or less depth below the 
 Burface. (9) From the constant presence of 
 water iii volcanic phenomena. from the character 
 
 of the various phenomena themselves, and from 
 
 the uature of many volcanic rocks, we are n 
 
 resist ililv I'll to inter that water b an active 
 
 agent in developing these phenomena. (10) In 
 addition to rocks undoubtedly of volcanic origin, 
 we find others thai appear to have resulted from 
 the metamorphism of sedimentary rocks. Such 
 rocks <lo not appear to have ever been in a m 
 of incandescence or even of igneous fusion; they 
 appear to have been chemically acted on by 
 
 highly heated water, or by Steam under pressure 
 at great depths beneath the surface, and me 
 
 chanically by the pressure itself. Whatevei 
 the cause of the change, the metamorphic nat- 
 ure of many of these rocks is clear, since tl 
 retain their original sedimentary stratification, 
 
 and. in some cases, even traces of fossils. 'II, 
 gra lually pass into rocks in which all signs of a, 
 sedimentary origin vanish. in such " nether- 
 formed" or •Plutonic" rocks we have every 
 grada i in of change, from the granites and gran- 
 itoid rocks, through the metamorphic. to the 
 unaltered sedimentary rocks, on the one hand. 
 and to the undoubtedly volcanic rocks, on the 
 other. (11) The relative age of sedimentary 
 rocks is determined, in the first place, by their 
 superposition, — the lowest in the series, those on 
 which the others rest, being necessarily the 
 oldest; and, secondly, by the fossils they con- 
 tain ; because, (12) We find that each series of 
 rocks contains the remains of certain character- 
 istic forms of life, differing more or less from 
 those that preceded, and from those that suc- 
 ceeded them. (13) We find, as a fact, that the 
 fossils of the later rocks resemble existing forms 
 more nearly than those of the earlier, so that 
 the oldest deposits contain forms most unlike 
 those of to-day. We find, moreover, that when 
 a peculiar type of life has disappeared, it has 
 never again been reproduced. (14) On the other 
 hand, there is a sufficient amount of resemblanci 
 between successive faunas to justify us in assert- 
 ing, that, at no time in geological history, has 
 there been a complete and total extinction of 
 life, succeeded by a new creation, on the earth ; 
 but that the chain of vitality has been contin- 
 uous, — old forms gradually disappearing, and 
 new forms taking their place. (15) As nature 
 is forever destroying parts of the geological 
 record of life that is kept in the rocks. -this 
 record for this, amongst other reasons, is in a 
 most fragmentary condition. Imperfect as it is, 
 few. except the professional palaeontologist, i 
 realize the enormous variety of fossils that have 
 
 already been exhumed, and upon which the above 
 
 generalizations have been based. (16) Where 
 aether-formed rocks have been elevated and 
 subsequently denuded, so as to appear on the 
 
 surface, we can only judge of the age of their 
 
 formation by their association with unaltered 
 sedimentary rocks: and in extensive regions oi 
 highly disturbed and metainorphosecLrocks, th 
 determination of their age becomes one of the 
 most difficult problems of the geologist ; bu 
 even here ciiaracterist ic differences in the min- 
 eral characters of different series may help 
 
340 
 
 GEOLOGY 
 
 in the determination. (17) The oldest known 
 rocks, or those underlying the lowest fossilifer- 
 oua locks, are, generally speaking, so highly 
 metamorphosed that they may be regarded as 
 belonging to the border period of legitimate 
 geological history; and the ingenious specula- 
 tions of physicists and chemists, as to the events 
 that accompanied and preceded the origin of 
 an earlier earth, apply to what is really to us a 
 mythical epoch. (18) The evidence that has 
 been collected in every field of geological in- 
 quiry, conclusively shows that all terrestrial 
 forces act, as judged from a human stand- 
 point, with extreme alovraess, except in occa- 
 sional and local instances: and if such energetic 
 disturbances of ordinary conditions could ever 
 have occurred, more widely spread over the 
 
 whole or even a large part of the earth at once, 
 it is certain that they would have let! us evi- 
 dences, both organic and inorganic, of the fact. 
 The more careful and exhaustive OUT researches 
 have become, the more incompatible with facts 
 
 are such hypothetical universal catastrophes 
 
 shown to be ; — until we are impressed with the 
 conviction, that, under the conditions which 
 have obtained during the - historical " period of 
 the earth, such catastrophes would involve the 
 suspension of the ordinary laws that govern 
 matter; and no case has, so far, been met 
 
 with, apparently suggesting such an interpreta- 
 tion, which on examination cannot be shown to 
 be more readily explicable by the application of 
 known natural laws, acting through prolonged 
 periods of time, ill)) The existence of any one 
 
 series of ecological monuments involves, on anal- 
 
 ysis, the idea of indefinite time, for example, 
 
 let us take the series of strata known as the coal 
 measures. We know by examination that coal 
 is formed from vegetable matter; that, in almost 
 
 every instance, there is satisfactory proof that 
 
 this matter was accumulated by growth on the 
 
 spot where the coal now is found; that coal eon 
 tains by its constitution but a portion of the orig 
 inal vegetation; that it contains that portion in 
 a very compressed ami condensed form, and eon 
 Sequently a Bingle workable coal-seam, a few feet 
 
 in thickness, represents an amount of vegetable 
 
 matter, which, under the most favorable circum- 
 stances conceivable for growth, and without 
 allowing for waste in other ways, must have re- 
 quired certainhj hundreds, probably thousands, 
 of years for its accumulation. In most localities, 
 when- the coal measures occur, we find several, 
 in some cases many, such seams of coal vertically 
 
 overlying one another, and this proves with 
 
 mathematical certainty, that such periods were 
 
 as many times successively repeated. Finally, 
 
 intercalated between these coal beds, are beds of 
 sandstone, clay, limestone, etc.. in the aggregate 
 hundreds or in some cases thousands, of feet in 
 
 thickness, s,, constituted as to show the slow and 
 
 gradual le of their accumulation, thus gh ing 
 
 evidence Of great lapses of time between the 
 existence of the successive eoablliaki lie forests. 
 
 By a process of exact reasoning, we thus arrive 
 at the conclusion, that a vast period of time was. 
 
 altogether, required for the formation of the coal 
 measures alone: and these can be shown, in a 
 similarly logical manner, to constitute a record 
 of only one. and that a subordinate, series of 
 events, in an epoch of the earth's history very re- 
 mote from the present. (20) We must here 
 insist on the importance of the evidence, given in 
 geology, of vast caps of what may be termed un- 
 represented time ; — that is to say. of time during 
 which mi rocks were permanently formed to 
 record events. Yet that such gaps occurred, — 
 
 that they were of enormous duration, can he most 
 emphatically proved. At the conclusion of the 
 palaeozoic age, after the formation of the coal 
 measures, tho areas that had been oscillating for 
 seons between dry and submerged conditions, 
 became, by an extensive upheaval, permanent dry 
 land: the borders of the growing continent, 
 formed of sediments thousands of feet in thick- 
 ness, were elevated far out of the waters; water- 
 sheds, due probably, in the first instance, to un- 
 equal amounts of elevation, were formed, and 
 
 running streams carved out valleys hundreds and 
 
 thousands of feet in depth, and left standing, as 
 
 evidences of their patient industry, mountains 
 
 and mountain ranees sculptured in relief. The 
 
 materials eroded, the chips of the sculptor, were 
 
 swept away, were sorted and resorted, arranged 
 and re-arranged, until at length, during the next 
 -rcat period of submergence, fchej found perma- 
 nent rest as the deposits of the mesozoic age. 
 Resting as they do on tht beds and sides of the 
 valleys, they attest the prior excavation of the 
 latter. Such was the birth-time and such the 
 history of the Appalachian Range; and, in the 
 interval that subsequently occurred between the 
 close of the mesozoic and the commencement of 
 the cainozoic periods, such a history repeated 
 
 elsewhere gave rise to the vast chains of the 
 Rocky Mountains and the Andes:— a third anil 
 Inter pause saw in Europe outlines given to 
 
 the Alps and Pyrenees; and. later still, the 
 
 Himalayas were carved out. the mightiest of 
 existing landmarks of geological progress. We 
 thus see that the history of a continent is divis- 
 ible into periods of extensive submergence, dur- 
 ing which sediments are arranged into rock 
 masses, and periods of upheaval, during which 
 the surface configuration is given to the new 
 
 laud. (21) Additional evidence of the length 
 of geological time is afforded by the chat 
 in life that have taki u place on the globe. Thus, 
 while it can he shown that comparatively slight 
 changes in the mammalian fauna of Europe have 
 
 taken place since the glacial epoch, and that the 
 great vicissitudes in climate, which that epoch 
 (humanly speaking of such immense duration. 
 as to Le measured at least by tens or by hun- 
 dreds of thousands of years) implies, did not 
 produce any radical change of types; yet. in the 
 cainozoic period, we find the whole class of 
 mammals modified from the most generalized to 
 
 tin' most specialized forms. And in the interval 
 between the existence on the elobe of the seas in 
 
 which mesozoic and cainozoic deposits were re- 
 spectively formed, a still more striking revolution 
 
GEOLOGY 
 
 GEOMETRY 
 
 341 
 
 in animal life occurred ; reptiles and amphibi- 
 ans gave way, as predominant forms, to mam- 
 mals and Mills: sii that, if by the test of the 
 amount of biological change, we sought to com- 
 pare tin' length of time that elapsed between the 
 mesozoic and cainozoic ages with that from the 
 commencement of the glacial period to the 
 present day, we should have to turn the tens of 
 thousands of years of the latter into millions in 
 the former. 
 
 In conclusion, the following brief summary of 
 the fundamental conceptions of geology is pre- 
 sented, as constituting the basis for a series of 
 elementary lessons upon the subject: (1) The 
 uniformity of action of natural laws. (2) The 
 universal unrest of matter under the influence 
 of these laws. (3) The exceeding slowness of the 
 great changes that result from this constant un- 
 rest. (4) The indefinite length of geological 
 time. (5) The definite order that has prevailed 
 in the introduction of living forms, ((i) The 
 certain order which prevails in the arrangement 
 of rocks, and thus enables us, as a rule, to de- 
 termine the relative geological age of any partic- 
 ular rock. From these fundamental ideas, we 
 are led to recognize the gradual building up of 
 our continents an 1 the successive epochs of for- 
 mation of our great mountain ranges, in this 
 sketch is presented only the briefest outline of 
 the basis on which geology is founded, space not 
 permitting a consideration of the details of its 
 nthological or stratigrapbical aspects. Neither is 
 it possible to discuss certain geol igical questions 
 of profound educational interest. — such as the 
 antiquity of the human race, the arguments in 
 the support of the former existence of a glacial 
 period, the application of the doctrine of evolu- 
 tion to geology, etc. 
 
 The general omission of geology from the 
 course of instruction in high schools ami colleges 
 is much to be regretted ; since, whether for the 
 purpose of culture or information, it lias many 
 claims to consideration, a few of which are here 
 
 nested: (1) Of all sciences it most thoroughly 
 cultivates a habit of inductive reasoning : (2) It 
 s . completely permeates physical geography, that 
 a knowledge of its elements is essential to the 
 intelligent comprehension of the latter; (3) It is 
 obviously necessary and proper, while children 
 are taught that the earth revolves around the 
 .sun. and other facts of the solar system, thai 
 they should also learn that this earth of to-day 
 has had a long and eventful history, and that 
 the living forms upon it were not created at once 
 a- we tin I them now: ill 'The practical applica- 
 tions of the truths of geology are not only of 
 scientific interest ami importance but of great 
 _ meral utility. 
 
 If it is true that difficulty has arisen in com- 
 municating geological knowledge, it has. probablj . 
 been owing to two causes: 1 1 ) To a hesitation in 
 telling the whole truth, and. (2) to a misconcep- 
 tion, in teaching, as to what really constitutes 
 the essential part of the science. It is customary 
 among teachers to dwell upon the details of 
 strata, fossils, etc.. instead of upon general un- 
 
 derlying principles The inculcation of the lat- 
 ter, at an early age, by reference to surround- 
 ing causes and effects, and in conjunction with 
 
 the earliest lessons in physical l:'( rauhv. would 
 
 lay a sure basis tor the former, to be studied if 
 desirable at a later date. If you wish to give a 
 
 child fundamental ideas regarding valleys and 
 
 mountains, make him see that every rain-storm 
 
 carves out. in miniature, such surface features in 
 
 the sand-heap and the clay-bank: and that it re- 
 quires but a sufficient increase in the number of 
 the rain-storms to increase indefinitely the extent 
 of their action. With a realization of the powers 
 constantly at work producing such changes, the 
 student will advance to an intelligent study of 
 the rocks and of the fossils, as examples of some 
 of the effects thus produced. 
 
 The works on geology, exclusive of special 
 treatises on mineralogy up v.) and pakeontology 
 (q. v.), needed by the general reader, to aid him 
 in interpreting his out-of-door readings, arc not 
 numerous. A few are here suggested : I.vki.i., 
 Principles of Geology, this should be thought- 
 fully perused by every one aspiring to he con- 
 sidered educated, and especially by all engaged 
 in the education of others; J. I'. Dana, Man- 
 ual of Geology, which should be at hand for 
 general information, especially in American ge 
 ology ; Lvi-:u,. Elements of Geology, for especial 
 information on Euro] ican geology. The Manuals 
 of Geology, by Jukes and by Baughton, suggest, 
 various views with regard to the chemical and 
 physical nature of rocks and natural processes. 
 For local geology, and the economic aspects of 
 the science, the Geological Reports of the vari- 
 ous states of the Union, of Canada, and of 
 Great Britain, should be consulted. See also 
 D'Arcuiac, Histoire </» Progres de In Geologie, 
 which treats fully of the general development 
 and progress of the science. for a graphic his- 
 tory of coal and the coal measures 'tis developed 
 in Nova Scotiai. see Dawson, Acadian Geology; 
 on the phenomena of the glacial period, Geikie, 
 The (''re/// In- Age; and on the geological his- 
 tory of the human race, Lyell, Antiquity of 
 Mmi; Lubbock, Prehistoric Man; and Pack. 
 Handbook of Geological Terms. Other ele- 
 mentary works by tiie same author, on geol- 
 ogy and physical geography, will he found of 
 assistance to the teacher. H e hesitate to recom- 
 mend to beginners any of the numerous works 
 which aim at popularizing geology. Most of 
 these either endeavor to throw a sensational 
 east over the subject, or are controversial in their 
 character; and, in either case, are generally 
 more or less unscientific, because inexact and 
 inaccurate. After the student can separate the 
 
 correct from the incorrect, he will, however, find 
 that such works, with till their errors, arc often 
 rich in newly-discovered facts, and in ingenious 
 presentations of those long known. 
 
 GEOMETRY (Gr. yeu/ierpia, from 
 the earth, and fierpelv, to measure), the sciei 
 which treats "t the properties and relations of 
 magnitudes. We get the elements of this scienc 
 as well as the word used to designate it from the 
 
342 
 
 GEOMETRY 
 
 ancient Greeks. Etymologically, the word is 
 lonymous with our term land surveying ; but 
 it does not appear that it ever had simply this 
 signification. As far back as we can trace the 
 history of the subject, there appears to have been 
 a body of theoretical truths and problems des- 
 ignated by this term. Thus, in the time of Plato, 
 the word yeuuerpia does not appear to have had 
 any more specific reference to land measuring, 
 than it has with us : for. when he spoke of < rod 
 (l ' . i as '/< mix'trizing, lie certainly had no refer- 
 ence to land surveying. But it is not the pur- 
 pose of this article to trace the history of geom- 
 etry, nor to give even a resume of its truths 
 and methods. The object is to point out its place 
 and function in a scheme of general education, 
 and to offer certain practical suggestions in re- 
 gard to the methods of teaching it. These will 
 he presented iii connection with the following 
 inquiries and consideration.-. 
 
 1. How should this subject be approached, in 
 /'/i' first instance, by the learner? The proper 
 reply to this is, he should first become acquainted 
 with the leading facts of plane geometry, with- 
 out any attempt at scientific demonstration; 
 notwithstanding the fact that the chief excel- 
 lence of geometry, as a means of mental im- 
 provement, lies in its admirable body ot prae- 
 ! logic. It is. in part, in consequence ot' this 
 very fact that the learner should have an ac- 
 quaintance with the fundamental truths of the 
 science, as facts, before he attempts to reason 
 
 upon them. It must lie remembered that the 
 logical faculty is not the inventive faculty. In gen- 
 eral, its materials mus1 be furnishe I it. Kspeeially 
 is this true with reference to fundamental truths. 
 The history of the development of science affords 
 abundanl proof that these truths are furnished 
 tn the logical faculty rather than by it. Thus, 
 the theorems, Xf one straight line meet another 
 straight line, the sum of the angles formed equals 
 tiro right (ingles; The sum of the angles of a 
 triangle is two right angles; The square de- 
 scribed on tin', /////xi/i'/iusc of 1 1 right-angled tri- 
 , ngle is equivalent to the sum of the squares on the 
 other two sides ; The circumference of a circle is 
 a little more than Hirer times its diameter; and 
 many others, were known to men as facts, an 1 
 
 their practical significance was well understood, 
 
 long before their logical connection with axioms 
 
 and definitions was traced. As it has been with 
 
 the race, so it should be with the individual; 
 the tacts are needed as a basis for logical inquiry. 
 
 We cannot reason about that c jerning which 
 
 we know little or nothing. Indeed, this principle 
 
 has Keen almost universally acknowledged in the 
 
 construction of our text-books on geometry up- 
 on the analytical rather than upon the synthet- 
 ical model. From the time oi Euclid, at least, 
 
 to the present time, the CUStOm has been to stale 
 each truth in formal proposition before attempt- 
 ing tO deil strate it ; hut this is not sullicieiit. 
 
 The mere statement of such a truth does not give 
 
 the ordinary mind a sufficiently clear and lull 
 
 apprehension oi it to interesl the attention or to 
 
 I- the though! Wha1 is nee led by the in- 
 
 dividual student is exactly what was possessed 
 by the race, as antecedent to logical inquiry : he 
 needs to know the fact. and to perceive its practical 
 significance, before he attempts to reason about 
 it. For example, if the tyro has learned by trial 
 that he cannot take three given rods and, by 
 placing their ends together, make triangles of 
 different forms, he is prepared to understand, 
 and reason upon the fact that Mutually equi- 
 lateral triangles <n-<' equal. Again, if he has 
 experimented with two sets of proportional rods, 
 and found that he can combine them only into 
 triangles of the same shape, he is prepared to be 
 intelligently interested in the reasoning which 
 proves that. If two triangles have their homol- 
 ogous sides proportional, they are similar. And 
 so of all the fundamental truths of plane geom- 
 etry. Much of the superficial and merely 
 mechanical, memoriter work which is done by 
 pupils in geometry is caused by their having no 
 adequate conception of the facts about which 
 they are attempting to reason. Once show the 
 pupil by measurement that the circumference of 
 a given circle is a little over three times its diam- 
 eter, and he will be induced to inquire whether 
 it is so in another, and finally if this is true in 
 all circles. Again, let him draw several pairs of 
 chords intersecting in a circle, and by actual 
 measurement find that the segments are recipro- 
 cally proportional, and his curiosity naturally 
 prompts him to inquire why it is so. Finally, a 
 few illustrations of the mechanical value of the 
 truths with which they are becoming familiar will. 
 
 with most pupils, give added /est to their study 
 
 and acquisition. To know that the brace stiffens 
 the frame because the angles of a triangle cannot 
 
 be changed without changing tin sides, while those 
 of a quadrilateral can : to sec how the carpenter 
 
 can square his foundation, calculate the length 
 of his brace or rafter, on the principle that the 
 square on the hypotenuse is equivalent to the 
 Bum of the squares on the two other sides of a 
 right-angled triangle; how inaccessible heights, 
 and the distances between inaccessible objects, 
 
 can be determined by the property of similar 
 
 triangles these, and the like applications of the 
 principles he is about to investigate, give an air 
 of practical reality to the abstract speculations 
 of the science, which will be found exceedingly 
 
 helpful and stimulating to the student. 
 
 II. It should be borne in mind that geometry 
 is >i mechanical us well as a logical scit nee. No 
 more mischievous mistake can be made than to 
 underrate the problems of geometry; nevertheless 
 
 this is not an Uncommon practice With teacher-. 
 While some teachers permit the pupil to omit 
 
 these problems in construction altogether, others 
 
 allow him the almost equally pernicious habit 
 of des ribing the construction without actually 
 performing the work according to the description. 
 Thus, they allow him to tell how an angle is 
 bisected without requiring him actually to bisect 
 
 a given allele: they accept a Clumsy descrip- 
 tion of the process of inscribing a circle jn a 
 triangle, illustrated bj a tree hand caricature of 
 
 the thing itself, instead of requiring a neat and 
 
(JKDMKTHV 
 
 :;i:; 
 
 Accurate construction upon correct geometrical 
 principles. Now, this is geometry with the ac- 
 tual geometry lift out. Nor is it simply that the 
 mere mechanical part (not an inconsiderable or 
 unimportant part) is left out : but any critical 
 examination of sttch pupils will usually show 
 that the logical part is also omitted; in short, that 
 the pupil neither comprehends the nature of the 
 process and the reasons for its several steps, nor 
 IS actually able to execute it. While it is possible 
 for a person to have the mechanical faculty in a 
 high degree, and tolerably well cultivated, and 
 yet. being deficient in the Logical faculty, to fail of 
 being a good geometrician, it is equally possible, 
 and, as the subject is too commonly taught it 
 is quite common, to find those who have fair 
 Logical power-, or who have learned the for- 
 mulas of logic, so destitute of mechanical ability 
 or culture, that they utterly fail to appreciate 
 the real spirit of geometry, even though they 
 may know, and be able to demonstrate, its chief 
 propositions. Nor are. the skill and taste requi- 
 site to effect neat and accurate geometrical con- 
 structions, attainments to be despised in secur- 
 ing an education. Shall we study the science 
 of form, and not cultivate taste, eye, or hand in 
 rence to form? Shall w r e call a person pro- 
 ficient in the science of extension and form, who 
 cannot construct a parallelogram, and whose taste 
 and eye are so completely uneducated, that he 
 cannot discriminate between a right angle and 
 an angle of 85 or 95 degrees, and who cannot, 
 with any degree of precision, construct either? 
 .Moreover, the zest which the construction of neat 
 and accurate figures adds to the study, and the 
 clearness of perception which is thus induced, 
 are most helpful. In the course here recommend- 
 ed, a student will never be called upon to demoli- 
 sh a e a proposition in plane geometry, the figure 
 for which he cannot construct upon geometrical 
 principles; nor, in any well-conducted class, will 
 the pupils pass any proposition, the figures for 
 which they have not so constructed, it is not 
 intended that every figure used for the purpose 
 of demonstration should be thus constructed; 
 but it is urged that th • pupil should be able to 
 construct every figure thus, and that he should 
 frequently be required to do this : and, moreover, 
 it is claim d that there is a positive power to in- 
 vestigate geometrical truth begotten of this 
 method. Who that has ever attained any pro- 
 ficiency in geometrical investigation does not 
 know the value of an accurately constructed 
 figure? This is. generally, the very first step in 
 an original investigation, the construction itself 
 often suggesting the entire line of thought. 
 
 HI. But, passing from preliminaries, suppose 
 the student ready to commence the study of the 
 
 body of geometrical propositions which make 
 
 up the Elements of Geometry, and to Learn how 
 to demonstrate them. What should he find 
 pr 'sented to him ? .Most assuredly, a well clas- 
 sified arrangement of the subject matter is a 
 prime requi.-ite in a branch of study which en- 
 joys the distinction of being the mosl perfect of 
 the s dences. It is. however, a singular fact, that 
 
 UO SUCh classification has been con inly found 
 
 in our text-books. The sole principle of the ar- 
 rangement in Euclid, which has prevailed for so 
 many centuries, is to demonstrate at first such 
 propositions as arc elementary, and hence of 
 essentia] use in subsequent demonstrations. Of 
 course, such an order of sequence as this is a ne- 
 cessity : but is there not that in the nature of 
 
 the subject matter which calls tor a more scien- 
 tific arrangement ? We venture to suggest tin' fol- 
 lowing: (I) The concepts of plane geometrj are 
 the straight line, the circumference of the circle, 
 and the angle; (2) The two fundamental inquiries 
 are concerning magnitude and form, the latter 
 of which results from position. Bearing these 
 statements in mind we shall commence with the 
 
 simplest concept, the straight Line. But shall 
 our first inquiry be concerning magnitude, or 
 concerning form or position? There are two 
 ways of measuring a straight line, (1) the direct 
 way, by applying one. line to another.and (2) the 
 indirect way, as in trigonometry, when, having 
 two sides and an included angle of a triangle 
 given, we determine the third side. etc. Now. 
 in the first, there is little or no science, and the 
 second is not elementary. Hence, we dismiss 
 the question of magnitude, and turn to the ques- 
 tion of position, which gives rise to form. 1 lere 
 we at once find legitimate objects of inquiry, 
 and the relative position of two straight lines 
 will be the first section. The subdivisions will 
 be of perpendiculars, of oblique lines, of paral- 
 lels. As these are all the positions that straight 
 lines can occupy with reference to each other, 
 we have exhausted this line of thought. Pass- 
 ing to the circumference, we dispose of the ques- 
 tion of magnitude in exactly the same manner as 
 we did in the case of the straight line. The direct 
 measurement by the application of an arc in- 
 volves no science ; and the indirect, as when we 
 determine the circumference from the radius, is 
 a remote inquiry. Hence, the question of posi- 
 tion recurs. Comparing the straight line and 
 the circumference as to relative position, we find 
 the elementary properties of chords, secants, and 
 tangents. Comparing two circumferences ;is to 
 relative position, we have external tangency. in- 
 tersection, internal tangency, or one wholly in- 
 terior to the other; and thus we exhaust this 
 line of inquiry. Reaching the angle, we find 
 that the elementary method of measuring an 
 angle (by an arc) is the fundamental object, 
 while the relative position of angles is an unim- 
 portant inquiry. Hence, we treat the measure- 
 ment of an angle by an arc; and have the 
 elementary propositions concerning the angle <it 
 the center, the angle between intersecting chords, 
 the inscribed angle, the angle between two 
 secants, etc. We tints complete the fundamental 
 inquiries relating to the simple concepts, and 
 proceed to treat them as combined in figures. 
 The first inquiry now concerns (he relative mag- 
 nitudes of the sides and angles of a single figure; 
 the second, the comparison of figures. Now. 
 there are three ideas to lie taken as liases .if com- 
 parison; namely, (1) equality, (2) similarity, and 
 
344 
 
 GEOMETRY 
 
 (3) equivalence; out of the last of which grows 
 the idea of area. Having treated these topics, 
 we hare exhausted the subject of elementary plane 
 geometry. No other elementary inquiry ran arise; 
 and no subsequenl inquiries can be carried for- 
 ward except on the basis of these. Thus we 
 have hastily sketched the outlines of a scientific 
 arrangement; but our special purpose is to in- 
 sist, that some logical order of sequence be im- 
 pressed upon the mind of the student, whether 
 it be this, or some better one. 
 
 IV. Hints concerning class-room work. — The 
 order of arrangement in the treatment of a geo- 
 metrical proposition should be early fixed in the 
 student's mind; namely, (1) The general state- 
 ment of the proposition; i-\ The illustration of 
 
 this statement by reference to a particular dia- 
 gram; (H) Any additional construction which 
 maybe necessary to the demonstration : I I) The 
 demonstration proper. The exact language of 
 the text-book should always be used in the state 
 ment of propositions, and in quoting definitions 
 and all fundamental principles, unless such lan- 
 guage is changed by the instructor or student 
 for a particular reason; but the demonstration 
 should not be memorized, although the general 
 order of thought should necessarily be retained, 
 and the spirit and style of the language be pre- 
 served. The diagram should always be con- 
 structed on the blackboard by the pupil, with- 
 out prompting from air. When the con- 
 struction is complete, he should usuajlj stand a1 
 the board, and trace the line of thought by point- 
 ing to the figure, as he proceeds in the demonstra- 
 tion. Some have thought it best to use the Arabic 
 figures to designate points, lines, etc., instead of 
 the capital letters, as ordinarily found in our 
 text-books, the purpose being to prevent mere 
 memorizing; but in reference to this, it is to 
 be saiil that, besides its exceeding inelegance, and 
 the fact, moreover, that the capital letters are a 
 part of the language of the science, the device is 
 of little or no use as a preventive of memorizing. 
 It Is quite as easy for a pupil who is so disposed, 
 to memorize by the mere position or appearance 
 of the parts, with figures to designate them, or 
 
 even without any characters attached, as by means 
 
 of letters. The pupil can make asperfect a par- 
 i mi like recitation, by merely memorizing everj 
 statement as referring to certain parts of the 
 diagram, and by using the barbarous diction, "fine 
 this," "line that," etc., which maybe heard in 
 some class rooms, as he can in any other way. 
 Our counsel is, use the language of the science 
 (the) and depend on something less su- 
 
 perficial, to prevent all improper memorizing. 
 In referring to antecedenl proposil ions constitut- 
 ing the basis of t be argumenl . it is far mure im- 
 portant thai the proposil i in be quoted, than that 
 its number be given ; for the latter is of ii" Borl 
 ot use excepl as a mere class-room convenience, 
 while i In- former method is of essential service in 
 bringing oul the argument, and also in keeping 
 the truths of the science fresh in the mind, and 
 iliar on the tongue. Such methods should 
 ■ - irdinary class-room drill; bul there 
 
 are others which must not be neglected, nor be 
 unfrequent. First among these is the giving 
 of outlines of demonstrations without going 
 through the details, and without reference to B 
 diagram. This is one of the best tests of pro- 
 ficiency which can be applied, and the whole 
 I subject should -be repeatedly reviewed in this 
 way. Again frequent reviews of groups of 
 theorems, without demonstrations, arc essential. 
 Thus, the teacher may call for the propositions 
 concerning equality of triangles, the elementary 
 propositions concerning the measurement of 
 angles, the propositions concerning parallels, etc. 
 When a student is assigned such a topic, he 
 should give all the facts embraced under it (defi- 
 nitions, propositions, corollaries, and scholiums), 
 without being prompted. These three classes of 
 exercises will form the staple of all class-room 
 work. — For a final review, students may be set 
 to tracing certain lines of thought running 
 through the whole subject. Thus, given the sub- 
 ject of equality, he will define it. distinguish it 
 from nearly related notions, such as similarity 
 and equivalence, show that the two latter notions 
 make up the former, classify all the propositions 
 of elementary geometry which relate to i quality. 
 and be able to give them with their demonstra- 
 tions, pointing out any common principle which 
 may seem to run through the demonstrations. 
 In reference to the latter lie will find that 
 equality is always proved b\ the mere applica- 
 tion of one figure to the other, with the modifi- 
 cation, that in case of equality by symmetry the 
 figures are divided into parts, which parts are 
 then applied as before. In like manner, he can 
 be set in study the subject of similarity. Such 
 a study will not be merely a review 01 the sec- 
 tion on equality, or thai <>n similarity, since these 
 
 ideas are the basis of the thought in many pro- 
 positions where they do not constitute the main 
 subject, or purpose. In fact, it will be found that 
 nearly one-half of the propositions of geometry 
 involve one or the other of these notions [equality 
 and similarity) as the basis of thought. Again 
 he may be set to select and study the proposi- 
 tions relating to form, and then those in which 
 magnitude is the object of inquiry; these two 
 ideas dividing between them the whole domain 
 of geometrical truth. — Finally it is of the high- 
 est importance, that, from first to last, the pupil 
 be trained in the practical application of the ab- 
 stract tin! lis as fast as they are learned. No truth 
 is well learned until it can be applied : and it 
 would be quite incredible to one who has no1 
 
 had large observation, how fully one may appear 
 io onderstand a geometrical truth, and vet be 
 totally unable to apply it. The writer has ex- 
 amined in geometry hundreds of Btudents desir- 
 ing to enter college in '-advanced standing," and 
 has made this a matter of careful observation. 
 Forexample, he has usually asked such students. 
 ••How do you find the area of a spherical tri- 
 angle?" General]] the answer has been promptly 
 given," By multiplying the spherical excess by the 
 tri rectangular triangle;" and. quite generally, the 
 
 Candidate has been found able to demonstrate 
 
GEOMETRY 
 
 GEORGETOWN COLLEGE 345 
 
 the proposition. But in no instance has the 
 examiner ever found a student, who had oo1 been 
 trained in the practical application of the state- 
 ment, able to compute the area of a triangle the 
 angles of which are. say L10°, 9 ( . and 87 , on a 
 sphere, the radius of which is 2 feet. In fact, they 
 could toll what a tri-rectangular triangle is. what 
 part of the sphere it is. ami what the spherical 
 excess is; but not one could actually find the 
 number of square inches in the area of the tri- 
 angle. A student may appear to have thoroughly 
 mastered solid geometry, and yet bo totally unable 
 to solve such a problem as, To find how many bar- 
 rels of water a cistern in the form of the frustum 
 of a cone will contain. It is obvious, therefore, 
 that the teacher of geometry should never allow 
 his pupils to omit the practical examples. 
 
 V. Geometrical Invention. — This term is used 
 to designate the power to discover demonstra- 
 tions of propositions or the solution of prob- 
 lems. Many excellent teachers quite overrate the 
 ordinary student's power in this direction. Some 
 have even thought, that, from the first, a ] >upil can 
 be led to discover the demonstrations of all the 
 propositions. New classes may. indeed, make com- 
 mendable progress in geometry, and have put 
 into their hands only the mere statement of prop- 
 ositions ; but it will be found that they do no! 
 originate the demonstrations which they brim'- 
 into the class; they simply look them up in other 
 text-books, and thus learn them. After a pupil 
 has acquired a considerable stock of geometrical 
 knowledge, any real test will show that original 
 demonstrations are but slowly evolved, even of the 
 simplest propositions. Many students have little 
 or no capacity in this direction: and, therefore, t > 
 make it the staple of geometrical teaching would 
 be supreme folly. Some exercise of this kind may, 
 and should, be given from an early stage of the 
 study; and students may be stimulated and helped 
 in the work, so that all the ability for such exer- 
 cise, which really exists in the class, may be brought 
 out; but. after all, there is no reasonable ground 
 to expect that any large amount of such ability 
 can be developed in the majority of students of 
 elementary geometry. Certainly, this is not the 
 purpose for which geometry holds its eminent 
 place in the curriculum of our colleges. It is, 
 that students may learn what a logical argument 
 is and how to frame it. from the study of such 
 arguments, carefully elaborated and expressed by 
 tlie ripest culture. What but the most clumsy 
 work can bo expected from the tyro in framing 
 such arguments, if he has not had much study of 
 the besl models? To put a demonstration in 
 good form, as well as to evolve it. is the ripest 
 fruit of scholarship, not the daily work of begin- 
 ners; the ability to do either is to be acquired, 
 in the first instance, by a protracted and careful 
 study of the work of masters. It is not the pur- 
 pose of these remarks to discourage all attempts 
 to secure original demonstrations, but to guard 
 against a serious error into which enthusiastic 
 and ambitious teachers are in danger of falling: 
 and the conclusion is, that, for the most pail. 
 pupils must be furnished with the demonstrations 
 
 of elementary geometry, either by a text-1 k. 
 
 or by the hints of a competent and judicious 
 teacher ; and that it is best that it should he so. 
 Bui let not this topic of geometrical invention 
 lie confounded with that of practical exercise in 
 applying the truths learned. 'I he latter is, as 
 has been said, essential for all, hut especially im- 
 portant for those who are dull of apprehension. 
 
 VI. Lastly, it is to be remarked that a great 
 change has come about, within the hist century, in 
 reference to the kind of demonstration which is 
 admissible in geometry. Formerly, geometricians 
 were totally averse to admitting any conception 
 of motion or time into a geometrical argument. 
 These were rigidly excluded as foreign to the 
 subject and as defiling its purity. Both are now 
 freely admitted. Again, the infinitesimal meth- 
 od was formerly as rigidly excluded, but is now 
 coming to be admitted. These methods greatly 
 
 ! facilitate geometrical inquiry, and arc now free- 
 ly used by the best writers and teachers. (See 
 Mathematics.) 
 
 GEORGETOWN COLLEGE, at George- 
 
 } town, 1). C, was founded in L789, but was not 
 chartered until 1815. It is a Roman Catholic 
 institution, under the direction of members of 
 the Society of Jesus; and is supported by fees 
 from students. In the classical department, the 
 
 , entire course, including the preparatory clas 
 is of seven years, the last four of which corre- 
 spond generally with the classical course of d 
 American colleges. The institution has a well- 
 equipped astronomical observatory, philosophical 
 and chemical apparatus. an< 1 a cabinet of minei 
 shells, etc. The college library contains 30,000 
 volumes, amongst which there are many rare and 
 curious works. One hundred of these volumes 
 were printed between the years 1460 and 1520; 
 three manuscripts are anterior to the year 1 100, 
 and many others are of aknost as early a date. 
 The society libraries contain about 3,0.00 volumes. 
 The charge for tuition, hoard, lodging, etc.. is S.'!2."> 
 a year ; the regular charge for day scholars is 
 $60 a year. In Washington, there is a medical 
 department, established in 1851, and also a law 
 department, established in 1*^70. In I sTA 6. there 
 were, in the classical department, l'.» instructors 
 and 21.") students, of whom •"> I were of the col- 
 legiate grade ; in the medical department, there 
 were 13 instructors and 80 students; in the law 
 department.-! instructors and .'i'.) students. At the 
 commencement in L876, the degree of A. I!, was 
 conferred on 7 graduates. The presidents of the 
 college with the date of appointment, have been 
 as follows : the Rev. Robert Plunket, 1791-3; 
 the Rev. Robert Molyneux, 1793 6; the Rev. 
 Louis W. Dubourg, 1796 '.' : the Rev. Leonard 
 Neale, L799 1806 ; the Rev. Robin Molyneux, 
 L806-8; the Rev. Win. Matthews, 1808 10; 
 the Rev. Francis Neale, 1810 12; the Re\ 
 
 John Grassi, 1812 17; the Rev. Benedict J. 
 
 Fenwick, L817 L8j the Rev. Anthony Kohltnann. 
 
 1818 20; the Rev. Enoch Fenwick, 1820 22 ; 
 
 the Rev.Benedict .1. Fenwick, 1822-25; the 
 
 Stephen Dubuisson, L825-6 ; the Rev. 
 
 William Feiner, 1826 9; the Rev. John G. 
 
346 GEORCKTOWX COLLEGE 
 
 GEORGIA 
 
 Beschter, March, L829 Sep.,29; the Rev. Thomas 
 Mulledy, L829 37; the Rev. William McSherry, 
 L837 9; the Rev. Joseph A. Lopez, Jan. L840 
 April is Hi: the Rev. James Ryder, L840-45; the 
 Rev. Samuel Mulledy, Jan., 1845-Aug., 45 ; the 
 Rev. Thomas Mulledy, L845 8; the Rev. .lames 
 Ryder, L848 51; the Rev. Charles B. Stonestreet, 
 L851 2; the Rev. Bernard A. Maguire, L852 B; 
 the Rev. John Early, 1858-66; the Rev.Bernard 
 A. Manure, 1S(W;-T0: tin- Rev. John Early, L870 
 T.'i: the Rev. P. F. Healy, appointed in L873 
 and still ( 1 876) in office. 
 
 GEORGETOWN COLLEGE, at George- 
 town, Scott Co., Ky.. chartered in L829, is under 
 tli • control of the Baptists. It is supported by 
 tuition tees and the income of an endowment of 
 nearly $75,000. The veal estate of the college is 
 valued at about $75,000. The library contains 
 between 5,000 and 6,000 volumes. The institution 
 
 has good philosophical and chemical apparatus, a 
 cabinet 01 minerals, fossils, and shells, and a mu- 
 ii of curiosities. It comprises an academic 
 or preparatory course and a collegiate course. The 
 curriculum is distributed into the follow ing depart- 
 ments of study: (1) English; (2) Latin; (3) 
 Greek; (4) Modern languages: 5) Mathematics; 
 (6) Physical Sciences ; (7) History and Political 
 Economy; (8) Mental and Moral Philosophy. Any 
 student who completes the course in any one de- 
 partment receives i he title of Prqficientin that 
 department, other degrees are Bachelor of 
 Sciences for the full English course: Bachelor of 
 Arts, if Latin and Greet be aide): Master of 
 Arts for the complete course. The Western Bap- 
 tist Theological Institute is connected with the 
 college. The cost of tuition in the collegiate course 
 is $50 per year, and in the academic course $ pi. 
 Candidates for the ministry receive instruction 
 free, and nee ly students who intend to teach are 
 
 given credit for tuition until they are able to pay. 
 
 In 1 876, t here were 8 instructors and I 07 students 
 
 (84 collegiate and '_'.'! preparatory). The presi- 
 dents of the college, with date of appointment, 
 have been as follows: Wm. Staughton, D. D., 
 L829; Joel S. Bacon, D. !>., L830; B. F. Farns- 
 worth, L836; Rockwood Giddings, D. I».. L838; 
 Howard Malcom, l>. I>., L840; J. L Reynolds, 
 D. I>.. L850; Duncan R. Campbell, 1>. 1»..' L852 ; 
 V M. Crawford. I >. D., 1865; B. Manly, dr.. 
 
 1>. !>., \-~i\ (the present incumbent, L876). 
 
 GEORGIA, one of the thirteen original states 
 
 of the American union, was first settled at 
 Savannah, by colonists from England, under 
 Gen. Ji is Oglethorpe, in L733. Its present 
 
 -area is 58,000 sip m. : and its population, accord- 
 in- to the census of L870, was 1,184,109, included 
 
 in wlii.l, u.iv 545,142 colored persons. Ill In- 
 dians, and 1 Chinaman. According to its entire 
 population, it ranked as the L2th among the 
 states : and. as to colored population, as the 1st. 
 tta gain in population, during the ten years 
 preceding, was I 2 per cent. 
 
 / lucationnl History. The original const it u 
 tiou of thi, -tate. adopted in L777, contained a 
 provision requiring scl Is to be "erected in each 
 
 county, and SUpporte 1 at the general expense of 
 
 the state" : but this was omitted in the revision 
 of 1789, educational affairs being left to the 
 regulation of the general assembly. In ITsiJ. the 
 assembly donated 1,000 acres of land to each 
 county for the support of free schools: and. in 
 IT- I. 40,000 acres were given for the endow- 
 ment of a state university, which was chartered 
 in IT^e. In L792,an act was passed appropriat- 
 ing 1 .0011 acres for the endowment of an academy 
 in each county of the state. In L 81 7, the sum 
 of $250,000 was appropriated for the support of 
 schools for the poor. According to the census 
 
 of 1860, there were in the state 32 colleges and 
 
 high schools, with 3,302 students; and 1T">2 
 public schools, containing 56,087 pupils, the total 
 income for the support of which was $449,966. 
 
 Georgia was quite celebrated for tin 1 number and 
 
 excellence of her female seminaries. There was. 
 however, no regularly organized system of com- 
 mon schools, supported by public taxation, and 
 Open to all classes: although efforts were made 
 in L 845, and again in L856, to establish such a 
 system. In L849, a law existed giving $20,000, 
 to be divided among the several counties of the 
 
 state to support schools for poor children : hut 
 
 such was the general apathy in regard to educa- 
 tion, that '■'•'! counties failed to make any return 
 so as to obtain their portion of the endowment. 
 In 1850, there were 213,903 native white adults 
 in the state, of whom 'JO per cent were unable to 
 lead and write. In I860, the number of illiterates 
 
 had been reduced to 18 per cent. The state 
 
 constitution of L868 provided for the establish- 
 ment of "a thorough system of general education, 
 to be foreverfree to all children of the state." and 
 created the office of state school commissioner, to 
 be appointed by the governor, with the consent 
 
 of the senate, and to hold his otlicc for the same 
 
 term as the governor. An act establishing such 
 
 a system of public instruction was passed Oct 
 IT, 1870, under which many schools were put in 
 operation, under the supervision of the first 
 school commissioner, J. It. Lewis. His report, 
 made in 1871, showed that there were enrolled 
 in the Bchools 42,914 white pupils, and 6,664 
 
 colored, making a total of 49,578. Very great 
 mismanagement and imprudence, however, char- 
 acterized the operations of those who had the 
 
 direction of the school system during thai year: 
 the school fund was diverted from its legitimate 
 object, a large debl was contracted, and many 
 
 defects were found to c\i>t in the scl llaw. 
 
 From these causes, the schools were closed dur- 
 ing the year I . S T'_'. In that year. < iusta\ us .1 . ( >rr 
 
 was appointed scl 1 commissioner; and under 
 
 his ach ice, a new law was passed (Jan. 1 '.'.. 1 s ~-). 
 
 in pursuance of which the system as it exists at 
 
 present was organized. The year L873 opened 
 
 with brighter pros] fcs. The school funds which 
 
 had been accumulating from the regular bout 
 had been faithfully kept : and the law providing 
 for the payment of the debt of 1871 had yielded 
 si 7 l.ooo. which sum was apportioned among the 
 counties, ami faithfully disbursed. The regular 
 
 school fond had accumulated to the amount ot 
 
 $250,000, which also was properly apportioned. 
 
GEORGIA 
 
 3 1 7 
 
 Under these circumstances, the schools thai year 
 made considerable progress. The annual reporl 
 of Commissioner Orr, for 1873, showed thai 
 there were in attendance .-it the schools 83,677 
 pupils, of whom 63,922 were white children, and 
 19,755 were colored. During the nexl year, the 
 attendance increased to L35.541, whites, 93,170, 
 
 colored, T_\.'i71. The amount of school funds 
 
 apportioned in L874, was $265,000. The report 
 for the year 1875 showed a still further increase, 
 the aggregate attendance being L.56,349, — whites, 
 105,990 ; colored, 50,359. During L874, five 
 
 school laws were enacted; hut no important 
 
 change was made in the system, except the re- 
 quirement that the enumeration of the school 
 population should he ma le every four years in- 
 stead of every year, as formerly. 
 
 School System. — The common-school system 
 of Georgia is under the direction of the following 
 officers: ( 1 ) A state school commissioner appointed 
 by the governor, with the consent of the senate. 
 for four years, who is charged with the adminis- 
 tration of the school laws and the general super- 
 vision of all the public schools of the state, as 
 well as the apportionment of the, school revenue; 
 (L'i A state board of education, comprising the 
 governor, secretary of state, attorney-general, 
 comptroller-general, and school commissioner. 
 This is an advisory body, with whom the school 
 commissioner has the right to consult in regard 
 to any of his official duties ; and appeals may be 
 made to it from his decisions touching- the proper 
 construction or administration of the school laws: 
 ;.;, ( 'ounty ha irds iff >■ location, each consisting 
 of five freehol lers, elected for four years by the 
 grand jury, whose duties are to form school dis- 
 tricts, establish schools, purchase grounds, build 
 school-houses, prescribe text-books (all of which 
 must be unsectarian), grant licenses to teachers, 
 on the recommendation of the county school 
 commissioners, ami have a general supervision of 
 all the schools in their respective counties; also to 
 determine local controversies referred to them by 
 appeal, subject to a still further appeal to the 
 State commissioner ; (4) County school com- 
 missioners, elected by the county boards of educa- 
 tion, who examine applicants for licenses to 
 teach, and revoke licenses for immorality, incom- 
 petency, or cruelty to pupils, subject, however. 
 to an appeal to the county boards of education. 
 The county school commissioner is also required 
 to visit each school in his county at least twice a 
 year, to make an annual census of the children 
 of school age (between 6 and 18), to apportion 
 the school fund of the county ai long the sub-dis- 
 tricts in proportion to the number of such children 
 in each, to make such reports to the state com- 
 missioner as he may require, and to act generally 
 as the medium of communication between the 
 state commissioner and the subordinate school 
 officers. 
 
 The county boards of education may establish 
 
 ning schools for youths over L 2 years of age, 
 
 who are unable to attend the day schools; and. 
 
 under the direction of the state hoard, they may 
 
 also establish ■ taming manualldbor schools. 
 
 No county is entitled to a participation in the 
 state school fund unless its board of education 
 
 has provided, by taxati >r otherwise, for keep- 
 ing primary schools in operation at least three 
 months hi the year, or two months in the ca.se of 
 ambulatory schools, which may lie organized in 
 
 sparsely inhabited districts. Separate schools are 
 prescribed for colored children, but these schools 
 
 must afford equal advantages with those for 
 
 whites. The law prohibits the exclusion of the 
 
 Bible from the public schools, but does not per- 
 mit any books of a sectarian character to be 
 used. Public school sites and buildings, ami the 
 furniture of the latter, are exempt from taxation 
 and from sale on execution. 
 
 The school revenue a1 present consists of the 
 proceeds of the poll tax and of special taxes on 
 shows and exhibitions, and on the sale of spiritu- 
 ous and malt liquors, endowments, devises, gifts, 
 and bequests made to the state for educational 
 purposes, all educational funds and revenues due 
 the state university, and one half of the rental 
 of the Western and Atlantic railroad. From 
 these resources there were received during the 
 year ending June30., L875 : poll tax, $3,729.83; 
 tax on shows and exhibitions, $2,069.50; and half 
 rental of W. and A. railroad. SI .30,000; making 
 a total of $155,799.33. This fund is apportioned 
 among the several counties in proportion to the 
 number of children front to L8 years of age. and 
 of confederate soldiers under 30 years of age res- 
 ident in each. In four counties. — Bibb, Chatham, 
 Glynn, and Richmond, and in three cities, — At- 
 lanta, Columbia, and Griffin, the school systems 
 are organized under local laws. 
 
 Educational Condition. — According to the re- 
 port of the state commissioner for 187"), there wen ■ 
 belonging to the general common-school system 
 3,6(59 schools, of which 2,790 were for white and 
 879 for colored pupils, all the counties in the 
 state having common schools, except Early. 
 Besides these, there were, in the counties and 
 cities under special systems, 128 elementary 
 schools and 9 high schools. 58 of the former be- 
 ing graded and 70 ungraded schools. There were 
 also" reported 820 private elementary schools. 
 The studies pursued in the COmi schools are 
 
 reading, orthography, writing, arithmetic, geog- 
 raphy, and English grammar. 
 
 The following are the principal items of the 
 common-school statistics for ls7.>: 
 
 Number of pupils admitted, Whites. ..114,648 
 
 Colored. . 55,^08 
 
 Total. .169,916 
 
 Average daily attendance 106,700 
 
 No. of children of school age, Whites. .218,733 
 
 •■ Colored. 175 ,304 
 
 Total.. :wt,037 
 For the private elementary schools the follow- 
 ing statistics were given in the report for the 
 same year : 
 
 Number of Schools 820 
 
 "Teachers 903 
 
 ■• Pupils taught, Whites 21,275 
 
 " Colored 4,170 
 
 Total. .!!.'., I.. 1 
 
 Average moat lily cost of tuition $1.88. 
 
:j;s 
 
 GEORGIA 
 
 The whole amount of money received and ex- 
 pended for the support of public schools, in L875, 
 was $435,319. Of this, $291,319 was supplied 
 by the state: and $144,000, raised by local tax- 
 ation. The amount apportioned to the several 
 counties was $151,304. The Peabody Fund 
 contributed $6,900 to the support of schools in 
 Georgia, during the year. 
 
 Normal Instruciion.^'So provision has been 
 made in this state for the special training of 
 teachers. In his annual report for 1875, State 
 < lommissioner I Mr said. ■•The want of well-quali- 
 fied teachers for our white schools has been much 
 felt. The want of the white schools in this 
 respect, however, is small in comparison with 
 that of the colored schools. It has been impracti- 
 cable to put colored schools in operation at all. in 
 some places, in consequence of the lack of com- 
 petent instructors." I le, therefore, recommended 
 
 that an •annual appropriation of SI I), HOI) lie 
 made for establishing two normal schools for 
 whites, one to be located in the northern, and 
 
 thi' other in the southern portion of the state; 
 and that the law making an appropriation of 
 $8,000 to the Atlanta I 'niversity he repealed, and 
 that, in lieu thereof, $10,000 he annually appro- 
 priated for establishing a normal school for colored 
 
 pupils." Bowdon College has a normal class: 
 ami the Atlanta University (q. v.), a higher and 
 a lower normal department, the former embrac- 
 ing a four years' course, and the latter a shorter 
 one for primary school teachers. And. besides 
 these, there is the Haven Normal School, at 
 Waynesboro, which, in L874, had L62 students. 
 The s'ate appropriation to the Atlanta I rniversity 
 is designed to encourage the training of colored 
 
 teachers in that institut ion. 
 
 Secondary Tnstructi<m.- The special systems 
 above referred to comprise !t high schools, —'J in 
 Bibb County, 2 in Chatham County. '_' in At- 
 lanta, 1 in Columbus, and 2 in the city of 
 Griffin. Macon also has 2 high schools: and 
 Savannah, 8 high-school classes. Besides these, 
 
 there were reported HU private high schools. 
 having 171 instructors, and .">..'!7'.l students, of 
 whom 3,087 were males, ami 2,292 females. The 
 
 studies pursued in these schools included the 
 usual English, classical, mathematical, and scien- 
 tific branches; and the average monthly cost of 
 
 tuition was $3.13 per pupil, ranging from $5 to 
 
 $1.15. There are also several business colleges. 
 Superior Instruction. The rniversity of 
 Georgia (q. v.), at Athens, is the principal in- 
 stitution of this grade in the state. Others are 
 contained in the following table, according to 
 
 the annual report of the state, imissioner for 
 
 L875: 
 
 NAME 
 
 1 ition 
 
 denomii 
 
 University ,>i i . ■ - . . > -_r i ; i .... 
 
 Atlanta i rniversity 
 
 Mercer Qnh ersity 
 
 N.GeorgiaAgr.<S Mech.Col. 
 Emory < lollecre 
 
 Athens 
 
 Atlanta 
 
 Macon 
 
 Dahlon 
 
 Oxford 
 
 Jefferson 
 
 M.i.-, ,ii 
 
 ect. 
 Nun Beet. 
 Baptisl 
 Non-sect. 
 M. B. South 
 
 Martin Institute 
 
 Pin Nono i lollege 
 
 R. C. 
 
 Besides these, there are several institutions for 
 the higher education of women, that claim the 
 rank of colleges, having preparatory and collegiate 
 courses of study. According to the report oi the 
 C S. Commissioner for L874, there were in 
 these institutions 102 instructors and 1,408 stu- 
 dents. The following list contains those included 
 in the report of the state commissioner for L875: 
 
 NAME 
 
 Location 
 
 Rj ligious 
 d< n mination 
 
 Cherokee Baptist Fein. Col. 
 ( iiiivits Fern. Col 
 
 I 'altim Fein. Ciil 
 
 Rome 
 
 ( 'imvers 
 
 Dalton 
 
 Perry 
 
 La Grange 
 
 Talbotton 
 
 Rome 
 
 La Grange 
 
 Covington 
 
 Macon 
 
 West Point 
 
 Thomasville 
 
 Baptist 
 
 Meth. Epis. 
 
 Baptist 
 
 M. E., South 
 
 Methodist 
 
 Presb. 
 
 Houston I'Vm. Oil 
 
 Le Vert Fein. Col 
 
 Rome Fern. Col 
 
 Southern Masonic Fem.< !ol. 
 West Point Fein. ( 'ol 
 
 X 1 1 1 1 - - 
 Non-sect. 
 M. E., South 
 Union 
 
 The State College of Agriculture and the 
 Mechanic Arts, endowed with the congressional 
 land grant of 270,000 acres, is a department of 
 the l niversity of Georgia. The North Georgia 
 Agricultural and Mechanical College became 
 likewise a branch of the University in L872. 
 Atlanta I 'niversity dp v. I was organized,in 1867, 
 by the Freedmens Bureau and the American 
 Missionary Association, and is largely supported 
 by the latter body. It is designed especially for 
 the education of colored youth. In pursuance 
 
 of an act of the legislature, there is an annual 
 state appropriation of $8,000 for its support. 
 Objections have been urged against this institu- 
 tion on the ground that such a "movement in 
 favor of university education for the colored 
 people is far iii advance of the demands of the 
 present condition of colored society': and that 
 
 the money thus expended should be exclusively 
 devoted to instructing and training teachers 
 
 specially for the work of elementary schools. 
 
 ( Commissioner Orr's Report for L875.) 
 Special and Professional Instruction. — The 
 
 institutions for special instruction are the< reorgia 
 
 Institution for the Education of the Deaf and 
 Dumb, at Cave Spring, and the Georgia Academy 
 for the Blind, al Macon. The former, in L874, 
 had 5 teachers and 51 pupils, of whom 25 were 
 
 females: the latter had 7 instructors and 51 
 pupils— 30 females: its receipts, which were al- 
 most wholly from state appropriations, amounted 
 
 to $15,115.37. There is a law school connected 
 
 with the I niversity of Georgia, in which the 
 
 course is f<>r one year, mcluding the whole 
 twelve months. The Medical College of Georgia, 
 located at Augusta, constitutes the medical de- 
 partment of the University of Georgia; the 
 
 value of its grounds, buildings, and apparatus is 
 estimated at $60,000, ami its lilnaiy contains 
 
 5,000 volumes. Besides this, there are the 
 At Ian ia Medical I lollege, founded in 1854, which, 
 in 1st I. had a cups of II instructors, and 11" 
 students ; and the Savannah Medical Colli 
 founded in 1838. which, in I874,had I '_' instruct- 
 ors, ami a graduating class of L6 Btudents. 
 
GEORGIA, UNIVERSITY OF 
 
 GERMAN-AMERICAN SCHOOLS :M!> 
 
 GEORGIA, University of, ;it Athens. 
 Georgia, was chartered in L785, receiving 40,000 
 acres i>t' wild land, granted in I 78 1 l>y the legis- 
 lature, for the endowment of a college, or semi- 
 nary of learning. It did not go into operation 
 for some years, [n 1801, the first building was 
 nvrted. and, in I so I . the first class graduated. 
 The institution was suspended, from September 
 L863 to January L866, in consequence of the 
 civil war. The funds of the university, in 1 .S7(i, 
 amounted to 8373,170; the value of its build- 
 ings and apparatus at Athens was $183,000. 
 The campus contains 37 acres, and there is an ex- 
 perimental farm of L6 acres. The college and 
 society libraries contain about 20,000 volumes. 
 The medical department has a library of about 
 5,000 volumes. The university com) irises an 
 academic department (known as Franklin Col- 
 lege), the Georgia State College of Agriculture 
 and the Mechanic Arts, a law department 
 (established in 1860), a medical department (the 
 Medical College of Georgia, at Augusta, estab- 
 lished in L830), and the North Georgia Agri- 
 cultural College (at Dahlonega). The State 
 College and the North Georgia College were 
 established in L872, with the proceeds of the 
 congressional land grant to Georgia. The 
 Medical College became a department of the 
 university in L873. The following schools are 
 embraced in the academic department: (1) Latin 
 language and literature; (2) Greek language 
 and literature: (3) modern languages; (4) belles- 
 lettres, including rhetoric, criticism, and esthet- 
 ics ; (5) metaphysics and ethics ; (6) mathe- 
 matics ; (7) natural philosophy and astronomy; 
 (8) chemistry, geology, and mineralogy; (9) his- 
 tory and political science ; (10) English liter- 
 ature. These separate schools are so arranged 
 as to be combined into several departments, 
 which thus offer systematic courses of educa- 
 tion of different types of culture. Three degrees 
 are conferred in this department : Bachelor of 
 Philosophy, Bachelor of Arts, and Bachelor 
 of Science. The State College has three de- 
 partments : agriculture, engineering, and applied 
 chemistry. Four degrees are conferred : Master 
 of Agriculture, Bachelor of Agriculture, Bachelor 
 of Engineering, and Bachelor of Science. There 
 are rive university degrees ; namely, Master of 
 Arts (requiring certificates of proficiency in 
 all the academic schools except the last). Civil 
 Engineer, Civil and Mining Engineer, Bachelor 
 of Law, and Doctor of Medicine. The cost of 
 tuition in the academic department is $75 a 
 year; in the State College, $40. Fifty young 
 men of limited means, residents of Georgia, arc 
 admitted to the academic department free of 
 tuition, in return for which they are expected to 
 teach school in the state for a term of years equal 
 to the time they have enjoyed the advantages of 
 the university. Needy students intending to en- 
 ter the ministry also receive tuition free. In the 
 State College, state scholarships, exempting from 
 tuition fees, are granted to as many students, 
 residents of the state, as there arc members of 
 the House of Representatives and senators in 
 
 Number of 
 
 Nil ml), r oJ 
 
 instructors. 
 
 students. 
 
 12 
 
 mi 
 
 8 
 
 93 
 
 4 
 
 i; 
 
 5 
 
 245 
 
 12 
 
 m 
 
 the General Assembly. The North Georgia 
 Agricultural College occupies the former United 
 States mint, donated by Congress. It admits 
 
 both sexes, and has a collegiate and an inferior 
 
 department. Many of its students have become 
 teachers. Tuition is tree. --In Ist.'i (i. the num- 
 ber of instructors and students in the different 
 departments of the university was as follows: 
 
 Departments. 
 
 Academic 
 
 St;iii> College 
 
 Law 
 
 North Georgia College 
 
 Medical 
 
 Total (deducting repefitions) 33 672 
 
 At the commencement in L875, 72 degrees 
 were conferred. The whole number of alumni 
 of the university, at that date, was 1 ,388 (of 
 whom 980 were hving), including 1,153 bachelors 
 of arts, 141 of law, -1 1 doctors of medicine, and 
 53 recipients of other degrees. The heads of the 
 university bore the title of president till L860; 
 but since that time they have been styled chan- 
 cellor. Their names are as follows: Josiah Meigs, 
 LL.I)., 1801-11 ; the Rev. John Brown, D. D., 
 1811-16; the Lev. Robert Finley, 1».1>.. L816 
 17; the Rev. Moses Waddell, D. D., 1819-29 ; 
 the Rev. Alonzo Church, D.D., 1829-59; the 
 Rev. Andrew A. Lipscomb, D. D., LL. I)., 1860- 
 74; and the Rev. Henry H. Tucker, D. !>.. 
 appointed in 1874 and still in office (1876). 
 
 GERANDO, Joseph Marie de. Baron, bom 
 in Lyons, Feb. 21)., 1772, died in Paris. Nov. 11.. 
 1842. Educated originally for the priesthood, 
 he changed his purpose, and entered the army. 
 with which he visited Germany, Switzerland. 
 and Italy. While in garrison at Colmar, the 
 Institute proposed the question, "What is the 
 influence of signs on the formation of ideas?" 
 Be Gerando's dissertation on this subject took 
 the prize, and caused his invitation by Lucien 
 Bonaparte to Paris, where he entered the ministry 
 of the interior. After filling various civil and 
 military positions in France, Tuscany, and the 
 Pa .pal States, and lecturing in Paris before tin- 
 faculty of law, he was. in 1837, raised to the 
 peerage. His principal educational and philo- 
 sophical works are : — Des signes et de Vari <l< 
 penser, considered dans leurs rapports mutuels 
 (1800); De la generation des Uonnaissances 
 Humaines (1802), Histoire Compared des Sys- 
 ti'iucs <lc Philosophic rclntircmciit int.c Principes 
 des Gonnaissances Humaines (1803); Cours Nor- 
 malcies Fnstituteurs Primaires (1832); Educa- 
 tion ilcs Sourds-Muets <l<' Naissance (1827); Du 
 Perfectionnemeni Moral ft de VEducation de 
 Soi-m&me (1824). This last is the work by which 
 he is most favorably known. An Rngliflh trans- 
 lation of it [Self- Pj I He it ion) was published in 
 Boston, in I *."{(>. See Morel, Essai sarin vie 
 de •/. M. Baron de Gerando (1846) ; North 
 Anicriciii prricir for April, 1861. 
 
 GERMAN - AMERICAN SCHOOLS, a 
 large class of schools in the Cnited States, in 
 which a part or most of the instruction is given 
 
350 
 
 GERMAN COLLEGE 
 
 GERMAN LANGUAGE 
 
 in the German language. They consist of several 
 (I) The earliest and still the most 
 numerous among these schools are the denomina- 
 tional schools, connected with the German 
 churches. These schools are chiefly supported 
 from the wish to establish the greatest harmony 
 between school, church, andfamiry, and to induce 
 the children of German church members to con 
 nect themselves with the congregations to which 
 their parents belong. The gi it st zeal for the 
 thlishment of den iriational German-Amer- 
 ican sch ioIs bas been shown by the German 
 Catholics and the German Lutherans. The 
 schools of the former were, in 1869, attended by 
 about 157,000 children. The Lutherans have 
 about 3,000 German congregations, the majority 
 of which support German- American schools, 
 number of private schools, in most 
 cases consist i ui;- of only one or two classes, are 
 patronized by parents, mostly Germans, bul to 
 some extent also by others, who regard the ability 
 to speak German as ;i valuable acquisition from 
 a business point of view. (3) Since 1848, a 
 number of German- American schoolsof a higher 
 grade have been founded, partly by societies. 
 Tlusc arc designed not only to teach their pupils 
 to speak German fluently, bul to transplant to 
 American soil the developing method oi instruc- 
 tion, which prevails in Germany, and to realize 
 the ideal of a German real school. With a num- 
 berof these schools, kindergartens are connected. 
 Schoolsof this kind have been founded in Mil- 
 waukee (1853), New York (1854), Brooklyn, 
 Hoboken, Detroit, Baltimore, Philadelphia, St. 
 
 Louis, ami sonic other places. 
 
 GERMAN COLLEGE, at Mount Pleasant, 
 Iowa, under the control of the Methodist Epis- 
 copal Church, was incorporated in 1873. It is 
 designed to be the theological institution of tin' 
 German Methodists in the west, North-west, and 
 South-west. It is intimately connected with the 
 Iowa Wesleyan University, though independent 
 in finances ami control. Ail German students 
 become members of German College ; and all nut 
 German, of the I Ihiversity. The students of the 
 liege are admitted free to all the classes of the 
 dversity, in which most of the collegiate instruc- 
 tion is givem The college has an endowment of 
 $25,000. It includes a preparatory ami a theolog- 
 ical department. Instruction is given in music, 
 ami facilities are afforded for Americans to 
 learn German. In L875 -6, there were •'* in- 
 structors ami 50 students. The Rev. II. Lahr- 
 maiiii is (1876) the acting president. 
 
 GERMAN LANGUAGE. The German 
 inks, \\ [tli the English ami French, 
 in value ami importance, above all the other lan- 
 if i be civilized world. It is \ ery ezten 
 
 udied in the literary institutions of every 
 '■i\ ilized country, ami as a department of school 
 andcollegi instruction, continues to assume, from 
 year to year, greater prominence. The height to 
 which German literature ami science have at- 
 tained in every department, and the great ami 
 rapi I pi : man scholarship, are univer- 
 
 . recognized. Thomas de Quincej in hie I 
 
 ters to a Young Mai, thus refers to the compre- 
 hensiveness ami extent of German literature: 
 •'Dr. Johnson was accustomed to say of the 
 French literature, that he valued it chiefly for this 
 reason, that it had a hook upon every subject. 
 How far this might be a reasonable opinion fifty 
 years ago, ami understood, as Dr. Johnson must 
 have meant it. of the French literature as com- 
 pare t with the F.nglish of the same period, I will 
 
 not preto nd to say. It has certainly ceased to 
 he true, even under these restrictions, ami i- in 
 flagrant opposition to the truth, if extended to 
 the French in its relation to the German. Un- 
 doubtedly, the French literature holds out to the 
 student some peculiar advantages, hut all these 
 are advantages of the French only in relation to 
 the English, and not to the German literature, 
 which, tie- \asi compass, variety, ami extent, far 
 
 exceeds all other.- as a depository for the current 
 accumulation o.' knowledge. The mere numl i r 
 of books published annually in Germany, com- 
 pared with the annual product of France and 
 England, is alone a satisfactory evidence of this 
 assertion." The authors of the great educational 
 
 ideas and reforms which, during the last two 
 hundred years, have led to the creation of the 
 modern systems of education, were nearly all 
 Germans; and. at the proem time, German liter- 
 ature, in every branch of educational science and 
 art, is so much more copious ami instructive than 
 any other literature of the world, that the supe- 
 rior advantages of German over other foreign 
 languages for every one connected with educa- 
 tional labors are. at the present time, hardly 
 disputed. The progress of comparative linguistics 
 has shown that a knowledge of the German 
 grammar ami of its history otters greater advan- 
 tages for the complete understanding I if the struc- 
 ture and laws of the cognate English language 
 than the study of any other language, ancient or 
 modern. The influence which considerations like 
 these have had upon the admission of German 
 into the course oi instruction of many English 
 institutions from which it was formerly excluded, 
 has been more recently strengthened by the 
 restoration of a powerful German empire, and 
 the steadily rising influence of this new empire 
 
 in the commercial affairs of the world. In the 
 United States, the presence of a numerous Cer- 
 
 man-speaking population, numbering, according 
 
 to the smallest estimate, no less than live millions. 
 
 has caused German to be looked upon by laa 
 classes of the population as an acquisition of 
 great practical value. In the United State.-. 
 therefore, German is now studied to a much 
 larger extent than French. In some of the small- 
 er countries, near or adjacent to Germany, and 
 inhabited by kindred races, as Sweden, Norway. 
 Denmark, and Holland, the study "i German 
 begins early. and receives so much attention, that 
 the educated classes "t these countries are gener- 
 ally able to speak the language with fluency. In 
 France, thestudy of < lerman has greatly increased 
 during the present century, ami has generally 
 been favoredby the men who have dune most 
 
 t.ir the educational progress of the country. CoU- 
 
GERMAN' LANGUAGE 
 
 85 1 
 
 sin, Jules Simon, and Waddington, were among 
 its warmest meads. For so much of the study 
 of German as it lias in common with French and 
 other modern languages, we refer to the article 
 Modern Languages, as we present under this 
 head, exclusively, what is to be said of German 
 ami its value as a branch of instruction. 
 
 The language of modern Germany is oneof a 
 cluster of languages which, collectively , are called 
 the Germanic or Teutonic languages. Thevem- 
 brace, of living languages, the modern German, 
 the Swedish. Danish. Icelandic. English, Dutch and 
 Flemish, and the Friesic; and. of the languages 
 now extinct, the Gothic and Anglo-Saxon; and 
 they constitute one of the branches of the Cndo- 
 Germanic or Indo-European group. Long before 
 Germany had a literature, the divergence of the 
 original Teutonic tongue into Low German and 
 High German had begun. The language of 
 modern Germany is the only one that sprung 
 from the latter: all the others were the offspring 
 of the former. The following table will fully 
 illustrate the relation of the Teutonic languages 
 to each other : 
 
 Germanic or Teutonic languages 
 
 Low German 
 
 High German 
 
 Scandinavian — Low German — Gut.uc 
 I 
 I 
 
 Icelandic — Swedish — Danish | Old Friesic — Saxon 
 Modern Friesic 
 
 . I , „ ^ , Old High German 
 
 Anglo-Saxon — Middle Dutch — Old Saxon 
 
 „ I I I Middle HighGerman 
 
 English Dutch-Flemish Plattdeutsch 
 
 Modern German. 
 
 The most educated among the German tribes 
 were the Goths. They showed themselves recep- 
 tive of Greek and Roman art and science ; and, in 
 the third century, adopted the ( 'hristian religion. 
 They had. at that time, a number of heroic sono-s 
 and sententious poems, but no written alphabet. 
 In the tth century, bishop Dlfilas translated the 
 Latin Bible into the Gothic language, adjusting 
 with great skill the Greek alphabet to the sounds 
 of the Gothic words, and supplementing it with 
 Latin and Runic characters. The Gothic Bible 
 was the beginning of an interesting Gothic liter- 
 ature, consisting of theological, historical, and 
 geographical writings. Unfortunately, the larger 
 portion of this literature, in which all' the nations 
 of the English, German, Dutch, and Scandinavian 
 tongues are equally interested, has perished. All 
 that is extant, embracing considerable portions 
 'ot the New Testament, some portions of the old 
 Testament, and a fragment of a paraphrased Gos- 
 pel harmony, are given in the edition of Olfilasby 
 Gabelentzand Lobe (2 vols., 1843 -1846), as also 
 in those of Stamm (1858) and Bernhardt (1875 ; 
 litions contain a grammar and a diction- 
 ary; a Gothic glossary has also hem published by 
 Schulze (1848). Though few, the fragments of the 
 Gothic language and literature suffice to give us a 
 
 clear idea of their many excellencies. The language 
 appears endowed with the luxuriant abundance 
 oi a primitive language, having a fullness of roots 
 and a considerable but well regulated variety of 
 inflections, derivations, and compositions. The 
 short, original vowelsa, /.and u still predominate, 
 and the other vowel and. consonantal sounds 
 
 have mostly been preserved in unalloyed puri 
 Special case-endings distinguish the nominative, 
 accusative, and vocative; there are differenl forms 
 
 for dual and plural, and inflections for the pass- 
 ive. Like all the other Germanic languages, the 
 Gothic has only two simple tensesTthe present 
 and the preterit, but, as a kind of compensation, 
 a wonderful, euphonious and well regulated sys- 
 tem of vowel modifications, which not only con- 
 trols the strong conjugation, but pervades all the 
 inflections and derivations. It already has. like 
 the other Germanic languages, the weak inflec- 
 tion in nouns, adjectives, and verbs, which, in 
 the High German, has been extended to larg i 
 classes of words. A pliant readiness to receive 
 foreign words, a weakness common to all Ger- 
 manic languages, appeal's also in the Gothic, 
 which admitted a number of words from the 
 languages of the Huns, Slaves, Greeks, and Ro- 
 mans, with whom they became acquainted during 
 their migrations. Simultaneously with the Goths, 
 others of the principal German tribes invaded the 
 provinces of the decaying Roman empire, which 
 finally succumbed to them; and on its ruins they 
 established a number of new kingdoms in the 
 south-western part of P^urope. They, in turn, 
 found it necessary to recognize the superiority of 
 Roman education; and as, after their conversion 
 to < hristianity.the Latin became the language of 
 the churches and schools, their own native tongues 
 gradually gave way to the Latin, not, however, 
 without leaving conspicuous marks in the new 
 Romanic languages (q. v.), which were gradually 
 developed in all these countries. The Anglo- 
 Saxons alone among all the tribes which, at that 
 time, set out from their native land for foreign 
 conquests.preserved their language. Outside of tin's 
 newly conquered territory, the further develop- 
 ment of the German language was chiefly con- 
 fined to the countries which, at the time when 
 the migration of nations began, were inhabited 
 by Germanic races. The languages of all these 
 countries gradually developed into literary lan- 
 guages; and all of them are of interest to the 
 English student, not only because they furnish 
 the key to valuable literatures, but especially be- 
 cause they illustrate the growth of the English 
 as a cognate language, and thus lead to a more 
 comprehensive knowledge of it. By far the most 
 important of them is the German. In Germany 
 proper, the Low German and the High German 
 
 co-existed side by side, but as a literary language 
 
 the HighGerman soon secured an ascendency 
 
 which was generally recognized. In the develop- 
 ment of this language, three great periods are 
 
 distinguished: (1) of the Old High German, ex- 
 tending to the l Ith century, in which the inflec- 
 tional rullnessof the language, in comparison with 
 the Indo < ;, rinanic languages of antiquity, and 
 
352 
 
 GERMAN LANGUAGE 
 
 even with the Gothic, visibly declined; the voca- 
 tive case, the dual number, and the inflected pas- 
 sive voice disappeared; and the variety of vowel 
 sounds increased ; (2) of the Middle High Ger- 
 man, extending to the beginning of the Kith cent- 
 ury, in which the decline of the inflections con- 
 tinued, the full vowel-endings were generally 
 weakened into e, and the auxiliary verbs, the 
 article, and the umlaut (modification of the 
 
 vowel) were introduced: (3) of the New High 
 
 German, in which the predominance of the vowel 
 e in the final syllables was completed, and the 
 quantity of words accordingly changed. The 
 translation of the Bible by Luther introduced 
 
 this period, and established the exclusive use of 
 
 the High German as the literary language of all 
 Germany. Opitz (about L 630), several linguistic 
 
 societies, and < rottsched labout 1 I'M)) contributed 
 
 much to the further development of the language, 
 
 which, in the writings of Leasing and Goethe, 
 fully attained its present form. 
 
 By the side of I figh German as a literary lan- 
 guage, the bow German i Plattdeutsch) has main- 
 tained itself as the language of a considerable 
 portion of the people even to the presentday. 
 It is not altogether without a literature; and, 
 in the L6th century, even translations of the 
 
 Bible into Low German were deemed necessary, 
 in order to give to the entire population access 
 in the Sacred Scriptures. The last edition of 
 the Low German Bible appeared in L622, show- 
 ing that thereafter the entire German nation 
 were sufficiently acquainted with the High Ger- 
 man to regard it as the only literary medium of 
 the country. In modern times, a literary culti- 
 vation of the bow German has Keen attempted, 
 chiefly in poems and novels, in order to reflect, 
 by using the people's own language, in the most 
 natural and impressive way. the sentiments of 
 
 the Low German people. — The Germans have.no 
 national academy of science, such as exists in 
 France, possessing supreme authority in deciding 
 questions relating to their language. There is. 
 therefore, in < lerman,as in English, a considerable 
 difference in the mode of writing a large number 
 
 nt' words and classes of words; and the authority 
 of standard grammarians and lexicographers is 
 
 appealed to in doubtful questions. As,moreover, 
 
 the desire f or a thorough revision of the entire 
 
 German orthography has lone been expressed on 
 many sides, the Prussian government, in Jan., 
 L876, assembled a conference of L5 prominent 
 German philologists to propose general rules, 
 
 which are to be introduced, by order of the 
 
 government, into the schools. 
 
 The foundation of German philology was laid, 
 
 BOOH after the wars against Napoleon, by Beiieeke. 
 
 the brothers Grimm, and Liehmann. Benecke 
 
 established the philological knowledge of the 
 
 Middle High German; though his chief work, the 
 
 [fittelhochdeutsche Wbrterbuch (3 \o|s.. Leips., 
 
 L847 L864). was only a sketch which was 
 
 subsequently filled up by W. Midler, jointly 
 
 with Xarneke. The brothers Jakob and Wil- 
 
 hehn Grimm comprehended within the scope 
 of their researches the whole of German philol- 
 
 ogv. Tn accordance with the principles of com- 
 parative linguistics, which at the same time were 
 applied by Bopptothe Indo-Germanic languag 
 in general. -lakob Grimm gave, in his German 
 grammar [Deutsche GrammatUc, I vols., 1810 — 
 I 837 i a history of the changes of < Jet-man words 
 and of the simple sentence, through every period. 
 in all the Germanic languages. The history of 
 the German language [Geschichte der deutschen 
 Sprache, '1 vols.. 1848) supplements the above 
 work, and shows the relationship existing be- 
 tween the different Germanic languages. The 
 German dictionary by the two brothers Grimm 
 h utsches W&rterbuch) was begun in L852; it has 
 been continued by Heyne, Hildebrand, and Wei- 
 gand, but will not be finished until about 1890. 
 It is, in point of scholarship, unsurpassed by 
 any other work in the entire literature of dic- 
 tionaries. Lachmann applied the principles of 
 philological criticism, as they were in use in clas- 
 sical philology, to the study of German, restored 
 the pure text of the master works of the Mid- 
 dle High German, and shed entirely new light 
 on the history of German prosody. On the 
 foundation laid by l'lcnecke. the Grimms, and 
 Lachmann, numerous hands have reared the 
 edifice of German philology, which is now the 
 
 admiration of the literary world, and has served 
 as a model for similar labors in every other 
 literature, particularly in the English. (See En- 
 gish, Study ok.) We can mention only a few 
 
 of the immense number of valuable works relat- 
 ing to the German language which German 
 scholarship has produced. A dictionary of the 
 Old High German has been written by Graff 
 [Althochdeutscher Sprachschatz, 6 vols.. ls.'54 — 
 L842); a dictionary of the Middle High German, 
 besides by Benecke, Midler, and Zarneke. who 
 have already been mentioned, by Ziemann 
 i Mittelhochdeutsches Worterbuch, L837); diction- 
 aries of New High German (the present German 
 language)) besides by the Grimms, by San- 
 ders! W&rterbuch der deutschen Sprache,2vd\s.. 
 I860- L865, besides several smaller works), and 
 by Weigand (Deutsches W&rterbuch, •'{ vols.. 
 L857 — L865) ; grammars, besides by the 
 Grimms, by K- W. L. Heyse {Aus/uhrliches 
 Lehrbuch der deutschen Sprache, - vols., 1838 — 
 L849); Rumpelt, Deutsche Grammatik, I860); 
 Heyne (Kurze Grammatik der altgermanischen 
 Sprachstamme); Becker (Ausfiihrliche deutsche 
 Grammatik, 3 parts, 1836—1839). The latter, 
 \ iew mg language as an organism regulated accor- 
 ding to strictly logical laws, attempted to lay a 
 new foundation for grammatical science, and 
 found a number of followers, but also a very de- 
 termined Opposition to some of his ideas by the 
 
 historical school. Periodicals devoted to < lerman 
 philology, are Haupt's Zeitschrift fur deutsclies 
 
 AUerthum (established in 1841, continued by 
 
 M iillenhoff and Steinmyer); Pfeiffer's G< rmania 
 
 established in 1856, continued by Bartsch); and 
 
 the Zeitschrift fur Philologie by Hopfnerand 
 
 /aches (established in 1*70). Grammars of the 
 old High German and the Middle High Ger- 
 man for the use of schools, embodying the 
 
GERMAN LANGUAGE 
 
 353 
 
 results of the philological researches, have 
 
 been written by Ilalm [AUhochdeutsche Gram- 
 matik, 4th edit., 1875; and Mittelhochdeutsche 
 Grammatik, 'M edit.. 1875). A bibliography of 
 German grammars, from the earliest times to 
 1836, is given in Hoffmann's (von Fallersleben) 
 Die deutsche PhUologieim Grundrisse (1836). 
 Outlines of the history of the entire German 
 literature, have been written by Koberstein 
 
 undriss der deutschen IfationaRiteratur, 
 L827); Vilmar [Vbrlesungen 'vber die Geschichte 
 der deutschen NationaUiteratur, 1847); Wacker- 
 nagel, i Geschichte der deutschen Literatur, 185] ), 
 The history of German Literature by Kurz. 
 
 ichichte der deutschen Literatur, 4 vols.. 
 L851 — L872) gives well-selected specimens from 
 all the prominent German writers. 
 
 The German language is the mother-tongue 
 of about 92 per cent of the population of the 
 German empire (in L871, 37, 800,000), the re- 
 maining B per cent being Slaves. Danes, and 
 French. In Switzerland, 1 I out of 22 cantons 
 
 exclusively German ; in the large canton of 
 Bern, they are in a great majority (83 per cent); 
 and of the entire population of Switzerland, 
 about 69 per cent speak < ierman as their mother- 
 tongue. In Austria proper, German is the ruling 
 Language, although it is the m ol 
 
 only 35 per cent of the population. In tl 
 of the Hungarian crown, German is spoken by 
 about 11 percent. Russia has a German-speak- 
 ing population of about 700,000; in the three 
 Baltic provinces, the entire aristocracy are Ger- 
 mans; and the ( ierman 1 tnguage, although spoken 
 by only a small minority of the population, also 
 prevails in the churches and schools, as well as 
 in the literature. The two small German states 
 of Luxemburg and Lichtenstein also speak Ger- 
 nian. England still owns the German speaking 
 island of Heligoland. In the United States of 
 America, a population, estimated at from 5 to 6 
 millions, to a great extent consisting of actual 
 emigrants during the present century and of 
 their children, and the remainder the descen- 
 dants of emigrants of the 18th century, speak 
 (ierman as the family language, either equally 
 with. or in preference to, English; but the use of 
 German as the mother-tongue is steadily reced- 
 ing before the advance of the English. The en- 
 tire population of the world speaking German 
 a- tlii> mother-tongue may be estimated at about 
 li" millions, the (iennan being, in respect to the 
 number of those who speak it, only inferior, 
 among the languages of civilized nations, to the 
 English. 
 
 The method of studying German, in English 
 and American universities, colleges, seminaries, 
 and academies is about the same as that pursued 
 in the study of French. The statements made 
 in the articles French Language and Modern 
 Languages are. more or Less, applicable to the 
 German, in regard to the place which ii occu- 
 pies in the course of instruction, and to the 
 mistakes which in this respect, are very fre- 
 quently committed. The most important feature 
 which broadly distinguishes the German lan- 
 23 
 
 guage from the French, and which an intelligent 
 
 teacher will always keep in view from the mi- 
 
 firal Lesson he gives, is the close resemblance '" 
 tween German and English words, especially 
 those used in common life. English philologists 
 have calculated that the English Language, as 
 
 commonly spoken and written, consists, to the 
 
 extenl of five-eighths, of Anglo-Saxon words, 
 
 and that among these are found nearly all the 
 terms of common life. Many of these words 
 are spelled exactly alike; large classes of other 
 words show so slight a modification, that the 
 pupils recognize them at once (as Voter, Mutter, 
 jBruder, Buck, Haws), and still others present 
 changes made according to certain laws which 
 are easily understood, even at the earliest sti 
 of instruction, and by the most youthful be 
 ginner (as zehn, ten; Zinn, tin; Tag, day: 
 ./. say). By a skillful use of this exten- 
 sive resemblance of the two Languages, the in- 
 telligent teacher has it in his power to give to 
 the beginner, in a few lessons, the command of 
 a very large number of words. The strange 
 letters which seem to surround the first lessons 
 in German with considerable difficulty, are quite 
 easily learned by the aid of words which 
 are substantially the same in German as in En- 
 Whole German sentences can. in thi 
 be at once understood; and when trans- 
 lation forms a prominent object of the study, 
 the pupil should begin to translate from German 
 into English, as soon as he knows the letters. 
 For exercise in the declensions and conji 
 tions, the selection of cognate words for the 
 paradigms likewise facilitates the progress of the 
 pupils. In this part of the grammar, (iennan 
 at once seems to the beginner to be more com- 
 plicated than English, and presents to him the 
 greatest difficulties he has to surmount ; among 
 which may be enumerated the following: 
 (1) The noun in German has four cases, and 
 the plural is formed in four different ways 
 as far as its termination is concerned, besides 
 modifying the radical vowel: (2) Adjectives 
 anil adjective pronouns are declined in three 
 different ways; (A) The past participle generally 
 adds the prefix ge, and, in compound verbs, this 
 prefix, in many cases, is placed between the verb 
 and the particle with which it is compounded. 
 or the particle is detached and placed at the 
 close of even along sentence. In constructing 
 exercises for the study of these differences, it 
 will again be found a help to choose for the par- 
 adigms words similar to English words, or such 
 as are common to both languages, so that the 
 attention of the pupil may be concentrated upon 
 the Learning of tJae inflectional peculiarities. It 
 
 is. however, not only the resemblance of (iennan 
 and English words, but also other points of 
 similarity, in the etymology of the two languages, 
 that Should be made use of. Thus the possessive 
 ease of English nouns may be made to illustrate 
 not only the (iennan genitive, but the entire de 
 clension, of which the English possessive is a 
 remnant. A reference to the plural forms men, 
 women, feet, geese, mice, will explain the modi- 
 
n;,i 
 
 GERMAN LANGUAGE 
 
 fication of a large number of German nouns in 
 the plural; as will also such foi is as children, 
 brethren and pence. The fad thai the division of 
 verbs into Strang and weak is the same in both 
 languages, thai the formation of the principal 
 ■Dart* of both i similar (see, saw, seen — seh-en, 
 sah, ge-sehen ; love, loved, loved lieb-en, liebte, 
 and that even, as a general rule the 
 
 oe verbs belong, in b tli languages, to 1 1 1 1 - one 
 or to the other conjugation, is easily compre- 
 hended even by beginners, and greatly assists 
 them to understand the structure of the 
 language. 
 
 The comparison of the German language with 
 tlic English should not be limited to the points 
 just mentioned; but all the peculiar features of 
 German should be noticed. In the study of any 
 foreign language, a clear understanding of the 
 most conspicuous characteristics helps to fix in the 
 mind a clear conception of the language. Among 
 the features of the German grammar to which 
 special attention should be called, when they are 
 nut with tor the first time, are the following : 
 (1) The gender of nouns is arbitrary, and many 
 nouns that are neuter in Bnglish are either mas- 
 culine or f iminine in < terman : (2) < me or more 
 long qualifying adjuncts may intervene between 
 the article and its noun; i.'!) The order of se- 
 quence of auxiliary verbs is entirely reversed in 
 subjunctive propositions; (I) Prepositions and 
 verbs govern three different cases of the noun ; 
 The object precedes the verb more frequ snt- 
 
 ly than in English. 
 
 The correct pronunciation of German, as of 
 every foreign tongue, must be learned by imitat- 
 ing the teacher. Tin's is especially the ease with 
 tin' sounds that have no equivalent in En glish , 
 as 8, /'.'•//. the guttural q, short o, r, and the com- 
 binations of sp and st Their number is compara- 
 tively small : and. if they are steadily practiced, it 
 will require only a short time to learn to enunciate 
 them correctly. After a rudimentary knowledge 
 of the language has been attained, special atten- 
 tion should begiven to the laws according to which 
 derivatives and compounds are formed. The < rer- 
 man has greater freedom in forming compounds 
 thanalmosl any of the other modern languages; 
 
 and. as this is liberallv used by many writers, no 
 
 dictionary is so complete as to contain all the com- 
 pounds to be met with in modern < Jen nan writers. 
 As the radical and component parts of i hese words 
 however, easily recognized, and, as hut feu 
 
 of the words in nn iii use are of foreign ori- 
 
 8 v for students of I > < - 1 1 1 1 ; 1 1 i to under- 
 stand all such derivatives and compounds. Tin's 
 
 is still easier, when, as is the case with most 
 compound verbs, each of the component parts 
 has an equivalent in English; as abhalten, to 
 poff; ausgehen, to go out. etc. [f we con- 
 sider that, for a conversation on everyday Sub- 
 jects, a knowledge of Bome 600 or 700 words is 
 generally found to be sufficient, the close resem- 
 blance of roots, derivatives, and compounds, in 
 German and English, will be seen to afford ad- 
 vantages for proficiency in German conversation 
 of which no teacher can tail to make use. I 'rogress 
 
 in reading the language will also be greatly pro- 
 moted, if the teacher, besides calling attention to 
 the large number of common roots, derivatives. 
 and compounds, traces words which appear to 
 the beginner as entirely strange, to English 
 words of the same loot. Thus, if students learn 
 that j{ /" /• is etymologically related to yon, Knabe 
 to knave, schon to shii<<-. Blume to bloom, Hvnd 
 to hound, though they translate them by that, 
 boy, beautiful, flower, dog, they will remember 
 their meaning more easily, and, by means of 
 
 every new word of this class, get a clearer view 
 of the near kinship between the two languages. 
 It is sate to say, that the importance of an ety- 
 mological comparison of German ami English is 
 not yet sufficiently appreciated by teachers "t 
 German, and that greater attention should bi 
 paid to it in German classes of all grades. 
 
 The rich and charming juvenile literature of 
 Germany affords an abundance of suitable read- 
 me; lessons, as soon as the pupil has sufficiently 
 
 advanced in the knowledge of words and gram- 
 matical forms, to take up a First German 
 Reader. Anecdotes, fables, tales, and pieces of 
 didactic poetry present the smallest difficulties 
 to beginners. The readers published by Com- 
 fort, Worman, Schlegel, Ileum and others, con- 
 tain a large number of selections adapted to tho 
 wants of beginners. The attentive teacher will, 
 however, find it necessary to select, especially 
 during the fiist months, exercises with short sen- 
 tences only : since the length of the sentences in 
 many, even of the juvenile writers of Germany, 
 presents difficulties which. at an early stage of the 
 instruction, should be avoided. 'I here are scarce- 
 ly any German books which, like Telemaque 
 and Charles XII in French, can be put into the 
 hands of beginners; bwt Ft rxt Readers, containing 
 selections from a number of writers, are for this 
 
 purpose in general use. Advanced students should 
 either use a fuller German reader, prepared 
 
 for advanced classes, or take up the work of one 
 of the classic writers. In the latter case. Schil- 
 ler and Goethe are. for good reasons, invariably 
 preferred. Annotated editions of some of the 
 plays Of both these poetS have been specially 
 
 prepared for the use of American and English 
 
 schools. Special dictionaries for one or more 
 
 plays are nol only superfluous ; but, when a stu- 
 dent has access to a general dictionary, the use 
 
 of the latter is much to be preferred. When 
 
 students are able to read authors like Schiller 
 and Goethe, the teacher may properly use the 
 
 leading lessons not only to improve the student's 
 
 knowledge of the language, but also as an intro- 
 duction to the history of German literature. 
 The German readers for advanced classes might 
 advantageously be so arranged as to afford to 
 the teacher an opportunity to acquaint the pu- 
 pils with the foremost writers in the different 
 departments of German literature. In this n 
 sped there is room for meat improvement in 
 
 the readers now published. 
 
 In the United States, G< rman is not only gen- 
 erally taught in universities, colleges, seminaries, 
 
 and academies, but more recently the study I 
 
GERMAN LANGUAGE 
 
 
 been introduced to a great extent into the pub- 
 lic schools, in some extending to the lowest 
 primary class. This is due to the fact thai a 
 large pari of the population consists of Germans 
 who are generally desirous that their children 
 should be taught the German as well as the 
 RngHsh language, besides to the desire of 
 man] school boards, to draw this class of chil- 
 dren, as largely as possible, from private into 
 public schools. This practice has been gradu- 
 ally extended until, in L876, a majority of the 
 large cities of the Union, among them New 
 Vnrk, Rochester, Jersey City, Pittsburgh, Cin- 
 cinnati, Cleveland, Chicago, Milwaukee. St. 
 Louis, Louisville, and a uumber of smaller ones, 
 had made provision for it. In thai year, the 
 mayor of Brooklyn, in his message to the city 
 council. strongb recommended the introduction 
 of German ;us a branch of instruction in the 
 public schools of that city. The greatest variety 
 thus far exists in the courses of instruction that 
 have been adopted for this study. In sonic 
 places, especially in the smaller towns where the 
 
 German-speaking people constitute a majority of 
 
 the entire population, it has been made a part of 
 the regular course, in which all children must 
 take part. Inmost places.it is optional with the 
 children to pursue this study or not. In some 
 cities (Cleveland, Cincinnati. St. Louis, and 
 others), the school boards have arranged different 
 courses for children who come to the public 
 school with a speaking knowledge of the German 
 language, and for those who have not this knowl- 
 edge. The instruction of the former begins in 
 the lowest class of the primary department, the 
 time in the primary classes being equally divided 
 between the two languages. Very many Amer- 
 ican educators advocate the study of < Serman by 
 Anglo- American children of the common schools, 
 on the ground that the elements of English 
 grammar will in this way be learned more easily 
 and more thoroughly. That, from practical 
 considerations, many parents desire an opportu- 
 nity for their children to learn this language, 
 seems to be proved by the large proportion of 
 children who pursue the study, even when it is 
 entirely optional The testimony of some of 
 the superintendents of schools in which this in- 
 struction has beeu given for years is quite em- 
 phatic in its favor. Thus, in his Annual Report, 
 for L874, the city superintendent of New York 
 said: " No other consideration than its useful- 
 ness as a branch of American education should 
 have, in my judgment, any weight in continuing 
 or extending German instruction; and, within 
 tins limit, I believe sufficient reasons exist, not 
 only to justify, but to recommend it strongly as 
 a part of our course. In the schools in which it 
 has received the most earnest attention, and in 
 
 which, consequently, the besl progress has been 
 made, no indication has been presented that this 
 branch of study ill retarded the progress 
 
 of the pupils in their English studies, hut that 
 it has rather facilitated intelligent advancement 
 in English grammar and composition, increasing 
 the pupils* fluency of expression by giving them 
 
 a more precise kn >wledge of the meaning of thi 
 words (it then-,,, language, and aiding, in an 
 important manner, in weir mental training and 
 development." A coii "t the board of edu- 
 
 cation of the city of New York, in Dec, 1^71 
 remarked, in their report of that daw- : "The 
 more effective this department of instruction is 
 
 made, the more successful will OUT System be ill 
 this respect, and the more nearly shall we ap- 
 proach to that desirable consummation oi bring 
 ing under the influence of our common schools 
 the children of all classes of our people, as will 
 as of every nationality and creed. The impor- 
 tance of this consideration will he obvious in 
 view of the fact that at Least L1,000 German 
 
 pupils are in daily attendance at the ( 'atholic I'a 
 
 rochial, Lutheran. and German private schools." 
 The superintendent of the public schools in 
 Cleveland, in a special report, dated Feb. 22., 
 1875, said : -The study of German was intro- 
 duced into (lie grammar and primary s< hools of 
 Cleveland in the. spring of L870, since which 
 time the number of pupils pursuing the study 
 has increased from 600 to 5,000. Nor has this 
 rapid increase in the study of German had any 
 effect to ' retard the general course of study.' or. 
 in other words, the progress of the pupils in 
 reading, writing, arithmetic, geography, and the 
 other English branches, as they arc sometimes 
 called." And he further remarked, that " the 
 chances for promotion" were found to be equal 
 among the pupils pursuing exclusively English 
 studies and those who studied German as well, 
 and added, •• If now we take into account the 
 fact that the latter goes from the school pos- 
 sessed of a good knowledge of a language that 
 opens to him the literature and scientific re2- 
 ords of a great people, who can doubt but thi; 
 the advantage lies on the side of the study of 
 German?" In St. Louis, the study of the 
 German language was introduced in 1864, on 
 the report oi' a committee of the board of edu- 
 cation, who recommended its introduction on the 
 following grounds: (I) "That by such intro- 
 duction a homogeneousness of feeling would be 
 created between the native and foreign born;'' 
 
 (2) " That the study of < 'erinan would naturally 
 assist the study of the English language;" 
 
 (3) -That the knowledge of the German lan- 
 guage pecuniarily benefits those who speak it.' 
 
 During the ten years preceding the last report 
 of the schools of that city (1874- 5), the num- 
 ber of pupils pursuing the study of German had 
 increased from bid to 1.7,197, of whom 5,670 
 were Anglo-Americans. This was 7.'! per cent 
 
 of all the pupils attending the public schools. 
 
 In regard to this, the superintendent of schools, 
 in his report tor L873 1. stated, "A perfect 
 mingling of the different classes of population 
 
 in OUT schools has In en the result, and the 
 fact that one-third of the entire number who 
 have taken up the study of German are Anglo- 
 American children [i. e., children of Irish or na- 
 tive American parents), shows how completely 
 this feeling of caste has been broken down. The 
 
 population has. in fact, 
 
 homogeiu B 
 
356 GERMAN WALLACE COLLEGE 
 
 GERMANY 
 
 during ili ■ pasl eighl years by means of the in- 
 troduction of German into our public schools." 
 
 On the other band, the admission of German 
 into the public schools has been opposed on the 
 ground that the public school should exclusively 
 teach the national language, and that the exclusion 
 of all others will tend t<> promote the consolidation 
 of all the people of the United States into one 
 compact American nationality. In some of the 
 large cities, the difference of opinion on this sub- 
 ject, on the part of school officers, has led to 
 vehement and protracted di.-cu-sions, as well as 
 to considerable vacillation in the school legisla- 
 tion regarding it. In some of the western stafc s, 
 as i )hio and Indiana, the state law provides that, 
 when in a school district a certain number of 
 parents desire the introduction of German into 
 the course of study, it must he introduced. A 
 considerable portion of the German-speaking 
 population still prefer to send their children to 
 
 tools in which the German language is eh 
 the exclusive medium of instruction, or shi 
 this position with the English. (See German- 
 American Schools.) 
 
 GERMAN WALLACE COLLEGE, at 
 Berea, Ohio, under the control of the Metho 
 Episcopal Chinch, was founded in L863. The 
 pro'. iv all n ins, i ducated at 
 
 i si ruction is given 
 in German, 't is patronized by many Americans 
 for instruction in German. By agreement, the 
 students have free access to all the classes of 
 Baldwin University. The college is supported 
 by tuition fees and partly by the interest of an 
 endowment fund of $38,982. 'The scholarship 
 funds amount to $19,455. The tuition fees vary 
 from $13.50 to $27 per year, [t has a pre] 
 a lory and a collegiate department, with a cla 
 sical and a scientific course, a theological course, 
 and special courses in English for Germans, and 
 in German for Americans. In L875 6, there 
 
 were 1 professors and 117 Students (103 males 
 
 and 1 I females), of whom 17 were in the pre- 
 paratory department. The Rev. William Nast, 
 D. D., has been the president from the opening 
 of the college. 
 
 GERMANY. Anterior to 843 A. D., Ger- 
 many was a part of the great Prankish empire 
 
 of Charlemagne and his immediate successor; 
 but in that year, by virtue of the treaty of 
 Verdun, it was separated from the remain- 
 der of the greal Prankish dominions, and was 
 given to Jjudwig (Louis), surnamed the German, 
 a grandson of Charlemagne. Until L806, Ger- 
 many was an elective monarchy with the official 
 title of the "I Inly IJomaii Empire of the < rerman 
 Nation" [das Heilige Romi&che Reich deuischer 
 Nation). The French subjugation of the greater 
 pan of Germany put an end to the first Ger- 
 man empire After the dethronement of Napo- 
 leon 1 1 81 5), the < longress of Vienna re established 
 Germany a- a loose conglomeration of sovereign 
 states [Deutscher Buna), under the permanent 
 
 presidency of Austria in the federal diet. This 
 
 feeble urn if the German states was dissolved 
 
 by the war, in I866,between Prussia and Austria 
 
 and their allies, which ended with the complete 
 discomfiture of Austria and her withdrawal from 
 the Germanic confederation. Prussia then united 
 all the states north of the .Main river into a 
 close political union, the North German Union, 
 and formed treaties of alliance with the three 
 state- of southern Germany, by virtue of which 
 the kin-- of Prussia had supreme command of 
 the united armies of all Germany in case of war. 
 lie,-i. lis the permanent presidency in tin- federal 
 councils of the North German Union. The 
 successful war against France, in L870 — 71. led 
 
 to the formation of the present German empire. 
 The south German states joined the North 
 German Union, and the King of Prussia, as per- 
 manent and hereditary president of the whole 
 ( rerman confederation in all federal affairs and as 
 supreme commander in cbi< E of all the state con- 
 tingents in time of war. at the request of all 
 the German princes and free towns, assumed the 
 title of German Emperor. The official name of 
 the confederation is the German Empire. The 
 several states composing the confederation retain 
 their autonomy in all internal civil affairs not 
 regulated by federal legislation. Federal affair- 
 are: Army and navy, foreign diplomacy and 
 political representation, the tarif, the postal 
 ice, the mint, weights and measures, and the 
 supreme commercial court (at Leipsic). Rail- 
 Is, telegraphs, legal proceedings, and edu- 
 cational interests, it i< contemplated, will also 
 brought under the federal government, the 
 measure being now under consideration (1876 . 
 Bavaria, however, has retained certain prei 
 tives in regard to her army, her postal service, 
 and her internal taxation. The federal parliament 
 Consists of two houses,- the upper house: the 
 
 ral council [Bundesrath), consisting of the 
 federal commissioners appointed by the several 
 state governments : and the lower house ( Reichu- 
 tag), consisting of Ms:; members, elected by the 
 
 direct Suffrage of the people. In the federal 
 
 council Prussia caste 17 votes, Bavaria f>. Saxony 
 1, Wurtemberg -I. Baden 3, Hesse 3, Mecklen- 
 burg-Schwerin 2. Brunswick 2, and each of the 
 
 lesser states! vote: 58, in ;dl. The chancellor 
 
 of the empire is the chief executive and re- 
 sponsible officer of the confederation. The em- 
 peror is required to convene the parliament at 
 least once every year. The German empire 
 comprises '-'<; states; namely, 1 kingdoms, 
 Prussia, Bavaria, Saxony, and Wurtemberg; 
 C> grand duchies. Baden, Oldenburg, Mecklen- 
 burg -Schwerin, Mecklenburg- Strehtz, I [esse- 
 Darmstadt, and Saxe-Weimar; 5 duchies, 
 Brunswick, Anhalt, Saxe-Altenburg, Saxe-Co- 
 burg-t lotha, ami Saxe-Meinineen-Hildbuighau- 
 scn: 7 principalities. Lippe, Schaumburg-Lippe, 
 Waldeck, 2 Schwarzburgs, and 2 Reusses; 3 free 
 towns, Hamburg, Bremen, and Lubeck ; and 
 
 I federal district,- Alsace Lorraine. The empire 
 has an aggregate area of 208,745 square miles, 
 and a population of 12,757,812, according to the 
 census of Dec. l ., L875. 
 
 Educational History. — Germany, which for 
 several ecu, rations has held a very high, if i 
 
GERMA w 
 
 357 
 
 the leading, rank among all the civilized nations 
 of the world in regard to public education ha 
 risen to its present high standard from an ex- 
 ceedingly rude condition, and can refer to a 
 long and intricate history of the developmenl of 
 its educational institutions, extending over a 
 period of more than a thousand years before the 
 present time. The German tribes dwelling 
 within the limits of the present German empire 
 were successively converted to Christianity, from 
 the 6th to the 9th century, irrespective of spo- 
 radic conversions anterior to the beginning of 
 that epoch, the Franks being the first, the Ale- 
 mannians and Bavarians the next, followed bythe 
 
 Frisians. Hessians. Thuringians, and the Saxons, 
 who were the last to adopt the Christian faith. 
 Beyond the Elbe river, in a region inhabited at 
 
 that time by Slavic tribes, now thoroughly tier- 
 man. Christianity did not gain a foot hold pre- 
 vious to the 9th and 1 Oth centuries, and in some 
 districts I Lithuania, for example), not until a 
 still later period, — from the 11th and 12th to 
 the end of the 14th and the beginning of the 
 15th century. Charlemagne, the mighty Frank- 
 ish king, who had converted the sturdy Sax 
 ons to Christianity, by the aid of tire and sword, 
 was the first to sow the seeds of education in 
 < Jermany; and although without early instruction, 
 manifested the greatest interest and energy in 
 the establishment and furtherance of educational 
 institutions within the limits of his empire, re- 
 maining faithful to his purpose until his death, in 
 814. With the assistance of Alcuin,whom he had 
 invited from England, he established the first 
 school in his empire, the Schola Palatina, or 
 court school, chiefly intended for the education 
 of tin- royal children, of whom Charlemagne had 
 fourteen: and the great monarch himself was not 
 ashamed to acquire, in his ripe years, what had 
 been neglected in his earlier education. The 
 great monarch spoke Latin, understood some 
 Greek, and preferred social intercourse with 
 the circle of learned men whom he had assem- 
 ble I at his court.to every other. lie also evinced 
 much interest in the introduction of the arts of 
 architect are and music, and invited talented men, 
 especially from Italy to take up their residence in 
 Germany near the imperial court. Other schools 
 were established after the plan of the Schola Pa- 
 laiina; and the artes liberates, divided into a 
 trivium (grammar, rhetoric, and dialectics), and 
 a quadrivium (geometry, arithmetic, music, and 
 astronomy), constituted the principal subjects 
 
 taught. Besi les these, there were schools of a 
 lower rank, in which the curriculum of study 
 comprised only reading, writing arithmetic, gram- 
 mar, and music. Very soon a -distinction between 
 ecclesiastical and secular schools was established, 
 although Charlemagne endeavored to obliterate 
 all difference; of rank in educational matters. 
 Those pupils who wished to study for the priest- 
 hood, studied (hefrivium and the quadrivium, in 
 scholis inirariis, seu claustris (convent schools), 
 while the same studies were pursued by all othei 
 in scholis eocterioribus,seu canonicis. 'I he driest 
 formalism was a characteristic feature of all these 
 
 Mils. The convents and the cities, as they 
 sprung into existence all over the empire, be 
 ( ame the originators of educational insl itutions ; 
 the former being the bunders of convent and 
 
 cathedral schools: the latter. of latin and city 
 
 schools. [See Cathedral Schools, and Convent 
 Schools.) Prominent among the convent schools. 
 
 was the one founded by the famous Abbol Rhfl 
 banns Maurus at Fulda, 813, which is still i,i 
 existence as a gymnasium. Its founder was called 
 primus pr&ceptor Germanio?. lie was a pro 
 found scholar, and his name is handed down to 
 posterity as one of the greatesl educators of his 
 age. His successor was the equally renowned 
 Walafried Strabus. These si hools, however, did 
 not maintain their high standard (f excellence for 
 
 along time, partly because their prosperity de- 
 pended in too great a, measure upon the imme- 
 diate influence and energy of their founders, 
 and partly because the pure and apostolic ardor 
 of the earlier Christian church, from which they 
 had received their life-breath, gradually relaxed 
 and declined. Deprived of the strict ami imme- 
 diate supervision of the bishops, monastic learn- 
 ing and discipline soon deteriorated; and, although 
 ilk' mendicant orders of the Franciscans ami 
 Dominicans largely increased the number of 
 convent schools, their educational work did not, 
 compare favorably with the standard previously 
 maintained. Secular Latin schools were estab- 
 lished by the municipal authorities in cities at a 
 somewhat later period; but. at first, they had to 
 encounter many difficulties, arising from the op- 
 position of the clergy, who claimed the sole right 
 of establishing and conducting schools of a higher 
 order, — those in which more than the mere rudi- 
 ments of education was taught. Still, by pi rsever- 
 ance, a number of cities succeeded in founding 
 their own schools of a higher order, independent, 
 of the immediate supervision of the church. 
 Among the oldest of these city I atin schools, may 
 be enumerated those at Breslau (Silesia), which 
 were founded in 1267 and 1293, and which still 
 flourish as Gymnasia. As a matter of course. 
 the teachers could only be taken from the ranks 
 of the clergy: and the convent schools furnished, 
 in general, the models for their course of studies 
 and general government. These city schools 
 were placed under the direction of a scholasticus, 
 usually a clergyman, whose appointment was gen- 
 erally for the term of one year, hut could be re 
 newed. The scholasticus was assisted by a 
 number of baccalaurei of his own appoint- 
 ment. The course of studies consisted chiefly of 
 Latin grammar, music, and. to a limited i stent, 
 rhetoric, dialectics, and scholastic philosophy. It 
 is obvious that these city schools, as well as the 
 convent and cathedral schools, wii e under the 
 
 direct influence of the clergy, and thai the stud- 
 ies therein pursued had the closest relation to 
 the im hate purposesof the church. Although 
 
 Latin, ami in some schools < rreek also, was stud- 
 ied with the greatest zeal, these studies did not 
 disclose to the .scholars the ever fresh and hu- 
 manizing spirit of the Roman and Grecian clas 
 Bics; but. under the driest conceivable formalism 
 
358 
 
 GERMANY 
 
 of instruction. merely served, especially the Ijitin, 
 as the aid and support of a scholasticism, which, 
 notwithstanding its depth and speculative in- 
 genuity, was of little value, being unproductive 
 of the best results of education, according to its 
 true meaning. 
 
 School education in Germany was so firmly 
 
 held in subjection to church interests that its 
 
 working was confined to a blending of dry scho- 
 lasticism and religious mysticism, and devoid of 
 all practical philosophy and true pedagogical 
 principles. The conquest of the Byzantine em- 
 pire by the Turks, the subsequent exodus of 
 many Greek scholars from the centers of learn- 
 ing in the Orient to the west, their infusion 
 of new views and ideas into the decaying 
 system of European scholasticism, revived the 
 study of the ancient classics, and a just appreci- 
 ation of their ever true and youthful spirit. 
 Italy, first of all, received these fresh germs for 
 the development of free and humanistic concep- 
 tions, tin- further advance of which to western 
 and northern Europe laid the first foundation 
 for the subsequent reformation of the Church. 
 This is especially true of Germany. The 
 Netherlands, at that time a part of the bodj 
 politic of the German empire, by means of the 
 greater activity in political lite, which brought 
 the best minds of the people in conflict with one 
 another, partly on political, partly on church 
 questions, became the nursery, so to say. of a new 
 era in education. Gerard Groot (1340 L384) 
 became the founderof a new school. Having 
 studied scholastic philosophy for several years at 
 Paris, and become deeply imbued with the ad 
 vanced ideas in matters of education, he gathered 
 around himself a number of spirited men, whose 
 aim was to combine with correct religious prin- 
 ciples a practical and scientific activity. Of 
 Groot's followers the most noted were Florence 
 Radewin, the celebrated Thomas a ELempis, and 
 Johann Wessel. They were the founders of the 
 so-called Bruder-Hau&er (brothers' houses), in 
 which tlry taught, besides the traditional religious 
 scholastic subjects, sciences and languages accor I 
 
 ing to the new Italian plan. The new sel 1 
 
 spread its principles over the Netherlands and 
 northern Germany generally. Rudolph Lange, 
 more especially, became a reformer of the pre- 
 vail] aiional system. He established orre- 
 modeled existing schools, after the plan of those 
 of I teventerand Amsterdam, throughout northern 
 and north-western Germany. Other reformers 
 in the same work were Count Moritz Spiegel- 
 i. Rudolph Agricola, Ludwig Dringenberg, 
 Ludwig Wimpfeling, Conrad Celtes, Johann von 
 Dalber bul above all Johann Reuchlin 1 1 15 
 1522) and Erasmus of Rotterdam(l 1 * - T 1536). 
 The study of Greek and Hebrew was particular 
 ly a I by Reuchlin, while that of Latin 
 founds Btanch supporter in Erasmus ; and their 
 efforts prepare 1 the educated classes of < Germany 
 ive an I ripen the germs of the great 
 reformation of the Church which was inau- 
 gurated at thai time. The Reformation im- 
 parted a new and vigorous spirit to educa- 
 
 tion. The great reformers advocated strongly 
 the study of classic antiquity, not only for 
 the development of rhetoric and a taste for 
 scientific subjects generally, but also, and princi- 
 pally, as important aids in the establishment of 
 true evangelical faith. The necessity of founding 
 Schools for the maintenance and propagation 
 of the new faith was strongly pressed by Luther 
 in several of his writings. The course of instruc- 
 tion followed in these Latin schools comprised, 
 mainly: reading, writing, vocal music. Latin, 
 dialectics, rhetoric, and religion. These schools 
 were generally divided into three classes, in 
 which the gradation of studies was as follows : 
 reading, learning of Latin vocaibles, and reading 
 of Donatus and Cato's Senlentice, in the lowest 
 class; religion, grammar, prosody, music, and 
 selections from ^LVop. Mosellan's Pcedohyiu. 
 Erasmus's Colloquia, Terence. Plautus, and the 
 Holy Scriptures, in the second class; Virgil, 
 < hid. Cicero's De Officiis and Episiola adfami- 
 liares, metrics, dialectics, and rhetoric, in the 
 highest class. J atin composition and colloquial 
 exercises formed an essential pari of the curricu- 
 lum of the higher grades. The school hours were. 
 on every week-day. from 5 orfi o'clock to 9 o'clock 
 in the forenoon, and from noon to 3 o'clock in 
 the afternoon. Christian catechism was taught 
 twice a wei'k during week-days, and every Sun- 
 day. The maxim Repeiitio mater studiorum 
 was exacted Avith great rigidity. The singing 
 classes of these schools were obliged to sing, 
 under the direction of the music-teacher, before 
 
 the houses of wealthy citizens on high church 
 days, for the purpose oi collecting alms. The 
 city schools. at the timeof the Reformation, were 
 
 either of a lower or a higher order; the latter 
 were, however, almost exclusively in the more 
 important cities of the country. Reading, writ- 
 ing, Latin, and religion formed the principal 
 subjects of instruction in the former, to which 
 were added Greek, Ilelirew. mathematics, and 
 
 philosophy in the latter, or higher order of city 
 schools. Loth orders of schools commenced on 
 die same basis, the principal difference between 
 them consisting in extra courses for special 
 studies, introduced in the higher order of tb 
 
 ools, which besides the studies enumerated 
 above, also taught rhetoric, logic, and, as a matter 
 of course, music. In some schools, Hebrew, and 
 mathematics were omitted in the course of 
 studies. These higher city schools, and a con- 
 siderable number of convent and cathedral 
 schools, the latter especially during the period of 
 the Reformation, were transformed into mm ailed 
 Gymnasia. The Gymnasium consisted origi- 
 nally of tour classes, which number was subse- 
 quently increased t<> five, and in some in s t ances 
 even to eighl classes. The number of school 
 
 houi - varied from 20 to 22 DOT 
 
 week. Some of these institutions, in course of 
 time, rose to the dignity of universities. 
 
 We find, throughout the middle ages, in most 
 
 Of the city Schools, four hours of daily instruc- 
 tion. However, there were some schools with 
 five, some with three (Spires, 1 1th century) 
 
GERMANY 
 
 359 
 
 one with only two (Halle, 1526) ; while, on 
 
 lli ■ other hand, we find as many as eight hours 
 per <li' m for the upper classes of the Latin 
 school at Easlingen (1548). The recitations 
 •were generallydivided equally between the fore- 
 noon and the afternoon. The number of classes 
 in the schools varied from two to four and. up- 
 ward, with proper subdivisions. The school year 
 commenced, in a number of cities, regularly on 
 March 12., the day of St. Gregory, the patron- 
 saint of schools. In other cities, admissions wore 
 allowed twice a year. — at Easter and Michael- 
 mas. The schools were not free schools; pupils, 
 except the children of paupers, were required 
 to pay a certain fee per quarter, varying in 
 amount according to time and locality. In some 
 places, the school money was fixed according to 
 an agreement between teacher and parents. 
 Teachers received, most generally, a salary from 
 the municipality, besides the pupils' fees, and 
 enjoyed other emoluments, for assisting at divine 
 service, funeral processions, kc. 1 'resents to 
 teachers from pupils were very customary, and 
 in some cities were even prescribed and regulated 
 by the authorities. Of school examinations, in 
 the proper sense of the term, there is no trace, 
 although we read of occasional visits to the 
 schools by prelates : nor is there any trace of va- 
 cations. The earliest ordinance instituting va- 
 cations is found at Freiburg (1558), wMch limits 
 the fall vacation to two weeks. School w r as kept 
 throughout the year, in some cities not even ex- 
 cepting holidays. <>.<j. in Nuremberg, Landau, etc.; 
 but teachers and pupils coidd agree upon one or 
 more holidays, mostly in consideration of a lee 
 to be paid to the former. School festivals were 
 not frequent. The day of St. Cregory was 
 very generally observed as a holiday. A peculiar 
 festival was the Virgatum-gehen, the gathering 
 of birches in the wooils by the pupils, for their 
 own corporal punishment at school, amid general 
 frolic, including procession, singing and in- 
 strumental music. The application of the rod 
 was the principal means of maintaining dis- 
 cipline in the schools, the more oecessary, as 
 large numbers of vagrant scholars {fahrende 
 Schvler), who went, sometimes begging, from 
 place to place to attend school, and who were 
 addicted to all manner of vices and irregular 
 habits, infested the whole of Germany through- 
 out the middle ages, and rendered strict school 
 discipline a very difficult task. Corporal pun- 
 ishment with the rod was not only officially re- 
 cognized but minutely regulated by municipal 
 legislation, even designating upon which part of 
 the body, excluding head, back, and hands, the 
 chastisement should be administered. We find 
 that, in Heidelberg, the teacher of a Latin school 
 was dismissed, in 1 567, because he refused to flog 
 his pupils on the ground that some of them were 
 19 years of age. and. therefore, in his opinion, 
 too old for such punishment. Another peculiar 
 mole of punishment was that of the asinus, a 
 Wooden frame in the shape of a donkey, which 
 the culprit was obliged to mount in face of the 
 class, as a punishment for minor offenses. There 
 
 were several kinds of aaini, according to the 
 character of the offence : an asinus morum, gar- 
 ruliiaiis, et strepitus, for disorderly conduct ; an 
 asinus Germanismi, for pupils who spoke Ger- 
 man instead of Latin ; and an <isi,/us sokecismi, 
 for offenders against good Latin grammar. 
 There are perceptible, at this period, many serious 
 delects in the system of instruction, more espe- 
 cially a great want of uniformity, of harmony 
 in the intellectual and moral training, of rational 
 methods, suitable text books, and of competent 
 instructors. Many of the school-men of that 
 time rose to great distinction. Neander. Fried- 
 land (Trotzendorf), Bugenhagen, Spalatin, Lin- 
 demann, Wolf, Fabri^ius, Rhodomann, Boetius, 
 Caselius, Calixtus, Camerarius, Hessus, Heyden, 
 Helwig, Nigidius, GocJenius, Jungmann, and 
 others, but especially Johann Sturm, are noted 
 as prominent educators in their time. Sturm not 
 only gained wide-spread renown as an author of 
 many Latin works on pedagogics, but also as a 
 practical educator. His famous school at 
 Strasburg (1578) contained several thousand 
 scholars, including the best elements of society, 
 many being scions of the high nobility, and even 
 princes. This school had not only a German 
 national fame, for representatives of all the 
 European nations flocked thither to sit at the 
 feet of the celebrated educator. Besides the 
 school at Strasburg, Sturm established many 
 others, either personally or by means of his 
 scholars. Christianity, a good knowledge of the 
 sciences, and eloquence, were the principal aims 
 of his education. He laid down a system of edu- 
 cation for youths from the seventh to the twenty- 
 first year of age. From the seventh to the 
 sixteenth year, he ordained a strict school educa- 
 tion, after which he permitted a somewhat 
 freer course of instruction by lectures. His 
 established curriculum of studies was very 
 carefully carried out, from the very foundation 
 to the perfect mastery of pure Latin speech. Still, 
 every thing considered. his system was only aone- 
 sided formalism, devoid of that harmony of intel- 
 lect and heart, which is the aim of true education. 
 The academy, connected with the gymnasium),} 
 after Sturm's plan, approached, but did not en- 
 tirely reach, the standard of a university. While 
 the Reformation planted and developed many 
 educational institutions of a superior character, 
 the .le<uits. aiming to keep the schools sub- 
 servient to the interests of the Roman Catholic 
 < hutch, did not relax in their endeavors to build 
 up rival institutions. In this special branch 
 of their general purpose to encounter and combat 
 Protestantism, they have been successful in a 
 remarkable degree. The founder of the Jesuitic 
 system of school education was ( jaudio de Ac- 
 (|iia\i\a (died in liilel. Occupying the high posi- 
 tion of g sneral of his order. he exerted the greatest 
 influence in the erection of Jesuit schools, which. 
 through the energetic activity of the order 
 spread rapidly over the whole European conti- 
 nent, but were solely guided by hierarchical 
 interests. Their educational aims were chiefly 
 confined to the pursuit of .scientific and human- 
 
360 
 
 GERMANY 
 
 ame time, an almost 
 absolute waul of individual freedom of thought, 
 and a blind subserviency to established authority . 
 were their must prominent general characteris- 
 tics. These institutions were divided into two 
 classes, a higher and a lower order. The 
 latter were divided into five subdivisions, and 
 principally taught reading and writing, in Latin. 
 Other studies, commonly comprised in a, gym- 
 nasium course, were greatly oeglected, although 
 mentioned in the plan of studies: such as 
 mathematics, natural philosophy, • •.co-raphy, 
 and history. Rhetoric and logic were taughl 
 in the driest possible manner; and even the 
 favorite Latin was wanting in thoroughness of 
 grammatical instruction, and in a historical or 
 critical explanation of the classic authors. The 
 memorizing of disjointed phrases from Cicero's 
 writings, and of Virgil's and other poets' works, 
 formed a prominent pari of the scholar's pensum. 
 Implicit obedience to superiors, the fear of God, 
 and \ irtue, were the chief aims of Jesuitic edu- 
 cation. The speaking of German was prohibited, 
 the denunciation of offenses against the estab- 
 lished rules was invited and encouraged, the love' 
 of country and of family was gradually extin- 
 guished in the hearts of the scholars, and nothing 
 remained but the love of the established church, 
 and th -i obedience to the superiors of 
 
 the order. The maxims of Sturm and other 
 prominent educators of the Protestant school 
 remained the acknowledged models for the gov- 
 ernment of secular schools, for a long period of 
 time, especially in Wurtemberg, Saxony, and 
 Hesse. Bebel (died L516) in Tubingen, and 
 Reuehlin (died L522), devoted great attention 
 to the promotion of the study of the ancient 
 languages; the former especially iii regard 
 to Latin, the latter in regard to Hebrew and 
 Greek. The Btudy of the mother- tongue was 
 officially ignored, if doI suppressed. The ordi- 
 nances of Duke Christopher of Wtirtemb 
 (1559) encouraged the establishment of Latin 
 schools w ithin his dominions. With the except ion 
 of the positive neglecl of the German language, 
 the genera] course of instruction was excellent ; 
 and. iii iis general characteristics, has been main- 
 tained until quite recent times. The prescribed 
 curriculum of studies pursued, is si ill extant 
 iu every detail, commencing with the rudi- 
 ments of Latin instruction, and terminal 
 with Cicero's orations, Sallust, Livy, and Virgil's 
 JEneid; dialectics and rhetoric according to 
 Melanchthon's plan ; Greek grammar and \en- 
 ophon's Cyropcedia. Music was, and remained, 
 a favorite study in all the grades. W ith slightly 
 
 varied I idea (ions, this general plan of studi< s, 
 
 as established in Wurtemberg for secondary 
 institutions of learning, was adopted, toward 
 the cl the I < U 1 1 century, as the standard in 
 
 Saxony, with the only exception that more at- 
 tention was given to arithmetic. The celebrated 
 
 princes' bc! I- (Furstenscknlen) at Meissen, 
 
 Grimma, and Schulpforta, were of a somewhat 
 
 higher order. They each had three classes w ith a 
 
 two year- t i ■-■■ iii each, and prepared scholars 
 
 for all the academic studies. The highest class 
 comprised the following studies: Melanchthons 
 Latin grammar; Cicero's De Officiis,De Seneo- 
 t«te, and De Amicitia ; Tusculance Qucestiones ; 
 Virgil 'sGeorgics SLodjEneid; Horaces Odes; Isoc- 
 rates; Pythagoras's Aurea Carmina; Plutarch's 
 De Liberorum Educatixme; the Iliad; the rudi- 
 ments of Hebrew; dialectics and rhetoric ; the 
 rudimentsof astronomy, etc. Terence 'sand I 'lau- 
 tus's comedies were acted annually to accustom 
 pupils to Latin speaking. 'I his course of studies 
 was also introduced in several other German 
 states. Erasmus of Rotterdam and Melanch- 
 thon had, both, strongly advocated a certain at- 
 tention to realistic Studies, — mat hematics, astron- 
 omy, and the natural sciences in general. Luther 
 also favored this view . Still, these studies re- 
 mained much neglected, and did not receive due 
 attention until the following century, when the 
 climax of one-sided formalism had been reached, 
 and a counter-current made itself felt in the 
 educational world. Francis Bacon (q. v.) was 
 the originator of the realistic principle in edu- 
 cation; and he found enthusiastic disciples in 
 Wolfgang Ratich (1571 — 1631^ and John 
 Amos Comenius (1592 L671), who became the 
 founders of a, new realistic method fo edu- 
 i ion in Germany. They principally aimed at 
 a development of the reasoning power of the 
 mind : hut. in their zeal, tin y carried their aim 
 too far, bj almosl entirely ignoring fancy and (lie 
 appreciation of the beautiful. 'I hey faded to find 
 the proper blending of mere instruction and gen- 
 eral culture: but, notwithstanding their want of 
 appreciation of classic antiquity and historic 
 study, they are entitled to a grateful recogni- 
 tion as the founders of a realistic Sch( ol wliii h 
 
 exercised a very beneficial influence upon die 
 educational principles of their country. Sen 
 afterward, the whole German nation was shaken 
 to its very foundation by the great denomina- 
 tional feuds between the Protestants and the 
 Catholics, in which the schools also participated. 
 Theological disputations were the order of the 
 : and the Latin schools. everj where in Ger- 
 many, were diverted from their original pursuits, 
 which were merely educational, to become (fil- 
 ters of public disputations and declamations for 
 or against I Lome and the papacy. 'I he r» ligious 
 dissensions finally culminated in the Thirty 
 Years' War. which rent the German nation 
 into two bitterly hostile parties, and with tire 
 and sword, during an entire generation, devas- 
 tated and depopulated the country, and almost 
 entirely destroyed what civilization and mental. 
 
 moral, and material culture, had 1 milt Up in 
 
 centuries. Germany, which, before the war, 
 had been in a most prosperous condition, with a 
 population of about twentj million inhabitants, 
 
 WaS reduced to a VSSl desert with scarcely o\el 
 
 five million people. The w ;ir had swept away 
 
 the \ery flower of the nation, leaving, at its 
 termination, the once mighty empire in mi im- 
 poverished, helpless condition, an easy prr.v to 
 the schemes and aggressions of foreign powers. 
 
 hi the general state of exhaustion and demoral- 
 
GERMANY 
 
 :;t;i 
 
 ization, during, and at the close of, the war. 
 the educational institutions of the countrj 
 were almost entirely annihilated. A great 
 Dumber of the schools were closed for want 
 of teachers ami pupils, very many of them 
 were destroyed, teachers ami pupils were scat- 
 tered, and an enormous increase of immorality 
 was perceptible among the students of tin' irw 
 schools which survived. 'Hie peace ft' West- 
 phalia (1648) found the educational institutions 
 of Germany in a mosl forlorn ami demoralized 
 condition. Gradually, however, they regained 
 their former standard : but the course of studies 
 formerly prevailing had. in the mean time, un- 
 dergone very material changes. Latin, which 
 had almost become the ruling speech in the 
 higher schools, began to lose its pre-eminence. 
 It was still studied. with great attention ; hut the 
 national language began to assert its importance, 
 and even at the universities, the German tongue 
 was gradually permitted to become the medium 
 of scientific instruction. This reaction from 
 the former principles of education continued 
 throughout the following epoch. The study 
 of Greek, at some noted schools, became en- 
 tirely neglected. At this period, a marked 
 difference was manifested in regard t:> the edu- 
 cation of scholars of noble birth and others. The 
 so-called knights' academies {Ritterakademien) 
 were established, in which pupils were instructed 
 in history , genealogy , and heraldry, and in which 
 dancing and courtly maimers were special 
 .branches of instruction. Other studies, such as 
 ' military and civil engineering, astronomy, botany, 
 and theoretical and practical philosophy, found 
 their way into the regular curriculum. Generally 
 Speaking, there was. however, no true advance- 
 ment in the educational standard; on the con- 
 trary, the selection of studies manifested great 
 arbitrariness on the part of the patrons and 
 directors of schools of an advanced order. In 
 some of the < rerman states, the special interest 
 of highly cultured princes in matters of educa- 
 tion tended to elevate the standard by not only 
 groundimj.- the scholars well in the mechanism 
 of tiie classic languages, according to the old 
 maxim of dry scholasticism, but also by making 
 them thoroughly acquainted with the spirit of 
 classic authors. The study of the Greek classics 
 was rehabilitated, together with Hebrew-, and 
 other more liberal kinds of culture. I hike Ernes! 
 of Got ha 1 1 675) took a leading part in this refor- 
 mation of the higher schools, and his example 
 found many imitators in other German states. 
 Still, there prevailed a greal diversity in educa- 
 tional principles throughout the country. Hu- 
 manism, rigid formalism, and rationalism con- 
 tended with each other, and were each fostered, 
 
 and advocated, according to local and personal 
 
 influences. At this time. Locke's ideas on 
 
 education commenced to exert a. greal influ- 
 ence on educational principles in Germany. 
 Mis maxim of imparting knowledge mainlj 
 
 through the senses, in opposition to idealism. 
 although not always carried out consistently. 
 Opened a new view of the principles of ration- 
 
 al education. (See Locke.) Another system wa 
 founded bj An-nst Hermann Francke (q. 
 
 I lis principal aim was to implant true piety in 
 the hearts of the \oiing. K ramie is the founder 
 
 of the renowned institutions at Halle, in which 
 a most decided realistic tendency became appar- 
 ent, from the very beginning, in opposition 
 
 to one-sided formalism. Anion-- the studies 
 
 pursued at Halle were chronology, astronomy, 
 music, painting, anatomy, botany, and even the 
 
 rudiments of medicine, together with other 3C1 
 
 ences properly belonging to technical schools. 
 Greek ami French were much neglected. Real- 
 ism was the foundation of the whole educational 
 
 structure. The so-called Pcedagogium al Halle 
 became a model school for the whole of Germany. 
 It possessed a botanic garden, a museum of nat- 
 ural history, philosophical apparatus, a chemical 
 laboratory, and a dissecting room. It was con 
 sidered a, normal school for the education of 
 teachers: and its pupils subsequently became the 
 propagators of realistic principles throughout the 
 country. Francke's system laid the foundation 
 
 to the so-called real schools. .1. S. Sender, ill 
 
 Halle, was the first who used this term in an- 
 nouncing his establishment of "a mechanical 
 and mathematical real school" in 1706, which, 
 however, was of short existence. John Julius 
 Hecker, also a, disciple of the Halle school, 
 established a real school in Berlin (1747), which, 
 properly speaking, consisted -of three different 
 departments; namely, a German, a Latin, and a. 
 real school, but with arrangements to allow 
 pupils of the two former to participate in the 
 studies of the hitter department. In many 
 respects this real school carried its aims too far 
 by taking up purely technical studies : however, 
 it became the model for many similar insti- 
 tutions. The Pcedagogium, or Latin school, 
 was afterwards completely separated from the 
 real school, and still exists under the name of 
 Friedrich WUhelm's Gymnasium. The demor- 
 alizing effects of the Thirty Years' War upon 
 the national spirit of the German people were 
 not effaced for a Ion- period of time. 'I he 
 higher classes of society had, to a remarkable de- 
 gree, lost all national individuality. They imi- 
 tated foreign, mostly French, models, aiming at 
 outward polish ami elegance, but losing ali ap- 
 preciation of thoroughness, breadth, and har- 
 inoii\ of culture, while the lower < -lasses devoted 
 their attention almost exclusive!} to the prac 
 tical affairs of life and to useful knowl- 
 edge. Pedantry on the part of the teachers, 
 and immorality on the part of the students; 
 Superficiality On the one hand, and one-sided 
 utilitarianism on the other, in educational prill 
 ciples, were the characteristics of the time. New 
 pedagogical principles were propagated bj Bi 
 dow- i 1 7'-'-'! 90) and his followers, of whom 
 Salzmann and Campe are the most noted, who 
 are known io the educational world as 
 school of the i Philanthropists. Their principal aim 
 was to educate a youth to become a man in the 
 besl sense of the word.-- to guide the natural im 
 md the will by reason. Some of the sch i 
 
36-2 
 
 GEE MA XV 
 
 established by the Philanthropists attained con- 
 siderable renown, more especially the one 
 founded by Salzmann at Schnepfenthal, near 
 Gotha, which is still in a flourishing condition. 
 The method of the Philanthropists, however, 
 soon fell into disuse, owing principally to their dis- 
 regard for the classic authors, whose educational 
 value they underrated, and in the study of 
 whom they were completely outstripped by 
 rival schools. Although the general current of 
 the time favored utilitarianism, a tendency 
 encouraged by Frederick the Great, still there 
 remained in the German nation ton much la- 
 tent love for the ideal to allow the realistic 
 school to become all-absorbing. Just then, the 
 first dawn of the great golden eraof German 
 classic literature broke upon the nation, and re- 
 vived the love for ancient classic beauty. 
 Winckelmann and Leasing revealed the splendor 
 of ancient art ami the eternal laws of the beau- 
 tiful. They were followed by hosts of others. 
 The love of the ancient classics, which was 
 awakened even in the masses of the people by 
 excellent translations of ancient authors into 
 
 German, inaugurated by •'. 1 1. Voss's admi- 
 rable translation of Homer's works, and the de- 
 velopment of the German language, which had 
 been greatly neglected for ages, during the fol- 
 lowing classic period of national literature, were 
 brought into happy barmony, and their union 
 became fruitful of the best results in the whole 
 Intellectual, moral, and esthetical life of the 
 nation. As a matter of course, the cans 
 education also participated in the general ad- 
 vancement of tic mental and moral culture of 
 tic nation; its aims became broader and loftier. 
 'The new philosophical school of modern human- 
 ists, in the sphere of education, comprehended 
 many names thankfully remembered bj subse- 
 quent generations. J. M. Gesner (lti'.tl —1761 1, 
 rector of the Thomas School in Leipsic, and sub- 
 sequently professor of ancient literature and 
 founder of the philological seminary at Gottin- 
 
 - became a stanch supporter and propagator 
 of the new humanistic school. .). A. Ernesti 
 
 I |, at Leipsic, and < !. G. Ileyne (1812), at 
 
 < lottingen, were also enthusiastic a Ivocatesof the 
 
 study of the ancient cla They, and many 
 
 others, intro luce 1 their students to the beauties 
 of the classics without wearving them with dry 
 grammatical study, as had been the custom be- 
 The chief representatives of the human- 
 istic school arc Friedrich A.ugus1 Wolf. A.ugust 
 Bockh, Gottfried Hermann, Karl Reissig, and 
 Karl Otfried MuMler. At first, a close connec- 
 
 ■ between tic study of the ancient classics and 
 
 of German literature was strictly observed; hut. 
 subsequently, when the latter had gained suffi- 
 ci lit strength and classic character, this connec- 
 tion was gradually loosened. Uthougb one- 
 sided Latinisin repeatedly asserted its opposi- 
 tion to the studv of the German language and 
 literal me. ii could never regain its former 
 undisputed prerogative; while, on the other 
 hand. Greek had recovered all the territorj for 
 merly lost. Wolf, Hermann, and Bockh form 
 
 I a triumvirate of educators who knew how to 
 awaken a deep interest in the study of the an- 
 cients, — to introduce their scholars to the beau- 
 ties of classic philosophy and literature, each 
 
 according to his own individual predilections] 
 without losing sight of the special requirements 
 
 of their own time, or of the general harmony in 
 the purposes of a really Liberal education. In 
 elementary education, the principles of Pestalozzi 1 
 (1746—1827), commenced to he more widely 
 known and appreciated in Germany, where the 
 peat educator's aim to elevate the lower classes 
 
 of the people through a well-adapted domestic 
 education, and his invention of a rational system 
 of primary instruction, founded upon teaching 
 from the object, and upon a gradual progres- 
 sion from the simple to the complicated, were 
 rapidly adopted, and whence great numbers of 
 teachers Mocked to IVstaloz/i's home to acquaint 
 themselves more thoroughly with his methods. 
 The downfall of the < hrmaii nation before the 
 notorious arms of the French emperor, in the 
 beginning of the present century, far from curb- 
 in-' the national ambition, gave a new impetus 
 to national life, which, in its turn, awakened the 
 Spirit of the nation to new exertions in the 
 cause of education. New universities, gymnasia, 
 and Innumerable elementary schools were estab- 
 lished. Though under the sway of a foreign op- 
 pressor. Germany doubled her efforts to elevate 
 her educational institutions. The philosopher 
 I'ichte (1807—8), in his Addresses to the < 
 man Nation i Reden mi die deutsche Nation) 
 demanded a thorough reconstruction of the 
 schools, and a universal public education of the 
 nation. A fresh breath of life was inspired in- 
 to the whole intellectual and moral being of the 
 
 nation: and, in the darkest hours of her misfor- 
 tunes and humiliation. Germany sowed tic seed 
 of future greatness, mainly by elevating the na- 
 tional spirit through her institutions of educa- 
 tion, by the reformation of the old, and by the 
 
 establishment of new schools, in which earnest- 
 ness of purpose, thoroughness, morality, and 
 harmony in the general development of mind 
 and heart became, and are to this day, charac- 
 teristic traits. During the first half oi the pres- 
 ent century, a constant extension,! ombined with 
 greater depth, in the treatment of all the sciences, 
 became every-where perceptible. In former 
 centuries, the schools of a higher order had 
 almost exclusively served the interests of the 
 church. The Bible and the ancient languages, 
 
 as far as they could be used as handmaids in 
 
 the service of the church, had formed the most 
 important elements of education. Everj thins 
 
 was brought into close relation to theology and 
 
 its auxiliaries. When, in the course of time, 
 
 tin' development of intellectual freedom gained 
 ground and strength, and when pur. In religious 
 instruction lost its supremacy and was limited 
 
 to its proper sphere, Other sciences could raise 
 
 their ( [aims to lie admitted as important educa- 
 tional elements. The proper classification od 
 
 studies to attain a complete humanistic, and. at 
 the same time, scientific, education of the rising 
 
GERMAN? 
 
 3G3 
 
 is a difficult problem, which still awaits a satis- 
 factory solution. Of noted representatives of 
 more modern German pedagogy, mention should 
 .be made of Johann M. Sailer, who gained con- 
 siderable influence in the Catholic districts of 
 < rermany, of F. A. W. 1 tiesterweg (q. v.), and of 
 Friedrich Froebel (q. v.). 
 
 Primary Instruction. — The development of 
 purely elementary instruction by means of pub- 
 lic schools, in Germany, is. comparatively, of 
 recent date. Elementary schools in cities [Deut- 
 sche SchtUen) are traceable to a very remote 
 period, their foundation being contemporaneous 
 wiih the establishment of the earliest city 
 Latin schools. These schools were quite nu- 
 merous. In Hesse alone, there were, in the 13th 
 century, 14 cities, which supported their own ele- 
 mentary schools. All official documents relating 
 to elementary education, which have come down 
 to our time, make reference to city schools only. 
 In the country, in villages or hamlets, schools for 
 elementary e Lucation, worthy of the name, were 
 almost unknown. The sextons of country churches 
 were required, in a general way, to instruct the 
 children in the catechism; and it is from this 
 primitive foundation that public elementary edu- 
 cation has been built up to its present condition. 
 in the electorate of Brandenburg, the first regular 
 country schools, for children of both sexes, were 
 established after the Thirty Years' War, in the 
 17th century, under the reign of the Great 
 Elector. Frederick William: but we know very 
 little of the condition of these schools. With the 
 aggrandizement of the electorate, denominational 
 differences commenced to manifest themselves. 
 Thus we find, at an early period, a recognize 1 
 distinction between Lutheran and Reforme I 
 schools. At Wesel, we find, as early as L687, a 
 s 'miliary for the education of school-masters. — 
 An ordinance, emanating from the church 
 authorities in Pomerania, in 1563, relating to 
 elementary instruction, makes no mention-at all 
 of village schools, but has reference to city 
 schools only, subordinating them in every respect 
 to the authority of the Church, and prescribing 
 especially the study of reading, writing, and 
 arithmetic, besides the catechism and choral 
 singing. — The general condition of elementary 
 i i i-t ruction throughout the majority of the 
 German states was about the same. — Even in 
 the electorate of Brandenburg, a school ordi- 
 nance of 1658 plainly shows that village schools, 
 although their establishment was strongly urged, 
 had not as yet become a living reality. When, 
 in the beginning of the 18th century, the elect- 
 orate of Brandenburg and the duchy of Prussia 
 became a kingdom, feeble attempts were again 
 made to establish public elementary schools 
 throughout the royal dominions: but, as there 
 
 was no supply of trained teachers, and the efforts 
 
 where neither persistent, nor well directed, the 
 iral condition of elementary education in the 
 rural districts remained pretty nearly unchanged. 
 I'h'' elementary teachers, in those times, were 
 generally forlorn and discarded students of the 
 higher schools; and in villages, mostly me- 
 
 chanics, dismissed servants of noble families, or 
 invalid and discharged soldiers. King Frederick 
 William I., the second king of Prussia, paid 
 especial attention to elementary schools for the 
 
 mass of his people, with the design of educat- 
 ing them to a strict obedience to secular and 
 church authority, and to habits of industry and 
 frugality. He is reported to have established 
 
 within his states about 1,800 elementary schools. 
 Frederick William I. was the protector of the 
 
 pietistic school of educators, at Halle; and. 
 through the exertions of Francke and his fol- 
 lowers, Prussia, received the first trained pro- 
 fessional instructors. Teaching, for the first time. 
 became a recognized science: and the theory of 
 pedagogy, and practical methods of instruction, 
 were made indispensable requirements for the 
 office of a public teacher. A royal decree, regu- 
 lating educational affairs in the monarchy, and 
 relating to institutions of all grades -in fact, the 
 first general school law for the Prussian mon- 
 archy — was issued October, 171.*!. A fewyears 
 afterward, in a number of royal decrees, the 
 first initiatory steps were taken toward obli- 
 gatory education throughout the kingdom. The 
 directing and supervising power was placed en- 
 tirely in the hands of the church authorities. 
 The founding of teachers' seminaries by the 
 state was not then thought of. By private enter- 
 prise, a teachers' seminary was established in 
 Stettin, Pomerania. in 1735; and. in the fol- 
 lowing year, another was founded, by order of 
 the king, at the convent of Bergen, near Magde- 
 burg. — Although the number of schools increased 
 very considerably during the reign of the ener- 
 getic second king of Prussia, still, the qualifica- 
 tions of the teachers and the general condition 
 of the elementary schools remained in quite a 
 primitive state; and the only important progress 
 made was the gradual development of the idea. 
 among all classes of the people, that education, 
 to some extent, had become an absolute neces- 
 sity. — Frederick II. (the Great), although him- 
 self a highly cultured monarch, had very little 
 time to devote to the advancement of elementary 
 education, until after the close of the Seven 
 fears' War, when he promulgated a code of 
 •general school regulations", which contained 
 all the leading features of the later Prus- 
 sian school laws, prescribing the general obliga- 
 tion to attend school, fixing the obligator} 
 school age of the pupils, the payment of school 
 money, and tines for non-attendance, anil char- 
 ging the church authorities with the duty of 
 supervising public schools. This code of schuo! 
 regtdaiions emanated from the pen of Johann 
 Julius Meeker (q. v.); and the king, after mam 
 consultations with other recognized authorities, 
 gave it his sanction. The execution of these laws, 
 
 however, met with many serious difficulties in 
 
 several parts of the monarchy, partly on account 
 
 of religious differences between Catholics and 
 Protestants, in regard to the supervisory author- 
 ity intrusted to the church: partly on account 
 the obstinacy of the peasantry in refusing the pay- 
 ment of school money: partly from various other 
 
m 
 
 GERMANY 
 
 causes arising from local differences, which, in 
 the end, necessitated many modifications of the 
 original general plan, for certain districts of the 
 kingdom. Soon afterward, the necessity was 
 fell of regulating the system of city school edu- 
 cation in a manner similar to that prescribed for 
 the country schools. The exceedingly meager 
 remuneration of teachers throughout the country 
 was one of the greatest obstacles to the securing 
 of well-qualified instructors, and led to the 
 establishment of a state-aid fund, from the 
 interest of which a small subsidy was grante 1 
 to meritorious teachers. The king never re- 
 laxed his interest in common-school education. 
 The newly acquired province of Silesia, with 
 its majority of Catholic inhabitants, enjoyed his 
 
 special care. A Catholic teachers' seminary was 
 founded at Breslau, in 1765 ; where, two years 
 afterward, a Protestant teachers' seminary was 
 also founded, the latter dependent mainly upon 
 
 private support. Under the reign of Frederick 
 William 1 1., the successor of Frederick the Great, 
 
 the care of the government for popular educa- 
 tion was undiminished. —In 17*7. an Ober-Schul- 
 
 'legium (High School Commission), consisting 
 of professional members only, was establishe 1 
 
 at Berlin, for the examinati E teachers, with 
 
 the design of appointing only well-qualified 
 persons as teachers, without, on the other hand, 
 interfering with the established rights of school 
 patrons to till vacancies. In the Prussian ('nm- 
 mon Law of L794, all educational institutions, 
 including universities, were declared state insti- 
 tution- ; and a foundation was laid for a legally- 
 recognized educational system for the entire mon- 
 archy, which, in its fundamental principles, has 
 remained intact t<> the present day. During the 
 first years of the reign of Frederick William III., 
 no material changes were made in the elementary 
 school system of the kingdom. Great difficulties, 
 however, impeded the general progress of ele- 
 mentary school education throughout the kins- 
 dom; and the education of females was even 
 more backward than that of males. Ernestine 
 von Krosiek was the lirst who had sufficient 
 courage t" establish a seminar; lor female teach- 
 ers, in Berlin, in 1804. The great national ca- 
 lamity which befell I 'russia, and < lermany in gen- 
 eral, shortly afterward, brought all the various 
 efforts for the advancement of public education 
 to a stand-still for some time. King Frederick 
 William III., however, declared, "although we 
 have lost territory, power, and prestige, still we 
 must strive to regain what we have lost by ac- 
 quiring intellectual and moral power: and. there- 
 fore, ii is my earnest desire and will, to rehabil- 
 itate th ■ 1 1 . i ' ion by de> ost earnest at- 
 tention to the education of the masses of my 
 people.'' National education, which had, hither- 
 to, been in I to 1 be care of a subordinate 
 committee, under the state ministrj of justice, 
 became a distinct and important branch of the 
 
 ite administration, as a separate department 
 <>f the ministry of the interior, and bo remained 
 until the close of 1811, under the immediate 
 charge of the celebrated VVilhelra von Humboldt; 
 
 afterward, until 1S17, under Von Schuckmann, 
 who was very efficiently assisted by Nicolovius 
 
 and Siivern. The law.- regulating national and 
 popular education, hitherto a dead letter in many 
 respects, became, for the first time, a reality, 
 and commenced to show their beneficial influence 
 upon the advancement of national culture. Re- 
 newed and energetic efforts were made to edu- 
 cate teachers in accordance with the most ap- 
 proved system of the time. Many instructors 
 were invited from other states to accept engag 
 incuts in Prussia: others were trained under 
 the immediate supervision of Pestalozzi. A new 
 spirit commenced to pervade all classes of the 
 people, now a homogeneous nation. In 1818, 
 Von Alteiistein was appointed to the newly 
 established ministry of educational affairs, be- 
 ing still assisted by Nicolovius and Siivern. 
 National education soon attained a high degree 
 
 of development, considering the scanty appropria- 
 tions, both state and municipal, for the support 
 of educational institutions of all grades. At the 
 time of Altenstein's death, there were. in Prussia 
 (including then only the eight old. provinces), 6 
 universities, 1 20 colleges, and a .-till larger number 
 
 of realsel Is. .'is teachers' seminaries, and about 
 
 30,000 public schools, in a tolerably flourishing 
 condition. Every sixth inhabitant of the king- 
 dom was attending school. In 1840, Minister 
 Eichhorn was appointed to the department of 
 educational affair,-. Two decrees of this minister 
 especially stigmatize his administration, the 
 closing of the I'rote.-tant seminary at Breslau, 
 and the discharge of Diesterweg (q.v.); hut the 
 revolutionary year 1848 swept away Eichhorn 
 and his system. It is the merit of Priedrieh 
 
 Stiehl, a i lified Pestalozzian, who entered the 
 
 state ministry of educational affairs as a col- 
 laborator, not only to have maintained the Olig; 
 inal greal principles of national education, but 
 to have developed the same under the adminis- 
 trations of all the successors of Eichhorn, down 
 to Vim Miihler. At the close of L861, there 
 
 were, in the eight old Prussian provinces, with 
 a population oi I8,47fr,500 (of whom 3,090,294 
 Mere within the obligatory school age, from 6 to 
 I I years), 2,875,836 children actually attending 
 school. 'I he number of schools was •_' 1,763 (2,! 
 in cities. 21,828 in villages, etc.). with 36,783 
 classes (10,290 in city schools. 26,493 in coun- 
 try schools), and •'!•">. '•'•>'- teachers (33,615 males 
 and L,755 females). Two-thirds ol these schools 
 L6.540) were Protestant; about one third 8,082 . 
 Catholic, and 141, Jewish, of licensed private 
 schools, there were, in 1861, L.434, with *_! . t • 1 1 
 classes and 84,021 pupils. Thus the aggregate 
 of registered elementary-school children, in L861, 
 amounted to 2,959,857, leaving 130,437, who. 
 
 either received no education at all. or were com- 
 prised in the number of pupils attending 
 
 higher educational inst itul ions. ( If the children 
 
 attending public schools, there were, in 1861 
 Protestants, 1,775,888; Catholics. 1,063,805; 
 .lew's. 30,053 : miscellaneous, 6,090. The sum 
 total of public elementary-school teachers' salaries, 
 in 1861, amounted to 7,449,224 thalers [Ithaler, 
 
GERMANY 
 
 
 = $0,714) (excluding the principality of EJohen- 
 zollern. which had an independent school 
 
 budget), wliuh sum was raised as follows: 
 2,320,968 thalers, school money paid by pupils; 
 1,799,958 ikalers, raised by the communities; 
 328,298 thalers, state appropriation. Other re- 
 quirements of public elementary school education 
 demanded a further disbursement of 2,453,472 
 thalers, swelling the aggregate of expenditures for 
 the eight old provinces of Prussia, in 1861, to 
 9,902,696 thalers. The little principality of Eohen- 
 zollern had a separate budget of 66,462 llorins 
 (1 florin $0,385). Thus, of the total expenditure 
 for public elementary education, in Prussia, 
 31.16 percent was raised from the pupils : 64,44 
 per cent, by the taxation of communities, and 
 only I. lo per cent, by appropriations on the pari 
 of the state. The prevailing principle, at pres- 
 ent, in Prussia, for the support of public schools. 
 is. that all the schools must lie made, as far as 
 possible, self sustaining, by the payment of school 
 money, and by local taxation, the state granting 
 aid only in cases of the inability of communities 
 to maintain the schools in the legally-prescribed 
 manner. The city of Berlin, with a free-school 
 ■in. in L874, supported 77 common element- 
 ary schools, with an aggregate of 950 <■! 
 
 !8 for hoys, with !M male and 4 female teach- 
 ers ; and 462 classes for girls, with 284 male ami 
 L78 female teachers). The whole force of teach- 
 ers, including assistant and special teachers, 
 amounted to 1.27'.). The average number of 
 classes to eachschool was 1 1; the average number 
 of pupils to each class, 51 ; to a school, 640. The 
 average number of pupils in free schools was 
 18,420 : besides 10,500 children in corporate or 
 private institutions aided by the city; making- a 
 grand total of 59,000 children enjoying free ele- 
 mentary education at the expense of the city. 
 The cost of elementary free schools supported by 
 the city amounted to 860,000 thalers; whereas 
 the aid granted to higher city schools, besides 
 the school money paid by pupils, required an 
 extra expense of 2.") thalers per pupil. The aver- 
 age yearly salary of a principal of a common ele- 
 mentary school, in Berlin, is 1,180 thalers : of a 
 cl a ss teacher, 74."> thalers; of a female teacher, 
 4.S7 that< j rs ; of female teachers of needle-work, 
 ID!) thalers. — In Prussia, a fund has been es- 
 tablished for the pensioning of teachers' widows 
 and orphans, which, in 1861, amounted to 
 1,682,158 thalers, with a yearly revenue of 
 139,331 thalers, from which 6,017 teachers, or 
 their widows and orphans, were pensioned. Sim- 
 ilar pensioning funds for teachers and their 
 willows and orphans are founded in all the Ger- 
 man states. — The following are the principal 
 items of school statistics for the other German 
 states: Bavaria,in 1874, supported 7,016 public 
 elementary schools (4,893 Catholic, 1,938 Prot- 
 estant, I 'J I Jewish, 61 miscellaneous), with 9,431 
 male and SOU female teachers. Total number of 
 pupils, 632,599 (310,713 male. 321, H80 female; 
 138,945 Catholic, 187,387 Protestant, 5*883 
 •Jewish, 384 miscellaneous). I »f the 7,016 public 
 elementary schools, 5,7'<4 levied school money on 
 
 their pupils, amounting to 1,025,443 Qorinsa year. 
 Baaen, in L874, had 1 .7r>."> elementary public 
 schools, with an attendance of 213,278 pupils 
 (109,860 malesaud 103,418 females). The min 
 imum salary of teachers ranged from 920 to 1 ,380 
 marks {I mark- $0,238), with dwelling-house, or 
 extra, compensation instead. Hesse Darmstadt 
 employed 6, 160 public elementary teachers. Saxe 
 Weimar employed 7o| teachers, who instructed 
 46,683 pupils. The kingdom of Saxtmy, in 1871, 
 supported '-'.1 13 elementary schools, with 1 067 
 
 teachers and 429,679 pupils. The Saxon schools 
 are reckoned among the very besl inGermany. 
 The kingdom of Wurtemberg maintained 2,240 
 common elementary schools, with about 285,000 
 pi i pi Is, of whom one-third were Roman < latholic— 
 for the entire* lerman Empire.we find the follow- 
 ing ics (1872): Total number of public 
 oentary schools (estimated) about 60,000; 
 teachers, about 110,000; pupils, about 6,500,000, 
 or, more than 1 o per cent of the entire popula- 
 tion. The proportion of pupils to the entire pop- 
 ulation, in the several German states, varies as 
 follows: of every 1000 of the population, there 
 are school attendants, in Saxony. 184, in Prus- 
 sia, 155, in Wurtemberg, 132, in Bavaria, L26, 
 in Mecklenburg, L20 ; while in Brunswick, An- 
 halt, Oldenburg, and the Thuringian principal- 
 ities, the proportion varies from 160 to 184. 
 
 School Administration.— Prussia. — All edu- 
 cational institutions of the monarchy are govern- 
 ed, primarily, by the state ministry of ecclesias- 
 tical, educational, and medical affairs, in Berlin. 
 Every province has its own provincial school 
 commission for the general administration of 
 schools, and a scientific commission, with proper 
 subdivisions, for the examination of teachers. 
 The provincial state school authorities are as- 
 sisted, in the larger cities, by committees elected 
 for this purpose by the administrative bodies of 
 the municipalities [SchulrDepulationen); and in 
 villages, by other ollicials. The law of March 1 1., 
 1 s7'2, confers the right of supervising all educa- 
 tional institutions, public and private, upon the 
 state. Consequently, all supervisory power is 
 derived from the state, and exercised under its 
 authority. The co-operation of local authorities, 
 as established by law. is recognized by the state. 
 In Bavaria, educational institutions are subordi- 
 nate to the ministry of the interior, through the 
 del tartment of church and school affairs ( Oberster 
 Schul-Bath) and a. committee for examinations, 
 appointed annually. Saxony, Wurtemberg, and 
 the minor German states, administer their school 
 affairs in a similar manner. A federal school 
 commission has lately been established in Berlin. 
 
 Secondary Instruction. Secondary school in- 
 struction, in Germany,aims to give a sound basis 
 for general scientific and literary education. 
 This grade of education is directed to two clearly 
 distinct ends, that of a general philosophical 
 and liberal education, as represented in the 
 gymnasium or pro-gymnasium ; and that of a 
 more practical education, as represented in the 
 real schools, of the first orsecond order, and the 
 higher burgher schools. A complete gymnasium 
 
3G6 
 
 GERMANY 
 
 has at least six grades [sexta being the lowest, ' 
 prima, the highest). The upper grades, from 
 the third to ill ■ first, are mostly subdivided into 
 two divisions a lower ami a higher. The course 
 of instruction comprises 9 years, of which the 
 low aeraily require one year each; the 
 
 higher, one year for each division. A pro-gym- 
 nasium comprises the gymnasium classes from 
 the lowest to the third or second grade of a 
 
 full gymnasium, with a course of five or six 
 years. A complete real school of the first order 
 has six grades and a nine years' course ; one of 
 the second order, six grades and a seven years' 
 cnurse. The higher burgher schools have only 
 the five lower classes of a real school. With 
 most of these secondary schools, preparatory de- 
 partments, comprising one. two, or more grades, 
 are connected. Candidates for the lowest class 
 of secondary institutions are generally required 
 to have completed their 9th year of age, and to 
 pass a satisfactory examination in the elementary 
 branches of a common-school education. — In 
 Bavaria, there are Strulien-Anstalten, or clas- 
 sical gymnasia, with '.' grades and a course of !) 
 
 years, the 5 lower of which constitute the Latin 
 
 school, and the 1 higher, the gymnasium proper. 
 The so-called Latin schools are frequently sepa- 
 rated from the higher grades, and form distinct 
 institutions. Real gymnasia, which, in Bavaria, 
 consist of a real school and a gymnasium, have a 
 six years' course of instruction. In Wurtemberg, 
 there are full gymnasia, founded upon nearly the 
 
 same oasis as those in Prussia; or lyceums, anal- 
 ogous to the Prussian pro-gymnasia; or Latin 
 
 schools, as preparatory schools for institutions of 
 a higher order. iaSaxany, Baden, and the other 
 ( lerman states, secondary institutions of learning 
 are generally established upon the same basis as in 
 Prussia. 'The following schedule presents, in a 
 general way, the course of study followed in a 
 Prussian gymnasium (I. designating the highest 
 grade ; VX, the lowest) : 
 Number of Weekly Recitations in each Grade. 
 
 Studies. VI, 
 
 [on 3 
 
 German 9 
 
 Latin 10 
 
 Greet — 
 
 French — 
 
 History and Geog- 
 raphy. 3 
 
 Georn trj and Arith- 
 
 I Lo i 
 
 Lea — 
 
 ral history 2 
 
 ing 2 
 
 Penmanship 3 
 
 V. 
 
 :j 
 
 ■i 
 
 10 
 3 
 2 
 3 
 
 IV. 
 
 2 
 •j 
 
 10 
 6 
 
 ■> 
 
 :i 
 3 
 
 III. 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 10 
 
 6 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 II. 
 o 
 2 
 
 10 
 G 
 2 
 
 .1... 28 ;;o ait :id :in 30 
 
 This does not include Hebrew, singing, or gym- 
 nastics ! Tumen), these being taught out of the 
 regular school-hours. 
 
 In L874, there were in Germany, 547 gym- 
 i. pro-gymnasia, and real-gymnasia, with 
 6,75] instructors and t08,212 pupils; and 426 
 real and higher burgher schools, with 1,422 in- 
 structors and 79,828 pupils. In the (ierinan 
 
 Empire, one pupil in every 377 of the aggregate 
 population receives a classical, and one in every 
 I 68, a Qon-classical, secondary education. For 
 
 the higher education of females, there were in 
 Germany (in L873) 278 schools of the secondary 
 order.— in Prussia and Al-aee-l.orrainc. 207; 
 Bavaria. T: Saxony, <i: Baden, 1": Hesse, !»; An- 
 halt. 5; the Mecklenburgs, 4.— There are also 
 many private institutions of carat excellence not 
 included in this enumeration. 
 
 Th.: salaries of instructors vary greatly, the 
 lowest salary of an assistant teat her being about 
 1,500 marks, that of an ordinary teacher from 
 :;.<!ll(l to 6,000 marks, and that of a director sel- 
 dom exceeding 9,000 marks, in October, l^T.'i.a 
 conference was held in Berlin, convened by the 
 Prussian minister of public instruction, to cbsi uss 
 questions of secondary instruction. The old 
 dualism in this grade of education formed an im- 
 portant subject of debate, and both the classical 
 and the realistic courses \v< re fully discussed. 'I he 
 unanimous opinion of the conference was. that 
 neither gymnasia nor real schools should be con- 
 sidered special schools, but that their common 
 
 object should be the advancement of general 
 education. The majority of the meeting seemed 
 to think that the gymnasium and the real school 
 should each pursue its own way. without inter- 
 fering with the other. On the question of bi- 
 furcation, opinions were much divided, but the 
 opinion generally prevailed that none of the 
 
 existing secondary schools could be considered 
 superfluous. - In regard to the question whether 
 real-school graduates should be admitted to the 
 universities, the prevailing opinion was. that 
 such graduates should be admitted according 
 to the existing regulations, but only to those 
 state examinations [Staats-JExamina) which were 
 required tor obtaining the position of teacher 
 of mathematics, natural sciences, or modern lan- 
 guages. Many other points of importance re- 
 lating to secondary education were exhaustively 
 discussed; and Minister Fafk, in closing the con- 
 ference, said that the discussions of the meeting 
 would be taken into careful consideration by the 
 ministry of public instruction. 
 
 Teachers' Seminaries.— No class of the edu- 
 cational institutions of Germany has won more 
 general admiration than the teachers' seminaries. 
 Gradually developed in Prussia, through the 
 efforts of 1'iancke. Becker, and their successors, 
 
 they have now become the training schools in 
 
 which nearly all the teachers of the elementary 
 schools receive their education. All political 
 and even all religious parties, in Germany,agree 
 in attributing the highest importance to the 
 professional training of elementary teachers in 
 these seminaries : and the appreciation in which 
 
 they arc held abroad, is best attested by the 
 fact that the system has spread from Prussia 
 over the greater part of Europe and the civil- 
 ized world. (See Teachers' Seminaries.) The 
 age required for admission to these schools now 
 
 varies from the I It li to the lliih year. Admis- 
 sion is every-where made contingent upon the 
 result of a rigid examination, at which, in many 
 
 eases, a school councilor | N<//»/Vo/// ' is present. 
 
 The candidates receive the preparation needed 
 for the examination cither by private instruc- 
 
GERMANY 
 
 36' 
 
 tinii. or in special preparatory schools, called 
 Proseminarien or Praparandien. In the king- 
 dom of Saxony, these preparatory schools were, 
 in L874, organically united with the seminaries, 
 
 which dow have six classes. In Prussia, the 
 course of instinct ion. as well as the examination 
 of candidates, has been re-organized by theGen- 
 eral Regulations | Attgerm ine Bestimmungi n 
 Oct. 1"'.. L872. According to these regulations, 
 the royal seminaries have three classes. each with 
 an annual course of instruction. The two lower 
 classes are instructed in pedagogics (2 hours a 
 week), religion (1 h.). German language (5 b.), 
 arithmetic (•"> lu. geometry (2 h.), natural sci- 
 ence (4 h.), geography (2 h.i, history (2 h.i. mu- 
 sic (5 h.), drawing (2 h.i. penmanship (2 h. in 
 the lowest. 1 h. in the middle class), gymnastic 
 exereises (2 h.), either French or Latin, accord- 
 ing to the option of the pupils (3 h.). The 
 course of studies in the highest class drops pen- 
 manship, and devotes the same amount of time to 
 pedagogics, history, music, and gymnastic ex- 
 ercises, but reduces the time allowed for other 
 subjects (religion, 2 h. ; mother-tongue, 2 h. ; 
 arithmetic and geometry, 1 h.: natural science. 
 2 h.: geography, I h.; drawing, 1 h.; French or 
 Latin, 2 h.). In some of these subjects, the 
 course of studies is now more comprehensive 
 than formerly. Thus, the instruction required in 
 pedagogics, is henceforth, to embrace the most 
 important points of psychology. Instruction in 
 German must illustrate the divisions of lyric, 
 epic, didactic, and dramatic poetry. The pri- 
 vate reading of the pupils must especially be 
 devoted to the classic writers of the last three 
 centuries. In addition to the history of Ger- 
 many and Prussia, the pupils receive a course of 
 Greek and Roman history. — The course of in- 
 struction in the seminaries, in the other German 
 states (also in Austria), is, substantially, the 
 same. In the kingdom of Saxony, a new course 
 of studies was introduced in 1874, which makes 
 the stu ly of Latin a part of the regular course. 
 The other German states provide for no in- 
 struction in a foreign language; and Austria 
 provides for French only. — The number of 
 teachers' seminaries, iii L875, was (according to 
 Brachelli, Die Staaien Europa's, 1875), in 
 Prussia, 101, and in the other states, 73. The 
 total number of pupils in the Prussian semi- 
 naries, in May, 1875, was 6,456, being 1,670 more 
 than in 1*74. 
 
 The Universities. — The following list gives 
 the namesof all the universities of ( rermany, and 
 of the German part of Austria, arranged ac- 
 cording to the chronological order of their foun- 
 dation: Prague (1348), Vienna (1365), Eeidel- 
 _ (1386), Cologne (1388, discontinued in 
 1798), Erfurt (1392 -1816), Leipsic (1 t09), Ro- 
 le 1 1 U9),Greifswald(l 156), Freiburg (1 157), 
 [ngolstadl (1472, transferred to Landshut, in 
 L802, and to .Munich, in 1826), Treves (1472 
 —1798), Tubingen .1177:. Mayence (1477— 
 1790), Wittenberg L 502, transferred to Halle, in 
 1817), Frankfort on the Oder (1506, transferred 
 to Breslau, in L81 1 I, Marburg | L527), Konigal 
 
 (1544), Dillingen 1 15-19— 1804), Jena (15J 
 EJehnstadt (1576 — L809), Altorf, near Nurem 
 berg L809),Olmute(1581 L85! A\ iirtz- 
 
 burgl L582 ,Herboru(1584 L817),Gratz(1586), 
 Giessen (1601 . Paderborn L615 L803), Stadt- 
 hagen (1619 21), Rinteln (1621 L810), Salz- 
 burg (1622 L811), Osnabriick (1630 L63 
 Miinsto r i L631 . in L818 transferred to Bon 
 Bamberg (1648—1804), Duisburg (1655—1802 
 Kiel (1665), fnnspruck (1672), Lingen (1685 
 L819), Halle (1694), Breslau (1702), Fulda (1734 
 —1805), Gbttingen (1737), Erlangen (1743 . 
 Biitzow (1760- Berlin (1809), Bonn 
 
 L818), Munich (1826), Strasbourg (1872). The 
 early history of the German universities 
 
 in its essential features, with that of the uni- 
 versities of other nations. (See I 'm\m. lty.) At 
 first, a papal decree was regarded as indispen- 
 sable for their establishment; but, later, they 
 were established upon imperial authority, with 
 or without papal sanction; and. in 1495, the 
 emperor Maximilian granted to every elector 
 the right to establish one in his dominions. 
 The original classification of the students was 
 according to nationalities, each of which elected 
 a procurator; but. simultaneously, there existed 
 an organization according to the four facul- 
 ties. The rector of the university was. at first, 
 elected from the philosophical faculty, but. 
 soon after, in turn from each of the four 
 
 faculties. Every faculty elected a dean fr 
 
 the lecturing magistri, who, in their turn, 
 formed the faculty council. — The students of 
 Germany, like those of other countries, for- 
 merly gave a great deal of trouble by their riot- 
 ous and immoral conduct, as well as by some 
 abuses to which the younger students wen 
 subjected by the older. The student was intro- 
 duced to university life by a singula] i eremony, 
 called the beania, or deposition, which con- 
 sisted of a series of painful castigations. This 
 habit gave way to the still more absurd penned- 
 ism, which kept the freshman in a state of hu- 
 miliating servitude to the senior students. The 
 final suppression of pennolism and of the large 
 students' associations, by the united action of 
 the universities and governments, was attended 
 with considerable public disturbances, and led to 
 the formation of secret orders or associations 
 [Landsmannschaften or Corps), which tried to 
 perpetuate pennalism, or the dependence ol the 
 
 younger upon the older students in a modified 
 form. Each association elected, for the term of 
 one year, a senior, and the convention of seniors 
 [Seniorenconvent) represented the common in- 
 terests of these associations. A strong esprit 
 corps was. in this way. created and fostered 
 
 among the students, and many habits peculiar 
 to these German institutions were developed. 
 
 Among the worst of these habits was dueling, 
 
 which, in spiie of all the laws against it. has main- 
 tained itself, though not to the same extern 
 formerly, to the present day. The awakening of the 
 German people, which attended and followed the 
 national war against Napoleon. led. in 1815, to 
 the establishment of the Ilnrschenschqft, an as- 
 

 GERMANY 
 
 sociation of students, for promoting the moral 
 and intellectual condition of their country. 
 
 The modem German universities have main- 
 tained many of the characteristics of the earlier 
 limes, at least iii their general organization and 
 administration, while, as a matter of course, the 
 number and quality of the studies pursued 
 widely differ from the original .standard. The 
 leading characteristics of a larger German uni- 
 versity an> represented in the following account. 
 
 A university consists of the corporation of ordi- 
 nary and extraordinary professors, licensed pri- 
 vate lecturers [PrivalrDocenten), and the im- 
 matriculated students, besides the necessary 
 officials and their adjuncts. The studies pur- 
 sued are generally classified into four grand sub- 
 divisions, or faculties: the theological, the juris- 
 tical, the medical, and the philosophical : the last 
 embracing, besides mental philosophy, mathemat- 
 ics, the natural sciences, philology, history, and 
 cameralistics, or political and international econ- 
 omy. Bach faculty forms an independent sub- 
 division of the university. The general adminis- 
 tration of a university is intrusted to a select 
 body of professors, called the Senate, presided 
 over by the rector. The relative rank of the 
 professors is determined according to seniority 
 in office, like that of an ordinary professor at any 
 
 university. The several faculties are officially 
 
 repres snte I by the body of ordinary professors of 
 each discipline. In a wid •. the extra- 
 
 ordinary pi and prlvatim docentes are 
 
 also considered members of their respective 
 faculties. The faculties are obliged to exercise 
 a certain supervision over the attendance and 
 conduct of the students inscribed upon their 
 respective faculty rolls. Each faculty is respon- 
 sible for the completeness of the instruction 
 offered to students, within the limits of the 
 
 faculty studies, inasmuch as three (for students 
 
 of medicine, four) years must comprise a full 
 curriculum of the main studies pertaining to 
 each discipline. — -Each faculty annually elects 
 a dean for the administration of LtS special 
 affairs. The dean is the president and chief 
 executive officer of his faculty. The rector and 
 the senate are elected annually by a plenum 
 (full meeting) of the ordinary professors. The 
 
 senate usually consists of the rector, his im- 
 mediate predecessor in office, the faculty dean.-, 
 and five members elected from the number of 
 ordinary professors. This body, under the pres 
 
 idency of the rector, exercises supreme author- 
 ity in all matters concerning the university as a 
 
 whole, and the highest disciplinary powerrel- 
 ative to students. The rector is the highesl 
 functionary, and the foremosl representative, 
 
 of a university in all its external relations. 
 In the discharge of academic jurisdiction, a 
 syndic is added to the senate, who has the rank 
 
 of an ordinary professor. The syndic is the 
 professional adviser to rector and senate in all 
 
 questions relating to statute law or tO the state 
 
 constitution. Academic jurisdiction is vested 
 in the rector, the Byndic, or the full meet 
 ing of the Benate, according to the character of 
 
 the offense. Students are admitted to the uni- 
 versity and academic rights by the act of matric- 
 ulation. If a native, the student must produce 
 a certificate of graduation from a gymnasium; 
 if he is a foreigner, a certificate is required tes- 
 tifying to his good moral character. By the act 
 of matriculation, the student acquires all the 
 academic rights and privileges granted to stu- 
 dents by statute law. Disciplinary measures and 
 punishments, according to the nature of the 
 offense, are a private reprimand by the rector, 
 a public reprimand before the senate, incarcera- 
 tion, warning of the consilium abeundi (advice 
 to leave), the consilium abeundi proper (tem- 
 porary removal, mostly for one term, or six 
 months), and, lastly, the relegatio (expulsion), or 
 the relegatio cum infamia (dishonorable expul- 
 sion). Students expelled cum infamia cannot be 
 admitted to any other university. The right to 
 lecture is granted only to the appointed pro! 
 ors, ordinary or extraordinary, and authorized 
 private lecturers (Privat-Docenten), who must 
 have attained the degree of Doctor; or, in the 
 theological faculty, the degree of Licentiate. All 
 are carefully excluded from the privilege. of 
 hearing lectures, who have not attained the 
 necessary degree of mental or moral maturity, 
 more especially under-graduates of gymnasia, and 
 all who have forfeited their matriculation. 1 i 
 
 ures for the succeeding semes! publicly 
 
 announced before the termination of the current 
 semester. The first cours ares commei 
 
 in the fall of the year, at about the middle of 
 < tctober. and terminates towards the latter part 
 of .March: the second course commences in 
 beginning of April, and terminates in the latter 
 part of August. At the beginning of IsTT. the 
 German Empire had 20 compute universities, of 
 which 9 were in Prussia, 3, in Bavaria, '2 in 
 Baden, 1 each in Saxony. Wurtemberg, lb 
 Mecklenburg, Saxe Weimar. and Alsace- Lorraine. 
 The number of professors and students at each 
 
 of these universities, in L876, was as follows: 
 
 NAME 
 
 Berlin Prussia] , 
 
 Bonn •■ 
 
 rii slau " 
 
 Erlangen Bavaria 
 
 Freiburg Baden 
 
 < liessen I [esse , 
 
 Ingen Prussia 
 
 ( . ri Ifswald ■• 
 
 HaUe •• 
 
 i [eidelberg Baden 
 
 sa\,- Weimar 
 
 Prussia 
 
 I I migsberg (Prussia) 
 
 i .eipsic Saxonj i 
 
 Marburg Prussia) 
 
 M unich Bavaria) 
 
 Rostock Mecklenburg 
 
 Strasbourg Usace-Lorralne). 
 
 WUrtemberg 
 
 Wurtzburg Bavaria 
 
 Prod 
 
 Students 
 
 incl. of nou- 
 
 matrii ulated 
 
 hearers) 
 
 107 
 
 4,106 
 
 100 
 
 
 107 
 
 1.111 
 
 64 
 
 428 
 
 :,:; 
 
 294 
 
 54 
 
 359 
 
 116 
 
 1.006 
 
 57 
 
 469 
 
 96 
 
 888 
 
 
 488 
 
 7:t 
 
 
 Gl 
 
 215 
 
 83 
 
 C15 
 
 166 
 
 3.032 
 
 66 
 
 411 
 
 in; 
 
 1 .232 
 
 89 
 
 153 
 
 90 
 
 707 
 
 84 
 
 
 07 
 
 1,019 
 
 Each of these universities has the four time- 
 honored faculties. Bonn, Breslau, and Tubingen 
 
 have each two theological faculties, one Catholic 
 and one Protestant. Munich, "Wurtzburg, and 
 
GERMANY 
 
 369 
 
 Freiburg have only a faculty of Catholic theol 
 ogy; and each of the others, one of Protestant 
 theology. In addition to the four usual faculties, 
 thciv is. in Munich, Wurtzburg, and Tubingen, 
 one of political economy; and in Tubingen, one 
 of natural sciences. The academy of Minister, 
 which lias only two faculties (Catholic theology 
 and philosophy) is also classed among the uni- 
 versities. At the Swiss universities of Bern, 
 Basel, and Zurich, at the Russian university of 
 Dorpat, and at the Austrian universities of 
 Czernowitz, Grata, Innspruck, Prague, and 
 Vienna. the German language is exclusively or 
 predominantly in use. 
 
 Professional and Technical Instruction. — In 
 18".*), there were, in Germany, 10 technical, or 
 polytechnic, high schools; namely, (1) Berlin, the 
 Bau-Akademie (high school for architecture); 
 (2) Berlin, the Gewerbe-Akademie (departments 
 of machines and engineering, chemistry, mining, 
 and naval construction) ; (3) Hanover, prepara- 
 tory and polytechnic school, with 24 ordinary. .'! 
 extraordinary instructors, 6 assistants, and 633 
 students); (4) Aix-kt-Chapelle, general prepara- 
 tory school and special departments of architect- 
 ure, engineering, machines and mechanical tech- 
 nics, chemical technics, and mining, with 20 or- 
 dinary, 2 extraordinary, 15 assistant instructors, 
 and 467 students; (5) Munich, general introduc- 
 tory school, and departments for engineering, 
 architecture, mechanical technics, chemical tech- 
 nics, and agriculture, with 21 ordinary, 5 extra- 
 ordinary, 32 assistant instructors, 9 private lect- 
 urers, and 1053 students; (6) Dresden, general in- 
 troductory school; departments of engineering, 
 mechanics, architecture; chemical technics, math- 
 ematics, and natural sciences, with 20 ordinary, 
 5 extraordinary, 9 assistant instructors, 3 private 
 lecturers, and 3GG students ; (7) Stuttgart, de- 
 partments of architecture, engineering, machine 
 building, chemical technics, mathematics, natural 
 sciences, with 23 ordinary, 25 assistant, 11 private 
 instructors, and 537 students; (8) Carter uhe, de- 
 partments of mathematics, engineering, machine 
 building mechanical technics, architecture, chem- 
 istry and chemical technics, and forestry, with 
 35 ordinary, 1 extraordinary, 10 assistant in- 
 structors, L private lecturer, and G10 students: 
 (!)) Darmstadt, a general preparatory school and 
 departments of architecture, engineering, ma- 
 chine building, chemical technics, mathematics, 
 and natural sciences, with 28 ordinary and 4 as- 
 sistant instructors, and L79 students; (10) Bruns- 
 wick, a general preparatory school of arts and sci- 
 ences; departments of architecture, engineering, 
 machine building, chemical technics, pharmacy, 
 and forestry, with 2 1 ordinary and 5 assistant 
 instructors. and 1 53 st udents. There are also tech- 
 nical academies at Cassel, Nienburg, and other 
 places. ( >f technical schools, there were, in 1 875, in 
 Prussia, 32 provincial technical schools (Gewerbe- 
 Schulen) ; in Bavaria, 36 (including commercial 
 and agricultural schools); in Saxony, 9j and in 
 Saxe Coburg-Gotha, 3. 
 
 Scientific Instruction. — Military Academies. — 
 There are schools of military science, especially 
 21 
 
 for the education of general-staff officers, at Ber- 
 lin and Munich; the imperial naval academy and 
 school at Kiel; and, for the education of army 
 officers, the combined artillery and military en 
 gineering schools at Berlin and Munich, the war 
 schools at Potsdam, Erfurt, Neisse, Engers,< lassel, 
 
 Hanover. Anclani, Met/., and Munich, and tin' 
 several cadet corps in different states: also the 
 military surgical institute, and veterinary school 
 at Berlin. There are numerous military schools for 
 non-commissioned officers throughout the Ger- 
 man states. — Veterinary academies are estab- 
 lished at Berlin, Munich, and Hanover; acad- 
 emies of forestry, at Neustadt-Eberswalde, Mu- 
 nich, Tharandt, Hohenheim, and Aschaffenburg; 
 mining academies, at Freibergand Clausthal 
 sides departments for mining engineering at the 
 polytechnic schools at Berlin and Aix-la-( Ihapelle; 
 agricultural academies, at Berlin, Bofgeisberg, 
 Gottingen, Eldena (near Greifswald), Proskau 
 (near Oppeln), Poppelsdorf (near Bonn), Tha- 
 randt, Hohenheim (near Stuttgart), and Weiben- 
 stephan ; and pomological institute* at Proskau 
 and Geisenheim. Schools of navigation exist at 
 Memel, Pillau, Dantaic, Grabow (Stettin), Barth, 
 I Stralsund, Altona, Flensburg, Apenrade, Geeste- 
 nxiind, Leer, Papenburg, Emden, and Timmel; 
 also 7 preparatory nautical schools. There are con- 
 servatories of music, at Berlin. Munich, and nu- 
 merous other cities; and commercial colleges ( 1 5 
 at Dantzic, Berlin, Breslau, Dresden, Leipsic (2), 
 I hemnitz, Zwickau, Gera, Liibcck, Osnabriick, 
 Hildeshcim, Hanover, Munich, and Nuremberg. 
 — The institutions for special instruction arc the 
 following: (1) for the deaf and dumb; in Prus- 
 sia, 37; Bavaria, 12; Saxony, 3: Wurtemberg, 1: 
 Baden, 2 ; Hesse, 2; Mecklenburg, Oldenburg. 
 Saxe Weimar, Anhalt, Brunswick, Saxe < loburg- 
 Gotha, Saxe Meiningen, Reuss, and Hamburg, 
 each 1; (2) for the blind: in Prussia. 1 5; Bavaria, 
 3; Saxony, 2 ; Wurtemberg, 2; Baden, Hesse, 
 Mecklenburg, each 1; other states, G; in all, 31. 
 
 Educational J' uhlicatic.-is. — In 1873, there 
 were published in the German empire 84 papers 
 devoted to education (Prussia. 41 ; other German 
 states, 43). — See Sciimih. Encyclopddie, articles 
 Preussen, Baueru, Sachscu, Wurtemberg, Han- 
 nover, Baden, etc.; Rauher, Geschichie der 
 Pddagogik (Engl, trans, by Barnard); Schmidt, 
 Geschicnte der Pddagogik] Barnard, National 
 
 Education, vol. I.; Circulars of Information of 
 
 the Bureau of Education, No. 2 (Washington. 
 L874); Wdsse, Verordnungen una Gesetzefur 
 die hd'hern Schulen in Preussen. The Pada- 
 gogischer Jahresbericht, edited by Dittes (vol. 
 xxviii.. Leipsic. 1876, embracing the year 1875 . 
 and the Ghronik des Volksschulwesens, edited by 
 Seypfarth (vol. xi., Gotha, 1876, embracing the 
 year 1875), give, from year to year, a very full 
 account of the progress of education in all the 
 German states. The fullest statistical account 
 of secondary instruction is given in MusHACKE, 
 Deutscher Schul-Kalender (vol. sxv., Leipsic, 
 1 376; edited by .Icnnei: and the fullest account 
 of the German universities, in Deutsches akade- 
 misches Jala-buck (vol. in, Leips., lb7G). 
 
370 
 
 GESNER 
 
 GIFTS 
 
 GESNER, Johann Matthias, a German 
 educator, born April !•.. L691 ; died A.ug. 3., 
 1761. Ilf studied at Jena, and after holding 
 several minor positions, became, in L730, rector 
 of the celebrated Thomas School, in Leipsie. 
 This lie found in a very low condition, both in 
 respect to studies and discipline; but, in a few- 
 years, he succeeded in restoring its former repu- 
 tation. In L734, he accepted a call to the new 
 university of Gottingen, where, in the position of 
 
 professor of ancient literature, lie exerted great 
 influence upon the progress of philosophy in 
 Germany, and contributed to a thorough reform 
 of tlie literary institutions of a higher grade, lie 
 was intrusted with the establishment of the first 
 philological seminary, and was appointed in- 
 spector of all the Hanoverian schools.- two 
 offices for which his former labors eminently fitted 
 him. In 1 7")". he drew up the new school - 
 illations, in which he embodied the experience-, ol 
 his life as a teacher, and the results of a mature 
 study of the proper organization of classical 
 schools. He favored the views of Ratich (4. v.), 
 Comenius (q. v.), and Locke (q.v.), as to the 
 best method of facilitating the study of languages 
 and making it attractive. Notwithstanding his 
 great official industry, he wrote a large number 
 of important works on pedagogy and philology, 
 besides publishing valuable editions of the clas- 
 sics. — See J. .M. Gesner, Educational Views in 
 Barnard's Journal of Educ iii<>n. 
 
 GIFTS, Kindergarten, the term used by 
 I'Yoehel to designate the apparatus devised by 
 him for kindergarten instruction, inasmuch as 
 they are not used by the teacher but given to the 
 children, as the material for interesting and in- 
 structive occupation, by the manipulation of 
 which their faculties are unfolded in accordance 
 with the developing method (q.v.). These gifts 
 are grouped in sets, numbered from 1 to 20, and 
 include the following, of which, however, Nos. 8 
 to 20 did not originate with Froebel directly: 
 il 1 Six soft balls of various colors, the object of 
 
 the use of which is to teach color 'primary and 
 secondary Land direction | foiw -inland backward. 
 right and left, up and down): also to train the 
 eye. and to exercise the hands, arms, and feel in 
 various plays. (2) SpJiere, cube, and cylinder, 
 designed to teach form, by directing the atten- 
 tion of the child to resemblances and differ- 
 ences in objects. This is done by pointing out. 
 explaining, and counting the sides, edges, and 
 corners of the cube, and by showing how it dif- 
 fers, in these respects, from the sphere and cylin- 
 der. The manipulation by the child should of 
 
 COUr3e. precede this demonstration by the teacher. 
 The child's self-activity will prompl it to place 
 1I1 -c forms in various positions and combina- 
 tions, so as to realize in its conceptions every thing 
 that is analogous or dissimilar in them. (3) \ 
 large cube dn ided into eighl equal cubes, the ob- 
 ject being to teach both form and number, also 
 ivea rudimental idea of fractions. (4) A large 
 cube divided into eight oblong blocks, designed 
 to teach number and a simple variety of form 
 (cube and parallelopipi >) \ large cube 
 
 divided into 27 equal cubes, three of the latter 
 being subdivided into half cubes, and three others 
 into quarter cubes (forming triangular prisms). 
 This is a further continuation and complement 
 of (3), but affording much ampler means of 
 combination both as to form and number. 
 
 (6) A. large cube so divided as to consist of IS 
 w hole oblong blocks, three similar blocks divided 
 lengthwise, and six divided breadthwise. — a still 
 further continuation of the ideas involved in (3). 
 
 (7) Triangular and quadrangular tablets of 
 polished wood, affording the means of further 
 exercise in reversing the position of tonus and 
 combining them ; and presenting, in addition. 
 illustrations of plane surfaces, instead of solids, 
 as in the previous gifts. 'I his arrangement, 
 placing the surfaces after the solids, recognizes 
 
 an important principle of education, that we 
 
 should pass from the concrete to the abstract 
 - Form), the square being a side of the cube, 
 
 and a triangle deduced from the prism. (8) Sticks 
 forlaying, — wooden sticks about 13 inches long, 
 to be (ait into various lengths by the teacher or 
 pupil, as occasion may require. These sticks. 
 like most of the previous gifts, are designed to 
 teach numerical proportions. The multiplication 
 table may be practically learned by means of 
 this gift. The forms of the letters of the alpha- 
 bet, and the Roman and Arabic numerals, may 
 also be learned. (9) Rings fur ring-laying, 
 consisting of whole ami half rings of various 
 sizes, in wire, for forming figures; designed to 
 
 develop further ideas of form, also to afford a 
 
 means for developing the constructiveness of the 
 pupils, and practice in composing simple de- 
 signs. (10) Drawing slates and paper, consist- 
 ing of slates ruled in squares, and paper ruled 
 in squares, for the purpose of enabling the 
 pupil to draw or copy simple figures, in a 
 methodical manner, the ruling aiding them in 
 the adjustment of proportions. (Ill Perforat- 
 ing paper, ruled in squares on one side only, 
 with perforating needles, affording more ad- 
 vanced practice in producing forms, and execut- 
 ing simple designs. | L2 Embroidering material, 
 io lie used for transferring the designs executed 
 on the perforating paper, by embroidering them 
 with colored worsted or silk on card board. 
 (13) Paper for cutting: squares of paper arc 
 folded, «ut according to certain rules. and formed 
 
 into 6gUres. The child's inclination for using 
 the scissors is thus ingeniously turned to account. 
 
 and made to produce very gratifying results. 
 II Weaving paper: strips of colored paper 
 are, by means of a steel or wooden needle of 
 peculiar construction, woven into a differently 
 colore. I sheet of paper, w hich is cut into Strips 
 throughout its entire surface. except a margin at 
 each end to keep the strips in their places. A 
 very great variety of figures is thus produced. 
 and the inventive powers of the child are con- 
 stantly broughl into requisition. (15) Plaiting 
 material, including sets of Bats for interlacing 
 so as 1.1 form geometrical and fancy figures. 
 (16) Jointed slats (gonigraphs), for forming 
 angles and geometrical figures. (See Com.,!, vph). 
 
(JIUARD 
 
 GLOIJK 
 
 37] 
 
 (17) Paper for intertwining: paper strips of 
 various colors, eight or i>'ii inches long, folded 
 lengthwise, used to represent a variety of geo- 
 metrical and fancy figures, by plaiting them ac- 
 cording to certain rules. (18) Paper for fold- 
 ing, consisting of Bquare, rectangular, and tri- 
 angular pieces, with which variously shaped ob- 
 jects may be formed. (19) Material for peas 
 work, consisting of wires of various lengths 
 pointed at the ends, which are passed through 
 peas, that have been soaked in water for six or 
 eight hours; these are then used to imitate 
 various objects and geometrical figures. Cork 
 cubes are sometimes used instead of the peas, as 
 being more convenient. (20) Material for 
 modeling: modeling knives, of wood, and model- 
 ing boards, by means of which various forms are 
 modeled in bees-wax, clay, putty, or some other 
 soft substance. -These gifts thus represent every 
 kind of technical activity, from the mere collec- 
 tion of the raw material to the delicate processes 
 of design as well as plastic art. They are designed 
 to develop not only the constructive ability of 
 the pupil, through his natural impulse to activ- 
 ity, and by the exercise of the faculty of con- 
 ception, so characteristic of childhood, but by 
 their countless combinations of color and form 
 to lay the foundation for a complete develop- 
 ment of the esthetic nature. They address, at 
 once, his intellect, his emotions, and his physical 
 activities ; while, as the child works out the re- 
 sults himself, he gains confidence in his own 
 ability to surmount obstacles, and thus learns an 
 enduring lesson of self-reliance. Kindergarten 
 gifts and occupation material suitable for schools 
 or families, are put up in sets and sold in 
 boxes, convenient, for use. — See A. Dor.vi, Tlie 
 Kindergarten (Xew York); E. P. Peabody, 
 Kindergarten Guide (New York, 1869) ; H. 
 Hoffmann. Kindergarten Toys, and how to use 
 them (New York) ; Arc;. Kceuler, Der Kinder- 
 garten in seinem Wesen dargesteUt (X. Y.); and 
 Die Praxis des Kindergartens (Weimar) : M. 
 II. Kriege, Friedrich Froebel (X. Y., 1876). 
 
 GIRARD, Gregoire, a Swiss educator, 
 born Dec. 17., 1763; died March 6., 1850. lie 
 entered the Franciscan order in his .sixteenth 
 year, studied theology in Wurtzburg, and after 
 b iug ordained as priest, held several positions as 
 a teacher. He paid special attention to the 
 common-school system, which in his native canton 
 of Fribourg was in a poor condition; and he 
 drew up a plan for the re-organization of the 
 pnlilic-school system of all Switzerland, which, 
 however, was not adopted by the federal authori- 
 ties. In 1804, he returned to Fribourg to take 
 Hiarge of the schools of that city. He remained 
 in that position up to I su:5, when he resigned 
 in consequence of a quarrel with the church 
 authorities. From 1827 to L834, he was pro- 
 ior of philosophy in Lucerne; but, after the 
 jatterdate,he lived in retirement in his monastery 
 in Fribourg. His administration of the schools 
 of Fribourg attracted the attention of many of 
 die friends of education throughout Europe, lie 
 paid particular attention to the teaching of re- 
 
 ligion and language. In the former, he ignored 
 the docti particular denominations, and 
 
 favored general instruction in the fundamental 
 principles of the < bxistian religion. I!i views 
 on this subject are laid down in the Premieres 
 notions de religion, which be declared was not 
 a catechism, but an introduction to a catechism. 
 He also embraced Pestalozzi's views on the 
 
 teaching of languages, making the study of the 
 
 mother tongue the basis of all instruction. Father 
 Girard favored very much the system of mutual 
 instruction as practiced by Dr. Bell (q. v.) and 
 Joseph Lancaster (q. v.) ; indeed, he is regarded 
 as the founder of that system in Switzerland. 
 As an illustration of its efficacy, be said that 
 ••when he met with difficulty in explaining anj 
 word or subject to a child, he often called in a 
 boy more advanced to aid him, and usually found 
 him to succeed entirely, even when all his own 
 efforts had failed." Set- Xavii.i.k. Notice biogra- 
 phique surle I'. Girard (< Seneva, 1850); < Iir \i;i>. 
 The Mother Tongue, Engl, trans, i Lond., 1847). 
 GIRLS, Education of. See Female Em - 
 
 CATION. 
 
 GLOBE, Artificial (Latin, globus), a hol- 
 low sphere, made of metal, plaster, or pasteboard, 
 used as a model of the earth, and having deline- 
 ated upon it all the various natural and political 
 divisions of the terrestrial surface, together with 
 the circles, etc., used in mathematical geography. 
 Through its center, runs an iron axis the two 
 ends of which project, and are fastened to a circle. 
 or ring, of brass, within which the globe can be 
 turned around. This ring, called the bra 
 meridian, is graduated so as to indicate degrees 
 of latitude, and by rotating the globe can be 
 made to represent the meridian of any place. 
 The artificial globe is also usually surrounded 
 with a broad horizontal ring of wood, called the 
 wooden horizon, which has two slots in which 
 the meridian. and with it the globe move, so that 
 either pole may be elevated or depressed, and the 
 horizon adapted to any place. The upp< r surface 
 of the wooden horizon is divided into several 
 concentric circles, representing degrees of .ampli- 
 tude and azimuth, signs of the zodiac, the points 
 of the compass, the divisions of the year into 
 months and days, etc. Such a globe is called a 
 terrestrial globe. A celestial globe differs from it 
 in representing the appearance of the starry 
 heavens, constellations, etc., as if seen from the 
 center of the globe. Globes of much simpler 
 construction are made tor elementary instruction. 
 
 The artificial globe is supposed to have been 
 invented by Anaximander, about 580 I!. C. 
 Rules for the use of the terrestrial globe were 
 first given by Ptolemy, L50 A. I). 'I he two old- 
 est globes now extant (both celestial globes] are 
 
 of Arabic construction. One made in L225, is 
 preserved in the museum of Cardinal Borgia at 
 Velletri; the other, made in L289, is preserved in 
 die mathematical hall of Dresden. In die L5tb 
 
 century, the use of globes in schools rapidly in- 
 creased, and among those who distinguished 
 
 themselves in their construction, are mentioned 
 Martin Belicius, Gerhard Mercator, and Tj 
 
372 
 
 GLOBE 
 
 GOETHE 
 
 Brahe. The most celebrated globe is the so-called 
 Go ttorp globe, which was constructed, by order 
 of the duke of Holstein-Gottorp, by Olearius and 
 Busch, in 1664. ; t was 11 feel in diameter, and 
 was at first set up in Gottorp, near Schleswig, 
 whence it was, in L713, transferred to St. Peters- 
 burg. The national library in Paris has two 
 globes over II feel in diameter; and the Mazann 
 library and the museum of the Louvre have each 
 <i magnificent copper globe. The georama is a 
 peculiar and colossal kind of globe which bears 
 the delineation of places, etc., on the inner sur- 
 face. A globe of this kind, 51 feet in diameter, 
 was constructed in 1851 by Mr. Wyld, in Lon- 
 don. An attempt to combine the terrestrial and 
 the celestial globe was made by Lohse, in Ham- 
 burg, in 1829, the terrestrial globe being inclosed 
 in a glass sphere bearing on its surface deli neat ions 
 of the constellations. A similar globe was con- 
 structed and patented in New York in 1867. 
 Globes have also been made of india rubber, to 
 be inflated for use: others of thin card-paper, 
 made in sections, so as to be folded up and laid 
 away when not needed. Embossed globes show, 
 in exaggerated relief, the elevations and depres- 
 sions of the earth's surface. The Jtand hemi- 
 spJiereglobe is very useful for elementary instruc- 
 tion; it consists of two half-globes, or hemi- 
 spheres, connected by a hinge, each ilat surface 
 containing a planisphere map of the correspond- 
 ing convex surface. This arrangement shows the 
 learner at once the relation of map to globe, also 
 why the lines on the map which represent the 
 circles must be curved. It is usually made so 
 .small that it can be passed from hand to hand 
 while the teacher is explaining the lesson. The 
 wall hemisphere globe is designed to afford a 
 similar illustration. It is so constructed that the 
 two hemispheres can be hung u|> side by side. 
 against a wall, an I contrasted with hemisphere 
 maps, suspended above. Globes without any 
 auxiliary appendages, such as stand, meridian, etc. 
 arc often constructed so as to rest on brackets, 
 and thus form pari of the esthetic decoration of 
 the school room, when not in use. Globes having 
 a black slate surface - slated globes — are \er\ 
 
 useful formany kinds of instruction. In using 
 these globes, the pupil draws the circles merit] 
 
 ians, equator, and parallels, and delineates the 
 
 countries, etc, with chalk, either from a map or 
 
 from memory. The knowledge of gebgraphj 
 thus acquired is more practical, and is more per- 
 manently based on the intelligent conceptions of 
 the pupil. These globes are of greal use in the 
 study of advanced geography, as well as in that 
 ot spherical geometry, trigonometry, navigation, 
 etc. Excellent globes, of every pattern and de 
 Bcription, are made bj Schedler, of New Fork, 
 who has invented a method of manufacture, 
 which renders them quite cheap and exceedingly 
 durable. Thej arc also remarkable for the scien- 
 tific accuracy of their delineations. 
 
 The globe has many advantages over the map. 
 as an apparatus for teaching geography, because 
 
 (1) it represents the earth in its natural form, 
 an 1 how clear!} the relation of each and e\cry 
 
 part of its surface to the whole : hence, its use 
 should always precede that of the map; (2) it 
 affords a 1 letter means of explaining those points 
 and mathematical lines a clear conception of the 
 use of which forms the very groundwork of geo- 
 graphical science ; (•'!) by means of it the teacher 
 
 can illustrate the earth's motions, the causes of 
 
 the seasons, day and night, etc. ; and (4) many 
 useful problems may be solved by means of it. 
 as finding the longitude and latitude of places. 
 
 the difference of time, the time of sunrise and 
 sunset, and the length of the day at particular 
 places, etc. Pupils in geography and astronomy 
 should be thoroughly practiced in the working 
 out of these problems on the globe, sii.ee they 
 not only gain thereby much useful information, 
 but acquire clear and durable conceptions of the 
 elementary principles involved. 
 
 GOETHE, Johann Wolfgang- von, an 
 illustrious German poet, critic, and thinker, horn 
 in Frankfort on the Main. Aug. 28., L749; died 
 in Weimar. March 22., 1832. lie was educated 
 
 at the universities of Leipsic and Strasburg, and, 
 in I 77"), at the solicitation of the < Jrand Duke of 
 Saxe-Weimar, whose interest in him had been 
 aroused by his novel. The Sorrows qfWerther, he 
 
 visited Weimar, which he afterwards made his 
 
 permanent residence. Philosophy, history, sci- 
 ence, art, almost every subject of inquiry, in fact, 
 claimed his attention, and led to frequent publica- 
 tions in the shape of novels, histories, plays, and 
 poems. It is to ( Joethe that botany owes one of its 
 fundamental conceptions, now generally admitted, 
 that the various parts of a flower are modified 
 leaves. With regard toeducation, Goethe's idea 
 was. that its great.aim should be the development 
 and preservation of individuality. Every child is 
 different fromeverj other, and has special powers 
 
 of its own: and the value of education consists in 
 
 maintaining and developing these individual 
 
 differences, and not in producing a dead level of 
 
 character. The necessity of education lies in the 
 fact that the child is undeveloped; and educa- 
 tional efforts must all be based on the principle 
 that the germs of knowledge are in tin' soul. 
 I bin e. all true development must lie from within 
 
 outward. Education is not a pouring of knowl- 
 edge into the mind, as into an empty vessel, 
 hut the development of faculties which are 
 already there, as the growth of a plant from the 
 seed. 'I his development, too, must be general, in 
 all directions. To cultivate any one faculty at 
 the expense of others, produces monsters, not 
 
 men. Nothing was more repulsive to Goethe 
 than the mechanical, atheist ie conception of the 
 
 world. He insisted upon finding an ever-present 
 Divinity in both nature and life. The recogni- 
 tion of this constitutes religion, and should be the 
 
 aim of all education. This feeling should be SO 
 
 cultivated, that no circumstances can disturb in 
 us a conscious sense of the Divine. Religious tea< h- 
 ing should begin in the earliest childhood: not, 
 however, by means of the catechism, or anj other 
 form of dogmatic instruction: but the child's 
 imagination must be made familiar with the 
 conception of a Divine Spirit underlying and 
 
 
GONHM! MM I 
 
 GOVERNMENT 
 
 373 
 
 interfusing every form of life. Ethics refer to 
 moral conduct; hence, ethical culture must chiefly 
 consist in practicing the good. Merely forbidding 
 tlic bad ts useless. Activity is a condition of 
 moral as well asof physical health. Of all schools 
 of morals and religion, the family is the most 
 important. A low groveling home life will 
 render all other teaching worthless. Next to the 
 Bible, familiarity with the history of the great 
 and good is tho must important moans of moral 
 ami religious culture. Instruction in the narrower 
 sense <>f imparting knowledge must be rather 
 synthetic than analytic Building tip teaches 
 more than tearing down. Classical study is 
 practically worthless so long as it is conducted 
 solely by grammar and dictionary. We must 
 work ourselves into the life of classical times in 
 order to understand them. The study of Greek 
 literature he regarded as far superior, for 
 purposes of culture, to Latin literature ; beeaus ■ 
 the Greeks were far broader men. They saw 
 nature and life in all their aspects; while the 
 Romans saw only man ; and him they regarded 
 only as a warrior or a slave. Goethe did nothing 
 for the systematic development of pedagogy. 
 His views in regard to teaching are scattered 
 through his works, ami consist of hints rather 
 than formulated rules. The great endeavor of 
 his philosophy is to mediate between individual- 
 ism and the stern necessities of society. — See 
 Schmidt, Geschichte der Pddagogik. 
 
 GONIGRAPH (Gr. yuvia, an angle, and 
 iv, to write), an instrument used in kinder- 
 garten exercises and in object-teaching, to illus- 
 trate the nature and formation of angles and 
 polygons. It consists of a series of narrow 
 jointed slats of equal length, by the different 
 combinations of which, figures of various shapes 
 may be formed. The number of slats, or links, 
 varies from .'5 to as many as 1(>, or even more. 
 As a piece of kindergarten apparatus {gift), the 
 gonigraph may be made the means of much 
 instructive entertainment to a young child, who 
 from its manipulation will acquire ideas of a 
 great variety of figures. In the more advanced 
 object-teaching, in connection with the subject 
 oiform, it will be found very useful, as well as 
 attractive. Gonigraphs are usually sold in sets 
 as a part of the apparatus necessary for kinder- 
 garten work. (See ( rIFTS.) 
 
 GONZAGA COLLEGE, at Washington, 
 D. ('.. was incorporated in 1858. It was for- 
 merly known as the Washington Seminary. It 
 is conducted by the Fath rs of the Society of 
 Jesus. The college is intended for day scholars 
 only, irrespective of creed or religious profession. 
 The entire course covers seven years, comprising 
 a preparatory and a collegiate department, with 
 "a classical and a non-classical course of study. 
 In 1ST") — (i. there were 5 instructors and L07 
 students. 'Hi. library contains 10,000 volumes. 
 The cost of tuition is $10 per quarter in either 
 course. The Rev. Charles 1\. Jenkins, S. J., is 
 I B76) the president. 
 GOODRICH, Samuel Griswold, better 
 known as /'</•■/■ Parley, was born in Etidgefield, 
 
 <'t.. Aug. 1!).. L793, and died in New York. 
 May!*.. L860. lie was a voluminous writer, 
 more especially of juvenile books, comprising his- 
 tories, books of travel, geographies, and illustra- 
 tive works on the arts and sciences. Some of 
 
 his books, especially the histories, an- still used 
 as text-books in schools, and Spanish and Por- 
 tuguese translations of some of them have found 
 
 their way into South American institutions. In 
 1841, he established Merry's Museum <n,<l Par- 
 ley's Magazine, a periodical for youth, which he 
 conducted for thirteen years. Ili> principal edu- 
 cational works are Fireside Education (1841 land 
 Illustrated Natural History of the Animal King- 
 dom (Isj!)). in 1 85J, he was appointed United 
 States ( 'onsul at Paris. 
 
 GOVERNESS, or Governante (I'r. Gour 
 vernante), a woman employed as a resident 
 tutoress in a family, to conduct the education of 
 children or young women. The employment of 
 governesses began in the second half of the 17th 
 century, when the French language and manners 
 came into use among the upper classes of sot ietj 
 throughout Europe. When a young lady who 
 was not able to speak French fluently, and was 
 not fully conversant with Paris fashions, came to 
 be looked upon as lacking in refinement, it was 
 natural that mothers should he anxious to secure 
 the services of French teachers, especially Paris- 
 ians, to ejve to their daughters the requisite 
 training. The practice of employing governesses 
 became, in a short time, equally common in 
 England, Germany, and Russia. When this 
 mode of educating young girls became popular, 
 governesses were no longer exclusively taken 
 from France, especially after the social ascend- 
 ency of the French, in consequence of the revolu- 
 tion, had begun to decline. Then native gover- 
 nesses came into demand: and Germany and 
 Switzerland began to compete with France in 
 the sending of young women of education to 
 England and Russia to seek a livelihood in this 
 manner. The development which female educa- 
 tion has since reached, has very considerably 
 diminished the number and influence of gover- 
 nesses in Germany, and to some extent, also in 
 Russia, since in both countries a steadily increasing 
 number of girls and young women receive their 
 education in seminaries and high schools estab- 
 lished for the purpose. In France itself, where a 
 governess is usually called instilulrice, the cum- 
 ber of governesses has always been comparatively 
 smaller than in England, Germany, or Russia. In 
 the United States, a larger proportion of young 
 women than in any European country, finish their 
 education in female academies and high schools, 
 and move recently in colleges to which both sexes 
 are admitted. ( >nly iii England has the employ- 
 ment of governesses, to any considerable extent. 
 been maintained. Governesses are generally pro- 
 fessional teachers who have received their educa- 
 tion in burning schools ; ami in French Switzer- 
 land, there are special schools for the instruction 
 of governesses, 
 
 GOVERNMENT, School, like the govern- 
 ment of a state, must be based upon the est 
 
 
:;71 
 
 GOVERNMENT 
 
 Jiahment of authority (q. v.), which includes not 
 only the right to make laws, but the power, as 
 well as the right, to execute them. These powerSj 
 in every civilized state and community, are dis- 
 tributed among different persons, so as to pre- 
 vent centralized authority leading to despotism ; 
 but, in the little community of the school room, 
 i hey must, td a greater or less extent, be possessed 
 by one person. General rules for the manage- 
 ment of a school, it is true, may be prescribed by 
 the school officers to whom the teacher is ame- 
 nable : hut the actual government of the school, 
 that which converts it from a chaotic, disorder- 
 ly crowd of children into a regular organization, 
 under control and discipline, must be exclusively 
 the work of the teacher, hence called the school- 
 master. Formerly, the powers of a .school-master 
 were much less limited than they are at present : 
 i tdeed, they were almost absolute, the law, as in 
 the case of parental government, only stepping 
 in to protect the child from injury to lire or 
 limb. At the present time, the teacher's author- 
 it] is carefully hedged around not only by the 
 law. hut by the rides of school boards and super 
 intendents, so that the complaint is sometimes 
 made by the teacher that he has scarcely enough 
 authority let; to enable him to govern his school. 
 The policy of circumscribing the authority 
 
 teacher to so great an extent is an unwise 
 one, and endangers not only the efficiency of the 
 school as an organization, bu1 destroys its effi- 
 cacy as an instrument of education. Besides, 
 
 it implies that the teacher is unlit to exercise 
 
 authority, either by lack of competency or of 
 
 i' Hiscjeiitiousness, which is equivalent to pro- 
 
 n Mincing him unfit to he a teacher at all. 
 
 The character of the school government de- 
 
 p ■nds upon the manner a- well as the degree in 
 which the teacher's authority is established : and 
 til/ influence of the school upon the intellectual 
 
 . I moral character of its pupils will depend 
 upon the kind of government maintained. No 
 School can be efficient without order (q. v.), and 
 order can only result from judicious and effect ive 
 
 »ver ent. The latter must, in all cases. depend 
 
 Mir the rules or requirements laid down, 
 (2) the manner in which they are enforced. 
 Government is often impaired by unwise l< 
 I it ion unwise in the kind of laws enacted, or in 
 
 ir number. The rules made for the govern- 
 
 iit of a school should lie as tew and as simple 
 
 possible. A multiplicity of set regulations 
 
 - the pupils, and tends to multiply 
 
 offenses. Besides, the children, bj the habit of 
 
 aplying with a kind of written law. arc apt 
 to think every thing right that is not Bpecificallj 
 forbidden, and thus fail to exercise their con 
 science; that is. in their attention to the mala 
 prohibits, they lose sighl of the mala per se. 
 ■ If a school," says D. P. Page, "is to be governed 
 by a code of laws, the pupils will act upon the 
 principle that whatever is not proscribed i> 
 admissible. Consequently, without inquiring 
 whether an acl is right, their only inquiry will 
 be, is il forbidden? Now, no teacher was ever 
 ye1 is to make la everj case ; the 
 
 consequence is, he is daily perplexed with un- 
 foreseen troubles,or with some ingenious evasions 
 of his inflexible code. In all this matter, the 
 , worst feature is the fact that the child judges 
 I of his acts by the law of the teacher rather than 
 by the law of his conscience, and is thus in 
 danger of perverting and blunting the moral 
 sense." Government by positive enactments is, 
 therefore, to he dispensed with as much as 
 possilile : hut such rules as are made should be 
 strictly and uniformly enforced. These rules con- 
 stitute what may lie called school legislation, 
 and arc not to lie confounded with requirements 
 of a less formal character, which the pupil's own 
 intelligence and sense of right are to be trained 
 to recognize without particular enunciation, nor 
 with those moral precepts which arc addressed 
 
 rather to the pupil as an individual, and there- 
 fore do not directly concern the organization of 
 the school. We here treat of school govern- 
 ment in the strict sense of the term. In the 
 enforcement of school legislation, however, we- 
 ar.- to keep in view the good of the pupil as 
 well as the good of the school, hut primarily 
 
 the latter. The principle is this: The school 
 is an organization designed to he the means 
 of affording an education to a large numbe 
 
 of pupils, and the school laws are made t.> 
 protect that organization, and render it effective 
 in the carrying out of its proper object : hence. 
 
 the Welfare of the school must he paiailloUllt 
 to that of any individual pupil. The violation 
 of a rule may, indeed, be sometimes overlooked 
 without injury to the offender, perhaps to his 
 beuefit; but, as such a course tends to weaken 
 or destroy the school government, the law must 
 he uniformly enforced. Xo enforcement of law- 
 can he accomplished without the punishment of 
 the offender; hence, the kind of school punish- 
 ments that are suitable under the various cir- 
 cumstances that arise becomes a matter for the 
 careful consideration of the teacher. Whether 
 
 in enforcing obedience to wholesome regulations, 
 
 corporal punishment should In- resorted to. and. 
 
 if so. to what extent and in what manner, forms 
 
 an important part of the general discussion 
 ol school government. (See Corporal Pi msh- 
 mext.) hut there must he prevention as well as 
 correction rewards, as incentives to obedience 
 
 and good conduct, as well as punishments to 
 chastise the wrong-doer, and deter others from 
 wrong-doing. A system of rewards has a very 
 important bearing upon school government when 
 they are dispensed with uniformity and equity. 
 
 Under this head are included merit marks. certif- 
 icates and diplomas of proficiency and good con- 
 duct, and prizes. Many questions arise in connec- 
 tion with the ad mit list rati »f school government 
 
 in this respect. (See Prizes.) The general efficacy 
 
 and propriety of rewards cannot he doubted. 
 
 They appeal to a principle of human nature uni- 
 versally operative. "Whatever," says Jewell, "maj 
 be possible in the mature man. iii the line of that 
 sublime abstraction, 'Virtue is its own reward. 
 the child is neither equal to such abstractions, 
 nor are they demanded >>f him." (See Rewarj 
 
GOVERNMENT 
 
 GRADED schools 
 
 375 
 
 The efficacy of school government must depend 
 very much on the manner in which the teacher 
 exercises the authority conferred upon him in 
 virtue of his office. U he bases it upon force, it' 
 the language he addresses to his pupils be uni- 
 formly that 'if command, threatening, or angry 
 rebuke, there will be engendered in their minds a 
 feeling of antagonism, from which will result 
 disobedience, and occasionally open rebellion. < hi 
 the other hand, it' he IS kind and considerate, 
 but at the same time firm and resolute, he will 
 gain first the respect of his pupils and then 
 their affection. When that is accomplished, the 
 
 government of his school will be quite easy. (See 
 Authority.) The following are wis; suggestions 
 in regard to the proper course ot the teacher in 
 [ring and preserving the control of his 
 school: "i 1 i Endeavor to convince your scholars 
 that you are their friend. — that you aim at their 
 improvement, and desire their good. It will not 
 take lou- to satisfy them of this, if you are so in 
 reality. (2) Never give a command which you 
 are not resolved to see obeyed. (3) Try to 
 create throughout the school a popular senti- 
 ment in favor of order and virtue. It is next to 
 impossible to carry into effect, for any length of 
 time, a regulation, however important, which is 
 opposed to public opinion." Felleriberg strongly 
 insists upon this as the most efficient means of 
 school government. " The pupil." he says. " can 
 seldom resist the force of truth when he finds 
 himself condemned by the common voice of 
 his companions, and is often more humbled by 
 censure from his equals, than by any of the ad- 
 monitions of his superiors." To the above im- 
 portant injunctions for the teacher should lie 
 added the following: Observe in your conduct 
 toward your pupils a strict impartiality. Chil- 
 dren are keen observers, and at once detect the 
 slightest indications of favoritism; and nothing 
 more effectually than this destroys their respect 
 for the teacher, and undermines his authority. 
 Tact and self-control will enable the teacher to 
 dispense, to a very great extent, with any decided 
 demonstration of authority. "There is." says 
 Page, "such a thing as keeping a sehool too still 
 by over-government. A man of firm nerve can, 
 by keeping up a constant constraint both in him- 
 
 and pupils, force a death-like .silence upon his 
 school. You can hear a pin drop at anytime, 
 and the figure of every child is as if moulded 
 in cast-iron. But be it remembered, this is the 
 stillness of constraint, not the stillness of activity. 
 Tli.re should he silence in school, a serene 
 and soothing quiet; but it should, if possible, 
 be the quiet of cheerfulness and agreeable devo- 
 tion to study, rather than the 'palsy of fear.'" 
 
 • Fear.) One of the most important means 
 of effective school government is to keep the pu- 
 pils constantly busy, to awaken in their minds 
 an interest in their studies, to vary the exercises 
 so as to prevent tedious monotony, to have spe- 
 cial methods of relief, after their minds have be- 
 come wearied by close attention. For this pur- 
 pose, in primary schools, in which \ xyyoung 
 children are taught, movement e- of a 
 
 simple character may be resorted to ; and. in all 
 
 sel Is, VOCal music, which always exerts the 
 
 most pleasing ami satisfactory influence. Calis- 
 thenics and gymnastics may he employed with 
 good effect, in short, if the school is conducted 
 
 in such a way as to recognize the peculiar nature. 
 
 disposition, and wants of children, the school 
 government will be found to involve Imt little 
 difficulty. —See Jewell, School Government 
 (New York. L866); Page, Theory and Practice 
 of Teaching (N.Y.j 1847); Wickeksham, School 
 Economy il'hila.. 1864); Dunn, The School- 
 Teacher's Manual (Hartford. L839) ; Nortiiknp, 
 The Teacher's Assistant (Boston, L859 ; Mor- 
 rison, Manual of School Management (I ondon); 
 Le Vaux, The Science and Art of Teaching 
 (Toronto, L875). 
 GRADE (Lat. gradus, a step), the relative 
 
 standing of schools, classes, or pupils, in a system 
 of education. Thus education, or instruction, is 
 designated, according to its grade, primary or 
 elementary, secondary, and superior or higher. 
 A course of study is divided into grades for 
 convenience in classification, all the pupils in 
 each class being supposed to be nearly of the 
 same degree of proficiency. The number of 
 grades into which a course of study should be 
 divided is dictated by considerations of expedi- 
 ency and convenience. The grades, however, 
 should be arranged so as to assign proper pro- 
 portions of work for the several portions of time 
 into which the school year, or the period of the 
 entire curriculum, is divided. The arrangement 
 of grades is also beneficial in definitely marking 
 the progress of the pupil, and thus affording him 
 encouragement to proceed by regular promotion 
 from grade to grade. (See < lass.) 
 
 GRADED SCHOOLS are usually defined 
 as schools in which the pupils are classified 
 according to their progress in scholarship as 
 compared with a course of study divided into 
 grades, pupils of the same or a similar degree of 
 proficiency being placed in the same class. An 
 ungraded school, on the other hand, is one in 
 which the pupils are taught individually, each 
 one being advanced as far. and as fast, as circum- 
 stances permit, without regard to the progress of 
 other pupils. The graded system is thus based 
 upon classification; and its efficacy as a system 
 i depend very greatly upon the accuracy 
 with which the classification has been made. 
 
 Grades, however, are not to be confounded with 
 classes; the former are divisions of the course of 
 Study based upon various considerations, the 
 r are dfc isions of thesi hool based upon uni- 
 formity of attainments. In a small school, the 
 same number of grades may be needed as in a 
 large school, the course of study being the same. 
 and the promotions being made with equalfrc- 
 quency; hence, as the number of classes must 
 be smaller, it will be necessary that each class 
 should pursue two or more grades simultaneous- 
 ly or in succession ; thai is to say. the promo- 
 tions front grade to grade will be more frequent 
 than from class to class. On the other hand, in 
 a large school, the number of cl bo 
 
376 
 
 GRADKU SCHOOLS 
 
 greater than that of the grades, which will ne- 
 sitate the forming of two or more classes, un- 
 der separate teachers, in the same grade. In the 
 management of a large school, this will be found 
 to be better than a subdivision of the grades, re- 
 quiring either an extension of the time for com- 
 pleting the course, or greater frequency in the 
 promotions. In the small district schoolsof the 
 United States, the ungraded system prevails, be- 
 cause each school is taught by a single teacher, 
 and sometimes there is a want of uniformity in 
 text-books: but in the cities the graded system 
 prevails. The advantages of the graded system 
 have been thus enumerated : (1) They economize 
 the labor of instruction ; (2) They reduce the 
 cost of instruction, since a smaller number of 
 teachers are required for effective work in a clas- 
 sified or graded school ; (.'{) They make the in- 
 struction more effective, inasmuch as the teacher 
 can more readily hear the lessons of an entire 
 class than of the pupils separately, and thus there 
 will be better opportunity for actual teaching, 
 explanation, drill, etc.; (4) They facilitate good 
 government and discipline, because all the pu- 
 pils are kept constantly under the direct con- 
 trol and instruction of the teacher, and, besides, 
 are kept constantly busy ; (5) They afford a 
 better means of inciting pupils to industry, by 
 promoting their ambition to excel, inasmuch as 
 there is a constant competition ; ug the pu- 
 pils of a class, which cannot exist when the pu- 
 pils are instructed separately. On the other 
 hand, many objections have been urged against 
 the system of graded schools, chief among which 
 
 is, that the interests of the individual pupil are 
 
 often sacrificed to those of the many, the indi- 
 vidual being merged in the mass. •• As a mech- 
 anism," says I'l. E. White, in Problems in Graded 
 School Management, a paper read before the 
 National Educational Association, A.ug. 4., 1874, 
 " it [the graded system] demands that pupils ol 
 tin- same grade attend school with regularity, 
 
 and that they possess equal attainments, equal 
 mental capacity, equal vigor, equal home assist- 
 ance and opportunity, and that they be instructed 
 by teachers possessing equal ability and skill. 
 Bui this uniformity does not exist. Teachers 
 possess unequal skill and power. Pupils do noi 
 enter school at the same age; some attend onl\ 
 
 a portion of each year: others attend irregularly; 
 ami the members of the same class possess un- 
 equal ability, and have unequal assistance and 
 opportunity. This want of uniformity in con- 
 ditions makes the mechanical operation <>) the 
 system imperfect, and hence, its tendency is to 
 force uniformity, thus sacrificing its true function 
 
 as a means of education to its perfect action as a 
 
 mechanism." There is no doubt thai this diffi- 
 culty is inherent in the system, and thai DO ad- 
 ministration, however excellent, can whollj dim 
 inate it. Various methods of procedure bave, 
 however, been suggested to diminish its injurious 
 effects. Thai proposed by Superintendent W. 
 
 T. Harris, oi St. bonis, and carried out in the 
 
 public schools of that citj is frequent discrimi- 
 native promotions. 'I 'he following are the points 
 
 on which the system is based : (1) The different 
 rate of progress in study on the pari of pupils 
 
 of the same class, due to a difference ill age, 
 capacity, regularity of attendance, and op- 
 portunity: and (2) The continual diminution 
 of the size of classes, particularly of the higher 
 grades. "Provision," he says. •• must be made 
 for this difference in rates of progress by fre- 
 quenl reclassification ; otherwise the school will 
 become a lifeless machine." This arrangement, 
 however, was a reaction against the system of 
 annual promotions, which necessarily require 
 wide grades and unfreqiteiit changes in clas- 
 sification. The other extreme, according to the 
 views of many educators experienced in school 
 management and supervision, was approached 
 in the recommendation by Superintendent Har- 
 ris to require promotions as often as every ten 
 weeks, and, besides that, to permit pupils " to 
 move forward as fast as their abilities might 
 permit." The objections to incidental discrim- 
 inative promotion are the following : (1) It en- 
 courages precocity in the pupils; (2) It pro- 
 duces a tendency in the teacher to give an 
 exclusive attention to the bright, intelligent 
 pupils to the ueglect of the dull ones, because 
 in this way promotions arc secured, which re- 
 dound to (he teachers credit; (3) It deprives the 
 pupils thus promoted out of theregular course, 
 of the means of properly pursuing certain grades 
 or parts of grades, inasmuch as. if placed from a 
 lower grade into a class of pupils already ad- 
 vanced in the next higher one. they must take 
 up the studies of that grade at the advanced 
 point, without acquaintance with the preceding 
 pari of the grade, thus confusing the classification 
 and embarrassing the teacher. Semi-annual pro- 
 motions seem to be approved by the majority of 
 educators, with such an adjustment of the Dum- 
 ber of the grades of the course of study and the 
 requirements of each, as will enable pupils of an 
 average capacity to complete the amount of 
 Study prescribed in the half year. There is an- 
 other danger connected with the graded-school 
 system, as sometimes administered, to which al- 
 lusion is often made. It prescribes too much, 
 
 leaving to the tea ber too little scope for the ex- 
 ercise of individual skill, judgment, and intel- 
 ligence. " It is not important," says Mr. White, 
 
 "that the several teachers accomplish the same 
 result day by day. or week by week. Nothing 
 is more ridiculous than the attempt to parcel 
 out primary instruction, and tie it up in daily 
 or weekly prescriptions, like a doctor's doses. 
 This week the class is to take certain facts in 
 
 geography ; to count by twos to fifty (to sixtj 
 
 would be a fearful sin.): to draw the vertical 
 lines of a cube : to learn to respect the aged, 
 tic.!' This, however, with many other objections 
 
 which are urged againsl the system of graded 
 
 schools, is only a fault in administration. A 
 
 system of this kind requires intelligent, earnest, 
 and judicious direction and supervision; with 
 
 this, ably sec led by well trained and expe 
 
 rienced teaehers.it will approximate to individ- 
 ual teaching, and, in the powerful and whole- 
 
GRADUATE 
 
 okamm \i: 
 
 1 1 
 
 some stimulus which it constantly applies to the 
 pupil, prove much more effective. 
 
 Graded schools are far more numerous in the 
 United States than in England, or in mosl of 
 the countries of continental Europe. The system 
 is. however, beginning to be introduced. "The plan 
 of teaching classes or grades in separate school- 
 rooms lias been adopted," says Adams [Free 
 School System of the United States, L875),"in 
 some of the Birmingham Board schools, and also 
 in London, 1 believe, and has given great satis- 
 faction." So essentia] has it been considered in 
 the United States to the efficiency of a school 
 that it should he graded, that no aid is given 
 from the Pcabody Fund except to graded 
 schools. — See Wki.i.s. The Graded School (New 
 York. L862) ; Wickersham, School Economy 
 I Phil., L868); Kiddu:. etc., How to Teach (X.Y.. 
 L87 1 1. (See also Class, and Grade.) 
 
 GRADUATE (Lat. graduare, from gradus, 
 a step or degree), to confer an academic degree, 
 thus advancing to a higher rank in scholarship ; 
 also, to receive a degree from a college or uni- 
 versity. A person is said to graduate when he 
 takes a degree, and the college or university is 
 said to graduate a student when it admits him 
 to an honorable standing as a, scholar by con- 
 ferring a degree. The person who thus takes a 
 degree, is called a graduate. (See Degrees.) 
 
 GRAEFE, Heinrich, a German educa- 
 tor, born .March 3., 1802 ; die I July 22., 1860. 
 lie was successively rector of the real school 
 and professor at the university of Jena, rector 
 of the burgher school in Cassel, principal of an 
 educational institution at Geneva, and director 
 of the industrial school at Bremen. He was 
 also an influential writer upon educational topics. 
 1 lis discussions of the methods of ( rerman public- 
 school instruction are his most important pro- 
 ductions. His general theory of education is 
 similar to that of Graser. Like him, he was 
 strongly opposed to merely general culture, he- 
 cause the idea of education is not only to develop 
 the faculties, but to fit one for the duties of 
 life. The true end of man, according to Graefe, 
 is self-surrender to the Divine will ; and the aim 
 of education is to bring the individual into active 
 and conscious self-abnegation. Not to develop 
 ourselves, hut to do the will of God by filling 
 the place in society which belongs to us. this is 
 the end of our being. Graefe made very 
 valuable suggestions for the modification of 
 public-school instruction in the direction of 
 securing a more natural arrangement of study. 
 and better physical culture. See Schmidt, (!<>- 
 Bchichte </■ /■ Padagogik, vol. n . 
 
 GRAHAM, Isabella, celebrated for her ef- 
 forts for the relief and education of the poor, and 
 in behalf of other philanthropic objects, was born 
 in Lanarkshire, Scotland, in L742, and died in 
 >Tew York, in Isl 1. She was the wife of Dr. 
 John Graham, an army surgeon, after whose 
 death, in the Wesi Indies, in 1 77 I. she taught 
 school in Paisley and in Edinburgh. In 1 789, she 
 came to New York, and opened a seminary for 
 young ladies. Jler active, benevolent disposition 
 
 liinl shown itself in her native country in the 
 formal ion of the Penny Society, now the Socil I \ 
 
 for the Relief of Destitute Sick. In New York 
 mainly through her efforts, woe established 
 
 the Society tor the Relief of Tour Widows, the 
 Orphan Asylum Society, the Society for Pro- 
 moting industry among the Poor,and a Sunday 
 School tor [gnoranl Adults,- the first of its 
 kind in the United States. Her benevolent 
 labors in almost every field of philanthropic 
 
 enterprise were very extensive. I lei- memoirs 
 were published by Dr. Mason (1816), ami her 
 
 correspondence, by her daughter, Mrs. Bethune, 
 mother of G. W. Bethune, D. D. (1838). 
 
 GRAMMAR (Gr. ypdfifia, that which is 
 craven or written, a written character, a letter) 
 means, in the widest sense of the word, the science 
 of language in general, and specially an exposi- 
 tion of the organism of language and the laws 
 of its structure. 'I he first scientific investigations 
 in language are met with in the writings of the 
 (■'reek philosophers; they are. however, not of a 
 strictly grammatical nature, hut discuss the rela- 
 tion of thinking to speaking, and the origin of 
 language. Such speculations are found in Plato, 
 Aristotle, and the Stoics. 'The first attempt to 
 construct a grammar, in the present sense of the 
 word, was made in the second century, !'». < '.. at 
 Alexandria. The Greek grammarians, at that 
 time, explained the works of the classic authors, 
 and such explanations embraced the definition 
 and analysis of words. Dionysius Thrax divided 
 grammar into six parts : delivery, explanation of 
 the contents of the classics, definitions, etymology, 
 analogy, and criticism. The Roman grammarians 
 explained the works both of Latin and Greek 
 authors, paying special attention to the expla- 
 nation of archaic and obscure expressions: but 
 they made no real progress in the development 
 of grammatical science. Nothing at all was 
 done during the middle-ages, the schools content- 
 ing themselves with teaching Latin from the 
 works of the later Roman grammarians. The 
 revival of classical studies and the Reformation, 
 in the sixteenth century, led to a more thorough 
 study of the Latin and Greek languages, and en- 
 larged the views of grammarians by adding the 
 knowledge of Hebrew to their stock of linguistic 
 attainments, which wen- formerly limited to 
 Latin and Greek. Several latin. Greek, and He- 
 brew grammars were published, ami a beginning 
 was made in the preparation of grammatical 
 works on some of the modern languages. The 
 tirst attempts at general and comparative gram- 
 mars were made in the 17th century. A Dew 
 impulse was given to grammatical studies, after 
 the Sanskrit language and literature had become 
 more generally known among philologists. A 
 solid basis tor comparative grammar was laid 
 
 by Bopp, who. in his tirst comparative work 
 (1816) on the [ndo- European languages, com- 
 pared the inflections of Sanskrit words with 
 those of the < Sreek, Latin. Persian, and < !erman ic 
 languages; ami. in the great work of his life, tin" 
 ( 'on i pa rati vet J ram mar of Sanskrit, Zend. < deck. 
 Latin. Lithuanian. Old Slavic Gothic, and tier- 
 
378 
 
 GRAMMAR 
 
 man (Vergleichende Grammatik, 5 vols., 1833 
 — 52; 3d ed., 1868 — 71; translated into English 
 and French) traced back the Indo-European lan- 
 guages to their origin, and pointed out their pres- 
 ent relations to each other. The idea of a historical 
 grammar was fully developed by Grimm in his 
 German Grammar (Di'utxi-ln' (frummatik,4 vols., 
 1819 — 37), which traces the history of all gram- 
 matical forms in the Germanic dialects through 
 the different periods of the language. Other mas- 
 ter-works in the literature of comparative gram- 
 mars are those by Diez on the Romanic languages 
 (Vergleichende Grammatik der romanischen 
 
 'achen, ,'i vols., 1836 — 12), by Miklosich on 
 the Slavic languages | Vergleichende Grammatik 
 der slavischen Sprachen, L852 —71), and by 
 Schleicher, on the Indo-Germanic languages 
 ndium der vergleichenden Grammatik, 
 3d ed., 1871). Comparative grammars on Indo- 
 European Languages by English authors are: 
 Clark, Students Handbook of Comparative 
 Grammar, applied to the Sanskrit, Zend, Gi 
 Latin, Gothic, Anglo-Saxon, and English Lan- 
 f/iini/es (London, 1N(>2) ; Ferrae, Grammar of 
 Sanskrit, Greek, and Latin (vol. i.. Lond., I - 
 Helfenstein, .1 Comparative Grammar of me 
 Teutonic Languages (London, 1870); Beames, 
 Comparative Grammar of the Modern Aryan 
 Languages of India; March, .1 C ttive 
 
 Grammar of the Anglo-Saxon Language N.Y.. 
 L871 i. Bui few comparative grammarshave a 
 been written on other than Indo-European lan- 
 guages. The more important ofthemare: Bleek, 
 I Comparative Grammar of the South African 
 I. !./>/n, i;/rs (vol.i., London, 1869) ; Caldwell, 
 Comparative Grammar of the Dravidian Lan- 
 guages (London, L861); Pimentel, Cuadro de- 
 •iptivoy comparativo de las lenguas indige- 
 nas de Mexico — Descriptive and comparative 
 table of the native languages of Mexico (Mexico, 
 L874) ; and Epstein, Cuadro sinoptico de las 
 lenguas indigenas de Mexico (Mexico. L874). 
 The most important work on the philosophy 
 of language is still the classic work by 
 WUhelm von Humboldt, Ueber die Verschie- 
 
 '■ if des menschlichen Sprachbaues (1836), 
 which originally appeared as an introduction 
 to his work on the Kavi language. Among 
 other important works for the study of gen- 
 eral grammar, are: Heyse, System der Sprach- 
 wissenschoft (Berlin. 1856), an I Steinthal, 
 
 racteristik der hauptsdchlichsten Typen des 
 
 ichbaues (2d edit., L860) ; also, for an excel- 
 lent and familiar exposition of linguistic science 
 and history, M w Mueller, Lectures on the 
 Language (2 vols., London, 1861 I .• 
 and Whitney, The Life and Growth of Lan- 
 guage i New York 1876). -The study of gram- 
 mar now constitutes, in every civilized country, 
 an essentia] pari of the learning of languaj 
 both the vernacular and foreign. Opinions, 
 however, still widely differ as to the place 
 which grammar should occupy in the studj of 
 language, the method by which it should be 
 
 _ r ht. the poinl Of time at which it should I' 
 
 begun, and the amount <>f time which Bhould 
 
 be devoted to it. There is at present a more 
 general agreement aiming educators than at any 
 previous time, that not only is a grammatical 
 knowledge necessary for a good command of any 
 language,bu1 that thorough training in the rules of 
 grammar is one of the best means to develop the 
 faculties of the mind, and is especially calculated 
 to promote correct and logical thinking. (See 
 Grammar, English ; English, Study of; Clas- 
 sical Studies ; Modern Languages; and the spe- 
 cial articles on Greek, Latin. Hebrew, French, 
 German, etc.) 
 
 GRAMMAR. English, has for its special 
 function, an exposition of the specific organism 
 and the structural peculiarities of the English 
 language. There are certain relations existing 
 between thought and language which must un- 
 derlie every form of human speech: these consti- 
 tute the basis of general grammar. Every lan- 
 guage has its peculiarities ol (1) literal represen- 
 tation and combination Metiers and words — 
 orthography), (2) inflectional tonus (etymology), 
 3) sentential structure (syntax), and (4) vocal 
 utterance (prosody). These peculiarities it is the 
 office i >f specific grammar to explain, SO that they 
 may not only 1> i grasped by the understanding but 
 worked into the habitual use of the language, in 
 speaking and writing. English grammar has 
 been defined as " the art of speaking and writing 
 the English language correctly;" and as an art, 
 doubtless, this states correctly its practical ob- 
 ject, for it can have no other. 'This was the view 
 taken by the early grammarians. ••The principal 
 design of a grammar of any language." says 
 Bishop l.owtii. "is to teach usto express our 
 selves with propriety in that language; and to 
 
 enable us to judge of every phrase ami form of 
 
 construction, whether it be nghl or not." Those 
 who teach grammar, as well as those who com- 
 pile grammatical text-books, should constantly 
 keep this practical aim in view, eliminating from 
 their systems of instruction every thing that 
 does not directly hear upon it. •■ To explain." 
 says Mulligan (Grammatical Structure of the 
 English Language, N.Y.. 1852), "the laws of 
 artificial language is the particular province of 
 him who proposes to teach the sciena of gram- 
 mar; to guide to the proper use of the signs of 
 artificial language, and to the correct interpreta- 
 tion of the thoughts of others embodied in lan- 
 guage, so far as this can be effected by reference 
 bo the /•'"•sand usages of language, is the prov- 
 ince of him who proposes to teach grammar as 
 an art." I 'rocessesof analysis and rules of syntax 
 
 are entirely useless, exec) it SO faras they contrib- 
 ute to this end. Viewed from this stand-point. 
 
 very much of the machinery of English grammar, 
 
 so called, as taughl in scl Is. is of no practical 
 
 value to the pupil, but, on the contrary, serves to 
 
 waste his time and intellectual energies. This 
 has arisen from the application of a traditional 
 
 nomenclature and system of definitions and 
 rules to the English language, which belonged to 
 the Latin. "The manuals, by which grammar 
 was first taughl in English," says Goola Brown, 
 
 v. ere not properly Kn imnars. They were 
 
GRAMMAR 
 
 • > - (, 
 
 translations of the Latin accidence; and were 
 designed to aid British youth in acquiring ;i 
 knowledge of the Latin language, rather than 
 accuracy in the use of their own. The two lan- 
 guages were often combined in one book, for tin- 
 purpose of teaching sometimes both together, 
 and sometimes one through the medium of the 
 other." Richard Grant White, in Words andtheir 
 Uses (N. Y .. 1870), also says, in this connection, 
 "It was not until English had east itself firmly 
 and sharply into its present simple mould that 
 scholars undertookto furnish it with a grammar, 
 the nomenclature and the rules of which they 
 took from a language -the Latin — with which 
 it had no formal likeness, and by the laws of 
 which it could not be bound, except so far as 
 they were the universal laws of thought." This 
 circumstance, it has been frequently asserted, 
 has led to a complexity in English grammar 
 which is not found in the language itself ; and 
 hence also it has been claimed that the practical 
 results of teaching English grammar can be 
 reached by a much shorter and more effective 
 process. Without doubt, according to the modes 
 of instruction long prevalent, too much time has 
 i given to impressing upon the memory mere 
 theory, — technical definitions and rules, without 
 a corresponding amount of practice in the actual 
 use of language. This also has been traditional, 
 emanating from the practice of teaching Latin. 
 The more recent methods adopted by practical 
 teachers, as well as embodied in text-books, have 
 introduced considerable reform in this respect. 
 English, the Study of.) 
 The first attempt at an English grammar was 
 Paul's Accidence, an English introduction to 
 lily's Lain grammar, written by Dr. John < 'olet, 
 doan of St. Paul's, for the use of the school 
 founded by him, and dedicated to William Lily 
 (q. v.), the first high master of that school (1510). 
 Lily's grammar was the exclusive grammatical 
 standard in England for more than 300years, hav- 
 ing received the sanction of royal authority ; but 
 the first book exclusively treating of English 
 grammar was that of William Bullokar (.1 Bref 
 Grammar for English, London. 1586). This 
 was followed by John Stockwood's TUnglish Ac- 
 cidence (4to, London, 1590). During the next 
 century, several works of the kind appeared, 
 anion-' which may be mentioned, Ben Jonson's 
 English Grammar for the benefit of all strangers, 
 out of his observation of the English Language, 
 now spoken and in use (London, 16i 
 Charles Butler's English Grammar ( lto. Ox- 
 ford. L 633), which we find quoted by In-. .John- 
 son in the Introduction to his Dictionary; and 
 the Rev. Alex. Gill's English grammar written 
 in Latin (Logonomia Anglica Grammaticalis, 
 London, L619 — 21); also an English grammar 
 written in Latin for the use of foreigners, by Rev. 
 John Wallis, l». D. (London. 1653), from which, 
 it is said, Johnson and Lowth borrowed most of 
 their rules. The Treatise of English Particles 
 (1684), by William Walker, the preceptor of Sir 
 Isaac Newton, was a work of great learning and 
 merit. This was also written in Latin. Besides 
 
 these, there were several others of lesser note. 
 
 [hiring the 18th century, many grammars ap- 
 peared previous to the more noted onesof Lowth 
 
 and Murray. The latter enumerates, as the 
 
 authors to whom he was chiefly indebted in the 
 compilation of his work. Barris, Johnson, Lowth, 
 Priestley, Beattie, Sheridan, Walker, and Coote. 
 Many of these writers appreciated the grammat- 
 ical simplicity of the English language, and to 
 someextenl adapted their grammars to it. Bish- 
 op Lowth remarked in his preface, "the con- 
 struction of this language is so easy and obvious, 
 that our grammarians have thought it hardly 
 
 worth while to give us any thing like a regular 
 and systematic syntax. The English grammar, 
 which hath been late presented to the public, and 
 by the person [Dr. Johnson] best qualified to 
 have given us a perfect one. comprises the whole 
 syntax in ten lines,- -tor this reason: 'because 
 our language has so little inflection, thai its con- 
 struct ion neither requires nor admits many rules.'" 
 Brightland's Grammar of the English Ton 
 with the Arts of Logick, Ehetorick, Poetry, etc. 
 (London. I Til), was a valuable and celebrated 
 work, said to have been composed by some of the 
 most prominent literary men of Queen Anne's 
 reign. !t was not, however, extensively adopted. 
 Bishop Lowth's Short Introduction to English 
 Grammar was published in 1758. "It was cal- 
 culated," he states in his preface, "for the use of 
 the learner, even of the lov s"; and for 
 
 fuller information he refers to the Hermes (.1 
 Philosophical Inquiry concerning Language and 
 Universal Grammar, 1751) of James Harris, 
 which he styles " the most beautiful and perfect 
 example of analysis, that has been exhibited since 
 the days of Aristotle." The learned Dr. Priest- 
 ley's Rudiments of English Grammar (London. 
 1762) was designed only as a brief introduction 
 to the subject; indeed, he considered that the 
 forms and usages of the language were not 
 sufficiently settled and uniform to admit of a 
 complete grammar of the language. Lindley 
 Murray published his firsl Grammar in 1795 
 [English Grammar, York), soon followed by 
 various other auxiliary works, all of which, al- 
 most immediately, secured an introduction into 
 schools. Ofthe Abridgment (12mo, L797), verj 
 many editions have been issued, Loth in England 
 and the United States. The annual sale ol the 
 Look in England has been estimated at 50,000 
 copies. The most valuable pari of the materials 
 of which this work is composed, was taken from 
 Lowth, as well as its general plan. Dr. Cheever 
 (in X. Amer. Rev., xxxi., 377) calls it "an en- 
 larged copy of Lowth." and says of the latter. 
 '■ Although Lowth's treatise was written so early 
 
 as the year 1758, yet we doubt whether there is 
 
 al the present da\ a single work of equal excel- 
 lence ill the same COmpaS3." Murray also copied 
 
 extensively from Priestley; "with several of the 
 English Grammars published previously to 
 his own." says < foold Brown, "he appears to have 
 been totally unacquainted." This laborious writer 
 who. in his Grammar of English Grammars 
 , fork, 1851), so mercilessly reviews and 
 
 
580 
 
 GEAMMAR 
 
 criticises the works of his predecessors and con- 
 temporaries in grammatical authorship, expos is 
 and condemns with unmeasured severity the 
 plagiarism and defects of Murray's grammar. 
 "There is do part of the volume," he Bays, "more 
 accurate than that which he literally copied 
 from Lowth. To the Short Introduction alone, 
 he was indebted tor more than a hundred and 
 twenty paragraphs; and even in these there are 
 many things obviously erroneous. Many of the 
 best practical notes were taken from Priestley, 
 etc." (Gram, of Eng. Gram.,ch.m.) And. in 
 the same critical invective, he pronounces the 
 following wholesale condemnation : " It might 
 easily he shown that almost every rule laid down 
 in the book for the observance of the learner. 
 was repeatedly violated by the hand of the mas- 
 ter. Nor is there among all who have since 
 
 abridged or modified the wort an abler gramma- 
 rian than he who compiled it." But whatever 
 the merits or demerits of .Murray's grammar, and 
 
 whatever may lie the source of its materials, it 
 doubtless owed its extraordinary success as a 
 school hook to its practical adaptation to the 
 purposes of school instruct ion. and to the demand 
 which previous publications had created for such 
 a work-. Since its publication, the number of 
 English grammars published is "legion," among 
 which those of ( loold Brown may. w ithoul doubt, 
 
 claim precedence for popularity and extensive- 
 
 i icss of sale in the United States. This author 
 
 laid down a canon in regard to grammatical 
 authorship which, while it is perhaps alleging too 
 much to say that he has strictly obeyed it. it is to 
 lie wished, might receive a more general atten- 
 tion : "lie who makes a new grammar does 
 nothing for the advancement of learning, unless 
 his performance excel all earlier ones designed 
 for the same purpose : and nothing lor his own 
 honor, unless such excellence result from the 
 exercise of his own ingenuity and taste." The 
 earliest of Brown's grammars was TJie Institutes 
 of English Grammar (New York. L823, revised 
 ed., 1854), which was followed, the same year. 
 by The First Lines of English Grammar, an 
 abridgment of the former. These hooks have 
 had an immense circulation, and are si ill (1876) 
 very extensively used in all parts of the United 
 States. The Grammar of English Grammars, 
 the most comprehensive work on the subject jei 
 published, was completed in L851. Many other 
 
 1 ksupon English grammar, of great merit. 
 
 have been published both in England and this 
 country, for the titles of which, see English, the 
 
 Sri nv OP. 
 
 Tli.' methods of instruction embodied in Mui- 
 and Crown's grammars, and in those of 
 most of their competitors for public favor, con- 
 sisted mainly in e nil I in- lo memory defini- 
 tions and rules, in applying these, I'm- the pur] 
 of practice, to various styles of composition by 
 parsing, and in the correction of false syntax. 
 
 Most oi the later gr; ars vary or precede these 
 
 exercises with the analysis of sentences, afford- 
 ing practice in the principles of general grammar, 
 as preliminary to special rules. - . Lnalysis, 
 
 Grammatical.) Still more recently, a different 
 class of elementary grammatical text-books have 
 appeared, under the name of Language Lessons, 
 the special design of which appears to he. to sup- 
 ply considerable practice in the actual use of 
 language, as a substitute, to some extent, for anal- 
 ysis and parsing. Probably, there is no subject 
 that has been taught with so great a disregard of 
 the fundamental principles of teaching as English 
 -laminar: and there is certainly none that has 
 so imperfectly attained its practical aim — cor- 
 rectness in the use of language. This lias arisen 
 from two errors of procedure: (1) an attempt 
 to teach definitions without developing in the 
 minds of the pupils the ideas underlying them, 
 and rules previous to an illustration of their ne- 
 cessity ; and (2) confining the instruction to 
 merely theoretical and critical work, without 
 sufficient practice in the application of principles 
 and rules to the actual use of language. The int re- 
 duction of analysis was the result of an effort t'> 
 reform the first of theseerrors; and the language- 
 lesson system, a reaction against the second. 
 Grammar being, distinctively, the science of ///<> 
 sciitciirc. the preliminary step in all grammatical 
 instruction must be. to give to the pupil a clear 
 and correct idea of what constitutes a sentence. 
 I>\ presenting for his examination ami analysis 
 iiples of sentences of a simple structure, by 
 analyzing which he will easily be made to 
 what principal parts must enter into their com- 
 position, and how dlicr parts are used as ad- 
 juncts, i See Analysis, Grammatical.) r i li- - 
 outline of a complete scheme of teaching gram- 
 mar in all its stags is presented in the following 
 points: (T) Principles, definitions, and rules 
 should be progressively taught by requiring the 
 pupil to analyze, and also to construct, classified 
 sentences commencing with those of the simplest. 
 construction, and passing gradually to such as 
 are of the most complex structure ; (2) No defi- 
 nition or rule should be committed to memory 
 and formally recited until the pupil, by sufficient 
 
 practice, has obtained a clear conception of the 
 
 office of the word defined, and the nature of the 
 
 usage which the rule is intended to guide. Fof 
 
 example, it is absurd to try to teach a child the; 
 
 meaning of a participle or a relative pronoun at 
 an elementary stage of the instruction, because 
 
 the structures in which alone they can occur am 
 too complex to be understood at that Stage. And 
 
 it is equally absurd to require a child to commit 
 to memory the rule, "A verbmusl agreewithita 
 subject or nominative in person and number," 
 
 until by the comparison of a number of sentences 
 
 illustrating this usage, he is made to understand 
 what is meant by agreement in grammar, and 
 how expressions may be incorrect by a failure to 
 observe this rule. According to this method, the 
 
 pupil is first made a. d with the distinc 
 
 tion of subject and predicate, as being the essen- 
 tial parts of every sentence. Thisfornis the basis 
 for teaching him the two parts of speech- the 
 verb and the noun. From this point, the sentence 
 may be complicated by the successive insertion 
 <>i' modifying words, phrases, or claus • to 
 
GRAMMAR 
 
 38] 
 
 illustrate not only the nature and use of eai h 
 of the parts of speech, but every peculiar struct- 
 ure. This may be illustrated by the following 
 
 example of a sentence thus expanded : (1) Boys 
 learn. (2) The boys learn. (3) The studious 
 
 boys learn. (4) 'The studious buys learn rap- 
 idly. (5) The studious boys learn their lessons. 
 
 (6) 'The BtudioUS boys learn their lessons in 
 
 school. (7) The boys awe? girls learn. (8) The 
 boys learn, but the girls do not learn. (9) The 
 boys who study will Learn. Of course, each 
 sentence here given is only a specimen of what 
 may be used at each step : and when these 
 s ■vera] steps have been taken, the pupil will 
 have acquired a knowledge of the functions of 
 the different parts of speech. Thus, in (1), he 
 learns the noun and the verb; in {'!). the article 
 is added; in (3), the adjective: in (4), the ad- 
 verb ; in (5), the pronoun ; in (<>), the preposi- 
 tion; in (7), the conjunction, as a connective of 
 words: in (8), the conjunction, as a connective 
 of sentences; in (9), the relative pronoun. After 
 much preliminary oral instruction of this kind. 
 the pupil may be required to learn simple defi- 
 nitions. Underlying the whole process, it will 
 hi' perceived, is the analysis of the sentence, 
 parsing coming in at a later stage, as the appli- 
 cation to particular sentences, according to a 
 given praa^S.ofthe definitions and rules learned. 
 This is the method recommended by prominent 
 educators of the present day. " The analysis of 
 a sentence," says Wickersham, " consists in find- 
 ing its elements, or in reducing it to the parts of 
 speech, of which it is composed. Parsing con- 
 sists in finding out these parts of speech and de- 
 termining their properties and relations. Both 
 should be combined, as is the case in similar 
 operations in other sciences. The botanist ana- 
 lyzes a plant, and then names ami describes its 
 several parts. The anatomist dissects a subject, 
 and then characterizes the organs thus brought 
 to his notice Grammar can be studied success- 
 fully in no other way. Parsing, without a pre- 
 ceding analysis, can lead but to a very imperfect 
 knowledge of the organic structure of sentences." 
 To the value of the analytical method, Prof. 
 Whitney thus bears witness: "Give me a man 
 who can. with full intelligence, take to pieces an 
 English sentence, brief and not too complicated 
 even, and 1 will welcome him as better prepared 
 for further study in other languages than if he 
 had read both Ca'sar and Virgll.an 1 could parse 
 them in the routine style in which they are often 
 parsed." Parsing should not be made a routine : 
 when it becomes such, it is worse than useless. 
 The constant application of complicated defini- 
 tions ami rules derived from a language of in- 
 flections, to English words and sentences having 
 scarcely an inflection, is to the pupil a senseless 
 process, and must only tend to dull, instead of 
 cultivating and sharpening, his intellectual fac- 
 ulties. It makes him. as has been said, a " pars 
 ing machine." The definitions and rules of En- 
 ghsh grammar should be simplified, recognizing 
 tli 'fact that English is not an inflectional lan- 
 guage, except in a very few particulars; and 
 
 hence, that the principles of agreement and gov- 
 ernvu nt have scarcely any application. The mul- 
 tiplying of rules that regulate nothing is idle. 
 
 Thus. of what use is it to cause a child to repeat, 
 
 in parsing, twenty times perhaps in a single les- 
 son, the SO-Called syntactical rule. •• Adject ives 
 relate to nouns and pronouns." when he has al- 
 ready learned as a definition that " Adjective- 
 are words added to nouns and pronouns ''." The 
 editor of the last edition of Brown's Institutes of 
 English Grammar remarks, in an Observation 
 on the treatment of Syntax iii that work. 
 " Nearly one half of the twenty-six rules of 
 syntax laid down in this work are rather a rep- 
 etition of the definitions comprehended in ety- 
 mology than separate rules necessary to guide us 
 in the construct ion of sentences": and the same 
 may probably be said of most grammars. All 
 such needless machinery should be eliminated. 
 The application of the terms case, gender, per- 
 son, and all other designations of inflectional 
 variations of words, should be kept within the 
 narrow limits prescribed by the simplicity of tin 
 language. In most systems of grammar, how- 
 ever, we find these terms used in so ambiguous 
 a way as almost hopelessly to obscure the sub- 
 ject and perplex the learner. Sometimes, for 
 example, case is used to indicate a form or in- 
 flection, at others, a mere relation without 
 change of form: while the fact to be taught is. 
 that where there is no inflection there is no case. 
 The rule that "a noun which is the subject of a 
 verb must be in the nominative case " is. in En- 
 glish, useless and absurd. The senseless machin- 
 ery of English grammar, as it has been generally 
 taught, has brougb.1 thewdiole subject under rep- 
 robation, as being useless in an elementary school 
 curriculum, and as superseded in that of the 
 high school and college, by the study of Latin : 
 while there is no doubt that college graduates, in 
 the United States, are generally in nothing so 
 deficient as in a practical and critical knowledge 
 of their own language. While it is very true 
 that the use of every language is a matter of 
 habit rather than of rule: every writer and 
 speaker knows, that there are myriads of in- 
 stances in which the ear and the memory, how- 
 ever trained by habit, will not serve as a guide, 
 and that a knowledge of the principles and 
 usages of language in regard to nice points of 
 construct ion. is indispensable. "Since language' 
 
 savs ( 'unie. •• is the instrument of all thought, a 
 more commanding knowledge of it than habit 
 alone can give must be deemed a necessity of 
 education, ami particularly of all education 
 which pretends to cultivate the mind." — See 
 
 Currie, Principles <>n</ Practice of Common- 
 School Education (Edin. and Lond.); Wells, 
 The Graded School (N. V.. L862); Wicker- 
 spam, Methods of Instruction (Phila., L865| ; 
 Kiddle &c, How to Teach fN. V.. 1874): 
 Brown, <u-<inini<tr of English Grammars 
 (N. Y.. L851); White, Words <n«l Their Uses. 
 (N.V.. 1870); Marcel, The Study of Languages 
 (N. Y.. 1876). 'See also English, The Stud* 
 
 OK 
 
882 
 
 GRAMMAR SCHOOLS 
 
 GRAMMAR SCHOOLS, bo called, not be- 
 eause they gave instruction in English grammar, 
 1 mt from the fact of their making the teaching 
 of Latin and Greek- particularly, and some- 
 times exclusively, the former— their especial aim, 
 existed in England from the earliest times. They 
 discharged the same function as the old cathe- 
 dral schools (q. v.i. or the cloisfe r schools of the 
 monasteries, and were established and supported 
 r by the endowm tnts of benevolent individ- 
 uals, or by governmental appropriations. In Eng- 
 land, the endowed grammar schools arc very 
 numerous and many of quite ancient foundation. 
 Quite a numb srof Royal < Grammar Schools were 
 Wished during the reigns of Henry VIII.. 
 Edward VI., and Elizabeth, from funds obtained 
 out of the spoils of the religious houses of the 
 
 Catholics, broken up al that time. To a certain 
 
 extent, they were free schools. "A few of the 
 poor," says Barnard, " who were unable to paj 
 
 for their education were to lie selected — some 
 
 according to the parish in which they were horn 
 or lived, some on account of the name they bore, 
 
 — and to receive instruction in the learned lan- 
 
 i nag is, an I. under certain conditions, to be sup- 
 ported through the university. These Public 
 Grammar Schools were thus the nurseries of 
 the scholar.- of England, in them the poor and 
 the rich, to some extent, enjoye I equal advantages 
 of learning, and, through them, the way to the 
 
 highest honors in the state, and the Largest use- 
 fulness in the church was opened to the humbles! 
 iu the land," Endowed grammar schools whose 
 
 foundation dates hack to quite early limes exist 
 
 iu almost ;dl the principal towns of England. 
 Th 'v are generally both day and boarding 
 sch ioIs Of these the Grammar School of King 
 Edward VI., al Bromsgrove, is an exampl 
 which the tercentenary commemoration of the 
 foundation was celebrated March ill., L853. 
 dings, 8vo, Bromsgrove, 1853.) As 
 a curious old book on this subject see Brinslcy's 
 Ludus Literariu8, or the Grammar Schools 
 (London, 1612). The course of instruction is 
 about the same as in the Public Schools, such as 
 Eton, I [arrow, etc., Latin and Greek being quite 
 
 prominent : and. in both classes of schools. 
 
 pupils are prepared for admission into the uni- 
 
 \. reities. 'These grammar schools are. therefore, 
 
 the same as what have been called class 
 schools, belonging to the class of middle scl 
 enl representing secondary instruction. Thej 
 correspond to the gymnasia of Germany and 
 
 the lycies of France; in the latter, however, 
 
 there is a course of instruction in modern lan- 
 guages, running parallel with the ancient course, 
 for all pupils beyond a certain ag . Long before 
 the Reformation, there were grammar schools in 
 
 all the principal towns of Scotland, in which 
 
 th' Latin language was taught. In the lecture 
 
 Schools children were also taught to read the 
 
 vernacular language. In Clasgow, a grammar 
 
 School was in operation iu the 1 5th century : and 
 the Edinburgh Bigh School, in the early part of 
 
 the 16th century. An ad ofJamesIV. the 
 earliest Scottish legislation on the Bubjed of 
 
 education (1494) — refers to the grammar school, 
 especially : 
 
 '•Item, It is statute and ordained through all the 
 Realm e thai ;>11 Barronnes and Freeholders that arc of 
 substance put their eldest sonnea ami aires to tic 
 >chule- Ira they lie sex or nine wires (if age, ami liil 
 they remain at the Grammar Schulea qahill they be 
 competentiie (bunded ami have perfect Latine". 
 
 Grammar schools, in the United States, were 
 originally of the same character as in England 
 and Scotland. "By free school and free gram- 
 mar school," says Barnard, "in the early records 
 both of towns and of the General Court of Con- 
 necticut and Massachusetts, was not intended the 
 common or public school, as afterwards devel- 
 oped, particularly in Massachusetts, supported by 
 
 tax and free of all charge to all scholars rich and 
 
 poor : neither was it a charity scl 1. exclusively 
 
 for tin/ poor. The term was applied here, as well 
 as in the early acts of Virginia and other states. 
 
 in the same sense in which it was used in England, 
 at the same and much earlier dates, to characterize 
 a grammar school unrestricted as to a class of 
 children or scholars specified in the instrument 
 by which it was founded, and so supported as 
 not to depend on the fluctuating attendance and 
 tuition of scholars for the maintenance of a 
 master. In every instance in which we have 
 traced their history, the free schools of New 
 England were endowed by grants of land, by 
 gifts and bequests of individuals, or by 'allow- 
 ance out of the common stock of the tow n". were 
 designed especially for instruction iu Latin and 
 Greek, and were supported in pari by payments 
 
 of tuition or rates by parents. These schools 
 were the well-springs of classical education ill 
 this country, and were the predecessors of the 
 
 incorporated academies, which do not appear 
 
 under that name until a comparatively recent 
 
 period." The gradual development of the com- 
 mon-school system in the United States, joined 
 with the partial decline of latin and Greek as 
 
 instruments of education, and the demand for 
 Studies of a more practical character, that is, 
 more in demand as a preparation for the ordinary 
 duties of life, have led to a different application 
 of the term grammar schools. The study of 
 English grammar having taken the place of Latin 
 grammar in schools of an elementary grade, such 
 schools came to be designated grammar schoi s, 
 and the former grammar or classical schools re- 
 ceived the name of high schools atacadt mies. In 
 
 most of the public school systems of the cities of 
 
 the L nion, grammar schools areBchools of a gi 
 between the primary schools in which the first 
 rudiments of instruction are imparted, and the 
 high schools. Some of the grammar schools 
 called, have a primary, tin intermediate, and a 
 grammar department. In these cases, the term 
 grammar schools has been used with no definite 
 idea of its propriety, except as designating a 
 Bomewhal higher grade of schools than those in 
 which the simplest rudiments of an English edu- 
 cation are afforded ; since even in these English 
 grammar is taught in only the higher grades i r 
 classes. See Barnard, Education in Europe; 
 and American Biography, s. v. Ezekiel Ch& 
 
GRASER 
 
 GREECE 
 
 383 
 
 GRASER, Johann Baptist, a Catholic 
 priest and educator, bora in Eltmann, Germany, 
 in L766;died in L841. He aroused consider- 
 able opposition, especially among the Catholic 
 clergy, by his educational theories. He insisted 
 that education should not aim at general culture, 
 but at a preparation for life. Class education was 
 particularly favored in his doctrine. His general 
 theory of e lucation was derived from Schillings 
 philosophy. The essence of man is reason ; and 
 the aim of reason is to reproduce the divine 
 likeness. A knowledge of human life, in its re- 
 lation to nature and God, is necessary to every 
 one : and no power should deprive any one of it. 
 The aim of this general culture should be to 
 proline,' a feeling of solidarity. Every one 
 should be made to feel that he lives not for or 
 in himself alum.'. Specific education must 
 individual, since it aims to prepare each one for 
 his future position in life. The idea of general 
 culture i- contradictory to nature, and is dan- 
 gerous withal. It is apt to produce restless, dis- 
 Batisned people, rather than useful members of 
 society. With Graser, as with Caesar, men who 
 think too much were consi 1 -red dangerous, in im- 
 parting knowledge, the teacher should strive to 
 develop thestudent's powers. All teachers of what- 
 ever subject, should consider themselves as teachers 
 of religion, for no knowledge is complete until 
 its object is seen in its relation to God. Graser 's 
 theory, like that of Fichte, subordinates the in- 
 dividual to the state in so despotic a fashion as 
 to reduce the former to a mere tool. It was 
 largely a reaction, in the interest of government, 
 from the individualism which was at that time 
 leavening all Europe. It was due, therefore, less 
 to an insight into human nature than to the 
 political exigencies of his time. His polemic 
 against general culture is due to the same cause. 
 I lis class education fits well in a despotic system 
 of government, but overlooks the fact that man 
 is, first of all, called to he a man, and not a 
 tradesman or a mechanic. His leading idea, though 
 by no means originating with him. was, that edu- 
 cation is properly a self-culture, — an unfolding 
 from within. His philosophy had a marked 
 effect upon his theory of religious views. As a 
 follower of Schelling, he believed in an im- 
 manent God, and was impatient, therefore, of 
 catechetical instruction in religion. God must 
 be found every-where, according to him. — in 
 man. in the world, ami not alone outside of them. 
 Catechism he considered as having a. tendency 
 to irreligion and rationalism. A one sided mys- 
 ticism characterizes his theory, which gave rise to 
 the charges of heterodoxy, which were brought 
 against him. — See Schmidt, Geschichie der 
 Padagogik, vol. iv. 
 
 GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND, 
 the United Kingdom of. This is the official 
 title of the British empire, Great Britain 
 being properly the name of the island which 
 comprises England, Scotland, and Wales. In 
 current language, however, the name Great 
 
 J > 
 
 Britain alone is generally used to designate the 
 whole imperial power. At present, the British 
 
 empire, in point of extent, is the largest in the 
 world, its area being estimated at 8,700,000 sq. 
 in. Its aggregate population exceeds 283,000,000. 
 This work contains special articles on ENGLAND, 
 Scotland, [rel and, also on each of the provinces 
 of British North America, on British India, and 
 on the Australasian Colonies (qq.v.). 
 
 GREECE, a country of. south eastern Europe, 
 Laving an area of I '.;.:;.'>.'! sip m.,and, according to 
 the census of L870, 1,457,894 inhabitants, nearly 
 allot whom speak the Greek language, and are 
 connected with the Greek Church. The number 
 of those who speak other languages is only 
 
 68,000,and the number belonging to other relig- 
 ious denominations, only 12,600. Greece, an- 
 ciently called Hellas, is the earliest of all the 
 European countries, thai appear upon the stage 
 of the world's history: and though the Greek 
 states have, for many centuries, ceased to exist, 
 the language and literature of the Greek nation 
 have, in uninterrupted continuation, been instru- 
 ments in the education of mankind. The limits 
 of ancient Greece were not well defined, as the 
 northern boundary line considerably varied at 
 different periods. Of territories now subject to 
 Turkish rule, the Sporades, Crete, Rhodes, and 
 parts of Thessaly and Epirus are generally in- 
 cluded in ancient Greece, and are inhabited by 
 Greeks at the present day. Numerous and 
 flourishing colonies were established by the an- 
 cient Greeks, or Hellenes, in many countries, 
 especially in Sicily, southern Italy, and Asia 
 Minor. and. for a longtime, took an active part in 
 tlie literary and educational development of the 
 race. In 14<> B. C, Greece became a Roman 
 province ; and for more than four centuries the 
 I lellenic nation remained subject to foreign rule. 
 The division of the Roman Empire, in 395, cre- 
 ated the Greek Empire, of which Constantinople 
 was the capital, and which embraced, for a long 
 time, not only theGreek territory now belonging to 
 the kingdom of Greece, but both the European 
 and Asiatic portions of the Turkish empire. The 
 empire was destroyed, in 1453, by the Ottomans, 
 or Turks : and the (decks continued for centuries 
 without national sovereignty, until, in 1829, the 
 establishment of the kingdom of Greece restored 
 to them a place among the independent nations 
 of the earth. "We shall treat, in this article, of (1) 
 Ancient Greece, (II) the Greek Empire, and 
 (111) Modern ( rreece. 
 
 I. Ancient Greece. — In the history of edu- 
 cation, the ancient Greeks hold a more promi- 
 nent position than any other people of antiquity. 
 They attained a far higher degree of intellectual 
 development than existed in' the Asiatic or 
 African monarchies which preceded them ; or 
 in the Roman republic, the Roman empire, and 
 the rising monarchies of the middle ages, which 
 came alter them. It needed the revival of clas- 
 sical learning, in the L 5th century, to raise the 
 intellectual culture of Kurope again to the lew I 
 of ancient ( Greece. Since t hen. the < dvek language 
 and literature have had a prominent part in the 
 development of modern civization. The progress 
 of modern literature, especially of history, mat he- 
 
384 
 
 GREECE 
 
 matics, philosophy, the fine arts, natural science, 
 and geography, is largely due to the writings of 
 the Greek scholars who were the first notable 
 teachers of these subjects, and who. during the 
 last four centuries, have been studied by so large 
 a number of the young students of the civilized 
 world. The great orators of ancient Greece have 
 not yet ceased to be admired ; and the greatest 
 poets of t lie English language and of other modern 
 tongues have not only derived from the master- 
 pieces of the Greeks, inspiration and the laws of 
 literary composition of every kind, but in many 
 cases, modern poets have borrowed from them 
 even the Subjects of their poems. 
 
 The earliest feature of education in ancient 
 Greece, as we infer from the Homeric poems 
 and other writings of that period, was the im- 
 planting of a strongly filial attachment in the 
 minds of children, and the ennobling influence 
 of parental discipline and example. Reverence 
 and obedience toward parents, respect for old 
 age. and habits.of modesty, chastity, and silence 
 in the presence Of elders and superiors were re- 
 garded as the chief ornaments of children. The 
 principle was generally recognized, that lie who 
 is to be called upon to command, mus1 first learn 
 to obey. Plainly and artlessly, sons and daughters 
 were brought up to be the images of their par- 
 ents. The son found in his father his model 
 and his teacher, who instructed him in the use 
 of arms, in gymnastic exercises, and in the wor- 
 ship and fear of the gods. The daughter was 
 expected to grow up, under the watchful in- 
 struction of the mother, a skillful, prudent, and 
 virtuous woman. However uncertain the his- 
 torical background of the heroic age may be, 
 
 we know that the ideal of a hero in ancient 
 Greece, which was held up to the rising youth 
 to be copied, awakened more lofty aspirations, 
 
 and exerted an educational influence far supe- 
 rior to anything that is to be met with in the 
 early history of the oriental monarchies. A re 
 liance on self-activity, a longing for fame, an 
 earnest effort to subject physical nature to the 
 
 rule of the mind : and a devotion to music and 
 
 gymnastics, are s e of the features which fore- 
 shadowed the eminent position which Greece 
 \v;is to attain in the annals of education. In the 
 
 historic age of the Greek republics, we notice a 
 passionate ambition, on the pari of the noblesl 
 minds, for distinction in political life, in art. ami 
 in science. A nobler view was taken, than ever 
 before, of the functions of the state ; and educa- 
 tion was recognized as the mosl important sub- 
 ject to which state legislation could be directed. 
 The good of the state was an object constantly 
 
 held in view, and the individual and private 
 
 interests of the pupils were subjects of secondary 
 consideration. No other country ever had an 
 educational legislation like thai which is ascribed 
 to Lycurgus (q. v.), and Solon (q.v.); and no- 
 where do we find Buch attempts to develop and 
 test new educational ideas, as those made by 
 Socrates. Pythagoras, Plato, Aristotle. Xeno- 
 phon, Epicurus, Zeno, and a host of others. \ 
 characteristic feature of the educational system 
 
 of the Greeks, from the earliest period of 
 their history to the downfall of their country, is 
 
 the attempt at a harmonious development of the 
 
 powers of the mind as well as of the body- G '>/»/- 
 nasties (<j. V.) constituted an essential part of 
 Greek, education, and was taught and practiced 
 in the gymnasia, or schools for bodily exercise. 
 All that part of education which related more 
 especially to the cultivation of the mind, was- 
 called by some. Plato and Plutarch for instance, 
 music, while others separated grammar from 
 music, and divided education into three parts: 
 grammar, music, and gymnastics. The centers 
 of <! reek education were the two rival capitals. 
 Allien- and Sparta. Their educational systems. 
 though hoth embraced gymnastics and music. 
 differed iii many and important respects. Sparta. 
 the representative of the Dorictribes, laid greater 
 stress on the subordination of the individual 
 to the state and preferred physical to intellectual 
 culture : while Athens, the representative of the 
 more highly civilized Conians, was the birthplace 
 of those grand theories which, in the history of 
 education, are set down as the chief characteris- 
 tics of ancient Greece. (See Atukns. and 
 Spabta.) Though we know but little of the 
 schools and educational systems of other Grecian 
 cities, there can be no doubt that all of them., -is 
 well as the colonies, took a greater or less part in 
 
 the educational ideas which were developed and 
 carried out in Athens and Sparta. One of the 
 greatest of all Greek teachers. Pythagoras, was 
 a native of the island of Sanios. and established 
 the famous school, which has immortalized him 
 
 in the history of education, in < Votoii. oneof the 
 Greek colonies in southern Italy. (See PvTHAG- 
 
 okas.) With the .subjection of Greece to the 
 rule of .Macedonia, its achievements in the work 
 of education began to decline. Of considerable 
 influence, in the Liter history of (.'recce as well 
 as in that of the Roman empire, were, however, 
 the principles of the Epicureans and the Stoics. 
 The founder of the former was Epicurus, who 
 died at Athens, in 'J70. I!, ('..after having taught 
 there with great success for 35 years. Be regarded 
 a happy life, a quiet and cheerful mind, and 
 an undisturbed enjoyment of pleasure, as the 
 highest attainable good. Intellectual pleasures 
 
 were value 1 by him more highly than sensual 
 
 ones, and friendship, tranquillity, patience in 
 
 suffering unavoidable pain, and a temperate and 
 natural mode of life, were called by him the car- 
 dinal virtues. Epicurus and his firsl followers 
 were entirely five from the licentiousness which. 
 
 during the times of the Roman cinperois. was 
 
 considered the chief characteristic of that school. 
 The Stoics were founded by Zeno, who died 
 at \theiis, in 260, B. C, after teaching there for 
 50 years with as great success as his contempo- 
 rary, Epicurus. The name Stoics was given to 
 
 his school because he used to assemble his pupils 
 in a rrr./.i, or porch. Zeno regarded virtue a.s the 
 
 highest good, and he defined it as the firm ad- 
 hesion to established principles of rectitude. 
 
 Vice was. in his opinion, the only evil. He. 
 therefore, laid greater BtreSS than EpicuruSUpOQ 
 
GREECE 
 
 P.sf 
 
 the control of passions and emotions, upon the 
 subordination of the body to the mind, upon re- 
 fraining from sensual pleasures, and upon every 
 kind of abstinence and self-denial. lEven life 
 itself should be relinquished, if it hindered the 
 exercise of conscience. In opposition t<> Epicu- 
 rism, Stoicism, in later times, was the symbol of 
 an austere morality. While Greece proper, al 
 this time, presented more and more a picture of 
 
 i tinual decay, the ('durational institutions of 
 
 Athens and Sparta perishing with the total loss 
 of their independence, the city of Alexandria, in 
 Egypt, became the scat of Greek science and 
 literature, and its teachers and schools obtained 
 a world-wide reputation. (See Alexandrian 
 School.) After the rise of Christianity, the 
 Alexandrian school of philosophers developed the 
 system of Neoplatonism, which endeavored to 
 harmonize oriental theology with Creek dialec- 
 tics, and to dislodge Christianity by a new uni- 
 versal philosophy. The fame of the Greek 
 hers in Alexandria also gave rise to the for- 
 mation of the first school of Christian theolo- 
 gians, some of whom endeavored to keep alive 
 in the church an intimate acqui intance with the 
 ttesl representatives of ancient Greek litera- 
 ture. These efforts, however, were not success- 
 ful ; but the fact that the earliest literature of 
 tile Christian church is. like the New Testament 
 itself, written in the language of ancient Greece, 
 has secured to the latter, at all times, an impor- 
 tant educational influence in the ( !hristian world. 
 — See Grote, History of Greece; Hochhebjer, 
 System der griechischen Erziehung (1785) ; 
 Goess, Die Erziehungswissenschqft nach </'■/> 
 Grundsdtzen '{<•/• Griechen und Ho'mer (1808); 
 Krause, Geschichte <l<>r Erziehung und des 
 Unterrichts i><j den Griechen, Etruskern und 
 Rdmern (1851); Jacobs, Ucbcr di<> Krzii'hung 
 der Griechen zur Siillichkeit, in vol. m. of his 
 I r ermischte Schriften, commenced in 1 833 ; trans, 
 by Pelton, in Classical Studies, by Sears, Fel- 
 Tox.and Edwards (1843). Aselection of maxims 
 on education from the Greek classics is given in 
 Niemeyer, OriginalsteUen griechischer />//</ rfi- 
 mischer Classiker ihber die Theorie der Erzie- 
 Im,i<i mnl des Unterrichts (1813); Schmidt, 
 History of Education (New York, 1842); Wil- 
 kixs. National Education in Greece in tin' 
 Fourth Century be/ore Christ (London, 1872). 
 IT. 77/e Greek Empire. — When, in the 
 Uli century. A. D., Constantine transferred the 
 capital of the Roman Empire to Byzantium, 
 which from him received the name of Con- 
 stantinople, the predominance of the Creek 
 language and literature in the educational insti- 
 tutions of the empire was firmly established. 
 About 70 years later, in 395, Theodosius, at his 
 death, divided the empire into the Western Em- 
 pire which remained under the influence of 
 Latin or Roman culture, and the Eastern or 
 Byzantine Empire, which, in language and civili- 
 zation, was almost exclusively < Ireek : and which, 
 therefore, is sometimes called the (ireek Em- 
 pire. It dragged out a wretched existence, until, 
 in 1453. it was conquered bv the Turks. Though 
 25 
 
 thus existing through a period of more than a 
 thousand years, and spreading over a vast extent 
 
 of territory, this empire presents in the history 
 of education little more than a blank. A general 
 
 stagnation early became the chief characteristic 
 of the intellectual condition of the empire. 
 Nothing at all was done for the instruction of 
 the masses; the few schools in which the Creek 
 classics were taughl proved unable to produce a 
 single great educator. "The Greeks of Constan- 
 tinople held in their lifeless hands." says Gibbon, 
 "the riches of their fathers, without inheriting the 
 spirit which had created and improved that sa- 
 cred patrimony: they read, they praised, they 
 compiled, but their languid souls seemed alike 
 incapable of thought and action. In the revolu- 
 tion of ten centuries', not a single discovery was 
 made to exalt the dignity or promote the hap- 
 piness of mankind." The expulsion of the last 
 Neoplatonists from Constantinople, under Jus- 
 tinian (527— 565), had a disastrous effect ; and. 
 for some time, a few convents on the islands of 
 the archipelago and on .Mount Athos offered the 
 only refuge to science and education. A few of 
 the long list of emperors deserve credit for having 
 at least attempted a general reform. The most- 
 noted among these was Rardas (850). He founded 
 in Constantinople a free university, with a free 
 const itution, making it independent of the church 
 and the clergy. Distinguished teachers of philos- 
 sophy. geometry, astronomy, and higher gram- 
 mar were appointed, and the emperor himself at- 
 tended their lectures. He estal dished special 
 schools for different sciences, paid the teachers 
 from the public treasury, and intrusted the 
 superintendence of this entire system of educa 
 tional institutions to the philosopher Leo. During 
 the reign of the Macedonian dynasty, which be- 
 gan in 867, Byzantine literature entered upon its 
 most brilliant period, and Constantinople became 
 the central seat of philological and encyclopaedic 
 erudition. Constantine l'orphyrogenitus (913- 
 959), established four special schools for philos- 
 ophy, rhetoric, geometry, and astronomy, and 
 required in every public officer of a higher grade 
 a knowledge of philosophy and rhetoric. Among 
 the succeeding emperors, Constantine Ducas 
 especially encouraged education; but no impor- 
 tant or lasting results were, at any time, ob- 
 tained. The decay steadily advanced, and the 
 empire was. from an intellectual no less than 
 from a political point of view, a complete ruin 
 when it fell a prey to the conquering arms of 
 the lurks. — See Schmidt, Geschichte der Pa- 
 dagogik. 
 
 III. Modern Greece. — The wars which the 
 Sultans waged against the Byzantine empire 
 being not only directed against a hostile nation, 
 lnii against a hostile religion, were particularly 
 disastrous to Creek learning. The few scholars 
 who succeeded in saving their lives, were either 
 forced to Hy to foreign lands or to hide in 
 cloisters. The establishment of schools of an 
 advanced grade for the instruction of (ireek 
 youth was even more strictly forbidden than the 
 erection of churches. In consequence of these 
 
380 
 
 GREECE 
 
 measures, schools and all other means of culture 
 fell into entire neglect : and the ignorance of the 
 Greek population became, from year to year, more 
 dense and extensive. After a long period, and 
 particularly during the eighteenth century, the 
 Turks, believing their authority to be beyond 
 danger of overthrow, began to be less suspicious 
 of their Greek subjects; and, in consequence, 
 the condition of the latter grew more tolerable. 
 Gradually, a more frequent intercourse with 
 other Christian nations of Europe awaken.' I 
 among the Greeks a stronger desire for Learning, 
 which was easilv gratified by their growing 
 wealth. Public schools, before so rare, began to 
 increase in number; while there also sprung up, 
 in Bom ■ of the cities, schools of a higher grade, 
 in which was taught ancient Greek history, and, 
 in some cases, the elements of philo »phy, mathe- 
 matics, rhetoric, and natural philosophy. The 
 most efficient and best known of these schools 
 were those situated upon the islands of Patmos 
 and Scio, at Cydonia, Smyrna, Zagora (with a 
 second one at Melia, on Mt. Pelion in Thessaly), 
 two in Vanina in Epirus, one on Mount Athos. 
 two in the Peloponnesus, one at Blumtchisnie 
 on the Bosporus, and two in the Danubian 
 Principalities, — at Bucharest and Jassy. These 
 schools which were mostly supported by the en- 
 dowments of patriotic citizens, and by voluntary 
 contributions, were, in most cases, under the 
 direction of excellent scholars, who had received 
 their education in Italy. Prance, or Germany, 
 and who devote 1 their time to the instruction of 
 youth at a merely nominal salary. The condition 
 of tile elementary schools of that period was 
 extremely miserable ; and not until a few years 
 before the insurrection, did any improvement 
 take place. A learned Greek, Georgios KJeo- 
 bulos, ha\ ing become acquainted with the moni- 
 torial system of instruction, introduced it into 
 Greece. This was the condition of public instruc- 
 tion at the outbreak of t he revolut ion. During 
 the struggles that followed, this condition gradu- 
 ally deteriorated. In the neighboring Ionian 
 Islands, which were under the protectorate of 
 < iii at Britain, there had been, in the in. an while, 
 a decided improvement in the condition of liter- 
 ary institutions. Several Hellenic schools and 
 a gymnasium had been established by tin- govern- 
 ment; and a university had been endowed by 
 the liberality of Lord Guilford, which, although 
 
 imperfect in many respects, had educated many 
 Grecian youths, who, upon the establishment of 
 a regular government in the new kingdom of 
 
 Greece, became its leading statesmen. Count 
 
 Capo d'Istria, upon being elected president, bj 
 
 the national < vention in 1828, erected, besides 
 
 numerous public schools, a gymnasium on the 
 
 island of . Kgina. which BOOH became of great 
 
 benefit to Greece. Under King Otho, the entire 
 bem of public education was reorganized; and 
 
 Hie relations of the schools and of the depart- 
 ment of education were carefully regulate I. 
 
 Primary Instruction. The common schools 
 of Greece are regulated by the law of 1 833, which 
 makes school attendance obligatory upon all 
 
 children between the ages of 5 and 12 years. 
 This requirement is. however, far from being 
 enforced, as is shown by the fact that, in 1870, 
 but .'!.'! per cent of adult males, and but 7 
 per cent of adult females, were able to 
 read and wait:'. There were 55 communes, in 
 1870, in which not one woman was able to read 
 or write. In the army, the proportion of totally 
 illiterate men was 4s_ per cent, and in the navy, 
 it was 53 \ percent. Every parish is required 
 to have at least one school: and in case its 
 means do not suffice to support a Bchool, aid is 
 
 afforded by the government. There are also 
 "irregular schools" in towns which cannot sup- 
 port the regular government school. In the 
 irregular schools, the old method of individual 
 instruction is still followed. Separate schools 
 for girls are found in large cities only. A rule 
 adopted bythe educational department, without 
 any authority of law. however, provides that, in 
 every school in which the number of scholars 
 exceeds 1 50 or 250, there shall lie one or two 
 ■ lant teachers respectively. Owing to a want 
 of funds, this rule has not been fully carried out 
 except in the chief towns of the nomarxihies 
 (provinces) and eparchies (districts). The 
 schools of each parish are governed by a local 
 board of inspectors, called the ephory. This 
 board is composed of the burgomaster as presi- 
 dent, one of the priests of the place, and from 
 two to four private citizens. Where the inhabi- 
 tants of the districts belong to different faiths. 
 a priest 'Vim each of the denominations is 
 
 chosen. Th • ephory have the care. oversight. and 
 management of all the schools in the parish, and 
 may exempt poor families from taxation for 
 school purposes. They must visit the schools 
 at least once a month, and report to the eparch 
 or the nomarch the defects in the schools. as well 
 
 as the improve uts which they may consider 
 
 necessary. They also present a report on the 
 
 financial condition of the school. Committees, 
 similar in their composition to the ephories, were 
 provided for the eparchies and nomarchies by 
 
 the law of L833. The eparehs are required to 
 
 \i.-it the schools under their charge semi-annu- 
 ally, and the nomarchs the schools of the noin- 
 archy annually: and they report to the depart- 
 ment on the condition of the schools, ami the 
 
 conduct of the teachers and of the local inspec- 
 tors, 'the principal of the school at the cap- 
 ital of the eparchy has the supervision of 
 
 all the schools in that district, as respects the 
 
 essional skill and capacity of the teachers; 
 
 and the principal of the school at the capital of 
 
 a nomarchy has a similar supervision of all the 
 
 schools in his province. It is the duty of these 
 principals to visit the schools und'a- their charge 
 every six months, and report on them to the 
 director of the teachers' seininaiy at Athens. 
 Who is the chief superintendent of all the schools. 
 The schools are divided into two grades : the 
 
 lower or monitorial, including eight classes, in 
 
 each of which the scholars spend from one to 
 two yean; and the higher, syndidactic arsim-id- 
 taneous, composed of two (In the cities thn 
 
GREECE 
 
 387 
 
 annual classes. All the scholars arc instruct.' I 
 in reading, writing, arithmetic, the rudiments of 
 modern Greek grammar, and religion. To these 
 studies arc added, in the higher schools, the 
 elements of geography, Biblical and Greek his- 
 tory, and the grammar of the ancient Greek 
 language. Religious instruction is generally im- 
 parted by the teacher; but, in a few cases. 
 where the scholars are of different religion, the 
 parents of thai denomination which is in a 
 minority, provide separate religious instruction 
 at their own expense. The scholars are also 
 required to furnish short compositions. Music 
 
 and drawing arc taught in but very few scl Is, 
 
 owing to the scarcity of teachers. The teachers 
 are required to keen a general register of the 
 scholars, a record of school delinquencies, a rec- 
 ord of the visits of inspectors and other persons, 
 a register of children who. through want of 
 room, have been refused admission, a roll of 
 honor, a record of reprimands and punishments, 
 a book for each scholar, in which his conduct is 
 noted twice a month by the teacher and the 
 parents, registers of the different classes, and a 
 monthly exhibit of the condition of the school, 
 not only with respect to the scholars and their 
 studies, but also in regard to the school-building 
 etc. A quarterly report is seut to the eparch or 
 nomarch, drawn up front these monthly exhibits, 
 and signed by the teacher and the local inspector. 
 Two general examinations are held annually, — 
 at the end of February, and at the end of August, 
 of which the latter only is open to the public. 
 The final examinations of the highest classes 
 take place at the end of the year, and are con- 
 ducted by a special examining committee. The 
 school laws are read to the scholars and are 
 affixed to the walls of the school rooms, where 
 they remain during the year. Corporal punish- 
 ment is strictly forbidden; the usual punishments 
 being the loss of credit marks, detention, re- 
 primands, and expulsion. Pupils are rewarded 
 by certificates of merit, admission to the roll of 
 honor, and premiums at the closing examination 
 of the year. A teachers' seminary has ex- 
 isted in Athens since the first year of the 
 kingdom, to which a model school is attached. 
 Upon passing an examination teachers receive 
 diplomas of the first, second, or third grade, ac- 
 cording to their degree of proficiency. This 
 seminary also furnishes the Christian population 
 of the Turkish provinces with teachers. Female 
 teachers are educated in the higher female 
 schools, particularly in the one founded by the 
 Association of the Friends of Education, in 
 Athens. The minimum monthly salary is LOO 
 drachmas (1 drachma=$0.19.3) for teachers in 
 the capital of a nomarchy, 90 drachmas for 
 teachers in the chief towns of eparchies, 80 
 drachmas for second-class teachers, and 50 drach- 
 mas for third-class teachers. The salaries of 
 teachers at the capitals of the nomarchies and 
 eparchies are increased 10 drachmas a month, 
 but cannot exceed 140 drachmas. Besides the 
 salary, the teachers of all classes are provided 
 with free lodging, and receive from the parish 
 
 isury a monthly apportionment of '_''_' lepia 
 (100 lepta equal to I drachma) for each pupil. 
 As, with the exception of the islands of Syra, 
 lino, Naxia, and Santorini, the inhabitants of 
 which an' Roman Catholics, almost the entire 
 population of the kingdom belong to the Greek 
 Church, no provision has been made fordenom- 
 inational schools; and hence the members of 
 both churches, in these islands, send theirchildren 
 to the same school. In some places, school.- have 
 been established by the Catholic clergy for the 
 children belonging to thai church; but these are 
 supported entirely by private means. The in- 
 fluence of the clergy in the government schools 
 is very limited, not extending beyond the super- 
 vision of the religious instruction and the ap- 
 proval of the religious books to be Used. The in- 
 crease in the number of schools, as well ; s in the 
 school attendance, during the present century, 
 has been \ cry marked. While, in L830, there 
 were only 71 schools, with t'i~'l\ scholars, and, in 
 1858, 754 schools, with 51,596 pupils, there 
 were, in ls7'_'. !»'.>1 primary schools for boys, and 
 1st; schools for girls, with 1713 male and 560 
 female teachers, and 73,580 pupils, of whom 
 61,885 were boys, and Ll,695, girls. In 1874, 
 there where l'J'J7 schools, with 81,449 pupils. 
 
 Secondary Instruction. — Secondary instruc- 
 tion is imparted in the Hellenic schools and the 
 gymnasia. The Hellenic schools correspond to 
 what in Germany are called Latin schools, and 
 also to the higher burgher schools, as they are 
 intended not only to prepare boys for the gym- 
 nasia, but also to provide a higher education 
 for those who intend to follow a business or 
 trade. The gymnasia correspond to the higher 
 classes of the German gymnasia, and prepare 
 those for the university who look forward to a 
 learned profession. Fach one of the eparchies 
 is required to have, at least, one Hellenic school ; 
 and each one of the nomarchies, a gymnasium. 
 The secondary schools are governed by the royal 
 ordinance of L837. In order to receive support 
 from the state, they must have no denomina- 
 tional character. The Hellenic schools of each 
 province are under the supervision of the prin- 
 cipal of the nearest gymnasium, who visits them 
 and reports on their condition annually. The 
 Hellenic schools comprise three, and the gym- 
 nasia, four annual classes. The course of study 
 in the Hellenic schools is as follows: religion 
 
 and penmanship (2 hours each per week in all 
 
 three classes), history and mathematics (.'! hours 
 each), French language (4 hours), the Creek 
 language (12 hours), geography (3 hours in the 
 first class, and 2 in each of the othersj, and Latin 
 
 (3 hours, in the third class only). In the gym- 
 nasia, the course of study is as follows: religion 
 and natural philosophy (2 hours each in all four 
 classes), mathematics, history, and French (each 
 3 hours), Latin (5 hours;. Greek (9 hours), geog- 
 raphy (•'! hours in the first two classes, ami "_' in 
 the two highest classes); the elements of philos- 
 ophy are taught 2 hours per week. Religious 
 instruction is given in the Hellenic schools by 
 lone of the teachers, and in the gymnasia by 
 
:;ss 
 
 GREECE 
 
 GREEK CHURCH 
 
 regularly appointed priests. In the Hellenic 
 schools, chrestomathies arc used : and the classic 
 authors in Greek and Latin arc generally read 
 in the gymnasia. Text-books have been pre- 
 pared top all the various branches of study, and 
 have steadily improved. The system of clas 
 teachers prevails in Ihe I [ellenic schools ; but, in 
 the gymnasia, all the branches, with the excep- 
 tion of Greek, geography, and history, are taught 
 by special professors. The law also provides for 
 a library for the use of the teachersand students 
 in each Hellenic school and gymnasium; bul 
 very little lias, as yet, been accomplished in tins 
 direction. The final examination is conducted 
 by the professors of die gymnasium, in the pres- 
 ence of theephory ami is both oral and written. 
 The instructors ai i ttyled professors, tutors, and 
 assistants. The title of professor is given to those 
 only who teach the above-mentioned branch 
 the gymnasia; all others who hold permanent 
 positions as instructors in the gymnasia and 
 Hellenic schools, are styled tutors; bul those 
 who are not permanently eng id arc called 
 assistants. The royal ordinance of L850 makes 
 it obligatory on a candidate for a position as 
 acher in a Hellenic school to have attended. 
 besides a full course in the gymnasium, at least 
 two years the philosophical and philological 
 
 course in the university, an I ! taken pari 
 
 in the exercises of the philological seminary. En 
 the Hellenic schools, the teachers arc divided 
 into three classes in regard to salaries, receiving 
 respectively LOO, L30, and 150 drachmas per 
 month: while the principals receive 2(>o drach- 
 mas. In the gymnasia, the principal receives 300 
 
 drachma-, and the professors 250. These salaries 
 
 may be increased -fifth after five years' 
 
 service. Hellenic schools and gymnasia may 
 also be established by private persons, upon re- 
 ceiving permission from the government. Higher 
 schools for girls have been established in the 
 
 larger cities ; bul they arc, with one exception. 
 private institutions The course of study in the 
 private institutions is of three years, and does not 
 
 differ from that pursued in the Hellenic schools, 
 
 except that French and English arc taught instead 
 of Latin. Instruction is given by both male and 
 female teachers : hut there must he. in all C8 
 a female principal. These schools arc Subject to 
 
 governmental Bupen ision, under a special ephory. 
 The exception mentioned above is the Central 
 
 School of the Sociciy nf i he l-'rieuds of Education, 
 at Athens. This school, which is specially in- 
 tended to train female teachers, has four cla-.-c-. 
 
 The fourth class is obligatory for those only who 
 wish to become teachers in the higher schools. 
 In L870, there were L 5 gymnasia, and III Hel- 
 lenic schools, with 7780 pupils ; and '_'.'! private 
 
 institutions, with 1589 pupils of both sexes. The 
 
 number of gymnasia, in L872,was IT. According 
 
 to the late-i account-, the number of higher 
 Bchools for girls was L0, withaboul 900 pupil.-; 
 
 and the < eutral Scl 1 has over LOO pupils. 
 
 Superior Instruction. The Otho University, 
 
 in Athens, was founded in L837,and is organized 
 on the plan of the German universities. It has 
 
 made rapid progress during the short period of its 
 existence. From •';"> students that entered at the 
 time of its foundation, it has risen to I. !:••."> stu- 
 dents, in L869. The total number of students that 
 attended from L837 to 1869 was 5,245. The num- 
 ber of professors, in L874,was43; thai of student.-, 
 I .''>')'!. it is cot;.]-- I of four faculties.- theol- 
 ogy, law and political economy, medicine and 
 pharmacy, and philosophy. Each faculty elects its 
 own rei tor and a representative ; and tin se, with 
 president appointed by the king, constitute 
 the academic council. The professors elect a repre- 
 sentative to the national legislature. A philo- 
 logical and pedagogical seminary for the training 
 of professors and teachers for the gymnasia 
 and special schools, is connected with the uni- 
 versity. There are also connected with the uni- 
 versity a Library, a botanical garden, a museum 
 of natural history, an observatory, a collection 
 of coins and antiquities, and a hospital for prac- 
 tice and demonstration in medicine and phar- 
 Lhstruction is free, the salaries of the 
 professors being paid by the government. The 
 endowments, of which there arc quite a largo 
 number, are used for in ! expenses. The 
 
 university of Corfu was • I in L865. 
 
 rial Instruction. - - The following special 
 schools were in operation in l*7_: live com- 
 mercial schools, four theological schools, four 
 nautical schools, one polytechnic school, and one 
 school of agriculture. Of the theological school.,. 
 three were "fa lower,and one of a higher grade. 
 The course of study in the lower schools, which 
 arc intended to educate villag , S, i.- essen- 
 
 tially the same as that pursued in the Hellenic 
 schools, the principal difference being, that the 
 writings of the church fathers arc u.-ed in con- 
 nection with the pagan classics. These three 
 schools had about 80 students. The higher sem- 
 inary, known as the Khizarian School, was 
 established, about L845, by endowments from 
 
 two brothers, named Rhizaris. It has five an- 
 nual classes, in which the students receive a 
 
 thorough theological training ; and, upon gradu- 
 ating, they are eligible to all the church offices. 
 It has about to students. Orphan asylums 
 were not established until quite recently. There 
 two in Athens, — one founded by Queen 
 \melia. for girls; and another, by two liberal 
 Greeks, for hoys. A third one. in Syra. is sup- 
 ported by the parish. These three asylums had. 
 
 in L869, L58 pupils. SeeScHMiD, Encyclopa< 
 vol. in: Barnard, National Education in Eu- 
 rope. Vol. ]|. 
 
 GREEK CHURCH (also called Greek 
 Catholic, Orthodox Greek, and Eastern 
 Church,i is the name generally used iii English 
 to designate that part of the Christian Church 
 which recognizes only the first seven of the so- 
 called oecumenical councils, and. in addition to 
 them, the so-called Quini-sexium vi Constanti- 
 nople, held in 692, and the council of Constanti- 
 nople, held uinlcr Photius in 879 and 880. The 
 chief dogmatic difference between the Greek 
 Church and the Roman Catholic church relate! 
 
 the doctrine concerning the procession ot the 
 
GREEK LANGUAGE 
 
 389 
 
 Holy Chost. the former charging the latter with 
 altering the faith of tin- undivided churcb on 
 this subject, as i1 had been denned by one of the 
 oecumenical councils. This church is the state 
 church in Russia, Greece, Montenegro, Servia, 
 and Roumania; and it predominates in European 
 Turkey, and in the Servian and Roumanian dis- 
 tricts of Hungary. The population connected 
 with the church numbers about TO millions. 
 The church organizations in the countries named 
 are all. in point of government, independent of 
 each other: though honorary primacy is con- 
 ceded to the see of Constantinople. The virtual 
 separation of the Greek < 'hurch from the churches 
 of western Europe began in the 9th century, 
 under Patriarch Photius, and was fully con- 
 summated in the 11th. As the state church of 
 the Eastern or Greek Empire, this church had a 
 controlling influence upon the educational affairs 
 of south-eastern Europe (see Greece); and 
 since, through its instrumentality, the larger por- 
 tion of the Slavic race were converted to Chris- 
 tianity, it has been no less influential in the edu- 
 cational history of Russia and other Slavic 
 countries. The lethargy into which the Greek 
 Church appears to have sunk, is reflected in the 
 slowness of educational progress in all the coun- 
 tries of the Greek faith. This lethargy is now 
 on the wane. An active intercourse has,for some 
 time, existed between Greek and Anglican the- 
 ologians, and at union conferences held at Bonn, 
 in 1*71 and 1875, between prominent represen- 
 tatives of the Creek. Anglican, an 1 Old-Catholic 
 communions, the unity of these three churches 
 in all essential doctrines was declared.. The 
 strenuous efforts which, for some time, have been 
 made, in all the countries of the Greek faith, to 
 bring their educational systems to the highest 
 stare of perfection, will be greatly strengthened 
 by these church movements. Already, the church 
 has theological faculties, modeled after those in 
 Germany, connected with all the universities of 
 Russia (except Dorpal |, Greece, Servia, and Rou- 
 mania, as well as with the Austrian university of 
 Ozernowitz. The condition of the ecclesiastical 
 seminaries has likewise greatly improved. Many 
 of the theological professors have received their 
 education at the German universities; and their 
 efforts to raise the educational standard of the 
 young clergy have met with consi lerable success. 
 As tin' institutions for secondary and primary 
 instruction, in all the countries professing the 
 Greek religion, have a denominational character, 
 religious instruction being either given or super- 
 intended by the Clergy, the improvement of 
 /logical education exert- an influence upon 
 the schools of every grade, and greatly aids the 
 progress of education in general. 
 _ GREEK LANGUAGE, one of the two clas- 
 sical languages, which, as su< h, constitute an im- 
 portant part of the COUrse of study in all the 
 
 higher literary institutions of the civilized world. 
 As tli iginal language of the New Testament, 
 
 and of the early fathers of the Christian church, it 
 
 has a special importance for Christian theologi- 
 ans, and for all who desire to study the Script- 
 
 ures in the original tongue. In the middle., 
 the Greek language was but rarely studied: 
 
 although Bede, Alcuin, Erigena, Abelard, and 
 
 many other scholars are said to have understood 
 it. Toward the close of the I 1th century, several 
 
 Greek scholars, who came as fugitives to Italy, 
 awakened in the learned institutions an interesl 
 in their language. Florence and Rome were the 
 first centers of the new study ; hut. in Italy, the 
 study of the Latin classics gradually Super- 
 seded, to some extent, that of the Creek lan- 
 guage, which found its most enthusiastic admir- 
 ers andstudents in ( rermany and the Netherlands. 
 Erasmus, Reucblin, and Melanchthon were the 
 greatest Creek scholars in western Europe; and 
 they also introduced the study of the Creek 
 classics, though to a limited extent, into many of 
 the institutions of learning. The appeal of the 
 reformed churches from the Latin Vulgate to 
 the Creek original of the New Testament greatly 
 increase'! the demand for a knowledge of the 
 Creek. In the lTlh century, there was a general 
 decline of the study throughout Europe ; but, in 
 the 18th cciitury.it was resumed with new vigor; 
 and it was especially the Dutch school of Bem- 
 sterhuis and Yalekenaer that promoted the 
 philosophical study of the language. At the be- 
 ginning of the L 9th century, Gottfried Hermann 
 greatly improved the method of teaching Greek; 
 and. more recently, the study of Greek, like that 
 of Latin and all the modern languages, has been 
 greatly b nefited by the result of comparative 
 philology. Creek is one of the most important 
 branches of the Indo-European languages, li^ 
 relation to the other branches of this family has 
 not yet been definitely determined: and o2>in- 
 ions still differ as to whether Greek and Latin 
 (particularly the latter) are entirely indepen- 
 dent branches, or whether they spring from a 
 single branch, now lost, which was co-ordinate 
 with the Sanskrit, the German, the Slavic, and 
 other branches. Greekwas probably spoken as 
 long ago as fifteen centuries before the Christian 
 era. and appears, in the most ancient traces 
 which are left of it. split into a number of dia- 
 lects, the two principal of which were the I>oric 
 and the Ionic. The largest and most important 
 portion of Greek literature was written in the 
 Ionic dialect, in the history of which different 
 periods may he distinguished: the old Ionic or 
 epic dialect, which appears in the poems of 
 
 Homer, and remained the dialect of epic poetry: 
 new Ionic, in which the history of Herod- 
 otus is written: and the Attic, which is the 
 language of the larger portion of Grecian liter- 
 ature Greek was spoken, in the earliest times 
 to which we can trace it. in Greece as well as in 
 parts of Asia Minor: subsequently, the establish- 
 ment of ( deck colonies carried it as a living lan- 
 guage to Sicily, southern Italy, and southern 
 Gaul. Through the conquests of Philip and 
 
 Alexander of Macedon. the languages of (.'recce 
 and Macedon gradually mingled : and new dia- 
 lects were produced, the most important of 
 which was that spoken at Alexandria, and used 
 
 in the Greek translation of the Old Testament, 
 
390 
 
 GREEK LANGUAGE 
 
 in the New Testament, and in the early litera- 
 ture of the Christian Church. During the first 
 three centuries of the Christian era. Greek held 
 
 ;i position similar to that subsequently occupied 
 Eor a long time in Europe by the French lan- 
 guage, being the favorite language of literature 
 and of the e lucated classes. It continued to 
 exist as a spoken language in southern Prance 
 during several centuries after the introduction 
 of Christianity; and in Sicily ami southern Italy, 
 until the 11th century. Through the influence 
 of the Romans, anil subsequently of other nations 
 that conquered south-eastern Europe, the Greek 
 language, as spoken by the people, was consider- 
 ably modified ; and gradually the modern Greek, 
 or Romaic, arose, at present the language of the 
 entire population of the kingdom of Greece, and 
 of the numerous Greek population of Turkey. 
 
 The Greek alphabet was derived from the 
 Phoenicians, though the time when, and the' 
 manner in which, it was introduced, are still sub- 
 jects of learned controversies. Accentuation, as 
 
 well as the signs of aspiration, are supposed by 
 many to have been invented by Aristophanes of 
 Byzantium, and to have been introduced about 
 
 200 B. < '.. for the purpose of teaching the lan- 
 guage to foreigners. The pronunciation of an- 
 cient < Ireek is still a matter of discussion. The 
 
 tireek scholars who revived the study of the lan- 
 guage in western Europe, pronounced it like the 
 modern (ireek of their time; ami this system is 
 called iotacism, or ReucMinism, after Reuchlin, 
 who was its chief advocate in western Europe. 
 In opposition to it. Erasmus maintained that each 
 vowel and diphthong had its own proper sound. 
 
 a like the Italian a, like the Italian i, i like the 
 French ", < and ;/ like the Italian long and short 
 e, respectively, and that ■>, ;. 6, f, r, -, and \ had 
 respectively the sounds of the German b,g, </. ~. 
 
 I . />, and c//. This system was called etacism. The 
 Controversy between the two systems is not yet 
 
 ended, but distinguished scholars, like < Hadstone, 
 Eichthal, Groves, and Felton, recommend the 
 
 introduction of the modern (ireek pronunciation 
 into the Bngliah, French, and American schools. 
 
 The development of the < Ireek language has been 
 of an exclusively national character, no influence 
 having been exerted upon it b\ any foreign lan- 
 
 v. lii. h b receive. I from 
 any foreign language i Persian), it thoroughly 
 similated w ith its own. It is rich in radical words, 
 and in compounds and derivatives. It also pos- 
 sesses an abundance of grammatical fol 
 though, in this respect . it is inferior to som< 
 the older branches of the Indo-European family. 
 
 he Sanskrit and the Zend. But it is not ex- 
 ceeded by any language in the number of its par- 
 ticles, and in the ability to i sprees, by mean 
 them, the mosl varied relations and modifications 
 of ideas. It is also distinguished for its euphony; 
 ami neither the Latin nor any modern langu 
 can compare with it in regard to rhythmical 
 b.-auty. "More than any of itt sister languages," 
 
 j Curtius, "the Greek language must be re 
 carded as a work of art, on account of its sense 
 t >r symmetry and perfection of sounds, for clear- 
 
 ness of form, for law and organism. Its syntax 
 has never been equaled by that of any language 
 in the world." — Ever since the introduction of 
 the study of Greek into classical schools, it has 
 been a general rule to begin it later than Latin. 
 Robert and Henry Stephens strongly advised 
 the opposite course ; and many of the most dis- 
 tinguished scholars, as Hemsterhuis, Buhnkea, 
 Gedike, Herbart. and I 'assow. expressed a con- 
 currence in these views. The vast majority of 
 educators have, however, been so decidedly in 
 favor of Latin as the first classical language to 
 be studied, that only in exceptional eases has a 
 practical attempt to begin with (ireek been made. 
 As a general rule, less time also is devoted to 
 (ireek than to Latin : though some distinguished 
 educators, like Raumer (in his Gfeschichfe der 
 Pddagogik), who do not dispute the claim of 
 Latin to be taken up first, demand an equal or 
 a superior position for (ireek in the hie her clas- 
 ses of classical schools. In the animated conflict 
 concerning the claim of the classical studies to 
 a place in all educational institutions of a higher 
 grade, (ireek has had to bear the brunt of the 
 
 battle. On many sides concessions have been 
 made to Latin, because of its closer affinity 
 with modern languages, and particularly on ac- 
 count of its importance for an etymological 
 
 knowledge of these languages ; and a readiness 
 has been expressed to provide instruction for it 
 even where (ireek has been entirely excluded. 
 Thus we find that, in the United States, in con- 
 sequence of the progress of optional studies in 
 our colleges and universities, ami with the ad- 
 vancing establishment of scientific and other 
 Courses differing from the classical, the study of 
 
 Greek has been dropped in a great many canoe, 
 while the Latin has been retained. In Germany, 
 where the opponents of the predominance of 
 classical studies have concentrated their strength 
 in organizing real schools in opposition to the 
 classic gy mnasia, the existence of a large number 
 of "real schools with Latin" is sufficient to indi- 
 cate the different estimate in which thetwodas- 
 . ical languages are held by the opponents of 
 their present ascendency. 
 
 In regard to the method to he pursued in 
 teaching (ireek, there is a greater agreement 
 among leading educators, than in respect to many 
 other studies. It is generally admitted that the 
 s difficulty of (ireek grammar, even 
 t its first or etymological part, makes it desir- 
 able that all ducation is to comprehend 
 
 a knowledge of this language, should begin the 
 
 I tudy at an early age. when the vigor of memory 
 
 :!l Eresh, and its function still prevails in the 
 
 ■ : instruction. Hamilton's and Jacotot'a 
 
 hods find UOW-a-dayS few followers in the 
 
 teaching of (ireek; and the study of gra mm a r , 
 with translation from (ireek into English and 
 
 English into ( ireek. i hielly occupies the attention 
 
 of the beginner. It has been proposed, and some- 
 times attempted, to begin the teaching of the lan- 
 guage, in accordance with the development of 
 
 ( ireek literature, with the Study of the epic and 
 
 old Ionic dial old practice to make 
 
GREEK LANGUAGE 
 
 391 
 
 tin- Attic dialect the basis has rictoriouslj main- 
 tained its traditional ascendency. Exercises in 
 translating from the Dative language into Greek 
 should not be omitted, as is frequently done; 
 though it is well understood that, or account of 
 the greater difficulties presented by the Greek, 
 and the shorter time allowed for the study of it, 
 the same proficiency in writing Greek is hardly 
 ever or anywhere attained as in Latin. The first 
 exercises in translating Greek into English, or 
 any other native tongue, are now generally pro- 
 vided in the grammars. Where grammars are 
 used which exclude exercises in translation, the 
 use nt a Greek leader is at once begun. In 
 general, the use of a reader before the taking up 
 of a particular author, is continued Longer in 
 Greek than in La 1 .in, because of the longer time 
 required to obtain a good knowledge of the 
 grammatical rules in the former. When the pupil 
 is far enough advanced to take up the reading 
 of Greek authors, the teacher, in making the 
 selection, should not oidy lie careful to proceed 
 from the easier to the more difficult writers, and 
 to prefer the classic authors, but also to read 
 enough of the selected work to give to the 
 students an adequate idea of the spirit of Greek 
 literature. The orations, philosophical dialogues, 
 and dramas are particularly suited for advanced 
 classes in < Ireek. Of course, instruction in Greek 
 is not considered complete without the reading 
 of. at least, one of the Homeric poems; and it is 
 fortunate that the easy flow of the language of 
 these poems lits them for an early stage of classic 
 reading. Among the Greek historians, Xenophon 
 and Herodotus fully deserve the favor of teach- 
 ers and students, which they have enjoyed for 
 centuries. In regard to Herodotus it is, however, 
 desirable to wait until the pupils are well 
 grounded in the Attic dialect. To include Thu- 
 cydides in a regular course appeal's to many 
 classical scholars objectionable, as the language 
 is too difficult for the majority of college stu- 
 dents, and as tha gloomy period which he de- 
 scribes is not calculated to increase the students' 
 interest in ancient < ireece. Of the dramatic poets, 
 vLsehylus and Aristophanes are not suited for 
 schools; and, therefore, only Sophocles and 
 Euripides can he recommended. 
 
 The beginning of a grammatical treatment of 
 the language can be traced back to the Sophists, 
 Plato, and Aristotle. Considerable progress is 
 visible in the works of the Stoics, who created 
 most of the technical terms used in Greek gram- 
 mar. The idea of a systematic grammar was 
 developed by the Alexandrian school of gram- 
 marians, some of whom wrote upon the subject 
 of grain mar in the most limited sense ; others. 
 upon different specific topics included in it, as 
 
 syntax, meter, dialects, and the like. As the 
 author of the first systematic grammar. Dionysius 
 the Thracian is mentioned, whose work remained 
 a standard for a long time. The first lexico- 
 graphic attempts were likewise made at Alex- 
 andria. The central seat of Greek philology was, 
 at a later period, transferred from Alexandria to 
 Constantinople, where a number of scholars dis- 
 
 tinguished themselves as authors of dictionaries 
 of Greek literature, while their grammatical la- 
 bors consisted chiefly of commentaries upon the 
 work of Dionysius. The first grammar in western 
 Europe, in which Greek type was used, was that 
 by Constantine Lascaris; it was published in 
 Milan in 1470, and remained for centuries the 
 basis of all other grammatical works. A. new 
 
 epoch in the history of Greek grammars dates 
 from Hermann's classical work De emendan- 
 </</ ratione Graecce grammatical (Leipsic I sol). 
 Since that time, a number of excellent grammars, 
 fully superseding previous works, have appeared. 
 Nearly all of them are by German authors; but, 
 by means of translations, they have been exten- 
 sively introduced into English, American, and 
 other .schools. Among the most noted of these 
 grammars, are those by Buttmann, Schulgra/m- 
 matik (lsted., 1824, 17th ed., 1874), translated by 
 Edward Everett (Boston, 1822) ; AusfuhrUche 
 Griech. Sprachlehre (2 vols., 1819—27, 2d ed., 
 with valuable additions from Lobeck, 2 volumes, 
 1830 — 39), trans, by Edward Robinson (An- 
 dover, Is.'lii) ; Matthise (1807), trans, by Ed. V. 
 Bloomfield (London. 1832); Kost (1816, 7th ed., 
 1854), Engl, translation (Loud., 1 S27) ; Kiihner, 
 Schulgraminalik, trans, by 15. B. Edwards and 
 S. H. Taylor (Andover, 1843); and Ausfuhr- 
 lit:lt<> Grammatik der Griechischen Sprache 
 (2 vols., 1 834 , revised ed., 1 869-1 871); Westphal 
 (2 vols., 1870 — 72) ; Curtius, Schulgrammatih 
 (1852, 11th ed., 1875); English trans', by Smith. 
 The grammar of Curtius, which numerous trans- 
 lations have extensively introduced into the 
 learned institutions of the countries of Europe 
 and America, has, to a larger extent than any of 
 its predecessors, made use of the results of com- 
 parative philology, and adopted a number of the 
 technical terms which have first been brought into 
 use by Grimm's German grammar. In England 
 and the United States, Greek grammars have 
 been published, among others, by Anthon, Boise, 
 Brooks, Bullions, Crosby, Eisk, Goodrich, Green- 
 wood. Hadley, Jelf, Jones, Kendrick, M'( 'lintock, 
 Mayor, Moore, Morris, Popkin, Silber, Smith, 
 Sophocles, Taylor, Yalpy. Waddcll. Wettenhall, 
 Wordsworth, and Wright. Some of these works 
 are only primers for beginners. Among the lat- 
 est and best of the complete grammars, is that 
 by Hadley [Greek grammar, I860; chiefly based 
 on the ( lerman work of ( fortius). 
 
 The basis of all ' rreek lexicons in modern times 
 is Henry Stephens's Thesaurus Linguce (Intecce 
 (I ."72: a new edition, embodying all the Creek 
 learning of the age, Avas brought out by Flaae, 
 I, and \V. Dindorf, 8 vols.. Paris, 1831-63), 
 The first real improvement over Stephens was 
 made by Passow, whose work {Handw&rterbuch 
 der Griechischen Sprache, 2 vols.. 1819 — 24) ap- 
 peared, at first, asa revised edition of Schneider's 
 Greek Dictionary ; but, in the 4th edit. (2 vols., 
 L831), as his own work. The plan of Passow 
 was. in each successive edition, to make the lex- 
 icon complete for the interpretation of some 
 additional authors, until it should become a fidl 
 thesaurus of the Greek language. After the death 
 
392 
 
 GREEK LANGUAGE 
 
 GRIMM 
 
 off Passow, a new edition, carrying out the plan 
 nf the author, was prepared by the joint labors 
 of l.'ust. Palm, Kreussler, Kett, Peter, and Ben- 
 seler (2 vols., L841— 57). The work of Pas- 
 sow was the basis of the Greek-English lexicon 
 of Liddell and Scott (Oxford, 1845; New York, 
 edited by Benry Dnsler, 1848; large 4to ed., 
 London, L870.). Other large Greek dictionaries 
 have been edited by Jacobitz and Setter |2 vols.. 
 1839 46), and Pape (3 vols., 1850 63; the 
 3d vol., containing proper names, by Benseler). 
 School dictionaries have been prepared by Rost, 
 
 Benseler. Schenkl, Liddell ami Scott, ami others. 
 Among English ami American authors, who have 
 brought out Greek dictionaries, besides Tim.-:' 
 already mentioned, are Jones, Pickering, Oliver. 
 < rroves, Donnegan, and Dunbar. (See Dictionary.) 
 There is also a very rich literature of special 
 lexicons for those Greek authors who are com- 
 monly read in schools. A comparative grammar 
 ofGreekand Latin was written by Leo Meyer 
 (2 vols., Berlin, L861— 5), and an etymological 
 root-dictionary on the basis of comparative phi- 
 lology by Benfey (Griechisches Wurzellexicon, 
 2 vols., 1839 12). 
 
 Among the Greek readers which afford selec- 
 tions from all. nr nearly all. the authors who are 
 suited for school reading, none have been so ex- 
 tensively used as those of Jacobs and Dal/.el. 
 The work of Jac mentarbuch */'■>• Griechi- 
 
 schen Sprache, begun in L824) consists of four 
 parts, the first ol which is designed for beginners, 
 the second gives extracts from historians or ora- 
 tors relating to the history of Athens, the third 
 is composed of philosophical, and the fourth of 
 poetical, extracts. Several American translati 
 of parts of this work have been published our 
 by Prof. Anthon i, and have been used by many 
 American schools. Dalzel's two readers [Col- 
 lectanea Graeca Minora,&u& Collectanea Graeca 
 Majora) first appeared in Edinburgh (1789), 
 where the author was professor of Greek in the 
 university. New editions were broughl oul in 
 England by Dunbar and 0. J. Bloomfield, and 
 in the United States by Popkin and Wheeler. 
 Other Greek readers have been published by 
 VMiott. Arnold. Boise, Colton, Pelton, Good- 
 win, Merry, and Wyttenbach. Of late, the use 
 
 of readers has. (,, some extent . >/i\ m place to the 
 
 works of particular authors, of which many an- 
 notated editions have appeared. Thus there are 
 editions of works of ^Eschines, by Champlin 
 and Simcox; of /Eschylus, by Drake, Edwards, 
 Pelton, Sachtleben, Weale.and Woolsey; of Aris- 
 totle, by Poste; of Aristophanes, by Felton, 
 Greene, and Weale; of De sthenes, by Champ- 
 lin, D'Ooge, Drake, Heslop, Holmes, kemlrick. 
 Simcox, Smead, and Tyler; of Euripides, by Al- 
 len. Weal.', ami Woolsey: of Homer, by Lnthon, 
 Boise, Pelton. Mayor, Merry, Owen, Searing, and 
 Smith: of Herodotus, by Johnson, Mather, and 
 
 Weale; of Isoerates. by Pelton; of l.ncian. l»y 
 Weale: of Lysias, by Huntingdon, Stephens, 
 and W hiton : ,,f Pindar, by Myers; of Plato, by 
 Tyler, Wagner, Weale. White, and Woolsey; of 
 Plutarch, by Hacketl and Tyler; of Sophocles, by 
 
 Campbell, Crosby, J'ebb, Jones, Smead, White, 
 
 W'eale. and Woolsey; of Theocritus, by Snow: 
 
 of Theophrastus, by Jebb; of Thucydides, by 
 Bigg, Frost, Owen, and W'eale: of Xenophon, by 
 Anthon, Boise, Crosby, Kendrick, Owen, Phil- 
 potts, Robbins, and "Weale. Histories of Greek 
 literature have been written by Bernhardy, K.O. 
 Midler (2 vols., with continuation by Donald- 
 son), Mure l.l critical history of (he language 
 and literature of ancient Greece, 5 vols.), Munk, 
 (2 vols.. 1849—50), Nicolai (2 vols.. 1 866- 7 
 Burnouf i Histoire delalitteraturegrecque,2 vols.. 
 1869), Bergk (vol. i.. 1872). The standard gram- 
 matical work on the (deck language 01 the 
 New Testament is Winer ( Grammatik des neu- 
 testamen&ichen Sprachidioms, Engl, trans, by 
 Stuart and Robinson) ; and other grammars 
 have been written by Greene and Stuart. 
 Lexicons to the Greek New Testament have 
 been published by Wahl (1822), translated by 
 Robinson; Bretschneider (1824); Wttke (1841); 
 and a second -work by the same author il.-."- : 
 Schirlitz 1 1851 i ; Robinson i Greek and English 
 Lexicon of the New Testament, 1836); Grimm 
 (1868). — For an account of the Greek Church 
 
 writers, see CLASSICS, CHRISTIAN. 
 
 GREENEVILLE AND TUSCTJLUM 
 COI/LEGE, at I Ionic. Greene Co., Tenn., near 
 Greenevttle, was organized in 1868, by the union 
 of Greenevttle College and Tusculum College. 
 founded iii 1T!»1 and 1847, respectively. 
 under Presbyterian control. It has a primary, 
 a preparatory, and a collegiate department, with 
 a classical and a scientific course. The libraries 
 contain 7,000 volumes. In 1874 5,therewere 
 ( .i instructors and L12 students (senior class. 'J : 
 regular course, C> : scientific course, 24; primary 
 department, 1 1 1. Both sexes are admitted, 'i be 
 co-t of tuition in the preparatory department is 
 $20 per year ; in the collegiate department. $30. 
 The Rev. W. S. Doak, A. M., is (1876) the 
 president. 
 
 GRIMM, Jakob Ludwig, the greatest of 
 all German .philologists, was born at Hanau, 
 Jan. I.. L785, and died in Berlin, Sept. 20., 1863. 
 lie w.i- appointed, in 1816, second librarian al 
 Cassel, and in 1830 professor and librarian at the 
 university of Gottmgen. He was deposed, in 
 L837, for having signed, with six other professors, 
 a protest againsl the abolition of the etate con- 
 stitution by the king. In 1841, the Prussian 
 government called him to Berlin as profi —or and 
 member of the Academy, which position he re- 
 tained until his death. In 1846 and 1847, he 
 presided over the meetings of the German phi- 
 lologists, who universally recognized him as their 
 chief. His work on German grammar (Deutsche 
 Grammatik, 3 vols., 1819 37] established a 
 
 ii. w branch of literature, that of historical gram- 
 mar: and while it has called forth a number of 
 
 similar works in other languages, it is still unsur- 
 passed. The German dictionary, which he began, 
 in 1852, jointly with his brother Wilhehn, occu- 
 pies an equally high rank in the history of dic- 
 tionaries (Deutsches Wbrterhuch, 1st vol.. 1852; 
 l th vol . L874). This work was designed hy him 
 
 
GRIMM 
 
 GUIZOT 
 
 393 
 
 to contain every * lerman Avon I from the time of 
 Luther tot loethe; and the volumes which he pub- 
 lished exceeded, in comprehensiveness of plan, 
 even other modern dictionary. The continuation 
 of the work has been intrusted to M. Heyne, I!. 
 Hildebrand, and K. Weigand; but it is not ex- 
 • pected thai it will be completed until L890. The 
 historical treatment of the vernacular tongue, 
 which t rrimm's German grammar and dictionary 
 have introduced into the literature of modern 
 languages, has also greatly improved the method 
 of teaching modern languages, both foreign and 
 vernacular. The more extensive and accurate 
 knowledge of the growth and structure of lan- 
 guages, which is now generally possessed by in- 
 telligent teachers, is reflected in the instruction 
 of millions of children ; and the vast superiority 
 of recent school grammars, reading hooks, etc. 
 is. to a considerable extent, due to the influence 
 which has been exerted by the works of Grimm. 
 
 GRIMM, Wilhelm Karl, a brother of Jakob 
 Grimm, and like him, a prominent German phi- 
 lologist, was born at Hanau, Feb. '-'4.. 1786, and 
 died at Berlin, Dec. 16., 1859. In his life and 
 literary labors, he was very intimately associated 
 with his brother. Like him, he was librarian at 
 tassel (1 sl 4— 30), librarian (1830) and professor 
 (1835) at Gottingen; and, finally, after having 
 lost his offices in Gottingen for joining the pro- 
 
 I against the abolition of the state constitu- 
 tion, he accompanied his brother, in 1841, to 
 Berlin. Besides writing a large number of works 
 ; on the earlier literature of Germany, he was 
 the co-editor, with his brother, of the German 
 dictionary. 
 
 GRISCOM, John, an American educator, 
 born at Hancock's Bridge, N. J., Sept. '27., 1 77 I; 
 died at Burlington, N. J., Feb. 26., 1852. Be 
 was of Quaker extraction, and. for a time, 
 studied at the Friends' Academy in Philadelphia. 
 Afterwards, he took charge of the Friends' 
 Monthly Meeting School, at Burlington, lie 
 removed to New York in 1807, where he taught 
 for twenty-five years, during which time he as- 
 sisted in founding the Society for the Prevention 
 of Pauperism, and established a private semi- 
 nary, called the New York High School. In 
 1823, he published A Year in /:'>>>■<>/»' (2 vols.), 
 the result of his travels and visits to the prin- 
 cipal institutions of learning and charity, prisons, 
 factories, etc.. on the European continent. From 
 1831 to L 835, he was principal of a boarding- 
 school in Providence, R. [., after which he re- 
 moved to Burlington. One of his last acts was 
 the reorganization of the common-school system 
 of New Jersey. His son. John li. Griscom, 
 published his biography (New York. 1859). 
 
 GRISCOM, John Haskins, a physician, 
 son of the preceding, born in New York, Aug. 
 L3., L809;died there April 28., L874. In L833, 
 lie was appointed assistant physician to the New 
 i ork dispensary, and, in L834, chief physician. 
 He was also professor of chemistry in the New 
 York College of Pharmacy, from 1836 to L840. 
 In L843, he was appointed physician to the New 
 YYjrk Hospital, where he remained till 18G7. 
 
 I lis principal works relate to physiology; hygiene 
 
 and ventilation; hut some ot them have an im- 
 portant bearing on education, and others have 
 been extensively used for school instruction. 
 The\ include: Animal Mechanism and Physi- 
 ology i L839); Sanitary Condition of the Laboring 
 Glasses of New York (1844); Uses and Abuses 
 qfAir,andthe Means for tlve Ventilation of 
 Buildings (1850); Hospital Hygiene (1853); 
 First Lessons in Physiology, with Brief Rules 
 of Health, for the Use of Schools (I860); Sani- 
 tary Legislation, past, present, and future (1861). 
 Dr. Griscom also rendered an important service 
 to education by his lectures on physiology. 
 
 GROOT, Gerard. See IIikkonvmiaxs. 
 
 GROUNDS, School. See School Grounds. 
 
 GUATEMALA. See ( 'kntiiai, America. 
 
 GUIZOT, Francois Pierre Guillaume, 
 a French statesman, who. as prime minister and 
 minister of public instruction, exerted a con- 
 siderable influence upon the progress of educa- 
 tion in France, was horn Oct. 4.. L787, and died 
 Sept. L3., L874. He was of Huguenot descent; 
 and after the death of his father, an eminent 
 lawyer of Paris, who perished by the guillotine 
 • luring the Reign of Terror, he was educated by 
 his mother at Geneva, where his whole nature 
 became permeated with the spirit and influence 
 of John Calvin, whom he accepted as his master 
 and model until his dying day. Having returned 
 to Paris, at the age of eighteen, he was, for a 
 time, tutor in a distinguished family; but he 
 soon became connected with the periodical press 
 and the literary circles of Paris, and, in 1812, 
 received the appointment of professor of modern 
 history in the Sorbonne. ilis political career 
 began immediately after the fall of Napoleon I.; 
 and, from that time until the overthrow of 
 royalty, in 1848, his influence in the government 
 of France was quite marked. He drew up, in 
 L830, the protest of the deputies, which led to 
 the dethronement of Charles X.; and. after the 
 success of the revolution, was appointed pro- 
 visional minister of public instruction. He ex- 
 changed this position, after a few days, with that 
 of minister of the interior, but resumed it in 
 L832, when he entered the new cabinet under 
 the presidency of Soult. He prepared an ex- 
 cellent code of laws for promoting primary edu- 
 cation, and attended personally to their enforce- 
 ment. En the cabinet of L836, under the pres- 
 ident Mole, he resumed the same post; hut. lie- 
 coming dissatisfied with the plans of his col- 
 Leagues, he abandoned it in 1837. From 1840 
 
 .... 
 
 to L847, he was minister of foreign affairs, and 
 from L847 tit is IS, president of the French min- 
 istry. After the revolution of L848, he retired 
 from public life, and devoted himself wholly to 
 literary labors, lie was a member of the Acad- 
 emy of Moral and Political Sciences, of the 
 Academy of Inscriptions and Belles-Lettres, and 
 
 of the French Academy- Though a zealous 
 
 Protestant, he knew how to gain the esteem of 
 the Roman Catholics, even as minister of public 
 instruction. His indefatigable zeal and his 
 great merits in behalf of the promotion and 
 
394 
 
 GUTSMUTHS 
 
 GYMNASIUM 
 
 organization of primary instruction in France, 
 were generally recognized. Guizot was one of 
 the most prolific writers of France during the 
 present century. Most of his works have been 
 translated into English; and the more important 
 of them, into nearly all the languages of Europe. 
 Some of them, especially the History qf Civiliza- 
 tion in Europe, have been extensively intro- 
 duced as text-books into very many institutions 
 of learning. 
 
 GUTSMUTHS, Johann Christoph Fried- 
 rich, celebrated for his efforts in behalf of 
 physical education, and particularly as one of the 
 founders of the German system of gymnastic 
 training [Turnunterrichi), was born in Quedlin- 
 burg, a town of Prussian Saxony, in 1759, and 
 died at [benhain, near Schnepfentbal, in L839. 
 lie studied theology at Halle for three years, 
 after which he, was employed to superintend 
 the gymnastic exercises at Salzmann's Institute. 
 at Schnepfentbal (1786). Here he devoted him- 
 self to the stnly and elaboration of gymnastics 
 as a branch of e lucation, and was the means of 
 Introducing it into many other institutions of 
 Germany. lie alsowrote Beveral works on gym- 
 nastics, among which his Gymnastik fur <//■■■ Tu- 
 </■ irl i 1 793) became ;i classic work. and the basis 
 
 of most other German treatises on the subject. 
 Among others are Erholung des Kbrpers und 
 Geistes fur </i<' Jugend (1796), and Kleines 
 Lehrbuch der Schwimmlcunst (1798). His ser- 
 vices in behalf of geographical instruction were 
 also of great value. He was not only an able 
 teacher of geography, but a distinguished writer 
 on the subject. The celebrated Karl Ritter was 
 one of his pupils in the institute at Sehnepfen- 
 ihal. The centennial celebration of the birth- 
 day of Gutsmuths was held at Schnepfenthal, in 
 18o9,with great festivity and pomp.- Sic Djttes, 
 Schule der Pddagogik (Ixdpsic, 1876). (See also 
 
 ( J\ MNA8TICS.) 
 
 GUYOT, Arnold Henry, a distinguished 
 atist, particularly in the department of phys- 
 ical geography, and the author of a. series of 
 school textbooks on geography, widely used in 
 
 the LTnited Stale-, was born near Xeufchatel. in 
 Switzerland, Sept. 28., L807. He studied at 
 Various institutions, at Carlsruhe making the ac- 
 quaintance of Agassi/., with whom he began the 
 study of natural science. Subsequently, he 
 passed through a course of study in theology at 
 Neufchatel and Berlin; but afterwards gave his 
 
 attention exclusively to natural science. In I 835, 
 
 he went to Paris, where he resided till L839, 
 making summer scientific excursions through 
 France, Italy, Belgium, and Holland. Fr 
 
 1839 to 1848, he was professor of history and 
 
 physical geography in the academy of Neuf- 
 chatel; and during this period made some im- 
 portanl researches and discoveries in regard to 
 
 the vemenl of glaciers and the transportation 
 
 ot bowlders, the details of which it was proposed 
 to publish as the second volume of the Systeme 
 glaciaire, l>\ ^gassiz, Guyot, and Desor.the firsl 
 volume of which was printed in Paris in L848. 
 Be emigrated to the I nited States in L848, and 
 
 took up his residence at Cambridge. Mass. In 
 the winter of Is Is 9, he delivered, in Boston, 
 a course of lectures on the science of physical 
 geography, which were afterwards translated by 
 Prof. I'elton. and collected into a volume, which 
 was published under the title of Earth and Man. 
 This work introduced important improvements 
 in the methods of studying and teaching geog- 
 raphy in the schools of the United States, as 
 well as in the construction of school textdiooks 
 on that subject. Prof. Guyot was employed, for 
 some time, by the Massachusetts board of edu- 
 cation to deliver lectures in the normal schools 
 of the state and before the teachers' institutes. 
 In 1855, he accepted the appointment of pro- 
 fessor of physical geography in the College of 
 New . Jersey, at Princeton, which position he 
 still continues to occupy. His school series of 
 geographies, the first volume of which was pub- 
 lished in L866 [The Earth and its Inhabitants; 
 Common-School Geography), has attained a 
 high degree of popularity. Its distinguishing 
 feature is the prominence given to physical geog- 
 raphy, and the treatment of the v. hole subject on 
 the basis of a scientific generalization. 'I he un- 
 derlying principle he thus expressed in the pre- 
 liminary section of the above work, on Geo- 
 graphical Teaching: " It was not until the iirst 
 quarter of the present century, when Bitter's 
 great mind made its power fell in his remark- 
 able generalizations on the facts given to the 
 
 world by Humboldt, that it began to be sus- 
 pected that geographical facts could be reduced 
 to a science, in which hold good the same laws 
 of mutual dependence of cause and effect that 
 prevail in all the other physical sciences." The 
 introduction of tins philosophical method of 
 teaching geography, the principle of which has 
 been adopted by most other authors of school 
 text-books on this subject, has exerted an im- 
 portant influence Upon the general methods of 
 instruction in schools: and. in this way. Prof. 
 Guyot has done an important service to the 
 cause of education. (See Geography.) 
 
 GYMNASIUM (Gr. yvH viaun >, ;i place for 
 bodily exercises, from yvpvfc, naked i, a term 
 
 applied, in ancient Greece and Rome, to schools 
 for physical education, but in modern Germany 
 
 and some other countries of continental Europe, 
 to a class of secondary schools which hold a 
 
 middle place between elementary schools and 
 the universities. In England and the United 
 States, in which the colleges correspond to die 
 German gymnasia, the term gymnasium is lim- 
 ited to places for physical exercises. We treat 
 here 1 1 1 of the ancient gymnasium of the < ireeks 
 
 and Romans, and (2) of the schools designated 
 
 b\ this name in Germany and other parts of 
 continental Europe. 
 
 1 1 Gymnasia were first introduced in Sparta 
 
 and Crete; they afterwards became common in 
 
 the Greek cities, and were, to a limited > stent, 
 
 adopted among the Romans. In the most an- 
 cient times, the gymnasia were leveled and in- 
 closed places, with divisions for the several 
 
 games. For the purpose of shale, rows of plane- 
 
GYMNASIUM 
 
 395 
 
 
 trees were planted, to which afterwards porti- 
 coes with sitting rooms (ki-idpai), having stone 
 benches around the walls, were added. At last, 
 the gymnasia consisted of several buildings,which 
 were joined together, and thus often formed 
 very spacious structures, capable of holding 
 many thousand persons. A detailed description 
 of the ancient gymnasium is given by Vitruviua 
 Hie free youths were instructed in gymnastics, 
 by a paidotribes (iraid&rp >'vi, while the pro- 
 fessional athletes were trained by a gymnast 
 The whole institution was super 
 intended by the gymnasiarck (yvuvaoidpxiK)- 
 While, originally, gymnasia were only places for 
 bodily exercises, they were afterwards used by 
 
 philosophers, rhetoricians, and teachers of various 
 sciences as places for instructing their pupils. 
 Thus Plato taught in the Academy and Aristotle 
 in the Lyceum of Athens. — The Roman republic 
 had no special buildings which could be com- 
 pared with the Greek gymnasia ; during the 
 reign of the emperors, the public baths (thermae) 
 served for the same purpose, and may be said 
 to have gradually absorbed the gymnasia. (See 
 Petersen, Das Gymnasium derGr/irbrtt, ls.">s.) 
 (2) In modern times, the name gymnasium 
 has been commonly applied in Germany, since 
 the time of J. A. Wolf, to those schools which 
 prepare students for the universities. Some 
 of these institutions, while holding the rank of 
 a gymnasium, have different names, as poeda- 
 gogium, lyceum, Gelehrienschule, Landesschule, 
 Fwrstenschule. This class of schools has gradu- 
 ally developed from the cathedral and consent 
 
 tnnasia-c 
 
 schools (q. v.) of the middle ages, which werejju«nt ^hftr tl 
 designed to impart to the youth of the country 
 the highest instruction accessible, in those times, 
 especially that needed for the priesthood. After 
 the establishment of the universities, the cath- 
 edral and convent school assumed the character 
 of preparatory schools. Their number increased 
 rapidly, and the course of studies was steadily 
 enlarged. In addition to the schools attached 
 to cathedral chapters and convents, a number 
 of schools of a similar rank were founded by the 
 municipal authorities of many of the larger 
 towns, as well as by many princes. The revival 
 of classical studies, in the 15th century, greatly 
 added to the reputation and social position of 
 these schools. At the time of the Reformation, 
 Melanchthon introduced more exalted views of 
 classical studies as the basis of the classical 
 school; and the educational efforts made by the 
 •Jesuits provoked a rivalry which, in many re- 
 spects, had a beneficent influence. The civii 
 wars ainl religious conflicts of the 1 7th and 1 8th 
 centuries caused a stand-still for a time, and 
 progress was not resumed until the end of the 
 18th century. A. IT. Francke (q. v.) the founder 
 of the celebrated institutions at Salle, favored, 
 like all the 1'ietists. the realistic, in preference 
 to the humanistic, studies and secured the in- 
 troduction of geography and history as branches 
 of instruction, and the appointment of special 
 teachers of mathematics. But Gesner (q. v.), 
 Heyne, (q. v.), and other champions of classical 
 
 studies, fully secured their preponderance. The 
 opposition made to the classics l>y the Philan- 
 thropists Strengthened rather than weakened 
 their position. At the beginning of the 19th 
 century, a thorough reform of the gymnasia was 
 
 inaugurated in Prussia, and gradually carried 
 
 into effect in all the German states. The new 
 
 arrangement sanctioned the predominance of 
 
 classical studies, but. at the same time, provided 
 for an improved plan of teaching the realistic 
 
 branches; such as the natural sciences, geography, 
 and mathematics. The supervisory right of the 
 churches was restricted to religious instruction ; 
 and the supreme control of all the institutions 
 of learning passed into the hands of the state 
 government. The gymnasia now hold in the Ger- 
 man states a privileged position, since no young 
 man can be matriculated for any faculty of the 
 university without having passed a final examina- 
 tion at the gymnasium. Violent attacks have lie/n 
 made upon this privileged position, and specially 
 upon the important place which the course of 
 studies of the gymnasia assigns to the classical 
 languages; and, in some countries, the government 
 has so far yielded to the growing opposition as to 
 organize real gymnasia, in which the Greek lan- 
 guage is altogether dropped, and the Latin at least 
 greatly reduced. (See Real Schools.) But the 
 organization of the real gymnasia is far from be- 
 ing completed, and governments and legislatures 
 appear to be inclined to uphold, in the main, the 
 rights of the A»ieal gymnasium. The defenders 
 of the course or instruction as pursued in the 
 gvinnasia^clu^iK rest their pleas upon the argu- 
 nt course, in its entirety, is 
 
 lie |tei 
 best suiie*d"^r efe'rate the pupils of these institu- 
 
 tionTto the level of our modern civilization, and 
 to fit them to become intelligent members of 
 modern society. The superintendence of the gym- 
 nasia is exercised either by the ministry of 
 educational and ecclesiastical affairs, or, in some 
 states, by a supreme educational council. They 
 are, at stated times, examined by school coun- 
 cilors. At the head of a gymnasium, is a rector, 
 or director, and the number of teachers varies 
 with the number of the classes. No one can be 
 appointed a teacher who has not studied at a 
 university, and passed an examination before a 
 commission appointed by the government. In 
 Prussia, a gymnasium is generally divided into 
 six classes, called prima, s< cunda, tertia, quarta, 
 quinta, and sexta. The three higher classes are 
 generally subdivided into two divisions, the upper 
 and the lower. The time usually spent in a class, 
 or in a division of one of the higher classes, is 
 one year; and. a full course, at a I 'russian gym- 
 nasium, generally requires nine years. In Bava- 
 ria, a gymnasium has four classes, and a prepar- 
 atory school (called a Latin school), which com- 
 prises five classes. In Austria, the gymnasia 
 wet,- thoroughly reorganized in L849, and now 
 resemble, in their essentia] features, in Austria 
 proper as well as in Hungary, the institutions of 
 Germany. In Denmark, Sweden, and Norway, 
 the gymnasia have the same characteristics as 
 those of Germany. In Italy, the gymnasium 
 
396 
 
 GYMNASTICS 
 
 consists of five classes which correspond to the 
 lower classes of a German gymnasium. It serves 
 as a preparatory school to the lyceum, which has 
 three classes. In Russia, the gymnasium has seven 
 classes, besides a preparatory class. The German 
 gymnasia resemble the Scotch grammar ami 
 mgh schools, and only differ from the RWiglish 
 public schools for the upper and middle classes 
 in being day schools, instead of the centers of 
 large boarding establishments. The literature 
 relating to gymnasiums is very numerous. — Sec 
 on the German gymnasium, the model of the 
 others, Wiss, Encyclopadie und Methodolo 
 der Grymnasiatetudien (1830); Both, Gymna- 
 sicilrPcLdagogik (18<>.*>); Laas. Gymnasium und 
 Realschule (1875) ; Barnard, Public Education 
 
 in Enron'' f L854). 
 
 GYMNASTICS ((Jr. • vfivaoTiicfi, from ; vuvdg, 
 naked), a system of bodily exercises designed 
 to develop muscular strength, and to promote 
 general physical culture and health. In the 
 article on Calisthenics, this subject has already 
 been treated as far as it comprehends those 
 light physical exercises which arc especially 
 adapted for females, although frequently used 
 
 in the education of persons of the other sex. 'I'hi' 
 term gymnastics was anciently used to denote 
 the bodilj exercises exclusively of boys and men, 
 
 because those who performed them, ill public or 
 in private, were either entirely naked, or only 
 wore a short tunic, called x.trfav. Among the an- 
 cients, particularly the Greeks, gymnastics con- 
 stituted the most essential part of education; 
 and there was not a Greek town of any impor- 
 tance (hat did not have its gymnasium, or place 
 for the regular physical training of youth, which 
 was supplied with baths, accommodations for 
 athletic contests, and conveniences also for the 
 philosophers, sophists, and teach srs, with their 
 pupils, and all others who attended for intellect- 
 ual instruction or amusement The laws of 
 Solon regulated the management of these gym- 
 nasia among the Athenians. One of these laws 
 forbade all adults to enter a gymnasium while 
 
 the boys were engaged in their exercises: but it 
 was the practice tor adults to attend for exercise 
 
 at other times of the day. or in other portions 
 
 of the building, specially set apart for men. Un- 
 til boys reached the age of sixteen, gymnastics 
 
 constituted but apart of their education; but. 
 from sixteen to eighteen, it seems to have ab- 
 sorb • 1 nearly their whole attention. At Athens, 
 ami in all the Ionian state-, females wen' never 
 
 permitted to attend the gymnasium ; but at 
 Sparta, and in some of the other Doric states, 
 unmarried women attended, and took part in, the 
 exercises, dressed in the ^rwv. Instruction was 
 given b\ regular teachers who were supposed 
 to understand the physiological effects of each 
 
 exei I thus to be able to assign tO SI cry 
 
 youth Such were befit suited to his 
 
 particular case. Gymnastics, at Hist, compre- 
 hended agonistics (the exercises of the public 
 games) and athletics, or professional gymnastics 
 a- practiced by the athletes; but. in later times, 
 
 these were entirely separated; ami the gymnasia 
 
 became places exclusively for physical education 
 and training. (See Athens and Gymnasium.) 
 There was almost entire uniformity in the exer- 
 cises of the different gymnasia in various parts 
 of Greece : the Dorians, however, made the hard- 
 ening of the body, as a preparation for militarj 
 life, a paramount aim : while the Athenians, and 
 the Ionians in general, sought to impart grace 
 and beauty, as well as strength, to the body and 
 its movements, and to make physical health the 
 basis of a sound and vigorous mind. These 
 exercises partook largely of the nature of games 
 among which we rind mentioned (1) that of the 
 ball (odaiptmc), played in various ways : 1 2) that of 
 the rope, a boy holding each end. and one trying 
 to pidl the other across a line : (3) that of the top, 
 played very much as in our own time : (4) the 
 game of five stones {TrevT&Af&og), like the jack- 
 stones of our day; (5) that of a rope drawn over 
 a post on the opposite sides of which two boys 
 stood and tried to pull each other up off the 
 ground. Besides these, the more important 
 exercises were swimming, riding, throwing the 
 quoit and javelin, jumping and leaping, wrest- 
 ling, boxing, running, ami dancing. Among the 
 Greeks, gymnastics was closely allied to the med- 
 ical art, because systematic bodily exercise was 
 considered to constitute not only an important 
 
 means of preserving health, but a certain cure 
 
 for a large clas.s of diseases. They thus recog- 
 nized the principle on which Ling has based 
 system of kinesipathy, or movement-cure. To 
 the curative effects of exercise, Galen, t'clsiis, 
 
 ami some other ancient physicians refer in works 
 still extant. — In the middle ages, there was no 
 
 use of gymnastics, strictly speaking; the exer- 
 cises employed in education partaking rather 
 
 of the nature of athletics, and being almost ex- 
 clusively for military training or drill, or the 
 knightly amusement of the tournament. Among 
 the lower orders, archery, footracing, wrestling, 
 
 the u>e of the quarter staff, etc., were common 
 
 athletic sports; but there was no such thing as 
 a systematic scries of exercises for muscular 
 
 development, until Basedow (q. v.) introduced 
 gymnastics, as a part of education, in the Phi- 
 lanthropin at Dessau; and subsequently (1784) 
 Salzmann adopted the same system for bis in- 
 stitute. Gutsmuths extensively introduced the 
 
 practice of gymnastics into Prussian schools, and 
 wrote several works on the subject [Gymnastik 
 fur die Jugend, IT'.'.'i: ami Turnbuch/ilr </i<' 
 Siilni,' d,'s Vaierlandes, L817). A stilt more 
 valuable work was Encyclop&die der Leibes- 
 Ubungen (1804 18), by vieth, a pupil of the 
 Philanthropin at Dessau. Pestalozzi also favored 
 gymnastic training as an important instrumental- 
 ity in the general culture of man. In 1810, 
 .'aim still further extended the system ; and the 
 
 nexl year, under his direction, was opened .it 
 
 Berlin the firsl public Turnplatz, the object of 
 
 which was not only to encourage physical devel- 
 opment but patriotic fervor among the young 
 
 men, in opposition to the aggressive schemes of 
 
 Napoleon I. After serving in the army in de- 
 
 fense of his country. Jahn resumed the manage- 
 
ITAIilT 
 
 397 
 
 ment of his gymnastic schools; but the govern- 
 ment, finding their influence favorable to the 
 spread of liberal ideas, suppressed them (1818). 
 The system was. however, adopted in England, 
 Switzerland, Sweden, Denmark, and some other 
 countries, and became widely popular ; and. in 
 L842, the king of Prussia ordered the intro- 
 duction of these exercises, as a part of the 
 school system. The turn-wereine also spread 
 from Germany to the United States, where they 
 
 are now very numerous, 
 
 As a department of education, gymnastics re- 
 quires very careful regulation, having reference 
 to the age and physical constitution 01 the pupil. 
 
 Much injury may lie done by requiring all the 
 members of a school or of a class to perform the 
 same exercises, especially if they are of a violent 
 character; indeed, it maybe doubted whether. 
 up to the age of 16, for the ordinary purpose 
 oi physical development and health, boys need 
 any thing more than abundant opportunity and 
 time for the out-door sports and recreations in 
 which their natural activity will generally prompt 
 them to engage. Beyond that age, gymnastic 
 exercises, properly regulated, may be made the 
 means of laying the foundation of permanent 
 strength and health. Military drill is often in- 
 troduced into schools and colleges, and is found 
 an efficient substitute for gymnastic exercises, or 
 an excellent auxiliary to them. The testimony 
 of educators is uniformly favorable to this kind 
 of exercise in boys' schools.not only as an effect- 
 ive means of physical culture, but as imparting 
 habits of attention, order, subordination, and 
 prompt obedience. For schools of most grades, 
 and for cither sex. light gymnastics has been 
 found to supply appropriate and efficient exer- 
 cise. Of this character is the new system of 
 gymnastics by Dio Lewis and others, the dis- 
 tinguishing peculiarity of which is its complete 
 adaptation to every physical constitution and 
 degree of strength. It dispenses with all fixed 
 and cumbrous apparatus, and only employs such 
 implements as bags of beans, light poles, or 
 wands, rings, india-rubber straps with handles, 
 etc. The exercises, being ligh t and simple, can 
 be performed in any room or hall ; and yet their 
 endless variety is such as to bring into healthful 
 exercise every part of the muscular system and, 
 
 at the same time, to give a pleasing, recreative 
 occupation to the mind. This is especially the 
 
 case when they arc regulated by the rhythm of 
 music. (See ( ' ILISTHENICS.) Tlmse \ iolcnt exercises 
 ordinarily called athletics, such as boat-racing, 
 
 jumping, putting the weight, throwing the ham- 
 mer, etc.. have, during the last .'!(> or 40 years, 
 been very popular, particularly in the English 
 universities. Boat-racing, in particular, both in 
 British and American universities and colleges. 
 has absorbed very much of the attention of the stu- 
 dents, and excited much inter-collegiate rivalry. 
 These -ports have been, for some time, encouraged 
 as favorable to physical culture; but their desir- 
 ability has been recently called in question, and 
 
 many educators are, at present, strongly disposed 
 to repress all such inter-collegiate contests. ( 1 ) as 
 leading to many vices, such as drinking, betting, 
 gambling, etc.; (2) as dangerous to health, in 
 consequence of the excessive strain upon the 
 physical strength which they require: (3) as 
 making mere bodily strength and its triumphs 
 almost exclusively the aim of the college student. 
 or, at any rate, secondary to intellectual and 
 moral culture; and (4) as absorbing too much 
 of the time, attention, and efforts of the students, 
 and thus preventing the successful prosecution 
 of their studies. Of course, all these evils result 
 from that excessive spirit of rivalry or emulation, 
 which is too often encouraged by injudicious 
 parents and teachers, by unduly exaggerating 
 the value of success in these athletic contests. 
 Let these exercises be commended and encour- 
 aged as of intrinsic value, not as the means of 
 attaining a useless, barren victory in a boat-race 
 or other contest, but as the necessary means of 
 cultivating those powers and virtues which are 
 to enable the student to run a brave, manly, and 
 Christian course through life, meeting all its 
 emergencies not only with coinage but physical 
 endurance, and no objection can possibly be 
 made to them. — See Markby, Practical Essays 
 on Education, s. v. Athletics (London, 1868); 
 Sohkeber, Kinesiatrih (Leipsic, 1852); Nahl, 
 Instructions in Gymnastic* (San Francisco, 
 1863) ; Wood, Manual of Physical Exercises 
 (N. Y., 1867); Ravenstein and Hulley, Gym- 
 nastics and Athletics (London, 1867). (See also 
 I Ulisthenics.) 
 
 HABIT, a tendency to repeat the same 
 action, more or less unconsciously, or an inclina- 
 tion for the pursuits, occupations, or states to 
 which the body or the mind has become familiar 
 by use. Habit, as an automatic tendency, takes 
 a wide range, not only extending over all our 
 mental and bodily acts, but including likewise 
 our moods of mind, our sources of indulgence, 
 pleasure, ease, and recreation, and comprehend- 
 ing also, either by improvement or debasement, 
 our entire moral and spiritual nature. The 
 singular facility which is acquired by repeated 
 action, in accomplishing what at first was either 
 
 difficult or impossible, has never been satisfac- 
 torily explained. The fact, however, is univer- 
 sally recognized in the old saying, " Habit is 
 
 second nature," as also in the useful educa- 
 tional maxim, " Practice makes perfect." "It 
 conditions," says Rosenkranz {Pedagogics as a 
 System), "formally all progress ; for that which is 
 
 not yet become habit, but which we perform with 
 design and an exercise of OUT will, is not yet a 
 pari of ourselves." Physiologists profess to find 
 a reason for this power of habit, in the sym- 
 pathetic nerves; and some psychologists trace 
 mental habits to the association of ideas. The 
 
398 
 
 HABIT 
 
 extent to which habit influences the daily life of 
 ry one — even the youngest child, can scarcely 
 be realized. Consciously or unconsciously, it 
 enters, in some shape, into every effort at con- 
 tinuous action, physical or mental, and more or 
 less controls it. FrCm the dawn of intelligence, 
 when the child first takes cognizance of material 
 things, all through the period of self-education, 
 which precedes systematic instruction, it is form- 
 ing, of itself, habits of observation, comparison, 
 and generalization, which are to constitute the 
 basis of all subsequent intellectual activity- So 
 is it also forming those, habits which, taken to- 
 gether, make up what is called disposition, tem- 
 per, etc. It is this tendency to contract habits 
 which gives such plasticity to the minds and 
 characters of youth, and which really underlies 
 the power and office of education; for what we 
 call training is nothing more than guiding and 
 regulating the formation of habit. This relation 
 of habit to education has never been more clearly 
 or forcibly illustrated than by Dr. Johnson in 
 his beautiful allegory called the Vision of Theo- 
 dore: " As Education led her troop up the 
 mountain, nothing was more observable than 
 that she was frequently giving them cautions to 
 
 beware of Habits; and was calling out to one 
 or another at every step, that a Habit was en- 
 snaring them ; that they would be un ler the 
 dominion of Habit before they perceived their 
 danger; and that those whom Habit should once 
 subdue, had little hope of regaining their liber- 
 ty." While it is the period of formal education, 
 at which the child especially needs to he pro- 
 tected from the influence of habit, to some ex- 
 tent ami in some respects, the watchful care of 
 the educator is required even from the earliest 
 infancy to prevent the formation of injurious 
 and almost ineradicable habits; indeed, there is 
 scarcely a child who, on being sent to school for 
 the first time, will not be found to have con- 
 tracted habits, both physical and mental, which 
 the teach. a' will find it necessary to strive to 
 correct. One of his most important functions 
 
 will be to detect and eradicate bad habits, as a 
 kind of morbid growth : for. like weeds, these 
 
 habits not only cumber the ground themselves, 
 but tender it sterile for any other productions. 
 
 For example, what can be done with that most 
 troublesome of all cases, a "spoiled child," un- 
 til the habits of self-indulgence, self-will, way- 
 ward caprice, and despotic control of others, 
 which characterize it. are eradicated, or super 
 seded by other dispositions? So. too. with 
 
 habits of deceit, falsehood. Cruelty, and many 
 Others that are apt to spring up in even very 
 young minds. In regard to the intellect, the 
 sa principle holds true; tor that natural de- 
 velopment which precedes formal instruction 
 may. ind I. be luxuriant . but cannot be regular. 
 
 The mind of fche most active child, under cir- 
 cumstances that present the very best Opportu- 
 nities for development, if il has been left entirely 
 to itself, w ill be found to have acquired settled 
 ways of observing, thinking, and speaking which 
 it will be necessary to correct ; ami. besides, it 
 
 I will generally have become impulsive, impatient 
 of any continuous attention, and prone to pass 
 rapidly from one thing to another, in obedience 
 to a mere momentary fancy or impulse. It will, 
 therefore, be generally found that children, on 
 being firsl subjected to regular instruction, need 
 to have habits of attention formed, in place of 
 
 those of inattention, which have been implanted 
 
 by tluir own unconscious and unregulated activ- 
 ity. (See ATTENTION.) There are others, how- 
 ever, of a less e'eneral character which will de- 
 mand special effort. As an instance, one of the 
 earliest of these objectionable habits, and per- 
 haps one of the most common. is the unconscious 
 substitution in the child's mind of the symbol 
 for the thine- symbolized. This will be mani- 
 fested by most children when shown, for exam- 
 ple, the picture of a horse, and asked to state 
 what it is. Usually the answer will be, " It is a 
 horse;" from the habit of confounding things 
 with their representatives. Hence, the unre- 
 sisting facility with which children yield their 
 minds to mere memorizing and rote-learning, 
 the effect of which is to confirm the bad habit 
 referred to, and, in its final result, to extinguish 
 intelligence and destroy mental activity. While 
 some of the habits which demand the teacher's 
 attention at this early stage, are common to all 
 children, in a greater or a less degree, there are 
 others of great variety, dependent upon either 
 peculiar traits of character or peculiar circum- 
 stances of early life. The law of the formation 
 of habit is repetition or exercise. This is recog- 
 nized in many departments of instruction, as an 
 indispensable means of imparting facility, readi- 
 ness, and promptitude. without which certain ac- 
 complishments could not be made, or if made, 
 would be comparatively useless. For example, 
 of what value would the multiplication table be 
 if its use required a conscious effort of mind at 
 every application of any of its details? The 
 same principle is illustrated by the playing of a 
 musical instrument, by the use of language in 
 speaking and writing, and by the varied bodily 
 movements needed in daily life. Good habits 
 should be formed at as early a period as possible; 
 
 because experience shows that, when thoroughly 
 established in childhood or youth, they generally 
 continue, with more or less strength, through 
 life. Hence the importance of making those 
 qualities and observances habitual, which con- 
 stitute the elements of practical success in every 
 
 walk of life; such as punctuality, older, regular- 
 ity, and perseverance; to which may be added 
 neatness, courtesy, attention to the wants of 
 Others, forbearance, and sell Control. For the 
 same reason, bad habits should be eradicated be- 
 fore they have reached that mat lire state, after 
 
 which they scarcely ever entirely disappear. It 
 
 is. indeed, rarely the case that thoroughly fixed 
 
 habits are wholly removed - ; hence, the teacher 
 should strive to counteract their evil influence, 
 or neutralize their activity, by implanting those 
 
 of a contrary nature. In dealing with the bad 
 habits of children, the teacher should appreciate, 
 and make due allowance for. the force of habit. 
 
I1ADLKV 
 
 HALF-TIME SCHOOLS 
 
 399 
 
 He cannot uproot them at once and by violence. 
 As time is an important element in their forma- 
 tion.so is it also in their eradication ; and, there- 
 fore, the child is to be led along a divergent 
 path which, by degrees, will conduct him away 
 from tlic virions impulse which, all the while, 
 tends to overpower his best resolutions. " Either 
 we should not attempt the conquest of habit," 
 Bays Miss Edge worth, in Practiced Education, 
 "or we should persist till we have vanquished. 
 The confidence which the sense of success will 
 give the pupil will probably, in his own opinion, 
 be thought well worthy of the price. Neither 
 his reason nor his will was in fault; all he 
 wanted was strength to break the diminutive 
 chains of habit, which, it seems, have power to 
 enfeeble the captives exactly in proportion to 
 the length of time they are worn." Whatever 
 force or coercion may be found necessary for 
 this purpose should be gradually relaxed, till the 
 child has formed, to some extent the habit of self- 
 control: which will become the foundation of 
 most other good habits. The implanting of 
 particular habits must not, however, be deemed 
 the whole of moral training; there must be the 
 culture of conscientiousness, of intelligence, of 
 self-respect, of a constant impression and recog- 
 nition of the Divine presence, and of all the 
 other principles of human nature, by means of 
 which it rises to the higher plane of moral re- 
 sponsibility, consciously exercising its own facul- 
 ties, not blindly obeying habitual tendencies re- 
 ceived from others. Properly educated, the 
 human being, in the exercise of his own will and 
 conscience, enlists the power of habit in support 
 of his own moral conclusions, making a useful 
 servant of that by which so many others are 
 hopelessly enslaved. In this connection, Rosen- 
 kranz says. •• Education must procure for the 
 pupil the power of being able to free himself 
 from one habit and to adopt another. Through 
 his freedom, he must be able not only to re- 
 nounce any habit formed, but to form a new- 
 one ; and he must so govern his system of habits 
 that it shall exhibit a constant progress of de- 
 velopment into greater freedom. We must dis- 
 cipline ourselves, as a means toward the ever- 
 ehanging realization of the good in us, constantly 
 to form and to break habits."' And it is in the 
 attainment of this grand object of self-culture, 
 that habit may render the important aid referred 
 to, in making the exercise of self-criticism, con- 
 scientious watchfulness of our own conduct, and 
 obedience to the dictates of reason and religion, 
 easy and continuous by becoming habitual. 
 Thus it is that the man for whom education has 
 done all that it can do, within the utmost scope 
 of its power, truly finds habit not his master 
 but his most useful servant and friend. 
 
 HADLEY, James, a distinguished American 
 scholar and educator, was horn in Fairfield, 
 Herkimer I V. N. V.. March 30.. 1821. and die 1 
 in New Haven, Ct.. Nov. 1 1.. 1872. At the age 
 of 21, he graduated at Yale College, at the head 
 of his class : and in 1 8 15, completed a course of 
 study at the Theological Seminary in New i laven. 
 
 The same year, he commenced his career as a 
 teacher of the Greek language in Yale College, 
 filling successively the positions of tutor, assistant 
 professor, and. in L851, professor, succeeding 
 President Woolsey in the latter position, lie 
 was a man of profound and varied scholarship, 
 including linguistic, philological, and mathemat- 
 ical attainments. He was versed not only in 
 the classic; J languages, hut in most of the oriental, 
 including Sanskrit, Hebrew, Arabic and Ar- 
 menian: also in the Gothic, and in many of 
 the modern languages. Hewasa leading mem- 
 ber of the American Oriental Society, and during 
 the last two years of his life, its president. Be 
 umte the History of t!f English Language for 
 the introduction of Webster's Dictionary, and 
 published a Gr< < kgrammar 1 1 86C l-and Eli m> nls 
 if tin 1 Greek "Language (1869j His essay on 
 the Greek accents was translated into German, 
 and republished in Curtius's Studien zur ijri>- 
 chischen und laleinischen Grammatik. He was 
 also the author of Lectures on Roman Law, and 
 Essays Philological and Critical, which were 
 edited by Prof. W. D. "Whitney, and published 
 after his 'death (1873). 
 
 HAEHN, Johann Friedrich, a German 
 educator, born in 1710; died in 1789. After being 
 for a time teacher and inspector of the school 
 connected with the monastery at Bergen, he went 
 to Berlin, where he became acquainted with 
 Hecker (q. v.), and, in 1753, was appointed in- 
 spector of the latter's real school, in which posi- 
 tion he perfected his method of instruction. He 
 wrote, besides other text-books for his pupils, a 
 compendium of geometry, trigonometry, and 
 military art, in synopses. In the arrangement 
 of these synopses, lies the peculiarity of his meth- 
 od, called the tabular or literal method, accord- 
 ing to which the first letters of the principal 
 subjects of instruction -were written on the board, 
 with the principal sentences contained in the 
 lesson, which were put down in tabular form. 
 By these means, he designed to facilitate not only 
 the memorizing of the Itssons. but to produce 
 thoroughness and thoughtfulness in the study of 
 each subject. In every lesson, he illustrated his 
 instruction as much as possible by means of ob- 
 jects, of which he had a large collection. His 
 method was copied and perfected by Felbiger 
 (q. v.), but gradually fell into disuse as being 
 sowewhat impracticable. In the latter part of 
 his life, he was appointed director of the gym- 
 nasium in Aurich, which position he retained 
 until his death. 
 
 HALF-TIME SCHOOLS, a class of schools 
 which, as the name denotes, hold their scs.-i. i s 
 during only one half of cadi day. thus affording 
 an opportunity to a numerous class of children, 
 employed in workshops, factories, stores, etc., to 
 attend school wit hunt giving up their employ- 
 ments. They are thus kindred, in object, with 
 evening schools, which in a certain sense, may be 
 considered as half-time schools. The half-time 
 system is encouraged in England by a special 
 government grant, and is said to work well ; espe- 
 cially where, by the co-operation of the employers, 
 
400 
 
 HALL 
 
 HAMILTON COLLEGE 
 
 the pupils (half-timers) are made to attend school 
 with regularity. These half-time schools are ex- 
 amined according to the same standards as full- 
 time schools; but the amount paid for half-time 
 regular attendance is only half of that paid for 
 full time. In other parts of Europe, and in some 
 of the cities of the United States, the half-time 
 system is said to have met with encouraging 
 results. This plan originates in the effort to 
 adapt the public schools to1 he circumstances and 
 needs of all classes of the community; and thus. 
 
 in a measure at least, supersedes the necessity of 
 compulsory laws. The principle, however, ad- 
 mits of an application without the organization 
 of separate schools, which might be objectionable 
 in American communities, as establishing a class 
 system of education. The same object may be 
 carried out, it has been suggested, by a half- 
 time course of study, with grades and subjects 
 adapted to the purpose of giving the half-time 
 pupils a good elementary education in a reduced 
 time. Of course, some degree of uniformity 
 would be sacrificed by such an arrangement; but 
 it is claimed that no real efficiency would be lost 
 in the actual working of the school system, or in 
 the education received. On the contrary, it is 
 urged that the union of labor and schooling has 
 
 many advantages, the one assisting the other ; and 
 
 that the half-time pupils prove, as a rule, as apt 
 scholars as their full-time da-s mates, if not SO far 
 
 advanced. Besides, it affords an encouragement 
 to manual labor, and gives it an honorable rec- 
 ognition, which is of great importance in every 
 
 inutility, especially where the boj who lias 
 
 had even an ordinary school education is prone 
 
 to look down upon all mechanical trades and 
 artisanship as unworthy, fixing his ambition 
 
 rather up icivantile or literary pursuits. The 
 
 true interests of a community depend in a great 
 measure upon the productive industry of edu- 
 cated, skillful, and Self-respecting artisans: and 
 
 if the halt-time system can foster, in any degree, 
 this important class of occupations, it deserves 
 the attention and support of Statesmen and 
 educators. 
 
 HALL, Samuel Read, a noted American 
 teacher, the first principal of the first teachers' 
 
 seminary established in the United States, was 
 Lorn in' Croydon, \. EL, Oct. 27., L795. His 
 
 Iiarents having removed to Vermont, he received 
 us early education in that state; hut subse- 
 quently attended an academy in \'ew Hamp- 
 shire. Mi' afterwards studied theology, and 
 entered the ministry, during the whole time. 
 however, teaching school. In L823, he opened 
 
 a .seminary, the special object of which w;i 
 
 educate teachers. This scl 1 was composed 
 
 chiefly of advanced students, but a class of 
 younger pupils was formed to serve as a model 
 
 iol. Be wrote and delivered a course of 
 
 Lectures on ScJioolrkeeping, and compiled, in 
 L827, the Geography <ni<l History of Vermont, 
 which met with much success. In 1S - J!», his 
 
 Lectures were published; and. about the same 
 time, he was appointed principal of the English 
 department oi Philips Academy, at Andover. 
 
 While there, he founded the American School 
 
 Agents' Society, the object of which was to em- 
 ploy agents to visit different pails of the coun- 
 try, for the purpose, by lectures and otherwise. 
 of awakening an interest in the cause of educa- 
 tion. Mr. Hall was one of the original founders 
 of the American Institute of Instruction. and, in 
 1833, read before it a lecture on the Necessity 
 of Educating Teachers, in which he said, "In 
 this thirty-third year of the L9th century, there 
 is not, in our whole country, one seminary where 
 the educator of children can be thoroughly quali- 
 fied for his important work." (See Normal 
 
 Sen ,s.) Between L830and L838, he published 
 
 a number of educational works, and also con- 
 tributed quite largely to the Annals of Educa- 
 tion. In L837, he was appointed principal of a 
 teachers' seminary in Plymouth, N. II.. and sub- 
 sequently filled the office of county superintend- 
 ent in Vermont. His efforts in behalf of normal 
 
 school instruction were of the most earnest and 
 devoted character, and did much to awaken 
 
 public opinion in its behalf.— See Barnard 
 American Teachers and Educators. 
 
 HAMILTON, James, an English merchant, 
 was 1 lorn about L769,and died in Dublin, in L831, 
 lie removed to Hamburg in L798, where he 
 
 learned the German language altera method of 
 his own. which he afterwards advocated and put 
 into practice under the name of the Hamiltonian 
 System. His method consisted in discarding the 
 grammar of a language entirely, and teaching 
 pracl ically by placing in the pupil s hands a book 
 
 of the foreign language with a literal interlinear 
 
 translation, giving always the primitive signifi- 
 cation of each word, and never varying it. By 
 
 translating thus, word for word, from the for, 
 language into the pupil's own. and then back 
 
 again, a good general idea of the language was 
 
 obtained -a sort of rough-cast for practical us.'. 
 
 By this method, of course, all idiomatic and fig- 
 urative expressions, secondary meanings of 
 words. etc.. remained to a certain extent unintel- 
 ligible, the learner getting only a general idea of 
 the meaning of the sentence. To go further 
 than this, however, was beyond I lamiltou's plan. 
 'flic I laniiltoiiian method has had the good effect 
 
 of inducing teachers of modern languages to dis- 
 
 card the old pedantic method of requiring the stu- 
 dent to commit to memory a full set of para- 
 digms and grammatical rules before commencing 
 the actual translation of a single sentence, and 
 has led to the adoption of a system which com 
 
 bines the advantages of the Hamiltonian method 
 
 with that formerly pursued. (See MoDERK 
 
 I.Wol U.KS.) 
 
 HAMILTON COLLEGE, at Clinton, Onei- 
 da Co., New York, was founded in 1812. It 
 is not under the control of any religious de- 
 nomination, but a majority of its board of trust- 
 ees are Presbyterians, or in general sympathy 
 
 with that denomination. The college buildings 
 
 Stand in a park of L5 acres. The institution has 
 
 endowments amounting to about $300,000. It 
 
 possesses a fine chemical laboratory, improved 
 
 philosophical apparatus, geological and mineral- 
 
IIAMHTOXI.W METHOD 
 
 HARMONY 
 
 40] 
 
 ogical cabinets, collections in natural history, an 
 herbarium, and a well-equipped astronomical ob- 
 servatory, at which '_'."> asteroids ami '1 variable 
 stars have been discovered, by its director, Dr. C. 
 II. V. Peters. The college and society libraries 
 contain 1.2,090 volumes. The cost of tuition is 
 S75 per year. There are 20 permanent scholar- 
 ships of from $60 to $100 a year for the benefit 
 of needy ami deserving students. The interest 
 of beneficiary funds, amounting to about $3000 
 a year, is also distributed among needy students. 
 The curriculum is the ordinary four years' course 
 of American colleges. A law department was 
 opened in 1855. In 1875 — 6, there were con- 
 nected with the college, L2 instructors and 171 
 students (20 law, 150 collegiate, ami 1 special). 
 The whole number of dtumni was L,532, of 
 whom 1,054 were living; of graduates of the 
 law school, 97. The presidents of the college 
 have been as follows : the Rev. A/el Backus, 
 S.T I)., 1812—16; the Rev. Henry Davis. S.T.I )., 
 1817—33; the Rev. Sereno Edwards Dwight, 
 S. T. 1».. \>~:\:\— 5; the Rev. Joseph Penney, 
 S. T. I)., is;}.-)—!); the Rev. Simeon North, 
 LL. D., S. T. !>.. 18:!!)— 57: the Rev. Samuel 
 Ware Tidier. S. T. D., LL. D., 1858— (>i> ; and 
 the Rev. Samuel Oilman Brown, S.T. 1)., LL. D., 
 the present incumbent, appointed in 1866. 
 
 HAMILTONIAN METHOD. See Ham- 
 ilton. James. 
 
 HAMPDEN SIDNEY COLLEGE, in 
 Prince Edward Co.. Va.,7 miles south of Farm- 
 ville, founded in 1776. is under Presbyterian con- 
 trol. The name of the post-office is the same as 
 that of the institution. The college is supported 
 by tuition fees and the interest on an endow- 
 ment of 805,000. It adheres to the old college 
 curriculum. The cost of tuition is ^60 per year, 
 with French, German, and civil engineering as 
 extras. In 1875 — 6, there were 5 instructors 
 and 77 students. The libraries contain about 
 7,000 volumes. The presidents have been as fol- 
 lows : the Rev. Stanhope Smith, D. D., 1776 — 9; 
 the Rev. J. Blair Smith, D. D., 1779—89 ; the 
 Rev. Dury Lacy, 1789 — 97 ; the Rev. Archibald 
 Alexander. 1797— 1806; the Rev. Wm. S. Reid, 
 1806; the Lev. Moses Hoge, 1807 — 20; Jo- 
 nathan P. Cushing, A. M., 1821—35; the Rev. 
 Geo. Baxter, D. 1)., 1835—6 ; the Rev. D. L. 
 I airoll, D. D., 1836—8; the Hon. Wm. Max- 
 well, 1838—44; the Rev. P. J. Sparrow, D. I)., 
 1845—7; the Rev. S. B. Wilson, D. D., 1847 
 —8; the Rev. L. W.Green, D. D„ 1848 — 56; 
 the Rev. A. L. llolladay, 1856; and the Rev. J. 
 If. I\ Atkinson. D. D., the present incumbent, 
 appointed in L857. 
 
 HANNIBAL COLLEGE, at Hannibal, Mo., 
 under the control of the .Methodist Episcopal 
 Church, South, was founded, in 186!). for the 
 education of both sexes. It has an endowment I 
 of 35 acres of land, and possesses chemical, I 
 physiological, astronomical, and other scientific 
 and philosophical apparatus. It is supported by i 
 tuition fees. The college is divided into 3 depart- 
 ments : preparatory, high-school, and collegiate. 
 These three departments are sub-divided into six 
 26 
 
 | schools, as follows: (1) School of English litera- 
 ture; (2) School of physics; (3) School of lan- 
 guages, including Bebrew, Greek, Latin, German, 
 and French, togel her with lecture.- on comparative 
 philology; (1) School of mathematics; (5) School 
 of metaphysics ; and (6) School of fine arts, in- 
 cluding vocal and instrumental music, painting, 
 drawing, wax-work, and worsted work. A com- 
 mercial course and an evening school have been 
 organized. The cost of tuition, in the preparatory 
 department, is $10.50 per quarter; in the aca- 
 demic and collegiate, $12.50. In 1875 — 6, there 
 were 11 instructors and 140 students. The Rev. 
 J.F.Hamilton was president from 1869 — 71. 
 when the Rev. Leo Baier was appointed. The 
 college is at present suspended (1877). 
 
 HANOVER COLLEGE, at Hanover, Ind.. 
 organized in li-^7. and chartered in 1833, is 
 tmder the control of the Presbyterians. It has 
 a campus of 16 acres and a fine college build- 
 ing. Its entire grounds embrace over 200 acres. 
 The libraries contain about 7,500 volumes. The 
 value of its buildings, grounds, and apparatus is 
 $145,000; the amount of its productive funds. 
 $100,000. Tuition is free. The institution has 
 a preparatory and a collegiate department, the 
 latter comprising a classical and a scientific course. 
 In 1875 — 6, there were 10 instructors and 135 
 students (74 collegiate and 61 preparatory). The 
 Rev. Geo. C. Hickman, D. D., is (1876) the pres- 
 ident. 
 
 HARMONY in Development, as regards 
 both the mental and bodily faculties, is now 
 viewed by educationists as the most important 
 aim of education. " One part of instruction," 
 says Dittes (Schule der Pddagogik, 1876), "must 
 not contradict another ; nothing should be neg- 
 lected, nothing exaggerated ; all the faculties of 
 the pupil should be cultivated as much as pos- 
 sible, and all the different objects and depart- 
 ments of education should receive attention, 
 without interruption, and in due proportion. 
 The intellect should not be favored at the ex- 
 pense of the moral and physical nature; and 
 hygienic considerations should not be left out of 
 view. 1'he teacher should be especially careful 
 not to accord too much time and attention to 
 favorite branches of study." The latter is a very 
 important admonition. Every course of study 
 should be arranged with a view to the average 
 condition of the growing mind and its needs : 
 and. therefore, should comprise such a variety of 
 subjects as will call into exercise the different 
 mental powers, and thus become instruments 
 in their culture and development. The scientific 
 teacher will, however, watch for decided peculi- 
 arities of character, special aptitudes, traits of 
 genius, etc., and will modify his course of pro- 
 ceeding so as, while giving scope for the unfold- 
 ing of these particular powers, or talents, not 
 to permit them to repress the growth of other 
 indispensable faculties. Thus, a pupil may show 
 a special inclination and talent for drawing, 
 which may very properly be allowed its full 
 development ; but, in doing this, the educator 
 is not to permit all other mental or manual oc- 
 
402 
 
 HARMONY 
 
 HARMS! II 
 
 conations to be neglected, Indeed, this special 
 gift may be kept in abeyance, and stimulus ap- 
 plied, for a time at least, to penmanship, ami to 
 the study of language, science, or other impor- 
 tant subjects. Some pupils, as a further example, 
 may be tun prone to the exercise of the imagina- 
 tion : in which case, they should be required in 
 study science or mathematics. Others may show 
 an almost exclusive bent for calculation or 
 mathematical reasoning, which must, of course, 
 be corrected by the pursuit "f studies calling 
 
 into exercise other powers of the mind : Such as 
 history, general literature, mental philosophy, 
 Know lei lev is sometimes called the food of 
 the mind, by the assimilation of which its various 
 powers arc nourished; hence, to continue the 
 metaphor, there should be a due variety of this 
 food, and the different kinds should be selected 
 with a view to the particular condition and 
 needs of the system which is to be supplied with 
 nutriment. As in physical education, if a pupil 
 manifests any signs of abnormal development or 
 morbid growth, such, for example, as distortion 
 of the limbs Or curvature of the spine, continu- 
 ous exercises and postures are prescribed to 
 correct this tendency: so. in every department 
 of education, a harmonious development can 
 only result from a, discriminative application of 
 those agencies which call into active ami habitual 
 exercise the powers of mjnd and body. Such a 
 development implies, too, a full recognition of 
 all the relations and powers of ihe human being, 
 embracing nol only the cultivation of those 
 capacities which concern him as an individual, 
 luit also those on which his happiness and use- 
 fulness as a social ami moral being depend. How 
 miserable is the mere student, the solitary genius, 
 cut off from the exercise of the social sympathies 
 and deprived Of SOCial enjoyments by a one-sided 
 development! It is no answer to this, that the 
 
 world may he benefited by his brilliant thoughts 
 
 ami his deep intuitions : for the interests of the 
 
 individual, as such, claim consideration : ami be- 
 sides that, the best creations of genius have been 
 
 often impaired or marred by the effects of this 
 morbid development, of this Byron, Shelley, 
 ami Toe are examples. The educator must 
 
 recognize thai there is a body, a mind, and a 
 .vmiI to be addressed and cultivated ; and that 
 man has social, i 'al. and religious faculties. 
 
 without the harmonious development of which 
 he cannot properly fulfil his destiny, nor attain 
 happiness. The special claims of particular ve- 
 ins, it is said, demand one-sided culture. Of 
 
 this there is no doubt ; but preceding it. and 
 
 hence underlying it, there should be such gene- 
 ral culture as the circumstances of man. as nxin, 
 
 require. Profession or business comprehends, 
 in general, but one relation; ami unfortunate, 
 therefore, is he who can meet the demands of 
 only that relation, unable to perform aright the 
 domestic, social, political, ami religious duties 
 which are inseparably oected with the posi- 
 tion of every person in this lite. In order to 
 perform these duties, even person is endowed 
 with special faculties, which, by the want of 
 
 proper cultivation in early life, or by disuse, 
 may be so enfeebled as to be unfit for exercise : 
 and the harmonious development of these is the 
 only true aim of education. If all these (acui- 
 ties do not. at an early age, receive their due 
 share of training, self-education, at a later period, 
 cannot, but within very narrow limits, supply 
 the deficiency. The individual will always find 
 
 himself more or less crippled, because no self-cult- 
 ure can entirely supply the place of early habits. 
 To the doctrine of harmonious development, 
 it has been objected that s] ei ial innate endow- 
 ments cannot be repressed by education; and to 
 address other faculties will only result in bestow- 
 
 ■ ing superficial accomplishments of no practical 
 value. Thus a youth of decided mathematical 
 genius could never become more than an im- 
 perfect linguist : and one with special talent for 
 language would be likely to make but indifferent 
 
 attainments in science. Barmonious develop- 
 ment, however, dots not require the repression 
 
 of special endowments, but the cultivation of 
 what may be (ailed the general powers, in such 
 
 a vay as to give support to each particular 
 endowment. A wise educational training, com- 
 menced at the earliest childhood, and continued 
 through each successive period of the formative 
 
 state of human character, will not only fit for 
 any particular vocation for which there may be a 
 special bent, but will also prepare the individual 
 tor general usefulness, and render him able to 
 
 enjoy the wonders of science, and the beauties 
 
 ot nature and art. as well as to participate in all 
 ether pleasures incident to his existc in e as a 
 social ami rational being. (See < iEK tl 
 
 HARNISCH. Christian Wilhelm, a Ger- 
 man educator and writer, born Aug. 28., L786, 
 died Aug. L8., 1866. After studying at the uni- 
 versities of I lalle and Frankfort on the ( tiler, and 
 acquainting himself, in Berlin, with Pestalozzi's 
 
 method, he was appointed, in L812, teacher in 
 
 the training school of Breslau ; ami. in L822, 
 director of the training school of Weissenfels. 
 In 1847, he became pastor of a church in a small 
 
 town, ami remained in that position until 1861, 
 Soon afterwards, he was seized with insanity, from 
 
 which he never recovered. In his writings, as 
 well as iii all his teachings, he gave a promm< nt 
 place to religion, and to bodilj exercises, such as 
 bathing, gymnastics, etc. He also took great 
 interest in the education of deaf-mutes. The 
 influence which he exerted on the development 
 of the common-school system of Prussia, was 
 very considerable. Among his most important 
 works arc. Die deutschen Volksschulen (1812), 
 which appeared in a revised form under the title 
 of Handbuchfur das deutsche Volksschulwesen 
 (1820, It li edit.. 1839); Darstellung m,<l /! 
 th.eilv.ng des Bell-Lancaster' scheii Scliulwesens 
 (1819); Der jetzige Standpunkt den : i>s<i/>n, 
 preussischen VoOcsschulwesens (1844), ami Die 
 kunftige Stellung der Schtde, rorzilg/icJi der 
 Volksschule, zu Kirche, Staal »//</ /Acs (1848). 
 The autobiography of Harnisch was published 
 after his death by Sehmieder [Mein Lebens- 
 morgen, L866 
 
TTAKTLIB 
 
 HARVARD UNIVERSITY 40.1 
 
 HARTLIB, Samuel, was thesonof a Polish 
 merchant of Killing. Prussia. His mother, be- 
 ing an English woman, removed him, at an early 
 age, to London (1636), where he afterwards be- 
 came the friend of Milton, and labored with him 
 for tin- advancement of learning. It was to Bart- 
 lib that Milton adressed his Tractate on Educa- 
 tion. His attention was turned specially to agri- 
 culture, for the improvement of which ho gave 
 freely of his time and income, making experi- 
 ments iii husbandry, and publishing treatises on 
 the subject, with such assiduity and success, that 
 the parliament of Cromwell voted him an an- 
 nuity of £100, which the succeeding parliament, 
 however, revoked. He rendered important ser- 
 vice to the time in which he lived by his publica- 
 tion of Sir Richard Weston's Discourse <>/< 
 Wanders Husbandry, in 1652; and, probably, 
 our own time may trace a direct indebtedness 
 to him. inasmuch as the germ of the modern 
 agricultural college may be found in his Pro- 
 positions for erecting a College of Husbandry 
 (London, 1651). Notwithstanding his unselfish 
 life and great public services, acknowledged by 
 the annuity above mentioned, he is thought to 
 have died in want. — See Barnard's Journal of 
 Education, vols. xi. and xn. 
 
 HARTSVILLE UNIVERSITY, at Harts- 
 ville. Ind.. under the control of the United 
 Brethren in Christ, Avas chartered in 1851. It 
 grew out of the Hartsville Academy, which was 
 transferred by its trustees to the church, in 1848. 
 It is supported chiefly by donations and tuition 
 fees. The available endowment amounts to 
 120,000 : the entire endowment is $54,000. The 
 college has a good achromatic telescope, philosoph- 
 ical and chemical apparatus, and an increas- 
 ing cabinet. The library contains between 700 
 ami sin) volumes. The regular tuition fees vary 
 from SI 5 to $21 per year. It has a preparatory 
 and a collegiate department, with a classical and 
 a scientific course : also a theological department. 
 Facilities are afforded for instruction in the com- 
 mercial branches and in music. In 1874 — 5, there 
 were !» instructors and 15!) students, of whom 71 
 were of the collegiate grade. The principals and 
 presidents have been as follows: James Mc. D. 
 Miller, 1849—52; David Shuck. 1852—64; 
 John W. Scribner, 1804— 7:5; David Shuck, 
 L873 — 1 : and the Rev. William J. Pruner, the 
 present incumbent, appointed in 1874. 
 
 HARVARD, John, an English non-con- 
 formist divine, who graduated at the university 
 of Cambridge,™ 1631, and emigrated to Charles- 
 town. Mass., where he died Sept. 24.. L638. l\'\v 
 particulars of his fife are known. Be appears, 
 however, to have been active outside of his pro- 
 ion, as we find him appointed, in 1638, "to 
 consider of some things tending toward a body 
 of laws." At his death, he bequeathed £700 anil 
 about 300 volumes for the founding of a college, 
 tin' present Harvard University of Cambridge. 
 The alumni of the university, in 1828, erected 
 a granite monument to his memory in the burial 
 ground of Charlestown. The address on this oc- 
 casion was delivered by Edward Everett, wdio 
 
 was afterwards president of the university. (See 
 1 1 arvakd University.) 
 
 HARVARD UNIVERSITY, the oldest 
 institution of learning in the United States.com- 
 prehends Harvard College, tin- Divinity School, 
 i lie Law School, the Medical School, the Dental 
 
 School, tl'c l" t Vtr;^Jj l ii J ilti l ti l - School, the BuS- 
 
 sey Inslitufioii (a school of agriculture and horti 
 culture), the Observatory, the Botanic Garden 
 and Herbarium, the Library, the Peabody 
 Museum if American Archaeology and Ethnol- 
 ogy (a constituent part of the University , though 
 its relations to it are affected by certain peculiar 
 provisions), and the Museum if Comparative 
 Zod'logy. These arc all in < Cambridge, .Massachu- 
 setts, except the Medical School, which is on 
 
 North Grove street, Boston; the Dental School. 
 at No. 50 Allen street, boston ; and the Bussey 
 Institution, at Jamaica Plain, now within the 
 limits of Boston. The Episcopal Theological 
 School at Cambridge appears in the catalogue, 
 but has no connection with the University. Stu- 
 dents in regular standing in any one department 
 cf the University are admitted free to the in- 
 struction given in any other department, with 
 tin' exception of exercises earned on in the spe- 
 cial laboratories. No one is excluded from any 
 department on account of color. 
 
 In 1636, the colonial legislature agreed to give 
 £400 toward a school or college, but whether this 
 sum was ever actually paid is doubtful. In 1639.it 
 was "ordered, that the colledge agreed upon for- 
 merly to bee built at Cambridg shal bee called 
 Harvard Colledge."' in honor of the Rev. John 
 Harvard of Charlestown, who. dying in 1638, had 
 left to the institution about £700 and a library i 't 
 over 300 volumes. The college was opened in 1638, 
 and the first class ('.)) graduated in 1 (112. The same 
 year a board of overseers was constituted: and. in 
 1650, a charter was granted, under which the 
 institution became a corporation, with the title of 
 the "President and Fellows of Harvard Collegi 
 In early times, it received much legislative aid. 
 and was intimately connected with the govern- 
 ment, but its connection with the Commonwealth! 
 
 was dissolved in 1865. The corporation ( sists 
 
 of the president, five fellows, and the treasurer, 
 who. subject to the confirmation of the overs, 
 fill their own vacancies. The board of overseers 
 is composed of the president and treasurer, eat 
 officio, and 30 members, elected by the graduate s 
 of five years'. stain line, and holding of lice six yea is. 
 five being chosen each year. The corporation 
 nominates the professors and other officers of in- 
 struction constituting the different faculties of 
 the University, who must be continued by tin- 
 board of overseers. The Medical School was 
 established in 17.^2. the Botanic Garden in 1807, 
 the Law School in 1817, the Divinity School in 
 1 si!), and the Observatory in L839. The Law- 
 rence Scientific School was founded, in lS17.lv 
 
 Abbott Lawrence, by a gift of $50,000, subse- 
 quently increased. The .Museum of Comparative 
 
 Zoology was established, in 1 S.V.I, by a grant from. 
 the state and the gifts of individuals through the 
 influence of Agassiz, who was its director till hi- 
 
404 
 
 JIAUVAUD UNIVERSITY 
 
 death, and whose invaluable collections are here 
 deposited. The Peabody .Museum was founded by 
 George Peabody, who gave 8150,000 in L866. 
 The Dental School was organized in 1868. The 
 Bussey Institution was endowed by the will of 
 Benjamin Bussey, in 1842. The lands belonging 
 to the University in Cambridge, comprise about 
 (ill acres. The college yard contains about 22 
 acres, tastefully laid out ami adorned with many 
 stately elms. In the yard, arc 2] buildings, in- 
 cluding the president's house, four professors' 
 bouses, the chapel, library, law school, and seven 
 dormitories, the remaining six buildings being 
 used tor offices, recitation rooms, laboratories, 
 The oldest of these is Massachusetts Hall, erected 
 in 1720, and occupied by Continental troopsin 
 177")— (i. Adjac'iit to the yard, are two other 
 dormitories, the < lymnasium, .Memorial 1 [all, and 
 the Lawrence Scientific school. A little north, and 
 
 near each oilier, are the Museum of Comparative 
 Zoology and the I h'viuity School; andaDOUt three 
 fourths of a mile N. \\'..and also near each other, 
 
 the Observatory, and the Botanic Garden and 
 Herbarium. The mosl magnificenl building is 
 Hi- Memorial Hall, ei i of $420,000 
 
 by the alumni and friend-' of the college in com- 
 memoration of the students and if the 
 University who died in the national service dur- 
 ing the civil war of L861 —5. It is built of red ami 
 black brick, with copings and window tracery of 
 Nova Scotia stone, and is 310 ft. long by L15 ft. 
 wide. 'I'll.' interior comprises three grand apart- 
 ments : a dining hall. Kit by (JO ft., and 80 ft. high, 
 capable of seating 1 0110 persons: memorial ves- 
 tibule. I L2 by 30 ft., and <!(! ft. high: and the San- 
 ders theater, for commencement exercises, etc., 
 arranged, on the plan of classic theaters, and ac- 
 commodating L,500 spectators. The dining hall, 
 
 said to be the grainiest college hall in the world, 
 is used for college festivals, and by the Dining 
 
 Hall Association, an organization supported and 
 
 managed by students for the purpose of supply- 
 ing board at cost. Its walls are hung with the 
 portraits of former college worthies, ami its 
 windows are intended to be memorial. Between 
 the dining hall and tin' theater is the memorial 
 
 vestibule, sunn ted by a tower 200 ft. high. 
 
 Tin' interior is surrounded by an arcade of black 
 walnut, with marble tablets inscribed with the 
 names of lio students commemorated, and the 
 dates and places of fcheir death. 'The walls above 
 
 arc simply decorated, iii color, with Latin inscrip- 
 tions concerning patriotism, duty, and immor- 
 tality. The property of the University, in L876, 
 mot including the buildings, collections, and pub- 
 lic grounds) amounted to $$3,139,218. The income 
 of the rnivcrsity.in L874 5, was 3473,305. The 
 libraries of the University contain, in theagg 
 gate. 21 l.onii volumes. They include the follow- 
 ing: (1 ) College Library (in Gore Hall), L55.000 
 rola ; 2 Library of the Botanic Garden, boon 
 
 vols.; 3 Of the' Divinity Scl 1. 17,000 rols.; 
 
 i Of the Medical School, 2,000 vols.; CO of the 
 Museum of Comparative Zoology, 1.2,000 vols.; 
 (6) Law Library. 1.5,000 W>1b.J (7) Libraries in 
 the Lawrence Scientific School, 3,000 \ 
 
 i •hillips Library at the Observatory, 3.000 vols. 
 There are also L5,000 or 20.000 volumes in the 
 Bociety libraries of the students. There are two 
 physical and three chemical laboratories, azoolog- 
 ical, a physiological, and a geological ami palaeon- 
 tological laboratory at the Museum of Com- 
 parative Zoology, a. mineralogies! collection in 
 Boylston Hall, and extensive natural history col- 
 lections at the Museum of < 'oniparative Zoology. 
 Th" large collections of the Peabody Museum are 
 exhibited in Boylston Hall. The Gray collec- 
 tion of engravings in Gore Hall holds a 1 
 rank. The Observatory is admirably equipped 
 with astronomical instruments, including one of 
 the be.-t equatorials in the world. The instruc- 
 tion of the ( lollege and Scientific School, in prac- 
 tical astronomy and geodesy, is given at the Ob- 
 servatory; in Botany, at the Botanic Harden; 
 and in zoology, geology, and palaeontology, at the 
 Museum of Comparative Zoology. The course of 
 in the College leads to the degree of 
 Bachelor of Arts, and covets fouryears. The cur- 
 riculum is extended and varied, being so arranged 
 that the old prescribed college course may be 
 pursued, or other courses, according to the taste 
 or purposes of the student. The studies of the 
 freshman year are prescribed. The prescribed 
 studies of the sophomore year fill four hours a 
 Dry and rhetoric; ami those of the 
 junior year, two hours a week in philosophy, be- 
 sides certain written exercises. In the senior 
 year only certain written exercises are prescribed; 
 sophomores are required to take ten hours a 
 week of elective studies: and juniors and seni 
 twelve hours. The attendance by seniors upon 
 recitations is voluntary. Several of the fresh- 
 man studies may be anticipated at the entrance 
 examination : and the prescribed sophomore and 
 
 junior studies maj be anticipated at the same 
 tini". or by examinations at the beginning of the 
 respective years. Written examinations form a 
 marked feature of the method of instruction, oc- 
 curring frequently, during term time, in the dif- 
 ferent branches, ami at the close of each year. 
 in the studies of the year. Special honors 
 are given at graduation for excellence in the 
 
 following departments: ancient languages, clas- 
 sics, modern languages, philosophy, history, math- 
 ematics, physics, chemistry, natural history, music. 
 For honors in modern languages, the candidate 
 must presenl himself for examination in Italian, 
 Spanish, or English, as well as in French and 
 German. One of the ancient languages must lie 
 Hebrew or Sanskrit, in addition to latin and 
 Greek. A. grade of second-year honors in clas- 
 sics ami mathematics has been est abb shed, open 
 to Sophomores and juniors, and to seniors who 
 intend to be candidates for final honors after 
 graduation. For final honors in ancient lan- 
 guages and classic8. second year honors in classics 
 must have been taken : and. for final honors in 
 mathematics, second-year honors in the same 
 
 department. The requisitions for admission at 
 
 I [arvard arc higher than in any other college in 
 
 the country. Instead of passing the entire en- 
 trance examination at the time of admission to 
 
IIAUVAKD UNIVERSITY 
 
 405 
 
 college, candidates for the freshman class may 
 be examined upon five or more subjects the year 
 pre\ ious, thus dividing the cxa initial ion into two. 
 lu L876, the system was inaugurated <>f holding 
 an examination For admission in Cincinnati, con- 
 temporaneously with the examination in Cam- 
 bridge, to accommodate Western students. In 
 1 s 7 « > 7. tin' elective courses were thrown open 
 to students 21 years old and upward, not candi- 
 dates for the degree of A. B., who are not re- 
 quired to pass the general entrance examination, 
 but must satisfy the faculty of their fitness to 
 pursue the particular courses which they elect. 
 A certificate of proficiency will be given to such 
 as pursue their studies for a year, and pass satis- 
 factory examinations. (For additional details 
 respecting the requisitions for admission and the 
 curriculum, see College.) — The cost of tuition 
 iu the college is 8150 per year. One hundre I 
 and four scholarships have been established, 
 varying in annual income from $40 to $300, for 
 the aid of nee ly and deserving students. There 
 are also beneficiary funds having an annual in- 
 c ime of about $750, which is usually distributed 
 in gratuities of from $50 to $100 : a loan fund, 
 the interest of which, amounting to more than 
 $2,000 annually, is lent in sums of from -Sot) to 
 $150 : monitorships &c, amounting to about 
 10 a year: and a number of prizes. Accord- 
 to the University catalogue, " the experien< e 
 of the past warrants the statement that good 
 scholars of high character but slender means are 
 seldom or never oblige I to leave college for want 
 of money." In the Lawrence Scientific School, 
 five regular courses, of l ye us each, are offered : 
 civil and topographical engineering, leading to 
 the degree of Civil Engineer; mining engin er- 
 ing. of which the first three years are identical 
 with the first three years of the preceding course, 
 leading to the degree of .Mining Engineer; chem- 
 istry. Bachelor of Science; natural history, S. 1!.; 
 mathematics, physics, and astronomy. S. B. Can- 
 didates for these courses are required to pass an 
 entrance examination, and the degrees are con- 
 ferred only after examination. There is a one year's 
 course in the elements of natural history, chemis- 
 try, and physics, for teachers. The cost of tuition 
 is Si 50 per year. Four scholarships, of the annual 
 value of $150 each, have been established. The 
 School of Mining and Practical ( reology, founded 
 by Samuel Hooper in L865by the gift of $50,000, 
 was, in L874— 5, merged in the Lawrence Scien- 
 tific School. The Bussey Institution his a superb 
 estate of 360 acres, containing a fine building, a 
 farm, greenhouses, propagating-houses, etc. The 
 Arnold Arboretum, founded by James Arnold of 
 New Bedford, is established h xe. The institu- 
 tion is designed to give thorough instruction in 
 agriculture, us iful and ornamental gardening, and 
 ck-raising, and to this end affords courses in 
 phvsical g :ography, meteorology, g lology, chemis- 
 try, physics, Wotany. zoology, entomology, French, 
 an 1 German. Instruction is given by lectures and 
 recitations, and by practical exercises in the labo- 
 ratory, greenhouse, and field. Frequenl examina- 
 tions are held. The regular course for a decree 
 
 occupies three years; the instruction of the first 
 year is given at the Lawrence Scientific School. 
 Candidates for admission to this course are re- 
 quired to pass.au examination. Special courses 
 may. however, be taken by persons qualified to 
 pursue them. The regular tuition fee is $150, but 
 all tuition fees are freely remitted to poor and 
 meritorious students. Harvard is the pioneer 
 among American institutions in raising the 
 standard of professional education, in reforming 
 the methods ol instruction and in requiring ex- 
 aminations for admission in law and medicine. 
 The full course in the Divinity School is three 
 
 years. Candidates not Bachelors of Arts arere- 
 quired to pass an examination for admission to 
 this course. Its satisfactory completion entitles 
 
 the student to the degree of Bachelor of Divinity. 
 Students may be admitted to partial courses 
 without examination. The cost of tuition is $50 
 per year. Nine scholarships have been established, 
 varying in annual income from $125 to $260; and 
 there are other funds for the assistance of needy 
 students. The course in the Law School is three 
 years, upon the completion of which and the pass- 
 ing of - > examinations, the degree of 
 Bachelor of Laws is conferred. In 1877 — Sand 
 thereafter, candidates for admission not Bachelors 
 of Arts will be required to pass an examination, 
 though persons not candidates for a degree will 
 be admitted without examination. The cost of 
 tuition is $150 per year, fc ight scholarships, of the 
 annual value of $150 each, have been established. 
 The plan of study in the .Medical School was rad- 
 ically changed, in L871, from that previously pre- 
 vailing there and still pursued in other medical 
 institutions in this country. Instruction is now 
 given by lectures, recitations, clinical teaching. and 
 practical exercises uniformly distributed through- 
 out the academic year. The regular course ex- 
 tends over three years, through which written 
 examinations on all the main subjects of medical 
 instruction arc distributed. Upon the completion 
 of this course and upon passing satisfactorily the 
 required examinations, the degree of Doctor of 
 Medicine is ((inferred. In 1877 — Sand thereafter. 
 candidates for admission to the regular course 
 must present a degree in letters or science from 
 a recognized college or scientific school, or pass 
 an examination ; but persons not candidates for 
 a degree may be admitted to partial courses 
 without examination. The Massachusetts < leneral 
 
 Hospital, adjacent to the School, and the City 
 Hospital, with other similar institutions in or 
 near Boston, afford admirable advantages for 
 clinical instruction, for the study of practical 
 anatomy, and for witnessing operative surgery. 
 Thecosl "i tuition is $200 peryear. Four scholar- 
 ships, of the annual value ol $200 each, have been 
 established. Instruction in the Dental School is 
 given by lectures, recitations, clinical teaching, and 
 praet ical exercises, uniformly distributed through- 
 out the academic year. The regular course is of 
 two years, and examinations are held at the close 
 Of each. The degree of Doctor of Dental Medi- 
 cine is conferred upon candidates '21 years old 
 and upward, who have studied medicine or den- 
 
406 
 
 HARVARD UNIVERSITY 
 
 tistry throe full years (at least one continuous 
 year at this school), upon presenting a satisfac- 
 tory thesis, and passing the required examinations. 
 The infirmary, a department of the Massachusetts 
 General Hospital, affords opportunity for prac- 
 tical instruction. The cost of tuition is $200 for 
 I be lirst yar. Si 50 for the second, and $50 for any 
 subsequent year. The degrees of Master of Arts. 
 Doctor of Philosophy, and Doctor of Science. 
 imply a post-graduate course of study, and are 
 conferred upon examination only. The degree of 
 .V. M. was conferred in course without examina- 
 tion for the last time in L872. The degree of 
 I loctor of Science is open to Bachelors of Science 
 or Philosophy, who are required to reside at least 
 two years at the University and pursue, during 
 three years, a course of scientific study, embra- 
 cingat Least two subjects, and pass an examination 
 in the same. The other two degrees are open to 
 Bachelors of Arts. Candidates for the degree of 
 Master of Artsare required to pursue, for at least 
 «me year at the Uuiversity, an approved course of 
 liberal study, and pass an examination in the 
 .same. Candidates for the degree of Doctor of 
 Philosophy arc required to pursue, at the Uni- 
 versity for two years, a course of liberalstudy 
 
 (and pass ail examination in the same) in one of 
 
 the following departments; namely, philology, 
 philosophy, history, political science, mathemat- 
 ics, physics, Datura! history, or music. The degree 
 Master of Arts is also conferred upon candi- 
 dates who pursue, al the University, al least one 
 year after taking the degree of Bachelor of 
 Laws, Bachelor or Divinity, or Doctor of Medi- 
 cine in Harvard University, an approved course 
 of study in law, theology, or medicine, and passan 
 
 examination in the same. Post-graduate courses 
 
 of study have, accordingly, been established in 
 the three professional schools, as well as in the 
 College and Scientific School. The fees for 
 these courses range from S.~>0 to si.Mt p, T year. 
 which, however, are remitted to needy and meri- 
 torious students. The examination fees, $30 for 
 A. M. and $60 for each of the other two degrees, 
 not remitted. Six fellowships have been es- 
 tablished, with an annual income of from $600 
 to $1000 each, to aid graduates of the Ohiversity 
 in pursuing a post graduate course of liberal 
 .study. Summer courses of instruction, especially 
 igned for teachers, are given in chemistry and 
 mineralogy, botany, and geology. The firs! is 
 given in Boylston Hall. The course in pheno- 
 lic botan] is given at the Botanic Garden; 
 that in cryptogamic botany, at some point on the 
 hore; and thai in geology, at present, al Cum- 
 berland Gap, Ky.. in connection with the state 
 logical Burvey. The fee for the geological 
 course is $50; for the others $25. In L875, these 
 courses were attended by 98 persons, as follows: 
 chemistry 10 ; botany, 27 ; geology 31. Among 
 
 those in chemistry and botany were women, who 
 
 are excluded from the regular courses in the va- 
 rious departments of the University. In 1874, 
 examinations for women wen' established, of two 
 \ general or preliminary examination 
 tor young women not [est than IT years of age, 
 
 in English, French, physical geography, elemen- 
 tary botany or elementary physics, arithmetic, 
 algebra through quadratic equations, plane geom- 
 etry, history, and German, Latin, or Greek; 
 (2) An advanced examination for young women, 
 ool Less than 18 years old, who have passed the 
 preceding, in one or more of the following depart- 
 ments : languages, natural science, mathematics, 
 history, and philosophy. ( 'ertificates are granted 
 to those who pass satisfactorily. The fee for the 
 preliminary examination is $15; for the advanced. 
 SHI. Two preliminary and three advanced cer- 
 tificates were granted in 1ST."). — In 1875 — 6, 
 In sides 26 proctors, librarians, and other officers 
 there were 128 teachers of various grades as fol- 
 lows : 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 -3 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 C fc 
 
 V 
 
 VI 
 
 
 
 c r - % 
 
 
 Departments. 
 
 1 
 
 O 
 
 1 i 
 
 2 c 
 < >- 
 
 (J 
 
 O 
 
 - 
 
 o 
 J- 
 m 
 C 
 
 strators 
 assista 
 
 O 
 
 H 
 
 College 
 
 is 
 
 8 
 
 13 
 
 4 
 
 — 
 
 10 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 1 
 
 6 
 
 44 
 
 Scientific School. . . 
 
 21 
 
 Bussey Institution. . 
 
 2 
 
 4 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 4 
 
 3 
 
 13 
 
 I Mvmitv School. . . . 
 
 6 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 
 ■1 
 
 1 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 ■) 
 
 Medical School. . . . 
 
 11 
 
 :: 
 
 1 
 
 — 
 
 17 
 
 2 
 
 :;t 
 
 Dental School 
 
 I 
 
 I 
 
 1 
 
 — 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 14 
 
 Museum of Compar- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ative Zodlogy. . . . 
 
 2 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 9 
 
 11 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 '-' 
 
 2 
 
 Total, deducting 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 repetitions 
 
 19 
 
 21 
 
 2 
 
 11 
 
 27 
 
 18 
 
 [28 
 
 In the College, there are professorships of <ht- 
 man ; Christian morals: astronomy and mathe- 
 matics: natural religion, moral philosophy, and 
 civil polity : mathematics and natural philosophy; 
 ancient. Byzantine, and modern Greek; ancient 
 and modern history ; anatomy: the French and 
 Spanish languages and literatures: belles-let- 
 tres; rhetoric and oratory; Latin: the history 
 of art; chemistry and mineralogy; political 
 economy; Greek literature: modern languages; 
 
 history: mathematics: and music. In the other 
 
 departments of the University, besides those 
 
 strictly professional, there arc professorships ot 
 natural history: engineering; geology ; elocution; 
 
 entomology; the application of .science to the use- 
 ful arts: applied zoology; astronomy and geodesy; 
 Hebrew and other oriental languages; zoology; 
 agricultural chemistry: topographical engineer- 
 ing; and palaeontology. The whole number of 
 
 different students, in 1875 6, deducting repeti- 
 tions, wa> L ,263, distributed as follows: 
 
 Number. Dep rtments. Number 
 
 Resident Graduates 54 Scientifio School :'\ 
 
 ( ollege Students 77<> 
 Divinity School 19 
 
 Law " 161 
 
 Medical " L92 
 
 Dental " 33 
 
 v Institution 5 
 
 Of the resident graduates. .'i. r > were candidates 
 
 for higher degrees, and 6, holders of fellowships ; 
 of the college undergraduates, 1 18 were seniors, 
 
 194 junior.-.. 182 sophomores, and 252 fresh- 
 men. The following degrees were conferred at 
 the commencement in 1876: A.M., L36; S. I'. 
 
 C. I-'... I ; l». M. I'.. L0; M. 1». 36; LI.. B., I ; 
 
 D. I:.. 5; A. M., T: PL D., 5 ; *. \\. 1 : accord- 
 
HA FY 
 
 HAWAIIAN [SLANDS 
 
 407 
 
 doctors 
 dental medicine, 
 
 
 ing to the triennial catalogue of 1875, the whole 
 number of alumni of the college was 8,741, of 
 whom 3,298 were living; of bachelors ant 
 
 of medicine. 2.1 2S ; doctors of 
 ">7 ; bachelors of laws. 1,857; bachelors of science, 
 196 ; alumni of the Divinity School. 439. The 
 presidents of the University have been as fol- 
 lows: Henry Dunster, 1(140 — 54; Charles 
 Chauncy, 1654 — 72 ; Leonard Hoar. 1(172 — 5; 
 Uriah Cakes. 1 <lT-"» — 81 ; John Rogers, H1S2— 4 ; 
 Increase Mather, 1685 — 1701 : Samuel Willard 
 (vice-president), 1701 — 7: John Leverett, 1708 
 — 24 : Benjamin Wadsworth, 1725 — 37 ; Edward 
 Holyoke, 1737 — 69; Samuel Locke, 177(1 — 73; 
 Samuel Langdon, 1774 — 80; Joseph Willard, 
 1781—1804; Samuel Webber, 180(1—10; John 
 Thornton Kirkland, 1810 — 28 ; Josiah Quincy, 
 1829—45; Edward Everett, 1S4(1— 49; Jared 
 Sparks. 1849 -53; James Walker, 1853—60; 
 Cornelius Conway Felton, 1860 — 62; Thomas 
 Hill. 18(12—68; and Charles William Eliot, the 
 present incumbent, appointed in 1869. 
 
 HATJY, Valentin, distinguished for his phil- 
 anthropic efforts in behalf of the blind, and as the 
 inventor of an apparatus for their instruction, 
 was born at Saint-Just, in France, in 1745, and 
 i lie I in 1822. He was brother to the distin- 
 guished French mineralogist, Abbe (Rene Just) 
 llaiiy. His remarkable zeal and success in the 
 cause to which he devoted his life, fully entitled 
 him to the appellation conferred upon him in 
 France, — the Apostle of th" Blind. His interest 
 was first excited in this cause by hearing a blind 
 lady play on the piano before the French king, 
 which circumstance led him to believe that the 
 blind might be educated. Learning that she ha I 
 instructed herself by means of raised notes and 
 lines, and. moreover, that she had also made use 
 of raised letters in her correspondence, he took 
 so deep an interest in the matter that, in order 
 to be able to study the subject experimentally, 
 he became an instructor of blind persons. He 
 taught them to read by means of carved letters, 
 which could be moved, in the grooves of a board, 
 and combined into words like type. The need 
 of books led him to invent the raised print. His 
 school was established in L 784, partly by means 
 supplied by the Philanthropic Society of Tan's: 
 and. in 1786, he published an essay on theeduca- 
 tion of the blind, in which he explained his plan 
 of instruction. The Academy in Paris declared 
 it to be the best that had been proposed, and 
 fully endorsed it. This led to the adoption of 
 his institution by the government, in 1800; upon 
 which he ceased to be its director, but received, 
 as an acknowledgment of his services, a pension 
 of 2(10(1 francs. In 1806, he received, from the 
 emperor Alexander, a call to St. Petersburg, 
 where he founded a similar institution; but his 
 labors were interrupted by the war which broke 
 out, in J, si 2, between France and Russia, and 
 he returned to Paris, where he spent the re- 
 mainder of his life in retirement.- See Y. I Iain/ 
 <ii"l tin- Instruction of the Blind, in Barnard's 
 Journal (>f Education. (See also Blind, Edu- 
 cation OF Til K.J 
 
 HAVEN, Erastus Otis, an American 
 clergyman and educator, born in Boston, .Mass., 
 Nov. L, 1820. After graduating a1 Wesleyan, 
 University, Middletown, Ct., in 1842, he taught 
 for sonic years in Ameiiia Seminary, New York; 
 after which he entered the ministry of the Meth- 
 odist Episcopal Church, and was pastor several 
 years in New York. In 1853, he was appointed 
 professor of Greek and Latin iii the University 
 of Michigan : but. in 1856, assumed the editor- 
 ship of Ziotis Herald in Boston, where he re- 
 sided until 1863. 1 tilling this period, he served 
 as a member of the Massachusetts board of edu- 
 cation: and. in other respects, took an active in- 
 terest in education. In 1863, he became presi- 
 dent of the University of Michigan, which under 
 his administration greatly increased in numbers, 
 resources, and efficiency, in 1869, he accepted 
 the presidency of the North-western University, 
 at Evanston, 111.; and, in 1872, was elected first 
 corresponding secretary of the Methodist Epis- 
 copal board of education. In June, 1874, he 
 was appointed chancellor of the Syracuse Uni- 
 versity, in New York. II is chief publications 
 are The Young Man Advised (N.Y., 1855), Pil- 
 lars of Truth (1860), and Rhetoric, a Text-Book 
 for School* (1869). 
 
 HAVERFORD COLLEGE, in Montgom- 
 ery Co., Pa., 9 miles from Philadelphia, was 
 founded in 1832, and is under the control of the 
 Society of Friends. The name of the post-office 
 is the same as that of the institution. It is sup- 
 ported by tuition fees, contributions, and an en- 
 dowment fund of about 81 20,000. It has fine 
 college buildings and grounds. The libraries 
 contain about 11,000 volumes. It includes a 
 full collegiate course and a scientific course. In 
 1874 — 5. there were 5 instructors and 49 stu- 
 dents. The president of the college is Thomas 
 Chase (1876). 
 
 HAWAIIAN ISLANDS, or Sandwich. 
 Islands, a group of islands in the Pacific ocean, 
 forming an independent kingdom; area 7,629 sq. 
 miles; population, in 1872, 56,877. Of these, 
 49,044 were natives; 889, Americans; 2,521, Eu- 
 ropeans ; 2,485, half -breeids ; and 1,938, Chinese. 
 The total ( 'atholic population, in 1873, was about 
 23,000; the remainder were Protestants. The 
 native race is rapidly dying out, having been 
 estimated, in 1822, as high as 142,000. These 
 islands were known to the Spaniards about a 
 
 century before their discovery by Captain Cook, 
 in 177s. Towards the close of the last century, 
 they wen' united, by conquest, under one king. 
 and have thus remained ever since. The first 
 schools on these islands were established between 
 the years 1823 and 1827, by the native chiefs, 
 who. through the persuasive power of the Amer- 
 ican missionaries, were induced to place them- 
 selves under instruction. In the course of time, 
 the accomplishment of reading became so popular, 
 that the adherents of the chiefs were sent to every 
 island of the group for the jiurpo.se of introduc- 
 ing it. The schools grew rapidly, being at one 
 time 900 in number, with about 52,000 pupils, 
 most of whom were adults. Besides reading and 
 
408 
 
 HAWAIIAN ISLANDS 
 
 HAZIXG 
 
 writing, arithmetic and geography -were taught, 
 of which two studies the Hawaiians are very 
 fond. The instruction, however, was necessarily 
 of a very primitive character. The American 
 Board (if Foreign Missions sustained, from L830 
 to Is m. schools at each of their stal ions, intended 
 as models for the native schools. When, in 1 839, 
 the French Roman Catholic mission had been 
 firmly settled, it established its own schools. 
 which, although not so oumerousas the others, 
 have always been prominent in the educational 
 history of these islands. The first written con- 
 stitution and laws were promulgated in L840; 
 and among the latter was one for the establish- 
 ment of schools, which was amended in Is II. 
 This law had for its model the school law of 
 Massachusetts. In 1846, a minister of public in- 
 struction was appointed, which office was after- 
 wards changed to thai of president of the board 
 of education. In 1865, a new school law was 
 promulgated, which, with few changes, is in 
 operation at the present tim 
 
 School System. — There is a hoard of edu- 
 cation of five ii ited by the king. 
 The duties of the former minister of public 
 instruction, which were transferred to the pres- 
 ident of the hoar,; i iation, are exercised 
 by the inspector general. This of£ ppointed 
 by the board, and is required to visit all the 
 schools, to direct what studies are to be pursued, to 
 grant certificates of qualification to I and 
 to revoke the sam ■ for proper cause. No cle 
 man of any denomination can hold this position. 
 The board appoints a school agent in each of 
 
 the twenty-five districts into which the islands 
 
 divided, who is the local executive officer of 
 the board. The agent, the district judge, and 
 an elective member, yearly balloted for by the 
 parents of the district, together form a disl 
 
 Scl 1 board. This hoard has the power to ap- 
 point and remove teachers, subjeel to an appeal to 
 the hoard of education. The school sessions are 
 
 held from 9 A.M. to 2 P. M.. with two inter- 
 missions.one of 15 minutes and the other of 30 
 minutes. Every teacher is required to have a 
 certificate of competency from the inspector 
 general, and must attend the quarterly 
 teachers' institutes, of which there are three in 
 Hawaii, and one in each of the other islands. 
 
 There is no normal school, hnt most of the 
 
 teachers receive their education in the Lahaina 
 luna seminary. The usual salary of teachers is 
 50 cents a day. The Hawaiian language is the 
 
 only medium of instruction in the schools, in 
 
 which tuition is free, with the exception of the 
 
 Onion school at llilo. which is the arsl attempt 
 at a gra led school on the islands. English is 
 taught in thi- school in the higher classes. All 
 children between the ages of 6 and I I are re 
 quired to attend school. This law is enforced by 
 tni' > ami oi her penalties. 
 
 School Statistics. — The statistics for L872 arc 
 a- follows: Common schools. 202, with .''...">7l 
 !"'•,- and 2,700 L'irls: government boarding 
 3, with 205 boys; government daj schools 
 
 aided by the government, 9, with 1 70 boys and 
 P>7 girls; day schools aided by the government, 
 8, with Wis hoys and 106 girls ; independent 
 boarding-schools 4, with is hoys and 7s girls; 
 and independent day schools L4, with 312 boys 
 267 girls ; making a total of 245 schools, with 
 4,791 hoys, and 3,496 girls; or. in 811,8,287 pupils. 
 The Lahainaluna seminary, in Lahaina, is a col- 
 for native males. It was founded, in 1831, 
 by the American mission : hut is. at present, 
 supported and controlled directly by the govern- 
 ment. Like the American colleges, its course of 
 study embraces a period of tour years. It had. 
 in 1872, 103 students. The Oahu college, near 
 Honolulu, was founded in 1841, by American 
 missionaries, for their own children, and was 
 chartered in 1849. It is the principal institution 
 
 toi- English-speaking youths of both sexes, and 
 has, at present, 75 pupils. There are six female 
 seminaries, with 358 pupils. These schools re- 
 ceive a small portion of their support from the 
 government. — See Lyons, Education in the 
 Hawaiian Islands, in the Report cf the /'. S. 
 Commissioner of Education, IS72 : Nordhoff, 
 Northern California, Oregon, mnl the Sand- 
 wich 
 
 HAYTI, a Negro republic in the West 'li- 
 lts area is about 9,232 square miles, and 
 its population, about 572,000, of whom the great 
 majority are of negro extraction. The prevail- 
 ing religion is the Roman Catholic, hut other 
 
 sects are tolerated. 'I be language of the country 
 is French. The island of Bayti was discovered 
 by Columbus on Dec. 5., 1492. The western part 
 of this island was. in L697, formally annexed by 
 France; hut the eastern part remained, for a long 
 time, a dependency of Spain. See Santo Po- 
 
 mingo.) In L791, the negroes of Hayti rose against 
 the French rule. and. after assassinating all the 
 whites, proclaimed their independence in 1804. 
 Under the French rule, nothing was done to 
 educate the negroes. 'I he constitutions of 1816 
 ami L846 contained educational provisions. 
 
 which were never carried into effect Private 
 
 schools were established in a few places: hut it 
 
 was not until President Geffrard came into 
 
 power, in 1859, that any thing was done by the 
 government, to promote the cause of education. 
 Under this president, the schools rapidly in- 
 creased. According to the latest accounts, there 
 .ire about 235 national schools, with ahoiit 
 
 15.0IKI pupils. Port-au-Prince has a school of 
 
 navigation, a law school, a scl 1 of physicians 
 
 and surgeons, a music scl I. with about l<i<> 
 
 pupils, a drawing school, a school of arts and 
 sciences, a lyceum, and a high school for L;iids. 
 A high school for females was also founded by 
 Geffrard at Cape EJaytien. See Delitsch, Wesl- 
 Tndien mul <li-' Sudpoktrlander. 
 
 HAZING, a term applied to the mischievous 
 and often abusive and injurious tricks which are 
 
 played by older college students upon freshmen. 
 
 The term, as well as the practice, is of considerable 
 
 age; but, during the last few years, much effort 
 has been put forth by those who have the charge 
 
 with .'! I I boys, and I Is girls : hoarding-schools of higher institutions of learning t<> suppress the 
 
III. ART 
 
 HEBREW LANGUAGE 
 
 409 
 
 custom, as being shameful, barbarous, and utterly 
 demoralizing to those participating in it. In the 
 naval and military academies of the United 
 States, this custom was. a short time ago, ob- 
 Berved in the must revolting manner, often vio- 
 lating tlic rules of common decency, and some- 
 times inflicting severe bodily injuries. In L871, 
 a number of cadets at the West Point Academy 
 were dismissed from the U. S. service for being 
 engaged in acts of outrage of this character ; and 
 at the Naval Academy, at Annapolis, several 
 midshipmen had their names dropped from the 
 roll for what was designated "coarse, cruel, and 
 oppressive conduct toward other members of the 
 institution." In issuing the order, the Secretary 
 of the Navy remarked, that "youthful vivacity 
 and mischief" might sometimes be overlooked, 
 but that "persistent blackguardism" could not he 
 tolerated. In most of the better class of American 
 colleges, this demoralizing practice has been 
 partly or wholly suppi-essed; but nothing- but 
 severe and persistent measures, supported by 
 strong public opinion, will banish it entirely. In 
 mixed colleges, in which male and female students 
 are instructed, it has almost wholly disappeared ; 
 and. as an illustration of the difference between 
 male and female college students, the following 
 account of the reception of new-comers at Vassar 
 College is cited : "Upon a certain evening, a few 
 days after the opening of the session, the mem- 
 of the sophomore class receive their sisters 
 who have just entered, with flowers, music, and 
 a delightful, though inexpensive, entertainment". 
 How much better this than the ruffianism of 
 hazing/ 
 
 HEART, Education of. See Moral Edu- 
 cation. 
 
 HEBREW LANGUAGE, the language in 
 which the Sa i aei 1 Scri ptures of the Old Testament 
 were written, is on that account of special impor- 
 tance both for the Hebrew people and for ( Ihris- 
 tians. more especially theologians, who desire to 
 read the Scriptures in the original. Etisoneofthe 
 Semitic languages, so called because chiefly spoken 
 by nations mentioned in Scripture as among 
 the descendants of Shem, and embracing, besides, 
 the Arabic, Syriac, Chaldee, and Ethiopic as 
 its principal branches. It is the only one among 
 the Semitic languages which, in countries of the 
 Indo-European world, is extensively studied; and 
 thus always serves as the portal through which 
 Indo-European students are introduced to an 
 acquaintance with a family of languages different 
 from their own. [ts great antiquity is acknowl- 
 edged on all sides: and theologians have often 
 claimed for it an age coeval with the earliest 
 hwtory of mankind. After the captivity in 
 Babylon, it gradually became mixed with Chal- 
 dee, by which it was finally supplanted as the 
 national language. The knowledge of the Old 
 Hebrew language was, however, preserved by the 
 priests and scribes, who used it for literary and 
 educational purposes. From the 2d to the 6th 
 century of the Christian era, Hebrew literature 
 shows an independent development ; from the 
 8th to the 11th it was stationary and iieglecte 1 ; 
 
 from the 1 1th century to I he present lime, a lieu 
 
 Hebrew literary language, formed on the basis 
 
 of the old Hebrew, and enriched by many new 
 formations, technical terms, particles, and foreign 
 words, lias been extensively used by learned 
 
 Hebrews in all branches of literature. -The 
 alphabet now used in the Old Testament Script- 
 ures is supposed to have been introduced by or 
 soon after Ezra. It is called by the Jewish 
 doctors Assyrian. and is generally admitted to he 
 of Aramean origin. Another alphabet, the rab- 
 binical or mediaeval, is chiefly used in Hebrew 
 
 commentaries and in notes to the Old Testament : 
 and a third alphabet, the cursive, is used in writ- 
 ing. A fierce controversy was carried on, for a 
 long time, as to the origin and authority of the 
 punctuation by which the vowel sounds are in- 
 dicated. The learned Buxtorff believed that tin- 
 vowel points are coeval with the Hebrew lan- 
 guage, and apprehended from the opposite opin- 
 ion, which was chiefly advocated by Cappel, the 
 most dangerous consequences to the Christian 
 religion. At present, the view of Cappel, that. 
 the vowel points were introduced about the 7th 
 century of the Christian era. for the purpose of 
 preserving as far as possible the true pronuncia- 
 tion of the language, is generally acq d in. 
 Like all the' Semitic' languages, with the sole ex- 
 ception of Ethiopic, the Hebrew is read from 
 right to left. 
 
 The scientific study of the Hebrew language 
 did net begin, even among the Jews themselves, 
 until about the 9th century. Among the Church 
 Fathers, Origen and Jerome devoted themselves, 
 with much zeal, to the study of Hebrew, and 
 Jerome, especially, became proficient in all that 
 his Jewish masters could teach him : but, from 
 the entire literature of this period which has been 
 left to us, it appears that both .lews and Chris- 
 tians had but an imperfect knowledge of the 
 
 ancient Hebrew language. 
 
 Toward the end of 
 were stimulated by 
 
 the 9th century, the .lews 
 
 the example of the Arabians to bestow careful 
 study upon ancient Hebrew: but. unlike the 
 Arabians, they compared in their studies the 
 whole of the Semitic languages. Among the 
 many who distinguished themselves by writing 
 
 grammatical or lexicographical Murks, the most, 
 noted are Saadia Gaon (died 942), Jehuda Cha- 
 jug (about I <>."><>). Abraham ben-Esra (about 
 1150), and David Kimchi (about L190 to L200). 
 
 Among the Christians, the Hebrew language was 
 Studied only to a limited extent during the 
 middle ages: although Pope Clement V.. at 
 
 the Council of Vienna, held in I ill I .ordered the 
 
 appointment at each university, of six professors 
 of the Hebrew-. Chaldee, and Arabic languages. 
 The revival of classical studies, in the Loth cen- 
 
 tury, gave an impulse also to the study of He- 
 brew: and Wessel, Picusof Mirandola, and Agric- 
 
 ola are mentioned among those who promoted 
 
 the study of Hebrew, which was especially culti- 
 vatedal the university of Tubingen. The real 
 founder of a scientific study of Hebrew at the 
 European high schools was Keuchlin. whose 
 grammar and lexicon appeared in 1506, and 
 
410 
 
 UKRRIAV LANGUAGE 
 
 closely followed the methods, and traditions of the 
 dcwisli grammarians. Lather and Melanchthon 
 strongly recommended the study of Bebrewto 
 the 1'rotestant theologians; and several Protest- 
 ant states of Germany, accordingly, received it in- 
 to the course of instruction of the learned institu- 
 tions, though generally as an optional study. In 
 the Roman Catholic Church, the principal works 
 were the grammar (1526) and dictionary (1529) 
 of Sautes Pagnini, a Dominican; and, somewhat 
 later (1 ;")TS). a greatly improved grammar by the 
 Jesuit Bellarmin, who was professor of Hebrew 
 at the university of Louvain. In the Protestant 
 schools, the grammars and lexicons of the older 
 Buxtorff were, for many years, the principal aids 
 to the study of Hebrew. A new school of He- 
 brew philology arose under the leading of Alting 
 and Dauz, in the second half of the 1 7th century, 
 which endeavored to show thai the phenomena 
 which the Hebrew exhibited, in a grammatical 
 
 point of view. — the inflect ions, etc., bad their basis 
 
 in the essential properties of the language, and 
 could be rationally evolved from definite prin- 
 ciples. Great advancement was made, in the 
 beginning of the 18th century, by the almost 
 simultaneous rise of the two rival schools of 
 Schultens.in 1 lolland.and M Ichaelis, in * rermany. 
 In the former, the predominating tendency was 
 
 toward the almost exclusive use of the Arabic for 
 the illustration of Hebrew grammar and lexicog 
 
 raphy. To this school belong Schroder, professor 
 at Groningen, and Robertson, professor at Edin- 
 burgh [GrammcUica Heft., 2d edit., L783). The 
 principle adopted by the school founded by the 
 
 M ichaelis family, was to combine the use of 
 all the sources of elucidation for the I lelnvw, the 
 
 cognate dialects, especially the Aramaic, the ver- 
 sions, the rabbinical writings, etymology, and the 
 Hebrew itself, as exhibited in the sacred writ- 
 ings. Prom this school, to which the majority of 
 recenl German I [ebraists belong, proceeded Ge- 
 senius, whose grammars (Lekrgebaude, 2 vols.. 
 1817 : Grammatik, L813; 21st ed., 1872), reader 
 (1814, Llthed., Is::'.), and dictionaries [Hand- 
 w&rterbuch, 1810 12; 7th ed., L868; latin 
 tranal., 2d ed., 1846, English trans, by Edward 
 Robinson and by Tregelles ; Thesaurus, 3 vols., 
 1829 58) have been more extensively used than 
 any other works of the same kind. I lis grammar 
 
 was translated into English by Moses Stuart 
 
 (1826) and by Cunaut (1839) ; his shorter dic- 
 tionary, U Gibbs (1824), and Robinson (1836); 
 and both have been extensively used in Ajner 
 ican schools. The greatest rival of Gesenius for 
 the headship in Hebrew philology is Ewald 
 itische Grammatik, L827, 8th ed., L870; 
 Sprachlehrefur Anf&nger, Ith ed., 1875), who, 
 
 Btarting tV the principles first developed by 
 
 Alting and Danz, treated the Hebrew language 
 as an organic whole, accordineto historico-aenet- 
 
 teal principles, making at the same time a \ery 
 
 extensive use of the cognate dialects. Among 
 ili • 1 1 in nen his other 1 1 el new grammars published 
 in Germany, those by Hupfeldl Grammatik,l8 1 1 
 and Niigelsbach [Grammatik, 3d ed., 1870) are 
 highly valued. In England and in the United 
 
 States, grammars have, among others, been pub- 
 lished by Lee (3d ed., L844), Greene, and Jones. 
 
 Of the numerous Jewish scholars who have 
 written grammatical and lexicographical works 
 on the Hebrew language, none is valued so highly 
 
 as burst {Handw&rttrb licit. 2 vols.. ls.">7). who 
 illustrates the Hebrew not only from cognate 
 tongues, but also from those of the tndo-Ger- 
 manie class, and endeavors, on philosophic 
 grounds, to separate the accidental from the 
 essential, the radical from the ramified, the root 
 from the stem, the stem from the branches, so as 
 to arrive at the laws which actually rule the lan- 
 guage. Among the Hebrew grammars published 
 in Kngland and in the Tinted States by Jewish 
 scholars, are those by llorwitz (London, 183")), 
 Nordheimer (2 vols.. New York. 1838 — 42), 
 kalidi (London, L863), .Mayer, and Felsenthal 
 (Chicago. 1875). 
 
 As the study of Hebrew, among Christians, 
 generally is not begun until the students have 
 obtained a good knowledge, not only of their 
 native tongue, hut also of Latin and Greek, the 
 teacher will find it expedient to pursue a 
 method very different from that observed in 
 teaching young pupils the elements of Latin 
 and Greek. The mastering of the chief rules of 
 grammar may lie expected to consume compar- 
 atively little time. As tin' chief purpose of 
 nearly all students of Hebrew is to lie enabled 
 In read the Bible, it is natural that teachers 
 should generally conform their method to that 
 special aim. 'I he study of the Hebrew Lible is, 
 therefore, begun as soon as possible, and most of 
 the grammatical peculiarities are explained in 
 
 connection with reading. Translations from the 
 native tongue are rarely made ; though many 
 scholars strongly recommend them, on the 
 
 ground that every foreign language, to be com- 
 pletely understood, requires exercises in written 
 composition. In most Christian countries, the 
 study of 1 lebrew is optional tor ( hristian theo- 
 logians. In Germany, the state governments de- 
 mand of all the Protestant as well as Catholic 
 theologians a knowledge of this language; and it 
 is included in the subjects in which all the 
 theologians of those churches have u> pass an 
 
 ext ruination. To that end. the course of in- 
 struction in the gymnasia embraces, for the 
 higher classes, the study of Hebrew; and the 
 lectures given in the theological faculties of the 
 
 universities and in the theological seminal ii ^ex- 
 plain the Hebrew text no LeSS than the theo- 
 logical meaning. The Study of the Hebrew lan- 
 guage is of special interest to the Jews, whose 
 
 total number is estimated at from six to seven 
 
 millions. As the reading of the Hebrew script- 
 ures is a prominent part of religioufl worship, 
 the study of the Hebrew language is not only 
 
 obligatory for all rabbis ana readers, but is 
 
 generally pursued in all Jewish BChools. (See 
 
 Hebrews, Education imong tiik.i The history 
 
 of the lb bicw language has been written by 
 Gesenius [Geschichte der hebraischen Sprache, 
 1 1 si ."n : and by Kin \x ( Histtrire <■/ systeme >/• s 
 I mgues sfrnitiquea, Ith ed.. L864). The method 
 
HEBREWS 
 
 411 
 
 of tfat'liiiiLr Hebrew is treated of in Kxingek 
 stkin. />>/• Unterridht im Hebrdischen (1861). 
 The complete literature relating to the Hebrew 
 language up to l s -"><> is found in Steinschnei- 
 der, Bibliographisches Handbuch fv/r hebra- 
 ische Sprachkunde (1859). 
 
 HEBREWS, Education among- the. This 
 subject will be treated under the following heads: 
 (1) Ancient Hebrews; (II) Hebrew education in 
 the middle ages : (111) In modern times. 
 
 1. Ancient Hebrews. — Notwithstanding the 
 accessibility and abundance of the earliest records 
 of the lite and labors of the Hebrews, scarcely 
 anything is known of their educational status 
 until after the termination of Biblical history. 
 From the sacred records we simply learn that 
 the Law made it the duty of parents to teach 
 their children its precepts and principles. — 
 During the Egyptian bondage, the Hebrews 
 probably enjoyed some educational advantages, 
 but to what extent it does not clearly appear 
 from the records. Moses himself had been 
 carefully trained, and was competent not only to 
 lead but also to instruct the people of God, 
 during their wanderings in the wilderness. At 
 that time, the Hebrews must have been more 
 or less subject to mental as well as to religions 
 training. They must have been able to read 
 and write; for they were commanded of God to 
 write the precepts of the Law upon their door- 
 posts and gates : and tiny were, moreover, re- 
 quired to write the injunctions upon great stones 
 ••very plainly '. immediately upon crossing the 
 Jordan, so that they might easily be read by 
 every Israelite. 
 
 The end and aim of all mental training among 
 the ancient Hebrews, up to the Babylonish cap- 
 tivity, was to develop most prominently the re- 
 ligious tendency, in the child, in order to rear 
 obedient servants of the true Elohim. Being a 
 peculiar people — the only theocratic people of 
 antiquity — engaged almost exclusively in 
 pastoral and agricultural pursuits, their system 
 of education aimed to secure the energetic as- 
 sertion of a nationality whose essence consisted 
 in the principle of faithfulness to the covenant 
 of God. Hebrew education, therefore, was, 
 previous to the captivity, nothing more nor less 
 than a corollary of religion: and teaching was 
 necessarily, in the main, if not altogether, relig- 
 ious. It involved instruction in the Law. the 
 customs, and the symbolical observances of the 
 nation, as well as the narration of its history in 
 illustration of these subjects. We should bear 
 in mind, moreover, that the understanding of 
 the sacred oracles was not the peculiar prerogative 
 of the priestly order, but was enjoined upon 
 3very Israelite. This makes it self-evident that 
 the knowledge of reading and writing must have 
 
 formed a prominent part in the education of all 
 
 children. For the same reason, too. arithmetic 
 mil.-; have been taughl ; as the days of the week, 
 the months, the festivals, etc.. were not designated 
 by proper names, but by numerals. In fact.everj 
 art or science which is alluded to in the Old 
 lestament. and upon a knowledge of which 
 
 depended the understanding of the Scriptures, 
 must, to some extent, have formed a part of the 
 strictly religious Jewish education. Now. when 
 
 we consider that the education of the Hebrew 
 children depended upon the parents, it becomes 
 
 sell-evident that the Hebrews must have been, 
 while residents of Canaan, a universally edu- 
 cated people. 
 
 Of course, so long as the education of the child 
 devolved upon the parent, there could not very 
 well have been much room iar schools. There are, 
 however, eases on record (previous to the Baby- 
 lonish captivity) in which professional teachers 
 were resorted to. This was probably the case 
 when parents found themselves incapacitated or 
 too much engaged otherwise. Thus David tells 
 us that he had many teachers. In the days of 
 the .Judges we read of a Kirj(t/h-8epher,1foe "city 
 of books ", a name which seems to indicate the 
 seat of some scholastic establishment that had 
 been founded by the * 'anaanites. But to what ex- 
 tent the people availed themselves of such helps 
 we do not know. In the days of Samuel, again, 
 and down through the prophetical age. thei^e are 
 indications of collegiate settlements in several 
 parts of the country, as Bethel, Jericho, Gilgal, 
 Kama, and Mt. Carmel, where the students, 
 under the name of b'ney hannebiim "sons of 
 the prophets" lived a kind of monastic or rather 
 Pythagorean life (not as celibates), in great num- 
 bers and at common cost, and where the severer 
 study of the theocratic laws and institutions was 
 accompanied with that of poetry and music. But 
 these schools of the prophets fell into decay a 
 long time before the captivity. 
 
 During the Exile, the Hebrews became very 
 neglectful of the education of their children. The 
 Law was not so carefully observed as in Canaan, 
 their vernacular language was to a great extent 
 forgotten, and there was even much amalgama- 
 tion with the heathen nations. Yet the Baby- 
 lonish residence was not without its benefits. The 
 intercourse with the Chaldean people enlarged 
 the Hebrew's held of knowledge, and gave to 
 superior intellectual capacity a stimulus for its 
 
 speculative exercise. The wonderful development 
 of their Babylonish schools for centuries proves 
 thai they, even then, enjoyed that remarkable 
 fertilitj of resource that has preserved the He- 
 brews to our day a peculiar people, though riven 
 and broken, and scattered in every clime. — 
 With the restoration of the Hebrews to their 
 own country, a brilliant page opens in their in* 
 tcllectual history. True, when Ezra, the priest. 
 first came to Jerusalem to re-establish Mosaism 
 in all its former glory, he did not find as' 
 many competent for the task of instructing the 
 
 youth, as there had been previous to the captivity, 
 but he found enough of highly cultured Hebrews 
 to form the nucleus of a college. By the co- 
 operation of the most enlightened and learned 
 of the HebrewBi he formed a synod, or rather a 
 college, commonly called the Great Synagogue 
 [keneseih haggedolah) composed altogether, it is 
 said, of one hundred and twenty : and, wisely 
 organized these scholars into a distinct order. 
 
4 1 2 
 
 BBBREWS 
 
 continued, in a succession of about as many 
 years, the work of public instruction in Jerusalem. 
 From this capital, teachers were senl throughout 
 
 country of Palestine; and all Israel again 
 enjoyed the training it bad been accustomed to 
 before the Exile, only with manifold improve- 
 ments, obtained by the contact of theirwise men 
 with foreign nations. Not merely was the 
 study of the Law re-established, but the study of 
 other languages besides the Hebrew was intro- 
 duced, and, in consequence, the critical examina- 
 tion of other religious systems, as well as of 
 philosophical speculation. It need not then be 
 a matter of surprise that the Hebrews Boon 
 came to be noted as scholars, that, in 260 I!. C, 
 Ptolemy Philadelphia paid seventy Jewish 
 scribes 2,500,000 dollars for the septuagint 
 
 ion of the Bible, prepared by them at Alex- 
 andria at his request, or that the greatest light 
 
 of aeoplatonic philosophy was none other than 
 
 Philo "the -lew" (A. D. 20). — After the ex- 
 tinction of the Great Synagogue, its place was 
 supplied by the sanhedrim, the president of 
 that body, who was called " prince" [nasi) and 
 arbiter and authority in the 
 whole sphere of morals ami education, exercising 
 a rectoral office in the scholastic institutions of 
 the land. Besides, many of (lie members of tin' 
 : Jreal < louncil actively en [in the wo; ' 
 instruction itself. One of the brightest lights 
 in the historj of ancient Hebrew pedago 
 Simon ben Sqetach, who took a wider ran. 
 thought and speculation than any of his pred- 
 3ors. He introduced high schools in many 
 places and did much to ! the standard of 
 
 . scholarship. S le lived about 80 15. < '• 
 At that time, schools nourished throughout the 
 gth and breadth of Palestine, and education 
 had been made compulsory. Every Judean town 
 containing a certain number of inhabitants was 
 bound to maintain a primary school, the ckazan, 
 or reader of the Bynagogue, usually being the 
 teaclar. Schools of a higher grade were presided 
 over by the rabbins, and a certain portion of the 
 publi revenue was set apart for the support of 
 these institutions. While there is not a single 
 term for school to be found before the Exile, we 
 
 now meet with alioitt a. dozen iii common use. 
 The etymologies of some of these words, and the 
 
 signification of others,give us. in a very striking 
 manner, the progressive history of Jewish educa- 
 tion, and tell us that foreign elements had largely 
 and favorably impressed Hebrew pedagogy. 
 Some idea may be formed of the paramount 
 importance which public instruction had assumed, 
 in the life of the nation, from the innumerable 
 popular sayings of the period: "Jerusalem 
 was destroyed because the instruction of the 
 youi neglected. " " The world is onlj saved 
 
 by the breath of the school children." " Even for 
 the rebuilding of the Temple the schools must 
 be interrupted." " Study is more meritorious 
 than sacrifice." ■■ \ scholar is greater than a 
 prophet." " You should revere the teacher even 
 
 ie than your father. The latter only brought 
 
 you into this world, the former indicates the way 
 
 into the next. But blessed is the son who has 
 learnt from his father: he shall revere him both 
 as his father and as his master; and blessed is 
 the father who has instructed his son. " — The 
 character of the schools may be besi inferred 
 from the laws by which their founding and 
 management were controlled. For elementary 
 instruction a school or teacher was required for 
 every 25 children; when a community had 
 40 children, they might have one master and an 
 assistant. Schools could not be established in 
 the most densely crowded part of the town, 
 nor near a river which had to be crossed by an 
 insecure bridge, so as to endanger the health 
 or lives of the children. The proper school age 
 for a boy was six years, until men the father be- 
 ing his instructor. Great care was taken in the 
 selection of text hooks, and that the lessons 
 taught were in harmony with the capacity and 
 inclination of the chili I. were practical, few at 
 a time but weighty. "The parents must never 
 cease to watch that their children are in school 
 at the proper time." 
 
 \Yh. n the power of the Hebrews was broken 
 anew at Jerusalem, and their temple again de- 
 stroyed, the sense of their com i noii danger, misery, 
 and want bound than only mole clo-ely (o om 
 another. No sooner had the war terminated 
 
 than, in place of the temple, the synagogue ap- 
 ed, and what at firsl the priesl had guided. 
 
 rabbi novi controlled. The dispersion of the 
 
 Hebrews and the destruction of the temple and 
 
 ol at Jerusalem, therefore, did not longinter- 
 
 w ilh their enjoyment of that peculiar nation- 
 
 . which they have now maintained for nearly 
 nteen centuries. A citi/eii of the world, hav- 
 ing no country he could call his o\\ n, the I lehrew. 
 
 nevertheless, lived within certain well-defined 
 limits, beyond which, to him. there was no world. 
 Thus, though scattered abroad, the Israelites had 
 not ceased to be a nation: nor .lid any nation 
 feel its oneness and integrity so truly as they. 
 
 Jerusalem, indeed, had ceased to be their capital; 
 
 hut the school and the synagogue, and not a 
 !.e\itical hierarchy, now became their impreg- 
 nable citadel, and the Law their palladium. 
 
 The old men. schooled in sorrows, rallied the 
 manhood that remained, and the infancy that 
 multiplied, resolving that they would transmit 
 a knowledge of their mission to future gen- 
 erations. They founded schools as well as syn- 
 agogues, ami developed a grade of scholarship 
 the ability of which IS attested L\ the writing of 
 a code of laws only second to that of Mums — a 
 
 system of traditionary principles, precepts, and 
 customs, intended to keep alive forever the pe- 
 culiar spirit ot Judaism. The high school de- 
 stroyed at the holy city, was supplanted by the 
 
 College at Tiberias; and that place, changed into 
 
 a kind of Jerusalem, where instead of building 
 
 in wood and stone, they employed workmen in 
 
 rearing another edifice, which, even to this day. 
 continues to proclaim the greatness of the people 
 after their dispersion. This was the Mishna and 
 the < ;■■!!!■ tr. i, better know n as the Babylonian Tal- 
 mud, the SO-Called Oral Law reduced to writing. 
 
HEBREWS 
 
 413 
 
 arranged, commented upon, and explained; un- 
 til it became, in the course of a few centuries, a 
 
 complete digest of the law . the religion, and the 
 nationality of the .lews. The greatest complete- 
 ness was given to their means of public in- 
 struction by the establishment, in many places, 
 of high schools like that ai Tiberias. And not 
 only was this done in Palestine and Babylon, 
 but in all countries where the -lew had found an 
 asylum. Thus, the college at Alexandria, in 
 pt. became as celebrated as the colleges at 
 Sora. Pumbadita, and Nahardea. The most 
 noted schools of this period were, besides those 
 just mentioned, the colleges at Akbara, Bethira, 
 Usesarea, Chammatha, Lydda, Jabneh, Magdala, 
 Maohuza, Mares, Sepphoris, Selki, Shaken-Zib, 
 and Ushach.— At first, the organization of these 
 high schools was very simple. Besides the pres- 
 ident, who was the chief teacher, and an assist- 
 ant, there were no offices or ranks. Gradually, 
 however, superior and subordinate ranks were 
 established. The president or rector, who was 
 elected by the students from the rank of profess- 
 ors, was called resh meikibiha. Xext in rank 
 stood the resh kalla, or ••dean." the chief of 
 ///-' assembly, whose office it was to expound or 
 simplify to the students, for the first three weeks 
 of the session, the theme of the rectors forth- 
 coming lectures: and so arduous became the task, 
 as the number of disciples increased, that, in 
 time, no less than seven "deans'' had to be ap- 
 pointed. Their colleagues, or the graduates who 
 were eligible to that dignity, were called chaberim 
 (companions), and corresponded somewhat to 
 the English " fellows." The mode of instruction 
 was chiefly catechetical. After the resh had 
 delivered his exposition, for which the "dean" 
 had prepared the students, and the chaberim 
 hal followed with their comments, the disciples 
 questioned the teachers. Now all became life, 
 movement, and debate; question was met by 
 counter-question, answers were given wrapped 
 up in allegories or parables, until the inquirer 
 was brought to deduce the questionable point 
 for himself by analogy, when a memorandum 
 was ma le of the conclusions reached. The cur- 
 riculum of study was quite varied, as much so as 
 in any modem university. All manner of sub- 
 jects were brought forward in these Hebrew 
 colleges. Theology, philosophy, jurisprudence, 
 astronomy, astrology, medicine, botany, g 
 raphy, arithmetic, architecture, were all themes 
 which alternately occupied the attention of mas- 
 ters and disciples. In fact, the Talmud, which 
 is the repository of these discussions, is nothing 
 less than an encyclopaedia of all the sciences of 
 that time, and shows that, in many departments 
 of science, these Jewish teachers anticipated some 
 of the modern discoveries. See 1 1 uiBCEGER,i2ea/- 
 Encyklop&die fur Hi'"'/ und Talmud (Hamb., 
 1866 — 74). The principal subjects of study 
 were, of course. Biblical, including herincneuties. 
 or scripture interpretation ; halaka, OT the con- 
 stitutions of the traditional law ; popular ethics, 
 legendary history, sacred poetry, ami the science 
 of the calendar. Etiquette received very great 
 
 attention, as it was regarded by the Hebrew 
 sages an essential pari of education. The most 
 minute directions were given as to the behavior 
 of students toward their parents, their teachers, 
 their superiors in age or rank. Perhaps the stran- 
 gest feature of 1 iebrew education was the training 
 of every student in some trade. Consequently, 
 most Hebrew "doctors" were but humble me- 
 chanics. They were tent-makers, sandal-makers. 
 weavers, carpenters, tanners, bakers, cooks. Piety 
 and learning only r< i eived their proper estimation 
 when they where joined to healthy bodily work. 
 One of the greatest Hebrew sages. Rabbi Gama- 
 liel, declares. " learning, no matter of what kind, 
 if unaccompanied by a trade, ends in nothing, 
 and leads to sin." — The high schools had two 
 sessions in the year: the summer semester be- 
 ginning with nisan (new moon of April), and end- 
 ing with ehd (new moon of September) ; and the 
 winter semester, beginning with tishri (new moon 
 of October), and ending with adar (new moon 
 of March). In the concluding month of each 
 half year, the studies of the session were re- 
 viewed. Gn these occasions, there were academic 
 disputations which created extensive interest. 
 and were attended by thousands of hearers. 
 The academical degree of chaber was conferred 
 by the resit, who laid his hand on the head of 
 the candidate, with the words, "Be thou chaberl" 
 As such he was entitled to a seat in the schools 
 as commentator and judge on questions in dis- 
 pute, his opinion possessing a certain value or 
 authority. He then also dropped his simple 
 personal name, and took the briefer but more 
 honorable designation of "the son of" (ben); 
 e. g., Joshua, the son of Bethira, called himself 
 Ben Bethira. The higher degree was that of 
 rab or rabbi; in Babylon, mar. It was given 
 in the same form as the cliaber, with the be- 
 stowment of a key. symbolizing that there was 
 now conveyed to the recipient a power of open- 
 ing the law by authoritative exposition, and of 
 locking up or releasing the consciences of men. 
 Unmarried men and women were not allowed to 
 be teachers of boys. — As to girls, we have but 
 little account in Scripture regarding their edu- 
 cational advantages. Needle-work formed the 
 chief, but by no means the only, subject of in- 
 struction imparted to females. The 31st chapter 
 of Proverbs is. probably, a pretty full descrip- 
 tion <>f what was the education of a woman and 
 house-wife in the Old Testament period among 
 the 1 lebrews ; but. aside from this, the fact that 
 mothers had to take part in the education of 
 their children, would of itself show that their 
 education must have been attended to. It is 
 certainly clear that the prophetical schools in- 
 cluded within their scope the instruction of 
 females, who were occasionally invested with 
 authority similar to that of the prophets them- 
 selves. It will he remembered also, that, in con- 
 tradistinction to other oriental people, many 
 female poets and learned women figure in the 
 history of the ancient Jews. 
 
 II. The establishment of the Mohammedan 
 power opens a new epoch hi Hebrew education. 
 
4U 
 
 HEBREWS 
 
 The severe treatment of the Romans had been 
 superseded by a milder government at the hand 
 of the Abbassides ; but the Hebrew found con- 
 siderate masters firsl in the Mohammedan ruins 
 from Arabia. For centuries, the external con- 
 dition of the Hebrews, under the eastern caliph- 
 ate, was undisturbed by any great vicissitudes; 
 and, from the 7th to the I lth century, their 
 schools reached the height of prosperity. Thou- 
 ls of students repaired to those fountains of 
 instruction, not a few of whom came from 
 distant parts of Europe and Africa, to carry 
 back the means of promoting the cause of edu- 
 cation in their adopted countries. In the 1 lth 
 
 i urv. however, a less tolerant spirit ruled the 
 
 eastern caliphates; and. in consequence, we 
 
 with a dec-line in lit !, which, hal It not 
 
 been for the humane policy of the western or 
 white caliphates, would have resulted in an entire 
 
 ion of literary activity ai ig die Jews. 
 
 So far was the intolerance of the eastern caliphs 
 carried, that, by the middle of the 1 lth century 
 the schools of Palestine and Babylon were shorn 
 
 of all their ancienl splendor, and Spain al • 
 
 ■ las the world's representative of Hebrew 
 scholarship. Iu the Iberian peninsula theHebrew 
 had had representatives from time immemorial; 
 but. up to the close of the H'tli century, the Jews 
 
 there, though numerous and wealthy, were 
 
 atly behind their eastern brethren in intel- 
 lectual development. No schools of any account 
 are met with among them until the intolerance 
 of the Eastern caliphs drove over to Spain some 
 
 of the most renowned 1 1 el ire w scholars the Ea 
 
 could then boasl of. It was thus that Hebrew 
 
 Science receive;! so decisive an impulse in the 
 
 peninsula, as to inaugurate a new era in Jewish 
 intellectual progress. Indeed, the periodfrom 
 the opening of the Llth to the close of the L5th 
 century, may well be denominated the golden 
 period of mediaeval Hebrew Learning. The same 
 spirit of broad tolerance which had prevailed for 
 over three centuries in the East, now marked the 
 
 rule of the "white" Or Western caliphs. Schools. 
 
 colleges, and libraries were multiplied in the 
 great centers of the population. The Learned of 
 other countries were invited to take positions 
 munificently endowed, and ere Long the univer- 
 sitiesof Spain became the resort of students from 
 
 the Last and the West. Among both stud 
 and teacher-;, the dews counted Largely; and the 
 
 fountains of knowledge which sent forth th Lr 
 
 streams from the Arabian universities of Cor- 
 dova and 'I'oli do. were fed ly dews as freely as by 
 ( 'hi'isl ians and Saracens. (See ARABIAN ScHOOl 
 
 Besides freely entering th iramon as well as 
 
 literary walks of life, and contesting with the 
 other religionists the differenl avenues thus 
 liberallj opened to them, the dews maintained 
 
 ihool System very much akin to that of the 
 
 tern countries in the preceding period. They 
 not onlysoughl to influence the training of their 
 children iii the earliest youth, bul founded many 
 collegiate establishments of their own, where a 
 Liberal education could be prosecuted by Hebrew 
 young men and women under rabbinical in- 
 
 fluence. Such schools arose in Aragon. Castile. 
 Catalonia, and Navarre, and in the towns of 
 Barcelona, Alcala, Burgos, Cordova. Saragossa, 
 Toledo, Tarazona, and Lucena. In these institu- 
 tions, under the care of some of the most eminent 
 scholars of the age, a multitude of men were 
 trained whose works have been ever held in esti- 
 mation not only ly Israelites, but by the learned 
 of the Christian world as well. (See Ticknor, 
 History of Spanish Literature, 3d ed., vol. i.) 
 d'he principal of each college bore the title of 
 nagidor prince, equivalent to that of resh 
 tkibiha in the eastern s< hools. Of course, rabbin- 
 ical learning was made the basis of other forms 
 of instruction, The Hebrew professors of these 
 schools very naturally wished the minds of their 
 students to be preoccupied with their own na- 
 tional doctrines and traditions, dims a //<////>/, 
 SalomO ibn Adrath, went so far as to enact that 
 "gentile" philosophy should not be studied till 
 the age of 24 years. (It should be added, how- 
 ever, that this proposition divided Hebrew 
 scholars, and gave rise to a troublesome contro- 
 versy.) There was a tendency in the Spanish- 
 Hebrew youth to forsake the distinctively Jew- 
 ish schools, and. to avail themselves of the 
 greater benefits of the more extensive educa- 
 tional movements which were displaying them- 
 selves around them. The rabbins, of course, 
 saw. or thought they saw. imminent danger to 
 Judaism, or ra! her to rabbinisni; and hence their 
 activity in educational movements. On the whole, 
 this fear, though, as it now appears, ungrounded, 
 was productive of much good to Hebrew learn- 
 ing : for it stimulated to a healthy exertion, and 
 resulted in perfecting Judaism in Spain and in 
 Portugal, until it rivaled that uprooted in the 
 
 East. To facilitate talmudical studies, the works 
 
 of I [ebrew tradition were translated into the then 
 vernacular Arabic; and thus the rabbinical insti- 
 tutes acquired a, status in modern literature. 
 
 The critical study of the I [ebrew was encouraged, 
 and a, Bystem of Hebrew grammar developed 
 which maintains its hold t<> this day. Besides, 
 the use of the I [ebrew in composition and the en- 
 largement of the Hebrew ritual were encouraged, 
 and thus a large number of students, in the west- 
 ern peninsula, Learned to write as freely the 
 Hebrew, as their forefathers had written it in 
 Jerusalem's most glorious d y. In all these ways, 
 the Hebrew sages domiciled in Spain and Por- 
 tugal cherished national and ancestral feelings 
 iii i he minds of the rising generation. The result 
 of all this labor was a vigorous religious life in 
 
 the social condition of the people, and an age of 
 
 literary activity such as had not been known in 
 1 [ebrew literature since the dispersion. Numbers 
 
 of eminent Hebrew scholars, theologians, poet-. 
 linguists, and physicians were brought into gen- 
 eral public notice; and, besides, many works were 
 
 Composed, treating Of every species of science. 
 
 including law. medicine, astronomy, language. 
 
 and the line arts. In philology, rose I 'avid 
 
 Kimchi; in philosophy, Moses Vlaimonides, of 
 
 whom it is sail by some that he has only been 
 excelled in wisdom and learning by -Moses the 
 
HEBREWS 
 
 415 
 
 prophet: in poetry , Jehuda ben Levi, pronounced 
 by some the rival of king Solomon; iii astron- 
 omy, Alton Ezra and tbn Tibbon. Bui these are 
 only a few lights in tin' much-illuminated fir- 
 mament. In philosophy and astronomy, the 
 Hebrew sages of that day excelled the Moham- 
 medans. See Guedemann, Das judiscke Unter- 
 richtswesen wcfftrendder spanischrarab. Periode 
 (Vienna. 1ST-'!) ; Zunz, Literaturgeschickte der 
 synagogalen Poesie (Berlin, L865); Kayserling, 
 GeschicJUe der Juden in Spanien und Portugal; 
 Li\i><>. History oftlve Jews of Spain and Portugal. 
 
 Hebrew learning and institutions of learning, 
 however, flourished thus not only in the Iberian 
 peninsula, but in many parts of the continent 
 also, especially in France and [taly, where a hu- 
 mane policy prevailed for centuries. In the former 
 country, colleges flourished at Montpellier, Xar- 
 bonne, Lunel, and Marseilles, besides many 
 schools of inferior grade, all of which were con- 
 ducted after the Spanish model. In Italy, the 
 colleges at Mantua, Lucca, Otranto,and Bari not- 
 only enjoyed considerable reputation, hut had the 
 support of princes and of the pontiff at Rome. 
 In the eternal city, the Hebrews supported an 
 academy which boasts as its presidents the most 
 renowned literati of the middle ages. One of 
 them, Nathan ben Jechiel, who presided about 
 the close of the 11th century, is said peritus 
 omnis generis scientiarum fuisse. 
 
 III. The general spirit of persecution which 
 prevailed against the Jews in Europe, from the 
 13th to the 17th century, largely stifled their liter- 
 ary activity; and the educational history of 
 that period is very meager. When the religious 
 zeal of Isabella ami the covetous heart of 
 Ferdinand close! the doors of Spain against 
 all Hebrews who decided to remain faithful to 
 the dictates of their conscience, many Israelites 
 went to Holland, Germany, and Poland, and 
 there established schools, which flourished for 
 centuries. But these schools were almost exclu- 
 sively devoted to talmudic study. No such sys- 
 tem as prevailed in Spain and on the continent 
 previous to the persecutions by the Inquisition, 
 has ever been re-introduced; nor could such a 
 system have been maintained previous to the 
 present century. The baneful spirit of those 
 dark ages had closed the doors of the schools, 
 common or academic, against the -lew; and thus 
 the liberal professions being made inaccessible to 
 him, he could not well develop the scholarship of 
 which his forefathers had boasted, lint as the 
 Hebrews labored for centuries under such dis- 
 advantages, and yet maintained among them- 
 selvesa high moral culture, and did not sink into 
 that state of degradation and crime which would 
 "have probably been the lot of other nations, a 
 high estimate must be placed upon the culture 
 and accomplishments resulting from the spirit 
 of Mosaism ; and it mighl as well be confessed 
 that the theocratic institutions of the Hebrews 
 and the foundation of their politics and ethics 
 on their religion has produced abetter culture, 
 mental and moral, in literature, than that of any 
 other non-Christian people. Their ancient educa- 
 
 tion was far in advance of the Chinese and the 
 Hindoos; for. in every lesson taughl the Hebrew 
 youth, were inculcated the sublimest virtues, 
 among which may be enumerated charity, grati- 
 tude, obedience and respeel to tin.' commands oi 
 
 parents, politeiuss and cleanliness, all coupled 
 
 with extreme reverence for the Almighty. In 
 
 short, the aim of Hebrew education seems to 
 e been the moral perfection of the individ- 
 ual, as well as the welfare of soeiety.- -from 
 the establishment of the American republic, 
 the modern .lew dates his liberation from 
 bondage, not only in this country but all over the 
 continent of Europe. His enjoyment of freedom 
 was not instantaneous in all these countries, but 
 the dawn of the new epoch began with the ad- 
 vance of republican principles in America and in 
 France, [n Germany, where, of all the enlightened 
 countries, the -lew had to wait Longest tor his 
 emancipation, the close of the last century is par- 
 ticularly noted for his literary advance. Both 
 Moses Mendelssohn, the philosopher, and llart- 
 wig Wessely, the philologist, deserve to be 
 named as the founders of the first Hebrew free 
 school at the Prussian capital (1778). Indeed, 
 the latter scholar was really the ablest advo- 
 cate of the modern method of education among 
 the Hebrews. Thus, he not only exerted himself 
 at Berlin, but also at Vienna, and elsewhere in 
 the Austrian dominions, to prevent all opposition 
 to the legislative recognition of the equality of 
 the .lews with the Christians and their rights to 
 admission to the state schools. After these. David 
 Friedlander,apupilof Mendelssohn. exerted him- 
 self for the further improvement of the Hebrew 
 schools. Wherever, in Germany or Poland, he 
 heard of schools barbarously deficient in the ele- 
 ments of useful secular knowledge, he labored for 
 the introduction of the progressive system. An- 
 other noted philanthropist of the period is Israel 
 Jacobson (born in 1768, died in 1828), who ex- 
 pended his large fortune for the education of 
 his coreligionists. At Seesen, he founded, in 
 1801, a school at an expense of 100,000 thalers; 
 and later, he labored at Cassel and in Berlin in 
 the same direction. In more recent times, t he 
 German scholar, Leopold Zunz, still living, figures 
 as tin' ablest ami most successful advocate of 
 Hebrew culture. Next to him in rank, Abraham 
 Geiger of Prussia, and S. L. Rappaport of Cali- 
 cia, in Austria, deserve a place. In Italy S. D. 
 Luzzato has done more in this direction than 
 all his contemporaries. In France, the place 
 of honor belongs to Salomon Munk and -I. 
 i Salvador. — There arc. at the present time, 
 good schools, both public and private, pretty 
 
 widely distributed in Germany, Austria. Hen- 
 mark. France, and even in Russia and Poland, 
 where efficient elementary instruction is afforded 
 to Hebrew children. Usually, these schools are 
 under the care of the state, and supported in 
 part by it, and in part by the forced contribu- 
 tions of the Hebrews who reside where the 
 schools are located. In some of the larger cities 
 where many Jews reside, the Hebrew schools 
 [Hi a ide separate training for the sexes, those for 
 
41(3 
 
 HEP. HEWS 
 
 1IECEER 
 
 girls giving special attention to needle-work and 
 other female accomplishments; those for boys 
 giving sufficienl classical training to admit them 
 to the 5th or 6th year's course of the gymnasia. 
 where the course extends over a period of tin 
 years. Since L873, the German government has 
 also supported several Hebrew theological chairs 
 at the Berlin university, and afforded aid to a 
 "seminary'' (normal school) for the training of 
 teachers to be employed solely in schools for lie- 
 brews. The Hebrew normal schools at Berlin and 
 Breslau are regarded as among the besl institu- 
 tions of the kim I in < Jet-many. Hundreds of teach- 
 ers are annually trained there. The Hebrews 
 also support two greatly noted seminaries for 
 theological training; the one (founded in L8 17). at 
 Breslau, Prussia; the other (founded in L828),at 
 Padua, Italy. At the Berlin university, Hebrew 
 students in theology enjoy (since L874) not only 
 the training of their co-religionists bul of all the 
 prof essors employed in that institution. — In Eng- 
 land, much has been done, in recent times, for the 
 education of pool- Hebrews, who are mostly of 
 ii. In the country, the schools main- 
 tained by Hebrewsare intended simply for relig- 
 ious instruction. In London, a number of Hebrew 
 private schools existrand several for the educa- 
 tion of ] ■ children. The most noted of I 
 
 institutions is the .lews' Infant School, where 
 the gutter children of Spitalfields and White- 
 chapel, from the age of 2 to 7. are taught to 
 speak, read, and write in English, and to recite 
 their Hebrew prayers, in addition to other ele- 
 mentary instruction. From 750 to 1000 children 
 now find admission there. The governmenl has 
 the supervision : ami it is pronounced by the Earl 
 of < larlisle " one of the I'm 
 land." The Free School, in the same city, 
 is of a more advanced grade. It admits tho e 
 who desire instruction after leaving the infant 
 School. This Free School is pronounced the 
 largest scholastic institution in England, if not 
 in Europe. About 2,500 children are here in- 
 
 .struct i • I. 1 lie sexes separately; the branches in the 
 
 higher classes being beyond the range of element- 
 ary Btudy. The teaching staff is made up of 
 '.Ml masters ami mistresses. This school also is 
 under government inspection, ami is supported 
 mainly by voluntary contributions. It has re- 
 ceived several munificent legacies, amounting 
 thus far to over £50,000. Another noteworthy 
 Hebrew school is the London -lews' College, 
 founded to afford good education at a moderate 
 
 charge to the children of the mill lie clu 
 
 Many of its pupils arc trained tor university 
 degrees ami in some instances for the Jew- 
 ish ministry. There is also a society calle 1 
 
 The Jewish Association for the Diffusion of 
 Religious Knowledge which supports schools 
 ami synagogues, and circulates publications, aim- 
 ing, in all these ways, "to impress upon the 
 Jewish mind proper notions of the principles 
 ami observances, the spirit ami mission of Juda- 
 ism, ami, by appeals to the reason rather than 
 to sentiment, to develop ami foster a most 
 
 fervent conviction of the truths of their re- 
 
 ligion. But notwithstanding these institutions. 
 
 it is claimed for London that it is probably the 
 only city in which illiterate Hebrews reside. But 
 for the degraded condition in which the very 
 poor Hebrews in this city exist, it might safely 
 he asserted that the Hebrews everywhere are 
 educated : and that, though belonging to all na- 
 tionalities, and scattered promiscuously all over 
 the face of the earth, no Israelites can be found 
 who cannot read or write, if not in the domicil- 
 iary language, certainly in the Hebrew. -In the 
 United States, the Jews have always occupied a 
 most honorable position. Recognizing the value 
 of the political and social fabric of that country, 
 they have no; only maintained institutions tor 
 the training of their children, but have sup- 
 ported education in the public schools. Sunday- 
 schools are now maintained in the cities for 
 ih" religious training of Hebrew youth: and 
 where no such facilities are provided, the rabbi 
 or chazan (public reader of the synagogue) 
 usually assumes the task. At Philadelphia, 
 where there are several distinctively Hebrew 
 schools for general mental training, the Mai- 
 monides College was founded, in 1868; and. for 
 a, few years, it struggled in vain to secure stu- 
 dents, though its facilities were superior, and 
 the president one of the ablest educators and 
 scholars in the country. In 1872, a movement 
 was set on foot for the union of all American 
 Israelites; and. supported principally by congre- 
 gations in the Western States as a Union of 
 American Hebrew Congregations, a college 
 was started, in 1875, "with Dr. 1. M. Wise as 
 president. There are reported to be 17 stud 
 in the institution, which is located at Cincinnati. 
 Ohio. Thus far, the instruction is confined to the 
 Hebrew language ami literature. In May. b s 7<'«, 
 the congregation of New Fork, supported by 
 many of the congregations in Philadelphia, 
 
 Baltimore, < hicago, and other cities, held a 
 
 convention in New Fork, ami determined to 
 
 found a Hebrew Theological Seminary, for the 
 
 education of Hebrew preachers ami teachers 
 first, and for general culture afterwards. The 
 is high school will probably be pre- 
 ceded by the founding of schools for instruc- 
 tion in the rudiments of the Hebrew language 
 andin Jewish history. — See (Ik my. Geschi 
 der Juden, vol. in. — xi.; Jost, Oesckichte desJu- 
 denlhums; Beer, v n einer Oesckichte der 
 Erziehung unddes Unierrichts bet den Israeliten 
 (1832); Ethrtdqe, History qf Hebrew Liter- 
 (revised and enlarged byWorman and 
 I'ick. N. V., 1S7(>) ; \\'ki;i:i; and HoLTZMANN, 
 GeschicJite der Israeliten; Salvador, Histoire 
 des institutions de MoXse et du Peuple Ji&br 
 (1828); Schmidt, GeschicJite der PcLdagogik,\., 
 451; Knrn. Biblical Cyclopaedia, sit. Hebrews; 
 J. H. WoRMAN, Jews, in McClintock and 
 Strong's Cyclopaedia qfBibl. Theol. and Eccles. 
 Literature. 
 
 HECKER, Johann Julius, an eminent 
 < ; en nan educator of the L8th century, died June 
 24., L768. He was one of the foremost followers 
 of A. II. Eraneke (q. v.), with whom he became 
 
HKDDINC COLLEGE 
 
 IIEGIUS 
 
 41' 
 
 acquainted while studying at the university of 
 Halle. I If was ap| minted, in 1 735, inspector of the 
 orphan house at Potsdam, and, in L739, pastor 
 
 of the church of the Trinity, in Berlin : and. at 
 the same time, became instructor of the German 
 schools belonging to the parish, lie at once dis- 
 played the greatesl zeal to increase the number 
 of the schools. In May. L739, the first of ins 
 schools was opened with six teachers; and a num- 
 ber of free schools followed in rapid succession, 
 until almost every street had its own free school. 
 In L 746 and 1717, he enlarged his institutions. 
 by adding to the course of instruction drawing, 
 geometry, mechanics, architecture, agriculture, 
 
 and the natural sciences. 1 le now called his school 
 Realsckule, the first institution of this name. 
 (See Real School). In L748, the school was 
 definitely organized as the Royal Ileal School of 
 Berlin, and consisted of three schools. — a Latin 
 school (Pcedagogium), a German school, and a 
 real school. A teachers' seminary was connected 
 with it in the same year. The school gained 
 great renown under Becker and Halm (q. v.), 
 his assistant. Hecker also paid great attention 
 to the new phonic method of reading as opposed 
 to the spelling method. He was also the author 
 of the Prussian school law, promulgated by 
 Frederick the < rreat, in 1763, which made instruc- 
 tion compulsory for all children from the fifth to 
 th" thirteenth year of age. — See Dtttf.s, Sclm!*' 
 der Pddagogik (Leipsic, 1870) ; and Barnard, 
 (r, run i, i Educational Reformers, and Journal of 
 Education. 
 
 HEDDING COLLEGE, at Abington, 111., 
 founded in L854, is under the control of the 
 Methodist Episcopal Church. It admits both 
 -. in 1st.'!— 4, it had ( J instructors, 200 pre- 
 paratory and L8 collegiate students, and 1,200 
 volumes in its libraries. The value of its build- 
 ings, grounds and apparatus was $50,000. The 
 Rev. J. G. Evans. A. M., was the president. 
 
 HEDGE-SCHOOL, the name originally 
 given, in Ireland, to a school held in the open 
 air, beside a hedge ; hence applied to any tem- 
 porary school in the country, whether literally a 
 bedge-school or not. In some parts of the United 
 States, such schools are called ambulatory schools. 
 For an amusing description of a hedge-school and 
 its teacher, see William Carleton's Traits and 
 Sloriesofthe Irish Peasantry (Dublin 1830—32). 
 The hedge-schoolmasters resembled somewhat 
 the German bacchants (schn/nn's vagantes), 
 ami were often men of quite respectable attain- 
 ments in scholarship. The popular novelist 
 Carleton, whose work is referred to above, was 
 partly educated, near the beginning of the pres- 
 ent century, in a hedge-school. 
 
 HEGEL, Georg- Wilhelm. Friedrich, one 
 of Germany's most distinguished philosophers, 
 wa> horn in Stuttgart. Aug. 27., L 770, and died 
 in Berlin, Nov. 14., 1831. In 1801, he was ap- 
 pointed privat-docent, and. in 1806, extraordinary 
 professor of philosophy, at Jena. In 1807, he was 
 professor at the gymnasium in Nuremberg; in 
 1816, professor in Heidelberg; and, in 1 Hi S. pro- 
 fessor in Berlin. Though his life was chielly 
 97 
 
 devoted to the elaboration of a new system of 
 philosophy, he exerted considerable influence on 
 
 the educational system of Germany. While at 
 
 Nuremberg, he received from the Bavarian 
 
 government (1S13) the appointment of school 
 councilor; and. in L820, the Prussian govern- 
 ment appointed him a member of the scientific 
 commission of education. Three years later, he 
 was commissioned to report on the study of 
 philosophy in the Prussian gymnasia, lie, more- 
 over, exerted, for a long time, a powerful influence 
 over the ministry of public instruction in Prus- 
 sia. He did but little, however, directly for the 
 science of education : but the philosophical prin- 
 ciples which he enunciated have been, through the 
 exertions of his followers, the means of intro- 
 ducing many important modifications, both in 
 educational theory and practice. In his own 
 works, pedagogics appears only in the form of 
 applied psychology and ethics ; and as, according 
 to his system, development is incomplete until 
 it assumes an ethical form, practical education 
 is simply the art of making men moral. The 
 child is the offspring of nature ; and. to become 
 truly human, it must be, as it were, reborn — must 
 pass from the natural into the self-conscious 
 and spiritual condition. To aid this transition 
 is education. Flegel attributed great importance 
 to the institution of the family and of the state. 
 The former he deemed the chief factor in edu- 
 cation ; and both together, the great nurse and 
 teacher of humanity. He also placed great stress 
 upon authority in the instruction of children. 
 The attempt to develop the reasoning faculties 
 at too early an age he reprehended as baneful ; 
 but the child should not be kept too long in the 
 bondage of the senses, but should be early ac- 
 customed to think of supersensual things. He 
 insisted strongly upon classical studies as the 
 source of an indispensable culture. In general, 
 however, 11 (gel himself elaborated no theory of 
 education; but the essential principles of his 
 philosophical system constitute the basis for such 
 a theory, upon which his followers have, in part, 
 worked. Among the noted educational writers 
 who are followers of IK gel. we mention Rosen- 
 kranz, Thaulow, and Kapp. — See Rosenkranz, 
 Hegel's LebenQ 84 1); Kapp, Hegel als Gfymnasial' 
 director ( 1 835); Thaulow, HegeVs . [nsichtenwber 
 Wrziehung und Vhterricht, (3 vols., 1853 — 4); 
 IIavm. Hegel und seine Zeti (1857); Schmjdt, 
 Geschichte der Padagogik, vol. iv. 
 
 HEGITJS, Alexander, one of the greatest 
 German teachers in the second half of the 15th 
 century, was born at lleck, in Westphalia, 
 between 1430 and 14-10, and died at Deventer. in 
 L498. His name, after the fashion of those 
 times, was derived from his birthplace, lie was 
 educated by the famous Thomas a, KempLs. in 
 the school of the llieronyiniaiis (q. v.) at Zwolle. 
 A iter conducting schools at Basel and Emmerich, 
 he opened another at Deventer, which, under his 
 able management, became one of the most cele- 
 brated schools of that age. Among his pupils were 
 Erasmus (q. v.) and Pope Adrian VI. Hegius 
 greatly encouraged the study of the Greek lau- 
 
418 
 
 HEIDELBERG COLLEGE 
 
 HERBART 
 
 guage, and was one of the chief promoters of a 
 better method of teaching the Latin classics. A 
 collection of his works was published at Deventer. 
 They are enumerated in Erhard, Geschichte des 
 Wiederaufblil hens w issen sch a/flicker Bildung 
 in Deutsckland, vol. i. (See also Netherlands.) 
 
 HEIDELBERG COLLEGE, at Tiffin, 
 Ohio, was founded in 1850, under the auspices 
 of the Reformed Church in the United States, 
 for the education of both sexes. It has an en- 
 dowment of about $80,000. The college and 
 society libraries, with that of the theological 
 seminary, contain about 5,000 volumes. The 
 institution comprises a collegiate department, 
 with a classical course of four years, and a sci- 
 entific course of three years, and an academy or 
 preparatory department, with a classical and an 
 English course. Special facilities are afforded 
 for the study of German. Heidelberg Theolog- 
 ical Seminary, though under a separate board of 
 trustees, is intimately connected with the col- 
 lege. The cost of tuition in the classical course 
 is $26 per annum : in the scientific course, $21 ; 
 and in the academy, $17. In the theological 
 seminary, it is free, in 1875 — 6, the college 
 had 6 professors, and the theological seminary, 2. 
 The number of students was 189 ; namely, col- 
 lege, 90 ; academy, 75 ; theological seminary, 24. 
 The whole number of the < tin mat of the college 
 was 138 ; of the theological seminary. 112. The 
 president of the college is Rev. George W. Wil- 
 liard. D. D. (1876). 
 
 HEINICKE, Samuel, a German educator 
 and teacher of deaf-mutes, born April 10., 1 729. 
 died April 30., 1790. Having grown up without 
 education, he joined the army, when twenty-one 
 years old, and by a careful use of his leisure 
 hours acquired some knowledge by self-instruc- 
 tion. In 1760. he became, through the recom- 
 mendation of Klopstock, tutor in the family of 
 Count Schimmelmann, and, in 1768, teacher in 
 Eppendorf. Finding here a deaf-mute, he tried 
 a new method for the instruction of that 
 class of people. Differing from the abbe de 
 l'Epee (q. v.), who taught deaf-mutes to ex- 
 press themselves by means of signs and panto- 
 mimic gestures, and in writing, lleinicke strove 
 to teach them to speak in the common language 
 of articulate sounds, so that they might under- 
 stand, and be understood by, every body. The 
 sign language he considered only as a means toan 
 end, not as the end itself. 1 [is chief aim was to 
 practice the deaf in the same forms of expression, 
 as are used by those that can hear. As he was 
 quite successful, a number of deaf-mutes were 
 sent to him from different countries for educa- 
 tion. In 177N, at the request of the elector of 
 Saxony, he returned to his native country ; and, 
 in the same year, founded, at Leipsic, the first 
 German institution for the instruction of deaf- 
 mutes. But lleinicke was an excellent educator 
 generally. He did much to improve the wretched 
 condition of the common schools, and zealously 
 advocated the substitution of the phonic method 
 of spelling. — See H. E. Stcetzner, Samuel Hei- 
 niclce, sein Leben und Wirke/t (1870). 
 
 HENDERSON COLLEGE, at Henderson. 
 Tex., was founded by the Methodist Episcopal 
 Church as Fowler Institute, in 1840, and contin- 
 ued under Methodist control till 1870, when it 
 was rechartered as Henderson College, and be- 
 came non-sectarian. It is supported by tuition 
 and incidental fees. There is a fund of $10,000, 
 but not yet available. Both sexes are admitted. It 
 has, besides the collegiate department, a prepar- 
 atory and an inferior department. In 1874—5, 
 there were 6 instructors and 200 students. Oscar 
 II. Cooper has been the president since the or- 
 ganization of the college. 
 
 HENRY, Joseph, a distinguished American 
 physicist, born in Albany, N. Y., Dec. 17., 1797. 
 He was appointed professor of mathematics in 
 the Albany Academy in 1826; and, shortly after, 
 began a series of experiments in electricity, which 
 led to the theoretical invention of the magnetic 
 telegraph, several years before its practical estab- 
 lishment by Prof. Morse. He was appointed 
 professor of natural philosophy in the College of 
 New Jersey, at Princeton, in 1832, and has con- 
 tinued up to the present time his experiments 
 and researches, not only in electro-magnetism, 
 but in other departments of physics. He is the 
 author of Contributions to Electricity and Mag- 
 netism (1839), and has been a frequent con- 
 tributor to the American Philosophical Trans- 
 actions, Silliman's Journal, Journal of the 
 Franklin Institute, etc. On the organization of 
 the Smithsonian Institution, at AYashington, in 
 1846, Prof. Henry was appointed its secretary, 
 which position he still holds. 
 
 HERBART, Johann Friedrich, a distin- | 
 guished philosopher of Germany who made 
 pedagogics the great end and aim of philosoph- 
 ical study, was born in Oldenburg, May 4., 1776, 
 died in Gottingen, August 14., 1841. After 
 studying at the university of Jena, where he at- 
 tended the lectures of Fichte, he became, in 1797, i 
 a tutor in the family of a citizen of Bern, and at 
 once began to elaborate a system of pedagogy. 
 His pedagogical studies led to an intimate 
 acquaintance with I'estalozzi. who, at that time, 
 was teaching at Burgdorf in the canton of Bern. 
 In 1800. he went to Bremen, where he delivered 
 pedagogical lectures, and, in 1802, he became a 
 privat-docent (lecturer) at the university of 
 Gottingen. In 1805, he was promoted to an ex- 
 traordinary professorship ; in 1809, he received 
 a call as ordinary professor to Konigsberg ; and. 
 in 1833. he returned to Gottingen. In all these 
 academic positions, he lectured on pedagogics as 
 well as on philosophy, and gathered around him- 
 self a number of young men thoroughly imbued 
 with his ideas. At Konigsberg, he also founded, 
 in 1810. a pedagogical seminary in which young 
 teachers, under his immediate direction, were to 
 instruct a select number of boys according to his 
 educational principles. Herbart says, that his in- 
 vestigations were chiefly due to the settled con- 
 viction that very many of the tremendous gaps 
 in our pedagogical knowledge are attributable 
 to defects in our psychology, and that these must 
 be remedied before a science of education is pos 
 
 
HERBART 
 
 HERDER 
 
 419 
 
 sible. His educational principles flow directly 
 from his philosophy. His psychology recognizes 
 no predetermined capacities in the soid which 
 direct its future development. The soul, in it- 
 self, contains only the power of reacting against 
 external influences. Such reaction constitutes 
 perception; and the mind, as a conscious intelli- 
 gence, resembles a machine constructed of these 
 perceptions. If impressions from without are 
 not guided, the result must be disorderly and 
 worthless. Hence the necessity of systematic 
 education, in order to give form and direction to 
 the indefinite activity of the soul. In proportion, 
 then, to the extent and regularity with which 
 perceptions are called forth in the soul, will be 
 the breadth and value of the mental organism 
 which the soul creates out of its perceptions. 
 The whole of Herbart's system is an indirect 
 polemic against all theories which place the aim 
 of education without the individual subject. 
 Neither family, nor state, nor humanity, is the 
 end of education, but the development of the 
 individual himself. Every thing but the indi- 
 vidual is an abstraction, and valueless except as 
 it serves to advance his interests. Pedagogics, 
 therefore, with Herbart is a department of 
 ethics, or rather the method by which ethics 
 secures its aim ; namely, the perfection of the 
 individual. The work of education has three 
 parts: discipline, instruction, and training. The 
 child has no control of himself. He is the prey 
 of whatever lawless inclination may claim him. 
 To overcome this is the office of discipline. 
 Society and the family furnish a part <>f the 
 needed discipline, but not enough ; it must be 
 supplemented by the systematic discipline of the 
 school. Discipline, however, must not be con- 
 tinued any longer than is necessary, but care 
 must also be taken not to relax it too soon. In- 
 struction must not be limited to the acquire- 
 ment of knowledge, or of technical skill. Its 
 chief aim is the culture of the will ; that is, to 
 impart an insight into ethical relations and 
 the ability to realize ethical ideas. Discipline 
 and instruction must be united, in order to 
 bring forth many-sidedness in knowledge and in 
 character. Training aims to fix the moral les- 
 sons into abiding forms of character, and to 
 bring the student to a point where he can un- 
 dertake the work of self-cidture. It follows from 
 Herbart's psychology, that he would not be con- 
 tent with unrelated knowledge. According to 
 him, the so-called faculties are produced and 
 developed purely by the association of ideas. 
 Mental vigor, therefore, can be secured oidy by 
 a habit of looking at things in their relations ; 
 hence, the true order of teaching is to begin as 
 soon as possible to give not merely the facts, 
 but their bearings and connections. In this 
 way, knowledge acquires an intellectual interest 
 for the student, and a moral interest also; for 
 the most important relations are ethical ones ; 
 and the highest aim of instruction is to enable 
 one to see all things in their ethical relations, 
 and to act accordingly. These points are con- 
 stantly repeated by Herbart, and illustrated at 
 
 considerable length and with great energy. To a 
 certain extent also, he viewed statesmanship as a 
 branch of pedagogics. The chief educational 
 works of Herbart are : AUgemeine Pada- 
 gogik (1806), and Umriss pddagogischer Vor- 
 lesungen (1835 ; 2d edit., 1841). Among the 
 numerous smaller works, the Aphorismen 
 zur Padagogik is of special importance for 
 teachers. A full understanding of the edu- 
 cational principles of Herbart is, however, 
 scarcely possible without a knowledge of his 
 philosophical system, which is chiefly explained 
 in his two principal works, Psychologie (2 vols., 
 1824 — 5), and AUgemeine Metaphysik (2 vols., 
 1828 — 0). His complete works were published 
 by Hartenstein (12 vols., 1850 — 52). An edi- 
 tion of his educational writings, in chronological 
 order, with introductions, notes, and a compara- 
 tive register, was published by Willmann (Her- 
 bart's Pddagogm ■// e Schrifien, 2 vols., 1S73 — 5). 
 A large number of educators have more fully de- 
 veloped the views of Herbart; prominent among 
 these, are Mager, Waitz, Stoy, and Ziller. A 
 biography of Herbart was published by Harten- 
 stein (in an edition of the smaller philosophical 
 writings of Herbart, 3 vols., 1842 — 3). — See also 
 Schmidt, Geschichte der Padagogik, iv., trans- 
 lated in the Journal of Speculative Philosophy, 
 April, 1876. In May, 1876, his native city cele- 
 brated, with great solemnity, his centennial birth- 
 day, and erected a monument to him. 
 
 HERDER, Johann Gottfried von, one 
 of Germany's most distinguished theologians, 
 authors, and teachers, was born at Mohrungen, 
 Aug. 25., 17-11, and died in Weimar, Dec. 18., 
 1803. He early distinguished himself by his 
 progress in scholarship ; and his literary attain- 
 ment gained him the friendship of a Russian 
 physician, by whom he was induced to commence 
 medical studies. But he soon renounced these, 
 and resolved to devote himself to theology. In 
 1764, he was appointed teacher, and afterwards 
 preacher, at the cathedral school in Riga; and 
 while there, he attracted much attention by his 
 writings.as well as by the brilliancy and cloquence- 
 of his preaching. In 1769, he left Riga to travel 
 in Germany, Erance, and Italy; and while at 
 Strasburg was intimately associated with Goe- 
 the. In 1776, he became court preacher, general 
 superintendent, and counselor of the Upper 
 Consistory at Weimar, where he passed the re- 
 mainder of his life, in constant communion with 
 the most gifted minds of that brilliant period of 
 German literary history. Here, too, he labored 
 for the improvement of the schools. In 1783, 
 he drew up a plan for their management, and 
 secured an increase of salary to the teachers. A 
 teachers' seminary was established in 1787,. 
 through his influence. In the lower schools he? 
 introduced the Pestalozzian method as far as it 
 was practicable under the circumstances. Her- 
 der's views on education present many points of 
 interest and value. His leading principle was, 
 that the aim of education is to develop human- 
 ity. First and foremost, he says, we are re- 
 quired to be men ; and any educational system 
 
420 
 
 HERMANN 
 
 BEYNB 
 
 which aims at less than the full culture of all 
 the powers of manhood is treason toward God 
 and humanity. It is only the purest and most 
 gifted persons that should be teachers ; for the 
 teacher must not only know what the pupil is 
 to learn, but he must be what he aims to have 
 his pupil become. I lis connection with his 
 pupils must be of the most intimate character. 
 His intellectual instruction must be given 
 with all the freshness of original discovery ; 
 and his moral teaching must have all the 
 fervor of conviction, and the authority of 
 absolute truth. In teaching science and history, 
 it is noi isolated facts that must be presented, 
 but their relations and their aggregate logical 
 significance. Especially should the student's 
 self-activity be thoroughly aroused ; and, hence, 
 he favored the Socratic method of leading the 
 pupil's mind to develop truth for itself from 
 fundamental principles. The whole of education 
 must be permeated with the spirit of humanity 
 
 and with a fervent piety. Notwithstanding 
 his enlarged views and derp insight, he was 
 quite conservative, lie condemned in unmeas- 
 ured terms the raw ami presumptuous reformers 
 of his day; and the Philanthropinists did not 
 
 entirely escape his censure. In one of his ad- 
 dresses, he remarks that "instead of the ■ 
 old word school, a fashion has been introduced 
 of using new and more showy terms, such as 
 Educational Institution, and Philanthrqpinum ; 
 and that much is said of 'genius', 'original 
 genius', which docs every thing for itself, and 
 has mi need of any other instructor; and 
 of wonderful self-development by one's own 
 
 powers." lie strongly opposed a "French edu- 
 cation", instead of teaching in the native lan- 
 guage. He also advocated that the lower 
 
 classes of real schools should train useful citi- 
 zens, and thai the upper ones should form a 
 scientific gymnasium. 1 lis views on the teaching 
 of language were eminently sound and practical. 
 "Grammar," he said, "must be learned from 
 
 the language, and not the language from gram 
 mar; style, from speaking, and noi Bpeaking 
 from an artificially formed style." Be was, in 
 every respect, a practical educator, and was 
 proud to be considered such. •• In my nineteenth 
 year," he said, " I began teaching in the highest 
 
 of an academical institution, and from 
 
 that time to this I have never been free from 
 the responsibilities of a teacher, or else of a 
 
 school Officer." The complete edition of his 
 
 works (45 vols., L805 22) contains a large 
 number of addresses and essays on educational 
 subjects. See Schmidt, Geschichte der P&da- 
 _</o<//7,\ vol. iv. ; I; w mki;. Geschichte der Piidago- 
 gik (translated in Barnard's German Teachers 
 ,ni 1 1 Educators), 
 
 HERMANN, Gottfried, one of the great- 
 est cla sical scholars of modern times, born 
 Nov. 'J-.. 1TT-J, died Dec. :U ., 1848. He studied 
 
 at the university of Leipsic, where he became. 
 
 iii L794, privat-docenl (lecturer); in 1798, extra- 
 ordinary professor; and. in L803, ordinary pro- 
 
 OT. At the lime of his death, he W8JB the senior 
 
 professor of the university. He had a vigorous 
 delivery, an unfailing memory, a line perception 
 
 of the beauties of poetrv. and a complete mas- 
 tery of the Latin language,— aU qualities which 
 rendered him an excellent teacher. When, in 
 1834, the philological seminary in Leipsic was 
 revived, Hermann was appointed to conduct the 
 (ireek instruction. He banished all practical 
 exercises in teaching from the seminary, because 
 he believed that a man who had become a 
 thorough scholar, would also be able to teach. 
 He trained his pupils to translate back into' ireek 
 a translation from a Greek prose writer, so that 
 the mistakes might be detected by a comparison 
 with the (ireek model, and. at the same time, 
 show why the author had written differently. 
 Hermann is generally regarded as the founder 
 of a more rational treatment of Greek grammar, 
 
 and as having thus indirectly exerted a consider- 
 able influence upon the improvement of gram- 
 matical science in general. His views on this 
 subject are chiefly laid down in his work De 
 cim ndanda ratione Gra?ca> grammatical (ImH ), 
 and in his learned notes to Viger's Depratcipuis 
 Grcecce dictionis idiotismis (1802; 4th ed., 18 
 His endeavors to elucidate the intellectual life 
 of the ancient world chiefly through an accurate 
 knowledge of the language and of the metrical 
 
 form, involved him in literary controversies with 
 Bockh, K. <>. .Midler, and Greuzer. Bis editions 
 
 of the tragic (ireek poets and of other (Ireek 
 writers are still highly valued. Memoirs of his 
 life and works have been published by 0. Jahn 
 (1849), and Kochly (1874). 
 
 HESPERIAN COLLEGE, at Woodland, 
 OaL, under the control of the Christian denom- 
 ination, was founded in 1869. It admits both 
 sexes. In L875 -(i. it had 10 instructors, L50 
 students, and productive funds to the amount 
 of $50,000. The value of its buildings, grounds, 
 and apparatus is $30,000. ,;. |[. Smith, LL.D. 
 is (1876) the president. 
 
 HESSUS, Eobanus, one of the foremost 
 German educators of the time of the Refor- 
 mation, born in 1 188, died in 1540, lie was ap- 
 pointed, in 1516, prof essor at the university of 
 
 Erfurt : accepted, in L525, a call to the newly 
 established gymnasium of Nuremberg, returned 
 in 1534 to i'.rfurt. and. in 1 536, became profes- 
 sor of history at the university of Marburg. 
 He was an intimate friend of Lcuchlin. Me- 
 
 lanchthon, and other eminent men of the;; 
 
 and his reputation as a teacher was so great, 
 that, as professor at Erfurt, he is said to have 
 had at one time 1500 hearers. He was on.' 
 of the best modern Latin poets ; and, as author 
 
 no less than as teacher, largely contributed to 
 
 a better knowledge of Latin and (ireek. Special 
 works on the life of Hessus have been written 
 by Camerarius (1553), Lossius (1797), Her/. 
 (1860), and Schwertzell (1873). An interesting 
 
 aCCOUnl Of Hessus is also given in the work ot 
 II. P. Strauss on llutten (2d edit, 1871}. 
 
 HEYNE, Christian Gottlob, a German 
 scholar and educator, born Sept. '-'•">.. 1729, died 
 July 11., 1812 lie studied iii the university 
 
HIERONYMIANS 
 
 HIGH SCHOOLS 
 
 421 
 
 of Leipsic, and after holding several minor posi 
 dons, received, in L 763, a call to the university 
 of Gottingen, where, besides his position as 
 academic teacher, he also held those of director 
 of the philological seminary, librarian in chief of 
 the university library, and inspector of the peed- 
 agogium in Qefeld. In his philological semi- 
 nary, he educated a large number of efficient 
 teachers; and as librarian, he succeeded in raising 
 the university library to one of the largesl and 
 best arranged in Europe. As an organizer, lie 
 showed great talent in the p&dagogium in lle- 
 feld as well as in the schools of Gottingen and 
 Hanover, which, through his reforms, attained 
 great celebrity throughout < lennany. 1 levne is re- 
 corded as one of the greatest German philologists 
 of the 18th century. Besides editing several 
 Latin and Greek classics, he wrote numerous 
 works on classic antiquity. His life was written 
 by Beeren (1813). — Bee also Kajemmel, in 
 SciiMrn's Encyclop&die. 
 
 HIERONYMIANS, or Brethren of the 
 Common Life, a religious order, which did 
 much for education in the Netherlands and north- 
 ern Germany during the 1 4th, 15th, and Kith 
 centuries. It was founded by < Herard Groot (also 
 written Groote or Grote), a native of Deventer. 
 lie was born in 1 .140. and studied in Paris from 
 1355 to L358, where he gave his attention to 
 magic, astrology, and necromancy; but he re- 
 nounced these arts and was chosen a canon in Aix- 
 la-Chapelle and in Cologne. In the latter ]>! 
 he preached in his native language, — a thing un- 
 heard of and bitterly opposed at that time. Urge. I 
 by his friends and supporters, he founded an in- 
 stitution devoted to instruction and purity of life. 
 Many friends joined him in this undertaking, and 
 soon a society was formed, the members of which, 
 without taking m< mastic vows, devoted their lives 
 to piety, charity, and the education of the people. 
 They depended for their subsistence on their own 
 labor, ami on property donated by the members 
 on entering the order. The first house of the 
 order was founded at Deventer, in 1384. Branch 
 houses soon followed in many other cities of the 
 Netherlands; and in many parts of northern 
 Germany. Female associations were also formed, 
 with similar objects. "Where they had no insti- 
 tutions of their own, they taught in the existing 
 schools. Thus, by the end of tie 15th century, 
 they had spread from the Scheldt to the Vistula. 
 They regarded Hieronymus (St. Jerome) and 
 St. Gregory (the Great) as their patron-saints, 
 and hence called themselves Hieronymicens, or 
 Qregorians. Gerard only lived long enough to 
 see the commencement of the work of the order, 
 as he died in L384. He appointed as his suc- 
 cessor Florentius Radewin, who was born in 
 1350, studied at Prague, and became canon at 
 Utrecht. As .-< >< »n as he hail heart I of < rerard's in- 
 fluential career at Deventer. he had given up his 
 position in Utrecht, and had gone to Deventer as 
 a vicar, where he soon became an intimate friend 
 of Gerard. I [e died, after a life of great useful- 
 ness, in the year L400. It was he who proposed 
 the living in common, which led to the order's be- 
 
 ing called Brethren of the Common Ldfe. Among 
 its other distinguished members, were Gerard 
 
 Zerbolt, com |y styled Gerard of Zutphen, 
 
 Thomas a Kempis, Johann Wessel. ami the cele- 
 brated cardinal. N icolaus < 'usantts. Some of their 
 pupils attained great celebrity in after life, among 
 whom were Erasmus, Agricola, and Hermann 
 Busche. They reached their greatest efficiency 
 in the 16th century ;. and their last union was 
 established at Cambrai. in L505. After the Ref- 
 ormation, man; of their number embraced the 
 new faith, while the remainder were absorbed by 
 the -Jesuits. Although they cared for the edu- 
 cation of all the people, they were particularly 
 distinguished for their zeal in receiving the poor 
 children of both sexes, and educating them. 
 They laid particular stress on the religious ele- 
 ment. The plan pursued in their instruction 
 was simple in the extreme, and may be gathered 
 from the following words of the founder : 
 "Spend no time either on geometry, arithmetic, 
 rhetoric, logic, grammar, poetry, or judicial 
 astrology. All these branches Seneca rejects: 
 1 x >w much more, then, should a spiritua lly-mii ided 
 Christian pass them by. since they subserve in 
 no respect the life of faith. Of the sciences of 
 the Pagans, their ethics may not be so scrupu- 
 lously shunned; since this was the special held 
 of the wisest among them, as Socrates and Plato. 
 That which does not improve a man, or at least 
 does not reclaim him from evil, is positively 
 hurtful. Neither ought we to read pagan books, 
 nor. indeed, the Holy Scriptures in order merely 
 to penetrate into the mysteries of nature by 
 that means." They, however, endeavored to 
 promote the study of the Bible by the common 
 people; and to their efforts in that direction is 
 attributed the foundation of Christian popular 
 education; since to study the Bible, the people 
 must be instructed in reading, which led neces- 
 sarily to writing; and thus the seeds of intel- 
 lectual progress were sown, which sprang up 
 and bore fruit in the Reformation. Because of 
 their activity in promoting education, the 
 brethren were sometimes called the Scholastic 
 fraternity (fratres scholares); and, indeed. they 
 devoted themselves not merely to the elementary 
 instruction of the people, but to the higher 
 branches of education, as is obvious from the 
 many distinguished scholars found in their 
 schools. — See 1! a f.\i ER,( }eSChichtederPadagogik\ 
 translated in Barnard's German Educators; 
 Delprat, Over de Broederschap run G. Qrote 
 (1836; German translation!)}- Mohnikb, L840). 
 HIGH SCHOOLS, generally schools of sec- 
 ondary or academic instruction, corresponding, 
 to the lower grades of the German gymnasia, 
 but sometimes partaking rather of the character 
 of real schools. Public high schools exist in 
 most of the states of the Union, forming a part 
 of the public-school system, being the connecting 
 link between the elementary district, common, 
 or grammar schools, and the state university, for 
 which they perforin the office of preparatory 
 schools. Some of these schools are so organized 
 as to comprise academic, normal, and commer- 
 
422 
 
 HIGH SCHOOLS 
 
 cial departments. In small cities and towns, 
 high-school classes or departments, taught in the 
 same building with the grammar .schools, take 
 the place of separate high schools. There is a 
 great want of uniformity in the grade and char- 
 acter of these schools in different states and in 
 different cities of the same state. Home are 
 Bimply of a higher grade than the grammar 
 schools; that is, they give instruction in more 
 advanced studies; while others strictly forma 
 a part of a graded system which includes a 
 complete representation of primary, secondary, 
 and superior instruction. En some of the large 
 cities, as Boston, Philadelphia, Baltimore, Chi- 
 cago, Cincinnati, Detroit, and St. Louis, the 
 high school assumes large proportions, and per- 
 forms a very important function, both as regards 
 elementary and superior or university education. 
 stimulating the one and supporting the other. 
 The establishment of public nigh schools in the 
 
 1'nited States is of quite recent date ; although, 
 
 in Massachusetts, as early as 1 797, the academies 
 were virtually incorporated into the system of 
 public schools, by receiving endowments of land 
 from the state. In 1834, an act of the New 
 York legislature required the regents of the 
 university to apply the Surplus income of the 
 literature fund, beyond the sum of $12,000, to 
 the education of common-school teachers, by 
 distributing i1 to such a ies as should un- 
 
 dertake their instruction. Until L837, when 
 the Philadelphia High School was established, 
 there was no institution of the kind in the 
 United States outside of Massachusetts. Balti- 
 more organized a high school in L839 ; Cincin- 
 nati, in L850 ; and Chicago, in 1856. In the 
 city of New York, as early as L826, effortswere 
 made to establish a high school "for instruction 
 in the higher branches of an English education, 
 and in Latin and Greek ;" but the plan was not 
 
 realized until tin' organization of the New York 
 
 free Academy, in L849, in pursuance of an act 
 of the legislature, and a subsequent popular 
 
 vote, the resull of which was, L9,404 in favor of 
 the measure, and 3,409 against it. This institu- 
 tion is now thi' College of the City of Nev. 
 York. Boston had no high school for girls until 
 1853; ami the city of New York, no public in- 
 
 utioD tor the higher education of 
 until the establishment of the Female Normal 
 College, in L870. It is thus within a peri< 
 less than twenty-five years U em, now 
 
 so extensive, of public high schools has grown 
 
 up in the 1'nited States. In some of the 
 
 states, the system is much better organized 
 than in others, as to the gradation of the course 
 of study, both in its relation to the elementary 
 schools below and the university above. In 
 .some cases, i he graduates of the high school are 
 admitted ipso facto into the university. In 
 Michigan, there is an arrangement by which 
 
 high scl Is ih.it desire a recognition from the 
 
 university are visited and examined by ;i com- 
 mittee of the facility; and. if approved, have 
 
 their graduates admitted to the university with 
 out further examination. This plan appears to 
 
 have worked well, especially in its effect upon 
 the high .schools themselves, as subjecting them 
 to good scholastic supervision, and placing them 
 in proper organic connection with the university. 
 This is substantially the arrangement existing 
 in a few other states, and is strongly advocated 
 in some of the states in which it does not exist. 
 [n many places, however, much opposition has 
 been made to the establishment of public high 
 schools, as transcending the scope of state edu- 
 cation, which, it has been contended, should be 
 confined strictly to primary instruction. In sup- 
 port of this position, the small proportion of 
 pupils attending these schools, as compared with 
 the school population, has been urged to demon- 
 strate the injustice, as alleged, of taxing the en- 
 tire community for the higher education, and, 
 therefore, the particular benefit, of so small a 
 portion of it. On the other hand, it is urged 
 that, although only a few directly enjoy the ad- 
 vantages afforded by these schools, the whole 
 community is greatly benefited by their influence, 
 
 independently of their elevating and stimulating 
 effect upon the elementary schools. "I will 
 thank any person." says Everett, "to show why 
 it is expedient and beneficial in a community to 
 e public provision for teaching the elements 
 of learning, and not expedient nor beneficial 
 
 to make similar provision to aid the learner's 
 progress toward the mastery of the most difficult 
 
 i hes of science and i he choicest refinement 
 of literature." 'I he specific grounds on which 
 higher education at the public expense is advo- 
 
 I and defended are the following; ill High 
 
 schools serve to give increased efficiency to the 
 elementary schools below them. ('2) The high 
 school and the state university, to which it is 
 preparatory, constitute the best preservative of 
 republican equality, and, therefore, a preventive 
 
 of social caste; inasmuch as they afford the 
 
 means for all, of whatever social grade, to enjoy 
 the benefits of all the education which they 
 have the capacity to receive. (3) High-school 
 
 education is the means of discovering and devel- 
 oping genius and talent, by the cultivation of 
 which the political, social, and industrial inter- 
 ests of the community are greatly advanced. 
 il forces in ev< ry community center 
 in its leaders, political, social, and religious; 
 of the greatest importance that 
 those gifted minds and those em rgetic charact 
 that, with or without culture, always make 
 then Felt in a free community, should 
 
 have, regardless of wealth or social grade, full 
 opportunity of receiving such an education as 
 
 will render the power they must ine\ itablj wield, 
 
 beneficent to society at large. "No system of 
 public education." says Huxley, " is worthy the 
 name of national. unl( ss it crea it edu- 
 
 cational ladder with one end in the gutter, and 
 the otherin the university." '• Experience has 
 proved," says ITas. Adams (in Free School 
 System of '///'■ United States, London, L87 
 "that elementary education tlourishes most, 
 where the provision for higher education is most 
 ample. If the elementary schools of Germany 
 
ITIOII SCHOOLS 
 
 HISTORY 
 
 423 
 
 
 are the best in the world, it is owing, in a great 
 measure, to the fact, thai the higher schools are 
 accessible to all classes. In England, not only 
 hare the aims of the elementary schools been 
 educationally low and narrow, but an impass- 
 able unit' has separated the people's schools 
 from the higher schools of the country. In the 
 United States, the common schools have always 
 
 E reduced the best results where the means of 
 igher education have been the most plentiful." 
 Superintendent Philbrick, of Boston, in his an- 
 nual report for L87 l. said. " The common school 
 is always feeble and inefficient when high schools, 
 academies, and colleges are wanting. Educational 
 science teaches that educational improvement 
 works from the top downward, and not from 
 the bottom upward. Harvard College was, for 
 a long period, the mainspring of the success of 
 the common schools of .Massachusetts." In L874, 
 the citizens of Kalamazoo, Mich., brought a 
 case before the circuit court in order to test the 
 right of a school board to establish and maintain 
 a high school as a part of the public school 
 system of the state. Against the right, it was 
 argued that the law contemplated, in the free 
 schools, only primary instruction in the element- 
 ary English studies, that, therefore, the estab- 
 lishment of a high school, with a curriculum 
 embracing higher mathematics, languages, etc., 
 was a transgression of the law; and that, conse- 
 quently, taxation to support such an institution 
 might be legally resisted by the people. The 
 ■court, however, ruled against this point, — that 
 tin; law providing for primary schools did not 
 prohibit the establishment of other schools ; that 
 the enumeration of branches for a teachers 
 ■examination was only prescribing a minimum 
 of qualification; that the legal direction, " all 
 instruction shall be in the English language,'' 
 must be held to refer to the medium for com- 
 municating knowledge, not to any subject of in- 
 struction ; that, accordingly the teaching of 
 Greek, Latin, German, French, etc., was not ex- 
 cluded ; and that, as the school in question came 
 fairly within the provided system of public 
 schools, it might, like others, be sustained by a 
 reasonable district taxation. 
 
 High schools should not be needlessly multi- 
 plied, ami should be carefully prevented from 
 trenching upon the sphere of the elementary 
 schools. Since their value depends greatly on 
 their influence upon the elementary schools, 
 the requirements for admission should lie such 
 as to incite the latter to accurate and thorough 
 scholarship within their sphere, and stimulate 
 their pupils to faithful and earnest study. When 
 the number of high schools or high-school de- 
 partments is excessive, the tendency is to weaken 
 this influence by reducing the standard for ad- 
 mission, or relaxing the strictness of the exami- 
 nations. Insomeof thecitiesof the Union — New 
 T i 'ork, Boston, St. Louis, and others, the high 
 ■school has been introduced as a part of the 
 evening-school system. Besides the public high 
 schools, there is a large class of private institu- 
 tions of a similar grade, which differ only 
 
 in name from seminaries, academics, classical 
 schools, etc. In England, the gnat public 
 schools, such as Eton, Harrow, etc.. belong to 
 the same class, as secondary or middle schools ; 
 
 and the High School of Edinburgh is a repre- 
 sentative of the same class. (Sec Skconuary 
 Instruction.) 
 
 HIGHER EDUCATION. See High Schools, 
 Skconuary Instruction, and Superior Instruc- 
 tion. 
 
 HIGHLAND UNIVERSITY, at High- 
 land, Kan., under the control of the Presbyterians, 
 was chartered in 1858. It has productive funds 
 to the amount of $25,000. The cost of tuition 
 is $33 per year, it has a preparatory and a col- 
 legiate department, to which both sexes are ad- 
 mitted, and there is a special course for young 
 ladies. The library contains 5,000 volumes. In 
 1872 — 3, there were (> instructors, and 145 pre- 
 paratory, and 25 collegiate students. 
 
 HILLSDALE COLLEGE, at Hillsdale, 
 Mich., under the control of the Freewill Baptists, 
 was established at Spring Arbor in 1844, and 
 (bartered as Michigan Central College in 1845. 
 It was removed to its present site and rechar- 
 tered as 'Hillsdale College', in 1 855. Both sexes 
 are a< tmitted. < >ver $25,000 have been subscribed 
 to the endowment. Tuition fees are nominal. 
 The library contains 4,000 volumes. The college 
 has a preparatory and a collegiate department, 
 with a classical and a scientific course, and also 
 a theological and a commercial course, and courses 
 in art and music. In 1872 — 3, there were 21 in- 
 structors and 579 students, of whom 197 were in 
 the college classes, 273 in the preparatory depart- 
 ments, and 1 3 in the theological course. 
 
 HIRAM COLLEGE, at Hiram, Portage Co., 
 Ohio, is under the control of the Disciples. It 
 took its present title in 1867, growing out of the 
 Western Reserve Eclectic Institute, founded in 
 1850. It is supported by tuition fees and an 
 endowment of about $60,000. The libraries 
 contain about 2,500 volumes. The collegiate 
 department comprises (1) a classical course, (2) a 
 Latin and scientific course, (3) a scientific course, 
 and (4) a ladies' course. It has also a prepara- 
 tory, a normal, a commercial, and an elementary 
 course. Considerable attention is given to pre- 
 paring yung men for the ministry. Many of 
 the best known and most useful Disciple minis- 
 ters have studied in this college. In 1874 — 5, 
 there were 9 instructors and 233 students (126 
 males and 107 females), of whom 30 were of the 
 collegiate grade. The president of the college 
 is Burke A. Hinsdale. A.M. (1876). 
 
 HISTORY, as a branch of instruction, pre- 
 sents very many important points of inquiry 
 for the educator. The vast field which it oc- 
 cupies as a realm of facts, the great difficulty in 
 classifying these facts, and deducing from them 
 any general principles or laws, or even in asso- 
 ciating them so that they may be presented to 
 
 tb" mind of the learner in groups bound together 
 by some common relation, — these character- 
 istics of history make it perhaps the most dif- 
 ficult which the educator has to deal with. This 
 
424 
 
 HISTORY 
 
 will account for the diversity of opinion as to 
 the proper method of teaching it. as well as for 
 the many obvious errors of method that exist. 
 Some, indeed, have condemned it as a school 
 study; on the ground that the mere facts of 
 history, without the general laws which they 
 teach, arc of no account, while the study of the 
 
 philosophy of history is too deep for immature 
 minds. » >n this account, Prof. Bain contends 
 that it is a subject proper only for the university. 
 
 John Locke said. "As nothing teaches, so 
 
 nothing delights, more than history. The firsl of 
 
 these recommends it to the study of the 
 grown man; the latter makes me think it fittest 
 for a young lad". These extreme opinions arise 
 from viewing the subject from different stand- 
 points. There is no doubt that the study of 
 
 history, like that of geography, botany, astron- 
 omy, and other school subjects may be presented 
 to tlu- mind of the child in such a manner as 
 not only to be useless and distasteful, but actually 
 injurious. As in every other subject, the edu- 
 cator is to consider the nature of the mind to 
 be addressed, and the character of the study 
 itself. Primarily, history is a narrative; and 
 there is nothing which pleases children BO much 
 as narratives con<3erning things in which they 
 take ail interest, or with which they are familiar. 
 
 If children, therefore, are to study history, they 
 must first be interested in the persons and things 
 that it refers to. Thus American children will 
 be eager to learn about the discovery of Amer- 
 ica by Columbus, because it concerns the coun- 
 try in which they live: and they will be scarcely 
 satisfied with any amount of detail in regard to 
 the particular facts connected with that event. 
 
 < lolumbus as a great personage will then loom up 
 in their imagination, and their curiosity will be 
 exerted to know- something about him. This 
 
 will interest them in Isabella, the good queen of 
 
 Spain; and BOmething may he said of her. and 
 of the country to which she belonged. In this 
 desultory way. and without any special effort 
 to show the relations of events as to time or 
 cause and effect, the coneeptive faculty of quite 
 young children may be addressed in teaching his- 
 tory, and thus their minds will be prepared fol- 
 ds regular study, by receiving those underlying 
 Conceptions which are constantly needed to make 
 formal historical narratives interesting or even 
 
 understood. "The fact", says Emerson, "must 
 correspond to something in me to be credible or 
 intelligible". It is in reference to this principle 
 that Wickersham remarks, "H concerns us little 
 to know the lineage of lungs and queens, the 
 intrigues of courts, or the plans of campaigns; 
 but it would interesl us much to be told how 
 people in past times built their houses, worked 
 
 their fields, or educated their children what 
 
 style of dress they wore, what kind of food they 
 
 ea'- w hat I ks they read." The latter . 
 
 of facts are not, however, more interesting in 
 
 themselves. Imt hecause they are more nearly 
 
 related to our individual experience. Different 
 
 persons will not he interested in the bs class 
 
 of historical facts. The soldier will attend to 
 
 the military history of a country: the statesman 
 and politician, to the political: the agriculturist, 
 to tlie methods of husbandry in use ; and to a 
 numerous class of minds the dynastic history — ■ 
 the "lineage of kines and queens", will possess 
 supreme fascination. All departments of historj 
 ate useful in their special applications: and are of 
 interest to those who desire to know the facts 
 which they severally comprehend. In arranging 
 history for educational purposes, we must con- 
 sider the decree of development of the pupils 
 
 mind: and in this respect historical study may be 
 divided into three stages: (lj The introductory, 
 in which the mind of the young child has to be 
 
 prepared for the study, as above indicated ; (2) 
 
 The intermediate, at which the formal study of 
 
 history commences, dealing principally with 
 
 facts and their obvious relations ; and (.*{) The 
 advanced, in which the higher forms of general- 
 ization are presented, constituting what has been 
 styled the philosophy of history. In the first 
 stage, what has been called the " fragments of 
 history", that is. brief and interesting narratives, 
 biographical sketches. &c, clothed in a simple 
 picturesque style, should constitute the subject 
 matter of the instruction. This may be pre- 
 sented iua desultory manner, without any spe< ial 
 
 regard to Logical or chronological order, the great 
 object being to interest the learner by filling his 
 - mind with vivid conceptions of certain events 
 and personages. Of course, this preliminary in- 
 struction may take a wide range, embracing the 
 most prominent persons and events in the history 
 of the world, ami thus constituting a valuable 
 outline, on which to base the subsequent study. 
 but this is not so important as that, in every 
 
 thine' that is taught, the young pupil's experience 
 
 and imagination should be addressed : that is. 
 the facts presented to be learned should be con- 
 crete facts, not mere abstractions. Epitomes oi 
 history are valueless for this purpose, because 
 they attempt to cover the whole ground. As 
 
 has been well said by a celebrated educationist, 
 
 the use of an epitome is like giving a child an 
 •• index to learn by heart ". 
 
 In the .second Stage, while the same principle 
 
 should be steadily kept in view, the study should 
 become more formal and systematic. It is here 
 that tin' most important questions arise for con- 
 
 Siderat ion. The first of these concerns the choice 
 
 between a compendium of history and a series 
 of historical text books on different nations. The 
 
 System of .special national text-hooks mew up 
 at a lime when, from national patriotism, each 
 country considered its own history as foremost 
 and hence, all others as of secondary importance : 
 and it has been fostered, in the advance of 
 
 historic learning, bya system of abridgments of 
 large standard works, or by school books based. 
 in method of treatment, upon them. Bui sin h 
 treatment is not adapted to conditions for which 
 the originals were nol intended. Each of these 
 
 special works presupposes the existence of all 
 
 the others, and thus virtually depends on them 
 for its general stand-point, and for that knowl- 
 edge which is indispensable to render the nana- 
 
HISTORY 
 
 !•_'.. 
 
 five intelligible; and. hence, for school purposes, 
 the abridgments are of little use. because this 
 general knowledge cannot be supposed to exist. 
 Besides that, the large standard works are too 
 exclusively philosophical in their character and 
 arrangement to admit of an abridgment for 
 school purposes. Narrowing the field <>t' view 
 for the purpose of scientific investigation, such 
 works naturally adopt largely the consecutive 
 narrative form : but consecutive narrative is not 
 essential when only general leading facts are to 
 be presented, and narrative detail is unsuited 
 to the treatment required for school instruction. 
 There can be no perspective in such a mode of 
 treatment. Leading facts rank side by side with 
 subordinate ones, and the history assumes the 
 form of dry annals. Excessive detail in historical 
 text-books is always a fruitful source of vexation 
 to both teacher and pupil. What is needed. f< r 
 this stage of instruction, is a skillful grouping 
 of facts, which, while it departs but little from 
 the chronological order, shows the proper rela- 
 tion of events — how one brought about the 
 other. In the history of the world, as of each 
 separate country, and of every great event, as. for 
 example, the Reformation, the Thirty Years' 
 War. the Revolution in England, the American 
 Revolution, the French Revolution, the great 
 Civil War in the United States, there are cer- 
 tain conspicuous stand-points, or centers of in- 
 terest, around which other events should be 
 grouped, as dependent upon them. '1 he same 
 principle is opposed, in the teaching of general 
 history, to confining the attention of the pupil 
 exclusively to each nation ill succession, through- 
 out its entire history [ethnographic method). It 
 is a well-defined feature of every historic move- 
 ment that, in many of its epochs, it is carried 
 along by some particular nation as the represen- 
 tative. f( >r the time being, of some controlling idea 
 or principle, other nations playing a subordinate 
 part. This should be clearly brought out in the 
 arrangement of the subject ( grouping method |. 
 It is not always possible, however, to distinguish 
 a single nation as holding such an undisputed 
 prominence ; but, where this question is in 
 doubt, there is always a movement, more or less 
 general, to which the contemporaneous nations 
 are subject, and to which, therefore, the history 
 of the separate nations should have a distinct ref- 
 erence. In the period of the Reformation, for 
 example, it is desirable to present the nations 
 collectively in their relation to it, the events 
 which concern their separate existence being 
 kept in the background. A system of instruction 
 which presents, in succession and at widely sep- 
 arated intervals, the share of each particular 
 nation in such a great movement as the Refor- 
 mation, cannot possibly impress the mind of the 
 pupil properly in regard to it. In the compi- 
 lation of a compendium of history suitable for 
 school use, a compromise is requisite between the 
 plan of teaching the history of each nation by 
 itself [ethnographic method | and that of teaching 
 by periods or epochs, the history of each nation 
 coming iu where it belongs in the period (syn- 
 
 chronistic method). The latter method, by short 
 
 periods, centuries for instance, is useless for be- 
 ginners, as it gives only a, confused picture of 
 tlie whole. Iii ancienl history, it has but a 
 limited application ; because the nations of an- 
 tiquity were essentially separate, coming on the 
 
 Stage at successive periods, and rarely blended, 
 
 to any extent, in any general movement. The 
 ethnographic method is, therefore, the best for 
 this department of history, but may be departed 
 from in certain portions of it. as, for example, 
 in the history of the states of tireece. For be- 
 ginners, the ethnographic method seems to be 
 best, at least until a (rood general outline has 
 been fixed in the mind, after which the grouping 
 method ought to be steadily pursued, but still 
 with a constant regard to the mental advance- 
 ment and maturity of the student. The chrono- 
 logical method must, however, lead in every 
 scheme of elementary historical teaching. The 
 pupil must, above all things, attend to the order 
 of time ; or his subsequent reading and study 
 will be greatly embarrassed. This method has 
 been used in Germany from time immemorial, 
 with modifications such as have been referred to, 
 for adaptation to the purposes of elementary, 
 burgher and real schools, and gymnasia. These 
 modifications consist chiefly in the relative prom- 
 inence given to the synchronistic and ethno- 
 graphic principles. Stiehl's Der vaterldndische 
 Geschichtsunterricht in misern Elementarschu- 
 len — The history of our Country in ///<■ Ele- 
 mentary Schools (Coblenz, 1842), and Haupt's 
 Wdtgeschichte nach Pestalozzi's Grundsdtzen — 
 General History on the Principles of Pestalozzi 
 (1841), were attempts to introduce the grouping 
 method. Many of the school text-books on 
 history, published in Great Britain and the 
 United States, are based on the same system; but 
 teachers have generally favored the ethnographic 
 system, as less fragmentary and disjointed. For 
 a field so vast as that of general history, it is of 
 the highest impoi'tance that the idea of both 
 unity and sequence should be impressed upon 
 the pupil's mind. In the chronologic method, 
 the perspective view which this unification of 
 the broader parts demands, is not dependent on 
 the special notions of any teacher or compiler, 
 but gro\Vs up in the mind from the study of 
 the facts themselves. In the treatment of antiq- 
 uity, thi' history of the eastern nations precedes 
 that of the Greeks, and the Greeks the Romans; 
 and while teaching each in chronologic order, 
 the other contemporaneous nations should be 
 brought in. as episodes, at such periods and in 
 such connections, as will best illustrate the 
 history of the great nation which, for the time 
 being, is controlling the affairs of the world. 
 Egypt, Assyria, Babylon, Persia, Greece, Rome 
 (republic and empire), may. in succession, he 
 made the leading nation; and all the others will 
 cnine in at certain periods. In the middle ag 
 the treatment should be analogous; there is at 
 every period, a great tribe or nation, whether the 
 Franks, the Saracens, the Normans, or the Ger- 
 mans, the history of whom, treated in its chrono- 
 
 \ 
 
426 
 
 HISTORY 
 
 logic order, will absorb the remainder, except what 
 may come in episodically. In modern history. 
 the ethnographic principle must at first have 
 prominence, before the pupil can study the great 
 European movements, such as the Reformation 
 and the Thirty Years' War. with any real sat- 
 isfaction or benefit. As Ranke remarks, "it 
 i> only on the side of the activity that the events 
 can be judged." In the early part of the Kith 
 century, the policy of Charles v., in the latter 
 part, the Protestant development in Holland, 
 France, and England controls the Bcene. In the 
 
 1 Till, alternately, the advance of the .Jesuits, the 
 Thirty Years' War, and the reign of Louis XI V.. 
 claim an absorbing attention. In the 18th, the 
 England of Walpole, the Prussia of Frederick, 
 and the French Revolution, successively give the 
 stand-point for understanding European history. 
 Chiefly as episodes, in mediaeval and modern 
 history, coin 'in certain great topic3 ; such as the 
 Saracenic civilization, the Byzantine culture, the 
 Turkish ascendency, the maritime discoveries of 
 Portugal and Spain, the Italian Renaissance, 
 the struggle of the Dutch Republic, the rise of 
 Sweden and Russia, etc. Whatever method may 
 be used, synchronistic exercises will be con- 
 stantly requisite to a full understanding of the 
 relations of events. These may take the form 
 of lists of sovereigns grouped into centuries ami 
 arranged, side by side in perpendicular culm mis; 
 or leading events arranged in the same way. 
 Alter tin' history of any nation or period has 
 bi H stu lie 1 in the chroi 1 order, various 
 
 inci ho Is of arrangement may be adopted for the 
 
 {iurpose of review, varying the sequence which 
 tas been followed in the regular lessons. Thus, 
 the pupil may be required to state all the events 
 connected with a particular place, or a particular 
 individual, which he has previously learned in 
 a strictly chronologic order, or in connection 
 with the national history. The topical method 
 of recitation will be found the most effective. 
 DOi only lor the attainment of the besl results 
 
 as far as history itself is concerned, bul for col- 
 lateral culture, particularly of expression. On 
 account of the latter, accuracy in langu 
 should, as much as possible be insisted upon: 
 
 and the pupils should be required to use their 
 own language, instead of memorizing that oi the 
 text-book. Brief written sketches of events, 
 ges, periods, etc., will be of great us- in 
 making this collateral culture effective, and will 
 ■ afford much useful practice in other re- 
 Bpects. A Bevere ami Bustaine 1 drill on a. single 
 manual is of great use lor the strong landmarks 
 it leaves in the pupil's mind ; but, to he thor- 
 oughly effective as an educational process, it 
 ought to In' accompanied with the reading, to 
 BOme extent, of auxiliary books giving interesting 
 detail in regard to prominent points. Such a 
 system of independent reading by the different 
 members of a class, properly utilized, will lead 
 to the acquisition of much interesting infor- 
 mation, each pupil bringing his own contri- 
 bution, lo In- offered in connection with the 
 
 class ex© Children, at an early age, with 
 
 a taste for reading, will devour solid books of 
 history, when not under compulsion ; especially 
 if they have a strong frame-work fixed in their 
 minds for the separate facts to attach themselves 
 to: and such reading will constitute a very im- 
 portant part of mental culture. — Dates are to 
 some extent needed, hut only in connection with 
 the general narrative. To memorize the dates 
 of isolated events is worse than useless. The 
 dates of certain great events, marking epochs, 
 should be carefully fixed in the mind. As already 
 said, the method pursued should be such as to 
 keep the stream of time constantly in view ; and 
 this will render the memorizing of many dates 
 unnecessary. " I »ates ", says the < rerman writer 
 Abbenrode, "are the most simple monitors of 
 memory, and can never be entirely omitted, 
 though they ought to be limited for children, 
 and sometimes to be made round numbers, for 
 the sake of memory ; nay, a sensible arrangement 
 of them often aids the understanding of related 
 events better than could be done by long ex- 
 positions. " Chronological relations may be 
 better taught by means of historical charts, rep- 
 resenting the exact position in time of every 
 nation and event, just as a map represents coun- 
 tries, cities, etc., iii space. 'I hese should be large 
 enough to show clearly to the eye what is rep- 
 resented : and the different nations should be 
 marked out in strong colors. Of such charts, 
 Labberton's and Halsey's arc examples. Pro- 
 gressive maps, showing the states and countries, 
 and their extent at different periods, are indis- 
 pensable. American school manuals, such as 
 Anderson's General History, Swinton's Outlines 
 of History, and Thalheimer's manuals of ancient 
 
 and modern history, are copiously supplied with 
 maps of this kind. Those of Freeman's Old 
 
 "English History (London, 1869) are also good 
 examples of such maps; as are also those of 
 Labberton's IIistnrir.il Alias (Phila.,1872). Th 
 progressive maps illustrate the relation of geog- 
 raphy and history, and afford an indication of 
 
 the extent to which geographical study is needed 
 in connection with that of history. It is. how- 
 ever, desirable that all the places mentioned in 
 the history should be at least pointed out on 
 the map. 
 
 Good historical lecturesare eminently benefi- 
 cial, in connection with regular lessons, or re-in- 
 forced by suitable class exercises. The taking of 
 notes by the pupils is of little value: because such 
 
 notes can concern only definite and disconnected 
 
 facts which should lie impressed upon the mind 
 
 by the study of a compendium or by class drill; 
 while the lecture is designed to give broad, gen- 
 eral views of events, in their relations, and in 
 their bearing on some great historical movement. 
 'flic taking of notes l>y young pupils must licccs- 
 Barily interrupt the current of their thought, and 
 
 thus mar the effed of the lecture. It is,however, 
 in the third or advanced stage of historical study 
 that lectures have their special place. 
 
 'flic class of fads — the kind of material — to 
 
 be selected for the elementary study of history 
 is another important consideration for the 
 
HISTORY 
 
 42T 
 
 teacher, as well as for the compiler (if a school 
 compendium. There is a great diversity in this 
 respect. In some text-books, undue prominence 
 is given to the political and military history. 
 every thing pertaining to social life being left 
 out. This deprives the study of much of its 
 strongest and best interest. The condition and 
 progress of the people in the elements of civili- 
 zation. the industrial and fine arts, literature, 
 education, social culture, manners, customs, etc, 
 should be graphically sketched, in connection 
 with the political history, which must, of course, 
 constitute the frame-work of the whole. The 
 office of history as a school study, is not only to 
 give information in regard to the events of the 
 past, but it is to discipline the mind by cultivat- 
 ing and improving (I) the memory, (2) the im- 
 agination, (3) the judgment, (4) the power of 
 expression, and (5) the moral and emotional 
 nature. The pupil, when properly instructed, 
 has his sympathies aroused : he applauds the 
 noble, the patriotic, and the virtuous ; he con- 
 demns the mean, the selfish, and the wicked. 
 Every lesson teaches him by example, for it con- 
 fronts him with either human virtue or human 
 wickedness. The false tinsel of glory must not 
 be permitted to conceal the selfishness, cruelty, 
 and wrong of the ambitious tyrant or conqueror; 
 and the nobleness of the martyr will not be de- 
 based because he pines in a dungeon or dies on 
 the scaffold. Treated in the right spirit, history 
 thus becomes a great moral teacher for pupils of 
 every class and grade. 
 
 In the third stage, that of superior instruc- 
 tion, history has strong claims to attention. 
 Whatever the sphere of life in which the stu- 
 dent is to engage, he should possess himself of 
 the key to the records of the past history of 
 mankind. History may peculiarly be called a 
 'diving study," since it draws its interest at once 
 from the slow but certain movement of human 
 forces, among which self-interest, will, and pas- 
 sion play a great part. The field is so vast, that 
 the untrained student will be lost in the maze, 
 and will wander about aimless and bewildered. Tt 
 is the office of education to show that the elements 
 are really simple, and to impart a system to the 
 vasl crowd of facts, by which they may become 
 useful, by being co-ordinated. It is here, then, 
 that history assumes whatever scientific phase 
 
 it may be capable of. What has been called the 
 philosophy of history is, in an especial manner 
 and degree, suitable for college study, as it 
 brings into play the higher faculties of the mind, 
 — generalization, reason, and judgment. At this 
 stage, we do not rest satisfied with a simple 
 narrative of events, but we attempt to trace 
 them to their real causes, and deduce from them 
 those general laws on which political and social 
 science must be based. "The true science of 
 history," says Bossuet, "is to observe the latent 
 tendencies which have prepared great changes, 
 and the important conjunctures which have 
 brought them into fact." Those latent tendencies 
 are to be looked for in the principles "1 human 
 nature as constituting one factor ; while the in- 
 
 fluences which constitute the other factors are 
 neither obvious, nor established in the general 
 convictions of mankind. This gives rise to various 
 theories; as the materialistic theory, which sup- 
 poses the co-ordinate factor in bringing about the 
 changes in history to be the forces of material 
 nature, acting on human character and human 
 will; the spiritualistic theory which attributes to 
 the soul of man a certain freedom of purpose 
 and will, acting independently of its material sur- 
 roundings; and the theistic theory, which attrib- 
 ute's great movements and changes in the world's 
 history to the special interposition of an over- 
 ruling Providence, a Divine will, and thus makes 
 "God in history" the supreme source of all the 
 great events that have marked the intellectual, 
 social, and moral progress of mankind. These 
 theories may, however, be called the metaphysics 
 of history ; they are not essential to the inves- 
 tigation of the laws which constitute its philos- 
 ophy ; inasmuch as the generalizations upon 
 which these laws are based, are chiefly independ- 
 ent of them, the course of human events, like 
 the course of nature, being controlled only by 
 general laws. 
 
 What has already been suggested has exclu- 
 sive reference to facts, or statements of facts, 
 accepted as such ; but there is another depart- 
 ment of history which concerns the sources of 
 history, their nature and credibility ; and this 
 has an indisputable claim upon the attention of 
 those who teach, and those who study history in 
 its advanced stages. Two objects will be sub- 
 served by this : (1) The mind will acquire the 
 useful habit of withholding its assent from all 
 statements that are not supported by suffi- 
 cient testimony; and (2) The judgment and 
 critical faculty will receive a practical culture 
 which must prove of great service in the further 
 prosecution of study, and in the affairs of daily 
 life. In the prosecution of this historical criti- 
 cism, the student is invariably to consider (1) the 
 writer or writers from whom the narration pro- 
 ceeds, (2) their means of information, (3) their 
 character for sagacity and discernment, (4) their 
 interests, assoi iations and affections. All these 
 inevitably color the narrative, and hence consti- 
 tute an important element to be considered in 
 the kind and degree of credibility to which it is 
 entitled. — In the struggle, for some time in prog- 
 ress, between the friends of classical and of 
 Scientific studies, history as a branch of educa- 
 tion holds a Strong and prominent posil ion. While 
 it is a record of the past, it is, in fact, the science 
 of the future ; and one only has to imagine the 
 condition of the world, were all its annals 
 destroyed, to appreciate the practical value of 
 this science. The studies pertaining to matter 
 and force claim supreme consideration with 
 many; and those pertaining to the mere linguis- 
 tic expression Of thought, often obsolete and 
 valueless, with many others; but history deals 
 with the facts of human intelligence and will, 
 illustrates the principles which control the prog- 
 ress of mankind in all the elements of civiliza- 
 tion, and hence assumes an office and agency in 
 
428 
 
 BIWASSEE COLLEGE 
 
 UOFWYL 
 
 connection with human education, without which 
 it must be measurably ineffective and imper- 
 fect.— See Wickersham, Methods of Instruction 
 il'hila.. L865); Oi rrie, Principles and Practice 
 of CommonScln ml Education (Edinburgh and 
 London); Vox Raumer, Geschichte der Pada- 
 gogik, trans, in Barnard's Journal of Educa- 
 tion, No. \x.: also, in the same, Catechism on 
 Methods of Teaching, s. v. History, by Abben- 
 rode, in which will be found a list of valuable 
 works for consultation on the met hods of teach- 
 ing this subject. 
 
 HIWASSEE COLLEGE, in Monroe Co., 
 Trim.. 7 miles from Sweetwater, was founded in 
 L849, under the auspices of the -Methodist Epis- 
 copal Church, South. The name of the post- 
 omce is the same as thai of the institution. It 
 is supported by tuition lees, and has a prepara- 
 tory and a collegiate department. The library 
 contains about L ,500 volumes. The tuition Fee 
 for live months is $12.50 for primary studies, 
 $15 for intermediate, and $12 for collegiate. 
 A law department has been organized, but it has 
 made little progress. In L875 -6, the coD 
 had 5 instructors and 186 students. John II. 
 Brunner, .V. M.. i< the president of the institu- 
 tion (1876). 
 
 HOBART COLLEGE, at Geneva, N". V.. 
 was chartered in 1825, growing out of an 
 academy and divinity school established by Bishop 
 Bobari of the Protestant Episcopal Church, in 
 L821. Its entire endowment is something over 
 $300,000, of which, perhaps, $60,000 is repre- 
 sented by land and buildings, while one consider- 
 able portion is in the shape of free scholarships, 
 of which there are twenty-six, leaving less than 
 $21,000 of annual income from endowment for 
 the support and maintenance of the college. A 
 considerable portion of the entire sum ($ 1,200) is 
 
 in the shape of annuities, contributed from New 
 
 York City. The library contains .about 13,000 
 \nl nines. There are two courses, a classical of tour 
 years, and a scientific of two years. The tuition 
 
 fee is $50 a year. The scholarships are primarily 
 
 designed for students intended tor the ministry. 
 In Is7."i — 6, there were 7 instructors and 29 
 students. The presidents have been as follows: 
 the Rev. Jasper Adams. D. D., 1826— 28 ; the 
 Rev. Richard S. Mason, l». I».. L830— 35; the 
 Rev. Benj. Hale. 1>. D., L836 57; the Rev. \l>- 
 ner Jackson D. D., LL. D., 1858 68; the Rev. 
 •lames Kent Stone, l». I>.. L869 70; the Rev. 
 James Rankine, l>. I>., L870 7:: ; the Rev. 
 Maunsell Van Rensselaer, l>. D., LL. D., L873 
 
 — 76 : and the Rev. William Stevens Perry, I >. 
 
 I>.. LL. D., the present incumbent, appointed in 
 1876. 
 
 HOFWYL, Schools of, a group of educa- 
 tional institutions established by Pellenberg, 
 which very widely attracted attention, and at- 
 tained a high reputation for the excellence of 
 the theorj "ti which they were based, and for 
 their practical success. Hofwyl, originally called 
 Wylhof.was a large estate, aboul six miles from 
 Bern, Switzerland, which was purchased by Fel- 
 lenberg, in 1799, lor the purpose of enabling 
 
 him to carry out his peculiar educational views. 
 
 Deeply impressed with the need of ameliorating 
 the condition of the poorer classes by affording 
 them the means of a practical education. he was 
 also convinced that the education received by 
 the higher classes in the universities and middle 
 schools, very greatly needed reform. He de- 
 signed, therefore, to establish "an institution for 
 both classes, in which they should be so separated, 
 as to prevent confusion, and yet so connected, 
 that each might observe the other, and that oc- 
 casion might be given to establish, on a < 'hristian 
 basis, the character of each."' Agriculture he 
 believed best adapted, as an occupation, to de- 
 velop the powers of both mind and body in their 
 proper harmony. Hence, he conceived that an 
 agricultural school would form the best basis 
 
 In 
 
 j for the carrying out of his proposed plans. In 
 1 829, I Iofwy! was described as a village of about 
 300 inhabitants, comprising (1) A farm, of about 
 600 acres; (2) Workshops, for the fabrication 
 and repair of agricultural implements, and 
 of clothing for the inhabitants- (3) A litho- 
 graphic establishment in which music and other 
 
 things needed in the institution were printed ; 
 
 (4) A Literary Institution fur the education of 
 the higher classes : (5) A Practical Institution 
 
 for those who were destined for trade, or whose. 
 circumstances did not permit a more complete 
 
 education: and (6) An Agricultural Institution 
 for the education of the laboring classes. The 
 secluded situation of Hofwyl. at a convenient 
 distance from a Large town, and surrounded by 
 Some of the most beautiful objects of Swiss 
 
 scenery, particularly commended it to Fellen- 
 berg. The first <<\ the schools was commenced 
 in 1804; but. in L829, the writer of a series of 
 letters, published in the American Annals of 
 Education, for L831, thus described the institu- 
 tions of I lofwyl : 
 
 "On entering Hofwyl from Bern, the traveler 
 finds liiniselt in an extensive courl or play-ground, 
 furnished with instruments for gymnastic exercises, 
 ami a hillocs of clean sand, in « hich the younger b< 
 exercise their ingenuity in digging cai es nnd building 
 castles, Burrounded en three >iilcs by the building de- 
 voted t<> the literary institutions, ami sheltered mi the 
 
 west by a little WOOd, Composed Ol a variety of trees. 
 
 which serve at (nice as a place for botanical observa- 
 tions, ami as a retreat during the heat of summer. Ill 
 
 pleasanl weather, the les>on> are net iiiilrei|ueiitly 
 
 given here, iii arbors furnished w ith seat- for this pur- 
 pose. The principal building mi the east ol this court, 
 is inhabited by 80 pupils, under the constant snj>er- 
 intendenoe of Fellenberg ami four of his children. 
 The basement Btorj i> occupied by the kitchen and 
 store-rooms. The first floor is divided into four sec- 
 by halls which traverse the building in its length 
 and breath. One ol these Bectiona i- occupied by the 
 superintendents; another, by the dining hall and music 
 room; a third and fourth, by the chapel and three 
 large and lofty rooms for study. The Becond Horn' is 
 devoted to the class rooms, the library, and the col- 
 lection of oasts. The third and attic Btories contain 
 the dormitories of the pupils, and chambers for the 
 superintendents. The Bize, airiness, and neatness of 
 every part of the building areverj striking; and a 
 well-arranged system of stoves en the Russian plan, 
 maintain- a mild and uniform temperature during ilie- 
 winter, which ia net to he found in climates far i 
 severe, w here the methods of employing fuel are I 
 perfect in tin- institution, Pellenberg proposes to 
 
1IOFWYL 
 
 HOUMMtok 
 
 429 
 
 .1 c < m 1 1 1 > I o t e education preparatory to professional 
 studies. Between '-'<> and 80 instructors are employed 
 in this establishment, most of whom reside in another 
 building, and have no connection with the pupils, ex- 
 cept during the hours of instruction. Two small build- 
 ings, which shelter the oourl on the north and south, 
 contain a large warm bath for winter, the store-room 
 for the gardening tools oi the pupils, a cabinet-maker's 
 shop, in which those who have the disposition are 
 taught this art, the book-bindery of the institution, 
 
 and several rooms which are devoted to exercises in 
 instrumental music, fencing, and dancing, which would 
 interfere with the tranquillity necessary in the prin- 
 cipal building. Bej 1 the Literary Institution is a 
 
 second court, furnished, like the firsts with frames and 
 poles for gymnastic exercises. On the east side of 
 this court, and at the entrance of the first court, are 
 garden spot-, assigned to the pupils as a means of 
 amusement and exercise ; and, at a little distance on 
 the side of the hill, a circular cold bath of hewn stone, 
 90 feet in diameter, and 10 feet deep, in which they 
 arc taught to swim, with a neat bathing-house in the 
 Gothic sty],-. On the west side of the court is the 
 chateau, or family mansion, in which Mrs. Fellenberg 
 resides with her younger children. It also contains 
 the bureau, or counting-house, of the establishment, 
 in which strangers are received, and the business of 
 the institution transacted, by a person devoted to this 
 object. It Likewise serves as a depot for the little 
 articles which the pupils have occasion to purchase, 
 in the garden of the chateau, is the school for peas- 
 ant girls, under the immediate direction of Mrs. Fel- 
 lenberg, and one of her daughters. In the rear of the 
 chateau, are two buildings occupied by 20 or 30 pupils 
 of the Practical Institution. These are lodged and fed 
 in a more simple manner than the pupils in the Liter- 
 ary Institution, and are permitted to avail themselves 
 of its lessons, and to partake of the labors of the farm, 
 or the counting-house, according to their necessities 
 and destination. — In the rear of these buildings, is a 
 second cold bath of hewn stone, only 2 feet in depth, 
 designed for the use ol the younger pupils. Adjoin- 
 ing this is a building 150 feet long, the lower part of 
 which tonus a large sheltered arena for riding and gym- 
 nastic exercises in unpleasant weather. The upper 
 stories are occupied by the class rooms and dormi- 
 tories of the Agricultural Institution, in which children 
 of the laboring classes are taught the practical part 
 of agriculture, and receive three or four hours of in- 
 struction daily in reading, writing, arithmetic, and 
 
 other useful branches Vn interesting branch of the 
 
 Institution of Hofwyl is the colony of Meykirk, at the 
 distance of live or six miles. It consists of 8 or 10 
 poor boys who were placed under the direction of a 
 teacher on a spot of uncultivated ground, from which 
 they were expected to obtain the means of subsist- 
 ence. It is designed as an experiment on the prac- 
 ticability of providing for the support and education 
 of friendless children, without any further expense 
 than that of the soil which they cultivate. Several 
 hours are devoted daily to intellectual and religious 
 instruction, and thus the children advance in cultiva- 
 tion and knowledge, as well as in hardihood and in- 
 dustry." 
 
 It was a ruling principle with Fellenberg, in 
 the management of Hofwyl, thai "gradual prog- 
 ress is the only sure progress." Ami he care- 
 fully avoided bringing together a large number 
 of children of various characters, to be subjected 
 to a kind of discipline entirely new to them. 
 He commenced with introducing two or three 
 boys into his own family ; and afterwards he 
 would receive only a few pupils at once into his 
 school, so that they ought fall insensibly into the 
 prevailing habits and discipline. Wehrli, who 
 distinguished himself so highly as an assistant 
 of Fellenberg, was tlius taken into his family ; 
 and the active benevolent spirit was so rapidly 
 
 and strongly developed in him. that, before the 
 end of the year, lie requested to be placed with 
 three pupils, gathered from the highways and 
 heiloes. in tin- farm-house of the establishment. 
 
 Mere Wehrli partook of their straw beds ami 
 
 vegetable diet, became their fellow laborer and 
 companion, as well as their teacher, and thus 
 Laid the foundation of the Agricultural Institu- 
 tion, in L808. The Normal School, or Seminary 
 for Teachers, was an important addition to the 
 institution. The iirst year, gratuitous instruc- 
 tion in the art of teaching was given to 42 
 teachers from the Canton of Bern. Subsequently 
 a number of young Russians, of the highest 
 class, were sent by the emperor Alexander to be 
 instructed ; but the Russian government after- 
 wards withdrew its patronage, being jealous of 
 the liberalizing influence of Hofwyl. Other 
 Euro] lean states entertained the same feeling. 
 Many English and Swiss pupils were instructed 
 in this school. Jn 1823, a building was erected 
 in the garden of the mansion, to accommodate 
 a school for poor girls. 
 
 All the schools at Hofwyl were conducted on 
 the soundest and most approved principles of 
 education, and with a devotion, on the part of 
 the instructors, that could not but be followed 
 by success. In 1813, a commission, at the head 
 of which was M. Ringger, one of the most dis- 
 tinguished patriots of Switzerland, was appointed 
 to examine the Agricultural School. The report 
 of this commission (published at Paris, 1815) is 
 a most interesting document. Six days were 
 spent in the examination, which embraced all 
 the details of the labors, studies, and religious 
 exercises of the pupils, their food, dress, and ac- 
 commodations. The approval of the commission 
 was full and emphatic. Of the noble Wehrli 
 the report expressed great admiration: "From 
 the dawn of day," it remarked, "he seems to have 
 no thought nor time except for his pupils. 
 When he came among them, amidst their labors 
 or amusements, he appeared rather like an elder 
 luother than an instructor." The school at that 
 time comprised 2.'5 boys, from the lowest and 
 often the most vicious families — some of them 
 abandoned children — and, literally, taken from 
 the highways and hedges; and yet they lived, 
 under a mild system of government, in perfect 
 peace and harmony. Such was the effect of the 
 sound principles, wise administration, and de- 
 voted labors of Fellenberg and his co-laborers, 
 in this most interesting institution. It still re- 
 mains under the control of the descendants of 
 Fellenberg, and was advertised by them to be 
 re-opened. after thorough renovation and repairs, 
 on Sept. 23., 1871), under the management of 
 Mr. A. Fr. Andresen, the successor of Dr. Ed- 
 ward -M tiller. For a full account of Fellenberg 's 
 system, see ..\u>> m-nn A/Oials cf EduCClHon, 
 
 vol. i.. passim. (See also Fellenberg.) 
 
 HOLBROOK, Josiah, distinguished for his 
 labors in behalf of science teaching in common 
 schools and the diffusion of useful knowledge 
 among all classes, was bom in Derby, Ct, in 
 L788, and died near Lynchburg, Ya., in 1851. 
 
430 
 
 IIOLIJROOK 
 
 HOME EDUCATION 
 
 It was while pursuing his studios in Yale Col- 
 lege, that, under the instruction of Prof. Silli- 
 inan, he imbibed that fondness for natural 
 science, particularly chemistry and geology, 
 which gave direction to his future life. For 
 some time after graduating, in 1810, he gave his 
 attention to agriculture, managing his father's 
 farm at Derby. There he took part in the 
 establishment of an agricultural school, in which 
 he delivered lectures on his favorite sciences. In 
 L826, he published his plan for an Association 
 of Adults for Mutual Instruction, and organized 
 the Millbury Lyceum, as ;t branch of the pro- 
 jected American Lyceum, which he designed to 
 consist of affiliated Lyceums, or associations for 
 mutual improvement, in every state of the 
 Union. Tims the town Lyceums wore, by dele- 
 gates, to constitute a county board of education. 
 the county boards, in a similar manner, a state 
 board; and the state boards were to he repre- 
 sented in a grand national convention. the object 
 being to promote general education and the 
 spread of intelligence among all classes. Hun- 
 dreds of these lyeeuins were established in vari- 
 ous parts of the United States, through the in- 
 defatigable labors of Mr. Bolbrook, who gave his 
 whole time to the delivery of scientific lectures, 
 the distribution of circulars ami tracts, and the 
 personal visitation of schools. In L825, he 
 began the manufacture of cheap and simple 
 Bchool apparatus for illustrating geology, natural 
 philosophy, and geometry; which, in L829, in 
 connection with Timothy Claxton, of Huston, he 
 greatly extended, into what was afterwards 
 known as the Holbrook School Apparatus. In 
 L842, he undertook the organization of a system 
 of school exchanges, the object of which was an 
 interchange, among schools in different parts of 
 the country and in foreign countries, of speci- 
 mens of pupils' work ; such as. maps, draw- 
 ings, geometrical solids, collections of minerals, 
 etc. In this way, he conceived, the intellectual 
 activity of the pupils would be stimulated ; and, 
 besides, bj becoming acquainted with the prod- 
 ucts of each other's labor, their standard of 
 
 excellence would he elevated, and their desire 
 
 for improvement increased. This scheme met 
 with considerable favor in many parts of the 
 country, particularly in the city of New York. 
 and lor a time was successfully carried on. The 
 . I merican Lyceum also, tor a w hile, greatly nour- 
 ished. In L828, a public meeting was held in 
 
 Ho 'on to pro ie its objects, at which Daniel 
 
 Webster presided, and George B. Emerson acted 
 as so -retary : and resolutions were adopted com- 
 mending the Lyceum to public favor and sup- 
 port. At other meetings, Edward Everett took 
 pari in the proceedings; and subsequently, out 
 of this movement, in favor of popular education, 
 grew the Boston Society for the Diffusion of I se- 
 Knowledge, followed soonafterby the Boston 
 Lyceum', and, partly as the result of the same 
 awakening, the American Institute of Instruc- 
 tion was established in 1830; and the next year. 
 the Florida Education Society was organized at 
 Tallahassee. The American Lyceum held its 
 
 first national convention, May 4., 1831, in New 
 York, and adopted a constitution. There were 
 presenl delegates from Maine. Massachusetts, 
 New York. Pennsylvania. Yale College, the 
 city of Washington, and other places; and 
 Stephen Van Rensselaer was elected its first 
 president. A general meeting was held each 
 succeeding year till 1839, when a special conven- 
 tion, held in Philadelphia November '2'!.. termi- 
 nated the public proceedings of the Lyceum. — 
 Mr. Holbrook continued in his favorite enter- 
 prises of philanthropy until the close of his life. 
 While on ;t visit to Virginia, near Lynchburg, he 
 went out for geological exploration, and was not 
 again seen until his body was found at the foot 
 of a cliff, from which it was supposed he had 
 fallen. Few lives have been so earnest, unselfish, 
 and philanthropic; and to very few has it been 
 given to be the means of stimulating the intellect- 
 ual activity of so many thousands. — See 
 Baenaed's Journal of Education, vols. viu.. and 
 xrv.; and American Educators, vo1.il; Amer- 
 ican Annals of Education; Bodkne, History of 
 the Public School Society (N. Y.. 1870). 
 HOLIDAY. See School Festtvaia 
 
 HOLLAND. See NETHERLANDS. 
 
 HOLY ANGELS' COLLEGE, at Van- 
 couver, Washington Ter.. under Itoman Cath- 
 olic control, was founded in I860. It is sup- 
 ported by tuition fees and voluntary contri- 
 butions. In 187(*>. it had T(i pupils. Its presidents 
 have been as follows: the Kev. J. I!. Brouillet, 
 1860—62; the Rev. P. Means, 1862— 72 ; the 
 Rev. I'. Bylebos, 1872— 3; and the Rev. Louis 
 <i. Sehratn, the present incumbent, appointed 
 in 1873. 
 
 HOLY CROSS, College of the, at Worces- 
 ter, Mass.. was founded in 1843 by the Ht. 
 Rev. Benedici Joseph Fenwick, Roman Cath- 
 olic Bishop of Boston, and was given by him 
 to the Fathers of the Society of Jesus. In 1865, 
 it was incorporated by the legislature of the 
 
 state, with power and authority " to confer such 
 
 degrees as are conferred by any college in this 
 commonwealth, excepl medical degrees." The 
 object of the institution is to prepare youth for 
 a professional or for a commercial course of life. 
 The course of studies embraces, in its whole ex- 
 tent, a period Of seven years, of which three are 
 given to the preparatory and junior classes, and 
 
 the remainder to the Benior. 1 he candidates for 
 
 the degn f Bachelor of Arts must undergo an 
 
 examination in rational and natural philosophy, 
 astronomy, and chemistry, and must be well ac- 
 quainted with Latin, < deck, and mathematics. 
 The charge For hoard and tuition is $250 per an- 
 num. besides some extras. In 1874 5, there 
 were l •_' instructors and 177 students. The num- 
 ber of degrees conferred at the commencement 
 in 1875 was 13. The library contains 1 L,000vol- 
 mnes. The Rev. Joseph r>. O'Hagan, S. J., is 
 1 876) the president. 
 
 HOME EDUCATION is that which is car- 
 ried on in the home circle, or family, as con- 
 trasted with that which is afforded by the 
 
 school. Op to a certain age. and within a cer- 
 
HOME EDUCATION 
 
 431 
 
 
 tain sphere, homo education, or its equivalent, 
 is not only indispensable but inevitable. The 
 parents are the first teachers, especially the 
 mother: and the educative influences of the 
 nursery not only precede in time, but exceed in 
 power, those of the school. Bere the foundation 
 is laid on which the school-teacher must sub- 
 sequently build : and, comparatively speaking, 
 more is accomplished in the period of earliest 
 childhood, both in storing the mind and in 
 forming the disposition and character, than dur- 
 ing any equal number of subsequent years. " A 
 child gains more ideas," says Lord Brougham, 
 '• in the first four years of his life than ever 
 afterward." Early home education consists pe- 
 culiarly in what has been called unconscious 
 tuition, by means of which the plastic nature of 
 the young child is insensibly moulded by the 
 agencies which environ it. The mother chiefly 
 controls these agencies, which may be enumer- 
 ated as follows : (1) The affectionate tenderness 
 which she displays, in ministering to the wants 
 and gratifying the desires of the child, and in 
 sympathizing with and alleviating its distresses ; 
 (2) Her behavior, as being delicate and refined. 
 or coarse and rude. — showing self-restraint and 
 dignity, or manifesting impulsiveness and pas- 
 sion ; (3) The tones of her voice — sweet and 
 tender, or harsh and dissonant, firm and decisive, 
 or weak and yielding; (4) The expression of 
 her face, implying similar traits ; (5) The force 
 of her will, under the intelligent guidance of 
 educational principles and the restraints of con- 
 science. Such are the elements of a mother's 
 educative power, — a power the exercise of which 
 results in forming in the child traits of character 
 that no succeeding agency of circumstance, edu- 
 cation, or self -discipline can entirely efface. It 
 will be seen, from this enumeration, that the 
 mother's influence is rather moral than intellec- 
 tual ; indeed, the special period of its exercise 
 supersedes the necessity of any formal cultiva- 
 tion of the knowing faculties. The child, dur- 
 ing the first few years of its existence needs 
 little direction in this respect. Natural curios- 
 ity and innate activity constantly stimulate the 
 growth of the mind, and fill it with those ideas 
 which are to constitute, in succeeding years, the 
 materials of thought. It is just as absurd to 
 subject a very young child to formal instruction 
 as it would be to attempt the development of its 
 physical powers by gymnastic exercises. Watch- 
 fulness is, however, constantly required to check 
 the formation of bad habits, which have just as 
 strong a tendency to Bpring up in the young 
 mind as rank weeds in a virgin soil. (See 
 Habit.) The period of exclusive home educa- 
 tion here referred to bring so decisive of the 
 future character of the child, and the mother 
 being the first and most effective of all educa- 
 tors, it will be apparent that the science of edu- 
 cation, in its most comprehensive sense, should 
 constitute an essential part of the curriculum 
 of every female seminary or college. Particu- 
 larly should the future mother be taught to ap- 
 preciate the character of the influence, in all its 
 
 phases, which she is to exert; as well as to un- 
 derstand, how to render it effectual in contribut- 
 ing to the future welfare of her child. The 
 father, at a somewhat later period, but in a 
 similar manner, is a powerful educator within 
 the circle of home. I loth by precept and ex- 
 ample, but especially by the latter, he makes 
 life-long impressions. In vain are precepts, 
 however, if they are not fully supported by ex- 
 ample. What a terrible indictment is brought 
 by Quintilian against the home education of his 
 time in the following suggestive statement: 
 " \\ ould that we ourselves did not corrupt the 
 morals of our children! We are delighted if 
 they utter any thing immodest. Expressions 
 which would not be tolerated even from the 
 effeminate youths of Alexandria, we hear from 
 them with a smile and a kiss. Nor is this won- 
 derful; we have taught them ; they have heard 
 such language from ourselves. They see our 
 mistresses, our male objects of affection; every 
 dining-room rings with impure .songs; things 
 shameful to be told are objects of sight. From 
 such practices springs habit, and afterwards nat- 
 ure. The unfortunate children learn these vices 
 before they know that they are vices ; and hence, 
 rendered luxurious and effeminate, they do not 
 imbibe immorality from the schools, but carry it 
 themselves into the schools." While contemplat- 
 ing so shocking a picture as this, not of home 
 education but of home corruption, no one can 
 wonder at the degree of degeneracy which the 
 political and social system of the Romans finally 
 reached. While, in the grade of society to which 
 the above quotation refers, no child, in the state 
 of society of our times, could be subjected to 
 such contaminating influences; yet, even at 
 present, the impressions, both intellectual and 
 moral, received by children in very many of 
 the home circles of what are considered the bet- 
 ter classes of society, are rather debasing than 
 elevating. The complaint is often made by 
 teachers that the children placed under their 
 care are so depraved by bad home training, or 
 in consequence of absolute neglect, that their 
 efforts to discipline and instruct these pupils are 
 almost useless. 1 his is the more to be regretted, 
 as school education can. in most cases, only sup- 
 plement that of home; and because the influ- 
 ences that center in the latter are always more 
 potent than those wielded by the former, chiefly 
 because school education is primarily intellectual; 
 whereas that of home is primarily moral. At 
 any rate, such is the fact generally. 
 
 After the period of formal instruction has ar- 
 rived, the question arises in the minds of many 
 parents, whether it is better to detain the cliild 
 at home to be instructed by private tutors or to 
 submit it to the discipline and instruction of the 
 school. This question has been much discussed 
 by educators. Quintilian, in regard to this 
 point, said, in favor of school education, that "it 
 had the sanction of those by whom the polity of 
 the most eminent states was settled, as well as 
 that of the most illustrious authors." The fol- 
 io wing arguments are generally adduced to prove 
 
432 
 
 HOME EDUCATION 
 
 HOME LESSONS 
 
 that the education acquired in school is to be 
 preferred to any that is possible by private tutors 
 at home: (1) The intellectual training is more 
 effective; since the boy or girl coming in com- 
 petition with those of the same age is stimulated 
 to greater exertions than would be possible in 
 any system of home instruction. As Quintilian 
 says. "At home, the boy can learn only what is 
 taught himself: at school, he will also learn what 
 is taught to others. Be will hear many things 
 approved; many others, corrected. The reproof 
 of a fellow pupil's idleness will be a good lesson 
 to him; as will, likewise, the praise of his neigh- 
 bor's industry, lie will think it disgraceful to 
 yield to his equals in age, and great honor to ex- 
 cel his seniors. All these matters amuse the 
 powers of the mind; and if ambition be an evil, 
 it is often the parent of virtue." The child 
 educated at home can never, realize the full ex- 
 tent of his own powers, having no standard by 
 which to measure them. Bence, he is satisfied 
 with meager results, at the same time that he is 
 likely to be filled with self-conceit. It is, how- 
 ever, scarcely disputed that the school, as a mimic 
 world, presents a variety of incentives which a 
 
 home education could never afford : and that it 
 
 is favorable to rapid mental growth. Bui it is 
 its influence on the moral nature that has been 
 chiefly called in question. Home has been de- 
 picted as the abode of purity and it cence, — 
 
 of kindness, gentleness, and affection, — of court- 
 esy and refinement, — of morality and religious 
 influence ; and such it ought to be. and it is to be 
 hoped, often is. From such an atmosphere, the 
 home-bred child is at once introduced into a new . 
 and to him utterly unknown, world. Instead of 
 sympathy, he finds, among his school-mates, in- 
 difference; instead of courtesy and kindness, a 
 thoughtless disregard of all weakness, cither of 
 mind or body, except, indeed, to turn it into 
 ridicule. Be finds that, if he is not mindful of 
 
 himself, and sufficiently self-assertive, he will be 
 
 borne down in the mass. 'There is an antag- 
 onism — an aggressiveness in those around him 
 that begets caution and resistance; there is a 
 sense of danger that cultivates courage, and a 
 matter-of-fact spirit that crushes out egotism 
 
 and sensitiveness. Thus the boy, in the little 
 
 world of the school, is prepared for the greater 
 
 School beyond. Probably, no better illustration 
 
 of this fact is afforded anywhere than in the 
 
 great Public Schools of England. Eton has 1 d 
 
 especially noted for the rough discipline to which 
 
 its pupils subject each other: and yet we find 
 
 the following cogent testimony as in the favor 
 able effects of thai system upon the boys' char- 
 acters, from an entirely reliable source: " I think 
 it cannol be denied that the tendency of the 
 Eton system is to make a boy generous and firm- 
 minded, to exercise his common Bense early, to 
 
 make him habitually feel a moral responsibility, 
 
 to act not under the impulse of tear, but of 
 generous shame and generous emulation, to be 
 willing and determined to keep trust because he 
 
 is trusted: in a WOld, to make him a manly DOJ 
 
 and a gentleman." (Public School Education, 
 
 by Sir J. T. Coleridge, London, 1860.) It has 
 been well said in regard to the corrupting influ- 
 ence of school, ■• School indeed brings the knowl- 
 edge of evil, but the innocence of childhood is 
 but the innocence of ignorance : by home edu- 
 cation it cannot be much prolonged, and when 
 knowledge comes at last, it finds less force of 
 character and less strength of principle to coun- 
 teract its poison." Better, therefore, it would aj>-. 
 pear, is it to unite the education of a good Bchool 
 
 with that of a properly ordered family. in which 
 combination the evils of school life will be neu- 
 tralized by the stronger and purer influences of 
 home. Not home or school, but home and 
 school, constitutes the proper agency for the 
 education of children, whether hoys or girls. It 
 is the opinion of some, however, that admitting 
 the advantages, in general, of a school education. 
 that of home generates certain peculiar traits 
 
 and excellencies of character which are essential 
 
 to the welfare of society. This is the argument 
 of Isaac Taylor, in Home Education, who says, 
 - the school-bred man is of one sort — the home- 
 bred man is of another: and the community has 
 need of both; nor, as I think, could any meas- 
 ures be much more to be deprecated, nor any 
 tyranny of fashion more to be resisted, than 
 such as should render a public education, from 
 first to last, compulsory and universal." 
 
 HOME LESSONS, or Home Studies. The 
 question whether home lessons, or home studies. 
 should be a part of the system of instruction iii 
 schools of different grades, and if so, to what 
 extent they should be permitted, and in what 
 manner they should be pursued and super- 
 vised by the teacher, is one of considerable im- 
 portance, which is still extensively discussed by 
 writers on education. The need of home 
 lessons for pupils of secondary and higher 
 
 schools has never been disputed. In regard 
 
 to the schools of a lower grade, many physicians 
 have strongly objected to any kind of home 
 lessons, as long as the children are required to 
 
 spend from 4 to 5 hours a day in the school 
 loom. Their arguments are. however, chiefly 
 directed against the length of the school sessions. 
 From an educational point of riew, it has justly 
 been urged by recent writers, that the regulation 
 of this matter must chiefly depend on the 
 question, for what purpose should home lessons 
 be given. I In this point, educators, at the present 
 i nee, are much more nearly agreed than formerly. 
 No \\ riter of note will, nowadays, maintain that 
 home lessons should be for the mere purpose of 
 preventing idleness — of keeping the children 
 busy, or as a punishment for delinquencies ; but 
 it is agreed that all home studies should aim at 
 training the pupils to self-exertion, at giving 
 them the ability to depend upon their ovi d efforts 
 as students, and by degrees, to dispense with the 
 
 aid of a teacher. If this principle is accepted. 
 
 several corollaries are self-evident. Home lessons 
 should not begin at too early an age. Young 
 children need the supervision of a teacher to a 
 much greater extent than those of a more ad- 
 vanced age, and are much Less fitted to spend 
 
IIOMK LESSONS 
 
 ITORX-ROOK 
 
 43; 
 
 their time profitably without direct guidance. 
 Moreover, while the school sessions for young 
 children are as long as for older ones, the medical 
 
 warning not to overwork the brain, applies with 
 much greater force to the home lessons of the 
 former than to those of the latter. Special care 
 should be taken that all the children fully un- 
 derstand the work which they are required to 
 perform at home, and that they are compe- 
 tent to do it. No child of good standing in the 
 class should feel it uecessary to apply to his par- 
 rents or adult friends for help. It is especially 
 this point that is so apt to be disregarded by 
 teachers. Parents have a right to object to any 
 home lesson or exercise which requires, in the 
 case of diligent pupils, any help in addition to 
 that of the teacher. All exercises of this kind 
 prove a torment, and are absolutely injurious. 
 •■The school", says Diesterweg, "must teach 
 the method of home studies. It is not enough 
 that the home lesson be appropriate in itself ; 
 the pupil must be enabled to prepare it in 
 a proper manner. How often poor children tor- 
 ment themselves where this is not taught! The 
 teacher should show them how to memorize, 
 how to prepare or review a lesson, how to write 
 a composition, by previously memorizing, pre- 
 paring, reviewing etc., with them at school. Thus 
 the teacher becomes the pupil's friend, and this 
 is more than to be his master." Moreover, when 
 pupils are required to write exercises at home, 
 the teacher should faithfully correct them. The 
 failure to do this fosters habits of carelessness. 
 Many teachers greatly err in this regard, 
 burdening children with the task of writing 
 pages of exercises, and correcting but few, or 
 none, of them. Certainly, no teacher who is 
 guilty of so serious a mistake, can be regarded 
 as understanding the work either of instruction 
 or of discipline. Home lessons are, in general, 
 more frequent in European than in American 
 schools. The opinion is entertained by many 
 European writers, especially German (as Rol- 
 tus and Pfister, Realencyclopadie, vol. i., art. 
 Aufgabe), that home lessons are entirely un- 
 known in American schools. Of course, this is 
 not correct: but the views strenuously advocated 
 by the best American educators, that home lea- 
 s' ms should not begin early, and that they should 
 occupy only a small portion of the childrens 1 
 time out of school are fully concurred in by the 
 best educational writers of Germany. "Under 
 the guidance of the teacher", says Diesterweg, 
 •' the attentive pupil will be able to learn at 
 school, in one tenth of the time, what he is 
 Bometimes required to learn, when distracted 
 and fatigued, at home. Thousands of pupils and 
 parents become disgusted with the school, on 
 account of the annoyance which they receive from 
 the home lessons heedlessly assigned by the 
 teachers ; home lessons should, therefore, be re- 
 stricted to the smallest possible amount ; and I he 
 teacher, before assigning such a lesson, should 
 ponder well the question whether just this les- 
 son cannot be dispensed with, or be made un- 
 necessary." Dittos {Schule der Padagogik) 
 
 28 
 
 is of opinion that the best arrangement for a 
 common school is to confine all the learning of 
 Lessons to the school room, and to set apart 
 special hours for study, under the direct super- 
 vision of the teacher. This, of course, is an 
 extreme view ; but it serves to illustrate the 
 depth of the conviction that home lessons, as 
 usually assigned, do not promote the real prog- 
 ress of the pupil. "The effect of poorly learning 
 a lesson", says I). P. Page [Theory ami Practice 
 of Teaching), " is most ruinous to the mind of a 
 child. He, by the habit of missing, comes to 
 think it a small thing to fail at recitation. He 
 loses his self-respect. He loses all regard for his 
 reputation as a scholar. Besides, the attempt 
 to acquire an unreasonable lesson, induces a 
 superficial habit of study, — a skimming over 
 the surface of things. The motto of the wise 
 teacher should be, not ho wmuch, but how well 
 He should always ask, is it possible that the 
 child can master this lesson, and probable that 
 he will" 
 
 HOPE. See Incentives, Prizes, and Re- 
 wards. 
 
 HOPE COLLEGE, at Holland, Mich., was 
 established in 1851, by the Reformed Dutch 
 ( hurch, as the Holland Academy. It was 
 organized as a college in 1863, and incorporated 
 in 18 G 6. Its especial design was to furnish a 
 suitably educated ministry. It has an endow- 
 ment of about $60,000. The library contains 
 about 1,200 volumes. Three departments have 
 been organized : (1) preparatory, (2) academic 
 
 In 
 
 or collegiate, and (3) theological. In 1874 — D, 
 there were 9 instructors and 111 students. Rev. 
 Philip Phelps, Jr., has been the president since 
 the organization of the college. 
 
 HOPKINS, Mark, a noted American 
 scholar and teacher, born in Stockbridge, Mass.. 
 Feb. 4., 1802. After graduating at Williams 
 ( ollege, and serving as tutor in that institution 
 for two years, he commenced the practice of 
 medicine in New York; but, in 1830, returned 
 to Williams College to fill the position of pro- 
 fessor of moral philosophy and rhetoric, and, in 
 1 s.'! 6, succeeded Dr. Griffin as president of the 
 College, in which position he remained until 
 1872, when he resigned to resume the duties of 
 professor of mental and moral philosophy. He 
 has published a number of works, all of which 
 evince high intellectual and moral culture, as 
 well as literary ability. Among them, that which 
 illustrates best his peculiarly lucid mode of 
 teaching difficult subjects is An Outline Stud// 
 of Man (New Fork, 1ST,'!), which is a model of 
 the developing method as applied to intellectual 
 science, as well as of blackboard illustration. 
 
 HORN-BOOK, a book consisting of a single 
 page, formerly used to teach children the alpha- 
 bet and other simple rudiments. It was, in fact. 
 the first page of the primer, pasted on a thin 
 board, which terminated in a handle, and having, 
 fastened over the printed matter, a thin plate of 
 transparent horn, to protect it from being soiled 
 or torn by the young learner. Usually there was 
 a hole in the handle for a string, by which the 
 
434 
 
 HOUSE OF REFUGE 
 
 HOWE 
 
 apparatus was slung to the scholar's girdle. 
 Hence, in a View of the Beau Monde (1731), we 
 find a lady described as "dressed like a child, in 
 a bodice coat and leading-strings, with a horn- 
 book tied to her side". Sometimes, instead of 
 being mounted on a board, the printed page was 
 pasted on the back of the horn only. The horn- 
 book was in use in England from the time of 
 queen Elizabeth to the close of the eighteenth 
 century ; it was also used in some of the Amer- 
 ican colonies until about the same time. The 
 oldest specimens contain the alphabet, in small 
 letters and capitals — in black-letter or in 
 Roman — commencing with a cross, which 
 serves to designate the first row. This is followed 
 by the vowels, and their simplest combination 
 with the consonants, the Lords' Prayer, and the 
 Roman numerals. (See Curist Cross Row). Be- 
 fore the horn-book was invented, it is thought, 
 a cast-leaden plate was used in England, having 
 on its face the alphabet in raised letters; as 
 ancient carved stones have been discovered 
 which appear to have served as moulds for cast- 
 ing such plates. There are many allusions in 
 English literature to this little implement of 
 elementary education. Shenstone in his quaint 
 poem, the Schoolmistress (1741), thus refers to it: 
 
 "Eftsoons the urchins to their tasks repair ; 
 Their books, of stature small, they take in hand, 
 Which with pellucid horn secured are, 
 To save from finger wet the letters fair." 
 
 Cowper, in Tirocinium, or a Review of Schools, 
 
 (1784), thus describes it: 
 
 Neatly secured from being soiled or torn 
 
 Beueath a pane of thin translucent horn, 
 
 A book to please us at a tender age, 
 
 'Tis called a book, though but a single page) 
 
 Presents the prayer the Saviour deigned to teach, 
 
 Which children use, and parsons — when they preach." 
 
 Locke, in Thoughts on Education, mentions the 
 horn-book and primer as the "on Unary road"' to 
 Learning to read in his time. (See Primer.) 
 
 HOUSE OF REFUGE. See Reform 
 Schools. 
 
 HOWARD COLLEGE, at Marion, Ala., 
 was founded by the .Missionary Baptists, in 
 1843. It has a library of about 2000 volumes, 
 geological and mineralogical cabinets, and chem- 
 ical, mathematical, and philosophical apparatus. 
 The cost of tuition, board, etc. in the college de- 
 partment is $226 per annum. Theological stu- 
 dents receive tuition free. The course of study 
 is divided into the fallowing distinet schools: 
 !l) School of Latin; (2) School of Greek; 
 
 School of i Lern languages ; (I) School of 
 
 English ; (5) School of moral science and theol- 
 ogy; (6) School of mathematics; (7) School of 
 chemistry, geology, and mineralogy; (8) School 
 
 Of natural philosophy and applied inatheinat ICS : 
 
 School of civil engineering; (10) Business 
 school There is. also. a preparatory department. 
 The degrees conferred are B. S., A. B., M. A., ami 
 ('. B., each of which requires proficiency in sev- 
 eral schools. In L874 ."'.there were 5 instruc- 
 tors and L 02 students. The presidents have been as 
 follows :S.S.Sherman,LL.D.,H.W.Talbird,D.D., 
 .1. L M.( vu-ry. Id,. l>.. S. It. Freeman, D.D.,and 
 J.T.Murfee,LL.D.,the present incumbent(1876). 
 
 HOWARD UNIVERSITY, at "Washing- 
 ton, D. C, was chartered by Congress in 18G7, 
 and named after Gen. O. O. Howard, one of its 
 founders. It occupies a commanding and 
 beautiful site at the head of Seventh street, north 
 of and just beyond the city limits, and has several 
 fine buildings. Though the institution was es- 
 pecially designed for colored youth, every depart- 
 ment is open to all, without distinction of race or 
 sex ; and both white and colored persons of both 
 sexes are found among its instructors and stu- 
 dents. The univeisity is supported by contri- 
 butions and tuition fees. It has libraries con- 
 taining over 8,000 volumes, a mineral cabinet, 
 and a museum. The departments of instruction in 
 connection with it are as follows : (I) Academical 
 branch, consisting of (1) Normal department, 
 with a model school ; (2) Preparatory depart- 
 ment; (3) College department. (II) Professional 
 /•notch, (1) Medical department; (2) Law de- 
 partment ; (3) Theological department. The 
 normal department was, at first, supported by 
 what was known as the Miner Fund. The medical 
 students have the advantage of the Freedmen*s 
 General Hospital and Asylum, situated within 
 the grounds of the institution. The theological 
 department is open to students of every Chris- 
 tian denomination. The cost of tuition in the 
 law department is $50 a year (or $40, when paid 
 in advance) ; in the medical and theological de- 
 partments, it is free; in the other departments, 
 SI 2 per year. The number of instructors and 
 students, in 1875 — C, was as follows : 
 Departments. Instructors. Students. 
 
 Normal \ 34 
 
 Model school ( 1n 141 
 
 Preparatory f 39 
 
 College ) 33 
 
 Medical 8 24 
 
 I ,u 2 13 
 
 Theological 3 2.5 
 
 Total 23 309 
 
 Gen. Howard was president of the University 
 till Iy7i5, when he was succeded by John M, 
 Langston, LL D., as vice-president. In 187">. the 
 Rev. Edward P. Smith was chosen president; 
 and continued in ollice till his death, in 1876. 
 
 HOWE, Samuel Gridley, a distinguished 
 American educator and philanthropist, partic- 
 ularly noted for his zeal and success as a teacher 
 of the blind and the imbecile, was born in 
 
 Boston, in L801, and died in that city, in 1876. 
 After graduating at Brown Univeisity. in L821, 
 
 he studied medicine for a time ; but. becoming 
 interested ill the cause of the Greek patriots, he 
 
 entered the revolutionary army, in which he 
 served as surgeon till L827. About this time. 
 Dr. John D. Fisher, who while pursuing his 
 medical studies in Paris, had become acquainted 
 
 with the abbe* Baiiy's institution for the blind, 
 proposed the establishment of a similar institu- 
 tion in Boston. I>r. Bowe. who had returned to 
 the United States for the purpose of soliciting 
 contributions for the cause of the struggling 
 
 Greeks, was invited to take charge of the pro- 
 posed institution; and having accepted, he imme- 
 diately embarked for Europe to visit the asylums 
 
HUARTE 
 
 HUNGARY 
 
 435 
 
 for the blind in England, France, and Germany. 
 On his return, the institution was organized, 
 under the name of the Perkins Intitution for 
 the Blind, with Dr. Howe at its head (1832). 
 Id are the education of Laura Bridgman (q. v.), 
 a blind deaf-mute, under his personal instruc- 
 tion, attracted general attention, and placed Dr. 
 Howe in the front rank of teachers; since only 
 the most anient zeal, and the most consummate 
 skill, tact, ami patience cotdd have accomplished 
 so difficult a task. He was also much interested 
 in the education of the imbecile : and the ex- 
 perimental school for their training, which he 
 helped to found, resulted, in L851, in the Mas- 
 sachusetts School tor Idiotic and Feeble-Minded 
 Youth, in South Boston. I Te was the author 
 of a Reader for the Blind (1839) and a Histor- 
 ical Sketch of die Greek Revolt// ion (ls28). 
 
 HUARTE, Juan, a Spanish physician and 
 philosopher, was born inXavarre, about 1535, and 
 died about 1600. He gave great attention to 
 psychology, and particularly to the external 
 physiological indications of character ; and at- 
 tempted to show the practical value of his system 
 in education and otherwise, in his great work 
 Exdmen de Ingenios para Sciencias {Test of 
 Minds for the learn ing of the Sch m < \es) , published 
 about 1580, in which he gave directions for dis- 
 covering the special talents of individuals for 
 the aecpusitiou of particular sciences. This book 
 became very famous, and was translated into 
 various languages. The English version was en- 
 titled the Trial of Wits. It taught that every 
 person is endowed with a talent for some specialty, 
 which should be discovered and cultivated; since 
 whatever attention he might give to other pur- 
 suits, he could never rise above mediocrity in 
 them. As a means of ascertaining this special 
 gift, he laid great stress upon an examination 
 of the form of the head, thus, to some extent 
 anticipating the doctrine of Gall and Spurz- 
 lieim. — See Tickxor, History of Spanish Liter- 
 ature. 
 
 HTJET, Pierre Daniel, a noted French 
 scholar, born at Caen, Feb. 8., 1630, died at 
 Paris, Jan. 26., 1721. He was a pupil of Des- 
 cartes and Bochart, accompanying the latter to 
 Sweden, in 1652. He also visited Holland, but 
 returned to Caen and gave himself up entirely 
 to study. He became Doctor of Laws, in 1670. 
 and soon after, was summoned to Paris, where 
 he was appointed sub-preceptor, under Bossuet, 
 of the Dauphin. He directed, for his royal pupil, 
 the preparation of the Delphin edition of the 
 classics. In 1G85, he was made bishop of Sois- 
 sons, but was transferred to the see of Avran- 
 ches, in 1692, which position he resigned in 
 1699, on account of ill health, nis complete 
 works were published in 1856, in 6 vols. 
 
 HUMANITIES (bat. hwmaniora or literce 
 Juiniaitiori's), those branches of education or 
 study, which are included in what is called po- 
 lite or elegant learning, as languages, grammar, 
 rhetoric, philology, and poetry, with all that per- 
 tains to what is called polite literature, includ- 
 ing the ancient classics. The name implies that 
 
 the study of these branches, in opposition to the 
 physical sciences, which especially develop the 
 intellectual faculties, has a tendency to human 
 
 man,- — to cultivate particularly those faculties 
 which distinguish him as man, in all his rela- 
 tions, social and moral; that is, which make him 
 a truly cultured man. In the older systems of 
 education, the humanities took the lead ; in the 
 new, they have been, to a considerable extent, 
 superseded by studies deemed more practical, 
 from a utilitarian point of view. The contest 
 between the humanities and the so-called prac- 
 tical studies, as branches of higher education, is 
 still rite. The humanities are, at present, more 
 commonly designated belles-lettres (q. v.). 
 
 HUMBOLDT, Karl Wilhelm von, a dis- 
 tinguished German statesman, philologist, and, 
 e< lucator, 1 ir< it her of the great scientist, Alexam ler 
 von Humboldt, was born June 22., 1767, died 
 Aprils., L835. He studied at the universities 
 of Frankfort on the Oder and Gottingen, and 
 after holding several positions in the Prussian 
 diplomatic and state service, was appointed, in 
 January, 1809, chief of the educational depart- 
 ment in the ministry of the interior, in which 
 position he remained until April, 1810. This 
 short period was fruitful of reforms in the edu- 
 cational affairs of Prussia ; but it was especially 
 in the fields of higher education that Humboldt's 
 influence was felt. 1 Ie prepared the way for, and 
 thus became the real founder of, the University 
 of Berlin, and also laid the foundation of the 
 future greatness of the Prussian gymnasia. His 
 reforms in the study of languages, in the schools 
 of Prussia, exerted a far-reaching influence. His 
 own linguistic works were of great importance, 
 especially that upon Kavi, the language of an- 
 cient Javanese literature ( Ueber die Kawispraehe 
 auf der Insel Java, 3 vols., 1836 — 40), still re- 
 garded as a classic on the philosophy of language. 
 The introduction, which treats of the differences 
 of languages and their influence upon the de- 
 velopment of the human race, appeared in a 
 separate volume [Ueber die Verschiedenheit des 
 menschlichen Sprachbaves, etc.). — See Steix- 
 tiial, Die Sprachwissi'iischaft TF. ran Humboldt's 
 (1848); Heym, Wiflielm von Humboldt (18.*>6). 
 
 HUMBOLDT COLLEGE, at Humboldt, 
 Iowa, was founded in 1869, by the Rev. Stephen 
 1 1. Taft, but was not opened until 1872. It is 
 non-sectarian, and is supported by voluntary 
 contributions. Tuition is free to students to 
 the number of 100. The college building is a 
 beautiful marble edifice, erected at a cost of 
 over ^40,000. The library contains 1,300 
 volumes. It includes an English, a preparatory, 
 and a- collegiate course. In 1*71 — 5, there were 
 I instructors, and 97 students, of both sexes. 
 Rev. Stephen H. Taft has been the president 
 since the commencement of the institution. 
 
 HUNGARY, one of the principal divisions 
 of the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy, is composed 
 of Hungary proper, the former kingdom of 
 Croatia, which, besides sending delegates to the 
 Hungarian diet, has a provincial diet of its own,' 
 and the free city of Fiume. Its entire area is 
 
436 
 
 iicxcary 
 
 125,045 sq. m., and its population, which, ac- 
 cording to tin ■ census of 1869, was 15,509,455, 
 was estimated, in L875, at L5.993.196. The 
 population of Hungary is made up of a number 
 of different races, no single race having an ab- 
 solute majority. These races differ not only in 
 language, but also in dress and customs. Accord- 
 in:;' to estimates by Austrian statisticians, the 
 races are divided nearly as follows: Germans, 
 1,780,000, forming J 1.4 per cent of the total 
 population : Slaves, 1,74<>.000, or 30.6 per cent ; 
 (nearly Hi per cent being Servians or Croats, 
 and 12 per cent Slovacks); Italians and Rouma- 
 nians 2,673,000, or 17.fi percent: .lews. 553.7(10, 
 or 3.5 per cent; Magyars, 5,553,700, or 35.7 
 percent; and various other tribes amounting 
 to about 199,000, or 1.2 per cent of the total 
 population. The Magyars, though constituting 
 considerably less than one-half of the population, 
 are the ruling race, and are making strenuous 
 efforts to introduce the study of their language 
 into all the schools of i he country. The former 
 kingdom of Croatia and Slavonia, in which 94 
 per cent of the people belong to the Slavic race, 
 preserves a certain degree of administrative 
 independence; and the Croatian language is 
 used in all the public schools. In L869, the 
 different religious denominations were repre- 
 sented as follows : Roman Catholics, 7,600,000; 
 United Greeks, L,600,000; United Armenians, 
 5,200; Protestants of the Augsburg Confession, 
 1 .1 1 1,000 ; and of the Helvetian Confession, 
 2,031,000; Oriental Greeks, 2,590,000; Grego- 
 rian Armenians, 650; Unitarians, 55,000 ; other 
 < Ihristian denominations, 2,600 ; -lews, 553,700 ; 
 other non-Christians, and persons of no relig- 
 ion, 220. The ruling race of the country. 
 the Magyars, were a Mongolian tribe, that took 
 possession of Hungary in 894. Christianity was 
 introduced under Duke Geysa (972 — 98), whose 
 son Stephen was crowned king by the Pope. In 
 L526,a pari of the country was conquered by the 
 Turks, and the remainder was annexed to A ustria, 
 with which country it has been connected ever 
 since. In 1849, it was deprived of its ancient 
 constitution, and converted into a crown land 
 or province of the Austrian empire; but, in 
 L867, its constitutional independence was re- 
 stored ; and, since that time.it bas formed one 
 of the two main divisions of the A ustro- 1 1 un- 
 itarian Monarchy, in consequence of the numer- 
 ous civil wars, the oppression by foreign barba- 
 rians, and the conflicting tendencies of the rival 
 races and religions, the progress of education in 
 Hungary bas been slow. The numerous German 
 tlements of the L 2th and I :; ih centuries, even 
 in tfa ' -t hours, never failed to make provi- 
 sion for the education of their children; and when 
 the majoritj of these settlements, in the Kith 
 century, joined the Augsburg confession, their 
 schools were benefited by then closer connection 
 with the states of Germany. It was thus that 
 the Cronstadl gymnasium was founded in the 
 latter part of the |(iih century, thai gradually 
 the city schools in various places were raised to 
 
 the rank of gymnasia, and that scarcely a com- 
 
 munity of the Augsburg confession was without 
 a common school. The same was also true of 
 most of the communities of the Reformed 
 Church. The elementary education of the Cath- 
 olics in the German settlements, was not so well 
 cared for : but numerous gymnasia were founded 
 by the Jesuits in the Hungarian countries, which 
 grew quite rapidly. Very little was done for the 
 { cause of education by the government, until 
 Maria Theresa appointed a commission on 
 schools and studies, in 1774. The whole country 
 was divided into nine districts. The provincial 
 director, who presided over a district, had charge 
 of all the schools, with the exception of the 
 national university, the gymnasium of Buda, 
 and the episcopal lyceums. In 177^. the in- 
 spectors of the Catholic common schools met in 
 Buda, and consulted on a plan, called the pro- 
 jectum Budense, to organize these schools. In 
 accordance with this plan, a normal school was 
 immediately established in every district, and 
 common schools were to be erected as soon as 
 possible in every parish. In the village schools. 
 instruction was to be confined to reading, writ- 
 ing, and arithmetic, with German, if desired; 
 
 while, in the city schools, a knowledge of Ger- 
 man was considered necessary for all the scholars. 
 The schools of non-Catholics were to be grad- 
 ually incorporated with the system. In 1780, 
 the empress gave to the schools the property of 
 the Jesuits, amounting to about L0,000,000 
 florins ; but, ovi ing to the peculiar circumstances 
 which existed under Joseph II.. this huge sum 
 did not immediately produce the expected result. 
 Joseph I [.attempted a number of radical reforms; 
 but most of them had to be abandoned, even 
 
 before his death. A commission, however, ap- 
 pointed by the Reichstag, drafted a new law. 
 which was adopted in 1806. According to this 
 law, every Catholic community was to have a 
 national school, with one or two teachers; while 
 7.'! cities were to have upper schools, with three 
 or four teachers. The ten normal schools were 
 to serve at the same time as schools for teachers. 
 The (ill gymnasia were divided into 51 full 
 
 gymnasia, with six classes, and <i of four classes 
 
 each. After the death of Joseph II. the Protest- 
 ants refused aiOSl determinedly to introduce 
 this new law into their schools, and Catholic 
 children were prohibited from attending Protest- 
 
 anl schools without the consent of the priest 
 
 A new era began when, in 1850, the Hungarian 
 lands became an integral part of the Austrian 
 monarchy. Attention was. at first, given to the 
 elementary schools. New schools were erected. 
 
 the condition of the teachers was improved, 
 and existing schools were enlarged. Teachers 
 
 were procured at great expense from other coun- 
 tries. Under the newly appointed district 
 
 officers, the school attendance increased rapidly. 
 
 The long interruption of school sessions, generally 
 from March till November, was abolished; and 
 penmanship, drawing, an 1 musicwere introduced, 
 for the first time, into Hungarian schools. An 
 
 entirely new idea were the Puszta or Tanya 
 school:., which were designed to furnish instrue- 
 
HUNGAET 
 
 437 
 
 tion to the numerous children living on the 
 great plains in houses far apart from each other, 
 and whose parents were chiefly engaged in herd- 
 ing horses for the nobility. After the re-estab- 
 yshment of the Hungarian independence, a new 
 school law was promulgated, in L8G8, which has 
 greatly promoted the advance of education. — 
 
 Primary Instruction. — Education, according 
 to the new law of £868, is compulsory for all 
 children from the sixth to the fifteenth year. The 
 primary schools are divided into elementary and 
 higher people's schools, burgher schools, and pre- 
 paratory schools for teachers. The different relig- 
 ious denominations may establish public schools 
 of their own, if they comply with the general re- 
 quirement of the school laws. Private persons 
 or associations may also establish elementary and 
 normal schools, if the teachers hold proper cer- 
 tificates. These schools may become public 
 schools by complying with the provisions of the 
 school laws. Every private school, however. 
 must conform to the course of instruction pre- 
 scribed by law for schools of the same grade. 
 Every community in which denominational 
 schools exist, and in which there are as many as 
 30 children of other denominations, must pro- 
 vide an elementary school. The elementary 
 s hool is composed of two courses. — a common 
 school course, of six years, and a review course, 
 of three years. The school year must comprise, 
 in the country, at least eight months, and in the 
 cities, nine months. The course of study com- 
 prises religion, reading, and writing, arithmetic. 
 languages, geography," and history, natural phi- 
 losophy, natural history, music, gymnastics, and 
 practical instruction in gardening and farming. 
 Every child must be instructed in his mother- 
 tongue. Wherever there is a large number of 
 people speaking different languages, teachers of 
 th >se languages must be employed. All cities 
 of more than 5,000 inhabitants must establish 
 at least a higher people's school ; and, if their 
 means suffice, a burgher school. In these schools, 
 boys and girls must be instructed separately, and 
 in their own language. The course of study 
 comprises religion, penmanship, and drawing, the 
 mother-tongue, the Hungarian language, where 
 it is not the medium of instruction, mathematics, 
 natural history and natural philosophy, geog- 
 raphy and history, the elements of agriculture, 
 constitutional history, book-keeping, gymnastics, 
 and singing. In the s ihools for girls, agriculture, 
 constitutional history, and gymnastics are omit- 
 I I. needle-work beeing taught instead of them. 
 
 In the burgher schools, the boys' course com- 
 prises six years: and the girls' course, four year.;. 
 in addition to the stu lies pursued in the higher 
 people's schools, chemistry, statistics, and the 
 elements of law are taught in the burgher 
 
 1 T 
 
 Bchools. Iii some of the larger schools, Latin, 
 French, music and other branches are taught as 
 Optional studies. The course in the normal 
 schools comprises three years. A model training 
 school is connected with every normal school. 
 The schools are under the direct authority of 
 the communities, each one of which elects a 
 
 committee of. at least, nine members. The 
 whole country is divided into school districts. 
 for each one of which the ministry appoints an 
 inspector, who must superintend all the schools 
 in his district, and visit them, at least, once a 
 year. He sees that the laws are properly en- 
 forced, and makes an annual report Oil the con- 
 dition of the si hools in his charge. Subordinate 
 to the inspector is a school councilor. Teachers. 
 are appointed, cither upon graduating from a 
 normal school, or upon passing a proper exam- 
 ination. A school law for Croatia was passed 
 by the Croatian diet, in 1874, of which the 
 principal provisions are as follows: The state 
 has the control of the entire school system. 
 School attendance is compulsory and free. In- 
 struction is imparted in the < 'roatian language ; 
 but other languages may be used as the medium 
 of instruction, where they are spoken by the 
 inhabitants, if the community supports its own 
 school, and the inhabitants are ignorant of the 
 < roatian language. In all such schools, the study 
 of the Croatian language is obligatory. The 
 school age extends from the eighth to the twelfth 
 year inclusive. Female teachers may be ap- 
 pointed in lower classes of the common school 
 in case of need. Burgher schools for both sexes 
 are substituted in place of the real schools which 
 formerly existed in connection with the head 
 schools. Pupils may enter the teachers' seminal y 
 upon completing their fifteenth year. The course 
 of instruction comprises three years. 
 
 In 1873, there were, in all the lands of the 
 Hungarian crown, 15,445 schools, of which 1,542 
 were communal schools, and 13.903. denom- 
 inational schools. In the same year, there were 
 801 communities without any school at all. and 
 the children of which could not even attend 
 neighboring schools, on account of distance. The 
 day schools were attended by 1,174,427 children 
 (637,193 boys and 537,234 girls), the review 
 schools by 231.530 (123,512 boys and 108,018 
 girls), the higher people's schools by 10,104 
 (6,243 boys and 3.861 girls), and the private 
 schools by 23,534 (10,905 boys and 12,629 girls), 
 and the intermediate schools by 13,671 hoys. 
 making a total of 1,443,266 children receiving 
 instruction. On the other hand. 678,154 (318,420 
 boys and 359,734 girls), or nearly 40 per cent of 
 the children of school age, received no instruc- 
 tion. The total number of teachers in the same 
 year was 19,598, of whom 15,149 were licensed. 
 The number of normal schools was 57 : of which 
 15 were state and 32 denominational schools for 
 male teachers, and I state and li denominational 
 schools for female teachers. These schools were 
 
 attended by 2,371 students (1>77 males and 494 
 
 females. The number of teachers was 510. and 
 the total number of classes 151. In 1875, there 
 were higher people's schools for boys, with agri- 
 cultural courses: 1 with a course of gardening 
 and grape culture, 1 with a carving school, and 
 
 1 with a trades' school ; it for both sexes, 2!> 
 burgher schools for boys, and 8 for girls. A 
 
 higher female school iii Buda-Pesth, and two 
 
 state seminaries for female teachers, in Buda- 
 
-l:;s 
 
 HUNGARY 
 
 HYGIENE 
 
 Pesth and in Raab, were established in 1875. 
 Buda-Pesth., the capital of Hungary, had, in 
 1>7.'!, Til communal. 2 government, 18 denomi- 
 national, and 49 private schools. The school 
 population was 51,532. The day schools were 
 attended by 27,864, and the review schools by 
 4,726 pupils, making in all about 7!) per cent of 
 the school population. The courses for adults 
 were attended by 1,922 pupils, and the trade 
 school, by 1,510 pupils. 
 
 Secondary Instruction. — Secondary instruc- 
 tion is imparted in gymnasia and real schools, 
 which correspond to the institutions of the Bame 
 name in Germany. In 1872, there were 147 
 gymnasia, with 1,842 teachers and 27,360 stu- 
 dents. Of these. 20,775 were -Magyars. 2,418 
 Germans, 2,195 Roumanians, and 1,863 Slaves. 
 The number of real schools, in the same year, was 
 HI. with 315 instructors and 5,803 students, of 
 whom 3,815 were Magyars, L,530 Germans, 326 
 Slaves, and 115 Roumanians. The Hungarian 
 language is taught in all these schools. In Hun- 
 gary proper, it is the medium of instinct ion 
 in all secondary schools; though in some, one or 
 more other languages are also used for some 
 branches of instruction. In Transylvania, the 
 medium of instruction is German in the Roman 
 Catholic gymnasia of Qermannstadt and Cron- 
 stadt, and in all schools belonging to the Evan- 
 gelical Church; Roumanian, in the gymnasia of 
 the Greek Church; and the Hungarian language, 
 iii all other schools. 
 
 Superior Instruction. — There are three uni- 
 versities in Hungary: in Buda-Pesth, in Klau- 
 senburg (founded in 1872). and in Agram 
 (founded in L874). The university of Buda- 
 Pesth had. in the winter term of 1875 — 6,150 
 professors and 2,630 students. Klausenburghad, 
 in the same year, 61 professors and 417 students. 
 In the University of Agram, 270 students were 
 admitted, upon its opening, in 1871: but, in 
 L875 6, the number of students was 319, and 
 that of professors, 31. The universities of Hun- 
 gary have substantially the same organization as 
 those of Germany and of Austria proper. 
 
 Special Instruction. Hungary had the fol- 
 lowing special schools in L875: A royal poly- 
 technic institute, in Buda-Pesth, with 57 profess- 
 ors and 862 students: 9 royal. and I evangelical 
 
 law academies, a commercial high-school, in Buda- 
 Pesth, a royal agricultural academy, in Alten- 
 burg, I other agricultural academies, in Debrec- 
 Zin, Keszthely, Kaschau, and l\ lauseiiburg. the 
 royal academy of forestry, in Schemnitz, the 
 Croatian school of agriculture and forestry, in 
 
 kreii/,. ."> lower agricultural schools. .'! ad Is of 
 
 vine-culture, a royal mining academy, in Schem- 
 nitz, 2 lower milling schools, an academy of 
 
 music, in Buda-Pesth, a royal school for the edu- 
 cation of officers of the landwehr cavalry, in 
 Jaszbereny, the Ludovica Academy in Buda- 
 Pesth, for the landwehr, a preparatory school, in 
 
 Gilnz, and a naval academy in Finnic. See 
 
 Scumio, Encyclopctdie, vol. v., s. v. Austria; 
 Ki.i s. Statistik von Oesterreich-Ungarn (1876); 
 Brachelli, Statistische Skizze der Staaten Eu- 
 
 ropds (1875) ; and Statistische Skizze der oster- 
 reichischrungarischen Monarchic (1874), being a 
 supplement to Steix and Wapp^eus, Handbuch 
 der Geographie und Statistik. 
 
 HYGIENE, School, has reference to that 
 department of school administration, which per- 
 tains to the preservation of physical health. 
 This is to be distinguished from physical educa- 
 tion, which looks rather to the special training 
 or developing of the body; while hygienic prin- 
 ciples and rides have for their ol iject to preserve 
 that condition of health in which all pupils are 
 supposed to enter school, and. by their constant 
 though unobtrusive influence, to make that con- 
 dition permanent. The value of the maintenance 
 of physical health will hardly be questioned by 
 any thoughtful person, certainly not by any educa- 
 tor ; for while the mind does sometimes, indeed, 
 appear to act independently of the body, there 
 are numerous instances on record which show 
 that not only intellectual inefficiency is directly 
 traceable to ill health, but moral obliquity also. 
 If the effect of positive disease, therefore, be- 
 comes so evident in specific instances as to reveal 
 this direct connection, the cases in which that 
 connection is obscure, and the effect apparent 
 only in a general way. must be numerous. Il- 
 lustrations of this are not wanting in the experi- 
 ence of every observing person. So well estab- 
 lished has this connection become) and so im- 
 portant, consequently, has the subject of physical 
 health in education been deemed, that no prom- 
 inent educational writer has failed to notice it. 
 
 'I he subject of the preservation and promotion 
 of physical health in the school involves the fol- 
 lowing considerations : (1) the character of the 
 site on which the school building is erected; 
 (II) the mode of constructing the building, as 
 well as the location and construction of the out- 
 buildings. — water-closets, etc.; (Ill) the con- 
 struction and arrangement of the class-rooms; 
 (IV) the size, number, and distribution of the 
 windows for the admission of light; (V) the 
 mode of ventilation : | VI) the manner of heat- 
 ing the rooms, and the average temperature 
 preserved in them by artificial heat: (VII) the 
 
 adaptation of the school furniture to the physical 
 wants and condition of the children : ( \ 1 1 1 ) the 
 kind of discipline employed, in regard to hygi- 
 enic principles; (IX] the degree of attention 
 gn en to the personal condition of the pupils, so 
 as to preserve cleanliness and prevent the com- 
 munication of disease : and i\i the means af- 
 forded for physical exercise. Each of these will 
 be considered in its order, according to the above 
 enumeration, 
 
 I. Site. — Mod. in sanhary science, fortunately, 
 has given such particular attention to the sub- 
 jects of site and exposure, and has impressed the 
 public mind so thoroughly with the necessity 
 
 of their bealthfulness, thai only willful ignorance 
 Or obstinacy will, in our day, permit a building 
 designed for human occupancy to be placed in 
 a manifestlj unhealthy location. The healthful- 
 
 lless of a school site depends Upon ( 1 I the char- 
 ade]' of the soil ; (2) its elevation; (,'5j the cir- 
 
HYGIENE 
 
 439 
 
 cnmstances which facilitate or obstruct proper 
 drainage; (4) its remoteness from any stagnant 
 water, or marshy ground, liable to produce mal- 
 arial fevers: (5) its remoteness from any factory 
 or establishment poisoning the air by the issue 
 
 of deleterious and offensive gases : to which may 
 be added (6) the amount of space it affords for 
 play-grounds, so as to facilitate physical exercise. 
 While no school board or committee would 
 err so far as to place a school-house in a situa- 
 tion decidedly unfavorable in regard to any of 
 these considerations, there exist between this 
 and a decidedly healthy location, all manner of 
 intermediate situations, which call for the exer- 
 cise of good judgment, and even a knowledge of 
 medical and sanitary science, in deciding upon 
 their fitness as sites for schools. In the country, 
 the difficulty is usually simplified by the greater 
 opportunities for choice, and the undisturbed, 
 natural condition of the ground. In cities, how- 
 ever, the choice is necessarily restricted; and the 
 best judgment will often be at fault in regard to 
 the nature of the ground, this being frequently 
 ••made ground", /. >■.. ground formed by bringing 
 earth from a distance, and depositing it over 
 spots originally low and swampy ; or the filling 
 itself may be composed of refuse and garbage 
 which are destructive of health. A scientific 
 test of such ground will ordinarily show a slow 
 oozing up, through the soil, of poisonous gases. 
 .Modern examinations, also, as to the distribu- 
 tion of diphtheria, fever and ague, and some 
 other diseases, show that these usually follow 
 the lines of old water-courses. The leakage of 
 -ewers and gas-pipes is another insidious foe 
 which the dwellers in cities have to encounter. 
 The choice of location, therefore, should always 
 be such as to avoid these influences so hostile to 
 health. The soil should be, if possible, light or 
 sandy, or a coarse gravel, since clayey soil holds 
 the rain, and soon causes wet feet, with all their 
 accompanying diseases; while the vegetable mat- 
 ter, decomposed by the sun and standing water, 
 frequently gives rise to consumption, and fevers 
 of various kinds. If such a soil must be used, 
 there should be a sloping surface, or, if unavoid- 
 ably level, nothing short of the most thorough 
 draining should be tolerated. 
 
 II. Construction of School Building. — The con- 
 struction of the school building will depend on 
 the number of pupils to be accommodated ; the 
 kind of school, as regards the sexes; and the 
 grade, — whether primary, grammar, or high 
 school. (See Sttioot. Hocsk.) In regard to 
 water-closets and urinals, it is hardly necessary 
 to say, that they should, for convenience, be as 
 near the school-house as possible, without being 
 near enough to allow the perception of any odor. 
 The approaches from the school-house should be 
 under cover, the ventilation and the supply of 
 light should be ample. They should also be en- 
 ■ lo d from observation. 
 
 III. Construction n,i'l Arrangement of Class 
 1! »»ns. — This varies with the conditions under 
 which the school-house is built. The rooms, how- 
 ever, should always be constructed so as to allow 
 
 at least 108 cubic feet of air space to each pupil, 
 and 9 square feet of floor-space. The height of 
 ceiling recommended by the best authorities is 
 a minimum of 12 feet and a maximum of 15 
 feet, if the room is not very large. These pro- 
 visions are absolutely necessary to furnish to 
 each pupil the amount of air necessary for health. 
 (See VENTILATION.) 
 
 IV. The Size, Number, and Distribution of 
 the Windows. — On this subject, Currie, in 
 School Education, remarks : " The provision for 
 lighting a school should have two ends in view : 
 (1) a proper amount of light, and (2) its just 
 distribution. The effect either of an excess or a 
 deficiency of light is to strain the eye and cause 
 a depression of spirits, especially as the day 
 advances. In regard to distribution, all the 
 parts of the school should be equally lighted, 
 which may be more easily done with a few ju- 
 diciously placed windows of respectable size than 
 with a number of smaller, straggling apertures. 
 Good ways of lighting a school are these : 
 (1) Perhaps, the best of all is when the light is 
 admitted from the roof, as it is then steady, 
 equable, and free from shadow. (2) The win- 
 dows may be placed in the ends of the school 
 room, or in two adjacent sides, so as to admit 
 the light from the pupil's left. Where there 
 are windows in front of the classes, they should 
 be at some distance from them, and in every case 
 they should be at such height in the walls as 
 to remove all danger from drafts when they are 
 opened. School windows should be of the same 
 shape as ordinary house windows ; at any rate, 
 lattice windows, with numerous, small, lozenge- 
 shaped panes of glass should be avoided, as the 
 light transmitted through them is so broken as 
 to be extremely fatiguing to the eye. (3) Each 
 window should be fitted with blinds to moder- 
 ate the intensity of light, when necessary, par- 
 ticularly to exclude the direct rays of the sun. 
 If the windows are used for ventilation as well 
 as lighting, the difficulty of using the blinds in 
 such a case may be obviated by having a fixed 
 Venetian blind outside the window at the top, 
 and hanging the inside blind on a level with the 
 bottom of it. (4) The tint of the school walls 
 should neither be too dull, so as to absorb the 
 light unduly, nor too glaring, so as to dazzle the 
 eye by reflection. Of the colors commonly em- 
 ployed ; namely, the white, the ocher, the stone 
 color, and the lightish-brown, the last two are 
 obviously to be preferred." If the lighting of 
 the school room is from the roof, care should be 
 taken that the windows or sky-lights should not 
 slope to the south or west, as the heat and sun- 
 light will be intolerable in hot weather, and 
 their regulation by blinds will be difficult. If 
 the fighting, on the other hand, is by side win- 
 dows, "the height of the window sills from the 
 floor,'' says Robson, "should always be con- 
 siderable, and the heads near the ceiling. ^luch 
 of the cheerfulness of a school room, especially 
 in a town, depends on the amount of sky which 
 can be seen from the windows. The height of 
 the sills from the floor, therefore, should never 
 
■Mil 
 
 HYGIENE 
 
 be less than five feet, and may be even nunc 
 wrath advantage. This will enable the top or 
 bead to be placed Dearly, if do! quite, up to the 
 ceiling, and then the upper stratum of vitiated 
 . it- can lie more readily removed." The impor- 
 tance of this subject in regard to health is very 
 great. Liebreieh, in his report to the College of 
 Preceptors of London (July, L872), attributes 
 vera! diseases of the eye to this cause alone ; 
 and I>r. Cohn asserts that of 410 students ex- 
 amined by him, only one-third possessed good 
 eye-sight, the remaining two-thirds having had 
 their sight injured, in his opinion, by the de- 
 ficient lighting of the school rooms in which they 
 studied. A rough calculation, from researches 
 made on the subject, gives 200 square indies of 
 window glass as the proper number for each 
 scholar. In the above remarks by Currie, the 
 left side has been designated as the one from 
 which the light should come, because this en- 
 sures the fullest illumination of the page, with 
 the least inconvenience, and the least injury to 
 the eye. When light is admitted through the 
 front of the room, the glare is directly in the 
 face cither of teacher or pupils, they being sup- 
 posed to face e.eli other. If it falls from be- 
 hind, the shadow of the head is thrown directly 
 upon the page; if from the right side, the 
 shadows of the arm and hand, in the act of 
 
 writ ing, equally obscure it. The light, therefore. 
 
 should fall from the left side, and. as far as pos- 
 sible, from above. In evening schools, the light- 
 ing should be, as nearly as possible, equal to that 
 by day. If gas is used, the glass cylinder with a 
 reflecting shade is recommended, for the purpose 
 of steadying the light and making it stronger and 
 
 whiter. Ground glass shades are now generally 
 discountenanced, their effect being to diffuse the 
 light. For general illuminating purposes they 
 
 are desirable, as in die parlor or concert room ; 
 but are out of place in the school room, or in 
 any room where the object is to concentrate 
 
 light upon a particular spot. 
 
 V. '/'/%■ Mode of Ventilation. See Venti- 
 i, ■ r;o.v. 
 
 VI. Mode of Heating, <url Temperature. — 
 
 Many met hods, based upon ingenious theories ;. i id 
 
 provoking heated discussion, have been adopted 
 to overcome the difficulties attending this sub- 
 ject; but it is, probably, not unfair to say that 
 an end rely unobjectionable heal ing apparatus, as 
 regards health, has yet to be devised. Wood is, 
 of course, too dear for general use. 'The ordinary 
 e. the cellar furnace, and all devices for 
 ..arming air by passing it over heated metal 
 
 urfaces are now entirely discountenanced, it 
 
 having been discovered thai a highly poisonous 
 
 is set free, and passes through heated metal 
 
 as through a .-ie\c. The steam coil, placed OUt- 
 
 ide of the school room and heating a column of 
 
 air which is drawn from I he out Sli le. and. alter 
 
 heating b cends into the room. has. of late, been 
 
 extensively used. At the Opposite end of the 
 
 room, a grate, varying in size with thai of the 
 
 room, is placed: the theory being that, as the 
 
 haated an ascends in one end of the room, the 
 
 cool and foul air is forced out at the other 
 
 through the Hue of the grate, in which a fire 
 is usually kept to facilitate the current. This 
 method, while perhaps the least objectionable of 
 any. has been opposed on the ground, that by it 
 the stratum of air nearest the ceiling is kept 
 warmest, while that nearest the floor, which 
 should be the wannest, is least so. To obviate 
 
 this difficulty, it has even been proposed to make 
 
 the floor of stone and warm it after the manner 
 of an oven. i. e., by kindling a tire under it. 
 
 Whatever method is adopted, however, fluctua- 
 tions of temperature should, as much as possible, 
 be avoided, and the air of the room should be 
 
 kepi steadily at from 65 to 7<» degrees. 
 
 VII. Furniture. — Several diseases have been 
 traced to faultily-constructed school furniture. 
 chief among which is curvature of the spine, with 
 the diseases consequent upon it. This is some- 
 times the result of insufficient lighting ; but more 
 frequently it arises from the Improper construc- 
 tion of the desk and seat, or the arrangement of 
 
 them. (See School Fukniti be.) 
 
 VI I I. Discipline and School Management. — 
 
 The methods of discipline which militate against 
 bodily health are fortunately growing less in 
 every civilized country. as more study is given to 
 the subject of education, it may be said briefly 
 that whatever discipline tends to bodily deteri- 
 oration in any way should be discountenanced, as 
 the object of discipline is to train, uol to break 
 down. (See Discipline.) <>f the errors, under 
 the head of school management, which affect 
 health may be mentioned those which arise from 
 1 1 ) the length of the daily school session. These 
 crrots are frequently due to the fact thatcouTses 
 of Study are laid down first, with the view of ac- 
 complishing a certain result, and the pupils' 
 powers arc made to coii form to them. Ity this 
 inversion of the natural method, sessions of h'\ ■ 
 and six hours, with only slight intermissions, ate 
 
 sometimes ordered; this can result only in 
 
 physical injury. The reversal of this. i.e. .11 study 
 
 of the child's physical necessities first, and a 
 
 school course based on them, will insure the adop- 
 tion of the only sale and reasonable method con- 
 sistent with health. This should be so arranged. 
 
 by a judicious alternation of sedentary occupa- 
 tions, physical exercises, ami recesses, that no 
 "violation of the primary laws of physiology ". as 
 
 Prof. Owen terms it. maybe possible. In a room 
 
 Supplied with proper hygienic facilities, four 
 hours per day is thought to be the maximum for 
 
 \ ery young pupils, and five hours tor older 01 
 
 /'//'■ number, length, <<>"! distribution of 
 ises must vary with the different ages of th 1 
 
 children to such an extent, that the onlv practi- 
 cable guide for their regulation must be found in 
 
 the discretion Of the teacher, it may be said, in 
 
 general, however, that the weariness of the pupil. 
 
 which is shown by his restlessness and want of 
 attention, furnishes the best indication of the 
 time when t he ordinal v text book studies should 
 be superseded by physical c xercist >, ,,r by the ab- 
 solute recreation of the play-ground. In tropical 
 Climates, the middle of the day, lor exercise 1 
 
HYGIENE 
 
 441 
 
 any kind, should be avoided. Nature, however, 
 ha* pointed this out so unmistakably, thai there is 
 little liability to error. (3) The number, length, 
 and distribution of vacations arc in a general 
 way. governed by the same consideration that 
 prescribes the number, Length, and distribution 
 of recesses; namely, the freshness, both mental 
 and physical, of the pupil, with such modifications 
 as may be suggested by climate, prevailing con- 
 tagious diseases, or other conditions. The ten- 
 dency, of late years, in the I nited States, has 
 been to begin the school session about the first 
 of September, and to continue it uninterruptedl) 
 — with a slight intermission of a week during the 
 holidays — till the following June or July. By 
 this arrangement, a Long, continuous vacation is 
 insured during the warmest season of the year, 
 when, it is claimed, rest is most needed. It has 
 been objected to this, and perhaps with reason, 
 that the heat of the summer months renders 
 them unfavorable for that outdoor exercise which 
 is most needed for the recuperation of the system. 
 and that the health of pupils would be promoted 
 rather by confining them indoors. As long, 
 however, as the summer heats are avoided by 
 a flight to the sea-shore or the mountains, this 
 practice will probably prevail ; and though it 
 may be said that the poor of cities, who are by 
 far the largest patrons of the public schools, can- 
 not afford to leave the city for summer retreats. 
 it must be remembered, on the other hand, that 
 , the greater prevalence of fatal diseases in cities. 
 during the summer months, renders a vacation 
 desirable even in their ease. (4) The regulations 
 of the school may. by their severity, seriously 
 interfere with bodily health, by checking or 
 entirely repressing that activity which is so 
 marked a characteristic of childhood and youth. 
 Reid, in his Principles of Education, says,'' 
 There is nothing in which parents are often more 
 tyrannical and unreasonable than in expecting 
 children to be quiet and good, and give them 
 little trouble, when they will not put themselves 
 to the least trouble to find suitable occupation 
 for the active and restless faculties of their 
 children. The trouble that a child gives to those 
 in charge of it, should very often be viewed as 
 an effort of nature to recall them to their neg- 
 lected duty." The degree and kind of restraint, 
 exercised over pupils, therefore deserve careful 
 isideration. In this connection must be con- 
 demned all those restrictions which repress, for 
 any considerable time, that innate activity which 
 is a necessity of the child's very being, and the 
 repression of which, though not Immediately and 
 actively productive of disease, becomes passively 
 so by the condition of atrophy which it tends to 
 produce. Want of exercise is frequently as in- 
 imical to health as excess of it. The number 
 and length of lessons, also, by their excess may 
 become physically injurious. "With young chil- 
 dren," Currie says, "a lesson should not average 
 in duration more than a quarter of an hour, and 
 on no account exceed twenty minutes. It is hard 
 enough to sustain the attention, even for this 
 period j and no child will be able to retain more 
 
 than we can tell him within it. The teacher 
 should subdivide his lesson rather than trespass 
 
 beyond this limit. Lessons of different kinds, 
 
 i. e., occupying different senses, should follow 
 each other ; this is a great relief. It is absurd 
 to speak of these frequent changes as causing 
 loss of time". Excitement and overwork, also, 
 should be avoided. The same general directions, 
 however, given in regard to the number ami 
 Length of recesses, are applicable here. The les- 
 sons assigned by the teacher and studied in his 
 
 presence may be easily directed ; but those which 
 
 are pursued at home should receive equal atten- 
 tion. (See I Lome Lessons.) 
 
 I X. Personal < Condition of Pupils. — (1) Clean- 
 liness, being a necessary condition of health, 
 should be strcnously insisted upon. Cleanliness 
 of the person will sometimes be found, especially 
 in schools among the very poor, to be neglected. 
 The danger of the outbreak of disease, or of its 
 communication from this source, is always great 
 in large schools; and, therefore, the frequent 
 use of the lavatory, in such cases, is necessary. 
 Cleanliness of clothing is no less necessary to 
 prevent the communication of disease. Realizing 
 the neglect of a proper care of the clothing, 
 natural to children through thoughtlessness, many 
 school boards have made the daily dusting and 
 brushing of clothes by the pupils a part of the 
 school routine. In Germany, this is often in- 
 sisted upon, and the necessary provision made at, 
 the expense of the school. < lleanliness of In tills 
 is a no less essential condition of good health, 
 and should be watched, as far as may be, and 
 enforced with a view to the prevention of ill 
 health. (2) It frequently happens that diseases, 
 more or less contagious in their nature, break out 
 in schools, and lead to the closing of the schools 
 for a time, with sometimes more serious results. 
 In many cases, these could have been prevented, 
 or confined to the original ease, by a proper pre- 
 caution on the part of the teacher. Ophthalmia, 
 hooping-cough, scrofula, scarlet fever, small-pox, 
 and skin diseases, whether of the head or the 
 body, are cases of this kind. A slight knowledge 
 of the symptoms should apprise an intelligent 
 teacher of the danger at once, and .secure the re- 
 moval of the case to the home or the hospital* 
 (.'{) Vaccination, as a preventive of small-pox, 
 should receive attention. The efficacy of this is 
 now so thoroughly established, that a, majority 
 of public schools do not hesitate to employ it. not- 
 withstanding the objections often urged. When 
 the disease becomes epidemic, if the pupil has 
 never been vaccinated, the operation should take 
 place at once; if he has, proof should be required, 
 eil her in the shape of marks, or a certificate, 
 which should establish three facts: that the 
 operation was performed by a competent and 
 responsible person, that it was effective, and that 
 it was done recently enough to insure its efficacy 
 in averting disease at the time the proof is re- 
 quired. 
 
 X. Physical Exercise. — That this is one of the 
 most effective of all agencies in preventing dis- 
 ease, is now generally admitted, though the ex- 
 
442 
 
 IDAHO 
 
 cess to which it is often carried in our day has, 
 for .some time, been creating a reaction against it. 
 The phase of the question which calls for atten- 
 tion here, is its use not so much as a means of 
 development, as in promoting health. On this 
 account, one of the most important acces- 
 sories of the school-house is the play-ground. 
 Whether this is used as a place for continuing 
 the discipline of the school room, or simply as a 
 spot where children may be absolutely free to 
 pursue their games, its size, location, and exposure 
 should be carefully considered. If the plot on 
 which the school-house stands is large, but en- 
 tirely, or almost entirely, surrounded by other 
 buildings, the planting of shade trees around the 
 limits of the enclosure is recommended, in order 
 to give seclusion. These should never stand, how- 
 ever, so near the building as to exclude light, or 
 cause dampness. Robson says in regard to this. 
 "The play-ground should not be of a straggling. 
 inconvenient form, but compact and without re- 
 c sms or places where children can remain long 
 out of sight. A northerly or easterly as| >ect sin >uli 1 
 n.'ver be wantonly provided when a southerly or 
 westerly one could have been as easily obtained 
 by no other outlay than that of a little common 
 sense. A portion should be covered, so that in 
 wet weather the children may not be compelled 
 to play in their school rooms. In the case of in- 
 fant schools, this covered portion is absolutely in- 
 dispensable, as already shown, because marching 
 forms so important an element in their prepar- 
 atory instruction. It can generally be obtained in 
 the form of a light shed open on one side; but. 
 in some cases, and where land is dear, it may 
 be convenient to raise the boys' and girls' schools 
 on a low story of eight to nine feet high, and 
 thus to obtain some portion of the covered play- 
 ground underneath. In such cases, care will be 
 required to prevent a cold, drafty result. As 
 to the size of play-grounds for different schools, 
 it is difficult to be precise. <>n account of their 
 more active out-dour games, requiring space, the 
 boys should undoubtedly have the lion's share, 
 While the infants — too young to develop all the 
 uses of a play-ground — will be happy in one 
 much more limited. Perhaps, a space of about 
 
 twice the size Of the school room and class rooms 
 is necessary for the latter. Where land is dear. 
 and in consequence limited, one play-ground 
 
 may suffice both for the girls' school and the in- 
 f ants', an arrangement being made by the respec- 
 tive mistresses for its use at separate times. 
 Without such arrangement, there is risk of dis- 
 order, no one being responsible for the discipline 
 of (ill. if there are two infant schools or depart- 
 ments on the same site, the girls should be pro- 
 vided with a separate play-ground, because then 
 the numbers are sure to be too great for one." 
 By what means these play -grounds should be 
 separated, is still a matter of discussion, different 
 methods being employed in different places, with, 
 thus far, equally satisfactory results. 
 
 In dismissing the subject of school hygiene, it 
 may be said that the influence of school life on 
 physical health, if properly managed, is not only 
 not injurious, but positively beneficial. This 
 might be inferred, a priori,bom the fundament- 
 al law of existence. Jt is amply confirmed, how- 
 ever, by actual statistics. Efforts to prove the 
 contrary have been made by inferences drawn 
 from false premises based on over-exertion, and 
 many erroneous theories prejudicial to the cause of 
 education have thereby become prevalent. The 
 interaction of mind and b >dy. hi >wever. is not only 
 an established, but a conceded fact : and just as 
 surely as the body, by proper exercise, contrib- 
 utes to the efficiency of the mind, so surely does 
 the mind, by duly regulated action, contribute to 
 that of the body. The annals of medical science 
 confirm this in the most unmistakable man- 
 ner. The difficulty is to assign to each its proper 
 a mi unit of exercise. On this point, differences 
 
 will probably always exist ; but the foundation 
 has been carefully and substantially laid ; and. 
 each year, by increased interest, refinement of 
 processes , and patient investigation, something 
 IS added to our knowledge of this most important 
 subject, and the probability of our possession of 
 a school course capable of accomplishing the 
 gnat desideratum of modern life — a true educa- 
 tion- is more assured. — See CuRRTJE, Principles 
 andPractice of Common-School Education | Kdin. 
 and Lond.); Robson, School Architecture (Lond., 
 L874) ; P utkmikim. Handbuch der Sanitdts- 
 Polizei, nach eigenen Qntersuchungeu bearbeitet 
 (2 vols.. Berlin, L858— 9); Seegel, Die Schule 
 und ihr Einfluss an/ </>>■ (f'csuui/heil (1868); 
 Passavant, Ueber Schidunterricht ram drzt- 
 lichen Standpunkte (1SG8). 
 
 IDAHO was organized as a territory March ! 
 3., L863, being formed from portions of Dakota, 
 Nebraska, and Washington territories, and in- 1 
 eluding then the present territory of Montana and 
 nearly all of Wyoming. Its present area is 86,294 
 sq. m.: and its population, in 1870, was L4,999. 
 
 Educational History.— Soon after the organ- 
 ization of the territory, provision was made foi 
 the support of public schools, and a school system 
 
 was established. In 1866, the Dumber of pupils 
 
 enrolled m the schools of eight counties was re- 
 ported as -I'M, out of a school population of T'J- 
 
 children, between five and eighteen years of age. 
 The whole number of children of school age in 
 the territory was estimated at that time ;is l.MMl. 
 Up to 1870, little progress had been made, the 
 census returns showing only 466 pupils attend- 
 ing the schools of the territory. The whole 
 
 number of school children in the territory, be- 
 tween the aces of live and twentv-one. in 1871, 
 was L.596; 'in 1872, L.909 ; in 1873, 3,473; and 
 in L874, 4,010. 
 
 School System. — The school law has been re- 
 peatedly changed. That at present (1876) in 
 
IDAHO 
 
 IDIOTS 
 
 443 
 
 force was passed in January, 1875. Its leading 
 provisions are the following : — 
 
 The territorial controller is. ex officio, territo- 
 rial superintendent of public instruction; and 
 his duties are. tn exercise a general supervision 
 over the public schools of the territory, to pre- 
 pare blanks for reports of county superintend- 
 ents, trustees, teachers, etc.; to apportion tin- 
 school fund: and to make a detailed report to 
 the legislative assembly at each of its regular 
 sessions; also to present such suggestions as he 
 may deem necessary, in relation to the construc- 
 tion of school-houses, the management and sup- 
 port of the schools, the qualifications of teachers, 
 and the promotion of the general interests of 
 education throughout the territory. The other 
 officers who perforin duties directly connected 
 with education are the county superintendents 
 and the trustees of schools. The auditor of each 
 county is. e.c officio, county superintendent, 
 whose duties are, to apportion the public school 
 money among the school districts, on the first 
 Monday in March, and quarterly thereafter ; to 
 distribute, on behalf of the territorial superin- 
 tendent, blanks, reports, etc., for the use of the 
 school trustees, census marshals, and teachers; to 
 keep on rile reports from school trustees etc.; and 
 to make an annual report to the territorial super- 
 intendent, stating the number of school-houses 
 in each district of his county, the number of 
 children of school age, the number of pupils at- 
 tending school, the number of libraries and books 
 therein, the school books used, the amount of 
 money paid for teachers' salaries and other 
 school purposes ; to appoint trustees to fill va- 
 cancies, and to organize new school districts on 
 the application of the inhabitants of the same ; 
 also to modify the boundaries of school districts ; 
 and to receive and file all school election returns. 
 Three trustees of schools are elected annually in 
 each district, who hold office for the term of one 
 year. Their powers and duties are to employ 
 and remove teachers, and to fix the salaries of 
 the same ; to visit the schools as often as once 
 in each month ; to take charge of all the school- 
 property in their respective districts ; by vote 
 of the district, to convey by deed any school 
 house or site, also to purchase real estate for the 
 use of the schools; to call meetings of the in- 
 habitants to decide upon the levy of any special 
 tax that may be required in order to defray the 
 expenses of the schools ; to examine and license 
 teachers ; and to appoint a census marshal to 
 make the enumeration of the children in the dis- 
 t rict . No books, papers, tracts, or documents, of a 
 political, sectarian, or denominational character 
 are permitted to be used in any of the schools. — 
 Teachers, before receiving a certificate of license 
 from the trustees, must pass an examination in 
 orthography, reading, writing, arithmetic, geog- 
 raphy, English grammar, and the history of the 
 1 nited States. — The legal school age is from 
 five to eighteen years. 
 
 School Statistics. — In 1874. the whole Dumber 
 of school-districts in the territory was 77: and 
 the number of school- houses, 53. There were 
 
 3 libraries, containing 198 volumes. The num- 
 ber of children, between five and twenty-one was 
 •1,1110; and the school attendance was 2.030. 
 The whole amount of money received was 
 $31,064.33; and the amount expended, 921,789. 
 
 School Fund. — All moneys accruing from the 
 sale of lands given by Congress for school pur- 
 poses, and all moneys appropriated by Congress 
 for school purposes in the territory, are to be 
 devoted to the establishment of a university 
 or other high school. Moneys obtained by 
 Legacy, donation, escheats, etc., constitute an ir- 
 reducible and indivisible general school fund, 
 the interest of which is apportioned among the 
 counties. The county school fund is obtained 
 by a tax of not less than two, or more than 
 five, mills on each dollar of taxable property 
 in every county. All moneys arising from fines 
 for a breach of the penal laws of the territory 
 are set apart by the county treasurer as a part 
 of the county school fund. 
 
 Measures were taken in July, 1874, to estab- 
 lish in Boise City a university, to be known 
 as the Idaho University. Provision has been 
 made for this institution in the new school law. 
 
 IDIOTS, Education of. The term idiots 
 is applied to those who, in different degrees, are 
 deficient in intellectual power and activity. A 
 more general designation, however, of this class 
 of unfortunates is that of ///<■ imherife, or feeble- 
 iii inded persons; since idiocy is usually employed 
 to denote an extreme degree of mental deficiency. 
 The first attempt, so far as is known, to in- 
 struct idiots was made by St. Vincent de Paul 
 in the 17th centmy, and by the philosopher Itard, 
 the friend and disciple of Condillac, at the close 
 of the 18th century; but the efforts of both 
 were limited to a few isolated cases, and did 
 not lead to the establishment of any perma- 
 nent school for idiots. Dr. Itard committed the 
 facts which he had gathered to his pupil Dr. Se- 
 guin, who made the study of idiocy a specialty. 
 The subject had, in the mean time, been discussed 
 by a number of physicians, and the establish- 
 ment of special schools for idiots had been re- 
 commended by Dr. Pool of Edinburgh (1819), 
 and Dr. Belhomme of Paris (1824). Practical 
 attempts, on a small scale, had also been made 
 at Salzburg in Austria (1816), at the American 
 asylum for the deaf and dumb in Hartford, 
 Ct. (1818) ; at the Bicetre, one of the large 
 insane hospitals in Paris (l8'_'s) : at the Salpe- 
 triere, another insane hospital at Paris (1833); 
 by Dr. Voisin, who organized a school for idiots 
 at Paris, in 1833, and by other philanthropists. 
 But all these attempts were of short duration, and 
 a firm basis was not gained until the establish- 
 ment of the school of Dr. Seguin. In 1*4*, Dr. 
 Seguin settled in the United States, where he 
 assisted in tin' organization and improvement of 
 several institutions for idiot instruction. In 1874, 
 there were three schools for idiots in France, — at 
 the Bicetre and the Salpetriere at Paris, and at 
 Clermont, with an aggregate number of 85 in- 
 mates. In Belgium, institutions for the instruction 
 of idiots are connected with the insane asylums 
 
444 
 
 IDIOTS 
 
 at Gheel and Bruges. The Netherlands have one 
 school for idiots, at the Hague, founded in 1855, 
 with which, three years later, a medical asylum 
 was connected. In Switzerland, l>r. < ruggenbuhl 
 opened, in L842, a school specially intended for 
 cretins, on theAbendberg, in the canton of Hern. 
 His pretended ability to cure cretins attracted 
 for a time great attention, but was, afterwards 
 generally denounced as a fraud. In 187 1, Switzer- 
 land had two private schools for idiots, in the 
 cantons of Bern and Basel, with an aggregate 
 number of 27 inmates. There are similar schools 
 in the canton of Thurgau and in the city of 
 Ziirich. In the German provinces of Austria, 
 an attempt to establish a school for idiots was 
 made, as early as 1816, at Salzburg, by the 
 teacher GuggenmoOS. A few years later, twelve 
 cretin children were received at the monastery 
 of Admont, in Salzburg. From 1835 to 1 is4T. 
 Haldenwang, a clergyman of Wiirtemberg, main- 
 tained at Wildberg a private institution for idiot 
 children. The governments of several of the < Ser- 
 man states granted the means for establishing 
 idiot asylums; and Dr. Kern, who had already, in 
 1 8 12, begun to experiment in Eisenach, succeeded 
 in effecting remarkable partial cures, and was 
 placed by the Saxon government at the head 
 of an excellent asylum in Gohlis, uear Leipsic ; 
 while Sui/r,-/ in Berlin (1844), Krause in Halle 
 (1840), Glascheva Hubertsburg (1846), and Dr. 
 
 KiiSCh, in Wurtelllberg, were DO less SUCCeSSful. 
 
 In 1*71. Prussia had ten idiot asylums, s 
 
 private, and some maintained by the state. 
 Sweden had. in L874, three schools, and Rus- 
 sia, school for idiots. In England, the firsl 
 
 efforts for the instruction of idjot children were 
 made by some benevolent ladies, in Lancas- 
 ter. Bath, Ipswich, and Brighton. A movement 
 for establishing idiot asylums on a large scale 
 began in L847. The institution at Earlswood, 
 near Uedhill. Surrey, had. in L874, 700 inmates; 
 other institutions are the Eastern County 
 Asylum, Essex I lall. * 'olehester, the Western 
 
 Counties Asylum, at Starcross, near Exeter, 
 
 the Midland Counties Asylum, at Knowle. anl 
 the Royal Albert Asylum, uear Lancaster. A 
 
 private institution of Dr. Langdon Down, at 
 Xonnansiielil. near London, is only designed for 
 
 the wealthy. All these institutions have train- 
 ing schools connected with them. Scotland 
 has ;i national institution lor the education 
 
 of imbecile children, at Lasbert, Stirlingshire, 
 
 with !M> pupils. There are also schools for idiots 
 iii Inland, ('ana la. ami New South Wales. In 
 the United States, the earliest efforts t<> instruct 
 idiot children were made, as has already been 
 'i I. in the I la ill or. 1 asylum tor the deaf and 
 dumb. Similar attempts, but only in isolated 
 
 cases, were subsequently (1838 or 1839) made in 
 the Perkins Institution for the Blind in Boston, 
 and in the New fork Deaf and Dumb Institution. 
 The first impulse to the establishment of special 
 
 Bchoolfl lor idiots ua- given I 8 b"i| by the letters 
 
 of George Sumner, describing his visit to the 
 
 Paris BCl Is. Among the first and foremost 
 
 pro tersoi i he cau.se in the United States, were 
 
 Dr. S. B. "Woodward, superintendent of the 
 hospital for the insane, at Worcester, Mass.. and 
 Dr. Frederick K. Backus, of Rochester, X. Y. 
 The legislatures of Massachusetts and New York 
 at once took action in the matter, in New York. 
 Dr. Backus, who had been elected a member of 
 the state senate, reported, in 1846, a bill for the 
 establishment of an idiot institution: and, in 
 Massachusetts, the legislature appointed a com- 
 mission to investigate the condition of idiots 
 and report suitable measures for their instruc- 
 tion. In accordance with the report of the 
 commission, an experimental school was estab- 
 lished at South Boston, in ( tat. 18 I*, which was. 
 in 1850, incorporated as the Massachusetts School 
 for Idiotic and Feeble-Minded Youth. It was, 
 trom its foundation until I876,underthe direction 
 of Dr. Howe, whose death occurred in that year. 
 The state makes an annual appropriation of 
 $16,500 for its support, and poor children are 
 admitted without chargi The states of Maine, 
 New I lanipshire.Ycrinont.and Rhode Island each 
 support a few pupils in this institution. In New 
 York, the establishment of the first school for idi- 
 ots, which, in 1 846, had been favorably reported by 
 Dr. Backus, was delayed until 1851, when an ex- 
 perimental scl 1 was opened at Albany, which 
 
 was subsequently, as a permanent state institu- 
 tion, transferred to Syracuse, where a large edifice 
 Avas erected for its aceonmiodat ion at a cost of 
 nearly $90,000, with facilities for the instruction 
 and care of 1 ."<> pupils. Since then, it has 
 been enlarged. The school has been, from the 
 first, under the direction of Dr. H. B. Wilbur, 
 who previously, from 1848 to 1851, had con- 
 ducted a private school for idiots at Barre, 
 Mass.. which, after he had accepted the call to 
 
 Albany, was carried on by Dr. George Brown. 
 The Pennsylvania Training School for Feeble- 
 Minded Children, originated as a private school, 
 in 1 852, at ( icrniantowu.but was. in the following 
 year, incorporated under its present name: and 
 in 1857, after receiving a grant from the state. 
 transferred to its present location at Media. Del- 
 aware Co. The Ohio State Asylum for the 
 Education of Idiotic and Imbecile Youth, which 
 is w holly supported by the state, was organized at 
 
 Columbus, in 1857, as an experimental school. 
 It was permanently established in L864, when a 
 site, about 2 miles from the city, was purchased, 
 and a building erected, in 1868, affording ac- 
 commodation tor 250 inmates, but subsequently 
 enlarged. In Kentucky, the Institution for 
 
 the Education of Feeble-Minded Children and 
 
 Idiots was established in I860, at Frankfort; 
 
 and in I llinois a similar institution, in 1865, at 
 
 Jacksonville. The Connecticut School for imbe- 
 ciles was established at I akcville. in 1858. 'I he 
 
 city of New York opened, in 1867, a school t-i 
 
 idiots in connection with the idiot asylum on 
 Randall's Island. A private school, which limits 
 the number of its pupils to 12. was opened in 
 
 |s;i ;,t bavville, Worcester Co.. Mass. The 
 report of the U. S. Commissioner of Education 
 for I874,gives the following statistics of these 
 
 institutions : 
 
IDIOTS 
 
 ILLINOIS 
 
 445 
 
 NAMES. 
 
 Connecticut School for Imbeciles 
 
 Illinois Institution for the Education of Feeble-Minded 
 
 Children 
 
 Kentucky Institution for the Education of Feeble 
 
 Minded Children 
 
 Private Institution for the Education of Feeble-Minded 
 
 Youth at Barre, Mass 
 
 Massachusetts School for Idiotic and Feeble-Minded 
 
 Youth 
 
 Hillside School for Backward and Peculiar Children, 
 
 at Payville, Mass 
 
 New York Asylum for Idiots, at Syracuse, N. Y 
 
 Ohio State Asylum for Idiots 
 
 Pennsylvania Training School for Feeble - Minded 
 
 Children 
 
 E3" 
 
 3 3 u 
 
 12 
 
 24 
 14 
 50 
 16 
 
 7 to 9 
 
 49 
 
 T4 
 05 
 
 Number of inmates 
 
 s 
 
 45 
 
 GO 
 
 50 
 
 52 
 
 71 
 
 5 
 110 
 217 
 
 123 
 
 34 
 37 
 40 
 23 
 
 47 
 
 3 
 
 89 
 
 143 
 
 101 
 
 o 
 H 
 
 103 
 
 99 
 
 75 
 
 118 
 
 199 
 300 
 
 224 
 
 T*. 
 
 — n 
 
 a b 
 
 o c 
 
 104 
 
 254 
 
 213 
 
 190 
 
 630 
 
 14 
 691 
 
 014 
 
 733 
 
 $24,500 
 7,500* 
 
 22.GG9 
 
 41,186 
 
 70,283 
 
 59,898 
 
 a 
 
 V 
 
 a, 
 x 
 
 $24,500 
 
 40,000 
 23,045 
 
 40,902 
 03,433 
 
 03,594 
 
 * Also $150 per capita allowed by the state. 
 
 The first efforts for the instruct ion of idiots 
 were made upon no definite plan, or simply with 
 the view to subject some philosophical theory 
 to a practical test. Since the establishment of 
 special schools for idiots, idiocy is generally 
 viewed as a prolonged infancy : and, in all efforts 
 for the development either of their physical powers 
 or their mental faculties, it is deemed essential 
 to proceed according to the principles of physiol- 
 ogy, and to conform, as strictly as possible, to the 
 teachings of nature. The physical education will, 
 of course, vary according to the deficiencies of 
 individuals; and the instruction will always, to 
 a large extent, be conditioned by the health 
 of the pupils and the progress of their medical 
 treatment. It is self-evident, therefore, that 
 medical and educational skill must go hand in 
 hand in the management of schools for idiots. 
 — It has been found that Froebels kinder- 
 garten occupations may easily be so modified 
 as gradually to enliven the nervous action of 
 idiot children, and that, in general, playful occu- 
 pations must be resorted to, so as to make at the 
 beginning deep and lasting impressions on their 
 listless minds. Experience also shows that, under 
 proper treatment, about one-third of all idiot 
 children (if the cure be early begun) may be ad- 
 vanced to nearly average usefulness ; another 
 tliird.to the lower grades of intelligence: and the 
 rest, to a condition in which they cease to be 
 a mere burden on the family or on society. 
 The largest of the American schools, that of 
 Media, Pa., reports that, up to July 1., 1872, 
 the improvement of its inmates had been as 
 follows: taught to speak. 53; articulation im- 
 proved, 253 : taught to read. 254, to write, 146, 
 to feed themselves, 61, to dress themselves. 9 1, 
 to walk. 5 ; gait improved, 286 : reformed from 
 bad habits, 164, from destructive habits, 302; 
 accustomed to some employment, 241 ; epilepsy 
 cured, 23; epilepsy improved, 78. 
 
 According to the last census, the number of idi- 
 ots in the United States was 24,527 : in England 
 and Wales, 29,452 : in Norway, 2,039. In Scot- 
 
 land, the number was estimated at 3,000; in Ire- 
 land, at 7.000; in the Netherlands, at about 3,000; 
 in Switzerland, including the cretins, at 3,800. 
 In many countries, no official enumeration of 
 idiots is made. "Where the census has been taken. 
 the figures are believed to be too low, as there are 
 many cases of idiocy which are not recognized by 
 parents and relatives. 
 
 The views of Dr. Seguin on the education of 
 idiots are laid down in the works, Traitement 
 moral, hygiene et education des idiots (Paris. 
 1846) ; Idiocy and its Treatment by the Physio- 
 logical Method (New York, 1866), and New 
 Fads and Remarks concerning Idiocy (New 
 York, 1870). See also Dr. Avuks. Report on 
 the Education, of Imbecile and Idiotic Children, 
 (in vol. xiii. of the Transactions of the American 
 Medical Association. 1862); Dr. Cheyne Brady. 
 The Training of Idiotic and Feeble-Minded 
 Children (Dublin, 1864) ; and Dr. Kern's essay 
 on the subject, in Allgemeine Zeitschrift fur 
 Psychiatrie, 1857 ; and Dr. L. P. Brockett, in 
 Barnard's Journal of Education, vol. I. — A 
 statistical account of all European institutions 
 for idiots may be found in Eulenmeyer, Ueber- 
 sicht der SffenUichen und privaten liven- und 
 Idioten-Anstalten allcr oiropdischer Staaten, 
 (1863). Sec also Seguin, Report on Education 
 at the Vienna Exhibition ("Wash., 1875). 
 
 ILLINOIS. This state formed a part of the 
 North-west Territory, organized in pursuance of 
 the ordinance of -Inly 13., 178", and including 
 the whole of the public domain situated north 
 of the Ohio river. Out of this territory were 
 successively formed, and admitted into the Amer- 
 ican Union, the states of Ohio (1802), Indiana 
 (1816), and Illinois (1818) : subsequently, Mich- 
 igan (1837), and Wisconsin (1848). According 
 to the census of 1820. Illinois had a population 
 of 55, 21 1 : in 1870, its population was reported 
 as 2,51.1,096 giving it the fourth rank among 
 the states of the Union. Its area is 55,410 square 
 miles. The number of illiterates 10 years of 
 ace and upward was, at that time, 8,38 per cent 
 
446 
 
 ILLINOIS 
 
 of the whole population ; and the proportion of 
 illiterates among adults was 7.16 per cent of 
 the males, and 8.59 per cent of the females. 
 
 Educational History. — A law was passed 
 providing for the establishment of public schools 
 in the state as early as L823 ; and, the census of 
 1840 reported the number of common Bchoolfl 
 as 1241 . with •''> t,876 pupils. In 1850, the num- 
 ber of schools had increased to 2. 64] . and the 
 number of pupils, to 132.324. The school fund, 
 at that time was $ ( .)3!),7!)!), derived from the 
 s;de of public lands, and the surplus revenue of 
 the United States. On the formation of the 
 state, one section in each township was appro- 
 priated for the support of schools, and after- 
 wards an additional income of 3 per cent on the 
 actual proceeds from the sales of public lands 
 within the state. One-sixth of these proceeds 
 was appropriated for the support of colleges. 
 The office of superintendent of education was 
 not created till L854; and. the next year, a bill 
 was passed, providing that the educational affairs 
 of the state should be administered by the state 
 superintendent, a school commissioner for each 
 county, and a board of education for each town- 
 ship. State funds were to be distributed only 
 among those schools which had, for at least 
 six months in the year, offered equal and free 
 instruction to all children of the legal school 
 age. The first state sn/H'rinte/n/fi/1 was Xinian 
 Edwards who was elected in 1854 and served 
 till L856; W. II. Powell served from 1856 to 
 
 L858 : and again from L862 to 1864 ; the system 
 was administered by Newton Bateman, as state 
 
 superintendent from L858 to L862, and aBec 1 
 
 term from 1864 to 1874, when he was succ led 
 
 by S. .M. Etter, the present incumbent (1876). 
 The system, as at present constituted, was 
 adopted in 1872. An outline is given below. In 
 L874, a law was passed prohibiting all school 
 officers from excluding any children from the 
 schools on account of color. The school law was 
 
 further amended so as to abolish the provisional 
 teachers' certificate. A bill providing for com- 
 pulsory education was passed by the House, hut 
 defeated in the Senate. 
 
 School System. — Public education is ad- 
 ministered by the following school officers: 
 (I) A state superintendent of public instruc- 
 tion: (2) County superintendents of schools; 
 
 (3) Boards of township school trustees; | h Boards 
 of distrid scl I directors. The state super- 
 intendent is chosen by popular vote, at a general 
 election, and holds office for the term of four 
 
 years, lie is the executive head of the system. 
 
 lie is under I Is ($25,000) for the faithful 
 
 discharge of his ollicial duties; and is required 
 to keep an office ai the Beat of government, and 
 i" receive, arrange, preserve, and file all official 
 
 documents, and bold the same in readiness to be 
 
 exhibited to the governor or to any committee 
 ol the legislature, lie has the general Buper- 
 
 \ ision Of the schools, and is authorized to make 
 such rules as may lie requisite for carrying the 
 school 1,-iw into effect. He has appellate juris- 
 diction in all controversies arising under the 
 
 school law. where original jurisdiction is vested 
 in the county superintendents. He is authorized 
 to grant state certificates authorizing the holders 
 to teach without further examination, in every 
 county and school district in the state, and 
 valid until revoked for cause. He is, e.r officio, 
 a member of the state board of education, to 
 which is intrusted the management of the State 
 Normal University, the condition and expendi- 
 tures of which he is required to report to each 
 session of the legislature; and he is also, ex officio, 
 a member of the board of trustees of the State 
 Industrial I 'niversity. - ( 'ounty superintt ndents 
 are elected every four years. They have the 
 custody of and distribute the school moneys to 
 the several townships, visit and inspect the 
 schools in the county at least once in each year, 
 and report their condition to the state super- 
 intendent. They are the official advisers of all 
 the subordinate school officers and teachers of 
 their respective counties, and the channel of 
 official communication between the state depart- 
 ment of education and all local township and 
 district school officers. They are. also, required 
 to assist in the management of teachers' insti- 
 tutes. They, morever, examine and license 
 teachers. At least four public examinations 
 are required to be held every year in each 
 county : and the examination may be conducted 
 either by the county superintendent in person, 
 or by a board of examiners appointed by him. 
 Sets of questions are furnished, from time to 
 time, by the state superintendent, for the pur- 
 pose of these examinations, with general instruc- 
 tions as to the conditions upon which certificates 
 of each grade should be granted. In this way. a 
 uniform standard of qualifications is preserved. 
 No teacher can lawfully be employed in any 
 
 common school in the state without a certificate 
 of qualification ; and no county certificate can 
 be granted except upon "due examination" of 
 
 the candidate by the county superintendent. 
 
 After a certificate has been granted, it maybe 
 
 renewed, at expiration, by the county super- 
 intendent, or he may require the teacher to sub- 
 mit to another examination. County super- 
 intendents are also vested with power to revoke 
 certificates, at any time, for immorality, incom- 
 petency, or any other sufficient cause. The 
 compensation of county superintendents is S."> a 
 
 day for services actually rendered, and 3 per 
 cent upon the amount of sales of school lauds, 
 and upon real estate taken for debt, for their 
 services in making such sales: and a further 
 commission of 2 per cent upon the amount of 
 all sums distributed, paid, or loaned out. by 
 them. — A board of trustees, consisting of three 
 
 members, is elected in each township, for a term 
 
 of three years, one member retiring annually. 
 The trustees determine the number of school 
 
 districts into which the township is to be divided, 
 and apportion and distribute, semi-annually, the 
 
 public school moneys among the districts of 
 
 their respective townships. They are invested, 
 in their corporate capacity, with the title of all 
 school-houses and sites, and may sell the same 
 
ILLINOIS 
 
 44T 
 
 when it is deemed expedient. — School directors 
 are elected, in the same manner as trustees; .and 
 each board of directors consists of three mem- 
 bers, holding office for three years, one new 
 
 member being elected annually. They levy taxes, 
 and are required to establish and keep in oper- 
 ation, for at least six months in each year, and 
 longer if practicable, a sufficient number of free 
 schools for the proper accommodation of all the 
 children in the district over the age of six and 
 under twenty-one years. They may adopt and 
 enforce all necessary rules and regulations for 
 the management of the schools, and must visit 
 and inspect the same as often as practicable. 
 They appoint the teachers and fix their salaries, 
 and may dismiss them for incompetency, cruelty. 
 negligence, or immorality. They direct whai 
 branches are to be taught, and what text-book;; 
 must be used. — The branches required to bo 
 taught are orthography, reading, penmanship, 
 arithmetic, English grammar, geography, and 
 the history of the United States; the law, how- 
 ever, provides that other and higher branches 
 may be taught than those enumerated. Tins 
 permissory provision has led to the establishment 
 of one or more advanced schools in nearly every 
 county of the state, " the vitalizing influence of 
 which ", said Supt. Bateman, in 1868, "is felt 
 through all the subordinate grades of schools. " 
 The school age is from 6 to 21 years, and all 
 bona fide residents of a school district, of the 
 proper age. have the right to attend, free of cost, 
 the public schools of that district. Pupils resi- 
 dent in one district cannot attend school in 
 another without the written consent of the di- 
 rectors of both districts. 
 
 School Fund. — Public educational revenues 
 are derived from the iullowing sources : (1) The 
 school fund proper ; consisting of three per cent 
 of the net proceeds of the sales of the public 
 lands in the state, one-sixth part excepted ; 
 amounting to about $665,000. (2) The surplus 
 revenue fund, consisting of a portion of the 
 money which was received by the state from the 
 general government, under an act of Congress, 
 providing for the distribution of the surplus 
 revenue of the United States, and by law of 
 March 1.. 1^>7, made a part of the common- 
 school fund of the state. (3) The college or 
 university fund, consisting of one-sixth of the 
 three per cent, or school fund proper. (4) The 
 seminary fund, consisting of the proceeds of the 
 sales of the "seminary lands", donated to the 
 state by the U. S. government, for the purpose 
 of founding and maintaining a seminary for the 
 education of the children of the state ; all of 
 which lands that remained unsold in L861, were 
 donated, by an act of the legislature, to the 
 Illinois Agricultural College. This fund amounts 
 to about |60,000. These constitute the per- 
 manent state school fund, the principal of which 
 is loaned to the state, which pays interest there- 
 on at the rate of six per cent. Besides these 
 sources of revenue, thereare (5) the county school 
 fund, consisting of surplus moneys in the hands 
 of the county school commissioner ; (6) the 
 
 township fund, derived from the proceeds of the 
 sale of the sixteenth section in each congressional 
 district — said section (040 acres) having been 
 donated to each township for school purposes, 
 by act of Congress; (7) the stale tax fund, for- 
 merly obtained by an assessment of two mills 
 ml valorem upon all the taxable property of the 
 state: in lieu of which, by act of 1874, it was 
 provided that one million dollars should be 
 annually appropriated out of the state school 
 fund ; (8) the district tax fund, from which the 
 largest amount of revenue is derived, consisting 
 of such variable supplementary or special amounts 
 as may be levied, from time to time, by the re- 
 spective local boards of school directors, the 
 school directors of every district being required 
 by law to levy annually such a tax as will, 
 when added to the public funds, be sufficient to 
 maintain a free school for at least six months in 
 each year. Pesides these, there is finally (9) a 
 fund derived from fines, forfeitures, mnl penal- 
 ties, imposed by, or incurred before, courts of 
 record, or justices of the peace. 
 
 Teachers' Certificates. — Every teacher must 
 hold a regular certificate either of the first or 
 second grade. Certificates of the first grade are 
 valid for two years, and certify that the holders 
 are qualified to teach orthography, reading in 
 English, penmanship, arithmetic, English gram- 
 mar, modern geography, the elements of the 
 natural sciences, the history of the United 
 States, physiology, and the laws of health. Those 
 of the second grade are valid for one year, and 
 certify to an ability to teach the same branches, 
 excepting the natural sciences, physiology, and 
 the lawsof health. The county superintendent 
 has discretionary authority to renew such certifi- 
 cates at the expiration of the time for which 
 they were granted, by his endorsement thereon ; 
 and may revoke the same, at any time, for im- 
 morality, incompetency, or other proper cause. 
 
 Educational Condition. — The number of school 
 districts in the state, in 1874, was 11,285, in all 
 of which except 157, schools were sustained for 
 5 months or more ; the whole number of free 
 public schools was 11,646, and the number of 
 graded schools, 7;">4. The other important statis- 
 tical items are the following : 
 
 Number of persons of school age, 938,878 
 
 Number of pupils enrolled, unties, 3,'>0,082 
 
 females, 321,693 
 
 Total of pupils enrolled, 671,775 
 
 Average daily attendance, 383,334 
 
 Number of teachers, males, 9,036 
 
 females, 12,093 
 
 Total, 21,129 
 
 Receipts, from state tax, $1,021,971 
 
 " " local tax, 5,658,183 
 
 Interest of school fund, etc. 1,213,437 
 
 Total, * $7,893,591 
 
 Expenditures, for tuition, 1 1 ,63 1 ,622 
 
 Sites and Iniildings, 1,009,960 
 Other purposes, 2,221,100 
 
 Total, " $7,865,682 
 
 ( !i ist per unit of school population, $5.60 
 
 " " of enrollment, 7.82 
 
 " " of average attendance, 13.73 
 
448 
 
 ILLINOIS 
 
 Normal Instruction. — Professional instruction 
 and training are afforded to teachers in the State 
 Normal University, at Normal, and in the 
 Southern Illinois Normal University, at < 'arbon- 
 dale. The former was organized in 1857 : it in- 
 cludes both an academic and a normal depart- 
 ment. Students in the latter are required to 
 sign a pledge to bi'eome teachers in the schools 
 of the state; and. on this condition, their tuition 
 is afforded gratuitously. .Male students must be, 
 at least, 17 years of age; and female students. 
 1 6. Auxiliary to the normal department, is the 
 Model School, designed to furnish an opportu- 
 nity for observation and practice to those prepar- 
 ing to be teachers. The academic department 
 consists of the High School, which furnishes a 
 thorough preparation for admission into the 
 university or for business. The High School is 
 a department of the Model School, which com- 
 prises also a Grammar School and a Primary 
 School. From the time of its organization to 
 1875, this institution had given instruction to 
 3,258 persons, of whom 241 had completed the 
 course and received diplomas of graduation. 
 I hiring the same period, the Model School in its 
 
 several grades, had received about 2,930 pupils, 
 
 of whom '22 were graduates of the High School. 
 About 2.*) per cent of the pupils of the Model 
 School became teachers. The Southern Illinois 
 Normal University was opened in L874. It oc- 
 cupies one of the finest school edifices in the 
 United States. It includes, besides a normal 
 department proper, a preparatory department 
 and a model school. The model school is of an 
 elementary grade, giving instruction in the 
 branches usually taught in the common schools; 
 the preparatory department is of the grade of a 
 high school, with a course of study of three years. 
 The normal course, of tour years, embraces two 
 courses, -a classical and a scientific course; both, 
 
 however, make the study of the English language 
 
 and literature quite prominent. I hiring the last 
 year, opportunity for practice is afforded in the 
 
 preparatory and model schools. Besides these two 
 State institutions, there are two county normal 
 
 schools,— the Cook County Normal School, at 
 ISaglewood, near I Ihicago, and the Peoria < 'ounty 
 
 Normal School, at Peoria. Each of these has 
 an organization similar to that of the state normal 
 
 schools. There is also a normal school at < Ihicago, 
 and a noimal department in Eureka College, al 
 Eureka. Teachers' institutes constitute an impor- 
 tant agency lor the professional improvement ol 
 those actually engaged in teaching. Of these, in 
 
 L 874, there were held in different parts of the 
 
 state L84, which continued in the aggregate 828 
 
 days, and were attended by 6,713 teachers. 
 
 notary Instruction. — In 1874, there were 
 
 Mr, public high schools in the state. These] 1 
 
 law provides that, on a petition of 50 voters in 
 an\ school township, an election for or against 
 
 a high school may lie held at tin' next ensuing 
 
 election of trustees, and if a majority of the 
 votes he found to lie in favor of a high Bchool, 
 the trustees shall establish it. There are very 
 many private seminaries for secondary instruc- 
 
 tion in the state, including a large number of 
 preparatory schools, and several business colleges. 
 I if the latter, in L874, there were 1(J. 
 
 Superior Instruction. — There is a large num- 
 ber of universities and colleges in the state, 
 besides several colleges for women. The name of 
 most of the former are given in the following table: 
 
 NAM I 
 
 Abingdon 
 Pax ton 
 
 carlinville 
 
 (ai'thage 
 
 Chicago 
 
 Lureka 
 
 Abingdon 
 
 Jacksonville 
 
 Abingdon College 
 
 Augustaua College 
 
 Blackburn University .... 
 
 ( 'arthage College 
 
 ( !hicag< i University 
 
 Lureka College 
 
 Hedding College 
 
 Illinois CoUege 
 
 Illinois Wesleyan I'niv... . 
 
 Knox College, 
 
 Lincoln Oniveraity 
 
 Lombard University 
 
 McKenuree College 
 
 Monmouth College Monmouth 
 
 Northwestern College. ... Naperville 
 Northwestern University. Evanston 
 
 Shurtleff College 
 
 St. Ignatius CoUege 
 
 Sit. Joseph's Eccles. Coll 
 
 st. \ iator's College 
 
 Westfield College 
 
 ■\Vneaton College 
 
 Location 
 
 W hen 
 
 found 
 
 ed 
 
 keligious 
 
 denomina- 
 tion 
 
 1853 Disciples 
 
 1863 Lutheran 
 
 i-i;t Presb. 
 
 1870 Lutheran 
 
 1857 liaptist 
 
 L855 Disciples 
 
 ]s:>4 M. Epis. 
 
 1829 Non-sect. 
 
 Bloomington 1850 Mi th. 
 
 Galesburg 1841 iTsb.&Cg. 
 
 1867 Cumb.Pr. 
 
 1857 Universal. 
 1828 M. Epis. 
 
 1858 L. Presb. 
 1861 Evang. 
 is:,:, m. Epis. 
 1835 Baptist 
 1870 K. C. 
 1861 B. C. 
 1869 K. C. 
 1865 f. Breth. 
 
 ( ongreg. 
 
 Lincoln 
 Galesburg 
 
 Lebanon 
 
 Altou 
 I hirago 
 Teutopolis 
 Bourb .Grove 
 w. stfli Id 
 Wheaton 
 
 Technical mul Professional Instruction. — 
 
 The principal institution for scientific ami tech- 
 nical instruction is the Illinois Industrial Uni- 
 versity, at Urbana, chartered in 1867. It has 
 a corps of 25 instructors, including professors, 
 lecturers, and assistants ; ami. in 1875, the at- 
 tendance of pupils was over 400. It compri 
 four colleges, of (1) Agriculture; (2) Engineer- 
 ing, including a school of architecture ; (3) Nat- 
 ural Science: (1) Literature and Science. Th 
 colleges embrace L2 subordinate schools and 
 
 courses of instruction, including a school of 
 domestic science ami art, a school of commerce, 
 and a school of military science ; also a school of 
 wood engraving, printing, telegraphing, photo- 
 o-raiihino', and designimr. < 'andidates tor admix- 
 Hon to the university must hi' at least 1"> years of 
 age, of go id moral character, and able to pass an 
 examination in English grammar, geography, 
 arithmetic, algebra, history of the United State.-, 
 and natural science, 'litis institution is endowed 
 with the national land grant, and the amount 
 
 of its productive funds is about $320,000. The 
 
 Value of its grounds, buildings, etc.. is about 
 
 $640,000. It is well supplied with apparatus, 
 ami has a library of over 10,000 volumes. The 
 Dlinois Agricultural College, at Lrvington "was 
 organized in 1866. 
 
 The chief theological schools are the following : 
 
 \ \MI. 
 
 Location 
 
 ions 
 denomination 
 
 Theol. Dept Shurtleff Col. 
 
 Alton 
 
 Baptist 
 
 do. do. Blackburn 
 
 
 
 l ' ni\ i raity 
 
 Carlinville 
 ( Ihicago 
 
 Presb. 
 
 Union Theol. Seminar] , . 
 
 Baptist 
 
 Chicago Theol. Seminary. 
 
 Chioago 
 
 i long. 
 
 Theol. Bern, of Nortlrw est. 
 
 ( ihicago 
 
 1'rcsb. 
 
 Biblical Dept. Eureka Col. 
 
 Eureka 
 
 Christian 
 
 
 Evanston 
 
 Meth. Epis. 
 
 \\ ;u tborg Seminary 
 
 Mendota 
 
 Lutheran 
 
 Augustaua Theol. Bern... . 
 
 Pazton 
 
 Lutheran 
 
ILLINOIS COLLI..;! 
 
 ILLITERACY 
 
 449 
 
 In these various institutions, in 1874, there 
 were 19 instructors, L8 endowed professorships, 
 and 290 students. The total amounl of product- 
 ive funds was aboul $775,000; and the libra- 
 ries contained, in the aggregate, nearly 30,000 
 volumes. 
 
 The law schools consist of the law departments 
 of Illinois Wesleyan I niversity. and McKendree 
 College, and the Union College of Law. at 
 Chicago. The medical schools comprise the 
 Chicago Medical College (a department of North- 
 western University), Lush Medical College, 
 the Woman's Hospital Medical College, and the 
 Hahnemann Medical College . at Chicago. 
 
 Special Instruction. —The Illinois Institution 
 for the Education of the Deaf and Dumb, at 
 Jacksonville, is one of the most extensive and 
 important institutions for deaf-mute instruction 
 in the United States. It comprises departments 
 for instruction in the sign language, as well 
 as in articulation, or visible speech, and in draw- 
 ing: also domestic and industrial departments. 
 In 1874, there were nearly 400 pupils on the 
 rolls of the institution, and a corps of ^instruct- 
 ors. The Illinois Institution for the Education 
 of Feeble-Minded Children, at Jacksonville, is 
 also a large and important institution, founded 
 in 1865. Its efficiency is thoroughly attested, 
 th-' children being instructed successfully in most 
 of the simple elementary branches of knowledge. 
 besides being taught important matters connected 
 with domest ic econi »my and practical occupations. 
 
 Educational Associations. — The State Teach- 
 ers' Association, established in 1853, holds its con- 
 vention annually, and is well sustained; besides 
 which there are many other local associations, 
 in more or less active operation. A state asso- 
 ciation of county superintendents was organized 
 about twelve years ago, for the purpose of pro- 
 moting the efficiency of county school supervision, 
 and securing a more uniform compliance with 
 the requirements of the school law. 
 
 ILLINOIS COLLEGE, at Jacksonville. 
 111., chartered in 1835, is non-sectarian. The 
 value of its buildings, grounds, and apparatus 
 is $190,000 : the amount of its productive funds, 
 §135,000. Tt has a classical and a scientific 
 course, libraries containing 11,000 volumes, and 
 a corps of 9 instructors. The cost of tuition is 
 per year. Connected with the college are 
 the Whipple Academy and the Jacksonville 
 Business College. The number of students, in 
 1875 6, was as follows: in the college. 60; acade- 
 my, 76 ; business college, 221. The Rev. Julian 
 M. Sturtevant, I). I)., LL. D., is (1870) the pres- 
 ident of the college. 
 
 ILLINOIS WESLEY AN UNIVERSITY, 
 at Bloomington, 111., founded in 1850, is under 
 Mfethodisl Episcopal control. It has a fine cam- 
 pus of 10 acres, libraries containing 2,400 vol- 
 umes, and productive funds aim muting to S!)< ». • »00. 
 I he value of its buildings, grounds, and apparatus 
 is $150,000. Both sexes are admit till. A law 
 department was organized in 1*74. In 1875 — 6, 
 there were 15 instructors and 77(J students 
 (546 preparatory and 2.'?0 collegiate). 
 29 
 
 ILLITERACY (from the Latin iUiteratus, 
 
 unlettered, i. ••.. ignorant of letters or books) 
 is a term used at present to denote the in- 
 ability to read and write. The mere fact as to 
 how many persons in any community arc unable 
 to read and write is not, in itself, of very great 
 value; but, in its relations to ignorance and 
 knowledge, it is highly important, as marking 
 the dividing line on one side of which maybe 
 placed all those who are hopelessly consigned to 
 a total ignorance of books, and are, therefore, 
 deprived of all the advantages to be derived from 
 their study or perusal : and, on the other, all 
 who, by means of such knowledge and such 
 sources of information 1 ! have been placed on the 
 high road to thrift, skill, intelligence, culture, 
 virtue, and every other element of the highest 
 civilization. To the individual, illiteracy is a 
 most deplorable misfortune : to the community, 
 in proportion to its extent, it isan acknowledged 
 bane. The principle of free schools is derived 
 from a consideration of the numerous evils which 
 pi ipular ignorance entails upon a community: and 
 of this ignorance illiteracy is the exponent. On 
 the same principle is based all legislation for 
 compulsory attendance at schools. These prin- 
 ciples have, however, been called in question; but 
 very rarely. "Parents'', it has been said, "can- 
 not justly be forced to give their children a certain 
 amount of education, unless it is assumed that 
 this education is as necessary for the mind as 
 food and clothing are for the body".; and, of 
 course, this is an assumption that cannot be 
 maintained. But national systems of education 
 have regard to the good of the community, not 
 merely, or chiefly, to that of the individual. The 
 want of literary education is the source of nu- 
 merous ills to the body politic, which legisla- 
 tion should strive to remove. The statistics 
 of illiteracy are. thus, of the greatest value, as 
 indicating the progress or retrogression of a 
 nation in the most important elements of well- 
 being. (See Crime and Education.) 
 
 A full view of this subject requires that the 
 attention should be given to (I) the sources of in- 
 formation — what they are. and how reliable they 
 can be made ; (II) the general facts obtained 
 by an investigation into the condition of the 
 people in the different countries of the world, 
 which, for this purpose, may be distributed into 
 various groups, comprehending the totally igno- 
 rant barbarous tribes, the extremely illiterate p< >p- 
 ulations of the old despotisms of Europe, Asia, 
 and Africa, and those in which only a modified 
 degree of illiteracy is still found to exist, — the 
 highly favored states of Europe and North Amer- 
 ica; (III) some special facts regarding the compar- 
 ative illiteracy of (1 ) males and females. (2) adults 
 and youth, (3) the general population and crimi- 
 nals, and (4) the general population and con- 
 scripts : (IVJ the relations of illiteracy to (1) su- 
 perior knowledge, (2) common labor, (3) skilled 
 labor. I I j national power, 1 5) pauperism, (6) crime. 
 (7) honie and its influences, (8) higher civilization 
 and religion; (V) the causes of illiteracy; 
 I V I ) remedies, and the prospects of improve- 
 
450 
 
 ILLITERACY 
 
 ment by the operation of various influences pecu- 
 liar to modern civilization. 
 
 I. As the chief sources of information, depend- 
 ence must be placed upon (1) ce?isus reports, 
 some of which, especially such as those of Italy 
 for 1861 and 1871, are replete with instruction 
 on this subject ; but those of the United States 
 are the most valuable of all. embracing, as they 
 do, four periods, 1840, 1850, L860, andl^Tu. 
 The later ones are of especial importance, as 
 they afford particular statistics of various classes. 
 — native and foreign, white and colored, adults 
 and youths, males and females. All the facts 
 presented in the census reports for 1840, -50, -60, 
 are brought together and digested in a paper on 
 Jllilfravif published in the Annual Report of the 
 U. S. Commissioner <>f Education for 1870, in 
 Avhich the census returns of these three periods 
 are compared. The results of the census of 1870, 
 in this regard, are tabulated and compared in the 
 AnnualReport of 1871. ('!) Government reports 
 on education, such as those of the U. S. Bureau 
 of Education for 1870 — 4, and the special Cir- 
 culars of Information issued by the Rureau, 
 contain a large amount of information on this 
 subject, derived from various sources, especially 
 the papers on Education and Labor, Educa- 
 tion and Crime, and Education and Pauperism. 
 (3) Import ant facts are obtained from special 
 official reports, on Criminals, Conscripts, and 
 Marriages, bysomeofthe Europeangovernments. 
 
 II. The first group, that of wholly illiterate 
 savage or barbarous tribes, needs only to be re- 
 ferred to, without any enumeration. Having no 
 books and no written language, their total igno- 
 rance reacts upon their barbarism, and perpetu- 
 ates the degradation which has caused it. Pass- 
 ing to those nations that have written languages 
 and hooks, there appears, first, a group consist- 
 ing of those which, descended from ancient des- 
 potisms, have been enveloped in thick clouds of 
 Ignorance from which some of them are only just 
 emerging, -Turkey. Egypt, Persia, Russia, and 
 (not long since) Greece, Poland, Italy (till her 
 late revival, and even now in her southern prov- 
 inces), Spain and (doubtless) Portugal, with 
 their American colonies. In all these, to a greater 
 or less extent, popular ignorance, or illiteracy, 
 has prevailed up to the present time. The 
 
 government has neither provided for nor fos- 
 tered universal education ; and the political and 
 religious .-tat us of the pa >\ ie baa afforded no in- 
 citements to any efforts of their own in this 
 direction. Even in the Spanish and Portuguese 
 oies, the old spirit and habits inherited bj 
 the people have been stronger than the desire for 
 liberty, intelligence, and progress. To the group 
 ibove referred to, Hungary, nol long 
 ago, belonged ; hut. of late, the people, by their 
 energy and enthusiasm, have made wonderful 
 progress in the march of intelligence; but, even 
 
 now. she remains, side liy side, with her sister 
 
 state Austria, in which, despite the influence of 
 her intelligent and progressive German popula- 
 tion, one naif of the inhabitants remain in a con- 
 dition of illiteracy, Bj the side of this group, 
 
 but with a history, and under conditions, wide- 
 ly different, stands India, one of the most be- 
 nighted of nations, having 90 per cent of her 
 males, and 95 per cent of her whole population 
 (for letters are religiously and socially forbidden 
 to females) wholly illiterate : and this, notwith- 
 standing that she still possesses the wonderful 
 literature of her early days, in the hands of the 
 Brahman caste, still devoted to learning, with 
 her wealthy Parsees fostering education, and the 
 influence of her princely Mohammedan conquer- 
 ors still remaining in the religious schools con- 
 nected with the mosques. This fact shows to 
 what an extent outcast and ignorant masses tend 
 to depress and degrade the general condition of 
 a people. The case of the Mohammedan coun- 
 tries — Turkey, Persia, Egypt, is quite peculiar. 
 These people are the successors of the Saracens, 
 whose learning and culture shone so brightly. 
 while Europe was enveloped in the darkness of 
 the middle ages, and who contributed so largely 
 to the sources of modern civilization, and gave 
 to it such an impetus.- — China maybe referred 
 to, as presenting a somewhat singular phase of 
 illiteracy, her political system holding out the 
 strongest inducements to education and learning 
 to the males, while the females are very generally 
 kept in a condition of illiteracy. (See China.) 
 This is one of the results of Confucianism, which, 
 while it accords to the matron the highest re- 
 spect, has treated the subject of female education 
 (instruction in letters and books) with entire in- 
 difference. China, therefore, as far as the free- 
 dom of her male population from illiteracy is 
 concerned, would take a high rank among edu- 
 cated nations : but. as her women are untaught, 
 she must be placed with those who are half in 
 darkness. — Japan would come in here, side by 
 side with China, whose religion and philosophy, 
 sacred hooks, with their language anil literature. 
 
 and peculiar alphabetic characters, she adopted 
 long ago, introduced into her schools, and taught 
 to the masses of her people. But she has done 
 more than China, she has added a simpler (syl- 
 labic) writing of her own [Jcalakana); and. what 
 is far more, she has taughl her women as well 
 as her men. The Japanese cannot be considered 
 an illiterate nation. The number of persons, 
 who cannot read or write, is comparatively 
 small, even the most degraded classes being 
 often able to write the kalakana, and to read 
 
 the books printed in that style; so that her illit- 
 erate population is set down a1 no more than 10 
 
 percent. (See Japan.) In a distinct group may 
 be placed Prance, Belgium, England, and Ire- 
 land, about one third of their people being un- 
 able to read or write. The proportion in Ire- 
 land may be somewhat larger; but, in that 
 country, the people have received from the 
 priesthood some instruction in letters beyond 
 what the government has provided for them, lu 
 these four countries, the spirit of progreSB 
 has had to contend against many of the saiua 
 
 influences that have kept down the people of tha 
 more benighted countries of Europe already con- 
 sidered. Next in order of advance, comes t ha 
 
ILLITERACY 
 
 451 
 
 American Union, with its 20 per cent of illiter- 
 ates. — The Netherlands, Germany proper, Den- 
 mark, Norway and Sweden, and perhaps Switzer- 
 land, are entitled to the distinction of showing 
 the smallest amount of illiteracy. (See Table.) 
 III. The diversity of social customs and na- 
 tional institutions leads to corresponding differ- 
 ences in the condition of various classes; and 
 the degree of illiteracy found to exist in these, 
 respectively, presents a basis for very important 
 considerations in relation to the expediency of 
 particular legislative measures. Hence, the im- 
 portance of ascertaining the comparative illiter- 
 acy of youth and adults, males and females (sex 
 illiteracy), white and colored (race illiteracy), 
 etc. The statistical facts in regard to those points 
 are very imperfect ; but many, that are quite 
 reliable, are exceedingly instructive. Thus, ac- 
 cording to the U. S. census of 1870, of every 
 ] ,000 persons of the population, 10 years old and 
 upward, 14f> were illiterate; of adults, 94; of 
 youth (from 10 to 21 years of age), 52. In Ger- 
 many, the census of 1871 reports 91 per cent of 
 men, and 1~> per cent of women, unable to read 
 and write. In Scotland, 11 per cent of men, and 
 21 per cent of women could not read or write 
 at marriage. In Bavaria, only 7 per cent of the 
 recruits were illiterate ; in Germany, how r ever, 
 the mass of the illiteracy is in the north-eastern 
 provinces of Posen and Prussia proper, among a 
 people foreign to the language and institutions 
 of the German nation; while, in most of the Ger- 
 man states, the percentage of illiteracy is very 
 small — in some, less than one per cent. In 
 France, the census of 1872 showed 27 per cent 
 of illiterate males and 33 per cent of illiterate 
 females; while the census of Spain (1SG0) showed 
 69 per cent of males and 91 per cent of females. 
 Italy, in 1861, was reported as having GO per cent 
 of illiterate male adults and 68 per cent of il- 
 literate male youths (from 12 to 18 years of age). 
 In the city of Xew York, the census of 1870 re- 
 ported, out of the total population of 942,292, 
 14,974 male adults and 36,810 female adults, as 
 unable to write; while of male youths (from 10 to 
 21), there were only 3,088, aud of female youths, 
 4,929, unable to write. This close correspond- 
 ence in the one case, with the large discrepancy 
 in the other, is a very suggestive fact, pointing 
 as it does to the effect of foreign immigration, on 
 the one hand, and to the influence of a great 
 common-school system, on the other. The aver- 
 age of illiterates in Belgium is 30 per cent ; and 
 in Great Britain and France, it is considerably 
 below 50 per cent; while, in Belgium, the 
 percentage of illiterate criminals (1855) was 57 
 per cent, in France (1871) it was 41 per cent. 
 A comparison, based on full and accurate sta- 
 tistics, of the percentage of illiteracy among the 
 adults of a population, with the percentage of 
 illiteracy among adult criminals, would demon- 
 strate, with great force and clearness, the effect 
 of education upon crime. (See Chimb and Edu- 
 cation*.) The percentage of illiteracy among con- 
 scripts, in any country, affords a means of as- 
 certaining the general condition of a people in 
 
 this respect, inasmuch as inquiries in regard to it 
 ■ are generally conducted with considerable care. 
 
 IV. The various points considered in this di- 
 vision of the subject cannot be treated upon a 
 basis of statistics; but, theoretically, or by apri- 
 ' ori reasoning, it may be satisfactorily shown 
 that the advancement of a people in every de- 
 partment of learning, science, art. artistic and 
 industrial labor, depends on the diffusion of in- 
 telligence, and the means of intelligence — read- 
 ing and writing, among all classes of the com- 
 munity. Illiteracy is an exponent of ignorance ; 
 and " what bodily disease," says commissioner 
 Eaton [Report gfU. S. Bureau of Education, 
 1871), ''has ever wrought the terrible evils to 
 society that come from ignorance, whose children 
 are destitution and crime? The children whom 
 society, the church, and the school fail to educate, 
 learn in the streets, and from countless teachers 
 of vice, aided by those grim masters, hunger and 
 want, the malign arts that render the property 
 of our households, the virtue of our women, and 
 the health and happiness of our people insecure." 
 
 Y. The causes of illiteracy, in nations that 
 have already reached the condition of civilization, 
 are various ; among them may be mentioned 
 (1) absolutism, in government, basing itself up- 
 on the principle of "divine right" instead of the 
 will of the people, or in religion, depriving the 
 people of all freedom of thought ; as is shown by 
 the fact that a people controlled by a despotic 
 power — monarchy or hierarchy — are, usually, 
 largely illiterate, the riding class, as in the case 
 of the priests in Egypt, and the Druids of 
 Britain, engrossing all knowdedge, and shutting 
 up its avenues against the people; (2) caste, aris- 
 tocracy, or class distinctions fixed as institutions, 
 must necessarily promote illiteracy, for a similar 
 reason ; as must also (3) restrictions upon ' the 
 right of suffrage, shutting out any large class of 
 the community from its exercise; and, even 
 when the institutions of society are free, and 
 public schools are abundant, frequently, legisla- 
 tive compulsion may be required, as an inter- 
 mediate step to promote the acceptance, on the 
 part of ignorant or vicious parents, of the ad- 
 vantages of education for their children ; and 
 therefore, (4) the absence of compulsory attend- 
 ance lairs may be a cause of illiteracy. (See 
 ( 'omitlsory Education.) 
 
 A' I. Improvement in regard to the diffusion 
 of learning must come from the operation of ju- 
 dicious measures designed to remove the causes 
 of illiteracy above referred to. The general ac- 
 ceptance by civilized nations, at the present time,, 
 of the principle of popular or state education, as 
 the only stable foundation of national prosperi- 
 ty, with the vast augmentation of the means of 
 communication, through the varied applications 
 of steam and electricity, must gradually but 
 surely diminish among every people the ratio of 
 illiteracy. Evidence of a strong tendency in this 
 direction is shown by every succeeding census in 
 the great and progressive nations of the world. 
 
 The following tables present the statistics of 
 illiteracy in different countries. 
 
452 
 
 ILLITERACY 
 
 Table I. 
 Ratio of Illiteracy to Population. 
 
 [Countries marked * are nearly free from illiteracy ; 
 in those marked f , the ratio of "illiteracy is very large 
 but not delinitely ascertained.] 
 
 Cotntries 
 
 Argentine Republic 
 
 Austria conscripts 
 
 Bavaria " 
 
 Belgium 
 
 Brazil 
 
 China 
 
 Denmark 
 
 Egypt 
 
 England 
 
 France 
 
 Germany 
 
 Greece 
 
 Hawaii 
 
 Hungary 
 
 [ndia 
 
 Ireland (criminals) 
 
 Italy 
 
 Japan 
 
 Mexico 
 
 Netherlands conscripts) . 
 
 Norway 
 
 Poland 
 
 Portugal 
 
 Russia 
 
 Scotland (criminals; 
 
 Spain 
 
 Sweden 
 
 Switzerland 
 
 Turkey ,. 
 
 United States 
 
 Percent of Illiteracy 
 
 Earlier 
 date 
 
 8 
 
 42 
 
 55 
 99 
 
 78 
 23 
 
 99 
 88 
 
 23 
 
 Recent 
 
 statistics 
 
 83 
 
 49 
 
 7 
 
 30 
 
 5 f 
 
 * 
 
 t 
 33 
 33 
 
 12 
 82 
 * 
 
 61 
 95 
 46 
 73 
 10 
 93 
 18 
 * 
 
 91 
 
 t 
 91 
 21 
 
 80 
 
 * 
 * 
 
 Table II. — Illiteracy in the United States. 
 
 [Censuses of 1840, -50, and -60 reported those who 
 could not read and write; that of ls;o, those who could 
 not read and those who could nd write.] 
 
 [r means cannot read ; «*, cannot write.] 
 
 
 
 1 1 n ■ 
 
 
 Per 
 
 Race 
 
 Age 
 
 of 
 census 
 
 Numbers 
 
 cent 
 
 
 ' 20 and over 
 
 1840 
 
 1,650.478 
 
 22 
 
 
 ■ 1 tt u 
 
 I860 
 
 ; 901 
 
 23 
 
 
 tt fl If 
 
 1860 
 
 8,012 280 
 
 20 
 
 All Classes -j 
 
 21 " 
 
 1870 
 
 3,716,196 
 
 20w 
 
 
 10 " " 
 
 " 
 
 6,658,144 
 
 20it> 
 
 
 14 tt If 
 
 tt 
 
 4.:. '.'8, 084 
 
 16,- 
 
 
 . 10 to 21.... 
 
 tt 
 
 1,942,948 
 
 20to 
 
 
 ' 20 and over 
 
 1840 
 
 679,316 
 
 9 
 
 
 •• •• " 
 
 1860 
 
 1,112,019 
 
 11 
 
 Whites 4 
 
 U tt it 
 
 I860 
 
 1,181,918 
 
 9 
 
 
 21 " " 
 
 1870 
 
 L.894,688 
 
 12io 
 
 
 . 10 to 21.... 
 
 II 
 
 957,228 
 
 llw 
 
 
 ' 20 and over 
 
 1840 
 
 1,071,162 
 
 100 
 
 
 (i tt tt 
 
 I860 
 
 1,485,882 
 
 92 
 
 Colored < 
 
 tt n tt 
 
 I860 
 
 1,830,412 
 
 92 
 
 
 21 " 
 
 L870 
 
 1,820,608 
 
 82w 
 
 
 10 to 21.... 
 
 II 
 
 986,726 
 
 76m 
 
 Foreign-born 1 
 most of i 
 
 20 and over 
 
 u .. .. 
 
 1850 
 I860 
 
 204,753 
 973 
 
 15 
 16 
 
 them whites) 
 
 21 " «' 
 10 " 
 
 1870 
 
 tt 
 
 677,600 
 
 777,873 
 
 15w 
 
 I 
 
 20 and over 
 
 1850 
 
 2,293,148 
 
 24 
 
 Native-born -i 
 
 *t it a 
 
 1860 
 
 2,649,367 
 
 •Jl 
 
 White and 
 
 •ji •• 
 
 1870 
 
 8,037,696 
 
 22m 
 
 colored) ' 
 
 10 " " 
 
 
 4,880,271 
 
 21w 
 
 | 
 
 20 and over 
 
 1850 
 
 808,024 
 
 10 
 
 Native White 
 
 
 
 1860 
 
 810...4 1 
 
 8 
 
 1 
 
 21 •• " 
 
 1870 
 
 1,217 
 
 lOw 
 
 Table III. 
 
 Illiteracy as compared with various Degrees 
 of Education. 
 
 u 
 
 Countries 
 
 O 
 
 France 
 
 '• military 
 
 " (civil, males 
 
 " civil, females] 
 
 " (adults 
 
 minors, 6— 20 years). 
 
 Spain men 
 
 " women 
 
 both 
 
 United States ,aged 10 i: over 
 
 ' Belgium 
 
 1851 
 1856 
 1859 
 1861 
 1867 
 1868 
 1869 
 1864 
 1867 
 
 Germany 1851—52 
 
 Italy.... 1869 
 
 Netherlands 1846—58 
 
 1859—62 
 
 1868—69 
 
 1870 
 
 France . 
 
 Date 
 
 of 
 
 census 
 
 or 
 report 
 
 1866 
 
 II 
 II 
 II 
 
 1872 
 
 ■I 
 
 1860 
 
 II 
 
 1870 
 
 Switzerland 
 
 Appenzell Int. read 
 
 " writ.- .. . 
 
 Ext. read 
 
 *' " write 
 
 Basel all read fluently . . 
 
 " write 
 
 Bern read 
 
 " (write) 
 
 Soleure (write 1 
 
 ZUrich u rite 
 
 f Belgium . 
 
 England & Wales ma 
 
 " '* •' females 
 " (both . .. 
 
 Ireland males 
 
 (females) 
 
 (both) 
 
 Scotland (males 
 
 " females 
 
 " (both 
 
 France 
 
 r. 
 c 
 
 '.V 
 
 u 
 
 Italy i'gaUey-slavt-s 
 
 (prisoners- males 
 
 " females 
 
 both) 
 
 Conde'd minors males . . . 
 " •• females;. 
 
 " " both) 
 
 " lyr.or more (males 
 
 ' females 
 
 " " " " both ... 
 
 Minors in custody (males . 
 
 " •• •• females] 
 
 «« •' " both . .. 
 
 United States 5SSB£ 
 
 Per cent 
 
 1850 
 
 1855 
 
 1871—72 
 
 1872 
 1871—72 
 
 1868 
 1861 
 
 1 862 
 1868 
 1871 
 1871 
 
 (adult> .. 
 (minors 
 (adults . 
 (minors 
 
 N.T. news boys 
 
 1854—66 
 1867—70 
 
 1871— 75 
 1850—59 
 
 ■I 
 
 I860 -tv.< 
 
 II 
 
 1829—74 
 1866—76 
 
 3 
 3 
 2 
 1 
 
 55 
 57 
 31 
 39 
 
 :;4 
 89 
 
 57 
 46 
 20 
 24 
 ■-•1 
 14 
 39 
 40 
 :is 
 41 
 66 
 
 39 
 53 
 4:; 
 41 
 58 
 
 44 
 
 74 
 
 67 
 69 
 16 
 8 
 18 
 
 1841- 
 
 17 
 
 24 
 81 
 16 
 24 
 
 17 
 ■J 4 
 •JO 
 17 
 
 2S 
 
 11 
 
 9 
 
 10 
 
 13 
 
 10 
 
 13 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 5 
 
 4 
 
 11 
 9 
 
 7 
 7 
 5 
 6 
 6 
 3 
 2 
 20 
 4 
 2 
 2 
 2 
 
 39 
 
 36 
 
 4 
 
 6 
 
 11 
 
 18 
 
 17 
 
 29 
 26 
 64 
 59 
 63 
 14 
 21 
 17 
 63 
 63 
 61 
 39 
 44 
 45 
 42 
 41 
 12 
 15 
 27 
 16 
 
 7 
 14 
 
 8 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 38 
 
 Is 
 
 36 
 
 19 
 
 15 
 
 18 
 
 7 
 
 15 
 19 
 13 
 16 
 16 
 28 
 
IMACI NATION 
 
 453 
 
 IMAGINATION, Culture of. Imagina- 
 tion is the power by which conceptions, origi- 
 nally formed from the perception of Datura] ob- 
 jects or their representatives, are reproduced in 
 a fictitious combination which resembles the 
 natural. This faculty, existing as it does, in a 
 greater or less degree, in every mind, and enter- 
 ing to some extent into almost every mental act, 
 must be placed among the few great powers of 
 the mind which demand careful cultivation. 
 The influence of the imagination is equally felt 
 in moral and intellectual action. By its aid, the 
 man of science, recombinine the elements gath- 
 ered by an observation of the visible world 
 around him. projects his thought into the unseen 
 universe, and determines the existence of condi- 
 tions which knowledge alone could never detect, 
 but which observation serves only to confirm. 
 Through the influence of imagination alone, the 
 record of the past becomes a guide and a warn- 
 ing to the present. Thus, the hand of charity 
 is opened to relieve necessities which the active 
 exercise of this faculty picture's to us as existing 
 in the homes of want and misery. The every- 
 day thought of the boor, and the rare flight of 
 the man of genius are alike indebted to its aid. 
 The universality of its presence, therefore, and 
 the danger attending its unregulated develop- 
 ment, constitute its peculiar claim to attention 
 at the hands of the educator. Notwithstanding 
 this, however, the need of a systematic cultiva- 
 tion of the imaginative faculty seldom receives 
 practical recognition. This is owing somewhat 
 to the fact that the want which would be pro- 
 duce 1 by its total neglect, is partly met byits in- 
 direct and irregular cultivation in the studies of 
 any ordinary school course; but more to the 
 hidden nature of its action, and the want of 
 that subtle discernment necessary in the teacher 
 to detect its influence in the mental operations 
 of the pupil. A knowledge of its power and 
 of the consequent need of its cultivation is de- 
 rived almost entirely from our own experience. 
 The extent, therefore, to which it influences or 
 controls the judgment, is appreciable only in our 
 own case, and in that only approximately ; and, 
 hence, an analysis of its effect on the thought or 
 actions of others becomes a matter of extreme 
 difficulty. The neglect of its cultivation in the 
 ordinary school curriculum is productive of re- 
 sults hardly less pernicious than its abuse by un- 
 due stimulation; for, while by the latter the 
 judgment and reason are subordinated, and the 
 mind is turned from tire consideration of the 
 practical, ami concentrated too exclusively upon 
 the ideal, thus enveloping the daily concerns of 
 life in a kind of mental mirage, which results in 
 disappointment and discouragement when the 
 cloud is dispersed ; by the former, the dull, mat- 
 ter-of-fact phase of existence acquires undue 
 prominence, to the suppression of all sentiment 
 and that love of the beautiful which cheers and 
 helps us to find, even in the commonest aspects 
 and the least fortunate circumstances of life, 
 reason for admiration and gratitude. These con- 
 siderations should secure for it careful attention. 
 
 The development of the imaginative faculty 
 begins at a very early period. The conscious- 
 ness, on the part of the child, of objects ex- 
 ternal to itself, constitutes perception. This is 
 very soon followed by conception, which con- 
 in taking from the object perceived a men- 
 tal picture capable of reproduction at pleasure, 
 in the absence of the original. This latter may 
 be called the first act of the imagination — the 
 Storing of the mind with materials for future 
 use. Simultaneously with this, or only shortly 
 after, occurs the naming of these materials — 
 the association of thoughts with words, with a 
 view to their expression as language. (Set' [IN- 
 TELLECT! al Em cation.) Thus far, the action 
 of the imagination depends upon the percep- 
 tion of actual objects. It now remains for the 
 imagination to use the materials already pro- 
 vided, by discarding the actual object, and form- 
 ing partly by the aid of words as symbols of 
 general ideas, aii ideal picture; or, independ- 
 ently of words, and by its own act. creating 
 for itself scenes and images not less vivid than 
 their tangible representatives. The. work of the 
 imagination, therefore, is complementary to that 
 of observation. The order is, (1) perception, 
 (2) conception, (."') imagination. The action of 
 the latter is presupposed by that of the two 
 former. Knowledge alone — the mere storing 
 of the mind with facts and conceptions — would 
 be of little value without the vivifying power 
 of imagination. Its function is to lift the 
 mind from the contemplation of the actual, and 
 cany it beyond the field of mere observation, 
 into those ideal regions where the tangible has 
 no existence, or where its existence cannot be 
 actually verified. — In the cultivation of the fac- 
 ulty of imagination, several methods are open 
 to the teacher, the most common of which are 
 pictures, oral narratives, and reading, or combi- 
 nations of these. In all, the attention is the 
 principal object to be secured ; since thus only 
 can a vivid mental picture be formed, and any 
 other is worst; than useless. The picture is, of 
 course, the surest instrument for accomplishing 
 this result, since it is a direct appeal to the eye 
 — the earliest and most powerful agent by which 
 knowledge is obtained. It is desirable, there- 
 fore, that the picture should be clearly drawn or 
 painted, and in as simple or elementary a form 
 as is consistent with the idea of completeness. 
 A few salient features, therefore, are all that are 
 necessary for this purpose ; since fine gradations 
 of color or shading can be observed only at the 
 expense of the general impression. In oral nar- 
 rative, the degree to which the clearness of the 
 general impression is produced, depends entirely 
 upon tip- teacher. A warm, sympathetic nat- 
 ure is here the only qualification. By it, he is 
 enabled to place himself on the pupil's level, to 
 enter into his thoughts, and by the use of figures 
 and illustrations familiar to youthful minds, to 
 produce a correct and precise mental image. 
 Any other disposition than this is a decided dis- 
 qualification for the cultivation of the imagina- 
 tion by this method. Where the picture and 
 
454 
 
 IMAGINATION 
 
 IMITATION 
 
 the oral narrative are used together, the former 
 should not be exhibited till after the description. 
 It should then be produced to re-inforce the de- 
 scription and give it greater clearness; but, if 
 it is exhibited before that time, the attention is 
 drawn to it at once, to the neglect of the nar- 
 rative. Pictures which are to be used for the 
 purpose of illustration, should, if possible, be 
 new to the pupil in order to produce their best 
 effect. * >f the methods mentioned, however, for 
 the cultivation of the imaginative faculty, read- 
 ing is not only the most common, but is, in most 
 cases, indispensable. The requisites in this ease. 
 however, are still the same. The object being 
 always to fix the attention ;is powerfully as pos- 
 sible upon a mental picture, the style should be 
 simple and clear, but graphic and forcible, 
 abounding in concrete terms, not in abstract 
 phrases, and appealing to the experience of the 
 pupil, ami awakening his sympathies. An ex- 
 cellent test of the clearness of the mental picture 
 formed is that of recalling at the end of the 
 ling, the scenes, inei lenls, and actors in the 
 order of their introduction or occurrence. Al- 
 most every branch pursued in the ordinary 
 school or college course affords some opportunity 
 for the cultivation of the imaginative faculty. 
 but special fields for its most active exercise are 
 
 found in geography, history, and poetry. S e 
 
 departments of natural science may also afford 
 
 ision for its activity. The condition of the 
 eartli in prehistoric time, its chemical, geolog- 
 ical, and meteorological constitution, the plants 
 and animals that grew or moved upon its sur- 
 face, together with its relation past, present, and 
 future, with other worlds, afford Bcope for the ex- 
 ercise of the most lively imagination. The his- 
 tory of the human race, also, is tilled with scenes 
 and incidents of which, if skillfully presented. 
 the mind of the pupil will never tire. Even in 
 the teaching of subjects usually considered dry 
 and uninteresting, there is field for the exercise 
 of this faculty. Grammar, mathematics, polit- 
 ical economy, and logic, if illustrated by a teacher 
 of active fancy, can be freed, in large measure, 
 from the abstract nature which is supposed 
 to be essential to them, and which renders 
 them ordinarily so uninviting. In regard to 
 the use of fiction as an agent in the cultiva- 
 tion of the imagination, much discussion has 
 arisen, the objection usually urged being that its 
 
 effecl 18 to Stimulate this faculty unduly. This 
 is probably true of one class only; namely, tho B 
 
 in whose mimls the imaginative faculty exists 
 
 by nature in an abnormal degree. Where this 
 
 power is deficient, it will hardly be said that the 
 
 perusal Of works of fiction can do more than to 
 
 develop the faculty, so as to bring it into pro- 
 portion with the other mental powers; while 
 
 the probability is, that the result will fall short 
 of this. In the remaining class, those in w hoin 
 
 this faculty exists in a normal proportion, the 
 evil result of stimulation produced by the read- 
 i ig of works of action, has, perhaps, been over 
 rated. The reading alone can only Berve to fill 
 the mind with high ideals— the harm result 
 
 has probably been produced by neglecting to 
 provide the necessary means or occasions for an 
 active exercise of the high and generous sen- 
 timents and resolves thus aroused. If we read 
 continually of suffering, but never give alms, 
 habit soon causes us to accommodate ourselves to 
 this condition as the natural one, and the mental 
 excitement ceases to seek any outward, active 
 expression. This, probably, is the explanation 
 of the anomaly sometimes noticed in the his- 
 tories of eminent writers, that their works are 
 tilled with sentiment and tenderness, while their 
 lives were mean and despicable. The result here 
 is owing to that half education which rouses 
 the sympathies, and then neglects to provide 
 for their exercise. But this abuse of the true 
 method can hardly be considered a condemna- 
 tion of the method itself. An experienced edu- 
 cator says on the subject of the general culture 
 of the imagination: "1 much fear, neither 
 teachers nor scholars are sufficiently impressed 
 with the importance of a proper training of this 
 faculty. Some there may be who despise it al- 
 together, as bavins to do with fiction rather 
 than with fact, and of no value to the severe 
 Student who wishes to acquire exact knowledge. 
 But this is not the case. It is a well known fact 
 that the highest class of scientific men have be< a 
 led to their most important discoveries by the 
 quickening power of a suggestive imagination, 
 of this tlie poet Goethe's original observations 
 
 in botany and 03teology may serve as an apt 
 illustration. Imagination, therefore, is the enemy 
 of science only when it acts without reason, that 
 is, arbitrarily and whimsically; with reason, it 
 is often the best and most indispensable of allies." 
 (See Fiction.) 
 
 IMITATION. The possession of this im- 
 portant faculty, and the desire to exercise it, 
 constitute two essential elements of all human 
 progress, from childhood to maturity, and 
 even beyond — as long, indeed, as the effort at 
 self improvement is kept up — a vast majority of 
 the human race are employed merely in imitat- 
 ing the models that have been set up by individ- 
 ual genius, or by the accumulated wisdom and 
 taste of ages ; and their success in life is greater or 
 according to the accuracy of their imitation. 
 Especially during childhood and youth, is this 
 faculty brought into active play. It is the nec- 
 essary accompaniment and basis of instruction, 
 the Btepping-stone to all excellence. I leing of so 
 great importance, therefore, in nearly every de- 
 partment of education, it should receive the 
 ial attention of the teacher.- The conditions 
 
 of success in imitation are chiefly two : (1) ac- 
 curate observation, and (2) a retentive memory. 
 Probably few have noticed how slightly the 
 faculty of observation 18 usually exercised. This. 
 however, may lie easily illustrated. Of twenty 
 persons listening to a speaker whose voice has 
 
 some peculiar tone or inflection, it will probably 
 be found that only half a dozen or perhaps even 
 I as will notice it. unless it is very marked; and 
 of these, only two or three v\ill be able to re- 
 produce it with any degree of accuracy. J low 
 
INCENTIVES 
 
 INDIA 
 
 455 
 
 often do men differ as to the form or color of 
 some feature in the face of an acquaintance! 
 For example) let a draughtsman, whose attention 
 
 has not previously been specially called to the 
 object, he asked to draw a rose-leaf. The prob- 
 ability is. that he will confess his inability to do 
 so, though he would recognize a rose-bush with- 
 out difficulty. Instances might be multiplied of 
 the loose, general way in which this faculty is 
 used, the result of which is, that only an indef- 
 inite impression is left on the mind, instead 
 of an accurate picture. (See Attention.) If it 
 be granted then, that mere imitation, when 
 uncultivated, cannot be depended on, it will 
 probably not be denied that a good memory, 
 and, in most cases, a certain degree of mechan- 
 ical skill, are necessary, when it is cultivated, 
 to produce the best results. It only remains, 
 therefore, to point out a few of the studies 
 and pursuits in which imitation is the chief in- 
 strument, and to indicate some of the methods 
 by which it may be made most efficient. Among 
 the first, may be enumerated writing, map-draw- 
 ing, as now generally used in teaching geography, 
 and nearly all the arts ; among them, drawing, 
 with all the professions that immediately depend 
 upon it. as surveying, civil engineering, mechan- 
 ics, architecture, together with all the natural 
 sciences in the teaching of which, sensible objects 
 are to be represented. In learning to speak a 
 foreign language, also, a direct appeal is made to 
 the faculty of imitation. Among the methods 
 used for producing efficiency in imitation, the 
 kindergarten system is of great value for insur- 
 ing steadiness of hand and accuracy of eye. (See 
 Kindergarten'.) The usual school exercises of 
 reading, declamation, dialogues, etc., are more or 
 less successful, according to the closeness with 
 which the feelings and expressions of imaginary 
 persons are imitated. Proficiency in classical 
 ■composition, also, is promoted, in many colleges 
 and universities, by placing before students orig- 
 inal models for imitation. The value of this 
 faculty, in moral education, can hardly be over- 
 stated, that most powerfid of all educators — 
 ■example — depending to a great extent on imita- 
 tion for its efficiency. (See Example.) 
 
 INCENTIVES, School, consist of rewards 
 of various kinds, offered to pupils for progress 
 in study and good behavior; such as "good 
 tickets", certificates of merit, books, and other 
 things awarded as premiums for excellence 
 ■either in proficiency or conduct. Besides these, 
 various expedients arc resorted to for the pur- 
 pose of exciting emulation, which are also to be 
 classed among school incentives ; such as giving 
 public praise, awarding merit marks, putting 
 the names of meritorious pupils upon a roU of 
 honor, which is suitably embellished and framed, 
 and hung in a conspicuous place in the school- 
 room. The dismissal of pupils from school 
 previous to the usual time is also to be placed 
 among the same class of incentives. To this, 
 however, strong objection has been made, inas- 
 much as it seems to imply that attendance at 
 school is burdensome and grievous, whereas it 
 
 should be made pleasant and attractive. The 
 efficacy of this incentive as every teacher knows, 
 is very great, because it appeals to the natural 
 activity of the child, upon which the confinement 
 of school cannot but operate as a restraint, how- 
 ever well it may be administered; and experience 
 has demonstrated that an occasional relief from 
 this confinement does not, on the whole, weaken 
 the pupil's attachment to school. All such in- 
 centives, it must be borne in mind, are of a 
 secondary nature; and the educator should al- 
 ways exercise care that their influence should 
 not be so exerted as to impair the force of higher 
 and more enduring motives to good conduct. 
 (Sec Rewards.) 
 
 INDIA, a country in Asia, at present under 
 British rule, with the exception of a few French 
 and Portuguese colonies. r l he term India is 
 sometimes also applied in a wider sense, embra- 
 cing those countries known by the name of 
 Hindoostan and Farther India. In this article, 
 we treat of that part only which is known as 
 British In ilia. '1 he area of the country under 
 the direct rule of the British government is 
 904,049 square miles, with a population of 
 1 90,563,048. The native states, which, although 
 governed by native princes, are still more or less 
 subject to British influence, have an area of 
 546,695 square miles, and a population of 
 -ls,2(>7,910, making the total area of British In- 
 dia 1,450,744 square miles, and the aggregate 
 population 238,830,958. The principal religions 
 in British India (as far as it is directly under 
 British rule), according to the last census (com- 
 pleted in 1872), were represented as follows: 
 Hindoos, 139,248,000; Mohammedans, 40,883,- 
 000 ; Buddhists, 2,833,000 ; Christians, 897,000 ; 
 Sikhs, 1,174.000; other creeds, 5,102,000; of 
 unknown religion, 425,000. The number of Chris- 
 tians, according to missionary reports, is how- 
 ever, considerably larger. The Protestants claim 
 a native population of more than 250,000 ; and 
 the Roman Catholics, according to a statement 
 prepared in 1870 for the Vatican Council, 
 1, 070,000. The Parsees are one of the least 
 numerous sects, but they constitute one of the 
 most intelligent portions of the native popula- 
 tion. The best known among the sects of recent 
 origin is the Brahmo-Samaj, founded about 
 L830. It is a kind of rationalistic development 
 of Brahman and Christian doctrines, and admits 
 into its canon of sacred books such portions of 
 the Vedas and the Bible, as are merely theistic 
 and not miraculous. It chiefly exists in the large 
 cities, and its members take an active interest in 
 all educational movements. 
 
 But little is known of the early history of In- 
 dia. It was, in the 6th century 1!. ( '., invaded by 
 the Persian king Darius, and in the 4th by Alex- 
 ander the Great; but the connection thus es- 
 tablished with the countries of western Asia and 
 Europe soon ceased, and India relapsed into its 
 secluded position. The invasion of the country 
 by Mohammedans began in the 8th century A. D., 
 and, since that time, large portions of India con- 
 tinued under Mohammedan rule, until finally 
 
456 
 
 INDIA 
 
 oompelled to yield to the advancing power of 
 some of tin' European nations. The first of these 
 who obtained territorial possessions in India, were 
 the Portuguese, who, early in the 16th century, 
 established their rule by seizing some of the forts 
 on the western coast. The English East India 
 Company, after obtaining permission from the 
 Mogul emperor, established its first factory in 
 L613, and gradually extended its power, until at 
 last nearly the whole of India was united under 
 its rule. In L858, the East India Company trans- 
 ferred all its possessions to the British Crown; 
 and, in 1876, the queen of England assumed the 
 official title of Empress of India. 
 
 I. Ancient India. — India, like China, Persia, 
 and Egypt, possesses one of the most ancient of 
 civilizations. The education of children consisted 
 chiefly in training them as members of one of 
 the castes into which the people were divided. 
 There were four principal castes: the Brahmans 
 or priests, the Kshatrivas or warriors, the Vais- 
 yas or merchants, and the Sudras or laborers, 
 composed mainly of the conquered people. Be- 
 low th,' Sudras was a still more degraded class. 
 
 known as Pariahs or outcasts. Every native of 
 India bel mge 1 to one or other of these castes, and 
 all children were brought up Btrictly within their 
 own. The tirst instruction embraced teachings 
 and warnings bh I by the necessities of 
 
 daily life, in order thus to teach the children 
 to imitate the good. < hi the subs qu nt education 
 the priests had the most powerful influence. 
 They were the sole teachers. Women and the 
 fourth caste were excluded from all education. 
 Elementary instruction embraced only reading. 
 writing, and arithmetic. A teacher with a staff 
 and with an assistant holding the switch, gave 
 
 ■ © © 
 
 instruction to boys sitting around him under the 
 trees. In arithmetic, only the elements were 
 taught : while writing, which was closely con- 
 nected with instruction in reading, was first prac- 
 ticed in the sam I. then on palm leaves with an 
 iron pencil, and finally on platane leaves with ink. 
 One child showed it to another, and one heard 
 the other recite. Particular attention was paid 
 
 to the higher schools of the Brahmans; and the 
 
 educational laws, which are treated quite ex- 
 haustively in the law books, have reference al- 
 most exclusively to the Brahmans. In the learned 
 schools in Benares, in Trizioon, an 1 in the Nud 
 deah, the exoterics, to whom also members of 
 
 the second and third caste belonged, were in- 
 structed in grammar, prosody, and mathematics; 
 and the esoterics, in poetry, history, philosophy, 
 astronomy, medicine, and law. The pupil was 
 
 for live years only a hearer; after that time he 
 Was permitted to express his thoughts and 
 doubte to the teacher, and to take part in the 
 
 disputations. The whole course comprised from 
 
 12 to 20 years, during which time the scholar 
 
 lived with the teacher. No regular compensa- 
 tion was received by the teacher, as to doso 
 
 Would he considered shameful, hut presents were 
 given as a reinuiieratiim. The reading of the 
 \ edas was considered the highest instruction 
 of the Brahmans, and was connected with various 
 
 ceremonies. India possesses no theory of peda 
 
 : but, instead of the dry. prosaic collection 
 
 of rules of the < Ihinese.we find here some deep ped- 
 agogical sayings in the pleasing garb of poetry, 
 and particularly in the form of failles. The old- 
 est of the collections of fables, the Pantchatan- 
 tra, was written in the 5th century of out- 
 present era. and has been translated into almost 
 every modern language. It contains numerous, 
 short sayings, extolling the advantages of educa- 
 tion. — A new religion, Buddhism, sprung from 
 Brahmanism; but although it had its origin in 
 
 © © 
 
 India, it was forced to retreat before the old relig- 
 ion, and spread particularly over China, Farther 
 India. .Mongolia. Japan, and other countries of 
 eastern Asia. The chief aim of the Buddhists is 
 to improve the moral life. For this purpose ten 
 commandments have been laid down, containing, 
 besides some excellent moral principles, rules for 
 good behavior. Buddhism ignores the cases. 
 though it does not absolutely prohibit them. The 
 clergy wen' made the basis of Buddhistic society; 
 
 whereas, in other creeds, the laity were the basis 
 on which the hierarchy reposed. Though this 
 creed has always been one of the most extensive 
 in the number of its followcrs.it ha.- contributed 
 little to the progress of education. On education 
 in ancient India, see Schmidt, Geschichte der 
 Padagogik, vol. i. 
 
 II. Modern India. — Doth the Catholic and 
 the Protestant missionaries who went to India. 
 established schools for tin education of the na- 
 tives, but they reached only a small portion of 
 the native population. By the natives them- 
 selves nothing was done to improve the system 
 of education and instruction. The bast India 
 Company had not founded a single school until 
 
 I T'.'.'i. In that year, Wilberforce moved, in the 
 
 I louse of Commons, to send schoolteachers to 
 
 India, in order to superintend the instruction of 
 
 the people: hut the India House denounced the 
 plan as detrimental to the continuance of their 
 
 rule. In L81 3, parliament granted $10,000 an- 
 nually for educational purposes; hut the money 
 was spent for the promotion of literary studies, 
 rather than for education. In 1848, the lieu- 
 tenant governor of Agra brought forward a 
 Scheme to give a school to every village of at 
 least one hundred families. After three years' 
 
 discussion the court of directors of the East 
 
 India < 'onipany accepted the groundwork of the 
 plan; and orders were issued that a school should 
 
 he provided for every circle of Tillages, called 
 Huttcabundee, and that the teachers should he 
 paid by a tax of two per cent on the land 
 
 revenue, 'the plan has been gradually developed; 
 
 and government schools now exist, in regular 
 
 gradation, from those which give the humbli 
 
 elementary instruction to the highest colleges; 
 
 and the best pupils of one grade are able to pass 
 through the other grades by means of scholar- 
 ships. To complete the system, a university was 
 established, in ISeT.at each of the three pn 
 
 dency capitals, ' lalcutta, Bombay, and Madras. on 
 
 the model of the London I'llivei-sity. for holding 
 
 examinations and conferring degrees. The gov- 
 
INDIA 
 
 INDIANA 
 
 467 
 
 eminent institutions are intended to serve as 
 models, to be gradually superseded by schools 
 supported on the grant-in-aid-system — a system 
 based on the principle of perfecl religious neu- 
 trality, and i»n regular rules adapted to the cir- 
 oumstances of each province. Normal schools 
 exist in each province tor the training of teachers. 
 The medium of education, in the elementary 
 schools for the masses, is the vernacular lan- 
 guages, into which are translated the best ele- 
 mentary English treatises. The study of the clas- 
 sical languages of India is, however, still main- 
 tained. The English language is taught in the 
 Anglo-vernacular schools and colleges for the 
 education of the upper and middle classes of 
 society. The governing agency of this system 
 consists of a director of public instruction in 
 each province, aided by a staff of inspectors. 
 The following table gives the number of schools 
 and colleges belonging to, aided or maintained 
 by, the government in British India, with the 
 average number of pupils attending them, the 
 amount expended by the government, and the 
 gross expenditure on account of instruction dur- 
 ing the years 1862, 1867, and 1871 : 
 
 Year 
 
 Number of 
 educational 
 
 institutions 
 
 Average 
 
 attend- 
 ance 
 
 Amouni ex- 
 pended by 
 
 the gov't 
 
 total ex- 
 penditures 
 from all 
 sources 
 
 1862 13,219 .r.0,762 £248,330 £2s4,07G 
 
 1867 2H.I-: 658,834 401,378 T.")5,518 
 
 lsTl 25,147 799,622 C4U.724 1,019,418 
 
 Counting in the indigenous schools, the whole 
 number of schools of British India (exclusive of 
 the native states and Burma) amounted, in 
 1872, to 40,700 ; and the number of scholars, to 
 1,280,914. The schools which have been improved 
 up to the government standard are divided as fol- 
 lows : Lower-class schools, middle-class schools, 
 high schools, normal schools, special schools, col- 
 leges, anil universities. — The number of middle- 
 class schools, in 1871. was 2,873 (for boys 
 2,740, for girls 133), with 158,728 pupils (boys 
 151,656; girls 7.072). The number of high schools 
 was 273. with 47.572 pupils; of these only one 
 school was for girls. The number of normal 
 schools was 104 (S7 for males, 17 for females) 
 with 4,346 students (4.080 male and 266 female). 
 The number of general colleges, in 1 871 , was 4 1. 
 of which 24 were government colleges, and 20 
 private and aided colleges. The number of stu- 
 dents in the government colleges was 1,854; and 
 in the private colleges, 2,1 40. making a total of 
 44 colleges, with 3,994 students. Besides the gen- 
 eral colleges, there were 10 law colleges, with 
 684 students; 5 colleges of medicine, with 893 
 Students; 4 colleges of civil engineering, with 549 
 students. Of other special schools, there were .'! 
 schools of design and decorative art : one at Cal- 
 cutta (with 50 students); one at Madras ; and one 
 at Bombay (with 90 students), besides the David 
 Sassoon Industrial .School at Bombay, with 101 
 students. The progress of the three universities 
 at Calcutta, Madras, and Bombay, from the time 
 of their foundation, in 1857, to 1871, is shown 
 by the following table : 
 
 
 e \ I e I IT A 
 
 MADRAS 
 
 BOMBAT 
 
 Year 
 
 dates 
 
 
 Candi- 
 dates 
 
 i ' 
 
 Candi- 
 dates 
 
 Passed 
 
 1857 
 I860 
 
 1866 
 
 IsTI 
 
 214 
 
 808 
 
 1,350 
 
 2,877 
 
 1(12 
 414 
 629 
 
 1,(101 
 
 4 1(1 
 1,701 
 
 8 
 
 93 
 
 564 
 
 41 
 
 52 
 
 555 
 
 1,153 
 
 36 
 
 229 
 
 231 
 
 Female education, which had been almost en- 
 tirely neglected, according to the custom of the 
 country, received a strong impulse, in 1866, 
 from an English Unitarian lady, Miss Carpenter, 
 who arrived in Bombay in that year. After 
 making a tour of Guzerat, and holding several 
 meetings in Surat, she proceeded to Madras, 
 where she enlisted the warm sympathy and co- 
 operation of Lord Napier, the lieutenant gov- 
 ernor of that province. Upon arriving in Cal- 
 cutta she convened a large meeting, which was 
 attended by most of the prominent government 
 officials. She succeeded in awakening an inter- 
 est in female education ; and. under her direc- 
 tion, a number of female schools, and also ragged 
 schools, were established. For an account of the 
 progress of education in India, see the official 
 Statement of tie Moral and Material Progress 
 of India, published annually; also the several 
 volumes of the Annual American Cyclopaedia; 
 and the Report of the U. S. Commissioner* of 
 Education, for 1873. 
 
 INDIANA, at first a part of the North-west 
 Territory, afterwards formed a part of Indiana 
 Territory, organized July 4., 1800. In 1805, 
 Michigan was set off from it; and, in 1809, Illi- 
 nois, leaving the territorial limits the same as 
 those of the state at present. Indiana was ad- 
 mitted into the Union as a state, Dec. 11., 18] (i. 
 Its area is 33,809 square miles; and its popula- 
 tion, in Im7<>. was 1,680,637, giving it the sixth 
 rank among the United States. 
 
 Educational History. — The duty of the state 
 to educate its children was early recognized in 
 Indiana. The constitution adopted in 1816 
 declared the general diffusion of learning and 
 knowledge through a community to be essential 
 to the preservation of a free government, and 
 made it the duty of the general assembly, at 
 the earliest practicable moment, to provide a 
 law for a general system of education. It was 
 not until the adoption of the new constitution, 
 in 1851, which made it the duty of the genera] 
 assembly to "encourage, by all suitable means, 
 moral, intellectual, scientific, and agricultural 
 improvement, and to provide by law for a 
 general and uniform system of common schools, 
 wherein tuition shall be without charge and 
 equally open to all," and which provided for the 
 election of a state 1 superintendent of public in- 
 struction, that we have any permanent record 
 of the condition and progress of the public 
 schools. The act to provide for a " general and 
 uniform system of common schools" was passed 
 dune 14., 1 S">2 ; but. although in force after its 
 publication and distribution, it did not become 
 practically operative until the first Monday of 
 April, 1853. This was owing to a discrepancy 
 
458 
 
 INDIANA 
 
 between the school law and the township law, so 
 that no school officers for the township could be 
 elected until the time for the regular election 
 of the township trustees, in April. This law 
 provided for the consolidation and equalization 
 of the school funds, and for the organization of 
 school corporations by civil townships instead of 
 by districts, and also gave the people the power 
 to assess special township tuxes, for the build- 
 ing of school-houses and for the continuance of 
 schools after the public funds were expended. 
 "William C. Larrabee was the first person elected 
 to fill the office of superintendent of public in- 
 struction. He inaugurated the system, and at 
 this time served two years from November 8., 
 ] 852. Caleb Mills took the office November 8., 
 1854, and served until February, 1857. He 
 distributed the libraries bought with the pro- 
 ceeds of the tax levied for that purpose, among 
 the townships of the state. He was succeeded 
 by William ('. Larrabee, who was again elected 
 superintendent, and served for two years, from 
 the second Tuesday of February, 1857. During 
 his administration, he made many important 
 recommendations to the legislature, in regard to 
 the time of receiving reports and of apportion- 
 ing the revenue. Samuel L. Rugg, his successor, 
 served two years, from the second Monday of 
 February, 1859. In his term of office, he in- 
 vestigated the condition of the school funds, and 
 considered plans for their more profitable man- 
 agement. Miles J. Fletcher took the office of 
 state superintendent, February 1 1.. L861. In the 
 Spring of 1862, he was killed in a railway ac- 
 cident, and Samuel K. lloshour, D.D., by ex- 
 ecutive appointment, filled the vacancy from 
 May 29., 1872 until his successor was elected 
 and qualified. Samuel L. Rugg was again 
 elected for a term of two years, commencing 
 November 21., 1862; but, owing to an amend- 
 ment in the school law, changing the time of as- 
 suming the duties of the office, he held over until 
 March 15., 1865. George W. I loss succeeded, 
 March 12., 1865, serving for a term of two years. 
 lie administered the new school law, and replen- 
 ished the township libraries. Deing elected for 
 a second term, he held office until October, 1868, 
 when, by reason of his resignation, the newly 
 tleeted officer, Barnabas ( 1 . llobbs was appointed 
 to fill out the term. I hiring the term of office 
 of Mr. llobbs, the Normal School was opened, 
 January 6., L870. Milton B. Hopkins took the 
 office, March 15., 1871, for a term of two years. 
 Through his instrumentality, a law was pa 
 abolishing the office of county examiner and 
 creating that of county superintendent. Mr. Sop- 
 kins entered upon the duties of a second term, 
 
 March 15., 1873, bu1 did not live out this term. 
 He died in August, L874; and his son. Alexander 
 0. Hopkins, by executive appointment, tilled the 
 vacancy, from August 20., i.874, until March 15., 
 
 1875, when dames II. Smart, the present incum- 
 bent, entered upon the duties of the office. Six 
 of these superintendents are now living. 
 
 School System. The school officers oi the state 
 are the directors of the districts into which the 
 
 townships are divided, the trustees of townships, 
 members of boards of school trustees in incor- 
 porated towns and cities, county superintendents, 
 members of the state board of education, and 
 the state superintendent of public instruction. 
 The directors of school districts act under the 
 authority of the township trustees, and exercise 
 quite limited powers. They preside at school 
 meetings, take charge of the school property, 
 and perform other duties under the direction of 
 the trustees. Voters at school meetings may 
 designate other branches than those required by 
 the school law. which they wish to be taught in 
 their respective districts. They may request a 
 trustee to remove a teacher, and they may peti- 
 tion him in regard to the repairing or removal 
 of a school-house. Township trustees are elected 
 by the people biennially and are the school 
 trustees for their respective townships. It is 
 their duty to take charge of the schools, employ 
 teachers, build school houses, provide furniture, 
 apparatus, etc., take the enumeration of the 
 school children, and to cause to be held, month- 
 ly, township institutes for the instruction of the 
 teachers. They may also provide township 
 graded schools and arrange for admission into 
 them from the other departments. The school 
 boards of cities and towns consist of three mem- 
 bers in each. Those in cities are appointed by 
 the common council, for three years, one mem- 
 ber being appointed annually, in dune. Those 
 in towns are appointed by the civil trustees of 
 the town, in the same manner as the city trustees 
 are ajipointed. School matters in cities and 
 towns are more exclusively in the hands of school 
 trustees, than in townships, inasmuch as the 
 law does not provide for school meetings in the 
 former. The law permits school boards of cities 
 and towns to employ superintendents for their 
 respective corporations. The county superin- 
 tendent is appointed by the township trustees, 
 biennially, in June ; and he must have had 
 two years' successful experience in teaching. 
 It is his duty to examine all applicants for 
 license to teach. These examinations are held 
 on the last Saturday of each month. The 
 branches required by law are orthography, read- 
 ing, writing, arithmetic, geography, English 
 grammar, physiology, and United States history. 
 It is his duty to visit the schools of the county 
 at least once each year, to attend township 
 institutes at least once each month, to hold a 
 county institute annually, and to receive reports 
 from school trustees ami collate the same, and 
 forward them to the superintendent of public 
 instruction, lie may also hear and determine 
 appeals from the decisions of township trustees, 
 in sundry minor matters; ami finally, he has the 
 general superintendence of the schools in his 
 county, except in cities and towns in which 
 superintendents may have been employed. The 
 state board of education consists of the state 
 superintendent, who is, ex officio, president; the 
 governor; the presidents of the state university, 
 
 the normal School, and Purdue I'niversity; 
 and the superintendents of the three largest 
 
INDIANA 
 
 459 
 
 cities of the state. The board meets as often as 
 occasion may require. It appoints the trustees 
 of the state university and the official visitors 
 of the normal school. It prepares printed lists 
 
 of questions which are sent out to the county 
 superintendents monthly, and which are by them 
 submitted to the teachers who apply for licenses. 
 
 The state board is also empowered to grant 
 to teachers of high character and standing, state 
 licenses which are valid for life. The board 
 takes cognizance of such other educational mat- 
 ters as may properly come before it, and makes 
 such recommendations to subordinate officers 
 and to the legislature as it may deem advisable. 
 The state superintendent of public instruction 
 is elected by the qualified voters of the state, at 
 a general election, for a term of two years. lie 
 is charged with the administration of the system 
 of public instruction and with the general super- 
 intendence of the business relating to the com- 
 mon schools of the state, and of the school funds 
 and revenues appropriated for their support. It 
 is his duty to render an opinion, in writing, to 
 any school officer so desiring, in regard to the 
 administration or construction of the school law. 
 He must also visit every county in the state and 
 examine the auditor's books and records, relative 
 to the school funds, revenues, etc. He must 
 confer with the school officers, and make public- 
 addresses as occasion may require. 
 
 School Fund. — There are two sources of rev- 
 enue for the support of the public schools : 
 (1) the interest on the school funds, and (2) the 
 proceeds of the tax levied by the state and by 
 local authorities. The school funds are divided 
 into two classes : (1) The common-school fund, 
 the sources of which are the surplus revenue 
 fund, the saline fund, the bank tax fund, the 
 county seminary funds, fines assessed for breaches 
 of the penal laws of the state, all forfeitures 
 which may accrue, all escheated lands and es- 
 tates, the proceeds of the sales of the swamp 
 lauds, granted to the state of Indiana by the 
 act of Congress of 1850, and the fund arising 
 from the 114th section of the charter of the State 
 Bank of Indiana; (2) The congressional town- 
 ship fund, which is derived from the sale of the 
 1 6th section, in each township, set apart to the 
 townships, by Congress, for school purposes. The 
 common-school fund amounts to $0,313,247, 
 and the congressional township fund amounts to 
 $2,398,072, making the total school fund of the 
 state -'-.711,319. These funds can never be 
 diminished, and the proceeds of them must be 
 used for tuition purposes only. 
 
 School Taxes. — The state levies annually a 
 tax of 16 cents on each one hundred dollars, 
 which, with the proceeds of the common-school 
 fund, is apportioned to the various school dis- 
 tricts, in proportion to the number of children 
 between the ages of 6 and 21 in each. The local 
 authorities have also the right to levy a local 
 school tax of 25 cents on each one hundred dol- 
 lars, which must be expended in the township, 
 town, or city, in which it is levied. They have 
 also the right to levy a local tax of 50 cents on 
 
 each one hundred dollars, to be used in purchas- 
 ing grounds, building school-houses, and supply- 
 ing t lie necessary furniture and apparatus. In 
 addition to all this, tin- civil authorities in cities 
 and towns have the right to issue bonds to pro- 
 vide for the payment of debts contracted in the 
 purchase of grounds and the erection of build- 
 ings thereon by school authorities. There can 
 be only $50,000 worth of these bonds in cir- 
 culation at any one time; and, when issued, 
 it is the duty of the civil authorities to pro- 
 vide for their payment, by the levy of a spe- 
 cial tax therefor, provided that said tax shall 
 not exceed, in any one year, more than 50 cents 
 on each one hundred dollars. The total amount 
 of school tax possible in cities and towns, in any 
 one year, under the law of the state, is as 
 follows : 
 
 State tax on each $100 $0.10; on each poll, $0.50 
 
 Local tuition tax oneach $100 0.25 " " 0.50 
 " special " " " 0.50 " " 1.00 
 " bond " " " 0.50 " " 1.00 
 
 Total amount SI. 11 $3.00 
 
 In townships the limit is $1.16. 
 
 Educational Condition. — The total number 
 of district schools in the state is 9,230 ; of city 
 systems, 40 ; of town systems, 202 ; and the 
 number of school-houses is 9,307. The number 
 of township and district graded schools is 390 ; 
 of ungraded schools, 8,940. The estimated value 
 of school property is $10,870,338. The follow- 
 ing are additional items of the school statistics 
 for 1875—0 : 
 
 School population, white males, 310,514 
 
 white females, 317,434 
 
 Total white, 657,945 
 
 colored males, 4,940 
 
 colored females, 4,S48 
 
 Total colored, 9,788 
 
 Total school population. . . . 6G7,73<i 
 Number of pupils enrolled, whites, 495,711 
 
 colored, 6,651 
 
 Total enrollment 502,305 
 
 Average daily attendance, estimated at 315,000 
 
 Number of teachers, male and female 13,133 
 
 Number of female teachers, estimated at.... 6,500 
 
 School fund $8,799,191 
 
 Total receipts. 4,!Us,879 
 
 Expenditures for tuition '2,s:;o,747 
 
 Normal Instruction . — The State Normal Schooi 
 at Terre Haute, established in 1870, occupies 
 one of the finest school buildings in the state. 
 The faculty of the institution embraces 9 in- 
 structors, including the president ; while 4 otheiv 
 are employed in the model schools connected 
 with it. The number of students, from Jan., 
 1 873, to Dec. 1874, was over 401 , of whom 187 
 were males, and 214, females. The whole num- 
 ber of persons that had received instruction in 
 this school, from 1870 to 1875, was 855. Two 
 courses of study arc pursued: one elementary, 
 including the branches required to be taught in 
 the common schools, with instruction in the the- 
 ory and practice of teaching; and the other ad- 
 vanced, including all the subjects taught in the 
 
4G0 
 
 IN 1>I AX A 
 
 INDIANA ASBURY UNIVERSITY 
 
 high schools of the state, and designed to pre- 
 pare teachers for employment in these schools. 
 In the latter course, special prominence is given 
 to the study of languages, especially French and 
 and German. The Northern Indiana Normal 
 School, at Valparaiso, organized in 1873, is a 
 private institution. — Teachers' institutes con- 
 stitute, in this state, a very important instru- 
 mentality for the professional instruction of 
 teachers. The several county superintendents 
 are required to hold a county teachers' institute 
 at least once a year in each county; besides 
 which, at least one Saturday in each month, 
 while the public schools are in session, is re- 
 quired to be devoted to township institutes. In 
 1875, the number of county institutes held was 
 91 ; and of township institutes, 4,080. 
 
 Secondary Instruction. — The number of pu- 
 pils in the 21 approved high schools in the state 
 was reported, in 1874, as 13,342 ; the number 
 of teachers employed was 350, of whom 223 
 were males, and L27 females. These schools are 
 so organized as to be preparatory schools to the 
 state university. No uniform course of study 
 is prescribe! 1 ; but the candidates for admission 
 to the university, in 1871. were examined in 
 geography, English grammar and sentential 
 analysis, geometry, and Latin, including Caesar 
 and Virgil. In a table appended to the state 
 report for 1874, 9 private or denominational in- 
 stitutions for secondary instruction are enumer- 
 ated, having, in the aggregate, 810 students in 
 the academic classes, and 547 in the preparatory 
 departments. Several private schools and acad- 
 emies of this grade reported to the U. S. Bu- 
 reau of Education, in 1871. There were, at that 
 time, also, 10 business colleges, with 31 teachers 
 and 1,097 pupils. The courses of study in these 
 schools ranged from 6 months to 5 years. 
 
 Superior Instruction. — First among the insti- 
 tutions of this grade, stands the Indiana Uni- 
 versity (q. v.), at Bloomington, which is closely 
 connected with the school systems of the state 
 by an arrangement which admits to the fresh- 
 man class, without further examination, all 
 graduates of high schools approved by the state 
 board of education, who present certificates that 
 they have passed a satisfactory examination in 
 the preparatory course of study. Other institu- 
 tions for superior instruction are given in the 
 following table : 
 
 
 
 When 
 
 Religious 
 
 NAME 
 
 Location 
 
 found- 
 
 deni imita- 
 
 
 
 ed 
 
 tion 
 
 Concordia College. . .. 
 
 Fori Wayne 
 
 1839 
 
 F.v. Lnth. 
 
 
 Richmond 
 
 is;, 7 
 
 Friends 
 
 Ft. Wayne I 
 
 Wayne 
 
 1846 
 
 M. Epis. 
 
 Franklin College 
 
 tin 
 
 1844 
 
 tist 
 
 
 Sanover 
 
 1837 
 
 Presb. 
 
 HartavUle University 
 
 Harts 1 
 
 I860 
 
 i Bretta. 
 
 Indiana Anbury i'ni\ . 
 
 i hreencast Le 
 
 1833 
 
 M . Epis, 
 
 Moore b n 
 
 Moore's Kill 
 
 
 M 1 pis. 
 
 N. W. ('Ill'; 
 
 [ndianapolia 
 
 1 367 
 
 ChritUan 
 
 
 Ki.l;;r\ llle 
 
 1867 
 
 F. w. Bap. 
 
 aventure's Coll, 
 
 Terre Haute 
 
 1873 
 
 it. c. 
 
 st. Bfelnrad's i 
 
 St. Mfiurad 
 
 1861 
 
 R. C. 
 
 Union < ihrlatlan < loll 
 
 Blerom 
 
 
 Christian 
 
 I'niv. of N"t re Dame, 
 
 Notre Dame 
 
 184 2 
 
 K. C. 
 
 
 I'rawfurdsville 
 
 1832 
 
 Presb. 
 
 Professional and Scientific Instruction. — 
 Purdue University, at Lafayette, is an industrial 
 university, and embraces schools of agriculture, 
 mechanics, mining and engineering, industrial 
 art, and military science ; besides this, there is 
 the Terre Haute School of Industrial Science, at 
 Terre Haute. The schools of law are the law 
 department of the Indiana University, and the 
 law school of the North western Christian Uni- 
 versity ; and the medical schools are the College 
 of Physicians and Surgeons of Indiana, the In- 
 diana Medical College, connected with the In- 
 diana University, and the Medical College of 
 Evansville. 
 
 Special Instruction. — This department of edu- 
 cation is represented by the Indiana Institution 
 for Educating the Deaf and Dumb, at Indianap- 
 olis, which, in 1874, had 15 instructors and 
 333 students; and the Indiana Institute for the 
 Blind, at Indianapolis, which, in K^74 — 5. had 
 109 pupils, and a corps of instructors including 
 a superintendent, 5 teachers in the literary de- 
 partment. 3 in the industrial, and 3 in the mu- 
 sical, besides 4 household officers. 
 
 Educational Libraries. — The total number of 
 volumes in the various educational libraries of 
 the state is reported as 357,545 ; of which the 
 township libraries contained 253,545 volumes. 
 the city libraries were estimated to contain 
 50,000 volumes, and the college libraries. 54,000 
 volumes. The law does not. at present, provide 
 for a general tax for the support of public libra- 
 ries ; but it permits the founding of binary as- 
 sociations, and authorizes the common councils 
 of cities to take stock in such associations, and 
 levy the annual tax of 2 cents on each §100 in 
 support of the same. 
 
 Educational Journals. — The only educational 
 journal published in the state is The Indian. i 
 School Journal, the official organ of the state 
 superintendent of public instruction. Tlie 
 Northern Indiana Teacher was formerly pub- 
 lished at South Bend. 
 
 INDIANA ASBURY UNIVERSITY, 
 at (ireencastle, Ind., commenced in 1832, and 
 chartered in L837, is under Methodist Episcopal 
 control. The first class graduated in 1840. It 
 has an endowment of 8180,000, and property to 
 the value of ^150,000. Tuition is free. The li- 
 braries contain about 10,000 vol nines. The institu- 
 tion has philosophical and chemical apparatus 
 and a cabinet of minerals and fossils. Both St 
 are admitted. The regular courses are the clas- 
 sical and philosophical, but an elective eon 
 may be pursued. Opportunity is afforded for 
 normal instruction. ami there is a Biblical course 
 tor theological students. Indiana Medical » 'ol- 
 lege is, by recent action of the proper author- 
 ities, made the medical department of Asbury 
 University. The medical Bchool is located at 
 Indianapolis, and has !• professors and (> lect- 
 urers. There is also a preparatory department 
 In L875 6, there were 12 instructors, 509 stu- 
 dents (256 collegiate and 253 preparatory), and 
 565 alumni. The presidents of the university 
 have been as follows: Bishop Matthew Simpson, 
 
INDIANA UNIVERSITY 
 
 INDIANS 
 
 llil 
 
 D.D.,1839 I-; the Elev. LucienW. Deny, D.D., 
 L849 -54; the Rev.Danie] Cuny.D.D., 1854—7) 
 Bishop Thomas Bowman, D.D.. LL.D., 1858—72; 
 the Rev. Reuben Andrus, D. D.. L872 — 5; and the 
 Rev. Alexander Martin. D. D.. the present in- 
 cumbent, appointed in L875. 
 
 INDIANA UNIVERSITY, at Blooming- 
 ton. 1 in L. was chartered as a college in I si's, 
 and as a university, in L839. It is non-sectarian, 
 being under state control. It has two tine 
 buildings, a library of over 6,000 volumes, a 
 chemical laboratory, a museum containing fos- 
 sils, minerals, zoological specimens, etc., and pro- 
 ductive funds to the amount of #1 1 iUHH>; besides 
 which it receives annual appropriations from the 
 state. The value of its buildings, grounds, and ap- 
 paratus is $200,000. Both sexes are admitted. 
 I tesides the preparatory and the collegiate depart- 
 ment, the latter having a classical and a scien- 
 tific course, there is a department for the study 
 of law. The medical department was discon- 
 tinued in L876. The number of instructors and 
 students in the various departments of the in- 
 stitution, in 1876, was as follows: 
 
 Departments Instructors Students 
 
 Preparatory 4 142 
 
 10 132 
 
 Collegiate 
 Law 
 
 36 
 
 Total 16 310 
 
 The Rev. Lemuel Moss, D. D., is (1876) the 
 president. 
 
 INDIANS, American. The earliest at- 
 tempt at the civilization of the American In- 
 dians was made by the Spanish government, 
 in Mexico and South America, at the time of 
 their conquest, when the sons of chiefs and 
 princes in Mexico and Pern were educated, and 
 endowed with the rank of Spanish nobles. Many 
 families in Spain, to this day, boast of their 
 Mexican or Peruvian descent. Their further 
 education was conducted through the agency of 
 missions, the most celebrated of which were those 
 of Paraguay. The education of the North 
 American Indians was begun, also, by Catholic 
 missionaries in Canada and Louisiana, Florida. 
 Mexico, and California. It has been participated 
 in gradually by other denominations, and has 
 followed the line of the frontier to the present 
 time — the religious character of the instruction 
 imparted being gradually eliminated as the sepa- 
 ration of church and state approached com- 
 pletion. The Puritans, at an early date, estab- 
 lished missions at Nantucket and Martha's 
 Vineyard, at Newtown and Plymouth, Mass.. 
 and in Connecticut, the laborers principally be- 
 ing the Mayhews, Eliot, Cotton, and Sargeant. 
 The famous Indian Bible of Eliol was prepared 
 by him for the instruction of converts. The In- 
 dian School of Dr. Wheelock, now Dartmouth 
 College, and Harvard University, at the time of 
 Hs foundation, gave instruction to Indians, the 
 latter with the intention of using them as teachers 
 of their own race. Only one Indian, however, 
 
 has ever graduated then Caleb < 'heeshahteau- 
 
 muck, in 1665. The Brainerds, who labored in 
 
 Xew Jersey and Pennsylvania, the Moravians, 
 among the Delawares,and the Society of Friends, 
 have all produced results more or less important. 
 Nearly all of the large Protestant denominations 
 have labored in this field, either separately or 
 through associations organized for this special 
 purpose. The Episcopalians established an 
 Oneida mission ; and, the Methodists, in 1819, 
 founded missions among the Wyandots, 
 Iroquois, Creeks, Ottawas, Shawnees, Dakotas, 
 and the Indians of Oregon. The Southern 
 Methodists, the Presbyterians, in 1837, the 
 American Missionary Association, American 
 Indian Missionary Association, Baptist Home 
 Missionary Society, and the Southern Baptists 
 have also established missions and done effective 
 work. The Catholics, also, have not been be- 
 hindhand in their efforts to educate the savages 
 of North America. Their missionaries, Le 
 Jeune, Lalemant, Brebgeuf, and Marquette were 
 pioneers in the work; and their labors, extending 
 from Canada along the frontier to Texas, form 
 an exciting story of devotion and self-sacrifice. 
 In the United States, the Indians may be divided 
 into three classes, according to their surroundings 
 and consequent mode of life; namely, (1) those 
 who are closely and entirely surrounded by 
 whites ; (2) the wild Indians of the plains, who still 
 adhere to their nomadic mode of life ; and (3) an 
 intermediate class having the whites on one 
 side and the wild tribes on the other. It is in 
 this last class only that the experiment of civil- 
 ization is operative, the reclaiming of the first 
 class being considered accomplished, and that of 
 the second class, impracticable. The following 
 figures are taken from the report of the United 
 States Commissioner of Education for 1874: 
 
 Number of Indians in the United States, ex- 
 clusive of those in Alaska . . 275,003 
 
 Number of school buildings upon Indian res- 
 ervations . . 232 
 
 Number of schools upon Indian reservations 345 
 
 Number of scholars: males 5,707; females 
 
 5,161 10,95s 
 
 Number of teachers 407 
 
 Number of Indians who can read: adults, 
 
 1 ,392, youths 2,616 4,00S 
 
 Number of Indians who have learned to read 
 
 during the year 961 
 
 It will be seen from the foregoing, that the 
 proportion of scholars, among the Indians, is 
 about 1 in every 2G. Of those in New York, 
 I I lH.outof a total of 5,1 L0, attend school. These 
 Indians, of course, being few in number and 
 every-where surrounded by civilization, have un- 
 usual advantages over their brethren of the Far 
 West. The total number of Indians east of the 
 Mississippi, excluding those of New York, is 
 1 8,505 ; scholars, 2,599, or about 1 in 7. It is in 
 the Indian Territory, however, that the most ex- 
 tensive and interesting attempts at education 
 have been made. (See Indian Territory.) The 
 prospect of the education and final civilization 
 of the Indians brought under the charge of the 
 agencies, is considered promising; though the 
 want of funds, and the difficulty the Indians 
 have to encounter in learning a strange language. 
 have thus far retarded their progress. The 
 
462 
 
 INDIAN TERRITORY 
 
 INDIVIDUALITY 
 
 number of Indians in British America is esti- 
 mated at 150,000. For information in regard to 
 them, see the articles on the several British 
 provinces of North America. 
 
 INDIAN TERRITORY, an unorganized 
 portion of the United States, embracing an area 
 of 68,901 square miles. In 1870, the population 
 was stated at 68,152, of whom 2,409 were 
 whites, 6,378 colored, and 59,367 Indians; of the 
 latter, 24,967 were living on reservations, the 
 nomadic Indians being estimated at 34.400. 
 Indian Territory was set apart by the act of 
 Congress, passed June 30., 1 834, for the regula- 
 tion of trade and intercourse with the Indians. 
 This act declared that "all that part of the 
 United States west of the Mississippi and not 
 within the states of Missouri and Louisiana, or 
 the territory of Arkansas", should for the pur- 
 poses of the act be considered the Indian country. 
 This vast tract formed a considerable portion of 
 the Louisiana purchase of 1 803 ; but the Indian 
 territory has been greatly reduced by the for- 
 mation of states and territories out of it ; so that, 
 at present, it is comparatively of small extent. 
 
 Educational Condition. — Indian Territory 
 comprises six agencies and thirty-six different 
 nations and tribes, numbering (according to the 
 report of the U. S. Commissioner of Education 
 for 1874) over 76,000 persons. The total num- 
 ber of schools, in 1874, was 1 72, with 177 build- 
 ings, 189 teachers, and 4.727 pupils. The four 
 principal nations of the territory (under the care 
 of the Union Agency) are the Cherokees, re- 
 ported as numbering 17,217 persons (including 
 1,300 colored) , the Seminoles, 2,433; the Creeks, 
 about 13,000 (including 2,000 colored) ; and the 
 ( 'hoctaws and ( 'hickasaws (confederated), 22,000. 
 These nations occupy a territory that has, in the 
 aggregate, an area of 28,000,000 acres, of which 
 about L 50,000 are under cultivation. Bach na- 
 tions has its own school system, including .super- 
 intendents, school board, etc. The Cherokees 
 are the most advanced. Their system embraces 
 a superintendent of public instruction, elected by 
 the national council for a term of two years; and 
 a board of education, consisting of four members 
 including the superintendent, who is a member 
 ex officio. It is empowered to establish rules 
 and regulation* for the management of the 
 schools, and to prescribe the text books to be 
 used. The common schools are divided into 
 three grades: primary, intermediate, and gram- 
 mar schools. The school year consists of nine 
 months and a half. Commencing On the lirst 
 
 Monday in March, and is divided into two terms 
 
 of twenty weeks each. The regular school day 
 i- -i\ hours; but for pupils under eight years of 
 age, it is only four hours. The school age is 
 
 from 6 to is. All teachers are required to be 
 
 examined and licensed by the board of education. 
 There are '.'< school districts, each having 8 BChool 
 
 commissioner, who has the general management 
 and Supervision of all the schools in his district ; 
 but an appeal from his decisions may be taken 
 
 to the board of education. In L874, there were 
 
 in the Cherokee nation, 68 schools, taught 
 
 ] chiefly by natives, in their vernacular, but also 
 learning English. The number cf pupils enrolled 
 : in these schools was estimated at 2,500 ; and the 
 | average attendance, at 2,000. The school fund 
 amounted to §2,909,113, upon which the annual 
 interest was SI 61.889. — The Choctaws and 
 Chickasaws, numbering about 22,000, in 1874, 
 had 67 day schools, chiefly boarding-schools, at 
 which the estimated attendance was 1.650. The 
 < neks had 31 schools, with 750 pupils; and the 
 Seminoles. 5 schools, with about 120 pupils. — 
 The Cherokees maintain a female seminary, with 
 about 70 pupils ; also an orphan asylum, pro- 
 viding for about 100 children. Mission schools 
 are supported in the other agencies, as follows : 
 Quapaw Agency, 3 mission schools (on the in- 
 dustrial plan) and one day school, with a total 
 enrollment of 232 pupils ; Sac and Fox Agency, 
 a manual-labor school, with 28 pupils, and the 
 Shawnee day school, with 20 pupils ; Osage 
 Agency, a manual labor school, with 90 pu- 
 pils, a mission school, with 35 pupils, a day 
 school for the Kaws, with 54 pupils, and a 
 boarding-school ; Wichita Agency, 2 schools, one 
 a day school, and the other a boarding-school, 
 whole attendance 111 pupils ; Kiowa Agency, 
 2 boarding-schools, having 84 pupils. — See 
 Report of U. S. Commissioner of Education for 
 1-74. 
 
 INDIVIDUALITY, that distinction of 
 character which is produced by mental or moral 
 peculiarities. The value of this element of 
 character, in the affairs of life, can hardly be 
 overestimated. Coethe considered that its pres- 
 ervation and development should be the sole 
 end of a true education ; and Mill declares that 
 it is the great want of our time. Its rarity, 
 however, is a necessary consequence of the lev- 
 eling tendency of the age in which we live. The 
 average experience of the world at any period, 
 is embodied in the prevailing customs of that 
 period. In that sphere, the great bulk of the 
 world's activities move with unthinking regu- 
 larity, — the force of education making it natural, 
 and absorption in the struggle tor existence 
 allowing no time tor any thought of change. The 
 increase of facilities for the spread of knowledge, 
 also, adds directly to the coercive power of 
 public opinion by extending its sway : and, 
 while it enlarges the sphere of custom renders 
 its influence more uniform and more difficult 
 to be opposed. Vet its boundaries must be 
 steadily extended, or life degenerates into mere 
 routine. To the man of individuality, whether 
 
 as artist, poet, preacher, philosopher, or thinker 
 of any kind, is committed the task of enlarging 
 
 that sphere, and setting up new ideals. In daily 
 
 lite also, a thousand emergencies arise, demand- 
 ing instant ad ion tor w Inch experience furnishes 
 no guide. The ordinary mind is paralyzed, 
 and turns instinctively to the man of genius, or 
 exceptional power, for guidance. Individuality 
 thus becomes the pioneer of progress. When 
 
 we remember, further, that individuality fur- 
 nishes the common ground on which genius and 
 insanity meet and that its cultivation, according 
 
INDIVIDUALITY 
 
 463 
 
 as it is proper or improper, may minister in a 
 hundred ways to the happiness and well-being of 
 the individual and the race, or to untold misery 
 for the one. and loss to the other, its claim for 
 consideration in any educational scheme will not 
 probably he denied. Unfortunately, however, 
 the difficulty of properly treating it is com- 
 mensurate with its importance, the consider- 
 ation of it going, as it does, to the very root of 
 every system of education. All educational plans 
 presuppose uniformity in the minds of the 
 children to be subjected to their influence. Their 
 fundamental principles, being only conclusions 
 drawn from the observation of a large number 
 of individual instances, necessarily employ them- 
 selves with the resemblances to be found among 
 those instances, to the exclusion of the differ- 
 ences. The question always is, "Under given 
 circumstances, how would a majority of minds 
 act ?". little attention being paid to the minority. 
 And the larger the majority, the more readily is 
 the conclusion drawn from their uniform action 
 accepted as a rule, and the less likelihood is 
 there that any attention will be paid to the in- 
 significant minority. Yet it is in this minority, 
 that the minds possessed of decided individuality 
 will be found. In many cases, no doubt, private 
 instruction would produce more satisfactory re- 
 sults in developing exceptional powers; but cir- 
 cumstances frequently do not admit of this, and 
 the teacher, in that case, must endeavor to sup- 
 ply the deficiency, as far as possible, by special 
 attention. For that highest from of individuality, 
 called genius, the ordinary school system can, 
 probably, do little in the way of direction, its 
 very nature leading it to reject all external 
 guidance ; it is a law unto itself. (See Genius.) 
 But for that great army of thinkers and work- 
 ers whose peculiar fitness for special pursuits 
 is early manifested, and whose earnestness and 
 patient labor, in a thousand varied ways, are 
 daily enlarging the domain of knowledge, the 
 advantage of a well-digested course of study and 
 moral training can hardly be questioned. One 
 of the most effective aids for resisting the tend- 
 ency to reduce all minds to uniformity, and for 
 giving to individuality its due prominence, con- 
 sists in keeping constantly in mind the mod- 
 ern idea of education ; namely, that it is a 
 development from within of capacities there 
 existing. The mind is not a vessel into which 
 knowledge is to be poured till it is full, but a 
 plant on which education is to act, as the sun 
 and rain act. drawing out and expanding it into 
 leaf, flower, and fruit, according to the plan mi 
 which it is constructed. And just as the gar- 
 dener places different plants in different soils. 
 and subjects them to varying amounts of sun- 
 shine and moisture, expecting diversity of results, 
 and recognizing in that diversity his success, so 
 
 the teacher, while subjecting all to the sa 
 
 general treatment, as the gardener does, should 
 seek to vary his methods, in order to accom- 
 modate them to the peculiarities of the pupils 
 under his care. The first step to this end must 
 be a determination of what those peculiarities 
 
 are. In this search, many circumstances may 
 temporarily mislead him. In his first day's ac- 
 quaintance with a pupil, for instance, he may 
 fancy he discovers in him a natural aptitude for 
 a particular study; which a longer acquaintance 
 will show to be due to some slight previous 
 training in that study — in which case the apt- 
 itude will entirely disappear as soon as he has 
 reached the end of his fortuitous knowledge; 
 or he may discover, toward some particular 
 branch, a disinclination which is only the natural 
 disgust or reaction of the mind on account of 
 the too early presentment of that branch to his 
 immature powers; or, in a third case, an incli- 
 nation may be shown, which is produced solely 
 by some poetical aspect of the study, due to 
 early experience or association, and has no con- 
 nection with the essential nature of that study. 
 A boy, in this way, for instance, might show a 
 quasi-love for botany from having been brought 
 up among flowers, the forms and colors of which 
 appealed powerfully to his love of beauty ; or a 
 similar love of astronomy or microscopy from 
 having had the run of an observatory or an opti- 
 cian's shop. But no teacher of discernment will 
 long be deceived by such superficial knowledge 
 or inclination, if opportunities for examination 
 are afforded him. A more dangerous misap- 
 prehension, however, exists frequently in regard 
 to moral powers. This often happens in cases of 
 what may be called negative individuality — 
 cases in which the faculties necessary for the 
 future well-being, instead of being abnormally 
 developed, seem to be entirely wanting. These 
 mistakes, unfortunately, are common, and are 
 attended with the gravest consequences. An 
 obtrusive show of virtue rouses suspicion at 
 once, and leads to detection; but the want of it 
 is, in many cases, easy of concealment, and, 
 escaping notice, escapes, also, correction, and the 
 error appears later in life, bringing disgrace and 
 ruin. 1 Hshonesty, both in word and deed, is one 
 of the commonest of these defects of character. 
 Tyrannical government in childhood and early 
 youth is the fruitful parent of this evil. Self- 
 preservation, the strongest instinct of its nature, 
 leads the child to the use of deception as a 
 shield from punishment ; and it uses it the more 
 readily because it cannot understand the base- 
 ness of it. 
 
 Having determined the pupil's distinguish- 
 ing trait, the treatment should lie a partial cul- 
 tivation of the prominent faculty, with a special 
 cultivation of the others. An entire suppression 
 of this ruling faculty would result in disgust 
 with the enforced attention given to the others; 
 while an exclusive cultivation of it — which 
 is almost always the result, when the pupil is 
 allowed to '■follow his inclination" — would end 
 only in one-sidedness, or want of balance. As 
 the constant disposition of the pupil, under the 
 treatment here prescribed, would be to neglect 
 the distasteful studies for the favored one, the 
 efforts of the teacher should be exerted to make 
 the former as attractive as possible, by con- 
 stant references to the latter by way of illustra- 
 
464 
 
 INDO-GERMANIC LANGUAGES 
 
 tion. By a skillful teacher, this may be done to 
 a greater extent than might at first appear. A 
 judicious system of rewards, also, might be de- 
 vised, to favor proficiency in the Studies likely 
 to be neglected. In the elaboration of the 
 plan, specific rules will be of little use. The 
 highly developed faculties, mental and moral, 
 exist in such varied combination, and the daily 
 circumstances and influences surround and 
 govern in such a way, as to make of each case, 
 a complicated problem, requiring special study. 
 The general plan, therefore, can only be indi- 
 cated, and its fulfillment committed to the 
 discretion of the teacher. In it, he will find 
 ample field for the exercise of his skill and in- 
 genuity. His genius for teaching will be no- 
 where more apparent. - In addition to the 
 case of negative individuality, there is another, 
 
 which may be called that of general negative 
 individuality, in which the faculties are evenly 
 developed, but are all below the average. This 
 condition is equivalent, in its results, to that of 
 a mind with faculties of normal strength, too 
 evenly developed, the resulting character, in 
 both cases, being one of mediocrity, which mani- 
 fests itself in a general want of decision or in- 
 firmity of purpose. Such characters are never 
 them in the presence of a superior mind. 
 
 Their negative virtue becomes as injurious as 
 positive vice; for. as all men are compelled con- 
 stantly, under stress of daily circumstances, to 
 act, the action of such persons is never their own, 
 but is merely a reflection of that of the more 
 
 powerful minds by whom they are surrounded. 
 
 The demagogue and the quack find in such 
 characters their pliant instruments. This result, 
 therefore, should be carefully guarded against, in 
 every country especially, where political power 
 in the hands of the masses ifl great or increasing. 
 The teacher's duty, in this case, is perhaps the 
 most difficult of all. it being nothing less than 
 the creation of individuality. This object, how- 
 ever, is worthy of his highest efforts, since the 
 element he is endeavoring to evoke is the most 
 valuable of all the products of a true education 
 — the personal quality whose moral aspect is 
 Self-respect, as well as self-reliance, and which 
 constitutes the surest basis for a, correct lite, 
 whether as an individual or a citizen. (See 
 
 < 'll LB UTTER, I )I8CERNMKNT OF.) 
 
 INDO-GERMANIC LANGUAGES. The 
 name Tndo- Germanic is applied to a large num- 
 ber of languages which comparative philology 
 
 has proved t<» he of a common origin. It was 
 chosen t . » indicate what was believed to he the 
 eastern (India) and the west em (t lermany) bound- 
 ary of the extent of these languages. Since thi' 
 
 < 'chic has been recognized as belonging to the 
 family, the name is no longer adequate, and 
 
 other names, as Aryan. Indo-European, Japhetic, 
 Banskritic, have been proposed and sometimes 
 used instead of it; but still fndo-Germanic is 
 the name generally preferred by writers on the 
 
 Bubject. 'The Indo-Germanic languages, accord- 
 ing to the common consent of all prominent 
 Writers on the subject, embrace the following 
 
 branches : ( 1 ) < iermanic or Teutonic ; (2) Slavic : 
 f3) LithuaniC; (1; Celtic (Irish etc); (5) Italic 
 i Latin etc.) : (6) Greek; (7) Iranian or Persian; 
 Sanskritic or Indian. Some writers add an 
 Illvrian branch, of which the modern Albanian 
 
 is regarded as a relic : others divide somewhat 
 differently, regarding the Slavic and Lithuanian 
 not as two different branches, but as only one 
 branch; but they all agree as to the affinity of 
 the eight branches which have been enumerated. 
 From the time when Cyrus founded the Persian 
 empire until the present day, nearly all the lead- 
 ing civilized nations of the globe have spoken 
 [ndo-Germanic languages, and to-day these lan- 
 guage's are the vehicle of thought for nearly 
 all Europe (the only exceptions being the Turk- 
 ish, the Hungarian, the Finnish, and the Basque 
 languages), for the entire civilized population of 
 America and Australia, and for the larger por- 
 tion of Asia. The comparative study of the 
 [ndo-Germanic languages has casta great deal 
 of light upon all the languages which are taught 
 in the English-speaking world — the vernacular, 
 the classical, and the foreign. Not only does 
 this study convey a clearer view than was for- 
 merly attainable ot the peculiar kinship existing 
 between all these languages, but. especially by 
 the aid of the Sanskrit, explains many points 
 which were formerly obscure, and enables the 
 student to trace the origin and gradual growth 
 of mostof the grammatical forms. Theinfiuence 
 is most apparent in the Latin and the Greek, 
 the relations of which to the family have been 
 best set forth by Corssen [Laieinische Sprat 
 and G. Curtius (Griechische Etymologie). The 
 standard grammars of these languages, especially 
 those written during the last twenty years, have 
 generally been benefited by the results of com- 
 parative philology; and teachers who understand 
 the chief Indo-Germanic languages find it easy. 
 without any need of additional time, to com- 
 bine with instruction in Latin and Greek, a 
 rudimentary knowledge of the lndo-( iennanic 
 system. And it is safe to say. that, henceforth, 
 
 it will he impossible for any grammarian to 
 
 Surpass, or even to equal, the best Latin and 
 
 Greek grammars now in use. unless lie possesses 
 
 a good know ledge of the relation of the Classic 
 to other lndo-< lei-manic languages, and especially 
 to Sanskrit. — The study of English in the 
 lower grades of instruction has been indirectly 
 benefited by the progress of these researches, 
 because to them we are largely indebted lot a 
 more intelligent class of teachers, and a much 
 superior class of text books. In the more ad- 
 vanced grades of instruction, the course of 
 studio can be so arranged — and notable at- 
 tempts have recently been made in this direc- 
 tion as to embrace an introduction of the stu- 
 dent to a rudimentary acquaintance with some 
 of the chid' results ot I ndo-( iermanic philology. 
 (See English, Stud's op.) Mote detailed infor- 
 mation on this subject may be found in .Max 
 Midler's, anil in \V. I >. Whitney's Lectures 
 mi Languages. Comparative grammars of the 
 Indo-Germanic languages have been written by 
 
INDUCTIVE METHOD 
 
 INDUSTRIAL SCHOOLS 
 
 4G5 
 
 Bopp, Schleicher, and Rapp ; a dictionary, by 
 Fick. A collection of comparative grammars on 
 the eight branches of the [ndo-Germanic lan- 
 guages was begun in 1876 (Bibliothek indo- 
 germanischer ( i n nnmatiken, Leipsic), and will 
 embrace (1) Indian Grammar, by Whitney; 
 
 (2) Iranian Grammar, by Iliibschmann ; 
 
 (3) Greek Grammar, by Meyer; (4) Italic 
 Grammar (embracing Latin, etc.) by Biicheler ; 
 (6) German Grammar, by Sievers; (6) Irish 
 (Celtic) Grammar, by Windish ; (7) Lithuanian 
 Grammar, by Leskien ; (8) Slavic Grammar, by 
 Leskien. An introductory volume by E. Sievers 
 contains the Outlines of Phonetic Physiology 
 {Qrundsiige der Lautphysiologie) as an intro- 
 duction to the study of the phonology of the 
 Lido-Germanic languages. 
 
 INDUCTIVE METHOD, in education, is 
 but another name for the developing method 
 (q. v.). It is so called because it is based upon 
 the principle of logical induction, or the process 
 of deriving general principles from an observa- 
 tion and comparison of individual facts. Instead 
 of teaching definitions, principles, and rules ar- 
 bitrarily, and illustrating them by facts, the 
 teacher who uses the inductive method, calls the 
 attention of the pupil to a sufficient number of 
 the facts to enable him to find the principle or 
 rule for himself. The learning of the definition, 
 which, in the deductive method, is the first thing 
 to be done, in the inductive method, is the last 
 step in the process. Most text-book 6 * follow the 
 deductive method ; but the most effective ele- 
 mentary instruction is inductive. 
 
 INDUSTRIAL SCHOOLS. The term 
 industrial education is used to designate the 
 training of pupils, not only in the common 
 branches of instruction, but in certain industrial 
 or business pursuits. An industrial school, in 
 the widest sense of the word, denotes any school 
 for teaching one or several branches of industry ; 
 but the special schools of this kind, and, in par- 
 ticular, those of a higher grade, are more gener- 
 ally comprised under the name of technical 
 schools (see Technical Education); and the 
 name industrial school is usually restricted to 
 a school for neglected children, in which training 
 in manual labor or industrial pursuits constitutes 
 a prominent feature of the plan of education. 
 The common schools, however, sometimes have 
 classes, in which children are instructed in cer- 
 tain industrial pursuits. The idea of providing 
 for the instruction of children in manual labor 
 appears to have originated in the desire to enable 
 poor children to earn as early as possible their 
 daily bread. In England, Chief Justice Hale rec- 
 ommended, about 1676, to parliament to estab- 
 lish in every parish an industrial school. In 
 1 705, Locke laid before the English parliament a 
 plan to counteract the spread of pauperism, and 
 to this end, proposed the establishment, in each 
 parish, of labor schools in which the children of 
 tin- poor, from 3 to 14 years of age, were to find 
 lodging, board, support, and occupation. Parlia- 
 ment, however, rejected the bill which embodied 
 this idea, and a similar attempt made, in 1796, by 
 
 30 
 
 Pitt, equally failed. In Italy, canon Odescalchi 
 founded, in 1686, a great charitable institution 
 under the name Ospizio apostolico di San 
 Michele, which, besides other departments, con- 
 tained an industrial school for both boys and 
 girls. The girls were instructed in needle-work ; 
 and a number of workshops were fitted up for 
 the boys, among which they were at liberty to 
 choose. This example was followed by many other 
 institutions, and the instruction of girls in house- 
 work and needle-work, and of the boys in some 
 mechanical trade, became a general feature of the 
 Italian orphan and foundling asylums. The first 
 practical attempt, in Germany, was made by 
 A. H. Francke, who introduced in his pceda- 
 gogium instruction in turning and glass-grinding. 
 An attempt made by Hecker,the founder of the 
 first real school, to train his pupils in the cultiva- 
 tion of mulberry-trees and the rearing of silk- 
 worms, was abandoned soon after his death. The 
 Austrian educator Kmdermann conceived the 
 idea of introducing industrial instruction into 
 the common school, and succeeded, hi the course 
 of a few years, in organizing industrial schools in 
 more than 200 places. The proposition that 
 all children should receive at school instruction 
 in manual labor, as well as in book learning, 
 found an influential supporter in the philoso- 
 pher Kant, and the scheme of national educa- 
 tion proposed by Fichte likewise combined 
 learning with labor. Pestalozzi also endeavored 
 to train his pupils in various industrial arts 
 as well as in books ; and his ideas were more 
 fully carried out by Fellenberg, and especially 
 by Wehrli. Salzmann, in the famous insti- 
 tution of Schnepfenthal, gave to his pupils, 
 outside of the regular school hours, manual 
 work in the garden and field — exercises in turn- 
 ing and planing, in basket-making, and other oc- 
 cupations of a similar character. In Wurteni- 
 berg, the government took great interest in the 
 labor school, and ordered that schools of this 
 kind shoidd be organized in connection with 
 every common school, and that all the girls 
 should be instructed, during three or four hours 
 a week, in needle-work. In several other states of 
 Germany, as well as in Sweden, Belgium, and 
 other countries, courses in industrial education 
 have been arranged on a large scale, in close 
 connection with the common schools; and the 
 children are trained not only for the common 
 pursuits of life, but for the special branches of 
 industry prevailing in their particular locality. 
 The idea that the pupils of common schools 
 should be trained in industrial occupations was 
 also conceived by Froebel, the founder of the 
 Kindergarten ; and one of his most enthusiastic 
 adherents, Georgens, endeavored to develop this 
 idea theoretically, as well as practically. The 
 German teachers' convocation to which an elab- 
 orate plan for embodying manual labor with 
 the course of instruction in common schools was 
 submitted, refused to commit itself in favor of 
 any such scheme ; but it adopted a declaration 
 that the question, what kinds of labor shoidd be 
 admitted into the course of instruction, how they 
 
46 G 
 
 INDUSTRIAL SCHOOLS 
 
 should be organized, and in what order they 
 should follow one another, is one of the great 
 educational questions of the day. — One branch 
 of industrial pursuits, needle-work, has at prest at 
 been almost universally introduced into the 
 common schools of Germany and other coun- 
 ii ies. Two afternoons In each week are set apart 
 for the instruction of uiils, by a competent per- 
 son, in the art of sewing, the pupils beginning 
 as early as six years of age, at first using 
 paper. They are also taught to knit, eaeli girl 
 furnishing her own material and beeping the 
 product of her labor. When they have learned 
 to hem, the next step is mending. From plain 
 sewing, mending, and knitting, the pupil ad- 
 vances to fine needle-work, tatting, and crochet- 
 ing. Some of the tapestry work of the older 
 pupils is often so beautiful in design and so 
 artistic in execution as to challenge general ad- 
 miration. " (See J. F. Myers, in the Report <;/' 
 the U.S. Commissioner of Education, L873.) 
 
 In England, before any grant is made to an 
 elementary school, the educational department 
 must be satisfied that the girls in the day school 
 are taught plain needle-work and cutting out, as 
 a part of the ordinary course of instruction. 
 Plain needle-work is understood to inclu le darn- 
 ing, mending, marking, and knitting; but no 
 
 ■y work of any kind can be done in school 
 hours. In the United States. .Massachusetts has 
 given the greatest attention to this subject. A 
 report of the committee on industrial schools, 
 made to the board of education, in L873, recom- 
 mends that sewing, which is now taught in three 
 classes of the girls' grammar schools.be carried 
 forward into all the classes, by a gradual and 
 progressive change, which is not to interfere 
 with the pupils' intellectual culture and training. 
 Tli y proposed, also, that, as instruction in e 
 ing was thus extended in the number of cla 
 to which it was imparted, it should be enlarged 
 in the h er and practical value of th • 
 work performed, and that, certainly in the first 
 and second, and perhaps in the third clas 
 instruction should be given in cutting, shap- 
 ing, fitting, and completely making girls' and 
 ladies' garments, the requisite materials for 
 this instruction to be furnished by the city, 
 under the supervision of the committee on 
 
 Hints. The city superinten lenl of l'i 
 dence, R. L, stated in his report for L873 —1874, 
 I ipartment in the schools of 
 ity was producing the happiest results. 
 
 Nearly COO children, he reported, were tan-lit 
 every week to use skillfully their needle, and 
 more than 100 girls who received, in the public 
 usively, instruction in the use of the 
 lie, wei |, earning from $ I to %\ 2 a 
 
 week. Iii private female institutions, needle- 
 work as a branch of instruction, has been quite 
 rally introduced, and has come to be looked 
 upon as an indispensable requisite in the course 
 of instruction. As regards the male departments, 
 
 of public schools, the introduction of industrial 
 
 drawing into all schools is now Btrongly urged 
 
 by many educators. The legislatures of Massa- 
 
 chusetts and New York have taken the lead in 
 this question, and ordered its introduction into 
 all the common schools of the respective states. 
 i See Ain-KnrcATioN, and DRAWING.) 
 
 Special attention to industrial occupations is 
 given in most of the orphan asylums, and in re- 
 formatory and charitable schools. These schools 
 must not only give to their pupils the instruction 
 w Inch other children receive at school, but they are 
 expected to furnish, at the same time, a substitute 
 for home education, and to prepare their pupils, 
 in the best possible way, to earn their daily 
 bread when the time of their discharge from the 
 
 school arrives. It is. therefore, not only desir- 
 able but indispensable for a school of this kind 
 to provide for industrial instruction. It is grati- 
 fying to learn, from the annual reports of the 
 r. S. Commissioner of Education, that the 
 number of orphan asylums which have opened, 
 or have arranged to open, an industrial de- 
 partment, is increasing. The importance of this 
 subject cannot be too strongly urged upon the 
 attention of all who found, support, patronize, 
 superintend. or conduct institutions of this kind. 
 For the girls, house work and sewing commend 
 themselves, at first sight, as the most appropriate 
 branches; for the boys, the instruction should 
 consist in preparing them for some industrial 
 occupation in life. The extent and the variety 
 of this instruction will, of course, depend on the 
 resources of the institution. The most extensive 
 industrial training given in any charitable insti- 
 tution, as far as is known, is in Girard College 
 Philadelphia. In 1864, a chair of industrial 
 science was established, embracing the practical 
 
 and theoretic teaching of various handicrafts. 
 The branches of labor in the work room thus pro- 
 vided for were type-setting, printing, bookbind- 
 ing, type-founding, stereotyping, turning, car- 
 pentering, daguerreotyping, photography, elec- 
 trotyping, electroplating, and practical instruc- 
 tion in the operation of the electric telegraph. 
 Shoe-making has been taughl and successfully 
 carried on since 1871. (See Orphan Asylums, 
 and Reform Schools.) 
 
 The great importance of industrial education 
 in evening schools is too evident to need any 
 
 discussion. The technical instruction which 
 
 the immense majority of mechanics receive is 
 insufficient : and their success in life depends, to 
 a greal extent. on their subsequent self education. 
 Any aid which can be given to them iii their 
 efforts to improve their education, is. therefore, 
 of incalculable benefit. How well this is under- 
 stood and appreciated by them is clearly indi- 
 cated by the large atteinlai.ee at such evening 
 
 schools as afford the desired instruction. (See 
 Evening Schools.) On the industrial schools of 
 Germany, see Scbmidun, Oeffentliche Kino 
 TndustrieanstaUen (1824). The principal works 
 in which this union of industrial classes with 
 common schools is urged, are by Fkikhkiui, 
 Die Erziehung eur Arbeit (1852), and Geor- 
 oen8, Oeqenwartder VoBcsschule (1857). See also 
 Dot u, Kindergarten und VbUcsschule (1876); 0. 
 B. Stetson, Technical Edttccdion (Boston, 1876), 
 
INDUSTRY 
 
 INSTRUCTION 
 
 4G7 
 
 INDUSTRY is a quality or hain't upon the 
 
 value of which it is scarcely requisite to insist 
 in an educational work ; since its absolute neces- 
 sity as a condition of success in every walk of 
 life is almost undisputed. For though there 
 have been eminent men. who might declare, as 
 
 Montaigne did, that laziness was oneof the ruling 
 qualities of their minds, it will he found, proba- 
 bly, on examination, that their want of exert ion 
 was supplemented by great natural parts, which, 
 
 in a measure, rendered that exertion unneces- 
 sary. It will, probably, he granted also that, 
 witli more continuous application, theii success 
 would have been far great r. The number of 
 such men, moreover, is exceedingly small, and 
 they were never the champions of the cause they 
 adopted. On the other hand, we have the con- 
 current testimony of men eminent in ev( ry de- 
 partment of knowledge, and in all ages, as to the 
 exceeding importance of industry both as an in- 
 tellectual and a moral agent. The definition of 
 the word, in fact, as it is commonly used, is its 
 own best recommendation, i. e., the disposition 
 to keep one's self employed in some useful work. 
 Industry is thus nearly synonymous with dili- 
 gence (q. v.); but the latter is rather dependent 
 upon the feelings, the former, upon the con- 
 
 nce. The great importance of industry be- 
 ing acknowledged, it only remains to consider 
 the method by which an industrious habit may 
 be fostered. Though industry is frequently a 
 matter of temperament, or merely an indica- 
 tion of bodily health, there are many cases in 
 which the want of it cannot be explained by 
 reference to either of these causes. Usually. 
 children are active enough; though, during 
 their earliest years, their activity takes tin form 
 of play. Nature seems to have pointed this out 
 as the most promising avenue through which the 
 mentally indolent child may be approached, so 
 as to direct its energies into the right channel. 
 By associating with it, in its recreations, sug- 
 
 ting new ones which involve some pleasing 
 mental exercise, and thus bridging over the gap 
 which separates play from work, and making it 
 narrower or less abrupt, the judicious teacher 
 may rouse the dormant faculties and implant 
 industrious habits, where, at first, this might 
 have seemed impossible. This is the key to the 
 kindergarten system. It must never be forgotten 
 that an indolent habit of mind is sometimes the 
 
 lit of discouragement arising from a too 
 early p m of mental pursuits to faculties 
 
 not yet sufficiently d I to undertake th im. 
 
 Frequently the child falls into an indolent habit 
 from the fact that it cannot choose out of many 
 things which one to do. or. doing a little only of 
 iplishes nothing of consequence— a 
 condition equivalent to indolence. The method 
 here should 1>- a daily routine, in which the 
 teacher shoul 1 work with the pupil, giving thus 
 the powerful stimulus of his example, to instill 
 into the pupil's mind ideas of order, method, and 
 constancy of exertion. In forming the indus- 
 trious habit, the school room has immense ad- 
 vantages over the home circle as it usually exists, 
 
 from the fact that no distracting cause can prop- 
 erly be allowed to enter; and because, too, all 
 its exercises, lessons, and tasks imply the need 
 of continuous application ami exertion, without 
 regard to the momentary inclinations of the 
 pupil. The implanting of (his single habit. 
 firmly in the pupil's mind is, doubtless, one of 
 the most important results of both home train- 
 ing and school education. 
 
 INFANT SCHOOLS. See Kixdkkgartkn. 
 
 INSPECTION, School. See Supervision. 
 
 INSTITUTES, Teachers'. See Teachers' 
 Institutes. 
 
 INSTRUCTION (Lat. instructio) is the com- 
 munication of knowledge. Education trains the 
 powers of the individual, in order that he 
 may attain to the perfection of his being; in- 
 struction supplies him with something that is 
 objective or external. Instruction has specially 
 to do with the intellectual development of the 
 child, and is an instrument in the hands of the 
 educator, which he can wield -with the greatest 
 precision and in the most skillful manner. He 
 may attempt to act on the feelings and the vo- 
 litions ; but so obscure are the operations of the 
 soul in these regions, that he may produce ex- 
 actly the opposite effect to that which he in- 
 tended, hut when he communicates knowledge, 
 he knows that, if the pupil is capable and atten- 
 tive, he will receive exactly that which it is in- 
 tended he should receive. Moreover, knowledge 
 stands in close relation to the feelings and voli- 
 tions ; and, accordingly, the teacher enrploys it 
 for the purpose of influencing and directing 
 these. Thus, it comes to pass that instruction 
 occupies the largest part in the work of educa- 
 tion, and constitutes that portion which can be 
 undertaken and provided for by a community, 
 since it can be delegated by a parent to a regu- 
 larly trained teacher with the best results. In- 
 struction is putting something into the mind ; 
 education is strengthening and developing the 
 powers of the mind. Tt is plain that a teacher 
 should put nothing into the mind which does 
 not train and develop its powers ; but as it is 
 possible to do so, and as this frequently takes 
 place, instruction is to be divided into educative 
 and non-educative ; and one of the most impor- 
 tant questions which a teacher can investigate, 
 is the nature of educative instruction. There 
 are three qualities which attach to all educative 
 instruction: (1) Instruction, to be educative, 
 must follow the natural laws of the intellectual 
 development of man. Man's intellectual life be- 
 gins in tin' exercise of the senses, lie accumu- 
 lates a large number of individual observations 
 In these observations, like gathers to like. A 
 child looks at a tree; and the \nv produces an 
 
 impression on his mind. The next day. he » 
 
 another tree; and the resemblances in this tree 
 strike his mind, and recall the former impression. 
 The two impressions thus unite, and form a 
 stronger impression than either separately. 
 ( >ther impressions of a similar nature unite, un- 
 til the child forms a definite notion of a tree. 
 The child is thus gathering into unities the 
 
468 
 
 INSTRUCTION 
 
 various impressions which he is continually 
 forming ; and this process continues. He learns 
 the individual first, and groups his observations. 
 Thus instruction, to be educative, must always 
 proceed from the individual to the general, from 
 the concrete to the abstract. There is no re- 
 versal of this process in education ; but the 
 process is often reversed in instruction with 
 baneful effect. To the teacher, the general truth 
 contains the sum of all the particulars, and he 
 thinks he gives to the child this general truth 
 with all its contents, when he urges it upon him, 
 makes him commit it to memory, and frequently 
 recalls it to his mind ; but the fact is, that the 
 child learns the general truth without the con- 
 tents, lie has the shell without the kernel. 
 The result is, either that the truth lies dormant 
 until experience gives him the particulars, and 
 he may then recall the truth, or that the child 
 is lulled into the belief that he has learned 
 something when he really knows nothing, and 
 his mind is prevented from stepping forward in 
 that direction, by the belief that he knows the 
 truth already. Furthermore, this non-educative 
 instruction loses a great opportunity. If the 
 child is allowed tune, and is supplied with a 
 sufficient number of individual instances, he is 
 sure to make the generalization himself. Noth- 
 ing imprints the truth more permanently than 
 the discovery of it for himself, and nothing 
 brings into play all the powers of the soul more 
 healthily than the discovery of a truth. The 
 teacher must, therefore, always proceed from 
 the concrete to the abstract ; but, in employ- 
 ing this method, he must exercise very great 
 patience. Generalization is a slow process, 
 somewhat uncertain in time. The child seems 
 to be just reaching the truth, but he turns away 
 with a bound, and he may take sonic time more 
 to master it completely. Or he may, one day, 
 have a glimpse of it. and the next, it has vat - 
 ished. Hut, however slow or uncertain the 
 process may be, it is the only tndy educative 
 mode of giving instruction. The teacher, like 
 Socrates, is a maieutic artist, and lie must watch 
 carefully over the birth of a truth, not forcing 
 nature, but giving nature every help that she 
 will willingly receive. (2) Educative instruc- 
 tion arrests the attention and awaken* the inter- 
 est of the pupil. The rule implied in this state- 
 ment may be expressed in the words, that the 
 teacher must attach the new matter to the old 
 by a natural conned ion. that he must pass from 
 the known to the unknown. The subject of at- 
 tention is one that cannot, be discussed here. 
 W c can note only how it is to be secured. The 
 PUpil must be on good terms with his teacher. 
 
 Where there is antagonism, there can be no 
 
 satisfactory attention. The pupil may, indeed, 
 attend through fear; but fear is a weakening 
 force ; and the result is, to associate in his mind, 
 with the subject comprehended, feelings of dis- 
 like and disgUBt, so that, at the end, there is no 
 
 interest in the subject, but, on the contrary, a 
 wish that be may never have to do with it again. 
 
 Then, the teacher must carefully consider the 
 
 state of the pupil's mind, when he commences. 
 Probably, he has come from the play-ground. 
 His mind is occupied with some occurrence thai 
 has taken place there, and his mind will remain 
 occupied with it the whole hour, if the teacher 
 does not employ means to displace it. Some 
 little time should be given to the pupil to calm 
 down; and then, when he is prepared to listen. 
 the teacher should start with something that the 
 pupil knows well and feels an interest in, and 
 from that gradually work his way to the new 
 matter which he has to communicate. There- 
 suit of his teaching should be, that the child 
 has a stronger interest in the subject than he 
 had before. To rouse this interest, the teacher 
 has to remember that every intellectual activity 
 is closely connected with corresponding feelings 
 and exertions, and the teacher succeeds when he 
 makes his intellectual propositions awaken the 
 appropriate feelings and exertions. (3) Educa- 
 tive instruction always keeps in view the prin- 
 cipal aim and end of education. It always 
 works for a purpose. The object is not to cram 
 the pupil with a certain amount of knowledge, 
 to give him an hour's dose of information, with- 
 out regard to his whole being. It deliberately 
 asks whether the information which is to be 
 imparted, will fit into the harmonious devel- 
 opment of the child's powers. It will, therefore, 
 proportion the amount given to the healthy 
 evolution of the child's nature. It will not look 
 to the greatest success in the particular depart- 
 ment, but to the greatest success compatible 
 with the healthy action of all the child's powers. 
 It is not necessary, in an article like this, to 
 go further into the questions to which the sub- 
 ject of instruction gives rise. They are treated 
 in separate articles. We may, however, take a 
 general view of them: (1) We should have to 
 treat of the subjects of instruction. These may 
 be divided into those that relate to nature, those 
 that relate to man, and those that relate to God. 
 The first gives us the natural sciences, — a knowl- 
 edge of the earth in its present state, geology, 
 botany, zoology . physics, including astronomy and 
 chemistry. Then come the abstract Bubjecte 
 arising out of these: the science of numbers 
 
 and of magnitude, arithmetic, algebra, and g - 
 
 etry. Nexl follows the knowledge that relates 
 toman: physiology, psychology, and sociology; 
 
 but the latter sciences cannot he taught scientif- 
 ically to children. The main facts arc made 
 known concretely in literature, and therefore 
 the pupil learns languages. — his own. modern 
 languages, and ancient languages. Education 
 insists i hat these should ultimately, and as soon 
 
 as possible, pass from being mere studies of words 
 
 to he a means of acquainting the pupil with the 
 
 feelings, thoughts, and desires of great and good 
 men. past and present. Closely connected with 
 languages is the study of history ; and allied to 
 history end intermediate between the first and 
 
 Second Classes of study, is geography,— a knowl- 
 edge of the earth as it has influenced man and 
 been used by him. The third class of subjects 
 relate to religion; but this is closely allied to the 
 
INTELLECTUAL EDUCATION 
 
 469 
 
 second, and, indeed, falls properly under it ; f< >r 
 it is the knowledge of man's relations to God, 
 (2) We should have to inquire into the educative 
 value of all these studies, but this inquiry belongs 
 to the special articles. Bere it has to bo remarked, 
 that none of the subjects must be entirely omit- 
 ted. The mind of man must not be deliberately 
 made one-sided. The multiplication of interest 
 is one of the great objects of education. (3) We 
 should have to inquire into the methods of edu- 
 cation ; and (4) into the organization, private 
 and public, necessary to render instruction effec- 
 tive. All these subjects are discussed in the 
 ordinary manuals on instruction. Educative 
 instruction has been made the subject of special 
 investigation by T. Ziller, in his Gfrundfegung 
 zur Lehre ram erziehenden Unterricht. Nam 
 Hirer u'issenschaftlichen und praktisch-reforma- 
 torischen Seite eniwickell (Leipsic, 1865). — See 
 also Rosenkranz, Pedagogics as a System, trans, 
 by A. C. Bracket* (St. Louis, 1872). 
 
 INTELLECTUAL EDUCATION. The 
 term intellect (Latin, intellectus, from inter, be- 
 tween, and legere, to gather, or collect) is used 
 to denote the faculty or faculties by which man 
 knows, in distinction from those of sensibility 
 and will. In the formation of the human 
 character, the culture of the intellect is of sub- 
 ordinate importance to that of the other two 
 mental functions, — the proper order in this 
 regard being (1) will, (2) sensibility, (3) intellect ; 
 for the intellect is only an instrument, the use of 
 which must depend upon the natural strength 
 and educational training of the other elements 
 of human character. There is, however, without 
 doubt, a reflex action of sound intellectual cult- 
 ure, by means of which the propensities and 
 tastes of an individual are ennobled, and lus 
 moral sense strengthened. In order to direct 
 the education of the intellect, it is necessaiy to 
 understand its operations and the mode of its 
 growth from infancy to mature age ; the processes 
 by which its powers may be guided, stimulated, 
 and improved, and the agencies by means of 
 which this improvement, or culture, is to be ef- 
 fected. The human mind acts, as it were, by 
 separate faculties ; it appears to possess distinct 
 powers. These faculties, or powers, are without 
 doubt, intimately associated. They are but 
 functions of a single agent ; but they are func- 
 tions distinct, both in their mode of operation 
 and in the objects upon which fchey arc exercised. 
 To form an idea from a present object of sen- 
 sation is obviously distinct from recalling that 
 idea when the object is no longer present. This 
 again differs essentially from the suggestion of 
 one idea by the presence of another in some way 
 associated with it. Again, to create from the 
 simple impressions derived from natural objects 
 an original picture, or series of pictures, such as 
 those of Hogarth on canvas, or of Bunyan, in 
 written composition, is certainly a very different 
 process from the selection and combination of 
 elementaiy propositions so as to derive from 
 them an original principle, or truth. The mind 
 Js, nevertheless, a unit; and all its operations, of 
 
 however diverse a character, may be conceived 
 to depend, directly or indirectly, upon some 
 rudimenta! process ; but nothing would be gained 
 
 practically by such a procedure ; and, therefore, 
 we may properly conform to the common usage in 
 this regard, ami consider the intellect as com- 
 prehending many distinct faculties, wdiich. of 
 course, cannot be cultivated and strengthened by 
 the teacher without a sufficient knowledge of 
 their respective spheres of action, their modes of 
 operation, and the objects upon which they are 
 specially exercised. These have been conveniently 
 classified and designated as follows: (1) The 
 acquisitive faculties, including consciousness and 
 sense-perception ; (2) The representative/acuities, 
 including conception, association, memory, and 
 imagination; (3) The elaboraiive faculties, in- 
 cluding, comparison, abstraction, generalization, 
 judgment, and reason. — The senses, those avenues 
 of communication with the external world, are 
 first to be considered, since probably ideas, at 
 first, spring from sensation, which appears to be 
 the primitive stimulus of activity in the whole 
 animal kingdom. (See Senses.) It is, however, 
 in no other way connected w T ith the mind than 
 as the means of supplying the material upon 
 which the first mental operations are performed ; 
 and when this material is afforded, the mind, as 
 an entirely independent agent, may or may not 
 act upon it, this act being controlled by what is 
 called attention (q. v.), which is only a condition 
 of activity assumed by the mind in regard to any 
 of the objects of sensation or consciousness. When 
 sensation and attention exist simultaneously, 
 there must result what is called perception, sen- 
 sation being simply the effect produced by ex- 
 ternal objects upon the bodily organs, and per- 
 ception the act of the mind in becoming cog- 
 nizant of it as preceding from some cause ex- 
 traneous to itself. The product of these two 
 acts, constituting what is called sense-perception, 
 would be only momentary, or would last only 
 during the presence of the object perceived, but 
 for the existence of a faculty by which the mind 
 retains impressions thus made, recalls them, 
 voluntarily or involuntarily, and thus is enabled 
 to make them the subject of independent mental 
 action. These impressions, and in an especial 
 manner those made through the medium of 
 sight, become in this way a part of the mind; 
 they are imprinted upon its very texture, as it 
 were, like pictures upon the photographic glass. 
 Hence the name ideas (from the Creek word 
 Idelv, to see). This faculty is called conception 
 (q. v.). It requires the most careful cultivation 
 in childhood and youth ; since it alone enables 
 the mind to store up the materials of knowledge 
 and thought in its wonderful and mysterious 
 repository. The intellect of childhood is chiefly 
 employed in the exercise of it — in storing up 
 ideas, and gathering materials out of which to 
 produce its subsequent creations, whether these 
 are the fantastic pictures of fancy, the more 
 regular combinations of imagination, or the 
 sequences of ratiocination. Whatever, therefore, 
 hinders tins process, shrivels the mind and stunts 
 
470 
 
 INTELLECTUAL EDUCATION' 
 
 '.') it would be powerless to control the 
 which the conceptions would presenl 
 
 its growth. Its vitality dies out fur want of ex- 
 ercise, and torpor takes the place of elasticity 
 and vigorous life. This is, therefore, one of the 
 first faculties to be addressed in education. Its 
 activity is to be fostered by supplying it with 
 abundant food — - objects on which it may be 
 exercised, and lan<nia<j;e designed to bring into 
 clear mental view the concept ions already ac- 
 quired. — The next mental process to be con- 
 tadered is association. In the first stages of the 
 mind's growth, there exists but little power of 
 combination, certainly none of logical com- 
 bination ; but there is an elementary principle 
 of intellection by which ideas tend to become 
 
 linked together according to certain relations; 
 this is called association (q. v.). Perhaps, the 
 most important of the elementary associations 
 established in regard to the conceptions is that 
 of words or nam sswith the conceptions of objects 
 which they are thus made to represent. This is, 
 without doubt, one of the earliest, as well as one 
 of the most rudimental, of the mind's combi- 
 nations. The association itself, it must be borne 
 in mind, is all thai isarbitrary; sine/ it is not 
 words themselves thai are associated with the 
 conceptions of the objects, hut conceptions of the 
 spoken words, formed through the medium of 
 hearing. What is meant by asserting that the 
 association alone isarbitrary, is that the Spoken 
 
 word, as an actual sense-perception, is retained 
 
 and recalled by conception, and is, therefore, no 
 
 more arbitrary than any other idea; but having 
 no intrinsic relation to the conception for which 
 it is to stand, it is associated with it arbitrarily, 
 that is, by repeatedly bringing the two conceptions 
 together, in accordance with that law of mental 
 action by which ideas repeatedly brought into 
 connection suggest each other. - Without the 
 association of words with ideas, the mind could 
 advance but a very few steps in its development ; 
 because, (1) it would be unable to receive any 
 stimulus by communicating with any other 
 minds ; 
 order ii 
 
 themselves to the mind, or to divest them of the 
 vagueness of revery or dreaming; and (3) no proc- 
 ess of thought or reasoning could be carried on 
 withoui the assistance of language. Thisneed 
 of words is illustrate 1 by the efforts of children 
 to talk, an I call things by cam is, long b (fore the 
 power of articulation exists, thus showing that, 
 although they are unable to employ word 
 the expression of ideas, the mind is constantly 
 making use of them in carrying on its rudimental 
 operations. It is an importanl law thai con- 
 ceptions are more strongly associated when their 
 corresponding perceptions have been associated. 
 Thus, suppose it is desired to teach a child the 
 meaning of the word ship ; in other words, to as- 
 sociate in his mind the spoken word ship with 
 the conception of the ship, so that the one will 
 always Buggesl the other. If he has never 
 a ship, nothing but the actual perception will 
 
 Bllffice, and he must be taken where one may be 
 
 a -t uallv seen ; but if he ha Be sn the objed 
 withoui Learning its name, the conception may 
 
 be recalled to his mind either by questioning 
 him or by showing him a picture of it. Without 
 doing this, the word ship may be repeated to 
 him, and he may pronounce it any number of 
 times, without learning any thing, since it would 
 be presenting to his mind a sign without showing 
 what it signifies. In elementary instruction, this 
 error is quite often committed. 
 
 It is important to consider upon what funda- 
 mental or primary notion the mind proceeds in 
 establishing the arbitrary association between 
 things and their names; that is, between concep- 
 tions which intrinsically have no relation to 
 each other. A slighl observation will ascertain 
 that the mind very early requires the notion of 
 names as representatives of things, and thus 
 comprehends the relation existing between a sign 
 and the thing signified] not that this notion is 
 made an object of actual consciousness or reflec- 
 tion, but that it is intuitively recognized by the 
 mind, and is practically employed by the child 
 in making known its wants or expressing its feel- 
 in---. The question, "Wha1 is it '.'"so often heard 
 from the lips of a young child on seeing a new 
 object, appears generally to have reference only 
 to this notion. The child perceives the need of 
 affixing a name to the object in order that it 
 may become a definite conception, as well as be 
 prepared for expression ; and when a name is 
 given, however arbitrary or unintelligible, the 
 inquiry proceeds no further, the child appearing 
 entirely satisfied. It is only when the mind has 
 le more progress in development and has ac- 
 quired a knowledge of other relation.-,, that this 
 question can possibly have any other import. 
 Very much of the early development of a child's 
 mind thus consists in acquiring a knowledge of 
 words, but. let it be carefully observed, of words 
 only as representatives of actual conceptions. 
 In this way. the knowledge of things, and the 
 knowledge of words, increase pari passu, and 
 the mind is prepared for operations of a more 
 advanced character; since it is only by symboliz- 
 ing individual conceptions, that generalization 
 can take place, thai is, that individuals can be 
 conceived with reference exclusively to certain 
 qualities which they possess in common, and 
 thus be 8 I in classes. This office of lan- 
 
 guage has been explained in the fo low inc.- man- 
 ner by a very acute writer (II. L. Mansel) : "In- 
 tuitive generalization consists in directing the 
 attention, voluntarily or involuntarily, to the 
 common features of saveral objects presented to 
 us, neglecting or nol perceiving those qualities 
 which art' pecuhar to each. It is nol a distinct 
 cognition of the class as a < lass, nor of the indi- 
 viduals as individuals; but a confused perception 
 of both together. To form a complete cognition 
 of the imli\ idual, I must, by the aid of imagina- 
 tion, supply those distinctive features which I 
 am unable clearly to perceive. To form a com- 
 plete cognition of the class, I must separate the 
 common attributes from their connection with a 
 definite time and place. Bui how are attributes. 
 
 apart from their juxtaposition in space, to be so 
 tnected together, as to constitute a single ob- 
 
INTELLECTUAL EDUCATION 
 
 17 1 
 
 ject ? The bead and trunk and limba of an indi- 
 vidual man are connected together by continuity 
 iii space, and by thai continuity constitute a 
 whole of intuition, whether distinctly recognized 
 in that relation or not. J low are the attributes 
 of mankind in general to be separated from 
 their position in space. and yet so united together 
 as to constitute a whole of thought? To effecl 
 this we must call in the aid of language. The 
 word is to thought what space is to perception. 
 It constitutes the connecting link between va- 
 rious attributes — the frame, as it were, in which 
 they are set — and thus furnishes the means 
 by which the features characteristic of a class 
 may he viewed apart from the individuals in 
 which they are intuitively perceived, and com 
 bined into a complex notion or concept." In re- 
 gard to tlie same point, Whately remarks, in Ele- 
 ments of Logic : "The majority of men would 
 probably say, if asked, that the use of language 
 is peculiar to man ; and that its office is to ex- 
 press to one another our thoughts and feelings, 
 1 hit neither of these is strictly true. Brutes do 
 possess, in some degree, the power of being taught 
 to understand what is said to them, and some of 
 them even to utter sounds expressive of what is 
 passing within them. But they all seem to be 
 incapable of another very important use of lan- 
 guage which does characterize man ; namely, the 
 employment of common terms (general terms) 
 formed by abstraction, as instruments of thought] 
 by which alone a train of reasoning may be car- 
 ried on. And accordingly a deaf-mute, before he 
 has been taught a language — either the finger- 
 language or reading — cannot carry on a train 
 of reasoning, any more than a brute. lie differs 
 indeed from a brute, in possessing the mental 
 capability of employing language ; but he can 
 no more make use of that capability till he is 
 in possession of some system of arbitrary general 
 signs, than a person born blind from cataract 
 can make use of his capacity. of seeing, till the 
 cataract is removed." 
 
 Next to the association of things with words 
 as their representatives, is that founded upon a 
 perception of resemblance in the objects from 
 which conceptions are derived. This, it will be 
 perceived from what has already been adduced, 
 takes place prior to generalization, to which it 
 directly lea Is. There is, probably, no relation so 
 obvious to a child as that of resemblance or anal- 
 ogy, and noin> that affords so much employ- 
 ment to its mind, or that affects 7 it with more 
 pleasurable emotions. This is particularly the 
 with the relation of analogy when found to 
 exist between objects quite dissimilar. The facil- 
 ity and readiness with which very young chil- 
 dren discern resemblances, whether they are 
 founded upon form, color, or structure, indicate 
 a natural aptitude of the mind to perceive the 
 varieties of these qualities in different objects, — 
 of these qualities especially, because they are 
 addressed to the sight, which of all the senses 
 gives rise to the most vivid conceptions. The 
 varieties of color (tints), form. etc.. generally 
 have no designations in the child's mind — no 
 
 symbols in language ; and. therefore, cannot be 
 
 made distinct objects of conception or id' con- 
 SCiousneSS ; and. in the earliest stages of mental 
 
 development, this is not required to enable the 
 
 mind to carry on its rudiniental processes. Very 
 young children can learn to classify objects with 
 respect to their resemblances in form, color, etc ; 
 and to require them to do this, is one of the best 
 exercises that can be employed to aid the devel- 
 opment of their minds. The readiness with 
 which children apply the same name to objects 
 
 having only a general resemblance to each other 
 in form, color, or structure, is another proof of 
 this characteristic of the human mind. " Chil- 
 dren," says Aristotle, "at first call every man 
 father, and every woman mother, but afterwards 
 they distinguish one person from another." The 
 perception of resemblance is. thus, prior to that 
 of difference, and, apparently, for a very good 
 reason : since, if the reverse were the ease, the 
 mind, instead of requiring immediately words as 
 the representatives of classes, would need a word 
 for every object of perception, and thus could 
 make no advancement in developing the higher 
 facidties. This was the doctrine of Pestalozzi, 
 and a basic principle of his system. There is no 
 doubt that very great diversities in objects ex- 
 cite the attention more readily than correspond- 
 ing resemblances, just as rapid transitions from 
 one color to another, from intense darkness to 
 a brilliant illumination, etc., produce activity in 
 the perceptive faculties ; and hence, the employ- 
 ment of such processes in the education of those 
 mentally deficient ; but where any two objects 
 are placed before a child, of which the points of 
 resemblance and of difference are equally ob- 
 vious to the developed and mature mind, the 
 child will intuitively notice the former before 
 he will the latter. The constitution of the mind 
 seems to necessitate this. Objects which are 
 very unlike may, indeed, have some points of 
 resemblance which escape the notice of a child, 
 and which, therefore, the teacher will need to 
 point out so as to assist in their discovery, and, 
 in this way, to cultivate the habit of observa- 
 tion. The whole structure of the intellect as a 
 thinking and reasoning apparatus seems to be 
 based on the ready recognition of likeness and 
 analogy in the various objects presented to the 
 s. Isaac Taylor remarks, in Home Educa- 
 cation: -The sense of resemblance runs before 
 the power of discriminating or designating dif- 
 : hence, it happens that by the infant 
 and the savage the names of individuals are ex- 
 tended to species, and the names of species to 
 genera." '-Thus,'" as Manse! remarks, -by the 
 ail of language, our first abstractions are, in 
 fact, given to us already made; as we learn to 
 give the same name to various individuals pre- 
 sented to us under slight, and at first unnoticed 
 circumstances of distinction. The name is thus 
 applied to different objects long before we 
 learn to analyze the growing powers of speech 
 and thought, to ask What we mean by each 
 several instance of its application, and to cor- 
 rect and fix the significance of words at firsts 
 
4?2 
 
 INTELLECTUAL EDUCATION 
 
 used vaguely and obscurely." The association 
 of the conceptions as dependent upon an obser- 
 vation of resemblance, has been called intuitive 
 generalization ; since it does not consciously 
 follow any process of abstraction, because, from 
 the failure of the undeveloped mind to notice 
 distinctions and differences, no such process is 
 needed for the purpose. For example, a child 
 sees a book for the first time, and learns its 
 name, book; now, on seeing another book, how- 
 ever different from the first in size, color, etc.. he 
 invariably applies to it the term book, by the 
 perception of analogy leading on to intuitive 
 generalization. Common names are, therefore, 
 first learned, and particular or proper nanus 
 only given to such objects as are constantly pre- 
 sented to the mind ; since, by being thus more 
 intimately known, their distinctive peculiarities 
 are more clearly discerned, this discernment 
 leading to an individualization, as the next Btep 
 in the growth or development of the mind. The 
 operation of the sense of analogy is seen in the 
 use of figurative, or more definitely, tropical 
 language ; and its rudimental character is illus- 
 trated by the fact that children and savages are 
 particularly prone to the use of this language. 
 Indeed, as before remarked, it is one of the most 
 intense mental pleasures of the child to trace 
 analogies in objects of considerable diversity in 
 general appearance, and to apply such meta- 
 phorical terms as will forcibly express them. 
 This again adds very greatly to a child's power 
 of expression, since, without the perception of 
 these analogies in objects, every variation would 
 require some specific term, metaphorical names 
 ceasing to have any meaning whatever. This 
 characteristic of a chilli's mind gives to the in- 
 telligent teacher considerable resources for il- 
 lustration, particularly in the use of words and 
 their application to the objects which they rep- 
 resent. Thus, the term cape would be much 
 better understood if its exact literal import were 
 explained, and the analogy exhibited between 
 the head and a cape, or headland. It is unfort- 
 unate that SO few compound or derivative words 
 in English are formed from the simple words of 
 the language itself, and that recourse has been 
 had to BO great an extent to the LatlH and 
 Greek languages for a supply of such roots: 
 since, in consequence of this, most of the words 
 
 of the language are necessarily taught as arbi- 
 tr.iiy terms, which, otherwise, would be the 
 means of stimulating mental activity in the 
 Learner. A striking contrast has very often been 
 
 made, in this respect, between the English and 
 
 German languages, such terms as Regenschirm 
 (umbrella), Sonnenschirm (parasol), aandschuh 
 (glove), Fingerhui (thimble), rinsinigeti (absorb), 
 afurchsichtig (transparent), etc., illustrating very 
 clearly the tact referred to. This peculiarity of 
 
 a language, in drawing almost exclusively from 
 its own primitive words the materials for the 
 construction of complex epithets, is also \er\ 
 prominent in the < Ireek language, and constitutes 
 one of its excellencies. Where it exists, it must 
 afford great facility in education, and must form 
 
 the basis for processes which are impracticable 
 where a language, such as the English, is to be 
 employed, which derives nearly all of itsabstract 
 and scientific terms from languages not merely 
 foreign but entirely out of use. The growth of 
 mind in its relation to language has been here 
 dwelt upon at some length because of its im- 
 portance as a source of practical knowledge to 
 every teacher who makes the study of mind the 
 basis of his operations. Arbitrary rules may be 
 laid down, and applied ; but the scientific teacher 
 who investigates the foundation of these rules in 
 the principles of intellectual science will best 
 know how to adopt his methods to the diversified 
 exigencies of his work. Association as an ele- 
 mentary function of mind, is dependent upon a 
 variety of circumstances other than those enu- 
 merated; as time, place, cause and effect, and 
 design. These are, however, of secondary im- 
 portance for the study of the educator. — The 
 peculiar functions of the representative faculties, 
 memory and imagination should receive a care- 
 ful study, since they underlie many of the most 
 important processes which he is called upon to 
 direct. (See Imagination, and Memory.) The elab- 
 orative faculties, comparison, abstraction, and 
 generalization, have already been referred to in 
 illation to the rudimental stage of their opera- 
 tion; in the higher grades of instruction, they find 
 constant exercise in the studies of mathematics 
 and natural science, which form a part of the cur- 
 riculum of eveiy high school, college, and univer- 
 sity. Judgment and reason pass through a grada- 
 tion of development from the most elementary to 
 the highest stages of education. — Such is the field 
 which a discussion of the principles of intellectual 
 education embraces. In the practical application 
 of these principles, the teacher is to be guided not 
 only by a knowledge of the general functions of 
 mind and their development, but by all the pecu- 
 liarities of individual endowment which he may 
 be able to discern. (See I Hakai her, Discernment 
 ■ I . He is to permit the mind to expand by its 
 i>\\ n intrinsic activities, only interposing restrain- 
 ing or stimulating agencies when and where he 
 finds a tendency to abnormal or morbid growth. 
 There are, however, special methods of opera- 
 tion in intellectual education, partaking more of 
 a positive character, by means of which the 
 teacher is directly to impart knowledge — to 
 communicate information ; and, thus, is opened 
 
 up a consideration nol only of the mind to be 
 
 cultivated, but of the branches of knowledge to 
 be taught, in relation to the several faculties 
 which they tend to cultivate. (See [nsTBUCTION.) 
 In this connection, and by the use of the Same 
 
 guiding principles, the proper order of presenting 
 these studies must be considered and ascertained, 
 
 this order being correlated with the natural order 
 in which the intellectual faculties are developed. 
 (See Ooubsb of Instruction.) The final result 
 
 of this department of education should be. to 
 enable the individual, in all the circumstances of 
 life, to exercise with efficiency and address the 
 various intellectual faculties with which he hafl 
 been endowed. (See OuLTUBE.) 
 
INTEREST 
 
 IOWA 
 
 473 
 
 INTEREST. To awaken an interest on the 
 part of the pupils in the subjects of instruc- 
 tion should always In- a prominent object of the 
 teacher's efforts, since it is an indispensable con- 
 dition of all true success. Antecedently, the 
 TOUng pupil feels QO interest in the school studies: 
 he neither appreciates their importance nor has 
 any desire to acquire a knowledge of the subjects 
 of which they treat. But the skillful teacher 
 knows how to stimulate curiosity, and to impress 
 Upon the mind of the pupil the idea that he is 
 acquiring knowledge, and thus to awaken an 
 interest in the processes of instruction. When 
 these processes are appropriate and natural, the 
 pupil's interest is easily sustained ; and it will be 
 generally found that a flagging interest is due 
 either to previous defective training or to the 
 endeavor to teach subjects for which the pupil's 
 mind is not prepared. It is a psychological 
 axiom that the mind has no less appetite for 
 knowledge of the right kind, than exists physic- 
 ally for proper food to nourish the body. It is, 
 therefore, the office of educational science to de- 
 termine the kind of mental food proper for every 
 age. and how it should be prepared so as to 
 stimulate, while it satisfies, the mental appetite. 
 There should also be individual adaptation, the 
 teacher giving whatever attention may be neces- 
 sary to the special inclinations, tastes, and capaci- 
 ties of his pupils. (See Attention.) 
 
 INTERMEDIATE SCHOOLS are schools 
 'of a grade between primary schools and grammar 
 schools, or between elementary schools and high 
 schools. Such schools generally constitute an 
 important part of the graded school system. 
 Schools of a grade between elementary schools 
 (in German. Elementarschide), and colleges and 
 universities, are often called middle schools (Ger- 
 man. Mittelschule). 
 
 INTERROGATION, or the Interrogative 
 Method, is an indispensable means of conducting 
 most processes of instruction, particularly those 
 of an elementary grade. Its office is either 
 (1) tentative, or (2) illustrative. As a tentative 
 process, the teacher uses it to determine the 
 quantity and the quality of the knowledge which 
 the pupil has attained. Thus, in hearing recita- 
 tions, the teacher, by means of questions, ascer- 
 tains how much of the lesson previously assigned, 
 the pupil has learned, and with what accuracy 
 it has been learned ; and on the kind of questions 
 asked, as well as on the manner of asking them, 
 depends the degree of skill and effectiveness of 
 this important part of the teacher's work. The 
 same is true, also, of the conducting of exami- 
 nations by school inspectors or superintendents. 
 The process of questioning is also tentative when 
 used as preliminary to a course of instruction, 
 in order to determine the amount of information, 
 or the kind of ideas, already acquired by the 
 pupil, either directly relating to the subject or 
 remotely connected with it, and constituting the 
 elementary conceptions upon which it is to be 
 based. Instruction on every subject needs such 
 preliminary questioning. — Interrogation is illus- 
 trative when it is used as a direct means of in- 
 
 struction, in order to induce the pupil to combine 
 his ideas in such a way that he may be led to a 
 clear conception of the truth. This was the proc- 
 ess used by Socrates in giving instruction : and 
 heiiee.it is often called theSocratie method. Great 
 skill can be exercised by the teacher in the use of 
 interrogation for this purpose : indeed, the art of 
 questioning (catechetics) becomes a special de- 
 partment of the work of teaching, and has been 
 so treated. Rules can scarcely be given for its 
 attainment ; but it may briefly be said that it 
 depends upon (1) a thorough training of the 
 analytic faculty of the teacher, (2) such a minute 
 and accurate knowledge of the subject to be 
 taught as will enable him to resolve it into its 
 elementary principles, (3) a full appreciation of 
 the pupils condition of mind, both as to ca- 
 pacity and degree of attainment, and (4) sufficient 
 practice in interrogation to produce facility in 
 framing questions of every kind and form. Where 
 these conditions exist, the questions asked will 
 be an effective means of making every subject 
 clear to the learner's mind. (See Catechetical 
 Method.) 
 
 INTUITIVE METHOD. See Object 
 Teaching, and Pestalozzi. 
 
 IOWA, originally a part of the vast Louisiana 
 purchase of 1803, was included in the territory 
 of Iowa, organized in 1838, which extended 
 math from the state of Missouri to the British 
 line, and was bounded on the east and west, 
 respectively, by the Mississippi and Missouri 
 rivers. It was admitted into the Union, with 
 its present limits, in 1846. Its area is 55,045 
 square miles ; and its population, in 1870. was 
 1.194,020; but, in 1873, it was reported as 
 1,251,333. 
 
 Educational History. — In 1833, the date of 
 the first permanent settlement of Dubuque, a 
 school-house was built in that towm, which, it is 
 claimed, was the first built in the state. It was 
 erected by funds contributed by the enterprising 
 lead-miners. During the next six years, other 
 schools were opened in various parts of the state. 
 In 1839, the territorial legislature passed a law 
 for the establishment of public schools, provid- 
 ing that "there shall be established a common 
 school, or schools, in each of the counties of the 
 territory, which shall be open and free for every 
 class of white citizens between the ages of 5 and 
 21 years." It also provided for the formation 
 of school districts, each to be governed by a 
 board of three trustees, whose duties were to ex- 
 amine and employ teachers, superintend the 
 schools, and collect and disburse the school 
 I moneys. In 1840, the legislative assembly en- 
 i acted a much more comprehensive law for the 
 establishment of a common-school system, mak- 
 ing ample provision for free public schools. In 
 the U.S. census of 1840, very few schools, either 
 private or public, were reported : an academy, 
 in Scott county, with 25 pupils, and 03 common 
 schools, with 1,500 pupils. In Jan., 1841, the 
 office of superintendent of public instruction was 
 created ; and Dr. William Reynolds, a teacher at 
 Iowa City, was appointed to the place. The, 
 
474 
 
 IOWA 
 
 office was, however, abolished Febr. 17., 1842 ; 
 but, by the first constitution of Iowa, the general 
 assembly was required to provide for the election 
 of a superintendent of public instruction, who 
 should hold office for three years. Since that 
 time, the office has been filled successively by the 
 following state superintendents:— 3 axae& Har- 
 lan, from 18-47 — 8 ; Thomas H. Benton, Jr., 
 from 1848 — 54; James D. Kails, from 1854 — 7; 
 Joseph C. Stone, for one month ; Maturin L. 
 Fisher, from June 1857 to Dec. 1858, when the 
 state board of education abolished the office, 
 assigning its duties to the secretary of the board. 
 Thomas H. Benton, Jr., was elected secretary, 
 and served till 1863, when he resigned to enter 
 the U. S. military service. During a portion of 
 that year, the duties of the office were performed 
 by H. A. W iltse, who was succeeded, in 1863, 
 by Oran Faville. The office of superintendent of 
 public instruction was revived March 23., L864, 
 and Oran Faville was elected to th • position, in 
 which he remained till March 1.. L867. His suc- 
 cessors were D. Franklin Wells, from March, 
 ] 867, till his decease, in Nov. 1868; Abraham S. 
 Kissed, from Jan. L869 to Jan. 1., 1872; and 
 Alonzo Abernethy, from Jan. 1., 1872 to the 
 present time (1876). When Iowa was admitted 
 into the Union, it contained about 400 school 
 districts. The number, however, rapidly imreas- 
 e 1, amounting, in 1 8 19, to 1,000, and in 1850, to 
 1.200. In 1857, the state board of education as- 
 sumed control of the educational interests of the 
 state. The number of school districts, at that 
 time, had increased to 3,265; but, difficulties 
 having arisen in the practical working of the 
 system, an act was passed in 1858, by which 
 the school districts were made co-extensive witli 
 the civil townships, and "each incorporated city 
 or town, including the territory annexed thereto 
 for school purposes, and which contains not less 
 than L000 inhabitants," was created a separate 
 school district. The number of districts was 
 thus reduced to less than '.'00. By this arrange- 
 ment, although it met with considerable opposi- 
 tions, the system was rendered less complex, and 
 there was a saving of 831,000 in the expendi- 
 tures. In 1858, a law was enacted, providing 
 that any city or incorporated town, including 
 th • territory annexed thereto for school purpo 
 might constitute a school district, by vote of a 
 majority of the electors residing (herein. In 
 1860, this was extended to unincorporated towns 
 and villages of not less than 300 inhabitants ; 
 and, in L866, to any city or sub-district contain- 
 ing not less than 200. Xoi withstanding the 
 dissatisfaction caused by the sub-district system, 
 ■which led to special legislation in 1867 and 
 1872, the system was not abandoned; and. 
 
 cording to tic report of State Superintendent 
 Abernethy, for 1ST."., from April, 1^72. to Sept. 
 L5., 1st:;, L19 district townships, containing 901 
 sub-districts, were reported as having completed 
 ii I 'pendent organizations. From Sept., L873,to 
 a., L875, about L 60 additional district town- 
 ships adopted the independent district system. 
 thus increasing the number of independent dis- 
 
 tricts by more than 1,000. The state board of 
 education, provided for by the constitution 
 adopted Sept., Ib57, consisted of the governor, 
 lieutenant governor, and one member elected 
 from each judicial district in the state. The term 
 of office was four years, and the lieutenant gov- 
 ernor was the president of the board. To this 
 body were committed the entire interests of the 
 common school system. The first board was 
 elected Oct 12., 1858. In 1864, the General As- 
 sembly abolished the board, and reorganized the 
 school system. Subsequent legislation also modi- 
 fied it in some particulars. 
 
 School System. — The system, at present, is ad- 
 ministered by the following officers : (1) a 
 stute superintendent, elected for two years; 
 (2) county superintendents, also elected for two 
 years; (3) township boards of directors, con- 
 sisting of three or more sub-directors for each 
 township, who have the management of the 
 township school fund; and {■[) a sub-director 
 for each sub-district, for the local management 
 of the school. By the school law of 1874, the 
 county superintendent is required to visit each 
 school in the county at least once in each term, 
 spending one half day at each visit. In order to 
 systematize and preserve the results of these 
 visitations, the state superintendent furnishes 
 each county superintendent with a blank con- 
 taining the subjects most important to be in- 
 quired into; and these blanks when filled af- 
 ford information to be incorporated in the state 
 superintendents annual report. These subjects 
 are. (1 ) the condition of the Bchool-houses, furni- 
 ture, and out-buildings ; (2) the discipline and 
 classification of the school, and the mode of con- 
 ducting recitations; and (3) the form and mode 
 of keeping the daily register. The county super- 
 intendent is empowered to examine applicants 
 for teachers' certificates and to issue the same to 
 those found qualified to teach orthography, read- 
 ing, writing, arithmetic, geography, and English 
 grammar, upon satisfactory evidence of their 
 -^oil moral character. The number of applicants 
 thus examined in 1875, was 20,195; and the 
 number of certificates awarded was 16.452; of 
 which 4,797 were of the 1st grade ; 7,959, of the 
 second : 3,333, of the 3rd; and 363, professional 
 certificates. 
 
 The school - is derived from several 
 
 sources: (I) A teachers' fund ; (11) A school- 
 house found ; (III) A contingent fund. — 1. The 
 hers' fund is derived from. (1) the interest 
 on the permanent school fund of the state, ac- 
 cruing from the sale of school lands appropriated 
 by Congress for this purpose; (2) a county school 
 tax of not less than one mill nor more than 
 three mills on the dollar, levied by the board 
 
 of supervisors on the taxable property of the 
 
 county; (3) such additional tax on the property 
 
 of the district, determined by the boards of 
 directors, as may be needed to support the 
 schools for six months or longer, if so determined. 
 II. The school-house fund is derived from a tax 
 for the purpose of purchasing sites and erecting 
 school houses. 111. The contingent fund is ob- 
 
IOWA 
 
 475 
 
 tained by a tax, determined by the board of direc- I 
 tors, sufficient to provide for pent, fuel, repairs, 
 and all other current expenses required to keep 
 the school in operation. The permanent school 
 fund is derived from the following sources: 
 (1) Five percent upon the net proceeds of the 
 public lands of the state; (2 1 The proceeds of 
 the sales of 500,000 acres of land granted by 
 act of Congress, Sept. -I.. 1841; (3) The pro- 
 ceeds of all sales of intestate estates, which 
 escheat to the state; (4) The proceeds of the 
 sales of the sixteenth section in each township, 
 or lands selected in lieu thereof. The aggregate 
 amount of the permanent fund, in L875, was 
 $3,098,497. The school moneys are distributed 
 among the districts in proportion to the number 
 of children of school age — between 5 and 2L 
 years tv-i ling therein. 
 
 Educational Condition. — According to the 
 report of the state superintendent for 1874—5, 
 there were in the state 1,134 district townships, 
 comprising 7,062 sub-districts; and 2,536 inde- 
 p indent districts, thus making, in all, 3,(170 school 
 districts in the state. The whole number of 
 common schools was 0,610, of which only 407 
 were graded schools. The average time of keep- 
 ing school during the year was 6.8 months. Other 
 items of statistics are given below : 
 
 No. of children of school age, males, 274,849 
 
 females, 258,722 
 
 Number of children enrolled, 
 Average daily attendance, 
 Number of teachers, 
 
 Total, 
 
 males, (5,500 
 females, 11,645 
 
 ;,, n ,:;,;,7i 
 
 3S4,012 
 225,415 
 
 Total, 18,145 
 
 Average monthly compensation, males, $36.68 
 
 females, $'2<.:;t 
 Receipts, $5,035,497.65 
 
 Expenditures, for tuition, £2,o98,439.81 
 " other purposes, 2,007,309.58 
 
 Total, $4,C>0.->, 749.39 
 
 Normal Instruction. — The establishment of 
 schools for the instruction of teachers has not 
 met, as yet. with the success attained inmost 
 other states. In 1848, a law was passed by 
 which three normal schools were to be estab- 
 lish' 1 in different parts of the state, which was 
 divided into three districts for that purpose. For 
 each district, a board of seven trustees was ap- 
 pointed, with power to provide suitable build- 
 ings, employ teachers, and exercise a general 
 supervision over the schools. The sum of $500 
 was appropriated annually, to each school for the 
 payment of teachers, the purchase of apparatus, 
 etc., provided the people in each district should 
 subscribe an equal sum for the erection of the 
 buildings. Theexpected pecuniary ail. however, 
 not being furnished, the schools which had been 
 commenced were, in a short time, discontinued. 
 In 1858, a normal department was established 
 in the state university, ami continued until 1872, 
 when it was consolidated, in the main, with the 
 academic department. Since then, a chair of 
 didactics has been maintained in the university 
 for the purpose of affording special instruction 
 
 to those who may design to become teachers. 
 There is also a normal department in Whittier 
 College, Salem. 
 
 Normal institutes constitute the chief instru- 
 mentality for the professional improvement of 
 teachers in this state. In 1874, the General As- 
 sembly enacted a law providing for the instruc- 
 tion of teachers by the annual holding of an 
 institute in each county. The provision for the 
 regular instruci ion of teachers ha\ bag thus taken 
 definite shape, and the necessity of uniformity 
 in that instruction having become apparent, a 
 course of study with a daily order of exercises, 
 was prepared by the state superintendent, and 
 was adopted at once. The general interest 
 aroused by these meetings is illustrated by the 
 following statement. In the year 1 ^74, institutes 
 were held in 89 counties ; 35 continued in ses- 
 sion 4 weeks ; 2C>, 3 weeks : 'JO. 2 weeks ; and 8, 
 one week. Although attention on the part of 
 teachers was voluntary, the number present 
 amounted to 7,000. In 1875. it was still larger. 
 The funds requisite to defray the expenses of 
 these institutes are, in the main, contributed by 
 the teachers themselves, being derived, (1) from 
 the fee of one dollar paid by each person on 
 receiving a teacher's certificate, (2) from the reg- 
 istration fee of one dollar at the institute, and 
 (3) from the state appropriation of $50 for each 
 institute. The sum obtained from these sources 
 has, in some cases, been augmented by limited 
 county appropriations. 
 
 Secondary Instruction. — In 1858, a law was 
 passed, providing that the board of presidents of 
 school districts in any county might determine 
 wdiether a county high school should be estab- 
 lished, and required them, if they determined 
 to establish such school, to elect nine trustees 
 who, together with the county superintendent, 
 should constitute a board of high- school trustees, 
 with power to lease or erect a building, and take 
 entire charge of it ; also to draw from the 
 county treasury $3000 a year for six years, and 
 $1000 annually thereafter, for the maintenance 
 of such school. This provision, however, though 
 earnestly advocated by some, was not taken ad- 
 vantage of, the majority considering it prema- 
 ture in respect to both the wants of the state and 
 its financial ability. Only one school, that at 
 Albion, was established under this law. 'lie's 
 was continued about two years, when the funds 
 expected from the state treasury not being sup- 
 plied, it was discontinued, and the building was 
 sold. Two attempts have since been made to 
 re-enact this law in its essential features, but 
 without success. In 1*74. the people of Guthrie 
 county decided to establish a high school, and 
 this, according to the present state superintend- 
 ent (1876), will soon be ill operation. 
 
 In the state superintendent's report for 1875, 
 there are included returns from 112 private 
 academies, seminaries, high schools, business col- 
 leges, select schools, etc.. which show an enroll- 
 ment of 10,757 pupils, taught by '<1 i instructors. 
 In the preparatory schools of the various colleges 
 of the state, there are about 3,000 students, pur- 
 
476 
 
 IOWA 
 
 IOWA STATE UNIVERSITY 
 
 suing the usual branches assigned for secondary 
 institutions. 
 
 Superior Instruction. — The Iowa State Uni- 
 versity (q-v.), at Iowa City, is the principal in- 
 stitution for superior instruction, endowed or 
 aided by the state. Other institutions of this 
 grade and character are included in the follow- 
 ing table : 
 
 NAME 
 
 Location 
 
 When 
 
 found 
 
 ed 
 
 Religious 
 [enomina- 
 
 tion 
 
 Burlington University... 
 Central Univ. of Iowa 
 
 Burlington 
 
 Mt. Vernon 
 
 PeUa 
 
 Mt. Pleasant 
 
 Humboldt 
 
 (iriunell 
 
 Mt. Pleasant 
 
 Decorah 
 
 Oskaloosa 
 
 Oskaloosa 
 
 Indianola 
 
 Tabor 
 
 Fayette 
 
 Des Moines 
 
 Salem 
 
 West. Coll. 
 
 1852 
 1867 
 
 1854 
 1873 
 
 lSC'.l 
 
 1848 
 1855 
 1861 
 1856 
 1873 
 
 Baptist 
 M. Epis. 
 Baptist 
 M. Epis. 
 
 Iowa Wesleyan University 
 Norwegian Lutheran Coll. 
 
 Penn College 
 
 Non-sect. 
 
 Congreg. 
 
 M. Epis. 
 
 Lutheran 
 
 Christian 
 
 Friends 
 
 Simpson Centenary Coll. . 
 
 Tabor College 
 
 Upper Iowa University. . . 
 University of Des Moines 
 Whittier College 
 
 1867 |M. Epis. 
 1866 'Cougreg. 
 1855 M. Epis. 
 1866 Baptist 
 
 1868 Friends 
 
 
 1856 U. Breth. 
 
 Technical and Professional Instruction. — 
 The State Agricultural ( 'ollege, at Ames, is en- 
 dowed with the proceeds of the congressional 
 land grant. Two experiments have been made 
 in this institution, and are considered success- 
 ful: the union of manual labor with intellectual 
 development, and the co-education of the sexes. 
 The course of instruction is for four years, 
 and comprises civil, mechanical, and mining en- 
 gineering, agriculture, horticulture, stock raising. 
 architecture, military tactics. and general science 
 and literature. The institutions of this class, 
 for theological instruction, are the Theological 
 Department of Iowa Wesleyan University, the 
 German Presbyterian Theological School of the 
 North-west, and the Swedish Lutheran Mission 
 Institute. The law schools of the state consist 
 of the law departments, respectively, of the state 
 university, the Iowa Wesleyan University, and 
 Simpson Centenary College. The chief medical 
 schools are the medical department of the state 
 university, and the < 'ollege of Physicians and 
 Surgeons, at Keokuk. 
 
 Special Instruction. — The chief institutions 
 for special instruction are the Iowa Institution for 
 the Education of the Deaf and Dumb,a1 I 'ouncil 
 Bluffs, and the Iowa Stale < 'ollege tor the Blind. 
 at Vinton. Besides these, there are two state 
 
 reform schools, one at Kldora and the other at 
 Salem. At Davenport and at Cedar Palls, there 
 is a state soldiers' orphan home. 
 
 "Educational Journals. - The first publica- 
 tion in Iowa devoted to the interests of schools 
 w;ls a monthly, commenced at Dubuque, in 
 January, L853, under the title of the District 
 School journal of Education for the State of 
 
 Iowa. This name was afterwards changed to 
 
 The Iowa Journal of Education. It was sus- 
 pendedinl856. In January, L857, a monthly 
 
 entitled The Voice of Iowa was commenced at 
 C,il; ir Rapids, and was made the organ of t In- 
 state teachers' association. It was, however, soon 
 
 suspended. The Literary Advertiser and Public 
 School Advocate was published from May. Is59, 
 to October, 1860. In July of the latter year. 
 The Iowa School Journals monthly of 16 pages. 
 was started at I >es Moines, and has been continued 
 up to the present time (1876). An important in- 
 fluence is attributed to it in connection with the 
 schools and educational system of the state. The 
 Iowa Instructor was commenced in ls5!) ; after- 
 wards united with the Journal, and. in 1872, 
 consolidated with The Manual, a monthly, com- 
 menced August 1., 1871. In January. 1S74, 
 Tlie Common School was started at Davenport, 
 but in 1875, it was united with the Iowa 
 School Journal. 
 
 IOWA COLLEGE, at Grinnell, Iowa, was 
 established at Davenport, in 1847, and was re- 
 moved to Grinnell in 1860. It was founded by 
 Congregationalists and Presbyterians (who with- 
 drew in 1852), but is without any sectarian or ec- 
 clesiastical control. Its productive funds amount 
 to about $90,000. It has libraries containing 
 about 6,000 volumes, a museum of natural his- 
 tory, chemical, philosophical, and astronomical 
 apparatus, etc The cost of tuition ranges from 
 $15 to $22 per year, with music, drawing, and 
 painting as extras. Aid is furnished to needy 
 students. The studies are arranged in the follow- 
 ing departments: (1) Normal and Knglish de- 
 partment, furnishing all " English studies." or 
 preparation for teaching; (2) Academy course, of 
 two years, preparatory to the College and Ladies' 
 courses ; (3) Ladies' course, of four years, chiefly 
 consisting of college studies, like that of the best 
 Eastern seminaries; (1) College course, of four, 
 years, for both sexes. This is either classical orsci- 
 entitic.each including modern languages, and the 
 latter, some post graduate studies. — In L875- 6, 
 there were IT instructors and 4 lecturers (in all 
 the dej >a ft ments) , and H37 students : post-gradu- 
 ate 4; college course. 45 : ladies' course, 40 : acad- 
 emy course, 1^8; normal and English depart- 
 lneiit. 171. Seventeen states and forty count ic- of 
 Iowa were represented by its students in 1-75, 
 and there is an increasing attendance from the 
 eastern and middle states. The Rev. George P. 
 Magoun, D.D., the present incumbent, appointed 
 in i 862, has been the only president. 
 
 IOWA, State "University of, at Iowa City, 
 was chartered in L857,and organized in I860. It 
 
 is noti sectarian. It has productive funds to the 
 amount of Sl'L'O.OOO : and the value of its build* 
 ings, grounds, and apparatus is 8250,000. Bi- 
 ennial appropriations are made by the legislature. 
 It has an astronomical observatory, laboratory, 
 and cabinets. The college library contains be- 
 tween 6,000 and 7,000 volumes ; the law library, 
 
 2, 500 volumes. The academical department, he- 
 sides preparatory classes, has four regular courses; 
 
 namely, classical, leading to the degree of Bach- 
 elor of Arts: philosophical and scientific, leading 
 
 to the degree of Uachelorof Philosophy: and<i\il 
 
 engineering, leading to the degree of Civil En- 
 gineer. Both sexes are admitted, and tuition is 
 free. The law department was established, as the 
 Iowa Law School, at Des Moines, in 1865, and 
 
IOWA WESLEYAN UNIVERSITY 
 
 IRELAND 
 
 477 
 
 was united with the university in 1808. The 
 medical department was established in 1868. In 
 1874 —5, the academic department had 21 in- 
 structors and 423 students ; the law department 
 had 4 instructors and L06 students; and the med- 
 ical department, 13 instructors and 94 students. 
 The Rev. George Thatcher, D.D., is (1876) the 
 president. 
 
 IOWA WESLEYAN UNIVERSITY, 
 at Mt. Pleasant, Iowa, was chartered in 1855, 
 growing out of the Mt. Pleasant Collegiate In- 
 stitute, established some years before. It is open 
 to both sexes, and is under the control of the 
 Methodist Episcopal Church. It has an endow- 
 ment of $63,000. The libraries contain about 
 3.000 volumes. The university comprises 5 de- 
 partments: namely, of liberal arts, with classical 
 and scientific courses, of four years each, and a 
 
 Ereparatory course of two years ; of theology; of 
 t\v ; of pharmacy and anatomy ; and of tech- 
 nology. In 1874 — 5, there were 15 regular in- 
 structors and 217 students in all the depart- 
 ments. A normal department has lately been 
 organized. German College (q. v.) , though dis- 
 tinct from the university in government, is in- 
 timately connected with it in instruction. The 
 presidents of the university have been as follows: 
 Rev. L. W. Berry, D. D. ; Henry Jas. Harlan; 
 Rev. Charles Elliott, D. D. ; Rev. G. B. Jocelyn; 
 Rev. Charles Holmes, D.D.; Rev. John Wheeler; 
 Rev. Jno. Spaulding, Ph. D., the present incum- 
 h.-nt (1876). 
 
 IRELAND, an island which forms an im- 
 portant part of the United Kingdom of Great 
 Kritain and Ireland, having an area of 32,531 
 sq. in., and a population, in 1871, of 5,402,759. 
 
 Educational History. — Annals that have con- 
 siderable claim to authenticity ascribe to the 
 people of Ireland a remarkable progress in educa- 
 tion at a very early period. Thus, it is said, that 
 < fllav Fola. who reigned about 900 B. C, founded 
 in Tara schools of philosophy, astronomy, history, 
 poetry, and medicine, and that these institutions 
 were encouraged by his successors, during many 
 centuries. In the 5th century, A.D., after its con- 
 version to Christianity, Ireland was greatly cel- 
 ebrated not only for its religious zeal (hence called 
 in Aula sanctorum, isle of saints) but for its in- 
 stitutions of learning. After the conflicts with 
 the Saxons and Danes, the victorious king Brian 
 Boru, among other efforts to improve the con- 
 dition of his people, founded schools and pro- 
 moted education. After the conquest of Ireland 
 oy the English, the first recognition on the part 
 of parliament of the expediency of providing the 
 means of education for the Irish people, was the 
 BCf of 28 Henry VIII., to establish parochial 
 schools. In 1570, an act was passed instituting 
 a free school in every diocese. In 1 60S, -James I. 
 commenced the establishment of Royal Free 
 Schools. Various statutes were passed on this 
 subject in the reigns of Charles II., William III., 
 and the first three Georges; but the main ob- 
 j set seems to have been to proselytize the people 
 to the Protestant faith. The Charter Schools, 
 partly supported by parliamentary grants, had 
 
 the same object. The bad effects of a policy so 
 obnoxious to the Catholics, induced the parlia- 
 mentary commission, in 1812, to state, in their 
 report, that no scheme of education should be 
 undertaken in Ireland which attempted "to in- 
 fluence or disturb the peculiar religious tenets of 
 any sect or denomination of Christians." Par- 
 liament, for a time, endeavored to apply the 
 principle by distributing its grants to the Kildare 
 Society ; but the plan failed, as the society en- 
 forced the reading of the Scriptures in all its 
 schools. The letter of Mr. Stanley, chief secre- 
 tary of Ireland (afterwards Lord Derby), to the 
 Lord Lieutenant, written in 1831, forms the 
 charter of the Irish National System. The new 
 system was based on the plan of " a combined 
 literary and separate religious education," and was 
 committed to a board of 7 members of different 
 religious opinions. Public aid was granted on 
 condition that the repairs of the school, the 
 salary of the master, and half the cost of school 
 requisites should be locally provided. The 
 extent to which the economical condition of 
 Ireland interfered with the financial proposals 
 of the board, may be estimated from the fact 
 that, even in 1874, while the board paid in 
 aid of schools nearly £433,000, the local aid 
 amounted to less than £80,000. The promise 
 of a national and non-sectarian system was not 
 fulfilled in the action of the board, as it per- 
 mitted religious instruction to be intermingled 
 with the secular, and issued textbooks of a dis- 
 tinctively religious character. The policy, as 
 first announced, was accepted by the Catholics, 
 but strenuously opposed by the clergy and laity 
 of the Established Church, and by the Presby- 
 terians of Ulster. At the close of 1833, the 
 number of National Schools in operation was 
 789, having 107,042 pupils enrolled ; at the close 
 of 1839, the former had increased to 1,581, and 
 the latter, to 192,971. In the latter year, ex- 
 planations were made by the board which satis- 
 fied the Presbyterians, who had made various 
 objections to the system, in regard to the ar- 
 rangements for religious instruction, and to the 
 exclusion of the Bible during school hours. The 
 board declared these points of objection to be 
 conceded, but without any change of its rules. 
 This new rendering of the rules was followed 
 by an extension of the system. In 1841, there 
 were 2,237 schools, and 281,849 pupils. Shortly 
 after this, the Catholic hierarchy manifested 
 a strong desire to acquire the control of* such 
 of the National Schools as contained any chil- 
 dren of their own persuasion ; and the Synod of 
 Thurles, which met in 1^50, while giving no 
 definite judgment on the National System, de- 
 clared that " the separate education of the Cath- 
 olic youth is, by all means, to be preferred to it." 
 The more aggressive spirit manifested by the 
 Catholics against the National System during 
 the past twenty-five years, has led the board, 
 from time to time, to adopt conciliatory meas- 
 ures ; such as the repeated changes in the con- 
 science clause, with the view of preventing the 
 alleged proselytizing tendencies of Protestant 
 
473 
 
 IRELAND 
 
 schools ; the special regulations in favor of con- 
 venl schools ; the increased proportion accorded 
 to Catholic representation in the hoard, which 
 has been incseased from two to seven, in 1831, 
 to five in fourteen, in 1851, and to ten in twenty, 
 in L861 ; and the endowment of schools, under 
 Catholic management, in the neighborhood of, 
 and as rivals to, the Model Schools, which are 
 the special objects of denominational hostility. 
 These proceedings were strongly opposed, espe- 
 cially by the Presbyterians, who are the warmest 
 supporters of the National System : and it must 
 be acknowledged that they have failed in their 
 object. No Roman Catholic dignitary has sat 
 in the board since L863, and the most recent ex- 
 pression of Catholic feeling on the subject has 
 been the formation, in Dublin, of a Catholic 
 Union of clergy and gentry to promote the 
 establishment of denominationalism in the entire 
 education of Ireland. The popular feeling, how- 
 ever, seems, as a rule, to be in favor of united 
 education. 
 
 National System. — Aid is granted to two 
 classes of schools ; those vested in the commis- 
 sioners, or in trustees ; and non-vested, being the 
 property of private individuals. All National 
 Schools receive pecuniary aid in salaries to 
 teachers, results' fees, a,n I books, and the benefits 
 of inspection and training. Vested Schools alone 
 receive building grants. National Schools com- 
 prise M>/-/ Schools (District and Minor), which 
 are wholly built and supported by parliament, 
 are under the exclusive management of the 
 board, ami are intended to promote united edu- 
 cation, to exhibit the most improved methods of 
 instruction, and to educate young persons for 
 the office of teacher; Agricultural Schools, with 
 farms and gardens, which are devoted to the 
 illustration and introduction of the most ap- 
 proved systems of husbandry and tillage, and 
 which are divided into four classes: (I) First 
 Class Agricultural Schools, subdivided into (1) 
 those under the management of the board, and 
 
 (2) those under local management; (II) Or- 
 dinary Schools, subdivided into (3) those with 
 farms, and (1) those with gardens; Cont 
 Schools, which receive aid as Non- Vested 
 Scho (la, and in which the members of the com- 
 munity may a t as literary teachers; Work-ho 
 Schools, an 1 Schools ait i tied to prisons, asylums, 
 etc. School houses are not to be employed as 
 
 the Stated places of divine worship of any relig- 
 ious community, nor for the transaction of any 
 
 political business ; and no emblems of dei - 
 
 mational ch ir i iter are to be exhibited in them 
 during the h >ura of united instruction, [n Vested 
 
 Schools, such pastors or other persons as shall be 
 
 approved of by the guardians of the children, 
 shall have access to them in the school room for 
 the purpose of giving them instruction there: 
 in Non-Vested Schools, it is for the patrons and 
 managers to determine what religious Instruc- 
 tion Email he given in the school room. The 
 
 Eat ions and managers of all National Schools 
 ave the rigtri to permit the Holy Scriptures 
 (either in the authorized or in the Pouay version) 
 
 to be read at the times set apart for religious in- 
 struction. — The local government of the schools 
 is vested in local patrons or managers, who can 
 appoint and dismiss teachers, under certain re- 
 strictions. Inspectors visit their schools at least 
 three times a year, communicate to the local 
 managers their criticisms and suggestions, and 
 report fully the results of their inspection to the 
 Hoard. All National-School teachers are divided 
 into the following classes : principals, assistants, 
 junior literary assistants, work-mistresses, and 
 teachers of industrial departments. There an; 
 also three classes of Monitors, whose term of 
 service is three years, and whose rate of compi li- 
 gation ranees from £4 to £18 per annum. — 'I he 
 only training establishment for teachers hi con- 
 nection with the Board is the Institution, in 
 .Marlborough Street. Dublin, which was opened 
 January L5., 1838. It is capable of accommodat- 
 ing about 100 masters and 75 mistresses, who 
 are divided into three classes : (1) the Cencral or 
 Ordinary Class, composed of teachers of National 
 Schools, who have been recommended by the in- 
 spectors ; (2) the Special or Extra Training (lass 
 composed chiefly of teachers who have been 
 selected from the General Class for additional 
 training; and (3) the Extra Class, composed of a 
 limited number of respectable and well-informed 
 young persons who wish to qualify themselves to 
 
 ing are allowed their traveling expenses, are 
 provided with free board and lodging, receive a 
 small weekly gratuity, and also their class salary 
 subject to a deduction of £15 per annum for a 
 substitute. Teachers are classified of the 1st, 
 2d, and 3d class, and promotion from one to the 
 other is regulated partly by examination, and 
 partly by the efficiency of their schools. Male 
 teachers of the 1st class receive £58 a year: of 
 the 3d class, £32. Female teachers of the 1st 
 receive £48; and of the 3d class, £25. The 
 National School Teachers Act (1875) was de- 
 signed to supplement the incomes of the teach- 
 ers by granting state aid corresponding to local 
 contributions. The latter, however, only amount- 
 ed to £32,055 instead of £60,000, as was con- 
 templated. National teachers receive, in addition 
 to their class salaries, the total amount of results' 
 fees earned in the schools, which are paid accord- 
 ing to a fixed programme. Thus for children 
 i I to 6 years of age) who know the alphabet, 
 and can spell and read words of two letters, the 
 fee is 3s. each; for reading in the First Class, 2s^ 
 etc. The whole number of classes is six. besides 
 
 the infants' class. These classes arc Dumbei I 
 from I upward to 6, the 5th and 6th being each 
 divided into a first and a second stage. The com- 
 mon branches of instruction, including grammar, 
 
 rraphy, and needle-work, are taught. 
 
 Educational Condition (National System). — ■ 
 On the elst of December, L875, there were 7,267 
 National Schools in operation (Ulster, 2.7.'i~ ; 
 Munster, 1,822; Leinster, L,551 ; Connaught, 
 1,157). The Vested Schools numbered 2,105; 
 the Non-Vested, 5,162. The number of chil- 
 dren who attended sonic part of the year ]H7.">, 
 
IRELAND 
 
 4TU 
 
 was 1.011,700; the number on the rolls, on the 
 Last day of the month immediately preceding 
 the animal examination, was 577,54] ; and the 
 average daily attendance was 389,961. Of the 
 children taught during the year. 79.2 per cent 
 were Roman Catholic children. The Model 
 Softools, in operation during' L875, were 29: 
 in Dublin, 3; and. in other parts of the coun- 
 try. 2(>. The average attendance of pupils was 
 8,229, out of an enrollment of 16,601, in- 
 cluding 4,989 Catholics, 4,7-17 Presbyterians, 
 5,673 Episcopalians, and 1,282 of other persua- 
 sions. The number of Work-house Schools un- 
 der the board was L 56, with L3.835 pupils en- 
 rolled, and an average daily attendance of 7,14.'!. 
 The total number of students admitted into the 
 Training Establishment was 294, of whom 150 
 completed their training within the year. — The 
 number of teachers under the board was as fol- 
 lows : principals, 7,067 (males, 4,371; females, 
 12 .»'»'. 1 1 1 j ; assistants, 3,037 (males, 713; females, 
 2,324) ; junior literary and industrial assistants, 
 177 : work-mistresses, 325. The total amount of 
 payments to teachers of every kind made from all 
 sources during the year ending March 31., 1870, 
 was £491.00 1.4s. The entire sum locally contrib- 
 uted for education, in 1875, was £H4,8G0, 4s. 9d. 
 In 1875, there were 21 First-Class Agricultural 
 Schools, under the exclusive management of the 
 board, and 11 under local management. The num- 
 ber of school farms was 228. — In 1874 — 5, the 
 evening schools numbered 138, with 10,343 pu- 
 pils on the rolls, and 4,250 in average attendance. 
 There were 22 industrial schools, with 1,565 pu- 
 pils enrolled, and 1,307 in average attendance. 
 
 Other Educational Agencies. — The Church 
 Education Society, founded in Dublin, in 1839, 
 as a protest against the National School Board, 
 for a time gathered in a large number of pupils. 
 In 1867, it had 1,451 schools, with 63,549 pupils. 
 Since then, these numbers have declined ; many 
 of its schools have been transferred to Diocesan 
 Educational Boards. The Kildare- Place training 
 and model schools are usually attended by about 
 50 students, males and females. — The lustitute 
 of Christian Brothers (It. C.) founded in Water- 
 ford, in 1802, for the education of poor children, 
 in 1876, had 291 schools, and 31,878 pupils en- 
 rolled. The Incorporated Society in Dublin for 
 promoting English Protestant schools in Ireland 
 holds a large amount of landed and other prop- 
 erty, having an income of £8,000 a year. It has 
 8 boarding institutions, G for boys and 2 for 
 girls, besides 10 day schools. — The other classes 
 of schools named in the Commissioners' Report 
 of 1868 are: Irish Church Mission, attended by 
 1,726 pupils; Island and Coast Society, by L59; 
 Wesleyan, by 720; Presbyterian, by 409; Society 
 of Friends, by 117; Religious Orders of .Mens 
 •ols, by 706; Miscellaneous, by 954. The 
 total number of private schools was 1,165, of 
 which 690 were assisted by endowments. — The 
 Sunday School Society for Inland was founded 
 in 1809. On the 1st of January, L876, there were, 
 in connection with it, 2,342 schools, attended by 
 184,580 scholars, and 10,500 gratuitous teachers. 
 
 Secondary and Superior Instruction. — The 
 chief educational institution is the University of 
 Trinity College, in Dublin, founded in 1501. In. 
 its original charter, Queen Elizabeth nominated 
 
 a provost, three fellows, and three scholars, to 
 constitute, with their successors a body corpo- 
 rate. The number of members has since then 
 been increased; and, in 1876, consisted of a 
 provost. 7 senior fellows, 26 junior fellows, and 
 70 scholars. The system of instruction is super- 
 intended by the fellows, together with a number 
 of professors (35, in 1876). Students, after an 
 examination in Creek, Latin, arithmetic, English 
 composition, history, and geography, are ad- 
 mitted as fellow commoners, pensioners, or sizars, 
 which last class is limited to 30. and is partially 
 maintained out of the college funds. The courso 
 of instruction extends over four years. A med- 
 ical school is attached to the university, to which 
 lias lately been added a school of engineering. 
 The college has a library of 160,000 volumes; 
 and its income, in 1873, was £01.321. The 
 average number of students on the books 
 of Trinity * 'ollege is 1 ,100.— In 1845, an act was 
 passed by Parliament for establishing new col- 
 leges in Ireland, and three colleges, called Queen's 
 Colleges were, in 1849, established under t Iii.-i 
 act, — at Belfast, Cork, and Calway. In 1850, 
 the Queen's University in Ireland was founded 
 at Dublin, with power to confer degrees on the 
 students of the three Queen's Colleges. The 
 number of students attending the colleges, iu 
 ls74 — 5, was 783. — The Roman Catholic uni- 
 versity of Dublin was organized by the Catholic 
 bishops of Ireland, in 185-4, and depends for its 
 maintenance wholly upon the voluntary con- 
 tributions of the Roman Catholic people of 
 Ireland. It has five faculties, — theology, law, 
 medicine, philosophy and science, and letters. A 
 number of Catholic colleges have been affiliated 
 with the university. — A Presbyterian institu- 
 tion, Magee College, was opened in Londonderry, 
 in 18G5 ; a Methodist College, in Belfast, in 
 1868. 
 
 Special ami Professional Instruction. — The 
 Royal College of Science for Ireland was estab- 
 lished in 1867, and is intended to supply a com- 
 plete course of instruction in mining, agriculture, 
 engineering, and manufactures. — Maynooth < 'ol- 
 lege, a Catholic seminary for candidates for the 
 1 hood, was founded in 1705. .Ml Hallows 
 College, near Dublin, is intended to train mis- 
 sionaries for tin; Catholic Church. The Pres- 
 | : I ©logical school (the Ceneral 
 
 ■iubly's Colic; i elfast. — The higher edu- 
 
 m of women, in Ireland, has been neglected; 
 but recently, amongst otl Following Ld 
 
 tutions have been established: The Queen's In- 
 stitute, Dublin, opened, in 1861, "for the employ- 
 ment of educated women." the educational 
 classes being modeled on those of Cheltenham 
 < 'ollege: Alexandra College. Dublin, on the plan 
 of Queen's College, London; and the Ladies' Col- 
 legiate School, Belfast, opened in 1850. Trinity 
 College, Dublin, and Queen's C diversity hold 
 examinations for girls aud women. 
 
480 
 
 ITALIAN LANGUAGE 
 
 ITALIAN LANGUAGE. The Italian 
 language has no claims commensurate with those 
 of the German or the French, to a place in any 
 regular course of instruction the object of which is 
 general culture, and which, to that end, embraces 
 the study of one or two modern languages. Its 
 value for this purpose has not, however, been 
 without advocates. Thus L. Gantter, the author 
 of the article on the Italian language, in Schmid's 
 Encyclopadie (vol. in.) , in discussing the relative 
 importance of the principal modern languages 
 for the German gymnasia, from an educational 
 point of view, assigns the first place to English, 
 the second to Italian, and the third to French ; 
 and he appeals to Goethe, Niebuhr, Raumer, 
 Gregorovius, and many other celebrities, to prove 
 that the educational impulse which may reason- 
 ably be expected from a study of the Italian 
 language and literature, would prove stronger 
 and more conducive to a general development of 
 the mental faculties than that received from 
 the study of French. This view, however, has 
 found but few adherents ; and, except in Aus- 
 tria, where, from practical and business consii 1< r- 
 ations, the study of Italian is more extensively 
 pursued than in any other country, precedence 
 in the study of modern languages is given to 
 English, German, and French. Italian has, how- 
 ever, special importance for all students of music, 
 vocal and instrumental, as well as for students 
 of the fine arts. Music, in every country of the 
 world, uses to a large extent technical expres- 
 sions borrowed from the Italian; the Italian opera 
 is exceedingly popular in every large city of the 
 civilized world, and there is no student of the fine 
 arts who is not anxious to complete his study of 
 art in Italy. These considerations have not 
 only created a demand for instruction in Italian, 
 but they are sufficiently important to recom- 
 mend to students of music and of the fine arts 
 a much more general study of this beautiful 
 language than is to be met with at present ; and 
 it is to be regretted that universities, colleges, 
 acai lei nies, and especially female institutions of 
 a higher grade, do not, more frequently than is 
 the case at present, afford to their pupils an op- 
 portunity to learn this language. 
 
 The Italian language is one of the so-called 
 Romanic languages (q. v.), and arose fi-om the 
 Latin in a way similar to that of the French. 
 The new language was designated, to distinguish 
 it from the Latin, lingua vulgaris [vdlgan i.and 
 
 fri at ly varied in different parts of the country. 
 tante, in his work De vulgnri eloquio, enumer- 
 ated fourteen dialects, all of which, the Floren- 
 tine not excepted, he declared to l>e ansuited for 
 the literature of Italy. The written language 
 was in the main fixed, as it now is, by Dante, 
 Petrarch, and Boccaccio,— all Tuscans and Flor- 
 entines; and Italian literature attained its golden 
 age at an earlier period than any other literature 
 
 01 i lern Europe. The Italian language is 
 
 spoken by almost the entire population 01 the 
 
 kingdom of [taly, in the two little states of Mo- 
 naco and San Marino, on the island of Corsica, 
 in the Swiss canton of Ticino, and several com- 
 
 munes of the cantons Grisons and Yalais, in the 
 southern part of the Tyrol, in Triest and other cit- 
 ies of Istria and Dalmatia, and in the Hungarian 
 free city of Fiume. The entire territory in which 
 the language is spoken contains, probably, a pop- 
 ulation of about 28 millions. 
 
 The Italian language is celebrated for its eu- 
 phony, though many linguists prefer the Span- 
 ish in this respect. 1 he smooth and melodious 
 character of the former is due, to a large extent, to 
 an extraordinary predominance of vowels, every 
 indigenous word of the language, with the excep- 
 tion of only five (il,in, am. -non, per) , ending in a 
 vowel sound. This euphony is somewhat marred 
 by the exuberance of the vowel i, which, in the ter- 
 mination of Italian words, has outgrown all just 
 proportions — as much so as the German e. The 
 pronunciation is very simple, as almost every 
 sound is represented by only one letter or combi- 
 nation of letters. It has no silent letters, and each 
 of the vowels has only one sound, long or short ; 
 these sounds, in the main, correspond to those 
 of the German vowels. The letters k, w, y, and x 
 are not found in the Italian alphabet ; and for 
 the ph and th, occurring in the words of Greek 
 origin, it has substituted the letters/" and t. Like 
 the French, it has lost the case-endings in the 
 declension of nouns, and has introduced from 
 the language of the Teutonic conquerors the def- 
 inite article, the use of the personal pronoun be- 
 fore the verb, and the auxiliary verb. It exceeds 
 the French in the richness of its augmentatives 
 and diminutives, in the greater varieties of the 
 accents which may affect one of the last four syl- 
 lables of the word, in its greater freedom of in- 
 version, and in its freer and bolder phraseology. 
 In a lexical point of view, the Italian bears a 
 more striking resemblance, than either French, 
 Spanish, or Portuguese, to the common mother 
 of these languages, the Latin. 
 
 The special motives which, in a majority of 
 cases, led to a study of this language, naturally 
 Buggest a method of instruction different from 
 that pursued in the teaching of French and Ger- 
 man. The beauty of the language, which is re- 
 jected in its structure and pronunciation, and 
 which is so intimately connected with the lofty 
 position which Italian art has attained in the 
 history of civilization, should be pointed out 
 with special care. Exercises in grammar and 
 translation will require comparatively little at- 
 tention; for not only is the structure of the 
 language unusually simple and easy, but its 
 st'.dv is hardly ever begun until, in addition 
 to the vernacular, the knowledge of some other 
 language has been acquired. All the greater 
 prominence, on the other hand, should be given 
 to the practice of conversation ; for only in this 
 way will the pupil fully realize the superiority 
 of the language in point of beauty and eu- 
 phony, and prepare himself for a visit to the 
 country which, more than any other, captivates 
 the affections of every artist. The literature 
 of Italy scarcely admits of a comparison with 
 thai of Germany or France; but the golden 
 age of Italian literature presents names which 
 
ITALIAN LANGUAGE 
 
 ITALY 
 
 -isi 
 
 will never fail to recommend the study of the 
 Italian language to advanced scholars. Dante 
 ranks wit li Homer, Virgil, Milton, and Goethe, 
 as one of the greatest poets of the world, 
 whom all civilized nations will always ad- 
 mire ; and Italian would be studied, if it were 
 only to read the Hi rum Commedia. And 
 l>ante is by no means the only great represent- 
 ative of Italian literature. Jn the middle ages. 
 Italy stood for a time at the head of modern 
 civilization (see Italy) : and, though it has been 
 unable to maintain this place, the literary world 
 will never cease to admire Petrarch, Boccaccio 
 Ariosto, Tasso, and Maechiavelli. As the ability 
 to read this language is acquired by most 
 students in a comparatively short time, and as 
 the interest tlfey take in Italian literature will 
 chiefly center in the great names just men- 
 tioned, the intelligent teacher will, as soon as it 
 is practicable, begin with the reading of one of 
 these authors. As the poets use a great many 
 licenses in the alteration, addition, and omission 
 of sounds, and also a multitude of exclusively 
 poetic words, it is best for the student to be- 
 gin with a prose writer; and Maechiavelli s II 
 Principe or Istorie Florentine, in which the 
 style is as elegant as it is plain, will rarely fail 
 to interest and satisfy him. In the more recent 
 periods of Italian literature, the writers Goldoni, 
 Gozzi. Alfieri, Foscolo, Manzoni, Leopardi, Sil- 
 vio Pellico, Xiccolini have gained a well-deserved 
 celebrity: and especially Manzoni's I Promessi 
 Sposi, and Pellico's Le mie Prigioni have become 
 favorite books of Italian students. 
 
 The Italians are greatly behind many other 
 nations in the philological study of their lan- 
 guage. Buomniattei's grammar Delhi lingua 
 toscana (1648), which was adopted by the Aeca- 
 demiu della Crusca, only treats of letters, nouns, 
 and articles. The first complete and systematic 
 grammar, which has served as the basis of nearly 
 all modern works, is the Regale ed osservazioni, 
 by Corticelli (1785). In Germany, a good his- 
 torical mammar of the Italian language has been 
 written by Blanc (1844); and, in Italy, Fesavento 
 has recently published a valuable comparative 
 view of Latin and Italian, under the titles Melodo 
 Comparative). In the English language, gram- 
 mars of, and guides to, the Italian language have 
 been published according to Alms, Monteith's, 
 and Ollendorff's methods, and by Biaggi, Cuore, 
 Fontana, Foresti, Sauer, Thiimn, Toscani, Ver- 
 gani, Weale, and others. — Tins lexical literature 
 began with the meager dictionary of Minerbi 
 (1535). The first edition of the famous Vooa- 
 irio degli Accademici della Crusca, limited 
 to the Tuscan dialect, appeared in 1602; the 
 fifth revised edition was begun in 1843. The 
 first dictionary embracing within its scope all 
 the Italian dialects was by Alberti (6 vols., 
 1797 — 180.")). Other dictionaries of this kind 
 are the Jjizionario della lingua italiana, 
 published at Fologua (7 vols., 1819—26); the 
 works by Mortara, Bellini, Codagni, and Mai- 
 nardi (8 vols., 1845— 56) ; those by Tommaseo 
 and Bellini (1864) ; Carena (12 vols., 1851—3) ; 
 31 
 
 and Trinchera (2 vols., 1864). Italian-English 
 
 dictionaries have been published by Gragiia, 
 James and Grassi, Meadows, Millhonse, Robert, 
 Weale, Wessely, and others. — There are Italian 
 readers for English-speaking students by Foresti, 
 Roemer, and others.— The principal historians 
 of Italian literature are Tirabosehi (14 vols., 
 1772 — 83, and many editions since); Guinguene 
 (1811—19); Maffei (1834); Cimoprelli (1845); 
 Emiliano Giudici (1851); Malpaga (1855). 
 
 ITALY, a kingdom of Europe, having an 
 area of 114,409 square miles, and a population, 
 in 1 870, of 26,801 ,1 54. Almost the entire pop- 
 ulation speak the Italian language, and belong 
 to the Catholic Church. From the downfall of 
 the I Ionian Empire, until 1870, when the annexa- 
 tion of the remnant of the Fa pal dominions 
 completed the modern kingdom of Italy, the 
 country was but rarely, and only for a short 
 time, united under one ruler. Generally, it was 
 broken up into a number of small states, only 
 connected with each other by the bond of a com- 
 mon language. In the congress of Vienna, in 
 1815, Italy was divided into the kingdoms of 
 Sardinia and the Two Sicilies, the grand-duchy 
 of Tuscany, the duchies of Parma, Modena, and 
 Lucca, the Papal States, and the Lombardo- 
 Yenetian kingdom, the latter remaining with 
 Austria. In 1859, all these states, with the ex- 
 ception of apart of the Fapal States and Venetia, 
 were annexed by the king of Sardinia, who 
 then assumed the title of king of Italy. Venetia 
 was added in 1866, and the Fapal States in 1870. 
 United Italy now occupies the tenth place among 
 the nations of the earth, in regard to population, 
 and the thirtieth in regard to area. 
 
 Educational History. — After the destruction 
 of the Roman Empire by Odoacer, in 476, edu- 
 cation in Italy was for a long time at a low ebb. 
 The Ostrogoths, who, in 493, overthrew the rule 
 i >f ( kloacer, were the most intelligent among the 
 < Herman tribes, and showed themselves receptive 
 of literary impulses ; but, unfortunately, their 
 rule did not last long enough to test their pro- 
 ductive power in the field of education. Their 
 king, Theodoric the Great, who is said to have 
 spoken four languages, placed at the head of his 
 government one of the greatest scholars of the 
 age, Cassiodorus, who founded a theological 
 school, which was to connect the remnants of the 
 civilization of the 1 tomans and Greeks with 
 ( 'hristian theology, and which served as a model 
 for the theological schools of the middle ages. 
 Having, at the age of 70, retired to the monastery 
 which he had founded, he not only taught the 
 monks to devote themselves to the copying of an- 
 cient manuscripts, but, by arranging the branches 
 of a liberal education into the trivium and 
 //u<tdririum,h.edrew up a programme of instruc- 
 tion, which was adopted throughout the middle 
 ages, and long after. Another statesman in the 
 service of Theodoric, Boethius, was a still greater 
 scholar than Cassiodorus ; and, by his translations 
 of several of the works of Aristotle, as well as 
 by his own works De musica and De consola- 
 tione philosopkice, exerted a far-reaching in- 
 
482 
 
 ITALY 
 
 fluence upon the entire civilization of the middle 
 ages, and became, jointly with Oassiodorus, the 
 founder of the educational system of the scho- 
 lastics (q. v.). The reign of the Ostrogoth ic kings 
 is also noted for the foundation of the Benedic- 
 tines (q. v.), whose schools, for centuries, were 
 among the few places of refuge for the friends 
 of education and civilization. Under the re- 
 established rule of the Greek emperor, as well 
 as under that of the Lombards, little was done 
 for education. Pope Gregory I. was a patron of 
 schools ; but, for several centuries after his death, 
 Italy had no one who, as a scholar and teacher, 
 can be compared with Bede and Alcuin. The 
 elevation of Gerbert, the greatest scholar of the 
 age, to the papal throne, under the name of 
 Sylvester II., awakened new interest in scien- 
 tific studies ; and the great increase of power 
 which the papacy attained through the energy 
 of Gregory VII. and his successors, excited 
 among the young Italian clergy an emulation for 
 distinction which led to considerable progress in 
 literature and education. In the 12th century, 
 Italy became the birthplace of the modern . uni- 
 versities. These institutions arose as free asso- 
 ciations of scholars who did not belong to the 
 clergy, and were only bound together by their 
 common devotion to science. The growth of the 
 universities was rapid ; so that, after an existence 
 of half a century, the law faculty of Bologna 
 was attended by over 12,000 students. The 
 medical school of Salerno also became one of 
 the most famous schools of the middle ages, and 
 was attended by students from all parts of the 
 world. In these two schools, Bologna and 
 Salerno, we see for the first time in the middle 
 ages a free secular science develop itself inde- 
 pendent of the church and of clerical influence. 
 Besides giving to Europe its first universities, 
 Italy also took the lead in the revival of classical 
 studies. Dante and Petrarch, both ardent ad- 
 mirers of the intellectual greatness of classic 
 antiquity, became the founders of the first golden 
 age of Italian literature, which was the first 
 among the literatures of Europe to attain a high 
 degree of excellence. A number of teachers, 
 proceeding from this school, traveled from city 
 to city, in order to instruct all those desirous of 
 learning. The first of these traveling; teachers 
 was Giovanni Malpaghino, a pupil of Petrarch, 
 who counted among his pupils most of the learned 
 men, who, in the beginning of the 1 5th century, 
 raised the Roman classics from the obscurity 
 which had for so long a time surrounded them. 
 Emmanuel Chrysoloras, a learned Greek, was the 
 first to awaken an interest in the language and 
 literature of Lis native country, which he taught 
 in Florence, Milan, Venice, and Rome. With 
 the arrival of the learned Greeks in Italy, after 
 the overthrow of the Byzantine Empire, the 
 study of the Greek language received a fresh im- 
 pulse, and a knowledge of that language was 
 considered necessary to a complete education. 
 During this time, the republics and princes of 
 Italy vied with each other in protecting and pro- 
 moting the cause of education. This was espe- 
 
 cially the case at Florence, where the family of 
 the Medici, particularly Cosimo and Lorenzo de' 
 Medici, patronized science and art with an en- 
 thusiasm which has rarely been equaled in the 
 history of the world. Among the many Floren- 
 tine representatives of classical learning, were 
 Tommaso Parentucelli, afterward Pope Nicho- 
 las X., Niccolo de' Niccoli, Gemisthius, Plethon, 
 Marsilius Ficinus, and Pico of Mirandola. In i 
 Venice, science was cultivated rather by single 
 individuals than by the state. In Naples, king 
 Alfonso gathered around him a number of learned 
 men, among whom the names of Lorenzo della 
 Valle and Antonio degli Beccadelli are best 
 known. In Milan, Francisco Sforza was an active 
 promoter of the sciences ; while the lesser courts 
 of Mantua, Padua, and Ferrara also had a num- 
 ber of men eminent in literature and science. 
 The popes also called to their courts distinguished 
 scholars, among whom Mafeus Vegius occupied 
 a prominent position as a writer on education. 
 With the election of Tommaso Parentucelli to 
 the papal chair, Rome became the principal seat 
 of classical learning. Under his successors learn- 
 ing rapidly declined, until Leo X., again raised it 
 to a higher position. The principal scholars of 
 this period were Cardinal Bembo and Petrus 
 Pomponatius. Italian learning from the 14th 
 to the beginning of the lGth century, consti- 
 tutes an important epoch in the general 
 history of education. It put an end to scho- 
 lasticism, and prepared the way for the schol- 
 arship of Germany. Its general features are 
 thus characterized by Raumer in his History of 
 Pedagogy: "The learning of the middle ages, 
 the scholastic especially, gave place, by degrees, 
 to the classical. The Italians became enthusiastic 
 in their awakened love for the old Roman 
 authors, in whom they recognized their an- 
 cestors ; and their understanding of the Greek 
 classics was promoted by native Greek teachers. 
 After they were enabled to read Plato, a pas- 
 sionate love of the beautiful arose within them, 
 and likewise a corresponding abhorrence of tho 
 hideousness of scholasticism, which based itself 
 upon Aristotle ; but, when they studied Aris- 
 totle in the original, and learned how entirely 
 different he is from the Aristotle of tho 
 scholastics, the authority of the latter began 
 at once to decline. Yet the classical philologists, 
 with the exception of Dante and Picus. 
 overlook the depth, and the earnest love of 
 truth which characterized the more eminent of 
 the scholastics. And moreover, there were many 
 among them who became so foolishly enamored 
 of the beauty of the classical form, whether in 
 prose or in poetiy, that they imagined their own 
 externally correct imitations of the ancients to 
 possess a worth intrinsically equal to their mod- 
 els; while such imitations, on a close inspection, 
 often proved to be but hollow and delusive phan- 
 toms without either life or spirit. After the 
 elevation of the Italian language into the 
 vernacular, it gradually supplanted the Latin, 
 which, in the middle ages, had been treated as 
 the vernacular, and as such was subjected to the 
 
ITALY 
 
 483 
 
 varying caprice of writers. The ancient classics, 
 Cicero especially, then became models for imita- 
 tion, but an imitation mostly of a lifeless and ser- 
 vile sort. Only a very few, Laurentius Yalla. for 
 instance, applied their philological attainments to 
 New Testament exegesis. Toward the Hebrew 
 tongue and the exegesis of the Old Testament a 
 great and decided repugnance was manifested. The 
 severe and sacred earnestness of the Old Testament 
 frowned harshly upon every phase of pagan Epi- 
 cureanism ; while the latter manifested no desire 
 to become acquainted with its own depravity. 
 Pagan sentiments, a pagan life, and writings 
 imbued with paganism, were characteristics of 
 Italian scholars, and these were often united to an 
 orthodox faith and a pious enthusiasm — united 
 too, it may be, innocently, since the examples in 
 the teachings of the clergy were such as to drown 
 and deaden the voice of conscience. Against the 
 lamentable corruption of the church, both in its 
 head and its members, the greater part arravc I 
 themselves — a few, like Dante, with holy zeal, but 
 the greater part, only with mocking satire. Such, 
 in brief, was the character of those Italian philol- 
 ogists to whom our attention has been directed. 
 And these men exerted a vast influence upon the 
 learning of the Germans and Dutch. Rudolphus 
 Agricipla.Reuchlin.Rei'-iomontanus, Erasmus. and 
 many other distinguished scholars went to Italy 
 to perfect themselves. The Italians became their 
 patterns; upon these they modeled themselves; to 
 equal them, or if possible to surpass them, was 
 their highest aim." In the course of the Kith 
 century, Italy gradually lost her reputation as the 
 foremost cultivator of classical studies. Though 
 she still produced men like Ariosto and Tasso. 
 Giordano Bruno and Galileo Galilei, the character 
 of her schools degenerated. Only in the province 
 of fine arts Italy continued to be the teacher 
 of the civilized world ; and music in particular 
 was. in this ami the following centuries, chiefly 
 indebted to Italy for its progress. After the 
 foundation of the order of the Jesuits, the higher 
 schools in the larger portion of the Italian states 
 passed gradually under their control ; and, for a 
 long time, the higher classes of the nation may 
 be said to have been educated by the Jesuits. 
 (See Jesuits.) — The first of the Italian states 
 to abolish the supervision of the schools by the 
 church was Sardinia. In 1720, it withdrew the 
 supervision of secondary schools from the relig- 
 ious orders, and provided that teachers of this 
 class of schools should be educated in a college 
 connected with a university. In 1772, a decree 
 was published which provided for primary 
 schools. The French occupation gave a decided 
 impulse to education, and primary schools were 
 established in every town. Upon the restora- 
 tion of the old government, in 1814, the laws 
 passed during the French rule were abolished; 
 and. although, in 1821, an attempt was made to 
 re-establish common schools, no decided progress 
 was made, until, in 1844, a normal school for 
 teachers was established in Turin. A law was 
 passed in 1 818. and revised in 1857, which sought 
 to raise the schools of Sardinia to a level with 
 
 those of Germany, Switzerland, and other coun- 
 tries. The other Italian states were all provided 
 with schools, but in none of them was much at- 
 tention paid to the education of the people ; and 
 their educational condition was generally admit- 
 ted to be greatly inferior to that of most other 
 ICuropean couutries. Only in Lombardo-Yenetia 
 had the school system of the Austrian em- 
 pire been successfully introduced, and produced 
 satisfactory results. Upon the creation of the 
 kingdom of Italy, in 1 850 , a school law was passed, 
 which introduced the system of Sardinia into the 
 annexed provinces. Since that time, the schools 
 have progressed slowly, but steadily : and it has 
 been the aim of the government to break as 
 much as possible the influence of the church in 
 educational matters. An official report pub- 
 lished in 1866 [Statistwa di Regno <f Italia. — 
 Isbruzione pvbblica e private, Firenze, 18(56) 
 states that, owing to the extraordinary efforts 
 made by the government, the increase in the 
 number of public schools, in 1863, amounted to 
 4,363, and, in 1864, to 4.354; and the increase 
 in the number of pupils, in 1863, to 235,210, 
 and, in 1864. to 135,887. Nevertheless, much 
 remains to be done; for, in 1874, there were in 
 Italy only 70 pupils in the public schools to ev- 
 ery 1,000 inhabitants; while, in Switzerland, 
 there were 155 ; in Germany, 152 ; in Denmark, 
 135 ; and in France, 131. 
 
 Instruction in all the grades is regulated by 
 the law of Nov. 13., 185!), which was amended 
 by the decrees of Sept. 22.. and Nov. 21., 1867. 
 The department of education, according to the 
 law of L859, is presided over by a minister of 
 public instruction, who is assisted by a secretary 
 general, a supreme council of public instruction, 
 and a Legal counselor. The department is divided 
 into three divisions, each with its own chief ; and 
 these again are subdivided into two sections, each 
 with its own superintendent. — The first division 
 is the financial and economical, which has charge 
 of the funds devoted to public instruction. The 
 second has charge of the fine arts, antiquities, 
 public libraries not connected with universities, 
 the public archives, etc. The third division 
 superintends. the instruction given in the univer- 
 sities and tlie special schools. Secondary, as well 
 as primary instruction, instead of forming a 
 separate division, has a central superintendent, 
 who has entire charge of both departments of in- 
 struction. A supreme council of public instruc- 
 tion, consisting of fourteen ordinary and seven 
 extraordinary members, is constituted under the 
 presidency of the minister. This council must 
 be consulted on new educational laws, on con- 
 tests between school authorities, on applications 
 for professorships, and on offenses committed by 
 j>rofessors of normal and secondary schools; it may 
 propose new educational laws to the minister ; it 
 examines text-books, passes judgment on students 
 suspended by their rectors, and presents every five 
 years a report to the minister of instruction, on 
 the condition of all the branches of education. 
 By the law of 1859. three general inspectors were 
 appointed, — one for superior, one for secondary, 
 
484 
 
 ITALY 
 
 and one for primary, Bpecial, and normal in- 
 struction. Each one of the 69 provinces of the 
 kingdom has, for its highest school authority, a 
 school board, consisting of the prefect a- presi- 
 dent, the superintendent as vice-president, and 
 six councilors, two of whom are appointed by 
 the ministry, two by the provincial deputation, 
 and two by the magistrate of the principal city. 
 The members appointed by the elective councils 
 hold their office for three years, but can be re- 
 appointed. They depend upon the prefed who 
 is entrusted with the general direction of all the 
 schools, public as well as private, and upon tbe 
 superintendent of the province, who has the 
 care of all the schools in bis district; while the 
 
 school hoard enforces the laws and rules relative 
 to the primary, secondary, and normal schools of 
 
 the province. The board also orders extraordinary 
 inspections of the schools: and. in urgent cases, 
 has the power to close them, but must immedi- 
 ately notify the minister of the fact. 
 
 Primary Instruction. — Primary instruction 
 is compulsory throughout Italy. according to the 
 law of L859. The school age is from 6 to 14 
 years; and all parents neglecting to send their 
 children between these ages to school, are liable 
 to a fine. The course oi instruction comprises 
 
 four years. The schools are composed of a lower 
 
 and a higher grade, each of two classes. In the 
 former are taught, religion, reading, writing, ill 
 mentary arithmetic, the elements of the metrical 
 ■in. and the Italian language. In the higher 
 grade, in addition to the studies of the lower,are 
 taught composition, penmanship, book-keeping, 
 elementary geography, the national history, and 
 elementary science. Schools of the lower grade, 
 one for boys and one for girls, must be main- 
 tained by every commune. although the minister 
 may give permission for two communes to unite. 
 
 if they are too poor to support separate schools. 
 Schools of the higher grade must be established 
 in all towns with more than HUM) inhabitants. 
 Communes of less than 500 inhabitants must 
 provide a mixed school for both sexes, if there 
 are 50 children of school age. The school term 
 extends from Oct l"». to Aug. 15. Examina- 
 
 tlOns both oral and written are held every six 
 
 months, and are directed by the municipal super- 
 intendent, unless state ollicials interpose. Cer- 
 tificates are granted promoting the candidate-, 
 and prizes are given to the most deserving. The 
 
 iiersons conducting the examinations are. for the 
 OWer classes, the teachers of the classes, and for 
 
 the next higher, as well as for the highest grades, 
 the class teachers and two other teachers of the 
 sam< or a lower grade. Religious examinations 
 arc ci mil in -ted by the clergy, but are obligatory for 
 B an < 'atholie children only. Every examiner 
 
 can add ten marks to the results of the written 
 and oral examinations, on account of the con- 
 duct of the pupil during the year. Six marks con- 
 stitute the standard of approbation. Male teachers 
 
 musl l" eighteen, and female teachers seventeen 
 year- old. Having passed the necessary exami- 
 nation, they are appointed for three years, and 
 Unless notified six months before the expiration 
 
 of their term, are considered re-appointed. Teach- 
 er- may punish their scholars by admonition, 
 a note of censure in the school registers, separa- 
 tion from their comrades, or suspension, of which 
 the parents must be informed. Harsh and of- 
 fensive words, corporal punishment, and extra 
 lessons as penalties are forbidden. Suspension 
 for a week or expulsion can be inflicted by the 
 municipal superintendent : but each case of ex- 
 pulsion must be brought to the notice of the 
 mayor, and must be approved by him. The min- 
 imum salaries paid to teachers in cities are 900 
 and 7(H) lire (! lira = $0.19.3) for the higher 
 and lower grades respectively, and 600 and 500 
 lire in the country. A fund to provide pen- 
 aions for teachers in their old age has been estab- 
 lished, to which teachers contribute two and one- 
 half percent of their salaries, and from which 
 pensions equal to their salaries, are paid to all 
 who have reached the age of fifty-live, and have 
 taught for thirty years. A pension equal to one- 
 third of their salaries is granted to those who 
 are incapacitated after fifteen years of service. 
 Widows of teachers receive pensions as long as 
 they remain unmarried. A private school may 
 be kept by any citizen who possesses the neces- 
 sary diploma and a certificate of good morals. 
 A written request fur permission to open such a 
 
 Bchool must be presented toa district school in- 
 spector, who may refuse it. if he sees fit. He 
 has also the power to visit and inspect all pri vat e 
 schools, and make such changes in their arrange- 
 ment as may seem necessary. In urgent cases he 
 can close the schools. No text-books are pre- 
 scribed for pri\ ate schools, but the government 
 can prohibit Buch books as it may deem offensive. 
 Besides the public and private day schools t! 
 
 are also evening schools for adults of both sexes. 
 
 and Sunday improvement schools. The number 
 of public day schools, in 1872, was 34,213; of 
 which L 8,243 were for boys : l'_'.T.'!li, for girls; 
 and 3,238, with mixed classes. In addition to 
 these there were 9,167 private day schools, mak- 
 ing the total number of primary schools 43,380. 
 
 These scl Is are distributed very unequally in 
 
 the northern and southern portions of Italy. 
 Thus, in the northern province of Novara, there 
 is a school for every 368 inhabitants, and in 
 
 Tin in one for every 355 inhabitants; while the 
 
 southern province of Basilicata has only one 
 school for 1,304 inhabitants, and Calabria, one 
 for 1,400. The number of evening schools w;us, 
 in tin same year. 9,809, and of the Sunday im- 
 provement schools, 1,743. Adding these to the 
 43,380 schools as above, we have about 58,000 
 Bchools affording primary instruction. The num- 
 ber of pupils in the day Bchools, in the school 
 year lsTI —2, was L ,745,467, of whom 1,553,389 
 were in the public school-, and 192,078 in the 
 
 private bc! Is. This number, L,745<476, re- 
 presents the largest attendance during the year, 
 which generally occurs in the beginning of win- 
 ter : during the summer months, the attendance 
 
 fell off to [,242,053. The number of pupils in 
 
 the evening schools for adults was 375,947, and 
 in the Sunday improvement schools 153,585. 
 
ITALY 
 
 485 
 
 The Dumber of teachers in the primary Bchools, 
 in L872, was 23,479 males and 20,028 females, 
 making a total of 43,507. In L873, there were 
 42,1 L8 schools (34,781 public, 7,337 private) with 
 44,430 teachers (of whom 9,329 wen' priests) and 
 L,797,596 scholars (993,120 boys, and 804,476 
 girls). In L874, there were 12,920 schools (35,583 
 public, 7,337 private), with 45,596 teachers (8,927 
 priests), and 1,836,381 pupils (1,009,020 boysand 
 827,361 girjs). In 1874, the government spent, 
 for elementary instruction, 232,1 \.2lire; the prov- 
 inces, 129,665 lire; the communes, 22,067,133 
 lire: and other bodies, 61 1,727 lire. The normal 
 schools are governed by the laws of June 24., 
 L860, and Nov.'.).. L861, and the course of study 
 comprises three years. The first two years are 
 devoted to a preparation for teaching in the lower 
 grades; and. in the last year, the teacher is pre- 
 pared for the higher grades. The course of study 
 comprises religion and morality, pedagogy, the 
 Italian language, exercises in composition, arith- 
 metic. geometry, and book-keeping, the rudiments 
 of natural history and natural philosophy, pen- 
 manship, drawing, music, and the principles of 
 hygiene. For admission to the normal school, 
 boys must have completed their sixteenth, and 
 girls their fifteenth year. A model primary 
 school is connected with almost every normal 
 school, in which on certain days the students of 
 the normal schools are permitted to teach under 
 the direction of the professor of pedagogy. Nor- 
 mal schools are of three classes: those supported 
 (1) by the government, (2) by the provinces, and 
 (3) by private persons. The number of normal 
 schools, in 1872, was L25, of which 48 (23 for 
 boysand 25 for girls) were supported by the state, 
 21 (11 for boys, 10 for girls), by the provinces, 
 and 56 (13 for boys and 43 for girls) were private 
 institutions. The number of students in the same 
 year was 6,130, and the number of teachers 845. 
 A higher school for girls was founded in 1861 in 
 Milan; as it was found that a large number of 
 girls attended the normal schools without any in- 
 tention of becoming teachers, but with the sole 
 object of receiving a higher education. The favor 
 with which this school was received, and the suc- 
 cess which it met, induced other cities to provide 
 similar schools. The course of study comprises 
 ethics, the Italian language and literature, hy- 
 giene, the natural sciences, geography, history, the 
 French lanirua<>e and literature, arithmetic, book- 
 keeping, penmanship, gymnastics, and needle- 
 work. Besides these studies, which are obligatory 
 for all the schools, some have also introduced the 
 study of German and English. The course of in- 
 struction comprises three years in all the schools 
 except in Milan, where it is four years, in order 
 that more attention may be paid to natural 
 science. The school in .Milan was for a time free; 
 but, as it was seen in other cities that a fee 
 could be required without detriment to the 
 school, a charge of 50 /in- was made, which is 
 the usual fee in the other cities. The conditions 
 of admission are an age of 12 years, graduation 
 from the primary schools, and the passing of 
 an examination. The number of schools, in 1872, 
 
 was 8; ami the average number of pupils, 50, 
 The largest number (12 1 ) of pupils was in \l ilan, 
 and the lowest number (33), in Padua. Besides 
 
 these schools, there are other high schools for 
 
 girls, which hoard either all or a part of their 
 
 pupils. These schools may he divided into five 
 elapses: (I) Those schools which depend im- 
 mediately upon the government. These are six 
 iii number and board all their pupils. Thecourse 
 of study comprises, besides the studies pursued 
 
 in the high schools for girls, music, dancing, for- 
 eign languages, etc. (2) Those schools, which are 
 under the direction of the government, but do 
 
 not receive any aid from it. These are similar to 
 
 those of the tirst class. (3) The schools [conser- 
 VOtori) of Tuscany. These were founded by 
 U'opold I., towards the end of the 18th cent- 
 ury, who endowed them with the properly of 
 supressed monasteries, and who gave the instruc- 
 tion into tlu' hands of lay sisters (an association 
 of pious ladies who have an organization similar 
 to that of convents), with whom it still remains. 
 (4) The schools of St. Mary, in Sicily, which 
 were founded in 1 72(1, and received the canonical 
 institution in 1735; they were thus recognized as 
 ecclesiastical corporations. Towards the close of 
 the century, however, several of these institutions 
 were reorganized by the state as lay corpora- 
 tions. (5) The schools connected with convents, 
 which, after the suppression of the convents, 
 continued to exist under the general association 
 law. The total number of schools of these five 
 classes was, in 1872, 570 with 2,723 teachers, and 
 17jl 58 boarding and 12,937 day scholars. The 
 expenses amounted to 1,285,514 lire. 
 
 Secondary instruction. — Secondary instruction 
 in Italy is of two distinct kinds. — classical and 
 technical. The former is provided for in the 
 gymnasia and the lyceums, and the latter in the 
 technical schools. The classical course comprises 
 eight years, of which the first five belong to the 
 gymnasium, and the last three to the lyceum. 
 The course of study in the gymnasia is as fol- 
 lows : Latin is taught 10 hours per week in the 
 three lower, and 6 hours in the two higher classes; 
 Italian, 7 hours in the three lower classes, 5 in 
 the fourth, and 5 in the fifth class; geography, 
 
 3 hours in the three lower classes; arithmetic, 
 1 hour in the three lower, and 3 in the fourth 
 and fifth classes; (ireek, 5 hours : and history, 
 
 4 hours in the fourth and fifth classes. Every 
 gymnasium has six ordinary professors; that is, 
 each one of the five classes has one professor for 
 the literary instruction, while the sixth professor 
 teaches mathematics only. The instruction in 
 the lyceums is divided among seven professors, 
 and 'comprises the following studies : Italian, 
 6 hours in the tirst. and 4 in the second class; 
 Latin and (ireek, 5 hours in all three classes ; 
 history, ~\ hours in the tirst. and -L. in the second 
 class; mathematics, 6 hours in the tirst and 
 second, and 2 j hours in the third class; philos- 
 ophy, 4 } hours in the second and third classes; 
 natural philosophy and physical geography, 5, and 
 natural philosophy, 9 hours in the third class. 
 The programme and the course of study are de- 
 
486 
 
 ITALY 
 
 termined by the ministry of education, and are 
 adapted by the faculty to inch individual gynv 
 nasium and lyceum. After finishing the course 
 in the gymnasium or in the lyceum, the pupil 
 must pass an examination for graduation. The 
 provincial gymnasia and lyceums may conduct 
 their nun examinations for graduation, if they 
 conform in their course of studies to that of the 
 royal schools; while the private institutions of 
 this class must send their pupils to the royal 
 schools to be examined for graduation. The gym- 
 nasia arc governed by a director, and the lyceums 
 by a president. The only provinces not having 
 any secondary schools are Pesaro ami (Jrosseto, 
 while Milan and Venice have three. In 1ST I — 5, 
 there were, supported by th ■ state. L03 gymnasia. 
 with 9,296 pupils ; and 80 lyceums, with 5,132 
 pupils. 
 
 Technical instruction in Lombardy was pro- 
 vided for by the Austrian law of 1818; but 
 it was not given until L851, when the scuolerecdi 
 were founded, each consisting of six classes, of 
 which three formed the lower, and three the 
 higher course. In the other provinces of Italy, 
 with the exception of Piedmont, there were no 
 guch schools previous to the unification. There 
 were, however, similar schools supported by the 
 municipalities, or private schools governed by 
 different laws. There arc at the present time, 
 technical sohools in all the provinces of the 
 kiagdom, in some, belonging bo the state, and 
 
 in others, to the towns. The government has 
 its own schools in [Jpper Italy, the Marches, 
 
 Umbria, Rome, and Sicily, in which provinces, 
 
 however, there are also schools belonging to the 
 tow ns; while in Kinilia. Tuscany, and Naples, they 
 belong exclusively to the towns. One half of the 
 
 expenses of the stale technical schools, with the 
 exception of those in Sicily, is borne by the com- 
 munes. In the technical schools belonging to 
 the towns, the government has the right of in- 
 ep sction only. In consequence of the two grades 
 into which the real schools of Piedmont and 
 Lombardy were divided, the law of 1859 pro- 
 vided tor the erection of two schools of different 
 grades, each Comprising three years' instruction, 
 
 (vhich the lower school is called sc uola tecnica, 
 and the higher istituto tecnico. By a decree of 
 No 28., L861 . the supervision of the 
 
 technical institutes was transferred from the 
 ministry of education to that of agriculture. 
 commerce, and industry. The course of instruc- 
 tion in the technical schools comprises the Italian 
 language, French, drawing, penmanship, the 
 rudiments of history and geography, algebra, 
 geometry, commercial arithmetic, and book-ke p 
 ing. A supplementary course of one year was 
 a Ided in 1871, in which only such subjects were 
 t Lughi as were deemed requisite to supply the 
 knowledge accessary in difrerenl vocations. This 
 .a tempi succeeded admirably, wherever it was 
 
 i ilro luce I. The technical schools are under the 
 b 'i ity of a director, w bos ! annual sale 
 
 2,000 lire; while the professors receive from L,100 
 t . 'J. oiii) Ure each, according to the cla is ami the 
 grade they teach. For several years instruction 
 
 in the technical schools was free, as they were 
 particularly intended to benefit the poorer classes; 
 but as the better classes also sent xheir children 
 to these schools, the same fees were introduced 
 as in the gymnasia. The number of state tech- 
 nical schools, in 1869, was 55, with 5,571 stu- 
 dents and "2!»7 hearers. The number of com- 
 munal schools that are managed in strict accord- 
 ance' with rules governing the state institutions 
 was 72, with 4,594 students and hearers; and 
 the communal schools directed in systems differ- 
 ent from that of the state were 138 in number, 
 with 1,409 students and hearers. In 1874 — 5, 
 there were 63 royal technical schools, with 6,498 
 students. The technical institutes, which were 
 first established in Turin. Venice, and Milan, were 
 originally reorganizations of the technical schools 
 in those cin'cs: but. in consequence of their use- 
 fulness, i hey rapidly increased. According to 
 the course of study of 1872, they are composed 
 of five divisions: the physical and mathematical, 
 tlu' industrial, the commercial, the agricultural, 
 ami the administrative. To be admitted to a 
 technical institute, the student must possess a 
 certificate of graduation from a technical school, 
 i r show that he is proficient in the studies taught 
 there, and must pass an examination in various 
 branches. The number of institutes, in L872,was 
 72, of which .'!'.» belonged to the state, and 33 to 
 the provinces, communes, or private persons. The 
 number of teachers, including the presidents and 
 the professors, was 881 ; and thi' number of 
 .students and hearers. 4,562. The number of in- 
 stitutes, in 1875, was 74. In order to promote 
 secondary instruction and to accommodate such 
 families as have QO schools in their own towns, 
 tiie government supports 26 institutes in which 
 the students arc boarded. 
 
 Superior Instruction. — There are. at present, 
 17 universities supported by the state, of which 
 8 (in Bologna, Naples. Padua. Palermo. Pavia, 
 Pisa, Rome, and Turin) are first-class, and 9 
 (in Cagliari, Catania. Genoa, Macerata, Sassari, 
 Sienna. Messina, Modena.and Parma i are second- 
 class, universities. Besides these, there were 4 
 universities fin Camerino, Ferrara, Perugia, and 
 Qrbino), which are supported by the respective 
 
 pro* bices. In order to be admitted as a student 
 i a university, an examination is necessary.be- 
 sides a certificate of graduation from a lyceum. 
 In addition to the regular students, there are 
 hearers, who do not require an examination, but 
 only a certificate from a lyceum. The number ot 
 professors, and students, including hearers, in 
 
 1874 5, was as follows : Bologna, 81 profesBOiB 
 and 557 students; Padua, 52 prof essors and 1,217 
 students: Palermo, 78 professors and 34 o stu- 
 dents: Pavia, 51 professors and 619 students; 
 
 Pisa. < "• T professors and 532 students: Pome, 81 
 
 professors and 470 students ; Turin, 74 profess- 
 ors and 1 :2'X2 students : Cagliari, 40 professors 
 ami id students; Catania, 10 professors and ll'l 
 students: Genoa, 19 professors and 112 students; 
 
 Macerata. 15 professors and L06 Btudents; Mes- 
 sina. 15 professors and 94 students: Modena. '>•'* 
 professors and 278 students ; Parma. 12 profess- 
 
JACOBS 
 
 JACOTOT 
 
 487 
 
 >>rs iii nl 205 students: Sassari, 25 professors 
 ami <ii> students; and Siena, 28 professors and 
 L13 students; for Naples, which has L18 profes- 
 sors, it is difficult to estimate the number of stu- 
 dents, as any oatiye of the Neapolitan provinces 
 may attend the university, upon obtaining per- 
 mission from t lie rector. The Dumber of stu- 
 dents examined in 1869, was 1,775. The num- 
 ber of students in the four provincial universi- 
 ties, in 1874 5, was 264. The largest of these, 
 IVrrara, had 88, and the smallest, ( 'amerino. .'51 
 students. In addition to the universities, there 
 is an institute for higher studies [Isiituto di 
 stiidi supervtri pratici e di perfezionamento) in 
 Florence, which comprises three sections, — the 
 philosophical and philological, the medico-surgic- 
 al, and that of natural sciences. It was founded 
 as a university in 1348, and, in 1S74 — 5, had 4 (J 
 teachers and 176 students. 
 
 Special Instruction. — Besides the engineers' 
 schools established in connection with the uni- 
 versities of Rome, Padua, and Palermo, there 
 were the following technical high schools in 1 875: 
 The engineers' school in Naples, with L5 teach- 
 ers and 222 students : the higher technical in- 
 stitute in Milan, with .'57 teachers and 189 stu- 
 dents ; the engineers' school and the industrial 
 museum in Turin, with IS teachers and 185 stu- 
 dents, and 5 teachers and 128 students, respect- 
 ively. Other special schools are as follows : The 
 
 Seminario vaticano, the Collegio rornano, the 
 CoUegio urbano, for missionaries, ami the Col- 
 legio di San Tommaso d 'Aquino, for Dominican 
 monks, in Rome; the literary academy, in Milan, 
 with 1 5 professors and 41 students (1875); a 
 higher school in San Marino; numerous Catholic 
 theological seminaries and colleges, a theological 
 school, for the Waldensians, in Turin ; Jewish 
 theological schools, in Leghorn and Padua ; three 
 schools of veterinary science ; two an haeological 
 schools, in Pompeii and Home: L 3 law schools, 
 besides those established in connection with the 
 universities; the commercial school in Venice ; 
 23 nautical schools; the higher royal agricult- 
 ural schools in Milan ami Portici, the provin- 
 cial agricultural institutes in Caserta and Man- 
 tua, the agricultural courses in nine universities, 
 ami the school of forestry near Florence; the 
 mining schools in Caltanisetta and Agordo, and 
 the special school for the production ami treat- 
 ment of marble in Carrara; 25 schools of tine 
 arts ; numerous conservatories, schools, and in- 
 stitutes of music ; the military schools in Turin, 
 Modena. Naples. Milan. Florence, Farina, and 
 Pinerolo, and the naval school, with two di- 
 visions, in Naples and Spezia. — See Mai.fatti, 
 Italien fin Sohmto, Encychpadie, vol. x.) ; for 
 full statistical information, see the official publi- 
 cation of the Ministry of Fducation,and the offi- 
 cial work, Italia economica (Rome, 1873). 
 
 JACOBS, Christian Friedrich. Wilhelm, 
 
 an eminent Greek scholar of Uermany, born at 
 < totha, Oct. 6., 1 764; died March 30.. J 847. He 
 •was appointed professor in the gymnasium of 
 Gotha, in 1785 ; and, in ls07, accepted a call to 
 Munich to take the place of professor of ancient 
 literature in the lyceum.and member of the Acad- 
 emy of Science, in 1810, he returned to Gotha, 
 where he was appointed librarian in chief. Jacobs 
 is the author of several popular Greek and Latin 
 readers, which are still extensively used, and have 
 been frequently imitated and translated into a 
 number of other languages ( Elementarbuch del- 
 griechischen Sprache, vol. i.. 1805; 21st edition, 
 revised by J. Classen, 1875 ; vol. 4., 1811 ; La- 
 teinisches Elementarbuch, 1815, in .'! vols., also 
 revised by J. Classen). With Post he founded 
 the Bibliotheca Qraeca, a collective edition of 
 Creek authors with Latin notes (1826, seq.). 
 ■Jacobs was one of the most enthusiastic admirers 
 ■of Greek civilization, and, in a large number of 
 essays and popular works, endeavored to awaken 
 among the educated classes of Germany an un- 
 derstanding of. ami an interest in, the spirit of 
 Greek antiquity. He published a collection of 
 his addresses and essays under the name Vcr- 
 migchte Schriften (8 vols., 1823—44). His fa- 
 mous address Ueberdie Et'ziehung der Gviechen 
 zur Sittlichkeit (translated into English by Pres- 
 ident Felton), which he delivered in Munich in 
 1808, is still in high repute as a brilliant essay 
 on education among the ancient Q reeks. 
 
 JACOTOT, Joseph, a French educator, born 
 in Dijon, March 4., 1770; died in Paris, July 
 30., 1840. He was made professor of Latin and 
 Greek, at Dijon, about 1789, and, in 1790, was 
 appointed by Napoleon to the chair of mathe- 
 matics in the normal school, and shortly after- 
 wards became secretary to the minister of war 
 and director oPthe polytechnic school. In 1792, 
 he joined the army as captain of artillery, and 
 as such participated in the Belgian campaign. 
 He afterwards returned to his native place, 
 where he was at first professor of mathematics, 
 and afterwards of Roman law. 11 is espousal of 
 the cause of Napoleon compelled him, upon the 
 restoration of the Bourbons, to leave France, 
 which he did in 1815. taking refuge in Belgium, 
 where he supported himself for a time by private 
 teaching. In 1818, he was appointed lecturer 
 on French literature in the University of Lou- 
 vain, and afterwards director of the Military 
 Normal School. He returned to France in 1830, 
 passed seven years in Valenciennes, and, in 1838, 
 went to Paris, where he died in comparative 
 Deglect. It was during his residence in Belgium, 
 while attempting to teach, in French, classes the 
 members of which spoke only Flemish and Dutch, 
 that the novel idea of overcoming this and simi- 
 lar difficulties, by a method peculiarly his own, 
 first dawned upon him— a method which he 
 afterwards expanded, and applied successfully to 
 all studies. The central idea of the universal 
 method, as it has been called, rests upon the in- 
 
 
488 
 
 JACOTOT 
 
 JAPAN 
 
 timate correlation of all knowledge. In other 
 words, a single fact, known thoroughly, at first 
 by careful observation, and, afterwards, by 
 long and repeated contemplation, becomes the 
 spur, if not the actual key. t<> the acquisition of 
 other facts. In this way. starting from a single 
 truth as a center, the mind is led to extend, in 
 many ways, the circle of its conquests, till the 
 whole domain of knowle Ige is included. It will 
 lie seen at once that this system requires un- 
 usually close attention and concentration of 
 mind on the part of the pupil — two elements 
 which can only be secured by a very great de- 
 gree of enthusiasm and magnetic influence on 
 the part of the teacher. The cause of the won- 
 derful success achieved by it, in Jacotot's prac- 
 tice, was, that it compels the pupil to exercise his 
 own powers thoroughly —in other words, that it 
 is in entire accordance with the essential nature 
 of all education, i. e., the developing of in- 
 nate power. His method of procedure in in- 
 structing his class at Louvain in the French 
 language was to provide each pupil with a copy 
 of I'Vneli >n's TelSmaque, having the French on 
 one page and the I ditch translation on the other. 
 \\ itli no aid from the teacher, the pupil was re- 
 quired to puzzle out the meaning of the text. 
 ami to recite it in French, no matter how bar- 
 barous the translation, at first, might lie. This 
 method is almost identical with that of Hamil- 
 ton. (See Hamilton, James.) It has also the de- 
 fects of the I [amiltonian method, the know ledge 
 of a language so acquired being enough for prac- 
 tical purposes, but not sufficient for a critical or 
 scholarly acquaintance with it. His method of 
 teaching reading was the following: The teacher 
 takes a book, and opening it at any place. 
 points out the tirst word, pronouncing it. and 
 requiring the class to repeat it. The next word 
 is then pronounced with the tirst. the class re- 
 peating as before; then the third word, in the 
 same manner, and so on. In this way. when 
 each word in a sentence has. by frequent repeti- 
 tion, become known by sight, the pupil is re- 
 quired to find these words wherever they occur 
 on the page. The words of the sentence are 
 then divided up into syllables, and these syllables 
 
 are searched for on the page by the pupil, 
 a- the words were before. Ihe same is done 
 with the letters. When the pupil has become 
 perfectly familiar with the sentence, he is taught 
 to write by placing before him the same sentence 
 in script, and requiring him to copy it. His 
 attention is then directed to each word separate- 
 ly, that he may note in just what respect the 
 copy differs from the original, and correct it. 
 The tea, ■her corrects nothing himself, but by 
 his questions calls special attention to the poinl 
 needing correction, and requires the pupil to 
 change it. In this way, by constanl repetition 
 
 ami sell help, the pupil educates himself. The 
 
 great Buccess achieved by Jacotot, led t<> his 
 enunciation of several maxims which took the 
 
 shape of startling paradoxes, reflecting rather 
 the exultation of an enthusiastic nature over a 
 great discovery, than the calm, dispassionate 
 
 spirit of the careful annunciator of a new truth. 
 These maxims arc: ••All human beings are 
 
 equally capable of learning:" "Every one can 
 teach : and, moreover, can teach that which he 
 does not know himself;" and'* All is in all," 
 bach of these maxims, while contradictory on 
 its face, contains a germ of truth, which, only 
 by the aid of robust imaginative power and spe- 
 cial pleading, may be so amplified as to cover 
 the broad tield comprehended by the text. In 
 the practical application of his system. .Jacotot's 
 directions are : Learn some one thing thorough- 
 ly, mill refer • very thing to that. To this end. 
 the pupil must repeat, reflect, and verify. Jaco- 
 tot's chief educational works are Enseignement 
 universel: Langue matemelle (Louvain. \^l'l) : 
 Musique, dessin et peinture (1 .^24) : Mathima- 
 tiques (1828); and various articles in t$ie Journal 
 de I 'emancipation inteUectueUe, a periodical es- 
 tablished by himself for the advocacy of his 
 peculiar views. — See Quick, Essays <m Educa- 
 tional Reformers (Cincinnati. L874). 
 
 JAPAN. The em] lire of Japan [Dai Nikon 
 KoJcu, or Dai Nippon ; Chinese. Jipun, mean- 
 ing Sun-root) comprises the four large islands 
 Hondo (main island), Kiushiu. Shikoku, and 
 Ve/.o.the bill Kiuand Knrile (Chishima) groups, 
 and nearly 4,000 small islands, many of which 
 an- but reefs. The entire area is I 15,500 Bq. m.; 
 the population, by government census of 1.^74, 
 was reported as 33,300,675, of whom nearly one- 
 half were of the agricultural class, ltiT.onii Liu 
 Kiuans. and about 20,000 Ainos in Ye/.o and the 
 Kuriles. The indigenous, also the state or offi- 
 cial, religion is Shinto (way or doctrine of the 
 gods. /. c, theology). The census of 1874 re- 
 ported L28.123 shrines and 76,1 1'.' officials. SJtinto 
 is now being greatly modernized and modified 
 by contact with the ideas of Christendom. Bud* 
 
 dhism was introduced from Corea. in 552 A. 1>. 
 After nine centuries of propagation, it became 
 the popular religion, which it still is. There are 
 nine great, and over twenty subordinate sects. 
 
 'I he census of L872 reported 98,914 temples and 
 
 monasteries. 75,925 priests and monks. and 9,621 
 nuns : in till *_M 1 ,846 religieux of both sexes, in- 
 cluding students and families of bonzes. ( hristi- 
 anitv max also be considered one of the relig- 
 10ns of Japan. There are now (1876) ten native 
 
 churches, with over 1,000 members, a theological 
 seminary, day and Sunday schools for both sexes, 
 
 and an incipient Christian literature. 
 
 Japan was anciently inhabited, in the southern 
 part, by a mixed race sprung tii on the waifs 
 brought by the Kuro Shiwo from southern 
 Asia and the Malay Archipelago. The Ainos 
 occupied the central and northern portions. 
 Neither of these races e\ ei possessed any writing 
 or rcci in Is. so far as is known. In 660 B. ('..a 
 conquering race landed in south-eastern Kiushiu, 
 
 and advancing northward, subdued the natives, 
 and tixed their capital near Kioto, in central 
 Japan. In the seventh century of the Christian 
 
 era. in a great battle near Morioka the Hast- 
 ings of Japan the Ainos were entirely defeated. 
 
 The remnant tied across the straits ox Tsugaru 
 
JAPAN 
 
 
 and have remained in a state of pure savagery. 
 By the fusion of the aboriginal and conquering 
 races, with the occasional addition of Malay. 
 Oorean, and Chinese blood, the modern coufc- 
 posite Japanese race has been produced. 
 
 The national history is mainly thai ofeduca- 
 tionaiul development. The conquerors knew the 
 use of metals ami agriculture, and composed odes, 
 prayers, ami poetic sentiments, but had m> letters 
 or writings. The ancient political system was 
 feudalism, the mikado being suzerain, and the 
 lands being held on the tenure of military service. 
 In 285 A. 1).. after the conquest of southern Corea, 
 by the empress-regent Jingu, Wani, a Corean, 
 came to the Japanese court, and taught the heir 
 apparent Chinese letters, and, probably, the Con- 
 fucian ethics. In 552, Corean missionaries in- 
 troduced books, the writing of the Chinese clas- 
 sics, and the Buddhist images, sutras, and canon. 
 This is the greatest educational event in Jap- 
 anese history. The nobles and officials learned to 
 read and write; and government records, his- 
 tories, and literature began to be compiled. The 
 Official propagation of the new faith through the 
 erection of temples, monasteries, and pagodas, 
 and the location of the bonzes in each province, 
 near and remote, opened a field for the school- 
 master, creating a limited, but for those days 
 a large, reading class. Henceforward, the his- 
 tory of Japanese education is that of Japanese 
 Buddhism. The most illustrious name of all 
 the priest-pedagogues is Kobo (774 — 835), a 
 scholar in Pali. Sanskrit, Chinese, and his own 
 vernacular, and the inventor of the Japanese 
 syllabary, or alphabet. This consists of 47 char- 
 acters, abbreviated from Chinese ideographs. It 
 has two forms : the '• grass,"' script or running 
 hand, and the square or " printing" form. He 
 laid the foundation of the national success of 
 Buddhism, by propounding a theological system 
 in which Buddhism absorbs Shinto, and by declar- 
 ing that the ancient anil indigenous deities were 
 but various manifestations of Buddha to Japan. 
 After Kobo. Sugawara Michizane, who died 903 
 A. D., better known as Tenjin, an accomplished 
 scholar, did much for the native literature and 
 education. Until the twelfth century, the mikado 
 ruled supreme from Xara to Kioto, both of which 
 were famous educational as well as political cen- 
 ters. In 1192. Yoritomo was created Sei-i Tai 
 Skogun (the officer styled Ti/coon by foreign- 
 ers, from 1853 to 1868), and fixed the military 
 capital at Kamakura (about 35 miles from the 
 modern Tokio) . 1 lenceforward, the governmei 1 1 
 of Japan was virtually a duarchy, having two 
 rulers, two capitals, and two centers of authority. 
 Eastern Japan now became more and more civil- 
 ized, and education spread apace. In general, 
 only the bonzes and court nobles in Kioto con- 
 stituted the learned class, the soldiers and farm- 
 ers being totally illiterate. The bonzes were 
 the scribes in camp, palace, and town, and almost 
 the only teachers down to the Tokugawa period 
 (1604—1868). During the Hojo rule (1219— 
 1333) learning flourished. A fine library and 
 school existed at Kanazawa, near Kamakura, 
 
 i besides the ancient seats in Kioto and Xara. The 
 missionary tours and labors of Shinran and Ni- 
 chireu. in the north ami east of Japan, during thia 
 time tended powerfully to spread Buddhism, and 
 
 with it letters ami writing, and to create priests 
 
 and monastic schools. The revival of Buddhistic 
 studies and the founding of new sects produced 
 much intellectual activity. The Ashikaga period 
 (1335 L573) was one of civil war and the 
 
 ' growth of feudalism. Education and learning 
 languished during this time: ami ignorance, ex- 
 cept in the palace and monastery, was univer- 
 sal. Under Nobunaga (1532 82), the relentless 
 persecutor of the Buddhist bonzes, their power 
 was in every way greatly curtailed, and the 
 Jesuits then in Japan were greatly favored. The 
 era of Hideyoshi (Taiko) was brilliant and emi- 
 nently favorable to learning and education, con- 
 siderable stimulus being given by his enterprise 
 and improvements tending to tranquilize the 
 country. The invasion of Corea (1592 8) was 
 followed by a new tide of influences, which, to- 
 gether with those received by contact with Kuro- 
 peans, gave fresh impulses to the intellectual 
 life of the nation. The accession of lyeyasu, in 
 1604, to the shogunate, the founding of the « • i t \ 
 of Yedo, the centralization of the feudal system 
 and military power there, and most of all, the 
 profound peace enjoyed for two centuries ami 
 a half, mark the period from 1604 to 1868, 
 as the only one in which education in .Tapan 
 has been general among all classes, and over 
 nearly the entire empire. Next to the essentials 
 or tools of an education- — reading, writing, and 
 reckoning on the abacus, the ( 'hinese classics of 
 Confucius and Mencius constitute the basis of 
 culture. The very voluminous and — in the depart- 
 ments of history and classic fiction, at least, — 
 valuable, native literature has also been largely 
 studied. Before the opening of the country to 
 foreigners, in 1854, it is probable that seven- 
 tenths of the people could read and write. In 
 most of the daimios' capitals were military, gym- 
 nastic, and literary training schools; and in Yedo. 
 Kioto, and Mito (Ibaraki) were schools of great 
 learning, or universities. In every city, town, 
 village, or even hamlet, lived one or more teachers 
 or writing-masters who kept private schools. 
 Many of the bonzes also taught classes of lay 
 youth, or neophytes, in the monasteries. Sanskrit 
 and Chinese were the sacred languages of the 
 Buddhist ritual, while the Yamato or ancient 
 classic Japanese was used by the Shintoists. 
 About the time of the opium war in China, an 
 impulse was developed to study European litera- 
 ture and science through the medium of the 
 Dutch language. A few Holland merchants living 
 
 at Heshima. near Nagasaki, and the annual Dutch 
 trading ships served Japan as a loop-hole whence 
 to survey the world. It must be borne in mind 
 that the policy of closing the ports of Japan, 
 thereby secluding her from the world, was more a 
 part of the Tokugawa usurpers' scheme of holding 
 the actual power than the wish of the nation. 
 After Perry's arrival, in 1853, the study of En- 
 glish superseded that of Dutch, and the tastes of 
 
490 
 
 JAPAN 
 
 JEFFERSON COLLEGE 
 
 the samurai, or educated armed classes, inclined 
 * }n-iu to favor modern science to the neglect of 
 the Chinese. In L868, a revolutionary storm, the 
 elements of which had long been gathering, broke 
 at the battle of Fushimi, when the duareliy, and 
 the shogunate were overthrown, and the toku- 
 (imrn were reduced to their proper place as vas- 
 sals of the mikado, who was restored to supreme 
 power, as before A.l>. L192. The seat of govern- 
 ment also was removed to Yedo (bay-door), which 
 was thereafter called Tokio (eastern capital). 
 Enterprises were now organized on a national 
 scale, among them the present system of edu- 
 cation, the scheme of which was promulgated in 
 1872. According to this, the empire is divide 1 
 into eight educational divisions, in each of which 
 (here is a university or dai gakko, with thirty- 
 two middle schools, colleges or gymnasia; besides 
 which there are two hundred and ten grammar 
 schools, or academies, in the whole empire. In all 
 
 these schools, foreign languages and the sciences 
 are to be taught. The vernacular schools will 
 number about f>4,00(). or about one for every six 
 hundred of the population. According to tin- 
 latest statistics, there are 30,000 public schools in 
 operation, with very nearly 2,000,000 pupils, and 
 45,000 teachers. There are also seven normal 
 schools, the principal one being in Tokio, with 
 teachers in course of training from every prov- 
 ince in the empire. Both sexes enjoy equal 
 privileges of education, from the primary to the 
 normal school. The department of education 
 ( Mom I!" Sho) is one of the ten ministries 
 of the imperial government. The present head 
 (1876) is Fujimaro Tanaka, the foreign adviser 
 being Dr. David Murray, formerly of Rutgers 
 College, New I Srunswick, X. •! . The universities 
 and technical schools are under the direct con- 
 trol of the central government, while the public 
 vernacular schools are under the care of the local or 
 ken authorities. They are sustained in part by the 
 central government, partly by special taxation 
 in each ken, and partly by the contributions of 
 the nobles, the rich, and the common people. 
 Each of the 72 kens has a bureau of inspection, 
 ■while examiners and supervisors are regularly 
 sent out from Tokio, for the express purpose of 
 k< 'ping up and improving the standard of edu- 
 cation. In addition to the schools under the 
 Mom r.u Sho, nearly every government depart- 
 ment has its special and technical schools. Medi- 
 cine, law, and military, naval, engineering, agri- 
 Cultur 1 1, ami optical science have each its schools, 
 
 some of which are splendid colleges, well equipped 
 
 •with foreign instructors and apparatus. In 
 
 elementary instruction, the Japanese have suc- 
 cessfully introduced the kindergarten system 
 and object teaching. The general plan and dis- 
 cipline of American schools prevail ; and such 
 appliances as tables and chairs, blackboards and 
 chalk, slates and pencils, phonetic and ideo- 
 graphic charts, colored representations and soliil 
 models of objects, are used all these being 
 new ideas in Japanese pedagogics. The children 
 
 n to read and write the script and square 
 
 hana syllabary, and are then taught the sound 
 
 and sense of the most common Chinese characters. 
 They also learn abacus reckoning, the use of the 
 Arabic numerals, and our system of arith- 
 metic. A large number of American and other 
 elementary text-books have been translated, and 
 the common-places of physical science are now 
 taught to Japanese youth. The vernacular is 
 also studied by the help of standard reading- 
 books, grammar (a new thing), declamation, and 
 the committing to memory of choice passages 
 from the Japanese classics. The Chinese ethics 
 still holds its place; but the moral ideas, sen- 
 timents, and narratives of Christendom seem to 
 be radically influencing the rising mind of the 
 nation. In the next grade of schools, foreign lan- 
 guages are begun, and ( hinese writing and read- 
 ing are continued. In the middle schools, the 
 studies are wholly in English, or some other 
 elected foreign language, the text-books being 
 those used in America or Europe, while the course 
 of studies common to an American high school 
 or academy is gone through with, 'litis period 
 covers four years. In the dai gakko, or univer- 
 sity, the full standard of which it is expected to 
 reach in the future, the students are actually car- 
 ried through the curriculum of the average Amer- 
 ican college, excepting in latin and Greek, the 
 place of these being tilled by English and Chinese. 
 At present, there is but one university in Japan 
 the KaiSei Gakko, in Tokio. which litis a corps of 
 about twenty American and English instructors, 
 and 350 students, while the school of foreign lan- 
 guages of Tokio has double this number of pu- 
 pils, all under foreign instructors. Nearly two 
 hundred foreigners are employed in the edu- 
 cational service of Japan. Both students and 
 native teachers, as a rule, wear the foreign 
 costume; and. all over the empire, the general 
 method of school order, discipline, equipment, 
 and architecture approaches more closely to for- 
 eign models, year by year. Private schools are 
 also very numerous, and exert a healthful spirit 
 of rivalry with the government establishments. 
 The newspaper press, publishers of books, and 
 government issues of tracts of information on 
 various subjects, also tend powerfully to elevate 
 the intellectual status of the people. There 
 are no educational journals in Japan, but the 
 minister of public instruct ion issues a yearly re- 
 port. — See Gbiffxs, The Mikado's Empire | New 
 York, I 876) ; Education in Japan, No. 2 of the 
 Circulars of Information of the CJ. S. Bureau of 
 Education (Washington, b s 7">); An Outline 
 History of Japanese Education, prepared by 
 the Japanese Dept. of Education (N. Y., ls7(>). 
 JEFFERSON COLLEGE, a 1 Ionian Cath- 
 olic institution at St. .lames. La., under the 
 management of the Marist Fathers, was char- 
 tered in L861, and organized in 1864 It has 
 
 g I philosophical and chemical apparatus, and 
 
 a library of 5,000 volumes. It has a collegiate 
 course of 6 years, including preparatory studies; 
 a commercial course; and a preparatory, or 
 primary, course. The regular charge for board, 
 tuition, etc.. is $300 a year. German, Bpanish, 
 drawing, and music are extras. In l, v 7"> — 6, 
 
JERSEY CITY 
 
 491 
 
 there were 12 instructors and 65 students. Tin- 
 Very Rev. J. J*. Bigot, S. ML, is (1876) the 
 president. 
 
 JERSEY CITY, one of the chief cities ft 
 the state of New Jersey, embraces pari of the 
 ancient Dutch town of Bergen, from which ii 
 was set off by an act of the legislature, January 
 28., 1820, containing at that time less than 1,000 
 inhabitants. It has since been increased by the 
 annexation of other municipalities, also parts of 
 Bergen; so that its present territory reaches 
 from the Hudson river westerly to the Ilacken- 
 sack liver, a distance of nearly four miles, and 
 from north to south, six miles. The population, 
 according to the state census of 187"), was 
 116,883; and the number of children of school 
 age, that is, between 5 and IS, was 38,068. 
 
 Educational History. — Probably, the first 
 school of any kind that ever existed in New 
 Jersey was located on the site of the school- 
 house now known as School No. 11, in Bergen 
 Square. It is remarkable that the first charter 
 of Bergen, dated September 22., 1GG8, granted 
 by Sir Philip Cartaret, governor of the then 
 province of New Jersey, in the sixth article 
 thereof, stipulated, "that all persons should con- 
 tribute, according to their estates and propor- 
 tions of land./v)/' thi' keeping of a free school for 
 the education of youth." This stipulation was 
 rigidly enforced, notwithstanding the objection 
 and strong opposition, at various times, of certain 
 persons of the baser sort, who groaned, both in 
 body and spirit, when called on to pay a school 
 tax The Dutch may thus claim equal praise 
 with the Puritans of New England for making 
 provision for the education of their children in 
 the first organization of their towns. History 
 has preserved the name of the first school-master. 
 Engelbert Steenhnysen, a tailor by trade, came 
 from Westphalia in 1659, was licensed as teacher 
 in 1662, and taught for 250 florins a year, pay- 
 able in sea stores. His school-house was built of 
 logs. — The first board of education in Jersey 
 City was organized in March, 1852. Previous 
 to that time, the school (for there was but one) 
 was managed by a committee of the board of 
 aldermen. Joseph McCoy was the first super- 
 intendent, and held the office from 1852 to 1 854, 
 and afterward from 1862 till his death, in 18G9. 
 A. S. Jewell held the office from 1855 to 1862 ; 
 A. rr. W'allis, a part of 1862 ; and S. B. Bevans, 
 a part of 1 869 and 1870. Up to this time, the 
 office of superintendent was an unsalaried one. 
 Merchants and other business men held it, and 
 were not expected to devote much time to its 
 duties. E. (). Chapman was the first superin- 
 t sndent who received a salary. He held the office 
 one year, from 1870 to 1871. Wm. 1.. Dickin- 
 son was chosen assistant superintendent in May, 
 1867, in which position he continued until \fft I , 
 when he was elected superintendent, which office 
 he yet (1876) retains. — From the organization 
 of the first board of education to 1871, — a pe- 
 riod of nineteen years, the office of superintend- 
 ent was tilled annually by vote of the people at 
 the charter elections; since that time, the duty 
 
 of filling the office has devolved upon the hoard 
 of education, and the term of office has been ex- 
 tended to three years. 
 
 School System. The school law under which 
 the schools are now managed, was enacted in 
 
 1873. It provides that the hoard of directors 
 
 of education shall consist of twelve members, 
 two from each aldermanic district, who shall 
 
 hold office two years, one half going out everv 
 year. They have power, and it is their duty, to 
 provide, for the free education of children in the 
 city between the ages of 5 and 18, every thing 
 necessary in their opinion, except the purchase 
 of lands, the erection of buildings, and the mak- 
 ing of repairs the cost of which shall exceed 
 
 $500, the latter devolving upon the hoard of 
 public works. The hoard of education is also em- 
 powered to expend annually $1,000, to establish 
 and maintain a free library for the use of teach- 
 ers etc., and to provide a normal .school, high 
 school, and evening schools. — The entire city is 
 embraced in one district, known as District 
 No. 13, Hudson Co. Parents are permitted to 
 exercise their judgment in selecting a public 
 school in any part of the city for the education 
 of their children. There are four grades of 
 schools : primary, grammar, high, and normal 
 schools. There are 20 primary schools; ] ! gram- 
 mar schools; 1 high school; and 1 normal school 
 (held on SaUirdays) . The 14 grammar schools 
 have each a primary department which is counted 
 as one of the primary schools. In all of the 
 larger schools, the principal is relieved of the 
 work of teaching a class, and is confined to that 
 of supervision and the training of the younger 
 and more inexperienced teachers. One city su- 
 perintendent, holding office for three years, gives 
 all of his time to the work of supervision. 
 
 There is no city school fund ; but the state 
 school fund yielded to the city, in 1874, $10,738. 
 The two-mill tax collected by the state and as- 
 sessed upon the property , but distributed to each 
 school district in proportion to the number of 
 children between the ages of 5 and 18, yielded 
 ©131,602.56. The balance was raised by special 
 tax. Male principals of the grammar schools 
 receive a uniform salary of $2,316; of female 
 principals of primary and grammar departments 
 the salary is $1,200. No male assistants are 
 employed, except in the high schools. The sal- 
 aries of female assistants vary, according to their 
 positions, fro, i ! I to $360. The course of 
 study in the primary schools is divided into six 
 grades, and embraces reading, spelling, element- 
 ary arithmetic (through the fundamental rules 
 and U. S. money), geography, writing, and draw- 
 ing. Object-teaching is prescribed for each grade. 
 The course in the grammar schools is divided 
 into five grades, and includes, besides advanced 
 instruction in the same studies, Knglish gram- 
 mar, etymology, history and constitution of the 
 United States, physical geography, algebra, nat- 
 ural philosophy, and elementary science, the 
 Litter in each grade. The course in the high 
 school is divided into an English and a classical 
 course, each extending over three years. 
 
492 
 
 •IKS UITS 
 
 School Statistics. — The following items are 
 reported for the year 1875 : 
 
 Number ol |>ii|>ils enrolled 18,737 
 
 Average register Dumber 10.678 
 
 Average attendance 9.583 
 
 Nnmber oi teachers, males 16 
 
 " " " females 247 
 
 Total 2C3 
 
 Number of pupils per teacher, primary schools 56 
 " " " grammar " 30 
 
 Expenditures: 
 
 Salaries $210,361.53 
 
 Rents 2,2(111.00 
 
 Books and stationery.... 13,133.61 
 Repairs and furniture.... 10,613.64 
 Fuel and incid. expenses. 26,001.59 
 
 Total .... $2fi2,310..'!7 
 
 Besides the public schools, there are but few 
 others of any great importance, with the excep- 
 tion of tlic denominational schools supported by 
 the Roman Catholics. These schools are largely 
 attended. 
 
 JESUITS, or the Society of Jesus, a 
 celebrated religious order of the < latholic < 'hurch. 
 It was founded by [gnatius Loyola in the begin- 
 oing of the L 6th century, and spread with great 
 rapidity over the entire Christian world. It ob- 
 tained an influence unparalleled in the history of 
 religious orders and, perhaps, in the history of 
 societies of any kind, li was abolished, in 177;?, 
 by Pope Clement XIV., bul restored, in L814,by 
 
 Pope Pius VII, and has since then borne the 
 
 brunt of battle in the severe conflicl which has 
 hem raging b tween the Catholic Church and 
 many of the present stale governments, both 
 ( latholic and Protestant. The -lesuits regarded it. 
 as a special mission of their society to arrest the 
 
 progress of the Reformation, and to regain for 
 the church as much of the lost ground as possible. 
 In order to fulfill this mission, they endeavore I 
 to obtain control of the instruction of the ris- 
 ing generation. Their efforts to establish well- 
 patronized, well-attended, and influential schools, 
 met with complete success; and though the opin- 
 ions which have been expressed of the merits of 
 
 the Bel Is of the .lesuits greatly vary, according 
 
 to the sympathy or dislike of writers in regard 
 to the order, the powerful influence which the 
 •lesuits. through their schools, have exerted upon 
 the history of many countries is admitted by 
 all. In order to appreciate .justly the e lucational 
 principl ss of the •lesuits. it may be well to not ice, 
 iirst. the plan according to which the members of 
 the order were, and still are, traine I themselves 
 
 as teachers. The candidates tor the priesthood 
 
 are, during the two first years, novitii scholas- 
 tici; thru, by binding themselves to the order by 
 
 means of simple VOWS, they hceonie SCholostid 
 approbcUi. Devoting themselves, fur several years. 
 
 to classical and philosophical studies, they art', for 
 bo time, employed as teachers and educators 
 
 in the colleges, until fchej lie-in the study of 
 
 theology, which lasts for four years. As all the 
 
 member8 were thUB trained as practical teachers. 
 
 the ..ider u;is. soon after its foundation, enabled 
 wherever a favorable opportunity offered, to call 
 into existence 1 an astonishing number of literary 
 
 institutions. 
 
 All the educational institutions of the Jesuits 
 are governed in accordance with the official 
 course of instruction entitled ratio et ii<*tihitio 
 studiorum societatis Jesu, ami well known in 
 history under the shorter name ratio studiorum. 
 It was drawn up under the direction of the 
 fifth general of the order, Acquaviva, who, im- 
 mediately after his election, in L581, was com- 
 missioned by the 4th General Congregation to 
 appoint for this purpose a committee of six 
 fathers. In L584, the committee in which Spain, 
 Portugal, France, Austria. Germany, and Koine 
 were represented, were presented to the Pope. 
 Their work was revised by another committee 
 of twelve members, subsequently submitted for 
 revision and approbation to the 5th and 6th 
 General Congregations and to the Pope, and 
 finally printed in L599, in the printing office of 
 the Collegium Romanian. A new edition, with 
 additions sanctioned by the 7th General Con- 
 gregation, appeared in Koine in 1616. After 
 the restoration of the order, the 20th General 
 Congregation, held in 1820. and the 21st, held 
 in 1 829, recommended a revision of the course 
 
 of studies; and the general of the older, father 
 Roothan, appointed, therefore, in L830 a com- 
 mittee of live fathers, representing the five prov- 
 inces of the order Italy. Sicily, Fiance, Ger- 
 many.and Spain. In L831 .the revised en use. after 
 having received the approbation of the general 
 and his assistants, was sent to all the members 
 of the order. The changes made in the old course 
 chiefly relate to theology, philosophy, oriental 
 languages, mathematics, and physics. Instruc- 
 tion in theology and philosophy is not to he 
 based, to the same extent as before, on Thomas 
 
 Aquinas and Aristotle: and. in mathematics and 
 
 the natural sciences, proper attention is to be 
 
 given to the recent progress made in those. 
 branches. In the lower classes of their institu- 
 tions, new provisions are made for learning mod- 
 ern languages, both the vernacular and foreign, 
 and for the study of history. The course of studies 
 
 is divided into twenty sections, and embraces 
 
 rules for the provincial, the rector, the prefects 
 of studies, the professors, the scholastics, and 
 
 the students. 'I he general of this order is the 
 
 supreme head of till its schools and educational 
 institutions: he superintends all of them, and he 
 alone authorizes the establishment of new ones. 
 
 When, in the present century, the government 
 of Austria transferred to the Society of Jesus 
 several gymnasia ami the theological faculty of 
 
 one of the state Ulli VelMt ies |l lilisplUck) . the 
 
 general of the order, father Beckx, explicitly in- 
 sisted that the superiors of the order must be at 
 full liberty " to appoint members of the order, 
 
 without a previous examination by state boards. 
 
 directors, rectors, prefects of studies, and pro- 
 
 ors, and to remove them and appoint Others 
 
 in their stead, as he may deem best in the Sight 
 Of Cod." The head of a province of the order is 
 
 called a "provincial"; and the first section of the 
 ratio studiorum recommends to him the care of 
 the schools, the appointment of competent pre- 
 fects of studies and professors, and the enforce- 
 
JKSriTS 
 
 493 
 
 ment of a strict observance of the entire course 
 
 of studies. At the bead of single houses or col- 
 leges, is the "rector." who dors not give instruc- 
 tion himself, but is generally chosen from ai ■ 
 
 the older teachers. I le is appointed for a term of 
 three years by the general or his representative ; 
 and. atter this time, is frequently transferred to 
 another college. 1 le appoints one or two prefects 
 of Studies, and all must obey and revere him as 
 the representative of Jesus Christ. A college of 
 the first class must, as a ride, have 20 teachers 
 or •• regents"; a college of the second class. 30; a 
 college of the third class, or a university, at least 
 70. Small institutions which have not a Suffi- 
 cient number of teachers must he dissolved. 
 With the colleges, there are generally connected 
 convictoria alumnorum (boarding-houses), in 
 which students of the college receive lodging, 
 hoard, and strict superintendence by a mem- 
 Iit of the order, or seminaries for educat- 
 ing young candidates for the priesthood or 
 knights' academies, for the exclusive education 
 of the sons of nobles. Day scholars who do not 
 live in any of the institutions, have to promise 
 obedience to the rector and the rules, and they 
 are. from time to time, visited by the prefect of 
 studies in their houses. 
 
 The schools of the Jesuits are divided into 
 higher and lower classes. The former are under 
 the supervision of a prcefectus generalis, or 
 prcefectus studiorum superiorum; the latter, un- 
 der that of a prcefectus studiorum inferiorum. 
 The smaller colleges have only the lower classes, 
 and, therefore, only one prefect. The studia in- 
 feriora embrace five classes: (1) Infima, also 
 called "the rudiment"; (2) Secunda, or media 
 classis grammaticae, also called "grammar"; 
 (3) Ter/i'i, or s>t/>rema classis f/rtininin/iae. also 
 called -syntax"; I \) Quartet — poetica.ov humani- 
 tas, (5) Quinta — rhetorica. The three lower are 
 designated as the three grammar, and the two 
 higher as the two humanity classes. In smaller 
 schools, two classes are sometimes united into 
 one ; in larger schools, parallel classes are formed. 
 < nnsiderable prominence is given, in all the clas- 
 ses, to the study of the Latin language. As 
 much as practicable, Latin is made the medium 
 of instruction ; and it is intended to give to the 
 pupils such a knowledge of the language as will 
 enable them to speak and write it. Father Beckx, 
 the general of the order, says on this subject, in 
 his correspondence with the Austrian minister of 
 public instruction : " Because the Latin language 
 is the language of the church, and the language of 
 Christian tradition, and because in this language 
 the literary treasures of all times and nations 
 have been deposited, and because it has been for 
 centuries developed beyond any other language, 
 as the medium of faith and of science, the Soci- 
 ety of Jesus has a special predilection for this lan- 
 guage, and uses it as medium of instruction in 
 its schools." It is expressly stated that it is not 
 intended to imbue the minds of the pupils with 
 the spirit of classic antiquity, and most of the 
 Latin authors used in the schools of the Jesuits 
 are read in expurgated editions. - The study of 
 
 the Greek language begins simultaneously with 
 
 the Latin, though much less time and attention 
 
 are given to it. Instruction in the vernacular 
 language was incorporated with the course of in- 
 struction by order of the 1 1 1 1 1 Genera] Congrega- 
 tion, in 1 7().'>; and. in 1 T.~><",, the colleges in Ger- 
 many were advised to devote as much attention 
 to German as to Latin and Greek.- To in- 
 struction in religion, less time is devoted than in 
 most other schools conducted by religious orders. 
 
 the Jesuits being of opinion that the religious 
 
 education of their pupils will he more promoted 
 by religious exercises than by theoretical instruc- 
 tion. — In the two higher classes oratorical exer- 
 cises and exercises in composition receive spe- 
 cial attention.— The other subjects of instruct ion 
 were originally comprised under the collective 
 name of eruditio, and it was recommended to 
 use specially the hours of recreation, and the 
 weekly holidayfor the purpose of acquainting the 
 pupils with the elementary and most interesting 
 parts of the studies. — The s/»</i</ superiora 
 comprise a two years' course of philosophy and 
 a four years' course of theology. 
 
 The management of the schools of the Jesuits 
 is based on the fundamental principle that edu- 
 cation and instruction should be most intimately 
 connected, and that the education of the pupils 
 is by far the most important aim of a school. 
 They favor the class teaching system; for not 
 only does the class teacher teach all or most of 
 the subjects of instruction in his class, but be 
 takes his pupils through several or all of the 
 classes. They deem it an important condition 
 of the success of the teacher that he should thor- 
 oughly know the character of each pupil; and 
 this, they contend, is only possible in the class- 
 teaching system. They believe that great care 
 should be taken not to crowd the pupils, either 
 in the number of subjects or the amount of time 
 given to study; and they object to the courses 
 of instruction adopted in most modern colleges 
 and gymnasia, as attempting too much. They 
 prefer short lessons, and are specially anxious 
 to make learning and reciting as attractive to 
 the pupils as possible. Great stress is laid on 
 thorough memorizing, and on frequent reviews 
 and disputations. The last day of every week 
 and the latter part of every month and of even- 
 half-year are regularly devoted to a review of the 
 work accomplished during this period. As the 
 chief incentive to diligence, they encourage emu- 
 lation, which they endeavor to stimulate by the 
 distribution of prizes, by ' ; concertations" (dispu- 
 tations or literary contests) , and by the promotion 
 of the best students to a variety of honorary ti- 
 tles, which are taken from the Greek and Roman 
 republics (pretors, censors, decurions, etc.). It is 
 made the duty of the teacher to control his pupils 
 by means of praise and encouragement rather 
 than by punishment. Corporal punishment is 
 to be employed only in extreme cases, and not 
 by any member of the order, but by a " cor- 
 rector appointed for the purpose. 
 
 The influence of the Jesuits upon education 
 in Catholic countries has been very great. Each 
 
494 
 
 JESUITS 
 
 JOHNS HOPKIXS UNIVERSITY 
 
 one of these countries, at one time or other, has 
 had flourishing colleges of the Jesuits, in wliich, 
 iu particular, ;i large number of the children 
 of the nobility and of other prominent persons 
 wen- educated. How huge a share of the order's 
 activity was given to instruction, may be inferred 
 from the fact that, in 1749, the order had only 
 '_' 1 professed houses, but 669 colleges and 176 
 seminaries. Even their missionaries in pagan 
 count tics were always anxious to obtain, as 
 soon a.s possible, control of the education of 
 the rising generation, by the establishment of 
 colleges. Thus, the Portuguese .Jesuits had, in 
 1613, in Japan two colleges; and in China. Father 
 Ricci established a reputation as one of the best 
 scholars. Their educational labors were chiefly 
 limited to schools of a higher grade : but, in 
 the most celebrated of their missions, Paraguay 
 (q. v.). all the youth were, for some time, un- 
 der the sole educational control of the Jesuits. 
 Though founded for combating Protestantism, 
 they gained, as teachers, the admiration of 
 many of the Protestant princes. Thus. Frederick 
 the Great, of Prussia, permitted them, after 
 the abolition of their order, to continue as an 
 organized society, under the name of -priests 
 of the royal sch >ol institute." In the l!)th cent- 
 ury, the communities of the Jesuits, inclusive 
 of their schools, were suppressed, on the charge 
 
 of being dangerous to the interests of the state, 
 in Portugal, Spain. Italy, Switzerland, the Ger- 
 man Empire, and Russia; and they were, in 
 L876, threatened with suppression in Austria- 
 Hungary. They have also been expelled from 
 Mexico, the United States of Colombia, and a 
 number of other South American states. They, 
 
 however, still have a number of colleges in France, 
 
 the Netherlands, Belgium, Great Britain, and 
 the Austro Hungarian Monarchy. The .Jesuits 
 accompanied Lord Baltimore to Maryland, and 
 were the first instructors of the Catholic settlers 
 of that province. They continued to live in a 
 community after the abolition of their order, 
 and grew rapidly after \\< restoration. Their col- 
 3, in L876, were as follows : Boston College, 
 South Boston, and College of the Holy Cross, 
 Worcester, Mass.: College of St. Francis Xavier, 
 New York; St. John's College, New York (Ford- 
 ham); St. Joseph's, Philadelphia; St. John's, 
 Frederick, Md.; Loyola. Baltimore; Gonzaga, 
 Washington, D. O.j Georgetown, 1>. C; Spring 
 Hill, near Mobile, Ala.; St. Louis University, 
 St. Louis, Mo.; College of the Immaculate Con- 
 ion New Orleans; St. Charles, Grand Co- 
 teau, La.; St. Joseph's, Bardstown, Ky.; St. Xav- 
 ier's, Cincinnati; st. Ignatius College, San Fran- 
 cisco; and Santa Clara College, CaL In Canada, 
 the Jesuits condud St. Man a College, Montreal, 
 founded in 1848. -Among the admirers of the 
 school- of the Jesuits were Lord Bacon, Descartes, 
 and Chateaubriand. Says Bacon: "As it regards 
 I b hing, this is the sum of all direction : take 
 example by the schools of the Jesuits, for better 
 do not exist. When I look at the diligence, and 
 the activity of the Jesuits, iioth in imparting 
 knowledge and in i n< mi 1 line the heart. I bethink 
 
 me of the exclamation of Agesilaus concerning 
 Pharnabazus : ' Since thou art so noble, 1 would 
 thou wert on our side. " Lanke. in the His- 
 tory qf the Popes (vol. i.). makes the following 
 remarks on the educational system of the Jesu- 
 its : "The Jesuits were more systematic than the 
 former teachers ; they divided their pupils into 
 classes. Their instruction carried the pupils in 
 the same spirit from the first elements to the 
 highest stage. They also supervised the morals, 
 and educated well-bred gentlemen. They were 
 favored by the political power. Finally, they im- 
 parted their instruction gratuitously. This could 
 not but be of immense advantage to them, 
 especially as their results were really as great as 
 their zeal. The Jesuits were learned, and. in 
 their way. pious: but no one will say that their 
 science was based on a free soaring of the mind. 
 or that their piety proceeded from the depth and 
 the ingenuity of a simple mind. They are suf- 
 ficiently learned to awaken confidence, to obtain 
 reputation, to educate and retain scholars; they 
 aim at nothing further. Neither their piety nor 
 their teaching enters upon free and untrodden 
 roads; but it has something which characterizes 
 it; it has method. Every thing is calculated, 
 for every thing has a special aim. They were 
 diligent and fantastic, full of wisdom and en- 
 thusiasm, respectable people whom one likes 
 to approach : without personal interest, one aid- 
 ing the other. No wonder that they succeeded." 
 Among the most important work.- on the history 
 of the Jesuits are : Cketineau-Joli (friendly to 
 the order). Histoire religieuse, politique et litter- 
 aire dela compagnie ae Jesus (6 vols., 1844 — 6); 
 
 GlOBERT] (adverse to the Jesuits), 11 Ge- 
 
 suita Moderno (5 vols., 1847) : Stkixmetz. His* 
 tory of the Jesuits (3 vols., 1848] : IL beb (OW 
 Catholic), Der JesuUenordeii (lo'T.'l). A special 
 work on the Ratio studiorwn is, Jhr SorieWit 
 Jesu Lekr- und Erziekungsplan (3 vols., Lands- 
 hut, 1 833 — 6, friendly to the order). See also 
 The Jesuits ami their Schools, in Barnabd's 
 German Teachers <n<<l Educators (a condensed 
 translation from Rauheb's Geschichte der P&da- 
 gogik); and Weicker, Das Schulwesen der Je- 
 suiten nach den Quellen dargesteQt. 
 
 JOHNS HOPKINS UNIVERSITY, at 
 Baltimore, Md.. was founded in 1874. It is 
 
 named in honor of the late .lohns Hopkins of 
 
 Baltimore, who bequeathed a fund of $3,< 1,000 
 
 for its endowment and a beautiful estate of .'!.':() 
 acres ,-,t ( Mi Hon. near the city limits, for its perma- 
 nent site. MMie temporary location is within the 
 
 city. Daniel C. Gilman was appointed the 6rst 
 (idenl ; and the department of philosophy was 
 opened Oct. •"., L s 7(i. The plan includes a med- 
 ical department and a law department. The 
 University contemplates •• a combination of lect- 
 ures, recitations, laboratory practice, lield work, 
 and private instruction." The system adopted 
 
 ••involves freedom of methods to he employed 
 
 by the instructors on the one hand, and on the 
 
 other, freedom of courses to be selected by the 
 
 students." while it is ■• intended that the pupils 
 shall have been matured by the long prejwir- 
 
JUDGMENT 
 
 KANSAS 
 
 495 
 
 atory discipline of superior teachers, and by 
 the systematic, laborious, and persistent pursuit 
 of fundamental knowledge." Ten fellowships, 
 or graduate scholarships, were opened in ls7i;, 
 
 each yielding 8500 a year and renewable, to be 
 bestowed for excellence in the following subjects : 
 philology, literature, history, ethics and meta- 
 physics, political science, mathematics, engineer- 
 ing, physics, chemistry, and natural history. So 
 many advanced students (152) presenting them- 
 selves as applicants, twenty fellowships were be- 
 stowed upon graduates of various colleges. 
 
 JUDGMENT, Training of. "This de- 
 partment of intellectual culture needs no special 
 attention, if the whole educational system, in 
 other respects, is judicious and rational; i.e., 
 adapted to the individual both as to age (degree 
 of maturity) and peculiarities of character or 
 endowment. Where this is not the case, an effi- 
 cient corrective may be applied by bringing into 
 exercise the pupil's mental faculties in various 
 ways and in connection with various subjects. 
 The departure must be taken from the sphere of 
 the pupil's experience; he must be led (1) to 
 an accurate observation of particulars — -minute 
 details; ('_') to their collation, as preliminary to 
 generalization ; and (3) to their classification 
 under appropriate heads. When general prin- 
 ciples or rules have been established in the pupil's 
 mind in this way, his -judgment will be brought 
 into play in the application of the principle or 
 
 rule to particular objects or facts. Thus, in nat- 
 ural history, after the pupil has learned the 
 characteristics of genera and species by a minute 
 and accurate observation of individual specimens, 
 he cannot, without an exercise of judgment, de- 
 termine whether any particular specimen, pre- 
 viously unobserved, belongs to one or the other 
 genus or species, lie must have a clear concep- 
 tion of the distinguishing qualities, both of the 
 individual and of the class, in older to determine 
 whether the correspondence exists or not. As 
 regards concrete objects, the judgment is exer- 
 cised at a very early age. and is constantly 
 trained more or less by every legitimate process 
 
 of intellectual education: but as regards abstract 
 
 truths, this faculty is one of the last to attain 
 a full or mature development. Accuracy in 
 judging depends verymuchonthe mental habits 
 formed during the period of early education. 
 Habits of attention, careful observation, dispas- 
 sionate, conscientious reasoning, and a profound 
 and earnest love of truth, will qualify any person 
 for the exercise of a sound judgment in regard 
 to any subject of study or investigation. A men- 
 tal character based upon such habits will be free 
 from prejudice, and will readily learn to elimi- 
 nate all passion from its intellectual processes; 
 and, hence, its judgments being solely based 
 upon the facts acquired, will be correct or the 
 contrary, in proportion to the accuracy and ex- 
 tent of the information possessed. 
 
 KALAMAZOO COLLEGE, at Kalamazoo, 
 Mich., under the control of the Baptists, was 
 founded in 1855. It admits both sexes, and is 
 supported by tuition fees (SI 8 per year), and the 
 income of an endowment of $80,000. It has a 
 library of 2,500 volumes, chemical and philo- 
 sophical apparatus, and cabinets of natural his- 
 tory. There is a preparatory and a collegiate 
 department, with three courses; namely, (1) Clas- 
 sical, including Greek and Latin; (2) Latin and 
 scientific (without Greek) ; (3) Scientific (with- 
 out Greek and Latin). Facilities are afforded 
 for instruction in music and art. In 187-4 — 5, 
 there were 11 instructors (3 females), and 174 
 students (108 males and 66 females), of whom 27 
 were of the collegiate grade. The presidents have 
 been as follows: the Rev. James A. H.Stone, 1 >.!>., 
 1855—64; John M. Gregory, LL.D., 1864—7; 
 and the Rev. Kendall Brooks, 1 >.!>.. the present 
 incumbent (1876), appointed in 1868. 
 
 KANSAS, originally a part of the Louisiana 
 purchase of L803, was organized as a separate ter- 
 ■ ritorybyan act of Congress passed in May, L854. 
 It was admitted into the Union in 1861. Its 
 area is 81,318 sq. in., and its population, accord- 
 ing to the census of 1870, was 364,399, of whom 
 17.1ns were colored, and 914 Indians. The state 
 census of L873 showed a gain of 67.63 per cent. 
 the total population of the state at that time be- 
 ing 610,863. ( >f the male adults 8. 12 per cent were 
 illiterate; and of the female adults, 13.2 percent. 
 
 Educational History. — By the provisions of 
 the constitution ratified in 1859, the legislature 
 was required to "encourage the promotion of 
 intellectual, moral, scientific, and agricultural 
 improvement, by establishing a uniform system 
 of common schools, and schools of higher grade, 
 embracing normal, preparatory, collegiate, and 
 university departments.'' It also provided for 
 the appointment of a state superintendent, 
 county superintendents, and a state board of 
 commissioners. Sections of land in every town- 
 ship had been, as in the case of other new states, 
 set apart for common-school purposes, and sev- 
 enty-two sections were reserved for the main- 
 tenance of a state university. School laws have 
 been passed, with modified provisions, from time 
 to time by successive legislatures. A compulsory 
 education law was enacted in 1874. 
 
 School System.— -The educational interests of 
 the state are committed to (1) a superintendent 
 of public instruction, elected for two years; (2)a 
 state board of education, consisting of the prin- 
 cipals of the normal schools, the president of the 
 
 stale university and of the agricultural college; 
 
 which body meets annually, and issues to teach- 
 ers, upon examination, diplomas for life or certifi- 
 cates for three or five years; (3) a state board 
 of commissioners, composed of the state super- 
 intendent, the secretary of state, and the at- 
 torney general, for the management of the per- 
 manent school and university funds ; and 
 
496 
 
 KANSAS 
 
 (4) county superintendents, elected for two 
 years, whose duty it is to apportion the school 
 moneys, to visit schools, and to hold teachers' 
 institutes. These institutes are also required to 
 be held annually by the superintendent of public 
 instruction, in the several judicial districts of 
 the state. The schools must be kept open six 
 hours per day for at least three months, the 
 school month consisting of four weeks of five 
 i lays each. The school age is from 5 to 21 years. 
 By the act of A.ugust, L874, parents are com- 
 pelled to send healthy children to public or 
 private schools not less than twelve weeks every 
 year, under the penalty of a tine of from #•*> to 
 sio for the first offense, and from #10 to $20 
 for every subsequent offense. School directors 
 are charged with the enforcement of this law. — 
 The school revenue is derived from (1) the pro- 
 ceeds of all lands granted by Congress to the 
 state for the support of schools, including the 
 500,000 acres granted to each new state in 1841; 
 (2) all estates of persons dying intestate and with- 
 out heirs; and (.'!) money derived from military 
 exemptions, fines, and estrays. The amount of 
 interest-bearing permanent school fund, in 1S75, 
 according to the report of the state superintend- 
 ent, for that year, was $1,163,534.09. The 
 income from all sources for the support of 
 schools, amounted to $1,478,998.64, including 
 S'-'CI.ijkH.:!!) from state funds, and $685,162.27 
 from district taxes. — The salaries of teachers 
 areas follows: average monthly salary of male 
 teachers, $33.98; of female teachers, $27.25. — 
 The course of instruction according to the law 
 of L874, includes orthography, reading, writing, 
 English grammar, arithmetic, and such other 
 branches as may be prescribed by the district 
 board. 
 
 Educational Condition. — The total number 
 of school-districts in the state is 4,560 ; and the 
 number of school houses. .'5,71."). According to the 
 
 report of L875, the number of persons of school 
 age was L99,986; of whom 103,551 were males, 
 and 96,435 females. The following are addi- 
 tional items of school statistics : 
 
 Number of pupils enrolled 142,606 
 
 Average daily attendance 85,580 
 
 Number of teachers, males 2,448 
 
 " " " females 2,935 
 
 Total 5,383 
 
 Receipts >1.I7s,'j:is.c,| 
 
 Expenditures, for salaries, repairs, etc. $1,235,969.72 
 Normal Instruction.- -There are three state 
 normal schools for the training of teachers. The 
 first was organized at Emporia in L865. This 
 affords a two years' and a four years' course of 
 study in the normal department, and has, be- 
 sides, a model department, consisting of a high> 
 school a in I era minar department, and an element- 
 ary training school. The enrollment, in L875, 
 was 302: in the normal department, 77: high 
 school, 8; braining and preparatory school, 217. 
 
 The second normal school isat Leavenworth and 
 
 was organized in 1870. This comprises a nor- 
 mal department, which affords a thorough knowl- 
 edge of all the subjects taught in the public 
 
 schools of the state, and a model school, in which 
 the art of teaching is practiced. The model 
 school comprises thirteen grades or departments, 
 and, in 1875, the total enrollment was 836 ; and 
 the number of teachers, 12. In the normal de- 
 partment, the enrollment was 420: and the num- 
 ber of teachers, 7 ; the average attendance was 
 about '250. This department includes two kinds 
 of classes: the regular classes of the normal 
 course, and the temporary classes of the institute 
 course. The former study in detail all that per- 
 tains to professional training: the latter give 
 their attention to all the ordinary common-school 
 subjects, with only enough detail to illustrate 
 methods. There are five of these short courses 
 in a school year. The normal students teach in 
 the grades of the city schools. The third normal 
 school, organized in 1 874, is located at Concordia. 
 The school edifice is a tine stone structure, ca- 
 pable of accomodating 300 students. The enroll- 
 ment, in L875, was. in the normal-department, 
 171 : iii the training school, 8'A: total, '254. 
 
 Secondary Instruction. — In 1^73, the regents 
 of the university authorized the preparation of 
 a course of study for the high schools of the 
 state, for the purpose of introducing uniformity 
 into the school system. With this view a clas- 
 sification was adopted which assigned to the high 
 schools an intermediate position between the 
 graded schools on the one hand, and the state 
 university and agricultural college on the other. 
 Three courses, each of four years, were arranged. 
 — a classical, a scientific, and an Knglish course. 
 The choice as to which shall be pursued, is op- 
 tional with the student. There are 66 graded 
 schools in the state which have, connected with 
 them, high school courses, attended by 1,066 pu- 
 pils. There are two business colleges, which were 
 
 reported, in 1874, to have 1 instructors and 179 
 
 students. 140 of the latter being males, and .'!!• 
 
 females. The principal denominational schools 
 
 of this grade are (I i St. Benedict's College (Ro- 
 man Catholic), at Atchison, with 7 instructors 
 and 110 students; (2) the college of the Sisters 
 of Bethany (Episcopal), at Topeka, witli a pri- 
 mary, a preparatory, and a collegiate department; 
 (.'!) Mt. St. Mary's Female Academy [Roman 
 Catholic), conducted by the Sisters of Charity, 
 with 7 instructors and 26 pupils: (4) the Geneva 
 Academy I Presbyterian) with 2 instructors and 
 100 pupils; (5) the Western Methodisi Collegiate 
 Institute, at Hartford: (6) Washburn College 
 (i longregational), at Topeka. 
 
 Superior Instruction. — Of the institutions 
 which afford instruction of this grade, the only 
 one under the direct management of the state i.- 
 the University of Kansas (q. v.), at Lawrence. 
 Others are included in the following table : 
 
 NAME 
 
 Location 
 
 Baker I niversitj Baldwin Citj 
 
 Highland University Highland 
 
 Lane University Lee pton 
 
 st. Benedict's College Atchison 
 
 si. Mary's CoUege st. Mary's 
 
 Washburn College Topeka 
 
 When 
 
 Religion* 
 
 found- 
 
 denomiua- 
 
 ed 
 
 tion 
 
 1857 
 
 M. l'l'is. 
 
 1857 
 
 Presb. 
 
 1866 
 
 U. Hreth. 
 
 1869 
 
 K. ('. 
 
 ls.-.'.i 
 
 R. C. 
 
 1SG5 
 
 Cong. 
 
KANSAS UNIVERSITY 
 
 K A NT 
 
 497 
 
 Professional and Scientific Instruction. — 
 The Kansas Agricultural College, at Manhattan, 
 is designed, as its name implies, to afford instruct 
 tion in agriculture; ami. to that end, it has a large 
 farm of over 400 acres, by means of which the 
 Students are enabled to put to a practical test 
 the theoretical knowledge acquired. This farm 
 has been divided into orchards for pears, apples, 
 etc., plots for the cultivation of grains and grasses. 
 and the raising of root-crops, as on an actual 
 farm. Besides this farm and the course con- 
 nected with it. there are departments for the 
 teaching of sewing, printing, and telegraphy. 
 The literary departments of the college include a 
 farmers', a mechanics', and a commercial course. 
 besides special instruction for women. It is 
 claimed that the full curriculum carries the 
 graduates up to the point reached by the best 
 colleges. The endowment of the institution was 
 derived from the sale of the congressional grant 
 of land (90,000 acres), yielding, in ordinary 
 years, an income of about $20,000, which it is 
 expected will, before many years, be doubled. 
 The attendance of students at the college, during 
 the year 1 874, was 208, of whom 139 were males, 
 and 69 females. 
 
 Special Instruction. — The Kansas Institution 
 for the Instruction of the Blind is organized with 
 a superintendent, matron, physician, and four 
 teachers, and receives pupils from 9 to 21 years 
 of age. It is expected that, before admission, 
 students shall have previously received sufficient 
 elementary instruction to enable them to go on 
 with the course pursued in the institution; and, 
 on this condition, they are received without 
 charge, except for clothing, traveling, and in- 
 cidental expenses. 
 
 KANSAS, University of, at Lawrence, 
 Kansas, was chartered in 1864. It is supported 
 by state appropriations, the income of a fund of 
 SI 0,500, and by contingent fees of $10 per 
 annum, the only charge made by the university. 
 The institution owns 72 sections of land granted 
 to the state by Congress, in 1861, for the sup- 
 port of a state university. The grounds com- 
 prise 50 acres on Mount Oriad, donated by 
 citizens of Lawrence and its vicinity. There are 
 two buildings, erected partly by the city and 
 partly by the state. The university has chemical 
 and philosophical apparatus, libraries containing 
 about 2,500 volumes, and a cabinet of natural 
 history. Both sexes are admitted. The charter 
 provides that the university shall consist of six 
 departments: (1) Science, literature, and the 
 Arts: (2) Law; (.'!) Medicine; (4) Theory and 
 Practice of Elementary Instruction ; (5) Agri- 
 culture ; (6) The Normal Department. Of these 
 several departments, — Science, Literature, and 
 the Arts, and the Normal Department, are the 
 only ones yet organized. These departments, 
 at present, comprise seven courses of instruc- I 
 tion ; namely, a classical and a modern literature 
 course, each leading to the degree of Bachelor 
 of Arts ; a general scientific course, and three 
 special scientific courses, — one in chemistry, one 
 in natural history, and one in civil and top- 
 32 
 
 "graphical engineering each of the four scien- 
 tific courses leading to the degree of Bachelor 
 of Science. A three years' preparatory course 
 
 precedes a four years' course in each of these de- 
 partments. A normal course was added in April, 
 1876. In L875 — 6. there were L0 instructors 
 and 237 students (72 collegiate, 35 normal, and 
 130 preparatory), of whom 1 17 were males and 
 L20 females. The presidents of the university 
 have been as follows : the Rev. R W. Oliver, 
 I). I)., 1865—8; Bev. John Fraser, A. M., 
 1868—74; and the Rev. dames Marvin, D. D., 
 the present incumbenl (1876), appointed in 1874 
 KANT, Imrnanuel, one of the most illus- 
 trious of philosophers, was born April 22., 1724, 
 at Konigsberg, where he died Fetor. 12., 1804. 
 After having been for nine years a tutor, he be- 
 came in 1755. jirirnt rdoct nt, and. in 1770, pro- 
 fessor, in the philosophical faculty of the univer- 
 sity of Konigsberg. The latter position he re- 
 tained until his death. The philosophical system 
 of Kant, which marks one of the great turning- 
 points' in the history of philosophy, is designated 
 by the name of critical philosophy, or criticism, 
 because he was the first who, by a keen analysis 
 and criticism of our power of cognition, endeav- 
 ored to fix a distinct boundary line between that 
 which is essential and generally valid in our 
 cognition on the one hand, and that which is 
 empirical, non-essential, and accidental, on the 
 other. The chief tenets of his system are the 
 following : (1) that we know things not in 
 their essence, but in their external appearance; 
 (2) that there are in the human mind, a priori, 
 elements of transcendental knowledge, but that 
 this transcendental knowledge does not at- 
 tain, with absolute certainty, to the nature of 
 things ; (3) that God, freedom, and immortality 
 are postulates of practical reason ; (-1) that the 
 moral law is a categorical imperative. The prin- 
 cipal works of Kant, which are still reckoned 
 among the classic productions of philosophical 
 literature, are, Kritik der reinen Vemunft 
 (1781); Kritik der praktischen I r ern unfit (1788); 
 Kritik der Urtheilskraft (1790); Die Religion 
 innerhalb der Grdnzeu der blossen Vemunft 
 (1793) ; Anthropohgie in pragmatischer Hiii- 
 sieht (1798). — As professor of philosophy, Kant 
 was required to deliver, alternately with the 
 other professors of the same subject, lectures on 
 pedagogy. The notes which he prepared for these 
 lectures, were, in the latter part of his life, revised 
 and arranged by his pupil Rink, who, in 1803, 
 published them under the title, Imrnanuel Kant 
 uber Padagogik. Kant regarded education as 
 the highest and most difficult task which can be 
 assigned to man. He, therefore, insisted that 
 pedagogics should be made the subject of earnest 
 study, that education should be freed from 
 mechanism, and be elevated to an art guided by 
 science. Children must not be educated, in ac- 
 cordance with mere custom, for the world, as it 
 now exists, but, in harmony with the idea of 
 humanity, for a better condition of society in the 
 future. The plan of education should not be 
 narrow and restricted, but cosmopolitan. The 
 
498 
 
 KENTUCKY 
 
 development of man for the fulfillment of the 
 manifold laws of his existence is regarded by 
 Kant as the proper object of education. He lays 
 particular stress upon practical morality, and 
 requires that the teaching of religious doctrines 
 should be preceded by a thorough course of in- 
 struction in the principles of morality, which 
 should be derived from reason. The work of 
 God (conscience, moral law, and reason) must 
 be known, before God himself can be known. — 
 Kant was a great admirer of the pedagogical 
 views of Montaigne and Rousseau, and took an 
 earnest interest in the career of ihe philanthro- 
 pic lie has exerted considerable influence upon 
 the development of German pedagogics; as is 
 i \ [dent from the fact that a number of the most 
 devoted believers in his philosophical views dis- 
 tinguished themselves as educational writers; 
 among whom may be mentioned Niemeyer, 
 Sehwarz, and Rosenkranz; and even llerbart 
 was greatly influenced by Kant. — Editions of 
 the complete works of Kant have been pub- 
 lished by Habtenstem (10 vols., 1838-^9 ; 2d 
 edit., 8 vols., 1867 — 9), by Schubert and Rosen- 
 ki:\\/. ill vols., 1840 — L2, with a biography by 
 Schubert), and Kirchmann (Berlin, 18(!8 — 74). 
 A good English translation of the Critique of 
 Pure Ramon has been published by J. M. 1). 
 Mkiki.kjoiix (in Bonn's Philosophical Library, 
 1855). Recent works of value to English stu- 
 dents are Mahaffy, Kant's Critical Philosophy 
 for EwjHxfi I!<;/i/<ts ilx)ndon, 1*71, et seq.) ; 
 Am;orr's Kant's Theory of Ethics (London. 
 1873) ; and Montr's Introduction to the Critical 
 Philosophy (Dublin, 1874). A new edition of 
 Rink's pamphlet, Tmmanuel Kant aber Pdda- 
 gogik, with select passages from the other works 
 of Kant, relating to educational tonics, has been 
 published by Wfllmann (as the LOth vol. of Rich- 
 ter's PcLdagogische Biblioihek). 
 
 KENTUCKY, one of the interior states of 
 the American ' Inion, was originally a part of the 
 state of Virginia, but was set off from it as a sepa- 
 rate territory in 1 790, and admitted into the Oh- 
 ionin L792,aa the second state after the original 
 thirteen. Its population, at thai time, was about 
 75,000; but, in 1800, it was reported as 220,595. 
 Its area is 37,680 sq. m., and its population, in 
 1870, was 1,321,011, its rank in the latter respect 
 
 being the eighth. 
 
 Educational History, The first step taken by 
 this state in the interest of education, after its ad- 
 mission into the Union, was in L798, when, by ad 
 of the legislature, 6,000 acres of the public lands 
 of the Btate were given to each of the following 
 
 institutions: Franklin, Salem, and Kentucky 
 
 academies, and Lexington and Jefferson semina 
 
 lies. In 1805 and L808, acts were passed extend 
 
 iug these provisions to all the counties of the 
 
 stall' then existing. Within twentv years after the 
 
 age of the act of 1798, fort \ six additional 
 
 institutions were endowed I 'V a similar grant of 
 6)000 acres. Another law provided that, in ad- 
 dition to this, a large tract of public land, speci- 
 fied by the act, should he set apart for edu- 
 cational purposes ; and the county COUTtS W6M 
 
 authorized to cause to be surveyed, located, and 
 patented, within their respective counties, the 
 reserve above indicated, or elsewhere in the state, 
 ; 6,000 acres each for seminary purposes, such 
 lands to be exempt from taxation. Through in- 
 attention or interested legislation, however, the 
 land was, in many cases, sold by the county au- 
 thorities, and the proceeds were squandered; in 
 others, the funds are still held for their original 
 uses by trustees. On the 18th of December, 1 8 'J 1 , 
 one-half of the net profits of the Bank of the 
 Commonwealth were, by act of the legislature, 
 set apart as a Literary Fund, to be distributed) 
 pro rata, to the counties of the state, for the 
 support of a general system of education, under 
 state direct ion : and one-half of the net profits 
 of the branch banks at Lexington. Danville, and 
 Bowling Green wire, in a similar way. given to 
 Transylvania University. Centre College, and 
 the Southern College of Kentucky, respectively. 
 Until the failure of the bank, this last appro- 
 priation yielded about Slid. (Mill annually. In 
 
 L836, Congress apportioned $15,000,000, surplus 
 funds in the treasury, to the older states, with 
 the understanding that it was to be devoted to 
 educational purposes. Of this amount. Kentucky's 
 .share was $1,433,757. As no condition was im- 
 posed, however, that it should be used as an edu- 
 cational fund, only $1,000,000 of it was set apart 
 for that purpose: and this was afterwards re- 
 duced to $850,000. This was the origin of the 
 permanently invested school fund of the state, 
 and the interest of it was for many years the 
 only constant revenue for the support of the 
 public schools. In 1838, the first law for the 
 establishment of a general system of common 
 schools was enacted : but for ten years little was 
 done to nii.ke it effective ; and, in 1840, the state 
 having entered upon a system of cosily internal 
 improvements by which a deficit in the treasury 
 was caused, i he payment of interest on the school 
 
 bonds was refused. This was followed by the 
 calling in and burning of all the school bonds. 
 In L847 s . however, an act was passed, chiefly 
 through the efforts of Rev. Robert .1. Rreckin- 
 ridge, directing the governorto issue a new bond 
 for all arrears of interest due, and submitting to 
 a vote of the people a proposition to levy a tax 
 
 of two Cents on each one hundred dollars, for 
 
 common-school purposes. The election showed 
 a majority of 36,882 votes in favor of this tax. 
 In L849, upon the framing of a new constitution 
 
 for the state, the school funds, for which the 
 state had given bonds to the state hoard of edu- 
 cation, were forever dedicated to common-school 
 purposes, together with all other funds which 
 might thereafter be raised for the same purpose. 
 Dm ing the legislative session of L850- 51 ,a fieri e 
 contest arose between the governor (John L 
 
 Helm) and the state superintendent (Rev. I>r. 
 
 Breckinridge) as to whether the common school 
 
 fund should Ik' considered a part of the regular 
 
 siate debt, the interest of which was payable out 
 of the sinking fund. Dr. Breckinridge considered 
 that it should be so paid, and the adoption of 
 
 this method was of vital moment to the popu- 
 
KENTUCKY 
 
 491) 
 
 larity of the public-school system, since, if it 
 were not so pud, aspecial annual tax of #80,000 
 would be necessary. After a Long and heated dis- 
 oaaskm, a bill directing the commissioners of the 
 
 sinking fund to pay the interest of the school 
 bonds was passed : but it was vetoed by the 
 
 governor. It was. however, immediately repassed 
 over his veto, by a large vote. In L85o, the 
 school tax w;is increased from two to five cents 
 on the hundred dollars, by a majority of 57,980 
 votes out of 109,492 cast. Prom that time till 
 IstiT, little change was made in the common- 
 school system of the state. In the latter year, 
 the state superintendent, Z. F. Smith, prepared 
 a plan which contemplated an entire reorgani- 
 zation of the system. His proposition to increase 
 the school tax from five to twenty cents on the 
 hundred dollars, to add a poll tax of one or two 
 dollars, and to empower the people of any county, 
 district, town, or city to vote an additional local 
 tax of thirty cents on the hundred dollars, for 
 school purposes, was accepted by the legislature, 
 and carried by a large popular majority. His 
 plan for the reconstruction of the schools, though 
 greatly modified, was substantially embodied in 
 the law enacted, and resulted in giving a fresh 
 impetus to the cause of education. In 1873, the 
 present school laws went into effect, and the 
 beneficial results of their operation are looked 
 for with very great confidence. In 1S74, an 
 act was passed for the establishment of a uni- 
 form school system for the education of colored 
 children, to be under the supervision of the 
 superintendent of public instruction and the 
 state board of education. This act provides that 
 all taxes collected from colored people shall go 
 to the support of colored schools. — The State 
 Superintendents have been as follows : Joseph 
 J. Bullock, D. P., 1837—9; Hubbard H. Kav- 
 anaugh. D. D., 1839 — 40 ; Benjamin B. Smith, 
 D. D., 1840—42 ; George W. Brush, 1842—3 ; 
 Ryland T. Dillard, D. I)., 1843—7 ; Robert J. 
 Breckinridge, D.D., LL. D., 1847—53; John I). 
 Mathews, 1 >.!)., 1853 — 9; Robert Richardson, 
 A. M., 1859—63; Daniel Stevenson, D.D., 1863 
 —7; Zach. F. Smith, 1867—71 ; Howard A. M. 
 Henderson, D. !>., elected in 1871. 
 
 School System. — The general supervision and 
 control of the educational interests of the state 
 are intrusted to a state hoard of education, which 
 consists of the secretary of state, attorney gen- 
 eral, superintendent of public instruction, and 
 two professional educators. The last three con- 
 stitute a standing committee for the preparation 
 of rides, by-laws, and regulations for the govern- 
 ment of the schools, anl for the recommendation 
 of a proper course of study and suitable text- 
 books — the latter to be adopted at the discretion 
 of the county board of examiners. The executive 
 officer of the board is the superintendent of pub- 
 lic instruction who is elected for four years, and 
 whose duty it is to exercise a general supervision 
 over the schools of the state, to distribute an- 
 nually through the state the school laws, to 
 furnish blanks for reports, certificates, etc., and 
 to perform all other duties naturally devolving 
 
 upon the office of superintendent. The school 
 year is live months, of twenty-two days each; 
 ami the required age of pupils is from' 6 to 20 
 years. No books, tracts, paper, catechisms, or 
 publications of a sectarian character are permit* 
 ted to lie used in the schools in any way. The 
 
 state board of examiners consists 'of the state 
 
 superintendent and two practical educators ap- 
 pointed by him. Their sessions arc held in -Inly 
 of each year for the examination of teachers ap- 
 plying tor certificates. These certificates, for each 
 of which the examiners are allowed to charge three 
 
 dollars, entitle the recipients to teach five years 
 in any of the common schools, without re exam- 
 ination by county boards. The county commis- 
 sioners are elected for two years by the county 
 judges and justices of the peace, their functions 
 corresponding to those of county superintendents 
 of other states. — The county board if examiners 
 consists of the county commissioner and two 
 competent persons appointed by him. They 
 examine teachers, grant certificates, and select a 
 uniform series of text-books, to be in use two 
 years. 
 
 Educational Condition. — Concerning the num- 
 ber of school-districts, schools, etc.. advices from 
 counties and districts are so imperfectly made 
 up that entirely accurate statistics cannot be ob- 
 tained. In the annual report of the state super- 
 intendent for the year ending June, 1874, an 
 approximate result is given as follows : number 
 of school-districts, 4,035; districts in which com- 
 mon schools are taught, 3,983 ; common- school 
 houses, 3,1 18; private schools, 463; academies, 53; 
 colleges, 25. The number of male teachers in the 
 common schools was 2,756 ; of female teachers, 
 1,017 ; average attendance of pupils, 114,603. 
 
 Normal Instruction. — There is an incorpo- 
 rated normal school at Carlisle under private 
 control ; but those who graduate from the course 
 provided for teachers have the right, under the 
 charter, to teach in the common schools of the 
 state five years without examination by either 
 state or county boards. Louisville has a train- 
 ing school connected with its public-school 
 system ; and the Frankfort public school has a 
 training class. At Lexington, there is a colored 
 school with a normal department under the 
 direction of the American Missionary Society. 
 Teachers' institutes are held in almost every 
 county of the state. These institutes are con- 
 ducted by professional teachers; and, being the 
 chief agency for normal instruction in the state, 
 receive considerable attention. 
 
 Secondary Instruction. — High schools for 
 males and females are maintained in Louisville, 
 and some other parts of the state. There are 
 also academies, female seminaries and colleges; 
 and commercial colleges. Of the former. 17 were 
 enumerated in the state, superintendent's report 
 for 1874. The two business colleges at 1 ouisville 
 and I^xington, reported, in 1874, 9 instructors 
 and 240 students. 
 
 Superior Instruction. — The following table 
 includes the principal colleges and universities, 
 exclusive of female colleevs, in the state : 
 
500 
 
 KENTUCKY 
 
 KENTUCKY UNIVERSITY 
 
 
 
 When 
 
 Religious 
 
 NAME 
 
 Location 
 
 found- 
 
 denomin.i- 
 
 
 
 ed 
 
 tion 
 
 Bethel College 
 
 Busselville 
 
 1849 
 
 Baptist 
 
 Centra] Cniversil \ . . . 
 
 Richmond 
 
 is;:; 
 
 & i. Presb. 
 
 
 Im:\ ille 
 
 ]H1<> 
 
 b 
 
 
 Sew Liberty 
 
 L839 
 
 Kv. Luth. 
 
 Eminence College — 
 
 Emim in i 
 
 is:, 7 
 
 Non-sect. 
 
 etown College, . 
 
 i Georgetown 
 
 [829 
 
 Baptist 
 
 Kentucky University. 
 
 Lexington 
 
 1 868 
 
 N ■ in sect. 
 
 Ky . Military Inst 
 
 ETarmdale 
 
 1846 
 
 Non sect. 
 
 Kv. Weslej ;m Univ.. . 
 
 Millersburg 
 
 1859 
 
 M. E. So. 
 
 
 st. Mary's 
 
 1821 
 
 R. ('. 
 
 
 Bowling Green 
 
 
 M. E. So. 
 
 The female colleges are quite numerous : chief 
 among which may be mentioned Bethel Female 
 College, a1 Boplrinsville, a Baptist institution; 
 Bourbon Female College, at Paris; the Presby- 
 terian Female College, at Bowling Cieen : Bap- 
 tist Female College, at Clinton; Franklin Fe- 
 male College, at Franklin; Lebanon Female 
 College (Baptist), at Lebanon; Lexington Fe- 
 male College (Baptist), at Lexington: Logan 
 Female College (M. B. South), at Busselville; 
 Louisville Female College (Meth.), at Louisville; 
 Millersburg Female College, at Millersburg; 
 Shelbyville Female College (So. Presb.), at 
 Shelbyville ; and Stanford Female College, at 
 Stanford. Besides these, there are several un- 
 chartered institutions which are prosecuting 
 the work of higher education. Among these 
 may lie mentioned Warren College at Bowling 
 Green; Daughters College, Barrodsburg; 1 locker 
 Female College, Lexington; the Kentucky Col- 
 lege for Young Ladies, IVwee Valley; and 
 Berea Coljege, at Berea. The last was organ- 
 ized in' L858 for both sexes, without distinction 
 of race. 
 
 Professional and Scientific Tnsiru 
 Scientific instruction is partially provided in 
 many of the colleges already enumerated; but 
 special provision in this respect is made in the 
 State Agricultural and Mechanical College, a1 
 Lexington. The course comprises the following 
 departments: (I ) English Language and literature; 
 (2) mathematics; (3) chemistry and experimental 
 philosophy: i I) natural history and political econ- 
 omy; (•*>) mental and moral philosophy; (6) com- 
 mercial training: IT) mining and civil engineer- 
 ing; (8) modern languages; (9) fine arts; (10) mili- 
 tary tactics. Law is taught in a special school 
 forming a part of the Kentucky University; and 
 
 medicine in tlie Transylvania Medical College. 
 
 now forming a department of the same univer- 
 sity. The Louisville Medical College, Louisville 
 
 Hospital Medical College, and the university of 
 Louisville also afford opportunity for instruction 
 in the theory and practice of medicine. 
 
 Sp cial Instruction. The institution for deaf- 
 mutes, at Danville, is one of the oldest in the 
 United States, having been founded in L823. 
 It is a school for the education of deaf-mutes, 
 
 similar to that of New York and of Hartford, 
 
 and not an asylum. Every deaf-mute in the state. 
 
 of Bound mind, between the ages of in and 'At), 
 is entitled to its privileges for seven years, fp 
 
 charge It is under the control of a board of 
 commi rionen appointed hy the governor. Its 
 
 resident officers are a principal, matron. steward, 
 and physician. Its curriculum is that which is 
 common to such institutions. The Asylum for 
 the Education of the Blind, at Louisville, is in- 
 tended to furnish instruction to every child in 
 the state, between the ages of <°> and 16, who is 
 deprived by defective sight from receiving the 
 education usually given in the common schools. 
 In addition to these institutions for special in- 
 struction, the Kentucky Institution for the Edu- 
 cation of Feeble-Minded Children, at Frankfort, 
 is worthy of mention. This was re-established 
 in 1874, after having been discontinued for 
 some years. As its name implies, it is for 
 "feeble-minded children." not for idiots. To 
 such children, between, the ages of 6 and 18 
 years, the state affords, through this institu- 
 tion, an education free of charge. The build- 
 ing is situated just beyond the city limits of 
 Frankfort. 
 
 Society for the Advancement of Education. — 
 On the L5th of -'uly, 1874, a meeting was called 
 at Frankfort to concert measures for establish- 
 ing a school or schools for the training of teach- 
 ers and the education of young men for clas- 
 sical and technical pursuits. 'I his resulted in 
 the foundation of the Society for the Advance- 
 ment of Education. 
 
 State Teachers' Association. — This body holds 
 annual meetings to promote the cause of com- 
 mon schools and popular education, and to ele- 
 vate the character and advance the interests of 
 the profession of teaching. Prominent educa- 
 tors from other states are usually present by 
 invitation and take part in the proceedings, 
 which consist of discussions in regard to school 
 matters, a daily order of exercises illustrative of 
 school methods. and lectures in the evening. The 
 
 Louisville Educational Association is a body 
 formed for essentially the same purpose as the 
 Teachers' Association. 
 
 KENTUCKY UNIVERSITY, at Lexing- 
 ton, Ky. was chartered in 1858. With the ex- 
 ception of the theological department, which is 
 under the control of the Christian Church, it is 
 non sectarian. It was opened as a college, in 
 I sal', at Barrodsburg in the building of Bacon 
 College, the property of which had been trans- 
 ferred to the university. By an act of the legis- 
 lature, in 1865, the institution was removed to 
 Lexington, the property and endowment of 
 Transylvania University v. ere transferred to it, 
 ami the State Agricultural College, founded with 
 the congressional land grant, was made a de- 
 partment of it. In 1866, Ashland, the home- 
 stead of Henry Clay, and the adjoining estate of 
 Woodlands, on the border of and partly within 
 the city, the entire tract containing 133 acres, 
 
 were purchased for an experimental farm and 
 the permanent site of the university. These 
 
 grounds are now the scat of the Agricultural 
 aid Mechanical College. The other depart meiits 
 
 occupy the former campus of Transylvania Oni- 
 
 :iy, containing -H acres in the city, with 
 suitable buildings. The university has an en- 
 dowment of aliout $400,000; the value of its real 
 
KENTUCKY MILITARY IXSTiTCI II 
 
 kindergarten 
 
 .001 
 
 estate is about $250,000. The libraries contain 
 
 about 10.000 volumes. It has a museum of 
 natural history, an anatomical museum, and 
 valuable chemical, philosophical, and astronom- 
 ical apparatus. The university comprises the 
 following colleges: (1) The College of Arts; 
 ('_') The Agricultural and Mechanical Colleg 
 Kentucky; (3) 1'he College of the Bible ; I t)The 
 Normal College (not yet organized); (5) The 
 Commercial College; (<>) The College of Law; 
 (7) The College of Medicine (Transylvania 
 Medical College). Tuition in the theological 
 department is free ; in arts and agriculture, its 
 cost is $5 per year, in commerce $30, in law 
 •S<»0. in medicine $10 for each professor. Each 
 legislative district of the state is entitled to send 
 three students to the university free of charge 
 for tuition in any of the first four colleges 
 named above. In 1873 — I, the whole number 
 of instructors in the various colleges was 32, and 
 of students. 406. John B. Bowman, LL. D., to 
 ■whom the foundation of the university is mainly 
 due, is (1876) the regent. 
 
 KENTUCKY MILITARY INSTITUTE, 
 at Farmdale, Franklin ( 1 o.. Ky.. was founded in 
 1 8 15. chartered in 1846, and placed under the 
 direction and control of a board of visitors ap- 
 pointed by the governor of the state, who is, ex 
 officio, inspector of the institute. The superinten- 
 dent, faculty, and cadets are constituted a quasi 
 military corps ; and the officers are commissioned 
 under the seal of the commonwealth. The arms 
 are furnished by the state. The institution has 
 fine grounds, and buildings erected at a cost of 
 more than $1 00.000. The library contains 3,000 
 volumes. The charge for tuition is $100 per 
 annum ; for board, etc., 3200. There is a prepara- 
 tory, an undergraduate, a resident graduate, a civil 
 engineering, and a commercial course. The under- 
 graduate course is in three divisions, requiring 
 from three to five years for completion, and com- 
 prises four departments, mathematics, languages, 
 natural science, and English. .V certificate of pro- 
 ficiency is conferred after a satisfactory exami- 
 nation iu the studies of a department; in the de- 
 partment of languages a knowledge of two is re- 
 quired, of which one must be cither Latin or < ler- 
 man. The degrees of Bachelor of Mathematics, 
 of Natural Science, and of English, an' conferred 
 after an examination in an extended course 
 in the respective departments. For the degree 
 of Bachelor of Languages, four languages are re- 
 quired. The degree of Bachelor of Arts is con- 
 ferred on those receiving certificates of proficiency 
 in three departments, an 1 of Master of Arts 
 upon those who receive them in all the four de- 
 partments. Upon those completing the com- 
 mercial course the degree of Bachelor of Com- 
 mercial Science is conferred. In the resident 
 graduate course, besides mathematical, scientific, 
 and linguistic studies, an elementary course of 
 medicine or a professional course of law may be 
 pursued. In 1875 — fi, there were 8 instruct- 
 ors, 51 students, and 222 alumni. The super- 
 intendents have been as follows : Col. lb T. P. 
 Allen, 20 yrs.j Col. E. W. Morgan, 7 yrs.; B. B. 
 
 Sayre, 2 yrs.: and Col Robert I>. Allen, tho 
 present incumbent, 2 yrs. 
 
 KENTUCKY WESLEY AN COLLEGE, 
 at Millersburg, Ky., under the control of the 
 Methodist Episcopal Church, South, was char- 
 tered in L859 and opened in L866. It has a 
 four years' course, with departments of English 
 language and literature, history and philosophy, 
 chemistry and natural science, mathematics, 
 Greek, and Latin. All these arc necessarj to the 
 degree of A. B., and with the exception of Gi 
 and Latin, to the degree of B. S. In L875— 6, 
 there were 5 instructors and 94 students. The 
 value of its buildings, grounds, and apparatus is 
 $40,000; amount of productive funds, $45,400. 
 T. J. Dodd, 1). J)., is (1876) the president. 
 
 KENYON COLLEGE, at Gambier, Ohio. 
 is under Protestant Episcopal control. It w;ls 
 first incorporated under the title of the Theolog- 
 ical Seminary of the Protestant Episcopal 
 Church in the Diocese of Ohio, and was opened 
 for elementary instruction at Worthington, in 
 L825. By a subsequent act of the legislature. 
 
 the president and professors were constituted the 
 faculty of a college, under the name of Kenyon 
 College; and. in June, 1828, the institution was 
 removed to its present site. In 1840, the theolog- 
 ical department was separated from the college, 
 and constituted the Theological Seminary of the 
 Diocese of Ohio. Auxiliary to the college, there 
 is a preparatory school. The college park com- 
 prises 50 acres, and contains four college 1 luildings 
 and six houses for the professors. At some dis- 
 tance, are the buildings of the preparatory depart- 
 ment and the theological seminary. The college 
 has an endowment of SI 00.000. an astronomical 
 observatory, and libraries containing 19,000 vol- 
 umes. The value of its buildings, grounds, and ap- 
 paratus is$160,000. In 1873 — 74, there were 8 
 instructors and 66 students (13 preparatory and 
 53 collegiate). The number of alumni, in 1S72, 
 was 453. The presidents of the college have been 
 as follows : the Rt. Rev. Philander Chase, D. D,, 
 1825—31 ; the Rt. Rev. Charles P. Mcllvaine. 
 1). D., D.C.L., LL. D.. 1832—40; David Bates 
 Douglass, LL. I). . 1840 — 14; the Rev. Samuel 
 Fuller, D. D. (provisional), L844— 5 : the Rev, 
 Sherlock A. Bronson, 1>. D.. 1845 — 50; the Rev. 
 Thomas M. Smith. D.D., L850— 54; Lorin An- 
 drews, LL. I).. 1854 — (il ; Benj. L. Lang, A. M. 
 ing), 1861—3; Charles ' Short. LL. D., 
 1863 — 7: the Rev. dames Kent Stone. A. M 
 1867—8; Eli T. Tappan, L.L.D., 1868 75; and 
 the Rev. E. < !. Benson, A.M. (acting), the present 
 incumbent ( 1S7G). 
 
 KINDERGARTEN (Ger., children's gar} 
 den), a peculiar system of education, founded by 
 Friedrich Froebel (q. v.), designed to precede all 
 other elementary training, and to prepare the 
 chiM for regular instruction by exercising all its 
 ] lowers so as to render it self-active. While the 
 reformers of education before his time. I'estalozzi 
 included, whose assistant he was, treated the 
 youthful mind, more or less, as a passive recipient 
 of truth, goodness, and beauty, it was Froclx l's 
 fundamental idea to set the child to do whatever 
 
502 
 
 KINDERGARTEN" 
 
 it could be induced to do as a kind of amusement, 
 
 exercising its observing faculties in connection 
 •with its playthings and games, and thus to create 
 in it an interest in learning. He discovered, 
 by means of half a century's attentive practice 
 in teaching, in association with many other 
 excellent educators, that the faculties of most 
 children are stunted in infancy and earliest youth 
 by the want of appropriate mental food ; that 
 every child may be developed (may develop 
 itself) into a self-educator by appropriate amuse- 
 ments ; and that, in this manner, pleasure may 
 be made the most efficient instrument in the first 
 stages of education. He studied all the plays and 
 games in use from the most ancient times, in 
 order to find their special adaptation to mental 
 and bodily growth, and thus formed a complete 
 philosophical system of early intellectual culture. 
 This culture was to begin in the earliest years, 
 with ball plays, accompanied by snatches of song 
 and rhyme : later, with a sphere, a cube, and a 
 cylinder of wood, used for various amusing ex- 
 ercises, and calculated to enliven the attention, 
 and increase the self-activity of the infant. The 
 two little books for mothers, which contain his 
 suggestions for this purpose, disclaim any merit 
 of invention ; he considers them derived simply 
 from a diligent observation of the methods of 
 many excellent and successful mothers. But it 
 was not from books alone that he intended that 
 mothers should learn how to train their children. 
 They were to be educated, as young children, in 
 a kindergarten, and afterwards, before graduat- 
 ing from the upper classes, to learn the art of 
 infant education in a model kindergarten. It 
 was in this way that he hoped to render, in the 
 course of time, all mothers true educators of in- 
 fancy, the centers of happy family circles, and 
 the priestesses of a higher humanity, so that they 
 might be "in harmony with themselves, with nat- 
 ure, and with God. ' — But mere family education 
 It ling liable to one-sidedness and exclusiveness, 
 social education should begin early, in order to 
 complement the former. During part of the day, 
 the child should be in company with many other 
 children of the same age, and should engage in 
 such plays as supply, in a gradually ascending 
 scale, proper food for the mental and bodily 
 appetites and functions, while making the com- 
 pany of little ones as happy as possible. This 
 can be done only under the guidance of a true 
 t teller, who should be a female capable, by nat- 
 ural endowments and previous study, to take 
 the place, in this respect, of the mother. The 
 locality should be a hall in a garden, with Mow- 
 ers, shrubs, trees, each child having its own 
 flower-bed, so that it may learn how to raise 
 plants, and to enjoy nature. The playful occu- 
 pations of the pupils comprise a great variety of 
 I lays in a given order which, however, should 
 
 n >! be absolutely fixed, but should afford a 
 
 fa ■ ilthy change, without inducing habits of im- 
 perfect attention and restlessness. None of these 
 
 occupations were the invention of Froebe] | they 
 had all been practiced more or less before his 
 time. But their combination into a harmonious 
 
 whole, their adaptation for mental food in every 
 direction, and their development in detail must 
 be set down as Froebel's creation ; and the expe- 
 rience had with them for more than twenty-five 
 years, and in many hundreds of kindergartens, 
 justifies the wisdom of the sytem. Although 
 meeting at first with a most stubborn opposition 
 on the part of governments, sects, and the teach- 
 ing fraternity, the kindergarten has, step by 
 stej), made friends of enemies, silenced the most 
 severe critics, and won favor with governments 
 (in Austria, Italy, and Russia), with the Roman 
 Catholic bishops (in Belgium. France, Hungary, 
 and many parts of the I nited States), and with 
 orthodox Protestants <>f various denominations. 
 It has been endorsed by the great conventions of 
 German teachers, after a protracted study of its 
 results: and, in America, by the National Teach- 
 ers' Association, at the meeting held at Elmira. 
 in 1873. In short, it seems to be destined to be 
 universally adopted, and to be connected with 
 every infant school. There is still much con- 
 troversy among the followers of Froebel them- 
 selves in regard to the mi nor details of the system : 
 and some improvement has been made upon his 
 own first practical realization of the idea, which, 
 from insufficiency of means, could not be all thai 
 he desired; but the indefinite perfectibility of the 
 system in practical details, according to its prin- 
 ciples, insures its progressive success— The exer- 
 cises of the kindergarten are alternately carried 
 on in a sitting, and in a standing or walking 
 position, for the sake of a salutary change, and 
 are partly such as can. without special training, 
 be guided by any good teacher; namely, singing; 
 the reciting of child-like poetry committed to 
 memory by means of the teacher's frequent 
 repetition; light gymnastics, marching exercises, 
 and easy ball plays; acting the doings of men 
 and animals ; all these accompanied from time 
 to time with song, or turned into object lessons 
 by frequent conversation on the things men- 
 tioned or represented; also amusing employment 
 with playthings, called gifts, of which there are 
 several sets. (See (itiTs.) The guidance of these 
 occupations requires a practical training, on the 
 part of the teat her, and a theoretical study 
 which never can lie too thorough, if the pupil's 
 mental and moral development is to become 
 what Froebel intended it to be. Each Of these 
 
 t ixercist b serves a threefold purpose,- to produce 
 
 forms of beauty, forms of life (such as re- 
 semble things that occur within the child's ex- 
 perience), and tonus of knowledge (such as may 
 lead to a knowledge of the qualities, quantities 
 and actions of objects'. The child itself is to 
 produce these forms; the teacher is not to teach 
 
 them, but to lead his pupil by suggestions con- 
 veyed in questions or conversation, so that the 
 child may become inventive. To do this properly, 
 Froebel has advised a method based on the law 
 of contraries and their combination into a higher 
 unit; but the teacher is to abstain from all 
 learned lore from using abstract expressions. 
 
 Abstract notions and words are severely banished 
 from the kindergarten; it is merely concrete 
 
KINDERGARTEN 
 
 50S 
 
 facts, which the child can learn through 
 the senses, and can clothe in its own language, 
 that can become familiar to it by its own mental 
 
 assimilation. Neither is discipline to be main- 
 tained by authority or by any mechanical means; 
 but by the suggestions of the teacher, and by 
 the pupils'own absorption in the interest of their 
 occupations. Thus children are, at an early age, 
 enabled to discipline themselves through pleasant 
 employment, to submit to the will of the majority 
 of their equals, on the one hand, or to assert, on 
 the other, their own free volition, if they can 
 induce others to agree with them. Thus, they 
 are to take their first lessons in moral self-govern- 
 ment, 
 
 An objection has been urged to the general 
 introduction of the kindergarten as being to.) 
 costly; but experience has established the indis- 
 putable fact, that a good kindergarten need cost 
 no more than the best primary school. The 
 genuine kindergartner — and none but such 
 ought to be employed — can superintend more 
 than a hundred children at a time, provided 
 she begin with no more than twenty, adding 
 twenty more as soon as she has a good assistant 
 able to replace her ; and again twenty more, and 
 so on. whenever one more assistant is prepared to 
 take her place. Such assistants may be pupils 
 of the training or normal school classes, who 
 wish to acquire the art of infant education, and 
 heed not be paid for their assistance. These pupil- 
 teachers will not, of course, by merely six months' 
 help in this way, be fully able to conduct a 
 kindergarten independently ; but they will learn 
 enough to be valuable assistants, and to become 
 good educators as mothers. This is not merely an 
 economical measure, but is sustained by peda- 
 gogical principles. The little pupils of a kinder- 
 garten, from four to seven years old, will form 
 several grades, that can simultaneously be en- 
 gaged only in certain occupations; while, in all 
 others, they must be separately employed. As, 
 then, divisions into grades are indispensable, 
 and the principal teacher must go from one to 
 the other, she can leave all the grades under 
 the guidance of proficient assistants, taking 
 the pupil-teachers along from division to divi- 
 sion, thus affording them an opportunity to 
 witness the greatest variety of exercises possible 
 within a short space of time, and to practice 
 every one under her direction. Besides, she 
 can hardly fail to receive valuable support in 
 the singing, articulation, and gymnastic exer- 
 cises, from the talents of some of her assistants. 
 But even more important is the following con- 
 sideration. It is almost impossible to carry on 
 A genuine kindergarten successfully without the 
 exercise of a wide-spread and lively interest in it 
 among the women, especially the mothers, of 
 the community. So long as they do not fre- 
 quently visit the institute, they will not fully 
 appreciate its purposes and results ; they will 
 insist that their children should begin to learn 
 the alphabet; and, if that is not done they will 
 
 Serhaps take them away to some primary school. 
 lany kinderyarlnws of our count ry yield to 
 
 the demand of the mothers, and make the alpha- 
 bet and ciphering a part of the regular kinder- 
 garten exercises ; but tliis is a positive loss to 
 the children. 
 
 A prize essay on the question, "How may 
 the kindergarten be organically connected with 
 the (Public) School," was, a short time ago, called 
 for by the Education Society of Germany; and 
 the prize was awarded to Dr. A. Hicli'ter, of 
 Leipsic. The reasons for rendering the kinder- 
 garten a universal institution, which are given 
 in this essay and in several others that were 
 honorably mentioned, are here presented. If it 
 be granted that the first education, imparted 
 through a good kindergarten, is far more effect- 
 ive than that obtained in a common elementary 
 school, it will not do to combine a number of 
 pupils that have completed their kindergarten 
 course, with such pupils as come directly from 
 the nursery or from the street. The two sets of 
 pupils will form a most incongruous body. The 
 former, possessing a more or less harmonious 
 development of all their powers, and a certain 
 degree of self-activity and self-control, admit of 
 a more rapid course of primary teaching and 
 more advanced methods of instruction than 
 would be proper for children entirely untrained. 
 These pupils would, therefore, be greatly re- 
 tarded in their progress by being subjected to 
 the same treatment as the other pupils, who 
 come to school with an insufficient preparation, 
 who are, perhaps, unable to understand what 
 the teacher says, and to make themselves under- 
 stood by him (or her) , who need a rigid uniform- 
 ity of mechanical discipline and a preparation 
 of their powers for the school exercises. This 
 difference must remain the same in the primary, 
 grammar, and high school classes; for, in all. the 
 kindergarten pupils must, on account of their 
 self-activity and self-control, need a different 
 management from that of the others. Hence 
 the need of affording to all the children who at- 
 tend the elementary school, a preliminary course 
 of training by means of kindergarten exercises. 
 A general introduction of this system is impos- 
 sible until normal schools afford the instruction 
 requisite to prepare teachers for the work. 
 American teachers have already recognized the 
 value of the system. At a meeting of the Na- 
 tional Educational Association, held in Elmira, 
 in 1873, resolutions were adopted, (1) recom- 
 mending the kindergarten "as a potent means 
 for the elevation of primary education, and for 
 the development and promulgation of the prin- 
 ciples of sound educational psychology"; (2) ur- 
 ging " upon the attention of all practical educa- 
 tors and boards of education the importance of 
 initiating experiments with the intent to deter- 
 mine the best methods of connecting the kin- 
 dergarten with our current educational system"; 
 and (3) suggesting that "all teachers study Froe- 
 bel's system, in order to be instrumental in 
 founding such institutions, and to hasten the 
 advent of their general introduction." Efforts 
 have been made by the (ierman -American 
 Tecucheri Association to found a normal and 
 
504 
 
 KINDERGARTEN 
 
 KIN DERM ANN 
 
 model school for the purpose of" training teach- 
 ers ftff the management of kindergartens. The 
 report of the U, S. Commissioner of Educa- 
 tion for L874 enumerated 55 of these schools 
 in various parts of the United States, in which 
 then- were L25 teachers, and 1,636 pupils. The 
 experimental introduction of the system in con- 
 nection with the public schools of St. Louis, in 
 1st i. is represented as being eminently sue 
 ful. At the date of the lasl annual report 
 of the superintendent of schools in that city 
 (1st i — 5), there were 7 kindergartens connected 
 with as many of the public schools; and the 
 whole number of kindergarten pupils was 457. 
 The following advantages are claimed for the 
 system: (1) The kindergarten children submit 
 more readily to school discipline; ('-) the aver- 
 age intelligence of the pupils is greatly superior 
 to that of children who (Miter school without 
 previous training; they are more accurate in 
 observation, and Beize ideas with more rapidity 
 and exactness than other children ; (3) in addi- 
 tion to superior general development, children 
 thus trained show special aptitude for arith- 
 metic, drawing, and natural sciences, and can 
 express what they know with greater correct- 
 ness and fluency. 
 
 In Germany, where there are, as yet, no kinder- 
 gartens dependent on the state, and only a few 
 dependent on communities, efforts are being 
 made by the National Education Society to in- 
 duce the governments to authorize a general in- 
 troduction of the system, with all th ■ steps pre- 
 liminary thereto. An experiment lias also been 
 beimnin Austria and in Wiirtemberg, to establish 
 Froebel's Labor School. This is a continuation 
 of the kindergarten occupations through higher 
 stages of development. Only about one half of 
 the school time is spent in the ordinary kind 
 of primary and secondary instruction ; the re- 
 mainder is devoted to recreation and occupa- 
 tions, such as singing, declamation, drawing, 
 modeling, gymnastics, geometrical object lessons 
 and exercises, paste-board work, wood work, and 
 metal work, etc. This experiment has also l> sen 
 carrie 1 on for the last five years, at a German- 
 American school in Newark, N. J., on a smaller 
 scale, but with very Satisfactory results. 
 
 Owing to the necessity of special skill and 
 training in order to Cdndud a kindergarten 
 efficiently, many persons who undertake this 
 work fail, through want of preparation, to pro- 
 duce the results designed. In this way spurious 
 kindergartens have caused much complaint, and 
 
 broughl considerable discredit upon the system. 
 
 The test, of a good kindergarten is its obvious 
 effeel upon the pupils, in exciting cheerfulness, 
 intelligence, activity, and a fondness for the school 
 work, £f, on the other hand, the children dislike the 
 
 School, il is an evidence that there is a want of tact 
 and skill in its management. There may. indeed. 
 exist in Buch a, school all the oeenpat ions recom- 
 mended by Froebel, and each may be used ac- 
 cording to the established formula : bul if the 
 spirit in which the exercises arc to be conducted 
 
 is missing, it' the treatment is mechanical, all Un- 
 
 moral influence which should spring from the 
 cheerful self-activity of the child, is lost. If too, 
 the teacher shows always the calm and dignified 
 deportment of the ordinary class disciplinarian, 
 instead of entering with all her heart into the 
 harmless joy from which the child's self-govern- 
 ment is to take a fruitful growth, and calming 
 only the troublesome excess of this mirth by 
 now and then a look, a word, or a gesture, she is 
 not well fitted for her calling. A genuine kinder- 
 garten teacher will, like the best of mothers, take 
 a lively interest in remedying, as far as possible, 
 the bodily, mental, and moral defects of every 
 child under her care. — uncleanly and disorderly 
 habits, want of attention, stammering, color- 
 blindness, a bad gait or posture, imperfect artic- 
 ulation, etc. She will, in this way, earn the 
 gratitude of the children and their parents, and 
 exert a great moral influence. Her efforts in 
 this respect are, in a great measure, facilitated 
 by the pliability of the child's powers, as well 
 as by its desire to avoid ridicule, and to enjoy 
 the society of its comrades. Abundant experience 
 teaches, that there need be no incurable ct 
 of the above kind among children who have 
 the full use of their senses; that till children 
 may learn drawing, singing, correct enunciation, 
 geometry, and many other aits and accomplish- 
 ments that are. by common prejudice, pro- 
 nounced attainable by those only who are specially 
 gifted. It is evident, therefore, that a kinder- 
 gartner can hardly be too well educated; and, 
 also, that no education repays so abundantly 
 its cost. — See Friedkich Froebel, GesammeUe 
 padagogische Schrifien, herausgeg. v. Wichard 
 Lange (Berlin, 1862); II. Marenholtz-Buelow, 
 Die Arbeit und die neue Erziehung nach Froe- 
 beVs Methode ((iottingen, 1875); II. Gold- 
 ammkk, T)er Kindergarten (Berlin, L874); Lina 
 Morgenstern, Das Parodies der KindneU, 
 (Leipsic, isTI ) ; A. Kokiu.kk. Der Kindergarten 
 in siim in Wesen dargestellt{ Weimar, 1868); and 
 Die Praacis des Kindergartens ('•> vols.. Wei- 
 mar) : also, the monthly periodical Erziehung 
 der Gegenwart, published in Dresden, which is 
 
 chiefly devoted to the cause of llie kindcrgar- 
 
 ten. The chief English publications are: An. 
 Dodai, The Kindergarten (N. V.. 1871); W. 
 N. Haii.man. Kindergarten Cutture{Cm., L874); 
 II. Hoffmann, Kindergarten 7oys(N.Y., 1*7-1 ; 
 Arc Kokiii.kk. Kindergarten Education (N.Y.. 
 L876) ; M. Kraub-Boelte and John Cradr, 
 Kindergarten Guide(H. 5T.,1876); Mrs. Hor- 
 ace Mann and Euz. 1'. Peabody, Moral Outturn 
 of Infancy <nnl Kindergarten <<'i>ii/r (N. Y.. 
 L876) ; Jos. Payne, Froebel <t><<l //>>■ Kinder- 
 garten System (London, 1874); Exrz. P. Peat 
 body, Education of the Kinaergartner (PittS; 
 burgh, L875) ; Johannes and Bertha Ro*jge, 
 Guide tn tin- English Kindergarten (London, 
 L875); Edw.Wibbe, The Paradise of Child- 
 hood (Springfield, L869). 
 
 KINDERMANN, Ferdinand, one of the 
 greatest educational reformers of Austria, born 
 
 at kniiigswaldc. in Bohemia, Dec. 27..1740, died 
 May 25., L801. When he was appointed, in 
 
KI\<; COI.KKCK 
 
 KNOX COLLEGE 
 
 505 
 
 1771, parish priest of Kaplitz, he found the 
 
 school of th.it imvu. as well as the schools of 
 Bohemia in general, in a mosl deplorable condi- 
 tion. There was no discipline whatever, the 
 methods of instruction were entirely mechanical, 
 and there was scarcely any attempt at classifica- 
 tion. Kindermann resolved to make the refor- 
 mation of the school the work of his lite : ami. as 
 he says himself ,' the first day which he gave to 
 his pastoral duties, was also the first dayde'voted 
 to the school, lie taught the teachers how to in- 
 struct, and the children how to learn; and by 
 equally enlisting the interest of teacher, children, 
 and parents, met in a short time with complete 
 success. The school of Kaplitz became famous 
 throughout Bohemia, and even beyond its bor- 
 ders; and priests and teachers were sent there 
 from various towns to study the method which 
 had achieved so great a result. In 177"), Kin- 
 dermann was appointed chief superintendent of 
 all the German schools of Bohemia, and coun- 
 cilor of the school commission. In the same year, 
 he also became professor of pedagogy at one of 
 the gymnasia of Prague. In his new position, 
 he devoted his attention chiefly to the develop- 
 ment of the normal school of Prague, through 
 which he exerted the most beneficent influence 
 upon the other Bohemian schools. The empress 
 Maria Theresa acknowledged his services in many 
 ways, and raised him to the knighthood, un- 
 der the title of Knight von Schulstein. Later, 
 he was appointed bishop of Leitmeritz. — The 
 method which Kiiiilennann followed and recom- 
 mended was, on the whole, that of Felbiger 
 (q. v.); but, in many respects, he pursued his 
 own way, laying special stress on the catechetical 
 method. His desire to increase the prosperity 
 of the people by the improvement of education, 
 induced him to train the children of his school 
 in spinning, sewing, knitting, and also in agricult- 
 ure, horticulture, and the rearing of silk-worms. 
 He thus became the founder of the industrial- 
 school system in his country. — See Aigner, Der 
 Volks- und Industriereformator Bischof Ferdi- 
 nand. Kindermann (1867). 
 
 KING COLLEGE, at Bristol, Tennessee, 
 founded in 1808, is under the control of Presby- 
 terians. It is supported by tuition fees, varying 
 from 812 to $25 per term of 20 weeks, and the 
 proceeds of an endowment of 830,000. It has 
 a preparatory anil a collegiate department. I n 
 1875 — (i, there were -1 instructors and 76 stu- 
 dents. The Rev. James 1). Tadlock has been 
 the president from the commencement of the 
 institution. 
 
 KING'S COLLEGE (London) is erected 
 on a site which was given by the ( 'town, on the 
 east side of Somerset House, in the Strand. Its 
 foundation was owing to the strong dissatisfac- 
 tion which many felt at the total exclusion of 
 religious teaching from University College, which 
 had opened its classes in 1828, three years earlier 
 than King's. Accordingly, students at King's 
 are instructed in the doctrines of the Church of 
 England; although a liberal conscience clause is in 
 operation, which enables Jews and other religion- 
 
 ists to share largely in the benefits of the institu- 
 tion. No person, however, \\ ho is not a member of 
 the ( ihurch of England can hold any office in dm 
 
 College, witli the exception of the professorships 
 
 of oriental literature and modern languages, ill 
 other respects, K ing's • 'ollege docs not materially 
 differ from University College, originally partak- 
 ing, like it, of the proprietary character, and ex- 
 hibiting tb 
 the new . 
 lege 
 
 e same adherence to the old studies and 
 There are six departments in the col- 
 
 namely, (1) Theological ; (2) General I iter- 
 
 at tire and Science; (.'!) Applied Sciences, chiefly 
 
 engineering; (4) Medicine; (5) Evening Classes ; 
 (6) School for boys. The arrangements of the 
 college are wholly under the supervision of tho 
 
 principal, the Rev. Canon Harry. There is also 
 a head-master of the school. 
 
 The students at King's are either matriculated 
 or occasional students ; the former being those 
 who are admitted to the regular and prescribed 
 courses of study, the latter those who take such 
 classes only as suit their purposes. In Lent, 
 term, 187;"), there were, in the six departments, 
 the following matriculated students and pupils; 
 (1)24; (2) 47; (3) 70 ; (4) 135 ; (5) 86 ; (6) 553, 
 If to these be added 38 occasional students in 
 the morning, and -147 occasional students in the 
 evening, the total will be 1,400. This total would 
 be much increased, if account were taken of cer- 
 tain evening lectures not yet included in the 
 regular system, such as the Gilbart lectures on 
 banking, largely attended by clerks. — The Ap- 
 plied Sciences department is highly esteemed 
 by professional men, and, for some years past, 
 has been attended by from 75 to 95 students: 
 It has, besides other appliances, two good work- 
 shops, one for working in wood, and the other 
 for working in metal. There are about 48 pro- 
 fessors, besides lecturers, demonstrators, and the 
 masters in the school. Many of these and of the 
 old students are men of great eminence. Sir 
 Charles AVheatstone, the joint-inventor of the 
 electric telegraph, was the professor of experi- 
 mental philosophy from 1834 until his death, iii 
 1875. The management of the college rests 
 with a council of 42 governors. Of these. 21 are 
 appointed by the proprietors, six retiring every 
 year. The remainder are either, ex officio, gov- 
 ernors or life-governors appointed by the visitor, 
 The college buildings, with fittings and addi- 
 tional land, cost £180,000. The endowments 
 produce a yearly income of £880, which issue: 
 dally appropriated to certainfixed purposes. The 
 ordinary expenditure is, therefore, defrayed by 
 the fees, three-fourths of which art- paid to the 
 professors, the other fourth being retained l, v 
 the college. — The college has a hospital near 
 Lincoln's^Inn Fields; it has also a chapel for 
 divine service on Sundays and week-days. A 
 small number of students reside within the col; 
 lege. -See the College Calendar, and the Fifth 
 Report of the Royal Commission <>/' Scientific 
 Instruction. 
 
 KNOX COLLEGE, at Calesburg, 111., was 
 founded in 1836, and fully organized in 1841, 
 The first class graduated in L846. It is non- 
 
>06 
 
 LAFAYETTE COLLEGE 
 
 LANCASTER 
 
 The productive 
 
 buildings 
 
 funds amount to 
 , grounds, etc., are 
 
 sectarian 
 
 $110,000; and the 
 
 valued at $190,000. The libraries contain 6,600 
 volumes. There are also cabinets of natural his- 
 tory. The regular tuition fees vary from $20 to 
 $30 per annum. The institution comprises a col- 
 lege, a ladies' seminary, and an academy, the first 
 of which includes a classical and a scientific 
 course. In 1875 — 6, there were 12 instructors, 
 
 and 32 f) students, of whom 41 were in the 
 college. The presidents have been as follows : 
 the Rev. Hiram H. Kellogg, to 1845; the Rev. 
 Jonathan Blanchard, to 1858 ; the Rev. Harvey 
 ( 'urtiss, to 1863 ; the Rev. Wm. S. Curtiss, D. D., 
 to 1868; the Rev. John P. Gulliver, I). D., to 
 1872 ; Prof. Albert Ilurd (acting), to 1874 ; and 
 Newton Bateman, LL. D., the present incum- 
 bent (1876). 
 
 LAFAYETTE COLLEGE, at Easton, Pa., 
 tinder Presbyterian control, was chartered in 
 1826, and fully organized in 1832, with the 
 usual classical course of study preparatory to 
 the learned professions. The Pardee Scientific 
 Department was added in 1866, through the 
 munificence of Mr. Ario Pardee of Hazleton, 
 whose gifts for this purpose amount to nearly 
 $500,000. The college has seven dormitories, 
 four of them, known as students' homes, having 
 also families residing in them, and providing 
 board and a home for such as desire it. It has 
 five buildings of instruction and manipulation. 
 The Pardee Hall of Technical Instruction, built 
 and fitted up at a cost of $250,000, was dedicated 
 in 1 873. The chemical laboratories are perhaps 
 unpqualed in this country, and those of mining 
 and metallurgy, mechanics and physics, are of 
 the best. The department of natural history- 
 contains the most complete collection of the 
 plants of Pennsylvania. The college has libraries 
 of over 20.000 volumes, and is especially rich in 
 the department of Anglo-Saxon and early En- 
 glish. It maintains a reading room, in which, 
 Besides papers and periodicals, the reference 
 books most frequently needed in each study are 
 kept for constant use. The methods of instruc- 
 tion in the two first years are those of the gym- 
 nasium. The classes are kept in small divisions; 
 and short lessons are thoroughly learned, and 
 accompanied by many exercises of practice, and 
 elementary explanation, often repeated. In the 
 two last years, there is more attempt to stimulate 
 general investigation, and to communicate ad- 
 vanced thought and methods by lectures, and by 
 requiring the preparation of essays of research. 
 It now offers five courses, of four years each; 
 namely, classical, scientific, engineering, mining 
 and metallurgy, and chemistry, leading respect- 
 ively to the degrees of Bachelor of Arts. 
 Bachelor of Philosophy, Civil Engineer, Mining 
 Engineer, and Analytical Chemist. Partial 
 courses may also be taken, and opportunities 
 are afforded for postgraduate study. A three 
 years' postgraduate course leads to the degree 
 of Doctor of Philosophy. A law department 
 was opened in 1S75. The cost of tuition is from 
 $45 to -ST.") per year. In L875— 6, there were 28 
 instructors and 835 students in the academic 
 
 departments. The college has been honorably 
 
 ociated with the progress of meteorological 
 
 Bcience through the labors of Prof. J. H. Coffin, 
 
 LP D., by wl i the government observations 
 
 and the collections of the Smithsonian Institution 
 have been here reduced and prepared for publi- 
 cation ; also, since the election of Prof. F. A. 
 March. 1 855, with the study of Anglo-Saxon and 
 English, in connection with comparative philol- 
 ogy and history, in which it has been a leader 
 (see Anglo-Saxon, and English, thk Stout of); 
 it is also distinguished for its courses in the 
 Latin and Greek of Christian writers, established, 
 in 1872, by an endowment from Mr. Benj. Doug- 
 lass of New York City. Since 1864, under the 
 presidency of the Rev. W. C. Cattell. I >.!>.. it has 
 also become a center of scientific and technical 
 study for the coal and iron districts of Pennsyl- 
 vania anil New Jersey. The presidents of the 
 college have been as follows : the Rev. George 
 Junkin, D. D., 1832—41, and 1844—8; the 
 Rev. J. W. Yeomans, D. D., 1841—4; the 
 Rev. C W. Nassau, D. D., 1849 ; the Rev. D.V. 
 Meliean, I). I).. L850— 57; the Rev. 6. W. Mc 
 Phail, D. D., 1857—63; and William U. Cattell, 
 I). I)., since 1863. 
 
 LA GRANGE COLLEGE, at Li Grange, 
 Mo., was chartered in 1859. and is under the 
 control of the Baptist denomination. The college 
 has valuable meteorological, astronomical, chem- 
 ical, and electrical apparatus, a good niineralogical 
 and geological cabinet, and a growing library. 
 Tt is chiefly supported by tuition fees varying 
 from $24 to $40 per year. During the present 
 year an endowment of about $25,000 has been 
 secured. Candidates for the ministry receive 
 tuition free. There is a primary, a preparatory, 
 and a collegiate department, the last having a 
 classical and a scientific course. Both sexes are 
 admitted. In 1874 — 5, there were 10 professors, 
 143 students, and 42 alumni (24 males and 18 
 females). J. P. Cook, LL. D., is (1876) the 
 president. 
 
 LANCASTER, Joseph, an English edu- 
 cator, horn in London in 177^; died in New 
 York, Oct. 24., 1838. He was the prom o t e r , 
 though, probably, not the originator, of the sys- 
 tem of instruction or school organization which, 
 for a long time, p aced under his name. Of an 
 imaginative and excitable disposition, Lincaster, 
 at an early age, showed the enthusiasm of a true 
 zealot. Thus, when only fourteen years old, 
 upon reading Clarkson's Essay on tin 1 Sinn' 
 
 Trade, he was seized with the desire to educate 
 the Macks, so that they might be able to read 
 the Scriptures, and. 1o thai end. ran away from 
 home, carrying a Bible and a copy of J'i^/rin/'s 
 
LANCASTER 
 
 507 
 
 Prxtgreas in his pocket. The captain of the 
 vessel, however, in which he proposed ti> sail, 
 prudently sent liini hack. At sixteen, he joined 
 the society <it Friends; but. shortly afterward, 
 having become interested in the education 
 of the poor, by an observation of the scanty 
 means provided for that purpose in London, lie 
 addressed himself to the work which became 
 afterwards the business of his life. In 1797, 
 Dr. Andrew Bell (q. v.) published a pamphlet, 
 entitled An Experiment in Education, made <d 
 the M'tle Asylum if Madras, in which the sys- 
 tem, variously known as the monitorial, mutual 
 instruction, or, afterwards, Lanca&terian system, 
 was set forth. This pamphlet attracted little 
 attention in England. In the following year, 
 Lancaster opened a school in Southwark, and 
 after conducting it long enough to discover that 
 the impulse of enthusiasm with which it was 
 started, was not sufficient to uphold it, began to 
 cast about for some well-matured plan on which 
 it could be continued. The extent to which 
 Dr. Hell's pamphlet influenced him at this time 
 has never been definitely ascertained, the ob- 
 scurity attending the matter having been in- 
 crease 1 by his own contradictory assertions. He 
 began, however, to put into practice the prin- 
 cipal features of Dr. Bell*s system, and secured so 
 general a recognition of its merits, that schools 
 organized upon that system began to spring up 
 all over the country. The church, alarmed at 
 the success attained by a dissenter in educating 
 the poor, began to open similar schools under 
 fie direction of Dr. Dell, a member of the 
 established ch -.rm, whose merits, originally neg- 
 lected or overlooked, were now recognized and 
 extolled. The excitement produced by this ri- 
 valry was the means of adding largely to school 
 revenues throughout the country ; and thus the 
 cause of education was benefited, whatever the 
 motives may have been which animated the 
 Tival factions. From 1807 to 1811, Lancaster 
 traveled through the country, lecturing on the 
 subject of education, and illustrating his method 
 by the help of monitors who accompanied him ; 
 and it is said that, during one of those years, a 
 new school according to his system was opened 
 every week. The enthusiasm thus created soon 
 led, however, to great pecuniary success, but with- 
 out permanent benefit to the institutions which 
 he had founded, since his ardent temperament 
 and want of business capacity constantly sub- 
 jected him to serious embarrassment. In 1812, 
 he attempted to found a school composed entirely 
 of the children of wealthy parents; but he failed, 
 and was adjudged a bankrupt. In 1818, he 
 visited the United States, and was well received ; 
 but his want of discretion again brought him 
 into trouble. In 1829, he went to Canada, where 
 his fame procured him legislative aid in the fur- 
 therance of his educational projects : but again 
 becoming embarrassed pecuniarily, he removed 
 to New York, where some friends had purchased 
 for him a small annuity. A description of the 
 system known as the Lancaeterian, will be found 
 elsewhere in this volume. (See Beij,, and Moni- 
 
 torial System.) Of the extraordinary success 
 achieved by Lancaster in its application, and the 
 
 unselfish devotion of his life to its practice, we 
 have the most abundant evidence. I lis course of 
 instruction originally included reading, writing, 
 arithmetic, and a knowledge of the Bible, the fee 
 for tuition being four pence a week : while many, 
 even from the first, were admitted free. Over 
 the door of the school-house, we are told, was 
 printed the announcement. '• All that will, may 
 send their children, and have them educated 
 freely ; and those that do not wish to have edu- 
 cation for nothing, may pay for it if they please." 
 The children came to him "like flocks of sheep," 
 and his school, in London, was sometimes at- 
 tended by a thousand. It became one of the 
 points of interest for visiting foreigners, and of 
 persons of all classes interested in the subject of 
 education. The wonderful discipline maintained 
 was explained by him in the rule, " Let every 
 child have, at all times, something to do, and a 
 motive for doing it". In applying it, some of his 
 methods were certainly objectionable, especially 
 his practice of giving rewards, which was carried 
 to an unhealthy excess. "It is no unusual thing 
 for me," he said on one occasion, " to deliver one 
 or two hundred prizes at the same time ; and, at 
 such times, the countenances of the whole school 
 exhibit a most pleasing scene of delight, as the 
 boys who obtain prizes commonly walk round 
 the room in procession, holding the prizes in 
 their hands, and preceded by a herald proclaim- 
 ing the fact before them." His ingeniously 
 varied methods of punishment, also, would 
 hardly be regarded with favor, if judged by the 
 best disciplinary standard of the present time. 
 These consisted mainly of devices for bringing 
 the public opinion of the orderly portion of the 
 school to bear upon the offender by means of 
 ridicule. This course was adopted by Lancaster 
 for the purpose of avoiding corporal punish- 
 ment, which he detested. II is school revenue, 
 beginning with the humblest contributions of 
 the poor of London, rose by slow degrees at 
 first, till it finally embraced gifts of land and 
 money from noblemen of all ranks, and even 
 from the king (George lib), who, in 1805, sent 
 for him, and after receiving from him in person an 
 account of the work that had been accomplished, 
 expressed his emphatic approval of it. and the de- 
 sire that every poor child in his dominions should 
 be taught to read the Bible, promising any aid in 
 his power to promote that object. The novelty 
 and economy of the plan of Lancaster insured it, 
 for a time, a wonderful degree of success; but it is 
 now considered to have been much overrated, and 
 is of little value in our day, since it prin- 
 cipally depended upon rote-teaching. In Holland, 
 Prance, and Germany, the reaction soon set in. 
 and led to very decided modifications. In Eng- 
 land it is still in use as a means of relieving the 
 teacher of much work not essentially educational, 
 by the employment of the aptest scholars as as- 
 sistants. By such employment, also, the teacher 
 is enabled to select those pupils who are best 
 .qualified to be trained for the profession of teach- 
 
508 
 
 LAND CHANTS 
 
 LANGUAGE 
 
 ing. The distinctive service; however, rendered 
 by Lancaster to the cause of education, was the 
 wide-spread interest and enthusiasm excited in 
 its behalf, and his vindication of a non-sectarian, 
 though Christian, Bystem. Bis published works 
 are, improvement in Education (London, 1805), 
 iral elementary school hooks, and many pam- 
 phlets in defense of his system. For inter 
 ing accounts of his life and labors, sec TAfe of \ 
 Lancaster,by Willi \m Corston; and Lord Cock- 
 burn, Memorials of his own Time; .also Leitch, 
 Practical Educationists and their Systems of 
 Teaching (Glasgow, 1876). 
 
 LAND GRANTS, Congressional. See 
 United States. 
 
 LANE UNIVERSITY, at Lecompton, 
 Kan., founded in 1865, is under the control of 
 the United Brethren in Christ. It has an endow- i 
 inent of $12,000 in notes and real estate. There ' 
 is a preparatory and a collegiate course. Both 
 sexes are admitted. In 1872 — 3, it had 2 instruc- 
 tors and 81 students ("d preparatory and 11 col- 
 legiate). The presidents have been as follows: 
 the Rev. Solomon Weaver. 1865 — 6 ; the Rev. 
 David Shuck, A. M., 1866 -TO: \. B. Bartlett, 
 A.M.. 1870—74; tin- Rev. David Shuck, A.M., 
 again elected in 1ST 1: and X.I>. Bartlett, A.M., 
 ted a second time, in I 876. 
 
 LANGUAGE (Lat. lingua, the tongue, 
 speech i. according to the ordinary acceptation 
 
 of tli • word, is the utterance of articulate sounds 
 for the purpose of expressing thought. This 
 mode of expression constitutes one of the char- 
 acteristic faculties of man : since no community 
 of human beings, in historic times, has been 
 found entirely destitute of language: and abroad 
 
 line of demarcation separates every kind of 
 human Bpeech of which we have any knowledge 
 from all the moles of expression used by brutes. 
 
 But though common to men of all degrees 
 
 of culture, and. as far as we know, in till periods 
 
 of time, language presents an infinite number of 
 
 varieties. The further we remove from civiliza- 
 tion, the greater is the number of different lan- 
 guages that are met with. "At the first attainable 
 period of our knowledge df it, whether by actual 
 record, or by the inferences of the comparative 
 
 Student, it is in a state of almost endless sub- 
 division. The divaricating forces in linguistic 
 
 growth are in the ascendant ; dialects go on 
 multiplying, by the action of the same causes 
 that had already produced them. Hut wherever 
 
 civilization is at work, an opposite influence is 
 powerfully operating. Oul of the congeries of 
 jarring tribes are growing greal nations: out of 
 the Babel of discordant dialects arc growing 
 languages of wider and constantly extending 
 unity. The cultivated languages have been and 
 
 arc extending their sway, crowding mil of exist- 
 ence the patois which had grOM a up under the old 
 
 order of things, and gaining Buch advantage that 
 
 men are lie-inning to dream of a time when one 
 language may he spoken all over the earth." 
 
 i \\ bitney, in Life and Growth of I.<i/ii/h<i<, 
 
 The scientific inquiry into the nature of lin- 
 guistic differences, and the relation of the differ- 
 
 ent languages to each other, is of a comparatJTely 
 recent origin. The Greeks and the Romans had 
 a number of grammarians, but most of them had 
 an acquaintance with only their own language. or, 
 as in the case of the Romans, with two language s, 
 and they were, therefore, unable to make a sound 
 generalization. There is, in fact, hardly any work 
 prior to the time of Leibnitz, which, considered 
 in the light of the present linguistic attainments 
 of scholars, is of any intrinsic value. The ideas 
 of Leibnitz, and Herder (in his prize essay On 
 the Origin of Language), initiated the move- 
 ment. The empress Catharine EL, of Russia, 
 took great interest in it : and the co-operation of 
 her embassadors in Kurope and Asia was enlisted 
 in collecting the names used in a large number 
 of languages for the different parts of the human 
 body and for the necessaries of life. On the basis 
 of the material thus collected. Zimniermann and 
 Pallas prepared, by order of the empress. Lin- 
 guarum totius orbis vocabularia (3 vols., St. 
 Petersburg, 1787 — 91). the first comparative 
 dictionary. This was followed by the more scien- 
 tific work of Adelung and Yater. entitled Mithri- 
 dates 1 1806 — 1 7). While these works illustrated 
 the verbal affinities of languages, the introduction 
 of the study of Sanskrit led to the study of 
 comparative grammar. After these publications, 
 l!opp, by his comparative grammar of the Indo- 
 Germanic languages, and Jakob Grimm, by his 
 historical grammar of the German languag 
 became the real founders of the science oi com- 
 parative linguistics, or comparative philology, 
 
 which has since been brought, chiefly by tin; 
 
 labor of German scholars, to a very high degree 
 of perfection. (See Dictionary, Grammar, Indo- 
 
 GermanIC LANGUAGES.) The comparative study 
 of languages led at once, and naturally, to an at- 
 tempt to divide all human Bpeech into families, 
 and to assign to every language its appropriate 
 
 place among the languages of the world. 'Ihis 
 
 again involved the necessity of a thorough 
 scientific study, not only of every language and 
 dialed that is now spoken, hut even of the lan- 
 guages that are extinct. A marvelous amount 
 of energy and ingenuity has. in the course of the 
 
 present century, been expended tor the purpose 
 
 of Bolving this task. Travelers and missionaries 
 
 have explored the languages of the most har- 
 barous and uncivilized tribes; keen philologists 
 have Spent a lite time in recovering the lost key 
 to extinct languages of the highest antiquity, 
 like the Egyptian, Assyrian, and Etruscan; and 
 the professors of comparative linguistics have 
 been indefatigable in collating all these discover- 
 ies, and in using them in order to improve the 
 classification of languages, and to promote our 
 
 know ledge of the development of human speech 
 
 in general. It must, of course, be apparent at 
 
 first sight, that any classification of languages, at 
 the present time, can only be regarded as a tent- 
 ative and provisional arrangement ; hut a glance 
 at the labors on which all attempts at classi- 
 fication are based, shows that the results which 
 
 already have lieen attained are of the greatest, 
 importance. The best known among all thu 
 
LANGUAGE 
 
 500 
 
 families of language is the Indo-Germanic (q. 
 
 k), which, in its totality, lias been for more than 
 two thousand years the language of the ruling 
 races of the world, and which embraces, by the 
 
 side of the Knglish. the ruling languages in every 
 American and European country, except Hun- 
 gary and Turkey, and the two classic languages. 
 Latin and Greek, which have borne so prominent 
 a part in the education of the human race up to 
 its present state of civilization. The Hungarian 
 and Turkish languages have been recognized as be- 
 longing to two distinct branches of one common 
 family called by different philologists Scythian 
 (Whitney), or Turanian, or IJralo- Altaic, or Tar- 
 taric, and presenting in the phonetic structure of 
 all its members some striking family traits. The 
 Hebrew, the sacred language of the Jewish and 
 Christian Bible, appears, with the Arabic, Syriac, 
 ( 'haldee, Phoenician, and other tongues of western 
 Asia ami north-eastern Africa, as a branch of 
 the Semitic family of languages, which, after 
 the [ndo-Germanic, is by far the most prominent 
 in the history of the world, and of special im- 
 portance in the history of religious thought : since 
 th " founders of all the three great monotheistic 
 religions, — Christianity, Judaism, and Moham- 
 me lanism, belonged to it. 
 
 We have ca -t this cursory glance at the growth 
 of language and of linguistic science before consul- 
 Bring language as a subject of practical education, 
 because it is self-evident that the results of scien- 
 tific research must, in a marked manner, influence 
 and shape every course of instruction. The in- 
 fluence of these results is most apparent in the 
 higher stages of instruction; but the better insight 
 into the nature of language thus gained can easily 
 be traced in all works on the theory of education 
 am 1 in the history of elementary instruction. — The 
 first Stag sill the development of language consists 
 in th_ v pro luction of articulate sounds and combi- 
 nations of sounds ; the second, in the connection 
 of words with conceptions; the third, in the com- 
 bination of words for the expression of thought. 
 (See Intellectual Education.) The develop- 
 ment of language in a child should not outrun 
 his mental development; it should at first follow, 
 and subsequently accompany it. The child, from 
 his lirst infancy, has a tendency to give some kind 
 of expression to all the emotions of his mind. At 
 first, various movements of the body, and inartic- 
 ulate sounds serve for the purpose ; when the 
 perceptions become more distinct, the child looks 
 around for more definite expressions, and finds 
 them in the word-language of those who sur- 
 round him. If the child has sound organs of 
 speech, the task of the educator, at first, is com- 
 paratively easy. An artificial plan is neither 
 necessary nor practical ; an occasional influence 
 is sufficient. By hearing the names of the objects, 
 actions, qualities, circumstances, and relations, 
 which he perceives, correctly and distinctly pro- 
 nounced, the child obtains his first knowledge of 
 words, and learns to associate them with the 
 designated objects. The memory, without dif- 
 ficulty, retains a large number of words, and 
 frequent practice soon leads to readiness of 
 
 speech. Occasional conversations with the child 
 
 on the objects of his attention, with little dc 
 
 scriptions and narratives, afford him the neces- 
 sary material for expressing the combinations of 
 his thoughts, and aid in the development of 
 his mind. Where the cultivation of speech is 
 neglected in the education of a child, the intel- 
 lectual development is likewise retarded. (In the 
 other hand, any attempt to force unduly the 
 rapid development of speech, may lead to vain 
 and thoughtless gamdity, or to a production of 
 erroneous representations in the mind, which will 
 obstruct its harmonious development. During 
 this first stage of education, the mother is the 
 child's natural and best teacher of language, and 
 the language which the child thus learns has 
 justly been called the "mother-tongue". Home 
 education may receive a useful, and in many cases 
 a very desirable, aid in a good kindergarten. 
 
 The instruction provided for in the common 
 schools of modern times aims chiefly at perfect- 
 ing the pupil in his vernacular language. The 
 course of instruction to this end embraces ex- 
 ercises in spelling, reading, writing, definitions, 
 composition. English grammar, elocution, etc. 
 There is still great diversity of opinion among 
 educators as to the best methods of teaching 
 each of these branches, and as to the relative 
 position which each of them should occupy in 
 the course of studies. This subject is fully 
 discussed in the special articles devoted to the 
 branches of instruction just enumerated. All 
 educators, however, agree in regarding it as one 
 of the chief aims of school education to give to 
 the pupil a good knowledge of his vernacular 
 language, and fluency in speaking and writing it 
 correctly. Even in those branches of study 
 which neither solely nor chiefly aim at im- 
 proving the linguistic knowledge of the pupil, 
 as arithmetic, geography, history, etc., every edu- 
 cator nowadays requires that pupils shall be 
 trained in the correction of language, and taught 
 to avoid common errors of speech. — Nothing is 
 more adapted to illustrate the great progress 
 which, in the course of the present century, has 
 been made in the education of mankind than the 
 steadily improving methods employed in teaching 
 1 the youth of civilized countries their vernacular 
 I tongue. At Athens and Rome, instruction was 
 i given to children in reading, writing, and gram- 
 mar, but it was mostly limited to the boys of 
 the higher classes. Throughout the middle ages. 
 Latin was the medium of instruction in all clas- 
 ses of schools, partly because the popular dialects 
 had not yet attained the degree of perfection 
 needed for expressing the thought of scholars. 
 Even in the Kith, 1 7th, and 18th centuries, the 
 study of the vernacular language made but very 
 slow progress, and it was reserved for the 19th 
 century to mature plans for imparting to the en- 
 I tire population a good knowledge of their native 
 tongues. Hand in hand with the progress in ele- 
 mentary knowledge thus achieved, goes the more 
 general demand for popular, especially periodical, 
 literature, and the more active and more intel- 
 I ligent participation of the masses in public life. 
 
510 
 
 LANGUAGE 
 
 LATIN LANGUAGE 
 
 There are some countries in which the entire 
 native population speak one language; others 
 in which two, three, or more are spoken by large 
 bodies of the people. Among the former are 
 Italy, Portugal. Denmark, Sweden, and Nor- 
 way; among the latter, Great Britain. France, 
 Holland. Spain, Belgium, Germany, Austria, 
 Hungary, Russia, Switzerland, and the United 
 States. In Switzerland, three languages, — the 
 Oerman, French, and Italian, are, to some 
 extent, regarded as national languages: in all 
 the other countries, one language only has the 
 character of a national language, though in some 
 cases, as in Belgium, Austria, and Hungary, it 
 is the mother-tongue of only a minority of the 
 population. In several of these countries, the 
 question to what extent any other than the rul- 
 ing Language should be admitted into the state 
 schools as a branch, or as a medium, of instruc- 
 tion, has led to animated controversies, which 
 are far from being ended. From political rea- 
 sons, it is natural that the union of an entire 
 people in the bonds of one common language 
 should he looked upon as most desirable; but, 
 from an educational point of view.it will always 
 be urged that, however desirable the universal 
 knowledge of one national language by all the 
 inhabitants of a country, especially a large coun- 
 try, may be, the principle cannot be impugned 
 that, wherever it is practicable, the education 
 of young children should not dispense with in- 
 struction in the mother-tongue, in order to se- 
 cure an entire co-operation between home edu- 
 cation and school education. As this question 
 equally concerns a number of large countries, it 
 is to he hoped that a solution may be found which 
 will reconcile conflicting claims. — Besides the 
 mother-tongue and the national language, the 
 two classical and the principal modern languages 
 are very extensively studied in schools of a 
 higher grade. The classical languages have, to a 
 large extent, lost the prominent position which 
 
 they formerly occupied in most schemes of edu- 
 cation ; the study of modern languages, on the 
 other hand, appears to he steadily extending, 
 l-'rom a pedagogical point of view, many educa- 
 tors urge the early study of a cognate language 
 as a means to promote, by way of comparison, a 
 more thorough understanding of the native lan- 
 guage. Prom a business or practical point of 
 view, there is naturally a growing demand for 
 instruction in the languages of several foreign 
 countries. The treasures of the English, Ger- 
 man, and French literatures are also stimulating, 
 in an increasing ratio, the study, in many coun- 
 tries, of those three languages, which, by com- 
 mon consent, are regarded as exceeding ah 1 others 
 in importance. See M lrcel, Language as 
 a Means of Menial Culture and International 
 Communication (2 vols., Loudon. L853) ; and 
 The Study of Languages 
 L869); WniiMv 
 guage (N.Y.,18i 
 
 lbs, Grammar, Modern Lanqi iges, and the 
 special articles on Latin, Greek, Germak, and 
 I .en. 
 
 I Loud, and V Y 
 
 The I. iff mill Growth nf Lan~ 
 
 5). (See also ( IlASSICAL Sti n- 
 
 LA SALLE, Jean Baptiste, a French 
 priest and teacher, born in Reims, April 30., 
 1651 ; died in Houen, April 7., 1719. In 1669, 
 he Mas appointed canon of the cathedral of 
 Reims, and afterwards went to Paris to com- 
 plete his studies. In 1671, he was ordained a 
 priest, and began at once the work of his life, 
 the education and improvement of the working 
 classes. His first project was the obtaining of a 
 charter for a sisterhood, already established in 
 his native place, and designed exclusively for 
 the education of poor girls. This led to the foun- 
 dation of a similar order designed to promote the 
 education of boys, which rapidly spread through- 
 out France, under the name of Brethren of the 
 Christian Schools. The distinctive features of 
 
 his system were, the bringing together of the 
 teachers in a common residence, the use of the 
 coarsest food and raiment, and vows of the 
 strictest obedience and devotion, during a pre- 
 paratory course of three years, to be renewed 
 afterwards for life by those desiring it. No 
 member of thoorder was permitted to become a 
 priest; and to prevent any aspirations in that 
 direction. Latin, as a study, was forbidden till 
 the age of thirty. In order to set an example of 
 religious poverty to his followers, he renounced 
 his prebend, distributed his money in alms, and 
 constantly taught in the schools. After some per- 
 secutions at the hands of secular teachers, he pur- 
 chased the establishment of St. Yon. at Rouen, 
 which afterwards became the central school of 
 the order. In 1868, the brotherhood numbered 
 10,0(10 teachers and 300,000 pupils, in France; 
 and in the United States. 323 teachers and 
 
 15,000 pupils. The published works by which 
 
 La Salle is best known, are: Lrs regies <le la 
 bienseance et de In civilite" chretiennes, and Les 
 douse oertus d'un Imn )n<iiir>'. 
 
 LA SALLE COLLEGE, in Philadelphia. 
 Pa., a Roman Catholic institution, founded in 
 L863, is under the control of the Christian 
 1 brothers. It is Bnpported by tuition fees, varying 
 from $10 to $20 per quarter. It has a primary, 
 
 an academic, a commercial, and a collegiate de- 
 partment. The degrees conferred are A. 1!.. B. S., 
 and A. M. In 1875 — 6. there were 200 students 
 7 1 collegiate, '■>'■'< commercial, and 93 academic). 
 
 The presidents of the college have hern. Brother 
 Oliver. Brother Noah. Brother Joachim, and 
 Brother Stephen (the present incumbent). 
 
 LATIN LANGUAGE, one of the two clas- 
 sical languages, which as the language of one of 
 the greatest empires of the world, and of one of 
 the richest of literatures, and subsequently as 
 the official language of the Catholic church, the 
 literary language of western Europe, and the 
 
 mother of the Romanic languages, has been 
 among the foremost agents in developing modern 
 ci\ ilization. The name is derived from the I-at- 
 ins. or inhabitants of Litiuni. in central Italy. 
 by whom it 18 believed by some to have been 
 Book n as earl) as fifteen centuries before the 
 Christian era. According to the researches 
 
 Of modern philology, the Latin is < f the 
 
 two branches of the Old Italic language, which. 
 
I with the Greek. German, Sanskrit, and others, 
 is regarded as one of the chief divisions into 
 which the lndo-( Jertnanic languages (q. v.) arc 
 divided. The close resemblance of the Lit in. 
 as well as the other (Cnibro-Samnitie) branch 
 of the Old Italic language, to the Greek has led 
 some philologists to assume that both the Italic 
 and the Greek language sprang from one branch, 
 now lost, which was co-ordinate with the San- 
 skrit, tier man, and other divisions of the Ludo- 
 Genuanic. The subjection of Italy to the rule of 
 Rome, which was situated in Latium, gradually 
 made Latin the language of all Italy. After the 
 name of the people to whom it owes its eminent 
 position in history, it has also been called the 
 Roman language. For a long time, the Romans 
 remained without a literature, the earliest work 
 which is now extant dating about 240 B. 0. Of 
 the preceding, ante-literary period of the lan- 
 guage nothing is now left but a few fragments 
 of the Salian songs, of the chant of the Arval 
 brethren, and of the law of the twelve tables, be- 
 sides a few epitaphs. During the next two 
 centuries. Latin literature was gradually devel- 
 oped, until, in the writings of Cicero, it reached 
 its classic period. Though the distinction be- 
 tween the elegant language of the educated 
 classes [lingua urbana, wbanitas) and the lan- 
 guage of the common and lower classes of the 
 people (lingtta rustica or vulgaris ruslicitas) 
 was early and broadly drawn, the literary lan- 
 guage was and remained substantially the same ; 
 and the natives of the provinces of Spain and 
 northern Africa among the Roman writers used 
 the same language as the natives of the city, 
 although, in regard to the spoken language, the 
 latter claimed the same prerogative as the mod- 
 ern Parisians in regard to French. In the first 
 century of the Christian era, the linguistic mate- 
 rial was considerably enlarged by means of com- 
 pounds and derivatives ; in the course of the 
 second century, the admission of a large number 
 of archaic, ante-Ciceronian words and forms and 
 of Grecisins, put an end to the classic period of 
 Roman literature. After the beginning of the 
 third century, the purity of the language and lit- 
 erature rapidly declined. The language of the 
 common people invaded the literary language, 
 provincialisms and Grecisms became more and 
 more frequent ; and although there was a revival 
 of pure Latin in the literature of the fourth and 
 fifth centuries, the spoken language, in constant- 
 contact with, and under the influence of, the 
 » tongues of the barbaric conquerors of the em- 
 pire, gradually succumbed to that series of gram- 
 matical and verbal changes which formed the 
 transition into the Romanic languages. In the 
 mean while, Latin had become the liturgical and 
 official language of the I 'liristian ( Jhurch; and, as 
 the modern languages which arose in different 
 countries of Europe remained for centuries de- 
 void of a literary character, Latin became the 
 common language of the schools and literatures of 
 western Europe. It was the medium of instruc- 
 tion, not only in the convent, and in the cathedral 
 and collegiate schools, but also in the town 
 
 LATIN LANGUAGE 
 
 511 
 
 schools, which in the 12th century, began to arise 
 by the side of, and frequently in opposition to, 
 the church schools. It was this latter class of 
 schools for which the name Latin schools (q. v.) 
 came into use. The Latin of the middle ages 
 [Laiinitas media and Latmitcu in/nun) was 
 far inferior to that of the classic period of Ro- 
 man literature; and, from the 6th to the 14th 
 century, not one writer can be found who, for 
 the elegance of his diction, can be regarded as 
 a classic. The revival of classical studies in the 
 14th and 15th centuries caused, in literature, 
 ] a return from the Latin of the Church to the 
 language of Cicero and the Augustan age, which 
 many writers of that period strove, with some 
 success, to reproduce in its classic purity. The 
 Reformation, in the Kith century, banished the 
 use of Latin from divine service in Protestant 
 churches; but Latin schools were as rigorously 
 maintained in Protestant as in Catholic coun- 
 tries. The speaking of Latin was common 
 among the citizens and mechanics of towns ; 
 and it is reported of the family of the learned 
 printer Henry Stephens that not only his wife, 
 but even his domestics talked Latin. Special 
 importance was attributed to the speaking of 
 Latin in the schools of the Jesuits ; and also 
 in Protestant states, like Prussia and Saxony, 
 the gymnasia were, and partly still are, expected 
 to train their pupils in speaking and writing Lat- 
 in. In modern times, the growing opposition 
 to the privileged position of classical studies in 
 the educational systems of civilized nations, has 
 diminished the study of Latin as well as that of 
 Greek, but the former still maintains a promi- 
 nent place in the higher institutions of learning 
 throughout the civilized world, and, even in 
 the present century, though in a decreasing ratio, 
 is still used in scientific works. As the lan- 
 guage of diplomacy it began to give way to 
 the French in the course of the 1 Tth century ; 
 but, in some parts of' Europe, it was still, in 
 the 18th century, the language of the educated 
 classes and of political life. Thus, the Huii- 
 garian Diet, in the middle of the 18th century, 
 received Maria Theresa, when she personally ap- 
 peared to ask its support, with the memorable 
 acclamation: Moriamur pro rege nostro Maria 
 Theresia. In the Roman Catholic ( 'hurch, Latin 
 maintains unimpaired the high authority ac- 
 corded to it as the language of the Church ; and, 
 as such, it is still used by the Pope in his com- 
 munications with the bishops and church mem- 
 bers of all nationalities, and by the councils of 
 the ( nurch in their discussions and decrees. 
 
 The Latin alphabet derives a special interest 
 from the fact that it has been adopted for the 
 English language and all the Romanic languages, 
 and has thus become the medium of written ex- 
 pression for the thought of a large portion of the 
 civilized world. Its early history is still far from 
 being fully elucidated: but recenl researches, 
 especially those of Kirehhoff i Abhandlungen der 
 Academie der Wissenschaften vu Berlin, 1863) 
 have shed considerable light on the subject. It 
 is now commonly assumed that the I*itin charac- 
 
512 
 
 LATIN" LANGUAGE 
 
 lers are the offspring of the vEolo-"Doric variety 
 of the Greek alphabet. According to < Scero and 
 Quintilian, the number of letters in the old Lat- 
 in was 21, but only 20 appear in the earliest 
 documents. One letter appears, therefore, to 
 have disappeared, which, according to Mommsen 
 ami Lenormant, was Z. The letter C, as its 
 place in the alphabet, as well as its early pro- 
 nunciation, indicates, was originally identical 
 with the Greek F; as it gradually assumed 
 the sound K. it caused the introduction of the 
 letter G. which was not in the earliest alphabet, 
 as well as the disappearance of the letter K, 
 which maintained itself in only a very few ab- 
 breviations. In regard to the pronunciation of 
 Latin, grammarians, until late in the present 
 century, were accustomed to remark that the an- 
 cient mode of pronouncing it was almost wholly 
 lost, and that modern scholars had applied to it 
 those principles which regulate the pronuncia- 
 tion oi their own languages. The obscurity in 
 which Latin pronunciation was believed to be 
 enveloped, has, to a great extent, been removed 
 by the learned works of Corssen (Veber Aus- 
 sprache, Vocalismus und Betonung der lateini- 
 schen Sprache, 2 vols., 2d edit., 1808 — 70) and 
 Others; and the leading representatives of Latin 
 philology are approaching a remarkable unanim- 
 ity in regard to this subject. It is regarded as 
 probable that the Latin vowels had about the 
 same sound as the corresponding vowels have in 
 the Italian and German alphabets, with the ex- 
 ception of 0, which may have resembled more the 
 sound of that letter in lord, than in note. The 
 y, which only occurs in won Is of Greek origin. 
 sounds like the Greek v, the German ii, and the 
 French u. In pronouncing each of the diph- 
 thongs, the Romans distinctly uttered both of 
 the vowels composing it. Thus in neuter each of 
 the two vowels was distinctly heard, just as in 
 the pronunciation of this diphthong in the 
 modern Italian and Portuguese. The letter <■ 
 was always pronounced like k\ the g was always 
 hard as in give; final m had an obscure sound, 
 perhaps the nasal sound of the French, as in 
 imia; s was always like the Spanish s, having 
 the sound of ss in miss; and pn, ch, th were, as 
 the characters indicate, pronounced as the as- 
 pirates p, /,-, and /. In its rules for accentuation 
 and the quantity of syllables, the Latin resembles 
 the < rreek ; and it was thereby, like its classic sis- 
 ter, enabled to develop in its poetry a rhythmical 
 form which by Ear exceeds, in point of beauty, 
 
 anything that is found in any modern language. 
 
 The inflectional part of the language, both in 
 the declension of nouns, pronouns, adjectives, and 
 numerals, and in the conjugation of verbs, also 
 
 characterized the Latin at first sight as a sister 
 
 of the Greek, having many points of resem- 
 blance. We meet with striking similarities in the 
 rules pertaining to cases, numbers, genders, per- 
 sons, voices, and modes, together with extensive 
 verbal affinities. The later development of liter- 
 ature among the Romans deprived the Latin 
 
 of many 01 the forms which Still distinguish 
 
 the Greek, and gave to the language a touch 
 
 of that utilitarian character which characterized 
 the people. Thus, there is no dual number, no 
 middle voice distinguished in its form from the 
 passive, and no optative mood. Besides, in both 
 the active and the passive voice of the Latin 
 verb, there are fewer tense-forms than are found 
 in the Greek. An additional case in the declen- 
 sion of singular norms— the ablative (which of 
 all the Lndo-Germanic languages the Latin and 
 Old Bactrian alone have preserved), is a small 
 offset in favor of the Latin, as far as fullness of 
 inflectional forms is concerned. 
 
 The study of Latin is generally begun by En- 
 glish students at an early age. It almost invari- 
 ably precedes that of the Creek, and generally 
 the Study of any foreign modern language. In 
 many cases, the study of English grammar is 
 either entirely postponed in favor of Latin, or 
 only its most elementary rules are taught. At 
 the outset, the student becomes aware that he is 
 entering a new world of thought. The nouns 
 which he has met with in his English reading, 
 he has found to be subject to but very few 
 changes. When the word father was used in a 
 possessive sense, it became father's ; if used in 
 the plural, fathers; and in the plural and pos- 
 
 ave, fathers'. All the various relations, ex- 
 cept the possessive, which a noun, either in the 
 singular or plural number, may occupy in re- 
 gard to other parts of the sentence, he finds, are 
 expressed by means of prepositions; as, of the 
 father, to the father, with the father, etc The 
 Latin grammar presents to him quite an array 
 of different forms; as, pater, patris, patri, pa- 
 in in. etc. Thus he sees that the modifications 
 of thought which in English arc chiefly expressed 
 by means of prepositions, are indicated in I .at in 
 by the varying inflections of the root. It re- 
 quires considerable effort on the part of the 
 youthful scholar to grasp this new idea, and it is 
 easily seen that this effort must tend to develop 
 
 and strengthen the thinking powers of the stu- 
 dent. — However much the methods of teaching 
 Latin may differ in certain details, no one 
 should dispense with a thorough drilling in the 
 inflectional part of the language and in the 
 principal rules of syntax. Exercises in translat- 
 ing from Latin into English, and from KngHati 
 into Latin, are now quite generally connected 
 with the very first grammar lessons. In accord- 
 ance with the principles of modern educational 
 writers, the exercises in translation are now, 
 
 from the beginning, very properly given in most 
 of the text-Looks in the shape of complete sen- 
 tences. \s it is the desire of every teacher to 
 prepare his pupils for the reading of the Latin 
 classics, a selection of the translation exercises 
 from classic writers has obvious advantages. The 
 mastery system, proposed by T. Prendergast, in 
 The Mastery of "Languages (London, L872), 
 inverts this process, by requiring the pupils to 
 study sentences instead of words, committing to 
 
 me ry carefully constructed expressions, and 
 
 learning the inflectional forms by comparison. 
 This process approximates to the natural method 
 of learning language, and, it is contended, leads 
 
LATIN LANGUAGE 
 
 513 
 
 to a fluency and case m its use which cannot be 
 acquired in any other way. (See R. II. Quick, 
 First Steps in Teaching u Foreign Language, 
 London, L875.) In the system of T. K. Arnold 
 (q. v.). the inflectional peculiarities are learned 
 gradually, as in the Ollendorff system, and al- 
 most the tirst step taken by the pupil is an ex- 
 ercise in construction. — The very large extent to 
 which words of Latin origin have been re- 
 ceived into English can be turned to great 
 advantage by the intelligent teacher. But few 
 words will he met with in the Latin exercises. 
 which arc not etyniologically related to words 
 in the English dictionary: and a constant ref- 
 erence to this kinship not oidy facilitates the 
 acquisition by the student of a copious Latin 
 vocabulary, but at the same time enlarges his 
 knowledge of English. The introduction of 
 young students who have sufficiently mastered 
 the elements of the language, to the Latin clas- 
 sics is considerably obstructed by the want of 
 good juvenile works in the literature, of Rome. If 
 that literature ever had its Barbaulds and Edge- 
 worths, their fame has perished with their works. 
 'The books which for centuries have been the first 
 to be read in Latin schools, — Cornelius Nepos 
 and Caesar, were certainly not written for boys 
 and girls. Even in Rome, they were as little read 
 by children of ten, eleven, or twelve years, as our 
 children of that age are expected to read Shake- 
 speare, I ribbon, or Macaulay; and it is. therefore, 
 undoubtedly a pertinent question, from an edu- 
 cational point of view, whether it is consistent 
 with common sense to expect English boys and 
 girls to read and appreciate writers whom the 
 youth of the same age in their own country 
 would have found too difficult to understand. 
 Various attempts have been made, in modern 
 times, to supply this want, and to provide young 
 Latin students with suitable reading. Sometimes 
 modern imitations of the ancient Latin have been 
 selected for the purpose. Such, for example, is 
 Willymot's Century of Maturinus Gorderius Col- 
 loquies, long familiarly known in Scotland under 
 the name of Cordery. < ertain portions of the dia- 
 logues of Erasmus have the same object in view. 
 As the most successful attempt of the kind, many 
 Latin scholars regard a little work entitled He 
 Viris [II a sir Hi a a Urbis Rovkp, and commonly 
 known in the United States as Viri Romos, by 
 L'Homond, a French professor of the eighteenth 
 century. This work contains the most interest- 
 ing stories related by Livy, Valerius Maximus, 
 Floras, and other eminent writers, as much as 
 possible in the very words of those writers, and 
 is still extensively used in the United States 
 Great Britain, France, and, to a less extent, in 
 Germany. Attempts have also been made to 
 epitomize special Latin classics for the use of 
 young students; thus, in recent times, an epitome 
 of Caesar, prepared by Dr. Woodford, classical 
 master in Madras College. St. Andrews, has been 
 in extensive use. Many of the Latin readers also 
 contain attempts of this kind. The number of 
 Latin classics which are commonly read in col- 
 leges and schools, is quite small. Xepos, Caesar, 
 33 
 
 Cicero. Sallust, Livy, and Tacitus, among the 
 prose writers; and Horace, Virgil, and Ovid 
 among the poets, are universally regarded as the 
 most suitable for this purpose. If we add to 
 them the aames of Plautus, Terence, Lucretius, 
 Catullus, Tibullus, Propertius, Birtius, and the 
 unknown authors of the works I), bello Afri- 
 cano, De bello Alexandrino, DebeUo Ilixj><i/ti< } nsi. 
 and Ad Herennium, oi the time before Christ, 
 and PhsedruS, Valerius .Maximus, Yelleius, 
 Mela, Curtius, Persius, the two Senucas, Lucan, 
 Juvenal, Quintilian, Pliny, Floras, Suetonius, 
 Gellius, .lustin. and Eutropius, of the time 
 after Christ, we have named all the writers of 
 ancient Rome to whose works the Latin reading 
 of at least ninety nine out of every hundred 
 students is restricted both during and after 
 their school years ; and t he vocabulary of these 
 is, therefore, very properly regarded by the au- 
 
 thorsof modern school dictionaries as furnishing 
 
 all the words embraced within the scope of their 
 works. The reading of Latin classics constitutes 
 the principal part of the study of Latin wher- 
 ever it is pursued, except when only the ele- 
 ments of Latin etymology are taughl for the 
 purpose of elucidating the structure of English. 
 (For further remarks on the methods of reading 
 Latin authors, see Classical Studies.) As the 
 advantages which are expected to accrue from a 
 reading of the Latin classics must depend on 
 the pupil's thorough knowledge of the language, 
 the study of grammar and the practice of trans- 
 lating from the vernacular into the Latin lan- 
 guage should be continued throughout the course. 
 Whatever portion of the whole time of a course 
 of instruction may be assigned to Latin, after 
 the study has been begun, it should be con- 
 tinued without interruption until the course is 
 completed. — Whether exercises in Latin con- 
 versation, in original Latin composition, and in 
 Latin versification, should be adopted in a 
 course of Latin study in colleges and classical 
 schools, is obviously dependent on the amount 
 of time which is allowed for this study. This 
 point is now more than ever a subject of an- 
 imated controversy among educators. The 
 physical sciences, which, in modern times, have 
 made progress far exceeding the boldest ex- 
 pectations of former centuries, present claims 
 to a conspicuous place in the course of in- 
 struction of every grade of schools, which are, on 
 all sides, regarded as entitled at least to a serious 
 consideration. The concessions which have 
 been made to these claims, have greatly affected 
 the place formerly assigned to Latin. It has long 
 ceased to be the general medium of instruction 
 in schools of a higher grade; and fluency of Latin 
 expression, either in speaking or writing, is now- 
 adays rarely met with, except among Catholic 
 priests, who acquire it for ecclesiastical purposes, 
 and at the universities of Germany and other 
 
 countries of continental Europe, where the can- 
 didates for the academic doctorate still continue. 
 in many cases, to write the required essay, and 
 to defend proposed theses, in Latin. In order 
 to obtain this proficiency, the German gymnasium 
 
5U 
 
 LATIN LANGUAGE 
 
 provides a course in Latin extending through 
 nine years, the number of hours devoted to it 
 ikly being, for the lir.-t seven years, LO, and 
 for the last two, 8. There are few learned 
 institutions in Great Britain and the United 
 States which deem it advisable to require so 
 large an amount of the student's time for the 
 study of Latin; since the ability to speak and 
 write it with fluency is no longer reckoned 
 among the objects to be accomplished by 
 the shorter course. While the amount of time 
 which, in various courses of instruction, may 
 profitably be given to Latin is now. and will Ion- 
 continue, an open question, intelligent educa- 
 tors will not find it difficult, when once the 
 amount of time has been determined, to adjust 
 the course of instruction to it. Great mistakes 
 are still made in tin's respect in many classical 
 schools. Where the most difficult Latin authors 
 are read by students who are not familiar with 
 declensions or conjugations, or where original 
 Latin compositions are required from students 
 
 who are unable to translate simple .sentences 
 without mistake, the Latin course may safely be 
 pronounced to have been wholly useless for the 
 training of the mind, and the time given to it, 
 to have been entirely wasted. The- practice of 
 requiring Latin addresses to be delivered, by stu- 
 dents who cannot translate correctly, to audiences 
 among whom there may not be a single person 
 who understands the address, is exceedingly ab- 
 surd. ( hie of the most enthusiastic admirers of clas- 
 sical s! in lies.. loh ] i Stuart M ill. severely reprehends 
 the English schools in which "the most precious 
 years of curly life may be irreparably squandi re I 
 in learning to write bad Latin and Greek verses." 
 The grammatical treatment of the Latin lan- 
 guage is believed to have originated with ('rales 
 Mallotes, a < ircek embassador of king Attains of 
 Pergamus; but nothing definite is known of his 
 labors. The firsl grammarian of whose work 
 valuable remains have been preserved to us was 
 M.Terentius Varro (died 27 B. C), who was dis- 
 tinguished as the most learned of Romans. Among 
 the numerous grammatical \\ titers who succeeded 
 him, Donatus, in the fourth, and Priscianus in 
 the sixth, century were especially celebrated: and 
 
 ir works serve, 1, in some respects, as the basis 
 
 of all later works. A new period in the 
 
 history of Latin philology begin with the revival 
 of classical studies in Italy, and the invention 
 of the art of printing. For some time, Italy re- 
 mained the chief seal of Latin scholarship, but. 
 
 in the 16th and 1 7th centuries, it was outstripped 
 by France, Holland. England, and Germany. 
 The Latinists of Holland distinguished them- 
 selves by introducing a strictly scientific method 
 into Latin philology. Richard Bentley, of Eng- 
 land, became the father of the science of verbal 
 criticism. In Germany, th< efforts of Ernesti, 
 1 1 \ in ■. Wolff, and others, caused an entire reor- 
 ganization of Latin studies, whieh gradually 
 fed, in the course of the 1 9th century, to the 
 acknowledged superiority of the German Latin- 
 The mos1 notable German contributions 
 to Latin lexicography (see Dictionaries), are the 
 
 comprehensive dictionaries by Freund, Georges, 
 and Klot/. the school dictionaries by Ingerslev, 
 (ieoiges. i It inieheii. Kreussler, the etymological 
 dictionaries by Sehwcnck. and Yaiiicek (lfi 
 besides a number of special dictionaries for the 
 poets, the sources of jurisprudence, the histori- 
 an-, and for every Latin work that is com- 
 monly read in schools. Latin grammars in 
 the German language have been written by 
 Ziimpt (13th cd., 1874; shorter grammar, 9th 
 ed., L866); Madvig (3d ed., 1875; shorter gram- 
 mar, 1857); Berger (9th ed., 1 875) jEllendt (16th 
 ed., 1876); Kuhner (Schulgrammatik, 5th ed., 
 1861; Tuementargrammatik, 38th ed.. 1875 ; 
 Lattmann and Midler (Schulgrammatik, 3ded., 
 1872 : Kurzgefasste Gram.fn.atik, 3d ed., 1872 ; 
 Middendorf and Griiter (8th ed., 1870 ; Sibi ni 
 {Schulgrammatik, 21st ed., 1873); J. Schultz 
 [Sprachlehre, 8th ed., 1874 ; K7< ine Sprachlehre, 
 1 1th ed., 1875); and a host of other.-. An alpha- 
 betical list of all the I atin grammars, dictionaries. 
 chrestomathies, and other books relating to the 
 Latin language which have been published in 
 Germany since 1750, is given in Engelmann, 
 BibliothecaPhihIogica(M ed., 1 853).- -1 hemosl 
 
 celebrated of former lexicographers were < 'ale- 
 
 pino. Robert Stephens, Facciolati, and Forcel- 
 tini. (See Dictionaries.) In England, and sub- 
 sequently also in the United States, the Latin 
 lexicon of Ainsworth (1736) became the most 
 popular work of this class. Of the English and 
 American works published in thepresenl century, 
 Leveretts lexicon (1836) announces itself as 
 an ■• abridgment of Facciolati and Forcellini, with 
 improvements drawn from Scheller and Liine- 
 mann''; the lexicon of Andrews (1856) is based 
 on Freund ; that of W. Smith (1855), on For- 
 cellini and Freund ; that of Kiddle and Arnold 
 I American edition by AnthonLon I leorges : thai 
 of ('rooks and Schem (1857), on Ingerslev. 
 Other Latin-English dictionaries have been com- 
 piled by Beard, Bullions, Entick, Gardner, White, 
 and ^ oung. Among the Latin grammars used 
 in American and English schools, besides trans- 
 lation- df die grammars of Zumpt, Madvig, and 
 others, are those of Adam (formerly very ex- 
 tensively used iii American schools; new edi- 
 tion by Gould, by Fish, and by others), Allen, 
 Greenough, Andrews and Stoddard, Anthon, 
 Arnold. Bartholomew, Bingham, Brooks, Brans, 
 Bullions, Clark, Dillaway, Fischer, Gildersleve, 
 Goodrich, Grant, Donaldson (complete Latin 
 Grammar, 3d ed., 1867 ; one of the best }, I lark- 
 in-- now extensively used in American collet 
 Harrison, Ley (3d ed., 1862), MLcClintock, Mor- 
 ris, Roby (2 vols.. 1871 I. one of the best I, 
 Ro . ROSS, Ruddiman, W. Smith, Spencer, 
 
 Thompson, Waddell, and Weale. An excellent 
 
 introduction to a philological Btudyof the I atin, 
 is Donaldson's Varronianus (3d ed.. I860 . \ 
 comparative grammar of Latin and Greek has 
 been written b\ L. Meyer ( Vergleichende Oram- 
 matikder griechischen undlateinischen Sprache, 
 'J Mils. 1861 5). The relation of I atin to the 
 
 other branches of the Indo-Germanic family is 
 
 fully elucidated ill the comparative grammars 
 
LATIN SCHOOLS 
 
 LAW SCHOOLS 
 
 515 
 
 of Bopp and Schleicher. (See Indo-Geemanic 
 Languages). — There are numerous editions of 
 every Latin writer that is usually read in schools, 
 with English notes, and in many cases with a 
 special vocabulary. Collective editions of the 
 Latiu authors read in schools, according to a uni- 
 form plan, are, among others, the Sibliot) 
 Classic i, under the direction of G. Long and A. 
 J. Macleane (London, since 1854) ; the Clarendon 
 Press Series, which counts among its contribu- 
 tors Moberley, Ellis, XV. and < i. Ramsay, Prichard, 
 Bernard, Walford, Browning. Wickham, Lee- 
 Warner (Oxford); the Catena Classicorum, under 
 the direction of Holmes and Bigg (London) ; 
 the series published by Chase and Stuart (Phila- 
 delphia) ; the editions of several of the classics by 
 Allen and Greenough. Andrews. Anthon. Brooks, 
 Harkness, Schmitz, Weale, and others. The best 
 collections of this kind in Germany are those 
 published at Berlin, under the direction of 
 Sauppe and llaupt, and at Leipsic, by the firm 
 of Teubner. The latter, in 1876, consisted of 61 
 volumes. — Histories of Roman literature have 
 been published byKlotz (Leipsic, 1845); Thomp- 
 son (London, 1852) ; Browne (London, 1853) ; 
 Munk (Berlin. 1861) ; BaMir (3 vols., 4th ed., 
 Carlsruhe, 1867) ; Bernhardy (Brunswick, 5th 
 ed., 1872); Teuffel (3d. ed., Leipsic, 1876 ; Engl, 
 transl.. London, 1873). 
 
 LATIN SCHOOLS, a name given, in several 
 German states as well as in the Netherlands, to 
 a class of secondary schools. The name is derived 
 from the fact that Latin was formerly, in these 
 schools, the most prominent branch, and generally 
 even the medium, of instruction. These schools 
 gradually developed out of the ••trivial schools," 
 which, in the course of the middle ages, sprung up 
 in many towns by the side of, or even in opposi- 
 tion to, the convent schools, and the cathedral and 
 collegiate schools. The name Latin school did not 
 come into general use. but alternated with that of 
 particular school. When, in the 1 6th century, the 
 word gymnasium, and (more rarely) paedago- 
 gium was applied to those Latin schools which 
 were completely organized, and prepared their 
 pupils for the university, the name Latin school 
 was commonly reserved for the lower half of the 
 institution. Only in exceptional cases (as in 
 Halle), has a complete gymnasium retained the 
 name Latin school, which is now generally on 
 the wane. In Prussia, no distinctive name is 
 any longer given to the lower classes of a com- 
 plete gymnasium ; and schools containing only 
 the lower classes of a gymnasium, are called 
 progymnasia. The largest proportion of these 
 schools is to be found in the kingdom of Wiir- 
 temberg, where many of them have only one 
 or two teachers. In Bavaria, the name is still 
 given to the five lower classes of the classical 
 gymnasium, which is there called Studienanstalt. 
 and also to those schools which only contain 
 the five lower gymnasium classes. In the Nether- 
 lands, the difference between Latin schools and 
 gymnasia is not defined. (See Netherlands.) 
 In the United States, one of the best known 
 of such schools is the public I.atin school of 
 Boston. 
 
 LAW SCHOOLS have been in use as a 
 means of education for the bar, almost from the 
 time when the bar first became a recognized 
 profession. In ancient times, the schools of 
 Rome, Berytus, and Constantinople, with some 
 of minor importance, were the recognized nurs- 
 eries of the legal profession. The most eminent 
 of the Roman jurists taught in these schools. 
 There is reason to believe that at least one such 
 school remained at Ravenna up to a period not 
 very long before the revival of the law; if, indeed, 
 it was not. as sonic have supposed, the germ from 
 which the famous school of Bologna afterwards 
 sprung. From the time of Irnerius, early in the 
 12th century, the history of European juris- 
 prudence has been identified with that of the 
 schools of law. in the states of modem Europe. 
 At present, upon that continent, the law schools 
 of the various universities are the recognized 
 portals of the legal profession, and of the 
 bench. In England, legal education was. at first, 
 conducted in the same method. The arrival of 
 Vacarius, an Italian teacher of law, at Oxford, 
 in the reign of Stephen, marks the introduction 
 of scientific jurisprudence into England. He con- 
 tinued to teach for a period not definitely ascer- 
 tained, but long enough to found a school which 
 has left, in its glosses and other legal writings, 
 considerable traces of its existence. The Inns of 
 Court, at London, were probably intended, in the 
 first place, as rivals of this civilian school, and 
 were devoted, from the beginning, to instruction 
 in the common law. During their flourishing 
 period as schools, the attendance of students 
 there was very large, in proportion to the entire 
 population of the metropolis and of the kingdom. 
 The well-known account given by Fortescue (in 
 his treatise De laudibus legum Anglice, cap. 49.) 
 of the life, and mode of instruction in these 
 schools, proves the importance of the position 
 which they held as the chief, if not the only, 
 mode of preparation for the English bar of that 
 time. Their activity in this respect seems to 
 have been at its height about the time of For- 
 tescue, or in the 15th century. In the 16th, 
 they became rather places of gaiety ; and the 
 readerships and other offices were perverted to 
 means of ostentatious display. The number of 
 students declined ; and, from the middle of 
 the 17th century, the course of instruction in 
 them ceased to be any thing more than a mere 
 form. Education for the bar was. henceforth, 
 conducted in the offices of special pleaders, con- 
 veyancers, and other practicing lawyers ; and it 
 was not until the present generation that the 
 Inns of Court have again made the effort to 
 resume their original function. The Inner 
 Temple led the way in this reform, by establish- 
 ing, in L833, two lecturerships, one of common 
 law and equity, the other of general jurispru- 
 dence and international law. The latter was filled 
 by John Austin, whose lectures, though only the 
 first six were published in his life-time, have since 
 exerted so great an influence upon the revival 
 of scientific jurisprudence in England [Lectures 
 on Jurisprudence, or the Philosophy of Positive 
 
516 
 
 LAW SCHOOLS 
 
 Law; edited by his widow, 1861 — 3; 3d edition 
 by Robert Campbell, 1869). In 1847, another 
 attempt was made to establish readerships or 
 lecturerships, originating in the Middle Temple, 
 by which body .Mr. George Long was appointed 
 reader on civil law and jurisprudence. The 
 other Inns followed the example, and moot- 
 courts and examinations were added by the 
 lecturers. But no joint action of the four Inns 
 Avas had until 1852, when a standing committee, 
 or council of legal education, was appointed : five 
 readerships were established, in which those 
 previously appointed by the several Inns were 
 merged ; and students were required, before ad- 
 mission, either to attend at least two of the 
 courses for a year, or to pass a public exami- 
 nation. In the mean time, a committee of in- 
 quiry, appointed by parliament in 1846, had 
 reported in favor of uniting the four Inns into a 
 .single law university; and. in 1854, a royal com- 
 mission was appointed, which investigated the 
 subject very thoroughly, and reported in favor of 
 the proposed measure, and of a compulsory exami- 
 nation before a call to the bar. No practical 
 result, however, followed so far as the Inns are 
 concerned until 1873, when these recommen- 
 dations wen' ] partially carried out. The four Inns 
 of Court now elect a council of legal education, 
 and this council appoints a permanent committee 
 of eight members, called the Committee of Edu- 
 cation and Examination, to superintend the edu- 
 cation and examination of students for the bar. 
 The council also appoint six readers or lecturers, 
 to hold office for three years, and a certain num- 
 ber of tutors for private instruction. There is 
 also a paid board of examiners, six in number, 
 holding office for two years, and re-eligible only 
 after an interval of a year; and Studentships, ex- 
 hibitions, and certificates of honor are awarded 
 to those who pass good examinations. But at- 
 tendance on the lectures and examinations is not 
 compulsory; and any person may still qualifyfor 
 admission to the bar by passing, previous to his 
 admission to an Inn as a student, examinations in 
 the English and Latin languages and in English 
 history, ami by spending a year as pupil with a 
 barrister or pleader. — All that has been said thus 
 far relates only to education for the English bar 
 as distinct from the body of solicitors. Admis- 
 sion to this body has always been in the hands of 
 common law judges and masters of the rolls; and 
 
 the Incorporated Law Society, a very influential 
 
 organization, succeeded, as early as Is3(>. in intro- 
 ducing a system of examination-., preliminary, 
 
 middle, and final, as a strict condition of admis- 
 sion to the roll. I landidates are examined by a 
 
 Committee Of sixteen BOlicitorS, generally chosen 
 from the council of that society, together with 
 
 the masters of the common law courts. The 
 
 council also appoint annually three lecturers, by 
 
 whom lectin.- are delivered to articled clerks. 
 
 Attendance at these is voluntary, but no solicitor 
 can be admitted without passim.:' the examinations 
 
 for which they prepare the student. — In duly, 
 i s To, the Legal Education Association, composed 
 of both barristers and solicitors, aud heade 1 
 
 by Sir Roundell Palmer, now Lord Selborne, 
 was formed, with the avowed objects of bringing 
 about the establishment of a law university for 
 the education of students intended for the pro- 
 fession of law, and the placing of the admission 
 to both branches of the profession on the basis of 
 a combined test of collegiate education and an 
 examination by a public board of examiners. In 
 every session of parliament, from that time to 
 1873, they made vigorous efforts to secure these 
 objects by resolutions and bills, an account of 
 which will be found in Mr. Campbell's preface 
 to h\& Abridgment of Austin's Lectures. Since the 
 latter date, attention has been chiefly occupied by 
 the very great changes in the organization of the 
 courts, the methods of procedure, and the fusion 
 of law and equity. The association, however, is 
 still engaged in prosecuting its reforms, which 
 have been materially facilitated by these changes. 
 The law schools of the United States have 
 no historical connection with those already men- 
 tioned. Their existence is due entirely to the wants 
 of that country. Before the Revolution, it was 
 not uncommon for law students who could afford 
 it. to go to the mother country, and prosecute 
 their legal studies there, nominally in the Inns of 
 Court, really in the offices where other English 
 students of the time prepared themselves for the 
 bar; but the number of these was, of course, 
 small, and the bar of the colonies was composed 
 in a large measure, of those who had read only 
 in the office of the nearest practicing attorney. 
 The number of these was comparatively large. 
 In a work published at London in 1790, entitled 
 A Review of the Laws of the United States etc., 
 it is stated that there were at that time three 
 hundred practicing lawyers in ( onnecticut, and 
 that, •'in New York, and from thence through all 
 the northern states, lawyers swarmed." This natu- 
 rally led the attention of thoughtful men to the 
 possibility of improvement in legal education; and 
 dames AYilson,one of the signers of the Declara- 
 tion of Independence, a member of the con- 
 vention which framed the Constitution of the 
 •United States, ami an associate justice of the 
 supreme court, has the honor of having been 
 the first to deliver a formal course of lectures 
 upon American law. He held the law professor- 
 ship in the College of Philadelphia, then the 
 federal capital, and in the winter of 1790 — 91, 
 delivered his first course; a second course was 
 commenced in the following winter, but was never 
 completed. The college became incorporated 
 with the University of Pennsylvania, in April 
 1 ~ { X1 ; and the law school, for some unexplained 
 reason, was discontinued. The lectures delivered 
 by Judge Wilson are published in his collected 
 works in three volumes, Svo (Philadelphia, 1804). 
 The honor of precedence is Bometimes claimed 
 for the Litchfield School, next to be mentioned. 
 Judge Parker, in his pamphlet on the Harvard 
 law school (Loston, 1871), says that Timothy 
 Reeve established the ('onnecticut school in 
 I 782 or 1 784 But there is no reason to believe 
 that the instruction given by Judge Reeve in 
 the earlier years differed in any respect from that 
 
LAW SCHOOLS 
 
 51V 
 
 f 
 
 usually given by lawyers in their offices, till 
 Judge Gould became associated with him in 
 1798. The Philadelphia school was at least the 
 first one formally incorporated, while that of 
 Judge Reeve was the iirst successful one. It 
 was afterwards continued by the lion. James 
 Gould, author of Gould's Treatise on Pleading. 
 This school existed for more than thirty years. 
 It was then removed to Northampton, and soon 
 afterward discontinued, the professor in charge, 
 John Hooper Ashniun, having been elected to a 
 position at Harvard. The Litchfield school had 
 students from all parts of the Union, but its 
 numbers were never large. The attendance at 
 no time exceeded 50 ; and the total number of 
 its students, from 1798 to 1827, was 730, or an 
 average of about 25 per annum. The third law 
 school, and the oldest now in existence in the 
 United States, is that of the Law Department of 
 Harvard University. A single professorship 
 was established in 1815; and the school, in 1817. 
 Until 1829, its success was very meager; but, in 
 that year, a gift from the Hon. Nathan Dane 
 established a new professorship to which Judge 
 Story was elected. Professor Ashmun was as- 
 sociated with him; and the Harvard School 
 sprung at once to the position which it has ever 
 since retained, at the head of American law 
 schools. Among its professors have been the 
 distinguished legal authors Simon Greenleaf, 
 1832—48; Theophilus Parsons, 1848—70; and 
 Emory Washburne, 1855 — 7(5; besides many other 
 distinguished men. Several other law schools 
 were started in various parts of the country 
 prior to 1830; but the only oues now surviving 
 without a break of existence are believed to be 
 those of Yale College, 1824, and of the Univer- 
 sity of Virginia. 1 825. The history of the thirty 
 years from 1829 to,59, may be summed up by say- 
 ing that law schools were few and neglected, and 
 that their graduates were but an insignificant mi- 
 nority of the profession. Even the great name and 
 influence of Joseph Story, and the success of the 
 Dane Law School, under his direction, formed but 
 an exception to the rule, without perceptibly mod- 
 ifying the general custom of legal education in 
 private offices. In L842, if we may trust a table 
 published the following year, there were only 
 10 law schools in nominal existence in the coun- 
 try, with 19 professors among them, and 384 
 students. No school had more than three teachers; 
 and some of the most frequented, like the 
 University of Virginia, had only one. Harvard 
 had only two, but they were Judge Story and 
 Simon Greenleaf ; and their reputation attracted 
 115 students, while no other law school in the 
 country had more then 75. The only schools still 
 existing which date from this period are the 
 following : Indiana University, at Bloomington, 
 1842 ; Louisiana University, at New Orleans, 
 1847 ; Albany Law School, now a branch of 
 Union University, 1851 ; University of New 
 York, New York City, 1857 ; Cincinnati Law 
 School, 1833; Ohio State and Union Law Col- 
 lege, Cleveland, 1856 ; Cumberland University, 
 Lebanon, Tenn., 1847. The Law School of the 
 
 University of Michigan, was established in 
 L858, and that of Columbia College, in New 
 York (which had previously been established 
 under Chancellor Kent, but discontinued after 
 a brief existence), dates its present existence 
 from the same year. These are now the two 
 largest schools in the country; and the date of 
 their establishment may well be taken as the 
 period when the more rapid growth of law 
 schools began in this country. — Prior to 1858, 
 the schools cannot be said to have exerted much 
 influence upon legal education. Their attendance 
 was very small, and a course in them was re- 
 garded rather as an accomplishment which might 
 very well be dispensed with, than as a necessary 
 part of the preparation for the actual work of 
 the bar; but, about this time, several causes con- 
 tributed to produce a change in the system of 
 legal education. The rapid development of the 
 "W est, and the number of lawyers required by its 
 business gave a great stimulus to professional 
 education; while it became evident that the tra- 
 ditional method of instruction in offices would 
 not meet the wants of the country, outside of the 
 few great cities. The introduction of codes also, 
 and the change from a very technical practice to 
 an informal one, together with the immense in- 
 crease of decided cases, and the consequent loss 
 of precision and fixity in the law, all combined 
 to make the old method unpopular and unsatis- 
 factory. An increase of teaching facilities was 
 an evident necessity; and the recent growth of 
 law schools has been the result, rather than the 
 cause, of the change which has come over the 
 whole system of professional education. The 
 school at Ann Arbor was also the first to place 
 its tuition fees at a rate within the means of 
 most students, and thus to encourage a very 
 general disposition on their part to take a course 
 in the law school, as, at least, a part of their pro- 
 fessional education. 1 he growth in numbers of 
 this school was entirely unprecedented. — In 1860, 
 as we learn from the United States census of 
 that year, there were in the country twenty law 
 schools, distributed as follows ; five in the state 
 of New York, two in Indiana, and one each in 
 the states of Connecticut, Illinois, Kentucky, 
 Louisiana, Massachusetts, Michigan, Missouri, 
 North Carolina. Ohio. Pennsylvania, Tennessee, 
 Virginia, and. in the District of Columbia. But 
 how little dependence can be placed on such 
 statistics may be learned by comparing this list 
 with the one prepared in the same year for the 
 American Almanac, of 1 861 . This gives nearly the 
 same total number (nineteen), but entirely omits 
 oneof the New York schools, and those in Illinois, 
 Missouri, and the District of Columbia, while 
 adding one in each of the states of Virginia, 
 Kentucky, and Mississippi. A comparison of 
 both lists shows about fifteen schools that had 
 what may be called a substantial existence at 
 that time. Nearly all of these remain in full 
 operation at present. Since that time the number 
 has been more than doubled, as will be seen by 
 the table we give below. Some of the most 
 flourishing schools at present have been estab- 
 
518 
 
 LAW SCHOOLS 
 
 lislied since that period; as. for instance, those 
 al Boston, Chicago, St. Louis, Iowa City, and 
 Washington; and most of the older schools 
 have been reorganized and improved. — The fol- 
 lowing table, will show the remarkable recent 
 increase of these institutions. 
 
 Year, and source 
 
 Number 
 
 of 
 schools 
 
 Number 
 
 of 
 teachers 
 
 Number 
 
 of 
 students 
 
 1842 American Almanac, 
 for 1843 
 
 10 
 
 19 
 20 
 
 28 
 30 
 37 
 37 
 38 
 41 
 
 19 
 43 
 
 384 
 
 Lmeric&D Almanac, 
 for lnGl) 
 
 1,111 
 
 1860 !'. s. census) 
 
 
 1870 U.S. Bureau of Edu- 
 
 99 
 129 
 154 
 168 
 181 
 216 
 
 1,653 
 
 1871 [do 
 
 1H72 do.) 
 
 1873 (do 
 
 1ST4 (do 
 
 1,722 
 
 1.976 
 2.174 
 2,585 
 
 1S75 [do.) 
 
 2,631 
 
 It will he noticed that, of late years, the number 
 of teachers has increased much more rapidly in 
 proportion than that of students. 
 
 Organization, Cnurm- <>/ Simli), etc. — Although 
 there is, in the nature of the case, no statutory 
 or other rule prescribing the organization and 
 conduct of American law schools, in general, yel 
 a few prominent features are common to all. 
 The faculty usually consists of lawyers in the 
 active practice of the profession, or judges oc- 
 cupying seats upon the bench; and the time 
 which tiny give to instruction is usually but a 
 
 11 pari of that required by their other dut 
 Only a U'\\ schools have yet succee Led in secur- 
 ing to themselves the constant services of one or 
 
 more resilient professors who devote themselves 
 
 entirely to the work of instruction in law. — The 
 
 method of instruction differs in different schools, 
 but is usually either by lectures, or by recitation 
 from text-books. The latter are for the most part 
 th ■ treatises which have been prepared for the use 
 a: practicing lawyers, and very few of them are 
 fil for elementary instruction. Still, the method 
 of recitation is so much more effective than the 
 mere delivery of lectures, that the present tend- 
 ency is to an increased use of textbooks. A 
 few teachers have made an effort to combine 
 the two. thus affording a method really adapted 
 to the use of beginners, or have prepared them- 
 selves printed synopses of their lectures, or col- 
 lections of cases, to be place:! in the hands of 
 th ■ class for study. Attention has recently I 
 drawn to this subject, ami to the great waste of 
 t ime and labor cause 1 by the pre\ ions neglect of 
 all effort toward better teaching. Another defect 
 
 of the schools may lie trace I to the cireumstae 
 
 of their origin. As they grew up only to sup- 
 
 pl •incut the old method of instruction in otlices. 
 
 bave relied entirely upon such instruction 
 
 f •!■ the training of students in professional 
 
 li kbits, and in the details of practice. They have 
 
 conf niselves exclusively, or almosi so. to 
 
 the task of assisting the Btudenl in memorizing 
 - of law: ami a course of introductory lect- 
 like the encyclopaedia ami methodology of 
 the German schools is almost unknown. Very 
 few ir students a \ iew of the law 
 
 as a single and uniform system. The course is 
 composed of detached fragments, in each of which 
 a single topic of law is treated with no reference 
 to others, and no attempt at consistent treat- 
 ment by different teachers. The result, too fre- 
 quently, is, that students go through a course 
 with uo conception of the law as a whole, and 
 with no training of that power of legal judgment 
 which is the first requisite of a lawyer. 
 
 Admission. — Most of the schools throw open 
 their doors to all comers, and require no partic- 
 ular amount of education for admission. The 
 course is intended to be taken, in all cases, at the 
 very beginning of professional education. None 
 of the schools require any previous knowledge of 
 law. except in cases where students apply for 
 advanced standing. — Two or three of the older 
 schools have recently adopted a rule by which 
 students an- required to present a college 
 diploma, or to pass an equivalent examination. 
 This rule is not to take effect until the next 
 college year. 1*77 — 8; and its operation must 
 be considered as yet an unsolved problem. 
 
 Length of Course, (tmi Graduation. — The 
 course of study varies in length, from a single 
 session of five or six months to three years. < >nly 
 one or two schools, however, haveas yet adopted 
 
 the latter. The majority require either a single 
 year of continuous study, or a course nominally 
 of two years, composed of two annual sessions of 
 five or six months each. Tin' advantage of the 
 latter arrangement is supposed to lie in the op- 
 portunity given to students to prosecute their 
 studies in an office between the two sessions. Iu 
 such cases students are usuall} r admitted to the 
 senior class, upon examination, and are thus 
 enabled to reduce the period of actual attendance 
 to one session: but, as methods of instruction im- 
 prove, a tendency is manifest to insist more upon 
 the discipline acquired in the school itself, and 
 to make a constant term of attendance a condi- 
 tion of graduation. The usual degree at gradu- 
 ation is that of LL. B. It was formerly given 
 as a matter of course, after the requisite period 
 of attendance: but. at present, an examination 
 is required in every case. This examination, in 
 some schools, is conducted by the faculty: in 
 others, by a committee appointed by the courts 
 
 of the state, or in some ol her manlier. The extent 
 
 and rigor of examinations, of course, vary widely 
 in different institutions; but, upon the whole, they 
 are so much more thorough and severe than 
 those to which applicants were subjected under 
 the former system, that the\ ha\e undoubtedly 
 done much to raise the standard of professional 
 acquirements. —Quite a number of Bchoolshave, 
 by law. the privilege of admitting students to the 
 
 har of the states iii which they arc situated. In 
 
 such cases, it is usually sutlicieiit for a graduate 
 
 to present his diploma, and take the attorneys 
 oath; though, in some instances, the diploma 
 
 serves merely as a substitute for examination, 
 
 and the applicant must also prove moral char- 
 acter, etc. A warm controversy has recently 
 been waged, in New York and some other states, 
 iu regard to the value and propriety of this 
 
LAW SCHOOLS 
 
 LEBANON VALLEY COLLEGE 
 
 f)l!> 
 
 privilege. The schools themselves are by no 
 means unanimous in desiring it. The better 
 opinion seems to be that it should be granted 
 only in cases where the examination tor the 
 degree is not left with the faculty alone, but is 
 under the direction of the supreme court of the 
 state, or of some other body whose position will 
 guarantee its fairness and impartiality. Where 
 examinations are so conducted, it certainly seems 
 superfluous to require the graduates to appear 
 again before Buch committees as are usually ap- 
 pointed for local examinations. As a general rule. 
 no degree but that of LL. B.. given on tin- com- 
 pletion of the usual course, is bestowed by the 
 American law schools. The Vale School, how- 
 ever, now offers the degree of Master of Law 
 (M. L.) to such students as pursue an advanced 
 course for oue year after taking the bachelors 
 decree, and the degree of Doctor of Civil Law 
 (1). C. L.) for a second year of advanced study. 
 The University of Georgia offers the degree 
 of Doctor of Jurisprudence to such of its 
 graduates as have pursued the practice of law 
 ■with success, and maintained an honorable and 
 virtuous character for seven years after grad- 
 uation. — The subjoined table contains a list 
 of all the important law schools in the United 
 States : 
 
 School 
 
 
 ■a 
 
 z U 
 
 V 
 
 , t 
 
 
 or 
 
 Location 
 
 
 E " 
 
 Z) >> 
 
 Department 
 
 
 O 
 
 
 £.5 
 
 Univ. of Alabama 
 
 Tuscaloosa, Ala 
 
 is 75 
 
 1>. 
 
 — 
 
 Yale Law School 
 
 
 1824 
 
 2 
 
 35 
 
 
 
 1866 
 
 1 
 
 51 
 
 111. Wesleyan Univ.... 
 
 Blooniington, HI... 
 
 1S74 
 
 •j 
 
 36 
 
 Union CoH. of Law. ) 
 Chic. ^N.W.Univ...J 
 
 Chicago, HI 
 
 1873 
 
 2 
 
 36 
 
 
 
 McKendree College. .. 
 
 
 1870 
 
 2 
 
 40 
 
 Lincoln University. . . 
 Indiana University. . . 
 
 Lincoln, HI 
 
 1875 
 1842 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 Bloomington, Hid.. 
 
 38 
 
 Iowa College of Law 1 
 Simpson Cent. Coll. J 
 
 
 1ST;, 
 
 1 
 
 36 
 
 Iowa State Univ 
 
 Iowa City, la 
 
 1866 
 
 1,2 
 
 38 
 
 
 Mt. Pleasant. la 
 
 1S71 
 
 
 
 — ■ 
 
 
 
 lsc,.-, 
 
 2 
 
 22 
 
 Central Univ 
 
 
 1874 
 
 2 
 
 — 
 
 Univ. of Louisiana. . . 
 
 New Orleans, La ... . 
 
 |S47 
 
 2 
 
 20 
 
 Univ. of Maryland. . . . 
 
 
 L812 
 
 2 
 
 34 
 
 B"st"ii t'liivcrsitv. . . . 
 
 
 1872 
 
 3 
 
 30 
 
 Harvard University. . 
 
 Cambridge, Mass... 
 
 1817 
 
 2 
 
 37 
 
 Univ. ■>!' Michigan.... 
 
 Ann Arbor, Mich... 
 
 L858 
 
 2 
 
 — 
 
 Univ. of Missouri 
 
 
 L872 
 
 2 
 
 21 
 
 Washington Univ 
 
 
 1867 
 
 2 ' a 
 
 Albany Law School. . . 
 
 Albany, N.Y 
 
 1*51 
 
 1 I 38 
 
 
 Clinton, N.Y 
 
 — 
 
 1 
 
 — 
 
 Columbia College 
 
 New Tori, N. Y 
 
 L858 
 
 2 
 
 32 
 
 Univ. of N.Y. City. ... 
 
 New York, N.Y. 
 
 1857 
 
 2 
 
 36 
 
 Kutherford College.. . 
 
 Happy Home.N.C 
 
 — 
 
 — — 
 
 
 Trinity, N. C 
 
 L867 
 
 2 
 
 40 
 
 Cincinnati Law S 
 
 
 1833 
 
 2 
 
 30 
 
 Cincinnati College 
 
 
 
 
 
 Ohio State & I'nion 1 
 Law College ( 
 
 
 1856 
 
 2 
 
 39 
 
 
 Xenia, 
 
 1 872 
 
 is;:. 
 
 2 
 
 4'> 
 
 Lafayette College 
 
 Univ. of Pennsylvania 
 
 
 •»> 
 
 Philadelphia. Pa 
 
 I860 
 
 2 
 
 40 
 
 
 ( ' 'lumbia. S. C 
 
 L868 
 
 2 
 
 40 
 
 Neophogan Law Sch. . 
 
 
 1876 
 
 1 
 
 39 
 
 Cumberland Univ 
 
 Lebanon. Tenn 
 
 1*47 
 
 1 
 
 411 
 
 Univ. of Virginia 
 
 Charlottesville, Ya.. 
 
 1826 
 
 1 
 
 39 
 
 Sch. of Law & Equity 1 
 Wash. ,v Lee Univ.. J 
 
 
 1871 
 
 1.2 
 
 — 
 
 Univ. of Wisconsin. . 
 
 
 1 B68 
 
 1 
 
 38 
 
 Columbian University 
 
 Washington. D. C. . 
 
 I SCI 
 
 2 
 
 ::c, 
 
 Reward University. . . 
 
 Washington, 1>. 0... 
 
 L869 
 
 2 
 
 :s7 
 
 
 Washington, D.c... 
 
 1870 
 
 2 
 
 :;l 
 
 National Dniversit] . . 
 
 Washington, D. C. .. 
 
 1870 
 
 2 
 
 30 
 
 LAWRENCE, Abbott, born in Groton, 
 Mass.. Dec., Hi., L792 ; died in Boston, Aug. Is., 
 1855. Be was associated with his brother in 
 business, but turned his attention also to politics, 
 serving as minister to Great Britain from L849 
 to 1852. His chief claim to remembrance in 
 the educational world was his founding of the 
 Lawrence Scientific School, at Cambridge, in 
 1847, for which he gave 850,000. 
 
 LAWRENCE, "Amos, brother of the pre- 
 ceding, a merchant, born in Groton, Mass., April 
 22., L786; died in Boston. Dec. 31. L852. After 
 a serious illness in 1831, he retired from active 
 business, and devoted the remainder of his life 
 to acts of benevolence, expending in this way 
 over $600,000. Among the educational institu- 
 tions which were the objects of his bounty, may 
 be enumerated the following: Williams College, 
 Mass., to which he gave nearly $.10,000, the 
 Lawrence Academy of Groton, Wabash College, 
 Ind., Kenyon College, Ohio, and the theological 
 seminary at Bangor, Me. 
 
 LAWRENCE UNIVERSITY OF WIS- 
 CONSIN, at Appleton, A\ is., chartered in 
 1847, is under Methodist Episcopal control. It 
 is supported by tuition fees, etc.. and the income 
 : of an endowment of about $60,000. It has 
 chemical and philosophical apparatus, a cabinet 
 of minerals, botanical specimens, etc., aud a li- 
 brary of nearly 8,000 volumes. The regular 
 tuition fees vary from $15 to £"21 a year. 
 The university comprises both the College and 
 the Institute, and consists of seven depart- 
 ments, as follows: (1) a preparatory department ; 
 (2) an academic department; (3) a commercial 
 school; (4) a conservatory of music; (5) a school 
 of drawing and painting: (6) a juvenile depart- 
 ment; and (7) the college (opened in 1853), which 
 has a classical, a scientific, and a civil engineer- 
 ing course. Both sexes are admitted. In 1875 — 6, 
 there were 14 instructors. The number of stu- 
 dents was as follows : collegiate, 102 (58 males 
 and 44 females); preparatory. 'J 7; academical. 38; 
 commercial, 4:"i ; music, 33 ; drawing and paint- 
 ing, 14; juvenile, 29; total, deducting repetitions, 
 333 (185 males and 148 females). There were 
 173 alumni (114 males and 59 females). The 
 Rev. W. II. Sampson, A. M.. was principal of 
 Lawrence Institute from 1848 to 1853. The 
 presidents of the university have been as follows: 
 the Rev. Edward Cooke, D. D., 1853— 61 ; the 
 Rev. R. Z. Mason. LL.D., 1861—5; and the Rev. 
 
 G ge M. Steele. I >. I>.. the present incumbent 
 
 (1876), appointed in 1865. 
 
 LEBANON VALLEY COLLEGE, at 
 Annville, Pa., under the control of the I'nited 
 Brethren in Christ, was founded in 1867 by 
 the East Pennsylvania Conference of that 
 church. It has an endowment of $20,000, 
 but is chiefly supported by several conferences 
 of the church, and by contributions ami tuition 
 The regular fees are from $40 to $47 a 
 year. The college has a beautiful campus of 
 about seven acres, two fine buildings, a cabinet', 
 anil a library of over 1,200 volumes. The cur- 
 riculum embraces three course* : a classical, a 
 
520 
 
 LECTURES 
 
 LESLIE 
 
 ladies', and a scientific course. There is also a 
 preparatory department. In L875- 6, there were 
 <i instructors, and ll'i students (classical course, 
 30; ladies' course, 3 ; scientific course, 83), of 
 whom 84 were preparatory. The presidents have 
 been as follows: T. R. Virkmv, L867 — 71; 
 l.nrian II. Hammond, 1871 — 6; and I*. I>. De 
 Long, the present incumbent, elected in 1876. 
 
 LECTURES, or Lecture System, a 
 method of giving instruction by formal expo- 
 sitions, generally written out and read to the 
 learners. Hence the term lecture (from the 
 Latin, meaning ri'<i<lii>(i or something read). 
 Lectures are, however, quite often extempora- 
 neous, or delivered without previous preparation 
 of the language. The lecture differs from the 
 lesson chiefly in dispensing with the ordinary 
 processes of the recitation room— question and 
 answer, repetition, etc. The learners simply 
 listen, or take notes, while the lecturer reads or 
 
 speaks, with or without illustrations by means 
 of the blackboard, maps, pictures, apparatus, 
 etc. Lectures, as a system of instruct ion. are 
 chiefly depended on in higher education in col- 
 leges and universities, also in technical, scien- 
 tific, and professional schools, because the stu- 
 dents are supposed to have acquired a consider- 
 able maturity ot intellect, enabling them not 
 only to receive knowledge without exercises 
 specially designed to awaken attention or stim- 
 ulate the understanding, but to exercise their 
 own faculties in arranging it in their minds for 
 use. —iii other words. CO-ordinating it with their 
 previously acquired knowledge. They are. he- 
 sides, supposed to appreciate the importance of 
 
 the information communicated, SO as not to need 
 any special stimulus to self-activity. In element 
 ary instruction, all these conditions are reversed; 
 and. therefore, the lecture system is inappropriate 
 at that Stage. In middle Schools (secondary in- 
 struction), lectures may he used w ith good effect. 
 in connection, or alternation, with the ordinary 
 
 recitation processes. When the material has 
 been methodically arranged, and when the state- 
 ments are definite and precise, the language 
 simple and forcible, and the style earnest, lectures 
 
 may he made to suhserve a very useful purpose. 
 
 [See I llSToKV.) 
 
 LEHIGH UNIVERSITY, at South Beth- 
 lehem, Pa, chartered in L866, is under Protest 
 ant Episcopal control. It was founded by 
 Asa Lacker, of Mauch < 'hunk, who. in 1865, 
 appropriated 8500,000 and suitable grounds for 
 the purpose, Tuition is entirely free. There 
 are three fine buildings, besides houses for the 
 
 president and professors. The library contains 
 2,000 volumes. The university has a well 
 
 equipped observatory, a museum, and collections 
 in natural history. It comprises live schools: 
 (1) general literature; (2) civil or statical en- 
 gineering; (3) mechanical or dynamical engineer- 
 ing; 1 1) muiing and metallurgy ; (5) chemistry. 
 The courses are each of four years, excepl that for 
 the degree of Engineer of Mines, which requires 
 
 four years and a half. The Studies of the fresh- 
 man year and of the first half of tin 1 sophomore 
 
 year are the same in all the courses. This 
 institution was originally designed to impart a 
 technical education, anil the school of general 
 literature (similar to the ordinary college cor,; 
 was added subsequently. In l^Ta — (i. there 
 were 8 professors, 6 other instructors, and 111! 
 students. The Lev. John M. Leavitt. 1>. D., is 
 (1876) the president. 
 
 LELAND UNIVERSITY,in New ( Means. 
 La., chartered in L870 and opened in 1873, 
 is under Baptist control. It was especially de- 
 signed for colored youth, but no one can be ex- 
 cluded on account of race, color, sex, or religion. 
 It is supported by contributions, tuition fees, and 
 the products of Kl acres of cultivated land. The 
 buildings and grounds are valued at about 
 $75,000, toward which the I'Teedmen's Bureau 
 contributed $17,500, and benevolent individuals 
 and churches the residue. The cost of tuition is 
 SI per month, which is remitted to ministers and 
 licentiates. An opportunity is afforded students 
 to support themselves in part by labor on the 
 farm. The university has an academic and a 
 college preparatory course, of three years each, a 
 college course ot four years, and a theological 
 
 department. In 1874 — 5, there were 4 instructors 
 ami 96 students (63 male and .'>.'{ female), of 
 whom 5 woe in the college preparatory course, 
 and L 6 were pursuing theological studies. 'I he 
 Rev. Silas B.Gregory was the first president, 
 who held office one year, and was succeeded by 
 the Lev. L. Bartlett Barker, A. M.. the present 
 incumbent. 
 
 LESLIE, Sir John, a celebrated natural 
 philosopher, teacher, ami author of scientific 
 works, born in I argo, Scotland. April lh.. 1766; 
 died in Coates, Fifeshire, Nov. 3., L832. Whili 
 a boy, his strong inclination for natural science 
 was shown, and led to his entrance into the uni- 
 versity of St. Andrews, in 177'.*. I le afterwards 
 went to the Edinburgh Divinity Hall, but de- 
 voted his time there to the study of the sciences. 
 
 particularly chemistry. In L 788, he accepted the 
 position of tutor in the Randolph family of Vir- 
 ginia : but. in L790, returned to London, when 
 he attempted to establish himself as a lecturer 
 on natural philosophy. Failing in this, be be- 
 came a tutor in the family of Mr. Wedgewood 
 at Ltruria. Staffordshire; and while traveling in 
 that capacity on the continent, made a transla- 
 tion of Buffon's Natural History of Birds (I 793), 
 ami published an Experimental Inquiry into //"■ 
 Nature and Propagation of Heat (1804). In 
 L805, after much opposition on the part of the 
 
 clergj of Edinburgh, he was elected professor of 
 mathematics in the university of that place, suc- 
 ceeding I 'rof. Playfair; and. in 1 819, on the death 
 of the latter, again succeeded him. as professor 
 of natural philosophy. Shortly after his election. 
 
 in 1805, he began the publication of his <'<>/t/-si 
 of Mathematics, followed, in L823, by one vol- 
 ume of his Elements <.</' Natural Philosophy. 
 The latter was never completed. Shortly bit. 
 
 his death, ill L832, he was created a knight of 
 
 the order of Guelph. As an able and versatile 
 
 writer in almost every department of science. 
 
LEWIS 
 
 LIBRARIES 
 
 52 1 
 
 and an inventor of philosophical instruments, 
 his merit is generally acknowledged. The inven- 
 tion of a differential thermometer, a hygrometer, 
 and a photometer, also of a process of artificial 
 congelation, and a method for freezing mercury, 
 are some of the results of his experimental labors. 
 His chief publications, in addition to those men- 
 tioned, are .1" essay on the Resolution of Inde- 
 terminate Equations (Edin., L788); Philosophy 
 of Arithmetic (1817) ; Progress of Mathemat- 
 ical and Philosophical Science during ike \.8th 
 Century, the fifth dissertation in the Encyclopae- 
 dia Britannica. 
 
 LEWIS, Dio, an American physician and 
 author, born in Auburn, N. Y.. March .'i.. 1823. 
 He was educated at Harvard, and practiced 
 medicine at Port Byron and Buffalo. While 
 in the latter place, he published a medical maga- 
 zine in which he advocated the substitution of 
 physical exercise for dings, in the prevention 
 and cure of disease. In 1863, he established in 
 Boston an institution for the training of teach- 
 ers according to his new system of physical edu- 
 cation. The necessity of such education he has 
 advocated for many years, and sought to intro- 
 duce it into the public-school system of the 
 United States. Shortly after the destruction of 
 his school buildings by fire, in 1868, he gave up 
 his school, and devoted himself to lecturing, 
 principally on hygiene and temperance. His 
 published works are. New Gymnastics (Boston, 
 »1862) ; Weak Lungs, and how to make them 
 strong (Boston. 1863) : Talks about People's 
 Stomachs (1870); Our Girls (New York, 1871); 
 and Ghats with Young Women (New York, 
 1874). 
 
 LEWISBURG, University at, an in- 
 stitution at Lewisburg, Pa, under Baptist con- 
 trol, was founded in 1S47. It is supported by 
 tuition fees, room rent, and the income of an 
 endowment of $130,000. Its library contains 
 about 5,000 volumes. The institution has a 
 cabinet of geology and mineralogy, collections 
 in natural history, and philosophical and 
 chemical apparatus. The cost of tuition in 
 the collegiate department is $36 a year. This 
 department has a classical and a scientific course. 
 Connected with the university is a preparatory 
 department, an English academy, and a female 
 institute. In 187") — <>, the collegiate department 
 had 6 instructors. The number of students was 
 118; namely, collegiate, 66; preparatory, 31; 
 academy, 21. The presidents of the university 
 
 have 1 n the Rev. Howard .Malcoin. 1). !>., 
 
 1851 — 8; and the Rev. Justin R. Loomis,LL.D., 
 the present incumbent, appointed in L858. 
 
 LEWIS COLLEGE, at Glasgow, Mo., 
 founded in i860, is under Methodist Episcopal 
 control. It is supported by tuition fees, which 
 vary from $30 to $40 per year, and by the liber- 
 ality of its founders, the Lewis family of Howard 
 county. It has a library of about 3.000 volumes, 
 and comprises a primary, an academic, a prepar- 
 atory, ami a collegiate department, the last hav- 
 ing a classical and a scientific course. Oppor- 
 tunity is aLso afforded for theological and musical 
 
 instruction. Both sexes are admitted, in 1874 — 5, 
 there were 5 instructors and B8 -students. The 
 presidents have been as follows: theRev.D.A. 
 Mct'ivadv. c_' years) ; the Rev. Joseph Barwick, 
 A. M. (2 years) : the Rev. L. M. Albright, A 
 .M. (1 year) ; the Rev. .lames ('. Hall, A.M.. 
 the present incumbent, appointed in L871. 
 
 LIBERAL EDUCATION, literally, that 
 which is suited to the condition and wants of a 
 
 freeman or a gentleman, that is, extending be- 
 yond the practical necessities of life; hence, 
 contrasted with a. practical education, or that 
 
 which is designed to fit for mechanical or busi- 
 ngs pursuits. A liberal education embraces 
 within its scope instruction in all those branches 
 which collectively are called the humanities (q. v). 
 LIBERIA, a republic of western Africa; area, 
 9,500 sq.m.; population, estimated at 718,000, 
 of whom about 700.0(10 arc uncivilized negroes. 
 The sett lenient of Liberia was commenced 
 in L822, by liberated slaves from the United 
 States, under the auspices of the American 
 Colonization Society: and. in L 847, it was pro- 
 claimed a free and independent state. Its con- 
 stitution has for its model that of the United 
 States. Of the numerous tribes comprising the 
 native population the Mandingos are the most 
 remarkable. They all possess considerable in- 
 telligence, and not a few of them are educated. 
 'I hey are found on the whole eastern frontier of 
 the republic, and extend far into the interior of 
 Africa. Like most of the interior tribes of 
 Africa, they are Mohammedans, and have schools 
 and mosques in every large town. They read 
 and write, and many speak, the Arabic language. 
 Besides the Mandingos, the only tribe that have 
 reached any degree of culture are the Veys, on 
 the west coast. They have a syllabic alphabet, 
 invented by themselves. A mission school has 
 been established among them at Totocareh. by 
 the Protestant P]piscopal Church of the United 
 States. There were also, in 1872, 15 day schools, 
 under the control of the Methodist Episcopal 
 Church, and a training school for Baptist mis- 
 sionaries, at Virginia. A regular system of 
 public schools has been organized, comprising 
 elementary and high schools, and a college. The 
 statistics arc very meager in regard to the com- 
 mon schools. The county of Mesurado had. in 
 1870, 36 public schools, with 37 teachers and 
 1,155 pupils. — See Stockwkm,, 77/ e Republic of 
 Liberia (N. Y., L 868), and Blyden (a negro 
 professor in Fourah May College. Sierra Leone), 
 The Republic of Liberia, its Status and its 
 Fields, in the Methodist Quarterly Review 
 (1872). 
 
 LIBRARIES constitute one of the most 
 important instrumentalities for stimulating the 
 intellectual improvement of the people, as well 
 as for the mental and moral training of pupils 
 in schools. This has been recognized in the 
 Legislation of many of the states of the Amer- 
 ican Onion, by making provision for supplying 
 the schools ami school-districts with libraries of 
 interesting and useful books. In 1S27, Covernor 
 Clinton, of New Fork, recommended the estab- 
 
52: 
 
 LIBRAE IKS 
 
 lishment of school district libraries; and, in 
 1835 , a law was passed by the legislature of 
 that state which permitted school-districts to 
 raise money by tax for the Bupport of libraries. 
 In 1838, further provision was made by author- 
 izing an animal appropriation of 855,000 from 
 the general school fund for this purpose, on con- 
 dition that the districts would raise an equal 
 .sum. In L875, the legislature of this state re- 
 duced the appropriation to !£~>0,000. Massachu- 
 setts enacted a permissory law in 1837, and, in 
 1 9 12, granted a premium of 81.") to each district 
 which raised an equal sum by taxation. Maine, 
 Connecticut, New Jersey, <*hio, Michigan, Illi- 
 nois. Wisconsin, and California have passed acts I 
 similar to that of New Fork. These provisions 
 have, however, been found inadequate-; and, in 
 some of the states, township libraries have taken 
 their place. Such libraries, administered as a ; 
 part of the common-school system, have been 
 established in Michigan, Indiana, and Wisconsin ; 
 but the results are said not to be wholly satis- 
 factory. In Massachusetts, the library has been 
 rated from the school system, being made 
 public, or open to all. In 1851, a law was 
 passed authorizing " cities and towns to establish 
 and maintain public libraries," and the system 
 thus inaugurated has proved eminently sue 
 fid. In 1869, there were 58 public libraries in 
 
 the state, wholly or partly maintained by taxa- 
 
 ti m. At the present time, there are, probably, 
 
 more than three times that number. " Public 
 
 libraries," says die ('. S. Commissioner of Edu- 
 cation, in his report for L874, "are now univi 
 ally regarded by school officers and friends of 
 education as an indispensable complement to 
 our system of free schools, and no educational 
 r.port can now lie considered complete which 
 
 do es not recognize their importance." 
 
 The value of a school library will depend up- 
 on the character of the books of which it is 
 composed, and the uses to which it is applied. 
 A large and expensive collection of 1 ks is not 
 
 idea ; but the hooks should tie instructive and 
 
 interesting to children, so that through their 
 perusal they may not only obtain useful infor- 
 mation, but imbibe a taste for reading. By this 
 means, an antidote may. in part at least, be ap- 
 plied to the influence of the trashy, exciting, and 
 .sensational literature, which so greatly abounds 
 at the present lime, and which is so apt to Cor- 
 rupt both the minds and morals of the young. 
 • \ library," says //«</• to Teach (N. Y;, 1874), 
 *• is the indispensable supplement to the system- 
 mental instruction given in the class-room. 
 It. for instance, cue be taken and opportuni- 
 ties sough! during the lessons iii geography, his- 
 tory, or in any of the departments of science, to 
 
 introduce some little book from the library, and 
 to nad a lew interesting paragraphs illustrating 
 
 — i .— I B 
 
 the lesson, a brief notice and commendation of 
 
 the book at the close of the exercise, with a few 
 
 hints as in how best to read it. will utilize many 
 
 aluable work that mighl otherwise remain 
 
 Untouched upon the Bhelvea \ teacher has 
 
 failed iii one of the most important of all his 
 
 LICENSE 
 
 functions, if , being in possession of a good school 
 library, he has not fixed, in at least some of his 
 pupils, the habit and love of self-culture, by 
 
 leading them to become habitual readers." 
 
 LICENSE, Teacher's, a legal permission 
 to give instruction, generally in a public school. 
 This license is usually conferred after exami- 
 nation, and attested by a certificate, either tem- 
 porary or permanent, which is evidence to 
 employing school boards that the holder is a 
 qualified teach r. sometimes called a certificated 
 teacher. The object of such a license to teach 
 is to protect the interests of the community 
 against the evils arising from the employment 
 of incompetent persons by those who might not 
 be able to test the qualifications of applicants, 
 or who might, from favoritism or corrupt mo- 
 tives, be willing to employ as teachers persons 
 not possessing the requisite qualifications. In 
 the united States, the requirement that all teach- 
 ers should be duly examined and licensed previ- 
 ous to appointment is almost universal. The 
 practice in regard to the mode of examination, 
 and the forms and grades of the certificate, 
 varies considerably in the different states, far 
 information in regard to which, Bee the titles 
 of the states. i> spec tivcly. In all an unqualified 
 attestation of moral character is r« quired, in ad- 
 dition to literary and professional qualifications. 
 Walsh, The Lawyer in iJi> School-Room, 
 N. V.. L871, s. v. The Law as tothe Teacher's 
 Morality.) State certificates, that is. certifi- 
 cates issued by state boards of education or state 
 superintendents, entitle the holders to teach in 
 any part of the state without an examination 
 
 before county, town, or district boards or officers. 
 Such certificates are. however, usually overruled 
 by city hoards of education, who make an ex- 
 amination and license by their own officers — 
 usually the city superintendent — a condition of 
 employment. In some states, the standard for a 
 license is fixed by the state board of education 
 or by the superintendent: in others, each locality 
 fixes its own standard. 'I his gives rise to a great 
 want of uniformity, which lias often been in- 
 veighed against as prejudicial to the interests of 
 teachers and of the profession. American teachers 
 have been, and still arc. to a diminished extent 
 
 however, subjected to greal wrong and injustice 
 
 by being obliged to pass examinations before in- 
 competent persons, that is. persons who have 
 neither scholarship nor professional knowledge, 
 
 either theoretical or practical. The examiner.-, in 
 the rural districts are rarely teatheis. and hence 
 cannot hut imperfectly determine the teachers 
 
 qualifications, except, indeed, elementary schol- 
 arship and moral character. At the meeting of 
 the National Educational Association, in 1>TL'. 
 
 this sulijcct was discussed, and the following 
 decided upon as the proper conditions for award- 
 ing teachers' certificates: (1) a comprehensive 
 
 system of state, city, county, and town boards 
 of examination ; (2) such boards to he composed 
 
 of school superintendents and profc B&iona! teach- 
 ers; (3) a graded series of certificates from life 
 
 diplomas down to annual certificates, to he 
 
 
LICENSE 
 
 I, IK BE R 
 
 523 
 
 granted only upon actual examination; (-1) legal 
 recognition by each state of professional certifi- 
 cates and normal school diplomas issued in other 
 states. In the state of New Fork, the superin- 
 tendent of public instruction can issue his err 
 tiii. 'ate only to those who have been found on 
 examination qualifie 1 to receive it ; and it is his 
 duty to appoint exami ters.at such times and in 
 BUCn places, as he may deem necessary, for the 
 purpose of examining candidates. (See New 
 York.) 
 
 The English Elementary Education Act (1870) 
 provides that "before any grant is made to a 
 school, the Education Department must be satis- 
 fie 1 that the principal teacher is certificated ;" 
 an 1 that "teachers, in order to obtain certificates, 
 must be examined, and must undergo probation 
 by actual service in school;" that is, "after suc- 
 cessfully passing their examination, thsy must. 
 as teachers continuously engaged in the same 
 schools, obtain two favorable reports from an in- 
 spector, with an interval of one year between 
 them : and if the first of these reports be not 
 preceded by service of three months (at the least I 
 since the examination, a third report, at an in- 
 terval of one year after the second report, is re- 
 quired : if the second (or thirl; report is favor- 
 able, a certificate is issued. Teachers under pro- 
 bation satisfy the conditions which require that 
 schools be kept by certificated teachers." The 
 Scotch Education Act (1872) provides that "no 
 person shall be appointed to the office of prin- 
 cipal teacher in a public school, who is not the 
 holder of a certificate of competency. - ' Those 
 win.) hold university degrees are entitled to re- 
 ceive the certiticat ■ without further examination 
 in the studies in which they were examined for 
 the degree. Too great laxity seems to exist in 
 the granting of these certificates ; as appears 
 from the following statement of the Educational 
 New* (Edinburgh, dune 3., 1876) : "A gradual 
 deterioration in tlu value of certificates has been 
 going on for the last twenty years, under pre- 
 tence of making it the badge of practical skill 
 rather than of literary attainments and scientific 
 knowledge of the principles of teaching; and so 
 thorough has been the transformation, that it 
 now affords no evidence whatever of the posses- 
 siou of knowledge, and next to none even of 
 practical skill;" which strong statement is based 
 on the fact, as alleged, that " the Education De- 
 partment seems bent on interfering with the 
 intentions of parliament in this matter by grant- 
 ing certificates -without examination,' although 
 the act unmistakably makes examination a nec- 
 essary condition of granting a certificate." — in 
 Austria, most of the teachers are compelled to 
 spend four years in the normal schools, after 
 which they are required to pass an examination 
 before an independent commission appointed by 
 ill.- government, before they can obtain a license 
 to teach. In France, the teachers of private as 
 well as of public schools are required to obtain a 
 license by passing an examination before the 
 
 governmental officers; and their schools are also 
 subject to official supervision. In the German 
 
 states, persons are prohibited from keeping 
 schools without being licensed ; ami to obtain a 
 license are required to pass an examination ; 
 upon which they receive certificates showing the 
 
 grade of school they are qualified to teach ; and 
 
 they are interdicted, under a severe penalty, from 
 issuing a prospectus for any higher school. Sim- 
 ilar legal provisions exist in Sweden, Denmark, 
 and some other European countries. 
 
 LIEEER, Francis, a noted publicist and 
 teacher, born in Berlin, March is., L800; died in 
 New York, Oct. "J.. 1 .s 7 'J . He entered the uni- 
 versity of Jena, in 1819, but left it in L821; and, 
 after traveling on foot through Switzerland, cm- 
 barked at .Marseilles for ( ireece, where he entered 
 the Greek army as a volunteer. Returning to 
 Koine, he became an inmate of the family of 
 
 Niebuhr, the historian, then I 'nis.-ian ambassador; 
 and wrote therein 1822, an account of his so- 
 journ in Greece, which was published in Leipsic 
 (1823). lie returned to Berlin, and entered the 
 university of Halle, but was arrested and im- 
 prisoned at Kopenick, where he wrote a number 
 of poems, which, upon his release, at the inter- 
 cession of Niebuhr. were published under the 
 name of Franz Arnold, being threatened with 
 another arrest, he left Germany,in L 825, and fled 
 to England, where he supported himself for a 
 year as a private teacher. While in England, he 
 contributed to German periodicals, and wrote. 
 in German. an article on the I ancasterian method. 
 in 1*27, he came to the United States, lectured 
 on history and politics, and. shortly alter. 1 egan, 
 at Boston, to edit the Encyclopaedia Americana, 
 which was published, in 13 volumes, in Phila- 
 delphia (1828 — ■VI). By invitation of the trus- 
 tees of Girard College in Philadelphia, he fur- 
 nished a plan of education and instruction for 
 that institution, and afterwards went to reside 
 in that city. In 1835, he was appointed to the 
 chair of history and political economy in the 
 South Carolina College, at Columbia, a position 
 which he held till 1856. 1 hese were the most 
 fruitful years of his life. Here he wrote his 
 Manual of Political Ethics (Boston, le.'5*~9), 
 commended by Kent and Story, and adopted 
 by Harvard ( ollcge as a text-book : Legal <</></ 
 Political Herment utics i boston, 1839) : a trans- 
 lation of Ramshorns Latin Synonyms (1839); 
 Great Events described by Great Historians 
 \ . V., 1847) ; essays on the Use of the Study 
 of Latin and Greek, as Elements of Educa,' 
 Hon; on the Study of History and Political 
 Economy as branchesofa superior education; on 
 Laura Bridgman's vocal sounds; Oivil Liberty 
 and Self-Governmeni (bhila.. 1853); and numer- 
 ous other essays, letters, and reports. In 1*57. 
 he was appointed to the chair of history and 
 
 political science in Columbia College, N. Y.. and 
 
 remained in that position till his death. The 
 
 labors of Dr. I.ieber were of great importance, 
 and their value has been fully recognized both 
 in the United States and in Europe. Although 
 
 passing most of his life in the professor's chair, his 
 commanding ability gave him a reputation such 
 as is usually the reward of long public service. 
 
524 
 
 LILY 
 
 LOCKE 
 
 LILY, William, a celebrated English schol- 
 ar and teacher, the friend of Erasmus and Sir 
 [nomas More, was born at Odiham, Hants, in 
 England, in 1466, and < 1 i«-< I in L523. He was 
 educated at Oxford University, and. sunn after 
 arriving at manhood, traveled in the East to 
 obtain a knowledge of the Greek language, and 
 subsequently studied for a time at Rome, and 
 also at Paris. On bis return to England, he ac- 
 quired a very high reputation for scholarship, 
 being the first teacher of Greek in London : and, 
 in L512, he was appointed by Dr. John Colet, 
 dean of St. Paul's church, London, high master 
 of St. Paul's school, then recently established 
 through the dean's munificence. This position 
 he tilled until his death. Be published several 
 educational works, but is chiefly noted for his 
 Latin grammar [Brevissima Institutio sew Ratio 
 Grammatices Cognoscendce, 4to, London, L513), 
 one of the most celebrated of text books. In the 
 compilation of this work, Colet, Erasmus, and 
 Cardinal Wolsey had a share; the English rudi- 
 ments being written by Colet. the preface to 
 
 the first edition by Wolsey, and the Latin syn- 
 tax chiefly by Erasmus. This Look was thus 
 the jniiii production of four of the greatest 
 
 scholars of the age. Lew school Looks have 
 
 had so long a career, or have passed through so 
 many editions, being used to this day in St. 
 Paul's school. King Henry VIII. wrote an 
 introduction to grammar, making Lily's gram- 
 mar the basis; he also caused a, law to he en- 
 acted prescribing this as the grammar to be ex- 
 clusively used in all the schools of the kingdom ; 
 and, accordingly, it remained the accepted gram- 
 matical standard in English schools for more 
 than three centuries. Hence it bore on its title- 
 pa uc (Jin/in solam Regia Mqjestas in omnibus 
 scholis docendam prcecepit. This grammar is 
 also noteworthy as being the basis of the first 
 English grammars. — See Puller, History of the 
 Worthies of England (1622) ; Samuel Cmight, 
 Lifr of Dr. John Colet (1724); Dim. in. The 
 Biographical Decameron (London, L817); Jor- 
 iin. Life of Erasmus (1758—60). (See also 
 Gramm \k, English.) 
 
 LINCOLN COLLEGE, at Greenwood, Mo., 
 was founded, in 1869, by the United Presbyte- 
 rians. The grounds comprise live acres, reserved 
 for the site of a college when the town was laid 
 out. The building was erected through tin- efforts 
 of the Lev. I Iain ltd Loss. A. M.. who has been the 
 president of the board of directors from the first, 
 tne college is supported by tuition fees of $30 
 a year. It has a classical course of four years. 
 
 and a Scientific course of three years ; both sexes 
 
 are admitted, -in lbTJ — 6, there were ."> instruct- 
 ors and 75 students. 
 
 LINCOLN UNIVERSITY, at Lincoln. 
 III., under the control of the Cumberland Pres- 
 byterians, was organized in 1867, and chartered 
 in 1872. The value of its buildings, -rounds, and 
 
 apparatus is $475,000; thei unt of its produc- 
 tive funds, $834,000. The libraries contain 22,000 
 volumes. Both sexes are admitted. There is a 
 preparatory, a classical, a Latin-scientific, a scien- 
 
 tific, and a select course. A theological depart- 
 ment has also Leen organized. In 1873 — 4, there 
 were 1 '1 instructors and 386 students (332 pre- 
 paratory and 54 collegiate). 
 
 LINCOLN UNIVERSITY, at ( brford, in 
 Chester Co., Pa., opened in 1856, is under 
 Presbyterian control. It is especially, but not 
 exclusively, designed for colored students. The 
 value of its buildings, grounds, and apparatus is 
 $125,000. The grounds include 80 acres, and 
 contain four university buildings and four pro- 
 fessors' houses. The library contains 3,500 vol- 
 umes. '1 he university has valuable philosophical 
 apparatus and a mineralogical cabinet. It has a 
 collegiate department, a normal, preparatory, and 
 business department, and a theological, a law, and 
 ai lical department. In L874 — 5, there were 
 
 1(1 instructors and 117 students (71 collegiate, 
 57 preparatory, and L6 theological. The Lev. 
 Isaac N. Randall, D. D., is (1876) the president. 
 LINDSLEY, Philip, an American edu- 
 cator, born at Morristown, N. J., in 1786; died 
 at Nashville, Tenn., in 1855. After graduating 
 at the College of New Jersey, in 1804, he was 
 for three years tutor in that institution. In 1813, 
 he became professor of languages, and. in lsl7. 
 
 vice-president of the college. In 1823, he was 
 
 chosen president of the institution, but he de- 
 clined. In 1824, he accepted the thrice-tendered 
 presidencyof the university of Nashville, which, 
 through his efficient administration, attained a 
 very high rank among American colleges. So 
 great was the reputation which he acquired in 
 that position, that no less than ten different col 
 i leges offered him the presidency. Be retired in 
 Oct. 1850, and spent the last four years of his 
 life at New Albany, teaching part of the time. 
 
 in the theological seminary of that town. His 
 works have Leen edited by L. J. Halsey (Philn.t. 
 LING, Peter Henrik, a Swedish poet, and 
 the founder of a system of gymnastics for the 
 cure of disease, was Lorn in Ljunga, Nov. 16., 
 1776, and died in Stockholm. May 3., 1839. Un- 
 der the name of leinesipathy [movement cv 
 his system has Leen put into practice to some 
 extent in other countries, but, like many similar 
 
 discoveries, has not fully answered the expec- 
 tations of its too sanguine advocates. In 1813, 
 the Loyal Central Institution of Stockholm was 
 established for the purpose of carrying out this 
 system, Ling being appointed director. His 
 /-./. mentary Principles of Gymnastics was pub- 
 lished after his death (Stockholm, 1840). 
 
 LINGUISTICS. See Lakqi age. 
 
 LOCKE, John, an illustrious English philos- 
 opher, Lorn at Wrington.in Somersetshire, Aug. 
 29., 1632; died at Oates,in Ebbcx, Oct. 28., 1704. 
 His education began at Westminster School. 
 
 from which he passed, in 1651, to Christ Church. 
 
 Oxford, where he graduated in 1658. Heapplied 
 himself to the stuay of medicine with such suc- 
 cess as to win the special approbation of Dr. 
 Sydenham, the greatest medical authority of his 
 time. In 1 66 L iie went to Berlin, as secretary to 
 the British envoy. Sir William Swan, but returned 
 within a year to pursue his studies at Oxford. 
 
LOCKE 
 
 521 
 
 His perplexity, at this time, as to the choice of 
 a profession, was very great, three being open 
 to him. A preferment in the church was offered 
 him by the (hike of Ormond; inducements to 
 continue in diplomatic service, either in Spain or 
 Germany, were. also, made to him; while his 
 own inclinations were toward the practice of 
 medicine, for which he had shown special aptitude. 
 While engaged in the study 01 experimental 
 philosophy, in connection with his medical 
 studies, he formed the acqaintance of Lord 
 Ashley, afterwards earl of Shaftesbury. This 
 nobleman's life is believed to have been saved 
 by IiOeke's skill : and at this time an intimacy 
 sprang up between them, which led to Locke's 
 taking up his residence at Lord Ashley's house 
 in London, where he applied himself to the study 
 of politics and philosophy. There he met the 
 earl of Northumberland, the earl of Halifax, 
 the duke of Buckingham, and others of the 
 most eminent persons of that day. in 1668, he 
 accompanied the earl of Northumberland on a 
 Tour in Prance, and, on his return, was em- 
 ployed by Lord Ashley, then chancellor of the 
 exchequer, to draw up the constitution of the 
 province of Carolina. In 1G70, he began to 
 form the plan of his great work, the Essay con- 
 ceniiinj !]/•> Human Understanding, though this 
 was not published till twenty years later. In 
 1675, he visited France for the benefit of his 
 health, where, at Montpellier, he became ac- 
 quainted with the earl of Pembroke, to whom, 
 many years after, he dedicated his J:'rs<///. He 
 returned to England in 1679; but, in 1682, when 
 the Earl of Shaftesbury who bad been charged 
 with treason, left the country, Locke acc< unpauied 
 him, taking up his residence in Amsterdam, 
 where, in conjunction with Limborch, Le Clerc, 
 and others, he founded a literary society for the 
 weekly discussion of important questions. In 
 168'i, he published in French a Neva Method of 
 a Commonplace Book, and, in 1688, his letter 
 On Toleration. In the latter year, he returned 
 to England, in the fleet which conveyed the 
 princess of Orange, and shortly after (1690) 
 published his celebrated Essrn/. The success of 
 this work, largely aided by the violence with 
 which it was attacked, was very great, six editii >ns 
 appearing in 14 years, besides translations of it 
 into Latin and French, which gave; the author a 
 European reputation. In 1693, appeared his 
 Thoughts Concerning Education. This work. 
 the value of which has been variously estimated 
 by distinguished critics, is of special interest to 
 educators, inasmuch as it was the first attempt . 
 in England, to deal with the subject of education 
 in a comprehensive and practical way. It was 
 written as a guide to the education of a young 
 gentleman, in this respect resembling Montaigne's 
 essay on the same subject. Indeed, Locke's work 
 was an amplification, through in no sense an im- 
 itation, of Montaigne's. The subject is eonsi lered 
 from the beginning, ami rides were laid down not 
 only for mental and moral development, but for 
 physical training, Locke's education as a physi- 
 cian especially qualifying him for the latter. 
 
 Some of his recommendations in this respect, 
 have, of course, become antiquated by the pi 
 
 reSS made in physiology and hygienic knowl- 
 edge since his time ; but. as a whole, it remains. 
 to this day, a trustworthy guide. His views in 
 
 regard to early influences, the force of habit. 
 manners, etc.. do doI differ materially from tl 
 now entertained. In regard to tin' training of 
 children, his observations concerning tin- time at 
 which it should be begun, the means to be em- 
 ployed, and the objects to be kept in view, are, 
 in all essential respects, in accordance with the 
 views now generally held. Many objections to 
 Locke's teachings have been made by modern 
 educators. For instance, he has placed himself 
 on record as entirely opposed to corporal punish- 
 ment, except for obstinacy; and even for this 
 he would have the punishment so ordered that 
 'the shame of the whipping and not the pain, 
 should be the greatest pari of the punishment." 
 In the controversy which springs up period- 
 ically on this subject, therefore. Locke's great 
 authority, as a guide to educators, would probably, 
 by one side, be seriously questioned. A more 
 serious objection is, that the motive presented to 
 children for doing right • — the approbation of 
 their elders ■ — is not a sufficiently exalted one. 
 It may be said, however, in defense of Locke, that 
 it was not his intention to present a psychologic- 
 al theory of education, but a practical plan lor 
 educating the young. The reasoning faculty in 
 children is very rarely developed sufficiently 
 to make an explanation of motives of any use in 
 educating them. Whipping being discarded by 
 Locke, there seemed to him only one way t< > incline 
 children to do right — that of rewards, or of ap- 
 pealing to their love of approbation. He care- 
 fully guards himself here, by explaining that the 
 reward or the approval must not be given for 
 any "particular performance that they show an 
 aversion to, or to which they would not have 
 applied themselves without that temptation". 
 •But", he says, "to make the sense of esteem or 
 disgrace sink the deeper, and be of the more 
 weight, other agreeable or disagreeable things 
 should constantly accompany these different 
 states ; not as particular rewards and punish- 
 ments of this or that particular action, but as 
 necessarily belonging to, and constantly attending, 
 one, who, by his carriage, has brought himself 
 into a state of disgrace or commendation." It 
 is doubtful whether any more powerful agent can 
 be brought to bear practically in influencing the 
 i hild. It has, indeed, been doubted w hcther any 
 higher motive for doing right, can be presented 
 to the majority of adults, than this of the ap- 
 probation of their fellows, which is usually 
 known as public opinion. To attempt to in- 
 fluence children, therefore, exclusively by higher 
 motives, would hardly be practical, or productive 
 of benefit. That Locke was not forgetful of these 
 higher motives, however, the following words will 
 show: "Concerning reputation, 1 shall only re- 
 mark this one thing more of it ; that though it 
 be not the true principle and measure of virtue 
 (for that is the knowledge of a man's duty, and 
 
526 
 
 LOCK I . 
 
 LONDON UNIVERSITY 
 
 the satisfaction of it is to obey his Maker, in fol- 
 lowing the dictates of that light God has given 
 him, with the hopes of acceptation and reward), 
 yet it is that which comes nearest to it. and, 
 being the testimony and applause that other 
 people's reason, as it wen', by a common con- 
 sent, gives to virtuous and well-ordered actions, 
 it is the proper guide and encouragement of 
 children, tall they grow able to judge for them- 
 selves, and to 1 1 114 L what Is right by their own 
 reason." II is disapproval of public schools, also. 
 is not in accordance with our modern view, but 
 of this there are two extenuating circumstances, 
 — one- the fact that his essay was intended to 
 be used in the education of a young nobleman ; 
 the other, that the public schools, in Locke's day. 
 
 were SO inferior to those of to-day. that his cen- 
 sure can hardly be construed as applying to the 
 latter. Bis slight opinion of the classics, also. 
 must be modified in our estimate of it. by the 
 same fact mentioned above, that it was the edu- 
 cation of the man of affairs that he had in view, 
 and not that of the scholar. 1 1 is recommendations 
 in regard to the study of natural philosophy, in- 
 terspersed, as tiny are, with theological con- 
 siderations and directions concerning "spirits", of 
 course, show the confusion of mind in regard to 
 
 this subject, prevalent in his day. and furnish no 
 
 guide for that branch of study at the present 
 time. Bis high opinion of the value of history, 
 civil law, English law. style, and letters will, by 
 many, he thought to show the bias produced by 
 his long association with them, and the station of 
 the pupil for whom his treatise was intended ; 
 while his depreciat ion of music, as part of a liberal 
 education, is accounte 1 for by the low state of that 
 art during his time, and will hardly be acepted 
 now as a true statement of its merits. Not- 
 withstanding the objections which can he urged 
 hist Locke's method, owing to the changed 
 
 condition of society, the greal progress thai has 
 been made in man j branches of learning, and the 
 
 creation of new ones, his treatise remains a 
 memorable contribution to the literature of the 
 great subject of which he treats, and a landmark 
 
 in its history. That it is not without errors and 
 short-comings, and that he was conscious of them, 
 
 his own concluding words will show: "Though 
 I bave now come to a conclusion of what ob- 
 vious remarks have suggested to me concerning 
 
 DO Q 
 
 education, I would not have it though! that I 
 look on it asajusl treatise on this subject. There 
 
 are a thousand other things that may need con- 
 sideration ; especially if one should take ill the 
 
 various tempers, differenl inclinations, and par- 
 ticular defaults thai are to he found ill children: 
 and prescribe proper remedies. * ■ I'ach 
 
 man's mind has s e peculiarity, as well as his 
 
 face, thai distinguishes him from all others; and 
 there are possibly scarce two children who can 
 
 he conducted by exactly the same method. * * * 
 Bui having had here only some general views in 
 
 reference to the main end and aims in education, 
 and those designed tor a gentleman's son, whom. 
 
 being then \cry little. I considered only as white 
 paper or wax to he molded and fashioned as one 
 
 pleases, I have touched little more than t!, 
 heads, which I judged necessary for the breeding 
 of a young gentleman of his condition in general, 
 and have now published these my occasional 
 thoughts, with this hope, that, though this be 
 far from being a complete treatise on this sub- 
 ject, or such asthat everyone may find what will 
 just tit his child in it. yet it may givesomesmall 
 lighl tn those whose concern for their dear little 
 ones makes them so irregularly bold, that they 
 dare venture to consult their own reason in the 
 education of their children, rather than wholly 
 to rely upon old custom. - ' 
 
 L'HOMOND, Charles Francois, a French 
 priest and educator, was horn, in I T'JT. at ( Ihaul- 
 nes; died at I'aris, in L794. lie was for some time 
 at the head of the College cPInviUe at Paris, and 
 from there passed to the College du Cardinal 
 
 Lemoine win-re he was for twenty years teacher 
 
 of the sixth class. After becoming professor 
 emeritus, he devoted his time to the compilation 
 
 of school hooks, many of which attained a very 
 
 wide circulation. His work De viris illustrious 
 urbis Himiii . is still in extensive use. not only 
 in France, hut in the United States, England, 
 Germany, and some other countries, and is re- 
 garded by many distinguished educators as the 
 best Latin reader that has ever been issued. In 
 L860, his native town erected a statue to him. 
 (See I. mix Language.) 
 
 LOMBARD UNIVERSITY, at Gales- 
 burg, 111. .under the control of OniversalistS, was 
 founded as the Illinois Liberal Institute, in 1851, 
 and chartered as a university, in 1853. It is 
 
 supported by the income of an endowment of 
 $100,000, and by tuition fees. 'I he regular fees 
 vary from $15 to $33 per year. It has a large 
 and valuable cabinet, and libraries containing 
 over 4,000 volumes. The university embra 
 two departments of instruction, the collegiate 
 
 and the preparatory. The Collegiate includes 
 three differenl courses of study, the classical, the 
 scientific, and the literary course, on the comple- 
 tion of which the degrees of Bachelor of Arts, 
 Bachelor of Science, and Laureate of A its are. 
 respectively, conferred. Both sexes are ad- 
 mitted. In 1875—6, there were ;i instructors 
 and !l I students, of whom "_'."> (7 classical. 1.'! 
 
 scientific, and 5 literary] were in the collegiate 
 department, and 69 (24 pursuing ancient and 
 modern languages, and 1"> English studies), in the 
 preparatory department. The presidents have 
 been as follows: the Rev. Paul II. Kendall. A. .\L. 
 1851 6; Prof. •'. V. \. Standish (acting), 
 1856- 7 : the Rev. Otis A. Skinner, l». D., 
 1857 9; the Rev. J. I'. Weston. I). I).. L859 
 7.*?: Prof. Win. Livingston (provisional), 1873 
 
 .">: and the Rev. Nehemiah VVhite, Ph. D., the 
 present incumbent, appointed in L875. 
 
 LONDON, University of, was created by 
 royal charter bearing date Nov. 28., 1836. It 
 was founded on the same principles of liberality 
 
 as University College, London (q. v.), out of 
 
 which it sprung. By an oversight, the firsl char- 
 ter was granted only during "royal will and 
 pleasure", and would have expired six months 
 
LONDON UNIVERSITY 
 
 52V 
 
 after the death of the king. A new charter, 
 therefore, not so determinable, was granted ID 
 the following year by Queen Victoria. The 
 early constitution of the university bore a rough 
 resemblance to that of the universities of Oxford 
 and Cambridge, there being, on the one hand, 
 colleges or teaching bodies, and, on the other, a 
 university to test the quality of the teaching and 
 to grant degrees accordingly. There was how- 
 ever, this capital difference, that, in the Univer- 
 sity of London, the colleges, instead of being all 
 
 in one loeality. were scattered 0V6T the country. 
 
 some of them being situated even in distant 
 colonies. En the earlier years of the university, 
 every candidate, before presenting himself at the 
 examination for his degree, was obliged to furnish 
 a certificate showing that he had studied at one 
 of the affiliated colleges for two years subsequent 
 to his matriculation. In 1858, these affiliated 
 institutions, which alone had the right to give 
 certificates for degrees in arts and laws, com- 
 prised, in addition to the universities of the 
 United Kingdom and of Sydney, 37 other col- 
 leges and schools. The most important of these 
 were University College and King's College, 
 London, and Owens College. Manchester (q. v.). 
 Most of the remainder were theological colleges 
 in connection with the Roman Catholics, the 
 Independents, the Baptists, and other denomina- 
 tions. 
 
 The government of the university is in the 
 hands of a senate, consisting of a chancellor, a 
 vice-chancellor, and 36 members, or fettows; all 
 of whom are appointed by the < Jrown for life or 
 until resignation. All by-laws and regulations. 
 however, have first to be submitted to the ap- 
 proval of one of her Majesty's principal secre- 
 taries of state. It had been proposed, as early as 
 184(1, to give the graduates some influence in the 
 management of university affairs. This scheme, 
 taken up in earnest in 1848, was agitated year 
 after year, until a new charter was obtained in 
 1858. This charter formed the graduates, then 
 about 1,01)0 in number, into a corporation, giving 
 them the right to meet in convocation and. to in- 
 tervene by discussion and opinion in university 
 affairs, to nominate one-fourth of the senate.and 
 the right, along with the senate, of accepting any 
 new charter or of surrendering a charter. The 
 charter also gave the right to confer new degrees 
 in science, in music, or in any department of 
 knowledge whatever, theology always excepted. 
 Itisexpectedtli.it the degrees in music will be 
 instituted shortly. 
 
 Whilst the draft charter was under considera- 
 tion, in the earlier half of 1857, a new clause was 
 introduced by the senate which provoked great 
 excitement and strong opposition from all the 
 affiliated colleges except one. and from a decided 
 majority of the graduates. According to this 
 36th clause, all persons, wherever educated, were 
 xo be allowed to compete for degrees, other than 
 medical. The senate, notwithstanding the oppo- 
 sition they met with from without, persevered 
 in their course, and the new charter came into 
 force on April 9.,. 1858. The certificate system. 
 
 in fact, had not, in many cases, been working 
 well ; many whom the university would ehidly 
 
 have welcomed as candidates, were kepi away; 
 and the university was prevented, it was thought, 
 "from an expansion commensurate to its national 
 position and promise." At the same time, in- 
 creased care was taken to discredit superficial 
 knowledge by making the examinations more 
 
 scan liin-: and i-ont innous and progressive study 
 
 wassoughl to be secured by making the exam- 
 inations more frequent. There had, for in- 
 stance, formerly been two examinations, includ- 
 ing matriculation, for B.A.,with at least two years 
 between them: henceforth, there were to 1m- three, 
 with not less than a year, in most cases, between 
 them. The new clause did, in fact, constitute a 
 revolution in the history of the university; but, 
 after Is yens, it can hardly be said that the ap- 
 prehensions of its opponents have been realized. 
 Although the number of graduates now is nearly 
 treble what it was 18 years ago, the value of 
 the degree in public estimation lias not di- 
 minished but increased. Nor have the colleges 
 suffered, although the former protective system in 
 their favor has been abolished. The advantages 
 of effective collegiate instruction will always 
 speak for themselves, as will be seen by the fol- 
 lowing statistics relating to the final examination 
 for the ordinary B. A. degree in L875. Of 106 
 candidates. 53 described themselves as coming 
 from certain colleges and schools ; the other •">.'!, 
 as having been prepared by private study and 
 tuition. Of the college students, 17, or 3'J.l per 
 cent, were rejected; of the others. 28, or 52.8 per 
 cent, were rejected. The comparison would be 
 still more decisive, if the examinations for honors 
 were taken into account. 
 
 The first examination in the university is the 
 matriculation examination (to be carefully dis- 
 criminated from matriculation at Oxford or 
 Cambridge) ; for this there were, in lS7. r >. 1,021 
 candidates, of whom 522 passed. It may be 
 passed at the age of 16 ; but the average age of 
 candidates is L9, and sometimes, 20 years. It is 
 an examination in Latin ; in any two of the fol- 
 lowing languages. Greek, French, German; in 
 English; in mathematics: and in natural philos- 
 ophy and chemistry. It may be regarded as a good 
 lest of a complete school education. One peculi- 
 arity of the examination, as of the other pass 
 examinations, is, that a candidate is rejected if 
 he fails entirely in any one subject, however well 
 he may do in all the rest. Of those who pass 
 this examination, about one third go no further. 
 Those who do, henceforth pursue diverging 
 courses. They may proceed to prepare for de- 
 grees in arts, in science, laws, or medicine. 
 The university grants the higher degrees of 
 Master and Doctor only after the passing of a 
 further examination, which differs from the 
 Bachelors' examinations by testing the depth. 
 
 rather than the width, of the candidate's acquire- 
 ments. < >f all these degrees, the medical ones, in 
 particular, have always had a high reputation. 
 
 A large proportion of the leading physicians in 
 London are graduates of this university. The 
 
528 
 
 LORIXSKR 
 
 LOUISIANA 
 
 matriculation examination and the pass exami- 
 nations for B. A. and I!. Sc. are, on application 
 to the senate, held, simultaneously with the ex- 
 aminations in London, at various populous cen- 
 ters in England, at some places in Ireland, and 
 in the colonics (e. g. Canada, Mauritius, and 
 Tasmania). They will shortly he held also in 
 Scotland. 
 
 An unintended omission in the charter of 
 1858 made a newcharter necessary in 1863; and, 
 in 1867, a supplemental charter was obtained, 
 conveying the right to hold examinations for 
 women. There have been, at times, a majority 
 in ( 'mi vocation who were willing to admit wom- 
 en to degrees on the same terms as men ; but 
 whether the movement will be successful re- 
 mains to be seen. The programme of the gen- 
 eral examination for women will, next year, be 
 completely assimilated to the matriculation pro- 
 gramme; and that is the amount of success 
 which the movement has attained so far. Wom- 
 en, after passing this examination, may be ex- 
 amined for certificates of higher proficiency also. 
 The Reform Act of 1807 gave the members of 
 Convocation the right of returning a represent- 
 ative to Parliament: the first member for the 
 university is the Right Hon. Robert Lowe. 
 Convocation, in March, L876, numbered L.663 
 members. The entire number of graduates is 
 nearly double this, only those of them being 
 members of Convocation who are of a certain 
 standing, and have paid the prescribed fee. 
 
 The estimate of the expenses of the univer- 
 sity, for L876 — 7, is as follows : salaries (of the 
 registrar and his assistant, of the clerks, etc.) 
 £2,705 5s 8d ; examiners, £5,300; exhibitions, 
 scholarships, prizes, and medals, £1,972 10 s.; 
 incidental expenses, £520; total, £10,557 L5s. 8d. 
 If from this be deducted £4,500, which it is 
 
 estimated the fees will yield during the same 
 period, it will be seen that the university is a 
 yearly charge to the country to the extent of 
 about £6,000. It must be added that the beauti- 
 ful new buildings in Hurliiii'ton Gardens, which 
 are the first home of its own the university has 
 had, and which were opened by the Queen in 
 1870, were built entirely at public cost. The 
 earl of Burlington, now the duke of Devonshire, 
 was the first chancellor of the university; he 
 still retains a seat in the senate. The second and 
 present chancellor is Earl Granville. — See the 
 yearly Cede) uliir of the University of London, 
 ainl the Minutes of ilf Senate; The University 
 of London <ni<! Us Influence on Education in 
 Scotland, is Frazer's Magazine (Aug. 1876). 
 
 LORINSER, Karl Lgnaz, a distinguished 
 < I'cnnan physician, and writer on school hygiene, 
 
 born July 24., L796; died October •!.. L853. In 
 L836, lie published a pamphlet Oil school hygiene 
 (Ziini Schutze </>■>• QesundheU auf Schulen), in 
 which he severely inveighed against the condition 
 of the gymnasia, asserting thai the great variety 
 of studies pursued, the long school hours, and 
 tin' excessive amount of home work, tended to 
 undermine the health of the pupils. This criti- 
 cism of the school management gave rise to a 
 
 ; bitter controversy, more than seventy pamphlets 
 being written pro and con. King Frederick 
 William III., of Prussia, declared himself in 
 sympathy with Lorinser's views, and ordered the 
 ministry of education to draw up a plan to rem- 
 edy the evils described in the pamphlet. The 
 minister Altenstein. however, in his decree vir- 
 tually denied the charges. An important result 
 of this controversy was, that gymnastics were 1 
 again introduced into the gymnasia, and that the 
 necessity of making school hygiene a subject of 
 special and thorough study, was generally ad- 
 mitted. The autobiography of I. orinser was pub- 
 lished in 1 sii I. by his son. 
 
 LOUISIANA, one of the southern states of 
 the American I "liioti. was originally a part of the 
 French province of Louisiana, which was ceded 
 to the United States in 1803. This vast tract, 
 stretching from the Mississippi river westward 
 to the Rocky mountains, was at first divided into 
 two territories, that of Orleans and Louisiana, 
 the former including the present State of Louisi- 
 ana, and the latter all the remainder. In 1812, 
 the territory of Orleans was admitted into the 
 Union as the state of Louisiana. The population, 
 in L810, was 70.550. of whom 34,660 were 
 slaves, and 7,585 free colored persons; in 1870. 
 the population was 726,915, of whom 362,065 
 were whites, 364,210 colored persons, 569 In- 
 dians, and 71 ' 'hinese. 
 
 Educational History. — While Louisiana was 
 yet a territory, provision was made for the es- 
 tablishment of primary schools in each parish. 
 In IM'.t. these schools were placed under the su- 
 pervision of police juries: and. in L821, under 
 live trustees appointed by the police jury of each 
 parish, from the resident landowners. In that 
 year, the sum of $800 was appropriated for the 
 support of schools, and authority was given to 
 increase that amount by a tax on the property 
 
 of each parish. By an act of the legislature, in 
 
 L833, the secretary of state was made superin- 
 tendent of public education, and acted as such 
 from that time until L846; The result not 
 proving satisfactory, however, a bill was passed 
 in is 17, providing for the appointment of a 
 state superintendent and parish superintendents, 
 
 the collection of a one mill tax on property, and 
 
 the establishment of a state school fund by a 
 consolidation of the land grants (amounting to 
 786,044 acres) and individual donations. The 
 object of this legislation was to establish a free 
 public-school system for all the white children 
 
 between the ages of and 10 years. Additional 
 legislation, in L855, imposed a poll-tax of $1.00 
 on each free white male inhabitant over twenty- 
 one years old. In L850, there were 676 public 
 schools in the state, taught by 845 teachers, and 
 giving instruction to 25j793pupils. There were 
 also 1 12 academics, and 8 colleges. In I860, the 
 
 number of public scl Is had increased to 713, 
 
 with 31,813 pupils; and the school revenue 
 amounted to $469,210. In L868, the new state 
 
 constitution provided that a statesuperintendent 
 should he elected for four years, and that all the 
 children of the state between the ages of C> ami 
 
LOUISIANA 
 
 t>29 
 
 21 years, should bo admitted to the public schools 
 or to other state institutions of learning, without 
 regard to race, color, or previous condition. A 
 special act to carry <>ut these provisions was 
 passed in March, L869. This required the ap- 
 pointment of a state board of education to con- 
 sist of the superintendent of public education, 
 <me member from each congressional district in 
 the state, and two from the state at large. To 
 this board were committed the supervision and 
 management of the educational interests of the 
 state. The state was to be divided into six 
 districts, with a division superintendent for each, 
 whose duty it was to supervise and manage the 
 schools in his district, subject to the control of 
 the state board. Hoards of directors for each 
 district in the state were also to be appointed by 
 the state board, for the purpose of establishing 
 and supervising schools in their respective 
 districts, subject to the authority of the division 
 superintendent*. A two mill property tax was 
 directed to be levied, leaving it optional with 
 the voters to raise by local taxation whatever 
 additional funds were necessary for the erection 
 or hiring of school buildings. 1 hiring the earlier 
 years of legislation, the sparseness of the popu- 
 lation rendered the school laws, in many respects, 
 inoperative; and, during the last twenty years, 
 political disturbances ending finally in civil war, 
 by producing class distinctions founded on color, 
 le the work of education in the state a matter 
 of great difficulty. Since the establishment of 
 the school system, in 1870, considerable progress 
 has been made. The school boards have been 
 energetic and judicious; the school funds have 
 been managed with economy and prudence, 
 many new schools have been established, and an 
 increased number of pupils brought under in- 
 struction. The first state superintendent under 
 the new law was Thomas W. Conway, who was 
 succeeded, in 1872, by William G. Brown, the 
 present incumbent (1876). 
 
 School system. — -The public schools, according 
 to the provisions of the act of March 16., 1870, 
 are governed by the state board of education, 
 which consists of a state superintendent and six 
 division superintendents; there is also an assistant 
 superintendent for the city of New Orleans. The 
 duties of the board are to appoint parish, city, 
 town, and district directors, to make all needful 
 rules for the government of schools, to enforce 
 the constitutional provisions relating to the ad- 
 mission into the schools of all children without 
 regard to race, color, or previous condition, to 
 recommend a uniform series of text-books, and 
 to prescribe a course of study. The state super- 
 intendent is. ex officio, president of the board, and 
 its chief executive officer. He is charged with 
 the care of all educational reports and docu- 
 ments, exercises a general supervision over the 
 division superintendents, holding meetings with 
 them in the several divisions of the state, at least 
 once a year, issues teachers' certificates of quali- 
 fication, apportions the school fund, examines 
 and approves all plans for school buildings 
 erected, and makes a report to the general as- 
 34 
 
 Bembly at each session. — Division superintend 
 ents have control of the schools in their respective 
 divisions, examine teachers, issue certificates of 
 qualification good for one year in the division 
 where issued, hold teachers' institutes, organize 
 
 teachers' associations, audit treasurei-s' accounts, 
 
 make reports to the state board and state super- 
 intendent, and exercise a general supervision 
 
 over their respeetive divisions, subject only to 
 the jurisdiction of the state hoard and the state 
 
 superintendent. — Board* of school directors dis- 
 charge all the duties usually appertaining to 
 such bodies in other states. The school month 
 consists of four weeks of five days each. The 
 Bible is not excluded from the public schools, 
 but no pupil is required to read it contrary to 
 the wishes of his parents or guardians. 
 
 Educational condition.- The total number 
 of school districts in the state, in 1 875, was 473; 
 ami the number of public schools. L.032; besides 
 which there were reported lis private schools. 
 The whole amount of school income for the year 
 was $789,068.95. of which $31 1,818.03 was de- 
 rived from state apportionments. Other items 
 of the school statistics are given below : 
 
 Number of children of school age 280,387 
 
 Number enrolled in public schools 74,846 
 
 Number attending private schools 22,306 
 
 Number of teachers, males, 797 
 
 females, 760 
 
 1,557 
 
 $37.00 
 
 .Total, 
 Average salary of teachers per month 
 Expenditures, for salaries, $.">7:!,144.44 
 " other purposes, 290,247.42 
 
 Total, $863,301.86 
 
 Normal Instruction. — Although the law pro- 
 vides for the establishment of a normal school in 
 the state, no steps have yet been taken to carry 
 out its provisions in this respect. The city of 
 New Orleans had formerly a normal school; but, 
 owing to the inability of the school board to 
 sustain it with appropriations, it has passed from 
 their control, and is now a department of the 
 New Orleans University. Straight University 
 and the Peabody Normal Seminary, in the same 
 city, also afford normal instruction and training. 
 The division superintendents are required by 
 law to hold teachers' institutes annually in their 
 respective divisions. 
 
 Secondary Instruction. — The institutions of 
 this grade, in the state, are (1) private schools, 
 (2) high schools, and (.'!) business colleges. The 
 first, in 1875. reported 846 teachers and, 22.306 
 scholars. Of the high schools, four are mentioned 
 in the state superintendent's report for 1875, three 
 being established in New Orleans, and the other 
 recently open at Baton Rouge. One of those 
 located in New Orleans is for boys ; the other 
 two, for girls, The Central High School for 
 boys, is divided into six departments, as follows: 
 English literature; Latin and Greek; science; 
 mathematics; commerce, comprising penman- 
 ship, drawing, and book-keeping: and French. 
 During the first year in this school, all pursue 
 the same studies ; after that time, the study of the 
 classics is optional. Four business colleges re- 
 
530 
 
 LOUISIANA 
 
 LOUISVILLE 
 
 ported, in 1874, to the U. S. Bureau of Edu- 
 cation, 12 teachers and 915 pupils, of whom 
 8(>0 were males, and 55 females. Their courses 
 of instruction vary from three months to a year. 
 Superior Instruction. — The institutions which 
 afford opportunities for higher instruction, in- 
 cluding the Louisiana State University (q. v.), 
 are enumerated in the following table : 
 
 
 
 When 
 
 Religious 
 
 NAME 
 
 Location 
 
 found- 
 
 denomina- 
 
 
 
 ed 
 
 tion 
 
 
 Jackson 
 
 1825 
 
 M. Kiiis.S. 
 
 Leland University 
 
 N. Orleans 
 
 1870 
 
 Non - 
 
 Louisiana State Univ'ty. . 
 
 Bat. Rouge 
 
 1863 
 
 Non-Beet. 
 
 New Orleans University.. 
 
 N. Orleans 
 
 
 M. Epis. 
 
 St. Charles College 
 
 Q-r. Coteau 
 
 1852 
 
 E. C. 
 
 M.Mary Jefferson College. 
 
 St. James 
 
 1861 
 
 B. C. 
 
 
 N. Orleans 
 
 1869 
 
 Evangel. 
 
 Centenary College, the oldest in the state, is 
 also one of the most efficient. The New ( Means 
 University, like Straight University, makes no 
 distinction of race or sex in its requirements for 
 admission. It has a preparatory, a normal, a eol- 
 legiate, and a theological department. The Silli- 
 m.in Female Collegiate Institute, at Clinton, 
 under the control of the Presbyterians, also 
 affords superior instruction. It has a collegiate 
 course, and is authorized to confer degrees. 
 
 Scientific and Professional Instruction. ■ 
 The Agricultural and Mechanical College of 
 Louisiana was opened June 1.. L874, in the 
 building of the Louisiana University, in pursu- 
 ance of an act of the legislature, passed in April 
 of the same year, making provision for carry- 
 ing into effect the purposes of the donation, by 
 the i Hind States, of public lands for the estab- 
 lishment of an agricultural and mechanical col- 
 li j' in the state. The ( ihalmette battle-ground, 
 in tin' parish of St. Bernard, where the state 
 owns 200 acres of land, was selected as a site for 
 the college. The only schools of theology are the 
 
 Biblical department of NewOrleans I mversdty, 
 the theological department of Straight Univer- 
 sity, which is open to all denominations, and 
 tin- theological department of Leland University. 
 The law department of the University of 
 Louisiana performs the office of a law school, 
 besides which there is a law department in 
 Strai-ht University, instructed by members of 
 the New Orleans bar. By a special act of the 
 legislature, a diploma from this department en- 
 titles the graduate to practice in all the courts 
 of the slate. The same institution has also a 
 medical department. 
 
 Special instruction. — The Louisiana Institu- 
 tion tor tin- Education of the Deaf and Dumb, 
 at Baton Rouge, was founded in 1854. In 1874, 
 it had 5] pupils, and 10 instructors. The value 
 ot us grounds, l>iiiMin..:>. etc.. is aboul $200,000. 
 The Institution for the instruction of the I'.lind. 
 al-o at Baton Rouge, was founded in 1871. It is 
 
 represented to he in a flourishing condition. In 
 1*71, it bad 65 pupils, and 1 9 instructors and 
 other employes. The value of its grounds and 
 buildings is about 8100,000. This institution 
 Includes als,> an industrial home for the blind. 
 ides these institutions, there is an insane 
 
 ' asylum, at Jackson, supported by the state at an 
 annual cost of about $40,000. 
 
 LOUISIANA STATE UNIVERSITY, 
 at Baton Rouge, La., was chartered in L853, be- 
 ing founded upon grants of land made by Con- 
 gress to the state for the establishment of a 
 seminary of learning. It was opened at Alex- 
 andria, in January, L860, under the superintend- 
 ence of Col. (now Gen.) Win. T. Sherman, and 
 continued in operation till June, 1861, when it 
 was closed on account of the war. It was re- 
 opened in 1862 — 3, tinder the superintendence 
 of Col. Win. E. M. Linfield and Prof. Wm. A. 
 Seay.but was again closed. It was again opened 
 in October, 1865, under the superintendence of 
 Col. David J-'. Boyd, who resigned in 1875, but 
 is still (1876) in charge of the institution. In 
 1 869, the university building having Keen burned, 
 the institution was transferred to the buildings 
 of the Asylum for the Deaf and Dumb at Baton 
 Rouge. This location is intended to he tempo- 
 rary, until the edifice at Alexandria shall he re- 
 built. The university owns state bonds to the 
 amount of SI ,",^.ni)(i. on which it receives li per 
 cent interest. It has a library of 13,000 vol- 
 umes, good chemical and philosophical appara- 
 tus, and museums of natural history, fine aits. 
 etc. The value of its real and personal property 
 is about 8160,500. The cost of tuition is 
 880 a year. An act of 1870 provided tor the 
 education and maintenance of two indigent 
 youths from each parish, and 20 from the city of 
 New Orleans, who, after remaining at the uni- 
 versity four years, were required to teach school 
 in the state two years. No provision, however, 
 has been made recently for carrying this ad into 
 effect. By act of the legislature, the professora 
 
 of engineering, mineralogy, geology, botany, and 
 zoology, of this institution, are required to make 
 surveys of Louisiana, in their respective depart- 
 ments. Several reports of these surveys have 
 been made. The organization of the university 
 
 is thoroughly military, and there are daily drills 
 
 and parades. The course of study embraces a 
 preparatory and an academic department, a spe- 
 cial school of civil engineering, and a commercial 
 
 Bchool. The academic department has a literary 
 (or classical), a scientific, and an optional coi 
 The degrees conferred are 1'.. A.. B.S., li. Ph., 
 A. M.. and C. E. In 1872- 3, there were 12 in- 
 structors and IK' students. Since then, the 
 unsettled condition of the state and the con- 
 sequent withdrawal of legislative support have 
 greatly embarrassed the institution : and. in 1 876, 
 there were only '_'*J students. The number of 
 
 graduates, from 1869 to 1874, inclusive, was 58. 
 
 LOUISVILLE, the chief city of the state 
 
 of Kentucky, having a population, according to 
 
 the U. S. census of L870, of loo.:."'."., of whom 
 
 1 1,956 were colored persons, and 25,668 foivign- 
 
 the latter including 1.4,380 natives of Ger- 
 many. This city has grown up during the pres- 
 ent century, its population, in 1810, being only 
 1,357. The town was established by an act of 
 the Virginia legislature in 1 780, and called Louis- 
 ville, in honor of 1/niis XVI., king of !■ ranee, 
 
LOUISVILLE 
 
 531 
 
 important aid having boon furnished by that 
 country to the United States in their struggle 
 for independence. 
 
 Educational History. — -Among the earliest 
 efforts in the cause of education in Kentucky, 
 were those made by the Roman Catholics, who 
 established schools in connection with their 
 churches, in many parts of the state; and it is 
 probable that Louisville shared in the benefits of 
 these efforts. In 1819, an institution known as 
 the Seminary, gave instruction in the several 
 branches of an English and classical education. 
 It was under the direction of the trustees of the 
 town, but was not well supported, the wants of 
 the community requiring little beyond elementary 
 education. In 1837, the Medical institute was 
 organized, having received an appropriation of 
 $50,000 from the city council, and opened with 
 80 students. In 1847, the building for the Uni- 
 versity of Louisville was sufficiently near comple- 
 tion to permit the opening of its law department, 
 the first lectures in which were delivered to 
 about .'50 students. At that time, there were, in 
 the city, 4 large public-school buildings, and 24 
 schools, of which wore grammar schools, — 3 
 for males and 3 for females. In 1861, a high 
 school for males, with all the rights and privi- 
 leges of a university, was chartered by the legis- 
 lature, as an institution for superior instruction, 
 in connection with the public schools of the city. 
 In 1802 — 3, the average daily attendance of 
 pupils in the public schools Avas 3,851. Two 
 years afterward, instruction in vocal music was 
 made a part of the common-school course ; and, 
 in 1868, the study of the German language, 
 which had been previously introduced, bad been 
 so far extended, that one-half of all the pupils 
 (over 4,000) received instruction in it. In 1870, 
 there were 2 high schools, and 17 schools of an 
 inferior grade. The progress of the school sys- 
 tem has been uninterrupted since that time. The 
 number of pupils enrolled in the public schools 
 has increased, during the ten years ending in 
 1875, from 9,388 to 17,593; and the cost of the 
 system, from $103,425.05 to $255,529.02. 
 
 School S;/s(em.— The public schools are under 
 the management of a board of trustees, consist- 
 ing of 24 members, 2 from each ward of the city. 
 The chief executive officer of the system is the 
 superintendent of the public schools, who exer- 
 cises a general supervision over the schools, and 
 makes an annual report to the board of trustees. 
 There is also a superintendent of German in- 
 struction, who is subordinate to the superintend- 
 ent of schools, but acts under the direction of 
 the committee on German, of the board of trust- 
 ees. The board of examiners of public scliools 
 consists of the superintendent and six or more 
 professional teachers, who hold principals' cer- 
 tificates, selected by the committee on examina- 
 tions and course of study of the board of 
 trustees; and there is also a (Jcrman board 
 of examiners, consisting of the superintendent 
 and other persons selected !>y the committee. 
 All teachers are required to be at least 18 years 
 of age. The schools are divided into primary, 
 
 district, intermediate, and high schools, besides 
 the evening schools and the training school for 
 
 teachers. The studies pursued embrace all tho 
 
 ordinary common-school branches, besides Ger- 
 man and music, which are taught in all the 
 grades of the schools. — The Length of the school 
 
 course is designed to lie 71 years in the lower 
 grades, 5 years in the male high school, -I years 
 in the female high school, and 2 years in the 
 training school. The support of the schools is 
 chiefly derived from a city tax. The daily ex- 
 ercises in each are commenced by the leading of 
 a selection from the Scriptures. The legal school 
 age is from G to 20 years. Children living out- 
 side the city limits are permitted to attend the 
 pnl ilic schools on payment of a tuition fee ran- 
 ging from $20 to #50 per annum. 
 
 Educational Condition. — The whole number 
 of schools, in 1875, was 3d, as follows: 2 high 
 schools, — 1 male, and 1 female, 6' intermediate 
 schools, 14 district schools, 7 primary schools, 4 
 night schools, and 1 training school. Of tho 
 schools of the lower grade, 5 are for colored 
 children. The principal items of school statistics, 
 for 1875, are as follows : 
 
 Whole number of children of school age 44,827 
 
 Whole number of pupils enrolled 17,593 
 
 Number of colored pupils enrolled 2,634 
 
 Average daily attendance 11,561 
 
 Average attendance in the night schools G10 
 
 Number of teachers, English 286 
 
 " " " German 27 
 
 " " " of music 4 
 
 Total number of teachers 317 
 
 Total receipts for school purposes $301,655.72 
 
 Total expenditures $255,529.02 
 
 Cost per pupil $19.95 
 
 Total value of school property $847,300.00 
 
 The course of instruction in the training school, 
 or class, embraces arithmetic, algebra, geometry, 
 history, English grammar and composition, elo- 
 cution, physical geography .physiology, astronomy, 
 chemistry, and theory and methods of teaching. 
 The whole number of pupils in this school, in 
 187;", was 42. The Male High School contains 
 five classes, including the preparatory class. The 
 studies taught are comprised in the following 
 departments: belles-lettres, ancient languages, 
 pure mathematics, chemistry and technology, ap- 
 plied mathematics, and modern languages. Any 
 student who passes a satisfactory examination 
 in any of these departments is entitled to a cer- 
 ate of graduation in the same. This institu- 
 tion, in 1875, had an enrollment of 221 students, 
 and a faculty of members, including the pres- 
 ident. For admission into the Female High 
 School, applicants are required to pass an ex- 
 amination in the branches taught in the first 
 grade of the Intermediate Schools. They must 
 also be at least 12 years of age. The number of 
 teachers in the school, in 1875, was 12 I. 
 
 Besides tho institutions for superior, pro- 
 fessional, and scientific instruction mentioned in 
 the article on Kentucky, there are several pri- 
 vate schools and academies, and 3 public libra- 
 ries, having an aggregate of about 10,000 volumes. 
 The Public Library of Kentucky alone contains 
 20,000 volumes. 
 
532 
 
 LOYE 
 
 LUTHER 
 
 LOVE, on the part of pupils for their teach- 
 er, is one of the most essential elements of his 
 success, just as antipathy (q. v.) constitutes an 
 insurmountable obstacle to the exertion of any 
 important educational influence. Thefirst thing, 
 therefore, which the educator should strive to do 
 is to win the affection of his pupils; if that is 
 accomplished, every tiling else will be done with- 
 out difficulty. It is of little use to address 
 merely the intellect of children. Their curiosity, 
 it is true, can be excited, their attention aroused, 
 and the faculties of their minds, to a certain ex- 
 tent, be developed and sharpened; but the real 
 elements of character are behind all this; and 
 the>e cannot he affected in any important degree 
 by mere intellectual training. The heart - the 
 sensibilities and the will —must be reached; 
 and the key to success in this, the greatest 
 office of the educator, is love. When love for 
 the teacher reigns in the bosom of his pupil, 
 there is entire confidence in him, a desire to obey 
 him, to please him, to listen to his precepts, to 
 imitate his example, both in words and in acts; 
 indeed, by an inexplicable psychologic law. the 
 pupil seems to he 1 » mini to the teacher by a kind 
 of magnetic chain, and is subject in every thing 
 to his will, fear, on the other hand, repels, and 
 thus prevents the operation of that influence 
 without which educational processes are, more or 
 less, nugatory. The fear to do wrong, and of the 
 punishment which is to follow it, is not, how- 
 , inconsistent with a love of tin; teacher. 
 (See Pear.) The latter must make himself, and 
 the authority which he wields, respected ; or he 
 will incur the contempt of his pupils; and this 
 is, of course, antagonistic to love. Children 
 naturally recognize authority, however much 
 they may strive to evade or defy it ; and its just 
 ami rightful exercise docs not interfere with 
 their warmest affections toward parents and 
 teachers. Hence, love is not to be inspired by 
 making improper concessions to children, for 
 these tiny construe into weakness, which they 
 despise. Minute directions may he given tor the 
 
 winning of the pupil's affections; hut these 
 
 would he cither unnecessary or futile. Lov< 
 
 the part of the teacher can alone produce love in 
 the hearts of the pupils. lie cannot put on a 
 
 semblance of affectionate regard for his pupils ; 
 he must feel it. Children have naturally deep 
 
 intuitions into character, and detect hypocrisy 
 almost instantly; hence they at once discern 
 
 whether there is any real affection in the mind 
 
 of the teacher towards themselves, or only a mere 
 
 pretense, hove will show itself in hisappear- 
 
 e, his words, his manners: every tone of his 
 voice will indicate it . if it exist, and the pleasant 
 
 smile beaming habitually from his countenance 
 
 will, while m ulring his own labors pleasant and 
 
 ., make bght the hardest tasks of his pupils, 
 by exciting their ambition and determination to 
 
 accomplish it. The teacher should, however. 
 
 aever forget the relation existing between him 
 
 and his pupils. "Some teachers," says Mail 
 
 the School-Room, Phila., 1868), "in avoiding a 
 
 hard, repulsive manner, run to the opposite ex- 
 
 treme, and lose the respect of their scholars by 
 undue familiarity. Children do not expect you 
 to become their playmate and fellow, before 
 giving you their love and confidence. Their 
 native tendency is to look up. They yearn for 
 repose upon one superior to themselves." 
 
 LOYOLA COLLEGE, in Baltimore, Md., 
 was opmed in L852, and chartered in 1853. It 
 is a Roman Catholic institution, controlled by 
 members of the Society of Jesus. It has a mu- 
 seum, philosophical apparatus, and Libraries con- 
 taining 21,500 volumes. There is a classical, a 
 commercial, and a preparatory course. The cost 
 of tuition, in the preparatory course, is §50 a 
 year; in the other courses. $75. In 1875 — 6, 
 there were 16 instructors and 1 -lit students. 
 
 LUTHER, Martin, the author of the great 
 religious movement of the 16th century, was 
 horn at Eisleben, Nov. Hi., 1483 (according to 
 others. 1 1>I). and died in the same town Feb. 
 L8., L546. After attending the town school of 
 Mansfeld and the Latin schools of Magdeburg 
 and Eisenach, he went, in 1 501, to the university 
 of Erfurt in order to study law. In 1505, he 
 entered the AugUStmian convent at Erfurt, and 
 
 in 1508, received the appointment of professor 
 in the university of Wittenberg. There he be- 
 gan, in 1517, the religious reform which made 
 his name s,, famous. A- Luther held that all 
 
 Christians should read the Bible in their native 
 
 tongue, the governments which adopted the Ref- 
 ormation had Indirect their attention to the es- 
 tablishment of schools in all the parishes. Luther 
 himself, in 1524, issued a powerful appeal to 
 
 towns 
 in 
 
 10 establish schools. and to provide tor the edu 
 tion of school-teachers, and the establishment of 
 school libraries. Helaidgreat stress upon the im- 
 portance of religious instruction and the ancient 
 Languages, and made many suggestions in regard 
 
 to an improvement of the methods of teaching. 
 
 which were adopted by educators of the follow- 
 in-' centuries. His German translation of the 
 Bible and his smaller catechism Mere generally 
 introduced into the Lutheran schools, and have 
 remained in extensive use up to the present day. 
 The first Gt rman primer (/•'/'/- 1), which appeared 
 about this time, is by some ascribed to Luther; 
 1 iv others to Melanchthon. It contained the alpha- 
 bet, and as reading exercises the ten command- 
 ments, the creed, the Lord's Prayer, somepas- 
 - from the Bible, and prayers. At the end, 
 the numbers from I to L00, and the multiplica- 
 tion table were given. Many of the measures 
 
 which weiv taken by Melanchthon for the refor- 
 mation of .schools, were, in great part, due to the 
 advice and co-operation of Luther, for the 
 schools which he recommended the German 
 burgomasters to establish, Luther drew up a 
 comprehensive course of studies, which he sent to 
 
 his friend Spalatin with the request to sulunit it 
 to the elector of Saxony. This course of studies 
 
 is either verballj contained in the Book of Visita- 
 tion (VtsitationsbilchJein, published by Melanch- 
 thon in L 528), or at fast forms the Lasisof the 
 
 the burgomasters and magistrates of all 
 in the ( rerman countries,"in which he urged them 
 
LUTHERAN CHURCH 
 
 533 
 
 
 one published by Melanchthon, — See Gedike, 
 Luther's Padagogik \ [792); Bruestlein, Luther's 
 Einfliiss n'if das Vblksschuhcesen mid den 
 Religionsunterricht (1852) ; J.Schiller, Dr. .1/. 
 Luther uber christliche Kinderzucht (2d ed., 
 L854). 
 
 LUTHERAN CHURCH, the Dame of the 
 religious denomination which anise in the L6th 
 century, from the church reformation effected by 
 Martin Luther. It has also been designated by 
 the name Evangelical, Evangelical Lutheran, 
 or Protestanl Church, or, as in Austria, the 
 Church of the Augsburg Confession. The three 
 general creeds of the ancient church, and the 
 Confession of Augsburg have generally been re- 
 garded by Lutherans as standards of faith. In 
 respect to constitution the Lutheran churches 
 greatly differ. Sweden. Norway, and Denmark 
 have an episcopal, most of the other churches 
 a synodal or consistorial, form of government; 
 the latter, which means a government of the 
 church by state boards called consistories, is, 
 however, on the wane. In Prussia and some of 
 the other German states, the Lutheran Church 
 has been united with the Reformed Church into 
 one ecclesiastical organization, called the United 
 Evangelical Church (q. v.) ; but the Lutherans 
 to a large extent have regarded this as a mere 
 confederation which does not impair or alter their 
 standing as Lutherans. In Germany, as in other 
 countries, the predominance of rationalistic 
 views, and the almost unlimited freedom of be- 
 lief or untielicf. which has been practically con- 
 ceded to the clergy and members of the church, 
 have, to a great extent, swept away the distinctive 
 landmarks of the Lutheran denomination. It has 
 been calculated, however, that of the 25 millions 
 of Protestants in the German empire, 20.0(10,00(1, 
 at least, are of Lutheran extraction. In the Scan- 
 dinavian kingdoms, which have an aggregate 
 population of about 8,000,000, as well as m the 
 grand-duchy of Finland, and in the Baltic provin- 
 ces of Russia, nearly the entire population is Lu- 
 theran. Austria had, in 1869, a Lutheran popu- 
 lation of l,365,000,and Russian Poland. 2 10,000. 
 France has lost almost all her Lutheran pop- 
 ulation by the annexation to Germany of Alsace 
 and Lorraine. The entire Lutheran population 
 of the world (including the Lutheran portion 
 of the United Evangelical Church) has been 
 estimated at about 40,000,000. [n consequence 
 of the close connection of church and state in 
 Europe, the Lutheran Church has exerted, and 
 to some extent still exerts, a verygreat influence 
 upon the educational institutions of those coun- 
 tries in which it prevails. Universities and 
 gymnasia have, however, so generally passed 
 i under the sole control of the state, and in the; 
 German churches so wide a departure from the 
 official creeds of the Protestant churches has 
 been generally allowed to theologians, that it 
 would be extremely difficult to state in a few 
 
 words the relation of the Lutheran Church to 
 the learned institutions of the countries named. 
 It may be said, however, that at present ( L876) 
 the universities of Rostock. Frlanevn. and Leip- 
 
 sie, in ( lermany, those of < lopenhagen, Lund, and 
 ( psal, in the Scandinavian kingdoms, and of 
 ' Dorpat,in Russia, are seats of a strictly Lutheran 
 theology. (See Germany, Denmark, Finland, 
 Norw w, Swedi 
 
 The immigration of Lutherans into the United 
 Stai i as early as 1(121. when a few came 
 to New York from Holland. Their firsl church 
 was built in L671. They were s i followed bj 
 
 a Lutheran colony from Sweden, and by more 
 numerous emigrants from < lermany, who chiefly 
 settled in Pennsylvania. In the 19th century, the 
 immigration into the United States, from the 
 Lutheran countries of Europe, Germany, Den- 
 mark, Sweden, and Norway, increased so rap- 
 idly, that the Dumber of preachers and of 
 communicants, which, in L820, was only L 70 and 
 35,000, respectively, rose, in L875, to 2,669 and 
 573,149. The first generation of immigrants re- 
 tain their native tongue in divine worship; of 
 their descendants, a considerable Dumber have, 
 in the course of time, substituted for it the En- 
 glish. Still the church, school, and family lan- 
 guage of a large majority of these churches is 
 even now chiefly German. Some idea of the 
 proportion of the languages spoken among the 
 Lutherans of the United States may be formed 
 from the fact, that of their periodicals, 22 
 are published in the English language, 30, in 
 the German, 5, in the Swedish, and 8, in the 
 Danish or Norwegian language. Like the Meth- 
 odists and Baptists, the Lutherans of the United 
 States are divided into a number of independent 
 bodies which, to some extent, differ as to certain 
 points of doctrine. The principal divisions are 
 the following : 
 
 1 1 | Tin' General Synod. — This was formed in 
 1820, and is the oldest of the general bodies. 
 In it the English language largely predominates. 
 It allows larger liberties than the other bodies 
 in both doctrine and practice. It recognizes the 
 Augsburg Confession as the chief exposition of 
 its faith, but does not impose a strict adherence 
 to its text as a test of membership. 
 
 (2) The General Council. This was formed 
 in 18(57. It exacts a strict adherence to the 
 unaltered Augsburg Confession, and recognizes 
 the Apology for the Augsburg Confession. Lu- 
 ther's greater and smaller catechisms, the 
 Schmalkalden Articles, and the Formula of 
 Concord, as forming, with the unaltered Augs- 
 burg Confession, the full creed of the same 
 faith. 
 
 (3) Tli'- Synodical Conference. This is the 
 most numerous Lutheran body in the United 
 States. It is also the most strict in its inter- 
 pretation of the standards, and in its rules oi 
 membership and fellowship. It was formed in 
 L872, and the language used in its churches and 
 schools is al st wholly German. 
 
 i 1 1 TkeSouihern Synod — This withdrew from 
 the General Synod during the civil war, chiefly 
 for political reasons, and formed the General 
 Synod South. Resides these four general organi- 
 zations, there arc seven particular synods, which 
 are entirely independent. 
 
534 
 
 LUTHERAN' CHURCH 
 
 LYCEUM 
 
 The Lutheran bodies in the United States have 
 always felt the importance of the educational work 
 required of them, and have endeavored to meet 
 its demands as far as they haw had the means. 
 In lTT.'J, Dra. Schmidt and I [eUmuth opened, in 
 Philadelphia, a Latin school and a private semi- 
 nary for the instruction of candidates for the 
 ministry. It continued in operation for more 
 than twenty years, and was finally elosed by the 
 necessities of war during the Revolution. In 
 1787, the legislature of Pennsylvania established 
 Franklin College, Lancaster, of which Henry 
 Ernest Muhlenberg was the president, for the 
 especial benefit of the Germans of the common- 
 wealth, and as a reward for their services in the 
 war. In L791, the * 'lunch's services to education 
 were further recognized by the legislature of 
 Pennsylvania, by the gift of five thousand acres 
 of land to the Free Schools of the Lutheran 
 Church, in Philadelphia. Tn 1784, Johann 
 Christoph ECunze, of Philadelphia, accepted a 
 call to the High German Congregation, in New 
 York, in the hope that he mighl establish a 
 Lutheran theological professorship in Columbia 
 College. He became professor of oriental lan- 
 guages in that institution. The Lutherans at- 
 tach greal importance to theological instruction, 
 and theological seminaries receive very great 
 consideration from them. Their oldest in- 
 stitutions, in fact, seem to have been at first 
 theological schools, around which literary de- 
 partments were afterwards formed. Hartwick 
 Seminary, New York, was founded in L816. 
 The theological school there was the first pub- 
 lic training school of the American Lutheran 
 Church for candidates for the ministry. The 
 theological seminary, at Gettysburg, Pa., was 
 founded by the General Synod in L826. Pre- 
 vious to that time, the Rev. Dr. S. S. Schmucker, 
 of New Market. Va..and the Rev. D.F.Schaef- 
 fer, of Frederick, Md., had received a limited 
 number of young men as students, and in- 
 structed them in theology. The Gettysburg 
 seminary celebrated, in L876, the completion of 
 
 the fiftieth year of its existence. It had then 
 furnished thirty-nine professors to various in- 
 stitutions, nearly ah 1 the editors of the English 
 periodicals and reviews of the General Synod, 
 and five hundred and thirty-eight ministers. 
 
 Pennsylvania College, Gettysburg, Pa., was 
 founded in 1832, six years alter the th 
 seminary. The General Synod has also the 
 following higher institutions of learning: Wit- 
 tenberg College, Springfield, Ohio (founded 
 in 1 s !<m, to which a theological department 
 (founded in L845) isattached; Swedish- American 
 
 Inagari College, Knoxville, 111. (1873), with a 
 ologica] department; Carthage College, Car- 
 thage, Mo. (1871 Kami Practical Theol. Seminary, 
 
 liishall, Wis. (1876). -The General Synod 
 "' . has the care of Roanoke College, Salem, 
 
 va. (1854), a theological seminary a1 the same 
 place 1 1 $30, al Lexington, S. G, and removed to 
 Salem, Va., in L872); Newberry College, Wal- 
 halla.S. 0. (1858). North Carolina College, Mt. 
 Pleasant, N. 0. (1859), and the theological de- 
 
 partment of the same (1872). are connected with 
 the Worth Carolina Synod. The (General 
 Council has a theological seminary at Phila- 
 delphia, which was founded in 1864. Its other 
 collegiate and theological seminaries are : .Muh- 
 lenberg College, AUentown, I'a. (1867); Angus- 
 tana College and theological seminary (the latter 
 founded in 1863), at Rock Island. 111.; Mosheim 
 College. Mosheim, Tenn. ; German American 
 College, Rousselville, Texas; Thicl College. 
 Greenville, Pa. (1870) ; Wartburg Theological 
 Seminary. Mendota, 111.; and the Norwegian 
 Lutheran Seminary, at Madison, AVis. (187G). 
 The principal theological school of the Synodtcal 
 Conference is the Concordia Theological Semi- 
 nary, of which the theoretical department, at St. 
 Louis, Mo., was founded in 1840, and the prac- 
 tical department, at Springfield, 111., in L846. 
 its other higher institutions are; Capital Uni- 
 versity, Columbus, Ohio (1850), with a theolog- 
 ical department (1830); Concordia College, 
 Fort Wayne. 1 1 id. (1840, and organized alter 
 the plan of a German gymnasium); Luther 
 College, Decorah, Iowa (1863); North "West 
 University, Watertown, Wis. (1865). — The con- 
 ference of the Norwegian-Danish Evangelical 
 Lutheran church sustains the Augsburg The- 
 ological Seminary, at Minneapolis. Minn. The 
 synod known as Gfraban's Buffalo Synod sup- 
 ports Martin Luther College, with a theological 
 department, at Buffalo, N. Y, and the Synod of 
 Iowa supports the College of the Iowa Synod, 
 Mendota. 111. The Lutheran almanacs give also 
 
 lists of twenty-two classical schools and acad- 
 emies and Seven female seminaries under the 
 patronage of the various Lutheran bodies, or 
 looking to Lutherans for support. — Orphans' 
 homes and schools are supported by the general 
 
 bodies and several synods at Loysville, Zelienojple, 
 
 Rochester, Middletown, and Cermaiitown, Pa.. 
 Rit. Vernon and Buffalo, N. V., Toledo, Ohio, 
 Jacksonville, Addison, and Andover, 111., Vasa. 
 Minn.. St. Louis, Mo., Boston. Mass.. Norm, 
 Mich., and Andrew, Iowa. The Missouri Synod 
 has a deaf and dumb i nst it ute. at N orris, Mich. — 
 The Synodical Conference enumerates, among 
 the conditions required for admission to, and 
 membership in, its organization, the providing of 
 Christian school instruction for the congrega- 
 tions. Accordingly, parochial schools arc gen- 
 erally connected with its congregations. Forthe 
 education of its school teachers, the Synodical 
 Conference supports a teachers' seminary at 
 Addison. 111., which, in 1875, had 5 instructors 
 and 111 students. Three educational papers. 
 
 in the German language, were published in 
 L877, the Schulblatt and Abendschule, at St. 
 
 Louis, and the Schulzeitung, sA Milwaukee. 
 
 LYCEUM (Or. \ . named after the 
 
 neighboring temple of Apollo, >, „,■ .„ , a surname 
 which is differently explained by Creek etymol- 
 ogists), a gymnasium or public palestra with 
 
 covered walks, in the eastern suburb of Athens. 
 
 where Aristotle and the philosophers of his school 
 taught. The Romans gave the name lyceum to 
 Beveral similar institutions, as to those in the 
 
LYCURGUS 
 
 McGUFFEY 
 
 535 
 
 Tusculanum of Cicero, and in the villa of 
 Ailrian at Tibur. In the middle ages, lyceum 
 denoted an institution in which the Aristotelian 
 philosophy was taught. In modern times, the 
 meaning of the word varies greatly in different 
 countries. In Wurtemberg, il i> equivalent to 
 a progymnasium, or the five lower classes of a 
 gymnasium ; in Alsace- Lorraine, it is still given 
 to some of the gymnasia, with which a real school 
 
 is connect eil ; in France, the lyceum is the highest 
 secondary school ami comprises eight classes; in 
 Italy, it corresponds to the three higher classes 
 of the German gymnasium ; in Finland, some of 
 the lyceums which have seven classes corre- 
 spond to the German gymnasium, and some 
 which bave only four classes, to the higher clas- 
 ses of the gymnasium ; in Rotimania, the lyceum 
 Ills seven classes, and equals the complete gym- 
 nasium, hi England and in the United States, 
 the word is not applied to any class of schools, 
 but is sometimes given to literary associations. 
 For a fuller account of the modern lyceums see 
 the articles on the several countries ; for an ac- 
 count of the American Lyceum, see Holrrook, 
 
 JOSIAH. 
 
 LYCURGUS (Greek A.vKovpyog, the light- 
 producer), the reputed author of the Spartan 
 system of education. He is said to have lived 
 in the 9th century before Christ : but so little is 
 known of his life, that even his existence has 
 been doubted by some, his name being regarded 
 by them as the personified origin of a new era of 
 culture. According to the traditional view, he 
 belonged to the royal family of Sparta, and was 
 guardian of his nephew, king Charilaus. Having 
 been forced by an opposing party to leave his 
 country, he made extensive travels in Asia 
 
 Minor, and in Crete, where he became acquainted 
 
 with the laws of Minos, lie was finally recalled 
 
 to Sparta, in order to put an end to tin' increasing 
 
 disorders, for which purpose he enacted the laws 
 
 which have made his name immortal, lie made 
 
 the Spartans swear to keep his laws, until he 
 Should return from Delphi, where he was to ask 
 
 the god's opinion as to their value. As the orai le 
 predicted for Sparta an unfailing prosperity as 
 
 Jong as these laws should be observed, he never 
 returned to his native land. According to one 
 legend, he starved himself to death, having pre- 
 viously ordered the ashes of his ((.ipse to be 
 thrown into the sea in order that they might nol 
 be brought back to Sparta so as to release the 
 Spartans from their pledge. That the whole of 
 the political and educational system of Sparta 
 was not the work of Lycurgus, is admitted 
 even by those who have entire faith in the 
 existence of a famous lawgiver of that name. 
 (See Sparta.) 
 
 LYON, Mary, an American teacher, born 
 in Bucklaud, Mass., Feb. 28., ITDT; died in 
 South Hadley, Mass.. Mar. '>.. 1849. In the face 
 of many obstacles, she acquired sufficient educa- 
 tion to enable her to teach, which she did with- 
 out notable result till 1837, when she established 
 at South Hadley, Mass., the Mount llolyoke 
 Female Seminary, the first of several similar es- 
 tablishments founded by her pupils. The dis- 
 tinct feature of the Mount Bolyoke seminary was 
 the union of domestic labor with intellectual aud 
 moral instruction. Her published works are 
 Tendencies of the principles embraced ami the 
 system adopted in the Mount Holyoke Female 
 Seminary (1840); and the Missionary Offering 
 (Boston, 1843). 
 
 McCORKLE COLLEGE, at Bloomfield 
 {Sago P. O.), Ohio, was founded as a high school 
 in 1862 by the Rev. Win. Ballantine, A. M., who 
 has been its president from the first. It was in- 
 corporated as an academy in 1808, and as a col- 
 lege in 1873. It is under Associate Presbyterian 
 control. Both sexes are admitted. The prin- 
 cipal design of the institution is to qualify young 
 men for the study of theology ; yet a general 
 and thorough course of education, well adapted 
 to qualify students for the pursuit of any of the 
 learned professions, is given, in languages, mathe- 
 matics, and the sciences. There are three depart- 
 ments: a preparatory, two years; and a classical 
 and a scientific, each four years. The cost of 
 tuition ranges from $18 to 630 per year. In 
 1874 — -5, there were 5 instructors and 43 students. 
 
 McCOSH, James, an eminent Scottish 
 scholar, teacher, and metaphysician, born in Ayr- 
 shire, in 1811. He was educated in the univer- 
 sities of Glasgow and Edinburgh ; and. in Is. - !."), 
 ordained a minister of the Church of Scotland. 
 at Arbroath. Subsequently, while pastor at 
 Brechin, he took an active part in the organiza- 
 tion of the Free Church of Scotland. In 1851, 
 
 he accepted the appointment of professor of 
 logic and metaphysics in Queen's College, Bel- 
 fast ; and while here distinguished himself both 
 as a lecturer and a metaphysician, publishing 
 Intuitions of the Mind (London. 1860), a work 
 of great merit for its originality and acuteness, 
 Inl8G8,he waselected president of the ( 'ollege of 
 New Jersey, at Princeton, which position lie still 
 occupies. As an educator he has exerted a very 
 extensive influence, by the breadth and sagacity 
 of his views. His reputation as a metaphysician 
 is not exceeded by that of any living scholar. 
 In this department of intellectual research, his 
 writings have been very numerous, and. as is 
 universally conceded, are characterized by re- 
 markable depth of thought and acuteness of 
 reasoning. 
 
 McGUFFEY, William Holmes, an Amer- 
 ican educator, born in Washington Co., Pa., 
 Sept. 23., 1800; died in Charlottesville, A'a.. 
 May 4., 1873. He graduated at Washington 
 College, iii Pennsylvania, in 1826, and was 
 soon afterwards elected prof essor of ancient lan- 
 guages in Miami University, at Athens, Ohio, 
 in which institution he was transferred, in 1632, 
 
536 
 
 McKENDREE COLLEGE 
 
 MAGEK 
 
 to the chair of moral philosophy. Tn 1836, 
 he was elected president of Cincinnati Col- 
 lege; but, in L839, he returned to Miami Uni- 
 versity to take the position of president of the 
 institution. In L 845, he accepted the appoint- 
 ment of prof essor of moral philosophy and po- 
 litical economy in the University of Virginia, 
 where he remained until bis death. While 
 president of Cincinnati College, he began the 
 preparation of the Eclectic Series of school read- 
 ing-books, which became widely popular, more 
 than a million copies, it is said, having been 
 issued. It is by these that he is best known. 
 
 M'KENDREE COLLEGE, at Lebanon, 
 ED., established in 1828, was chartered in 1834, 
 and rechartered in L839'. It is under Methodist 
 Episcopal control. It has beautiful grounds, and 
 buildings well adapted for college purposes. The 
 location is healthful and easy of access. The 
 libraries contain about 7,500 volumes; and the 
 apparatus is extensive. The institution is sup- 
 ported by tuition fees and the income of an en- 
 dowment of 845,000. Both sexes are admitted. 
 The collegiate department has a classical and a 
 scientific course, and there is a preparatory 
 and a law department. The cost of tuition in 
 the collegiate department is $24 a year. In 
 L875 — 6, there were 8 instructors, and 226 stu- 
 dents, of whom L29 were in the collegiate and 
 
 8 in the law department. The presidents have 
 been as follows: the Rev. Peter Alters, l>. I>.. T 
 yens; the Rev.John W. Merrill, I). I)., 3 years; 
 the Rev. .lames Finley, I >. I>.. 1 years: the 
 
 Rev. Erastus Wentworth, D. D., 4 years; the 
 
 Rev. Anson CummingS, l>. !>., '2 years; the 
 Rev. Nelson Cobleigh, l>. I'.. 5 years; the Rev. 
 Robert Allyn. I >. D., L3 years; and the Rev. 
 John W. Locke, I>. D., the present incumbent 
 (1876), 2 years. 
 
 McMINNVILLE COLLEGE, at McMinn- 
 ville, Oregon, under the control of Baptists, was 
 chartered in L859, It has an endowment fund 
 of $25,000. It comprises a primary, an academic. 
 and a collegiate department, in which the cost 
 
 of tuition is sis. $30, and $44 a year, respect- 
 ively. Both sexes are admitted. In 1873 — 4, 
 there where 6 instructors and L50 students. 
 
 MADISON UNIVERSITY, at Hamilton, 
 \.Y.. under Baptist control, was chartered in 
 
 L846. It comprises a theological seminary, a col- 
 lege, and an academy. The seminary was opened 
 
 in L820; the college and academy w, r gan- 
 
 i/.ed in L832. The college has a classical and a 
 
 atific course. The endowment i nuts to 
 
 15,000. The university has extensive cabinets 
 
 of natural history, and valuable chemical and 
 
 philosophical apparatus. The libraries contain 
 
 I l.doi) volumes. The cost of tuition in the col- 
 lege is $30 a year, in the academy $20; in the 
 
 Seminary, tuition and room rent are free. In 
 1^7:7 (',, there were in the seminary. ."> instruct- 
 ors and 33 students; college, 9 instructors and 
 
 ~7 students; academy, 9 instructors and 89 stu- 
 dent s; total, deducting repetitions, 1 '.» instructors 
 and 209 students. The Rev. Ebenezer Dodge, 
 
 D. I)., Id.. 1)., is (1876) the president. 
 
 MADRAS SYSTEM. See ^Ioxitokial 
 System. 
 
 MADVIG, Johann Nikolai, a Danish 
 
 educator and philologist, born in Svanike, on 
 the island of I Joriiholm. in L804. He graduated 
 at the university of Copenhagen, where he 
 became professor of the Latin language and 
 literature in L829. In L 848, he was appointed 
 minister of public worship, and in L852, di- 
 rector of public instruction. He has edited the 
 
 works of Cicero, Juvenal, Livy, and Lucretius. 
 In 1829, he published a pamphlet in which he 
 attempted to prove that the Tie Orikographia, 
 
 attributed to Apuleius, and first published by 
 Mai in L823, was written as late as the L5th 
 century, lie has also published a Glance at the 
 Constitutions of Antiquity; Tin- Creation, De- 
 velopment, and I. if <■ of Language; Adversaria 
 CrUica <i>l S<-rij>(ores (>ro?cos et Latinos (vol. i. T 
 1871); and a Latin Grammar for Schools. 
 This last was translated by the Rev. G. W< 
 (Oxford. L859). 
 
 MAGER, Karl, a distinguished German 
 educator, was born near Dusseldorf, dan. 1., 
 
 L810;diedin Wiesbaden, June 10., L858. Be 
 studied iii Bonn, Berlin, and Paris, where he 
 
 early attracted attention by his talents and 
 scholarship. After his return to Germany, he 
 engaged in the study of the philosophical sys- 
 tems of Hegel and llerbart. and in thoseof edu- 
 cation and instruction, introduced by Pestalozzi 
 and Diesterweg. for the Wiegweiserfur deutsche 
 Lehrer, edited by the latter, he wrote an essay 
 on the teaching of foreign languages (1835 and 
 L838), after which he became professor in the 
 cantonal school, in Geneva. This position he Boon 
 resigned on account of a spinal disea.se. from which 
 he found some relief in ('annstadt. a watering- 
 place, near Stuttgart. In 1840, he founded the 
 Pddagogiscke /■'- vue, which soon became one of 
 
 the leading journal.- for all questions of education 
 
 and instruction in Germany and Switzerland. 
 This was edited by him until L849. The wish 
 
 to test practically his theories and school books 
 
 induced him to accept the professorship of modern 
 languages (French and German] in the cantonal 
 
 school of Aarau. Switzerland. Altera few years, 
 he resigned this position, to give all his time 
 to the radagogische Revue, which, for his con- 
 venience, had been removed from Stuttgart to 
 Zurich. In 1848, he was invited by the Staats- 
 
 minister Wydenbruck, in Weimar, to take the 
 direction of the real gymnasium in Eisenach, an 
 institution that had been organized accordi 
 to his plan and ideas, lie begin his work with 
 his usual ardor; but, unfortunately, his disei 
 
 greVi worse, and his health became so much 
 impaired, that, in L852, he was obliged to retire 
 
 from his office, and, even to give up all literary 
 
 WOrk, thus being unable to show whether his 
 practical skill as a teacher and head of an insti- 
 tution was equal to his extensive .scholarship and 
 
 the brilliancy of his writings. EEb death oc- 
 curred a few years after his retirement. Mag r 
 was without doubt an eminent reformer in the 
 held of education and instruction; ami his coun- 
 
MAGEK 
 
 MAINE 
 
 537 
 
 try is largely indebted to him for his efforts in 
 the introduction of the genetic metJiod and the 
 creation of the higher real school or real gym- 
 nasium. (Sec Real Schools.) A few words 
 
 will suffice to characterize Mager's ideas on the 
 
 genetic method, which lie calls the combination 
 
 of analysis and synthesis. There is a method 
 
 of development proper to every objeel a pecu- 
 liar mode of growth, both in form andsubstance; 
 
 this is objective method. Bu1 the term method 
 lias also a subjective meaning, implying the man- 
 ner in which the pupil acquires knowledge, and 
 hence having reference to his self-activity, which 
 it is the office of the educator to stimulate, to 
 vest rain, or to guide. Now, psychology and ex- 
 perience teach us that the human mind has to 
 go through different stages in the acquisition of 
 knowledge: perception, conception, and, finally, 
 abstraction : and the mode of instruction must 
 conform to the operations of the human mind. 
 Applying these principles to the study of foreign 
 languages, it is obvious that grammar cannot be 
 its beginning, but must be its end. Man speaks 
 in sentences. The simplest form of human speech 
 is not a word, but a sentence. The old gram- 
 matical school said, the sum of the parts of a 
 thing is the thing: but this is not true: the sum 
 of the parts of a watch is not necessarily a 
 watch: only when they are combined in a proper 
 manner so that they indicate time, they are a 
 watch, dust so it is with language. Hence, gram- 
 matical lexicography, inflections, parsing of 
 words, etc., must hie subordinate to syntax. Xow. 
 every sentence contains a verb, and the verb 
 alone can form the whole sentence, though now 
 more rarely than in the older languages; then- 
 fore grammatical instruction must begin with 
 the verb. As the simple sentence is the begin- 
 ning of language, so the most developed period 
 is its completion. So far for the genesis of the 
 substance; but also the form of the instruction 
 must follow the process of human thought — in- 
 tuition, perception, abstraction — first, the lan- 
 guage (example), then its rules. But the study 
 of language is not merely theoretical, it is prac- 
 tical also. lie who learns a language, lias to 
 apply it, to use it; and, therefore, Mager ends 
 with the free speaking and writing of the for- 
 eign language. — Besides several articles in the 
 Pd<l'ti/t)'//si-///- Rrrii,', he wrote : Geschic/dt? 
 der franzdsischen NdtiondUiteralur (Berlin 1837 
 — 40) ; Tableau anthologique de /•'■ litterature 
 frangaise contemporaine (Berlin 1837 — 40); 
 Wissenschajt der Mathematih nach heuristisch- 
 genetischer Method*; (Berlin, ls.'ST) : Veher den 
 Untt'rrii.-ht in fri'inden Sprachen (Essen, 1838); 
 Die hdhere Bilrgerschule (Stuttgart, 1840); 
 Deutsches Elementarwerk, Sprach- mid Lese- 
 buch (a posthumous work, completed and edited 
 by Charles Schlegel, Stuttgart. 1866) ; Franzfr 
 sisches Sprach- und Lesebuch, revised by Charles 
 Schlegel, Stuttgart, L862) ; Die moderns Philo- 
 logie und die deutschen St-liulm (Stuttgart, 1844); 
 Die genetische Methods (Zurich, 1846); Die En- 
 cyTctopoidie, das System des Wissois, ein Lese- 
 buch (Ziirich, 1847). 
 
 MAINE, until 1820 a. pari of Massachusetts, 
 
 has an area of 35,000 sq. m., and a population, 
 
 according to the census of L870, of 629,915, 
 found mostly in the southern half of the slate 
 
 Educational History. This will embrace 
 (1) The establishment of schools ; (II) The main- 
 tenance of schools; (III) The supervision of 
 
 schools. 
 
 I. The School System of Maine, when it becan . 
 a distinct state, in L820, was the same as that 
 of the parent state. Massachusetts. In the con- 
 stitution of Maine, the duty of the state to pro- 
 vide its people with the means of education, and 
 its right to control public education throughout 
 its entire extent, are asserted in the following 
 
 article: "A general diffusion of the advantages 
 
 of education being essential to the preservation 
 of the rights and liberties of the people, to pro- 
 vide this important object, the legislature are 
 
 authorized, and it shall he their duty, to require 
 
 the several towns to make suitable provision, at 
 
 their own expense, for the support and mainte- 
 nance of public schools; and it shall further be 
 their duty to suitably endow, from time to time, 
 as the circumstances of the people may author- 
 ize, all academics, colleges, and seminaries of 
 learning, within the state, /irin-ii/, d that, at the. 
 time of making any donation, grant, or endow- 
 ment, the legislature of the state shall have the 
 light to grant any further powers, to alter, limit, 
 or restrain, any of the powers vested in any such 
 literary institution, as shall be judged necessary 
 to promote the best interests thereof." — The 
 school law of Maine remained the same as that 
 of Massachusetts until the second legislature, in 
 1821, enacted a general school law differing from 
 the former one only in requiring each town to 
 raise, by a tax on polls and property, a sum of 
 not less than forty r cents for each inhabitant, to 
 be apportioned among the several districts in the 
 town, and annually expended tor public schools, 
 instead of requiring each town, as in the original 
 law, to sustain its schools for a certain prescribed 
 length of time each year. The district system 
 had become fixed in the school law of Massachu- 
 setts previous to the separation, ami it has been, 
 up to the present time, recognized in the school 
 law of Maine. At first, the towns, at their annual 
 meetings, elected agents for the several districts; 
 later, districts were allowed. on the vote of towns, 
 to choose their agents, and agents were allowed 
 to expend, at their own discretion. Id per cent of 
 the school money for repairs. A return of sta- 
 tistics to the office of the secretary of state was 
 required; and abstracts of th< se were made, and 
 transmitted to the various districts. The bank 
 tax of one-half of one per cent on the capital 
 stock of state banks was divided among the va- 
 rious towns according to the number of persons 
 between the ages of four and twenty one years 
 of age. for the benefit of public schools: and 
 power was given to districts, in 1827, and still 
 further, in L842, "to classify scholars and to grade 
 their schools." The district system has proved 
 
 unfavorable to the highest degree of efficiency 
 
 in schools, and a few years since a law was etc 
 
538 
 
 MAINE 
 
 acted authorizing towns to abolish school-districts 
 aud to adopt a uniform township system. A law 
 was enacted in 1873, encouraging the establish- 
 ment of free high schools at the j<jint expense of 
 
 town and Bta 
 
 II. The public schools of Maine have always 
 been free. Their support has been derived from 
 (1) Taxes; (2) The income of permanent funds. 
 
 (1) Taxes. — The sum of forty cents for each 
 inhabitant, required by the law of L821, tobe 
 raised annually for the support of schools, was 
 increased by subsequent legislation, in 1854, to 
 sixty cents, in 1865 to seventy-five cents, and in 
 
 1868 to one dollar. In 1872. a law was enacted 
 assessing annually a tax of one mill per dollar 
 upon all the property of the state, according to 
 the valuation thereof, to lie distributed to the 
 several towns of the state according to the num- 
 ber of persons of school age in each town. Up- 
 on the of this act, called the Mill Tax 
 Law, the per capita tax was changed from one 
 dollar to eighty cents for each inhabitant. -For 
 many years, a large sum was added to the school 
 fund annually by a tax upon deposits in the 
 State banks. This amounted sometimes to 80,000 
 dollars in a year. Willi the change from -iai 
 national banks, this sum decreased until it be- 
 came nothing. In 1872, a tax of one-half of one 
 percent wa I upon deposits in savings- 
 banks, to be distributed among the several towns 
 of the state according to their school population. 
 Many towns raise by taxation a larger sum than 
 IS prescribed by the law, and ••any school district 
 
 maintaining graded schools is authorized to raise 
 for the support of these schools a sum of money 
 not exceeding that which it receives from the 
 town, in addition thereto." 
 
 (2) Income of Permanent Funds. — These funds 
 are state and local. The state fund is derived 
 from the proceeds of the sales of twenty town- 
 ships of public lands formerly set apart for school 
 purposes, increased from year to year by the ad- 
 dition thereto of unexpended balances of school 
 money. The local funds are derived in part from 
 th,' sale of lands assigned to towns for the sup- 
 
 ji >rt of schools, and in part from various other 
 
 - •■ vs. Mich as bequests, etc. An amount equal 
 to six percent of the permanent school fund is 
 distribute I to the school- each year. This fund 
 
 ii amounts to $400,558. 
 
 III. Supervision of Schools. — NTotwithsl 
 
 ing the emphatic statements of the constitution 
 as to the rights ami duties of the state in regard 
 to public education, there was in the law a greal 
 lack of the elements of an effective system until 
 1846, when, in response to determined action of 
 the friends of education, a law was passed estab- 
 lishing a state board of education consisting of 
 one member from each county, chosen by the 
 school committees of the county in joint con- 
 vention, with a secretary chosen by the board. 
 Win. (1. Crosby, afterwards governor of the 
 i, was secretary of the board from 1846 to 
 
 '. lie then resigned, and was succeeded by 
 
 E. M. Thurston, who served until the abolition 
 of the board, in 1852. Great good was effected 
 
 by this board of education. County institutes 
 were held, and were attended by huge numbers 
 of teachers. Teachers' associations were organ- 
 ized in every county of the state. [Setter school- 
 houses were built, and the standard of teaching was 
 raised : moreover, the state owes several improve- 
 ments in tin- school law to this period of its his- 
 tory. In 1 852, an act was passed directing the ap- 
 pointment by the governor of a school commis- 
 sioner for each county, thus replacing the board 
 of education by a much less efficient agency. In 
 1853, this law was repealed, and the office of state 
 superintendent was created, the superintendent 
 beingappointed by the governor and the coun- 
 cil. The following is a list of the successive state 
 superintendents, with the dates of their appoint- 
 ment to office : (diaries A. Lord, June 26., 1854; 
 Mark II. 1 tumuli. March 27., 1855; John P. 
 Craig, Feb. 28., 1 >')('>: Mark II. Dunnell, Jan. 
 •J!'.. 1857 : Edward P. Weston. March 5., 1860 ; 
 Edward Mallard. May s.. l,siia; Warren Johnson 
 March 30., 1868; and Wm. J. L'orthell, the 
 present incumbent, ( >et. 26., l^Tti. 
 
 In 1869. acts were passed directing the ap- 
 pointment, by the governor and the council, of a 
 board of county supervisors for a term of three 
 yens. and making provision for county institutes. 
 In 1 872, the first of these laws was repealed ; and. 
 three years later, the second was also repealed. 
 ddie efforts of the friends of education to secure 
 more efficient means for the training of teach- 
 ers were for a long time fruitless. For several 
 
 years appropriations were made by the state to 
 
 academies for the maintenance of normal depart- 
 ments. I he results proving unsatisfactory, the 
 first state normal school, located at Farming- 
 ton, was established by an act of the legislature, 
 approved March 25., 1863; and the school went 
 into operation Aug. 24., 1864 The second state 
 normal school, located at I 'astine. went into oper- 
 ation Sept. 7., l s f>7. A state teachers' associa- 
 tion was organized in 1859 ; but it was not con- 
 tinued, ho]. ling its last session in 1864. Another 
 association was organized in 1867, and still holds 
 annual sessions. Of county and town associa- 
 tions, there are very few. 
 School System. — The public schools of the state 
 
 are under the supervision of the state superintend- 
 ent of common schools and the town. superintend- 
 ing school lommittees. There is no intermediate 
 agency. The state superintendent is appointed 
 by the go\ ernor and council for the term of three 
 years. " or during the pleasure of the executive." 
 
 It is his duty to exercise a general supervision 
 
 over the schools of the state ; to advise and di- 
 rect town committees in the discharge of their 
 duties, devoting all his time to the duties of his 
 office : to collect and disseminate information 
 as to the school systems of our own and other 
 countries: to prescribe the studies for the com- 
 mon Schools of the state, town committees hav- 
 ing also the right to prescribe additional studies. 
 
 and lo make a report to the governor and coun- 
 cil, annua 1 1\ prior to the session of the legislature. 
 
 ddie superintending school committees examine 
 all teachers, and employ teachers for the school- 
 
M A 1 N E 
 
 ;.:;«> 
 
 districts when authorized to do so by the town. 
 They direct the general course of instruction, ae- 
 fect a uniform system of text-books, and exercise a 
 general supervision and control over the several 
 schools of the town. They are required to make 
 a written report of the condition of the schools 
 in their respective districts, for the preceding year, 
 at the annual town meeting, and to transmit a 
 
 »copy thereof to the state superintendent of com- 
 mon schools. They are also required to make an 
 annual statistical report to the state superintend- 
 ent on or before the first day of May of each 
 year. Supervisors, ami members of the school 
 committee, receive for their services SI .JO a day, 
 bjsides the necessary traveling expenses. 
 
 A town, at its annual meeting, or at a special 
 meeting called for that purpose, may determine 
 the number and limits of school-districts therein ; 
 but these districts must not be altered, discon- 
 tinued, or annexed to others, except upon the 
 written recommendation of the municipal officers 
 and of the superintending school committee. A 
 town may abolish its school-districts; and it must 
 (hereupon take possession of all the school prop- 
 erty therein, levying upon the town a tax equal to 
 the appraised value of such school property, and 
 remitting to the tax payers of each district the 
 appraised value of the property thus taken. The 
 town must annually expend for the support of 
 schools the amount received from the state school 
 fund, under penalty of forfeiture of its share of the 
 fund for the ensuing year ; and it must raise and 
 expend annually for the support of schools, ex- 
 clusive of income from any other source, at least 
 eighty cents for each inhabitant, or forfeit not less 
 than twice, nor more than four times, the amount 
 of its deficiency, and also its share of the state 
 school fund. The assessors and the school com- 
 mittee may annually apportion among the smaller 
 districts of the town, in addition to theirper capita 
 share of the school money, 20 per cent of money 
 raised by the town and of that received from 
 the state, in such a manner as to give them equal 
 educational advantages with the larger districts. 
 
 The town may provide school books to pupils 
 of the public schools at cost, or free of cost. It is 
 required to choose a school committee of three 
 for a term of office of three years, one to go out 
 of office each year, or a supervisor instead of 
 school committee. Towns are empowered to make 
 such by-laws, not repugnant to the laws of the 
 state, concerning truants and children between <> 
 and IT years of age not attending school, and 
 having no regular and lawful employment, as are 
 most conducive to their welfare and the good 
 order of society. Children under 15 years of age 
 Cannot be employed in a cotton or woolen manu- 
 factory without having attended school a pre- 
 scribed p >rtion of the year next preceding, and 
 no person under the age of 16 can be employed 
 by any corporation more than ten hours a day. 
 A law was passed in L875, compelling the at- | 
 tendance at school for at least twelve weeks 
 each year, of all children between the ages of 6 
 ami 1 5 years, unless excused by the school 
 officers, for reasons prescribed in the act. 
 
 Every school-district is a corporate body, and 
 all school property therein belongs to the dis- 
 trict, and is under its full control; but all 
 plans for the erection or reconstruction of a 
 school house voted by a district musl be ap- 
 proved by the school committee. Each school- 
 district, at its annual meeting, chooses a moder- 
 ator, a clerk, ami an agent, unless by vote of 
 the town the agents are chosen in town meet- 
 ing. Twoormore districts may unite to sup- 
 port a union school for advanced scholars, or to 
 maintain a graded school; and a district main- 
 taining a graded school may choose a committee 
 to classify and grade the pupils therein. Wher- 
 ever, in the opinion of the school committee, a 
 school district unreasonably neglects or refuses 
 to raise money to provide proper school build- 
 ings or grounds, the matter may be brought be- 
 fore the next town meeting, and the town mav 
 vote to raise the money by a tax upon the dis- 
 trict, to be expended by a committee appointed 
 by the municipal officers. A school-district may 
 appropriate a sum not exceeding lit per cent 
 of its school money for any year, for the pur- 
 chase of a school library and school apparatus; 
 and adjacent districts may unite for this pur- 
 pose. The school agent attends to the finan- 
 cial affairs of the district, and employs tea< hers, 
 unless by vote of the town they are employed 
 by the school committee. The audit may, at 
 his discretion, expend for repairs, each year, 
 10 per cent of the money apportioned to the 
 district. 
 
 Any town establishing and maintaining a free 
 high school for at least ten weeks in any one year, 
 is entitled to receive from the state one-half of the 
 amount actually expended for instruction, not 
 however exceeding $ 500 from the state to any 
 oue town. Two or more adjoining towns may 
 unite in sustaining such a school ; and so long as 
 any town shall decline to avail itself of the pro- 
 visions of this act, any school-district, or union 
 of school-districts, in the town may do so. — 
 Every teacher of a public school is required to 
 keep a register containing the names and attend- 
 ance of his pupils, and a record of such other 
 facts as may be required by the blank forms 
 provided for annual or other reports; and he is 
 required to leave such register completed, and 
 signed by the school committee, as a condition 
 of receiving his salary. 
 
 Educational Condition.- — The number of 
 school-districts returned in 1875, was 3,953; and 
 the number of parts of districts, 368. The num- 
 ber of towns in the state was 121 . and the num- 
 ber of these which have abolished the district svs 
 tem was 25. The country schools are generally 
 ungraded. In the cities and larger villages, pri- 
 mary and grammar schools arc maintained; and. 
 in the cities and a few of the larger villages, high 
 
 scl Is have also been established. There were 
 
 maintained, in L875, for one or more terms, 157 
 tree high schools, at an annual cost of 8116,308, 
 of which the state paid $38,633. There are no 
 returns by which the number of graded schools, 
 or departments in each grade, can be ascertained- 
 
540 
 
 MAINE 
 
 For the support of public schools there was 
 paid, in 1875, $1,261,297, from the following 
 sources : 
 
 Permanent school fund $22,193 
 
 Local funds 25,585 
 
 Total from funds $47,778 
 
 Municipal taxation for current 
 
 expenses $662,558 
 
 School mill-tax 224,579 
 
 Savings-bank tax 145,936 
 
 For free high schools 116,308 
 
 " supervision 36,968 
 
 " normal schools 15,500 
 
 To prolong schools 11,671 
 
 Total taxation $1,213,519 
 
 Total current expenses $1,261,297 
 
 There was also expended for new school- 
 houses in 1875, $1 1.0,725 : and hereafter si 3,000 
 for the support of normal schools will be taken 
 annually from the general school fund, instead 
 of being made a special appropriation. 
 
 The following are other important items of 
 school statistics for 1875 : 
 
 The number Of teachers : 
 In summer, males, 171; females, 4,426; total, 4,597 
 In winter, males, l,!is4; females, 2,475; total, 4,459 
 The average wages per month, excluding board, 
 was of 
 
 Male teachers (36.96 
 
 Female teachers 17.16 
 
 The average cost per month ofteach- 
 
 ers' board was $9. 
 
 Whole nnmber of scholars between l and 21.. 221,117 
 
 Number registered in snmmer schools 117,^-1 
 
 Number registered in winter schools 130,343 
 
 Average attendance in summer schools 95 
 
 Average attendance in winter schools 105,625 
 
 Average length of schools for the year 
 (5i 'lays to n week) 21 weeks 1 day. 
 
 Normal Instruction. — The date of establish- 
 ment of the two state normal schools has been 
 given in the historical sketch. For their support 
 $13,000 is drawn from the common-school fund 
 each year. The law establishing these schools 
 prescribes that they "shall be thoroughly devoted 
 to the work of training teachers for their profes- 
 sional labors," that "the course of study shall 
 include the common English branches in thorough 
 reviews, and such of the higher branches as are 
 especially adapted to "prepare teachers to con- 
 duct the mental, moral, ami physical education 
 of their pupils," and "thai the art of school 
 management, including the best methods of gov- 
 ernment and instruction, shall have a prominenl 
 place in the daily exercises of said schools." 
 Candidates for admission must be, it' females, 16 
 years of age; if males. 17; they must pledge 
 themselves to teach in the public schools of Maine 
 for as long a time as they shall have remained 
 connected with the normal school, and pass a 
 
 satisfactory examination in reading, Spelling, 
 
 writing, arithmetic, geography, and English 
 grammar. The course requires two years for 
 its completion, and comprises the usual studies 
 of an English high-school course, togetherwith 
 history of education, school laws, and didactics, 
 and practice teaching. The schools are sup- 
 plied with libraries and apparatus, and with 
 models and copies for free-hand drawing.- The 
 normal schools are tinder the direction of a 
 board of trustees consisting of seven members, 
 
 five of whom are appointed by the governor and 
 executive council for a term of three years, the 
 governor and the state superintendent of schools 
 being, ex officio, members of the board. 
 
 Seconduri/ Instruction (comprehending the 
 high schools and the academies). — Of the high 
 schools an account has already been given. The 
 right and duty of the state to aid institutions of 
 this class is explicitly asserted in the constitution; 
 and, in its early history, many academies received 
 grants of public lauds. Twenty-three academies 
 were chartered by Massachusetts before Maine 
 became a state. For many years the elements of 
 an effective system were lacking in the public 
 schools of the state ; and the academies, always 
 tuition schools, effected much good. The period 
 from 1830 to 1850 was perhaps the period of 
 their greatest influence, Since the latter date, 
 improvements in the public-school system, and 
 other cause.-, have led to their decline, and some 
 have been incorporated with the public-school 
 system as high schools. Several have been en- 
 dowed by religious denominations, or made pre- 
 paratory schools for the several colleges of the 
 state. Of these the most prominent are Maine 
 Wesleyan Seminary and Female College, at 
 Cent's Bill, the Fast Maine Conference Semi- 
 nary, at Hucksport. both conducted by the Meth- 
 odists; the Wcstbrook Seminary, by the Cni- 
 versalists; Waterville Classical Institute. He- 
 bron Academy, and Houltou Academy,— prepar- 
 atory schools f or < lolby University, Maine ( lentral 
 institute, at Pittsfield, and Nichols Latin School 
 at Lewiston, — preparatory schools for Ba 
 College, and Hallowcll Classical Institute, a 
 preparatory school for Bowdoin College. 
 
 Denominational and Parochial Schools. — 
 Most of the academies of the state were origi- 
 nally founded by the efforts of religious denom- 
 inations. The most prominent have been named 
 in the preceding section. Of parochial schools, 
 there are none but a few small Roman Catholic 
 schools in connection with local churches. 
 
 Superior Instruction. — Bowdoin College 
 (q. v.). the oldest college in Maine, situated at 
 Brunswick, received its charter in 1794, with a 
 -rant of five townships of land. It derives its 
 name from . lames Bowdoin, governor of Mas- 
 sachusetts in L785. The board of trustees and 
 the board of overseers met in L801 and elected 
 
 a president, and a professor of languages. At 
 
 the installation of these otiicers. in 1 802, 8 stu- 
 dents were admitted, and in L806 the first class, 
 consisting of s. was graduated. It has now an aca- 
 demical faculty of 1 07 and numbered. in 1ST.") — 6, 
 
 148 students. — Waterville College, located at 
 Waterville, was established in L820 ; and a few 
 years since, the name was changed to Colby Ini- 
 ny <|. v.), in honor of ( iardner ( 'olby. a bene- 
 factor of the college. It lias a faculty of 12. and 
 91 students. Hates College (,n v.!. located at 
 Lewiston. was founded in L863. It is named in 
 honor of Joshua Bates, a benefactor of the college- 
 It has a faculty of 7, and numbers 96 students. 
 
 Professional <nitl Scientific Instruction. — Un- 
 der this head are included Theological Schools, 
 
MANHATTAN COLLEGE 
 
 MANN 
 
 541 
 
 Medical Schools, and Scientific Schools, of which 
 (he following is an enumeration : — The Theoloc- 
 ical Seminary (Congregationalist) at Bangor, 
 was organized in L819. In the year L875 — 6, it 
 had 39 students. The Theological School of 
 Bates College (Free Baptist) was organized in 
 1870. In the year 1875 — 6, it had 25 students. 
 The Medical School of Maine was organized in 
 1820. By act of the legislature it is placed 
 under the superintendence and direction of the 
 Board of Trustees and Overseers of Bowdoin 
 College. In the year 1875 — 6, it had '.).'} stu- 
 dents. The Maine State College of Agriculture 
 and the Mechanic Arts, situated at Orono, was 
 established upon the basis of the congressional 
 grant of public lands for such instruction. In 
 the year 1875 — -0, it had in its various courses 115 
 students. The Scientific Department of Bowdoin 
 College should also be named among the scientific 
 schools. Its course of study is four years, parallel 
 with the classical course, and its students, in 
 1875 — 6, numbered 50, already included in the 
 enumeration of Bowdoin College. 
 
 Special Instruction. — There is a State Reform 
 School for boys at Cape Elizabeth, and one for 
 girls, at Gardiner. There is a Soldiers' Orphan 
 School at Bath. 
 
 Educational Literature. — No works have been 
 published upon the schools of Maine, except the 
 reports of the secretary of the board of education 
 and of the superintendent. The Common School 
 Advocate (1849) was followed by the Maine 
 Teachers [\%tt to 1864). The Maine Normal, 
 commenced in 1865, was followed in 1867 by the 
 Maine Journal of Education, merged in the 
 New England Journal of Education in 1875. 
 
 MANHATTAN COLLEGE, a Roman 
 Catholic institution in New York City, under 
 the direction of the Christian Brothers, was 
 chartered in 1863. It comprises a collegiate, a 
 commercial, and a preparatory department. The 
 library contains about 10,000 volumes. In 
 1874—5, there were, in all the departments, 48 
 instructors and 694 students. Bro. Paulian is 
 (1876) the president. 
 
 MANITOBA, a province of the Dominion of 
 Canada; area 13,923 sq. m., population, in 1870, 
 11,963. This portion of the Dominion was first 
 visited by the French, for the purpose of estab- 
 lishing trading posts at various points. In 1767, 
 it was for the first time visited by English 
 traders. It subsequently belonged to the Hud- 
 son Bay Company, who, in 1869, gave up their 
 territorial rights to the imperial government, 
 which, in 1870, transferred them to the Canadian 
 government. The schools of this province are 
 divided into two sections : one for Protestants, 
 and one for Roman Catholics. Each section has 
 its own superintendent, but there is only one 
 board of education, in which both sections are 
 represented. The forms of prayer prescribed in 
 Ontario, and the reading of the Scriptures, or 
 the saying of the Lords Prayer are employed in 
 opening and closing each session of the Protest- 
 ant schools. The school hours are required to 
 be not less than five per day, for five days in the 
 
 week ; and the school year is divided into two 
 parts of 100 days each. — The legislative grant, 
 which, in 1874, amounted to 37,000, is divided, 
 according to law, between the two sections in 
 proportion to the relative average attendance of 
 pupils at the schools of each. In 1874, it was, 
 however, for some reason, divided equally be- 
 tween the two sections. In 1874, there were 22 
 Protestant schools, with 1,248 pupils enrolled, 
 and an average attendance of 635. The number 
 of Catholic schools was 21, with 998 children 
 enrolled, and 21 teachers. — The Manitoba Wes- 
 leyan Institute was opened in 1873. It prepares 
 its pupils to enter any of the universities, the 
 course of studies comprising, besides the common 
 English branches, Latin, Greek, mathematics, 
 French, and German. It is governed by a board 
 of management, appointed by the Methodist Con- 
 ference of Canada. Manitoba College, in "Winni- 
 peg, was incorporated in 1873. Its affairs are 
 conducted by a board appointed by the general 
 assembly of the Presbyterian Church. The cur- 
 riculum of study of the college is divided into 
 three courses : a regular, a commercial, and a 
 special course. The regular course fits for ma- 
 triculation, and for first-year examinations in 
 the University of Toronto, for matriculation in 
 law or medicine, as well as for entrance upon 
 the courses of civil engineering and agriculture, 
 and for commencing the study of theology in 
 any of the Canadian colleges. A preparatory 
 department has been organized in connection 
 with the college. St. John's College, belonging 
 to the Episcopal Church, has also a preparatory 
 department and a theological school connected 
 with it. The Roman Catholics have a college at 
 St. Boniface; and the Sisters of Charity have also 
 a large convent at St. Boniface, an academy for 
 young ladies, an orphanage, and four missions 
 in the province. — See Marling, Canada Edu- 
 cational Directory for 1876; Lovell's Gazetteer 
 of British North America, 1873. 
 
 MANN, Horace, one of the most celebrated 
 of American educators, born in Franklin, Mass., 
 May. 4., 1796; died in Yellow Springs, Ohio, 
 Aug. 2., 1859. The cause of education in Amer- 
 ica is deeply indebted to this remarkable man. 
 Rarely have great ability, unselfish devotion, 
 and brilliant success been so united in the course 
 of a single fife. More rarely still, has the prep- 
 aration for that success been made under such 
 discouraging circumstances of poverty, want of 
 opportunity, and ill health. To say that the 
 childhood and youth of Horace Mann were 
 passed in poverty, is only to repeat the story 
 common to the early lives of very many 
 eminent men. The degree of poverty, how- 
 ever, in his case, appears to have been excep- 
 tional ; his biographer telling us "that it was the 
 misfortune of the family that it belonged to the 
 smallest district, had the poorest school-house, 
 and employed the cheapest teachers, in a town 
 which was itself both small and poor." The 
 hard manual labor to which he was subjected 
 giving him no time for recreation, in either sum- 
 mer or winter, weighed upon his naturally 
 
5*2 
 
 MANN 
 
 buoyant spirits, and left an ineffaceable impres- 
 sion on his memory. Many years after, he 
 speaks of this want of happiness in his child- 
 hood as an " irretrievable misfortune." Left 
 fatherless at the age of thirteen, he remained at 
 home, with no opportunities for cultivation 
 beyond those furnished by the tew and unsuit- 
 able books of the household, and the ancient 
 histories and theologies contained in a small 
 library which had been given to his native town 
 by Franklin. Always thirsting for knowledge, 
 he declares that, up to the age of fifteen, he had 
 never received more than eight or ten weeks' 
 schooling in any single year. He remained at 
 home till the age of twenty, eagerly treasuring 
 up every thing that could add to his scanty 
 store of information. About that time, having 
 snatched some knowledge of Latin and Greek, 
 and of English grammar, from an itinerant school- 
 master, he presented himself, after six months 
 of such intermittent schooling, for admission to 
 the sophomore class in Brown University, and 
 entered it in 1816. Illness — the consumptive 
 habit bequeathed him by his father— now inter- 
 rupted his work, and compelled him to leave. 
 Poverty succeeded, requiring him again to ab- 
 sent himself during the winter, in order to teach 
 school for his support while in college. In spite 
 of these drawbacks, however, he graduated in 
 1819, with the first honors, conceded by the 
 unanimous consent ot both faculty and class- 
 mates, lie immediately entered a law office; but 
 had been there only a few months, when he was 
 offered the position of tutor of Latin and Greek 
 in the college he had just left. He accepted, 
 principally on account of the facilities it ga\ • 
 him for self improvement ; and at once began a 
 
 course of study, to be carried on simultaneously 
 with his teaching. His method, in the Litter, 
 already foreshadowed his fitness for the teacher's 
 
 vocation. In 1821, he resigned his position as 
 
 tutor, and entered the law school at Litchfield. 
 Ct., where he remained about a year. Leaving 
 it, he was admitted to the bar in L823, and 
 immediately opened an office for the practice 
 of law. During the fourteen years of his pro- 
 fessional practice, the probity which was so 
 marked a characteristic throughout his life, was 
 always apparent. In L 827, he entered political 
 
 life, having I n elected representative for the 
 
 district of Dedham, in which he resided; and 
 to this office he was successively re-elected till 
 
 L833,when he removed to Boston, where, shortly 
 after, he was elected to the stale senate, serving 
 four consecutive terms, during which time, he 
 twice chosen the presiding officer. Through- 
 out bis legislative career, Mr. Mann took an 
 active part in all discus-ions relating to internal 
 
 improvements, temperance, and education. The 
 state lunatic asylum at Worcester was almost 
 entirely his creation, he having suggested it, and 
 carried it. almost single-handed, through the 
 
 various stages of legislation. His services in 
 
 tin- respect were so generally recognized, that he 
 was appointed chairman of the board of com- 
 missioners for its erection, and. on its comple- 
 
 tion, chairman of its board of trustees. In 
 1835, he was appointed by the senate one of a 
 committee to codify the statute laws of the state, 
 and assisted in their publication. In 1837, the 
 legislature appointed a board of education, to 
 revise and re-organize the common-school system 
 of the state. In view of the laborious duties 
 inseparable from this work, the good judgment 
 required for its successful issue, and the great 
 length of time necessary for its completion, it 
 was no ordinary compliment that, on the organ- 
 ization of the board. Mr. Mann was chosen its 
 secretary. There is complete evidence, however, 
 that he fully comprehended the magnitude of 
 the work before him ; but. having found, at last. 
 a congenial field of labor, he did not hesitate. 
 Recognizing the necessity of entire devotion to 
 bis new undertaking, and the necessity, also, of 
 an unbiased position in regard to it. he declined 
 re-election to tin senate. left political life entirely . 
 gave up all professional engagements, and placed 
 himself simply in the position of a citizen of his 
 native state. From this stand-point, he ap- 
 proached the work before him. and. for twelve 
 years, applied himself solely to his duties as 
 secretary. Notwithstanding the sacrifices he 
 had made, however, for the purpose of freeing 
 liis work from any suspicion of partisan bias, the 
 dilliculties he had to encounter were appalling. 
 The abuse of enemies, open and covert ; the 
 jealousies, not only of political partisans, but of 
 religious denominations, educational associations, 
 and private schools: the opposition of tax-pay- 
 ers; and, more than all, the deep-rooted conserv- 
 atism, which, through indolence or ignorance, 
 or both combined, resists all change, constituted 
 a formidable opposition which might have well 
 led him to decline the duties that now devolved 
 upon him. On the other hand, the aid on which 
 he was to depend was often lukewarm, seldom 
 enthusiastic. His method of procedure was com- 
 prehensive and effectual. He began the pub- 
 lication of a periodical on bis own account — 
 The Common-School Journal, in which lie gave 
 in detail his views concerning general school 
 management, and methods of instruction and 
 
 training; while he visited all parts of the state, 
 Conferring with teachers, attending conventions, 
 
 and delivering lectures and addresses. His most 
 effective instrument, however, was the annual 
 
 report, which the duties of his position requited 
 him to make to the board. In these reports, of 
 which there are twelve, the entire subject of 
 education i> treated in a practical and exhaustive 
 
 manner. The sound judgment, wide experience, 
 and comprehensive grasp displayed in these 
 
 papers, constitute them a classic OU the subject 
 of which they treat ; while their clear and vigor- 
 ous statements, apt illustrations, ami felicitous 
 style carry conviction even t<> careless readers, 
 and amply justify his selection as the instrument 
 for working out the great reform proposed. 
 
 Their publication and broad-cast disperai ver 
 
 the state, gradually changed the current of pub- 
 lic opinion, and raised up friends in every quar- 
 ter. .Not without opposition, however, wen all 
 
MANX 
 
 MANNERS 
 
 543 
 
 these changes effected. In 1840, in the midst of 
 his manifold wearying and distracting labors, a 
 bill was introduced into the legislature, calling 
 
 for tlic abolition of the board of education, thus 
 undoing the work of three years, and remanding 
 the schools to their former condition. Eappily 
 the bill, though sustained by a majority of the 
 committee, was defeated. The publication of 
 his seventh annual report gave rise to a tierce 
 opposition. Op to this time, his reports had 
 treated the subject of education in a philosoph- 
 ical way, with a constant reference to first prin- 
 ciples, and with illustrations drawn from the 
 practical experience of every reader. 1 lis seventh 
 report, however, gave the result of his observa- 
 tions in Europe, singling out Prussia for special 
 commendation, and comparing her system of in- 
 struction with that of his native state, to the 
 disadvantage of the latter. A rancorous hostil- 
 ity, founded on national jealousy, was the im- 
 mediate result, and Mr. Mann found himself, his 
 motives, and his work assailed by means of let- 
 ters, newspapers, and pamphlets in the most 
 violent manner. The result of this attack, how- 
 ever, was that the attention of the public was 
 specially called to the subject under discus- 
 sion, without impairing the work of the board, 
 either in its extent or its efficiency. In 1848, 
 Mr. Mann was elected to Congress to fill the 
 vacancy caused by the death of John Quincy 
 Adams ; and, in November of the same year, 
 was re-elected. In 1850, though failing of the 
 nomination, he was elected again as an independ- 
 ent candidate. It was thought by many, per- 
 haps by Mr. Mann himself, that by re-entering 
 the field of politics at Washington, he might in- 
 fluence the government to establish a bureau of 
 education either independently, or in connection 
 with the Smithsonian Institution. This, how- 
 ever, was not accomplished. Leaving polities, 
 therefore, he accepted the presidency of Antioch 
 College, where he hoped to be able to effect 
 something in the way of further reforms in the 
 pursuit he had most at heart. In the organiza- 
 tion of this institution, his shaping hand is again 
 recognized; and the objects attained before his 
 death, which happened a few years after, are 
 said to have satisfied him of the feasibility of his 
 plans. The great glory, however, of Mr. Mann's 
 career — -that which is now acknowledged to be his 
 distinctive work — was the reform accomplished 
 in the Massachusetts common and normal school 
 system, dming his labors in the board of educa- ! 
 tion. His twelve annual reports led to many J 
 radical reforms, which extended beyond the bor- ! 
 ders of his native state ; and the knowledge on \ 
 the subject of education which they contain ren- ! 
 'ders them a necessary part of every school library. 
 Mr. Mann's other published works are : A Few 
 Thoughts for a Young Man (1850) ; Slavery, 
 Letters and Speeches (1851) ; Lectures on In- 
 temperance (1862); Powers and Duties of 
 Woman (1853) ; besides numerous reports, 
 lectures, and addresses. A complete edition of 
 his works with a biography (Life and Works qf\ 
 Horace Mann, 2 vols.) was published in Cam- ! 
 
 bridge, in 1867; a selection from his works 
 (Thoughts selected from //is Writings), in L869. 
 
 A biography was published by his wife, Maky 
 Peabodi M\.\\ (Boston, L865V. Mis lectures on 
 education were translated into French by Eugene 
 de Cuer, with a preface and biographical sketch, 
 by Laboulaye (1ST.'!). 
 
 MANNERS, the genuine or simulated 
 manifestations of disposition towards each other, 
 which occur in the intercourse of human beings. 
 The ordinary use of the word manners re- 
 stricts it to those personal and visible peculiar* 
 ities of deportment which characterize the inter- 
 course mentioned. The agents commonly em- 
 ployed for this purpose are the eye, the voice, lan- 
 guage, and gestures. When persons are brought 
 together without previous knowledge of each 
 other, or with no common ground of taste or ex- 
 perience between them, custom has prescribed a 
 conventional code of formal manners, character- 
 ized as etiquette, which serves to relieve the 
 awkwardness of the situation. That this, how- 
 ever, is temporary in character, and not intended 
 to survive its original uses, is evident from the 
 fact, that after it has, in great measure, been laid 
 aside, any attempt to revive it, as the exclusive 
 medium of kindly expression, is regarded as just 
 cause for resentment. The fugitive character of 
 mere etiquette can never constitute it an equiv- 
 alent for that abiding kindliness of disposition 
 which finds expression in genuine politeness. 
 Manners, therefore, are more decidedly moral in 
 their nature than a superficial observation would 
 lead us to suspect ; hence the usual association 
 of " morals and manners." The basis of agree- 
 able manners is that humanity, or feeling of 
 brotherhood, which, in a greater or less degree, 
 pervades the human race, and which every cent- 
 ury, by its multiplied means of communication, 
 is tending to extend and strengthen. It is, there- 
 fore, essentially Christian; and pleasant man- 
 ners may be regarded, not as an accomplishment 
 merely, but as one of the legitimate ends of a 
 thorough education. In social intercourse, agree- 
 able manners are far more powerful than intel- 
 lectual accomplishments ; while the displeasure 
 produced by rude manners often neutralizes moral 
 worth, and renders mental acquisitions, however 
 great, comparatively useless. Momentous issues — 
 even the destiny of a lifetime — may hang upon 
 the apparently unimportant question of man- 
 ners. To educate thoroughly, therefore, and 
 neglect the means by which thai education is to 
 be made effective, is self-evident folly. Beyond 
 the ordinary rules of etiquette, no set rules can 
 be given for the production of good manners; 
 since, in addition to the moral basis above re- 
 ferred to, they are largely dependent upon tem- 
 perament ; but, no precept is half so powerful in 
 furtherance of this end, as the daily example of 
 the teacher, the parents, or other persons with 
 whom the pupil is brought into daily contact. 
 The indirect though constant insistence upon the 
 claims of every individual to respect and kindly 
 attention, which results in a practical recognition 
 of this by the pupil, together with the daily 
 
544 MANUAL LABOR SCHOOLS 
 
 .MARYLAND 
 
 example referred to. constitute, perhaps, the 
 most effective method for the grafting of agree- 
 able manners on the conduct of the pupil. — Sec 
 Gow, Good Morals and Gentle Manners (Gin. 
 and N. V., 1873). (See also Moral Education.) 
 MANUAL LABOR SCHOOLS. See In- 
 dustrial Schools. 
 
 MAP-DRAWING. See GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 MARIETTA COLLEGE, .Marietta. Ohio, 
 was founded in 1 <s:-i"». It is supported by tuition 
 fees and the income of an endowment of &1 1 5,000. 
 The libraries contain 27,000 volumes. The cost of 
 tuition is $38 per annum. There are several schol- 
 arships exempting the holders from the payment 
 of tuition, and aid is extended to candidates for 
 the ministry. The college has tour buildings and 
 valuable cabinets and apparatus. There is a pre- 
 paratory and a collegiate department. In 1875 
 
 — 6, there were it instructors and H)'_' students, of 
 
 whom 82 were of the collegiate grade. The num- 
 ber of graduates in the classical course is 421; 
 in the scientific course, 11. The presidents have 
 been as follows : the Rev. Joel EL Iinsley, D. D., 
 L835 HI; the Rev. Henry Smith. D.D., LL.D., 
 1846—55; and the Rev. Israel Ward Andrews. 
 
 I). ]>.. LL. D., the present incumbent, appointed 
 
 in Is;,"). 
 
 MARYLAND, one of the thirteen original 
 states of the American Union, having an. area 
 of 11,124 sq. m.: and a population, according to 
 the census of 1870, of 780,89 I. of whom 605, 197 
 were whites, L75,391 colored persons, I Indians, 
 and '1 Chinese. In respect to population, the 
 state ranks as the 20th. 
 
 Educational History. — In many counties of 
 the state, free schools were established as early 
 as 1723, when an act was passed "for the en- 
 couragement of leaming.and erecting schools in 
 the several counties of this province." Under 
 it, a ■• public free school" was established at the 
 county-seat of Calvert county (Battle Creek), 
 which existed without a rival for fifty-two years. 
 
 In I 7 T.">, anot her school was established at Lower 
 
 Marlboro', the efficiency of which was. in 177'.', 
 
 increased by the addition to its funds of the 
 proceeds from the sale of the buildings and 
 lands of the first school. Though this is one of 
 the earliest schools on record in the slate. Talbot. 
 comity claims to have had the tirst absolutely 
 
 free school. He t. ween the years I 77)0 and L753, 
 
 the Rev. Thomas Bacon established a charity 
 working school in the parish of St. Peter, which 
 continued in existence to the time of the Revo- 
 lution, when the building in which it was kept, 
 was converted into a home Eor the county poor. 
 NO genera] interest appears to have been aroused 
 
 OH the subject of education till L825, when the 
 
 Legislature passed an act "to provide for the 
 public instruction of youth in primary schools." 
 
 The offices of state superintendent, county com- 
 missioners, and school inspectors were created 
 by this law : and a system of public schools for 
 
 the city of Baltimore was authorized to be 
 
 established by the mayor and common council. 
 
 for which purpose they were empowered to levy 
 a tax. In L827, the office of state superintend- 
 
 ent was abolished. For some years from this 
 time, little mention is made of the schools of 
 the state, and little action was taken for their 
 benefit outside of the city of Baltimore. In 
 L828, sis school commissioners were appointed 
 to establish a system of city schools. The next 
 year, three schools were opened; the following 
 year, two more, the highest number of pupils up 
 to that time being 402. In 1839, the first high 
 school was opened; and. in 1840, the number of 
 common schools had increased to nine. In 1840, 
 there were 127 academies or grammar schools, 
 with 4,178 pupils; and 567 common and pri- 
 mary schools, with 16,982 pupils. In 1850, of 
 104,438 educable children in the state, only 
 34,467 attended school, for which there was an- 
 nually expended $225,260. The M-hool fund, in 
 1852, was $148,509. In 1864, the constitution 
 gave a generous recognition to the cause of edu- 
 cation, for the first time, by decreeing that free 
 schools should be opened in e\ cry school district, 
 and taught six months every year. A state 
 board of education was created, consisting of 
 the governor, lieutenant-governor, speaker of the 
 house, and state superintendent. Local super- 
 vision was to be exercised by school commission- 
 ers, and an annual tax was levied upon the 
 property of the state for the creation of a school 
 
 fund. Acting on this Suggestion, the stale super- 
 intendent prepared a detailed plan for a system 
 which was adopted in 1865, and continued in 
 operation till 1868. It was then superseded, 
 
 and the school system of the state lias been 
 
 variously modified since that time, principally in 
 L868, L870, and L872. Under the system estab- 
 lished in 1865, Rev. L. Van Bokkelen was the 
 state superintendent ; and on the change of the 
 
 system, in 1868, M. A. Newell, principal of the 
 state normal school since Lsof>, became, by the 
 operation of the law. the state superintendent. 
 This position he still holds i 1876). 
 
 School System. — The care of the schools, at 
 present, is confided to a state board of education 
 which consists of the governor, the principal of 
 the state normal school, and four persons ap- 
 pointed by the governor with the consent of the 
 senate. These four persons are appointed for 
 two years, and must be chosen from among the 
 presidents and examiners of the county boards, 
 one of whom must be a resilient of the eastern 
 
 shore. The members of the board are. ex officio, 
 
 trustees of the state normal school. The prin- 
 cipal of this school is the executive officer of the 
 board, his office corresponding to that of stale 
 
 superintendent. The boards of county school 
 commissioners consist of three, or live members, 
 according to the size of the county, who arc ap- 
 pointed for two years by the judges of the cir- 
 cuit courts. They elect a person, not of their 
 number, to act as secretary, treasurer, and ex- 
 aminer, and when necessary, an assistant exam- 
 iner in the larger counties. The county com- 
 missioners ti\ teachers' salaries, and decide what 
 
 text 1 ks shall be used. District school trustees. 
 
 three in each district, are annually appointed by 
 the county commissioners. They have the more 
 
MARYLAND 
 
 545 
 
 immediate supervision of the schools in their 
 respective districts, subject to the county com- 
 missioners and tin' state board. A special board 
 of trustees is appointed by the county board for 
 each colored school. County examiners are re- 
 quired to visit the schools under their jurisdiction 
 at least twice every year, and to make quarterly 
 reports to the county board. Teachers must be 
 graduates of the normal school, or have a certif- 
 icate from the state board, or the county exam- 
 iner. Teachers] institutes must be held, once a 
 war, for five days, in each county. For this 
 purpose, time is allowed from the school session. 
 and a portion of the traveling expenses is paid. 
 These institutes are presided over by the county 
 examiner, or by the principal or a professor of the 
 normal school. The law, also, encourages asso- 
 ciations in districts and counties. and state teach- 
 ers' associations. One school, in each district, 
 must be kept open ten months each year, the 
 sessions, of five hours each, to be held five days 
 of each week. The school age is from 6 to 21 for 
 whites, and, in the city of Baltimore, from 6 to 
 20 for colored persons. For the latter, separate 
 schools have been established in each election dis- 
 trict. These are supported by state appropriations, 
 private gifts, and special taxes for the purpose 
 levied upon the colored people. 
 
 Tin; school revenue is made up of a state 
 school tax, a free-school fund, an academic fund, 
 and a county tax. The state tax is limited to 
 ten cents on the $100 ; the county tax is levied 
 by the county officers at a rate varying from ten 
 to twenty-five cents on the $100. 
 
 Educational Condition. — The number of 
 schools in the state, in 1875, was 1,846, — in the 
 city of Baltimore, 125 ; and in the counties, 
 1,721. The other principal items of school sta- 
 tistics, for 1875, are the following : 
 
 Number of different pupils enrolled 143,003 
 
 Highest number enrolled in one term 112,399 
 
 Average attendance 69,2,59 
 
 Number of teachers 2,723 
 
 Receipts (except city of Baltimore) : 
 
 State school tax $336,110.11 
 
 Appropriations to col- 
 ored schools SI, 170. 16 
 
 County taxation 36^,962.39 
 
 Other sources 135.757.51 
 
 Total ~ $922,000.17 
 
 Expenditures (counties): 
 
 Teachers' salaries $609,035.07 
 
 Buildings, repairs,etc. 10.5,175.65 
 Other expenses 209,898.23 
 
 Total — — $924,108.95 
 
 Expenditures in the city of Baltimore 716,938.82 
 
 Total in the state $1,641,047.77 
 
 Normal Instruction. — A state normal school 
 was established in Baltimore in 1865, to which 
 200 pupils, upon the recommendation of the city 
 or county commissioners, are admitted free, if in- 
 tending to teach in the state; otherwise, payment 
 for tuition is required. An appropriation of 
 $100,000 has recently been made by the legis- 
 lature for a new building, which is now in proc- 
 ess of erection. The number of instructors, in 
 1874, was 10; number of pupils, 174, — 9 males, 
 35 
 
 165 females. The number of graduates was 21. 
 There is also a normal school for the education 
 of colored teachers, which was organized in 1H66. 
 it received, in L874, an appropriation of §2,000 
 from the state. The number of instructors was 
 ■I; number of pupils, 246, -115 males, 131 fe- 
 males. The number of graduates was 5. There 
 has been formed, also, in Baltimore, a normal 
 class for the schools of that city, which has re- 
 eeived very favorable notice from the school 
 board. — Tieaehers' institutes constitute a part of 
 the system. Fourteen were held, during 1875, 
 in different counties. The principal of the state 
 normal school or the local examiner is, by law, 
 the presiding officer, the tendency to substitute 
 the latter officer for the former increasing as the 
 number of competent examiners increases. "The 
 good results of the institutes." says the annual 
 report for 1875, "have been as marked in Mary- 
 land as in any other state of the Union." 
 
 Secondary Instruction. — The provision for 
 this purpose, by the establishment and mainte- 
 nance of' high schools, has been somewhat re- 
 tarded by the existence of the old academies of 
 the state which, by receiving from the state an- 
 nual appro] uia t ions too small to maintain them 
 in a condition of efficiency, and yet too large, to 
 permit of their extinction, act as a bar to prog- 
 ress in the means of secondary instruction. The 
 old law provides that each academy shall edu- 
 cate one pupil free of charge for every $100 
 received from the state. This was intended to 
 encourage the academies, and, at the same time, 
 to educate a few of the most deserving poor. 
 The first object seems not to have been attained, 
 at least not to the extent expected; while the sec- 
 ond has failed entirely, on account of the estab- 
 lishment of the public schools. Another result has 
 been, that these academies have become, in many 
 cases, entirely anomalous in character, holding, 
 in some places, the position of elementary schools, 
 in others, that of high schools, so that it is diffi- 
 cult to classify them in the school system of the 
 state. The city college of Baltimore is the prin- 
 cipal high school of the state. It numbers 10 
 professors and 400 students. Its English course, 
 alone, furnishes a good commercial education ; 
 while the full course is an ample preparatory 
 one for entrance into any college or university. 
 Two female high schools are also located in Bal- 
 timore, with 30 teachers, and an attendance of 
 761 pupils. Their courses of study are for four 
 years each, and give instruction in the ordinary 
 branches of a good English education, besides 
 the accomplishments of drawing and music. 
 Many other academies and secondary schools ex- 
 ist in the state ; but the reports from them are 
 incomplete or entirely wanting. In 1874, as far 
 as heard from by the U. S. Bureau of Education, 
 they gave employment to 243 teachers, and had 
 an attendance of 3,694 pupils. There are, through- 
 out the state, a number of private schools and 
 academies, the courses of study in which are 
 various, furnishing all degrees of preparation, 
 from that necessary to enter commercial life to 
 that required for admission to college. 
 
546 
 
 MARYLAND 
 
 Denominational and Parochial Schools. — 
 Several of these exist iu the state, but from the 
 amount of instruction imparted, tiny are more 
 properly classed under the head of schools for 
 secondary instruction. 
 
 Superior Instruction. — The following table 
 contains the principal institutions of this grade. 
 
 NAME 
 
 CoUege of St. James 
 
 Frederick College 
 
 Johns Hopkins University 
 
 Loyola College 
 
 Mt. st. Diary '8 College 
 
 Hill College 
 
 St. < 'uarles's College 
 
 st. John's College 
 
 Washington College 
 
 ni Maryland College 
 
 Location 
 
 When 
 
 found- 
 ed 
 
 Denomi- 
 nation 
 
 St. James 1842 M. Epis. 
 
 rick 1797 Non-sec. 
 
 Baltimore I 376 Non-sec. 
 
 Baltimore 1852 B. C. 
 
 Emmettsburg 1808 R. C. 
 
 Elliott City 1867 R. C. 
 
 EllicottCity 1848 R. C. 
 
 Annapolis 1789 Non-sec. 
 
 Chestertown 1783 Non-sec. 
 
 Westminster 1807 51. Prot. 
 
 Woodstock College T.Woodstock 1867 R. C. 
 
 St. John's College reported, in 1*74, 11 pro- 
 fessors, 130 students, and 8 graduates. Its course 
 is the usual collegiate one of four years. Six 
 scholarships are provided at this college for each 
 senatorial district, the holders of which are en- 
 titled to rent of room and tuition free: and 1 i< tan I 
 is furnished free to two of them from each dis- 
 trict, who agree in return to teach in tin' state, 
 after graduation, not less than two years. For 
 the latter purpose, $10,000 of the$25,000 annual- 
 ly appropriated by the state, is devoted. The 
 Western Maryland < iollege reported 13 pr< 'lessors 
 and 131 students, of whom 61 were females, for 
 whom there is a three years' course of study. This 
 college also, has several state scholarships. Wash- 
 ington College had 2 professors, 27 students, and 
 3 graduates. It supports 6 state scholarships as 
 provided by the act of 187-1. Mt. St. Mary's 
 college had, in 1873—4,13 professors, and 182 
 students. Besides the usual colli course, it 
 
 has a theological course, in which 34 students, 
 in addition to the number above mentioned, re- 
 ceived instruction. St. Charles's College had L2 
 professors and 180 students. It is intended only 
 for students proposing to enter the church. 
 Woodstock College, with 102 students, is exclu- 
 sively Roman Catholic. For additional informa- 
 tion in regard to these institutions, see the re- 
 spective tides. In 1874, six institutions claiming 
 to be colleges for women, were reported to the 
 U. S. Bureau of Education. They numbered 
 58 instructors and 66 I students. 
 
 Professional and Scientific Instruction. — The 
 Agricultural College in Prince Georges Co. was 
 established in 1865, with a fund of $1 L0,000,the 
 proc Is of UK). ihh) acres of land, granted by 
 
 Congress to the state. It has a farm of 300 
 
 acres connected with it, and furnishes partial 
 tuition free to twelve students from each con- 
 gressional district. It has a preparatory and a 
 collegiate department, and has '.* professors ami 
 91 students. Mt. St. Clement's College, al Qches- 
 ter. and St. Mary's Theological Seminary, at m. 
 Sulpice, both Roman Catholic, afford instruction 
 in theology, besides the theological departments 
 ni the other colleges. A school of law tonus a 
 part ni the University of Maryland, while tin' 
 
 professions of medicine, surgery, etc., are repre- 
 sented by the College of Physicians and Sur- 
 geons, and the College of Dental Surgery, at 
 Baltimore, the .Maryland Dental College, the 
 Maryland College of Pharmacy, and the schools 
 attached to the Washington University and the 
 University of Maryland. 
 
 Sp' j <-i<i/ Instruction. — The Institution for the 
 Education of the Deaf and Dumb was opened at 
 Frederick, in 1868, and, in 1874, had 1 1 instruct- 
 ors of all kinds, and 104 pupils, of whom 68 
 
 were males, and 3(1, females. The COUTSe of study 
 extends over seven years, and comprises the 
 branches usually taught in the public schools, 
 iher with instruction in several kinds of 
 manual labor. The study of written language 
 receives special attention. It is found that com- 
 paratively few of the pupils remain to complete 
 the course. The whole number of pupils in- 
 structed in the institution since its opening is 
 146 ; of these the number who have engaged in 
 teaching in similar institutions, is very small. — 
 The Institution for the Instruction of the Blind 
 at Baltimore was organized in 1853. Pupils be- 
 tween the ages of !l and 18 are received, and 
 may be educated free, upon the recommendation 
 of the governor. The instruction afforded is 
 that of a common-school course, with special 
 instruction in vocal and instrumental music. 
 Such branches of trade or manual labor also are 
 taught as are specially suited to the condition of 
 the blind. 'I lie value of its grounds, buildings, 
 and apparatus is estimated at $255,000. The 
 Maryland Institution for Colored Blind and 
 Deaf-Mutes was established in 1872, in Balti- 
 more. The faculty consists of 4 instructors. 
 The number of pupils during the year 1874 was 
 12, -5 males ami 7 females. — The McDonoUgh 
 Institute was organized in 1873 by private mu- 
 nificence to give •instruction in the Christian 
 religion, a plain English education, music, and 
 the art of husbandry or farming to poor boys 
 of good character, of n sociations in 
 
 life, residents of the city of Baltimore." It has 
 an endowment fund of $725,000, with which it 
 
 is estimated that 250 boys can be maintained 
 and Educated; special instruction in religion, 
 and useful branches of manual labor, in addition 
 to that given in the English branches, is provided 
 for colored girls by the St. Francis Academy of 
 Baltimore. It was established by the Oblate 
 Si.-ters of Providence, a religious order founded 
 in 1825. The Peabody Institute, with an orig- 
 inal endowment of $300,000, afterwards inert 
 to $1,000,000, is located in Baltimore, and fur- 
 nishes facilities for advanced instruction in art, 
 
 by means of a library, a gallery of paintings, and 
 yearly courses of concerts ami lectures. 
 
 Teachers' Associations. — The Maryland State 
 School-Teachers' Association has been in existence 
 ahout ten years. It holds an annual convention 
 at smiie convenient point in the state for the 
 discussion of such questions as pertain to the 
 welfare of the teachers, or the cause of cduca- 
 tion. Day and evening meetings are held, the 
 exercises consisting of debates upon subjects 
 
MARYVILLE COLLEGE 
 
 MASSACHUSETTS 
 
 547 
 
 affecting the schools, recommendations of im- 
 proved methods of instruction, and listening to 
 papers previously prepared by members desig- 
 nated for the purpose, or to casual addresses by 
 distinguished educators from other states. 
 
 MARYVILLE COLLEGE, at Maryville. 
 Tenn., founded in 1819, is under Presbyterian 
 control. The grounds comprise 65 acres, beauti- 
 fully situated, and contain three new buildings, 
 erected at a cost of $50,000. The college has a 
 library of 3,000 volumes, and valuable chemical 
 ami philosophical apparatus. It comprises a col- 
 legiate, a preparatory, a normal, a ladies', and 
 an English com--.'. In L875 —6, there were 8 in- 
 structors and 137 students, of whom 27 were of 
 collegiate era le. The Rev. P. M. Bartlett, D. D., 
 is (1876) the president. 
 
 MASON, Lowell, an American composer 
 and teacher of music, born in Medfield, Mass.. 
 January 8., 1792 ; died in Orange, N. J., August 
 11., 1872. He manifested, at a very early age, 
 a fondness for music, and adopted it as his pro- 
 fession, teaching 'it successfully and organizing 
 choirs and musical associations. In 1821, he 
 made his first effort at musical publication, the 
 Boston Handel and Haydn Collection of Church 
 Music. In 1827, at the instance of several gen- 
 tlemen interested in the improvement of church 
 music, he removed from Savannah to Boston, 
 where he devoted himself more particularly to 
 the training of children's voices. His efforts 
 were highly successful, resulting in a general 
 awakening, to the value of music, of the com- 
 munity in which he dwelt, and paved the way 
 for it.: introduction into the school system of the 
 city and state, and to the formation of the Boston 
 Academy of Music. Mr. Mason had been success- 
 ful for many years, as a practical teacher of vocal 
 and instrumental music, by the use of what is 
 now known as the arbitrary or text-book method, 
 when, about 1827, at the instance of his friend 
 Mr. Wbodbridge, he turned his attention to the 
 method of Pestalozzi. For a long time, he re- 
 sisted its conclusions, his own method, pursued 
 with success for many years, appearing to furnish 
 a practical refutation of its utility. He consented, 
 at last, however, to make the experiment of 
 publicly teaching a class according to the new 
 method; and the success attending it was so 
 great, that he frankly accepted the result as 
 conclusive, and always afterwards pursued it, 
 continuing the practice for more than thirty 
 years. A lecture given in 1830, by Mr. Wood- 
 bridge, before the American Institute of Instruc- 
 tion, illustrated by a class of Mr. Mason's pupils, 
 called renewed attention to the subject of music, 
 and led to the formation of lar<re classes anion"- 
 the children of the public schools, in which the 
 study of music has now become a striking fea- 
 ture, and from which it has spread throughout the 
 state and the Union. In 1837, Mr. Mason visited 
 Europe, where he examined the different systems 
 of musical instruction, with a view to improve- 
 ment. The result of his observations, however, was 
 to confirm him in his opinion of the wisdom of 
 the method of Pestalozzi ; and, on his return, he 
 
 applied the method more carefully and rigorously 
 than before, with the mosl satisfactory results. 
 In 1855, the University of New Fork conferred 
 on Mr. Mason the degree of Doctor of Music. 
 
 MASSACHUSETTS, one of the thirteen 
 original states of the American Union, having 
 an area of 7,800 sq.m. and a population, a< cord- 
 ing to the census of 1870, of 1,457,351, of whom 
 13,947 were colored. Though ranking, accord- 
 ing to population, as the 7th state in the Union, 
 and in size as the 35th, its influence has always 
 been very great in every thing that pertains to 
 education, literature, and general improvement. 
 Educational History.- 'I his topic will be 
 treated under the three follow ing h< ads : (I) The 
 establishment of s< hools ; 1 1 1 1 'I he mode of main- 
 taining them ; (III) The mode of supervising 
 them. 
 
 I. As far back as 1635, the people of Boston 
 expressed by vote their appreciation of the need 
 of a school, and requested "Brother Philemon 
 Purmont to become school-master for the teach- 
 ing and nurturing of children." The following 
 year, a small subscription was made by some of 
 the citizens for the maintenance of a school, 
 Daniel Maud being chosen to conduct it. r i he 
 general court, also, authorized an appropriation 
 of £400 for the establishment of a -schoole or 
 colledge whereof £200 to bee paid the next yeare, 
 and £200 when the worke is finished, and the 
 next court to appoint wheare, and what building.'' 
 The next year the court directed that the college 
 should be established at Newtown. The first 
 educational ordinance of the colony is dated in 
 1(542. By it. the selectmen of every town are 
 enjoined to have a "vigilant eye over their breth- 
 ren and neighbors, to see. first, that none of them 
 shall suffer so much barbarism in any of their 
 families as not to endeavor to teach, by them- 
 selves or others, their children and apprentices so 
 much learning as may enable them perfectly to 
 read the English tongue, and knowledge of the 
 capital laws, upon penalty of twenty shillings 
 therein." By the law of 1647, it was ordered by the 
 court, that every township of fifty householders 
 should appoint one of their number to teach all 
 children that might be sent to him to read and 
 write, the wages of such teacher to be paid either 
 by the parents or guardians of the children sent, 
 or by the inhabitants in general ; the penalty at- 
 taching to the disregard of this ordinance for 
 one year to be £10. It was also ordered that 
 every town of one hundred families should 
 maintain, in addition to its common school, a 
 grammar school for the fitting of pupils to enter 
 the university- In 1650, Ezekiel Cneever came 
 to reside in Ipswich, taking charge of the gram- 
 mar school there. In 1661. he removed to 
 < 'harlestown, and became principal of the Town 
 Free School, which position he filled till 1670, 
 when he removed to Boston, where he took 
 charge of the first school founded in the state, 
 continuing his labors there thirty-eight years. 
 Prom 1650, the time of his teaching in the 
 Ipswich school, which he made " famous in all 
 the country," down to 1708, he contributed 
 
548 
 
 MASSACHUSETTS 
 
 powerfully to the fame of Massachusetts as an 
 educational center, and encouraged, more than 
 any other man, that love of learning, the prac- 
 tical activity in behalf of which lias always been 
 a characteristic of the state. (See Chebver.) 
 Further enactments were made, from time to 
 time, as required by the wants of the growing 
 colony. Thus, in Ids.'!, all towns of five hundred 
 families where required to maintain two gram- 
 mar schools and two writing schools; and any 
 town failing to support a grammar .school, was 
 required to pay at first I'll), and afterwards £20 
 to tin- nearest school kept in compliance with the 
 law. During the provincial period, these laws 
 Substantially were kept in force. The constitu- 
 tion of L780 made special mention of the impor- 
 tance of education ; anil after the revolution, 
 when new townships were created, a lot was re- 
 served in each for a school. In 1789, a general 
 act of the legislature directed that, in every 
 town, schools should be maintained in which 
 children should he taught to read and write. and 
 to receive instruction in the •■ English langn i 
 arithmetic, orthography, ami decent behavior." 
 It was further directed that towns should b3 
 divided into school districts which were after- 
 wards erected into corporations, with power to 
 sue and Ik' sued, and to hold property for the 
 ase of the schools ; that towns of 200 families, 
 instead of 100, as before enacted, diould consti- 
 tute the basis for the maintenance of grammar 
 schools; that the teacher should have acertilicat • 
 of good moral character; and, lastly, that pupils 
 should be permitted to pass from the common 
 school to the grammar school after a certain pro- 
 ficiency had been attained. For the violation of 
 this law, penalties in money were imposed, gradu- 
 ated according to the size of the towns disol 
 ing. Incompliance with this law, the town of 
 Dedham was, in L818, indicted, tried, and con- 
 victed for neglecting for a year to keep and sup- 
 port a grammar school for the instruction of 
 children in the Greek, Latin, and English lan- 
 guages. This was the first law in which women 
 were recognized in Massachusetts as teachers. 
 In I B2 1, the law was modified somewhat in favor 
 of towns having a population of less than 5,000, 
 the maintenance of a grammar school being 
 waived in this case, and a common school being 
 accepted in its stead, if the inhabitants so de- 
 sired. In 1832, incomplete returns showed that 
 the sum of 81 .!>H jut pupil was the average annual 
 
 expenditure ; and. in 1 83 1, it was ascertained that 
 five-sixths of the educable children of the state 
 received instruction in the public schools, the re- 
 mainder attending private schools. In this year 
 
 (1834) a law was passed prohibiting children 
 under 15 years of age from working in factories, 
 unless they had attended Bchool for at least tine.' 
 months during the preceding year. In 1837, 
 the state board of education was created, and 
 
 Horace Mann was elected ita secretary (June 29., 
 
 17). It was made the duty of the secretary, 
 "to collect information of the actual condition 
 tod efficiency of the common sohools and other 
 
 means of popular education; aud to diffuse as 
 
 widely as possible, throughout every part of the 
 commonwealth, information of the most ap- 
 proved and successful methods of arranging the 
 Studies and conducting the education of the 
 young." I'p to that time, though much had been 
 done, throughout the state, for the cause of edu- 
 cation, the great lack of uniformity, in system 
 and action, had deprived the results of much of 
 their practical usefulness. This uniformity the 
 board set itself vigorously to work to supply. 
 Mr. Mann, in particular, labored long and ear- 
 nestly for the attainment of this object, withdraw- 
 ing himself entirely from politics and the prac- 
 tice of his profession, and devoting himself for 
 twelve years to the work. (See M \\\\ HORACE.) 
 The result of the labors of the board was a uni- 
 form common-school system, which was adopted 
 by the legislature, and which has continued in 
 force to the present time. In 1839, two normal 
 schools were opened, — one at Lexington, and 
 the other at Barre. These were first designated 
 state normal schools in 1842 ; and their number 
 has been increased gradually, according as a ne- 
 cessity for their establishment has been recog- 
 nized. In 1846, the first law making education 
 compulsory in this state was passed ; being ren- 
 dered necessary, in the opinion of the legislature, 
 by the fact that the number of persons in the 
 state who were unable to read and write was 
 vapidly increasing, the presence of which class 
 had always been regarded with distrust. Previ- 
 ous to L819, accurate information in regard to 
 schools had not been obtainable; but, in 
 that year, a law was passed, specifying that the 
 income of tin' permanent school fund should be 
 apportioned among those cities, towns, and die- 
 ts only which had raised by taxation the sum 
 of $1.50 for the education of each child between 
 the ages of 5 and 15 years. By thus making 
 the amount raised for each child the unit of ap- 
 portionment, definite statistical information as 
 well as accuracy of appropriation, was insured. 
 Various changes and amendments of minor im- 
 portance were made in the school laws from this 
 time to L857, when the state constitution itself 
 was altered in the interest of free non-sectarian 
 education. By this amendment it is provided. 
 that "no person shall have the right to vote, or 
 shall be eligible to office under the constitution 
 of this commonwealth, who shall not be able to 
 read the constitution in the English language, 
 
 and write his name, unless prevented by physical 
 
 disability from complying with the requirement, 
 
 and unless he already enjoys the right to vote. 
 All moneys raised by taxation in towns and 
 cities fur the support of public schools, and all 
 moneyB appropriated by the state for the sup- 
 port of Common schools, shall never be appropri- 
 ated to any religious sect for the maintenance 
 exclusively of its own schools." In L869, upon 
 petition of several citizens of the state, an act 
 was passed amending a previous act so as to in- 
 clude drawing in the common-school course, and 
 providing, in addition, that every city and town 
 having more than 10,000 inhabitants, should 
 make annual provision for giving free iustruc- 
 
MASSACHUSETTS 
 
 549 
 
 drawing to 
 
 tion in industrial and mechanical 
 pupils over fifteen years of age. 
 
 II. There have been live BOUTCeB of income 
 for the support tit' schools and colleges: (I) In- 
 dividual gifts; (2) Tuition tees, or rate bills; 
 (3i Taxes : (1) The income of permanent funds; 
 (.">) Special appropriations. 
 
 (1) Individual Gifts.- -The first mention made 
 in the history of the state, of a, fund for the es- 
 tablishment of a school, was that of a gift, in the 
 shape of a subscript ion, made in L 636, by several 
 wealthy >*tizens of Boston, for the school, of 
 which Daniel Maud was teacher. This example 
 was followed, in L638, by the Rev. John Harvard, 
 who bequeathed £77!) and a library of 30(1 vol- 
 umes to the college already founded at New- 
 town. A year after, the name of Harvard Col- 
 lege was given to it in his honor; and the name 
 of Newtown was changed to Cambridge, in com- 
 pliment to the English university of that name, 
 of which some of the settlers were graduates. 
 Since that time, the history of education in tin- 
 state, particularly since the Revolution, is 
 adorned by continual gifts made by enlightened 
 citizens for the establishment, maintenance, or 
 improvement of schools or colleges. Chief among 
 these benefactors may be mentioned, Samuel 
 Appleton, John Lowell, jr.. Amos Lawrence, 
 Abbott Lawrence, Nathaniel Thayer, Edmund 
 Dwight, and George Peabody. Probably no 
 state has produced a larger number of pecuniary 
 contributors to the cause of education. 
 
 (2) Tuition Fecs.-Tho, earliest method employed 
 for the payment of the teacher was that of a fee 
 charged to each parent or guardian, according to 
 the number of children sent. This method con- 
 tinued in force for a century and a half after 
 the first school law was passed. Even after 
 towns were compelled by law to maintain a 
 free school by a special yearly tax, the original 
 method was continued in many country districts 
 down to a very late clay. These fees took 
 different forms according to locality, in the cities 
 and large towns being usually in money ; in the 
 country, consisting of board for the teacher, con- 
 tributions of fuel, etc. 
 
 (3) Ta.res. — The first educational law passed 
 by the colony — that of 1647 — provided that 
 the teacher should be paid either by the parents 
 or masters of the children taught, or by " the 
 inhabitants in general, by way of supply, as the 
 major part of those that order the prudentials 
 of the town shall appoint; provided that those 
 that send their children 1m not oppressed by 
 paying much more than they can have them 
 taught for in other towns.'' Through every 
 period of the subsequent history of this state, 
 taxation has been, to a considerable extent, re- 
 sorted to as a means of supporting schools. As 
 already stated, the towns were obliged, under 
 stringent penalties, to support schools ; and this, 
 of course, could only be effected by paying taxes. 
 In 1827, the legislature, in the school law of that 
 year, authorized the towns to raise as much 
 money as they might deem necessary for school 
 purposes. The method of raising money for the 
 
 support of public schools has varied from time 
 to I line, lull tlie plan generally adopted prior to 
 
 the establishment of the school fund, in 1-31. 
 
 was by taxation of the polls and estates of the 
 people of the tow ns and school disti icts. without 
 any substantial aid from the government. Since 
 the establishment of the school fund, more or 
 
 less aid has been furnished by the state for the 
 support of the common schools. During the 
 period from 1*35 to L 845, the amount raised an- 
 nually by tax for the wages of teachers advanced 
 from $325,320 to$600,000. Thestatuteof L839 
 
 required that $1.25 should be raised for every 
 child between the ages of -1 and Hi, and actually 
 expended for the purpose of instruction in each 
 town; but, in 184"), more than $3 for every 
 child of that age was actually raised by tax in 
 53 towns, and more than $2 in DO towns, the 
 average being $2.99. 
 
 (4) The Income of Pn-initnentFiouh. — The 
 first trace of any thing like a permanent fund 
 for school purposes is found at a very early day, 
 when the public money derived from the ('apt; 
 Cod fisheries was applied to the maintenance 
 of schools. The revenue from this source was, 
 of course, uncertain ; but the intelligence of the 
 people seems to have been relied on to furnish, 
 from time to time, by special act of the legislature 
 or direct taxation, whatever funds were necessary, 
 till 1834, when a most important step was taken 
 for placing the public school system of the state 
 on a firm financial basis, by the establishment 
 of a permanent school fund. Chapter 1(59 of 
 the laws of that year provided that this fund 
 should consist of the amount in the treasury de- 
 rived from the sale of lands in the state of 
 Maine, with fifty per cent of all money to be 
 received from the sale of lands in the same state 
 after January 1., 1835 ; and all money derived 
 from the claim of the state on the government 
 of the United States for military services and 
 not otherwise appropriated. This fund was not 
 to exceed $1,000,000. and the income only was 
 to be used for the support of common schools ; 
 no city, town, or district receiving more than it 
 had raised for the same purpose. This created 
 almost immediately a permanent fund of 
 $500,000, which was increased from that amount, 
 in 1835, to $800,000, in L845. At the close of 
 the year 1850, the amount of the fund was up- 
 wards of $986,000 ; at the end of 1853, it had 
 been increased, by the sale of lands in Maine, to 
 $1,244,284; in 1854, it was $1,501,743.62. In 
 1859, this fund was further increased by the 
 proceeds derived from the sale of public lands 
 in iioston. At the end of L863, it amounted to 
 $1,870,970; in 1864, to $2,196,827.18; and at 
 the close of 1874, $2,1 1 7.732.*2. By an act of 
 the legislature, passed in 1*54, one half of the 
 income derived from this fund is applied to the 
 support of the common schools, the other half 
 being used for the maintenance of normal 
 schools, teachers' institutes, repairs of school 
 buildings, the salary of the secretary of the board 
 of education, printing, etc. Any surplus, re- 
 maining after the payment of expenses, is to be 
 
550 
 
 MASSACHUSETTS 
 
 added to the fund. For some time, the principal 
 of the fund was increased by these unexpended 
 balances, but at present this is not the case. 13y 
 a liberal interpretation of the law, various sums 
 of money were, from time to time, drawn from 
 the income of the permanent fund for the pur- 
 pose of aiding, in an indirect, way new normal 
 schools, till it was discovered that the income 
 was becoming insufficient, and the half devoted 
 to the support of common schools was being en- 
 croached upon. This was due to the increase in 
 educational wants produced by the growth of 
 the state in population, and has been remedied, 
 from year to year, by special acts of the legis- 
 lature. 
 
 (5) SpecialApproprialions. — The first special 
 appropriation made for educational purposes was 
 that of 163(5, by which £400 was devoted to the 
 founding of a school or college. The appropria- 
 tions from that time to the present have been 
 many, and for various purposes, and have in- 
 creased rapidly in number with the growth of the 
 state, being most frequent as we approach tin- 
 present time. Thus, in L836, the foundation of 
 Bchool libraries was made secure by an act of 
 the legislature, which authorized the expenditure, 
 in each school district, of $50 the first year, ami 
 $10 each succeeding year, for their establishment 
 and maintenance. In 1837, $10,000 was appro- 
 priated for the establishment of two normal 
 Bchools, a like sum having been contributed for 
 the same purpose by lion. Edmund Dwight; 
 and, in L842, $6,000 was appropriated annually 
 for three years to continue these schools. In 
 1873, a special act of the legislature set apart the 
 sum of $7,500 to establish a state normal art- 
 school in Boston. 
 
 III. The supervision of the common schools of 
 the state appears to have been committed to the 
 selectmen at the first, afterward I in 1 826) to school 
 committees appointed in the different towns. In 
 1837, the reorganization of the public-school 
 system was undertaken by the board of educa- 
 tion. The secretary of the board, Horace .Mann, 
 in his first annual report, makes special mention 
 of the ansa! Isfactory manner in which the schi 
 were supervised, laying great stress upon the 
 1 of properly qualified school conunittee- 
 men. " Thi py," says the report, " a con- 
 
 trolling position in relation to our common 
 school,. They are the administrators of the 
 system ; and, in proportion to the fidelity and 
 intelligence exercised by them, the system will 
 flourish or decline." One of the most important 
 duties imposed upon the school-committees (by 
 tli ■ law of L826) was to obtain evidence of the 
 good moral character of all instructors, and to 
 
 rtain their "literary qualifications and ca- 
 pacity for the governmenl of schools." The law 
 c .pp. I, i, quired every teacher to obtain, from 
 the school committee of the town, a certificate 
 o his qualifications before opening the school. 
 
 The laxity with which this part of the law was 
 
 enforced received severe animadversion from 
 
 Mr. Mann, in the report above referred to. The 
 employment by the board of education of state 
 
 agents constitutes a peculiar feature of the Mas- 
 sachusetts system. Their duties, as defined by 
 the general statutes of the state, are " to visit 
 the several towns and cities, for the purpose of 
 inquiring into the conditions of the schools, con- 
 ferringwith the teachers and committees, and 
 lecturing upon subjects connected with educa- 
 cation." In L850, the legislature appropriaxed 
 82,(100 to the board for this purpose; and ac- 
 cordingly, six agents were employed to visit the 
 towns in the early summer. Among these, were 
 N. P. Banks, and S. S. Greene, the latter after- 
 wards of Brown University. The experiment 
 was eminently successful ; and accordingly, the 
 legislature, in 1 851 , made a similar appropriation 
 for two years, which was renewed in 1853, 1855, 
 and 1 ^o7, with the authority in the last instance 
 to expend a sum not exceeding $4,000 in one 
 year. B. (i. Northrop was sole agent from 1860 
 to 1867. when he was succeeded by Abner B. 
 Phipps, who has continued in office till the pres- 
 ent time (1876). The legislature of 1871 made 
 a special appropriation of 810.000, for this 
 purpose, payable from the "moiety of the in- 
 come of the school fund appropriated to gen- 
 eral educational purposes." This opened a 
 May for the employment of a state director 
 of art-education, to which position "Walter 
 Smith was appointed in 1871. In 1^75, the 
 legislature made an appropriation, for the same 
 purpose, of $14,000, payable from the state treas- 
 ury, and thus enabled the board to increase the 
 number of its agents.— The following named 
 persons have filled the office of secretary of the 
 board of education since its creation in L837 : 
 I loiace Mann, until 1848; Hamas Scars, from 
 L848 to L855; George S. Boutwell, from L855 
 to 18(*>1 ; Joseph White, from 1861 to the pres- 
 ent time (187(>). — Teachers' Infinites were first 
 organized in 1845 ; and, in 184G, the legislature 
 for the first time made an apjjropriation for 
 
 their support. 
 
 In 1850. the first truant law was passed, which 
 simply authorized the towns to make needful 
 by-laws concerning habitual truants, and re- 
 quired the towns that availed themselves of the 
 
 act to appoint truant officers empowered to carry 
 
 the law into execution. This law was amended 
 in 1862, making i! obligatory upon the towns to 
 enact bylaws concerning truants; and such is 
 
 the law at present. An amendment, made in 
 
 : . requires the school committee, instead of 
 the town or city, to appoint the truant officers. 
 ami fix their compensation. This is the duty of 
 the committee independently of the action of 
 the town; since there are other laws besides 
 those relating to truancy which only the truant 
 officers can execute. 
 
 School System. — The control of the educa- 
 tional interests of the state rests immediately 
 with the legislature. All information, however, 
 in regard to the schools, colleges ami other in- 
 stitutions of learning, on which its action is 
 based, is derived from the annual report of the 
 state board of education, which is composed of 
 the governor, lieutenant governor, and eight 
 
MASSACIirSKTTS 
 
 551 
 
 persons appointed by the governor, who hold 
 office for eight years, one retiring each year. To 
 this board is entrusted the care and management 
 of the school system, subject to the enactments of 
 the legislature, to whom the board annually re- 
 ports its proceedings and the condition of the 
 schools. — The s '■cretury of the board is its chief 
 executive oflicer, performing the duties usually 
 devolving upon the superintendent of public in- 
 struction in other states. There is also a gen 
 agent and such other agents as the hoard may 
 deem necessary, whose duties are to visit the 
 schools, deliver lectures, confer with school com- 
 mittees and teachers, and generally to act as rep- 
 resentatives of the secretary. — Each town elects 
 a school committee consisting of three persons (or 
 any multiple of three), whose duty it is to super- 
 intend the public schools in the town, apportion 
 the school money among the schools or districts, 
 examine, and license teachers, select the text- 
 books to be used, anil visit every school once a 
 month during the school session, and make an 
 annual report to the town or to the board of 
 education. For this service they receive not less 
 than one dollar for each day actually spent in 
 the performance of their duties, with whatever 
 additional compensation may be allowed by the 
 town. In the cities and some of the larger towns, 
 the school committee appoints a superintendent, 
 who, as it- agent, performs most of the duties 
 above enumerated. The salary of the superin- 
 tendent is fixed by the school committee, who 
 by appointing this officer relinquish all claim 
 to compensation for their own services. — Pru- 
 dential committees are elected in some of the 
 towns, consisting of one person in each district, 
 who must be an actual resident. The duties 
 performed are similar and supplementary to 
 those of the town school committee. — Parents 
 and guardians are required, under a penalty of 
 §20, to send their children between 8 and 12 
 years of age, to school at least 20 weeks each 
 year, six weeks of which must be consecutive. 
 The only exemptions are cases of poverty, 
 physical or mental incapacity on the part of the 
 child, or when the child is otherwise provided 
 for. The truant officers are required to see that 
 truant children, absentees from school, and va- 
 grants, are sent to school ; and the education of 
 orphans and the children of drunken parents is 
 ■compulsory on the cities and towns in which 
 they reside. — The school age is between 5 and 
 15 years; and the public schools of the state are 
 free to all persons of school age, without regard 
 to religion, race, or color. — The daily reading 
 of a portion of the Scriptures is required in 
 •fcvery school. — The school fund, which, on the 
 1st of January l.S7<>, amounted to .'i?2,0G.'>,23S.s(i, 
 is in charge of a board of commissioners, con- 
 sisting of the secretary of the board of education, 
 and the treasurer and receiver-general. One moi- 
 ety of it is distributed among the towns in pro- 
 portion to the school population of each, and the 
 other is applied to the support of normal schools, 
 teachers' institutes, etc. A special fund is pro- 
 vided for the education of Indians. 
 
 Educational Condition. The number of 
 
 elementary public schools in the state, in L875, 
 
 was 5,551 ; the number of high schools, 208 ; of 
 
 ing schools, 99; incorporated academies, 63; 
 
 of private schools and academies, 369; of schools 
 instate charitable and reformatory institutions, 
 12; making a total of 6,302 schools. The es- 
 timated value, as returned by committees, of 
 School-houses and grounds, was $20,856,777.50. 
 The amount of money received for the sup- 
 port of the schools was as follows : 
 
 Income oi state school fund. $88,613.46 
 Amount raised by taxation, 
 
 including only wages of 
 
 teachers, fuel, and care of 
 
 fires and school rooms. . . . 4,358,623.59 
 Income of funds appropriated 
 
 for the support of public 
 
 schools at the option of 
 
 towns 52,050.31 
 
 Voluntary contributions of 
 
 hoard, fuel, apparatus, etc. 30,787.32 
 Income of local fund 120,2m;. :',2 
 
 $4,660,260.99 
 
 Expenditures on public schools alone, ex- 
 clusive of the repairing and erecting of 
 school-houses and the cost of school 
 books $4,GG8,472.09 
 
 Amount expended in 1874 tor erecting 
 school-houses -1.1 ts,i :;:',. r,:, 
 
 Average wages per month, male teachers. $88.37 
 female teachers $35.35 
 
 The other most important items of the school 
 statistics for the year 1874 — 5 are the follow- 
 ing :— 
 
 Number of children of school acre 294,708 
 
 No. of all ages, enrolled in the public 
 
 schools 302,118 
 
 Average attendance during the year 216,861 
 
 Number under 5 years of age enrolled. . . . 2,383 
 
 Number over 15 years of age enrolled 32,'JSG 
 
 Number of teachers, males 1,169 
 
 " ' " females s.047 
 
 Total 9.21G 
 
 Average length of school term 8 mo. 17 days 
 
 Normal Instruction. — There are five normal 
 schools in the state, exclusive of the Normal 
 Art-School in Boston. The first two were 
 established in 1839, at Lexington and Barre.but 
 were afterwards removed, — the first to Newton, 
 and afterwards to Framingham ; the second, to 
 Westfield. Three have since been established, — 
 at Bridgewater, Salem, and Worcester. 
 
 The normal school at Framingham wasopened 
 in 1853, and is exclusively for females. The 
 number of pupils in attendance, dining the year 
 L874— 5, was, the first term. 117; the second 
 term, 116; the number of graduates was 35. 
 The normal school at Salem is also for females. 
 The number of pupils, in 1 ^7 1 - ">. was. first term, 
 211 ; second term, 228; number of graduates, 58. 
 The normal school at Bridgewater is for both 
 sexes. The number of pupils, in L874 — 5, was, 
 first term, 151, — 37 males, 114 females; second 
 term, L60, — 45 males, and 115 females; number 
 of graduates, 49, — !) males, and 40 females. The 
 normal school at Westfield is for both sexes. 
 'I'he number of students in attendance was, 
 winter term, L35, — 11 male.-,. 121 females; sum- 
 mer term, 126, — 11 males, lie females; num- 
 ber of graduates, 42, — 3 males, .'!!• females. The 
 
552 
 
 MASSACHUSETTS 
 
 normal school at Worcester was established in 
 1874. The number in attendance the first year was 
 93. The intention is to make these schools com- 
 plete, in all aids to a higher education, with spe- 
 cial reference, however, to the career of the grad- 
 uates a.s teachers. For this purpose, libraries, 
 laboratories, cabinets of specimens, and courses of 
 lectures have been provided; and each of the 
 schools is visited annually by a board of visitors 
 who report to the secretary of the state board 
 of education. — The Normal Art -School, at 
 Boston, was established in L873, and grew out 
 of the necessities first made apparent by the 
 attempt to carry out the law of L870, which 
 provided that every city or town containing 
 more than 1.0,000 inhabitants should establish 
 and maintain a school for the teaching of 
 mechanical and industrial drawing. This law 
 was inoperative from the want of competent 
 teachers to conduct such schools; and with the 
 view to supply this want, the Normal Art-School 
 was founded. The number of pupils the first 
 year was 133. This number was increased, in 
 the second year, to 239, — 84 males, and L55 fe- 
 males. The establishment of this school was in 
 answer to a petition made to the legislature by 
 the manufacturing and mechanical interests of 
 Boston, in which it was represented that those 
 interests were suffering from a lack of skilled 
 employes. The ease with which graduates from 
 this institution have found employment since 
 their graduation is considered ample proof of 
 the wisdom shown in its establishment. — Teach- 
 ers' Institutes were first organized in L845. From 
 this time to 1874 inclusive, 242 institutes have 
 been held, averaging 8 annually. The annual 
 average attendance has been L,060, or 133 at 
 each institute. The average cost of each institute 
 is about $3,000 ; average cost of each teacher 
 attending, between $2 and $3; total annual cost 
 to the state for eight institutes, about $2,550. 
 
 /.'■- ning Schools. — In addition to the schools 
 for primary instruction enumerated, then' are 
 evening schools in many of the large towns and 
 cities, the opportunities afforded by which are 
 eagerly sought by many whose early educational 
 privileges have been neglected. The reporte an- 
 nually made in regard to them show a larger 
 attendance of adults than in other schools, and 
 
 of pupils of both sexes, drawn principally from 
 
 the mechanical and laboring classes. Their sessions 
 
 being short, ami held generally during only the 
 winter months, and the attendance being fluct- 
 uating, the results are. of course, not as satis- 
 factory as in other schools. The instruction im- 
 girted also is necessarily elementary in character. 
 y an act of the legislature, in 1870, all towns 
 and cities of L0,00U and over are required to 
 BUppOli free evening drawing schools; and 23 
 
 schools of this class are now open. 
 
 Secondary Instruction. The number of high 
 schools, incorporated academics, and private 
 academies in the state has already been stated as 
 
 -•us, 63, and 369 respectively. Of L51 towns 
 
 numbering over 500 families, and therefore re- 
 quire! each to maintain a high school, only 
 
 had failed to comply with the law, while 40 such 
 schools were maintained in 38 towns not required 
 to do so. The high schools are of various degrees 
 of excellence, ranging from about that of the 
 ordinary grammar school to thai of the best pre- 
 paratory school for admission to college. It is 
 estimated that about one third are of this latter 
 class, students passing from them into college with- 
 out difficulty. The former class numbers also 
 about one third, their condition of comparative in- 
 feriority being attributed to the want of teachers 
 and apparatus, and to the mixed character of 
 the pupils. The remaining, or middle third, 
 furnish their pupils with only a tolerable prepa- 
 ration for college, but with a good English edu- 
 cation. The state includes among its academies 
 and private schools, a very large number of in- 
 stitutions for the education of girls. All these 
 various schools draw their pupils largely from 
 other states, the high reputation of Massachusetts- 
 in respect to education securing for them an ex- 
 tensive patronage. 
 
 Denominational <ih<1 Parochial Shoals. — Of 
 schools of this class, a comparatively small num- 
 ber is reported, the intellectual instruction usu- 
 ally given in such schools being furnished by the 
 many non-sectarian or public schools of the state. 
 
 Superior Instruction. — The institutions in 
 the state for supplying a higher education are 
 
 numerous and of high reputation. Special men- 
 tion is made of the most important of these in- 
 stitutions in other parts of this volume. Their 
 names are given below : 
 
 NAME 
 
 Amherst College 
 
 liost<>n College 
 
 B Bl m Qniversity. . . 
 Coll. of the Eoly Cross 
 
 Harvard College 
 
 nuts College 
 
 Williams Colleg - 
 
 Amherst 
 Boston 
 
 Worcester 
 Cambridge 
 Medford 
 
 W'illianistown 
 
 When 
 found- 
 ed 
 
 182] 
 
 1 86 1 
 L878 
 1st:; 
 1638 
 1854 
 1798 
 
 Religious 
 denomina- 
 tion 
 
 Cong. 
 R. C. 
 M. Epis. 
 
 u. a 
 
 Nun sect. 
 
 Univers. 
 
 Cong. 
 
 The principal institutions for the superior in- 
 struction of females are Ahliott Academy. An- 
 
 dover; Bradford Academy. Bradford ; Gannett 
 Institute. Boston; Mt. Holyoke female Sem- 
 inary. South 1 1 ad lev: ( tread I nst it tit e. Worcester ; 
 
 Smith College, Northampton; Wheaton female 
 
 Seminary, and W'ellesley College, W'ellesley. 
 
 Professional and Scientific Instruction. — 
 
 This includes principally institutions for the 
 study of science, law. medicine, and theology. 
 Many of the colleges just enumerated under the- 
 head of superior instruction have departments, 
 or courses in which the subjects classed as pro- 
 fessional or scientific may be pursued, but there 
 are in addition the following : 
 
 NAME 
 
 Location 
 
 Andnver Theol. Seminary \ndovor 
 
 Epis. Theol. School Cambridge 
 
 M:i>^ agricult. College., Lmheral 
 Mass lnst. of Technology Boston 
 Newton Theol. Institute. Newton Cen, 
 Net* ChnxchTheo. School W'altnani 
 
 When 
 
 Religious 
 
 found- 
 
 denomina- 
 
 ed 
 
 tion 
 
 1808 
 
 Cong. 
 
 1867 
 
 i pisoopat 
 
 1867 
 
 Non-fleet. 
 
 1861 
 
 Non-sect. 
 
 1825 
 
 Baptist 
 
 1800 
 
 N. J. C'n. 
 
MASTKR OF AIM'S 
 
 MATIIFMATICS 
 
 553 
 
 Special Instruction. — Tlic Clarke Institution 
 for Deaf-Mutes was established at Northampton 
 in 1867. Pupils arc instructed in the ordinary 
 branches of an English education, besides philos- 
 ophy, zoology, chemistry, and drawing. There 
 is attached to the institution, also, a cabinet shop 
 iu. which many nt' the pupils work a part of each 
 i day. Though founded by private benefaction, 
 
 ', 
 
 .it receives an annual appropriation from the 
 'state, the amount from the utter source being, 
 in 1875, SI 1,415. The number of pupils during 
 the year was 50 ; the number of instructors. 8. 
 The Boston Day-School for Deaf-Mutes was 
 founded in 18(i9. It is a city tree school for both 
 sexes, and is supported entirely by taxation. The 
 number of pupils, in L874 — 5, was (i.'i; the Dum- 
 ber of instructors, 7. The Perkins Institution and 
 Massachusetts Asylum for the Blind was estab- 
 lished in 1829, Samuel G. Howe being its first 
 superintendent. (See Howe, S. G.) The total num- 
 ber of pupils admitted iuto it since its foundation 
 was, in 1874 — 5, 865. All blind children who 
 are residents of the state, who are suitable sub- 
 jects for instruction, and who are recommended 
 by the governor, are received for education. The 
 ordinary branches taught in the common schools 
 of the state form the course of study; to which is 
 added instruction in music and in some branch 
 of manual labor. In addition to the original 
 donation made by its founder, it receives from 
 the state an annual grant of $30,000. Besides 
 the residents of the state who are educated 
 gratuitously, it receives pupils from other states, 
 upon payment of a certain annual sum. The 
 number of instructors and employes was 55 ; the 
 number of pupils, 156. There is also a school 
 for idiotic ami feeble-minded youth in Boston, 
 founded in 1848, the number of instructors and 
 employes in which, in 1874 — 5, was 16, of pupils 
 118 ; a private institution for the same purpose, 
 founded in Barre in 1848, with 50 instructors 
 etc., and 75 pupils ; and one for backward and 
 peculiar children, in Fayville, with 7 instruc- 
 tors and 8 pupils. There are nine industrial 
 and reform schools in different parts of the state 
 for the reformation of children, principally those 
 between the ages of 7 and 17 years, who have 
 been committed for poverty, truancy, vagrancy, 
 and petty crimes. 
 
 MASTER OF ARTS. See Degrees. 
 
 MASTERY METHOD. See Latin Lan- 
 guage. 
 
 MATHEMATICS.— The term mathematics 
 is the Latin word maihemalica, or the Greek 
 word /ia&ijfiaTiKd, anglicized. The Greek word 
 was derived from fiav&avu, to learn; whence 
 fia&qoic, learning. Both the Greeks and the 
 Romans used the word mathematica as we do 
 the word mathematics. The use of the plural 
 form indicates that this department of human 
 knowledge was formerly considered not as a 
 single branch, but as a group of several branches, 
 much as we use the phrase the mathematical 
 sciences. This group of sciences is subdivided 
 into pure mathematics and mixed, or applied, 
 mathematics. In this article we are concerned 
 
 I mainly with the former. The branches qf pure 
 mathematics are arithmetic, algebra, the calculus, 
 and geometry. In tin's classification, the calculus 
 is made to include the infinitesimal calculus, the 
 calculus of finite differences, and the calculus of 
 variations; while geometry includes the com- 
 mon or special geometry, general {analytic) 
 
 \ geometry, descriptive geametrij. trigonometry, 
 conic sections, and the new science of quater- 
 nions.— No at ten i pi togivea philosophical defini- 
 tion of the department of knowledge embraced 
 under the term mathematics, has as yet been so 
 successful as to lie generally accepted. The stale 
 ment that " mathematics is the science of quan- 
 tity" is often flippantly repeated as a defini- 
 tion, but it can scarcely serve for that purpose. 
 Conite defines mathematical science, as the sci- 
 ence which has for "its object the indirect 
 measurement of magnitudes, and constantly 
 proposes to determine certain magnitudes from 
 <>///ers, by means of the -precise relations existing 
 between them." It is not a little singular that, 
 while this great thinker rules geometry out of 
 the realm of pure mathematics, he bases his 
 definition of the science exclusively on the 
 geometrical conception. That he does so is espe- 
 cially apparent in the discussion from which he 
 deduces the definition. Moreover, it is not clear 
 how the abstract principles of the science can be 
 included in this definition. Such propositions as, 
 "The product of the multiplicand and the multi- 
 plier is equal to the sum of the products of the 
 parts of the multiplicand into the multiplier ;" 
 " The root of the product of several quantities 
 equals the product of their like roots ;" " The 
 bisector of any angle of a triangle divides the op- 
 posite side into segments which are proportional 
 to the adjacent sides;" etc., are scarcely embraced 
 in Comte's definition without an unjustifiable ex- 
 tension of the signification of its terms. "We pro- 
 pose the following definition: Pure mathematics 
 is a general term applied to several branches of 
 science -which have for their object the inves- 
 tigation of the properties and relations of quan- 
 tity — comprehending number, and magnitude 
 as the result of extension — and of form. It will 
 be observed that this definition embraces that 
 of Comte, inasmuch as the measurement of 
 quantities, or the determination of unknown 
 from known quantities, is effected by an in- 
 vestigation of their relations ; but, on the other 
 hand, we can scarcely say that all investiga- 
 tions of the relations of quantities are for the 
 purposes of measurement, or of determining un- 
 known quantities from known. — But the chief 
 purpose of this article is to inquire as to the 
 place which mathematical studies should occupy 
 in our courses of elementary instruction. In 
 such an inquiry, the leading considerations are, 
 (I) For what purpose should these studies be 
 pursued in such courses? (II) To what extent 
 should they be pursued? and (HI) What gen- 
 eral principles should govern our methods of 
 teaching ? 
 
 I. Mathematical studies should be pursued in 
 elementary schools primarily as a means of mental 
 
554 
 
 MATHEMATICS 
 
 discipline. Notwithstanding all that Sir William 
 Hamilton has said, and the formidable array of 
 names which he adduces in support of his views, 
 it may still be claimed that there is no single 
 line of study pursued in schools, which develops 
 the mind in bo many ways, and is so well adapted 
 to every stage of mental growth, as mathemat- 
 ical studies. It has heeii I, and quite gen- 
 erally conceded, that the power of observation 
 is not developed by mathematical studies ; while 
 the truth is, that, from the most elementary 
 mathematical notion which arises in the mind of a 
 child to the farthest verge to which mathematical 
 investigation has been pushed and applied, this 
 power is in constant exercise. By observation, 
 as here used, can only be meant the fixing of 
 the attention upon objects (physical or mental) 
 no as to note distinctive peculiarities— to recog- 
 nize resemblances, differences, and other relations. 
 Now. the first mental act of the child recogniz- 
 ing the distinction between one and more than 
 one, between one and two, tico and three, etc., is 
 exactly this. So, again, the first geometrical 
 notions arc as pure an exercise of this power as 
 can b.' given. To know a straight line, to distin- 
 guish it from a curve ; to recognize a triangle 
 and distinguish the several forms — what are 
 these, and all perceptions of form, but 
 of observations? Nor is it alone in securing 
 these Fundamental conceptions of number and 
 form thai observation plays so important a part. 
 The very genius of the common geometry as a 
 method of reasoning —a system of investigation 
 — is, that it is but a series of observations. The 
 figure being before the eye in actual representa- 
 tion, or before the mind in conception, is so 
 closely scrutinized, that all its distinctive feat- 
 ures are perceived; auxiliary lines are drawn (the 
 imagination leading in this), and a new series of 
 inspections is made; and thus, by means of direct, 
 ■simple observations, the investigation proceeds. 
 So characteristic of the common geometry is this 
 method of investigation, thai Comte, perhaps 
 the i !' all writers upon the philo ophy of 
 i itics, is disposed to class geometry, a, to 
 its methods, with (he natural sciences, as being 
 based in rvation. Moreover, when we con- 
 sidi I mathematics, we need only to notice 
 that the exercise of this faculty is SO essential, 
 that the basis of all such rea oning, the very 
 material- v.: h which we build, ha ived 
 the name ol ms. Thus we might pro 
 to consider the whole ran-" ..i the human facul- 
 
 . and find for most of them ample scope for 
 
 exercise in mathematical - .lies. Certainly, 
 
 the memory will not be found to he neglected. 
 The very firsl Steps in number, counting, the 
 multiplication table, etc., make heavy demands 
 
 on this power; while tin- higher branches re- 
 quire the memorizing of formulas which are 
 Simply appalling to the uninitiated.** So the 
 imagination, the creative faculty of tie mind, 
 his constant exercise in all original mathematical 
 investigation, from the solution of the simplest 
 c ,i i i . h ■ discovery of the most recondite 
 principle; for it is not by sure, consecutive si 
 
 as many suppose, that we advance from the 
 known to the unknown. The imagination, not 
 the logical faculty, leads in this advance. In fact, 
 practical observation is often in advance of log- 
 ical exposition. Thus, in the discovery of truth, 
 the imagination habitually presents hypotheses, 
 and observation supplies facts, which it may re- 
 quire ages for the tardy reason to connect logic- 
 ally with the known. Of this truth, mathemat- , 
 ics, as well as all other sciences, affords abundant 
 illustrations. So remarkably true is this, that 
 to-day it is seriously questioned by the majority 
 of thinkers, whether the Bublimest branch of 
 mathematics- -the infinite simal calculus — has 
 any thing more than an empirical foundation, 
 mathematicians themselves not being agreed as 
 to its logical basis. — That the imagination, and 
 not the logical faculty, leads in all original in- 
 vestigation, no one who has ever succeeded in 
 producing an original demonstration of one of 
 the simpler propositions of geometry, can have 
 any doubt. Nor are induction, analogy, the 
 scrutinizing of premises or the search for them, 
 or the balancing of probabilities, spheres of 
 mental operation foreign to mathematics. No 
 one, indeed, can claim a pre-eminence for math- 
 ematical studies in all these departments of iu- 
 tellectual culture, but it may. perhaps, be claimed 
 thai scarcely any department of science affords 
 discipline to so great a number of faculties, and 
 that none presents so complete a gradation in its 
 exercise of these faculties, from the first prin- 
 ciples of the science to the farthest extent of its 
 application, as mathematics. 'I here are, however, 
 two respects in which, probably, special pre- 
 eminence may lie claimed for mathematics as a 
 disciplinary study: namely, training the mind to 
 i he habit of forming clear and definite concep- 
 tions, and, of clothing these conci ptions in exact 
 and perspicuous language. 'I his pre-eminence 
 arises, in part, from the fact that, in this 
 branch of knowledge, the terms convey exactly 
 the same meaning to all minds. Thus, there can 
 
 be no difference between the conceptions which 
 different persons have of Jiff, six, a straight 
 . a circle, a perpendicular, a product, a 
 square root; or of the statements, that .'! and 5 
 make 8, that the sum of the angles of »/ plane 
 triangle is two right <>• etc. The concep- 
 
 tion in each case is definite, and the langu 
 may be perfectly clear. That this i.- not so in 
 most other sciences, no one needs to be told. 
 ('an we be sure that all have the same concep- 
 tion of the metaphysical terms idea, perception, 
 
 ~>ii? Can any one discriminate infallibly be- 
 
 tween an adjective and an adverb; between downy, 
 
 hirsute, and pubescent? Are the conceptions 
 
 designed to lie conveyed by the terms schistose, 
 fissile, slaty, laminar, foliated, squamose, so dis- 
 tinct that no two mineralogists will ever inter- 
 change them? Is the meaning of a Greek text 
 always unequivocal ? Is it an easy matter for 
 any two persons to gel exactly the .-ame concep- 
 tion of the causes which led to a certain political 
 revolution : can either be absolutely certain. from 
 any language which he can use, that no one will 
 
M ATI I KM ATI CS 
 
 555 
 
 
 mistake his conception? — That the habit of 
 mind which rests satisfied only with clear and 
 definite conceptions, and the power oi Bpeech 
 which is able to clothe snch conceptions in lan- 
 guage perfectly unmistakable, are most impor- 
 tant attainments, need not be argued; and 
 these are exactly the ends which mathematical 
 studies, properly pursued, are adapted to secure. 
 In this hasty review, nothing has been said di- 
 rectlyof these studies as a means of developing 
 the reasoning faculties, since it is generally con- 
 ceded that pur.' mathematics is practical Logic, 
 and that pupils, who do not learn to reason by 
 their study of mathematics, fail of the most im- 
 portant end of such study. 
 
 Doubtless, the common answer to the question, 
 Why should mathematical studies lie pursued in 
 schools? would be, for their practical value; by 
 which is meant, their direct application to the 
 affairs of life, as in reckoning bills, computing 
 interest, measuring' distances, volumes, areas, etc. 
 It is, indeed, true, that, in the every-day affairs 
 of life, to the accountant, and to the man of 
 business, a certain amount of arithmetical 
 knowledge is essential — that surveying, civil 
 engineering, mechanics, navigation, geography, 
 ami astronomy, are based on geometry. But, let 
 it be observed, that only a special few practice 
 the arts last named, and that for the masses 
 embraced in the former specifications, a very 
 limited amount of arithmetical knowledge is all 
 that they are required to apply. And still 
 further, while it is, indeed, necessary that the 
 business man should be able to add, subtract, 
 multiply, divide, and compute interest, skill in 
 these operations can never form the basis of prac- 
 tical success in life, except in the case of mere 
 clerks. Many of the most sagacious business 
 men would make wretched work with their 
 ledger columns, and they know too well their own 
 deficiencies to risk themselves in any important 
 numerical computations. Indeed, the elements 
 of practical success in life are quite other 
 than a specific knowledge of any branch of sci- 
 ence whatever, however indispensable a certain 
 amount of such knowledge may be in particular 
 callings. The conclusion, therefore, is, that the 
 important point is not, how much mathematical 
 knowledge can be crammed into the minds of 
 pupils, but by what methods of teaching and 
 study such habits of mind can be secured, as 
 will make the pupils most efficient in performing 
 the duties of life. 
 
 II. 7'< what extent should uu/fhemaiical stud- 
 ies be pursued in our elementary courses? — 
 Were we to judge from the practice of most 
 schools, we should conclude that mathematical 
 studies ought to occupy from one-third to one- 
 half of the pupil's time throughout his school 
 life, unless, indeed, a slight exception is to 
 be made in favor of other studies for the last 
 two years of a college course ; that is, that read- 
 ing, sp-Hing, writing, geography, grammar, his- 
 tory, literature, rhetoric, logic, the who]" domain 
 of natural science, including the physical consti- 
 tution of the human system, chemistry, languages, 
 
 metaphysics, political economy, — all these, and 
 whatever else goes to make up the furniture, and 
 
 secure the discipline, of a well-cultivated mind. 
 
 are only to receive as great, or at most twice as 
 great, a part of the pupil's time, as his mathemat- 
 ical studies. And this is no exaggeration, as will 
 be obvious from an inspection of the curriculum 
 of a graded school, or college. For the first six 
 or seven years of the ordinary evaded public 
 school course , if we include the oral lessons, in 
 number anAform, of the lowest grade, arithme- 
 tic forms one of the three main studies for the 
 entire course ; and, in not a few cases, there are 
 two arithmetical exercises, one in mental (oral), 
 and one in writti n arithmetic, or one in arithme- 
 tic and another in algebra, each day, constitut- 
 ing, in such cases, fully one half of the school 
 work. During the entire course of the high or 
 preparatory school, either algebra, higher arith- 
 metic, or geometry constitutes one of the studies, 
 except for a part of one year; but this exception 
 is much more than made up by the large rela- 
 tive amount of time which the pupil's mathe- 
 matical studies usually occupy, and by the fact 
 that not unfrequently some two of these studies 
 are pursued at the same time. In the college 
 course, one of the three regular studies for the 
 first two years is. almost invariably, mathematics. 
 — So far, reference has been hail exclusively to 
 pure mathematics, including only arithmetic, al- 
 gebra, geometry, and perhaps a little of general 
 (analytical) geometry and the calculus. What- 
 ever of applied mathematics, including surveying. 
 navigation, mechanics, astronomy, etc., is to be 
 studied, must find additional time in the course. 
 The question then arises, can the legitimate 
 purposes for which mathematical studies shoidd 
 be pursued, be secured in any less time? In or- 
 der to answer this, let us observe the exact pro- 
 portion of time usually given to the pure mathe- 
 matics in a course of training extending through 
 the ordinary college course. Arithmetic has from 
 one-half to one-third of the pupil's time in 
 the elementary schools. In the high school or 
 academic course, to obtain any creditable knowl- 
 ei Ige of algebra, geometry, and plane trig* tnometry, 
 and to review the arithmetic, at least one-third 
 of the time is consumed. Passing into the col- 
 lege with this knowledge of mathematics, the 
 student finds onc-1hird of the time, for the first 
 two years, scarcely adequate to secure a respect- 
 able knowledge of higher algebra, geometry, 
 and trigonometry, the elements of the general 
 geometry, and the infinitesimal calculus ; and 
 whatever of applied mathematics is learned, as 
 of surveying, mathematical drawing, mechanics, 
 astronomy, etc., must find a place in the other 
 two years of the college course. Now. all this is 
 .-imply inevitable, unless relief can be found in 
 the course prior to entrance upon college work. 
 If, however, the inordinate demands of arithme- 
 tic can be so abridged (see Arithmetic), (hat the 
 grammar school course shall include, at least, 
 i [ghteen months' study introductory to algebra 
 
 and geometry, the highschool can save this time 
 for other studies, and also secure such thorough- 
 
556 
 
 MATHEMATICS 
 
 ness in preparation, that the student's course in j 
 college will be far more rapid and satisfactory 
 than at present. With the quality of prepara- 
 tion now secured, it should be borne in mind. 
 that the student comes to college having, it is 
 true, been over the requisite amount, but with 
 so little of the real strength and knowledge which 
 that course should impart, that, if he does jus- 
 tice to his mathematical studies for the first two 
 years, nearer one-half than one-third of his time 
 is consumed upon them. By rigidly confining 
 the study of elementary arithmetic to its proper 
 domain, giving a year in the grammar school to 
 an introduction to algebra, and half a year to 
 the definitions and facts of plane geometry, the 
 pupil may come to the high school so thoroughly 
 prepared in the elements of the three great 
 mathematical studies, — arithmetic, algebra, and 
 geometry, that between two and three years in 
 the high school will be amply sufficient to secure 
 such further proficiency in these branches as is 
 consistent with the course here marked out. 
 Moreover, if the pupil's school life closes with 
 the grammar school, the course thus secured will 
 be of far more value to him in after life, both 
 for practical uses and as a discipline, than the 
 ordinary one. (See ARITHMETIC, ALGEBRA, and 
 Geometry.) — In the above, it will be observed. 
 that the genera] geometry and the infinitesimal 
 calculus are ineluiled in the college course. The 
 elements of the former are usually required, al- 
 though it is quite common (for no good reason) 
 
 to make the latter elective. By omitting the 
 Calculus, the graduate; leaves college without ever 
 having looked into on< of the Bublimest deparl 
 incuts of human knowledge, or having even 
 the remotest idea of the language and methods 
 of the mechanics and astronomy of the day, or 
 being able to read an advanced treatise upon 
 any scientific subject as treated by the modern 
 mathematician. Xor can the beauty and power 
 of the general geometry be appreciated without 
 a knowledge of the calculus. Thus the pupil 
 who is allowed, at his option, to leave this out 
 of his course, leaves college a hundred years be- 
 hind his time, in one of the leading departments 
 of human knowledge. 
 
 HI. What general principles should govern 
 our methods qf teaching mathematics? —This 
 topic has been quite fully treated in the separate 
 articles Arithmetic, Algebra, and Geometry, 
 to which reference is made. It is proper to 
 add here, that, from first to last, the methods 
 should he BUCh as will give absolutely clear per- 
 ceptions and conceptions, and secure facility. 
 accuracy, and elegance in expression. These ends 
 are of vastly more practical importance than 
 
 the mere ability "to gel the answer" of special 
 
 problems. The notion which prevails among 
 
 ■Ome teachers, that if the pupil learns the prOO- 
 
 and incomes expert in it. he has obtained 
 v thing thai is essential, and that, whatever 
 
 of the rationale may be desirable will be. in 
 
 some way, induced by this mechanical process, 
 
 is an exceedingly vicious one. In the first 
 place, it is far more important that the pupil 
 
 should be able to comprehend the logic, and to 
 express his ideas in intelligible language than 
 merely to solve any number of problems, since 
 the former ability he will have occasion to use 
 every day of his life, while he may never need 
 the latter at all. But we are not driven to the 
 alternative of securing ctdture at the expense of 
 mechanical skill ; the very best means to acquire 
 expertness in mathematical manipulations is 
 that which secures the best results in culture. 
 No greater intellectual monstrosity probably 
 ever presents itself than he who is usually 
 known as a mathematical genius; that is. one 
 who has a wonderful ability to do what nobody 
 else can do. or cares to do — to solve knotty and 
 often senseless mathematical problems. On the 
 contrary, the object of mathematical study shoidd 
 be to develop men with cultured minds, not to 
 make them mere computing machines. 
 
 Mathematical Literature. — It is designed, un- 
 der this topic, to point out to the teacher a few 
 treatises which may be helpful to him in extend- 
 ing his knowledge of the subjects of arithmetic, 
 algebra, and geometry beyond the mere rudi- 
 ments; in becoming acquainted with the history 
 of these branches; and in providing material 
 for use in class-room work. It is rather to men- 
 tion a few works which arc presumed to be acces- 
 sible to the teacher than to furnish an extended 
 list of authors. The best catalogues of writers 
 on algebra and geometry accessible to teachers 
 are those in the Encyclopaedia Britannica. The 
 list of writers on algebra contains 171 nanus, 
 and extends from .'{(It) A. D. into the present 
 century. The catalogue of geometrical writers 
 covers the period from 272 A. D. to the middle 
 of the present century. — By far the most com- 
 plete history of arithmetic with which we are 
 acquainted is the article by Dr. Peacock in the 
 Encyclopaedia Metropolitans (vol. i. of Pure 
 Scit nee. pp. :i(J!(— -ls2). The Encyclopaedia 
 Britannica also contains a fair history of this 
 branch, together with as good an outline of tho 
 history of algebra and geometry as the teacher 
 can usually find accessible. The Algebra of 
 Wallis.an Knglish mathematician (1616 — 170.'f), 
 
 has a history of the subject prefixed. — Of 
 
 Mathematical Dictionaries, mention may be 
 
 made of those by Button I London. L815); 
 Harlow (London, L814); and Navies and I'eck 
 
 (N. V.. L856).- Montucla's History qf Mathe- 
 matics I l vols., 4to). besides being too volumi- 
 nous tor most readers, is brought dow u only to 
 
 the beginning of the present century, and is 
 
 only to be had in latin or blench. A more 
 
 recent work is Geschichte der Mathematik, by 
 
 Poppe (Tubingen. 1828), to be had only in 
 
 German. Among other works in the German 
 
 language, especial reference should be made to 
 
 Diesterweg's Wegweiser (Essen, L851). This 
 
 may lie called a treatise on the Theory owl 
 
 Practice qf Teaching, discussing not only the 
 philosophical principles of pedagogy, but treat- 
 ing, quite in detail, methods and even text- 
 books. In the second volume (pp. 343 — «194), 
 may he found a full list of German text-books 
 
MATRICULATE 
 
 MEDICAL SCHOOLS 
 
 557 
 
 on arithmetic, in connection with the discussion 
 of meth o d s . The succeeding chapter treats in 
 like manner of geometry. — Among arithmetics 
 
 not bow specially candidates for popular fa\or. 
 the following will be found interesting and val- 
 uable in a teacher's library : An Introduction to 
 Arithmetic on the Lancasterian plan, by John 
 Euton (Albany, 1817); Dana 1'. Oolbum's 
 Arithmetic will be found exceedingly suggestive 
 to the practical teacher; Window's Gomputist's 
 Manual contains a large amount of practical 
 matter very useful to the teacher ; ( 'base's 
 Arithmetic furnishes a vast amount of material 
 ■which can be utilized by the teacher in the reci- 
 tation room ; Sangster's Arithmetic (Montreal, 
 18(14) will be found quite instructive in many 
 respects. To these the intelligent teacher will add 
 the various series offered to the public by lead- 
 ins educators in the United States. — In algebra, 
 among English works, Todhunter's Algebra, 
 and Theory of Equation; Bland's Examples; 
 Wood's, Young's, Hind's, and Bonnyeastle's trea- 
 tises on algebra will afford not only the elements 
 of the subject, but an cxhaustless mine of ex- 
 amples for practice. Peacock's Algebra (2 vols., 
 8vo, London) is one of the most celebrated 
 theoretical treatises. Serret's is one of the best 
 French treatises. Cirode's and Comberousse's 
 are also valuable. Hackley's Algebra (N. Y., 
 1840) will be found valuable for reference, being 
 one of the most complete ever published in this 
 country. In reference to geometry, it may be sug- 
 gested that every teacher should read President 
 Hill's two little books. First Lessons in Geome- 
 try, and Second Book. Most English writers on 
 the elements of geometry have contented them- 
 selves with editing Euclid with slight modifica- 
 tions. The student who wishes a knowledge of the 
 modern methods in elementary geometry, will 
 find Muleahys work quite satisfactory. Rouche 
 et Gomberousse, a French treatise (2 vols., 8vo), 
 is the most complete modern treatise on element- 
 ary geometry with which we are acquainted, 
 and is a complete thesaurus of examples for in- 
 dependent work. All of De Morgan's (English) 
 mathematical works are exceedingly valuable, 
 containing treatises on algebra, geometry, the 
 calculus, and other branches. In regard to the 
 relative value of mathematical studies, see Sir 
 William Hamilton, Discussions on Philosophy 
 and Literature (N. Y., 1858), art. On the Study 
 of Mathematics as an Exercise of Mind; J. S. 
 Mill, Examinations of Sir William Hamilton's 
 Philosophy (1865); Grote, Review of this work 
 (1868) ; Barnard's Journal of Education, vol. 
 xni.; Whewell, On the Principles of English 
 University Education (Loud., 1838); T. H.S af- 
 ford, Modern Mathematics iii the Collage Course, 
 in Proceedings of National Educational Asso- 
 ciation, at St. Louis, 1871; T. Hill, True Order 
 of Studies (N. Y., 1876); Todhunter, The Con- 
 flict of Studies (Lond., 1873). 
 
 MATRICULATE (Lat. matricida, a public 
 roll or register), to admit to membership in a 
 college or university, by enrollment. (See Col- 
 lege, and University.) 
 
 MEDICAL SCHOOLS. The earliest prop- 
 agation of medical science was effected by 
 means of tradition, and not until much later by 
 written records. The oldest instructors were the 
 priests in the temples of .Esculapius. Hippocrates, 
 among the Greeks, Galen, among the Romans, 
 and Avicenna, among the Arabs, were the first 
 savants that brought into scientific shape the 
 written fragments left by their predecessors. The 
 
 study of their works was the main source of med- 
 ical knowledge for centuries. The ancients had 
 no special medical schools, but their schools gave 
 scientific and philosophical instruction in general. 
 Such institutions could be found in Athens, 
 Alexandria, Rome, and other cities. The name 
 medical school was first used in the 0th century 
 in the city of Salerno, where an association of 
 several medical teachers, of the Greek, Jewish, 
 Latin, and Arabian nations, lectured on the heal- 
 ing art. Their method, substantially, consisted in 
 the reading and explanation of the old Greek, Ro- 
 man, and Arabian parchment scrolls. After the 
 foundation of universities, in the 13th century, 
 the medical schools, as a rule, were united with 
 them. (See University.) The earliest were those 
 of Naples and Messina, founded in 1224, by the 
 emperor Frederick II. of Germany. The division 
 into faculties was first made in Paris, Prague, 
 
 and Vienna. Highly celebrated medical scl Is 
 
 of the early middle ages were, together with these 
 above named, at Leipsic, Basel, Montpellier, Bo- 
 logna, Padua, Pavia, and Salamanca; at the last 
 named of which, the Jews and Arabs taught 
 mathematics and medicine. In all these institu- 
 tions, the writings of the ancient physicians 
 named above formed the basis of teaching; and 
 only with the development of anatomy, did the 
 scientific efforts attain a higher degree of perfec- 
 tion. In 1308, the Great Council of Venice pro- 
 vided, by a special decree, that the medical pro- 
 fession of the city should, once a year, make the 
 dissection of a human body; and, about 1320, 
 the first work on anatomy, based on his own dis- 
 sections, was written by Mondini di Luzzi. It 
 was first printed in Padua, 1478, and for a long 
 time was held in the highest esteem. Still, the 
 dissection of human bodies remained a very rare 
 occurrence, a special permission of the pope hav- 
 ing to be obtained in each case. The real father 
 of anatomy was Andreas Vesalius, professor in 
 Basel; where his celebrated work, De human i 
 corporis fabrica, was edited in 1403. Surgery, 
 the child of anatomy, remained, for a long time, 
 in the hands of empirics ; and it was not until 
 the 17th or 18th century, that it was taught 
 scientifically, in universities. The cultivation and 
 development of anatomy also changed the meth- 
 od of teaching, in the medical schools, from a 
 simple lecturing to a more demonstrative course; 
 and, with the accumulation of material for teach- 
 ing, it was natural that medical science should 
 be more and more divided into specialties, for 
 which separate instructors were appointed. The 
 first stationary clinics were organized at Leyden, 
 by Boerhaave, in the first half of the 18th cent- 
 ury, and at Vienna, by his pupil Van Swieten. 
 
558 
 
 MEDICAL SCHOOLS 
 
 These two, together with Van Haen and Johann 
 Peter Frank, were the founders of the practical 
 method of medical instruction. Previous to them, 
 the professors, of surgery for instance, lectured 
 before their audience for years, without even 
 touching a patient with the knife. This to us, 
 nowadays, seems hardly comprehensible. The 
 firsl clinic of obstetrics was established in 17'JO. 
 in Paris, by th-e'goire. A very celebrated school 
 of midwifery was founded, about 1730, at Stras- 
 bourg, and first conducted by the renowned 
 Johann Jacob Fried. Separate clinics for other 
 specialties, as ophthalmology, otology, skin and 
 venereal diseases, etc., are of more recent date. 
 
 In Germany, every medical school constitutes 
 a faculty of a university: this is also the rule 
 in the other European countries. England ex- 
 cepted. Considering the degree of preparatory 
 instruction, Germany ranks highest. The stu- 
 dents,after having gone successfully through the 
 gymnasium, receive a certificate of maturity, 
 that enables them to matriculate in the medical 
 faculty of any of the German universities of 
 the German Empire, Austria, and Switzerland. 
 No time is fixed for the duration of the course 
 of studies; but, generally, it takes five years. At 
 the end of the first or second year, the student 
 has to undergo an examination in natural philos- 
 ophy: and, at the end of the whole term, a rigid 
 examination [rigorosum), theoretical as well as 
 practical, takes place for the degree of M. I>. 
 Besides this, the several states require what is 
 called a Staatsexamen (state examination] before 
 granting a license for practice. In all the < rerman 
 universities, the students have absolute freedom 
 to select such lectures, and to follow them in such 
 order, as they please. Very nearly the same are 
 t'i ■ arrangements in the universities of Austria, 
 Switzerland. Denmark, Norway, Sweden, Russia, 
 the Netherlands, and Belgium. — France lias 
 only three medical faculties (Fan's. Montpellier, 
 and Nancy) and 21 so-called ('<■<,/,:< pr6paratoires. 
 At the former, the docteurs en mddecine el chi- 
 rurgie arc educated ; the latter train an inferior 
 class of physicians [officiers de .-wWc), licensed 
 for practice only in certain departments. In 
 France, no freedom of instruction exists. The 
 lectures and their order are strictly prescribed. 
 'The time of study is fixed at .'! years for the "///- 
 
 de sante, and at 1 years for the degree of 
 M. I >. England has preserved the old independ- 
 
 eiit iii-tit in ions of the middle ages. The state 
 hi no influence upon tin' education of medical 
 students; and only a weak control is exercised 
 
 by the Genera] Medical Council of London — 
 the highest medical authority of Great Britain. 
 
 This body appoints the corporations that have 
 
 the right to educate and license physicians. All 
 medical bcI Is are private institutions main- 
 tained by private means. Twenty three so-called 
 "licensing bodies" (7 in England, 11 in Scotland. 
 5 in Ireland) bestow the privilege of practicing 
 the art. the qualifications tor which may be ob- 
 tained at 15 medical Schools. Of these. 27 are ill 
 England ill in London alone), s in Scotland, 
 and loin Ireland. The licensing bodies require 
 
 4 years' study, and a certificate showing the 
 scientific acquirements of the applicant to be 
 sullicient for the study of medicine. The differ- 
 ent degrees that may be obtained at the English 
 universities are Bachelor of Medicine (M. B.), 
 Bachelor of Surgery I 1!. S.t. Master in Surgery 
 (M.S.). and Doctor of Medicine (M. !>.). Simi- 
 lar to the English medical schools are those of 
 India and Australia. — In Italy. 17 universities 
 are maintained by the state, and 5 by municipal 
 and provincial corporations. Perfect freedom of 
 instruction is allowed, the only control exercised 
 over the students consisting in 6 several exami- 
 nations in the different branches of medical sci- 
 ence : after passing which the license is granted. 
 For the diploma laurea di dottore in medicina 
 e chirurgia,a separate examination is required. — 
 Turkey has a medical school in Constantinople, 
 divided into a military and a civil department, 
 and organized after the French model. The same 
 is the case with the medical academy in Cairo, 
 Egypt, i stablished by Mehemet Ali, in L V L!7. 
 
 M dical Education in America. — For more 
 than a century after the American colonies had 
 been planted, they did not contain an institution 
 of medical learning. Medical instruction was 
 alone conveyed in the irregular form of medical 
 pupilage. A few physicians, in different parts 
 of the country, eminent for their skill and popu- 
 larity, attracted to themselves numerous pupils, 
 w ho enjoyed the advantages of the library and the 
 conversation of their preceptor, compounded his 
 medicines, and occasionally attended him in his 
 visits: these preceptors, after three or more years, 
 Signed certificates of attendance which supplied 
 the place of diplomas. In some sections, a system 
 of apprenticeship existed; the young medical 
 pupil being indentured for a period of time, often 
 as long as seven years. Those students who as- 
 pired to a regular degree in medicine, and the 
 high public favor accorded to it. were obliged to 
 cross the ocean and to attend one of the European 
 universities, a step not unfrequently taken by 
 thus,, able to afford the great expense of such a 
 course. In some of the larger towns, an occasion- 
 al private course of lectures on anatomy, surgery, 
 etc.. was attempted with success: and these paved 
 the way for the regular and orderly organization 
 of medical colleges. The fust medical faculty in 
 
 the country was instituted in 1 7(i~>. under the 
 
 auspices of the ( lollege of Philadelphia, which was 
 afterwards merged in the far-famed University 
 of Pennsylvania. In L767, a second school was 
 founded in New York, as a department of King's 
 (now Columbia) College, having six chairs, from 
 
 which lectures were, from the outset, read upon 
 anatomy, theory and practice of physic, surgery, 
 chemistry and materia niedica. and midwifery. 
 
 These two faculties, the only ones established be- 
 fore the Revolution, were possessed of very 
 meager means and appliances of instruction, but 
 
 they placed their standard of requirements very 
 
 high, much higher than it has since been, or is 
 even now. held. The principal rules of the 
 New York faculty were (I I a preliminary exami- 
 nation, in latin and some branches of natural 
 
MKDICAD SCHOOLS 
 
 559 
 
 
 philosophy, was required of all matriculants who 
 bad not taken a degree in arts; (2) after three 
 years' study and one complete course of lectures, 
 the bachelor's degree was allowed ; (3) after an- 
 other year and a second full course, students 22 
 years of age were admitted to examination for 
 the doctorate : and they were required to pub- 
 lish and publicly defend a thesis on some medical 
 subject. The examinations were conducted after 
 the pattern of the University of Edinburgh, the 
 regnant medical school of that day. These 
 schools were broken up by the Revolutionary 
 war. in 177(>. at which time they had graduated 
 about 50 physicians. With the return of pet 
 these institutions were resuscitated : and other 
 faculties were formed in different parts of the 
 country, principally as departments of previous- 
 ly existing literary colleges or universities. — that 
 of Harvard in L782, Queen's in 1792, and Dart- 
 mouth in 179G. They did not at once enjoy the 
 attendance of large classes, for the country was 
 impoverished and distressed by the effects of a 
 long war ; and they exercised with caution and 
 reserve their privilege of conferring medical de- 
 grees, so that, with the close of the 18th century, 
 their graduates did not exceed 253 in number ; 
 and the honorary M. D. was but seldom granted. 
 Among the eminent names allied to these pio- 
 neer movements are those of Morgan, Rush, 
 Jones, Bard, Romayne, Hosack, Warren, and 
 Nathan Smith. During the opening quarter of 
 the present century, as national prosperity re- 
 vived, and learning began to flourish and students 
 to multiply, a great degree of energy marked the 
 progress of medical education. In 1825, the 
 number of schools had increased from four to 
 sixteen, well distributed, geographically; in twelve 
 states, principally the Northern and sea-board 
 states. Three were south of the Potomac, and 
 two west of the Alleghanies. They were, as a 
 rule, affiliated with some previously existing col- 
 lege, but the practice of seeking private, inde- 
 pendent charters had commenced; these charters 
 were readily granted by the legislatures of the 
 various states. The American medical college 
 then began to take shape and direction, the same 
 essentially that it retains at this day. Govern- 
 ment, as a rule, withheld all support, endowment, 
 or control ; and what little protective legislation 
 had previously been enacted was then, or soon 
 after, repealed ; practical anatomy was a felony 
 by statute ; the populace were still inimical to 
 dissection, the last mob-rising being as late as 
 1820. Thrown upon their own resources, and 
 recognizing the necessities of the land for prac- 
 titioners, the colleges broke away from the line 
 of European tradition, at once increasing the 
 facilities and lowering the standard of medical 
 education. The minimum of requirements was 
 pretty uniformly adopted; preliminary qualifica- 
 tions were not demanded; the time of study was 
 shortened ; examinations became less difficult ; 
 the printed thesis and its public defense wen' 
 remitted except on special occasions ; and, about 
 1812, the primary degree of M. U. ceased, and 
 all diplomas declined in appreciation. Identified 
 
 with this formative period, are the names of 
 Physick, Mott, Drake, Mussey, Caldwell, God- 
 man, McDowell. KLnight, and Childs. Unprom- 
 ising as this Bystem, or want of Bystem, in 
 medical education, Beemed to the conservative 
 and educated part of the profession, and despite 
 
 protests, in greal variety, made as early as 
 
 1827, against the deuvmrate tendencies of the 
 now developed American plan, the status of in- 
 struction grew worse rather than better. Char" 
 tered colleges of an interior grade, often-times 
 short-lived, multiplied, — duplicated even in the 
 same town; indeed, from 1 8 '_'."> to 1850, their 
 number almost trebled. In some, inferiorpro- 
 fessors lectured to benches promiscuously tilled, 
 the regulations were lowered, the lecture-term 
 was reduced to three months, and the attendance 
 even then was not obligatory, and few candidates 
 were rejected. It is even said that diplomas, 
 with lithographed signatures, were sold. About 
 this time (1850), largely through the instrumen- 
 tality of the American Medical Association, the 
 demand for reforms gradually made itself felt. 
 No radical change of plan has been adopted 
 or is immediately probable, but a progressive 
 growth from within is manifest. Schools of the 
 poorer quality are still unduly multiplied; there 
 are now over GO of all grades, about 30 others 
 having been discontinued. The time of study, and 
 the length of the lecture-term, are yet too short, 
 although additional courses have been added 
 which are for the most part optional, and the 
 number of branches taught has been increased. 
 The instructor is still also the examiner of the 
 candidates for graduation, although some visiting 
 censor* have been appointed. The curriculum, 
 nominally the same as 50 years ago, is vastly im- 
 proved by the introduction of clinical teaching, 
 by demonstrative methods and illustration that 
 excite the admiration of critics from abroad, 
 and in a few cases by the grading of classes. The 
 superior appointments of the more modern 
 schools facilitate the work of the student, and 
 many of them have their buildings close to the 
 hospitals. The study of anatomy by dissection 
 is now as easy as formerly it was difficult. The 
 American plan favors the production of a superi- 
 or teaching corps. The success of a school is 
 ordinarily in direct proportion to the merits of 
 professors; the brightest and most progressive 
 minds, therefore, are diligently sought out, and 
 a fruitful emulation is excited among them to 
 render their lectures at once practical and popu- 
 lar. From these and other considerations, tin- 
 conclusion is inevitable — that the colleges of the 
 United States are destined to advance, however 
 defective their origin and place may be. In 1874, 
 the number of instructors was 780; of pupils, 
 over 7.000, of whom 2,000 were graduated as 
 doctors in medicine; one student in ten had pre- 
 viously obtained a degree in arts or science. In 
 the above enumeration and description, only the 
 "regular" schools are included. In this century, 
 these schools have graduated fully 7">,000 candi- 
 dates. In regard to the education of women as 
 physicians, a favorable sentiment has been grow- 
 
560 
 
 MEDICAL SCHOOLS 
 
 MEIEROTTO 
 
 ing up, and some progress has been made, three 
 good schools being in operation. In the medical 
 faculties of South America and the British do- 
 minions, the scale of regulations is higher than in 
 the IT. S., both as to preliminary qualifications 
 and the term of study. In Brazil, there are two 
 departments of medicine; in Canada, there are six, 
 some of them quite small and poorly sustained. 
 The subjoined table contains a list of the med- 
 ical colleges and departments in the U. S. 
 
 Dental Colleges. — In the United States, the 
 first institution of this kind was the Baltimore 
 College of Dental Surgery, which received its 
 charter in 1839. In 1876, there were in the 
 U. S. the following dental schools : 
 
 Medical College 
 or 
 
 Location 
 
 -c 
 
 g.fi 
 
 J3 = 
 
 1 = 
 - u 
 
 
 Department 
 
 
 O 
 
 1858 
 1858 
 
 aj c 
 
 > ° 
 
 2 
 3 
 
 is.S 
 
 Med. Coll. of Alabama 
 Med. C. of the Pacific 
 
 Mobile, Ala 
 
 ?1 
 
 San Francisco, Cal. . 
 
 20 
 
 Univ. of California San Francisco, Cal.. 
 
 1864 
 
 1 
 
 40 
 
 
 1812 
 
 3 
 
 34 
 
 Atlanta Med. CoU 
 Univ. of Georgia 
 
 Atlanta, Ga 
 
 1855 
 1831 
 
 2 
 
 17 
 
 
 
 Savannah Med. Coll. .[Savannah, Oa 
 
 1853 
 
 2 
 
 16 
 
 Northwestern Univ.. .Chicago, 111 
 
 1859 
 
 3 
 
 39 
 
 Bush Med. Coll Chicago, 111 
 
 1844 
 
 3 
 
 20 
 
 
 1870 
 
 2 
 
 32 
 
 M. C. of Evansville. . . Evansville, Ind 
 
 1847 
 
 1 
 
 23 
 
 Coll. of rhysicians and] 
 
 
 
 
 Surgeons of Indiana Indianapolis, Ind.. . 
 
 1874 
 
 2 
 
 16 
 
 Univ. of Indiana 
 
 Indianapolis, Ind. . . 
 
 1869 
 
 2 
 
 22 
 
 Univ. of Iowa 
 
 Iowa City, Iowa 
 
 1868 
 
 2 
 
 StO 
 
 Coll. of Physicians and 
 
 
 
 
 1850 
 
 2 
 
 16 
 
 
 1*52 
 
 2 
 
 20 
 
 
 
 1874 
 
 
 
 Central Univ 
 
 
 1874 
 1S69 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 30 
 
 Louisville Med. Coll. . 
 
 24 
 
 
 1837 
 
 <> 
 
 20 
 
 Univ. of Louisiana. . . 
 
 New Orleans, La... . 
 
 1834 
 
 3 
 
 16 
 
 Med. School of Maine, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1820 
 
 3 
 
 16 
 
 Coll. of Physicians ainl 
 
 
 
 
 
 1872 
 
 , , 
 
 22 
 
 
 1807 
 
 2 
 
 20 
 
 
 1832 
 
 2 
 
 36 
 
 Harvard Univ 
 
 Ann Arbor, Mich. . . 
 
 1782 
 1850 
 
 3 
 3 
 
 
 
 26 
 
 Detroit Mod. Cell 
 
 
 1868 
 
 3 
 
 40 
 
 Univ. of Missouri.... 
 
 
 1873 
 
 2 
 
 40 
 
 Kansas City Coll. of 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Kansas City, Mo.... 
 
 1869 
 
 2 
 
 21 
 
 Mo. Med. Coll iSt. Louis, Mo 
 
 1840 
 
 2 
 
 24 
 
 St. Louis Med. Coll.. . St. Louis, Mo 
 
 1841 
 
 3 
 
 22 
 
 Dartmouth College . . . 
 
 lianover, N. H 
 
 1796 
 
 3 
 
 44 
 
 Union Univ 
 
 Albany, N. Y 
 
 Brooklyn, N. Y 
 
 1839 
 1860 
 
 3 
 1 
 
 24 
 
 L. I. Coll. Hospital... 
 
 36 
 
 
 Buffalo, N. Y 
 
 1847 
 
 3 
 
 20 
 
 liellevue Hospit. IX, C. 
 
 New York, N. Y 
 
 1861 
 
 3 
 
 37 
 
 Coll. of Phys. and Sur. 
 
 New York, N.Y 
 
 1807 
 
 3 
 
 32 
 
 Free M. C. for Women 
 
 New York, N. Y 
 
 1871 
 
 3 
 
 26 
 
 Univ. of City of N. Y.. 
 
 New York, N. Y 
 
 1841 
 
 3 
 
 32 
 
 Women's Med. Coll. of 
 
 
 
 
 
 the N. Y. Infirmarv. 
 
 New York, N. Y 
 
 1864 
 
 3 
 
 35 
 
 
 Syracuse, N. Y 
 
 1872 
 
 3 
 
 39 
 
 Cincinnati College of 
 
 
 
 
 
 Medicine and Surg. . 
 
 Cincinnati, Ohio... 
 
 1851 
 
 3 
 
 40 
 
 Med. Coll. of Ohio 
 
 Cincinnati, Ohio... 
 
 1819 
 
 3 
 
 20 
 
 
 Cincinnati, Ohio... 
 
 1852 
 
 3 
 
 21 
 
 Cleveland Med. Coll. . 
 
 Cleveland, Ohio 
 
 1843 
 
 2 
 
 40 
 
 Univ. of Wooster 
 
 Cleveland, Ohio.... 
 
 1 SCO 
 
 2 
 
 20 
 
 StarliugM.O.andHosp. Columbus, Ohio 
 
 1847 
 
 2 
 
 22 
 
 
 1867 
 
 3 
 
 .. 
 
 Jefferson Med. Coll.. . 
 
 Oxford. Pa 
 
 1870 
 1824 
 
 3 
 2 
 
 37 
 
 Philadelphia, Pa 
 
 22 
 
 Univ. of Pounsvlvauia 
 
 Philadelphia, Pa.. . . 
 
 1765 
 
 3 
 
 24 
 
 ■Women's M C. of l'a. 
 
 Philadelphia, l'a. . . . 
 
 1850 
 
 3 
 
 32 
 
 Med. Coll. of 8. C 
 
 Charleston, S. C 
 
 1826 
 
 
 32 
 
 
 Columbia, S. C 
 
 1868 
 
 •• 
 
 36 
 
 Univ. of Nashville* and 
 
 
 Vanderbilt Univ., . . 
 
 
 1850 
 
 
 20 
 
 Tex. Med. C. andHosp. 
 
 Galveston. Tex 
 
 1S73 
 
 2 
 
 16 
 
 Univ. of Vt 
 
 Charlottesville, Va. . 
 Kiitimond, Va 
 
 1809 
 1SJ4 
 1851 
 
 2 
 *2 
 
 16 
 
 Univ, of va 
 
 
 Med. Coll. of Va 
 
 :n 
 
 Georgetown Univ Washington, D. C . 
 
 1851 
 
 3 
 
 20 
 
 
 Washington, D. C... 
 Washington, D. C... 
 
 1868 
 
 3 
 3 
 
 40 
 
 
 22 
 
 Dental School 
 
 
 
 .5 a 
 
 <" s 
 
 or 
 
 Location 
 
 -= e: 
 
 '-- 
 
 iiE 
 
 Department 
 
 
 o 
 
 > - 
 
 >j 
 
 New Orleans D. C 
 
 New Orleans, La. . . . 
 
 1867 
 
 2 
 
 17 
 
 Baltimore College of 
 
 
 
 
 
 Dental Surgery 
 
 
 1840 
 
 2 
 
 23 
 
 Maryland Dental Coll. 
 
 
 1873 
 
 2 
 
 26 
 
 Boston Dental College 
 
 
 1867 
 
 3 
 
 16 
 
 Dental School of Har- 
 
 
 
 
 
 vard University 
 
 Boston, Mass 
 
 1868 
 
 2 
 
 20 
 
 Missouri Dental Coll. 
 
 
 1865 
 
 2 
 
 17 
 
 N.Y. Coll. of Dentistry 
 
 New York. N. Y 
 
 1866 
 
 2 
 
 20 
 
 Ohio Coll. of Dent. Sur. 
 
 Cincinnati, Ohio 
 
 1845 
 
 2 
 
 22 
 
 Pa. Coll. of Dent. Sur. 
 
 Philadelphia. Pa 
 
 1856 
 
 2 
 
 36 
 
 Phila. Dent. Coll 
 
 Philadelphia, Pa 
 
 1863 
 
 2 
 
 36 
 
 Amer. Dental College 
 
 
 1873 
 1873 
 
 2 
 
 1? 
 
 Univ. of California. . . 
 
 Oakland, Cal 
 
 
 HbmceopatJ/ic Colleges. — The homoeopathic 
 system of medicine was first definitely propound- 
 ed by Hahnemann (born in Meissen, Saxony, 
 1755 ; died in Paris, 1843). The first homoeo- 
 pathic college was founded at Allen town, Pa., by 
 Dr. Wesselhoeft, but it no longer exists. In 1876, 
 there were in the United States the following 
 homoeopathic colleges and departments : 
 
 Homoeopathic 
 
 College or 
 Department 
 
 Location 
 
 Chicago, HI. 
 
 Chicago, HI 
 
 Iowa City. Iowa.. 
 
 Boston, Mass 
 
 Ann Arbor, Mich . 
 St. Louis, Mo 
 
 St. Louis, Mo 
 
 New York, N. Y. . . 
 
 New York. N. Y... 
 Cincinnati, Ohio. . 
 Cleveland, Ohio.. 
 
 5.2 
 
 J= c 
 
 c 
 1876 
 
 - 
 - t> 
 
 eg 
 
 § 8 
 
 3 
 
 1860 
 
 
 1870 
 
 3 
 
 1873 
 
 3 
 
 1874 
 
 3 
 
 1858 
 
 2 
 
 1876 
 
 3 
 
 1860 
 
 3 
 
 1863 
 
 3 
 
 1878 
 
 3 
 
 1849 
 
 2—3 
 
 1869 
 
 2-3 1 
 
 4 o 
 
 29 
 
 29 
 30 
 86 
 36 
 20 
 
 18 
 24 
 
 28 
 28 
 21 
 
 ChicagoHomoeop.Coll. 
 
 Hahnemann Med. Coll. 
 
 and Hosp. of Chicago 
 
 Iowa State University 
 
 Boston Univ 
 
 Univ. of Michigan. . . . 
 Homceop. M. C. of Mo. 
 Missouri School of 
 
 Midwifery 
 
 N.Y. Homceop. M. C. 
 N. Y. Med. Coll. and 
 
 Hosp. for Women.. 
 
 Ptdte Med. C..II 
 
 Homceop. Hosp. Coll. 
 Hahnemann Med.Coll I 
 
 of Philadelphia (Philadelphia, Pa. 
 
 In Europe, there are chairs of homoeopathy 
 in the universities of -Munich, Germany, and of 
 Buda-Pesth, Hungary; also, a school of homoeop- 
 athy in Ixmdon, England. 
 
 MEIEROTTO, Johann Heinrich Lud- 
 wig, a German educator, born August 22., 1742; 
 died September 24., L800. He was appointed, 
 in 1771, professor, and. in 1775, rector of the 
 Joachimsthal Gymnasium, in Berlin; in which 
 position lie was i-minently successful, being called 
 the King of Rectors. While a member of the 
 school council, he traveled through the provinces 
 of Prussia, Bilesia,and Posen.and displayed great 
 talent in organizing common schools. Besides 
 numerous works on various subjects, he wrote a 
 Latin grammar constructed on a plan which bore 
 some resemblance to the met hods of Jacotot and 
 Hamilton, and which attracted considerable at- 
 tention at the time of its introduction, but soon 
 fell into disuse. 
 
MELANCIITON 
 
 MEMORIZING 
 
 561 
 
 MELANCHTHON, Philip, one of the 
 church reformers of the 16th century, and one 
 of Germany's greatest schoolmen and educators, 
 was born at Bretten, a little town near Beidel 
 berg, Feb. L6., 1 197; died at Wittenberg, April 
 19., 1560. [n recognition of the extraordinary 
 influence which he exerted upon the schools 
 of Germany in his own and the following cent- 
 uries, he has been honored with the titleof Pros- 
 oeptor Germanice. Alter the death of his father, 
 in 1507, he was taken into the family of his 
 grandmother, who was a sister of the celebrated 
 Kcnchlin, and lived at Pforzheim. Reuchlin, 
 who frequently visited his sister, was delighted 
 with the progress of young Melanchthon, gave 
 him books, and, after the fashion of the times, 
 chanced his original name Schwarzerd into 
 the (jlreek Melanchthon. At the age of only 
 twelve years, .Melanchthon was sent to the uni- 
 versity of Heidelberg, which two years later, in 
 1511, gave him the bacealaureale degree, but, 
 in 1512, by reason of his extreme youth, de- 
 clined to confer upon him the degree of .Master. 
 While at Heidelberg, Melanchthon took charge 
 of the studies of the two sons of Count Lowen- 
 Stein, and sketched, pi'obably for their use, the 
 first outlines of a grammar of the Greek lan- 
 guage. In 1512, he went to the university of 
 'fiibingen, where he was involved in the struggle 
 between the old and the new era, and with the 
 energy and ardor of youth strove to compass all 
 branches of knowledge. In L 514, at the age of 
 seventeen, he was made a Master, and at once 
 began to lecture on Latin classics. His career 
 as an author began about the same time ; for, as 
 early as 15 1(5, he published an edition of Terence, 
 and, in 1518, his Greek grammar, at the close of 
 which he announced " that he intended, in con- 
 junction with a number of his friends, to edit 
 the works of Aristotle in the original". At the 
 same time, he attended mathematical and med- 
 ical lectures, and studied the science of law. 
 In 1518, Frederick the Wise, Elector of Saxony, 
 upon the recommendation of Reuchlin, ap- 
 pointed him professor of Greek in the university 
 of Wittenberg. When he left Tubingen, Sinder, 
 his old teacher, said of him : " As many learned 
 men as the university can boast of, they are, 
 nevertheless, none of them, learned enough to 
 form a suitable estimate of the learning of him 
 who is about to leave us." Melanchthon entered 
 AVittenberg Aug. 25., 1518, and remained there 
 until the close of his life, laboring for 28 years in 
 intimate connection with Luther. He lectured 
 on the most diverse subjects, — the Old and 
 the New Testaments, dogmatics, the Greek and 
 Latin classics, ethics, logic, and physics. I lis 
 fame spread throughout Europe; and the number 
 of his hearers reached at times as high as two 
 thousand, embracing not only Germans, but 
 Frenchmen, Englishmen, Poles, Hungarians, 
 Italians, and Greeks. Among the distinguished 
 educators who were formed under his teaching, 
 were Trotzendorf and Neander. He was often, 
 and in various ways, appealed to for counsel in 
 school matters. The people of Nuremberg having 
 3G 
 
 resolved to establish a gymnasium, invited Me- 
 lanchthon to become its rector. I !e declined this 
 
 in\ itation, lest he might seem to be ungrateful to 
 the Elector; bul consented to take a leading pari 
 in the inauguration of thegymnasium, which took 
 
 place in 152(1. At the third centennial ceK lna- 
 tion of this event, in L826, a statue of Melanch- 
 thon was erected in front of the building. Put 
 
 1 * *» i 
 
 the most important event of his life in connec- 
 tion with school matters, was his visitation, in 
 1 "'27, of the churches and schools of Thiuingia, 
 undertaken by order of the Elector, John the 
 Constant, and through the influence of Luther. 
 In company with Myconius and Justus 'I homas, 
 lie traveled over the whole country. and. in 1528, 
 published his Report, or Book of Visitation, & 
 work of great importance in the history of edu- 
 cation in Germany. This book describes the be- 
 ginnings, as yet crude, of a high-school system 
 in that country, without organization, or well- 
 regulated activity. Melanchthon was a prolific 
 author of text-books, which wire universally 
 introduced, and were perpetuated through many 
 editions. They comprise a Greek and a latin 
 grammar, two manuals of Logic, one of rhetoric, 
 one of ethics, and one of physics, all character- 
 ized by great clearness of expression. Under 
 the title Declamationes, we have a collection of 
 Melanchthon 's orations, which contain a treasure 
 of educational wisdom. The best edition of 
 Melanchthon "s numerous works is that of Bret- 
 Schneider and Pindseil. in the Corpus Reformdr 
 torum (28 vols., 1834 — 60). His life has been 
 written by Ledderhose (Heidelberg. J 847 ; trans- 
 lated into English by Krotel) ; Schmidt (1861); 
 and many others. 
 
 MEMORIZING, committing to memory, or, 
 as it is sometimes called, learning by heart, 
 generally implies repetition or rote-learning; 
 though it need not be without an understanding 
 of what is memorized. The law of repetition 
 has an important application in many processes 
 of instruction that are addressed, wholly or in 
 part, to the memory. The mere memorizing of 
 words or sentences, in order to produce a show 
 of knowledge is a great abuse. Children may, 
 however, be required to commit to memory some 
 statements which they do not perfectly under- 
 stand, such complete understanding requiring a 
 more mature degree of intellectual development. 
 "No doubt", says Oalderwood (On Teaching, 
 Edin., 1874), "all children must commit to 
 memory a good many things they do not rightly 
 understand. Such storing of the memory he 
 longs less or more to all study." This is the view 
 also of Thring [Education and School, Lon- 
 don, 18G4): "There should be a clear perception 
 how far it is wise to explain, and to proceed on 
 the principle of making a boy thoroughly under- 
 stand his lessons, and how far they should be 
 looked on as a mere collecting of material and a 
 matter of memory. It must be borne in mind 
 that, with the young, memory is strong, and 
 logical perception weak. All teaching should 
 start on this undoubted fact. It sounds very 
 fascinating to talk about understanding every 
 
562 
 
 MEMORY 
 
 thing, learning every thing thoroughly, and all 
 those broad phrases, which plump down on a 
 difficulty, and hide it. Put in practice, they are 
 about on a par with exhorting a boy to mind he 
 does not go into the water till lie can swim." The 
 method referred to in this citation is the other 
 extreme from mechanical word memorizing, and 
 while not as injurious, or as likely to be adopted, 
 is equally unphilosophical. The extent to which 
 memorizing is to be carried, and the branches of 
 instruction to which it is to be applied, constitute 
 important subjects for the exercise of the teach- 
 er's judgment and intelligence. (See Concert 
 Teaching, Memory, and Rote-Teachin<;.) 
 
 MEMORY is often represented as a distinct 
 faculty of the mind ; but this may do harm in 
 education. The mind is one. and has no sepa- 
 rate faculties distinct from each other, the term 
 faculty being used merely for the sake of con- 
 venience. It is important to turn away from 
 this mode of conception, and to look at the 
 phenomena as they arise in the mind. An ob- 
 ject and a mind come into connection ; what is 
 the result ? An impression is produced on the 
 mind, or more correctly the mind forms an im- 
 pression of the object. What becomes of this im- 
 pression? A new object presents itself, and then 
 the impression disappears before the new impres- 
 sion which the mind forms of the new object. Has 
 the former impression disappeared altogether? 
 No. We believe that, in some way or other, 
 it still remains in the mind. If a similar ob- 
 ject were to come before the mind, it would be 
 conscious that it had formed an impression of it 
 before, and the two impressions would blend into 
 one. We have here, then, a peculiar power of the 
 mind to retain what it has once had; and this 
 power does not apply merely to perceptions or 
 other intellectual acts, but to feelings and desires. 
 A longing for an object has been aroused within 
 us. The longing is displaced for a time by some 
 other pressing passion. But the longing is still 
 in the mind; and when the appropriate causes of 
 excitation occur, the longing will come back, and, 
 it may be, blend with the new longing which 
 helps' t«> awaken it, or repel the new longing 
 which has aroused it by contrast. This then is 
 the first feature of memory. The soul has the 
 power of retaining feelings, volitions, perceptions, 
 and thoughts. The question has been raised, 
 can these feelings, volitions, and thoughts en- 
 tirely and absolutely vanish from the mind? A 
 categorical answer cannot, from the nature of 
 the ease, be given to this question : but. certain 
 tacts render it likely that the mind retains every 
 thing, and that it is merely the power of resus- 
 citation which is defective. Many circumstances 
 
 which seem to have been entirely forgotten, are, 
 
 under peculiar conditions, recalled to the memory. 
 
 It is said that often, when persons have been 
 
 drowning, they have seen, as in a rapid vision, 
 their pail life in multitudinous details which 
 
 they had entirely forgotten. People, in diseases 
 
 of the brain, have remembered languages, which 
 
 they had learned in early days, bul which they 
 
 i.e.i to have lost completely, facts like these 
 
 point to the indestructibility of that which has 
 once had a place in the soul. — But besides the 
 power of retention, there is the other power of 
 reproduction ; and it is to this power that the 
 educator has to direct his attention. What are the 
 means of strengthening the reproductive power 
 of the minds of children ? We have to look at 
 the conditions of its exercise ; and. in this con- 
 nection, we must consider the four following 
 principles: (I) It is plain that the impression 
 will be reproducible in proportion to the strength 
 and vivacity with which it is first made. This 
 strength depends partly on the natural capacity 
 of the child, partly on whether the stimulus 
 in the object is sttch as to produce a strong 
 impression. The educational inferences from 
 this statement are numerous. Thus it follows 
 that wherever a real object can be presented 
 to a child, it should be used in preference to 
 any picture of it, and that a picture of it is 
 better than a mere verbal description. More- 
 over, if more than one sense can be employed, so 
 much the better. Jf any object is to be re- 
 membered, the child will remember more easily, 
 if he can touch, smell, and taste it. as well as see 
 it. This arises partly from the fact that these 
 direct sensations produce strong impressions, but 
 partly also from what we call our second prin- 
 ciple of memory: — (II) Every means should be 
 used to concentrate the attention on the object. 
 If we wish to make a child remember an object, 
 the object must be allowed to lie before the 
 child's eve or mind for some time. In the percep- 
 tion of every object the process is somewhat as 
 follows : the perception or sensation has first to 
 displace the preceding perception or sensation. 
 It then gathers strength and occupies for a time 
 the whole mind. But, soon after, another object 
 of perception or of thought presents itself ; and 
 the mind will occupy itself with this. 'I his new 
 perception will weaken, and finally expel, the 
 other. Each perception is connected with two 
 other perceptions or mental acts — with the one 
 which it expels and the one by which it is ex- 
 pelled. Now. the power of reproducing the men- 
 tal act depends not merely on the Btrength with 
 which the act is executed at its central moment, 
 but also on the strength of the connections which 
 it may form with the antecedent and subsequent 
 acts: and this strength depends partly on the 
 time and attention with which they can be kept 
 together in the mind : for, in every mental act, 
 there are subsidiary simultaneous acts which 
 scarcely reach the point of consciousness. For 
 
 instance, when I examine a house, there is some 
 Blight perception of the intermediate space be- 
 tween me and the house, of the objects, such as 
 
 trees, which may be in that space, and of the sky 
 which is overhead. These pass from the one 
 
 definite perception to the other, and in a latent 
 state help to recall the one. when we get the 
 other. The strength of the connect i< m is in- 
 Creased, if there be a natural connection between 
 
 the two mental acts, such as that of cause and 
 effect, means anil etui, or if there lie some points 
 of resemblance between them, or some points of 
 
MEMORY 
 
 5G3 
 
 contrast. But, in .all cases, time must bo given 
 to let these points of resemblance or contrast 
 flow over, as it were, from the one to the other. 
 The danger to which the educator is here ex- 
 posed, is that of attempting to do too much and, 
 therefore, doing what lie docs too hurriedly. I lc 
 must be patient. He must try to intensify the 
 impression by allowing the various senses to deal 
 with it. and he can thus concentrate attention 
 longeron it than he could otherwise do. And 
 he must, as far as possible, bring only two objects 
 or two ideas at a time before the pupil's mind. 
 These should be held together for sometime; 
 and they should, if it is possible, be naturally 
 connected. Of course, there are occasions in 
 which this is neither possible nor advantageous. 
 There are some occasions in which the teacher 
 must pass over a good deal of matter in a short 
 time. He does not wish his pupil to remember 
 the whole, nor would it be good for the pupil to 
 do so ; but these cases should be limited to those 
 of necessity. And a warning should be given 
 against the danger of indulging too much in 
 reading books which, awakening the interest 
 strongly and thus disturbing the nervous sys- 
 tem, do not demand of the reader an accurate 
 recollection. This is specially true of novels. 
 The frequent and rapid reading of these works, 
 in which the reader has no stimulus and no occa- 
 sion to remember the incidents accurately, fills 
 the mind with a great number of vague mem- 
 ories. These memories render indistinct what 
 ought to be distinct, for they abstract so much 
 of the valuable power that the mind possesses 
 for reproduction; and the habit of reading with- 
 out caring to remember, is apt to transfer itself 
 to the books and acts which ought to have the 
 closest attention. — (III) There must be frequent 
 repetition. An object or thought is reproducible 
 easily, when it has been made to occupy a large 
 space in the mind. The power of reproduction is 
 limited by time, and the mind can only reproduce 
 within certain limits in this respect. If, therefore, 
 an object is to be reproduced, the faded impres- 
 sion must be renewed ; and the renewal of the 
 impression strengthens its hold. It is thus that 
 a fact may become indelibly imprinted on the 
 memory. The value of the repetition cannot be 
 overestimated, but great care must be taken not 
 to make it wearisome. — (IV) The power of re- 
 production greatly depends on the state of the 
 health. That there is a very close connection 
 between this power and the body, is proved most 
 conclusively by the numerous instances collected 
 by Dr. Abercrombie, in which abnormal states 
 of the brain were accompanied by abnormal 
 developments of memory. When, therefore, a 
 child forgets, it must not be always attributed to 
 carelessness. A child learns a word on Monday, 
 and knows it with perfect accuracy; but when he 
 comes, on Tuesday morning, to repeat it. he finds 
 he cannot. In all probability, the impression was 
 too weak to last a whole day, and to resist the 
 many and more interesting ideas which have 
 intervened ; but the lesson is not lost. The orig- 
 inal impression is there ; the teacher patiently 
 
 and pleasantly renews the impression; and the 
 old blends with the new. and strengthens, until 
 repetition tixes it in the mind forever. Hut it 
 may lie merely a temporary suspension of the 
 child's power of reproduction, in consequence of 
 illness: and there 18 no surer sign of latent dis- 
 ease than when a child, generally ready and 
 (puck, stumbles and forgets. Some physiologists 
 go the length of affirming that, owing to the 
 EreshnesBof the nervous system, the exercise of 
 the memory should be assigned to the morning: 
 while other mental efforts, such as those of 
 imagination, should be reserved for the evening. 
 These four principles lead not only to the power 
 of reproduction, but to the power of ready and 
 accurate reproduction. In order that the mem- 
 ory may embrace a wide range of subjects, it is 
 essential that the mind should devote itself to 
 such a range of subjects. The power of reprodu- 
 cing a subject depends upon the frequency and 
 strength with which it has come before the 
 mind. It is, therefore, not quite correct to say. 
 that a person has a good or a bad memory. Every 
 one has many kinds of memory. If he has exer- 
 cised his mind in words, he will remember words; 
 if he has given much attention to numbers, he 
 will remember numbers; if to any other class of 
 ideas, he will remember such ideas. But. however 
 great his practice in numbers may be, that prac- 
 tice will not enable him to remember words; and 
 the converse is also true. The teacher must care- 
 fully exercise the pupil in each group of notions, 
 if he expects him to remember them readily and 
 accurately. Perhaps, one of the questions which 
 deserve careful consideration in education is 
 what ought to be forgotten. The human mind 
 is limited in its range, and cannot reproduce 
 every thing. Ought it to put into its store-house 
 any thing that it cannot hope to reproduce ? We 
 think that it ought. Where the aim is to pro- 
 duce in the pupil a clear idea or notion, many 
 particulars must be adduced which, studied atten- 
 tively for a short time, will render the notion 
 clear and distinct : but it is not necessary that the 
 mind should retain all these particulars. This 
 is the case, for instance, in geography. In order 
 to form a correct notion of a country, many par- 
 ticulars must be carefully weighed; but, after the 
 notion has been attained, the pupil will wisely 
 drop a great deal of the knowledge which he has 
 temporarily mastered, deeming it enough to 
 know where he can get the knowledge when he 
 wants it. Again, when the object is to inculcate 
 a great principle of action, the same course may 
 lie pursued. If. for example, a teacher wishes 
 to impress upon his pupils the true idea of tolera- 
 tion, he may choose many incidents in history 
 to bring it home to their minds, and may go into 
 the minutest details of these incidents in order 
 to awaken interest ; but he succeeds in his pur- 
 pose, if he leaves a strong and accurate general 
 impression, even though the pupil forgets most of 
 the details which have been given him. The power 
 of forgetfulness is one that can also be directed, as 
 well as the power of reproduction, it is, indeed, 
 true that the greater the effort to forget any 
 
f>64 
 
 MEMORY 
 
 tiling, the more surely is it impressed on the 
 memory; but this holds true mainly in those mat- 
 ters in which there is a strong personal element; 
 and just as a man who sleeps iii a room where a 
 clock strikes can make up his mind not to take 
 any notice of the striking of the clock in his 
 sleep, so, in the impersonal matters of the intel- 
 lect, we can make up our minds to l"t such and 
 such facts fall into oblivion. Kant distinguished 
 memory as the mechanical, the ingenious, and 
 the judicious. The mechanical is employed when 
 the only bond of connection is, thai the two things 
 are in the mind at the same time, the one im- 
 mediately succeeding the other. This is what is 
 called committing to memory, or learning by 
 heart. Such kind of memory must be frequently 
 used in early education. It is important for the 
 teacher to note its character. It depends on 
 simultaneity and succession, and any disturbance 
 of these circumstances disturbs the memory. For 
 instance, it would be very difficult for anyone at 
 first to repeat the Lord's Prayer backwards. He 
 has learned it forwards ; he has not learned it 
 backwards. A. boy learns aino, Hove. He may 
 not have mastered / Jove, amo. If you ask him the 
 Latin word for >/■■>////, he cannot i 11 you; but if 
 you ash him the meaning of mors, he can tell you. 
 The third method — that which Kant calls the 
 judicious, is no doubt the best; since by it, things 
 are remembered by means of th sir natural con- 
 nection in thought. Thoughts can be grouped, and 
 one of a group suggests the other. Phenomena 
 stand in the relation of cause and effect. The 
 cause will suggest the effect, or the effect the 
 cause. — As an example of tin- b icond kind, may 
 be mentioned mnemonics; which is an attempt to 
 introduce an artificial connecting link. Two idea-; 
 are unconnected, but they may be linked by a 
 third which is familiar to the mind. Thus a clock 
 has no real connection with hope; but, having re- 
 solved to make a speech, I fix. on three objects in 
 the hall, with which I arbitrarily connect the three 
 heads of my discourse. The first, for example, 
 is a pillar in the hall, and with it T connect the 
 idea of faith ; this will be my first head, and, 
 when I see the pillar, I shall know how to begin. 
 Hop'' is my second and I have but to look at 
 the clock to recall it to mind; and a third object 
 in the room, in the same manner, will remind 
 me that my third head is charity. Mnemonic 
 systems may be divided into three classes : 
 (1) those which connect the ideas with localities, 
 such as the parts of a room, tablets divided into 
 different compartments, etc. ; (2) those in which 
 
 the ideas are connected with letters or words ; 
 and (3) those in which an attempt is made to 
 seize hold of some natural connection; for in- 
 stance, lunr, mourir, naitre, plaire, rire, vivre, 
 are irregular French verbs, having no connection 
 with each other; but the meanings may be so 
 arranged as to be easily suggestive of each other; 
 thus, die suggests live, live suggests to be born, 
 to be born su gge sts laugh, laugh suggests please, 
 B&dplea jests hate. Now, if two of these 
 
 ideas be kept steadily in the mind together, they 
 
 will remain united in the mind, and afterwards 
 
 the one will suggest the other. None of these 
 mnemonic systems are likely to be of much use 
 to the teacher. They, indeed, often add to the 
 task of memory; they are apt to create confusion, 
 after a time, and they tend to displace intelligent 
 memory. The only case in which some good may 
 be got out of them is in connection with dates. 
 There is no doubt that dates are far more dif- 
 ficult to remember than letters or words ; and, 
 I therefore, a temperate use of letters or words for 
 figures may be recommended. — One of the most 
 noted systems employing letters is the old one 
 of. Grey's Memoria Technica (1730). The letters 
 employed are as follows : 
 
 a e i o « cat oi ei on y 
 
 1 2 .{ 4 5 G 7 8 9 
 
 b d t f I 8 p I: n z 
 
 Hen- c and b Btand for 1 ; e and (/, for 2 ; i and t, 
 
 for '■'<; and so on. 
 
 These letters are assigned arbitrarily to the 
 
 respective figures, and may very easily be re- 
 membered. The first five vowels in order natu- 
 rally represent 1, 2, 3, 4, 5. The diphthong au, 
 being composed of '/ (1 ) and u (."»;. stands for 6 ; 
 oi for 7. being composed of o (4) and i (3); ou for 
 9, being composed of o (4) and u (5). The diph- 
 thong ei will easily be remembered for eight, being 
 the initials of the word. In like manner with the 
 consonants ; where the initials can conveniently 
 be retained, they are made use of to signify this 
 number ; as / for three, /"for four, s for six, and 
 n for nine. The rest are assigned without any 
 particular reason, unless that possibly p may be 
 more easily remembered for 7 or septem, k for 
 8 or .'-.-..-. 1 1 for 2 or duo, b for 1 as being the 
 first consonant, and /for live, being the Roman 
 letter for .".II. than any others that could have 
 been put in their places. A much more ingenious 
 and more effective system, is that taught by 1". 
 Fauvel-Gouraud {Phreno-Mnemotechny, or ^1/7 
 </' Memory, N. Y., 1845; with Dictionary, for a 
 ready application of the system), which was a 
 modification of Fainagle's New Art of Memory 
 (London, 1812). In this, as in other systems, the 
 underlying principle is the law of association of 
 ideas : and. in order to facilitate this association, 
 arbitrary facts and dates are translated into the 
 expressions of ideas or thoughts. Numbers are 
 transformed into words and sentences by the fol- 
 lowing arrangement of equivalents: 
 
 6 7 8 B 
 
 ch k i p 
 
 g soft) g ^hard) v b 
 8h 
 J 
 The vow, 1 and the aspirate h, with the quasi 
 vowels. ir and y, are not represented; and hence, 
 in forming a word for the mnemonic representa- 
 tion of a date or other number, any of these can 
 be used. Thus the number 32 may be represented 
 by iikiii. moon, many, human, woman, etc. This 
 feature of the system adds greatly to the facilities 
 with which it may be applied, for example, 
 suppose it isdesired to fix in the memory in this 
 \\a\ the date of the passage of the LedScaby 
 the Israelites (1491 B.C.); by a careful selection 
 from aiming the numerous words and phrases 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 s 
 
 t 
 
 n 
 
 in 
 
 r 
 
 1 
 
 z 
 
 d 
 th 
 
 
 
 
 
MENNONITES 
 
 MERCERSBURG COLLEGE 565 
 
 that may be taken to represent tin's number, 
 the phrase watery bed is taken, as having some 
 connection in ideas with the historical fad re- 
 ferred to. Then Gouraud's association is ex- 
 pressed in the sentence, "At the Passage of the 
 aed Sea, the armies of Pharaoh met their death 
 in a watery bed") and as long as this phrase is 
 remembered, tin' date involved in it cannot be 
 forgotten. The advantage of this system is. that 
 it need not bring into association beta rogeneous 
 ideas. In the application of it. many other cu- 
 rious devices, such as homopTionic analogies etc. 
 are used. — Of a somewhat similar character is 
 I>r. Alex. Mackay's Facts <t>>'l Dates (Edinburgh, 
 L869). In this, as in Gouraud's system, every 
 date is contained in a sentence which is approp- 
 riate to the event. Thus the sentence which 
 gives the date of Hannibal's defeat al Zamais, 
 "The formidable warrior is defeated." — The art 
 of mnemonics is said by Cicero to have been 
 invented by the Greek poet Simonides. It is 
 described by Cicero, Quintilian, and Pliny. In 
 more modern times, works on the subject have 
 been written by Schenkel (1593), Bruno (1582), 
 Mink (1648), Grey (1730), Aretin (1810), Fain- 
 agle (1812), improved by Aimee (Paris 1832), 
 Bemowsky (1812), Otto "(1843), Kotho {S,,stmi 
 der Mnemonik, Cassel, 1853), Pick (1866),3ayer 
 (1867). Slater {Sentential Chronological, edit, by 
 .Miss Sewell, 1868), Mackay (1869), Minola, 
 Nemos (1875), and many others. A short his- 
 tory of Mnemonics is given in Pick's work. 
 
 MENNONITES, a denomination of Prot- 
 testante, which originated at Zurich, Switzerland, 
 in 1525. They spread to Southern Germany, 
 and soon after to the Netherlands, where Menno 
 Symons, a former Roman Catholic priest, joined 
 them in 1535. From him they took their name, 
 though he was not their founder, but only re- 
 organized them. In common with the Friends, 
 they practice non-resistance and abstinence from 
 oaths: and, in common with the Baptists, they 
 reject infant baptism, administering, however, 
 baptism by pouring. In the Netherlands, in 1700, 
 they numbered 150,000 members; but at present 
 have only 20,0011; and. in Germany and Switzer- 
 land, even less than that number. In southern 
 Russia, whither they have gone from Germany 
 as colonists, they form a population of more 
 than 30,000. Their emigration to the United 
 States began in 1683, and continued throughout 
 the entire 18th century. At present their mem- 
 bership in the United States and < 'anadi. is esti- 
 mated at 60,000. They are all of German origin, 
 and most of them still employ the German lan- 
 guage. Nearly all of them are fanners, being 
 favorably known for their honesty, industry, and 
 other domestic virtues, but greatly behind the 
 age in the matter of education. Their lirst at- 
 tempt to found a high school took place in 1868, 
 when the GhrisUiche BUdungsansta.lt (christian 
 institution of learning), at Wadsworth, Medina 
 Co., Ohio, was opened. It is an academy, hav- 
 ing for its principal a theological teacher, Rev. 
 0. J. Van der Smissen. but besides him only 
 teachers of German and English grammar, mu- 
 
 sic, and the elementary branches. The number 
 of pupils, iii L876, was 27. Only one of the 
 
 various divisions existing an g the Menno- 
 
 nites of this country, supports this school, which 
 is under the control of an ''administrative com- 
 mittee." appointed by the general conference of 
 the body. The other divisions of the Mennonitea 
 haw no institutions of learning whatever. Even 
 Sabbath schools e\i>t only in a minority of the 
 churches, and are of quite recenl origin. In 
 Europe also, little is done by the Mennonites for 
 the education of the members of their order. 
 They send their children to the public schools, 
 but support a theological seminary of their own, 
 founded at Amsterdam, in 1812, under the name 
 I)e KweeTcschool der algemeene Doopsgezindt 
 Socieieit ter bevordering ran de predikdienst, 
 i. e., Seminary of the General Society of Bap- 
 tists for the furtherance of the ministry. This 
 seminary is under the control of 12 curators, 
 who are appointed by the trustees of the genera] 
 society. It has at present (1876) 3 professors 
 and about 30 students. In Germany the Menno- 
 nites have an academy at Weierhof, Rhenish 
 Havana, founded in 1868. 
 
 MERCER UNIVERSITY, at Macon. Ga., 
 under the control of Baptists, was founded in 
 1837. It lias a fine building, on grounds com- 
 prising about 10 acres, and is furnished with 
 valuable philosophical and chemical apparatus. 
 Its endowment amounts to $250,000. The li- 
 braries contain about !),000 volumes. The cost of 
 tuition is $>60 per annum : but provision is made 
 for the free tuition of the sons of ministers and 
 of candidates for the ministry. The university 
 comprises a college of liberal arts, with a classical 
 course of four j - ears. and a scientific course of 
 three years ; a department of theology (not yet 
 separateh" organized) ; and a school of law. In 
 1874 — 5, there were 6 professors in the college, 
 and 3 in the law school, and 150 students, of 
 whom 7 were in the law school. The Mercer 
 High School, at Penfield, Greene Co., and the 
 Crawford High School, at Dalton, are connected 
 with the university. The following named per- 
 sons have been presidents of the institution: 
 the Rev. Otis Smith, 1811 — '1 ; the Rev. 
 Jho. L. Dagg, 1). D., 1843 — 50; the Rev. 
 X. M. Crawford, D. I>.. 1850- -60; the Rev. H. 
 1 1. Tucker D.D.,1867— 71 ; and the Rev. Archi- 
 bald J. Pattle, D. P.. appointed in L872. 
 
 MERCERSBURG COLLEGE, at Mercers 
 burg. Pa., founded in 1865, is under the control 
 of the Reformed Church in the United States. 
 It succeeded Marsha. 11 College (founded in 1835), 
 occupying its buildings and grounds. It is sup- 
 ported chiefly by tuition fees and contributions. 
 It has an endowment of 818,000. The libraries 
 contain about 3,000 volumes. The cost of tui- 
 tion is $45 per annum. There is a preparatory, 
 a collegiate, and a theological department. In 
 1875 — 6, there were 7 professors and 75 students, 
 (23 preparatory, 39 collegiate, and 1 3 theological). 
 The presidents have been the Rev. Dr. Thomas 
 G. Apple, and the Rev. Dr. E. E. Higbee, the 
 present incumbent (1876). 
 
566 
 
 METHODISTS 
 
 METHODISTS, the collective name of a 
 number of Protestant denominations that have 
 sprung from the peculiar religious character 
 and influence of John Wesley, a Fellow of Ox- 
 ford University, and ordained as a clergyman of 
 the Church of England. As early as 1729, while 
 a Fellow at Oxford, Wesley gathered about 
 him a number of persons of like character, and 
 spent much time in religious worship, in the 
 study of the Bible, and in active benevolent la- 
 bors among the poor. Their fellow students, either 
 in derision or as a happy expression of their char- 
 acter, called them .Methodists, a term which has 
 been loosely employed not only to describe any 
 who are extraordinarily zealous in religion, but 
 as the recognized name of several denominations 
 that can trace their origin, more or less directly, 
 to the influence of John Wesley. The principal 
 Methodist bodies in Oreat Britain are the Wes- 
 leyan Societies, organized in 1740 ; the Primitive 
 Methodist Church, organized 1819; the Methodist 
 New Connection Church; the United Methodist 
 Free Churches ; the Bible Christian Church, and 
 the British Wesleyan Reform Union. There are 
 also affiliated -Methodist bodies in France. and in 
 Australia ; and la rye and flourishing missions in 
 China, India. South Africa, and elsewhere, under 
 the charge of British Methodists; and bodies of 
 American Methodists, which promise soon in- 
 dependent and affiliated organizations. In Amer- 
 ica, the oldest is the Methodist Episcopal < 'hurch, 
 from which sprung, in L844, the Methodist Epis- 
 copal Church, South; the African Methodist 
 Episcopal Church; the African Zion M. E. 
 Church; and the Colored M. E. Church of 
 America. There are also several smaller organ- 
 izations, called The .Methodist Church, Methodist 
 Protestant Church. American Wesleyan Church, 
 Free Methodist, and Evangelical Association. All 
 these bodies are substantially identical in doc- 
 trine, all maintain a regular itineracy of the 
 preachers; and, in fact, the M. E. (.'hurch, and 
 M. EL < 'hurch, South. embrace by far the greater 
 part of all the membership among the white 
 population. The general summary of Methodists 
 in the United States, in 1876, gave in round 
 numbers 19,000 itinerant ministers and nearly 
 3,000,000 members, in Methodist Episcopal 
 churches; and L,500 itinerant ministers and 
 L 60,000 members, in non-episcopal Methodist 
 
 churches. In the rest of the world, Methodists 
 at the same time numbered about 5,000 itin- 
 erant ministers and L ,000,000 members. Ac- 
 cording to the I . S. census of 1870, the Meth- 
 o lists had 21,337 church edifices, 6,528,209 
 hidings, and church property (edifices and 
 parsonages) worth 969,854,121 ; but they have 
 rapidly increased since that time. 
 
 In Great Britain, the leading body of Meth- 
 odists in England and Scotland is composed of 
 the Wesleyan Societies under the control of the 
 British Wesleyan Conference, which has also a 
 branch in Ireland, and affiliated Conferences in 
 
 the British colonies. As early as 1711, two 
 
 cols, the Eingawood and the Woodhouse 
 
 Crove, were established, which are still flourish- 
 
 ing. Two theological institutions were estab- 
 lished in 1838, which are largely attended, many 
 of the ministers now receiving their education 
 at these schools. They have also the Wesleyan 
 Proprietary School at Sheffield, which is recog- 
 nized as one of the colleges of the London Uni- 
 versity. What are called day schools or parish 
 schools are established numerously in England, 
 complying with the terms required, and sharing 
 in governmental assistance. Also, to fit teach- 
 ers for these schools, the Wesleyans have a large 
 normal school at Westminster. They have also 
 a college designed expressly for the education of 
 those who are preparing to be foreign mission- 
 aries. By means of a Children's Fund and other 
 collections, many needy students are aided while 
 securing an education. The Irish Wesleyan Con- 
 ference has two vigorous schools under its charge, 
 — the Belfast College and the Conventional 
 School at Dublin. There are various other 
 branches of Methodists in Great Britain, all of 
 which manifest an increasing interest in edu- 
 cation. The Primitive Methodist Church has 
 a theological institute at Sunderland ; the Meth- 
 odist New Connection (hurch, has one at Shef- 
 field ; the United Methodist Free Societies, at 
 Manchester; and the Bible Christians. atSheb- 
 bear. 
 
 In C< n/i nhi. there are but two Methodist bodies, 
 the one called the Methodist Church of Canada 
 and Eastern America ; and the other, the M. E. 
 Church of Canada. The former has a flourish- 
 ing university at Cobourg, with colleges of arts, 
 theology, law, and medicine ; also the Mt. Alli- 
 son Wesleyan College, at Sackville, N. B. ; the 
 Wesleyan Female College, at Hamilton; Home- 
 stead College ; Theological College, at Montreal; 
 Collegiate institute, at Dundas; Manitoba Wes- 
 leyan Institute, and Ontario Ladies' College, at 
 Whitby. These institutions have an aggregate 
 property of about one million dollars. They are 
 all under the care of a board of education. The 
 Methodist Episcopal Church of Canada concen- 
 trates its educational interests at Belleville, where 
 it has a flourishing institution called Albert Col- 
 lege, which has university powers, and depart- 
 ments in arts, theology, law. and medicine. There 
 is also connected with it a school for females, 
 called Alexandra I 'ollege. 
 
 In Australia, the Methodists have several 
 flourishing academies and colleges. 
 
 In the United States, the Methodist Episcopal 
 Church was not organized till 1784; but Meth- 
 odist Societies were established in New York 
 and Maryland as early as 17(>0. Rev. Thomas 
 Coke. LL. D., one of the presidents of the 
 first conference, was a graduate of Oxford Uni- 
 versity, ami deeply interested in education. 
 At this conference, a "Book Concern", which 
 has since become one of the leading publi.sh- 
 ing houses in the country, was provided for; 
 and it was ordered that its profits should 
 be devoted to five purposes, one of which was 
 the foundation and maintenance of a college 
 
 particularly designed for the education of preach- 
 ers. A collection for this purpose was also or- 
 
METHODISTS 
 
 567 
 
 dered to bo taken in all the congregations. Thus, 
 education was approved as a part of the legiti- 
 mate work of the church at the time of its or- 
 ganization. The college thus established was 
 
 opened in Abingdon, Md., in 17^7. and 
 called, after bishops Cuke and Asbury, Cokes- 
 bury College, and was well attended till 17'.»7, 
 when the building was destroyed by fire, with- 
 out insurance, causing a loss of about $50,000, a 
 great calamity for the feeble church. Immediately 
 collections were ordered in the societies, and the 
 college was re-opened in Baltimore; but the new 
 building was also soon consumed by fire. So 
 disheartened was the Church by these losses that 
 some hastily inferred that it was "not the business 
 of Methodists to build colleges", and it was im- 
 practicable to resume the enterprise at once; and, 
 for twenty years, all the educational work of 
 the church was carried on in a few private 
 schools in various parts of the country. These 
 schools were somewhat numerous, and, in some 
 instances, formally recognized by the Church; but, 
 for the want of system and permanent foun- 
 dations, the most of what they accomplished has 
 not been recorded in history.— As a kind of sub- 
 stitute for theological schools, the general con- 
 ference ordered that all who entered the reg- 
 ular ministry should pursue for four years a 
 prescribed course of literary and theological study, 
 aud be examined annually in the same; and their 
 promotion in the conference as well as their 
 ordination was dependent on their passing the 
 examinations. This custom, the course of study 
 having been enlarged and improved from time 
 to time, is still practiced; and all Methodist 
 ministers pursue a uniform course of reading 
 and study for the first four years of their min- 
 istry. This has greatly contributed to harmony 
 of belief and theological culture. It has, indeed, 
 been a great educating power, every young 
 Methodist preacher being specially charged to 
 spend from four to six hours in study daily. 
 
 In 1817, largely through the influence of Rev. 
 Wilbur Fisk, B. D., of New England, an alumnus 
 of Brown University, an academy was purchased 
 by the Conference in New England, and opened 
 as a conference seminary. Students of both 
 sexes were admitted. Tne ensuing general con- 
 ference approved the enterprise, and recom- 
 mended all the annual conferences to follow 
 the example. This has become the general prac- 
 tice. The greatest educational force of Meth- 
 odists has appeared in these seminaries. There 
 have been nearly a hundred of these conference 
 seminaries founded, of which some have become 
 extinct after doing a noble work, some have be- 
 come female colleges, and some have grown 
 into regular colleges; but more than fifty 
 still remain in a flourishing condition on the 
 old foundation. The buildings and funds 
 of these seminaries are valued at more than 
 $4,000,000 ; and they employ about 500 teachers, 
 and are attended by about 25,000 students of 
 both sexes. They have educated at least 300,000 
 pupils, mostly young men and young women 
 from 16 to 25 years of age, many of whom have 
 
 become preachers or teachers. Of late, the lead- 
 ing conference seminaries are making efforts to 
 secure endowments in addition to commodious 
 buildings. There are bul few colleges or schools 
 exclusively for women under the care of the M. 
 E. Church. Perhaps ten such institutions may 
 be regarded as permanently founded, and as the 
 property of the Church. These, for the most 
 part, have good buildings, but no considerable 
 endowment fund, and some of them are partly 
 private property. — The first regular college estab- 
 lished by the Methodists in America, except the 
 Cokesbury College mentioned above, which had 
 an existence of only ten years, was the Wesleyan 
 University, at .Middletown, Ct.. in L831. This 
 college has been remarkably successful in the 
 character of its alumni, having graduated about 
 I. '200 in 45 years, besides partially educating 
 many more, a large ftorti »f whom have en- 
 tered the ministry. Other colleges soon sprung 
 up imitating its example; and there were, in 1 877, 
 at least thirty institutions having university 
 charters, about 20 of which were doing respect- 
 able college work. Four or five had also added 
 to the literary college, schools of medicine, law, 
 or theology. The Northwestern University, at 
 Evanston, 111., has associated with it a medical 
 school in Chicago. The Boston University has a 
 medical, a law, and a theological department. The 
 Syracuse University, in Syracuse, N. Y., has a 
 medical college; and a college of missionaries and 
 a law school are a part of its plan. The buildings 
 I connected with all these colleges cost over 
 $3,000,000; the endowments are about$4,000,000, 
 and the number of college students, about 2,500. 
 The number of professors is about 300; of volumes 
 in the libraries, 200,000. Several of these colleges 
 are open impartially to both sexes. The num- 
 ber of young women attending them and pur- 
 suing thorough college courses of study, is com- 
 paratively small; but the experiment has proved, 
 in all respects, a success. Even the medical 
 schools of the Boston and the Syracuse univer- 
 sities are open equally to both sexes, and are 
 largely attended by both males and females. 
 
 The establishment of theological schools proper 
 met with considerable active opposition in the 
 Methodist Episcopal Church, some fearing that 
 the teaching would tend to educate for the minis- 
 try, as a profession, young men who had not 
 been called of the Holy Ghost to this office and 
 work; others maintaining that, if a young man 
 were well grounded in academic and college edu- 
 cation, the theological training might be well 
 enough obtained by the course of study and read- 
 ing furnished for young ministers, and by actual 
 professional work. But, in spite of these ob- 
 jections, principally through the persistent ef- 
 forts of John Dempster, 1). D., a Biblical In- 
 stitute was opened in Concord, N. II., in 
 1847, which was originally attended by stu- 
 dents who had not pursued a college course 
 of study. Br. Dempsters great object being a 
 school exclusively theological for young ministers 
 of whatever grade of scholarship. Subsequently, 
 this school was removed to Boston, and its 
 
5G8 
 
 METHODISTS 
 
 courses of study were greatly enlarged; it is 
 now a department of the Boston University. 
 In 1855, the Garrett Biblical Institute was 
 opened in Evanston, 111., founded on a bequest 
 by a Mrs. Garrett, of Chicago. In 1867, the 
 Drew Theological Seminary was opened in 
 Madison. N. J. These three theological schools 
 are now largely attended by college grad- 
 uates; but they furnish, as yet, but a small 
 portion of those who enter the conferences as 
 regular preachers. From the beginning, it has 
 been the practice to admit to the ministry prom- 
 ising young men, with but a limited school 
 education ; but the relative proportion of college 
 graduates is rapidly increasing. Several of the 
 colleges offer special instruction to candidates 
 for the ministry. 
 
 In tic&fareign missions of the Methodist Epis- 
 copal Church, schools have been established ac- 
 cording to the exigences of the place, some ele- 
 mentary. and some theological, and even medical. 
 Martin Institute, at Frankfort on the Main, tier- 
 many, is a combination of a conference seminary 
 with a theological school. There is also a flour- 
 ishing India Theological School, at Bareilly, 
 British India. Several schools are under the 
 charge of the Woman's Foreign Missionary 
 Society. 
 
 Considerable effort has been made through 
 the Freedman's Ai 1 Society to open and sup- 
 port schools for the freed colored people of the 
 South. About twenty si Is have been estab- 
 lished, employing a hundred teachers, and edu- 
 cating many young colored people for teachers 
 and preachers. In eight years, more than half a 
 million of dollars was expended for this purpose. 
 Most of these schools will, probably, grow 
 into permanent and strong seminaries or colleges. 
 
 In 1869, a board of education of the Methodist 
 Episcopal Church was chartered in the State of 
 New York, by request of the General Confer- 
 ence, designed to hold and disburse funds for 
 the whole Church, particularly to aid students 
 for the ministry, and especially for missionary 
 work: and also, to assist Schools, if any funds 
 are intrusted to it for that purpose. The board 
 is designed to be as permanent as the < Jhurch it- 
 self , consisting <»f two bishops, four preachers, 
 
 and six laymen, appointed in sections, for twelve 
 
 years each, by the General Conference. In L872, 
 
 Rev. K. I >. Maxell. LL. I>.. was elected by the 
 General Conference corresponding secretary: 
 and, since that time, many students, mostly in 
 Colleges and theological schools, have annually 
 
 received some assistance from the board or its 
 
 auxiliary societies, in obtaining an education. 
 
 The General Conference has also recommended 
 the observance of the second Sunday in June as 
 
 ''Children's May." and that collections be taken 
 in the Sunday-schools on that day in behalf of 
 
 the board of education. Tin' beneficiaries of 
 
 the board are all pledged to repay the money 
 
 after completing their school education. They 
 
 receive money as a loan, not by gift. 
 
 The General Conference of 1876 made a pro- 
 vision in regard to education, which was designed 
 
 to render the action of the Church on that subject 
 more Systematic and radical than ever before. It 
 makes it the duty of the presiding elder to bring 
 the subject of education, in individual churches, 
 before the first quarterly conference of each 
 year, and secure the appointment of a commit- 
 tee, of which the preacher in charge shall be 
 chairman : to organize, wherever practicable, a 
 church lyceum for mental improvement; to or- 
 ganize free evening schools ; to provide a library, 
 text-books, and books of reference; to popular- 
 ize religious literature by reading-rooms, or 
 otherwise ; to seek out suitable persons, and, if 
 necessary, assist them to obtain an education, 
 with a view to the ministry : and to do whatever 
 shall seem best fitted to supply any deficiency 
 in that which the church ought to offer to the 
 varied nature of man. In this way. it is hoped 
 to make educational work a part of the duty of 
 every preacher and of every congregation. 
 
 While, in the aggregate, the educational work 
 accomplished by the direct agency of the Meth- 
 odist Kpiscopal Chinch appears creditable, it 
 must be acknowledged that, hitherto, the efforts 
 of the denomination have not been so systematic, 
 and so thoroughly wrought out. on this subject, 
 as in many of its other enterprises. Its numer- 
 ous Sunday-schools are all carefully organized 
 and reported, and thi' circulation of Sunday- 
 school literature is immense. Through the in- 
 fluence of the Rev. J. II. Vincent, corresponding 
 secretary of the S. S. Union, nearly every eiin- 
 day-School in the whole Church feels the power 
 of a central life and controlling spirit. The 
 seminaries and colleges have acted less in con- 
 cert, and some conferences have done compara- 
 tively little for education: but. at last, a con- 
 dition has been reached, in which every society 
 is requested to have a committee on education ; 
 nearly every annual conference has an education 
 society practically auxiliary to the board of edu- 
 cation; every congregation is requested annually 
 to contribute for education : and the seminaries. 
 «ol leges, and theological schools are nearly all 
 Steadily receiving additions to their property; 
 an increasing proportion of the ministers are 
 
 graduates of colleges and theological schools; 
 and the sentiment is strong in the Church that 
 education will be far more thoroughly advanced 
 in the second century of American Methodist 
 history than in the first. 
 
 The Methodist Church is decidedly in favor 
 
 of the public-school system, particularly of the 
 elementary schools attended by children residing 
 
 at home. Several times, the General Conference 
 has expressed the sent iiueiil of the < 'htirch against 
 using the funds of the state to aid parochial or 
 sectarian schools. It is. however, in favor of fol- 
 lowing the practice that has grown up among 
 Americans, as a christian people, of having the 
 
 Bible read as a sacred book in the public schools; 
 though some leading Methodists do not recom- 
 mend even insisting upon that. This Church 
 favors supplementing the work of the state by 
 whatever may be deemed necessary to secure- 
 popular elementary education. It claims that, 
 
METHODISTS 
 
 560 
 
 if the state does no1 provide for education, the 
 Church should. Colleges and universities should 
 not be trammeled by political partisanship or 
 control. The Church is competent to establish* 
 and sustain colleges and universities in which 
 the broadest and best culture shall be given in 
 science, philosophy, and religion. Neither of 
 these should be absenl from a college ora univer- 
 sity ; but it is difficult to maintain them all in a 
 college controlled by the state. — The literary in- 
 stitutions of every grade, under the care of the 
 Church, are so numerous, and their condition is 
 so constantly changing that, for an exact enu- 
 meration of these, attention is directed to the 
 Methodist Almanac and other current publica- 
 tions of the Church. 
 
 When the Methodist Episcopal Church, in 1844, 
 divided itself into two sections, that which be- 
 came the Methodist Episcopal Church. South, 
 retained all the schools of every grade within the 
 boundary created by what was called the Plan 
 of Separation. Among these schools, were se\ era! 
 chartered colleges of high standing. Randolph 
 Macon College had been established in 1832, 
 one year after the Wesleyan University at 
 Middletown, Ct., and is, therefore, next to the 
 oldest Methodist ( 'ollege in America. Emory 
 College, at Oxford, Ga., had been founded in 
 1837, and Emory and Henry College, at Emory, 
 Va., in 1838. Between 1844 and the breaking 
 out of the civil war, other institutions were 
 added. Centenary College, which had been es- 
 tablished by the state of Louisiana in 1825, 
 passed, in 184."), into the hands of the Methodist 
 Episcopal Church, South. Trinity College, in 
 Randolph Co., X. C, arose (1852) from a school 
 commenced by the Rev. B. Craven, D. D. Wof- 
 ford College, S. C, named after the Rev. Ben- 
 jamin Wofford, who gave §100,000 for its en- 
 dowment, was opened in 1855 ; Central College, 
 at Fayette, Mo., in the same year; the Southern 
 University, at Greenboro, Ala., in 1856 ; the 
 Kentucky Wesleyan University, at Millersburg, 
 Ivy., in 1858. The civil war had a most dis- 
 astrous effect upon the Methodist as well as upon 
 the other literary institutions of the Southern 
 states. A number of colleges and other institu- 
 tions wholly perished ; others were closed during 
 the greater part of the war, and have been, since 
 then, but gradually revived. Thus, there were 
 in the state of Alabama three colleges for males, 
 all in a flourishing condition, two of which had 
 their entire endowments swept away; while the 
 third, the Southern University, was greatly re- 
 duced in its means, and only kept open in some 
 of its departments. Since the close of the war, 
 great efforts have been made by the Church to 
 enlarge her educational work. The unfortunate 
 condition in which the finances of most of the 
 Southern states found themselves, proved, of 
 course, a great obstacle; but, more recently, great 
 strides in advance have been made, and; at pres- 
 ent, the Church, possesses, in Vanderbilt Univer- 
 sity, at Nashville, Tenn., the best endowed in- 
 stitution of learning in the South. The movement 
 for the establishment of this institution began in 
 
 L871, when delegates were appointed to a con- 
 tention to consider the subject of a university, 
 
 such as would meet the wants of a church do 
 
 mantling a higher Christian education than 
 
 could be obtained in the South and South-west. 
 It declared that one million of dollars was neces- 
 sary to perfect the plan, and refused to anil 
 
 i/.e steps towards the selection of a site, until the 
 public showed itself in sympathy with the mo 
 
 ment, by a valid subscription of half that 
 amount. It was early discovered that, in the 
 exhausted condition of the South, so soon after 
 the war, it was not practicable to pursue the en- 
 terprise. The project was in abeyance, when 
 Cornelius Vanderbilt, of the Cityof New York, 
 donated 8500,000, to which he subsequently 
 added $200,000. The institution was dedicated 
 and inaugurated in Oct., 1875. (Sec VANDEB- 
 nu.T UNIVERSITY.) In Texas, a convention was 
 called in 1869, to consider the propriety of con- 
 solidating four chartered colleges of the Church, 
 the oldest of which, Rutersville College, had 
 been chartered in 1860 by the Congress of 
 the Republic of Texas. The convention met in 
 I 870. resolved upon the establishment of a united 
 central institution, and declared not less than 
 $500,000 necessary to carry out the design. The 
 new institution was opened, in 1874, as Texas 
 University, and. in 1875, chartered as South- 
 western University (q. v.). The total number of 
 chartered colleges enumerated in the Deport of 
 the Commissioner of Education for 1875, was 1G. 
 All of them are in the Southern states, with the 
 exception of one in < 'alifornia, and one in Ore- 
 gon. r ihe latter, Corvallis College (q. v.), was 
 opened in 18G5, and the legislation of the state, 
 in 1869, placed the agricultural college of the 
 state in connection with it. The Church has a 
 large number of female colleges and high schools 
 under her control. The Wesleyan Female ( ol- 
 lege. at Macon, Ga., is the oldest institution of 
 this kind in the United States, having been 
 chartered by the Legislature of Georgia, in 183G, 
 under the name of the Georgia Female College. 
 The Greenboro Female College, at Greenboro, 
 N. C, is only a few years younger, having been 
 founded in 1841. Other prominent institutions 
 of this class are. the Montgomery Female Col- 
 lege, at Christiansburg, Va.; the Central Female 
 College, at Lexington, Mo.; the Thomasville Fe- 
 male College, at Thomasville, N. C; the Wes- 
 leyan Female Institute, at Staunton. Ya.; Dav- 
 enport Female College, at Lenoir, N. (.'.; Mar- 
 tin Female College, at Pulaski. Tenn.; the 
 Martha Washington College, at Abington, Ya.; 
 the Wesleyan Female College, at Murfreesboro, 
 N. C. — One of the most interesting and impor- 
 tant institutions in connection with the Southern 
 Methodist Church, is the Culleoka Institute, in 
 Mora* 'o./LVnn. It is a model high school, as well 
 as an academy affiliated to Vanderbilt Univer- 
 sity. There has always been a strong feeling in 
 this Church against special schools of theology. 
 Biblical instruction in connection with the reg- 
 ular college course is, however, afforded in most 
 Southern Methodist Colleges. 
 
570 
 
 MEXICO 
 
 MEXICO, a republic of North America; area, 
 741,800 sq. miles; population, about 9,276,000, 
 
 made up of whites, I Teoles, Indians, half-breeds, 
 and a few negroes. The language of the country 
 is Spanish: and the ruling religion, the Roman 
 Catholic. Mexico was discovered by the Spaniards 
 early in the 1 6th century, and was conquered by 
 Cortes, 1519 — 21. It continued in the possession 
 of Spain up to the beginning of the present cent- 
 ury, when it established its independence. Since 
 that time, it has passed through a number of rev- 
 olutions and civil wars. When the Spaniards 
 came to Mexico, they found there the intelli- 
 gent and highly cultivated Aztecs. This people 
 had been preceded by others who had also at- 
 tained a high degree of civilization. In many of 
 the arts and sciences, the ancient Mexicans, 
 when conquered by Cortes, had made great 
 progress. Their calendar was more correct than 
 that of the ancient Greeks and Romans. They 
 knew how to manufacture paper, and possessed 
 maps, on which even the roads were marked 
 which their ancestors had used when they came 
 to Mexico. The education of children was of a 
 very severe character. In each family of the higher 
 classes, the boys remained with their mothers 
 up to the 6th or 7th year, when they received a 
 carefully selected companion; and in their 10th 
 or 12th year, they were sent to the temple, to be 
 educated by the priests. Here they were sub- 
 jected to a strict discipline, and were instructed 
 in the liturgy, and in various other subjects. The 
 girls were also received into the temple, which 
 they did not leave until they were married. For 
 the hoys, there were also military schools. As in 
 the other Spanish colonies, very little was done 
 for education by the Spaniards. A university and 
 -a number of colleges had been established, in 
 which the teachers were generally priests who had 
 been educated in Spain. But insufficient as the 
 instruction was, under Spanish rule, it became 
 worse under the republic. The continual civil 
 wars prevented all progress in education ; while 
 the hatred for every thing that came from Spain, 
 tended to destroy ad educational institutions 
 previously established. Hence, the education of 
 the whites, who alone had been cared for by the 
 Spanish government, was now neglected ; while 
 the native population continued to be neglected. 
 By the law of 1846, the federal government 
 transferred the care of the schools to the separate 
 states, in some of which considerable progress 
 has been male. Recently, the federal govern- 
 ment has again established secondary schools in 
 the capital, principally for the education of 
 teachers. Compulsory education laws have been 
 passed in most of the states; but in some they 
 
 are entirely inoperative. In 1875, president Lerdo 
 
 de Tejada, in his message to congress, referred 
 to education in the following words : "Public 
 instruction has continued to merit particular at- 
 tention. Both in the primary and in the pro- 
 
 fessional schools, efforts have constantly 1 a 
 
 made to afford the elements of instruction, by 
 establishing new professorships, as well as by 
 providing all the instruments and other useful 
 
 apparatus for practical teaching. With the same 
 desire to obtain the most complete practical in- 
 struction, various pupils of the national schools 
 have continued to be sent abroad upon the suc- 
 cessful conclusion of their studies." — Primary 
 schools have now been introduced in almost all 
 of the states. The schools are supported by the 
 state governments, with pecuniary aid from the 
 federal government, the municipalities, and sev- 
 eral private associations, among which the Lan- 
 casterian Society and the Benevolent Society 
 in Mexico occupy a prominent position. The 
 Lancasterian Society supplies the government 
 schools with teachers. There are also, in all the 
 principal cities, private schools; but these are 
 open only to the children of the rich. The plan 
 of instruction comprises only the most necessary 
 subjects, and the text-books are written in ac- 
 cordance with this plan. In 1^~74, the total 
 number of private schools was 8,040; of which 
 5,691 were for boys; 1,615, for girls; and the 
 rest were common to both sexes. Of the total 
 number, 603 were supported by the federal and 
 state governments; 5,240, by the municipalities; 
 378, by private corporations; and 117, by relig- 
 ious associations ; 1,518 were private schools, in 
 which tuition is paid for ; and 184 were without 
 classification. The proportion of the number of 
 schools to the population, was one primary school 
 to every 1,1-11 inhabitants. The attendance, 
 during the same year, was about 349,000, or 
 something less than one-tilth of all the children 
 between the ages of 6 and 1 3 years. There are 
 also, in some of the larger cities, evening schools 
 for adults of both sexes. The total expenditure 
 for primary instruction, during the year 1874, 
 was SI. 632,436, of which $1,042,000 was fur- 
 nished by the municipalities ; $417,000. by the 
 federal and state governments ; and §173,000, by 
 individuals and private corporations. 
 
 Seconditri) instruction is imparted in national 
 and state colleges, and in Catholic seminaries. 
 The course of studies, in these institutions, com- 
 prises Spanish, French, and Latin grammar, his- 
 tory, geography, natural philosophy, and math- 
 ematics. In some colleges, other branches are 
 added; as the English language, law. medicine, 
 engineering, agriculture, and theology. In 1874, 
 there were 54 state and national colleges, with 
 9,337 .students; and 24 Catholic seminaries, with 
 3,800 students. Law was taught in .33 of the 
 colleges; medicine, in 11 ; engineering, in 9; 
 agriculture, in 2: and theology, in 21. There 
 were, also, 15 higher schools for girls, with 2,300 
 students. The University of Mexico only grants 
 diplomas, no studies being pursued there, as all 
 
 the instruction is given in the colleges. The total 
 
 expense of supporting the government colleges, 
 in 1874, was $1,100,000, of which $200,000 
 
 was expended in fellowships, which entitle those 
 who hold them to free board and lodging in the 
 college building. There were, in the same year, 
 "> special schools in the federal district ; 1 , of 
 
 mines and engineering; and 1. each, of medicine, 
 
 law. agriculture, and the tine arts ; the last men- 
 tioned was attended by about 700 pupils of both 
 
MIAMI UNIVERSITY 
 
 MKIIIC.W 
 
 571 
 
 sexes. The city of Mexico has also a school for 
 deaf-mutes.- See Schmid, P&dagogische Ency- 
 chpddie, art. S'dd-America; Report of the U.S. 
 Commissioner of Education for 1874. 
 
 MIAMI UNIVERSITY, at Oxford, Ohio. 
 ■was organized in 1824. It lias a preparatory, an 
 undergraduate, and a post-graduate course, and 
 is composed of six schools; namely, Lit in lan- 
 guage and literature ; Greek language and 
 literature; modern languages and English phi- 
 lology; mathematics; natural science: and philos- 
 ophy and literature. The cost of tuition is $40 a 
 year. The libraries contain about !) ,000 volumes. 
 The university has valuable cabinets and appa- 
 ratus. In 1872 — 3, there were 6 instructors and 
 86 students. The university is temporarily closed. 
 
 MICHIGAN, one of the western states of 
 the American Union, was at first included in 
 the North-west Territory, set apart by the ordi- 
 nance of 1787. Subsequently it formed a part 
 of the territory of Indiana ; but, in 1805, was 
 organized as a separate territory. In January, 
 L837, it was admitted into the Union as a state, 
 Wisconsin Territory having been formed from 
 its western portion. At the next census, in 1840, 
 the population of Michigan was 212,267; in 1870, 
 it was L,184,059, of whom 11,84!) were colored 
 persons, and 4.!)26 Indians. The land area of the 
 state is 56,451 sq. m. 
 
 Educational History. — One of the first acts 
 of the first legislature of Michigan, in the year 
 1836, required the governor to appoint a super- 
 intendent of public instruction, and male it the 
 duty of such superintendent, " to prepare a sys- 
 tem for the common schools and a plan for a 
 university and its branches." The appointment 
 was given to the Rev. John D. Pierce, who still 
 lives (1876); and few men have ever lived to see 
 so abundant fruit from the seed of their plant- 
 ing. In 1837, he reported the "system" and the 
 '"plan," and both were adopted, without material 
 change, by the legislature. The primary school 
 law comprised 45 sections originally ; and though, 
 from subsequent legislation, the same code now 
 numbers nearly two hundred sections, yet the 
 general features of the system have been changed 
 in no essential respect. The same may be said 
 of the original plan of the university ; and now, 
 after a trial of forty years, the educational 
 system of Michigan has the reputation of being 
 one of the best in the Union. Since the adop- 
 tion of the constitution, in 1850, the superintend- 
 ent of public instruction has been elected bien- 
 nially, with other state officers. He has a general 
 supervision, without much actual power, over all 
 the educational institutions of the state, includ- 
 ing local colleges and incorporated private 
 schools ; and all such institutions are required to 
 make an annual report to him. Since the estab- 
 lishment of the office, there have been eight 
 incumbents, serving in the order and for the 
 time here named : John I). Pierce, 5 years; F. 
 Sawyer, Jr., 2 years ; 0. 0. Comstock, 2 years ; 
 Francis W. Sherman, 6 years ; Ira Mayhew, 8 
 years ; John M. Gregory, 6 years ; Oramel IIos- 
 ford, 8 years ; and Daniel B. Briggs, the present 
 
 incumbent, 4 years. — A state teachers' association 
 
 was organized in ls.Vj. |t holds its meetings an- 
 nually, in December; and is sustained qow, as 
 
 heretofore, by the leading teachers ami educators 
 in the state. -The primary-school fund of the 
 state, most of which pays 7 per cent, is $3, I 30,- 
 
 911.05. There are 398,080 acres of primary- 
 school lauds yet unsold, and held at four dollars 
 per acre. 
 
 School System. — Each township has aboard of 
 three school inspectors, whose main duty is to 
 organize and regulate the boundaries of school- 
 districts. Each district has an executive board 
 of three members, who make provision for such 
 length of school terms, as is determined by the 
 votes of the district ; but which must be nine 
 months, in districts having 800 children of school 
 age; five months, in districts having 30 children ; 
 and three months, in all districts containing a 
 number less than 30, under a penalty of forfeit- 
 ure of their share of the interest derived from 
 the primary-school fund (about 50 cents per ca- 
 pita), and the tax of 2 mills on each dollar of the 
 property in the district, which amounts, on an 
 average, to about one dollar per child. This con- 
 stitutional provision assures a school in nearly 
 every district in the state. The district board 
 determines the amount of taxes to be raised each 
 year in addition to the statutory two-mill tax, 
 and primary school money for the support of the 
 school ; but taxes for building purposes must be 
 voted by the district. The districts are not com- 
 pelled by law to build houses ; but the greater 
 portion must have a house or no school, and few 
 districts are, for any length of time, without a 
 school-house. The district boards make their an- 
 nual reports to the inspectors, by whom these 
 are collated, in the several townships, and for- 
 warded to the superintendent of public instruc- 
 tion. All contracts with teachers must be in 
 writing, and no public money can be legally paid 
 to a teacher who has not a certificate in the form 
 prescribed by law. All school officers are liable to 
 a fine, and district officers to removal, for delin- 
 quency in the discharge of their duty. Parents 
 are liable to a fine, if they fail to send their 
 children to school three months in the year, 
 while over eight and under fourteen years of age; 
 but little respect is paid to this law. Districts 
 having 100 children of school age, may have a 
 board of 6 trustees ; but, since the enactment of 
 this provision, the powers of all districts have 
 been so enlarged that these districts — styled 
 graded-school and high-school districts — have 
 hardly any superior privileges, except that they 
 may establish a high school, in which a charge 
 may be made for tuition, instruction in all other 
 departments being free. A very small number, 
 however, of the districts (nearly 300) organized 
 under this law, have ever charged tuition to the 
 resident pupils. These high schools are, many 
 of them, of a superior grade; and pupils graduat- 
 ing from them after a satisfactory examination, 
 are admitted to the state university without re- 
 examination. The working of the school system 
 is generally satisfactory, except in regard to 
 
 \ 
 
572 
 
 MICHIGAN 
 
 supervision. After eight years' trial of a county 
 superintendence, the state, in L875, returned to 
 & township superintendency, each township (not 
 including the cities) having a superintendent, 
 who examines teachers, grants certificates, and 
 visits schools. The presenl system of supervision 
 is not, however, giving that satisfaction which 
 insures its long continuance. It may also be 
 said that the supply of really competent teachers 
 is not equal to the demand ; although a marked 
 improvement in the qualifications of teachers 
 was manifest under the county superintendency. 
 Educational Condition. -There are (1876) 
 5,411 ungraded-school districts, each employing 
 a single teacher, and 297 graded-school districts 
 requiring about 2,000 teachers. The graded 
 schools have regular courses of study, from the 
 lowest primary grade to that of the senior year 
 of the high school. The whole number of school 
 buildings in the state is 5,787, valued in the 
 aggregate at 8'.'.! L 5,354. The 297 graded-school 
 districts have 539 buildings, valued at $5,775,790, 
 
 showing an average of $10,716 each. Twenty- 
 five of these buildings cost over $20,000 each, and 
 
 several cost from $50,000 to $100,000 each. 
 
 The support of the schools, during the year 
 1874 -5, was derived from the following sources : 
 
 Balance from preceding year $675,892.40 
 Primary school interest fund 218,030.29 
 
 District taxes 2,341,923.71 
 
 Statutory tax (2 mills on $1). 508,551.87 
 Tuition of non-resident pupils 37,453.65 
 All other sources 401,722.97 
 
 Total $4,183,580.80 
 
 Expenditures during the year 1 sT4 — 5 : 
 
 Teachers' salaries $1,958,481.15 
 
 Buildings 550,661.64 
 
 Bonded indebtedness 398,106.41 
 
 Other purposes 619,112.98 
 
 Total. $3,52(;,3C2.18 
 
 The principal items of school statistics, for the 
 year L875 6, are the following: 
 
 Number of children <>t' school age (5—20) 449,181 
 
 Number " " attending school 343,981 
 
 Number of teachers, males 3,156 
 
 females 9,120 
 
 Total "" 12,276 
 
 Average monthly wages of teachers, mule-; . .$51.29 
 
 females.. ..$23. 19 
 
 Normal Instruction. — The state normal school, 
 at Tpsilanti, was opened in L852. It is under 
 the general supervision of a board of education 
 consisting of three members, elected on a state 
 ticket for si\ years, and the superintendent of 
 
 public instruction, ex t>f/iri<>. It has an endow- 
 ment fund of $69,255, the balance necessary for 
 
 its support being derived from appropriations by 
 the legislature. The value of its buildings and 
 other property is about $75,000. The annual 
 
 current expenses are nearly $25,000. The iiuiu- 
 ber of students, in l^7.~>.in the normal depart 
 meiit. numbered 409, L87 males and 222 fe- 
 males: in the experimental department, there 
 were 200 pupils, making a total of 609. All stu- 
 dents, mi entering the normal department, are 
 required by law to tile a declaration of their in- 
 tention to teach. The tuition fee is $10 per year; 
 
 but each member of the lower branch of the legis- 
 lature may appoint two students, residents of his 
 district, who are entitled to admission, and to 
 receive instruction free of charge. Many avail 
 themselves of this privilege. The diploma of the 
 school licenses the holder to teach in any of the 
 public schools of the state. Nearly 7000 teach- 
 ers have received instruction in this school dur- 
 ing its existence. The board of instruction con- 
 sists of a principal and 12 assistants. 
 
 Secondary Instruction. — Under this head may 
 he classed high schools and academies. There 
 were, in L874, 311 graded schools in the state. 
 Of these. 144 made reports as to organization 
 etc.. and 84 were reported as having high-school 
 departments, with an aggregate of 5,642 pupils, 
 and. in L873, 303 graduates. The subject of high 
 schools has assumed unusual interest and impor- 
 tance in this state. (1) on account of an effort 
 recently made to have their existence declared. 
 by the courts, illegal ; and (2) on account of their 
 peculiar status as direct tributaries to the state 
 university. The first effort failed, the court rul- 
 ing that, though there was nothing in the school 
 law expressly directing their establishment, there 
 was nothing, on the other hand, forbidding it. 
 
 This decision has been regarded asfinahnol only 
 for the state of Michigan, but for other states in 
 which the school law is so worded as to raise a 
 doubt on this point. (See High Schools.) The 
 peculiar relation of the public high schools to the 
 state university is the result of an arrangement 
 by which high schools that wish to be recognized 
 by the university in such a way as to permit 
 their graduates to enter the latter without further 
 examination, are visited anil examined as to 
 course of study and methods pursued, by a com- 
 mittee of the faculty. This examination lasts 
 one day for each school; and. if the school is 
 rejected by the committee, the reasons are dis- 
 tinctly stated. If the school is accepted, its gradu- 
 ates are admitted to the freshman class of the? 
 university without examination. This method 
 
 facilitates their admission only. their continuance 
 depending entirely upon their proficiency, which 
 is tested by the usual term examination. The 
 effect upon the high schools has been beneficial 
 
 by raising the grade of scholarship for graduates, 
 and by maintaining the schools on that higher 
 level produced by the dignity of their position 
 as Stepping-StoneS to the university. In the latter, 
 the direct effect has been uniformity of scholar- 
 ship, and a decrease of necessary watchfulness 
 on the part of professors and tutors, for individ- 
 ual deficiencies. Though, by the old method. 
 
 there may have been, in individual cases, greater 
 proficiency at the time of admission, the great 
 diversity of attainment shown by members of 
 the same class was likely to lie maintained to- 
 
 the end of the college course, and the diplomas 
 given to graduates had. therefore, widely differ- 
 ent values. By the new method, uniformity of 
 
 attainment, by being insisted on at an earlier 
 
 period, produces uniformity of attainment at 
 graduation. This plan, though regarded at first 
 with misgiving, if not positive disfavor, is gradu- 
 
MICHIGAN 
 
 573 
 
 ally working its way to general approval. Those 
 more immediately interested in it and best capa- 
 ble of judging of its effects the teachers of the 
 schools, ami the faculty of the university — regard 
 its success in the near future as assured. The 
 private schools of the state are reported by the 
 present superintendent of instruction as ■• few 
 and feeble, owing to the excellence of our tree 
 public schools." The number reported in 1873 
 was 133, with 6,761 pupils. This is thought t<> 
 be much below the actual number. Business 
 colleges exist hi several of the cities and towns. 
 13 being reported in 1874, with .'i'J instructors 
 and 1,506 students. Of the latter, 196 are fe- 
 males. 
 
 Denominational >t>td Parochial Schools. — 
 These institutions are not numerous. A few are 
 reported in different parts of the state, managed 
 by Catholics and German Lutherans, where in- 
 struction is given to a few thousand children, but 
 a vast majority of the children and youth of the 
 state find their only source of education in the 
 public schools. 
 
 Superior Instruction. — The names etc. of the 
 higher institutions of learning are contained in 
 the following table. For further information 
 in regard to them, see the respective titles. 
 
 NAME 
 
 Location 
 
 .V'hen 
 
 bund- 
 ed 
 
 Religious 
 denomina- 
 
 
 Adrian College Adrian 1859 M. Epis. 
 
 Albion College Albion 1864 M.Epis. 
 
 Battle Creek College Battle Creek 1ST") Advent. 
 
 Grand Traverse CoHege Benzonia ls.jo Chiili. 
 
 Hills lale College Hinsdale L855 F.W.Bap. 
 
 H .pa College. Holland City 186:1 Ref.(D'ch) 
 
 Kalamazoo College Kalamazoo 1855 Bap. 
 
 Olivet College.. Olivet 1858 Con.&Pr. 
 
 University of Michigan Ann Arbor 1811 Non sect. 
 
 In none of these institutions is any distinction 
 as to sex made in the admission of pupils; but 
 there are, besides, several institutions specially for 
 the education of females, among which may be 
 particularly mentioned the following: Michigan 
 Female Seminary, at Kalamazoo, under the pat- 
 ronage of the Presbyterians, was organized in 
 1867, and conducted on the plan of the cele- 
 brated Mt. Holyoke Seminary in .Mass. Its prop- 
 erty is valued at $70,000, and its annual income 
 is about §10,000. The Young Ladies' Seminary 
 and Collegiate Institute, at Monroe, was incor- 
 porated under the laws of the state, and has been 
 in operation about 30 years. It holds property 
 valued at 810,000. It has a regular college 
 course, besides post-graduate courses. Music, 
 drawing, painting, and the modern languages are 
 taught. Degrees are conferred as in colleges for 
 young men. The number of instructors is 8; and 
 the number of students, in ls7.">, was 103. 
 
 Professional and Scientific Instruction. — 
 There are two institutions for this kind of in- 
 struction, — the State Agricultural ( 'ollege at 
 Lansing, and the Detroit Medical College. Near- 
 ly all the institutions, however, enumerated under 
 superior instruction have departments in which 
 professional or scientific instruction is given. The 
 Agricultural College of Michigan was the first 
 state institution of its kind established in the 
 
 United States. By an act of the legislature, in 
 1855, it came Into existence and was opened for 
 students in the spring of 1857. Until recently, 
 it has been supported wholly by appropriations 
 
 tf the state treasury, aside from $56,320 real- 
 ized from appropriated state lands, The appropri- 
 ations from the state treasury for the college, np 
 to the present time, amount to $397,787. The 
 
 farm consists of 676 acres, situated on both Bidee 
 
 of the Cedar river, three miles distant from the 
 
 capital of the state: ami 300 acres are under cul- 
 tivation. The property of the college is valued at 
 $250,000. The agricultural land -rant by Con- 
 gress.in 1 si >_V gave Michigan 240,000 acres. From 
 
 this has been realized $228,933, and t he portion 
 
 yet unsold is valued at $496,543. These avails 
 go into the state treasury and constitute a perma- 
 nent fund, on which the state pays 7 per cent. 
 The number of students in attendance during 
 the past year (1875—6) was 120. The student's 
 receive board and lodging at the institution at 
 cost, which is about $2.60 per w.ek : but. quite 
 one half of this expense is met by allowance-; 
 granted the students for manual labor performed. 
 Tuition is free, and the incidental fees are a mere 
 trifle. The faculty and other officers number 1 I. 
 The control of the college is rested in aboard 
 of agriculture, the members of which are ap- 
 pointed by the governor, for a term of six years. 
 The governor of the slate and the president of 
 the college are members, ex officii). 
 
 Special Instruction. — The State Public School 
 at Coldwater, partakes of the nature both of a 
 school and an asylum. The object is to educate 
 the dependent children from the poor houses. 
 It originated in 1871. when a state appropriation 
 of $30,000 was made, and three commissioners 
 were appointed to carry it into effect. A gift of 
 20 acres in the town of Coldwater and of$25,000 
 towards the buildings, led. to its location at that 
 place, and this was supplemented by an additional 
 appropriation of $38,000 by the legislature. The 
 plan of the buildings consists of a large central 
 edifice, and surrounding cottages for the home 
 residence of the children. It receives children 
 between the ages of 1 and 1 (i years from the 
 county poor-houses, and provides for and edu- 
 cates them till good homes are found for them. 
 They are strictly the wards of the state till 21 
 years of age. There is an agent in each county 
 whose duty it is to look after those who are in- 
 dentured to, or adopted by, individuals, and, in 
 case of any violation of the terms of indenture, 
 to return them to the school. The school was 
 opened in 1874, with nearly 200 children; the 
 number, in September 1875, was 171. The num- 
 ber of officers is 18 consisting of a superintend- 
 ent, teachers, matrons, etc. The aim of the insti- 
 tution is, to give a fair elementary education. 
 Since its establishment, the legislature has made 
 appropriations for its support to the amount of 
 SI *7, at')."). — The State Reform School, at Lan- 
 sing, was established, in L85C, for the purpose 
 of rescuing, if possible, from a life of crime, chil- 
 dren and youths convicted of offenses against the 
 law. It receives boys of from 10 to 16 years of 
 
574 
 
 MICHIGAN UNIVERSITY 
 
 age, and is strictly an industrial school. It is 
 managed by a board of control, consisting of three 
 members appointed by the governor, and is sup- 
 ported by annual appropriations from the state 
 treasury, and the earnings of the inmates. Five 
 hours of each day are spent in school ; and four, 
 in manual labor. The officers are a superintend- 
 ent and an assistant, and '.i teachers, besides over- 
 seers of the farm and shops. The annual ex- 
 penses are from $25,000 to $30,000. The school 
 has at present 220 inmates. Over 1,600 boys 
 have been cared for by the institution since its 
 establishment. — The Michigan Institution for the 
 Deaf and Dumb, and Blind, was organized at 
 Flint in L854. About 94 acres are contained 
 in the grounds and the farm connected with 
 them. It is managed by a principal, steward. 
 matron, assistant matron, physician, and 17 teach- 
 ers in all departments, with a few minor assist- 
 ants. In addition to the usual mental instruction 
 given in such institutions, the pupils are trained 
 in mechanical and industrial occupations. In 
 some of these departments the sale of wares pro- 
 duced has more than paid expenses, and the sur- 
 plus has been devoted to the support of the libra- 
 ry. About 200 inmates were receiving instruc- 
 tion in 1874. 
 
 The educational journals published in the state 
 are. The Michigan T tocher, a monthly, published 
 at Kalamazoo, and The School, a monthly, pub- 
 lished in Ypsilanti. The publication of the 
 former was begun nearly 20 years ago. Both are 
 ably edited, and have a very general circulation 
 in the state. 
 
 MICHIGAN, University of, at Ann Arbor, 
 owing its foundation to a grant by Congress, in 
 ]H'J(i, of two townships of land, to the territory 
 of Michigan, was established by a legislative act, 
 March 18., 1837, and was first opened for stu- 
 dents, Sept. 20., 1 8 12. It is a part of the public 
 educational system of the state, and is governed 
 by a board of regents, elected by popular vote, 
 each for a term of eight years. ('nder certain 
 conditions, the graduates of the public high 
 schools of the state are admitted without 
 examination. The university comprises the de- 
 partments of literature, science, and the arts 
 (including the school of mines, organized in L875); 
 the department of medicine and surgery, organ- 
 ized in L850; the department of law, L 859 ; the 
 
 hom pathic medical college, 1> S 7">. and the 
 
 dental college, L875. Bach oi these departments 
 and colleges has its special faculty of instruc- 
 tion, having charge also of its management. 
 The University Senate is composed of all the 
 
 faculties, and considers questions of common 
 
 interest and importance tt) them all. The de- 
 partment of literature, science, and the arts em- 
 braces six regular courses of four years each. 
 
 and two -holler special courses. The regular 
 
 courses, with the degrees that are conferred, upon 
 their completion, are as follows: classical [Bach- 
 elor of Arts), scientific [Bachelor of Science), 
 Latin and scientific (Bachelor of Philosophy), 
 Greek and scientific (Bachelor of Philosophy), 
 civil engineering (Civil Engineer), mining engi- 
 
 neering (Mining Engineer). A full course in ar- 
 chitecture and design was opened in 1876. The 
 special courses are one in analytical chemistry, 
 and one in pharmacy. On the completion of 
 a two years' course in pharmacy, the degree 
 of Pharmaceutical Chemist is conferred. Stu- 
 dents may also pursue selected studies for any 
 , period not less than one term. Postgraduate 
 courses are provided, leading to the degrees 
 of Master of Arts, of Philosophy, or of Science, 
 and Doctor of Philosophy, as well as for those 
 not candidates for a second degree. After 1 v 77, 
 the master's degrees are not to be conferred "in 
 course." The technical courses of the depart- 
 ment of literature, science, and the arts, are 
 grouped together and known as the Polytechnic 
 School. The regular courses in the professional 
 departments are for two years. Both sexes are 
 admitted to all the departments; but the courses 
 of lectures for women, in the medical depart- 
 ments, are distinct from those for men. The only 
 charges made by the university are to residents 
 in Michigan, an admission fee of 810, and the 
 annual payment of 81 - r >; to those who come from 
 other states or countries, an admission fee of 
 825, and the annual payment of 820. The num- 
 ber of instructors and students in the different 
 departments, in 1875 — G, was as follows : 
 
 Departments Instructors Students 
 
 Literature, etc. 31 452 
 
 Law 6 321 
 
 Medicine and surgery 10 312 
 
 Dental college 3 20 
 
 Homoeopathic med. college 2 24 
 
 Total, deducting repetitions 49 1,127 
 
 The students in the department of literature, 
 science, and the arts were classified as follows : 
 resident graduates, 15 ; in the regular classes, 339; 
 in selected studies, 19 ; in pharmacy, 79. Of 
 these, 149 were in the Polytechnic School. The 
 university grounds embrace -\\\ acres, and con- 
 tain an astronomical observatory; a central build- 
 ing, called Cniversity Hall, for the department 
 of literature, science, and the arts; buildings 
 for the departments of law and medicine; a 
 hospital; a chemical laboratory ; and residences 
 for the president and the professors. The observ- 
 atory, erected |iy citizens of I 'etroit, was opened 
 in L854, and is supplied with the most approved 
 instruments. The university museum contains 
 valuable and constantly increasing collections, 
 illustrative of natural .science, ethnology, art. 
 
 history, agriculture, anatomy, and materia med- 
 ico. The geological, zoological, and botanical 
 
 cabinets together are estimated to contain about 
 
 ."> 7. '-'•"> n entries and 255,000 specimens. The li- 
 braries accessible to the students contain about 
 31,000 volumes. The university fund, being the 
 proceeds of the sale of the universily lands. 
 amounts to aboul $550,000. Tt is held in trust 
 
 by the state, which pays interest thereon at the 
 
 rate of 7 percenl per annum. The present an- 
 nual income of the university amounts to nearly 
 3120,000. 
 
 Previous to 1S52. under the regulations then 
 in force, there was no president of the university. 
 
MIDDLEBURY COLLEGE 
 
 MILITARY SCHOOLS 
 
 575 
 
 Since that time, the office 1ms been filled as fol- 
 lows : Henry P. Tappan, I>. D., 1852—63; 
 Erastua 0. Haven, D.D., 1863—9; Henry S. 
 Erieze, LL. L). (acting), 1 S{J1) — 71 ; James B. 
 Angell, LL.D., appointed in 1871 and still (1870) 
 in office. 
 
 MIDDLEBURY COLLEGE, at Middle- 
 bury, Vt., founded in 1800, though not denomi- 
 national by its charter, is under the direction 
 of Congregationalists. The grounds, embracing 
 about 30 acres, occupy a commanding eminence. 
 It has productive funds to the amount of 
 1180,000, a library of more than 12,000 volumes. 
 and valuable cabinets of natural history. The 
 cost of tuition is $45 per annum. There aiv 
 several scholarships, besides other beneficiary 
 funds, for the aid of needy students. In 1875 — (], 
 there were 8 instructors and 53 students. Ac- 
 cording to the triennial catalogue of 1871, there 
 were 1,100 alumni, of whom 721 were living. 
 Of the whole number 481 (274 living) became 
 clergymen. The presidents have been as follows : 
 the Rev. Jeremiah Atwater, S. T. D., 1800— 
 1809 ; the Rev. Henry Davis, S. T. D., 1810—17; 
 the Rev. Joshua Bates, S. T. D„ 1818—39 ; the 
 Rev. Benjamin Labaree, S. T. D., LL. 1)., 1840 
 — 66 ; the Rev. Harvev Dennison Kitchel, S. T. 
 D., 1866—1875 ; and the Rev. Calvin B. Hulbert, 
 D. D., the present incumbent, elected in 1875. 
 
 MILITARY SCHOOLS. Special institu- 
 tions for the education of army officers now exist 
 in all European countries, though they are of 
 comparatively modern origin. The first military 
 school in Erance was established by Louis XV., 
 at Vincennes, in 1751. It was, soon after, re- 
 moved to the Champ de Mars, Paris, but it has 
 long ceased to exist as an institution for instruc- 
 tion. The Special Military School of St. < Yr. 
 near Versailles, was founded by Bonaparte in 
 1802, and, for the first few T years, was located at 
 Fontainebleau. Candidates are admitted by 
 competitive examination, and must be between 
 17 and 20, or. if from the army, not over 25 
 years of age. The course is for two years, and 
 embraces geography, German, literature, drawing, 
 legislation and administration, hygiene, topog- 
 raphy, military art and history, artillery, for- 
 tification, and military exercises. The pupils 
 pass either to the Staff School, in Paris, the 
 Cavalry School, at Saumur, or to the army as 
 sub-lieutenants of infantry. The St. < Yr School 
 has about 700 pupils. The Polytechnic School, 
 in Paris, opened in 1794, and organized by I. a 
 Place in 1799, though not specially military in 
 character, affords theoretical instruction in vari- 
 ous military and related branches. There are 
 also the Artillery and Engineers' School, at Fon- 
 tainebleau, for officers; for the education of 
 officers, the artillery schools at Valence and 
 N imes, the School for Non-commissioned In- 
 fantry Officers, at Camp d'Avor; — also the Mil- 
 itary Orphan School, at La Fleche. the Military 
 School of Medicine and Pharmacy, in Paris, the 
 Military Pyrotechnic School, in Bourges, and the 
 Normal School for Gymnastics, in Vincennes. — 
 In Great Britain, the most noted institutions 
 
 are the Royal Military Academy, at Woolwich, 
 founded in 1711. ami the Royal Military College, 
 at Sandhurst, founded in 1799. The former is 
 intended tor officers of the artillery and engineers. 
 
 The course is tor two years and a half, and em- 
 braces mathematics, elementary chemistry and 
 physics, French or German, military drawing 
 and reconnaissance, fortification, artillery, mil- 
 itary history and geography, drills, and exercises. 
 Candidates are admitted by competitive exam- 
 ination, and must be between 16 and 18 years 
 of age. The number of pupils is about 200. 
 The college at Sandhurst is intended for officers 
 of the cavalry and infantry. Admission is by 
 competitive examination. The course is for one 
 year, and embraces the elements of tactics, in- 
 fantry and field-artillery drill, the regulations 
 and orders of the army, accounts and correspond- 
 ence, gymnastics, riding, regimental interior 
 economy, military topography and reconnois- 
 sance, field fortification and the elements of 
 permanent fortification, and military law. There 
 are 250 students. The Staff < iollege, at the same 
 place, for the instruction of staff officers, former- 
 ly the senior department of the Royal Military 
 College, is now a distinct institution. The course 
 is for two years, and embraces French. German, 
 or Hindoostanee, military administration and law, 
 fortification and field engineering, geology, mil- 
 itary art, history and geography, artillery, riding, 
 topography, reconnaissance, and military teleg- 
 raphy and signaling. Admission here, also, is 
 by competitive examination, open to officers 
 of all arms who have served five years. The 
 number of students is 40. Besides these insti- 
 tutions, may be mentioned the Royal School of 
 Military Engineering, at Chatham, the School of 
 Gunnery, at Shoeburyness, the School of Mus- 
 ketry, at Hythe, the Military Medical School, in 
 London, and the Royal Hibernian Military 
 School, in Dublin. — In Germany, military in- 
 struction is given in the following institutions: 
 for officers, the war academies in Berlin and 
 Munich (for higher scientific education, especial- 
 ly for the general staff) ; for the education of 
 officers, the united artillery and engineers' schools 
 in Berlin and Munich, the war schools at rots- 
 dam, Erfurt, Xeisse, Engers, Kasscl, Hanover, 
 Anclam (Prussia), Metz (Lorraine;, and Munich 
 (Bavaria), the Prussian, the Bavarian, and the 
 Saxon cadet corps ; six schools for the education 
 of non-commissioned officers ; also the Medico- 
 Surgical Frederick William Institute, the Med- 
 i( (i Surgical Military Academy in Berlin, the Mil- 
 itary Veterinary School in the same place ; the 
 musketry schools at Spandau and Augsburg, the 
 School of Gunnery, the Superior Pyrotechnic 
 
 School, and the Central Gymnastic Institution 
 in Berlin ; and the military riding institutes in 
 Hanover. Dresden, and Munich.— in Prussia, the 
 
 senior cadet school is in Berlin, and to this the 
 junior cadet schools are preparatory. The usual 
 course is for four years in the junior schools, 
 and two years in the senior school, from which 
 the pupils pass to a war school, though some 
 remain an additional year in the senior cadet 
 
576 
 
 MILITARY SCHOOLS 
 
 school. There is an examination for admission 
 to the junior schools, and to the senior school for 
 those who have not passed through the junior 
 schools. The age of admission to the junior 
 schools is about 1 o years; to the senior, about 15. 
 In the former, the course embraces arithmetic, 
 elementary algebra and geometry. I lerman gram- 
 mar and composition. French, Latin, Bible his- 
 tory, natural philosophy, drawing, writing, his- 
 tory, drill, gym nasties, fencing, and dancing; in 
 the latter, geography, mathematics] physics, drill, 
 fencing, imitative drawing. Latin, German, 
 French, history, military drawing, religious in- 
 struction, riding, and gymnastics. For the ad- 
 ditional year, the branches are topography, mil- 
 itary service and correspondence, science of arms. 
 military exercises, fortification, tactics, military 
 .surveying and drawing, French, etc. Each junior 
 school has about 200 pupils; and the senior 
 school, about TOO. The war schools are intended 
 for officers of the infantry and cavalry, and as 
 preparatory to the Artillery and Engineers' 
 School. The course is for about nine months, 
 and embraces musketry practice, tactics, science 
 of arms, riding, fencing, fortification, military 
 surveying and drawing, gymnastics, manual of 
 tic piece in artillery, drill in infantry exercises, 
 with about six weeks' field exercise in applied 
 tactics, reconnoissance, and surveying, The War 
 Academy is intended for the education of officers 
 for the staff, as military instructors, and for 
 other high duties. Candidates are admitted by 
 competitive examination, open to officers of all 
 arms of three years' active service. The course 
 is for three years, and embraces French, Rus- 
 sian, military hygiene and law, general, physical, 
 and military geography, tactics, history of liter- 
 ature, geodesy, mat hematics, science of arms, 
 history of the art of war. fortification, military 
 administration, history, surveying, art of siege, 
 chemistry, staff duty, physics, with practical field 
 instruction in staff duty, surveying, field-sketch- 
 ing, etc. There are about 275 students in this 
 institution. The military schools of other Euro- 
 pean countries are similar, in their general feat- 
 ures, to those already described. — -In Austria- 
 Hungary, there are the following: for officers, the 
 War School (for the general staff), the higher Ar- 
 tillery and the Higher Engineering Course, the 
 Preparatory Course for Candidates for the Artil- 
 lery Staff, the Central Infantry* oursc. the intend- 
 ancy < "oursc (affording a preparation for the mili- 
 tary intendancy), all in Vienna, and the Royal 
 Hungarian Landwehr-Cavalry School, at Jasz- 
 b&eny; for the education of officers, the Mil- 
 itary Academy, in Wiener Neustadl (for infantry 
 and cavalry), the Technical Military Academy, 
 
 in Vienna (for the art illery and engineers), the 
 
 Ludovica Academy, in Buda-Pesth (for the Hun- 
 garian Landwehr); preparatory to the academies, 
 
 the Military Superior Ileal School, in Weiss- 
 kirchen, the military inferior real schools at St. 
 Polten and Guns; the Military Medical ( 'oursc 
 
 and the Military Riding Institute, in Vienna. — 
 
 The Russian Institutions arc as follows: for 
 Officers, the Nicholas Academy (for the general 
 
 staff), the Michael Artillery Academy, the Nich- 
 olas Engineering Academy, the Military Jurid- 
 ical Academy, all in St. Petersburg ; for the 
 education of officers, six war schools (two for in- 
 fantry, and one each for cavalry, artillery, and 
 engineers in St. Petersburg, and one for infantry 
 in Moscow), the imperial Page Corps, in St. 
 Petersburg, the Finnish ( 'adet I !orps, in Ilelsing- 
 fors, eleven infantry, two cavalry, and four Cos- 
 sack schools for young noblemen ; as preparatory 
 institutions. 17 military gymnasia and !t military 
 progymnasia ; — for special instruction, the Mil- 
 itary Law School, the Military Topographical 
 School, the Preparatory School for the Guards, 
 the Military Surgical School, the Technical and 
 Pyrotechnic School, all in St. Petersburg, and two 
 gunsmithery schools. — Italy has the following: 
 for officers, the War School, in Turin (for the high- 
 i ^t instruction and the general staff), the Artil- 
 lery and Engineers' School, at the same place; 
 for the education of officers, the Military Acad- 
 emy, in Turin (for the artillery and engineers), 
 the Military School, in Modena (for infantry and 
 cavalry); as preparatory institutions to the Mil- 
 itary Academy and Military School, the military 
 colleges, in Naples, Milan, and Florence; also 
 the Normal Infantry School, in Parma, and the 
 Normal Cavalry School, in Pinerolo. — Besides 
 the schools for officers of the character already 
 indicated, there are in nearly every European 
 country regimental or battalion schools for the 
 instruction of privates or non-commissioned 
 officers in the common branches of learning. — 
 In Brazil, military instruction is given in reg- 
 imental schools, for training non-commissioned 
 officers; preparatory schools; the Military School, 
 in Rio de Janeiro ; the Depot of Artillery Ap- 
 prentices, iii the same place; the Cavalry and 
 Infantry School of the Province of Sao Pedro 
 do Rio Grande do Sul : and the General Gun- 
 nery School of Campo Grande. — In the Military 
 Academy, at West Point, N. Y.. founded in 1802, 
 the United States has an institution second to 
 none of its kind in the world. The organization, 
 course, etc., are described tinder the appropriate 
 title, i See West Point.) There is also an 
 Artillery School at Fortress Monroe, organized 
 in 1867. The act of Congress of I8C2. donating 
 land to the states for the establishment of agri- 
 cultural and mechanical colleges, includes milita- 
 ry tactics among the branches to he taught in 
 those institutions. An act of 18(H) authorizes 
 the president to detail officers of experience to 
 act as professors of military science in institu- 
 tions of learning, having over 1 ."HI male students. 
 A Dumber of institutions have availed them- 
 selves of this privilege. By the same act. provi- 
 sion is made for the instruction of enlisted men 
 in the common I'.nglish branches of education at 
 
 every post, garrison, or permanent camp. In 
 
 nearly every military department, there arc 
 schools for instruction in military signaling ami 
 telegraphy. A number of academies or high 
 schools in the United States are organized 
 upon military principles, in imitation of West 
 Point, daily drill being required of the pupils. 
 
MILTON 
 
 sn 
 
 Some of those are designed for boys not ame- 
 frftble to the milder discipline of the ordinary 
 schools. Several institutions providing instruc- 
 tion of a collegiate grade, in classics, modem 
 languages, and scientific branches, have a similar 
 organization. Of these the principal, having 
 Separate articles in this work, are as follows: 
 fhe Kentucky Military Institute, at Farmdale, 
 Ky. ; Louisiana State I'niversity. at Baton 
 Rouge, La.; Norwich I'niversity. at Northfield, 
 \'t. ; Pennsylvania Military Academy, at Ches- 
 ter, Pa. : Texas Military Institute, at Austin. 
 Tex.; and Virginia Military Institute, at Lex- 
 ington, Va. — (ien. Hazen. in contrasting (1872) 
 the French and Prussian system of military edu- 
 cation, remarks that only about one-third of the 
 French officers are of necessity educated men. 
 while, in Prussia, all must be. In the French 
 schools, there is almost a total absence of moral 
 control : while, in Prussia, the opposite is true. 
 In France, the great lack of a good preparatory 
 education is loudly complained of, and the almost 
 total neglect of mathematical subjects in the 
 special schools is noticeable : while great atten- 
 tion is paid to drawing and all practical subjects 
 of a military character. In the French system, 
 the entire school course is given before service 
 is seen; but, in Prussia, a certain amount of 
 actual service must precede any theoretical course 
 at the schools; nor is there in France, as in 
 Prussia, any provision for recognizing, utilizing, 
 and educating the talent of young men who 
 have, by a few years' service, developed mental 
 superiority. In Prussia, nothing is more strik- 
 ing than the connection between the military and 
 civil education of the country. The competitive 
 system is almost universally objected to, and 
 mathematics are thought worthy of attention up 
 to the highest grades only by those of peculiar 
 aptness. The Academy, which gives a superior 
 education to the first men of the army, is of 
 great merit and usefulness. The greatest pos- 
 sible care is bestowed upon methods of study and 
 instruction; the most remarkable feature of the 
 system is the attention paid to forming and dis- 
 ciplining the mind and encouraging habits of 
 reflection. The education is eminently practical. — - 
 In reference to West Point he says : -After see- 
 ing much of the best European armies, I believe 
 that, at the breaking out of our war, our little 
 regular army was officered by better technical 
 soldiers than any army in the world : and this 
 I believe to be due to West Point." — See II. 
 Barnard, Militant Education; an Account of 
 Institutions for Military Education in France, 
 Prussia, Austria, Russia, Sardinia, Sweden, 
 Switzerland, England, and the United States 
 ' (2 vols.). — A list of the military schools of all 
 European States is given by Brachelli, Die 
 Staaten Eurqpa's (1875). — See Gen. W. B. II \- 
 zen, U. S. A.. The School and the Army in Ger- 
 many and France. 
 
 MILTON, John, a celebrated English poet, 
 born in London. Dec. 9., 1 608; died there Nov.8., 
 1674. His father, being disinherited on chang- 
 ing his religion — which had been the Roman 
 37 
 
 Catholic, — followed (he profession Of a scrivener. 
 
 by which, we are told, he "got a plentiful estate.'' 
 
 Young Milton was carefully educated. A private" 
 
 tutor gave him instruction in Latin, and perhaps 1 
 in Greek, and imbued his mind with a love for 
 
 poetry, and the writing of Latin and English 
 \erse. Ilencxt pa.-sed to St. Paul's School, where 
 
 he was prepared for Christ's College, Cambridge, 
 which he entered in L625. Here, for seven years, 
 he devoted himself, with great assiduity, to such 
 studies as would tit him for a career of author- 
 ship instead of the usual 01 f a profession, all 
 
 desire for which he had abandoned. At this 
 time, his singular personal beauty and intellectu- 
 al independence made him a marked character 
 among his fellow collegians. On leaving Cam- 
 bridge, in K>.'!'_ > . he .-pent five years in study and 
 reading, chiefly classiqal, and the composition of 
 poetry. The most beautiful of his shorter poems' 
 were written at this period of his life. In 1637, 
 he set out upon his travels, visiting Prance and 
 Italy, in both of which countries lie formed the 
 acquaintance of men eminent in science and 
 literature. Paris. Florence and Rome were 
 among the places visited by him at this time: and 
 Grotius and Galileo, among the acquaintances 1 
 thus formed. On receiving word of the struggle 
 impending between the people of England and 
 the king, he abandoned further travel, and hast- 
 ened home. For several years, his energies were 
 devoted to the cause of the revolution, to which 
 he contributed many pamphlets, which estab- 
 lished not only his great ability as a controver- 
 sialist, but his mastery of vigorous and eloquent 
 English prose. In 1643, he was married; but, 
 within a month, a separation took place, owing 
 to incompatibility of temper. This led to an at- 
 tempt on his part to change the law relating to 
 marriage, in the course of which he published 
 some of the the most famous of his prose pam- 
 phlets. In K')44. he published his Tractate on 
 Education and his ArrojxKjitica. a S/,rerh far 
 tin' Liberty of Unlicensed Printing. In 1645. a 
 reconciliation took place between him and his 
 wife : and. for several years, he resided in Lon- 
 don, devoting himself to literature. About 1654, 
 he became totally blind, the malady being hast- 
 ened by his zeal in writing a defense of the people 
 of England against the usurpations of the king. 
 I lis wife dying in 1652, or 1653, he married 
 again in 1656. and again in 1603. About 1665, 
 he completed Paradise Lost and began Paradise 
 Regained The last years of his life were passed 
 in domestic disquiet, obloquy, and the contem- 
 plation of the defeat of the public measures and 
 principles he had labored so long to establish. 
 The prominence accorded to Milton by educa- 
 tionists rests principally upon his Tractate on 
 Education, addressed in the form of a letter to 
 Samuel Ilartlili (q. v.). In this tractate is pre- 
 sented Milton's view of "a complete and generous 
 education, to tit a man to perform justly, skill- 
 fully, and magnanimouly all the offices, both 
 private and public, of peace and war.'' His first 
 injunction is " to find out a spacious house and 
 ground about it fit for an academy, and big 
 
578 
 
 MILTON 
 
 MILWAUKEE 
 
 enough to lodge 120 persons, whereof 20 or 
 thereabouts may be attendants, all under the 
 government of one who shall be thought of desert 
 sufficient, and ability either to do all, or wisely 
 to direct and oversee it done." Such an academy 
 is to be both "school and university" — the sole 
 place of instruction for the youth it contains, 
 from the time of their admission to the time 
 when they enter upon the duties of mature life. 
 Their studies, their exercise, and their diet are 
 separately considered. For the first, grammar is 
 to be used as an introduction, giving special at- 
 tention to the practical use of it, as in con vet 
 pronunciation and a knowledge of the rules 
 most commonly used. Advantage, also, should 
 be taken to cultivate indirectly the moral sense 
 by the use, as text-books, of such works as have 
 become classics. Fortius he recommends several 
 in the Greek language, lie attaches great im- 
 portance, also, to the personal magnetism of the 
 teacher, as a means for inciting his pupils to an 
 "ingenuous and noble ardor." Arithmetic is to 
 be taught at this period; and, shortly after, 
 geometry. In the evening, the instruction is to be 
 moral only. The next step is the study of agri- 
 culture, as found in the writings of Cato, Varro, 
 and ( 'olumella. These authors are chosen for the 
 double purpose of acquiring a mastery of "any 
 ordinary prose," and for inciting in the pupils a 
 desire in alter life to ■•improve the tillage of their 
 country." It will then be proper to go on to 
 the Study of maps, globes, ami natural philoso- 
 phy. Greek should then be taken up, and in a 
 short time, trigonometry, fortification, architect- 
 ure, enginery or navigation, and anatomy. Medi- 
 cine, both theoretical and pracl ical, should next 
 be pursued. These studies should all lie supple- 
 mented, as far as possible, by an observation of 
 their application in practical pursuits. Moral 
 instruction should now predominate. The les- 
 sons ineuieated should lie enforced by reading 
 tin' moral works of Plato, Xenophon, Cicero, 
 Plutarch, etc., ending at evening with the Bible. 
 
 The next study should lie that of political econo- 
 my, followed by politics and law. Sundays and 
 evenings should he devoted to theology, church 
 history, and the study of Bebrew -the latter in 
 order that the Scriptures may be read in the 
 original. Then follow ■•choice histories, heroic 
 poems, and attic tragedies," with "political ora- 
 tions," some of which Should be committed to 
 
 memory, and declaimed. Rhetoric, the art of 
 composition, logic, and poetry uexl succeed; after 
 which, he says, "whether they [the students] be 
 to speak in parliament or council, honor and at- 
 tention would be waiting on their lips." He nexl 
 speaks of physical exercise. Wrestling and i lie 
 USe of tli .-word are specially commended, the 
 hivat hiii-- spells to be filled with music. About 
 
 two hours before Bupper, the students are to be 
 summoned to their martial exercises, on fool or 
 on horseback, in fair weather or foul. These w ill 
 give personal prowess and hardihood, and ac- 
 "iii the youths to halms of discipline, 
 and the practical conduct of armies. Visits to 
 the country, also, al favorable seasons, and for- I 
 
 eign travel, are recommended to supplement the 
 studies and exercises of the academy. Lastly, the 
 students' food should be "plain, healthful, and 
 moderate," and served in the same house. The 
 proper age in which to pursue this curriculum is 
 from the 12th to the 21st year. It will be seen 
 from this synopsis, that Milton's view of a liberal 
 education differed widely from that of the school- 
 men of his day, in its estimate of the classics and 
 natural science ; while, in many respects, it ex- 
 ceeds the liberal tendencies of the most advanced 
 educators of the present time. The period of child- 
 hood, which is now claiming so much of the at- 
 tention of the educators throughout the civilized 
 world, is not. indeed, considered by him ; not, 
 however, because it was overlooked, nor because 
 he undervalued its importance; but, because 
 "brevity" was his "scope." On nearly all of the 
 great subjects that now agitate the educational 
 world, this tractate is silent. Compulsory educa- 
 tion, sectarianism, the relation of schools to the 
 state, the education of women, the co-education 
 of the sexes — none of these arc mentioned. Yet, 
 if the reader of today, wondering at its fame, and 
 doubting its claim to special consideration, will 
 transport himself to Milton's time, and note the 
 influences by which he was surrounded — the 
 almost universal disregard of the. practical in 
 education, and the blind worship of book knowl- 
 edge—this "letter to Master Samuel Ilartlib" 
 will appear almost a daring innovation; and the 
 moral courage, as well as the sagacity, of its 
 author will be unquestioned. 
 
 MILTON COLLEGE, at Milton, Wis., 
 founded as an academy in 1 8 II and as a colli ge 
 in 1807, is under the control of the Seventh-Day 
 Baptists. It is supported chiefly by tuition 
 lees. Its endowment amounts to $6,000. The 
 libraries contain about 2.1(10 volumes. It has 
 philosophical and chemical apparatus and cab- 
 inets of botany, mineralogy, etc. The academic 
 department has a teachers' course, an English 
 ami business course, ami a preparatory course; 
 the collegiate department has a classical and a 
 scientific course. In 1875 — 6, there were 260 
 students in all courses. Both sexes are admitted. , 
 The principals and presidents have been as fol- 
 lows: the Rev. Bethnel ('. Church, 1 year; the 
 Rev. S.S. Bicknell, .'> years ; the Rev. Amos W. 
 Conn, l' years; Prof. A. C. Spicer, 7 years; and 
 i he Rev. \V. C. Whit ford, the present incumbent 
 (1876), L8 years, 
 
 MILWAUKEE, the chief city and port of 
 entry of the state of Wisconsin, was settled in 
 
 1835, and incorporated as a city in L846. Its 
 
 population, according to the census of L870, was 
 89,930; and its school population (between the 
 ages of I and 2<> years) 27,359, which, in August 
 L875, had increased to 33,919. The total popu- 
 lation of the city, at present (1876), is about 
 120.11(111. Of the'sehool population, in L875, the 
 number attending the public schools was ,'i(),7 
 
 per cent; attending private schools, 21..'! percent. 
 
 (If the children between the apes of I Mini 15 
 
 years, more than 75 per cent attended either 
 public or private schools. 
 
MILWAUKEE 
 
 57!) 
 
 Educational ERstory. — The history of the 
 
 public schools of Milwaukee, in its general char- 
 acter, does do! differ greatly from that of other 
 western cities which have grown into importance 
 
 during the last thirty years. In all. the advance 
 has been from the rude frontier school of the 
 early settlers, in which only the rudiments of a 
 common English education were taught, to the 
 highly-organized system of the large city, with 
 its several grades of schools, crowned with its 
 high or normal school, ami. sometimes, with a 
 university. The first school taught in the city, 
 was the private school of a Methodist minister, 
 opened in the winter of 1835 — f>, in a building 
 in Bast Water Street. The following year, the 
 first public school organized under the school 
 laws of the territory, was opened in Third Street 
 Since the incorporation of the city, in 18d6, the 
 progress of the schools has been rapid and steady. 
 Two steps of sufficient importance to be noted. 
 are the introduction of German as a regular 
 study in the district schools, which took place in 
 1857, and the introduction of drawing and 
 music, in 1873. The present school system was 
 organized in 184-6. The first school superintend- 
 ent was Rufus King, 1859 — 60. His successors 
 were, Jonathan Ford, 1860 — 62 ; A. C. May, 
 8 days in 1862; J. R. Sharpstein, 1862—3; 
 Edwin De Wolf, 1863—5; F. C. Pomeroy, 
 1865—70 ; G. H. Paul, 1870—71 ; F. C. Law, 
 1871 — 4; James MacAlister, the present in- 
 cumbent (1877), elected in 1874. 
 
 School Si/stem. — The supervision and control 
 of the public schools are vested in a board of 
 education, consisting of 26 members, 2 from each 
 ward, who are appointed biennially by the alder- 
 men, subject to confirmation by the common 
 council. The board elect annually from their 
 number a president, who is required to preside 
 at all meetings, and to deliver an annual ad- 
 dress. The school board is required, subject to 
 the approval of the common council, to establish 
 and organize a sufficient number of schools for 
 the accommodation of the children of the city, 
 for which the common council must purchase, or 
 lease, lots and buildings, erect school-houses, and 
 provide the necessary furniture. The board, is, al- 
 so, authorized to define the boundaries of school- 
 districts, to adopt suitable text-books, which must 
 be uniform, and must continue in use without 
 frequent change, and to enforce uniformity in the 
 system of instruction employed in the schools. 
 They also elect biennially a superintendent of 
 schools, whose duties are to exercise a general 
 supervision over the public schools, to examine 
 into their organization and condition, to suggest 
 to the teachers such changes, consistent with the 
 school law, as he may deem expedient, and, in 
 connection with a committee of the board, to ex- 
 amine teachers, to employ and classify them, and 
 to dismiss them when necessary. The school law 
 requires the establishment and maintenance of 
 a high school, in which must he organized an 
 academic department and a normal course for 
 the special training of teachers for the public 
 schools of the city. The course of study in 
 
 the academic department embraces four years; 
 that in the normal course, three. Pupils from 
 the district schools, who are L 5 years of age or 
 over, of studious habits and good moral char- 
 acter, and who have passed an examination of 
 the tirst grade, and received the superintendent's 
 diploma tor such examination, are admitted to 
 
 the high school ; but candidates who have not 
 
 attended the district schools, may be admitted 
 to the high school upon passing a special ex- 
 amination. A certificate of gradual ion, entitling 
 the holder to tea< h in the public schools, may be 
 given to each student in the normal department 
 of the high school, who is not less than 18 yean 
 of age, and who lias maintained a satisfactory 
 standing in that department for one year. There 
 
 are three kinds of schools,— branch schools, dis- 
 trict schools, ami the high school. The liist are 
 only adjuncts of district schools, and are opened 
 whenever any of the latter are not adequate to 
 
 the public needs. The work in the branch 
 school is graded, but is of an elementary char- 
 acter. In the district schools, there are ten 
 
 grades, occupying about eight years. The course 
 
 of study embraces all the ordinary branches of 
 an English education, together with German 
 (graded like the other studies, and taught by a 
 special teacher), and music, free-hand drawing, 
 and calisthenics, graded and systematically 
 taught by the class teachers. There are special 
 superintendents, however, for each of these 
 branches, who regularly inspect and supervise 
 the work, and, in the case of drawing and music, 
 hold all the examinations for promotion. In 
 th • high school, there are two courses — the clas- 
 sical and the English — each occupying four 
 years. Three grades of certificates are granted 
 to teachers, examinations for which ate held in 
 March, June, August, and December, din; 
 schools are supported principally by an annual 
 city tax, levied by the common council on all 
 taxable property. In L875 — 6, this tax amounted 
 to 1.85 mills on the dollar. The school age is 
 from 4 to 20 years. The number of schools, 
 in 1875 — 6, was 21, consisting of the following: 
 high school, 1; normal department, 1: district 
 schools, 13 ; branch schools, 6. — The following 
 are the principal items of school statistics for. 
 the same year: 
 
 X i ii niter of pupils of school age 34,:>:;t 
 
 " " " enrolled in public schools. . . 13,881 
 
 Average daily attendance 8,453 
 
 Number of teachers 107 
 
 Total receipts $168,949.22 
 
 " expenditures $164,210.15 
 
 " valuation of school property $486,500.00 
 
 Connected with the public schools, is a teach- 
 ers' library, the privileges of which are free to 
 all teachers employed in the public schools, and 
 to the pupils of the normal department of the 
 high school. In addition to the means of in- 
 struction afforded by the public schools, there 
 are many private and denominational schools. 
 The number of the former, in L873, was 17, in 
 which instruction was given to 7,000 pupils, the 
 number of whom, in 1875, was increased, to 
 9,26«J. 
 
.580 
 
 M1XETCALOCY 
 
 MINERALOGY. Under the bead of mvn- 
 entl substances, or those which constitute the 
 mineral kingdom, are included all inorganic 
 bodies; that is to say, by strict definition, all sub- 
 stances that are not the products of life. By a 
 similar strictness, we mighl be led to say that, 
 the mineral kingdom being a division of nature, 
 artificial products should be excluded from it. 
 Nature, however, is not to be limited by our 
 verbal definitions; organisms appropriate and 
 use mineral substances without altering their 
 composition, or they may, in the complex 
 chemical reactions of vitality, give rise to a min- 
 eral Bubstance, especially as a resull of organic 
 decomposition, 'thus we have in bones mineral 
 matter: and the carbonic aciil breathed out by 
 the visitor to the Grotto del Cane belongs as 
 much to the mineral kingdom as that evolved 
 from the floor of the cave. Again, nature right- 
 fully claims as true mineral substances many 
 which owe their existence to the art of man, be- 
 ing altogether identical in form, composition, 
 and character with those of her own production. 
 
 We can make no distinction between the crystal 
 
 of salt formed by the artificial evaporation of 
 
 brine, and a similar crystal produced by the 
 
 natural evaporation of sea-water ; or between 
 the crystals of augite formed as furnace products 
 and those of volcanic origin. Hence we see that, 
 
 in reality, the mineral kingdom embraces all sub- 
 stances, in their constitution essentially inorganic, 
 
 which occur in nature, even though they may 
 have been formed under organic or under artifi- 
 cial conditions: and we thus include in this 
 kingdom, not merely all solid bodies formed in 
 the crust of the earth, but also all inorganic 
 fluids, whether liquid or gaseous, within, upon, 
 or above the earth. Among these, we are at 
 once culled upon to recognize the distinction be- 
 tween the different kinds of molecules that are 
 presented to our notice, and the different forms 
 under which these are aggregated : in ordinary 
 language, we recognize materials and structures. 
 To the materials we apply the term minerals. 
 A. material must be homogeneous; hence the 
 definition of a mineral is " a natural homogene- 
 ous Bubstance of inorganic origin." To mineral 
 aggregates we apply the term rocks; but as thud 
 minerals, whether gaseous or liquid, can hardly 
 lie said to have structure in the sense in which 
 
 the geologisi uses the term, he defines a rock as 
 
 " any aggregation Of solid mineral particles which 
 Constitutes an essential pari of the earth's crust." 
 Imbedded within rocks, we meet with certain 
 mineral holies that presenl forms and structures 
 undoubtedly of organic origin ; to these, provided 
 they are of a certain geological antiquity, is ap- 
 plied the term fossil. (See PaljEontology.) — 
 Bach mineral is theoretically assumed to be ca- 
 pable of taking, under favorable circumstances, 
 the form of , i geometrical solid. This capability 
 lue '" Forces inherent in inorganic matter. 
 
 which causes its molecules to arrange themselves 
 
 to fixed laws about certain mathemat- 
 ically related axes. A perfect crystal is thus 
 
 the outward expression of symmetrica] internal 
 
 structure, and is defined as "an inorganic solid 
 bounded by plane surfaces symmetrically ar- 
 ranged, and resulting from the forces of the con- 
 stituenl molecules." (See Dana. System of Min- 
 eralogy,vo\. 1.) As the molecules of different kinds 
 
 are variously affected by the molecular forces, the 
 crystalline forms of different minerals vary ac- 
 cordingly. The form of the same mineral is 
 always constant : not that it always occurs in 
 crystals of identical form, but that all its forms 
 are referable, under mathematical conditions, to 
 one fundamental type. Its crystalline form is, 
 therefore, regarded as an essential characteristic 
 of a mineral species, which will embrace vari- 
 eties resulting from modifications of the type; 
 and. in this light, any particular crystal maybe 
 regarded as a mineral individual. Ihe existence 
 of such mineral structures is not incompatible 
 with the definition of a rock given above, since 
 crystals are not structures essential in the earth's 
 crust. The formation of a crystal is interfered 
 with bySO many external and varying influences, 
 that forms of exact symmetry are almost im- 
 probabilities; or, to quote Dana, "this sym- 
 metrical harmony is so uncommon that it can 
 hardly he considered other than an ideal perfec- 
 tion."- The law that the same mineral is always 
 
 limited to its own crystalline form is apparently 
 contravened in many instances; — thus, we may 
 have minerals of similar composition, as of 
 carbonate of lime, or even elements, as carbon 
 and sulphur, crystallizing under two or more 
 different fundamental forms [dimorphism, poly- 
 morphism); or. we may have minerals of differ- 
 ent but related chemical composition assuming 
 identical or similar forms [isomorphism, Immceo- 
 morphism); or, finally, we may have a mineral 
 assuming the form of another mineral of essen- 
 tially different chemical composition [pseudo* 
 morphism). As the molecular arrangement 
 
 known as crystalline structure is thus intimately 
 controlled by the laws that govern chemical 
 combination, the explanation of the above men- 
 tioned apparent exceptions to law lies within 
 the province of the chemical physicist. Thus, 
 whilst the mathematician deals with the forms 
 of crystals and their properties as geometrical 
 solids, to the chemist and physicist must be 
 assigne I that part of crystalology, or the science 
 
 of crystals, which treats of the law s and condi- 
 tions that give rise to such forms. To the 
 mathematical branch, is assigned 'he name crys- 
 tallography, to the physical, crystaUogeny. As 
 crystalline form and chemical composition are 
 the essential characteristics of mineral sj>ecics, 
 
 chemiBtry, physics, and solid geometrj are the 
 
 sciences upon which mineralogy is based. In 
 turn, it is an essential subordinate of geology, 
 necessarily throwing light upon the character 
 ami history of rocks. Prom a more general 
 educational Stand-point, mineralogy is important 
 as making us acquainted with the results of the 
 
 forces that are restricted in their action to in- 
 organic matter, and enabling us to contrast 
 them with the results of that combination of 
 lores which we call vitality. The projK'rties 
 
M I N KRALOGY 
 
 MIWI-.SOT A 
 
 58 1 
 
 
 of minerals also throw light on physical problems 
 by affording data tor the discussion of questions 
 affecting light, electricity, magnetism, etc — In 
 its applications to the arts, the value of mineral- 
 egj rests upon a chemical basis. It may thus 
 he regarded, educationally, as supplementing 
 chemistry, as complementary to geology, as of 
 great technical importance to the practical chem- 
 ist and as a necessary study to the metallurgist 
 and mining engineer. — It will be at once apparent 
 that the study of mineralogy, with whatever end 
 in view, must lie deferred to a late stage in ad- 
 vanced education. At the same time, it may he 
 noted that minerals, regarded merely as the 
 materials of which the earth's crust is composed, 
 offer examples of so many physical properties 
 that come under the cognizance of the senses, 
 either unaided or aided by the simplest experi- 
 ments, that they afford excellent material for 
 the cultivation of the powers of observation in 
 the lower stages of education. Minerals present 
 these properties in the simplest conditions, un- 
 complicated, as in vegetable or animal materials. 
 by the effects of vitality; and they are superiorto 
 artificial objects for objective teaching, because, 
 if rightly used, they may he made to elucidate 
 all that can be elucidated by the former, whilst 
 they become, in addition, foundation stones upon 
 which a more advanced and scientific study may 
 be satisfactorily based. In this manner. they may 
 be used to inculcate, in its most elementary form. 
 a scientific method of research. Thus, by means 
 of the physical characters of minerals, observa- 
 tion, accurate as far as our unaided senses can 
 make it. and exactness of thought, and conse- 
 quently of speech, may be cultivated in regard 
 to external form, interned structure (including 
 elementary notions of crystalline structure and 
 cleavage), color, diaphaneity, luster, hardness, 
 tenacity, fracture, etc. Observations, elementary 
 it is true, but still of a fundamental character, 
 regarding specific gravity, solubility, andfusibil- 
 ity, may be induced by simple experiments with 
 the balance, the test-tube, and the blowpipe. 
 Such knowledge, acquired from the common 
 minerals around us, will undoubtedly be a val- 
 uable stepping-stone to further acquisitions. At 
 a later stage, if practicable, instruction in the use 
 of the blowpipe might be made to yield a further 
 insight into ample chemical phenomena, and. if 
 carried far enough, might be made an excellent 
 starting-point for systematic scientific investiga- 
 tion by analysis. 
 
 In connection with mineralogy, attention 
 should be given to lithology, or the science of 
 mineral aggregates, or rocks. This subject 
 presents many points of interest both from a 
 scientific and an educational point of view : and 
 in its connections, on the one hand; with geology, 
 and, on the other, with mineralogy, affords the 
 materials for practical study as well as useful 
 mental culture, thus constituting an element of ) 
 both technical and liberal education. The works 
 necessary to the general reader for reference on j 
 topics of mineralogy and lithology are few : and 
 those only are here named that are perfectly ac- | 
 
 | oessible. — See Dana, .1 System of Mineralogy ; 
 and .1 Mimual of Mineralogy; the formei 
 the standard work of reference on minerals: the 
 latter is a brief compendium for beginners, but 
 
 requiring adaptation to late advances; \ .. 
 
 Elements of Mineralogy; Bristow, Glossary 
 of Mineralogy; Mitchell, Mineralogy, in 
 Obr's Circle of the Sciences, useful in presenting 
 the subject of crystallography. Elementary anil 
 concise information wiil he found in the standard 
 manuals of geology. (Sec Geology.) 
 
 MINES; SCHOOL OF. See Schsntifio 
 Schools. 
 
 MINISTRY OF PUBLIC INSTRUC- 
 TION. How far it is right or expedient for 
 state governments to assume the control of the 
 
 primary, secondary, and Superior schools of a 
 country, is a question which is still unsettled, 
 receiving -various answers in different countries. 
 
 (See State and Sci i..) 'I his difference of 
 
 views finds an expression in the way in which 
 the different national govern nn nts have arranged 
 the administration of those educational affairs Of 
 which they have taken charge. Some states have 
 a special minister ot public instruction who has 
 charge only of the educational affairs of the 
 country. Such states are. in Europe, Prance, 
 Italy. Russia, Norway. Turkey: among the Amer- 
 ican states, only Nicaragua was reported (in the 
 Goiha Almanac for L876) as having a special 
 minister of public instruction. In many other 
 countries, one of the members of the state min- 
 istry bears the title of Minister of Public in- 
 struction, but performs also the duties of some 
 other department. 'I hits, in Prussia, Bavaria, Sax- 
 ony. Wurtemberg, Denmark, Greece, Sweden, 
 Bolivia, Chili, and Costa Rica, the minister of 
 education was, in 1875, also minister of public 
 worship; and, in some of these states, even a 
 third ministerial department was connected with 
 the office. In Spain, commerce, education, and 
 public works: in Guatemala, foreign affairs and 
 education: in San Salvador, the interior and 
 education, were assigned to one member of the 
 ministry. In none of the other states of Europe 
 or America, do any of the members of the 
 ministry hear the special title of minister of edu- 
 cation, cither exclusively or jointly with that of 
 another ministerial department. In Belgium and 
 in the Netherlands, there is a special bureau for 
 educational affairs in the ministry of the inte- 
 rior : and, in the same way. in the I 'nited States, 
 a bureau of education, with a commissioner of 
 education at its head, as a section of the de- 
 partment of the interior. In England, there is a 
 committee of the council on education; in Por- 
 tugal a supreme study council : and, in the new 
 German Empire, an imperial school commission. 
 
 Fuller information on this subject may he found 
 in the special articles in this work on the differ- 
 ent countries of the globe. 
 
 MINNESOTA, one of the north-western 
 states of the American Union, formed a part of 
 
 the territory of the same name, which was or- 
 ganized by Congress in l s l'.». The state of Min- 
 nesota was admitted into the Union in 1858, 
 
682 
 
 MINNESOTA 
 
 taking rank as the 19th, in the order of admission. 
 lis area is 83,531 8q. in.; and its population, in 
 1 -7t>. was 439,706, including 438,257 whites, 7.~>!> 
 
 Colored persons, and 690 Indians. 
 
 Educational History. — The importance of 
 general education was recognized in Minnesota 
 at the commencement of its existence, the first 
 constitution of the state making provision for a 
 free public-school system ami a state university. 
 Every township containing not less than five 
 families was constituted a school - district, in 
 which school trustees were annually elected ; and 
 tiic majority of the voters had authority to levy 
 a tax not exceeding $600 ; besides which a 
 county tax was also sanctioned for school pur- 
 p »ses. Tin' general direction and supervision of 
 tin: school system was assigned to a state super- 
 intendent. In 1860, there were 879 public 
 schools, having .'}l,U<s;5 pupils, and 4 colleges 
 having 366 students. The income of the public- 
 school fund was $27,712, besides which $56,608 
 was raised by taxation for the support of coin- 
 iii »u schools. In 1858, the first normal school was 
 established, by an act of the legislature; and. in 
 L8G0, it was organized and opened at Winona. 
 This school was suspended from .March. L862, to 
 Noveml 4, when it was re-opened in pur- 
 
 suance of a law passed in Februaryof that year. 
 A second state normal school was opened a1 
 Mankato, in L868; and. the following year, 
 $30,000 was appropriated by the legislature for 
 a permanent building for its accomodation. A 
 third normal school was opene I at St. ( 'loud in 
 1869. A state normal board was constituted by 
 law to have the supervision of these institutions, 
 the state superintendent being made a member, 
 
 - V officio. The preparatory department of the 
 state university was opened in 1867, but the in- 
 stitution did not receive its charter till L868. It ' 
 was fully organized in 1870. After several years' 
 experience of (he system as originally established. 
 t he legislature, in 1 873, subjected it to a thorough 
 revision, prescribing the system mainly as it j 
 iniw exists. I 'urine the session of the legislature 
 
 in that year, a bill was proposed providing for 
 
 universal compulsory education and for the pre- 
 vention of truancy; bul it was nut passed. The 
 
 .-i ite S hool fund., at that time, amounted to 
 
 nearly •'! millions of dollars, realized from the 
 .sale of about one-eighth part of the laud belong- 
 ing to it. — Since L870, the state superintendents 
 have been Horace It. Wilson, who in that year 
 
 BUCCeeded Mark II. Dunnell, and served until 
 
 1875; and David Burt, the present incumbent 
 (1876). 
 
 School System. — The supervision of the edu- 
 cational interests of the state is committed to a 
 superintendent of public instruction, who is ap- 
 pointed bj the governor for two years. His 
 
 duties are similar to those of state superintendents 
 
 rally ; while his (lowers are greater from the 
 let that he is called upon to perform the func- 
 tions usually intrusted in other states to state 
 boards of education, lie establishes normal 
 .training schools, convenes teachers' institutes, 
 apportions the school funds among the several 
 
 counties twice a year, and issues to teachers, 
 upon examination by himself, or by a committee 
 of teachers appointed by him, state certificates. 
 This officer, the secretary of state, and the pres- 
 ident of the university, constitute a board for 
 the recommendation of text-books to be used 
 in the common schools of the state. He is also 
 a member and secretary, ex officio, of the state 
 normal board, which has charge of the state 
 normal schools. — County commissioners are also 
 chosen, whose duty it is to appoint county supt r- 
 intendents for two years, at a salary of not less 
 than $10, for each organized district. The duties 
 of the latter are to examine teachers and grant 
 certificates, to visit the schools in their respective 
 counties once during each session, and each to 
 make an annual report to the state superintend- 
 ent. No one is eligible to the position of county 
 superintendent who cannot obtain from the state 
 superintendent a lirst-grade certificate. In each 
 district, there is a director, a treasurer, and a 
 clerk elected for three years. 'I heir duties are 
 the same as those of such officers in other states, 
 and relate to.the special and immediate wants of 
 the schools under their charge. Independent 
 districts may also be organized in any city, town, 
 township, or village. In such cases, the govern- 
 nieiit ot these districts is intrusted to a board of 
 six directors, who perform the duties usually 
 b, longing to the officers of school-districts. '1 hey 
 also appoint three school examiners for the 
 independent district. who examine applicants for 
 the position of teacher. 'I he school age is from 
 
 5 to '1 1 years. 
 
 Educational Condition. — The number of 
 school districts, in ls7.">. was 3,362 ; the number 
 of school-houses, 2,975 ; the number of winter 
 schools. 2,682; of summer schools. 2,643. The 
 number of graded schools reported in that year 
 was 222. The receipts for the support of the 
 schools, were derived from the following sources: 
 
 Balance from previous war . .$23] ,089.98 
 
 Special tax collected.. 669,427.60 
 
 Apportioned by conn ty auditor ,v 1 , v :'.7.17 
 
 Sale ofbonds.. " 48,870.51 
 
 < Ither sources R4,*?66.34 
 
 Total. ... .T" ~" $1,576,081.60 
 
 Th<' expenditures were as follows: 
 
 For teachers' wages $702,662.66 
 
 Furnishing and supplies 57,56 
 
 1!( pairing honses and grounds 64,206.98 
 Purchasing sites and building 
 
 houses 187,667.74 
 
 Renl of sites and renins 3,158.64 
 
 Payment of distiict bonds.... 151,567.79 
 
 For ether purposes 132.796.30 
 
 Total - $1,289,629.01 
 
 The other important items of the school 
 statistics, for 1875, are the following : 
 
 Pupil- enrolled 107,044 
 
 Average attendance in summer 32,660 
 
 •• winter 38,1 
 
 " " mean, for the year 35,646 
 
 Number of teachers in ungraded scl Is: 
 
 winter, male- 1,262 
 
 females . . ..1.147 
 
 Total.... 2,399 
 
 summer, male- 
 
 females . . . l.'.Mti 
 
 Total.... 2,301 
 
MINNESOTA 
 
 583 
 
 Number ol teachers in graded schools: 
 
 males 120 
 
 females .... 444 
 
 Total...! 6(J4 
 
 Number of different teachers employed: 
 
 males 1,372 
 
 females 1,591 
 
 Total 2,963 
 
 Normal Instruction. — The normal schools of 
 the state are three in number, located at Winona, 
 Mankato, and St. Cloud. In that at Winona, 
 the course of study embraces the English lan- 
 guage, mathematics, physical and natural sciences, 
 political economy, vocal music, and the theory 
 and practice of teaching. The number of pupils 
 enrolled in the normal department was (in 1875), 
 males, 75; females. 220. The number enrolled 
 in the model classes was, males. 105; females, 93; 
 total enrollment, 499; the number in actual 
 Attendance in the normal department, 220. The 
 faculty consists of a principal and ten assistants. 
 The class of graduates of May, 1875, numbered 
 18; the whole number of graduates, since its 
 organization, was 227. — The second state normal 
 school is at Mankato. It is divided into a nor- 
 mal and a model department, and has a faculty 
 of one principal and five professors or assistants. 
 Both sexes are admitted. Its course of study is 
 similar to that pursued in the normal school at 
 "Winona. The number of pupils enrolled, in 1875, 
 was, in the normal department, males, 03 ; fe- 
 males, 150; in the model department, males, 30; 
 females, Hi. The average attendance in the nor- 
 mal department was 59 ; in the model depart- 
 ment, 20. There were 11 graduates during the 
 year. — The normal school at St. Cloud is the 
 youngest of the three state institutions, having 
 been established in 18IJ9. Its organization and 
 ■course of study are the same as those of the two 
 oiler schools at Mankato and Winona. It is open 
 to both sexes, and has a faculty consisting of a 
 principal and six instructors. The enrollment was 
 as follows: in the normal department, males, 50; 
 females, 121; in the model department, males, 1(5; 
 females, 32 ; average number in the normal de- 
 partment, males, 28 ; females, 64 ; average in 
 model department, males, 10; females, 1 5. In 
 addition to the privileges afforde 1 by these three 
 institutions, special instruction, to those desiring 
 to teach in the public schools, is given in several 
 of the high schools of the state. A large number 
 of teachers of both sexes is supplied annually 
 from this source. — Teachers' institutes are con- 
 vene 1 by the sup ■rintendent of public instruc- 
 tion, and are presided over by the superintendent 
 •of the county in which they are held. The effort 
 made by the normal board to induce teachers 
 and pupils in the normal schools to attend the 
 annual institutes, and take part in the proceed- 
 ings, has been successful. Eleven institutes were 
 convened in 1875, the exercises in which were 
 •conducted largely by the teachers and pupils of 
 the schools referred to; and the increased interest 
 manifested, and the good feeling produced by 
 
 bringing together the county teachers and those 
 of the normal schools, are thought to be full of 
 jproniisc. 
 
 Secondary Instruction. — The number of high 
 schools in the state is not reported. 'I hey 
 are confined principally to the cities and large 
 towns, many of the 222 graded schools having 
 high-school courses attached. Recommendations 
 have been made that the high schools be pro- 
 vided with a uniform course of study so as to 
 constitute them stepping-stones to the state 
 university, as in some oth< r states; but decided 
 action in this regard has not yet been taken. 
 .Many private schools exist in various parts of 
 the state, which were reported, in 1875, as em- 
 ploying I 15 prof essors and teachers, and afford- 
 ing instruction to 5.447 pupils. The Baldwin 
 School, the preparatory department of Macalister 
 College, was incorporated in 1853. Its curric- 
 ulum is reported as substantially the same as 
 that of Phillips Academy, in Massachusetts. The 
 St. Croix Valley Academy, at Afton, received 
 its charter in 1867 ; it is supposed to be the first 
 regularly incorporated academy in the state. This 
 institution has fitted a large number of teachers, 
 who are satisfactorily employed in the district 
 schools. Among the most important private in- 
 stitutions for secondary instruction, are Taylor's 
 Select Graded School, at St. Paul, organized in 
 1 < i T 1 ; the Minneapolis Business College, and the 
 St. Paul Business College, the latter established 
 in 1865, said to be the oldest and the largest in- 
 stitution of the kind in this part of the North- 
 west. The number of teachers, in 1875, was 6 ; 
 lecturers, 3 ; students. 209. 
 
 Denomini lit, mil and Parochial Schools. — The 
 chief institutions of this character, according to 
 the report of lb75, are the Schools of the Fpis- 
 < opal < hurch, at Faribault, including Shattuck 
 School, a collegiate and business school for boys, 
 which has a military organization, under the 
 care of an experienced officer of the U. S. Army; 
 and St. Mary's Hall, now in its eleventh year, 
 established to provide a Christian home for young 
 ladies, with opportunities for the highest mental 
 culture. The Stabury Divinity College is con- 
 nected with this group of institutions ; also a 
 cathedral, which cost $50,000, in which the stu- 
 dents meet for public worship. Besides these, 
 there is AVesleyan Seminary, at Wasioja, under 
 the control of the Minnesota conference of the 
 Wesleyan Methodists, which in 1875, had 98 
 students ; and St. John's Seminary, near St. 
 Joseph, Stearns Co., which is conducted by the 
 Benedictine Fathers, and provides five courses of 
 study: an elementary, a scientific, a commercial, a 
 a classical, and an ecclesiastical course. (See below.) 
 
 Superior Instruction. — The University of 
 Minnesota (q. v.), at Minneapolis, is the only 
 institution of this grade controlled by the state. 
 The following table includes all the institutions 
 for superior instruction : 
 
 NAME 
 
 Location 
 
 (ail. t<ui College Northfleld 
 
 Hamlin^ University lied Wing 
 
 Macalister CoUege Minneapolis 
 
 St. Jo] m's Seminary St. Joseph 
 
 t"ni\ ersity of Minnesota. . , Minneapolis 
 
 When 
 
 found- 
 ed 
 
 Denomi- 
 nation 
 
 Cong. 
 M. Epis. 
 Presb. 
 E. C. 
 
 1866 
 1854 
 
 ls?i 
 1857 
 1870 Kou-sect. 
 
584 MINNESOTA UNIVERSITY 
 
 MISSISSIPPI 
 
 Professional and Scientific Instruction. — The 
 Seabuiy Divinity College, Episcopalian, ami St. 
 John's Seminary. Roman Catholic, already re- 
 ferred to as institutions for superior instruction, 
 have full courses in theology : and besides these, 
 (here is Augsburg Seminary, at Minneapolis, 
 under Evangelical Lutheran control. Scientific 
 instruction, in several grades and departments, is 
 affonle.1 by the State University (q. v.). 
 
 Special Instruction. — The Minnesota Institu- 
 tion for tin- Education of the Deaf and Dumb, 
 and the Blind, located at Faribault, was opened 
 in 1st;.'!, for residents of the state, between till- 
 ages of 10 and 25 years. The course of study 
 embraces all the ordinary branches, with the 
 special teaching of industrial pursuits. During 
 the year 1875, there were L09 deaf-mutes and 2L 
 blind pupils in the institution. 
 
 The only educational journal published in the 
 state was The Minnesota Teacher and Journal of 
 Educalion,vrhich,ia June, I 875, was consolidated 
 with The Chicago Teacher scad published at Chi- 
 cago, un ler the title of The Western Journal of 
 Education. 
 
 MINNESOTA, University of, at Min- 
 neapolis, Minn., was established upon grants 
 of land by Congress for the endowment of a 
 university and of a college of agriculture and 
 the mechanic arts, amounting, in all, to 202,000 
 acres. The firsl ac1 for its organization was 
 passed by the territorial legislature in L851. 
 The present charter was granted in L868, and 
 amended in 1*72. A preparatory school was 
 opened in L867; and. in L869, the firsl college 
 class was organized. 1 fader the organic law, the 
 board of regents are authorized to establish anj 
 desired number of departments or colleges, the 
 following, however, being specified : "A depart- 
 ment of elementary instruction; a college of 
 science, literature, and the arts: a college of 
 agriculture: a college of mechanic arts: a col- 
 lege or department of medicine; a college or 
 department of law." The colleges of law and 
 medicine have not yet been organized. The de- 
 partment of elementary instruction, otherwise 
 designated, by virtue of a by-law of the board of 
 regents, the "collegiate department," is intro 
 ductory to the permanent colleges of the uni- 
 versity. It includes, together with the work of 
 the freshman and Bophomore classes of the or- 
 dinary college courses, the preparatory depart- 
 ment. The colleges provide for the junior and 
 senior years .'111(1 tor post-graduate courses. The 
 first preparatory year has been dropped ; and a 
 rule has been adopted excluding from the re 
 maining preparatory classes all st udents who can 
 obtain the same instruction in their local high 
 -ehools. The collegiate department offers three 
 courses of Btudy, called classical, scientific, and 
 modern. The college of Bcience, literature, and 
 
 the arts presents, likeu be. three COUTSeSOf studv: 
 a COUTSe m arts: a course in science: and a course 
 
 in literature. The college of agriculture offers 
 
 two courses: I 1 ) an advanced or univer.dtN course, 
 
 based on the scientific course of the collegiate 
 department, leading to the degree of Bachelor of 
 
 Agriculture; (2) an elementary course, coincid- 
 ing, to a considerable extent, with the scientific 
 course of the collegiate department. The college 
 of mechanic arts otters three advanced or uni- 
 versity courses, leading to appropriate bacca- 
 laureate degrees : a course in civil engineering; 
 ! a course in mechanical engineering; a course in 
 architecture. These courses are based on the 
 scientific course of the collegiate department. 
 Tuition is tree, the institution being supported 
 by the annual income of its endowment, amount' 
 
 ing, in 1875, to $1 t,000, and an annual appro- 
 priation of &19,000 from the state. The univer- 
 sity grounds comprise about 25 acres, well wooded 
 with native trees, and contain two fine build- 
 ings. There is also an experimental farm. The 
 library contains nearly 10,000 bound volumes. 
 The general museum comprises the collections of 
 the geological and natural history survey of the 
 j state (carried on by the professors of the uni- 
 versitj I, augmented by purchases and donations. 
 
 The chemical and physical apparatus is valuable. 
 Both sexes are admitted. In 1875 6, there were 
 
 1(1 instructors and 267 students (196 males, and 
 71 females), of whom 118 were of the college 
 grade; 111. preparatory; and .'!'.». special William 
 \V. Folwell, M.A.. has been the president of the 
 universitj since its organization. 
 
 MISCHIEVOUSNESS, as applied to the 
 disposition of a child, or school pupil, is the oc- 
 casional transgression of an established rule in a 
 playful spirit, but without a malicious intention. 
 This disposition is usually the result of the union 
 of humor, or love of fun. with sound bodily 
 health. The exuberance of Bpirits thus produced 
 generally finds vent in actions which are denom- 
 inated mischievous. This spirit is bo widely 
 different from the willful breaking of rules with 
 
 an evil intent, that the easy Suppression of a con- 
 tinued exhibition of it rests entirely with the 
 teacher; the good nature with which the mis- 
 chievous act is accompanied generally causing the 
 perpetrator to desisl on a slight warning. To 
 bring the mischievous spirit under speedy con- 
 trol, two qualities only are necessary in the 
 teacher: quick discernment of its real nature, 
 and tact in collecting it. The want of these 
 sometimes leads to needless irritation on both 
 sides, and may end disastrously to the teacher's 
 
 influence, and, through that, to the discipline ol 
 
 the school. It', on the other hand, the good 
 
 humor of the transgressor is met by a similar 
 feeling on the part of the teacher, the task of 
 
 correction is usually easj . and causes no offense : 
 while, in the end. it secures a respecl till obedience 
 
 on the part of the pupil. If. however, the mi 
 chievous disposition is not corrected in this way, 
 it in a\ lead to vicious habits, which will tend to 
 
 undermine, or permanently deprave the moral 
 character. 
 
 MISSISSIPPI, one i if the southern states 
 of the American Union, formed at first a part of 
 the Mississippi Territory, which was organized 
 
 by act of Congress. April 7.. 1798, and included 
 nearly all the territory now comprised within 
 the siates of Mississippi and Alabama. This wits 
 
MISSISSIPPI 
 
 585 
 
 enlarged by successive additions, in 1802 and 
 L812; and, in lsiT. AJabama Territory was 
 formed from the eastern portion of it. and in 
 the same year Mississippi was admitted into the 
 
 Onion as a state. Its area is 47,156 sq. m.; 
 and its population, in 1870, was 827,922, of 
 whom 382,896 were whites; 444,201, colored 
 persons; 809, Indians; and I 6, Chinese. 
 
 Educational History. — The constitution of 
 the stair, at the time of its admission into the 
 Union, recognized the importance of encouraging 
 education as the means of promoting "liberty 
 and the happiness of mankind;" but no effective 
 or properly organized system of public schools 
 was established in the state. In Is UK the census 
 returns showed that there were 382 common 
 and primary schools, with 8,263 pupils, and VI 
 academies, with 2,553 students. There were 
 also several colleges in the state, having, in the 
 aggregate, 250 students. In 1850. the number 
 oxpublic schools had increased, to 762 : and the 
 number of academics, to ft!9. In 18G0, there 
 were reported 1 .1 1 6 public schools, having 3 < > , ; » 7 « » 
 pupils, and an income of $385,679. 'The number 
 of academics and other schools was 169, with 
 7.97 i pupils; and there were 13 colleges, with 
 856 students. The state constitution of 1 
 recognized the need of provi ling the means of 
 popular education, and hence made it the duty of 
 the legislature to establish "a uniform system of 
 free public schools by taxation, or otherwise, for 
 all coil Iren between the ages of 5 and 21 yeas." 
 and also, as soon as practicable, "to establish 
 schools of a higher grade."' The same constitu- 
 tion also required the election of a "superintend- 
 ent of public education." to hold office for four 
 years, and also that there should be a " board of 
 education," consisting of the secretary of state, the 
 attorney-general, and the state superintendent; 
 and that there should be a school superintendent 
 in each county, and that school should be kept 
 in each district for at least four months in each 
 year. It also provided for a school fund from 
 the proceeds of lands belonging to the state, 
 granted by the United States, and the lands 
 known as swamp lands, and authorized a poll- 
 tax not exceeding S'2 a head, in aid of the school 
 fund. It prescribed the establishment of an 
 agricultural college, and that " no religious sect 
 is ever to control any part of the school or uni- 
 versity funds of the state". In pursuance of 
 these constitutional requirements, the legislature. 
 at its session of June. 1870, passed a school law, 
 organizing the present school system, except as 
 amended in some particulars by the revised code 
 of 1871. — The first state superintendent under 
 this law was II. R. Pease, who served till 1874; 
 hi- sii ecessors being T. YV. < 'ardozo, from 1874 to 
 1876; T. S. Gathright, from dan. to Sept.. 1876; 
 and Rev. Jos. Bardwell, now in office (1876). 
 
 School System. — The general supervision and 
 control of the public schools of the state are 
 committed to a state board of education, consist- 
 ing of the secretary of state, the attorney-gen- 
 eral, and the superindendent of public education. 
 This board has charge of all property and funds 
 
 devoted to school purposes, the income of 
 which they pay to the local authorities. 'I'hey 
 make an annual report to the superintendent of 
 public education, which is incorporated in his 
 report to the legislature. The immediate super- 
 vision and control of the schools are entrusted 
 to the superintendent of public education, who 
 is elected every four years. There is. in each 
 county, a county superintendent, appointed by 
 the hoard of education, and confirmed by the 
 senate, for two years. The duties of these officers 
 are .similar to those of county superintendents 
 in other states. Each county <•< institutes a school- 
 district, which is governed by a board of school 
 directors, elected by the parents or guardians of 
 the children attending school. The number of! 
 schools in each county must be one or more, 
 and the school session not less than four months. 
 Each city of 3.000 inhabitants, also, forms a 
 school-district, governed, as in the case of the 
 counties, by six school directors chosen by the 
 resident voters. Each county is required to 
 furnish a free scholarship to each of the uni- 
 versities of the state' : and to each normal school, 
 as many students as it has representatives in the 
 lower house of the legislature. It is provided by 
 law that " the Bible shall not be excluded from 
 the schools of the state". The school age is from 
 5 to 21 years. 
 
 Educational Condition. — The number of 
 schools, in 1875, was 3,434, — first grade, 764; 
 second grade. 2,670 ; high schools, 8; private 
 schools, 606. The support of the schools was 
 deri veil from the following sources: 
 
 State four-mill tax $489,443.8? 
 
 ( Sty and county taxes 354,8 i 2.40 
 
 ( Ihickasaw fund 63,466.63 
 
 Collected on loans of school funds 20,000.00 
 
 Sale and rental of school lands 50,000. no 
 
 Aid from Peahod y Fund 9,500.00 
 
 Total $yb7,'282.fctf 
 
 Expenditures: 
 
 For teachers' salaries $857,950.44 
 
 Salaries of county superintendents 48,650.00 
 
 Miscellaneous expenditures 80,000.00 
 
 Total $986,600.4 t 
 
 The other items of school statistics are the 
 following: 
 
 Number of children of school age: 
 
 Whites, 141,514 
 
 Colored, 176,945 
 
 Total 318,459 
 
 Number of pupils enrolled 168,217 
 
 Average monthly enrollment 13U, :;;;() 
 
 Average daily attendance 106,894 
 
 Number of teachers 4. 1 .' 8 
 
 Average monthly wages of teachers $55.47 
 
 Normal Instruction. — There are two normal 
 schools in the state, one at Holly Springs, the 
 other at Tougaloo. The first was opened in 
 1 870, and three years after, graduated 3 pupils, 
 The limited appropriation made for its support, 
 has impaired its efficiency by rendering it diffi- 
 cult to secure the sendees of competent persons 
 as instructors. The normal school at Tougaloo- 
 is a part of the Tougaloo University, to which 
 the American Missionary Association contributed 
 gl 5,000. and the state SI 0,1)00. The faculty of 
 the school consists of a principal, preceptress, 
 
586 MISSISSIPPI UNIVERSITY 
 
 MISSOURI 
 
 and five teachers. Manual labor is a feature of 
 the curriculum, each student being required to 
 
 occupy himself one hour daily in this way In- 
 struction is given principally in the English 
 branches and mathematics. Facilities are also 
 afforded for the study of vocal and instrumental 
 music. There is a reference library of 1.000 
 volumes, and philosophical apparatus. 
 
 Secondary Instruction. — The reports received 
 from high schools and academies have been so 
 ivw in number as to give very little ground on 
 which to base an estimate of the work that is 
 being done in this grade of instruction. 
 
 Superior Instruction. — The chief institu- 
 tions of this grade are enumerated in the follow- 
 ing table: 
 
 
 
 When 
 
 ;ious 
 
 NAME 
 
 Location 
 
 found- 
 
 denomina- 
 
 
 
 ed 
 
 u ii 
 
 Mississippi College, . . 
 
 Clinton 
 
 1830 
 
 Bap. 
 
 Pass i Iuim Lan i 
 
 l J ass Christian 
 
 1866 
 
 K. C. 
 
 
 Holly Springs 
 
 1868 
 
 Meth. 
 
 'i ings I-" 1 ii\ ersity.. 
 
 Tougaloo 
 
 L869 
 
 i nil in. 
 
 t ni\ , of Mississippi . . 
 
 Oxford 
 
 1814 
 
 Non-SQct. 
 
 The report, for 1874, of the U. S. Bureau of 
 Education mentions 7 colleges for the superior 
 instruction of women, of which <i were author- 
 ized 1 • confer degrees. These colleges are located 
 at Brookhaven (Whitworth), Clinton (Central 
 Institute), Columbus (Female Institute), Holly 
 Springs (Franklin), Meridian, Oxford (Uni 
 ami Pontotoc (( 'hickasaw). 
 
 Professional and Scientific Instruction. 
 Alcorn University, at Rodney, was ereated by 
 at ut' the legislature in 1*71, and occupies the 
 site of the institution formerly known as Oak- 
 land College, the oldest academic institution in 
 the state. To the university was granted three- 
 fifths of the proceeds of the sale of the agricult- 
 ural college land-scrip, amounting to $113,400, 
 besides a legislative appropriation of $50,000 
 for ten years. It is open to students of either 
 trace. It has an agricultural department, with 
 a farm of 27.") acres. Its philosophical and 
 chemical apparatus is very elaborate and com- 
 plete. Means for scientific instruction is also 
 afforded by the College of Agriculture and Me- 
 chanic Arts, a department oi the I iiiveraity of 
 Mississippi. This institution has also a law de- 
 partment ; and there is a theological class in 
 raloo Univer i j . 
 
 Special Instruction. The Mississippi Institute 
 for the Blind, at Jackson, is the only institution 
 
 this charac er in tha state. It was founded in 
 1852, and is supported by state appropriations. 
 
 MISSISSIPPI, University of, at Oxford, 
 Miss., was chartered in L844 and opened in L848, 
 receiving the proceeds of the grant of land by 
 Congress to the state for the support of a semi- 
 nary of learning. In lS71,it was awarded by 
 the legislature two-fifths of the congressional 
 land -rant for the establishment of a college of 
 iculture and the mechanic arts. The insti- 
 tution possesses complete chemical, philosophical, 
 and astronomical apparatus; a cabinet of shells 
 and mineralogica] specimens; collections of fos- 
 
 sils, soils, and other geological apparatus ; be- 
 sides instruments to illustrate mathematics 
 and engineering, and a large farm. The library 
 contains more than 6,000 volumes. The in- 
 vested resources of the university do not ex- 
 ceed §200,0(10. The income, in 1876, from en- 
 dowment and state appropriations was $30,000. 
 The plan of instruction embraces three general 
 departments; namely, (1) preparatory educa-^ 
 i it >ii (including a commercial course); (2) sci- 
 ence, literature, and the arts; (3) professional 
 education. The second department includes 
 five distinct courses of study, three of which 
 are undergraduate parallel courses, two being 
 post - graduate courses. The undergraduate 
 courses are known as (1) The Course for 
 Bachelor of Arts (4 yrs.) ; (2) The Course 
 for Bachelor of Science (4 yrs.); (3) The 
 Course for Bachelor of Philosophy (3 yrs.). A 
 student has free choice of these coursi 8, but the 
 studies prescribed for each course are all com- 
 pulsory for that course. 'I he postgraduate 
 courses are fur the degrees of Master of Arts and 
 Doctor of Philosophy. Under the third general 
 department are embraced three professional 
 schools; namely. (1) law: (2) medicine and 
 .surgery (not yet organized] ; (3) agriculture 
 and the mechanic arts, in which the regular 
 course is for four years, leading to the degree of 
 belor ui Scientific Agriculture (B. S. A.). 
 The cosl of tuition in the first general depart- 
 ments is $25 a year; iii the law school, §50 a 
 year. In L875- 6, there were 13 instructors 
 and 131 students. The presiding officers have 
 been as Follows: George F. Bolmes, LL. D. 
 (president), 1848 — 9; the Rev. Augustus B. 
 Longstreet, D. D., LL. D. (president), 1849— 56 ; 
 the Rev. Frederick A. P.Barnard, D. D., LL.D., 
 L856 — 9 as president, and 1859 — Gl as chan- 
 cellor; the Rev. John N. WaddeLD.D., LL.D., 
 (chancellor) L86£ 71 ; and Gen. Alexander P. 
 Stewart, the present chancellor (1876), appointed 
 in 1874. 
 
 MISSISSIPPI COLLEGE, at Clinton, 
 Miss., unilcr Baptist control, was chartered in 
 1830. It has libraries containing 3,000 volumes, 
 
 and extensive apparatus and cabinets. Its pro- 
 ductive funds amount to $50,000. The regular 
 tuition lee is $25 a Mar. The college consists 
 uta preparatory department, and the following 
 six schools: (1) mental and moral science, 
 (2) Greek, (3) Latin, (4) mathematics, (5) natural 
 
 sciences, and (6) Knglish. Any student complet- 
 ing the six schools is entitled to the degree of 
 
 A. 15. ; those completing the schools of moral 
 
 science, mathematics, natural sciences, and the 
 
 English, to the degree of B. S.; those complet- 
 ing the Bchools of mural science, Greek, Latin, 
 and English, to the degree of B.L. In L873- t. 
 there were 7 instructors and 1 •'>.'» students. The 
 Rev. W. S. Webb, A. M.,is the president (1876). 
 
 MISSOURI, one of the western states of the 
 
 American Union, was originally a part of the 
 Louisiana purchase of L803, and on the admis- 
 sii f the state of Louisiana, in 1812, formed 
 
 part of the MissOUri Territory. It was admitted 
 
MISSOURI 
 
 587 
 
 into the Union as a state, with its present limits, 
 in 1821. Its area is 65,350 Bq. in. : and its popu- 
 lation, in 1870, was l,721,295,of whom 1,603,146 
 were whites, 1 L8,071 colored persons, 75 Indians, 
 and 3 Chinese. 
 
 Educational History. — This subject will be 
 considered under three heads: (I) The establish- 
 ing of schools; (II) The mode of maintaining 
 them; (III) The mode of supervising them. 
 
 I. The first recorded school established in the 
 present state of Missouri, was an academy in the 
 town of Genevieve. There are no means of 
 knowing when it was established; hut. in 1808, 
 it was incorporated under a hoard of trustees, 
 . the act of incorporation requiring, "that an insti- 
 tution for the education of females shall he estab- 
 lished by the trustees as soon as the funds of the 
 academy will admit of it ; and that the trustees 
 shall cause, at all times, the French and English 
 languages to be taught in the said academy." In 
 1812, Congress, in erecting the territory of Mis- 
 souri, made general provision for the cause of 
 e lucation, which took practical shape shortly 
 after in special grants of town lots and other 
 lands to specially named communities, or school 
 corporations; but the territorial government 
 niah' no effort to establish a general system of 
 public schools. It contented itself with extend- 
 ing aii I, encouragement, and protection to all 
 communities showing enterprise in this respect; 
 but further than this it could not prudently go, 
 owing to the numerical weakness of the popula- 
 tion and its widely scattered character. An act 
 was approved January 22., 1817, establishing "a 
 
 ^ lottery for the benefit of Potosi Academy."' which 
 institution consisted of two houses, built and in 
 part furnished by the inhabitants of Washington 
 county at Mine a Burton. On the 30th of Janu- 
 ary, in the same year, an act to incorporate 
 trustees of this academy was approved. The 
 board was to consist of seven members. Two 
 classes — junior and senior — -were established, 
 the instruction given in the former being prepar- 
 atory, that in the latter, "the English language, 
 with such other languages and sciences as were 
 usually taught in seminaries of learning." The 
 name of the school had previously been Mine a 
 Burton Academy. This is the first school men- 
 tion.; 1 in the public records between 1812 and 
 1821). On the same day (January 30., 1817), an 
 act was approved authorizing the commissioners 
 of public buildings, in the town of Jackson, Cape 
 Girardeau Co., to convey to five persons, 
 named in the act, four acres of land on which to 
 erect a school-house. They were permitted to 
 dispose of a portion of this land, for the purpose 
 of creating a building fund. ( >n the same day, an 
 act to incorporate a board of trustees for the 
 superintendence of schools in the town (now city) 
 of St. Louis was approved. The board was lim- 
 ited to thirteen members, and when incorporated, 
 consisted of William ('lark, William C. Omit, 
 Thomas II. Benton, Bernard Pratte, Auguste 
 .Chouteau, Alexander McNair, and John I'. 
 Cabanne — names ever after prominent in, and 
 ■intimately associated with, the development and i 
 
 history of St. I.ouis and the state. They were 
 authorized to take and hold all real and personal 
 
 property given to the schools by individuals or 
 Congress, and to dispose of the same to advan- 
 tage, by lease or sale. The establishment of these 
 schools embraces the whole educational history 
 of the eight years of territorial existence, so far 
 as is indicated by the public records. Five years 
 elapsed, after the formation of the state govern- 
 ment, before any effort was made to establish a 
 general and uniform system of public schools. 
 Puring this period, the three academies already 
 mentioned were re incorporated, with slighl 
 modifications and improvements of the acts of 
 incorporation, and several new ones were estab- 
 lished. This closed the first period of the Mate's 
 educational history; since, thereafter, the legis- 
 lature pursued the policy of encouraging edu- 
 cation by the establishment of a general system, 
 and by the enactment of general instead of spe- 
 cial laws. In the act of Congress. March, 1820, 
 authorizing the people of Missouri Territory to 
 form a constitution and state government, prop- 
 ositions were offered providing for the establish- 
 ment and support of common schools, which 
 were accepted by the state and incorporated into 
 the constitution, the first section of the sixth 
 article of which reads, "Schools and the means 
 of education shall forever be encouraged in this 
 state; and the general assembly shall take meas- 
 ures to preserve from waste or damage such lands 
 as have been, or hereafter maybe, granted by the 
 United States, for the use of schools within each 
 township in the state, and shall apply the funds 
 which may arise from such lands in strict con- 
 formity to the object of the grant; one school 
 or more shall be established in each township as 
 soon as practicable and necessary, where the poor 
 shall be taught gratis." Section 2d of the same 
 article provided that the assembly should take 
 measures for the improvement of such land as 
 had been already, or might be thereafter, granted 
 by the United States, the funds accruing from 
 the rent or lease of which, together with all 
 other funds given for the same purpose, were to 
 constitute a permanent fund for the support of 
 "a university for the promotion of literature and 
 the arts anil sciences." The state was ad- 
 mitted into the Union upon the terms of this 
 constitution; and. hence, a general public-school 
 system, of a high or a low grade, is one of her 
 permanent institutions. The statutory provisions 
 in relation to school lands and public education 
 have been very numerous, being suggested from 
 time to time by the condition of the rapidly 
 growing state, and by the needs of its increas- 
 ing population. In 1820, the legislature directed 
 the several county courts to appoint five commis- 
 sioners of school lands, to exercise a general 
 supervision over the same, to rent or lease them, 
 and to invest the proceeds, but without power to 
 sell. In 1822, the act of 1820 was amended so 
 as to require the appointment by the courts of 
 two commissioners in each township, whose duly 
 it should be to erect "a sufficient school-house for 
 the benefit of education," whenever the funds 
 
588 
 
 MISSOURI 
 
 derived from the renting or leasing of the school 
 lands were sufficient to justify it. In 1824, an 
 act was passed by which ea< h township was con- 
 stituted a school-district, and a board of five 
 trustees was appointed in each, who were em- 
 powered to "build or procure school-houses, and 
 repair the same." "to appoinl teachers and visit- 
 ors of schools, and to make rules for the govern- 
 ment of the schools.'" All subsequent legislation 
 in regard to tin' common schools consists of modi- 
 fications of the law of L82 1. In 1835, there was 
 a general revision of the statutes. Among them 
 was a revised school law, reported by a commit- 
 tee of three, appointed by the governor, "to form 
 a system of common primary-school education as 
 nearly uniform as possible throughout the State." 
 By this, each congressional township constituted 
 a school-district, in which three trustees were 
 elected annually, who were empowered to build 
 school houses, employ teachers, anil maintain 
 schools si* months in the year, or throughout 
 the year, if a majority of the patrons petitioned 
 
 therefor. The constitution adopted in L865 con- 
 tains still further provisions for the establishment 
 of free s hools for all persons in the state between 
 the ages of 5 and 21, and permits the establish- 
 ment of separate schools lor children of African 
 descent, requiring the distribution of all public- 
 school moneys (not funds) in proportion to the 
 number of children, without regard to color. Sec- 
 tion 4. of the state constitution requires the legis- 
 lature to establish and maintain a state univer- 
 sity with departments for teaching "agriculture 
 ami natural science," as soon as the public-school 
 fund will permit. The school law was siill further 
 amended, hut not materially, in L870, and again 
 by the new constitution, adopted in convention, 
 in 1ST;'). 
 
 II. The earliest record of measures taken tor 
 tdie maintenance of schools in Missouri extends 
 
 back to the school incorporated in St. ( ieiievieve. 
 
 in L808. The first means employed for creating 
 a school revenue was by grants of land, in L812, 
 already referred to. In L817, the income of the 
 Mine a Burton Academy was increased by the 
 election of seven trustees, each of whom was re- 
 quired to pay SHI as a necessary qualification 
 
 for the office, and by a fee of $5 previously paid 
 by each elector voting for said trustees. When 
 
 the people of Missouri applied, in I 820, for ad- 
 mission into the Union, Congress, for the sake 
 of providing for the establishment of schools. 
 
 Bubmitted the following proposition : " that the 
 
 section numbered In' in every township, and 
 when such section has Keen sold or otherwise dis- 
 posed of , other lands equivalent thereto, and as 
 contiguous as may be, shall be granted to t he state 
 for the use of the inhabitants of such township, 
 
 for the use of schools"; that "thirty-six sections, 
 
 or one entire township, which shall he designated 
 by the President of the United States, together 
 
 with the other lands heretofore reserved for that 
 purpose, shall he reserved tot the use of a semi- 
 nary of learning, and rested in the legislature of 
 siid state. ti> he appropriated solely to the use of 
 such seminar} bj the said legislature." This prop- 
 
 osition was accepted, and embodied in the state 
 constitution; and the same year five commis- 
 sioners were appointed to nut or lease the school 
 lands, and securely invest the proceeds. In 1824, 
 similar measures were adopted, three commis- 
 sioners being appointed in each township. They 
 were authorized to assume control of and manage 
 the school lands of the township, to "loan mon- 
 eys," and "lease real estate." They could, also, 
 on petition of two-thirds of the householders, 
 lew and collect a special tax for the maintenance 
 
 of the schools, or of those Sending pupils to them, 
 
 when the public funds were insufficient. In 1831, 
 
 an act was passed authorizing the sale of the 
 saline lands given hv Congress to the state. In 
 the same year, the sale of the 10th section WW 
 directed by law. by an agent appointed by the 
 county court of each county, when three-fourthg 
 of the inhabitants of any township petitioned for 
 such sale. The interest of the money thus de- 
 rived was to be used for school purposes. The 
 sale of the "seminary lands" — two entire town- 
 ships — was. in L 832, directed by the legislature 
 for not less than $2 per acre It is estimated 
 that $400,000 was lost hv this sale alone; and 
 that the losses by injudicious sales of other lands: 
 belonging to the state, andby insecure investments 
 of the proceeds, have amounted to a sum suili- 
 cient to have supported the public schools of the 
 state forever, exclusive of any local taxation. 
 
 The revised school law of L835 empowered town- 
 ship trustees to levy a s) ecial tax for the purp so 
 of keeping the schools 0] en as long as a majority 
 
 of the patrons desired, whenever two-thirds of 
 the voters of the school-districts demanded A. 
 
 These trustees, also, were required to subscribe 
 si each to the school fund. The state constitu- 
 tion, adopted in L865, established a permanent 
 
 school fund. and provided forthe annual distribu- 
 tion of the income of the same, together with so 
 
 much of the annual revenues as might he necessary 
 
 to maintain free schools three months in the year. 
 These funds were to he invested in bonds of the 
 
 United States. In case the public-school funds 
 should prove insufficient to sustain free schools 
 at least four months every year, power is given 
 
 to increase the school revenue by local taxation. 
 
 The genera] assembly, also, was required to re- 
 duce all property in the state held tor school 
 purposes into the public school fund, and in the 
 
 annual distribution to equalize apportionments 
 
 by a consideration of the amount of county or 
 
 i its funds appropriated, 1 ] he constitution, adopted 
 in 1876, does not materially alter the provisions 
 of that of 1865; like that, it perpetuates the 
 public-school fund, setting apart annua Is 25 per 
 cent of the state revenue, exclusive of the in- 
 terest and sinkiti": fund, for the support of the 
 schools. It places in the county school fund the 
 
 net proceeds of estrays, tines, forfeitures, and 
 penalties; while the constitution of L865 placed 
 
 this in the state school fund. All moneys paid 
 for exempt ion from military duty, also, are placed 
 
 in the county fund. The article on Revenue and 
 
 Taxation in the new constitution limits taxation 
 for school purposes to 10 cents on the S100, uti- 
 
MISSOURI 
 
 589 
 
 loss increased by a majority vote of the tax-payers. 
 By-such vote, it may be increased, In cities and 
 
 towns, to SI , ami. in country districts, to 65 cents. 
 For building purposes, it can be still further in- 
 creased. 
 
 The permanent public-school funds of the state 
 arc the following : 
 
 Tim v te Fund, consisting of U. S.Reg'd 
 6 per cent bonds, U.S. (i per cent coupon 
 bonds, Mo. 6 per cent coupon bonds, and 
 Mo. ■> per cent certificates of indebted- 
 ness (#900,000) $2,634,354.00 
 
 Seminary Fund (University), consisting 
 of V . s. Reg'd. and coupon •', per cent 
 bonds $108,700.00 
 
 Tomiship Funds $2,079,182.96 
 
 County Funds (including swamp land).. .$2,257,716.83 
 
 Township and county funds under the control 
 of the county courts, may be invested in state or 
 U. S. bonds, or loaned upon personal and real 
 estate. It is an almost invariable custom to loan 
 them. The proceeds, like the proceeds of the state 
 fund, and 25 percent of the revenue, are annually 
 distributed to the districts in which schools were 
 taught the previous year for not less than three 
 months, in the ratio of school population. 
 
 III. For many years, the method of super- 
 Vising the few schools and academies in the ter- 
 ritory was by local trustees, specifically named 
 for the purpose, or elected by the people. Their 
 power, also, was very great, comprehending al- 
 most all that is now divided among several 
 grades of officers. Thus, the board appointed, 
 in 1817, to supervise the schools of St. Louis, 
 was authorized not only to establish schools, but 
 to take and hold all real and personal property 
 given to the schools by individuals cr by Con- 
 gress, and to dispose of the same to advantage by 
 lease or sale. In 1820, the division of duties first 
 appears, county commissioners being then ap- 
 pointed to manage the school lands; but, in 1824, 
 the boards of trustees are again required to as- 
 sume control of the school lands, in addition to 
 their other duties, among which duties was that 
 of appointing visitors to the schools. These visit- 
 ors were nine in number in each district. They 
 were required to visit the schools once in three 
 months, to examine teachers, and to issue certifi- 
 cates of qualification, without which no one was 
 allowed to teach, and to exercise a general super- 
 visory power. In 1835, the revised school law 
 placed the supervision of the schools in the hands 
 of three trustees annually elected for the purpose 
 in each school-district, who reported to the 
 county courts, the latter reporting biennially to 
 the secretary of state. The first system of gener- 
 al supervision of the schools was inaugu- 
 rated at this time, the law constituting the 
 governor, the auditor, the treasurer, and the at- 
 torney-general, a state board of education. In 
 1853, an act was passed, requiring the election 
 of a state superintendent. The constitution 
 adopted in 1865, created a state board of educa- 
 tion, to consist of the secretary of state, the at- 
 torney-general, and the superintendent of public 
 schools, the latter being chairman of the board 
 and eligible for four years. In 1874, the school 
 
 law was again changed, the general supervision 
 of the schools remaining with the state board, 
 
 and the immediate supervision with district 
 directors. The state superintendents have been 
 as follows: (1) Peter <i. Glover (of "Common 
 Schools"), elected by the legislature in 1839, for 
 two years. Alter his term the office was abol- 
 ished, and its duties devolved on the secretary 
 of state. In 1853, the office was re-established, 
 and (2) John \V. I lenry (of "Public Instruction") 
 was appointed by the governor to serve until 
 after the election, in 1854, when (3) E. C. Da- 
 vis was elected. He was succeded by (4) Wil- 
 liam B. Starke, elected in 1856, and re elected in 
 1858 and 18(10. From December. 1 8(11 , to March, 
 1863, the duties of the officii were discharged by 
 the secretary of the state, who, at the latter date, 
 became, by law, superintendent, ex officio. In 
 I8li5, the office was restored, and (5) Janus 
 L. Robinson was appointed by the governor 
 superintendent of public schools. The .succeed- 
 ing incumbents have been: (6) T. A. Parker, 
 elected in 1866 for four years (office then consti- 
 tutional) ; (7) Ira Divoll. elected in 1870, died in 
 1871 ; (8) John Monteith, appointed to fill the 
 vacancy ; and (9) Richard I>. Shannon, elected 
 in November, 1874, and still in office (1876). 
 
 School System. — The general control of the 
 educational interests of the state is lodged with 
 a state board of education, which consists of the 
 secretary of state, the attorney-general, and the 
 state superintendent. In addition to a super- 
 visory power, it is charged with the duty of 
 investing all moneys received by the state for 
 educational purposes. The state superintendent 
 is elected for four years, and is chairman of the 
 state board. He has general jurisdiction over 
 the whole school system, with power to compel 
 all school officers to furnish him with any statis- 
 tics or information respecting their trusts he may 
 deem proper. In addition to the duties usually 
 performed by this officer, he is required to estab- 
 lish colored schools whenever the proper officers 
 fail to do so. He makes an annual report to the 
 legislature, or to the governor when the legislature 
 is not in session. County commissioners — one 
 in each county — are elected biennially, in April. 
 Their duties are to examine teachers, grant certif- 
 icates (graded, limited to one county, and valid 
 for one or two years), and exercise a general 
 supervision over the schools of the county. Dis- 
 trict directors, three in number, are elected for 
 three years, one being chosen annually. They 
 are required to examine into, and report upon, 
 the condition of the schools, to purchase the nec- 
 essary apparatus and furniture, to employ teach- 
 ers, and to make all regulations requisite forthe 
 proper organization and management of the 
 schools. They may levy a tax, when neces- 
 sary for the maintenance of the schools, at a rate 
 not exceeding one per cent of the taxable proper- 
 ty of the district, for teachers' salaries ; and not 
 exceeding the same rate, for buildings and inci- 
 dental purposes ; but no tax can be levied for 
 the continuance of the schools for more than four 
 months in the year, except by a majority vote of 
 
590 
 
 MISSOURI 
 
 the district at the annual meeting. The school 
 system is divided into departments as follows : 
 (1) the university, supported by a distinct fund 
 and Legislative appropriations; (2) normal schools, 
 supported by permanent legislative appropria- 
 tions of $10,000 each; (3) schoolsin -cities, towns, 
 and villages,'' under the general law of 1870 for 
 their organization. These schools have boards of 
 education, witli special privileges, each consisting 
 of six members, two of whom are elected annual- 
 ly in September. The schools must be taught not 
 less than '■'>", nor more than 40, weeks each year; 
 (4) schools in cities having special school char- 
 ters, which charters confer almost unlimited 
 powers in all matters pertaining to their school 
 interests; (5) general district public schools ; and 
 (6) colored schools, specially provided for; those 
 belonging to the classes marked above (3), (4), 
 (")), and (6) being supported by the state public- 
 school fund and local taxation. " Central schools" 
 may be established by the union of two or more 
 districts for that purpose. These are graded 
 schools kept for six months, or longer, if the dis- 
 tricts interested so vote. They are controlled by 
 boards — composed of the presidents of the 
 boards of these districts — and by the districts 
 themselves, to about the same extent that the 
 
 district schools are managed by their boards. The 
 tax for the maintenance of the colored schools 
 is levied on the taxable property of the townships 
 in which the schools are located. To these schools, 
 persons over 21 years of age are admitted. The 
 school month consists of I weeks of ."> days each: 
 and the school day, of (i hours. The legal school 
 age is from •"> to 21 years. A meeting of the pres- 
 idents of the various boards of directors, with the 
 county commissioners, is held at every county seat 
 once in t years, to secure uniformity in text-books. 
 Appropriations from any public fund in aid of 
 sectarian instruction are strictly prohibited. 
 
 Educational Condition. The estimated num- 
 ber of school-districts, in ls7">. was 7,932; the 
 number of public schools, lor whites, 7,061 ; for 
 colored persons, 326; the number of private 
 schools, 661, in which there were enrolled 
 33,525 pupils. The support of the schools was 
 derived from the following sources: 
 
 From public funds (state, county, and 
 
 township) 8857,785 
 
 From taxation $'2.1 ">■'». v in 
 
 Total *:s,oi:i,a!»5 
 
 Expenditures. 
 For salaries, buildings, rent, etc $1,638,353 
 
 School Statistics. 
 Number of persons of school age 1 5 21): 
 
 Whites 678,270 
 
 Colored 41,016 
 
 T..tal 720,186 
 
 Niunli'T enrolled in public BChOOls: 
 
 Whites 379,948 
 
 Colored ■ ■ ■ .14,832 
 
 Total 394,780 
 
 Average daily attendance 192,904 
 
 Number of teachers, males 5,904 
 
 " " females 3.747 
 
 Total 9,651 
 
 The average monthly wages of teachers, males, $38.00 
 " " " " females, $29.50 
 
 Normal Instruction. — There are four normal 
 schools under the control of the state, and one 
 at St. Louis, the latter intended principally 
 for supplying teachers to the schools of the city. 
 This school has recently been made more useful 
 by the addition of a model department. The 
 course is for two years, and instruction is given, 
 during the first year, in the higher branches, 
 the second being devoted to review, with special 
 reference to the methods of teaching. Pupils 
 of tlii' high school are admitted to the nor- 
 mal school without examination. In 1874 — 5, 
 the total enrollment was 254. The ITuilland 
 Normal Institute, at Jackson, was organized in 
 1864. It reported, in 1874, 3 resident and 2 non-res- 
 ident instructors, 53 male. and 21 female students. 
 Three years constitute the school course. The 
 North Mo. State Normal School, at Kirksville, 
 was organized for the purpose of fitting teachers 
 for the country district schools. The qualifica- 
 tions for admission are those necessary to secure 
 a teachers' certificate of the lowest grade. In 
 I 875, the number of instructors was 9 ; number 
 of students, 709 : number of graduates. 72. The 
 South Mo. State Normal School, at Warrensburg, 
 pro\ ides three courses of study, — an elementary, 
 an advanced, and a professional. Two terms, or 
 twenty weeks, are necessary to complete the 
 course of study. Some embarrassment has been 
 occasioned to the institution from lack of funds. 
 It reported, in L875, 11 instructors, and 1(1^ stu- 
 dents. 'Idle South-east Mo. State Normal School, 
 at Cape Girardeau, was opened in InT.'J. with 35 
 students. In 1875, it had 5 instructors and 1(14 
 students. Each of the state normal schools is un- 
 der the care of a state board of regents. Lincoln 
 Institute, at Jefferson City, was organized in 
 L866,forthe instruction of colored teachers. It is 
 supported by a permanent state appropriation of 
 s-.'.iKKt. and by private subscriptions. It is divided 
 into a primary and a normal department, and, 
 
 in L874, had i'' instructors and -1(1 students. Its 
 graduates, according to the report of the state 
 superintendent, for 1875, are teaching colored 
 schools in a large number of counties, and arc 
 giving genera] satisfaction. 
 
 Teachers' Institutes. — The practice of holding 
 teachers' institutes was. in 1875, comparatively i 
 abandoned, the law not requiring them except; 
 in counties which employ the whole time of the 
 coi issioner, and there being only one (Jasper) 
 
 in which this is the ease. Probably not o\er 20 
 institutes were held during the year. Efforts, 
 however, are to be made to increase the number 
 
 and efficiency of the institutes. 
 
 Secondary Instruction. The question of the 
 supporl of high schools by the state has been 
 raised in Missouri, as it was in Michigan, and 
 Superintendent Motiteith. in L873, in discuss- 
 ing this question, expressed the opinion, that, 
 though their existence is the logical result of the 
 establishment of a public-school Bystem and a 
 state university, ye1 as the need of them is local, 
 
 their establishment should rest with the local 
 school boards, and their support be derived from 
 local taxation. There are several business col- ■, 
 
MISSOIK1 
 
 MODKRN LANGUAGES 
 
 591 
 
 leges, situated in various parts of the state, lint 
 chiefly in St. Louis, 8 of which, in 1874, reported 
 bo the I • S. Bureau of Education, 48 teachers 
 and ti.<>77 pupils. Their courses of study range 
 bom three months to I years. 
 
 Superior Instruction. -The universities, col- 
 leges, and institutions for higher education are 
 
 enumerated in the following tablt 
 
 
 
 
 
 When 
 
 Religious 
 
 NAME 
 
 Location 
 
 found- 
 
 ■luna- 
 
 
 
 ed 
 
 tion 
 
 
 
 lsTl 
 
 M E S 
 
 Christum University. . . 
 
 i anton 
 
 1856 
 
 Christian 
 
 College of the Christian 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1859 
 
 R. C. 
 
 
 Springfield 
 Hannibal 
 
 1873 
 
 
 Hannibal College 
 
 1868 
 
 W. E. S. 
 
 Lewis College 
 
 ( Uasgow 
 
 1865 
 
 Iff. Epis. 
 
 Lincoln College 
 
 Greenwood 
 
 1870 
 
 M. Epis. 
 
 IfcOee College 
 
 i '.'11. Jlmmd 
 
 1853 
 
 U. Pivsb. 
 
 
 31 Ibseph 
 
 1867 
 
 Cumb.Pr. 
 
 St. Louis University. . . . 
 
 St. Louis 
 
 1832 
 
 R. C. 
 
 St. Paul's College 
 
 Palmyra 
 
 1844 
 
 Prot. Ep. 
 
 St. Vineeut's College 
 
 i '. i m-anlcau 
 
 1*44 
 
 B. C. 
 
 Washington University. 
 
 St. Louis 
 
 1857 
 
 Non-sect. 
 
 Westminster College... 
 
 Fulton 
 
 185'2 
 
 Presb. 
 
 William Jewell College . 
 
 Liberty 
 
 1853 
 
 Bap. 
 
 
 Independence 
 
 1S69 
 
 Christian 
 
 Besides these institutions, there are 11 acad- 
 emies and colleges for the higher education 
 of women, 9 of which, in 1874, reported 97 in- 
 structors and 1,136 students. 
 
 Professional and Scientific Instruction. — 
 Many of the colleges and imiversities furnish 
 opportunities for professional and scientific in- 
 struction, but special schools have been established 
 for the same purpose in many places. Of these, 
 the principal are the Vardeman School of Theol- 
 ogy, at Liberty; the Kansas City College of 
 physicians ami surgeons ; the Missouri Medical 
 College, the St. Louis Medical College, the 
 Homoeopathic Medical College of Missouri, the 
 Missouri Dental College, and the College of 
 Pharmacy — the last five, at St. Louis. 
 
 Special Instruction. — The Missouri Asylum 
 for the Education of the Deaf and Dumb was 
 organized at Fulton, in 1851. It is supported by 
 state appropriations, which have not been large 
 enough, thus far, to admit of giving instruction in 
 the trades — a prominent feature in several other 
 institutions of the kind. Board and tuition for 
 all deaf and dumb persons between the ages of 
 7 and .'!(> years are furnished Jive of cost, but it is 
 estimate!! that onlyabout one half the persons so 
 afflicted in the state can be accommodated. There 
 were 8 instructors, in 1874, and 153 pupils — 75 
 males, and 78 females. Besides this, there is an- 
 other institution (St. Bridget's institute), founded 
 in St. Louis, in 1 800, for the same purpose. The 
 Missouri Institution for the Education of the 
 Blind was opened in St. Louis, in 1 851 . It receives 
 from the state an annual appropriation of about 
 82 1 ,000. In addition to the branches of an 
 ordinary education, instruction is given in music, 
 and the pupils are taught some kind of industrial 
 or mechanical occupation. .V normal class has 
 also been formed, for the purpose of fitting some 
 of the more advanced pupils to teach in the pub- 
 lic schools. There were, in 1874,27 instructors 
 and employes of all kinds, and 93 pupils. 
 
 Educational Journals. — There are several 
 journals either wholly or partly educational 
 published in the stale, among which may be 
 specially mentioned The Western, a monthly 
 published at St. Louis, and now in its eleventh 
 year; and the American Journal if Education, 
 a monthly, also published at St. Louis, and at 
 present in its ninth year. These journals are 
 well conducted, and have exerted an important 
 influence in advancing the cause of education in 
 the state. 
 
 MISSOURI, University of the State 
 of, at Columbia, Mo., was chartered in 1839, 
 and organized in L840, receiving the proceeds of 
 the lands granted by Congress to the state for 
 the support of a seminary of learning. In 1870, 
 it was awarded the benefit of the congressional 
 land grant for the establishment of a college of 
 agriculture and the mechanic arts. During the 
 civil war, the university was partially suspended; 
 but after its close, it was re-organized, and it now 
 consists (besides the preparatory department) of 
 (1) the College proper, with courses in arts, sci- 
 ence, letters, and philosophy, and of the following 
 professional schools: (II) The Normal, or College 
 of Instruction in Teaching, opened in 1868; 
 (III) The Agricultural and Mechanical College, 
 1870 ; (IV) The School of Mines and Metallurgy 
 (at Rolla), 1871 ; (V) The College of Law. 1872 ; 
 (VI) The Medical College, 1873; (VII) The 
 Department of Analytical and Applied Chem- 
 istry, 1873. Both sexes are admitted to all the 
 departments. The university has appropriate 
 buildings, all necessary apparatus, and an ex- 
 tensive farm. The libraries contain about 8,500 
 volumes. The income of the institution (from 
 endowment and state appropriations) is $68,467 
 per annum. The charges to students who are 
 residents of Missouri, cannot exceed $20 a year. 
 The school of mines and metallurgy has exten- 
 sive and valuable lands in the mining district 
 in the south-eastern part of the state. In 1875 
 — 6, there were, in all the departments of the 
 university, 29 instructors and 391 students. The 
 presidents have been as follows : John H. La- 
 throp, LL. D., 1840 — 50 ; .Tames Shannon, LL. 
 D., 1850—5li ; WAV. Hudson. A. M.. Is5(i_ 7 ; 
 B. B. Minor 1 858—60 ; and Daniel Read, LL. 
 D., the present incumbent, appointed in L866. 
 MNEMONICS. See Memory. 
 MODEL SCHOOLS. See Normal Schools. 
 MODERN LANGUAGES, in the literal 
 ami widest sense of t lie term. are the languages DOW 
 in use. in contradistinction to those which were 
 formerly spoken, but are now extinct. Taken in 
 this sense, the term embraces the mother-tongue, 
 in which the home education of the child is con- 
 ducted, the national or ruling language of the 
 country, which is the medium of instruction in 
 the schools, and the living languages of foreign 
 nations. It is the general tendency of the age, 
 to make a thorough knowledge of the national 
 language the center and the chief aim of all 
 school instruction ; though it has been demanded, 
 from an educational point of view, that wher- 
 ever the mother-tongue of a large portion of the 
 
59'J 
 
 MODERN LANG T AGES 
 
 hihabitantB of a country is different from that of 
 the national language, the claims of the mother- 
 tongue should not he ignored. When the modern 
 languages are spoken of as a hranehof school in- 
 struction, they are, however, generally understood 
 in the sense of the languages of foreign nations. 
 The admission of modern foreign languages into 
 a regular course of instruction isof comparative- 
 ly remit date, and the credit of having first <>1, 
 tained tin's recognition belongs to the French 
 language (q. v.). Until very recently, French 
 has enjoyed, in this respect, an acknowledged 
 superiority over any other language of the globe; 
 and it is but recently that English and German 
 have to any considerable extent begun to com- 
 pete with it. At present, French, English, and 
 German are studied a.11 over the world, as the 
 chief representatives of modern culture. The 
 Italian language (q. v.) is learned by many of the 
 students of line arts and of music in preference 
 to any of the three principal modern languages; 
 but more in courses of private instruction than 
 in schools. It is, however, chiefly in the second- 
 ary schools, that the study of modern languages 
 has dow been generally admitted. There are but 
 
 few colleges, gymnasia, lyceums, Latin schools, 
 real schools, academies, seminaries, or boarding- 
 schools which do not provide for instruction in 
 one or two of the modern languages. The adop- 
 tion of more than two modem languages, in a 
 regular course of studies, is met with in only a few 
 cases, and finds but few advocates. Scientific and 
 real schools (or departments). especially the latter, 
 Cultivate the modern languages, frequently to 
 
 tl Kclusion of the classical; but even classical 
 
 schools have now quite generally opened their 
 gates to the at first unwelcome rival. — In the 
 highest institutions of learning, such as the Euro- 
 pean universities, the modern languages are still 
 far from occupying a position of equality with 
 the classical, or even some of the oriental lan- 
 guages. In England, Oxford and Cambridge had, 
 in 1875, professorships of Latin, Greek, Hebrew, 
 Arabic, and Sanskrit: Oxford, also of Anglo- 
 Saxon and comparative philology, but not of 
 either French or German. In the 21 universities 
 of ' rermany (including the academy of M iinster), 
 classical philologists had, in 1874, the oppor- 
 tunity to attend l.'U courses of lectures, which 
 occupied an aggregate of 100 hours weekly. 
 Besides, tin- exercises in the philological seminaries 
 occupied I2h hours, making a total of 528 hours. 
 Of the professors teaching the classical languages. 
 fi4 were ordinary, I C> extraordinary, besides 1 1 /</•/- 
 tiat-docenten (lecturers); total :>l. To the oriental 
 
 languages, .'{.'ill hours were devoted; but to French 
 
 and English, only 172 horns. The German govern- 
 ments show, however, a readiness to reconsider 
 the claim of modem languages to a better repre- 
 sentation; and a Dumber of new chairs were, 
 therefore, created during the years |s7."> and 
 
 1876. In regard to the lowest classes and schools 
 
 in which the study of nioclern languages nicy 
 
 advantageously be admitted, there is a variety 
 of opinion at present iii school legislation, and 
 among educational writers. It is evident that, in 
 
 this respect, a marked difference exists between 
 those localities where only one language is spoken, 
 and those where two or more languages arc in 
 the daily use of large portions of the people. In 
 the latter case, the language which is spoken 
 by a large portion of the children who attend 
 school, is by many not regarded in the light of a 
 foreign language; and school regulations for 
 giving instruction in it are often different 
 from those for the teaching of languages to- 
 tally foreign. The latter, according to the 
 opinion of most educators, should not be begun 
 too early. It is. however, on the other hand, 
 urged that the pronunciation of a foreign lan- 
 guage is best learned at a time when the organs of 
 speech are still flexible, and that a good pro- 
 nunciation of a foreign tongue is rarely acquired 
 except by those who learn it in childhood. — 
 The French language had been long and exten- 
 sively studied in other European countries before 
 it was, in the 1 7th century, introduced in some 
 of the German schools as a part of the regular 
 
 course of studies. Toward the close of the 1 - 1 1 1 
 century, the German real schools made the 
 superior advantages of the study of French, in 
 comparison with the classical languages, a main 
 issue of their war against I he classical schools; 
 and. from that time, the admission of blench into 
 the schools of other countries has been rapid and 
 extensive. In Prussia, the efforts made to secure 
 to the French language a prominent place in the 
 course of instruction were so successful, that the 
 Prussian government became alarmed, and, in 
 181(i, excluded it altogether from public instruc- 
 tion. A rescript of 18."i7 re-admitted it. how- 
 e\er, "out of regard for its usefulness for practical 
 life." That, from the stand-point of practical 
 usefulness, modern languages, as a branch of 
 instruction, have an advantage over the classical, 
 is now scarcely disputed. French. English, and 
 German bring the student into living contact 
 with the great standard-bearers of modern civ- 
 ilization, and thus afford, in many cases, mental 
 enjoyments, material and business advantages. 
 and impulses to esthetic culture, which classical 
 studies obviously cannot afford.- Being the keys 
 to the three great literatures of the world, the En- 
 glish. German, and French languages, as branches 
 of instruction, have challenged a comparison 
 with the Latin and the ("J reek. Here also it 
 will be readily and generally admitted, that 
 modem literatures contain a vast amount of 
 information unknown to the ancients; and 
 
 that, viewing their contents as a whole, they are. 
 in many respects, vastly superior to the liter- 
 atures of the ancient world. Classical scholars, 
 in fact, are among the first to recognize the 
 gnat value of modern literatures; and there 
 are few among them who cannot read the three 
 great modern languages, at least, as fluently as 
 the two classical. The contest has been narrow, d 
 
 down to the question whether Latin and Greek 
 
 classics, as literary master-works, and in view of 
 the superior advantages claimed for the langu;e 
 themselves, still afford such advantages for de- 
 veloping the mental faculties as to recommend 
 
MODERN LANGUAGES 
 
 693 
 
 their retention in every course of studies. (See 
 Classical Studies.) 
 
 Upon the held of comparative linguistics, the 
 superior value of the richly inflected Latin and 
 Greek by the side of the less inflected German 
 and the mutilated Kurdish and French, is not 
 likely to be ever disputed. But since the labors 
 of Bopp, Grimm, and their numerous followers, 
 have opened an insight into the degree of kin- 
 ship existing between the prominent languages 
 of the present and former times, the question 
 has been toned upon the attention of gram- 
 marians, how far a comparison of kindred lan- 
 guages may, even at an early stage of instruc- 
 tion, elucidate the structure of the native tongue, 
 and thus be made serviceable in giving to the 
 youthful scholar a better command even of his 
 native speech than otherwise would be attain- 
 able. The elucidative power which belongs to 
 comparison, in grammar no less than in other 
 branches of instruction, cannot be disputed; 
 though the precise point of time when, and the 
 manner in which, it may be put to use in the 
 course of instruction, still remain open ques- 
 tions. It will be seen, however, that the degree 
 of usefulness which may be attributed, from this 
 point of view, to one particular language, is by 
 no means commensurate with the advantages 
 which the same language may afford as the key 
 to the superior civilization or the rich literature 
 of one of the great nations of the globe. It will, 
 on the contrary, be chiefly dependent on the 
 relationship existing between the language to 
 D studied and the language of the student. In a 
 .French school, the Latin, Italian, and Spanish 
 languages will, in this respect, be of more use 
 than English or German; in German schools, the 
 English will be more important than French or 
 Latin; and in English schools, the German more 
 than Latin or French. 
 
 Since modern languages have come to be 
 studied on a much more extended scale than the 
 classical, a great variety of methods have been 
 proposed. The authors of some of these methods 
 are by no means distinguished for modesty, and 
 do not hesitate to declare all former modes of in- 
 struction absolutely useless, as having been wholly 
 superseded by their own. In most cases, they 
 have wholly forgotten that the method of teach- 
 ing and learning a modern language must, to a 
 very great extent, be dependent upon the pur- 
 pose for which it is learned. If the student chiefly 
 aims to acquire the ability to express his thoughts 
 in the language of another person belonging to 
 a foreign nation, the methods which make con- 
 versation the basis of instruction will justly com- 
 mend themselves to the attention of the in- 
 structor. When a foreign language is learned 
 as a means of understanding the literature of a 
 particular nation, an early knowledge of the 
 inflectional part of the language, of all its pecu- 
 liarities in etymology and syntax, and of its 
 vocabulary, will be felt as an urgent want ; and 
 grammar lessons connected with translating exer- 
 cises, will form the chief means of instruction. 
 In the combination of grammar and translation, 
 38 
 
 every possible method has been tried: the strictly 
 synthetical, which starts from the parts of speech, 
 and teaches them singly, before proceeding to a 
 
 regular system of translations: the strictly 
 analytical, which begins with the analysis of 
 foreign sentences, and from them, by degrees, 
 derives the knowledge of grammatical forms; and 
 
 the synthetico-analytical.oranalylico synthetical, 
 which, from the first, endeavors to combine in- 
 struction in the grammatical structure with 
 practice in using the foreign language. ( )f these, 
 the former may be said to have been almost 
 entirely abandoned, the latter being the one 
 generally preferred in schools. In regard to the 
 arrangement of the grammatical rules, an in- 
 finite variety may be observed in the numerous 
 grammars of modern languages. It was espe- 
 cially Mager (q. v.), one of the most ingenious 
 writers on the subject of language, who attacked 
 the traditional order of article, noun, adjective. 
 pronoun, and verb, and demanded the first 
 place for the verb, so as to be able to begin 
 with whole sentences, that is, with a complete 
 thought. In regard to translating exercises, in- 
 structors generally • agree in introducing their 
 students as soon as practicable to the reading 
 of standard writers in the foreign language. The 
 shortness of time allowed for the study of foreign 
 languages will recommend the use of a good 
 reading-book in order to familiarize the student 
 with the peculiar style of several writers. 
 
 It is not possible in this article to attempt an 
 enumeration or a criticism of the different meth- 
 ods which have been specially proposed for teach- 
 ing modern languages. Among those whose sys- 
 tems have obtained any general reputation or 
 acceptance, may be mentioned Aim, Jacotot. 
 Hamilton, Mager, Ollendorff, and Robertson. 
 Ahn's and Ollendorff's methods have had 
 numerous imitations, of very unequal value, and 
 have been applied to nearly all the living languages 
 of Europe, and even to Latin and Greek. Of the 
 elementary books based on Ahn's method, P. 
 Ilenn's Rudiments of the German Language 
 (4 parts, New York), written with a special 
 view to the requirements of the public schools in 
 the United States, and, in particular, in the city 
 of New York, has deservedly gained very great 
 popularity. Among recent attempts to teach 
 living languages "without grammar or dictionary," 
 solely by means of conversation, that by Heness 
 {Introduction to the Leitfaden; a Guide for In- 
 struction in German without Grammar or 
 Dictionary, Boston, 1874) has attracted the at- 
 tention and won the approval of many eminent 
 scholars. Prendergast's The Mattery of Lan- 
 guages (London, 1872) is a new effort to introduce 
 the pupil to a practical knowledge of language in 
 an analytical way, by proceeding from sentences 
 committed to memory and learning the inflec- 
 tional forms from their position in sentences. 
 Whitney's Compendious German Grammar 
 ( New York, 1869), to a higher degree than any 
 former English grammar of a foreign language, 
 embodies the results of comparative grammar, 
 and directs special attention to the points of 
 
'594 
 
 MONITORIAL SYSTEM 
 
 correspondence between English and German. It 
 need hardly be added that the study of modern 
 languages, and especially that of their pronun- 
 ciation, should be pursued, whenever it is pos- 
 sible, under the guidance of an intelligent pro- 
 fessional teacher. Among the attempts to teach 
 these languages without the aid of a teacher, 
 the method proposed by Toussaint and Langen- 
 scheidt has received the best recommendation, 
 the special articles on French, German, 
 Italian, Spanish.) See also Whitney, Language 
 and ike Study of Language (1867); and Life and 
 <; ' rmrth of Language (New York, 1875) ; Quick, 
 Firxt S/i'ps in Ti'tirhhig a Foreign Language 
 (London. isT")); Maucei,, Study of Languages 
 (New York, L874) ; Schmitz, Encychpadie des 
 philologischen Studiums der neueren Spracken 
 (2d id.. Leips.,1875 ; 4 parts and 3 supplements); 
 Pfalz,' JJeber den Bildungswertk der fremden 
 Spracken im Schidunterricht (Fx'ips., 1875) ; 
 Mager, Ueber (I*,* Unterricht in fremden Spra- 
 cken (Essen, 1S38). A periodical specially de- 
 voted to the study of modern languages is the 
 ArcJiivf&r das Studium der neueren Spracken 
 by Herrig (2 vols., in 1 parts annually, 55th 
 and 56th vols., 1876.). 
 
 MONITORIAL SYSTEM, sometimes ca lied 
 the Madras system, because it was introduced 
 into England from Madras, by Andrew Bell; 
 also the Lancasterian system, after one of its 
 most enthusiastic advocates, Joseph Lancaster. 
 It is, moreover, often designated the system of 
 mutual instruction, because conducted on the 
 principle of requiring the pupils of a school to 
 teach eaeii olher. The name monitorial instruc- 
 tion is derived from the circumstance that the 
 pupil teachers employed to carry on the system 
 were called monitors. — This plan of teaching is 
 very old; bul whether Bell or Lancaster deserves 
 the merit of first introducing it into EGurope, has 
 been warmly disputed. (See Bei.l, and Lan- 
 caster.) By means of the efforts and publical 
 of these ardent philanthropists, the system mel 
 with a rapid and extensive adoption both in 
 Europe and America. Inthecityof NewYork, 
 free schools were organized upon this plan, which 
 continued to lie the prevailing method <>t organ- 
 ization and instruction in the public schools of 
 that city tor nearly fifty years. In Philadelphia 
 and other large cities of the Union, it was also 
 employed; in Boston, i1 was soon pronounced a 
 failure, and abandoned. The 25th Beporl (1830) 
 of the liiitish and Foreign School Society (Lan- 
 casterian) stated thai measures had been taken 
 b\ the governments of Belgium,] 'en mark. Sweden, 
 Norway, and Russia, to introduce the system ; 
 that more than 30 monitorial schools had been 
 
 for a ■ time in operation in Tuscany; and thai 
 
 the duke of Lucca had also caused several of 
 Buch schools to be established; thai even the 
 governmenl of Naples had opened 20 of these 
 schools in Sicily, and designed to establish one 
 in each parish. The reporl also stated that the 
 
 society had constantly a number of prisons in 
 
 training as teachers, and at the previous anni 
 iry. had under its cue 20 Arab youths, sent 
 
 to England for education by the Pacha of Egypt. 
 The rivalry that had existed for years between 
 this society and the National School Society, 
 which favored Bell's system. increased the efforts 
 of both. In the American Annals of Education 
 (1831), it was stated that, in Denmark, 2,000 
 monitorial schools were established in the course 
 of four years; in Sweden, there were 1,800 of 
 such schools, in many of which music, linear 
 drawing, and gymnastics were taught. The 
 system had also been introduced into France. 
 Spain, and Sardinia. 'J he French Society for 
 the Promotion of Education sent books and 
 tables of the system to the principal countries of 
 South Amerii a and to liayti. and oj em d schools 
 at St. Louis and Senegal, in Africa, which were 
 attended by the native chiefs. There were, also, 
 numerous schools in ( 'ape Colony, Madagascar, 
 and the l'a-t Indies, both continental and insular. 
 The system was also said to have been adopted in 
 one of the first classical schools of Paris, and in 
 the High School of Edinburgh. — The opinions 
 entertained of the advantages of this system were 
 at first very extravagant. Dr. Bell said, "The 
 system has no parallel in scholastic history. In a 
 school, it gives to the master the hundred eyes of 
 Argus, the hundred hands of Briareus, and the 
 wings of Mercury. By multiplying bis ministers 
 at pleasure, it gives him indefinite powers ; in 
 other words, it enables him to instruct as many 
 pupils as his school room "will contain." '1 his 
 principle was carried into effect by Lancaster, 
 whose school had L,000 pupils, he being the only 
 
 adult teacher. "Crowds", says Donaldson [Lect- 
 ures on Education, 1874), "flocked to see this 
 performance : one master with a thousand schol- 
 ars. It seemed to solve the question of educa- 
 tion." De Witt Clinton, in New York, expressed 
 the most unbounded admiration for this system 
 as an instrument for educating large masses of 
 children. But not only as a means of teaching 
 
 i numbers was it commended. The system 
 of mutual instruction was thoroughly discussed 
 at a meeting of the American Lyceum held in 
 New York, in 1836 : and. while the New England 
 meml med to condemn il as unsatisfactory 
 
 andd ,o1 hersgave it their unqualified ap- 
 
 proval. -'It '.said S. W. Scion, the public-school 
 
 : of New York u'ly. "I had a School of 
 twenty, nay of ten, I would make otic teach 
 another. If I had but three. I would make two 
 of them monitors."- This system, when carried 
 into operation by a master of energy and tact, 
 was showy and attractive: and. doubtless, was 
 an effective instrument in giving an elementary 
 education to many thousands of children ; thai 
 is, in teaching them to read, write, and cipher;' 
 but. as remarked by Donaldson, it "ignored alto- 
 gether the tact that the work of the leaeher is to 
 evolve the powers of the mind, and that for this 
 
 work a wise and cultivated mind is required." 
 The arguments advanced in its favor were 
 
 (I) that it provided for the tuition of a far 
 
 greater number of pupils than could be taught 
 
 by the ordinary method of managing an ungraded 
 school, in which only one teacher was employed; 
 
MONMOUTH COLLEGE 
 
 MONTAIGNE 
 
 595 
 
 (2) that tin's w.is accomplished by an economy of 
 the time and labor of the teacher; (3) thai it kepi 
 every pupil of the school constantly employed ; 
 (■I) that the monitors, nr pupil teachers, were 
 benefited by giving instruction to their fellow 
 pupils; (5) that, as children learn, by a kind of 
 natural sympathy, from each other, the pupils 
 made rapid progress. These principles, without 
 doubt, arc sound to a certain limited extent, and 
 under circumstances which prevented a thor- 
 oughly organized system of instruction by compe- 
 tent teachers. The monitorial system required 
 very remarkable ability in the master — such an 
 ability as few could be found to possess. The 
 monitors required a special training; and the 
 whole school, when thus conducted, needed a 
 peculiarly efficient discipline, and an adroit man- 
 agement, to prevent it from degenerating into the 
 most chaotic condition : and this was often the 
 case. That the system was an expedient, and a 
 very useful one, is obvious. That it is applicable 
 to the condition of a large ungraded school under 
 a single teacher, is also indisputable. "When", 
 said a writer in the American Annals of Edu- 
 cation (1831), in a despairing tone, "will our 
 common and primary schools be so divided into 
 different departments in regard to age and 
 studies, and so furnished with a competent sup- 
 ply of assistant teachers, as to keep each pupil, 
 during school hours, cheerfully and industriously 
 employed?" The impossibility of obtaining the 
 means for such an organization, led to the 
 adoption of the monitorial system; but, wdierever, 
 at the present time, as in the large cities of the 
 United States, such means are afforded, mutual 
 instruction is found not to have even a modified 
 existence ; indeed, the reaction against it has 
 been so strong, that, for years, it has not only 
 made no progress anywhere, but has been very 
 generallv abandoned. 
 
 MONMOUTH COLLEGE, at Monmouth, 
 111., chartered in 1857, is under United Presby- 
 terian control. It has a fine college building, a 
 library of about 2,000 volumes, a cabinet, and 
 extensive philosophical and chemical apparatus. 
 Besides the collegiate department, with a clas- 
 sical and a scientific course, there is a prepara- 
 tory school, a grammar and high school, and a 
 normal course, and a musical and an art depart- 
 ment. Both sexes are admitted. The tuition 
 fee in the collegiate department is $30 a year. 
 In 1875 — 6, there were Id instructors, and .'IDT 
 students, of whom 200 (128 classical and 72 
 scientific) were in the collegiate department. 
 The Rev. David A. Wallace, D.D.,LL.D., is 
 (1870) the president. 
 
 MONTAIGNE, Michel, Seigneur de, a 
 celebrated French essayist, born at the chateau of 
 Montaigne, in Perigord, in 1533 ; and died there 
 September 13., 1592. His father, having ideas 
 on the subject of education far in advance of his 
 age, provided for his son a German tutor, who, 
 knowing nothing of French, conversed with him 
 entirely in Latin, so that the young Montaigne 
 spoke that language with ease at the age of six. 
 He graduated at the College of Guienne, in 
 
 Bordeaux, and studied law; but, being possessed 
 of ample means, and having no inclination for 
 public life, he retired to his castle at Montaigne, 
 where he wrote his famous essays. The subjeel 
 
 of education is touched upon incidentally all 
 through the works of this writer: but his 
 conclusions are nearly all condensed into one 
 remarkable essay, addressed to the Countess of 
 Gurson, and entitled Of (In- "Education of Chil- 
 dren. Many of the principles there announced 
 were afterwards amplified by John I ocke. In 
 this essay, a scheme of education is laid down 
 for a young gentleman of quality, which is, in 
 nearly every essential respect, in accordance with 
 our most advanced modern ideas. The subject 
 isconsideied in its various branches, physical, 
 intellectual, and moral. 'I lie dominant idea 
 throughout, is the modern one. derived from the 
 etymology of the word education, i. e., <t draw- 
 ing out or developm* nt of the mind according to 
 its individual bent, rather than a moulding of 
 all minds after a preconceived pattern. 1 1 c would 
 have the pupil educated away from home, be- 
 cause his parents " can neither find in their hearts 
 to give him due correction for the faults he com- 
 mits, nor suffer him to be brought up in those 
 hardships and hazards he ought to be," and be- 
 cause " the respect the whole family pay him, as 
 their master's son, and the knowledge he has of 
 the estate and greatness he is heir to. are, in my 
 opinion no small inconveniences at these tender 
 years." He would have him taught to use the 
 knowledge he has gained, illustrating his position 
 as follows : " I could wish to know whether Le 
 Paluel or Pompey, famous dancing-masters of 
 my time, could have taught us to cut capers by 
 only seeing them do it, without stirring from 
 our places, as these men pretend to inform our 
 understandings without ever setting them to 
 work, etc." Physical education, also, was fully 
 appreciated by Montaigne, his conclusions on this 
 branch of the subject being quite up to the 
 standard in our day. The advantages of sound 
 moral instruction also are strenuously insisted 
 upon and admirably set forth in man}' weighty 
 sentences. The advantages of foreign travel, in 
 freeing the mind from narrowness, receive full at- 
 tention, though the age at which this should be 
 undertaken will probably be excepted to by 
 modern educators. Finally, the idea, more 
 peculiarly modern, perhaps, than any other, that 
 education should not end with school or college, 
 but should be continued through life, is every- 
 where enforced. This entire essay, indeed, is 
 worthy of the careful attention of educators; and, 
 making allowance for the difference in condition 
 of the civilized world in Montaigne's days and 
 ours, it maybe considered, generally speaking, 
 an admirable resume of all that has been settled 
 in regard to educational aims up to the present 
 time. — !n 1 580- -81, Montaigne visited < iermany, 
 Switzerland, and Italy for his health, and wrote 
 a journal of his tour, which remained hidden in 
 the family chest at Montaigne till 1774, when it 
 was published at Paris. The principal English 
 translation of his works is that of Charles Cotton 
 
59 G 
 
 MONTANA 
 
 MOORE'S HILL COLLEGE 
 
 (published about 1680), revised in 1842, by the 
 younger I lazlett (Phila., 1849). An edit ion in 
 6 volumes, by De Coste, was published at the 
 Hague, in 1772; and one by Victor l.e < lerc, at 
 Paris, in L826. Bayle St. .John published a biog- 
 raphy of .Montaigne (London, L857). 
 
 MONTANA, one of the territories of the 
 United States, set off from Idaho, and organized 
 with an independent territorial government in 
 1864. Its area is 145,776 sq. m., and its popu- 
 lation, in 1870, was 20,595, of whom 1"-:! were 
 colored, L,949 Chinese, and 157 civilized Indians. 
 
 Educational History. ^-The legislature of the 
 territory, at its first session, passed a law for the 
 establishment of schools, but the spareeness of 
 the population and its migratory character, de- 
 prived the law of its practical value. In 1872, 
 the subject was again taken up, and a new law 
 was passed, under which about 80 Bchool-districts 
 were organized. In 1874, the law was again 
 amended, resulting in the present system, 'flic 
 first superintendent of public instruction was 
 Cornelius Hedges, appointed in 1872, re-ap- 
 pointed in 1874, and still in office (1876). 
 
 School System. — The supervision of the schools 
 is entrusted to a superintendent of instruction, 
 who is nominated by the governor for two years, 
 and confirmed by the council, lie prescribes 
 all needful regulations, designates the coui'se of 
 Study and the text-books to be used in the 
 school-,, and makes a biennial report of their con- 
 dition to the governor. Cox///// superintendents 
 are elected each for two years. They are eight in 
 lumber, and perform the usual duties of such 
 officers. They make annual visits to the schools 
 m their counties, and receive not more than 810 
 for each district under their supervision. They 
 are also allowed to charge S2 for each teacher*.-, 
 certificate granted. Under the present law, these 
 certificates are of one grade only, and are given 
 for only two years ; but the character of the ex- 
 amination, depending, a 3 it does, upon the caprice 
 of the county superintendent, leads to a want of 
 uniformity in the value of the certificates, which 
 has been a cause of complaint. District trustees 
 are also chosen for three years, three iii each 
 district constituting a board. Their duties are to 
 employ teachers, furnish hooks, take charge of 
 school-houses, furniture, etc., and exercise an im- 
 mediate supervision over the schools, subject to 
 the direction of the territorial superintendent. 
 
 With these hoards, also, rests the power of sub- 
 mitting to the voters of the district the question, 
 whether money shall be raised by taxation, when- 
 ever additional school facilities are needed. They 
 
 may, also, establish a high scl 1 in each district. 
 
 grade it. and employ teachers to conduct it, 
 whenever such school is needed. Resident voters 
 
 may decide, at the annual election, what amount 
 
 they shall raise by taxation for the building of 
 
 school-houses; but they are not authorized to 
 
 Issue bonds, nor incur any indebtedness for the 
 
 purpose. Provision is made for the separate edu- 
 cation of colored children in each county, by the 
 
 establishment 6f special schools, on application of 
 
 the par. nt S or guardians of not less than ten 
 
 colored children, to the board of trustees. Less 
 than ten may be provided for in any manner 
 deemed advisable. '1 he school age is bet ween 4 and 
 21 years ; the legal school year. '6 months ; and the 
 school day. (I hours. The school revenue is derived 
 from the school fund, which is the interest on all 
 moneys derived from land grants, and from the 
 school tax, which is levied by the county com- 
 missioners annually, at a rate of from three to 
 five mills on every dollar of taxable property. 
 The school fund is apportioned according to the 
 number of children of school age. 
 
 Educational OondiUon. — The number of or- 
 ganized school-districts, in 1875, was 96 ; the 
 number of school-houses, 76 ; the average dura- 
 tion of schools. !''_' days. The scltool revenue was 
 derived from the following sources: 
 
 County tax $30,011.01 
 
 Local tax for school-houses 17,069.63 
 Other sources 4,043.62 
 
 Total "$51,114.26 
 
 Expenditures for the year $31,821,68 
 
 School population. . . * 
 
 Number enrolled in schools 2337 
 
 Number of teachers, males 66 
 
 females 43 
 
 Total T~ ~99 
 
 Normal Instruction. — Xo provision lias yet 
 
 been made for the special instruction of persons 
 
 intending to teach in the schools of the territory. 
 
 Teachers' Institutes. — The first convention of 
 
 school-teachers in the territory was held in 1874. 
 
 This was composed of the teachers of Deer Lodge 
 
 Co., and the territorial superintendent was the 
 president during its temporary organization. 
 .Measures were taken for the establishment of a 
 permanent teachers' institute, and several edu- 
 mal Subjects Were discussi d. 
 
 Secondary Instruction. — In 1875, the number 
 of private schools was 14, with 292 pupils. There 
 are, besides, a small number of high schools, and 
 denominational schools and academies. 
 
 Superior, Professional ami Scientific, ami 
 Special Instruction. — No opportunities for this 
 kind of education are. as yet. afforded, the ener- 
 gies of the people being almost entirelj devoted 
 io the development of the mines and the cultiva- 
 te f the soil. In the report for b s 7.'i. the 
 
 superintendent, Cornelius [ledges, said: "Our 
 people are generally poor and very scattered. 
 .Many of our school-districts are of greater ana 
 than whole counties in the Eastern states." Again. 
 in 1^7"'. he .--aid: "Only •'> state?, and none of the 
 territories, unless the District of Columbia he 
 SO reckoned, surpass Montana in the amount of 
 money raised per capita of its school population, 
 and this without any aid derived from perma- 
 nent funds, such as most of the older .states 
 
 possess." 
 
 MOORE'S HILL COLLEGE, at Moore's 
 Mill, liul., founded in 1856, is under Methodist 
 Episcopal control. It is supported by tuition 
 fees, and an endowment of $18,000. It has ap- 
 paratus, a cabinet, and a small library. Both 
 Bexes are admitted. There is a preparatory and 
 a collegiate department, with a classical ami a 
 
MOJJ.VL KIH CATION 
 
 597 
 
 scientific course, ami also a musical, ;i normal, 
 and a commercial department. The cost of tui- 
 tion in the collegiate department La $30 per an- 
 num. In L875 — 6, there were 5 instructors, and 
 120 students, of whom 23 were of the collegiate 
 grade. The presidents have been as follows. 
 the Rev. Samuel R. Adams, A. \1.. 8 years: the 
 Rev. Thomas Harrison. A. M.. 6 years.; the Rev. 
 John H.Martin, A. ML, 2 wars; the Rev. F. A. 
 Hester, l>. 1).. 4 years; and the Kev. J. P. D. 
 John, A. ML., th" present incumbent ( lST(i). 
 
 MORAL EDUCATION has for its sphere 
 of operation the culture of those principles which 
 influence or control the voluntary action of hu- 
 man beings. The elements of self-control exist, 
 in a greater or less degree, in every mind, as a 
 part of its original constitution. They are dis- 
 tinct from its intellectual faculties, and need a 
 special education, which is far more important 
 than intellectual education, because it contributes 
 in a much higher degree to the good both of the 
 individual and of society. The subject of moral 
 education is duty, and its office is both specula- 
 tive and active; that is (1) to implant correct 
 principles of rectitude in the pupils mind — to 
 teach what duty is, and (2) to cultivate a desire 
 to do what is right for its own sake — to respect 
 duty, or moral obligation; in other words, to 
 feel a sens j of right — to listen to the voice of 
 conscience (q. v.); to which may be added, as an 
 important additional object, to implant in the 
 youthful mind such motives as wOl aid the moral 
 B iso, and enable it to triumph over the natural 
 propensities an I desires, when the latter are in 
 conflict with it. The means employed in moral 
 education are the following: (1) precepts, ad- 
 dressed both to the understanding and to the 
 conscience, the object being to enlighten the lat- 
 ter, which of itself does not recognize specific 
 right and wrong ; (2) example, appealing to imi- 
 tation as well as to conscience, and enforced by 
 the love and respect felt by the child toward its 
 educator, lea ling the former to feel that whatever 
 is done by the latter is right, and hence should 
 be imitated (see Example) ; (3) habit, inducing, 
 by means of repetition, an inclination to act in 
 the same way under the same circumstances (see 
 Habit); (4) exercise, for the purpose both of 
 strengthening the moral feelings brought into 
 play, and of forming habits. Exercise, in moral 
 education, is just as important as in physical or 
 intellectual education ; indeed, there can be no 
 training or culture without it; and, in carrying 
 this on, tli ■ teacher must avail himself of every 
 possible circumstance that arises in connection 
 with his intercourse with the pupils, or their 
 intercourse with each other, to give occasion for 
 this exercise. and thus form a basis for the desired 
 culture of the moral faculties. This culture or 
 training must have a twofold object: (1) to cul- 
 tivate virtues, and (2) to correct vices. Among the 
 former, as especially necessary, may be enumer- 
 ated truthfulness, honesty, justice, candor and 
 modesty, kindness or benevolence, diligence, obe- 
 dience to proper authority, gratitu le, fidelity to 
 every promise or trust, and patriotism ; and 
 
 among the latter, the opposites of these, as lying 
 and deceit, a disposition to steal, cruelty to ani- 
 mals, unkindness and injustice to playmates, 
 violence and combativeness, ill temper, angei 
 and irritability, obstinacy, laziness, irresolution, 
 leading to procrastination, excessive .self-cstcclll. 
 leading to arrogance and self conceit, etc. These 
 
 are specific qualities of character which need a 
 
 particular recognition and treatment on the part 
 of the educator : but when the moral sense has 
 been thoroughly developed, the ( hristian moral 
 principle, to do unto others as we would that 
 I hey should do unto us, will comprehend, in ap- 
 probation or condemnation, every class of actions, 
 and give the means of a just discrimination as 
 to what is virtuous and what is vicious. Put 
 the conscience is not developed in children ; and 
 very often, not ( ven in adults. Hence, the need 
 of moral discipline, in order to afford to the edu- 
 cator the means of bringing to bear upon his 
 pupils external restraint, as preliminary to self- 
 restraint; for it must be borne in mind that any 
 government that does not contemplate the culti- 
 vation of the elements of self-control can scarcely 
 be considered as forming a part of moral educa- 
 tion. The three elements of sensibility usually ap- 
 pealed to in connection with moral discipline or re- 
 straint, are fear (q, v.), hope (q. v.). and love (q.v.). 
 (See also Authority.) The conscience being 
 very imperfectly developed in childhood, second- 
 ary motives, such as the love of approbation, the 
 hope of reward, the desire to excel, may properly 
 be appealed to, in order to promote well-doing on 
 the part of the pupil, and thus lead to the for- 
 mation of good habits. Caution should be exer- 
 eised, however, in employing such incentives; and 
 the educator should always keep in view the just 
 limits of their use, the injurious consequences of 
 depending too exclusively upon them, and' the im- 
 portance of so employing them that they may 
 lead on to the primary motive — the desire to do 
 right for its own sake. (See Emi lation.) '1 lie prac- 
 tical application of the system here briefly out- 
 lined, is attended with very great difficulty, and 
 requires peculiar intelligence and skill on the 
 part of the educator; and not alone this, but 
 moral culture, involving self control, patience, 
 and a delicate appreciation of moral distinct ions, 
 as well as a full sympathy with the general pecu- 
 liarities and wants of childhood. To this may be 
 added, with emphasis, the ability to discern the 
 peculiarities of individual character, as depend- 
 ent on both mental and physical constitution; 
 for the processes of moral education cannot, like 
 many of those employed in intellectual training, 
 be applied to children in large masses. Suitable 
 modifications must be made in the application 
 of general principles and rules, or much injury 
 
 may 1 e done. (SeeDlSCJ RNMENT OP CHARACTER.) 
 
 Iii this important department of education, the 
 teacher may find very useful suggestions, both 
 for information and guidance, in the following 
 works: Spencer, Education; Intellectual, Moral, 
 and Physical (X. V.. 1866) : Currie, Common- 
 School Education (Edin. and London) ; Aber- 
 crombie, The Philosophy qf the Moral Feelings, 
 
598 
 
 MORALIZING 
 
 MORAVIAN" BRETHREN 
 
 edited by Jacob Abbott (Boston, 1836) ; Dv- 
 mond, Principles qf M6rality(T8 .Y ., L851); Gow, 
 Good Murals and Gentle Manners (Cincinnati, 
 I 373) ; Rosenkbanz, Pedagogics as a System, 
 trans, by Anna C. Bbackett (St. Louis. L872). 
 (Sue also Moralizing.) 
 
 MORALIZING, the formal inculcation of 
 moral truth by means of precept, or of stories 
 related for the sake of the moral, with the 
 view of influencing conduct. This practice, 
 common in the home circle and in the school, is 
 the result of a consciousness on the part of the 
 1 i irent or teacher of a duty unperformed, the dis- 
 charge of which is attempted in this perfunctory 
 way. It is hardly necessary to say that it almost 
 always fails; since it is either an attempt to 
 reason with the young — a process for which 
 their minds are not yet sufficiently mature — or 
 an effort to impose mechanically on their minds 
 generalizations which can only be reached natu- 
 rally after the observation of many individual in- 
 stances. In either case, the abstract nature of 
 the appeal is so far beyond their powers, that 
 the attention which is given, if indeed it is given, 
 is only the amiable toleration of a discourse 
 which arouses no interest. <>f course, moral 
 
 lessons received in such a spirit accomplish do 
 Useful purpose, if indeed they are not positively 
 hurtful; since they tend to produce disgust for 
 an important branch of education, which in 
 maturer years, would be interesting. The con- 
 ceptions existing in the minds of children and 
 youth being in large measure concrete, the true 
 method of approaching their intelligence is 
 through concrete images. In intellectual train- 
 big, this is usually done, and is always the most 
 successful method. In one of the methods of 
 moral training above referred to— that of moral 
 stories — this' is attempted, and doubtless, it is 
 supposed, with success; but it is safe to say 
 that the interest aroused is not extended to the 
 moral deductions drawn from the acts of the 
 persons introduced, but ends with the acts or 
 actors themselves. Thus the fables of . Ksop are 
 interesting to the young only as long as the 
 men and animals are. so to speak, in motion. 
 When the moral is reached which is not till 
 aft 'l- the narrative has been brought to a climax, 
 and the actors nave been dismissed — their inter 
 esl is at a, i ebb; aid not till many years later is 
 that moral brought home to them by the mani- 
 fold exp n snees of life. This, therefore is the pe- 
 cuhar value, and the only proper use of. the fables 
 of JEsop, namely, that they present in a striking 
 way the truth desired t<> be impressed on the 
 mind. qoI with the design of making it imme- 
 diately influential, but with an effort which. 
 for the moment, is apparently without result-— 
 
 the feeling which attends the planting of a seed. 
 I. -'., the certainty of future development. ii is 
 
 difficult, of course, for the parani or teacher who 
 
 liis the well-being of a child sincerely at heart. 
 
 to leave him in that seeming neglect which a for- 
 bearance from moral discourse appears to coun- 
 
 nce; and the pseudo-maxim, thai Mime train- 
 ing is better than none, here intervenes i" in- 
 
 crease the difficulty ; but it should never be for- 
 gotten that the object to be attained is not a 
 present, but a future, and a far more important, 
 one — the determination of the pupils conduct 
 through life : and any course which shall hazard 
 this is not only valueless, but evil. The mind of 
 youth, in fact, is not given to that sober, con- 
 templative process which we call moralizing. Its 
 natural disposition is one of gaiety, ceaseless 
 activity, and even boisterousness. '1 he exuber- 
 ance of spirits natural to this period of life, there- 
 fore, makes the child indisposed to give patient 
 attention to any purely speculative process of 
 thought. That this is a wise provision of nature 
 for the development of the physical powers, has 
 long been recognized by observant educators; 
 and any attempt to curb this spirit, with the 
 view of inculcating moral truth, only inverts the 
 natural order of development, and, in healthy 
 children is apt to result disastrously. The only 
 method of moral training effective with youth 
 is that which discards formal precepts, and by 
 restraint of actual vice, or practice of the desired 
 virtue, engrafts it insensibly on the daily conduct. 
 'I he habit of right acting is thus unconsciously 
 at quired, but not till a much later period is the 
 mind disposed to survey critically this action, 
 and pass judgment upon its propriety. The 
 maturity of the mind is an indication of the 
 prop, r se ing. 
 
 MORAL SUASION. See Corporal Pun- 
 ishment. 
 
 MORAVIAN BRETHREN, or Moravi- 
 ans, a conn. inn designation of the Unites Fra* 
 trum, a body of Protestant christians, distin- 
 guished for activity in missionary work among 
 the heathen, and also in the education of the 
 vming. The church was founded in 1457 A. I).. by 
 followers of .John lluss. the Bohemian reformer 
 ami martyr (died at Constance. July 6., 1 1 15) ; 
 and flourished in Bohemia, Moravia, and Poland 
 until the anti-reformation under Ferdinand IL, 
 L621 —7. A ••hidden seed." however, remained ; 
 and, in 1722 — 7, descendants of the ancient 
 Church of the Brethren, to the number of about 
 300, settled at Herrnhut, in Saxony, on an estate 
 belonging to Count Zinzendorf, forming the 
 nucleus of the Renewed brethren's Church, to 
 which other em h< mia ami Mo- 
 
 ravia, with many of the inhabi oi other 
 
 countries of Europe, joined themselves. Since 
 time, the church, though still small in 
 numbers, has spread over the world, carrying on 
 a vast mis ion work: and. at the present time, 
 it supports many educational institutions. There 
 are three thief missionary provinces: < Continental 
 Europe, Great Britain, and the United States. 
 
 I. Ancient Church (1457 — Ki'27). — Very 
 soon after tin' founding of the church, the 
 brethren began to devote themselves to educa- 
 tion; the first si 1 Is were held in the parson- 
 ages of the ministers, the scholars being chiefly 
 candidates for the ministry. Soon, however, 
 parochial schools were est tblished for thorough 
 training in the elements <>i knowledge, including 
 the Latin language; many of the pupils were 
 
MORAVIAN BRETHREN 
 
 599 
 
 not members of the church. Classical schools 
 or colleges were founded at Eibenschuti (under 
 Esrom Rudinger, of Wittenberg), Meserritsch, 
 and Fulneck, in Moravia; Lissa, in Poland; 
 and other places; these colleges were well at- 
 tended, many of the students being Roman 
 Catholics. In L585, there were, in addition, three 
 theological seminaries, — at Jungbunzlau, Bohe- 
 mia : and Prerau and Eibcnschiitz.in Moravia; 
 in these was afterwards added one at Lissa. in 
 Poland. The most distinguished educators in the 
 ancient Church of the Brethren were Blahoslav, 
 the author of a Bohemian grammar, still in use ; 
 Riidinger; and John Amos Comenius. The 
 latter was a skillful educator, and his new meth- 
 ods of teaching gained him great celebrity. He 
 is one of the forerunners of the so-called "mod- 
 ern " system of object-teaching and of the kin- 
 dergarten. He was in constant correspondence 
 with prominent educators throughout Europe, 
 and traveled much in the cause of education. 
 He finally settled at Amsterdam, in Holland, 
 where he died Nov. 22., 1670. Up to the day 
 of his death, he was unwearied as a writer in be- 
 half of education and of his beloved church, of 
 which he had become the senior bishop. (See 
 Come.vhjs.) Though that church was now seem- 
 ingly stamped out of existence, he hoped against 
 hone that it would be restored. And this hope 
 was fulfilled. Emigrants, for conscience' sake, 
 from Bohemia and Moravia, were the first settlers 
 of Herrnhut, in Saxony. The first little band 
 arrived in June, 1722 ; and, on May 12., 1721, the 
 c uner-stone of the first school-house was laid. 
 This building was erected in pursuance of a plan 
 formed by Zinzendorf to establish institutions 
 similar to those at Halle, wdiere he had studied 
 under Francke. Though the project was soon 
 abandoned, particularly as this first school in 
 Herrnhut proved a failure ; still, from that day. 
 May 12., 1724, dates the educational activity of 
 the Renewed Brethren's Church. 
 
 II. Renewed Brethren's Church (1727— 187G). 
 The school, therefore, preceded the organization 
 <>i the church. As additional congregations were 
 founded, parochial schools were introduced ; 
 with the spread of missions, schools for the in- 
 struction of the converts were begun ; theological 
 schools were needed for the education of minis- 
 ters ; and friends of the church urged the estab- 
 lishment of boarding schools. The most promi- 
 nent educators within the church, and especially in 
 the German province, have been Johann Nitsch- 
 mann. Sr.; Polycarp Midler, the founder of the 
 scientific internal development; Paul Eugen 
 Layritz (author of a Latin dictionary long in 
 use), who, with his son-in-law. Christian Theodor 
 Zembsch, the latter for 55 years teacher and 
 president of the Poedagogium, may be con- 
 sidered the real founder of the Moravian school 
 system. Bishop Johann Friedrich Reichel, 
 though not directly employed as an instructor, 
 deserves special mention, as he was very active 
 in the establishment of boarding-schools, the 
 Poedagogium, and the theological seminary. By 
 his wise counsel he assisted those more actively 
 
 engaged in teaching to overcome many of tin' 
 difficulties which attended the establishment of 
 the new school enterprises. — Up to the year 
 1769, the Hallean or pietistic mode of educa- 
 tion prevailed. With the rise of the philan- 
 thropic school (Voltaire, Basedow, etc.), the 
 
 Brethren adopted those of the new ideas which 
 seemed to them good, suitable, and not in con- 
 ilict with Christian principles ; and. thus, in 
 place of the pietistic asceticism of Halle, there 
 came a tendency which was more humanistic, 
 and more friendly disposed toward the culture 
 both of ancient and modern times. The present 
 educational activity of the church will be con- 
 sidered under the following six heads : 
 
 (1 ) Primary Schools. — Great stress is laid by 
 the Brethren on the importance of home train- 
 ing ; and it' is officially recognized that " the 
 foundation of the future good or evil conduct of 
 a child is laid at home, and that the faults and 
 defects which there develop themselves are sel- 
 dom or never remedied elsewhere." 
 
 (a) Infant schools — up to the 7th year of age. 
 In many of the congregations, especially in Eu- 
 rope, infant schools are kept, the main object of 
 which is " to employ the little ones with short 
 and easy lessons, and to awaken their faculties, 
 — not to burden the mind at the expense of their 
 health, and of the future development of mind 
 and body." The main requisite is held to be "a 
 suitable teacher, fond of children, who can enter 
 into their feelings, and understand how to man- 
 age and interest them." 
 
 (b) Parochial schools — from the 7th to the 14th 
 year. In Europe, generally, and, in America, in 
 several places, there are parochial schools, open 
 to children of the congregation, and also to 
 others. Religious instruction forms an impor- 
 tant part of the education, the object being to 
 care for the heart and soul as well as for the in- 
 tellect. In these schools, all the fundamental 
 branches are taught; too rapid development is. on 
 principle, avoided. Wherever parochial schools, 
 from the nature of the case, cannot be kept, 
 other schools, public or private, are used, prefer- 
 ence being had for those in which Christian 
 principles prevail. In these cases, religious in- 
 struction is, in part, supplied by 
 
 (<■) Sunday-schools, which are more common in 
 America than in England or Germany. In these 
 latter countries, they are more confined to their 
 original purpose. — to impart instruction, secular 
 or religious, to those who are unable to obtain it 
 during the week. 
 
 (2) Boitrding-Schools — from the 7th to the 1 8th 
 year, and upward. The first boarding-school 
 was opened at Neuwied on the Bhine, Prussia, 
 in 1756. The number of church boarding- 
 schools had increased to 51 at the close of the 
 year 1875. The number of scholars, each year, 
 ranges from 2,500 to 3,000. In the German 
 province, there are 30 schools, 14 for boys (COO 
 pupils), 16 for girls (759), including the two 
 boarding-schools and the primary department 
 for the children of missionaries, In the British 
 province, there are 15 schools ; 6 for boys (281 
 
600 
 
 MORAVIAN BRETITREN 
 
 pupils), and 9 for girls (302), one of those for 
 boys being a primary boarding-school. In the 
 American province, there are 6 schools; 2 for 
 boys (180 pupils), namely, Nazareth Ball, Naza- 
 reth, Northampton Co., Pa. (125 to 150 pupils] : 
 Salem Boys' School, Salem. Forsyth Co., N. C. 
 (30 pupils); and 4 for girls (750 pupils); namely, 
 Seminary for Young Ladies, Bethlehem, Pa. 
 (j?50 pupils); Linden Ball, Litiz, Lancaster 
 Co., Pa. (80 to 100) ; Salem Female Academy 
 (about 225 pupils); and Hope Seminary, Hope. 
 Bartholomew Co.. End. (60 to 80 pupils). The 
 course of study, in all these schools, embraces, 
 first, the fundamental branches, and after that, 
 whatever accomplishments are deemed necessary 
 by the parents, and by the demands of the times. 
 Special attention is paid to music, mathematics, 
 and the classical and modern languages. As far 
 as is known, the Seminary at Bethlehem, which 
 was opened as a school for girls in 1749, and as 
 a boarding-school in 178."). is the pioneer school 
 in America in the education of women. At 
 Nazareth Ball, there are special classes to prepare 
 boys to enter either a college or a polytechnic or 
 scientific school ; the former with a special view 
 to the theological seminary. One peculiarity of 
 the method of training is the constant super- 
 vision of all the scholars by the teachers, the 
 ideal being the watchful care of parents over the 
 family. Though irksome to boys and girls, this 
 principle of -Moravian education still commends 
 itself to those who have the responsible charge 
 of the pupils. The aim of all the boarding- 
 schools is not brilliancy of attainments, but a 
 solid foundation; and, at the same time, to be 
 equal to the standard of modern requirements. 
 Due and careful attention is paid to moral and 
 religious training. Besides the church schools, 
 there are other private boarding-schools con- 
 ducted by members of the church, notably those 
 for boys at Litiz. The same principles of edu- 
 cation prevail in all. 
 
 (3) Classic d Schools ana Colleges. — The prin- 
 cipal college is that at Nisky, in Prussia, official- 
 ly stylel the posdagogium, with 60 students. 
 Th'- course of study is equal to that of the 
 German gymnasia of the higher class, and special 
 attention is paid to the Bebrew language. In the 
 schools at Fulneck, England, and Nazareth. Pa., 
 classical studies are pursued bythe higher classes 
 of boys who prepare for college or the university. 
 Many of those at Nazareth Ball, especially those 
 who are candidates for the ministry in the Mo- 
 ravian Church, continue their classical studies in 
 the Theological Seminary ai Bethlehem, I';'. The 
 preparatory classical course continues two years. 
 
 (I) Theological Seminaries. — The seminary 
 of the German province, founded in 17M.">. is 
 now located at Gnadenfeld, Prussia. The num- 
 ber of students averages 25, in 3 classes, with I 
 
 professors. The theological course, of three years. 
 
 u very thorough. The seminary of the British 
 
 province is the Training Institution, founded in 
 I860, at Fairfield, near Manchester; it combines 
 
 a seminary proper and a normal school. The 
 seminary of the American province, founded in 
 
 1807, at Nazareth, since 1858 permanently located 
 at Bethlehem, incorporated in 1864 as The 
 Moravian College and Theological Seminary, 
 though familiarly known by the latter half of 
 its title, averages 30 students, with 4 pro* 
 ors. The course of study, after two years' pre; 
 atory training at Nazareth, is for 6 years ; three 
 and a half devoted to the classics, mathematics, 
 natural science, Hebrew, and philosophy, and two 
 and a half years to theological studies. Special 
 attention is paid, throughout thecourse, to the 
 study of German. The full course of training 
 for a minister, therefore, occupies 8 years, or its 
 equivalent in work. Classes are formed bien- 
 nially. The endowment fund is very small ; but 
 the charge for students preparing for the Mo- 
 ravian ministry is nominal, the expenses being 
 defrayed by the church. 
 
 (5) Special Schools. — In Germany, there are 
 two normal schools for training young men and 
 women as teachers ; a missionary institute for 
 training missionaries ; and a technical school at 
 Gnadenberg, Prussia. In connection with the 
 mission work, there are normal and industrial 
 schools ; in the latter, instruction is given in agri- 
 culture, mechanics, printing, book-binding. < tc 
 
 (6) Schools in On' missionary Provinces. — The 
 instruction of old and young in religion, general 
 knowledge, and industrial art, is a chief part of 
 the duty of the missionaries of the church. Their 
 labors in education cover the following field: 
 Greenland, Labrador, the North American In- 
 dians. Mosquitia, the English and Danish West 
 Indies. Dutch Guiana or Surinam. South Africa, 
 Australia, and Vest Himalaya. In these mission 
 provinces, there are the following schools: (1) a 
 theological seminary, in Jamaica. W. I.; (5) nor- 
 mal schools — 2 in Jamaica, 1 each in Antigua, 
 in Surinam, and in South Africa; in Greenland, 
 4 normal classes: and in Labrador. .'!. at dif- 
 ferent stations, as the isolation prevents com- 
 plete union in a normal school. The pupils num- 
 ber, in all. about LOO; but the number increases 
 each year. There are maintained 21 7 day schools, 
 at or near the 92 mission stations.with 756 teach- 
 ers and 1.5,173 scholars: besides Sunday-schools. 
 With the most, infant schools are also connected; 
 many adults attend special classes. Many of the 
 scholars are not connected with the church. 'I he 
 instruction ranges front a primary to a grammar- 
 school grade. It may be mentioned that "amoi g 
 1 ,200 colonial schools in Gippsland, Australia, the 
 school for natives at I'amahyuk. consisting of 
 perhaps the lowest and most degraded of heathen 
 tribes, the aborigines of Australia gained, in 1873, 
 the highest prize offered by the government." 
 
 Principles of Education. — The schools of the 
 Brethren are con lucted on religious, though not 
 sectarian, principles. In regard to the method 
 
 of teaching, the I feneral Synod of 1 869 reiterates: 
 
 "While we would earnestly endeavor to keep 
 
 pace with other schools in imparting a store of 
 
 solid useful knowledge, we would not aim at 
 that extent or display of learning which tends 
 to foster vanity, to lead to the neglect of proper 
 regard for health, and to destroy that simplicity 
 
MOROCCO 
 
 M OTHER-TONGUE 
 
 601 
 
 of in it id and buoyancy of spirit which are es- 
 sential to the success 01 our efforts." 
 
 The Renewed Churchof the Brethren haspro- 
 
 dUced no educator with a world-wide influence like 
 
 Gomenius ; the energies of her school-men have 
 
 a directed to the improvement of the church 
 
 schools. Indirectly, however, the Moravians have 
 
 done much for the cause of general education. 
 By impressing on all their schools the essential 
 points of the German method of instruction, 
 -which is unostentatious, patient, laborious, and 
 therefore, likely to be thorough." (W. C. Rei- 
 chel. Nazareth Hall and its Reunions.) In the 
 majority of the schools, there is instruction in 
 physical training. There is no opposition to the 
 common-school system. On the question of the 
 co-education of the sexes there has been no dis- 
 cussion or action, as no necessity for it has arisen. 
 Statistical Summary.— On the 1st of January, 
 1875, with a home membership of 1 7,993 com- 
 municants (total membership, including children, 
 2!>. 305), there were under the care of the Mo- 
 ravians I theological seminaries, with 83 students; 
 •1 colleges and classical schools, with 140 students: 
 !) normal schools and 7 normal classes, with L50 
 students: f>l boarding-schools, with about 2, 7 HO 
 pupils; 217 common schools in the mission 
 provinces, with 15,173 pupils; also about 200 
 pupils in the technical and industrial schools; 
 and about .'5,000 pupils in parochial and infant 
 schools— a total of persons under instruction of 
 ,21.1 Ki. Adding the Sunday-school pupils, the 
 grand total swells to 43,500. The number of 
 professors and teachers in the seminaries, colleges, 
 boarding-schools, and parochial schools ranges be- 
 tween 500 and 600; of teachers in the mission 
 held, 750; of Sunday-school teachers, about 1,500. 
 Further information in regard to the Moravian 
 schools and school system may be found in 
 Comenius, School of Infancy (London, 1858); 
 Plitt, Das theologisclie Seminarium (of the 
 German province) ; Gammert, Geschichte des 
 Pcedagogiums (at Xisky, Prussia) ; W. C. Rei- 
 chei,. History of Bethlehem Female Seminary, 
 and Nazareth 11 ill and its Reunions, which 
 contains a brief sketch of the Theological Semi- 
 nary of the American province ; Verbeek, An- 
 leitung fur Lehrer und Lehrerinnen; and the 
 Synodal Results of 1869. 
 
 MOROCCO, or Marocco, an empire in the 
 north-western part of Africa; area, 259,000 
 sq. m.; population, about 6,000,000. In ancient 
 times, it formed part of the territory known as 
 Mauritania, and subsequently of the Roman em- 
 pire, with which it remained up to 429 A. I)., 
 when it was overrun by the Vandals. After its 
 reconquest, in 534 A. D., it formed a province of 
 the Eastern Empire. Upon its conquest by the 
 Arabs, in the 7th century. Mohammedanism was 
 introduced, to which religion. at present, the whole 
 population, with the exception of several hundred 
 thousand dews, belongs. Education, in Morocco, 
 is in a very low state. All that remains of the 
 ancient universities, at the present day, is the 
 university of Dar-eMbn, which, in the middle 
 ages, had an extensive reputation, and was at- 
 
 tended by Arabs from all parts of Africa. It 
 still confers academic degrees ; and its head, the 
 
 Mufti, is one of the most prominent men in the 
 
 empire, young men destined to letters. law, or 
 the service of religion, are instructed here in 
 grammar. Arabic poetry, and Mohammedan law 
 and religion; otherwise, education is confined to 
 reading and reciting passages of the Koran. 
 
 The libraries of Fez and Morocco, which wen; 
 once celebrated throughout the Arabic world 
 have disappeared; and the study of medicine, 
 which at one time had been brought to a 
 great degree of proficiency, has completely de- 
 generated. As in other Mohammedan countries, 
 whatever primary instruction is afforded is given 
 in schools connected with the mosques ; but, 
 there are no statistics to show to what extent 
 this exists. 
 
 MOTHER. Sec Home Education. 
 
 MOTHER-TONGUE, the language in which 
 the child utters the first articulate sounds, and in 
 which his education is conducted until he is sent 
 to school. It is so called because the mother is 
 the child's natural teacher during this period ; 
 and it is the mother's vocabulary, construc- 
 tion, and pronunciation that are copied by 
 the child, and that constitute the germ from 
 which the child's own language gradually develops 
 itself. That this prerogative of the mother- 
 tongue should be sacredly respected, and that no 
 circumstances should be permitted to weaken its 
 influence, will not be disputed by any educator. 
 It is, however, no interference with this that 
 children, by associating with companions who 
 speak a different language, should learn, at an 
 early period, to converse in a second tongue ; 
 since, when the mother exerts her legitimate in- 
 fluence, the language in which she communes 
 with the child will continue to be the first 
 moulder of the youthful mind. — The privileged 
 position of the mother-tongue during the first 
 years of a child's life, ceases with the beginning 
 of school instruction. The language of the school 
 is not necessarily the mother-tongue, but the 
 national language. The terms are by no means 
 identical, as is frequently assumed. It is obviously 
 a great advantage that children, on entering 
 school, should find there the language with which 
 they are familiar, and through which the first 
 development of their mental powers has been 
 conducted, and their little stock of knowledge has 
 been obtained. It is thus easy for the intelligent 
 teacher to establish at once the most complete 
 harmony between family education and school 
 instruction. But millions of children, even in 
 civilized countries, are still growing up without 
 this advantage : and, upon being sent to school, 
 are placed under the instruction of ateacher whose 
 language they understand either very imperfectly 
 or not at all. In consequence of the extensive 
 intermigration which characterizes this age, 
 the children of foreigners, in many parts of the 
 world, are quite frequently received into public 
 schools the language of which is unknown to 
 them; and it is evident that all that is pos- 
 sible, in such cases, is some special attention 
 
C02 MOUNT ST. MARY'S COLLEGE 
 
 MURRAY 
 
 on the part of the teacher to the educational 
 wants and to the progress of the little .strangers. 
 But as few countries, at the present time, arc 
 inhabited by people of only one nationality, it is 
 also very common to find localities, or even 
 large districts, where a large portion of the chil- 
 dren—indeed, sometimes the majority — speak at 
 home a language different from that in which 
 they are instructed at school. Thus the Celtic 
 and the German mother-tongues are extensively 
 rn.t with in English schools; the Polish, Wendish, 
 and French, in German schools ; the German, 
 Polish, Finnish, and many other languages,in Rus- 
 sian schools; and the Italian, in French schools. 
 [n such cases, it is not uncommon to find that 
 nearly all the young pupils understand some other 
 language better than that through which they 
 receive their school instruction, and in which 
 they are expected to reach the highest state of 
 perfection. Wherever this state of things exists, 
 it forces upon the attention of teachers and school 
 legislators the question to what extent any claims 
 in behalf of the mother-tongue, either asa means 
 or as a branch of public instruction, deserve con- 
 sideration. The legislation on this subject has 
 been very vacillating, and still greatly differs in 
 various countries ; but the general tendency, at 
 present, is to ext snd,by means both of school leg- 
 islation and sch >ol education, the domain of the 
 national language. (See National Language.) 
 
 MOUNT SAINT MARY'S COLLEGE, 
 a Roman Catholic institution, chartered in L830, 
 
 is situate I about 2 luiies from Fminettsbuig, 
 
 i\ld. [t has a prepara orj a i I a collegiate depart- 
 ment, and possesses excellent philosophical and 
 chemical apparatus, a mineralogical collection, 
 and libraries containing about LI, 000 volumes. 
 The regular charge for tuition, board, etc., is 
 $150 per session of iive months. The system 
 of education is a combined classical and com- 
 mercial one, including the various arts and sci- 
 ences usually taught in colleges of the first class. 
 In L875— 6, there were L2 professors, L8 other 
 instructors, and 180 students. The Rev. John 
 McCloskey, D.D.,isthe president (1876). 
 
 MOUNT SAINT MARY'S SEMINARY 
 OF THE WEST, a Etonian Catholic institu- 
 tion in Cincinnati. Ohio, was founded in 1848. 
 The course of instruction is of two gra 
 preparatory and theological. In the preparatory 
 department, all branches pertaining to a regular 
 collegiate coins ■ are taught in seven different 
 elasses, embracing as many years of study; of 
 these, the Last four correspond to a regular col- 
 lege course, the first three embodying the pre- 
 { oratory studies. The theological course 1 em- 
 uraces a period of three years. The library 
 
 < tains about L5.000 volumes. All students 
 
 are required to pay $160 a year inward boar. 1 
 and tuition. In L875— 6, there were 8 instrui 
 tors, and 111 students, all preparing for the 
 priesthood. The Very Rev. F.J. Pabisch, D. D., 
 LL, D., has been the president of the institution 
 once L863. 
 
 MOUNT UNION COLLEGE, at Mount 
 1 oion, near Alliance, Ohio, was organized asa 
 
 seminary in 1846, as a college in 1858. Among its 
 distinguishing features are entire liberty in the 
 choice of studies, the prominence given to practical 
 studies, its Christian, but not sectarian nor par- 
 tisan character, the admission of females to equal 
 privileges in all the departments, and its econ- 
 omy for students. The college has productive 
 funds to the amount of over $45] ,000, and valu- 
 able apparatus and extensive cabinets. There 
 are four general courses of four years each, 
 namely, science, philosophy, liberal literature 
 and arts, and classics. 1 he special courses are 
 music, fine arts, normal, and commercial. There 
 is a preparatory department. The degrees of 
 Master of Arts. Master of Science, and Master 
 or Doctor of Philosophy, are not honorary de- 
 grees, but are conferred on those who have com- 
 pleted, and sustained an actual examination in, a 
 suitable post-graduate course of one year's study. 
 hi 187;"). — 6. there were IS instructors and 842 
 students, of whom .'544 were in the collegiate de- 
 partment. The Rev. 0. N. Hartshorn, LL. D., 
 is (l87<i) the president. 
 
 MUHLENBERG COLLEGE, at Allen- 
 town, Fa., is under Evangelical Lutheran con- 
 trol. It was opened as a seminary in 1848, and 
 as a college under its present name in L867. It 
 is supported by tuition tees, synodical aid, and 
 the income of an endowment of $50,000. The 
 buildings are surrounded by about five acres of 
 ground. The libraries contain about 3,600 vol- 
 umes, 'i he institution embraces a collegiate de- 
 partment, with a course of four years, and an 
 academic department, with a course of three 
 years. The cost of tuition in the collegiate de- 
 partment is $50 a year. In L874 — .*». there w< re 
 8 instructors and 1 1 1 students (42 collegiate and 
 69 academic). The Few Frederick A. Muhlen- 
 berg, D. I)., has been the president of the college 
 from its organization. 
 
 MURRAY, Lindley, was born in 1745 at 
 Swetara, near Lancaster, Pa.; died near York, 
 England, in L826. He at first devoted himself 
 to the law, but abandoned it for commerce at 
 the outbreak of the disputes with the mother 
 country, and retired with a competency, on the 
 establishment of American independence. In 
 L 784, he went to England for his health: and, 
 ■ some months, fixed his residence at Bold- 
 gate, near York, where he remained until his 
 death. Murray never was a professional teacher. 
 His Grammar arose out o\ some lessons which 
 he gave to the assistants at a girls' school in 
 York. His pupils appreciated his efforts, and 
 urged him to write an English grammar. This 
 appeared in L795, ■was followed by a book of 
 
 exercises and a key, and has passed through a 
 
 great number of editions, l»>t!i in England 
 
 and America. It was compiled from Harris, 
 
 l.owth. Blair, Campbell, and others; and the 
 larger edition, at least, contains many good points. 
 It.- faults arc too frequent vagueness and want 
 of simplicity in the language, together with de- 
 ficiencies in the accidence, which were perhaps 
 inseparable from a work written at that date. 
 \ good teacher might occasionally gather useful 
 
MUSIC 
 
 G03 
 
 matter from Murray's Grammar, but would not 
 Use it as a class-book. Mr. Washington Moon, in 
 Bad English (London. L868), lias drawn atten- 
 tion to passages in the Grammar in which Mur- 
 ray has violated his own rules. A few of Mr. 
 M, inn's criticisms, however, it is impossible to 
 agree with. Murray published several reading 
 books also, besides some works of a religious 
 nature. He was a. member of the Society of 
 Friends, and a man of great benevolence. The 
 Autobiography of Murray, down to L 809, ap- 
 peared after his death, with a continuation by 
 Elizabeth Frank. This autobiography was writ- 
 ten in the form of letters, and contains some in- 
 teresting passages. The continuation is an undis- 
 eriininating eulogy of Murray and his works; 
 it heaps up testimonies as to their value, but 
 Bays not a syllable of those who, like Orombie, 
 ha 1 criticised various points in the Grammar. 
 
 MUSIC, according to the Old Testament, was 
 Cultivated by the earliest inhabitants of the 
 earth. However this may be, there is unques- 
 tionable proof that Joseph, and further on in 
 Hebrew history. Moses and his sister Miriam, 
 Were well versed in the customs, and were 
 measurably acquainted with the arts, of the 
 Egyptians, which included the use of the lyre 
 an 1 other musical instruments, rude sculptured 
 forms of which may be seen in ancient Egyptian 
 temples to this day. — It is an interesting study, 
 to trace the progressof music among the Israelites, 
 who not only employed it religiously to express 
 their joy and gratitude to Jehovah for their safe 
 deliverance from the hauls of their enemies, but 
 in war and on social occasions, sought its in- 
 spiriting power to encourage the soldier to re- 
 newed effort, on the one hand; or, in friendly 
 gatherings, to "assuage, pacify, and amuse, on the 
 other. The priests themselves assisted in this 
 work among the ancient people of God. These 
 ■musical influences were cultivated and advanced 
 "with the increasing number and power of the 
 Jews, until they arrived at the height of their 
 glory during the reigns of David and Solomon. 
 The immortal lyrics of King David are called the 
 national songs ami hymns of the ancient Hebrews. 
 Much his been written to show the character of 
 th ■ music formerly sung in the temple to the ex- 
 ' dingly varied sense of the psalms. Antiphonal 
 'effects were probably produced by choirs under 
 separate leaders, but the gran I director of them 
 all was David himself. The instrumental ac- 
 companiments must have been of no mean order. 
 We find, on examination, that the harp, the psal- 
 tery, the shawm, the cornet, the lute, the tabret, 
 the cymbals, — ''every thing that has breath," 
 that is, every thing that had a resonant body 
 which would vibrate through the action of the 
 air upon it, — all were to be used in carrying out 
 the divine injunction, " Praise yethe Lord!" — 
 Four hundred years later, while Daniel stood 
 high in the favor of Nebuchadnezzar at the 
 court of Babylon, we read of the setting up of 
 agolden image by the king, which Daniel was 
 required to worship at the moment when he 
 should hear the sound of the " cornet, flute, harp, 
 
 sackbut, psaltery, dulcimer, and all kinds of 
 music." Of these ancient musical instruments, 
 the harp, the psaltery, the lute, and the dulcimer 
 were stringed; while the cornet, the trumpet, the 
 
 flute, and the sackbut were wind instruments. 
 
 'The sackbut was the precursor of the trombone, as 
 the tabret or timbrel was of the tambourine and 
 drum. Egyptian, Babylonian, Assyrian, Phoeni- 
 cian, as well as Hebrew, were familiar with the 
 use of these instruments, their music being prob- 
 ably of a unisonant character, and destitute of 
 what is known to modern ( hristian nations as har- 
 mony, technically so called. A II these elder peoples 
 contributed to that beautiful union of the arts 
 and letters which found in Greece, during con- 
 temporary and later days, a perfection of detail 
 and a consummate working of available means 
 to desirable ends, which all succeeding time must 
 recognize as more thoroughly harmonious, in the 
 sense of combining all departments of human 
 labor to produce effective results, than any 
 which preceded them. Pythagoras was the orig- 
 inator of those ideas of harmony which, tested 
 by vibrations produced by the mathematical 
 divisions of a string, have no clearer foundation 
 for the whole modern system of concords and 
 discords than his simple theory. Laws and gov- 
 ernment, as well as the fine arts, and the customs 
 of social life, seemed blended together for intel- 
 ligent recognition by means of the chanted, in- 
 toned, or musical presentation of the leaders. 
 We cannot look toward more remote Eastern or 
 Asiatic nations for so magnificent results, nor 
 indeed for any thing that deserves the name of 
 music, as this word is now understood by the 
 civilized European or American. Modern Asiatic 
 music is unmitigated " confusion worse con- 
 founded/' The musical succession did not pro- 
 ceed in that direction. The mantle of Creek 
 scholarship and Etruscan art fell upon Koine. 
 Homer walked with Virgil, Demosthenes with 
 Cicero, Pythagoras with Seneca. Subsequently, 
 the Christian bishop linked the logic of Aristotle 
 and the philosophy of Socrates and Plato with 
 the Pentateuch and the prophecies of the elder 
 dispensation, and sang without unrest his love 
 of Christ in Latin lines surmounted with Orcek 
 letters, to denote the rising and the falling inflec- 
 tions. St. Ambrose, bishopof Milan (A.D. 386) 
 composed many hymns; and the tradition of a 
 majority of the western European churches 
 assigns the authorship of the Te Deum to his 
 pen, lovingly memorizing that St. Ambrose and 
 St. Augustine chanted it antiphonally at the 
 baptism of the latter. This statement does not 
 assume the certainty of tin historic fact ; but 
 there is no doubt that St. Ambrose improved 
 the church music of his day by adopting the 
 four authentic modes founded upon the Greek 
 tetrachords. The Ambrosian chant continued 
 to be used as the music for the hymns and dox- 
 ologies of the church for more than two hundred 
 years, until bt. Gregory added four more, thus 
 completing what have since been known as the 
 Eight Oregorian Tones. Thirteen hundred years 
 have only served to make the Oregorian Tones 
 
G04 
 
 Ml' SIC 
 
 as acceptable as they were in the earlier ages of 
 the church. The reason is obvious. Whether 
 it be tin' Greek, the Latin, or the Anglican ser- 
 vice, intoning can be inure distinctly heard than 
 ordinary speaking ; and, therefore, it is more ef- 
 fective to large auditories The vehicle, or agree- 
 able musical sounds, employed for this purpose, 
 must necessarily move within a limited compass, 
 so that the celebrant, of either bass or tenor voice, 
 can render the service acceptably. The Eight 
 Gregorian Tones contain all the variety of mel- 
 ody and pitch suitable for this purpose; and priest, 
 choir, and people can all participate in the ser- 
 vice, by using these ancient chants, without extra- 
 ordinary effort, it only the gift of a correct ear 
 bevouchsafed them. The Anglican Church has a 
 rieh and beautiful variety of Single chants founded 
 directly upon the Gregorian Tones, and, during 
 the past thirty years, has used them more gener- 
 ally than at any period since the Reformation. — 
 St. Gregory's pontificate was also distinguished 
 musically, by the erection of the organ, as the 
 permanent musical instrument of tin- church. Its 
 origin, according to some writers, was the syrinx, 
 or Pandean pipes; although others mention as 
 a fact that Ctesiphon, six hundred years before 
 Christ, constructed a plain, rude "chest of 
 Whistles", with water as the motive power for 
 the supply of wind. Not until St. Gregory's day. 
 however, did it assume proportions sufficiently 
 dignified to take its place as the combined 
 
 orchestral support of the music of the church, so 
 
 far a3 wind blown through pipes could make it 
 
 orchestral, li never can yield the intense, pen- 
 etrating tone of the violins and other stringed 
 
 instruments, by reason of the difference in the 
 
 application of the motive power. On the other 
 hand, it approaches more nearly die tone of the 
 human voice : and organ -builders and organists 
 
 are vying with each other in developing its la- 
 test achievement, the vox humana, to a degree so 
 near to perfection in the beautiful, that some have 
 ventured to pronounce it angelic ami heavenly. 
 
 — The history of concords and discards as em- 
 ployed in music. — in other words, the origin of 
 the whole system of modern harmony, may be 
 said to date from the use of the organ in the 
 church. Not until the pressing of one key with 
 another, producing the pure harmony of thirds, 
 ST sixths, did the idea of a science of concord- 
 
 and discords, remotely outlined a thousand years 
 before, present itself to the human mind through 
 the tympanum of the human ear, acted upon by 
 
 the living, breathing tones that came from the 
 
 pipes of an organ. Thenceforth, music began to 
 assume the aspect and proportions of a positive 
 language. Bui the progress was slow. After 
 St. Gregory, ten parallel lines were used instead 
 of one, to denote the ascent ami descent of the 
 
 musical phrase; and points on the lines only. Op- 
 posite I" each other. Were Used to represent the 
 Agreem ait. of the parts with each other. Hence 
 
 the term counterpoint. The staff was afterward 
 
 reduced to live lines, and the spaces were used 
 
 as well, through the teaching of Guido d'Axezzo, 
 
 a monk of the 1 1th century, who must lie cred- 
 
 ited also with the establishment of the gamut. or 
 scale, through the use of the syllables It. /<•■. 
 Mi, Fa, Sol, La, Si, selected from Latin words 
 in honor of the apostle John. — A period of two 
 centuries followed, in which, according to l>r. 
 Bimbault, no remnants or record.- of secular 
 music can he found, except those of the Trouba- 
 dours. These Provencal minstrels served to in- 
 crease both the fancy and the language of Dante, 
 Petrarch, and other Tuscan poets, in the lMth 
 and 14th centuries. Little variety of notation 
 appeal's, and no time is marked in their produc- 
 tions, yet it is not difficult to discover in them 
 germs of the future melodies. as well as the poetry, 
 of I'' ranee and Italy. 'I he stanza and the rhyme 
 crept into the church also: and the trochaic 
 measure generally prevailed, by reason of the 
 boldness of the accent at the commend ment of 
 the lines, and by reason also of the inherent 
 superiority of twofold over threefold measure. 
 '! he Latin hymns. Dies Jrce and Stabat Mater, 
 are well-known examples of this. The harmonies 
 of the church music and of the secular, thus far, 
 had been entirely founded upon pure concords, 
 save an occasional mild discord by suspension. 
 'I he union of this sweet harmony with quaint 
 and charming rhythmical devices resulted in the 
 construction of a form of composition, the 
 madrigal, than which nothing more satisfactory 
 for human voices has vet been heard. Roger 
 
 North's history of the rise, development, and 
 decline of this delightful music is one of the most 
 interesting contributions to English musical 
 literature which the art-.M udeiit can possess. In 
 
 ltaly.it rose with Tasso ; and in England, with 
 Spenser and Shakespeare, and the grand galaxy 
 oi ports and authors who have shed immortal 
 luster upon the reign of Queen Elizabeth. And 
 it declined with them. Although immense strides 
 in variety of harmonic progression have been 
 taken since these lovely idyls were composed.} 
 although I'alestrina. Pergolesi, Scarlatti, Bach, 
 Handel, Haydn. Mozart. Beethoven, and .Men- 
 delssohn have left immortal works which can 
 hardly be equaled, and can never he excelled; 
 although 1 iszt. Wagner, and Rubinstein have 
 written as representative composers of a school 
 of music founded upon sudden ami strange 
 transitions and car splitting discords: yet the 
 madrigal of the Kith and Llth centuries remains 
 a living, breathing, visible proof that the truest, 
 sweetest, most permanent progressions m vocal 
 harmony are those which recognize this fun- 
 damental axiom as a necessity; namely, that <»,//- 
 cords are the rule, and discords are the excep- 
 tion. And here, again, the church is the source 
 of the harmony employed in constructing the 
 madrigal. One need not examine long with- 
 out a thorough conviction of this tact. Com- 
 pare the harmony of Palestrinas church music 
 with that of the earliest madrigal composers, and 
 
 the origin of the latter is apparent. The differ- 
 ence lies not so much in the harmonic progn ssion, 
 as in the words and the cunning rhythmic How. — 
 With the Reformation, came the choral, the 
 people's congregational song. And here stands out 
 
MUSIC 
 
 605 
 
 M irtin Luther, who as singer ami musician, as well 
 as theologian ami preacher, exerted an influence 
 second to none in liis day. From the time when, 
 as a boy, he Bang the song of the Virgin ami the 
 birth of Christ in Madam Cotta's house, to the 
 dav of liis death, at the age of sixty-four. he 
 ceased not to encourage the cultivation of this 
 beautiful art, in the family, in the parish school, 
 in the church, in the social gathering, ami in the 
 united conferences of the churches. Every-where 
 the people's congregational song, the choral, was 
 used to arouse, to animate', to incite to new ami 
 enduring effort in fighting the battle of life. That 
 this view of the important part which Luther ami 
 his music bore in that terrible religious struggle 
 is shared by impartial judges, will be obvious to 
 the Student of music who examines the treatment 
 of Luther's grand old choral. Erne feste Burg 
 is/ unser Goti, by Meyerbeer in his opera. The 
 Huguenots, which is the deliberate and admiring 
 testimony of a Hebrew who has composed the 
 most elaborate operas of modern times. German 
 scholars truthfully refer to the examples of Luther 
 ami Melanchthon as pioneers in the cause of re- 
 ligion, literature, and art, in modern Germany; 
 and musicians can certainly point to Luther's 
 establishment of the study and practice of music' 
 in his native land as the particular cause of the 
 nearly general and complete musical intelligence 
 of that people in modern times. — Germany, Eng- 
 land, and America may be said to constitute a 
 triple alliance for the preservation and perpetua- 
 tion of the choral. It was the sacred song that came 
 to this country with the pilgrims of New Eng- 
 land, with the Hollanders of New Amsterdam, 
 and with the loyalists of Maryland and Virginia. 
 Events wdiich transpired previous to and during 
 the Revolutionary war quickened and invigorated 
 its rhythmic pace, as we see and feel when we 
 sing Old Coronation ; but it is so strongly in- 
 trenched within the hearts of the people, that 
 wars cannot silence its perpetual vibrations, nor 
 misfortune and disaster impede its steady, irre- 
 sistible course. Innovations, in the shape of 
 rhythmic irregularities and too extended melodic 
 compass, may occasionally mar its stately pro- 
 portions ; but it finally returns to its original and 
 permanent form, one note to each syllable of 
 words, supported by a pure, chaste harmony of 
 concords. He who softened and elaborated the 
 choral until it became to the ear what a picture 
 of ever varying tints is to the eye, was Johann 
 Sebastian Bach, a tower of musical strength to 
 his own and to every other civilized land. Of 
 all who have striven to preserve a lofty and en- 
 during style, in the musical treatment of sacred 
 subjects, none occupies higher ground than does 
 this modern king of harmony and the organ. 
 It is impossible to review the state of music 
 during the latter part of the 1 "th and the begin- 
 ning of the lNth century, without recognizing in 
 almost superlative terms his claims to the most 
 genuine and unbounded admiration. From single 
 air and accompaniment, through movements of 
 two. three, four, five, six, eight, and even twenty- 
 two parts, this tireless musician spent fifty years 
 
 of continuous labor for the pleasure and instruc- 
 tion of his sons and the circle in which he moved. 
 Originally of a musical family, he commenced 
 bis active life with the fullest preparai ion for his 
 work; and never did he falter for a moment in 
 considering his efforts as little less than a divine 
 duty. Not all of his manuscripts have yet been 
 published; and a new and deep interest has, of 
 late, been developed in every thing thai emanated 
 from his prolific brain and pen. — This new and 
 larger liberty, ushered in by the Reformation, ap- 
 peared in the masses of the Roman Catholic 
 Church, and in the services of the Anglican 
 Church. Composers have generally been willing 
 to adapt themselves to the musical exigencies of 
 the occasion. "When, under the /•<'■<//»<<■ of pope, 
 bishop, or stalwart reformer, the boy and the 
 man singer could be confined to the Gregorian 
 Tones, the strict (anon and fugue, and the digni- 
 
 tied choral, the music was certainly irreproach- 
 able in form, the effect was direct and strong, 
 and the people were satisfied. When, in the 
 course of time, the ecclesiastical regime became 
 less rigid ; when composers were less tied to strict 
 contrapuntal effect ; and when, especially, the 
 female voice was permitted to take part in the 
 separate musical services of the sanctuary, then, 
 indeed, the church music, and all other kinds of 
 music felt the force of the new r influence. The 
 beautiful masses of Haydn, Mozart, and their suc- 
 cessors, give evidence, as Ceo. Hogarth remarks, 
 of the melodic and rhythmic changes which 
 have been named ; but, it may be questioned 
 whether, with all the grace and symmetry which 
 these compositions possess, they can excel the 
 Gregorian Tones in simplicity, strength, and 
 directness, or in permanency of effect. 
 
 After the Gregorian Tones, the canon, the 
 fugue, and the choral, associated with the ser- 
 vices, liturgical, psalmodic, and hymnic, of the 
 Church, arose a new combination, dating from 
 the mysteries, or portions of biblical narrations 
 in dramatic and musical form. These were 
 presented for the contemplation of the faithful, 
 with the brilliant accessories of costume, scenery, 
 and instrumentation. This seems to have been 
 the thought wdiich moved the religious teachers 
 of the 17th and 18th centuries: since those who 
 were to be instructed in religious knowledge 
 could not see Moses, and Joshua, and Samuel 
 and the prophets, and David, and Solomon, and 
 the apostles, in their living visible forms, wdiat 
 more proper than that their young imaginations 
 and memories should be assisted with the next 
 most obvious and most effective instrumentality? 
 Poesy lent her inexhaustible attraction to the 
 scene ; and music, that is, poetry sung, fired the 
 emotions with an ardor and an inspiration that 
 reached to heaven. Costume and scenery, in 
 the secular musical drama, the opera, were ad- 
 ded to make this new development in music 
 more natural and picturesque ; while the relig- 
 ious drama, the oratorio, was content to appear 
 in a certain lofty and spiritual attitude without 
 these adjuncts. The opera indulged in melodic 
 flights which dazzled and bewildered — a con- 
 
f50G 
 
 MUSIC 
 
 sistent musical reflection of the wild license of 
 most of its libretti; but the oratorio could not 
 depart from the truth of sacred history, nor 
 could it allow those fantastic flights of melody 
 and rhythm, which characterized the opera. Now 
 appeared the man who succeeded in reconciling 
 these apparently antagonistic elements of the two 
 styles. George Frederick Handel was thoroughly 
 familiar with the operatic school of his day. He 
 was violinist, pianist, organist, and operatic com- 
 poser, when he attempted tin's hold experiment. 
 Depressed by the competition of his contemporary 
 Italian enemies, and even neglected by his former 
 royal and noble friends, this great musician, 
 whom Beethoven called " the musical father of 
 us all," deliberately proposed and carried out the 
 plan of appropriating all that was then worthy 
 of being pres >rved of the free style of music, and 
 combined with it the stricter forms to give it a 
 solidity and character which could be obtained 
 in no other way. Nothing daunted by the cold 
 and indifferent reception which heat first met 
 with, he continued to work on until he achieved 
 an entire success. No one who has studied 
 and heard his Israel in Egypt and his Messiah 
 can doubt the reason of his triumph. Haydn, 
 Mozart, Beethoven, Neukomm, Spohr, and Men- 
 delssohn have left verbal, and above all, writ- 
 ten musical testimony of their admiration for 
 him; and succeeding students of music continue 
 to swell tli' number of his devote 1 disciples. 
 Haydn, Mozart, and Mendelssohn should prob- 
 ably be placed next in the order of composers of 
 the first rank. In the United States, during the 
 fir-l fifty years after the establishment of the 
 national independence of the country, attention 
 was chiefly given to the study of the simpler 
 forms of psalmody, and to the appropriation 
 of whatsoever of European melody could be 
 made to subserve a local or temporary pur- 
 pose. Music, during the second fifty years of 
 the century, has signally advanced as an art; but 
 as a science, except in a frw localities, it has 
 made little progress. Musical instruments of all 
 kinds have been improve!, from a piccolo flute 
 to a hundred thousand dollar organ; but tins 
 improvement by no means implies that a know I- 
 edge of the harmony which lies at the founda- 
 tion of both vocal and instrumental music has 
 correspondingly advanced. How many can 
 write in strict two-part, three-part, and four-part 
 harmony? How many can write the four-part 
 
 har iy for the quartel of strings lying at the 
 
 ba i of orchestral work ? How many can write 
 
 in chaste, pure, and simple harmony for four 
 
 mixed voices? Etather.il is suspected and even 
 I thai the number of good readers of vocal 
 music, taking into consideration our larger pop- 
 ulation as compared with that of fifty years ago, 
 
 i< less in proportion than it was at that time. 
 
 The multiplication of pianos, melodeons. and other 
 rumenta has tended to produce this result. 
 There is, therefore, the greater necessity for sys- 
 tematic instruction in Bcnoolsand families, where 
 by i he rising generation may be so drilled in 
 exerci e on the scale, in a knowledge of the key- 
 
 notes, the relationship of the keys, the various 
 signs of notation, and the fundamental rules of 
 harmony, that they may be able to sing, that is, 
 to read music, with or without an instrument. 
 
 Musical Education. — From the preceding 
 sketch of the general history and advancement 
 of music in the church, on the rostrum, and in 
 the family, the transition to the systematic music 
 school or conservatory of music, is natural and 
 easy. This institution had an earlier foundation 
 than is generally supposed. Originally designed 
 as a high learning hall for music, in which 
 young and inexperienced persons were built up 
 in musical knowledge, the name shows the object 
 of such an institution — to cultivate, and to pre- 
 serve in their purity, the science and the art uf 
 music. r l he entire contrivance of this sort of 
 music school sprung from Italy, where the greater 
 part of the charitable institutions of an earlier 
 time were located : and the Italian nation, before 
 all others, had. in that respect, the formation of 
 an almost infinite number of artists and art-in- 
 spiring nestling-places, and diffused very gener- 
 ally sweet songs, the whole land, indeed, rejoicing 
 in tlie cultivation and possession of good music. 
 The oldest conservatories were frequently asso- 
 ciated with hospital and orphan asylums, through 
 the contributions of private persons supporting 
 pious establishments, whereby the musically- 
 gifted scholars boys and girls, were distinguished, 
 and enjoyed free lodging, board, and clothing, as 
 well as instruction, partly in Binging, and partly 
 in instrumental music. Boarding scholars were 
 associated for the payment of fees toward sup- 
 porting the establishment; but hoys and girls 
 were not indiscriminately received into the house. 
 The oldest and most renowned, and. at the same 
 time, the pattern of all others, was that founded 
 in Naples, by a Spanish clergyman named Gio- 
 vanni di Tappia. in L537, called Conservatorio 
 Santa Maria di Loretto. This conservatory 
 became, in succession, the foundation of th 
 others, afterward established in Naples, for the 
 exclusive use of boys. Leo, Durante, Scarlatti, 
 Borpora, and others, were herein course of time, 
 instructors: Piccini, Sacehini. < 'imarosa. Gugliel- 
 mi, Anfossi, Paisiello, and others, fellow-teach- 
 ers. Next to these, the more advanced scholars 
 of Tappia'B Institute established gradually the 
 Conservatorio ^m Onofrio, later, the Conser- 
 vatorio deUa Pietfr, and lastly, in 1589, the 
 Conservatorio dei Poveri di Qesu Cristo, in 
 which last-named Durante was chapel master, 
 
 about 1715 or I 71 S. and which continued until 
 within a short time since. Burney (General 
 Histoi t/of Music, L789) gives a detailed account 
 of these conservatories, Bhowing thai the first 
 
 had 90, the second. L20, and the third. 300 
 scholars: and the fourth was extinct. Each of 
 these three establishments had thirty laws, and 
 stood under the direction of tWO guardians, who 
 
 Beveralhj bore the title of High Chapel-Master ; 
 
 and of the two. one examined and corrected the 
 
 compositions of the scholars, and the other gave 
 lessons and superintended the singing. I'Vom 
 
 these scholars, were chosen teachers, with the 
 
MUSIC 
 
 607 
 
 title of maestri scalar i. to assist in instruction 
 upon instruments. The genera] call was only 
 for pupils from 8 to 20 years of age; and 
 tin 1 time that each one, for himself or for her- 
 self, must swear to remain was tirmly fixed at 
 eight years for the younger members. Mean- 
 while, if a member exhibited aught of a different 
 kind of talent, he was quickly accommodated 
 with a chance in his new capacity. During the 
 political inquietude of L789, the conservatories 
 of Loretto, Onq/rio, and Pieta were reduced to 
 one, which, in 1813, was called the Real Collegio 
 di Musica; and, in 1818, was removed to the 
 former nunnery of San Sebastiano. The director 
 of this institution, from L861 to his death, in INTO, 
 was the blind, but highly and deservedly distin- 
 guished, Saverio Mercadante ; and. in his place, 
 Lauro Rossi, from the conservatory of Milan, 
 was appointed in 1871. — In Venice, are found 
 four conservatories, established upon a basis 
 similar to those in Naples, which, in their time, 
 have been very celebrated for their education of 
 girls, who, through the rigid standard and or- 
 dinary usages of those institutions, became often 
 wedded to them for life. The names of these 
 four conservatories are, Ospedale della Pieta, 
 de' Mendicanti, degV Incurabili, and Ospedaletto 
 di San Giormi n't <■ Paolo. Burney, in his his- 
 tory, and Mayer, in his description of Venice. 
 relate the following details in regard to these 
 institutions. Immediately upon being placed 
 in them, pupils were instructed in singing, and 
 in playing upon all kinds of instruments, by 
 the best masters. A chapel-master controlled 
 the higher conduct of the institute ; and, on 
 each Sunday, was prepared a public music offer- 
 ing. These gatherings for song were heightened 
 and enriched by accompaniments upon instru- 
 ments, in which the pupils all joined. In con- 
 nection with the varied and beautiful effects thus 
 produced, many voices, not decayed and worn 
 out but fresh and pure, were constantly devel- 
 oped and firmly built up. The result was the 
 continued binding together of a large company of 
 brilliant amateurs and connoisseurs. All other 
 conservatories in Italy are of a comparatively 
 recent date. The most important among the 
 latter is that of 1809, founded by the viceroy 
 Eugene, in Milan, of which the first director 
 was Bonifazio Asioli ; and which, in 1872, re- 
 mained under the guidance of Prof. A. Muzzu- 
 cato. Against the decay which lias come upon 
 more or less of the Italian conservatories of mu- 
 sic, there has recently been inaugurated an 
 effective check. A commission of experienced 
 musicians was recognized by the minister of 
 instruction, in May. L871. This commission was 
 organized under the presidency of <i. Verdi, and 
 offered as the result of their consultations a mem- 
 orandum with proposals for reform. This reform 
 is already producing a practical and visible effect. 
 The conservatory of Milan bestowed upon this 
 movement toward reform the character of an 
 international influence, while that of Naples 
 supported it rather as a strictly national effort. 
 The most brilliant and artistic musical institu- 
 
 tion, cither of old or modern time, is the Conserv- 
 atory of Paris, which, in regular order, secured 
 the presence of artists of the first rank. Tho 
 want of a preparatory school for singers had been 
 fell and indicated by the Grand Opera] and 
 through its elevating influence, a first institute. 
 
 for musical instruction was started, which, undo 
 
 the particular protection of the Baron de Bre- 
 teuil, in L784, was denominated L'ecoleroyale <l< 
 chant et de declamation. Hut in successive years, 
 
 and through the want of instrumental musicians 
 in the fourteen French army corps, a meeting 
 was held in Nov.. 1793, at which it was decreed 
 that the primary establishment already alluded 
 to should be enlarged, and, by union with the 
 instrumentalists in 1795, should be entitled the 
 Conservatoire de musique. The yearly expense, 
 about 240,000 francs, was fully pledged, and the 
 number of teachers was fixed at 115. Pupils 
 were admitted from the age of ten to twenty 
 years, the number of whom rose to 600, their 
 social condition being that of comparative pover- 
 ty. Notwithstanding these certain signs of prac- 
 tical usefulness, the raising ot a special sum of 
 100,000 francs, in 1802, seemed doubtful, and the 
 number of teachers and scholars became limited. 
 Napoleon I. had already, in 1803, presented the 
 conservatory with richer appropriations, and these 
 he confirmed and extended on being raised to the 
 imperial power. Following the new regime, chil- 
 dren's schools were permitted to be established, 
 in which gratuitous musical instruction was im- 
 parted. Subsequently, the Bourbons withdrew 
 the greater part of their contributions, and the 
 fate of the conservatory was inextricably inter- 
 woven with all of the old dismal forebodings of 
 those eventful days ; but these temporary obstruc- 
 tions could not impede the steady advancement 
 of this noble school of music; and it remains, to 
 this day, what it ever has been, the most brill- 
 iantly artistic preparatory musical establish- 
 ment in the world. Its first director was Sarette, 
 who had received the largest reward in its organ- 
 ization; and with this also the excellent idea of 
 the accomplishment and extension of the prepa- 
 rations toward making it a national institution. 
 With him were associated, for the formation and 
 execution of the new plan, five other members 
 of the administration ; namely, the secretary, the 
 chef (hi, materiel, the cashier, the librarian, and 
 the board inspector, who altogether were required 
 to be scientific musicians, and distinguished 
 through the approbation of the national Art 
 Society. In the year 1 800, these positions were 
 Idled by Cherubini (afterward director until his 
 death, in 1842), Gossec, Mehul, Martini, and Le 
 Sueur. Of other celebrate) I directors and instruct- 
 ors, who. in course of time, have gone forth from 
 it, wire, Gossec, Garat, Paer, Baillot, Berlioz, 
 Rode, Kreutzer, L. Romberg. Tulon, Ilabeneek, 
 Catel, Caraffa, Halevy, Choron, Plantade, 1'or- 
 dogni,and others. The successor of Cherubini was 
 Auber; and, in 1871, director Ambroise Thomas 
 followed, who, through a special leadership in 
 musical history, esthetics, acoustics, and prepara- 
 tory studies, had justly acquired merit. Forty- 
 
608 
 
 MUSIC 
 
 four classes of male pupils were generally instruct- 
 ed in every style of composition, upon subjects 
 appertaining to all kinds of practical music, in 
 singing, in playing upon instruments, in declama- 
 tion, the French language, and stage manner, or 
 carriage ; twenty-two classes of female pupils re- 
 ceived instruction in enunciation, harmony, 
 piano-playing, accompaniment, stage carriage. 
 and declamation. In preparing for study, it is 
 an indispensable stipulation that pupils begin 
 at the beginning. The course commences on the 
 1st or '2d of October in each year. Four grand 
 yearly examinations are appointed, —in January, 
 A pril, duly, and the middle of October, at which 
 the minister of instruction and female artists 
 are present. By the middle of duly, a concourse 
 .stand for the first prize in composition, the dis- 
 tribution of tlie prize following in November, 
 at the Opera House. Whoever obtains the first 
 prize, next publicly directs his work with a grand 
 orchestra, and is called the laurel-winner, being 
 solemnly crowne I. In almost all the departments 
 of music, this conservatory achieves careful and 
 diligent developments, the most trustworthy 
 text-books at <d appropriate methods being thor- 
 oughly used, as the whole continent of Europe 
 is made constantly to contribute to its success in 
 these respects. 'The institution is. at the same 
 time, the chief point of union for all European 
 lovers of magnificent musical effects; while the 
 yearly public exercises of its pupils, 11 and some- 
 times 20 in number, beginning in October and 
 continuing through the entire winter, including 
 the moderate performances of Sunday evening, 
 altogether confer upon these dazzling concerts of 
 Pans the praise and the fame which are unex- 
 ceptionally conceded to them. Seven of the al- 
 ready named children's schools of the Parisian 
 Conservatory are established in Dijon. Lille. 
 Lyons, Marseilles, Nantes, Rouen, and Toulouse. 
 Strasbourg hail, up to the time of the Franco- 
 German war, an independent town-like con- 
 servatory, conducted till L870 by Basselmans ; 
 the same was, in L871, resuscitated, and carried 
 on by director Franz Stockhausen. After the 
 example of the Parisian Conservatoire, was ren- 
 ovated the conservatory in Madrid, in 1831; 
 but in circumscribed compass, though with ju- 
 dicious powers. Music and declamation were 
 taught under its first director. an Italian singing- 
 master by the name of Francesco Piermarini; 
 but the present director is Emilio Arrieta. This 
 school has suffered through the political fluctu- 
 ations of late years, and by continued disadvan- 
 tageous animadversions ; but it now appears in 
 its own proper strength, having received the favor 
 of the late king Amadeus. offering an important 
 
 barrier against decline. Likewise, after the ex- 
 ample of the French, four Belgian conservatories, 
 those of Brussels, Liege, Antwerp, and Ghent, are 
 
 established, of which the lirst t wo are entirely 
 sustained by state means and are royal institu- 
 tions; the third subsists by eontribut ions only: 
 while that of Oheiit is .-imply a town institute. 
 
 In connection with the Conservatory of Brussels, 
 
 reference should be made to the labors of Director 
 
 Fetis, whose earnest and useful service was 
 continued from 1838 until his death, in 1871. 
 The conservatory in Liege, although limited in 
 its materiel, is yet constantly advancing to a 
 higher rank through additional musicians, in- 
 struments, and musical means, together with the 
 aspiring ideals and activities of the directors 
 Daussoigne-Me'hul and Soubre; and it rejoices in 
 having for its foundation-plan of study the 
 works of the grand masters in harmony, Bach 
 and Handel, who in Brussels are sufficiently 
 ignored: the instructing power in Liege also 
 throws the Brussels conservatory quite into the 
 shade. The attendance of scholars is fully 1000. 
 A highly honorable reputation, long known in 
 Germany, and worthily appreciated not simply 
 in Belgium but throughout the entire art -world, 
 
 attaches to the conservatory of Antwerp. Here 
 Director Pierre Benoit flourished. This bold, 
 out-Spoken man. alike teacher, composer, and 
 director, assumed a position so impregnable in 
 right, and showed a faith so dauntless, that he 
 is entitled to the sinceresl admiration. Said he. 
 "Music is thi' most perfect national speech; in it, 
 all civilized races find their fullest and most en- 
 joyable impressions; and a music-school should be 
 like unto a temple in the father-land". These prin- 
 ciples have been realized with energy, and have 
 secured, in the conservatory of Antwerp, a signi- 
 fication so general and so important, thai tiny 
 constitute a central influence in the political and 
 intellectual regeneration of the country. The 
 name of lunoit has a familiar, popular ring in 
 the ears of at least two and a half millions of' 
 Belgians, conveying to his disciples a certain 
 lofty inspiration, which is self-supporting, and 
 by association is communicated to the townsand 
 cities of the Flemish lands.- The kingdom of 
 the Netherlands possesses many excellent nmsic- 
 schools of their kind : but the name of its con- 
 servatory only can be mentioned — the institu- 
 tion in Rotterdam, conducted by W. Bargiel, 
 
 since 1865. There is also a conservatory in 
 Luxemburg, founded in 1864, and since then 
 
 directed by E. Zimien. Both of these establish- 
 ments have raised themselves to a high and note- 
 worthy position. 
 
 The most celebrated Austrian conservatory is 
 that in Prague; the most munificent in organist- 
 tion. anil the best in other respects, is that of 
 Vienna. In the year L808, it occurred to some 
 high-minded patron of music, formerly flourish- 
 ing in Bohemia, to develop the depressed art of 
 music, and to supply the want of intelligent or- 
 chestral players; the resolution required that an 
 academy should be founded in Prague, of which 
 the essential features should be elaborate instru- 
 mental effects, combined with a universal, artis- 
 tic, and humanitary knowledge. The Prague con- 
 servatory was celebrated throughout fatrope; the 
 singing-school, too. in this institution, both for 
 concert and for opera, begins to show satisfacto- 
 ry results. In the year L871, the school had 137 
 pupils. I - J!) of whom were Bohemians; of this 
 number 1 I were ringing scholars, and 123 in- 
 strumentalists, the latter divided into 61, in 
 
Ml'SIC 
 
 609 
 
 the lower, and 62, in the upper division. The 
 Austrian minister of instruction included in the 
 finance budgel a yearly appropriation of three 
 thousand florins for the conservatory in Vienna; 
 
 and this sum was raised to ten thousand florins 
 
 by the house of deputies, and immediately ap- 
 proved by the house of peers. The conservatory 
 in Vienna is a creation of the Society of Music 
 Friends, in the A.ustro-Hungarian Monarchy, 
 growing oul of the simple beginnings of a singing- 
 school. in the year 1816; but, since 1869, it lias 
 developed into very comprehensive and brilliant 
 surroundings through the noble principles upon 
 which it was organized. The artistic director of 
 the institution (in 1876, Jos. EJellmesberger) is 
 assisted by 35 instructors in the musical depart- 
 ments, accompanying whom are lecturers upon the 
 history of music, on oral discourse, declamation, 
 esthetics, the history of literature, the Italian 
 language, mimics, and the dance. The establish- 
 ment possesses a theater for drilling purposes, 
 and was attended, in the year 1871, by 445 
 scholars, of whom 225 were males, and 220 fe- 
 males. — With a lofty and stirring splendor, made 
 familiar and exercised at a memorial to the 
 king of Bavaria, Richard Wagner presented his 
 course of teaching, under the auspices of the 
 royal conservatory, in Munich, October, 1865, 
 upon the ground of a previous re-organization of 
 his own. This institution is the only German 
 establishment for teaching the science and art of 
 music not endowed by state appropriations; but 
 it is placed under the direction of a court musical 
 superintendent. The conservatory in Munich is 
 divided into three chief departments, with rela- 
 tive individual subdivisions, each having its own 
 assigned work. These chief departments are, 
 the siuging, the instrumental, and the theoretic. 
 At the head of the singing-school stands the 
 professor of solo-singing ; at the head of the in- 
 strumental school, likewise a professor, who is 
 also the chief of the piano or the violin. The 
 particular ensemble drilling of the singers, on 
 the one side, or of the instrumentalists, on the 
 other, was conducted by both of these profess- 
 ors ; while the control of the ensemble drilling 
 of all the pupils became the duty of the chief 
 director. In those general studies, as well as in the 
 previously mentioned particular ensemble studies, 
 the scholars were enabled, at the same time, to 
 obtain a methodical, practical guidance to the 
 te Unique of the directors. In the theoretic de- 
 partment, a professor of counterpoint, and a 
 professor of music-history worked independent- 
 ly. Near these four professors, are also the fol- 
 lowing exponents of the teaching force : in the 
 singing-school, a teacher of solo-singing, an as- 
 sistant teacher of chorus-singing, and a teacher of 
 rhetoric and mimics : in the instrumental school, 
 8 teacher and an assistant teacher for the four 
 instruments of percussion, and a teacher of organ- 
 playing; in the theoretic school, a teacher of har- 
 mony. So excellent and complete in all respects 
 was this organization, and so diii it continue to be, 
 as long as Hans von Billow, from lsiitl to 1868, 
 retained the position of its guide and director. 
 39 
 
 After his departure, the institution fell, more 
 and more behind its former acknowledged devel- 
 opment, the attendance having considerably di- 
 minished. In Wurtzburg, there is also a royal 
 conservatory, founded by Frohlich, and led by 
 Bratsch. — The conservatory at Stuttgart is un- 
 der the protection of the king of \\ iirteniberg, 
 and lias just claims to superior merit in its devo- 
 tion to classic German music. Under the name 
 of the Stuttgart Music School, it was founded, in 
 the autumn of 1856, l>y Siegmund Lebert of 
 Stuttgart, in conjunction with Dr. Brachmann 
 and Ed. Laiblin of Riga, and called a conserva- 
 tory in 1865. This institution has two divisions, — 
 an artists' and an amateurs' school. The de- 
 partments of instruction are confined to ele- 
 mentary, choral, and solo singing; piano, organ, 
 violin, and violoncello playing; composition, 
 esthetics, musical history, and the Italian lan- 
 guage. Frankfort on the .Main has a musk- 
 school, built in 1860, and approved by the state, 
 at the head of which stands its first director. 
 ITeinrich Ilcnkel. The most celebrated music 
 school of northern Germany is that in Leipsic. 
 established upon Easter-day, 1843, under the pro- 
 tection and contributions of the king of Saxony, 
 and under the co-operation of Felix Mendelssohn- 
 Bartholdy. It stood at the summit of its splen- 
 dor, with Mendelssohn, Moscheles, Hauptmann. 
 Ricbter, Ferd. David, Klengel, Plaidy, etc., as 
 instructors ; and its scholars steadily streamed 
 out upon all European and American lands. 
 The instruction extends theoretically and practi- 
 cally over all the branches of music, scientific and 
 artistic. The theoretic instruction embraces har- 
 mony doctrine, forms and composition, partition 
 playing, leading or directing, the Italian lan- 
 guage, and the history and esthetics of music, 
 combined in one complete course of musical theory 
 and the art of composition, which was finished by 
 male scholars in three, and by female scholars in 
 two years. The practical instruction, and the im- 
 provement in mechanical skill, extended over 
 singing and instrumental playing, by preference 
 over the piano, organ, violin, viola, violoncello in 
 quartet, and solo playing with accompaniment. 
 In Dresden, stands a conservatory founded and 
 directed by Pudor, which, for nearly twenty years, 
 has exhibited good results, and which, more par- 
 ticularly in the instruction upon orchestral in- 
 struments, imparted by the able members of the 
 royal Saxon court chapel, is even highly distin- 
 guished. — The Prussian kingdom possesses only 
 two local conservatories, — those of Cologne and 
 Berlin. The conservatory in Cologne was opened 
 on Easter-day, in 1 850, and remains, up to the pres- 
 ent time, under the direction of the city chapel- 
 master, Dr. Ferdinand 1 Idler. Some of the most 
 prominent among young German composers, up 
 to the present time, have gone forth from the 
 halls of this institution. The instructors formed, 
 in 1869, a joint musical association, having for its 
 main object the development of a powerful 
 music life on the Rhine; and, for this purpose, 
 an equal regard for other districts than their 
 own, inspired them in the production of their sub- 
 
610 
 
 MUSIC 
 
 sequent compositions. In Berlin, exists another 
 conservatory, founded by J. Stern, A. I>. Marx, 
 and 'I'h. KuJIak, at present directed by the first- 
 named; out of its branches, was tunnel the new 
 academy of music, of which 'I'h. Kullak i.s the 
 director. Iu L869, by means of the minister of 
 instruction, and in close connection with the 
 royal academy of arts, a royal high school was 
 founded, for exercis i in the art of music, in Ber- 
 lin. Beside the director, stands the celebrated 
 violin virtuoso, professor Joachim. In this insti- 
 tution, still in the introductory phases of devel- 
 opment, the violin school is quoted as among 
 the best; while care is taken in all the other 
 branches of high musical instruction, except per- 
 haps piano playing, preparation for which is 
 quite insufficient. —Switzerland possesses high 
 music schools, in Berne and Geneva. — England 
 Ins a royal institution in London, formerly di- 
 rected by Cipriani Potter, but more recently by 
 Sterndale Bennett, of which MacFarren is the 
 most distinguish^ 1 graduate. There are also 
 conservatories in Edinburgh and Dublin. — 
 ( lop -nil ag n also has a conservatory ; and. since 
 1865. there is one even in < Ihristiania, while the 
 royal musical academy in Stockholm is already 
 anew development. In the remaining parts of 
 Europe are still to be name I the conservatory 
 in Warsaw, founded, in L821, by Elssner, and 
 further directed by A. Kontski, and then by 
 Moniusczko with imperial assistance; and also 
 conservatories in Klausenburg, Pesth, and Lis- 
 bon. — In the Russian empire, both in St. Peters- 
 burg an I in Moscow, arc conservatories, founde 1 
 by the Grand-Duchess Helen. These have an 
 excellent foundation, and are liberally supported. 
 The elder, in St. Petersburg, was successively 
 directed by Anton Rubinstein, by Zaremba, and 
 by Assantschewsky ; and that in Moscow, by 
 Nichol is Rubinstein. 
 
 In the United Slates, conservatories are, al- 
 most without exception, private speculations, 
 an I. as compared with similar efforts in Europe, 
 neither in management nor in performances, can 
 venture to compete with the elder institutions. 
 New York possesses many of these: also Bal- 
 timore, Boston, Buffalo, Cincinnati, Chicago, St. 
 Louis, Philadelphia, and other cities. In justice 
 to th'-e American efforts, however, it must be 
 state I that, as government, in the I Fnited States, 
 whetli •!■ national, state, or municipal, makes no 
 
 appropriation lor conservatories of music, these 
 
 enterprise-, at present, must necessarily be pri- 
 vate ones; and the instruction in music, chiefly 
 
 el ' vocal, and elementary piano playing. 
 
 Advance | pupils are occasionally found, who have 
 made considerable progress in both of these de- 
 partm ints. Doubtless, a better day is dawning 
 for the real lovers of the higher styles of music, 
 sine,' a proposition has been made to establish and 
 
 munificently endow a musical college for young 
 
 women in the city of New Fork, which would he 
 t'r. mi many points of view, a highly useful, benev- 
 olent . and art elevating institution. In succeeding 
 days, the State may possibly step in to secure a sys- 
 tematic course of musical instruction for her chil- 
 
 dren, and thus rescue this noble science and art 
 from many of the prolific causes of superficiality, 
 perverted tastes, and degrading associations, ulti- 
 mately producing a complete indifference to the 
 higher claims of music. 
 
 Of the methods employed in the European 
 music schools, it can confidently be said that 
 they differ as much from eat h other, in their 
 working details, as the literary, scientific, and 
 higher professional and special institutions do in 
 the presentation of the tmj ortant subjects brought 
 under their notice. Differences arising from 
 climate, age, precocity, natural aptitude, early 
 opportunities, physical organization, and associ- 
 ation with intelligent \ ersons of artistic, genial, 
 and mobile tendeni u S, display tin mselves in no 
 department of human labor more frequently, or 
 with more prominent demonstrations of enthu- 
 siasm, than among the lovers and students of 
 music, lint, whatever may be the difference 
 of details in the methods employed, or. however 
 great may be the disj aritj arising from tin 1 other 
 eauses named, these music schools, without ex- 
 ception, agree in selecting the plastic and im- 
 pressible age of youth, and often very early 
 and tender youth, as the heaven-ap] oint< d time 
 when eye, ear, hand, and voice must simultane- 
 ously begin their never ending work of cultiva- 
 tion. '1 he early lives of celebrated musicians, 
 the moderate success of these inclined to me- 
 diocrity, and even the more feeble attempts of 
 those who have learned to play and sing but 
 little, are a standing proof that, to achieve any 
 audible or distinguishable result in music, the 
 child must commence at its mother's knee to 
 lisp the melody that shall perpetually link the 
 memory of these child-like' efforts to the' maturer 
 accomplishments of a later season. 'I he ( 'hristian 
 < hurch has never been unfaithful to Ik rself or to 
 her cause in this important matter. As one of 
 the results of her ministrations, has sprung not 
 only the music especially adapted to the 
 purposes of divine worship, but the \ery 
 Brsl end highly successful plan of a systematic 
 
 music scl 1 worthy of a name and of historical 
 
 record. Giovanni di Tappia should be gratefully 
 remembered by every musician, as well as by 
 every one interested in musical progress, for it 
 
 was he who took the girl with In r naturally 
 
 flexible voice, and the boy with his inflexible 
 voice, and led them by degrees to pass from the 
 unisonant rendering of the Gregorian Tones to 
 part-singing in the' lofty counterpoint of Palea- 
 trina. Although a hundred years had elapsed 
 
 before the' lovely and more emotional Voice of 
 the mature woman was permitted to be heard in 
 public, and in the services of the' sanctuary: and 
 although its use i.s still denied by man; eccle- 
 siastics in the Greek, Roman, and Anglican com- 
 munions, yet it must be conceded that it should 
 be trained, at first, in the parish schools and 
 Sunday-schools, which are the musical nurseries 
 
 of the church, and from which pupils pass into 
 
 the choir by a very natural and easy way. No music 
 
 teachers are BO successful as they who have' the 
 religious sympathy and co-operation of the pa*- 
 
MUSIC 
 
 Gil 
 
 ents; and no pupils render more effective music 
 than they who. to intelligent reading and a 
 certain degree of cultivation, unite the higher 
 merit of believing in the truth of the words they 
 utter. But even where the religious idea is not 
 so apparent, or where it may not be required 
 and Insiste I upon, as in the case of tin 1 children's 
 schools, in which gratuitous musical instruction 
 was given as a preparation for entrance into the 
 grand conservatory at Paris, or in the common 
 schools of the United States, where music, in 
 cities of consi lerable size, is taught gratuitously, 
 there exists the imperative necessity that it be 
 commenced in the primary departments, where 
 the faith and implicit obedience of the child 
 make the study and practice of vocal music a 
 delight instead of utask. A litnite I and stipulated 
 portion of the ordinary semi-annual term, of 
 about rive months, can be spent in tri-weekly 
 exercises upon tha scale, inclu ling melodies of 
 limite 1 compass, which is simply oral and imi- 
 tative work on the part of the teacher and 
 scholar, preparatory to the introduction of the 
 musical sign language during the second five 
 months of the year. Two grades are thus created 
 in the primary departments, — the oral, which is 
 purely imitative, through the ear, and the oral- 
 written, which is the union of the oral with the 
 eye-knowle Ige of the musical sign-language. In 
 vocal compass, these exercises must be limited, 
 either ascending or descending, and in expression 
 without forced or blatant effect, to modify which 
 at bast four vowel sounds, ah, ea, oh, and oo 
 may be use 1: but. in rhythmical variety and in 
 change of key, they may be quite extended, 
 depen ling upon the knowledge, skill, and tact of 
 tla' teacher. Care must be taken that the young 
 voice be not fatigued, and that boys especially 
 ba early taught to avoid carrying the chest tones 
 too high. Three lessons of half an hour each 
 during the week are more effective than two 
 lessons of an hour each, to pupils under twelve 
 years of age; and five lessons of twenty minutes 
 each, during the week, are better than either. 
 Beating time should accompany the written 
 exercises in the second term of the primary de- 
 partments ; and, in the higher departments, the 
 written ex sreis s should be copie 1 by the pupils 
 for two years consecutively, with more extended 
 practice in rhythm and melo ly. an 1 plain singing 
 in two and three parts. Drilling like this has 
 been practiced in many of the schools of the 
 United States during the past ten years ; and 
 th ■ plan, if earnestly encourage I ami carried out, 
 will enable every pupil, of sufficient ear and age, 
 to become a reader of plain music. — The place of 
 music as a branch of superior instruction must 
 a Is i be referred to. The great universities of 
 England — Oxford and Cambridge, do not teach 
 music systematically ; nor do they care where 
 the musical student acquires his information; 
 but they always have superior musicians to ex- 
 amine the musical aspirant, and these examina- 
 tions are thorough and severe. In the United 
 States, considerable progress has been made in 
 this direction. Harvard University has always 
 
 shown a commendable love of music in the 
 amateur orchestral line, and in sundry vocal 
 organizations; but not until L871— 2, was music 
 established as an elective study by the faculty. 
 The first year exhibited a class of '.) students, 
 who devoted two lessons a week to an elective 
 course in harmony; succeeding this, an elective 
 course was added each year, until L875 — 6, 
 when there were five courses; namely, harmony, 
 
 counterpoint, canon and free thematic mn.de, 
 fugue, and the history of music. The number 
 of students has steadily increased year by year, 
 until, in L875 — 6, there were 32. 'I he fact that 
 Ibis instruction is purely in the science and art 
 of musical composition, and in musical history, 
 and that the students in niu.de who pursue this 
 elective course are required to possess consider- 
 able preliminary knowledge and familiarity with 
 the piano or organ, wilf account for the smalhiess 
 of the number of students. Music is now. at 
 Harvard, included among those studies for 
 which honors are given at graduation. 'I hi- de- 
 gree of A. M. and 1'h. 1). are also open to bache- 
 lors of arts who pursue the required course, and 
 pass the examination in music. For the degree 
 of A. M., one year's exclusive study is required, 
 after graduation; for the degree of Th. L)., sever- 
 al years. Thus far, 2 graduates have taken the 
 degree of A. M., in music, and will probably ap- 
 ply for the highest degree, that of Th. D. The 
 instruction in this department is given by J. 1\. 
 Fay ne, author of the Oratorio of St. Peter. At 
 Yale College, music is restricted to instruction 
 in singing, for the purpose of obtaining good 
 vocal music for morning and Sabbath-day devo- 
 tions. For this object, Joseph Battell, in 1854,gave 
 $5,000, the interest of which was to be devoted to 
 this purpose. A chapel - master (Prof. 0. J. 
 Stoeckel) was then appointed, and services for 
 male voices were introduced. In 1 801, Mrs.Wm. A. 
 famed, a sister of Mr. Battell, gave the college 
 $1,000, the interest of which was to be expended 
 in the purchase of musical works. By this 
 means, and by the donations of friends of the 
 institution, a musical library has been formed. 
 In 1862, Mrs. Lamed donated to the college 
 $5,000 for the support of a teacher of music. In 
 1874, after the death of Lowell Mason, his family 
 gave the library of that well-known composer — 
 comprising 8.000 titles — to the Vale Theological 
 Seminary. In 1876, when the new Battell 
 Chapel was supplied, through the munificence of 
 Mrs. Lamed, with a new organ, the old organ, 
 after being repaired and enlarged, was trans- 
 ferred to Calliope Hall, which has been placed 
 at the disposal of musical students of the college 
 A musical professorship has not yet, however, 
 been established. — The College of Music of the 
 lioston University (q. v.), which was organized 
 in 1872, presents superior advantages for students 
 of music. It admits only students having the 
 average proficiency of graduates of American 
 conservatories, and includes four regular courses. 
 Many other American colleges contain musical 
 departments as a part of the full curriculum. 
 — For authorities on the history of music, and 
 
612 NASH VILLK UNIVERSITY 
 
 NATIONAL EDUCATION 
 
 on musical science and composition, see Bikxf.y, 
 General History of Music (1789); Hawkins. 
 A General History of the Science and Practice 
 of Music (new eilit.. London, 1853) : < !happell, 
 The History of Music (London, 187-1); George 
 Hogarth, Musical History, etc. (1836) ; H. Men- 
 del, Musikalisches Conversations-Lexicon (Ber- 
 lin, 1871); Callcott, Musical Grammar (1805); 
 
 Albbechtsbebgeb and AVeber, Course of Har- 
 mony, in Southard's Digest (Boston, 1854); A.B. 
 Marx, Die Lehre run der musikalischen Compo- 
 sition (Leipaic, L834 — 4.")), Eng. trans, by Saroni 
 N . V.. 1 852); aadAHgemt ineMusikiehre (1839). 
 (See also Singing-Schools, and Voice Culture.) 
 MUTUAL SYSTEM. See Monitorial 
 System. 
 
 NASHVILLE, UNIVERSITY OF, at 
 Nashville, TeniL, was founded by the state of 
 North Carolina, Dec. 29., 178"), as Davidson 
 A.cademy. It became Cumberland College, and 
 the University of Nashville, in L826. Ii is an 
 eleemosynary, self-perpetuating corporation, and 
 is under the control of neither church nor state. 
 In L855, Montgomery Bell bequeathed to the 
 institution a fund of $20,000. This now amounts 
 to nearly $50,000; and endows a grammar school. 
 In 1850, the medical college, then and now the 
 only one in Tennessee, was organized. It is sup- 
 ported by tuition fees alone. In 187"). the col- 
 legiate department was suspended; and its 
 grounds, buildings, and funds, appropriated to a 
 normal college, under state countenance, and 
 mainly supported by the Peabody education 
 fund. Tuition is free for young women and 
 
 young men alike. Twenty three acres and four 
 
 large buildings, all within the city Limits, con- 
 stitute the property of the university, and are val- 
 ue I at about Sl.">o.ooo. The college fund is within 
 a fraction of $50,000. The normal college closed 
 its first session with 51 students. The medical 
 college averages from 175 to 200 students, and 
 has nearly 2,000 alumni. The normal college is 
 the only first -class school of its description in a 
 region occupying at Least 800,000 square miles. 
 The heads of the university have been as follows : 
 James Priestly, Id.. !>., president. L809— 15; 
 and again 1819—20; Philip Lindsley, D. D.. 
 president, 1824 — 50; John Berrien Lindslev, 
 M. [>., D.I (..chancellor. L855 — 70; Gen. Edmund 
 Kirby Smith, L870 -75; Eben Sperry Steams, 
 D. I)., appointed in I 875. 
 
 NATIONAL EDUCATION, or State 
 Education, a system of education or schools, 
 established by the state, for the benefit either of 
 
 tho whole people, or of a particular class. ( 'ivil- 
 ized nations, in both ancient and modern times, 
 have had systems of education for the instruc- 
 tion of the favored few; but it is only within 
 the last three centuries that, in Europe or 
 America, anything like a properly organized 
 system for educating the masses has existed. 
 
 (See Education.) Germany, Scotland, and 
 
 some of the states of the A merieaii I ' nioii. may 
 
 claim precedence for putting into operation go^ - 
 
 enniienl.il schemes for general education, both 
 
 elementary and advanced. Many other nations 
 followed in their wake: and. .-it present, national 
 
 education, to a greater or less extent, prevails in 
 
 most civilized countries in the world. Among 
 the Asiatic nations, the Chinese ma\ claim great 
 
 antiquity for their remarkable system of national 
 education (see China); while the Japanese, in 
 quite recent times, have exhibited a wonderful 
 intelligence ami energy in the establishment of 
 state schools. (See Japan.) In England, not- 
 withstanding the age of her gnat universities 
 and public and endowed schools, there was no 
 national system until recently. (See England.) 
 For an account of the national systems in other 
 countries and states, see the respective titles. 
 
 The importance of a national system of edu- 
 cation is now generally conceded, as a corollary 
 to the demonstrated benefit to a community of 
 affording to each of its members at least an ele- 
 mentary school education. Herbert Spencer, 
 indeed, has assailed these first principles, by 
 denying the right of the state "to administer 
 education, inasmuch as the taking away, by 
 government, of more of a man's property than 
 is needful for maintaining his rights, is an in- 
 fringement of his rights, and. therefore, a re- 
 versa! of the government's function toward him; 
 and. inasmuch as the taking away of his prop- 
 city to educate his own or other people's chil- 
 dren is not needful for the maintaining of his 
 rights, the taking away of his property for such 
 a purpose is wrong." Given the premises of 
 this argument, and the conclusion is inevitable : 
 but the premises are denied. School education, 
 widely diffused, is held to be not only a benefit 
 but a protection to the community : and just as 
 it is proper for the state to enact laws to pre- 
 vent crimes by punishment, taxing the citizens 
 to support a penal system, so it is also proper to 
 establish educational systems the general tend- 
 ency of which, by cultivating the minds and 
 improving the morals of the people, is to pre- 
 V( ut crime, and thus erect a barrier against law- 
 less violence, imperiling the welfare of the citi- 
 
 - in the enjoyment of their rights as such. 
 The principle of national education has been 
 attacked by asserting that school education does 
 not greatly affect the character of those who 
 receive it ; while the community can only be 
 benefited by improving individual character. 
 The extent to which a national system of edu- 
 cation affects character will, of course, vary with 
 the kind of education imparted; hut. certainly. 
 
 the inefficiency of a had system is DO argument 
 in favor of the abolition of all systems. '-Al- 
 though. "says Morley." effective instruction d 
 not cover nor touch the whole held of character 
 and conduct, it does most manifestly touch 
 
 some portions of it. It adds, for instance, to 
 
NATIONAL FdH'OATICKN 
 
 NATIONAL LANGUAGE 
 
 til:; 
 
 the consciousness of power and faculty, and this 
 increases the invaluable and far-reaching quality 
 of Belf-respect. Bence, even if a great effort to 
 provide our people with the instruments of 
 knowledge did uot reduce the number of crimi- 
 nals, it would still improve the tune of those 
 who are not criminals." — lint, as has been well 
 said, school education, however excellent and 
 however widely diffused, cannot prove, of itself. 
 a panacea for all the ills of the social state. 
 Education is much more than learning to "read, 
 
 write, ami cipher." " Whatever." says Mill, 
 •• helps to shape the human being — to make the 
 individual what he is, or hinder him from being 
 what he is not — is part of his education." 
 Hence, there is an education of the home and 
 family, the street, the workshop, the church, as 
 well as that of the school ; and, it is contended 
 by some, that, as the influences which emanate 
 from these are more potent than those of the 
 school, the state should control these influences 
 as well, or its system of education will be more 
 or less nugatory. "Whatever." says EMgg, "be 
 the merit and efficiency of the school teaching 
 and braining, whatever, also, the regularity of 
 attendance (under, let us suppose, an effective 
 compulsory law), it is certain that adverse home 
 influences will, to a lamentable and most dis- 
 couraging extent, counteract the good effects of 
 school attendance." All this being admitted, 
 the necessity of a thoroughly effective system of 
 education by state schools, in order to diminish 
 as much as possible the evil influences of home, 
 street, etc.. is still apparent. Giving merely the 
 ability to read, in this age of books, is opening 
 the portal to knowledge — elaborating, -refining, 
 ennobling, and thus to an enlightenment which 
 often, if not always, leads to moral improvement. 
 (See Illiteracy.) The need of adapting na- 
 tional education to the peculiar condition or in- 
 stitutions of the country in which it exists, is 
 very generally recognized. Thus, in A State- 
 ment of the Theory of Education in the U. S. 
 (Wash., 1874), it is said, " In order to compen- 
 sate for lack of family nurture, the school is 
 obliged to lay more stress upon discipline, and 
 to make far more prominent the moral phase of 
 education. It is obliged to train the pupil into 
 habits of self-control in its various forms, in 
 order that he may be prepared for a life where- 
 in there is little police restraint on the part of 
 the constituted authorities.'' — Other questions 
 have also arisen in relation to national educa- 
 tion. or the education afforded in national schools, 
 as (1 ) Whether it should, to any extent, be on a 
 religious basis, or should be exclusively secular; 
 Whether it should extend to higher educa- 
 tion, or be confined to elementary instruction ; 
 and (3) Whether it should embrace technical and 
 professional instruction, or not. In regard to 
 these points, respectively, see Denominational 
 Schools, High Schools, and Technical Educa- 
 tion. — See also Spenceb, Social Statics (N. Y., 
 1866); Rico. X* it i mi < d Education (London, 187.'!:) 
 Morley, Tlie Struggle for National Education 
 (London, 1873). 
 
 NATIONAL LANGUAGE. There are 
 but few among the civilized countries of the 
 world in which all the people speak the same 
 language. In most countries, two or more lan- 
 guages predominate in different districts. Thus, 
 in Belgium, 50 per cent of the population speak 
 
 Flemish ; 4'1 per cent. Frem b J and 8 per cent. 
 
 Flemish, French, or German. In Switzerland, 
 69 percent apeak German; 24 percent, French; 
 
 •V percent. Italian; and \\ percent. Itomansch. 
 In Prussia. 10 per cent of t he population Speak 
 
 Polish : in Austria proper, the German language 
 prevails in 7 of the 11 provinces: the Czechic, 
 in 2 ; the Slovenic, in 1; the Croatian or Ser- 
 vian, in 1 ; and. in ,'i provinces, no language is 
 spoken by an absolute majority of the people. 
 
 I his mixture of languages is. in some instances, 
 due to political events of comparatively recent 
 date; such as the dismemberment of the king- 
 dom of Poland, which placed large Polish-s^ leak- 
 ing countries under German ami Russian rule; 
 but, in most cases, the various languages have 
 co-existed for centuries. Thus, the Celtic has been 
 generally spoken in Wales, down to the present 
 time, although the country has been for six 
 centuries under English rule; and. in the center 
 of Germany, a small Slavic tribe, the Wends, 
 have for many centuries preserved their language, 
 though they have all the time been politically 
 united with ( Jermany. — As long as the education 
 of the bulk of the people was almost wholly con- 
 ducted by the family and the church, the bound- 
 aries of the different languages of a country 
 appear to have been remarkably steady ; but, 
 the extension of school education to all classes 
 of the people, the progress of compulsory edu- 
 cation, the more general participation of the 
 people in political affairs, the introduction of 
 universal suffrage, and especially the centraliza- 
 tion of school legislation and the progress of the 
 state or public school system, have in modern 
 times worked a remarkable change. In selecting 
 the language which was to serve as the medium 
 of instruction, the difference between cultivated 
 and uncultivated, literary and non-literary, ruling 
 and subordinate languages, made itself greatly 
 felt. When a language was spoken in a small 
 district only, and was, at the same time, unculti- 
 vated and without a literature, it was natural that 
 little or no attention should be given to it in 
 the school, that the rising generation should look 
 upon the national language as the more impor- 
 tant, and, consequently, that the latter should 
 steadily gain ground, and crowd out the sub- 
 ordinate languages. This process, during tin 
 last hundred years, has been in active operation. 
 Thus, in England, the Cornish, the Celtic dia- 
 lect of Cornwall, has become extinct within the 
 remembrance of men now living. In Italy, the 
 German dialect of two clusters of seven and 
 thirteen communities, which had maintained it- 
 self for, at least, one thousand years, has at last 
 given way to the Italian. Tn Germany, the 
 linguistic territory of the Slavic Wends, wdio 
 still comprise a population of about 140,000 
 persons, has been largely reduced within the 
 
614 NATIONAL LANGUAGE 
 
 NATURAL SCIEXCI-; 
 
 last hundred years. The increasing strength, in 
 modern times, of the principle of nationality, 
 which has achieved its greatest triumphs in the 
 establishment of a united Germany and a united 
 Italy, has caused many governments to look 
 upon the universal ascendency of the national 
 language, and the suppression of all others, as a 
 means of strengthening national unity. From 
 this point of view, great efforts have been made 
 in many countries, to force the exclusive use of 
 the language of the government upon all schools. 
 as the sole medium of instruction. Where these 
 measures were directed against languages spoken 
 by large bodies of the people, or even against 
 smaller portions of the population, speaking the 
 language of another large country, they have pro- 
 voked resistance, more or less violent, and have 
 in many instances led to controversies which arc 
 not yet ended. The principles according to 
 which different governments have proceeded, 
 are very different. None has gone so far in the 
 use of lore as Russia, which, in its attempts to 
 crush out the la iguage of some eight million 
 Pole-, has manifested a disregard of the first 
 rights bf families in th • e lucati m of their chil- 
 dren, that has deservedly met with universal 
 disapproval. No country of the world has I 
 6 ' gr • 1 in its legisl ii ion by the 
 
 co e a of a numb t of la the 
 
 Austro-Hungarian Monarchy. The two ruling 
 lang : ■ 'i i i in Austria prop r. and 
 
 Magyar in the lands of the Hungarian crown, 
 are both the langu ig s of only a minority of the 
 population in their several sctions; and while 
 the two governments have been anxious to extend 
 the domain of the ruling languages, th i ' Izechs in 
 Bohemia and .Moravia, the Slovens in Styria 
 and Carniola, the Italians in the Tyrol, the Poles 
 and Ruthenians in Galicia, Silesia, and the 
 Bukovina, the Roumanians, Croats, and Ger- 
 mans in Hungary, have insisted that for the 
 Schools in those districts in which a majority of 
 the people speak their languag i, it shall be male 
 the medium of instruction of all grades. The 
 Conflict is at present Ii Tcer than ever. The 
 
 Hungarian g ivernm ml has thus far successfully 
 contiuued its efforts to extend the ascendency 
 of the Magyar lan< lage; while the government 
 of An- conceded nearly all th i 
 
 de ii in Is of l!i • Qon-< rerman nationalities. The 
 id -a of an imp rial 1 inguag ■ has, in An 
 prop t. b • m given up; an 1 what remains of the 
 i I mcy of th ■ German, is chiefly due to the 
 greal superiority of German Literature and 
 scholarship. The Czechs, Slovens. Poles, and 
 other non-German nationalities, have no! only 
 secured the general introduction of their lan- 
 guages as mediums of instruction into all the 
 firimary schools of their districts; but the same 
 been done in regard t<> the gymnasia. The 
 
 two universities of Lemberg and CracOW have 
 
 been fully surrendered to the Poles; and. in 
 
 Prague, the division of the university, the oldest 
 
 in Germany, into two, one Czechic and one 
 
 German, is under consideration. The Prussian 
 
 cm . which sustains non-t lerman schools 
 
 in the provinces of Brandenburg, Silesia. Posen, 
 Prussia, and the northern part of Schleswig. has 
 devoted to the principles underlying tins question 
 a greater attention than any other European gov- 
 ernment, and has evidently endeavored to evolve 
 principles which will admit of application in 
 more than one country, and which v ill reconcile 
 the clashing claims of the mother-tongue and 
 the national language. It expressly disclaims 
 any intention to introduce the study of German 
 into the non-German Bchools tor the sole purpose 
 of Germanizing districts speaking a non-German 
 language; but it demands, "for the purpose of 
 securing in these parts and members of the 
 monarchy a lively appreciation of the progress 
 of civilization in the father-land, and a conscious 
 and energetic co-operation in this progress, that 
 the pupils of the national schools lie instructed 
 in the German language as far as isneceEBary 
 to facilitate a business and social intercourse 
 with their German-speaking fellow-citizens." Ac- 
 cordingly, in the purely Wendish, Polish. Lithu- 
 anian, and Masuric schools, the mother-tongue 
 is used exclusively for instruction in religion and 
 singing, and for the lower stages of instruction 
 in reading, writing, and arithmetic. In the 
 higher classes, the German gradually takes the 
 place of the mother-tongue. Even in the gym- 
 nasia, a similar regard for the moth< r-toi gue is 
 shown: tor. in all those gymnasia in which the 
 majority of the pupils is of the Polish national- 
 ity, the Polish language is. at hast partly, 
 used as medium ot instruction in the lower 
 classes.— Within the bounds of the present 
 United States, the Spanish, the French, the 
 Dutch, the German, have all, at onetime, been 
 the predominant languages among the white 
 settlers in large tracts of country; hut all have 
 gradually given way to the English. A dialect 
 of German, commonly called Pennsylvania 
 
 Dutch, is still extensively spoken among the 
 descendants of the old German settlers in Penn- 
 sylvania : ami. in the new acquisitions of terri- 
 tory in the South and on the Pacific. Spanish 
 is still tin- language chiefly spoken in many sec- 
 tions: lmt the strong tiis of commercial and 
 soi ial interests, and the educational influence of 
 
 the national schools rapidly s] reed a l.nowl. 
 
 of the English lane ii to be un- 
 
 derstood and spoken by the entire population. 
 
 The desire to share in this universal knowledge 
 
 ish pervades all classes of the American 
 
 people, including the most recent immigrants; 
 ami in this respect, the English language is the 
 
 national language of the United States to a 
 
 probably wider extent than the ruling language 
 of any of the large countries of Europe. There 
 
 is a very general wish on the part of the de- 
 8C( ii lantfi of the old DOn-English settlers and the 
 hundreds of thousands of recent immigrants, to 
 cultivate by the side of the English, a knowledge 
 of the language of the country from which they 
 or their ancestors emigrated. (See Germ in- Amer- 
 ican Sci £. and German Language.) 
 
 NATURAL SCIENCE. See S< u mi:, TBI 
 or. 
 
NAUTICAL SCHOOLS 
 
 NAVAL SCHOOLS 
 
 015 
 
 NAUTICAL SCHOOLS, or Schools of 
 Navigation, are institutions for educating and 
 training pupils in the Bcience and practice of 
 
 » navigation. Schools of this kind have Long been 
 in existence in European countries, and are 
 of various grades. One of the chief objects of 
 the theoretical instruction given in them, is to 
 teach the pupils how to use the instruments of 
 
 > observation, and how to apply the results for the 
 purpose of finding, at any instant, the exact 
 position of a vessel at sea. The calculations nec- 
 essary for this purpose require a knowledge 
 of various branches of mathematics, especially 
 trigonometry : hence, mathematics must con- 
 stitute the chief part of the course of instruc- 
 tion in schools of navigation. In those schools 
 in which most of the pupils lack the amount of 
 knowledge necessary for a scientific understand- 
 ing of these nautical calculations, they receive a 
 merely mechanical instruction, which is found 
 to be generally sufficient for the mercantile 
 marine. The course of instruction varies con- 
 siderably. In Prussia, where prominence is 
 given to scientific instruction, it lasts eighteen 
 months, of which twelve are spent in the mates' 
 class, and six in the navigators' (captains') c ! 
 Before pupils can be admitted to the latter 
 class, they must have been for eighteen months 
 in active service as mates. In other schools, 
 less attention is given to theoretical studies, iv.vA 
 the course of instruction lasts only from four to 
 six months. In 1875, the German Empire had 
 21 navigation schools, 1-4 of which were in 
 Prussia, 4 in the Ilanse towns, 2 in Mecklen- 
 burg, and 1 in Oldenburg. In the Austro- 
 Hungarian Monarchy, there were 8 nautical 
 schools, in France 42, in Italy 23, in Russia 4, 
 in Finland G, in Sweden 9, in Norway G, in 
 Denmark 1, in Holland 9, in Belgium 2, in Spain 
 9, in Portugal l,in Greece 5. England also has 
 -a large number of navigation schools of various 
 grades. In some of the countries named, these 
 schools are called nautical scliools ; in others, 
 navigation schools; and France prefers the 
 name ki/drographical schools. In the United 
 States, the legislature of the state of New York, 
 in 1ST.'!, authorized the establishment of a nau- 
 tical sch »ol in the. city of New York, to be under 
 the charge of th ■ board of education of that city. 
 The Chamber of Commerce of New York : 
 was authorized to appoint a committee of it; 
 members to serve as a council i >r this school, and 
 to cooperate with the board of education in 
 its management. (See New York.) The U. S. 
 congress, in an act approved June 8., 1874, 
 authorize 1 the use of certain national vessels 
 for this purpose, as well as the detailing of naval 
 officers to act as superintendents and instructors 
 in such schools, but with the special provision, 
 '• that no person shall be sentenced to, or re- 
 ceived at, such schools as a punishment, or com- 
 mutation of punishment, for crime'' The 
 course of instruction covers a period of from 
 18 months to 2 years. The pupils who complete 
 it successfully, receive a certificate; and efforts 
 axe made to obtain positions for them on board 
 
 of the best ships. If, alter their first voyage, 
 they desire to qualify themselves tor the posi- 
 tion of mate or captain, instruction is given 
 them in practical and theoretical navigation. and 
 in such other branches as are deemed neces- 
 sary. A school similar In that in New York, is 
 conducted in a government vessel in the port of 
 San Francisco. 
 
 NAVAL SCHOOLS are schools for the 
 training of midshipmen in all the theoretical and 
 practical branches requisite to tit them for their 
 profession. In the 1 nited States, there is the 
 Naval Academy at Annapolis, Aid., which was 
 established, in L845, by George Bancroft, then 
 secretary of the navy. Originally little more 
 than a school of practice on board ship, and 
 intended to afford comparatively slight men- 
 tal training, it was, in L850, reorganized un- 
 der its present name. The course of study was 
 materially enlarged, and the institution was 
 placed under the charge of the Bureau of Ord- 
 nance and Hydrography. In 1851, a four years' 
 course of instruction was adopted. In March, 
 L867, the school was placed under the care of 
 the secretary of the navy; but its administration 
 continued to be mainly conducted under the 
 supervision of the Bureau of Navigation, which 
 had been formed, and put in change of it, in July, 
 1862. Since March, 1869, the supervision of 
 the secretary over it has been without this inter- 
 vention. March .'5., 1873, a law was passed ex- 
 tending the course of study to six years. — The 
 course of instruction comprises a thorough and 
 exhaustive drill, not only in mathematics and 
 the natural sciences, but in the English, French, 
 and Spanish languages, in history, international 
 law, seamanship, ship-building, gunnery, steam- 
 enginery, and drawing (both mechanical and free- 
 hand), especially in its applications to naval con- 
 struction, machinery, and map-making. Three 
 times a week, exercises in practical seamanship, 
 on board ship or in boats, vary the courses of 
 the lecture and recitation room; while, from the 
 middle of June till the middle of September, a 
 cruise along the coast, in a United States sailing- 
 ship or steamer, gives opport unity for putting 
 into practice all the nautical knowledge that has 
 been acquired. The number of cadet-midship- 
 men, in 1874 — 5, was 297; the number of in- 
 structors, 58. — Since 186 I. classes of naval con- 
 structors, of civil and steam-engineers, called 
 cadet-engineers, have been permitted to be edu- 
 cated at the academy, the number of such being 
 limited to 50. and the course for them being 
 two years at the school, and two years on board 
 ship. During the civil war, the academy was re- 
 moved to Newport, R. I.; but, soon after its close, 
 was brought back to Annapolis. — In England, 
 the Royal Naval College was erected in 1729, at 
 Portsmouth. There, formerly, youths intended 
 for the navy were instructed in navigation etc.; 
 but, in 1839, the college was remodeled, and ap- 
 propriated to the instruction of junior naval and 
 marine officers in the higher branches of science 
 connected with their profession, and especially 
 in the principles and practice of naval gunnery. 
 
 
616 
 
 NEBRASKA 
 
 In 1872, the college was transferred to Green- 
 wich. — On the continent of Europe, there are 
 naval schools at Fiume (Hungary), Kiel (Prus- 
 sia), Bresl (France), Naples and Spezia (Italy), 
 St. Petersburg (Russia), Stockholm (Sweden), 
 Christ iania (Norway), Copenhagen (Denmark), 
 Willemsoord (Netherlands), Ferrol (Spain), Lis- 
 bon (Portugal), the Piraeus (Greece), and on the 
 island of Khalki (Turkej 7 ). 
 
 NEBRASKA, one of the western states of 
 the American Union, to which it was admitted 
 in 1807, as the 24th. Its are;; is 7-"'. 995 sq. m.: 
 its population, in L870, was 129,322, of whom 
 789 were colored, and 6,416 were Indians. 
 
 Educational History. While vet a territory 
 (1854 — 67), Nebraska adopted a liberal school 
 system which, as early as 1865, when the popu- 
 lation was only 50,0IKI. furnished free tuition (> 
 months in t he year. In 1869, a general school 
 law was passed, which has been modified from 
 time to time to suit the wants of the rapidly in- 
 creasing population of the state: and on this 
 law, substantially, is based the present system. 
 The intention of the school law of Nebraska is 
 to afford an opportunity for a finished education 
 to every child in the state. To this cud. tuition 
 is free from the day of admission to the primary 
 school to the completion of the course in the 
 university. The state superintendents have been 
 as follows: S. I). Heals. 1869—71; J. M.McKen- 
 zie, 1871 — 77; and S. I!. Thompson from 1n77. 
 
 School System. There is do state hoard of 
 education. The constitution provides, that there 
 shall be elected by the people every two years, a 
 state superintendent, whose principal duties shall 
 be, to apportion, twice each year (in June and 
 December), the state school fund to theseveral 
 counties, the basis of apportionment being the 
 number of children between the ages of -"'and 
 21 years; to recommend for the use of the public 
 schools a list of text-l>onks: to examine appli- 
 cants for state certificates; to hold teachers' insti- 
 tutes ; to designate the forms of all blanks for 
 the use of the schools, and for the reports of 
 school officers; and to make a full annual report 
 to the governor, of the educational condition of 
 the stale. Each county elects a county super- 
 intendent biennially, whose duty it is to divide the 
 county into s chool -districts, it' this has not al- 
 ready been .lone, lie has no power, however, 
 to change any district Line, unless petitioned so 
 
 to do by one third of the legal voters in the 
 
 districts affected a legal voter being any male, 
 or unmarried female '_'l years of age, residing 
 
 in the district, and subject to pay a district 
 school-tax. It is the county superintendent's 
 
 duty, also, to examine teachers, to visit each 
 school in the county at least once each term, to 
 hold teachers' institutes, to apportion to the 
 
 eral districts, twice each year, the public 
 school money, and to report to the state super- 
 intendent annually the condition of the school 
 
 r this service, he receives not less than $3, 
 nor more than >•">. per day for every day actually 
 employed in the duties of his office. Thecountj 
 superintendent issues three grades of certificates 
 
 to teachers: the first grade valid for 2 years, 
 the second, for one year — both entitling the 
 holder to teach in any district in the county; 
 the third grade being valid for (i months, and 
 entitling the holder to teach only in a specified 
 district. Three third-grade certificates, however, 
 may be issued to the same person. Kaeh school- 
 district has three officers. — a (Urn-tar. a modera- 
 tor, and a treasurer. One of these is elected each 
 year at the April meeting. These officers have 
 full control of all school matters pertaining to 
 the district, except the building of school-houseg, 
 and the issuing of school bonds. 'I hey are not 
 permitted to pay, out of the public funds, any 
 teacher not holding a certificate from the pro] c r 
 authority. Relatives of these officers are in- 
 eligible as teachers. The director must, within 
 Id days after the annual meeting, report to the 
 county superintendent the number of children 
 of School age in the district, the appropriation 
 of the state fund being based upon this return, 
 
 and not payable without it. The permanent 
 school fund consists of all moneys arising from 
 the sale of the 16th and 36th sections in each 
 
 township, the five percent granted by Congi 
 
 on the sak' of public lands within the state, and 
 all escheats, gifts, grants, etc.. not otherwise ap- 
 propriated. This fund is at present invested 
 
 principally in state securities. Some of it. how- 
 ever, is in school-district and county bonds, and 
 
 bond and mortgage, but all draws 111 per cent 
 interest. The items are as follows • 
 
 School fund DOW invested $ l!'T ,937.3 I 
 
 Unpaid principal of school lands sold 637,887.80 
 
 Value of school lands leased 272,169.16 
 
 Total .$1,407,994.30 
 
 The constitution provides that the fund shall he 
 invested hereafter only in United States and 
 state securities, or in registered county bonds. 
 The number of acres of school lands amounts to 
 more than 2.500.0(10. none of which can be sold 
 at less than 87 per acre. The apportionable 
 
 school fund arises from the 10 per cent interest 
 on all moneys forming a part of the permanent 
 
 school fund, the (I per cent rents of school hinds 
 leased, together with the proceeds of the one- 
 mill tax. The other sources of income for the 
 
 support of schools are the moneys arising from 
 lines, licenses, dog-tax, and the special district tax. 
 
 School districts arc prohibited from levying for 
 school purposes a greater tax than '_'•"> mills on 
 i lie dollar in any one year. 'I luce months' school 
 must be maintained in each school-district to 
 entitle it to any portion of the public fund. 
 
 "Educational ''<>//< lition.- The number of 
 Bchool-districts in L876, was 2.5(17 ; the number 
 of school houses of all kinds. 1,980; the number 
 of districts in which graded schools exist, ■<■<■ 
 The principal items of school statistics for 1875 
 
 ale the following: 
 
 Number of children of bc! 1 age 86,1! i 
 
 enrolled 69,973 
 
 " " teachers, males 1 ,468 
 
 females 1,893 
 
 Total 3.301 
 
 Average monthly salary, males $37.71 
 
 " ' females $32.60 
 
 Amount of apportionable Bchool fund. .. .$241, 167 .C3 
 
NEBRASKA 
 
 NEBRASKA UNIVKUSITY 61 
 
 Normal Instruction. The state normal school 
 was opened at Peru, in L867. It was originally 
 organized with three departments, the time re 
 quired to complete the course being L3 years. In 
 L873— 4, this was modified so as to comprise 
 2 departments, the preparatory and the normal, 
 5 years being necessary to complete the course. 
 In the preparatory department, in addition to 
 the usual elementary studies pursued the Inst 
 year, botany is taught : in the second, zoology ; 
 in the third, Latin. Algebra, physical geography, 
 physiology, and the history of the United States. 
 Drawing and vocal music are also taught. In 
 the normal department, the branches peculiar to 
 schools of this description are pursued. The 
 number of students in attendance at the present 
 time (1876), is about 190. 
 
 Teachers' Institutes. — These bodies have been 
 convened, from time to time, at such places as the 
 state and county superintendents have deemed 
 necessary. 'The annual attendance of teachers, 
 since L863, has been large, and the interest 
 aroused has extended very generally among the 
 people in the localities where the meetings have 
 
 been held. The State Teachers' Association meets 
 annually about the last of March. 
 
 An educational journal. The Nebraska Teacher, 
 was begun in L871, and is now one of the agen- 
 cies for the instruction and training of the 
 teachers of the state. Its editor is the president 
 of the State Teachers' Association. A similar 
 publication is issued by the faculty and students 
 of the state university. 
 
 Secondary Instruction. — There are several 
 high schools in the state, principally in the cities 
 and large towns, where the great interest awak- 
 ened in the subject of education has led, in some 
 cases, to the erection of costly buildings, the most 
 noted of which, the high school building of 
 Omaha City, with a seating capacity for more 
 than 700 pupils, was erected at an expense of 
 more than $200,000. Similar schools, but not 
 so costly, exist in Lincoln. Nebraska City, Ash- 
 land, Beatrice, Brownville, and Pawnee City. 
 The intention of the school law was to connect 
 the high schools directly with the state univer- 
 sity, according to the system established in the 
 state of Michigan, by making the graduates of the 
 former admissible to the latter without further 
 examination. The want of uniformity in the 
 courses of study in the high schools, however, 
 for some time led to such a lowering of the 
 standard of admission as seriously to threaten 
 the efficiency of the university. Measures have 
 already been taken to remedy this. 
 
 The number of private schools in the state has 
 very much decreased since 1870. The number at 
 that time was 70, but increased confidence in 
 the efficiency of the common schools had dimin- 
 ished the number, in 1874, to 30. There are but 
 few denominational schools in the state, — 
 Brownell Hall (Episcopalian), a ladies' seminary 
 at Omaha, a Roman Catholic school in the same 
 place, and another in Nebraska <"ity. One 
 business college, at Omaha, reported, in 1874, a 
 total of 135 pupils, of whom 17 were females. 
 
 Superior Instruction. — The institutions in- 
 tended to furnish an advanced education are as 
 follows : 
 
 NAME 
 
 Location 
 
 \\ I,, n 
 round- 
 ed 
 
 R eligious 
 
 '1' 1 1111. 1- 
 
 tion 
 
 Doane College 
 
 Nebraska College. . . . 
 
 t niv. ut Nebraska. . . . 
 
 Crete 
 
 Nebraska City 
 Lincoln 
 
 187'i 
 1868 
 L869 
 
 Cong. 
 Pr. Epis. 
 
 Nell Si el . 
 
 Scientific ami Professional Instruction. — The. 
 Agricultural College is a department of the state 
 university, and is governed by the same board 
 of regents. The landed endowment of both in- 
 stitutions amounts to 134,800 acres of hind, 
 which at present is not available. The course 
 of study requires 3 years for its completion, the 
 ordinary provision being made for a liberal edu- 
 cation, with special attention paid to those 
 branches of natural science necessary to the busi- 
 ness of farming. Connected with the college is 
 a farm of 320 acres, on which the instruction 
 given in the college is put to practical test. 'I he 
 number of students at present is 12. A divinity 
 school exists as a department of Nebraska Col- 
 lege, which prescribes a course of 3 years. In 1874, 
 the number of its students was 2. 
 
 Special Instruction. — The Nebraska Institute 
 for the Deaf and Dumb is situated near Omaha. 
 It was organized in 1869, for the free education 
 of all deaf and dumb children in the state, be- 
 tween the ages of 10 and 25, of sound mind, of 
 good moral habits, and free from contagious 
 disease. The course of study comprises 8 years 
 of 40 weeks each. The studies pursued are those 
 common to such institutions. The instruction 
 in the first class is purely elementary ; in the 
 second class, language and arithmetic are taught; 
 in the third, language, arithmetic, and geography; 
 in the fourth, arithmetic, geography, the science 
 of common things, and the history of the United 
 States. Daily exercises in written language con- 
 stitute a part of the instruction in all the grades 
 during the entire course. Special instruction in 
 articulation is given to semi-mutes. The in- 
 stitute has at present 3 instructors, and about 
 40 pupils in all the classes. The Asylum for the 
 Blind was opened near Nebraska City, in Decem- 
 ber, 1875. It has a fine building and grounds, 
 but its organization is so recent that but little is 
 generally known in regard to it. 
 
 NEBRASKA, UNIVERSITY OF, at Lin- 
 coln, Neb., was chartered in 1 XG'J, and opened in 
 1871. It was established upon grants of land, 
 amounting to 1 34,800 acres, made by Congress 
 to the state for the support of a university and 
 a college of agriculture and the mechanic arts. 
 The charter provides for six departments, or 
 colleges, namely : ( 1 ) a college of ancient and 
 modern languages, mathematics, and natural 
 science; (2) a college of agriculture: (3) a col- 
 lege of law; (4) a college of medicine; (5) a 
 college of practical science, mechanics, and 
 civil engineering: (G) a college of fine arts. 
 Only the first two have yet (187G) been organ- 
 ized. In the first there are four courses of study 
 of four years each ; and, in the second, there are 
 
618 
 
 N E BR A SKA COLLEGE 
 
 NETHERLANDS 
 
 two courses, one of three years, and a course of 
 one year, in the College of Literature, Science, 
 and Art, the courses are the classical, the scien- 
 tific, the Latin scientific, and the Greek scien- 
 tific. There is a Latin or preparatory school 
 connected with the university. It has a farm 
 of 320 acres, and extensive chemical and phys- 
 ical apparatus. Tuition is five. In 1874 — 5, 
 there were 8 instructors and Li*-' students, of 
 whom !1T (48 collegiate and (I!) preparatory) 
 were in the department of literature, science, 
 and arts, and L5 in the department of agricult- 
 ure. Both sexes are admitted. Allen R.Benton, 
 A. M.. LL. 1)., is (1876) the chancellor. 
 
 NEBRASKA' COLLEGE, at Nebraska 
 City, Neb., under Protestant Episcopal control, 
 was organized in L865, and chartered in 1868. 
 It is Bupporte 1 by the fees of students. The 
 institution has a valuable mineral cabinet, and 
 libraries containing about 2,000 volumes. It 
 comprises a collegiate course and a grammar 
 school, with a preparatory and a business course. 
 Facilities are afforded for instruction in theology. 
 In L875 — 6, there were * instructors and TO 
 students (3 collegiate, 13 preparatory, ami 54 
 business). I". I.. A oodbury, .M.A., is '(1K7(>) the 
 head-master in charg 
 
 NEEDLE-WORK. See Female Education, 
 and [ndustri \i. Sohoo i. 
 
 NETHERLANDS, the name of a kingdom 
 in western Europe, which has an area of L2,680 
 
 Bquare mile--, an 1 the population of which, in 
 1874, was 3,767,263, exclusive of its colonial 
 possessions, the total area of which amounts to 
 
 more than 660,000 sip m.; and the population, 
 
 t.. over 24,000,000.— The independence of the 
 
 Netherlands was established in L579, when the 
 
 people revolted against the rule of Spain, and 
 proclaimed the republic of the United Nether- 
 lands. Napoleon, in 1 sou, erected the kingdom 
 of Holland; but the Congress of Vienna, in L815, 
 United Belgium and Holland under the title of 
 1b,' Kingdom of the Netherlands. In 1830, the 
 southern provinces seceded, and formed the king- 
 dom of 1! ilgium; and, since that time, the name 
 
 Netherlands has been applie 1 exclusively to the 
 kingdom formed of the northern provinces. 
 
 About 6] per cent of the population of the 
 
 kingdom are Protestants; and nearly ,'!7 p r 
 ecu', Roman < 'atholics. 
 
 History of Education. — The earliest school of 
 which there is any record was that of St. Martin 
 a1 Utrecht, said to hive been founded in the 
 time of Charles Martel. This school enjoyed 
 great renown, an I large numbers of pupils from 
 the neighboring countries attended it. At the 
 beginning of the L2th century. (Jtrechl pos- 
 ■ \ no less than live flourishing schools, several 
 
 of which had each a rector, in addition to the 
 
 pii iste, who ha I the general control of them. At 
 that time, several convent schools gained great 
 
 reputation, llie most prominent of which were at 
 
 ion I Nimeguen, Middelburg, and Admoert, 
 
 i Groningen. Schools were also established 
 
 his time by the more flourishing towns.'for 
 
 lh instruction of the citizens. Authority to 
 
 open these schools was always derived from the 
 courts, and the supervision and instruction were 
 entirely secular. The best-known school of this 
 class was at Xwolle, which, in the 14th century, 
 is reported to have hail over 1,000 pupils. In 
 Holland, as well as in Belgium, the Brethren of 
 the Common Life did much to promote educa- 
 tion. (See HlEEONYMIANS.) Luring the Lth 
 century, this country was rich in eminent 
 scholars, among whom may be mentioned John 
 Weasel, Rudolf Agricola, Alexander Hegius, and 
 Erasmus. A new era was inaugurated with the 
 opening of the Leyden University, in L575, which 
 awakened a new zeal for all departments of 
 learning. Other universities were established, 
 at Franeker (1575), at Groningen (Dil4), at 
 Utrecht (1638), and at Barderwick (1648), all 
 of which greatly added to the reputation of 
 Dutch scholarship throughout the world, and 
 rendered their people one of the best educated 
 nations of the globe. During the 1 8th century, 
 there was. however, a visible decline: and. at the 
 beginning of the 19th century (1811), Cuvier 
 made a rather unfavorable report of the condi- 
 tion of the universities and latin schools of Hol- 
 land. 'I he French government which Napoleon I. 
 established in Holland, introduced some reforms, 
 w hii h were subsequently .-am tioiied and further 
 developed by King William I. Since that time, 
 the Netherlands have regained, in some depart- 
 ments of superior instruction, especially in that 
 of the ancient languages, their former reputation. 
 The Dutch legislation in regard to primary in- 
 struction has attracted the attention of educa- 
 tional writers and the governments of various 
 countries, chiefly by its outspoken opposition to 
 the principle of denominational schools. The 
 bads of the Dutch system was laid in the cel- 
 ebrated law of 1806, drawn upbyM. Van der 
 Ende, who was, for nearly thirty years (until 
 l^.'l.'i), at the head of the common-school depart- 
 ment of the Dutch ministry. Articles '-''_' and 23 
 of this law provide that pupils shall be trained 
 " in the practice of all the social and Christian 
 virtues." and that ihcy shall " not remain with- 
 out instruction in the doctrines of that religious 
 faith to which they belong;" but that the teacher 
 of the school •shall not have charge of this 
 branch of instruction." The principle of secular 
 and mixed schools had. at first, the co-operation 
 
 of ministers of every creed, even of the Roman 
 
 ( 'atholics; but. after 1848, sharply-defined parties 
 arose in mutual opposition. The new constitu- 
 tion of 1848, which is still in force (1876), pro- 
 vides that instruction shall be tree. and under the 
 absolute control of the government. At this 
 time, a party of orthodox Protestants had been 
 
 founded, named after Groen van Prinsterer, a 
 
 prominent professor and writer, who asserted 
 
 that the Roman Catholics, wherever they had 
 any influence, were Btrictly carrying into exe- 
 cution the laws of 1806; that is. excluding 
 from the schools every thine ,,i a doctrinal char- 
 acter, even the bible il>elf. As the best method 
 
 to check the anticipated advances of that ( hurt h, 
 the Groenists attacked the principle of mixed 
 
NETHERLANDS 
 
 619 
 
 schools, denouncing them as breeding-places of 
 atheism and immorality, and demanding in their 
 place denominational schools, which might afford 
 religious instruction. This party was in a small 
 minority in the chambers, in 1857, when the 
 new educational law was framed, which still re- 
 mains in operation (1876). The majority was 
 composed, in the first place, of Catholics who 
 preferred to exclude religious instruction entirely 
 from the schools, rather than have it of a more or 
 less Protestant character: secondly, of the Liber- 
 als, who were in favor of the total separation of 
 church anil state; and, finally, of Dissenters of 
 every kind. This question was disposed of by 
 
 the law of 1857, which provided that, while 
 public instruction should communicate all nec- 
 essary secular knowledge, and develop the un- 
 derstanding of the pupils, it should, "at the same 
 time, train them to the practice of every Chris- 
 tian anil social virtue." It also enjoined upon 
 the teacher to refrain "from teaching, doing, or 
 permitting any thing derogatory to the respect 
 that is due to the religious convictions of the non- 
 conformists." Instruction in religion." it stated, 
 '• islefl to the different sects. The use of the school 
 buildings may. however, he granted for this pur- 
 p ise, to accommodate the children that attend 
 th se, at hours not appropriated to other classes." 
 
 The Catholics, however, left their liberal allies, 
 and at present are united with the orthodox 
 Protestants ami Conservatives, in an attempt to 
 divi le the school fund, a scheme which is op- 
 pose I by the Liberals only. This question of de- 
 nominational schools has since formed the chief 
 issue at the general election. In the election of 
 18T">. for member's of the second chamber, the 
 Liberals obtained a majority of two over the 
 united opposition. 
 
 / H-mary Instruction. — Primary instruction, 
 as stated above, is regulated by the law of 1857. 
 The immediate supervision of the schools is in 
 the hands of local school committees. Above 
 each committee, there is a district school super- 
 intendent, above him a provincial inspector, and 
 finally, as the highest authority, the minister of 
 education. Every community has a local commit- 
 tee ; communities, however, which have united 
 to establish and sustain a school, have a commit- 
 tee in common. In communities with less than 
 3,000 inhabitants, the burgomaster and the coun- 
 cilors perform the duties of the committee. In 
 the other communities, the members of the com- 
 mittee are appointed by the common council. The 
 district superintendents and provincial inspectors 
 axe appointed by the king. The common schools 
 are either public or private. Among the former, 
 are those which are sustained by the parishes, 
 provinces, or state, either alone or conjointly; 
 private schools may, in case of need, be aided by 
 the parish, but must then be open to children of 
 all denominations. The parish decides how many 
 schools are necessary to supply the wants of the 
 inhabitants, but their number may be increased 
 by the provincial or state authorities. Teachers 
 are of two classes: assistants, who must be Is 
 years of age, and principal teachers, who must be 
 
 'J.'! years of age. If a teacher has over 70 scholars, 
 he receives an tt*i>irttnt, that is, a young man 
 win' has not reached the requisite age to he all 
 assistant teacher. When the number of scholars 
 leaches 100, he is entitled to a regular assistant; 
 
 and when it reaches 150, to an assistant and an 
 aspirant; and so on, receiving for every ad- 
 ditional 100 pupils an assistant, and for every 50, 
 an aspirant. Instruction in the common schools 
 is of two kinds, — common and higher. Com- 
 nion instruction comprises reading, writing, 
 arithmetic, the elements of geometry, the Dutch 
 language, geography, history, the natural sci- 
 ences, and music. Higher instruction comprises 
 a course in the elements of living languages, 
 elementary mathematics, the first elements of 
 agriculture, gymnastics, drawing, and needle- 
 work. The number of schools. Dec. 31., 1872, 
 was 3,728, of which 2,608 were public. The 
 public schools had 6,538 male teachers, and -177 
 female teachers; and the private schools, 2,332 
 male teachers, and 1 ,565 female. '1 he number of 
 pupils in both public and private schools, was 
 228,145 boys, and 208,496 girls. In 1873. there 
 were 3,790 primary schools, with 500,059 pupils. 
 There were also 5 teachers' seminaries, supported 
 1 >y the government, besides a number of private 
 and communal institutions. The amount ex- 
 pended for primary instruction in 1870, both 
 by the state and the communities; was 4,984,533 
 florins (1 florin = $0,385), or $1,919,045. 
 
 Secondary instruction is regulated by the law 
 of 18(13. The schools of this grade are either 
 public or private. The law includes among the 
 secondary schools the higher burgher schools 
 (corresponding to the German real schools), the 
 burgher schools for trades-people and farmers, 
 and the polytechnic school, at Delft. The gym- 
 nasia and Latin schools are classed with the uni- 
 versities. The higher burgher schools are of two 
 kinds, one having a five years' course, and the 
 other a three years' course. The average age of 
 the scholars in the lowest class is 13 years. An- 
 cient languages are excluded entirely ; while 
 French, German, and English are studied with 
 considerable thoroughness. 'I he course of study 
 comprises mathematics, the elements of mechan- 
 ics, technology, mineralogy, botany, zoology, nat- 
 ural philosophy, chemistry, cosmography, Hutch 
 constitutional history, political economy, statis- 
 tics, geography, history, modern languages, book- 
 kei ping, penmanship, drawing, and gymnastics. 
 The examination for graduation comprises all 
 these subjects, and is conducted by a committee 
 chosen from all the teachers of the province. The 
 rules of the royal schools are determined by the 
 royal decrees of 1864 and 1873. The teachers of 
 the state schools are appointed by the king, and 
 those of the communal schools, by the magis- 
 trates. The course of study is arranged by the 
 director and the teachers, and must be approved 
 bythe minister. 'I he yearly tuition fee is, at the 
 most. 60 florins. Burgher schools are established 
 chiefly for the children of trades people and farm- 
 ers, am I consist of day and evening schools. Every 
 community of more than 10,000 inhabitants, must 
 
G-'O 
 
 NETHERLANDS 
 
 NEVADA 
 
 have at least one burgher school, both day and 
 evening. The course, in the day school, com- 
 prises two years. If the attendance does not war- 
 rant the establishment of a day school, a com- 
 munity may be excused from having such a 
 school; but, in such a case the evening school 
 must comprise a two years' course. The teachers, 
 in these schools, arc appointed by the common 
 councils, and arc paid by the communities. They 
 are also entitled to a pension from the state. 
 under the same conditions as other officers of 
 the government. The cost of the burgher schools 
 is borne by the communities, who may charge a 
 fee not to exceed 12 florins per year. In 1^71, 
 the number of burgher schools was 43, and of 
 higher burgher schools and commercial schools, 
 47. The number of teachers was 338, in the 
 burgher schools, and 542, in the higher burgher 
 schools; of pupils. 3,801, in the burgher schools. 
 and 3,285, in the higher burgher schools. The 
 polytechnic school at Delft is intended for those 
 who wish to follow the business of engineering 
 in any of its various branches. This school. 
 in 1875 — 6, had 2(1 professors and 2<i0 
 students. The following schools are also classed 
 among secondary institutions : 1 schools of agri- 
 culture, with 18 professors and "(.'{students; 9 
 schools of navigation, with 20 professors and 
 200 Students; 30 drawing schools, with L08 pro- 
 fessors and 2.. ")<>(( students; seven secondary 
 
 schools for -ills, with 74 teachers and 172 stu- 
 dents; and 78 secondary schools for mechanics. 
 The sum total expended on secondary instruction 
 amounted to $557,002, of which $278,192 was 
 paid by the state: $4,845, by the provinces; 
 #1 !)<>.!) 15. by the municipalities; and .<-.'!. o|,s was 
 derived from tuition fees. 
 
 Superior Instruction. — According to the law 
 
 of 1S15, the institutions for superior instruction 
 are classed as Latin schools and gymnasia, athe- 
 oseums, and high schools. The Latin schools and 
 the gymnasia correspond to the German gymna- 
 sia; and the alhcn;euins and high Schools, to the 
 universities, of which, however, only the high 
 
 schools axe entitled to confer academic degrees. 
 Each Latin school and gymnasium has a rector and 
 
 eon rector and one or more preceptors and docents, 
 according to the means of the institution. The 
 
 studies comprise Latin and Greek, mathematics, 
 
 history, and mythology. The following studies 
 are taught in only a part of the schools: the 
 modern languages, Hebrew, and natural history. 
 
 The gymnasia have pretty much the same course 
 of study as the Latin schools. In L873, the num- 
 ber of Latin schools and gymnasia was 54, with 
 227 professors and L,185 students. There are 
 three universities,— at Leyden, I rtrecht.and Gro 
 ningen, which, in L 871, had 732. 488, and L46 
 students, respectively, making a total of L,366 
 students. Of these, 585 studied law; 302,theolo- 
 242, medicine; 157, natural sciences ; and 
 
 1 1 7, literature. The two atliemeuius. at Devcn- 
 
 terand Amsterdam, had together 261 pupils. In 
 L876, it was resolved to raise the athenaeum of 
 
 Amsterdam to a full university. In 1st.") — (i, 
 
 Leyden had 15 professors ami 'J 12 students: 
 
 Utrecht, 34 professors and 527 students ; Gro- 
 ningen, 30 professors and 1 88 students ; and the 
 athenaeum of Amsterdam. 40 professors and 399 
 students. 
 Special Instruction. —Besides the special schools 
 
 classed among the secondarj Bel Is, there are 
 
 the following: Ave Catholic theological semi- 
 naries; an Old Catholic (Jansenist) seminary, in 
 Lmersfoort;a Lutheran seminary, and seminaries 
 for Remonstrants and Mennonites, in Amster- 
 dam; a seminary of Separatists, in kampen; two 
 .Jewish seminaries, in Amsterdam: a school of 
 veterinary surgery, and a school of East Indian 
 languages, in Delft : a school for army surgeons, 
 at Utrecht; schools of art. in Amsterdam. l!ois- 
 le -Due, the Bague, Rotterdam, and Groningen; 
 and a school of music, at the Hague. In 1874, 
 there were three institutions for deaf-mutes, with 
 39] inmates: three asylums for the blind ; and 
 an asylum for idiots, having !!• girls and 23 boys, 
 and. in connection with it, there is a day school 
 for idiots. 
 
 Luxemburg. — This country is governed by the 
 king of Holland as erand-duke of Luxemburg. 
 It had. in L874, till primary schools, with 28,437 
 pupils; one teachers' seminary: an athenaeum, 
 
 composed of a gymnasium and a trade school, of 
 
 'classes each: and 2 progvmnasia. having to- 
 gether 42 professors and I'll pupils; a Catholic 
 seminary and an agricultural school, in Echter- 
 aach. For further information in regard to 
 education in the Netherlands, see Barnard, Na- 
 tional Education, vol. n.; < 'orsix. Del'instruction 
 publique en Hbllande, 1836 — 7; Bdddinqh, 
 Geschiedenis rim (//iron/;,,,/ en Onderwijs in 
 de Nederlanden (Hague. 1847); Layki.kyk. 
 Dibats sur Venseignement dans les chambres 
 hollandais s, session of L857 (Geneva, 1858). 
 
 NEVADA, one of the extreme western states 
 of the American Union, originally a part of the 
 
 territory of 1 tali, from which it was set off as 
 a separate territory. March 2., L861,and enlarged 
 
 by a further portion of Utah, in 1862. It ^as 
 admitted as a state in 1864. It was further en- 
 larged by added territory from Utah and Ari- 
 zona, in L866. in 1859, the population was about 
 I. Ollll; but, in August. 1861 . it was estimated at 
 L6.000. In ls7o.it was 42,491, of whom 38,959 
 were whites; 357. colored persons; 3,152, Chi- 
 nese ; and 23, civilized Indians. 
 
 Educational History. — Notwithstanding the 
 almost exclusive absorption of the energies of 
 the people in mining and kindred operations, the 
 
 interests of education have not been overlooked. 
 
 The tirs' constitution of the state directed the 
 legislature to organize a public-School system, to 
 
 found a state university, to establish graded and 
 normal Bchools, and to promote by all appropri- 
 ate means the cause of education. To this end. 
 the state w as to he divided into school-districts, 
 and Schools were to lie established therein. For 
 
 the maintenance of these schools, there were to 
 
 he set apart the 50.000 acres granted by Con- 
 gress to all the new States, 30.000 acres for each 
 
 senator and representative, the Kith and 36th 
 section in each township, a half-mil] tax on all 
 
NEVADA 
 
 NEWAKK 
 
 621 
 
 property subject to taxation, and all escheats, and 
 fines forpersonal offenses. The interest of all the 
 money derived From the above sources (except 
 the half-mill tax, of which five percent is taken]. 
 
 together with two per cent of the receipts from 
 
 all toll-mads and bridges, is devoted to school 
 
 purposes, at the present time. The method of rate- 
 bills is, in some cases, employed. The permanent 
 school fund, in L 874, amounted to $250,000. — 
 The method of supervision was, from the first, 
 the same as now employed ; but the original pro- 
 visions of law in this regard have been modified 
 somewhat by successive Legislatures, notably in 
 |-~7.'i. when a compulsory education law was 
 passed. From 1 866 to 1874, the state superintend- 
 ent was A. \V. Fisher, who, at the latter date, was 
 
 succeeded hy S. 1'. Kelly, elected for four years. 
 
 School System. — The supervision and manage- 
 ment of the educational system of the state are 
 confided to a state l>oanI of education, consisting 
 
 of the governor, surveyor-general, and the super- 
 intendent of public instruction. Its duties are to 
 organize schools, prescribe a uniform list of text- 
 books, and devise all needful measures for the con- 
 duet aud improvement of the schools. The state 
 superintendent is the executive officer of the board. 
 He performs all the duties generally appertain- 
 ing to the office, and makes a biennial report to 
 the governor. County superintendents are elected 
 throughout the state, each for two years. Boards 
 <>/ trustees are elected in the several school-dis- 
 tricts, and are so constituted as always to con- 
 tain at least one experienced member. Each 
 board consists of three trustees in districts hav- 
 ing less than 1,500 voters, and of five in all others. 
 !n addition to the usual duties pertaining to 
 Euch officers, they are intrusted with the power 
 of levying taxes in order to supply deficiencies 
 in the school moneys received from the state. 
 They are required not only to keep a public rec- 
 ord of their proceedings, but to publish, in some 
 newspaper, full minutes of those proceedings. 
 The county superintendent appoints two com- 
 petent persons, who, with himself, constitute a 
 board of examiners of which he is chairman. A 
 certificate, either from this county board or from 
 the state board, is necessary before a teacher 
 can receive any compensation for services ren- 
 dered. A life certificate of any state, or a diplo- 
 ma from a California state normal school, entitles 
 the holder to a county certificate without exami- 
 nation, if presented within five years from the 
 date of its issuance. The compulsory school law 
 requires parents or guardians to send all children 
 between the ages of 8 and 14 years, unless other- 
 wise educated, to the common schools for not less 
 than sixteen weeks each year, eight weeks of 
 which must be consecutive. A penalty of not 
 less than $50, nor mor e than 3100 for the first 
 offense, and of not less than 8100 nor more than 
 $200 for each subsequent offense, is imposed for 
 a violation of this law. The schools are required 
 to be kept open at least six months each year in 
 every school-district. 
 
 Educational ' '<ua/i/i/,,> — The number of school- 
 districts, in 1874, was 71 ; the number of schools 
 
 dispensing with rate-bills, 68 ; the total number 
 of schools. L08. Of these schools, 21 are primary; 
 I. intermediate; 1 2, grammar ; 2, high ; and G9, 
 unclassified. The support of the schools was de- 
 rived from the following sources: 
 
 From taxes $93,431.23 
 
 " rate-bills 317.09 
 
 " state apportionments 
 
 and other sources 52,432.40 
 
 Total $146,181.32 
 
 The expenditures were as follows: 
 
 For teachers' salaries $83,548.88 
 
 " sites, buildings, etc 22,241.05 
 
 " other purposes 18,511.71 
 
 Total $124,301.64 
 
 The average v ages nfteaehersper month was $100.00 
 The principal items of school statistics for the 
 year were the following : 
 
 Number of pupils enrolled (6 — 18) 4,811 
 
 Average attendance 2,884 
 
 Number of teachers, males 35 
 
 females 80 
 
 Total 115 
 
 Normal Instruction, — Xo schools for the in- 
 struction of teachers are yet reported. The legis- 
 lature, however, in 1875, passed an act authoriz- 
 ing the establishment of a normal school. 
 
 Secondary Instruction. — A preparatory school 
 in connection with the university, provided for 
 by an act of the legislature, in 1873, has been 
 opened at Elko; and an appropriation of $20,000 
 was, in 1875, made for its support. This, and 
 two high schools, are the only means for free ' 
 secondary instruction now known to be in 
 existence in the state. 
 
 Superior Instruction. — By an act of the legis- 
 lature, in 1873, the state university was estab- 
 lished ; but little has as yet been done, except the 
 organization of the preparatory department, 
 above referred to. 
 
 Professional and Scientific Instruction. — In 
 1875, an act was passed for the establishment of 
 an agricultural college, and for colleges of arts 
 and mines, endowed with the congressional 
 land grant of 90,000 acres ; but this action was 
 so recent, that no report has been made of their 
 organization. 
 
 Special Instruction. — The settlement of the 
 state is so new, and the population so small, that 
 no efforts have yet been made to establish special 
 institutions, for the blind, or for the deaf and 
 dumb. Those afflicted in this way have thus far 
 been cared for, at the expense of the state, in 
 institutions provided for the purpose by the 
 neighboring state, ( 'alifornia. Several deaf-mutes 
 are under instruction in the Institution for the 
 Deaf, Dumb, and Blind, near Oakland. 
 
 NEWARK, the chief city of New Jersey, 
 first settled in 1 6(if>, by Puritan families from 
 Connecticut, who were joined the next year by 
 other settlers from the same colony, led by their 
 minister, the Rev. Abraham Pierson,who named 
 the settlement after Newark, in England, where 
 he had formerly preached. Newark was incorpo- 
 rated as a city in 1 836. Its population, in 1840, 
 was 17,200; 'but, in 1870, it was 105,059, of 
 
622 
 
 NEWARK 
 
 whom 09,17") were natives, and 35,884 foreigners, 
 including 15,873 Germans, the largest foreign 
 element. The population, according to the state 
 census of 1875, was 12.'!. .'510. 
 
 Educational. History. —In 1676, ten years after 
 its settlement, the selectmen of the town "agreed 
 with Mr. John Catlin that he should do his 
 faithful, honest, and true endeavor to teach the 
 children of those a.s have subscribed, the reading 
 ainl writing of English, and also of arithmetic, 
 if they desire it. as much as they are capable to 
 Learn, and he capable to teach them." About 
 1700, a small school-house was built in Market 
 Street, which, it is thought, was the only school 
 building in the city for many years. From 1717 
 to 1756, the College of New Jersey was located 
 in Newark, but, in the latter year, was removed 
 to Princeton, in 1769, it is recorded that the 
 children of the poor should be '-constantly sent 
 to school at the expense of the person that takes 
 them," it being the custom, at that time, to 
 award annually the keeping of the poor, by pub- 
 lic auction, to the lowest responsible bidder. In 
 L792,the Newark Academy was opened in Broad 
 Street, and three years after, was incorporated. 
 It remained in its original location till 1856, 
 when it was removed to the present site in High 
 Street. The next school-house was built in 1797, 
 near the South Park. This was followed by 
 another, in 1804, in Market Street ; another, in 
 1807, in Fair Street : one in New Street, in 
 180!»; and one in Orange Street, in L820. These 
 were all built by private enterprise, and the 
 schools held in them were consequently sup- 
 ported by tuition fees. In 1813, the sum of $500, 
 for the schooling of the children of the poor, was 
 voted by the people, the practice of requiring 
 the person who supported the poor to provide 
 for the schooling of their children, being at that 
 time discontinued, and never revived. 'I his sum. 
 or a larger one, was voted, for the same purpose, 
 annually thereafter till L836, when Newark was 
 incorporated as a city. This method of provid- 
 ing for the education of a Special class of children 
 
 proved, to be the entering wedge which opened 
 
 the way for a system of public schools free to all 
 the children of the city. The first public-school 
 house was built in 1 B !•> <>r L844, and was located 
 iii the third ward, between Ball and ( lourl streets. 
 It was a building of two Btories, the first being 
 occupieil as a girls' school, the i icond as a boys'. 
 From that time till 1848, six similar school- 
 houses were built. In L 850, the I gislature passed 
 
 an act, to establish public schools in the city, the 
 
 population of which, at that time, was 38.894. 
 This was supplemented, in L853, by an act in- 
 corporating the board of education, with ample 
 powers for the establishment and maintenance 
 of public schools. In 1855, there were 7 public- 
 iool houses, and 16 public schools, including 
 
 one primary school for white children, and one 
 
 be Bame grade for colored children, the aver- 
 age daily alien. lance being 2*461 pupils. The 
 public high school, which was opened in 1855, 
 gave a new impulse to the cause of the Bel Is, 
 
 ilting in the establishment of a graded system 
 
 of primary, grammar, and high schools. In 
 L865, with a population of 87,428, the city had 
 l(i school-houses, and the estimated value of its 
 school property was $200,000. The first city 
 superintendent was Stephen Congar, who held 
 the office from L853 till L859. He was succeeded 
 in the latter year by George B. Sears, who has 
 held the office without interruption to the pres- 
 ent time 1 876). 
 
 School System. — The general management of 
 the public schools of the city is committed to 
 a board of education, composed of two commis- 
 sioners from each ward, who arc elected by the 
 people biennially. They elect annually a city 
 superintendent, whose principal duties are to 
 enforce the regulations of the board, to visit the 
 schools, and to report to the board, from time to 
 time, concerning their condition. The school 
 money is derived chiefly from a special city tax, 
 which varies annually in such a way as to make 
 good the deficiency of the state tax. The course 
 of study in the primary schools comprises read- 
 ing, sp Iling, writing, arithmetic, geography, 
 drawing, and vocal music. The additional stud- 
 ies in the grammar schools are grammar, histo- 
 ry, composition, and declamation: in the high 
 school, the studies pursued, in addition to those 
 of the grammar schools, are chemistry, physiol- 
 ogy, astronomy, algebra, book-keeping, geometry, 
 geology, drawing, gymnastics, and certain other 
 branches, chiefly languages, which are prescribed 
 by the board of education. The Bchoolage is 
 from 6 to 18 ; the school year is 10 months, ex- 
 cept in the evening schools, in which the term is 
 •'! months. The day schools are opened, and the 
 evening schools closed, by the reading of a por- 
 tion of the Scriptures without comment, and the 
 saying of the Lord's Prayer. In ls7.">. the number 
 chools was -1 1 : 1 normal and 1 high school, 
 12 grammar schools, 22 primary schools (includ- 
 ing I colored school), 2 industrial schools, and 
 6 evening schools. — The principal items of school 
 statistics for the year I 875 arc as follows : 
 
 Number of children of school age 35,125 
 
 " " " enrolled in public schools, 
 
 including evening schools 18,087 
 
 Aver; me anmber of pupils on. the roll 12,589 
 
 Average daily attendance 10,852 
 
 Number of teachers, males 
 
 females ...218 
 
 1 272 
 
 Total receipts 209,707.05 
 
 " expenditures J'l 1,700 
 
 Total value of bcI 1 propertj $900,000*00 
 
 1 ►esidea the public schools, there are many acad- 
 emies, and private -and denominational schools, 
 the 1 Ionian ( 'at holies alone having several of the 
 
 latter. There are, also, two libraries, that of the 
 
 New Jersey Historical Society, which contains 
 
 6,000 volumes, I 0,(100 pamphlets. and some man- 
 uscripts of great age and value: and that of the 
 Newark Library Association, which contains 
 
 20,000 volumes. Courses of instruction, chiefly 
 in elementary branches, are, also, provided at 
 
 nearly all of the orphan asylums, of which there 
 
 are several. 
 
NEWBERRY COLLEGE 
 
 NEW BRUNSWICK 
 
 G23 
 
 NEWBERRY COLLEGE, at Walhalla, 
 Oconee Co., S. C, founded in L858, is under 
 Evangelical Lutheran control. It was removed 
 from Newberry in 1868. The college library 
 oontains aboul f,000 volumes. The cost of tui- 
 tion in the collegiate department is $45 per year. 
 In 1875 — 6, there were 5 instructors and L01 
 students (35 collegiate and 66 preparatory). The 
 Rev. T. Stork, D.D.,wasthe president until 1861, 
 when the Rev. J. P. Smeltzer, 1>. 1)., the presenl 
 incumbent (1876), was chosen. 
 
 NEW BRUNSWICK, a province of the 
 Dominion of Canada, having an area of 27,322 
 Bq. m., and a population, in 1870, of 285,594. 
 It was first settled by the French, in 1639, and 
 continued to form, with Nova Scotia., a part of 
 Acadia, until it fell into the hands of the British. 
 The first British settlers emigrated from Scot- 
 land in 176 1; and, in 1784, New Brunswick 
 was separated from Nova Scotia, to form a sepa- 
 rate province. In 1867, it joined the Dominion 
 of Canada. — The present school law (187(5) was 
 passed in 1871, and amended in 1873. Accord- 
 ing to this law, the schools are governed by a 
 board of education, composed of the lieutenant- 
 governor, the members of the executive council, 
 the president of the university of New Brunswick, 
 and the superintendent of schools, who is ap- 
 pointed by the lieutenant-governor. The duties 
 of the board are, to establish a training and model 
 school, appoint 14 inspectors of schools, divide 
 the province into school-districts, and alter the 
 districts as may be necessary, make regulations 
 for schools and the examination of teachers, and 
 prescribe textbooks and library books, and school- 
 house plans. The superintendent has the general 
 supervision of the schools, subject to the board. 
 The inspectors visit and examine the schools, 
 advise teachers, and report to the superintend- 
 ent as often as the board may direct. No school- 
 district can contain less than 50 children, unless 
 the area be four miles. There must be three 
 trustees in a district, elected at the annual dis- 
 trict meeting, one each year. Y\ hen a district 
 fails to elect, or a trustee fails to act, one or more 
 trustees may be appointed by the inspector, on 
 the requisition of seven rate-payers. The trustees 
 have under their charge the local management 
 of the schools, may employ and suspend teachers, 
 and must furnish the clerk of the peace of the 
 county with a list of the persons liable to be 
 rated. Male candidates for the position of teacher 
 must be at least 18, and females 1 (i, years of age, 
 and must have attended a term at some normal 
 school, or else be graduates of some university. 
 Licenses are provincial, valid during good beha- 
 vior, and are issued by the board of education. 
 Examinations are held at Fredericton, in March 
 and September, and at St. John and I hatham, 
 in September, on the third Tuesday of the 
 month; and are presided over by the super- 
 intendent or his deputy. The teacher opens and 
 closes the school daily by reading from either 
 version of the Scriptures, and by the saying of 
 the Lord's Prayer. Any other prayer permitted 
 by the trustees may be used, but no pupil can 
 
 be compelled to be present on these occasions 
 against the written request of his parents or guard- 
 ian. Evening schools may also be established. 
 Besides the district schools, there is a grammar 
 school in every county. These schools arc al- 
 lowed to unite with the district schools under 
 the joint management of the grammar and the 
 district-school trustees, so as to secure a proper 
 gradation of schools. A system of superior schools 
 has also been established, in which the course of 
 study is nearly the same as in the grammar 
 schools. Only one mm h school may be established 
 in a parish, and it must not be in the same dis- 
 trict as the grammar school. Teachers' salaries 
 are provided lor from the provincial treasury, 
 the county school fund, and the district assess- 
 ment. After 1876, the amount paid to a teacher 
 from the provincial treasury, must be regulated 
 partly by the license, and partly by the quality 
 of instruction, as tested semi-annually by an in- 
 spector. Thus, males, in class i„ receive SI 10 per 
 year; in class n., $80 ; in class in., $60 ; females, 
 in class i., 70 ; in class n., $50 ; in class III., $40; 
 and for the quality of instruction, if ranked I., 
 at the rate of $40; n.. $25; m., $10; assistants, 
 at one-half of such rates. Of the county-school 
 fund one-half must be apportioned to the trust- 
 ees for teachers' salaries in the following manner: 
 every qualified teacher, besides assistants, to re- 
 ceive 830 per year, and the balance to be distrib- 
 uted according to average time and attendance. 
 The schools in the cities of St. John and Freder- 
 icton are under special city government, bach of 
 these cities forms one district with a board of 
 seven trustees, which must be a corporate body. 
 Three of the trustees are appointed by the lieu- 
 tenant-governor, and four by the city council. 
 All schools conducted under the provisions of the 
 law of 1871 are non-sectarian, i he school year 
 is divided into a summer and a winter term ; the 
 former, from Way 1. to Oct. 31.; the latter, from 
 Nov. 1. to April 30. On April 30., 1875, there 
 were 1,053 schools in operation, with 1.1 1 (J teach- 
 ers and 46,039 pupils (25,640 boys and 20,393 
 girls). Of these, 271 were under five years of 
 39,075, between five and fifteen; and 6,698, 
 over fifteen years of age. During the year end- 
 ing April 30., 1875, there were 141 districts 
 with schools in the summer term, but without 
 schools in the winter; and 144 districts with 
 schools in the winter, and without schools in the 
 summer. r i he number of teachers empl< »yed dur- 
 ing the winter term, ending April 30.,1875, was 
 466 males ami 626 females, making a total of 
 1,092. In addition, 4 male and 20 female assist- 
 ants were employed. The number of grammar 
 schools, in the school year ending April 30., 1875, 
 was 11, with 37 teachers in the summer term, 
 and 39 in the winter term. r l he whole number 
 of pupils registered in the summer term was 
 1.776. ami 2,027 in the winter term. The num- 
 ber of pupils on register was 7L6 in the summer 
 term, and 809 in the winter term; and the average 
 daily attendance was 434 in the summer, and 531 
 in the winter. The number of superior schools, 
 April 30., 1875, was 50, with 3,053 pupils. 1 ho 
 
624 
 
 NEW CASTLE COLLEGE 
 
 NEWFOUNDLAND 
 
 provincial normal school in Fredericton had 4 
 teachers and 130 students during the year, of 
 whom 108 received licenses to teach. Connected 
 ■with the normal school is a model school. — The 
 University of New Brunswick, at Fredericton. is 
 composed of three classes, — freshman, junior, and 
 senior. The university confers the degrees of 
 Bachelor of Arts, Master of Arts, Bachelor of 
 Science, Doctor of Philosophy, Bachelor of Com- 
 mon Law, and Doctor of Common Law. The de- 
 gree of Doctor of Laws ( LED.) is strictly honor- 
 ary. The Mount Allison Wesleyan College and 
 Academies in Saekvillc, belong to the Methodist 
 
 Church, but are also extensively patronized by 
 
 students from other denominations. They are 
 the result of the benevolence of Mr. ('has. F. 
 Allison, and comprise a male academy, founded 
 in 1842, a female academy, founded in 1854, and 
 the college, founded in 1862. They are under a 
 board of governors, appointed by the general 
 conference of tlie Methodist Church of Canada. 
 The college has, besides its regular course, a liter- 
 ary or scientific course, from which Latin and 
 Greek are omitted. A faculty of theology is 
 also connected with the college, which confers the 
 degree of Bachelor of Divinity. Connected with 
 the male academy, is a commercial college, which 
 is designed to insure thorough preparation for 
 college, or for entrance upon a course of special 
 training for agricultural, mechanical, or commer- 
 cial pursuits, or of specific study for professional 
 life. In the female academy, there are two 
 courses of study. The lirsl is t he regular course 
 for the baccalaureate degree, while the other 
 course is designed for those who prefer to sub- 
 stitute for the classics, the modern languages 
 and natural science. — See Marling, Canada 
 Educational Director/? <ut<l Yearbook for 1876, 
 Lovell, Directory of British North Amrrii-n 
 (1873). 
 
 NEW CASTLE COLLEGE, at New < 'astle. 
 Pa., was established in L872, and chartered in 
 1875. It is non-sectarian, and admits both sexes. 
 It is supported by tuition fees. The college has 
 a preparatory, a classical, a scientific, a com- 
 mercial, a telegraphic, a musical, an art, and a 
 normal department. Inl875 6, there were 15 in- 
 structors and :!'_'"» students, of whom 1 '21 were in 
 the preparatory and collegiate depart incuts. John 
 R. Steeves, A.' I!., is (1876) the president. 
 
 NEWFOUNDLAND, an island of North 
 America, belonging to Greal Britain; area, 40,200 
 square miles: population, in L874, ] id ,381 . New- 
 foundland is supposed to have been discovered 
 by the Northmen, about the year L,000. It was 
 rediscovered by the ('abuts, in 1 197, and has re- 
 mained with the British crown ever since. The 
 
 tiist governor was appointed in L728, and the 
 first legislative assembly met in L733. It is the 
 
 Only pari of British North America not yet in- 
 corporated in the Dominion of Canada. The 
 
 public-school system is based on the denomina- 
 tional principle, and was re-organized by the 
 education Act of L876. According to this law. 
 each denomination represented on the [Bland is 
 
 entitled to a share of the school money. In those 
 
 districts in which a particular denomination 
 forms a majority of the inhabitants, the governor 
 appoints a board of education of from 5 to 7 
 members of that denomination. These boards may 
 establish schools in their respective districts, make 
 rules for their government, and appropriate all 
 moneys granted to such districts. A proportionate 
 amount of the government grant must be at the 
 disposal of the denomination forming a minority 
 in any district. A certain fee must be paid by 
 each child to the teacher. The governor appoints 
 three superintendents of education, — one for the 
 Church of England schools, one for the Roman 
 Catholic schools, and one for the Methodist 
 schools, who supervise and inspect the schools of 
 their respective denominations. The Church of 
 England and Methodist superintendents also. 
 every year, alternately, inspect the other Prot- 
 estant board schools, belonging to the Presby- 
 teriansand Congregationalists, The superintend- 
 ents are required to visit annually, if possible, all 
 the schools and training institutions of their 
 respective denominations, and carefully examine 
 into their condition. They must present an an- 
 nual report on the schools under their charge, 
 with the statistics of such schools, and detailed 
 accounts of income and expenditure. They are 
 also required to give such advice as they may 
 deem proper to teachers and boards of education, 
 to do all in their power to carry out a uniform 
 system of education, and, by public addresses or 
 otherwise, to improve the character and elliciency 
 of the public schools, as well as to promote the 
 establishment of Other public schools in destitute 
 localities. There are two higher grammar schools, 
 in Harbor Grace and Carbonear, governed 
 by their own boards of education. There are also 
 tour academies in St. John's, belonging respect- 
 ively to the Roman Catholics, and to the Church 
 o! England, the Methodists, and other Protestant 
 denominations. The governor appoints tor each of 
 these a board of directors of Beven or nine mem- 
 bers. The Roman Catholic and Church of England 
 academies are connected with collegiate institu- 
 tions belonging to those denominations — the for- 
 mer, with Bonaventure College, the latter, with 
 the Episcopal Theological Institute. Pupil teach- 
 ers are trained in these academies, who. upon com- 
 pleting their studies, are bound to teach a speci- 
 fied time in the public schools. Candidates for 
 the position of teacher must lie at least L6 years 
 old. and. must have either been pupil teachers, 
 or must have been trained in some normal or 
 training school abroad, or must have seised as 
 
 teachers for at least two years. In L 874, there 
 
 were L57 Protestanl schools, with 7,805 pupils, 
 
 and 136 Roman Catholic schools, with 5,792 
 pupils. Besides these, there were 7 commercial 
 schools, with 502 pupils, and 1 .'? convent schools, 
 
 with L ,965 pupils. The inspectors of the Church 
 of England and Methodist schools, in their joint re- 
 port of Dec.. L875, deplore that, "notwithstanding 
 the large amounts which have been granted bj 
 
 the legislature for educational purposes, many 
 
 large communities, especially in Notre Dame Bay 
 and Trinity Bay, have been hitherto without 
 
NEW HAMPSHIRE 
 
 625 
 
 schools, and the youth growing up to manhood 
 and womanhood, are unable to read and write." 
 In most of the schools which they visited, "read- 
 ing, writing, and arithmetic have been the only 
 subjects taught, even in some of the largest settle- 
 ments; and. in most cases, the attainments of the 
 a 'holars have not been very satisfactory." — See 
 The Education Act, 1*76; Loveu.. Gazetteer! of 
 British North America (Montreal, 1873); and 
 the official Reports of the Inspectors of Schools. 
 
 NEW HAMPSHIRE, one of the thirteen 
 original states of the American Union, was the 
 third in the order of settlement. It ranks among 
 the smallest states in regard to area, containing 
 only 9,392 sq. m. Its population, in 1870, was 
 318,800, of whom 580 were colored persons, and 
 23, Indians. 
 
 Educational History. — It was the prevailing 
 custom among the earliest settlers of New Hamp- 
 shire, like those of Massachusetts, to make im- 
 mediate provision for the erection of a meeting- 
 house, and of a school-house beside it. "Many of 
 the immigrants, especially the Scotch-Irish set- 
 tlers of Londonderry and vicinity, had received 
 a good elementary education. Having been united 
 with Massachusetts, in 1641, it became subject to 
 the law passed by the legislature of that province 
 iu 1642. (See 5Iassachlsetts.) The first act 
 of the government of Xew Hampshire, in regard 
 to schools, after it became a separate province, 
 in 1680, was passed in 1693. This law required 
 the selectmen, in the respective towns, to raise 
 money, " by equal rate and assessment, upon 
 the inhabitants," for the support of schools. In 
 1719, a law was passed, which was almost an 
 exact copy of the Massachusetts law of 1647, 
 with an amendment increasing the penalty to 
 £20. The original constitution of the state made 
 it the special duty of "the legislators and magis- 
 trates to cherish the interests of literature and 
 the sciences, and all seminaries and public 
 schools." An act of the state legislature, in 
 1789, established the rate of assessment for 
 school purposes, and provided for the examination 
 of teachers. In 1805, towns were authorized to 
 form school-districts ; and, three years later, the 
 system of town superintendence was established 
 by law, every town being required to appoint a 
 superintending school committee, whose duty was 
 to visit and inspect the public schools. In 1807, 
 the rate of school assessment was increased; and, 
 in 1818, was fixed at $90; in 1840, it was 
 raised to SI 00 ; and by further change, in 1870, 
 to $350, for each dollar of the apportionment for 
 state taxes. Provision was made for a state lit- 
 erary fund in 1821, which was created from the 
 income arising from a tax of one-half of one per 
 cent upon the capital of all banking corporations 
 in the state. In 1827, the school law was re- 
 vised, and fitted to the wants of the people. It 
 recognized the office of a superintending school 
 committee in each of the several towns, who 
 were required to examine and license teachers, 
 visit and inspect schools, select school books, etc. 
 District or prudential committees were chosen, 
 who constituted the legal agency to lure teach- 
 40 
 
 ers, and to have the care of the school property. 
 In 1846, a law was passed providing for the es- 
 tablishment and support of teachers' institutes 
 in each county, which continued in force, with 
 little interruption, until 1874, when the law Wflf 
 repealed. A stringent law, made more effective 
 by further legislation, was enacted in 1848, for 
 the purpose of securing public instruction to 
 children engaged as factory operatives. Another 
 important act of that year established the office 
 of state commissioner of common schools. This 
 office was mo<lified four years later, and a state 
 board of education was established, to consist of 
 a commissioner of schools for each county ; and, 
 in 1867, a further change took place, creating 
 the office of superintendent of public instruction, 
 the governor and the council with the superintend- 
 ent to constitute the board of education. In 
 1874, the state board was abolished, and the duties 
 of the superintendent were somewhat enlarged- 
 In 1870, a law was enacted, establishing a state 
 normal school ; and another act, in the same 
 year, required that all children between the ages 
 of 5 and 15 years, unless excused by reason of 
 ill health, should attend a public school or receive 
 private instruction, at least 12 weeks annually. 
 An act of 1872 ordained that "female citizens of 
 adult age may hold the office, and discharge the 
 duties, of prudential committee in any district, or 
 of superintending school committee." The stale 
 school officers have been as follows: (1) Commis- 
 sioners of common schools, — Charles B. Haddock. 
 D. D., 1846—7 ; and Richard S. Rust, 1847— 50! 
 (2) Secretaries of board of county com m i s* it >ners: 
 the office of state commissioner was succeeded, 
 in 1850, by the board of county commissioners 
 of common schools, who organized annually, 
 electing a chairman and a secretary, of whom the 
 latter was the chief officer of the board, and pre- 
 pared the report to the state. The successive 
 secretaries were, John S. Woodman, A. M., 
 1850—51 ; Hall Roberts, A.M., 1851—4; Rev. 
 King S. Hall, 1854 — 5 ; Jonathan Jenney, A. M., 
 1855—7; James W. Patterson. A.M., 1857—61; 
 William D. Knapp, 1861 — 2 ; John Wingate, 
 Jr., A. M., 1862—3 ; Rev. Roger M. Sargent, 
 A.M.,1863— 4; Rev. Charles A. Downs, 1864— 5; 
 George W. Cate, 1865—6 ; Rev. R. M. Sargent 
 (second term), 1866 — 7. During the first two 
 years of the existence of this office, the cause of 
 education made considerable progress, in effecting 
 which the teachers' institutes, conducted with 
 great ability and efficiency, were an important 
 auxiliary. The annual reports of the first five 
 secretaries are especially referred to as documents 
 of permanent value. (3) State superintendents: 
 in 1867. the office of commissioner was abolished, 
 and that of state superintendent of public in- 
 struction was instituted, which has been filled by 
 the following persons: Amos Hadley. A.M., 1867 
 -9; Rev. Anthony C. Hardy, 1869— 71; John 
 W. Simonds, A. M., 1871— 3; Daniel G. Beede, 
 who held office for only six months, when Mr. 
 Simonds was re-appointed, and is still in office 
 (1876).- — The teachers' institutes, suspended for 
 a few years, were revived during Mr. Hadley s 
 
626 
 
 NEW HAMPSHIRE 
 
 term, and were continued under Supt. Hardy 
 and during the first term of Supt. Simonds ; but 
 during Hupt. Beede's term (July, 1874) they 
 were abolished. — Many interesting changes have 
 occurred in regard to the character of the teachers 
 employed in the state. For the first century and 
 a half, the teachers were almost exclusively males: 
 and the school-masters employed were well edu- 
 cated. They were characterized by inflexible 
 severity in the maintenance of discipline ; and 
 flogging was a common practice. The methods 
 of instruction employed were mechanical, and 
 the textbooks crude; among the latter, the most 
 noted were the t 'olumbian Orator, the American 
 Preceptor, the English Reader, Dillworth's 
 Speller, and Webster's Spelling-Book, with Da- 
 boll's or Pike's Arithmetic. In 1758, the town of 
 Newton made provision for employing "school- 
 dames'" ; but the school-mistress was not recog- 
 nized by the laws of the state till L808. In their 
 infancy, and on account of poverty, many towns 
 were compelled to hire female teachers, but the 
 prevailing ideas were against that practice. The 
 legal qualification of the mistress was limited 
 by an act passed in 1808, "to teaching the various 
 sounds and powers of the letters of the English 
 language, reading, writing, and English gram- 
 mar." .Masters were further required, by the same 
 law, to teach "arithmetic, geography, and such 
 other branches as maybe necessary to teach in 
 an English school." Alter the Revolution, many 
 foreign emigrants became school-masters, and so 
 continued for several years, often performing 
 excellent service. The wages of masters, previ- 
 ous to the present century, varied from Sf to $10 
 per month, with board, which was usually "given" 
 by the families who patronized the school. The 
 mistress received from fifty cents to one dollar 
 and a half per week, with hoard. For about two 
 hundred years, the division of towns into school- 
 districts was unknown, the situation of the school 
 depending upon the locution of the population, 
 not upon any territorial limit. The teacher went 
 from one section of the town to another, holding 
 a school wherever pupils could be found; and 
 when the people required the services of more 
 
 than one teacher, they wi re divided into classes, 
 or "squadrons." Although, in L805, the towns 
 were empowered to form school-districts, the 
 work of subdivision was not completed until 
 L843, when an acl peremptorily ordered it. For 
 
 a time tin' district system worked well: but, in 
 
 L870, the legislature passed a permissory act, 
 
 authorizing any town to abolish the division 
 
 into sil [-districts, and to organize the whole 
 
 town as a Bingle district. This acl has been 
 adopted in several of the towns. A compulsory 
 attendance law, passed in June, L871, went into 
 
 Operation July 1 I., the same year. 
 
 School System. The state superintendent is 
 placed at the head of the public-school system, 
 with limited powers and means, he is expected 
 to "gnide ami dired the interests of popular 
 education." He prepares and distributes the 
 school registers ana blanks for statistical reports; 
 
 ami is required to make a report to the general 
 
 court, containing an "abstract of the returns of 
 school committees," a "detailed report of his own 
 i loings, and the condition and progress of popu- 
 lar education in the state." Each town has a 
 superintending school committee, chosen by the 
 people -in such manner, for such terms, with 
 such title, and such powers relating to schools, 
 as they may think proper." T hese committees 
 tire required to examine and license teachers, 
 visit and inspect schools, select school books, and 
 i. port in writing upon the condition of the 
 schools, at the annual town meeting. Ihey may 
 also, when necessary, withdraw teachers' certifi- 
 cates, and dismiss teachers and scholars. No 
 teacher can receive pay from the treasurer who 
 cannot produce a certificate of license from the 
 committee. Teachers of common schools must 
 be examined in reading, spelling, writing. English 
 grammar, arithmetic, and the elements of geog- 
 raphy and history, and in other branches usual- 
 ly taught in these schools. The school committee 
 may prescribe for any school, when, in their judg- 
 ment, it may be proper, the study of surveying, 
 jo .met ry, algebra, book-keeping, philosophy, 
 chemistry, natural history, and physiology, or any 
 of them, and other suitable studies: and teach- 
 ers, proposing to teach in such schools, must be 
 examined in those branches. Applicants hold- 
 ing certificates of graduation from the state nor- 
 mal school, may teach in the public schools, 
 without further examination, in those branches 
 which are covered by such certificates. The 
 cities of Concord, Dover, Manchester, Nashua, 
 Keene, and Portsmouth have cadi a city st/p< >■- 
 intendent of public instruction. In each district, 
 there is a prudential committee, chosen at the 
 annual meeting, whose duties are to employ ami 
 I ay teachers, and have i he care and safc-ket ) ing 
 
 of the school | roperty of the district. A number 
 of the members of both su] erintending and pru- 
 dential committees are women. The selectmen 
 in each town, and the assessors of each city are 
 required, in April of i at h y< ar, to make an enu- 
 meration of the children ol ea< h sex l etw» I D the 
 ages of 5 and 15 years, in their respective towns 
 
 and cities, and to report the result to the school 
 commit ice of the tow n or city. 
 
 School Revenue.— Iha public schools, free to 
 till attending th< m, draw their support from time 
 sources ; namely, taxation, the state literary fund, 
 
 and the income from local funds. Towns are re- 
 quired to raise by taxation at least $350 for each 
 
 dollar of the apportionment to the town for 
 
 the state tax. Towns and districts are author- 
 ized to raise by vote larger sums for the support 
 of schools: and towns are authorized to appro- 
 priate money from the tax on railroads. The un- 
 expended balance of the tax upon dogs isdevoted 
 to the support of schools, at the expiration of 
 ever) two years. The state literary fund is dis- 
 bursed to the towns in proportion to the number 
 of scholars attending the schools. The income 
 
 from local funds arises from the interest on the 
 donations of individuals to towns and school- 
 distriets, the original gifts of -school lots. ' and 
 
 the contributions of individuals in order to pro- 
 
NEW HAMPSHIRE 
 
 627 
 
 
 long the schools. The moneys received from town 
 taxes and the literary fund are disbursed to the 
 several districts in proportion to their valuation, 
 or in such other manner as the town may deter- 
 mine. The revenue from the tax on dogs is di- 
 vided equally among the districts. The various 
 amounts derived from local funds are expended 
 agreeably to the conditions of the gift. 
 
 Educational Condition. — The whole number 
 of organized school-districts in the state, in L876, 
 was 2,1(12; of districts formed under a, special act, 
 31. The total number of schools was 2,498 ; the 
 number of graded schools, 458, of which 18 were 
 town high schools, anil 21 district high schools. 
 The number of school-houses was 2,223. The 
 amount of school revenue for the year 1875 was 
 as follows : 
 
 Raised by town tuxes $465,186 
 
 Raised by district taxes 71,600 
 
 Literary fund 24.(i00 
 
 Local funds 32,;; to 
 
 Railroad tax 5,781 
 
 Dog tax and contributions 15,460 
 
 Other sources 37.741 
 
 Total " $652,714 
 
 The expenditures were as follows : 
 
 For teachers' salaries $450,410 
 
 " new buildings 110,709 
 
 " permanent repairs 31,880 
 
 " miscellaneous expenses "5,017 
 
 Total $668,046 
 
 The following are the principal additional 
 items of school statistics for the year ending 
 March 14., 1876 : 
 Number of children between the ages 
 
 of 5 and 15 (April, 1875), males, 37,314 
 
 females, 34,008 
 
 Total 71,322 
 
 Number enrolled in the public schools (1876). . .66,69 I 
 " of those enrolled pursuing higher branches 4,982 
 
 Average daily attendance 48,857 
 
 Number of pupils attending academies and 
 
 select schools 4,982 
 
 Average length of the public-school year. 18.75 weeks 
 Number of teachers employed, males. . . . 555 
 
 females. . . . 3.1 07 
 
 Total 3,662 
 
 Average monthly salary of teachers, males. . . .$41.93 
 " " " " " females. ...$25.72 
 
 Normal In struction . — The state normal school, 
 established by a legislative enactment, in 1871, 
 is located at Plymouth. Two courses of study 
 are provided, extending over one year and two 
 years, respectively. Certificates of graduation 
 from these courses entitle the holders to teach, 
 the former for a term of three years, the latter 
 for five years. The school is managed by a board 
 of trustees, and taught by a principal and 4 as- 
 sistants. Teachers 1 institutes were formerly held 
 in the different towns; but, in 1874, they were 
 abolished by state law. Supt. Simonds, in his 
 annual report for 1875, strongly recommends 
 the general court "to appropriate a sum for the 
 proper expenses of teachers' institutes to be held 
 under the direction of the superintendent of 
 public instruction, at times and places approved 
 by the governor of the state." 
 
 Secondary Instruction. — This grade of instruc- 
 tion is represented chiefly by the academies and 
 
 public high schools. The former are usually in- 
 corporated. The necessary buildings ami appur- 
 tenances have been furnished by individual liber- 
 ality : but the schools are sustained by the tui- 
 tion fees receive! 1 from students, and the income 
 
 from endowments. Phillips Academy, at Ex- 
 eter, chartered L781, was the first established in 
 the state; but academies were chartered and 
 opened at Ipswich, Chesterfield, Atkinson, and 
 Gilmanton before the close of the last century; 
 and. in the early pari of the presenl century, 
 academies were established in n< arlyall the larger 
 towns of the state. Many of these have been 
 displaced by the higher grades of public schools. 
 During the year 1.S76, the number of academies 
 in active operation was 47, several of which are 
 permanently endowed with commodious build- 
 ings, and supplied with excellent instructors and 
 all the necessary appliances for efficient work. 
 Phillips Academy, at Exeter, and St. Paul's 
 School, at Concord, for males exclusively, are 
 devoted to the work of fitting their students for 
 college ; the other academies are open to pupils 
 of either sex. and furnish the means of a com- 
 mon, higher English, classical, and ornamental 
 education. The Adams Female Academy, at 
 East Deny, the first incorporated school of its 
 class in New England, Tiklen Seminary, at 
 West Lebanon, and the Eobinson Female Semi- 
 nary, at Exeter, are devoted exclusively to the 
 education of females. The number of high 
 schools proper, maintained at public expense, is 
 39, including 19 town high schools, and 20 dis- 
 trict high schools. The report of the state super- 
 intendent for 1876 enumerated 86 high schools, 
 seminaries, academies, etc., affording higher in- 
 struction to 5,418 pupils. Several of these insti- 
 tutions are classical or preparatory schools ; and 
 there is one business college, at Manchester, hav- 
 ing 286 male students, and 90 female students. 
 
 Denominational and Parochial Schools. — Sev- 
 eral of the academies are fostered by distinctive 
 religious denominations, prominent among which 
 may be named, Kimball L"nion Academy, at 
 Meriden, Gilmanton Academy, and Pinkerton 
 Academy, at Deny, which are under the control 
 of the Congregationalists ; the New Hampton 
 Conference Seminary and Female College, at Til- 
 ton, under the Methodists; the New Hampton 
 Literary Institution, under the Freewill Baptists; 
 the New London Literary and Scientific Institu- 
 tion, under the Baptists ; and, St. Paul's School, 
 at Concord, under the Episcopalians. In the city 
 of Manchester, the Roman Catholics support 
 parochial schools for the education of their chil- 
 dren. These schools are graded. Mt. St. Mary's 
 Academy is designed for the higher education of 
 females. 
 
 Superior Instruction, etc. — Dartmouth ( 'ollege 
 (q. v.), at Hanover, "the pride of the state," is 
 the sole representative of this grade of instruc- 
 tion. In 1796, a medical department was organ- 
 ized; and, more recently (1852), scientific schools 
 (Chandler Scientific Department), besides which 
 there is the Thayer School of Civil Engineering, 
 organized in 1870, and the New Hampshire Col- 
 
028 
 
 NEW JERSEY 
 
 lege of Agriculture and the Mechanic Arte, estab- 
 lished by the legislature, in L866, on the basis of 
 the congressional land grant, and as a depart- 
 ment of Dartmouth College. 
 
 The State Teachers' Association, incorporated 
 in L8S4, was designed for the benefit of teachers 
 and tlic promotion of the interests of education. 
 
 During the first Tears of its existence, it held 
 
 two meetings annually, in the spring and in the 
 fall, in different sections of the state; but, later, 
 only one annual meeting has been held. Many 
 of the most important measures connected with 
 
 the progress of education in the state have ema- 
 nated from its discussions ; sue has the creation 
 of the office of state superintendent, the establish- 
 ment of the state normal school, etc. For a few- 
 years, the association maintained a state journal 
 of education. 
 
 NEW JERSEY, one of the thirteen original 
 states of the American Union, the first settle- 
 ment in which by Europeans is supposed to have 
 been made, about 1618, at Bergen, by a detach- 
 ment of the Dutch settlers of New Amsterdam. 
 Its area is 8,320 sq. m.; and its population, in 
 L870, was 906,096, of whom 30,658 were colored, 
 16 Indians, and 1 5 Chinese. 
 
 Educational History. — The history of the 
 school system in New .Jersey begins just one 
 hundred years prior to the Declaration of Inde- 
 pendence. The Presbyterians and Congregation- 
 alists, who were the earliest immigrants under 
 English authority, came to this province bring- 
 ing preachers and school-teachers with them. 
 By the side of the log church, the primitive 
 school-house was erected; and schools, supervised 
 
 and supported l>y the church authorities, were 
 established in the early settlements of Newark, 
 Woodbridge, Elizabeth, Middletown, Freehold, 
 Shrewsbury, l'iscataway, Perth Amboy, and 
 other places in East New Jersey. The pioneers 
 in West Xew Jersey were Quakers. To them 
 the school-house was scarcely second in import- 
 ance to the church or meeting-house, and both 
 were usually under the same roof. The earliest 
 record of any action of a public nature for the 
 
 establishment of scl Is is dated November 21., 
 
 1676, when the people of the town of Newark 
 resolved at tow n meeting, "that the town's men 
 have liberty to see if they can find a competent 
 number of scholia i-s. and accommodations for a 
 Bchool-master." "The town's men'' found the 
 "competent number of schollars", accordingly, 
 and made partial arrangements for the employ- 
 ment of a "school-master." further instructions 
 were given at the next town meeting, in the 
 
 form of the follow ing resolution: "The town hath 
 consented that the town's men she add perfect the 
 
 bargain with the Bchool-master for this year, 
 
 upon condition thai he will come for this year. 
 
 and do his faithful, holiest, and true endeavor 
 
 to teach the children or servants of those who 
 
 have subscribed, the reading and writing of En- 
 glish, and also of arithmetics: if they desire it. as 
 much as thej are capable to learn, and he ca- 
 pable to teach them, within the compass of this 
 year; ELOwise hindering but that he may make 
 
 what bargain he please with those as have not 
 subscribed." From this date, the people of the 
 town of Newark never failed to provide for the 
 schooling of their children. The superior claims 
 of the church, however, were recognised; as ap- 
 pears from the following order given in town 
 meeting, September 28., 1711: "Ordered by vote 
 thai ye old floor in ye meeting house should be 
 made use of for ye making a Moor in ye school- 
 house in the middle of ye town." In March, 
 1681), the town people of Woodbridge resolved, 
 "that James Fuilerton should be entertained as 
 school-master:'' and, in 1694, we are informed 
 that John Brown was engaged at a salary of 
 £24 sterling to keep a free school for the next 
 year. In 1701, the people of Woodbridge further 
 resolved that a piece of land, "about 10 rods," 
 be allowed for a school-house, " provided it did 
 not prejudice the highway." As early as KiilT. 
 George Fox advised his brethren in New Jersey 
 to establish boarding-schools, "that young men 
 of genius, in low circumstances, may be furnished 
 with means to procure requisite education." and 
 the ShackelweD school was opened about this 
 
 time, "for the teaching of whatsoever things 
 were civil and useful in creation." In 1088, an 
 island in the Delaware, opposite the settlement 
 of Burlington was set apart for educational pur- 
 poses, the revenue derived from the rent or sale 
 of which was reserved for the education of 
 children in the adjoining settlements. The in- 
 come of the fund thus derived is still used to as- 
 sist the cause of education by the school officers 
 of the present city of Burlington. This was the 
 tirst school fund established in the province, and, 
 il is believed, in America. The first school law 
 of the siate was emu ted by the general assembly 
 of I'.ast New Jersey. at Perth Amlioy, on the 12th 
 of October, 1693. It reads as follows: "Where- 
 as the cultivating of learning and good manners 
 tends greatly to the good and benefit of man- 
 kind, which hath hitherto been much neglected 
 within this province. Be it, Ocrefore, enacted by 
 the governor, council, and deputies in general 
 assembly now met and assembled, and by the 
 authority of the same, that the inhabitants of 
 any town within this province shall and may, 
 
 by warrant from a justice of peace of thai county, 
 when they think tit and convenient, meet to- 
 gether and make choice of three more men of 
 said town, to make a rate for thesalaiy and main- 
 tenance of a school-master within the said town, 
 for so long time as they think tit ; and the con- 
 sent and agreemenl of the major part of the in- 
 habitants of the said town shall bind and oblige 
 
 the remaining part of the inhabitants of the said 
 town to satisfy and pay their shares and pro]K>r- 
 
 tion of the said rate; and. in case of refusal or 
 non-payment, distress to be made upon the goods 
 and chattels of such pei-son or persons so refus- 
 ing Or nol paying, by the constable of the said 
 town, by Virtue of a warrant from a justice of 
 the peace of that county, and the distress so to 
 
 be sold at public vendue, and the overplus, if 
 
 any be after payment of the said rate ami char- 
 ges, to be returned to the owner." In 1695, this 
 
NEW JERSEY 
 
 629 
 
 act was amended, providing that three men 
 shook) be chosen yearly iii each separate town 
 to have "power to appoint the most convenient 
 
 place or places where the school shall lie kept. 
 t hat as near as may be the whole inhabitants 
 may have the benefit thereof." Under the opera- 
 tion of this law. schools were established in all 
 parts of the province, whenever a majority of 
 the inhabitants desired them. The first Btep to- 
 ward the establishment of a state school fund 
 was the passage of an act, on the 9th of February, 
 1816, which directed the treasurer to invest in 
 the public 6 percent stocks of the United States 
 the sum of $1 5,000, which arose from the pay- 
 ment of the funded debt. and from the dividend; 
 of the stocks held by the state in the Trenton 
 Hank. and. at the end of every year to invest the 
 interest on the capital in the same manner. This 
 sum was increased by an act of the legislature in 
 1 si 7. In 181 8, the governor, the vice-president of 
 councils, the speaker of the assembly, the attor- 
 ney-general, and the secretary of the common- 
 wealth were appointed "trustees for the control 
 and management of the fund for the support of 
 free schools." The whole amount of the fund 
 was then increased to the sum of $113,238.78. 
 In 1820, a law was passed authorizing the inhab- 
 itants of any township to raise by taxation 
 money for the education of paupers and the 
 children of such poor parents residing in the 
 township as are. in the judgment of the township 
 committee, unable to pay for schooling the same. 
 This was the first general act which authorize 1 
 the township to raise money for the support of 
 schools. The idea that the money raise I under this 
 law was to be used for the purpose of educating 
 paupers and poor children only, became general 
 at this time, and remained a feature of all school 
 enactments in the state till the year 1838. In 
 1 824, the legislature provided that one-tenth of 
 all the state taxes should every year be added to 
 the school fund; and. four years later, the people 
 were authorized to raise funds in town meetings, 
 
 • 
 
 to erect or repair school-houses. In 1828. a 
 '•central committee" on education was appointed 
 by a convention held at Trenton, to canvass the 
 state and collect statistics from every county; 
 and committees were appointed in the several 
 counties, and in the majority of townships, to 
 aid the central committee. A summing up of 
 the reports of these committees revealed the fact 
 that more than one-third of the children in the 
 state were without schooling of any kind. One 
 of the county reports made at that time was re- 
 markable from the fact that in it was embodied 
 the idea of a normal school. Among other sug- 
 ions. the chairman of the Ess x county com- 
 mittee said : "1 very much wish that some plan 
 of improvement may he attempted to raise the 
 tone of feeling respecting our common schools. 
 I have thought of no plan better than to estab- 
 lish a high school for the sole purpose of educat- 
 ing young men for teachers." The result of the 
 labors of this ■•central committee" was an awak- 
 ened public interest, which led to the passage of 
 the school law of 182'J — the first comprehensive 
 
 and practical school enactment of the state 1< 
 lature. This provided for an annual appropri- 
 ation of $20,000, to be apportioned for school 
 purposes among the several counties in propor- 
 tion to the amount of taxes paid by each. It 
 also provided for the election of school commit- 
 tees in each township, who were required to di- 
 vide the township into convenient school-districts, 
 to examine and license teat hers, to visit and in- 
 spect the schools' at least once every six months, 
 and to make a report of their condition, which 
 report was read at the annual town meeting, and 
 was then sent to the governor to be laid before 
 the legislature. They were also empowered to 
 call annual district meetings, at which three 
 trustees were chosen, whose duty it was to pro- 
 vide suitable school-houses, and to determine 
 how many months during the year the schools 
 should be kept open. They also prepared a list 
 of children in the district between the ages of 4 
 and 16 years, which was used as the basis for the 
 apportionment of the public money. In 1831, the 
 act of 1829 was repealed, and a new law enacted, 
 the most important features of which were that 
 the state appropriation should be applied, to the 
 education of poor children exclusively, and that 
 the public money, which had before been paid to 
 the trustees of the school-districts, should now 
 be paid to the several schools in the township. 
 whether they were public, private, or parochial. 
 This latter change was made in obedience to the 
 demands of the religious denominations of the 
 state, under whose auspices schools had been 
 established throughout the state. By this law. 
 also, district boundary lines were abolished, and 
 teachers were not required to be examined. In 
 1838, the dissatisfaction with the school system 
 was so general that a convention was called to 
 re-organize it. This convention assembled at 
 Trenton, on the Kith of January, and appointed 
 a committee to issue an address to the people. 
 The result of this spirited action was. that the 
 legislature, thoroughly informed of the temper 
 of the people, repealed the pernicious act of 
 1831, and re-enacted a law. which contained, in 
 an improved form, all the characteristic features 
 of the act of 1829. The state appropriation was 
 increased to $30,000 ; district boundaries were 
 restored ; money was appropriated to districts 
 for the benefit of the public schools exclusively ; 
 and townships were required to raise by taxation, 
 for school purposes, a sum equal to double the 
 amount received from the state. The minimum 
 age of school children was changed from 4 years 
 to 5; and a board of examiners for each county 
 was created, with authority to examine teachers 
 and to issue county certificates. No reference was 
 made to pauper or poor children. In L845, a 
 supplementary act was passed, authorizing the 
 trust ei's of the school fund to appoint a state 
 superintendent of public schools for the counties 
 of Kssex and Passaic ; but other counties might. 
 at any time, come under the provisions of the law 
 by resolution of the board of freeholders. The 
 jurisdiction of the state superintendent was not 
 extended over the whole state till 1846. In that 
 
630 
 
 NEW JERSEY 
 
 year, all previous school enactments were re- 
 pealed ; and a comprehensive law, including the 
 most important features of the repealed acts, 
 with Beveral new provisions, was enacted. This 
 law remained in force till 1867. Its distinctive 
 feature wa.s the creation of township superintend- 
 ents, who were required, in addition to other 
 duties, to visit the schools once every quarter, 
 and to make a report of their condition to the 
 state superintendent. In L851, the annual appro- 
 priation was increased to $40,000. The act of that 
 year provided, also, that the public money -should 
 be apportioned to the counties in the ratio of 
 their population, and to the townships in propor- 
 tion to the number of children between the ages 
 of 5 and 18 years: and no township was allowe 1 
 to raise by taxation, for school purposes, more 
 than $3 annually for each child of school age. 
 In 1854, teachers' institutes were established by 
 law, and Sinn was annually appropriated to each 
 institute. The following year, the Legislature 
 provided for the purchase of a copy of Webster's 
 Dictionary for each school in the state; an I, the 
 next year, for a copy of Ldppincott's Gazetteer. 
 In 1850, the normal school was established. In 
 1858, th ■ annual appropriation was increased to 
 $80,000. The state board of education was es- 
 tablish • 1 in L866. It consisted of the governor, 
 attorney-general, comptroller, secretary of state 
 president of the senate, speaker of t be house, and 
 the treasurer and trustees of the normal school. 
 In 1867, the act of L846 and its amendments 
 were repeale I. and the law now in force was en- 
 acted. In 1871, all the public schools of the state 
 were made five ; and, in 1874, a compulsory 
 school law was enacted, by which every person 
 having charge of a chili I between the ages of 8 and 
 13 years is required to see that such child has. 
 at least, twelve weeks' schooling in each year, six 
 we (ks of which must be consecutive. The Btate 
 superintendents have been: T. F. King, 1845 52; 
 d.ll. Phillips,1852 -60; F.W.Ricord,1860 64; 
 C. M. Harrison, 1864 — 6 ; and Ellis A. Apgar. 
 from 1866 to the present time (1876). 
 
 School Si/st m.— The state board of education 
 
 is intrusted with the educational interests of the 
 
 state. It is composed of the governor, secretary 
 
 of state, attorn \ o >n sral, comptroller, presi lent 
 of the senate, sp laker of the assembly, treasurer 
 of the state normal school, an I the trustees of 
 the same, at present II in number. This board 
 exercises a general supervision over the schools, 
 appoints county superintendents, prescribes rules 
 
 for holding teachers' institutes, and makes an 
 annual report to the legislature. It appoints, also, 
 the state superintendent of public instruction, 
 who is, ex officio, its secretary. Bis term of office 
 i- 3 years. Be is required to have his office in 
 the state house, to exercise a general supervision 
 over the schools, and to make an annual report 
 in the siate board. County superintendents are 
 required to examine teachers and grant certifi- 
 cates, to apportion the school money, and to per- 
 form the other duties usually devolving upon 
 Buch officers. In addition to the certificates 
 ill i>\ county superintendents, a state board 
 
 of examiners, consisting of the state superin- 
 tendent and the principal of the normal school, 
 is authorized to grant certificates valid in any 
 part of the state. County boards of examin- 
 ers, composed of the county superintendent and 
 3 associates chosen by him, and examiners ap- 
 pointed by the city boards of education, also 
 grant teachers' certificates valid, respectively, in 
 the counties and cities where issued. Township 
 boards are composed of the district trustees of 
 each township, and meet at Mich times and 
 places as the county superintendents designate, 
 for the purpose of consultation with the latter 
 in regard to the management of the .schools. Each 
 city in the state constitutes one school-district; 
 but, in the country, a district usually comprises 
 only the territory and inhabitants necessary to 
 support one school. — The schools are supported 
 mainly by a direct state appropriation, which 
 amounts to about SI ,300,000 annually. 'I his sum 
 is raised by a tax of 2 mills on every dollar of 
 the property of the state. In case the amount 
 thus derived from the state, however, is not suf- 
 ficient to maintain the schools nine months in 
 the year, the townships are still authorized to vote 
 school money; and the money needed for build- 
 ing and repairing school-houses is still raised by 
 district tax. The amount of the permanent 
 school fund was hugely increased, in L871, by a 
 from the state ot the proceeds of the sales and 
 
 rent of all riparian lands between high and low 
 water mark -a sum the future value of which 
 
 has been variously estimated at from $5,1 00,000 
 to $10,1 00,000. A free library system exists in 
 the public schools, and state aid is extended to 
 such districts as raise money for the purpose. 
 Nearly 400 free-school libraries have been estab- 
 lished in this way. 'I he Bchool age is from 5 to 
 18 years. Corporal punishment, and all religious 
 exercises, except the reading of the Bible and the 
 saving of the Lord's Prayer, are forbidden. 
 
 Educational Condition. — The number of 
 school-districts, in 1876, was 1,368 : the number 
 of school buildings, 1,532 ; of school departments 
 under the charge of one teacher each. 3,046. 
 
 The scho >' revi nue for the year 1876 was: 
 
 Two mill tax from the -: ite $1,225,462.19 
 
 Additional state appropria- 
 tion, including income Irom 
 permanent fund 100,000.00 
 
 Township school tax 26,5 18.60 
 
 Interest of surplus revenue. 30,fi 
 
 District and city tax for 
 teachers' salaries 324,988.34 
 
 District and city tax for 
 buildings and repairs.... 4Q7,T<: 7.70 
 
 Total appropriated for school purposes.. $2,115,290.37 
 
 Tiii it \ alue of Bchool property $6,449,616.00 
 
 School statistics for the year ending Aug. 31., 
 
 1876: 
 
 Number of children of school age in the state 314,826 
 " " •■ enrolled in public schools 196,252 
 
 Average attendance in public bcI Is 103,620 
 
 Numbei atte iding private schools 41,964 
 
 Number of teachers, males 978 
 
 " " females '2.::i"; 
 
 Total 3,284 
 
 average monthly salary of male teachers... $66.42 
 
 '• •' '• female teachers. . $37.3'J 
 
NEW JERSEY 
 
 631 
 
 Normal Instruction. — Besides the state 
 normal school at Trenton, normal schools or 
 classes have been established at Newark. Jersey 
 City, Paterson, and in some other cities of the 
 b< ue. The state normal school, with its adjuncts, 
 the model school, and the Farnum preparatory 
 school, at Beverly, constitutes the special means 
 employed by the state for the education of 
 teachers. The normal school is supported partly 
 by an annual appropriation of $20,000. The 
 course of instruction occupies 3 years. Graduates 
 from the advanced course receive state certificates 
 of the second grade, valid for 7 years ; graduates 
 from the elementary course receive certificates 
 of the third grade, valid for 5 years. These 
 certificates entitle the holders to teach in the 
 public schools of the state, without further ex- 
 amination. The number of the former class, in 
 1875, was 28 : of the latter. 14. The Farnum 
 preparatory school receives aid from the state. 
 and serves as a stepping-stone to the state 
 normal school. The students from its normal 
 d partnient receive no diplomas, and are not 
 authorized to teach in the public schools without 
 examination. 
 
 Secondary Instruction. — High schools in con- 
 nection with the public-school system have been 
 established in Newark, Jersey City, Paterson, 
 New Brunswick, and Trenton. Besides the 
 high schools and academies, secondary instruction 
 is given at many of the private schools and 
 seminaries in the state. Three business colleges 
 exist in the state, one each at Trenton, Newark, 
 and Elizabeth. Two of them, in 1874, reported 
 in instructors and 353 students. 
 
 Private, Denominational, and Parochial 
 Sihools. — The number of non-sectarian private 
 schools is 240; of denominational schools, 106. 
 
 Superior Inst ruction. — The colleges of the 
 Btate, exclusive of those for females, are the 
 following: 
 
 NAME 
 
 Burliugton College. . . 
 College of New Jersey. 
 
 Butgers College 
 
 Seton Hall College 
 
 Location 
 
 Burlington 
 Princeton 
 N. Brunswick 
 So. Orange 
 
 When 
 found- 
 ed 
 
 1846 
 1748 
 
 1771 
 
 1S5G 
 
 Denomi- 
 nation 
 
 P. Epis. 
 Presb. 
 Iteforni. 
 It. C. 
 
 There are five colleges for the superior in- 
 struction of women: St. Mary's Hall, Burling- 
 ton ; Trinity Hall, Beverly; Bordentown Female 
 Coll ge ; Ivy Hall. Bridgeton ; and the Penning- 
 ton Seminary and Female Collegiate Institute. 
 
 Professior$al and Scientific Instruction. — 
 The John C. Green School of Science is a depart- 
 ment of the I Jollege of New Jersey, at Princeton. 
 It provides two courses of study, and confers 
 d grees expressive of proficiency in each. Nearly 
 $600,000 have been expended on this school, its 
 name indicating the principal contributor. The 
 scientific school of Rutgers College, endowed 
 principally by the sale of agricultural land scrip, 
 to the amount of 81 L6.000, has been constituted 
 by an act of the legislature the college for agri- 
 culture and the mechanic arts. It has a course 
 Ju chemistry and agriculture, and one in civil 
 
 engineering and mechanics. Connected with the 
 former, is a model farm, on which the claims of 
 
 different systems are put to a practical test. State 
 students, to the number of 40, are admitted on 
 the recommendation of the county superintend- 
 ents, and are instructed free of charge. The 
 
 Stevens Institute of Technology, at llolioken, was 
 founded by Kdwin A. Stevens, by a gift of land, 
 and $650,000 for buildings and endowment. It 
 was opened in L871 as a school for special scien- 
 tific training, but provides instruction in other 
 branches as well. Connected with it is a high 
 
 school, which is designed as a preparatory depart- 
 ment for the Institute. 'I he latter has extensive 
 collections, and a library of 5,000 volumes. Its 
 course is 4 years, on the completion of which it 
 confers degrees. The theological seminary of the 
 Reformed Church is substantially a department 
 of Rutgers College, and is the principal training 
 school in the United States for ministers of that 
 denomination. In 1874 — 5, it reported 4 pro- 
 fessors and 39 students. The theological semi- 
 nary of the Presbyterian ( lunch at Princeton 
 was organized in 1812, and has a 4 years' course 
 for graduates from the College of New Jersey, or 
 for others who have received a classical educa- 
 tion. In 1874, it had 7 instructors and 97 students. 
 The German r l heological School at Bloomfield 
 was founded in 1869, by the Presbyterians, for 
 the purpose of providing German-speaking in- 
 structors for the large and rapidly increasing 
 German population of the United States. It has 
 a theological, and an academic department, the 
 principal study in the latter being the German 
 language. In 1874 — 5, it had 5 instructors and 
 24 students. The Drew Theological Seminary, 
 at Madison, was opened in 1867 by a fund of 
 $250,000, given by Daniel Drew for its establish- 
 ment, to which additions have, from time to 
 time, been made, making a total of nearly 
 SI. 000,000. It is under the auspices of the 
 Methodist Episcopal Church, bishops of which 
 are, ex officio, members of its board of supervision. 
 The grounds are 95 acres in extent. There are 
 3 seminary buildings, besides professors' resi- 
 dences, and a library containing 12,000 volumes. 
 The introductory course is 2 years: the regular, 3. 
 To the latter, only college graduates are ad- 
 mitted. In 1874 — 5, it reported 9 instructors, 
 9 lecturers, and 127 students. 
 
 Special Instruction. — No provision has thus 
 far (1876) been made by the state for the in- 
 struction of deaf-mutes, blind, or feeble-minded 
 persons; but about $40,000 is annually expended 
 by the state for their care in the institutions of 
 other states. Their number, according to an in- 
 quiry instituted by the legislature in 1873, was 
 500 deaf-mutes, 600 blind, and more than 1,0(J0 
 feeble-minded. 
 
 The State Industrial School for Girls was 
 established at Trenton by an act of the legislature, 
 in 1871, "for the reformation of girl- between 
 the ages of 7 and 16 years." In 1S74, there were 
 19 inmates. The State Reform School was 
 opened at Jamesburg, in 1867. The institution 
 is rather reformatory than penal, and, in addi- 
 
C32 
 
 NEW .JERSEY COLLEGE 
 
 NEW MEXICO 
 
 ticra to moral training, provides intellectual in- 
 struction in elementary branches. In 1874, the 
 total Dumber of its inmates was 298; the average 
 attendance. L8 I. 
 
 NEW JERSEY, College of (popularly 
 railed Princeton College), at Princeton, N.J., 
 founded under the auspices of the Presbyterian 
 Synod of New York, which then included New 
 Jersey under its jurisdiction, was opened in May. 
 1747, at Elizabethtown (now Elizabeth] and the 
 same year was removed to Newark, whence it 
 was transferred to Princeton, in 1 7 ~> 7 , upon the 
 completion of a college edifice, which at the 
 Suggestion of Gov. Belcher was named Nassau 
 Hall, "to the immortal memory of the glorious 
 King William III., of the illustrious house of 
 Nassau." From this circumstance the college 
 itself is often called Nassau 1 1 till . It obtained a 
 charter in L746, and a more liberal one in L748. 
 The college buildings, including a library, gym- 
 nasium, observatory, society halls, and the presi- 
 dent's house, besides various college halls, are 
 mostly of stone, and occupy a well-shaded cam- 
 pus on the main street of the town. The con- 
 tributions to the college within the last eighl 
 years amount to $1,500,000. The college and 
 society libraries contain about 55,000 volumes. 
 The institution comprises an academic depart- 
 ment and the John C. (been School of Sci 
 (opened in 1*7.'$), and has a preparatory school 
 connected with it. In the academic depart- 
 ment, all the studies of the freshman and the 
 sophomore year are required ; in the junior and 
 Che senior year, a considerable range of elective 
 
 studies is provided. The School of Science has 
 
 fcffo regular courses, one of two years, for grad- 
 uated of colleges, on the completion of which the 
 
 aftgree of Master of Science isct inferred, and the 
 other of four years, for others, on the comple- 
 tion of which the d igree of Bachelor of Science 
 is conferred. The cost of tuition in the academic 
 d ■jiartinent is $75 per annum ; in the School of 
 Science. SI 'Jit. There are several prizes and 
 
 scholarships obtainable by deserving students. 
 Six fellowships have been established, four of 
 which yield $800 each, the other two yielding 
 $250 each. These are open for competition to 
 members of the graduating class who intend to 
 pursue a post-graduate course of one year. In 
 1876, there were L8 professors, 6 other instruct- 
 ors, and 183 stu lent- | 138 in the academic de- 
 partment, and C> in the School of Science). 
 The whole number of graduates is aboul 1,850, 
 of whom nearly 2,750 survive. The presidents 
 of the college have been as follows: Rev. Jon- 
 athan Dickinson, May to Oct.. 1747 ; Rev. Aaron 
 Burr, 1748 57; Rev. Jonathan Edwards, Jan, 
 to March, L758; Rev. Samuel Davies,1759 61; 
 Rev. Samuel Finley, L76] 6; Rev. I>r. John 
 Withersnooii. L768 94 ; Rev. Dr. Samuel S1 
 ho,v Smith, L795 1812; Rev. Dr. Ashbel 
 Green, L812 22; Rev. I>r. .lames Camaban, 
 182.! -54 ; Rev. Dr. John Maclean, 1854 6$ : 
 Rev. I>r James Met 'osh, from 1868. 
 
 NEW JERUSALEM, Societies of the, 
 DlE i i - i i ■ i ■ a nmed liy the ecclesiastical organiza- 
 
 tions of the followers of SwedenboTg, the Swedish 
 theosophist, who died in 1772. Swedenborg him- 
 self did not make any provisions for organizing 
 his followers into an independent religious b 
 and the first Society of the New Jerusalem was 
 not formed until L788, when Robert Bindmarsh 
 and others established public worship in London. 
 At present, there is a general conference of the 
 New- Church in England! with about 4.000 mem- 
 bers, and another in the United States, which, in 
 1 875, had about 5.0(10 members. There are, be- 
 sides, a number of indepeudent societies in the 
 United States and on the continent of Europe, 
 with an aggregate of about 1,000 members. 'I he 
 general conference in the United States founded, 
 in 1800, a theological school at Walt ham, Mas- 
 sachusetts; but no term was held in the year 
 1*75 — 6, as no students applied for admission. 
 A college under the control of the Church was 
 chartered, in 1850, and organized, in 1851, at 
 T'rbana. Ohio: and. in 1*74, it had 14 students. 
 There is also a school under the control of the 
 general conference of England. Sunday-schools 
 .ire connected with nearly all the societies, both 
 in the United States and in England. 
 
 NEW MEXICO, oue of 'the territories of 
 the United States, first made known to Euro- 
 
 peans, about 1 537,bythe visit of a Spanish expedi- 
 dition underAlvar Nunez. It was ceded to the 
 United States in L 848, at the close of the Mexican 
 war. and was organized as a territory in 1850. 
 Its area is 121,201 sq. m.; its population, in 1870, 
 was 91,874, of whom 90,393 were whites; 172 
 colored persons; and 1,309, non-tribal Indians. 
 
 Educational History. — Provision was first 
 made for giving elementary instruction to the 
 youth of the province of New Mexico in 1822. 
 Owing to the sparsely settled condition of the 
 country, and to the fad that the peons, or serfs, 
 not included within the privileges of the act, 
 constituted a majority of the inhabitants in the 
 country districts, the operation of the law was 
 confined to the cities and towns. The salaries 
 of the teachers were small, those in the capital 
 
 being paid by appropriations from the public 
 treasury; while those in the country were paid. 
 by the district officers, from money taken either 
 from the general treasury, or derived from local 
 taxation. I ndcr this system, no permanent in- 
 stitution of learning was founded. In 1852, how- 
 ever, the Academy of Our Lady of Light was 
 
 established at Santa Fe by the Sisters oi Loretto; 
 and, from an experimental beginning, with 7 
 
 hoarders and a tew other scholars, it has now 
 become firmly established as a permanent insti- 
 tution, with an influence which has not only led 
 
 to the establishment of branch schools under its 
 
 own direction, but to the foundation of other 
 independent schools in various parts of the ter- 
 ritory. Ill 1855, and again in 1861, attempts 
 
 were made by the legislature to organize a system 
 
 of public schools by general taxation: hut the 
 
 public sentiment of the people was opposed to 
 
 the measure, and the laws were repealed. No 
 other school law was enacted till [871 — 2. In 
 that year, the assembly passed an act, which was 
 
NEW MEXICO 
 
 NEW ORLEANS 
 
 633 
 
 ratified liy the people at the polls, and, which, 
 with slight modifications, in 1 sT.'t — -Lis the pres- 
 ent public school law of the territory. In accord- 
 ance with recommendations made by the gov- 
 ernor, in 1875, a bill was introduced in the coun- 
 cil, proposing a non-sectarian system of publie- 
 , school education, l>ut it was defeated in the 
 house by a vote of 14 to 10. 
 
 School System. — The school law provides that 
 the educational interests of the state shall be in- 
 trusted to local boards of supervisors and direct- 
 ors of the public schools, to be elected for two 
 yettrS, in each county, respectively. These boards 
 consist of three members each, with the probate 
 judge of the county, who is president, ex officio. 
 They have the entire control of the schools and 
 of the school funds, each member receiving for 
 his services $3 a day. The want of uniform- 
 ity, thus engendered, in the administration of 
 the schools, has been a serious cause of com- 
 plaint. The area, however, over which each board 
 exercises supervision being limited, the existence 
 of anyother officers is rendered unnecessary. The 
 territorial superintendent, an officer created in 
 L's".'? — L receives the annual reports from the 
 local boards, and transmits them to the governor. 
 lie is. also, territorial librarian, ex officio. The 
 School fund consists of 25 per cent of the tax on 
 property, $1 poll tax for every male citizen above 
 the age of 21 years, and any surplus, of more 
 than $500, in the treasury of any county, after 
 paying the current expenses of such county. 
 
 The public schools are almost entirely con- 
 fined to the teaching of elementary branches. 
 Owing to the early settlement of the country by 
 the Spaniards and the Mexicans, and its almost 
 exclusive possession, till very recently, by them 
 or their descendants, Spanish is the language 
 spoken by the great majority of the people. The 
 control of the schools, also, being entirely local, 
 that language has been introduced into them, in 
 some cases exclusively, and in others jointly with 
 the English language. The Catholic religion, 
 also, is, for the same reason, generally taught in 
 them. The legal school age is between 7 and 
 1 <s years. The secretary of the territory is the 
 acting superintendent of public instruction. W. 
 O. Ritch has been the secretary since 187.'5. 
 
 Educational Condition. — The number of pub- 
 lic schools in the territory, reported in 1875, 
 was 138, of which 97 were for boys ; 8, for girls: 
 and .'5.'5, mixed Some, however, were not re- 
 ported. English and Spanish were taught in 38 
 schools: Spanish alone, in 86; and English alone. 
 
 in 7. The revenue for the support of the scl Is. 
 
 derived from the sources above mentioned, 
 amounted, in 1875, to $25,473.46. The principal 
 items of school statistics are the following: 
 
 Number of pupils in attendance 5,151 
 
 11 teachers, males 132 
 
 " " " females L5 
 
 Total 147 
 
 Average number of months schools worn kept. . G.G 
 Expenditures for teachers' wages. . $15,432 
 " rent and books. . 1,800 
 " " other purposes. . l,6. r >7 
 
 Total $18,889 
 
 Average teachers' wages per month $10.">s 
 
 Number of public schools supported or*t of 
 the school fund, but controlled by re- 
 ligious societies 10 
 
 Private and Parochial Schools*- Under this 
 head must be classed all the convent and mis- 
 sion schools and academies, and many private 
 schools. Of these. L2 are Roman Catholic, li for 
 boys and 6 forgirls; 8 Protestant, for both sexes'; 
 exclusive of 13 non-sectarian schools, including 
 7 Pueblo Indian schools, in which there were 
 enrolled, at the close of 1875, 242 pupils; and of 
 this number. L80 were in daily attendance during 
 the winter months, and about one half that num- 
 ber during the summer months. The number of 
 scholars able to read and write was 47, and 15 
 could work in the first four rules of arithmetic ; 
 while spelling, reading, writing, arithmetic, and 
 geography were all successfully taught in En- 
 glish. But few of the children, however, under- 
 stand English to any extent. Of the Protestant 
 schools, 4 are Methodist Episcopal M ission schools. 
 Only 3, in all this number, teach the higher 
 branches. The average attendance of pupils, in all 
 these schools, in 1875, was 1,259; the number of 
 male teachers, 41; female teachers, 40. The average 
 number of months the schools were kept was 9.4. 
 Many of these schools receive a yearly donation 
 from the public-school fund. 
 
 No special provision has been made for supe- 
 rior instruction. Of the schools above referred 
 to, 3 give instruction in the higher branches, in- 
 cluding Latin. The want of a uniform public- 
 school system in the territory has long been felt, 
 and has been a subject of consideration by its 
 governors and many of its leading men. The 
 present school law, though faulty in many re- 
 spects, is regarded as evidence of a decided step 
 in advance of the position taken as late even 
 as 1861, when a public-school law was voted 
 down almost unanimously. "While the parochial 
 schools," says secretary Rich, "are. without doubt, 
 the best schools we have had in New Mexico, 
 there is rather more than a suspicion that the 
 advocates and supporters of some of them have 
 a special interest in paralyzing the efficiency of 
 the public schools, and in keeping them in bad 
 repute, as a means of maintaining their own 
 superiority"; and again, "make the public-school 
 system of New Mexico all it is practicable to be 
 made at this time, and the result will be pre- 
 paratory schools, not only for the state, but for 
 higher education. The present denominational 
 Schools would then, under the free push of these 
 preparatory schools, be forced, like the sects they 
 represent, to stand on their own merits, to en- 
 large and liberalize their curriculum of study, 
 and biuish up their diction and scholarship." 
 
 NEW ORLEANS, the capital and metrop- 
 olis of the state of Louisiana, nearly co-exten- 
 sive with the parish of Orleans. It was first 
 permanently settled in IT'J.'!, under the French* 
 who held possession of it till 1769, when it 
 passed under Spanish rule, and so continued till 
 1801, when the French regained possession of it, 
 but ceded it, asa part of Louisiana, to the United 
 States, in 1803. 
 
C34 
 
 NEW ORLEANS 
 
 Educational History. — -As might be expected 
 from the manner in which the city was founded, 
 the first instruction given was in connection 
 with the religious establishments of the Roman 
 Catholics. The earliest school appears to have 
 been that of the Ursuline nuns, whieh was 
 founded by the French government in 1733, and 
 carried on in the same place till 1824, when it 
 was removed to its present location, about two 
 miles from the center of the city. It was a semi- 
 nary for young ladies, and, in 1845, had 120 
 pupils. The city, during all the early years of 
 its existence, had no public-school system, the 
 instruction of children and youth being given 
 in private or denominational schools, or in chari- 
 table institutions. Of schools of the first class, 
 many existed, but no record of them remains. 
 In 1830, the Female Orphan Asylum was 
 opened with 6 children. In 1840, more extensive 
 buildings were completed for it, in which it gave 
 instruction to about 100 children. Since then, 
 an average of 145 have been annually instructed 
 there, ami, at a suitable age, apprenticed. In 
 L845, the Carmelite Convent, which was oc- 
 cupied by nuns of that order, supported two 
 .schools, one white, the other free colored. At 
 the same time, the 1'oydras Female Orphan 
 Asylum gave instruction to 120 children an- 
 nually. Other institutions of the kind, which 
 have taken a greater or less part in the work of 
 education, are the Male, the Catholic Male, and 
 the Milne Orphan Asylums — the last endowed 
 by Alexander Milne, in L839. Two reading- 
 rooms, also, have been in existence for many 
 years. — The first decided change in the common- 
 school system was in 1841, the city being divid- 
 ed into .'5 municipalities and containing, at that 
 time, about 103,000 inhabitants. On the 14th of 
 February, 1841, the legislature passed an act 
 •authorizing each municipality to establish 
 schools, each parish being controlled by a board 
 of 5 administrators, who reported annually to 
 the secretary of state. The 2d municipality 
 selected 12 citizens as a board of directors of 
 public education, granting them almost unlimited 
 powers. They employed as superintendent, J. 
 A . Shaw, who was thoroughly acquainted with 
 the New England system of public schools, ac- 
 cording to whieh it was proposed to re organize 
 the schools of New Orleans. Under his super- 
 vision, the schools began with 1.'! pupils, ami. in 
 2 years, numbered 1,11111 in actual attendance, 
 
 with an enrollment of double thai number. These 
 efforts for the improvement of the schools en- 
 countered strong opposition, at first, but were 
 attended with such unqualified success as ulti- 
 mately to secure general approbation. Thein- 
 fiuence of this improvement, also, soon extended 
 beyond the limits of the municipality in which 
 the movement had its origin. In the 3d munici- 
 pality, the old method was pursued for a long 
 time, Instruction being given in English, French, 
 exl Spanish; but here, as well as in the 1st 
 municipality, the improvement in school organ- 
 ization and methods gradually made progress, 
 .in. I, in L 844, the system throughout the city had 
 
 become uniform. By the state constitution, 
 then recently adopted, the establishment, in New- 
 Orleans, of a college to be called the University 
 of Ix)uisiana was directed. It was to consist of 
 four faculties; and one of them, that of medicine, 
 was immediately opened. The Public School 
 Lyceum and Society Library was organized in 
 1844. The object was to provide a library for 
 the youth of the 2d municipality by the voluntary 
 subscriptions of the public school children and 
 Others. The officers were those of the public 
 schools, with the addition of the mayor, recorder, 
 and aldermen as members, ex officio. The I 'copies 
 Lyceum and the Young Mens Literary Associa- 
 tion were similar institutions. 
 
 School System. — The public schools of the 
 city are governed by a board of school directors 
 consisting of twenty members, one from each 
 representative district, one additional from each 
 municipal district ; the administrator of finance 
 of the the city, ex officio; and the superintend- 
 ent of the sixth division, ex officio, who has the 
 right to speak, but not to vote, in the board. The 
 district members are appointed by the state 
 board of education, each for a term of three 
 years, one-third of the number retiring annually. 
 The superintendent of the sixth division is the 
 city superintendent. The board of school directors 
 
 appoints a committee on teachers, who. with the 
 
 city superintendent, examine applicants for em- 
 ployment as teachers. Thus the public-school 
 system of the city is under state control, though 
 supported by a city tax. The salaries of teach- 
 ers vary from $2,400 a year tor the principal 
 and $1,500 for associate teachers, in the boys' 
 high school, to an average of $814 for teachers 
 of a lower grade. — 'the number of public schools 
 is ~(\. including a central high school for boys, 2 
 high schools for trills, and 73 schools of an in- 
 ferior made. The course of instruction in the 
 central high school for boys embraces English 
 studies, mathematics, natural sciences, the clas- 
 sics, French, and book-keeping; that of the 
 girls' high schools is similar, with the exception 
 of book-keeping and classics. The principal items 
 
 of school Statistics for L875 are as follows : 
 
 Number of children of school age 70,n:>:s 
 
 Number of pupils enrolled in the schools 26,251 
 
 Average daily attendance 18,719 
 
 Number of teachers, males :::; 
 
 " '• " females .417 
 
 Whole number of teachers I'll 
 
 Total receipts for acl I purposes (373,847.99 
 
 " expenditures " " $460,128.83 
 
 Average salary of teachers per month. . . . $67.82 
 Total value of the Bchool property $775,000.00 
 
 The private schools exceed in number the public 
 
 schools ; and, in L875,were attended by 14,235 
 pupils, giving employment to 171 teachers. 
 Mosl of these school.- are attached to religious 
 
 bodies, and the great majority are for females. 
 The schools for colored children, both public 
 and private, are separate : though a few colored 
 pupils attend the schools for white children. 
 
 There ia greal opposition to mixed set Is. (For 
 
 an account of the higher educational institutions 
 of New Orleans, see Louisiana.) 
 
NEWSPAPERS 
 
 i ;:;:, 
 
 NEWSPAPERS. Tin- objection is fre- 
 quently made t<> the character of the instruction 
 ordinarily imparted at Bchool, that it has Little 
 relation to the concerns of daily life. This want 
 of relation sprung originally from the fact that 
 tli" literary class, in earlier times, was a class 
 apart, having only Blight connection with the 
 mass of people who, possessing few political rights, 
 were unworthy of consideration. The instruc- 
 tion given, therefore, was purposely of a kind to 
 emphasize the exclusiveness of the educated class. 
 Onder the changed political conditions of our 
 day, however, the tendency has steadily been to 
 equalize the two classes in intelligence — to lift 
 u]> the masses to the level of the educated, on the 
 one haul. and. on the other, to bring the studies 
 of the school and college more into accordance 
 with the daily life of the majority. Traces of 
 the original exclusiveness still remain, however) 
 in the antiquated and unpractical character of the 
 instruction, as mentioned above. Almost every 
 youth, on entering upon the business of life, be- 
 C > ii is conscious of this with chagrin. The arith- 
 metic that he studied, for instance, seems to have 
 little application to the concerns of daily life; the 
 book-keeping which he mastered with so much 
 difficulty, seems now, at this later date, to have 
 been filled with theoretical cases which have no 
 parallels iu actual experience; even the geog- 
 raphy, in which he attained such proficiency, 
 has little place in his daily routine ; while algebra, 
 geometry, and many other studies, have none at 
 all. The result is a feeling of inferiority when 
 he is brought into contact with others of his age 
 whose training has been entirely that of practical 
 life, which leads him to suspect that his time 
 has been wasted. Not till long afterwards, 
 perhaps, does lie recognize the fact that the prin- 
 ciples on which both theoretical and practical 
 knowledge are based, are the same, and that the 
 ability to apply these principles was his chief 
 want. The fe 'ling of disappointment referred 
 to might have been entirely removed, if, in his 
 instruction, the teacher had kept constantly 
 in mind, not the mental discipline alone, but 
 the mental discipline and the adaptability to the 
 affairs of life of the knowledge used in acquir- 
 ing that discipline. One of the most useful in- 
 struments for accomplishing this double purpose 
 is the newspaper. The arithmetic which is now 
 taught by the use of unusual and improbable 
 examples, could be made a living and interest- 
 ing thing, by the use of problems to be found 
 in its pages, which introduce the actual prices of 
 articles in daily use. Interest, discount, exchange, 
 the price of bonds and stocks, could be made so 
 familiar to the pupil in this way, that the change 
 from school to counting-house, which is now at- 
 tended with such a want of ease and so much 
 disappointment, would seem but the continua- 
 tion of study in another class. — Reading, also, if 
 taught from the newspaper, would familiarize 
 the pupil with the terms used in the daily con- 
 versation of professional and business men: and, 
 through the reports of proceedings in every field 
 tf human activity, fresh interest could be aroused 
 
 in studies already taken up, while attention could 
 profitably be called tothose which are ordinarily 
 
 pursued in more advanced courses; and a partial 
 
 preparation for them could thus unconsciously be 
 
 made. Thus the study of geography would receive 
 increased attention, if it could be connected with 
 
 the reports of the interest ing events from all parts 
 of the world which are daily chronicled, by in- 
 quiring into the position on the map. population, 
 form of government, >■{<■, of the different coun- 
 tries referred to. By following, in this way, the 
 records of campaigns and battles, a knowledge 
 of the topography of the country could be 
 obtained almost without effort, which would be 
 easily retained in the memory of the most ap- 
 athetic scholar; while opportunity could, at the 
 same time, betaken for digressions into its history. 
 Through its reports of strikes, labor troubles, 
 and co-operative associations, the newspaper 
 could also be made the medium for inculcating, 
 in a familiar and practical way, the rudiments of 
 political economy, usually so dry and uninterest- 
 ing; while the accounts of great engineering 
 feats, astronomical discoveries, exploring expedi- 
 tions, and voyages of discovery, would be more 
 eagerly listened to, if the pupil were made toun- 
 < lerstand that the algel >ra, geometry, or geography 
 which he daily studies has an intimate and funda- 
 mental relation to them all. The thought, also, 
 that lie might one day take part in similar work, 
 would act as a spur to renewed exertion. Any 
 means within the teacher's reach of divesting 
 the studies pursued of their dry, text-book char- 
 acter should be taken advantage of; and this can- 
 not be done in any way so easily as by investing 
 them with a human interest, by showing that 
 men and women similar to those with whom he 
 daily associates are the actors in all these stir- 
 ring events. For this purpose, hardly any medium 
 is superior to that of the daily paper. The ob- 
 jections formerly made to its use, that some of the 
 facts were unfit for youthful minds to know, and 
 that the hasty manner in which they were re- 
 ported rendered their accounts not only worth- 
 less as models but injurious, arc no longer valid. 
 To the first, it may be said that newspapers are 
 now so universally read that pupils can hardly 
 fail to set' them or hear their contents discussed; 
 and to the second, that active competition hav- 
 ing brought into the employ of the newspaper 
 so large a share of the best talent, spe< imens of 
 composition may now be found in any influen- 
 tial paper, not only unexceptionable in matter, 
 but worthy of imitation for lucid statement and 
 grace of expression. The ability, independence, 
 and rapidly-increasing circulation of the daily 
 press are fast constituting it a powerful educator; 
 and, in countries where the necessities of daily 
 life leave little time for that higher education 
 which demands leisure and a competency for its 
 accomplishment, a double purpose would be 
 served by using it as a means of instruction, as 
 not only giving to the minds of the pupils 
 practical culture, but also habituating them to 
 the constant use of the newspaper as, perhaps, 
 their chief source of intelligence. 
 
636 
 
 NEW YORK 
 
 NEW YORK, one of the thirteen original 
 states of the American Union, having an area of 
 -17.000 sq. m., and a population, according to the 
 census of 1870, of 4,330.210, of whom 52.U81 
 were colored persons ; 5,144, Indians ; and 29, 
 ( 'hinese. Of the total population, the number, 
 10 years old and upward, reported as unable to 
 read was 163.501 ; unable to write, 239,271. Of 
 the latter. 168,569 were foreign born. According 
 to the state census of 1875, the population was 
 4,705,208. 
 
 Educational History. — This topic will be 
 treated under the following heads : (I) The 
 establishing of schools; (II) The mode of main- 
 taining them : (III) The mode of supervising 
 them ; (IV) Special provisions of legislation. 
 
 I. The I >utch, by whom the first settlements 
 were made in the state, brought with them the 
 ideas and institutions of the father-land, among 
 which those of the church and the school were 
 not the least prominent. As early as 1629, the 
 West India Company, in its charter, enacted 
 that the patroom and colonists should, " in the 
 speediest manner, endeavor to find out ways and 
 means" whereby they might supply a minister 
 and a school-master. This is the first official act 
 relating to public education in the state. The 
 first regular school-master in New Amsterdam 
 was Adam Poelantsen, who commenced his 
 school in L633, and continued it till L639, when 
 he was succeeded by Jan Cornelissen, and he by 
 William Vcstens, during whose administration 
 of this school, a second was established, in 1 652. 
 (See New Fork City.) The Company and the 
 church united in paying for the services of 
 these early masters. The first school in Brook- 
 lyn was established in 1661. (See Brooklyn.) 
 The first school at Platbush was established in 
 1659, under Adrian liegeman; and one was 
 opened in Newtown, in L661, under Richard 
 Wills. The first school-master in Albany was 
 Andries Jansz, in 1650. In L659, a Latin school 
 was established in New Amsterdam, and Alex- 
 ander Carolus < fortius was sent out by the ( !om- 
 pany to serve as rector, with permission also to 
 practice his profession as physician. I lis services, 
 particularly in regard to discipline, were qo1 
 satisfactory, and he was superseded, the [lev. 
 -Kgidius Luyck being appointed in his place, 
 under whom the school flourished, children be- 
 ing senl thither from Virginia, Fori Orange, and 
 the Delaware, to receive a classical education. — 
 I p to the time of the English occupation, the 
 fundamental idea was thai of the tree school. 
 The proper authorities provided a certain salary, 
 and i he jchool master was bound by his contract, 
 to the limit of a specified number, to instruct 
 his pupils tree of tuition; and so faithful and 
 earnest were the authorities and clergy, that, at 
 the time of the final surrender to the English 
 
 (1671), schools existe 1 in almost every town and 
 
 Village within the limits of the colony. The 
 
 branches generally taught were reading, writing. 
 
 arithmetic, ami the catechism of the I Mitch 
 
 Church. — Private schools also existed during 
 
 the entire period, at least from a time anterior 
 
 to 1644 ; but no one was allowed to teach a 
 school without permission from the director-gen- 
 eral and council, who acted in conjunction with 
 the church authorities. This custom was after- 
 ward followed by the English, wdio substituted 
 the archbishop, bishop, or ordinary, in place of 
 the minister and consistory. The English, on 
 their accession, paid no great attention to edu- 
 cation, for obvious reasons. The settlements 
 were all Dutch. The prevailing religion was that 
 of the Church of Holland. After the surrender, 
 the Dutch Schools were continued, holding the 
 same relation to the Dutch Church as previous- 
 ly; for by the articles of capitulation, 'liberty 
 of conscience in divine worship and 'church 
 discipline" was secured to the Dutch, "with 
 all then accustomed jurisdiction with respect to 
 the poor and orphans''. The English knew of no 
 public schools except those in connection with 
 the church. They did, however, all that, under 
 the circumstances, was practicable. The very next 
 year after Stuyvesant's capitulation (1665), Gov. 
 Nicolls licensed John Shute to open an English 
 school in Albany ; and frequent licenses for 
 private schools, at various places, were granted 
 by the succeeding governors. In 1687, a Latin 
 school was opened in the city of New York, 
 under the sanction of the English government ; 
 and, in 1702, an act was passed for the " en- 
 couragement of a grammar free school in the 
 city of New York, and for the raising annually 
 of £50 for its support for seven years. This 
 school docs not seem to have been established 
 previous to April, 1 704, when Mr. George Muir- 
 sou was duly licensed by Gov. Cornbury as its 
 master. Cornbury is also credited, at this time, 
 with the establishment of two other English 
 schools in the city. Of all the English governors, 
 he was the most zealous and aggn ssive in behalf 
 of the English Church and schools. What 
 Androa and Fletcher would fain have accom- 
 plished legally, or by persuasion, he boldly at- 
 tempted by an exercise of authority. He pro- 
 hibited the ministers of other denominations. 
 and school-masters, from officiating without his 
 special license. The Dutch schools on Long 
 Island, too weak or too timid to contest tl s 
 matter, were broken up by him : but the Dutch 
 church in New York stood up for its chartered 
 rights, and called and settled its own school- 
 masters. The act of 1702 expired by its own 
 limitation in 1709, and was not renewed: nor 
 does it appear that legal provision for schools 
 
 of any kind was made for several years. Corn- 
 bury was gone, and he transmitted to none of 
 his immediate successors any of bis misguided 
 zeal. In 1701. the Society for the Propagation 
 of the Gospel established a school at Hye, and 
 employed as its master, Joseph Cleator. In 1710. 
 
 the society established Trinity School in New- 
 York, and employed William Huddlestone to 
 
 teach it, who served until 1724. at a salary, first 
 1 of £10, and afterwards of £15; for which lie 
 was required to teach 40 pupils free. This school 
 still continues, and had 72 l>oys on its founda- 
 tion in 1875. It appears from a table in Pratt s 
 
NEW YORK 
 
 63" 
 
 A/inals of Public Education (1872), that at the 
 olose of the colonial period, the society had estab- 
 lished, and supported, in whole or in part, 2L 
 Schools in 7 counties. The standard studies in 
 all these schools were similar to those in the 
 Uuteh schools, —reading, writing, arithmetic, and 
 the catechism of the Kngliati Church. In L 732, an 
 act was passed, "to encourage a public school in 
 the city of New York for teaching Latin, Creek, 
 and mathematics." This school was free for 20 
 pupils, of whom New York City and County 
 wen' entitled to ten, Albany County to two, and 
 the counties of Dutchess, Kings. Orange. Queens, 
 Richmond. Suffolk, Ulster, and Westchester each 
 to one. The act expired, by a provision con- 
 tained in it, Dec. 1., 1737; but was extended, 
 by the assembly and council of that year, to 
 Deo. 1.. 1838. lion. B. P. Butler of New York, 
 in an address before the Albany Institute, in 1830, 
 states that the act "was not afterwards renewed; 
 but the school was again continued, and is said 
 to have proved the germ of Columbia ( 'ollege." 
 This is very probable, since the establishment of 
 a college began to be agitated soon after; and 
 an act was passed, in 1746, for raising by lottery 
 £2,250 "for the encouragement of learning and 
 toward the founding of a college." By similar 
 -. this had increased, in 1751, to £3,443, and 
 trustees were appoiuted to guard and promote 
 th ■ interests of the embryo institution. The trus- 
 t • 8. in 1753, invited the Rev. Samuel Johnson 
 to become the president of the proposed college, 
 at a salary of £250, with the assurance that 
 Trinity Church would make a proper addition 
 thereto. The royal charter establishing King's 
 < 'ollege, bears date Oct. 31., 1754. Its functions 
 were suspended during the War of Independ- 
 ence, and its building was used for a hospital. 
 Robert R. Livingston, Gouverneur Morris, and 
 John Jay, were among its early graduates ; and 
 Alexander Hamilton was one of its students 
 whose studies were interrupted by the opening 
 scenes of the Revolution. From the founding 
 of the college to the close of the colonial period, 
 little was done in behalf of public education. 
 Immediately after the Revolution, the number 
 of the governors of King's College, being so 
 lessened by death and absence as to require the 
 interposition of the legislature, an act Avas passed 
 in 1784, investing a new corporation, under the 
 title of the Regents of the University of the 
 State of New York, with all the rights, fran- 
 chises, privileges, etc., vested in the governors of 
 tli ■ college by its charter, and changing its name 
 to Columbia College. This act required that all 
 the estate real and personal, held by King's Col- 
 lege by virtue of its charter, should be applied 
 solely to the use of Columbia College, and em- 
 powered the regents to hold additional estate, 
 for the use of said college, to the amount of an 
 annual income of £3,500 ; and, " for the further 
 promotion of learning." to hold estates real and 
 ])ersonal to the annual amount of 40,000 bushels 
 of wheat ; " to found schools and colleges in any 
 part of the state," which colleges properly 
 founded should " be considered as composing a 
 
 part of the said university." The act of 1784 
 proving unsatisfactory, another act was passed 
 in L 7 87, declaring "That an university be and is 
 hereby instituted within this state, to be called 
 and known by the name and style of "The Regents 
 
 of the University of the State of New York." 
 This act reduced the number of regents, re- 
 manded Columbia college and all its estates to a 
 board of trustees, continued the power to hold 
 property to the amount of the annual income of 
 40,000 bushels of wheat, granted authority to in- 
 corporate colleges, continued the power to confer 
 degrees, repealed the provision making such col- 
 leges a part of the university, made provision for 
 the incorporation of academies, and placed both 
 academies and colleges under the general super- 
 vision of the regents. In this year, and subse- 
 quent to the passage of the act, the first two 
 academies were incorporated,- ( 'lintoii Academy, 
 at East Hampton, and Erasmus Hall, at Flat- 
 bush. The latter is still in existence. — In 1789, 
 the legislature set apart certain portions of the 
 public lands for gospel and school purposes; and, 
 in 1793, the regents, in their report, recom- 
 mended the establishment of a general system of 
 common schools. In 1795, Governor Clinton, in 
 his message to the legislature, urged the establish- 
 ment of common schools throughout the state. 
 On the 9th of April, the same year, a law was 
 passed "for the purpose of encouraging and 
 maintaining schools in the several cities and 
 towns in the state, in which the children of the 
 inhabitants of the state shall be instructed 
 in the English language, or be taught 
 English grammar, arithmetic, mathematics, and 
 such other branches of knowledge as are most 
 useful and necessary to complete a good English 
 education;" and the sum of $50,000 a year, for 
 five years, was appropriated for their support. 
 In 1798, the returns showed that 1,352 schools 
 were in operation, with 59,660 pupils. In 1805, 
 the Free School Society, afterwards the Public 
 School Society, in the city of New York, was 
 founded, its first school being opened in 1806. 
 (See New York City.) The first act contem- 
 plating a permanent system of common schools 
 was passed in 1812. The folio wing table exhibits, 
 by decades, the progress made, under this and 
 subsequent laws, in the establishing of schools. 
 
 
 
 Number of 
 
 No. of chil- 
 
 No. of 
 
 Year 
 
 Population 
 
 school- 
 
 dren of 
 
 children 
 
 
 
 districts 
 
 school age 
 
 taught 
 
 1815... 
 
 1,035,910 
 
 2,631 
 
 176.449 
 
 140,106 
 
 1836... 
 
 1, 614,458 
 
 7,642 
 
 395,586 
 
 402,940 
 
 1835... 
 
 2,174,517 
 
 10,207 
 
 538,398 
 
 541,401 
 
 1845... 
 
 2,604.4:i;, 
 
 11,018 
 
 703,399 
 
 742,433 
 
 1S55... 
 
 3,466,212 
 
 11,798 
 
 1,214,113 
 
 945,087 
 
 isc,:,. .. 
 
 3,831,777 
 
 11,780 
 
 1,398,757 
 
 916,617 
 
 1875... 
 
 4,705,208 
 
 11,291 
 
 1,583,064 
 
 1,059,238 
 
 It will be observed that, for several years, more 
 children were reported in school than were 
 enumerated. This is due to the fact that, until 
 1 851, the legal school age was between 4 and 16 
 years, after which it was from 4 to 21 until 
 1864, when it was declared to be from 5 to 21. 
 
 II. The acts of 1789 and 1795, as before 
 stated, made provision for the support of schools. 
 
638 
 
 NEW YORK 
 
 The former set apart two lots in each township 
 of the public land thereafter to be surveyed, for 
 gospel and school purposes. According to the 
 comptroller's report, it appears that, in pursuance 
 of the' law, $100,000 was appropriated in 179!) 
 and L800; but this was never distributed. The 
 act expired in lKOO, and an attempt to revive it 
 failed. But though these appropriations were 
 not paid, some effort was made to provide means 
 for the support of the schools. Lotteries were 
 authorized, in IT'.W and L801, to raise money 
 '■for the joint benefit of academies and common 
 schools, but chiefly the latter". An act, passed 
 April 8., 1801, "to direct certain moneys to be 
 applied to the use of free schools in the city of 
 New York", directs the school moneys appor- 
 tioned to New York, to be paid to the trustees of 
 the several churches in that city, eleven being 
 enumerated, and each receiving one-eleventh pari , 
 The law of 1812 appropriated $50,000 annually, 
 to be distributed among the counties of the state; 
 and authorized the towns to raise by tax a 
 sum equal to their distributive share. The 
 law passed in 1814 made it the duty of the 
 boards of supervisors to levy on each town a 
 sum equal to its distributive share of the money 
 from the state, and made the forfeiture of the 
 school money for the county, the penalty for 
 a neglect or refusal to make such levy. No 
 provision was ma Le by the original act of 1812, 
 for raising any money by district taxation, or by 
 rate-bill to supply deficiencies, because it was 
 believed that the income of the school fund and 
 the tax for the same amount would maintain a 
 school in each district for three months in the 
 year. But the amended act of L814 required 
 the trustees to cause a school to be kept three 
 months each year, to apply the school moneys 
 to the payment of teachers' wages, and, if there 
 should be a deficiency, to collect it from the 
 patrons of the schools in proportion to the at- 
 tendance of their children. As the general school 
 law of L812 did not apply to New fork City, a 
 supplementary act was passed March 12., 1813, 
 permitting the city to share in the revenue of 
 the school fund. The city was required to raise 
 a sum equal to its share of such school money, 
 which was "to be apportioned and paid to the 
 trustees of the Free School Society of New York, 
 the trustees or treasurer of the Orphan Asylum 
 
 Society, the Society of the Kcouoinical School, 
 
 the African free School, and of such incorpo- 
 rated religious societies in said city as now sup- 
 port, or shall hereafter establish, charity schools 
 within t In said city." The distribution was to be 
 
 in proportion to the average Dumber of children 
 
 taught, between the ages of land 15 years. Nine 
 moil i hs' schooling during the previous year was 
 required; and the children were to be taught 
 free of expense. In L805, the common-school 
 fund was established by an ad providing that 
 the net proceeds of 500,000 acres of the vacant 
 and unappropriated lands of the Btate which 
 should be first thereafter sold by the Burveyor- 
 general should be appropriated as a permanent 
 Fund for the support of common schools. This 
 
 amounted, at the end of that year, to 826,774. 
 The law provided that none of the income should 
 be distributed until it should amount to 830,000 
 annually : and, accordingly, no distribution was 
 made until 1815. In L849, the legislature passed 
 an act establishing free schools. The main feature 
 of the act was the abolition of the rate-bill, and 
 the substitution therefor of district taxation. On 
 a submission of this act to popular vote, it was 
 approved by a large majority. The next year, 
 however, it was repealed, but the repeal was not 
 sustained by the vote of the people. The contro- 
 versy was temporarily settled in 1851, by an act 
 repealing the law, and levying a Btate tax of 
 $800,000, to be distributed in lieu of the county 
 tax required by the law of 1814: it also restored 
 the rate-bill and extended the school year to six 
 months. In 1856, a tax of three-fourths of a 
 mill on each dollar of the valuation of property 
 in the state was substituted for the $800,000 
 state tax. In 1867, the rate-bill was finally 
 abolished, and the state tax for the support of 
 common schools was fixed at one and one-quarter 
 mill on each dollar of the assessed valuation of 
 property in the state. The act authorizing the 
 formation of union free-school districts was 
 passed in 1853. In 1864, the school year was ex- 
 tended so as to include 2s weeks, as at present. 
 In 1838, the income of the U. S. deposit fund 
 was by law appropriated as follows: $110,000, 
 for the payment of teachers' salaries: $55,000, 
 for the support of district libraries; $28,000, 
 to the literature fund, to be expended for the edu- 
 cation of common-schoolteachers; and $15,000, 
 to colleges. The balance, which it was estimated 
 would annually amount to about 850,000, was 
 to be applied to the increase of the common- 
 school fund. The constitutional convention of 
 L846 ordained that $25,000 should annually be 
 set apart from the revenues of the 1". S. deposit 
 fund, and become a part of the capital of the 
 school fund. From 1S10 to 1846, the amount of 
 the fund derived from this source had increased 
 from $1,932*422 to $2,090,632; but, from 1846 
 tol866,it increased to $2,799,630. In L834,the 
 regents of the university were required by law 
 to apply the surplus income of the literature 
 fund, beyond the sum of $12,000, to the education 
 of common-school teachers, by the distribution 
 of it to such academies as should undertake their 
 instruction. In 1866, a law was passed author- 
 izing the taking of land for school-house sites by 
 right of eminent domain. The following table 
 exhibits by decades the financial progress of the 
 common-school system. 
 
 year 
 
 Valuation of 
 
 real and 
 
 personal 
 
 estate 
 
 Capital of 
 
 common- 
 school fund 
 
 School- 
 fund in- 
 come dis- 
 tributed 
 
 Money 
 raised by 
 state and 
 
 county 
 taxation 
 
 180S 
 
 126,774 
 934,016 
 1,319,886 
 1,876,192 
 2,090,632 
 2,467,621 
 2,766,761 
 :i,oao,108 
 
 
 
 L816 
 
 lvj:. 299,197,721 
 
 1-:;;, 627,631,634 
 
 1846 606,646,096 
 
 1866 1,402,{ 
 
 . . 1,660,879,686 
 ... 2,867,780,102 
 
 (60,000 
 
 80,000 
 100,000 
 
 110.000 
 166,000 
 
 155,000 
 
 170,(100 
 
 
 (80,000 
 100,1 00 
 
 800,000 
 1,148,422 
 
 2,884. ■ 1 
 
NEW YORK 
 
 639 
 
 III. According to the law of 170;"), each town 
 was to elect three or more commissioners to have 
 zeneral charge of the schools, to license teachers, 
 and to apportion the public moneys to the 
 districts, in proportion to the number of days of 
 instruction given in each. The people in each 
 district were to . led trustees, to employ teachers, 
 
 and to provide for the schools. The act of L812 
 
 also required each town to elect three commis- 
 sioners of common Schools, whose first duty was 
 to form the town into school-districts. They re- 
 ceived, and distributed to the districts, the public 
 moneys ; and the trustees were required to re- 
 port to them. Each town was also required to 
 elect from one to six inspectors, who. with the 
 commissioners, had the supervision of the schools. 
 and the examination of teachers. This law also 
 created the otiiee of state superintendent of com- 
 mon schools ; and the first annual report was 
 made in I Si,'!. In 1821 , the legislature abolished 
 the office, and made the secretary of state, e.v 
 officio, superintendent of common schools. In 
 1822, an important amendment to the school 
 law gave the right of appeal to the superintend- 
 ent on all questions arising under any of its 
 provisions. In 1841, an act was passed creating 
 the office of deputy superintendent, and also 
 that of county superintendent, to whom all ap- 
 peals were first to be made, his decisions being 
 subject to review by the state superintendent. 
 In 1843, the offices of town commissioner of 
 schools and inspector of schools were abolished, 
 and that of town superintendent created in their 
 stead. The office of county superintendent was 
 abolished in 1847. and appeals were required to 
 be brought directly to the state superintendent; 
 and the returns of the town superintendents were 
 to be made to the county clerks. In 1854, the 
 legislature created a department of public in- 
 struction, and placed at its head a superintend- 
 ent of public instruction, to be elected by joint 
 ballot of the senate and assembly. In 1856, the 
 office of school commissioner was created, that 
 of town superintendent being abolished ; and the 
 supervisors of the towns were made the financial 
 agents, to hold and pay out the moneys appor- 
 tioned by the school commission ts to the towns 
 and districts. The school-commissioner districts 
 wen; originally, and are now nearly, the same 
 as the assembly districts ; but they are not, like 
 the latter, required to be reconstructed after 
 each census. 
 
 Slate Superintendents. — The following is a list 
 of those who have served as superintendents of 
 common schools : Gideon Haw ley, from dan. 14., 
 1813 until Feb. 22.. 1821 : William Esleeck, 
 until April 3., 1821, when the office was abol- 
 ished, its duties being performed by the follow- 
 ing persons, holding the office of secretary of 
 state: John Van Ness Yates, from April. L821 
 until Feb., 182(5; Azariah < '. Flagg, until Feb., 
 L833; John A. Dix, until Feb.. 1839; John C 
 Spencer, until Oct., 1841; when Mr. Spencer 
 being called to take a place in the cabinet at 
 Washington, the position of superintendent was 
 filled by the deputy, Samuel S. Randall, until 
 
 Feb., 1842; Samuel Young, until Feb., 1845; 
 Nathaniel S. Benton, until I >ec. 31 .. 1 s 17; ( hris- 
 topher .Morgan, until Dec. 31., L851; Henry S. 
 Randall, until Dec. 31., ls."»i>: and Flias \V. Leav- 
 enworth, until April 8., L85 1. when, tl ffice of 
 
 superintendent of public instruction being cre- 
 ated, Victor M. Rice was elected, and served 
 until April, 1857, and was succeeded by the fol- 
 lowing persons: Henry 11. Van Dyck, until April 
 19.. L861 ; Emerson \\ . Keyes (acting), until Feb. 
 l.,1862; Victor M. Rice (again), until April. L868; 
 Abram B. Weaver, until April. L874 ; and Neil 
 Gilmour, the present incumbenl (1876). 
 
 IV. In L830, A. ( '. Flagg, in his report, sug- 
 gested the establishment oi district libraries} 
 and. in 1838. a law was passed, providing for 
 this, and authorizing each district to raise by tax 
 $20 for the first year, and $10 for each succeed- 
 ing year, for the purchase of books. This was 
 increased, in 1875, to $50 a year. The act of 
 1838. appropriating the income of the U. S. 
 deposit fund, set apart $55,000 ayear fordistrict 
 libraries, and required each county to raise for 
 the same purpose a sum equal to its distributive 
 share thereof. By an amendment passed in 1875, 
 this is reduced to $50,000. The total number 
 of volumes in these libraries was reported in 
 1845 as 1.203,139; in 1855, as 1,418,100; in 
 L865,as 1,181,811 ; and in 1875, as 809,141.— 
 Ample means have been provided for the edu- 
 cation of teachers. Classes for the instruction 
 of common-school teachers were established by 
 the regents in certain academies, in 1834. in 
 pursuance of the provisions of the act of that 
 year already referred to. The sum now annually 
 appropriated by the regents for these classes is 
 $ 1 8,000. In 1 844, the first state normal school 
 was established, at Albany, and opened on the 
 Isthof December, in that year. In 18(13, the 
 ( Iswego Training School was taken under the 
 patronage of the state, and, by the acts of 1806 
 and 1867. was constituted a state normal school. 
 By Chap. 466 of the laws of 1866, normal schools 
 were established, respectively, at Brockport, 
 Cortland, Fredonia, and Potsdam; and, by 
 special acts, in 1867, a normal school was 
 established at Buffalo, and another at Geneseo, 
 the latter under the title of the Wadsworth 
 Normal and Training School. — Teachers' in- 
 stitutes have been an important agency for the 
 improvement of common-school teachers. The 
 first teachers institute in the state was held at 
 Ithaca, Tompkins Co.. April 4., 1843; other 
 counties soon followed, and. in 1847. teachers' 
 institutes were recognized by the legislature, an 
 appropriation of $60 to each county being made 
 for their encouragement. — A compulsory edu- 
 cation laic was passed May 11.. 1874, entitled 
 "an act to secure to children the benefits of ele- 
 mentary education." This law requires that every 
 child between 8 and 14 years of age shall be in- 
 structed in spelling, reading, writing. English 
 grammar, and arithmetic, at least 14 weeks each 
 year, at a day school, or at home, or 28 weeks in 
 an evening school. All persons are prohibited, 
 under a penalty of $50 fine, from employing 
 
640 
 
 NEW YORK 
 
 children of the age mentioned unless it is 
 certified that such instruction "was driven the 
 previous year. This law was amended in some 
 respects in J87G ; but it is to a great extent in- 
 operative. — In I87. r >, a law was passed providing 
 that "industrial or free- I'uxl drawing shall 
 he included in the course of study in each of the 
 normal schools; shall be taught in. at least, one 
 department of the schools under the charge of 
 the board of education in each city, in each union 
 free school, and in each free-school district in- 
 corporated by special act of the legislature." — 
 The general school law was also amended so that 
 state certificates should be granted by the super- 
 intendent only on examination, either by him- 
 self or by proper persons appointed by him. The 
 first examination under this law was held at 
 Albany, Dec. 16., L875; nine candidates were ex- 
 amined, and four certificates awarded. 
 
 Educational System. — The officers having 
 charge of the common schools are the super- 
 intendent of pultlir instruction,, the school com- 
 missioners, and tin- i/is/riff trustees. The super- 
 intendent is elected for three years on joint bal- 
 lot of both blanches of the legislature. lie has 
 the general supervision of all the schools in the 
 state; apportions the school money, superintends 
 the apportionment by the commissioners, and 
 sees that it is paid by the supervisors and ex- 
 pended by the trustees according to law. He 
 hears and decides all appeals regarding school 
 matters, and his decision is final, lie is charged 
 with the control and management of teachers' 
 institutes, and makes rules concerning district 
 libraries. lb: makes appointment of state pupils 
 tn the institutions for the deaf and dumb and the 
 blind, and has the supervision of those institu- 
 tions. He has the charge of all the Indian 
 schools in the state, and employs agents to super- 
 intend them. He is, ex officio, a regent of the 
 university, a trustee of the asylum tor idiots, and 
 of the Cornell University. He receives and 
 compiles reports from all the school-districts, 
 and makes an annual report to the legislature. 
 The school commissioners are elected for the 
 term of three years by the people of their several 
 districts. It is their duty to see that the bound- 
 aries of districts are correctly described ; to visit 
 and examine the schools; to advise with ami 
 counsel the trustees ; to look after the condition 
 of the school-houses, and condemn .such as are 
 unfit for use ; to recommend studies and text- 
 books; to examine and license teachers; to 
 examine charges against teaehers. and. on suffi- 
 cient proof, to annul their certificates; and, when 
 required by the superintendent, to take and re- 
 port testimony in eases of appeal. 
 
 District trustees, one or three in each district. 
 are elected by the inhabitants. The term of 
 Office of a sole trustee is one year; of each of a 
 
 board of three trustees, three years, one being 
 elected annually. The powers and duties of 
 these officers .ire, to make out tax lists and war- 
 rants; to purchase or lease sites, to build or 
 hire school houses, and to insure and have the 
 
 custody of all dist liet property; to employ and 
 
 pay teachers; and to report annually to the school 
 commissioner school statistics and such other in- 
 formation as may be required. — The school dis- 
 trict is the smallest territorial subdivision of the 
 state. It is formed by the school commissioner, 
 who makes an order defining its boundaries, and 
 files it in the office of the clerk of the town in 
 which the district is situated. He may change 
 the limits of districts by a similar order. A 
 joint district is one that lies partly in two or 
 more counties. Union free-school districts are 
 formed under the law of 1853, authorizing the 
 inhabitants to organize a school in a district 
 comprising more territory and population, and 
 possessing greater powers, than an ordinary dis- 
 trict. About 100 districts have been formed by 
 acts of the legislature granting special powers 
 and privileges. The inhabitants, at the annual 
 district meeting, have power to elect a chair- 
 man, one or three trustees, a district clerk, a 
 collector, and a librarian; to designate a site 
 for a school-house, to vote taxes to pay for a 
 site, to build and repair school-houses, and to 
 furnish them with fuel and appendages, also to 
 make up deficiencies for teachers' wages. They 
 may also vote taxes, not exceeding $25, for ap- 
 paratus and text-books, £50 fora library, S2;~> for 
 contingent expenses, and any sum necessary to 
 insure the district property, and to pay the costs 
 and reasonable expenses of suits at law in which 
 the district may he interested. The librarian 
 serves one year, and has charge of the district 
 library. The collector serves for a year, giving 
 a bond for the faithful discharge of his duty in 
 collecting the moneys due on tax lists, and hold- 
 ing them subject to the order of the trustees. 
 The clerk holds office for one year. It is his duty 
 tokeepa record of the district meetings, to attend 
 meetings of trustees, and keep a record of pro* 
 (•ceilings; to notify persons elected as district 
 officers: to report to the town clerk the names 
 and post-office address of district officers; to 
 give trustees notice of every resignation accepted 
 by the supervisor ; and to keep and preserve all 
 records, books, and papers belonging to the 
 office. — The town clerk is required to keep in 
 his office all books, maps, papers, and records re- 
 lating to the schools; to record the certificate 
 of apportionment of school moneys, and to notify 
 trustees of such certificate; to obtain from 
 trustees their annual report; to furnish the 
 Commissioner with the names and post-office ad- 
 dress of all district officers; to distribute books 
 and blanks to the trustees; to file and record 
 the final accounts of supervisors : to preserve 
 the supervisor's bond ; to file and keep the de- 
 scription of district boundaries; and. when 
 called upon, to take pari in the formation 
 or alteration of a school district. The school 
 moneys apportioned to the several towns are 
 paid by the county treasurer to the supervisor, 
 who gives a bond, with two sureties, for double 
 
 the amount of ney set apart to the town, for 
 
 the safe-keeping, disbursement, and accounting 
 for. of SUCh moneys, and all ot her school inoiic\- 
 that may come into his hands. The school nion- 
 
NEW FORE 
 
 <;n 
 
 apportioned to a county, or to a city, are paid 
 by the state treasurer on the warrant of the 
 superintendent of public instruction; and the 
 treasurer's check in payment must be counter- 
 signed by the superintendent. All children in 
 the district between the ages of 5 and 2L years, 
 may attend school ; and non-residents may also 
 attend it on such terms as the trustees may pre- 
 scribe. None but a qualified teacher can receive 
 public money, or money raised by tax, in pay- 
 ment of his wages. A qualified teacher is one 
 who holds a state normal school diploma, a cer- 
 tiorate from the superintendent, from a school 
 commissioner, or from a city or village officer 
 empowered to grant licenses. — The great major- 
 ity of the schools in the rural districts employ 
 but a single teacher, and are not graded ; but 
 the pupils are generally so arranged in classes as 
 in part to compensate for this. In the larger 
 villages, where most of the "union free schools," 
 and the -free schools" by special acts, are found, 
 the schools are more or less accurately graded, 
 and the system culminates in academical or 
 high-school departments. In the cities, each of 
 which, though under the general law, has special 
 provisions of law applicable to its own schools, 
 the schools are well graded, and generally, with 
 the exception of Brooklyn and New York, have 
 at their head a high school. The system in 
 Brooklyn, rinds its culmination in the academ- 
 ical grades of its grammar schools; and, in New 
 York, in the College of the City of New York, 
 connected with which there is an introductory 
 department, which performs the office of a high 
 school, a business or commercial school, and a 
 preparatory school. This department is under 
 the supervision and management of a special 
 principal. 
 
 Secondary and superior instruction is under 
 the control and supervision of the regents, of the 
 university who were originally incorporated 
 May 1., 1784; and were re-organized and re- 
 incorporated by the act of April 13., 1787 ; with 
 power to incorporate colleges and academies ; to 
 appoint a president for any college, or a prin- 
 cipal for any academy, in case the trustees 
 should leave the office vacant for a year ; to 
 hold property to the amount of the annual in- 
 come of 40,001) bushels of wheat ; and to confer 
 such degrees, above that of Master of Arts, as 
 are granted by any college or university in Eu- 
 rope. They were also authorized and required 
 to visit and inspect all academies and colleges 
 established or to be established ; to inquire into 
 the system of education and discipline therein, 
 and make an annual report thereof to the legis- 
 lature: all of which powers and duties still re- 
 main. The board as re-organized, consisted of 
 the governor and lieutenant-governor, ex officio, 
 and 19 other persons named in the act. In 
 1842, the secretary of state, and in 11S54, the 
 superintendent of public instruction, were made 
 regents, ex officio, making the number of the 
 board, as at present constituted, 2.'5. Vacancies, 
 except in case of ex officio members, are filled 
 by the legislature; and the term of office, unless 
 41 
 
 forfeited, is for life. The officers of the board 
 
 arc. a chancellor, a vice-chancellor, a secretary, 
 and an assistant secretary. The annual meeting 
 is fixed by statute, and is held in the senate 
 chamlier at Albany, on the evening of the second 
 Thursday of January of each year. Other meet- 
 ings arc held at such time and place as the 
 chancellor may appoint. Six members consti- 
 tute a quorum for the transaction of business. 
 They serve without salary. Other duties have, 
 from time to time, been imposed upon them by 
 law. Tn 1844, they were made trustees of the 
 state library: and, in the same year, in con- 
 junction with the superintendent of public in- 
 struction, were placed in charge of the .State 
 Normal School at Albany. In 1 845, they were 
 made trustees of the state cabinet, and, in 1856, 
 were charged with what remained of the publi- 
 cation of the colonial history of the state. In 
 1855, they were authorized to prescribe a course 
 of study for teachers' classes in academies ; and 
 have prescribed the following : reading and 
 orthography ; writing ; arithmetic, intellectual 
 and written ; English grammar; and geography. 
 The theory and practice of teaching must be 
 combined with these studies. When any of the 
 above subjects have been thoroughly mastered 
 one or more of the following may be pursue.:: 
 algebra, geography, natural histc • iturai phi 
 losophy, history of the United States, scier e 
 of government, and physiology. In 1853, the 
 regents were required to establish general ml - 
 for the incorporation of academies, colleges, and 
 universities, in conformity with existing laws. 
 Academies, colleges, and universities are corpo- 
 rations, under the management of trustees, who 
 usually fill all vacancies occurring in their num- 
 ber. They hold the property, appoint the pro- 
 fessors and instructors, and, in the absence of 
 special agreement, dismiss them at pleasure. 
 
 A\'liile its general excellence is admitted, much 
 dissatisfaction has been expressed with the double 
 feature of this educational system, as shown in 
 the existence of the office of superintendent of 
 public instruction, and of the board of regents ; 
 and efforts have been made to give to it a unitary 
 character ; but thus far without success. A bill 
 making the regents subordinate to the superin- 
 tendent and requiring them to report to him, 
 passed both houses of the legislature in 1870, 
 but was vetoed by the governor. Since then, 
 each of the parties in interest has tried, through 
 the aid of the law-making power, to secure for 
 itself the sole supervision of education ; and 
 each has expressed, by these acts, the conviction 
 that the welfare of the schools demands a uui- 
 tary system. 
 
 Financial. — The schools derive their support 
 from the following sources: (1) The income of the 
 common-school fund, which, in 1875, amounted 
 to about S 1 S0.O00. (2) The amount the legislature 
 may annually set apart from the income of the 
 United States deposit fund. This has been for 
 many years $165,000. (3) The state tax of one 
 and one-fourth of a mill on the dollar. (4) District, 
 village, and city taxation. (5) The income from 
 
042 
 
 NEW YORK 
 
 local funds, mainly gospel and school lands. — 
 The mode of distribution is as follows: The 
 superintendent of public instruction, after ascer- 
 taining the amount to be apportioned, sets apart, 
 from the income of the I nited States deposit 
 fund, (1) The amount necessary to pay the 
 salaries of the school commissioners; (2) to each 
 city having a superintendent of common schools, 
 <>r a clerk of the board of education performing 
 the duty of superintendent, the .sum of eight 
 hundred dollars, and in case any city is entitled 
 to more than one member of assembly, live hun- 
 dred dollars for each additional member, for the 
 support of the common schools of the city; 
 (3) for library moneys, such sums as the legis- 
 lature shall appropriate. (4) He then sets apart 
 from the free-school fund, four thousand dollars 
 for a contingent fund. (5) lie then sets apart 
 for the support of Indian schools an equitable 
 sum, the same, in proportion to their numbers, 
 as is apportioned to schools for white children. 
 (6) He ascertains the total so apportioned, and 
 deducts it from the total school moneys ap- 
 propriated, and divides the remainder into two 
 parts, one equal to one-third thereof, and the 
 other to two-thirds. (7) The one-third of the 
 money is divided by the whole number of quali- 
 fied teachers in the state, employed for twenty- 
 eight weeks or more during the school year, to 
 ascertain the ••district quota:" and is distributed 
 to the districts, one quota for each qualified 
 her en i ployed for the required time. (8) Be 
 apportions the remaining two-thirds, and also 
 the library money, among the counties according 
 to their population, as shown by the last state 
 or United States census, excluding Indians. In 
 counties where there are cities, separate appor- 
 tionments are made, one to the city, and one to 
 the rest of the county. (9) He apportions an 
 equitable sum for three separate neighborhoods 
 from the contingent fund. He certifies to the 
 enmity clerk, county treasurer, and school com- 
 missioners, and to city chamberlains or t reasurors 
 the amount apportioned to each county and city. 
 The apportionment is payable on the first day 
 of April next after it is made. — The school 
 commissioners having received such certificate, 
 meet at the court-house in their respective conn- 
 on the third Tuesday in March, and. ap- 
 portion the money to the districts. (l| They 
 
 apart to each district the "district quotas 
 allowed by the state superintendent. (2) They 
 set apart any money assigned to districts as 
 equitable allowances. (3) They divide the re- 
 mainder into two equal parts; one of which 
 they apportion to the districts in proportion to 
 
 the children of school age residing in each ; and 
 the other, to the districts according to the average 
 daily attendance of residenl pupils. (4) They 
 apportion the library money according to the 
 
 number of residenl children of school age. They 
 Bign their apportionment in duplicate, send one 
 
 •\ to the superintendent of public instruction, 
 
 and deliver the other to the county treasurer. 
 They also certify to each supervisor the amount 
 apportioned to each district in his town, desig- 
 
 nating the library money, and that for teachers* 
 wages. 
 
 The capital of the common-school fund Sept. 
 30., 1875 amounted to S3,080,107.68, consisting 
 of the following items : 
 
 Bonds for lands $237.4^>7 
 
 Bonds fur loans 150,128.61 
 
 Loan ol lMo 49,326.00 
 
 Bank stocks 50,000.00 
 
 Comptroller's bonds 36,000.00 
 
 State stock 1,165,067.24 
 
 Oswego city bonds ln.1110,00 
 
 Money in the treasury 1,381,706.96 
 
 The income for the year ending Sept. 30., 1875 
 was $179,303.66. The free-school fund, or 
 income derived from l\ mill school tax on 
 SL\. '567,780,102 — equalized valuation of the real 
 and personal property in the state, amounted to 
 S'J.'.i.m. TIT,. 1 3. The capital of the U. S. deposit 
 fund amounted to $4,014,520.71, consisting of 
 the following : 
 
 Mortgages for loans, and invested in 
 
 county bonds $3,430,407. !»3 
 
 State stocks 315,239.44 
 
 I'. s. :, per cent stocks, lssl 50,000.00 
 
 Money in the treasury 12,873.34 
 
 The revenue from which, in 1875, was §236.000, 
 as follows : 
 
 Sel apart by statute for common schools. .. .$105,000 
 
 For dividends to academies '2s, nun 
 
 for addition to capital of common-school fund 25,000 
 For teachers' classes m academies 18,000 
 
 The state has provided no funds for the sup- 
 port of colleges. For aid to academies, a fund 
 known as the literature fund, was derived from 
 the sale of certain tracts of land reserved for 
 literature, and was largely increased by four 
 lotteries, authorized in 1801, to raise $100,000 
 for the joint benefit of the academies and com- 
 mon schools. 
 
 The capital of this fund consists of 
 
 1. State stocks : — 7 pei- cent $57,000.00 
 
 " " 6 per cent 165,1 .00 
 
 " " 6 per cent 20,347.00 
 
 ■_'. Comptroller's bond payable on demand 25,330.94 
 3. One hundred shares in the Albany In- 
 surance Company 4.000.0O 
 
 $271,677.94 
 The income for the year ending Sept. 30., 1875. 
 was $17,979,49. 
 
 School Statistics. — The following are the chief 
 items of statistics of the common schools for the 
 year ending Sept. 30., L875 : 
 
 Number of <li<trii'ts 11,291 
 
 Number of children of school age, (5—21 ), 
 
 cities, 728,948 
 tow 08, 854.116 
 
 Total 1,683,064 
 
 Xumlier of children enrolled in the 
 common schools, cities, 445,652 
 
 t.nvns 613,686 
 
 Tnt.,1 1,059,238 
 
 Average daily attendance, cities, 226,980 
 
 towns , 304.K55 
 
 Total 631,836 
 
 Number of male teachers, cities, 612 
 
 towns. 6,816 
 
 Total 7,4M 
 
 Number of female teachers, cities. 6,724 
 
 towns , 16.861 
 Total - 
 
NEW YORK 
 
 Mil 
 
 Total number of teachers in the state 30,013 
 
 Number of teachers employed at the same 
 
 time for 28 weeks or more 19, 073 
 
 Number of \ olumes in districl libraries 809,141 
 
 Whole Dumber of school-houses 11 ,7 s-. 
 
 Whole number ol pupils taught, in 
 
 Common schools 1,059,238 
 
 Normal schools 6,348 
 
 Academies 29, hm: 
 
 Colleges 2,921 
 
 Private schools 134,644 
 
 Law schools 663 
 
 Medical schools 1,472 
 
 Total 1.235,269 
 
 The following statistics of Indian schools were 
 reported in 1875 : 
 
 Number of school-distriots 2i> 
 
 Number of teachers, whites T.\ 
 
 " " " Indians 32 
 
 Total 55 
 
 Number of children of school age Ij663 
 
 Nomber taught during some part of the year 1,114 
 
 Average daily attendance 559 
 
 Expenditures for Indian schools $9,945.86 
 
 The school moneys for the fiscal year ending 
 Sept. 30., 18TG, were from the following sources: 
 
 Common-school fund $170,000 
 
 U. 8. deposit fund 165,000 
 
 State school tax 2,712,000 
 
 Total $3,047,000 
 
 The apportionment for 1876 was as follows : 
 
 For salaries of school coimnis- .... 
 
 sioners $89,000.00 
 
 For supervision in cities 30,200:00 
 
 For libraries 50,000.00 
 
 For contingent fund, including 
 >s:i.nl tor separate neighbor- 
 hoods 2,583.13 
 
 For Indian schools 3,370.99 
 
 For district quotas 957,081.96 
 
 For pupil and average attend- 
 ance quotas. 1,914,163.92 
 
 Total $3,047,000.00 
 
 Aggregate expenditures for school purposes, 
 
 cities $6,292,737.30 
 
 towns .5, 166,616.13 
 
 Total $11,459,353.43 
 
 Normal Instruction. — The state normal school 
 at Albany is under the joint supervision and 
 management of the superintendent of public 
 instruction and the regents of the university, 
 who arrange the studies, fix the number and 
 compensation of teachers, prescribe the condi- 
 tions on which pupils shall be received from 
 each county, giving to-each its proportion accord- 
 ing to population. They appoint an executive 
 committee of five persons, one of whom is the 
 .superintendent, who is also the chairman for the 
 management of the school under the prescribed 
 regulations. The supervision anil control of the 
 other normal schools are exercised by the super- 
 intendent of public instruction, who appoints 
 local boards for their management. The follow- 
 ing is a statement of the general statistics of the 
 normal schools for 1875 : 
 
 Number of normal schools, state 8 
 
 " " " " citv(\-.Y. Normal 
 
 College) ■ 1 
 
 Total 9 
 
 Number of teachersin state normal schools 112 
 
 No, of pupils, including those in training depts. < 6,348 
 No. of students, in normal departments. . .2,965 
 in N.Y. Normal College. .1,310 
 
 Total 4,265 
 
 No. of graduates, state normal schools 256 
 
 N. Y. .Normal College 168 
 
 Total 424 
 
 Cost of state normal schools $163,892.03 
 
 N. Y. Normal College 88,873.23 
 
 The state normal school at Albany, in 1^75, 
 bad an attendance of 1 .'!.'! students, representing 
 
 tiftv counties of the state; the Dumber of grad- 
 uates was, the liist term, 27; the second term, 46; 
 total, 73, of whom '2.'! were males, and 50 females. 
 A school of about LOO pupils, principally from 
 the city of Albany, furnishes a means of practice 
 in teaching to the students of the normal school. 
 The number of instructors in the normal school 
 was 14. — The normal school at Broekport had 
 an enrollment of 886 : normal department, 325; 
 academic department, 221 ; intermediate and 
 primary departments, 340. The average attend- 
 ance was 469, of whom 170 belonged to the 
 normal department. The number of graduates 
 was 14. — In the normal school at Buffalo, the 
 average attendance was 180, out of an en- 
 rollment of 314; academic students, l(i. The 
 number of graduates was 75. — In the normal 
 school at Cortland, the enrollment was 807, — 
 in the normal department, 370 ; training school, 
 437. The average attendance was. respectively, 
 175! and 328. — In the normal school at Fredonia, 
 the enrollment was 805, — in the normal depart- 
 ment, 230 ; academic, 185; senior, 116; junior 
 and primary, 274 ; the average attendance was, 
 respectively, 147,189, 103, and 188 ; total, 627.— 
 In the normal school at Geneseo, the enrollment 
 was 902, — in the normal department, 34 7; 
 academic, intermediate, and primary, 555. The 
 number of graduates was 24. The normal and 
 training school at Oswego had 13 instructors; 
 an enrollment of 460 pupils, and 59 graduates, — ■ 
 II males and 53 females. — In the normal school 
 at Potsdam, the enrollment was 776,— normal 
 department. 362; academic, 163; primary and 
 intermediate, 251. The average attendance was, 
 respectively, L83, 38, and 149. The number of 
 instructors was 15. In the Normal College of 
 the city of New York, the number of students 
 mi register was 1,310, exclusive of the training 
 school; and the average attendance was 1,071. 
 The Dumber of pupils enrolled in the training 
 department was 803; average attendance, 761. 
 The Dumber Of instructors in the normal college 
 was.'! I: iii the training school, 18.— Teachers' 
 institutes are held for one or two weeks (in the 
 majority of the counties, for two weeks), under 
 the instruction of persons employed by the state- 
 superintendent. The following statistics of in- 
 stitutes are reported for 1875 : — 
 Number ol counties in which institutes were held. .58 
 
 Number id' institutes 58: 
 
 No. of teachers in attendance, males ::.<;:;s 
 
 femal es, 7.295 
 
 Total 10,933: 
 
 Average number from each county . _, Jss 
 
 Average expense per cuuuty $279.41 
 
<;n 
 
 NEW YORK 
 
 In 1875, the number of academics which main- 
 tained teachers' classes was 95, at which the at- 
 tendance was (ill) males and 1,275 females. 
 
 Denominational and Parochial Schools. — 
 The convention journals of the various dioceses 
 of the Protestant Episcopal Church, for L875, 
 excepting the dioceses of New York and Central 
 New Fork, state the numherof schools, church 
 and parochial, as 16, with 804 pupils; Sadlier's 
 Catholic Directory for 187b\ gives duln from 
 which arc derived the following : the number of 
 schools, select and parochial, was 2'J'2 ; the num- 
 ber of pupils, 9 L,4o0. 
 
 Secondary Instruction. — The whole number 
 of academies in the state reporting to regents is 
 '1'i'l, of which more than one-half are connected 
 with, and form a part of, the free-School systems 
 of their respective localities. This number in- 
 creases annually, under a law of 1864, which 
 authorizes the trustees of any academy, by a 
 majority vote, to surrender their property to 
 the board of education of any union free-school 
 district in the same place, and thus pass out of 
 existence as a corporation. The academies still 
 exercising their corporate rights depend mainly 
 upon tuition tees for their support. In 1870, 
 examinations were instituted by the regents to 
 test the attainments and determine the classifi- 
 cation of academic pupils. Printed lists of 
 questions are furnished on English grammar, 
 geography, and arithmetic, and a list of loo 
 words to be spelled. Certificates are issued to 
 those who pass ther examination successfully. 
 
 The following items of statistics are for the 
 year L875 : 
 
 .Number of academies and schools reporting. . '2T> 
 
 \ umber of teachers employed 1,151 
 
 Whole number of scholars 31,463 
 
 Average attendance by terms '2o,7 L2 
 
 Number of academic scholars 8,012 
 
 A venire aire of scholars 17.3 yrs. 
 
 Receipts, from tuition $431,660 
 
 other sources 754,925 
 
 Total $1,180 ,;W. 
 
 Expenditures, for salaries $788,2 
 
 other purposes. . . 372,599 
 
 Total $1,160,844 
 
 Value of academic property $6*492,050 
 
 At the regents' examination in L873 — 4, the 
 
 number of candidates examined was as follows : 
 
 In aritlim. tic, 1.8,856 ; passed, 3,947 
 
 eography, L7.376; " 8,649 
 
 " grammar, 17,330; " 7,300 
 
 " spelling, 17,182; " 8,830 
 
 Of private institutions for secondary instruc- 
 tion, .'to for boys. 17 tor girls, and 121 for both, 
 reported to the 0". S. Bureau of Kdueation, in 
 L874, a total <.f 1,100 teachers, with 25,620 pu- 
 pils; of whom 1.4,72] were represented as pur- 
 suing English studio. 3,131, classical studies. 
 and 3,791, scientific studies. There are also 
 many preparatory schools, included in which 
 may be mentioned the introductory department 
 of the College of the City of New Fork, These 
 chools contain, in the aggregate, upward of 
 6,000 pupils. Business colleges are also numer- 
 ous, Lo making return, in L875, to the U. S. 
 Bureau, of 72 teachers and 2,919 pupils. Besides 
 
 these institutions, several of the cities — Albany. 
 Buffalo, Oswego, Rochester, Syracuse, Troy.Utica. 
 etc, — support free academies or high schools. 
 
 Superior Instruction.— The following is a list 
 of the principal colleges and universities. 
 
 [Tho.~e exclusively for the higher education of 
 women are printed hi italics; those in small caps 
 admit both Bexes.] 
 
 NAME 
 
 Location 
 
 Date 
 of 
 
 Denom- 
 
 
 
 Charter 
 
 ination 
 
 Aliukd T'niykusitt 
 
 Alfred Centre. . 
 
 1857 
 
 S. D. B. 
 
 Brooklyn C< llegiate 
 and Polvt. Inst.. . 
 
 Brooklyn 
 
 1854 
 
 Non-sect. 
 
 
 Buffalo 
 
 1870 
 1866 
 
 R. C. 
 
 1 oU.of Cityof N. V. 
 
 
 Non-sect. 
 
 Coll of St.lr.Xavier. 
 
 New York 
 
 1861 
 
 R. C. 
 
 Columbia College.. . 
 
 
 IT.".* 
 
 Non-sect. 
 
 COBKELL l'M\ HMiv 
 
 
 1865 
 
 Non-sect. 
 
 Elmira /•'• mni, College 
 Hamilton College.. . 
 
 Elmira 
 
 1866 
 
 1812 
 
 Presb. 
 
 Clinton 
 
 1'ivsb. 
 
 Hobart College 
 
 
 1834 
 
 P. Epis. 
 
 Ingham iiiii- rsity . . 
 Madison University. 
 
 1 .1- Roy 
 
 1857 
 
 Presb. 
 
 
 1846 
 
 Bap. 
 
 Manhattan College.. 
 
 
 1868 
 
 R. C. 
 
 St.Bonaventun Coll, 
 
 
 1ST.". 
 
 R. C. 
 
 st . Ji ibn's College . . 
 
 
 1846 
 
 R. C. 
 
 St . Joseph's Coll. . . 
 
 Buffalo 
 
 1861 
 
 R. C. 
 
 St LiAwukv i l 
 
 i lauton 
 
 1856 
 I860 
 
 Univ. 
 
 si . Stephen's Coll. 
 
 Anaudale 
 
 P. Epis. 
 
 Syracuse I'mv 
 
 Syracuse ; 
 
 1870 
 
 M. Epis. 
 
 i University I 
 Union College \ 
 
 Albany and ) 
 Schenectady J 
 
 1795 
 
 Non-sect. 
 
 Univ. of N.Y. City 
 
 
 1831 
 
 Non-sect. 
 
 Univ. of Rochester. 
 
 
 1846 
 
 Bap. 
 
 
 
 1861 
 
 Non-sect. 
 
 Wells College 
 
 
 1870 
 
 N'on sect. 
 
 For further information in regard to these in- 
 stitutions, see their respective titles. 
 
 Scientific and Professional Instruction. — 
 I 'ndcr this head, arc included Tschoolsof science. 
 having, in the aggregate, 84 instructors and 2,3] 1 
 students; 11 medical Bchools, with l!) ( J instruct" 
 ors, and 2,206 Btudents; 4 schools of law. with 
 L 5 instructors and f)89 students; and 12 theo- 
 logical schools, with 68 intructors and 652 
 students. The following tables contain lists of 
 i hese several institutions: 
 
 Medical Schools. 
 
 NAME 
 
 \\i-„ | N '.'- of No. of 
 
 Location found- 1 , in \ stu- 
 
 , ed f m,ct -| dents 
 ors 
 
 in i 1'liys. h Surf,'. 
 
 of City of New fork.. Now York 
 College of Pharmacy ol 
 
 City of New York New York 
 
 Medical Depl ol I niver- 
 
 sity of City of N.Y... New Y'ork 
 Albany '! College 
 
 of Union l Diversity.. Albany 
 .Mean.,] Dept.ol theUni- 
 
 \, i>it\ oi Buffalo — Buffalo 
 Long [eland Coll iHoe 
 
 pital Brooklyn 
 
 Homoeopathic Med. Coll, 
 
 of the state of N. Y... New York 
 Belle vin Hospital Aba 
 
 iea! College New Y'ork 
 
 NewYork Med. Coll. and 
 
 Hospital lor Women. . New York 
 New York College ol 
 
 Dentistry New York 
 
 Eclectic Medical College New York 
 New York Vroe Med. 
 
 I. tor Women New York 
 
 New York College of 
 
 taSBthesia New Y'ork 
 
 College of Physicians \ 
 
 Surg., Syracuse Univ. Syracuse 
 
 1807 
 
 1831 
 
 1837 
 
 1839 
 
 1846 
 
 1858 
 
 1860 
 
 1861 
 
 1863 
 
 18G5 
 1865 
 
 1871 
 
 1873 
 
 1870 
 
 24 
 
 5 
 
 21 
 
 19 
 
 9 
 
 22 
 
 19 
 
 19 
 
 15 
 
 8 
 10 
 
 13 
 
 387 
 
 200 
 
 396 
 
 123 
 
 103 
 
 117 
 
 107 
 
 606 
 
 22 
 
 62 
 80 
 
 47 
 
 15 
 
 66 
 
NEW rOEK 
 
 645 
 
 S( iiools of Science. 
 
 NAME 
 
 Colli rricultnre 
 
 3iul Mechanic Arts. 
 rnell Qniversil 
 
 Dept. of Science, Univ. 
 o£ City of New York. 
 
 Engineering School, Un- 
 ion College 
 
 Rensselaer Polytechnic 
 
 Institute 
 
 oolol Mines, Colum- 
 bia College 
 
 Us of Science and 
 
 Art. Cooper Institute 
 
 U. S. Military Academy. 
 
 Location 
 
 When 
 found- 
 ed 
 
 No. of 
 
 in- 
 struct- 
 ors 
 
 Ithaca 
 
 1S65 
 
 18 
 
 New York 
 
 1831 
 
 2 
 
 Schenectady 
 
 1795 
 
 2 
 
 Troy . 
 
 1826 
 
 12 
 
 New York 
 
 1864 
 
 16 
 
 New York 
 West Point 
 
 1859 
 1802 
 
 25 
 9 
 
 stu- 
 dents 
 
 206 
 
 15 
 
 33 
 
 181 
 
 162 
 
 1,436 
 278 
 
 Law Schools. 
 
 NAME 
 
 Location 
 
 When 
 found- 
 ed 
 
 No. of 
 
 in- 
 struct- 
 ors 
 
 No. of 
 stu- 
 dents 
 
 Albany Law School, Un- 
 ion University 
 
 Columbia College, Law 
 School 
 
 Albany 
 New York 
 New York 
 Clinton 
 
 1851 
 1858 
 1831 
 
 5 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 1 
 
 109 
 438 
 
 Department of Law, Uni- 
 versity, City of N. Y. 
 Law School of Hamilton 
 
 32 
 10 
 
 Theological Schools. 
 
 
 
 When 
 
 Religious 
 
 NAME 
 
 Location 
 
 found- 
 
 denomina- 
 
 
 
 ed 
 
 tion 
 
 Delancev Divinity School 
 
 Geneva 
 
 P. Epis. 
 
 General Theol, Bern, of 
 
 
 
 
 Prot. Episcopal Church 
 
 New York 
 
 1817 
 
 P. Epis. 
 
 Hamilton Theol. Sem., 
 
 
 
 
 Madison University. . . 
 
 Hamilton 
 
 1820 
 
 Bap. 
 
 
 Hartwiik 
 
 1816 
 
 Luth. 
 
 Theological Dept., Mar- 
 
 
 
 
 tin Luther College. . . . 
 
 Buffalo 
 
 1853 
 
 Ger.Luth. 
 
 Newburgh Theological 
 
 
 
 
 
 Newburgh 
 
 1836 
 
 Ass.R. Pr. 
 
 Rochester Theological 
 
 
 
 
 Semiuarv 
 
 Rochester 
 
 1850 
 
 Bap. 
 
 St. Joseph's Provincial 
 
 
 
 
 
 Troy 
 
 1864 
 
 R. C. 
 
 Seminary of our Lady of 
 
 
 
 
 
 Susp. Bridge 
 
 1863 
 
 R. C. 
 
 Auburn Theological Sem- 
 
 
 
 
 
 Auburn 
 
 1820 
 
 Presb. 
 
 Theological Dept.. St. 
 
 
 
 
 Lawrence University. . 
 
 Canton 
 
 1858 
 
 Univ. 
 
 Union Theological Sem- 
 
 
 
 
 inary 
 
 New York 
 
 1836 
 
 Presb. 
 
 The New York Nautical School, under the 
 managment of the board of education of the 
 city of Xew York, was established for the pur- 
 pose of educating seamen for the mercantile 
 marine, and occupies, in conformity with an act 
 of Congress, passed June 2., 1874, the U. S. 
 ship St. Mary's in X. Y. harbor. In 1875, the 
 whole number taughl was 18.") ; the average at- 
 lance, 97. This institution is in a flourishing 
 condition. The first class, consisting of 60 pu- 
 pils, graduated in November, L876. 
 
 Special Instruction. — There arc 4 institutions 
 for the education of deaf-mutes : (1) The X. V. 
 Institution for the Instruction of Deaf and Dumb, 
 in the city of New York, incorporated in L817, 
 and opened in 1818 ; (2) The N. V. Institution 
 for the Improved Instruction of I leaf- Mutes, in 
 Xew York, established in 1870; (3) the Cou- 
 
 teulx St. Mary's Institution for the improved 
 instruction of Deaf-Mutes, in Buffalo, recognized 
 by the state in L872; and it) the Central New 
 YTork Institution for Deaf-Mutes, in Home, in- 
 corporated and organized in L875. 
 
 Any jiatent having a deaf and dumb child 
 above the age of twelve years, though able to sup- 
 port him. -it home, being without sufficient means 
 to pay for his support at a proper institution 
 where he may be instructed, may present to the 
 superintendent of public instruction a certificate 
 from the superintendent of the poof, stating his 
 inability to pay, and thereupon it becomes the 
 duty of the superintendent to give to said child 
 an appointment, for five years, to one of the 
 above named institutions. The overseer of the 
 poor of the town, if any deaf-mute child, over 
 six and under twelve years of age. is liable to be- 
 come a county charge, or becomes such, may send 
 such deaf-mute child to "any institution in this 
 state for the education of deaf-mutes '. [Laws 
 of 1875.) A boarding-school for female deaf- 
 mutes is connected with St. Joseph's Academy, 
 located at Fordham, and under the control of the 
 Roman Catholic Church. The following statis- 
 tics in relation to the instruction of deaf-mutes 
 are reported for 1875: 
 
 No. of pupils supported by the state 356 
 
 " " " by counties in the state 162 
 
 " " " by Xew Jersey 47 
 
 " " " byparents or guardians 1<> 
 " " " by the Frizze] fund L 
 
 ■\Yhole number of pupils, 'males 337 
 
 females .... '247 
 
 Total.. .7" 684 
 
 The institutions for the education of the blind 
 are the following: (1) The New York Institution, 
 in the city of Xew York, incorporated in 1831, 
 which, in 1875, had 8 instructors, and 173 pupils; 
 (2) The New York State institution, located at 
 Batavia, incorporated in 1867, and receiving its 
 support from legislative appropriations. In 
 1875, the number of instructors was 10 ; of pu- 
 pils, 160. — The Xew York Asylum for Idiots 
 was first established at Albany in 1848. by II. 
 B.Wilbur asa private institution. It was adopted 
 by the state, and continued at Albany, for a few 
 years, and removed to Syracuse, in 1854. The 
 building was erected by the state, in 1853 — 4, at 
 a cost of $70,000, on a site donated by residents 
 of Syracuse. This institution has deservedly at- 
 tained an excellent reputation, as among the best 
 of its kind. — The number of pupils, in 1 875, was 
 207 : average attendance for the year, 183. 
 
 Educational Associations. — The first teacher-' 
 association in the state, as far as can be ascer- 
 tained, was The Teachers' Association for Mutual 
 Improvement, of the town of Charlton. Its first 
 meeting was held Jan. 5., L836; and it continued 
 until 1839. In July, 1836, J. Orville Taylor 
 issued a calkin the Common School Assistant,' 
 for a convention of the "common-school teachers 
 of the state" to be held at Albany; and the meet- 
 ing. Sept. 20., 1836, resulted in the formation of 
 the State Teachers' Society. This association 
 
 held a meeting Feb. 18., L837, and a convention 
 at Utica on the 11th of .May following; but, for 
 
(346 
 
 NEW YORK 
 
 NEW YORK (Cm) 
 
 some unexplained reason, no subsequent meeting 
 was held. The next movement to form an associa- 
 tion of the teaeliers. of the state was made in 
 March. L 845, at a meeting of the Albany County 
 Teachers' Association. A can for a convention 
 was issued; and a meeting, July .*5I). and 3] ., 1 845, 
 at Syracuse, resulted, attended by more than 150 
 teachers. This association has held an annual 
 convention each year since that time, except in 
 L849. The addresses, reports, resolutions, and 
 discussions have taken a wide range, covering 
 the entire field of public education, and have ex- 
 erted a powerful influence both in the school 
 room and in legislative halls. Other associations 
 have sprung up in all parts of the state. The 
 principals of the normal schools have an associa- 
 tion which holds an annual meeting. The State 
 Association of School Commissioners and City 
 Superintendents, organized in L856, also holds an 
 annual meeting. The superintendent of public 
 instruction is, ex officio, its president. The Uni- 
 versity Convocation, organized in I si;,'!, is an asso- 
 ciation composed of the members of the board of 
 regents, of all teachers in colleges, normal schools, 
 and academies that are subject to the visitation 
 
 of the regents, of the trustees of such institu- 
 tions, and of the president and other officers of 
 the State Teachers' Association. The chancellor 
 IS the permanent president, and the .secretary of 
 the board of regents is the permanent secretary. 
 The convocation meets annually at Albany. 
 
 School Journals. — The following are the prin- 
 cipal school journals which have been published 
 in the state: The Common School Assistant 
 (monthly), published at Albany, in L836,byJ. 
 Ornlie Taylor, discontinued in 1839 ; The Dis- 
 triot School Journal (monthly), commenced at 
 Geneva, in L840, by Francis Dwight, removed, in 
 1841, to Albany, discontinued in 1852; The 
 Teachers' Advocate (weekly), first published at 
 Syracuse, in 1845, by L. W. Hall, in L847, 
 united with the American Journal of Education 
 (monthly), commenced, in Is HI. in New York, 
 edited by Joseph McKeen, afterwards county 
 
 superintendent of schools, and (1854 I!) assist- 
 ant city superintendent in New York; this jour- 
 nal was merged in The Teachers' Advocate, 
 united with which was. subsequently, The Dis- 
 trict School Journal, and published in New York 
 till L851 : The Monthly Educator, published at 
 Rochester, L847 B; The Free School Clarion 
 (monthly), published at Syracuse, L849 50; The 
 New Fork Teacher (monthly) commenced in 
 Albany, in L852, under the auspices of the New 
 
 York State Teachers' Association, assumed, in 
 
 1856, by .lames Cruikshank; united, in lsiiT, 
 with The American Educational Monthly, which 
 was established, in 1864, in New York, by J. W. 
 Schermerhorn ; The American Journal of Edu- 
 cation and College Review (monthly), edited by 
 Absalom Peters', D. I)., and S. 8. Randall, pub- 
 lished in New York, L855 7; The New Fork 
 School Journal (semi-monthly), established in 
 New Yoik. 1869; The Journal of Education, 
 first published in Brooklyn, in 1875, afterwards 
 in New York, until 1876; The New Fork State 
 
 Educational Journal (monthly), commenced at 
 Fredonia, in 1872, united, in L875, with TJie 
 School Bulletin, established in L 874, at Syracuse: 
 and The National Teachers' Monthly, commenced 
 
 at New York, in L875. 
 
 For further information in regard to the 
 history of education in this state, see A.Russell, 
 An Account of New York Schools (1847) : S. S. 
 Randall, History qfffie Common-School System 
 of the Shite of New York (1871); Report on 
 Education in the City of New Fork, issued by 
 order of the Board of Education | L869); Boubne, 
 History of the Public School Society (1870); 
 Dcnshee, History of the School of the Reformed 
 Prot. Dutch Church (1853);1>.J".Pkatt, J/<W< 
 of Public Education in the State of N.Y., from 
 1626 to 1746 (1872); Y. M. Rkk, Special Re- 
 jiort on the Present State of Education in the 
 United States and other countries (1S67). 
 
 NEW YORK (City), the metropolis of the 
 slate of New York, the chief emporium of the 
 United States, and the most populous city of the 
 western continent. Its population, according to 
 the state census of L875, was L , 046,037.— : xhe 
 history of education in this city commences 
 almost with its first settlement by the Dutch, 
 who. in their own country, had already realized 
 the important e of popular education. " Neither 
 the perils of war," says Brodhead, "nor the 
 busy pursuit of gain, nor the excitement oi 
 political strife, ever caused them to neglect the 
 duty of educating their offspring. Schools were 
 every-where provided, at the public expense, 
 with good school-masters to instruct the chil- 
 dren of all classes in the usual blanches of edu- 
 cation : and the consistories of the churches 
 took zealous care to have their youth thorough- 
 ly taught the catechism and the articles of 
 religion." '1 he otlices of minister and school- 
 master were at first united, and the school was 
 tmder the control of the established church. In 
 L633, these otlices -were separated: but it was 
 
 several years before a school house was built. At 
 the end of Stuvvesant s administration, there 
 were, in New Amsterdam, .'! public schools, a 
 dozen or more private schools, and a latin school 
 
 of great repute. The first public school estab- 
 lished in New Amsterdam bj the Dutch has 
 
 continued to the present time, under the title of 
 
 the School of the Reformed Protestant Dutch 
 Church. After the conquest of New Nether- 
 lands by the English, in L 664, the schools of New 
 
 Amsterdam, or New York, were still continued. 
 
 though without governmental aid. In 1702, an 
 act was passed by the colonial legislature for the 
 "encouragement of a Grammar Free School in 
 
 the City of New fork :" but it does not appear 
 that I he school was immediately established. 
 This act expired bv limitation in 1 769 ; and. for 
 a period of twenty years thereafter, no effort 
 seems to have been made to revive it. nor any 
 
 measures taken in behalf of primary education 
 during the subsequent history of the colony. 
 King's (nov Columbia) College was established 
 in 1 7."' I. During the Revolutionary war. the 
 schools of the citg were dosed: and, for several 
 
NKW YORK (Cm) 
 
 647 
 
 years after the termination of the war and the 
 establishment of the federal government, no 
 measures were taken to provide schools for the 
 people, except by benevolent societies. The 
 .Manumission Society opened a school in 177*. 
 for the instruction of colored children. Other 
 schools were afterward established by tius soci- 
 ety, which continued to exist till 1834, when its 
 schools were transferred to the Public School 
 Society, which had, at that time, the entire con- 
 trol of the common schools of the city. This 
 society was founded in 1805, under the title of 
 " The Society for Establishing Free Schools in 
 the City of New York, for the Education of 
 such poor Children as do not belong to, or are 
 not provided tor, by any Religious Society." De 
 Witt Clinton was elected the first president of 
 the society. The first school was opened by 
 the society May 17., 1806. In 1 SOS, the name 
 of the society was changed to the Free-School 
 Society of New York. In lslf>, it received 
 $3,708.14 from the school fund, the quota of 
 the city under the first apportionment of the 
 fund. Then the whole number of pupils, un- 
 der its care was 933, taught in 3 schools. 
 These schools were organized under the Lan- 
 casterian or monitorial system, and so con- 
 tinued to a considerable extent up to the time 
 of the dissolution of the society. In 1826, the 
 society received a new charter, under which its 
 name was changed to The Public School Society. 
 Any citizen could become a member of this 
 society by the payment of SKI ; and the trustees 
 were annually elected by the members. The 
 members of the city corporation were members, 
 ex officio, of the society ; and the mayor and re- 
 corder, of the board of trustees. In 1831, the 
 legislature authorized, for the support of the 
 schools, the levying of a tax of one-twentieth 
 of one per cent of the assessed valuation of the 
 city property. The commissioners of the com- 
 mon-school fund, consisting of one person from 
 ■each ward of the city, appointed by the common 
 council, received and distributed the school 
 moneys of the city and the state ; and it was 
 their duty to visit every school twice in each 
 year. In addition to these means of support, 
 considerable donations of money and land had 
 been made to the society from the commence- 
 ment of its beneficent career. In 1840, the 
 trustees of the Catholic Free Schools applied to 
 the common council to be permitted to partic- 
 ipate in the school moneys, and, in that appli- 
 cation, took occasion to find considerable fault 
 witli the internal management of the schools, 
 and the text-books used, which they denounced 
 as practically sectarian, and referred to the 
 Society as a "gigantic and growing monopoly"', 
 to which it was unwise to intrust, to so large an 
 extent, the interests of public instruction. An 
 exciting discussion ensued, first, in the common 
 council, afterwards, in the legislature; and, in 
 L842, on the recommendation of the governor, 
 William II. Seward, an act was passed author- 
 izing the election of school commissioners who 
 were to constitute a board of education for the 
 
 city, and local school inspectors ami trustees in 
 each ward; bu1 still allowing the Public School 
 Society and other corporations to continue their 
 
 schools, and participate in the school m rj , 
 
 prohibiting. however. such participation in the 
 of every school in which ••any religious sectarian 
 doctrine or tenet should be taught, inculcated, or 
 practiced." Important amendments were made 
 to this law in 1844, and again in 1851, at which 
 latter date, the system was more fully organized: 
 and the board of education was empowered to 
 appoint a city superintendent of schools, and as- 
 sistant superintendents, in place of the rounty 
 superintendent appointed by the board of super- 
 visors in pursuance of the state law passed in 
 Is II. Under this new and popular system, 
 additional schools were rapidly established, and 
 upon a more liberal basis, the old monitorial 
 system being either greatly restricted or aban- 
 doned entirely, the buildings being constructed 
 with a greater number of class rooms, and a much 
 larger number of teachers being employed. The 
 two systems continued to exist side by side; 
 but there was very great rivalry, and the popular 
 and liberal features of the ward schools, as they 
 were called, gave them a great advantage over 
 those of the Public School Society. The latter 
 suffered from financial embarrassment, its an- 
 nual deficiencies becoming larger every year, and 
 new legal difficulties being constantly developed 
 in its obtaining monetary relief. Its character 
 as a private corporation was necessarily a con- 
 stant obstacle to this. The only remedy was 
 to merge the systems, and transfer the property 
 of the society to the city. With singular mag- 
 nanimity, the society agreed to do this ; and, in 
 1853, an act was passed by the legislature con- 
 summating the union. No body of men, in the 
 annals of mankind, can justly claim greater credit 
 for sincere philanthropy and noble public spirit, 
 than the Public School Society. They had ad- 
 ministered the school affairs of the city with the 
 utmost integrity and fidelity; and, at the close, 
 they voluntarily surrendered to the municipality, 
 as their contribution to the cause of common- 
 school education, property amounting to no less 
 than !?(;()(».( »()().— Previous to this event, in 1S47. 
 an act had been passed authorizing the establish- 
 ment of the Free Academy, for boys, in case the 
 act should be approved by a majority of the 
 legal voters of the city. Such approval having 
 been given, by a very large majority (19.4(H) 
 against 3.400), the institution was organized in 
 L8 IS, under Horace Webster, as the first presi- 
 dent. In 1868, this institution, by a special act 
 of the legislature, became the ( 'ollege of the City 
 of New York. — In 1870. the Female Normal 
 College was organized ; previous to which time, 
 there was no normal school in the city except a 
 Saturday school for teachers. There is. at present, 
 no provision for the instruction of male teachers, 
 except through the College of the City of New 
 York.— Many changes have taken place in the or- 
 ganization of the system in New York since 1853. 
 Then the board of education consisted of two 
 school commissioners from each ward, one-half 
 
(J 18 
 
 NEW YORK (City) 
 
 elected annually: and there were also elected in 
 each ward eight trustees, and two school inspect- 
 ors; the twelve including commissioners, trustees, 
 and inspectors, constituting a ward board of 
 school officers. This continued until 1864, when an 
 act was passed dividing the city into seven school- 
 districts, for each of which three commissioners 
 of schools were elected for a term of office of 
 three years, one-third retiring each year. Five 
 trustees were eleeied in each ward: and three 
 inspectors were. on the nomination of the mayor, 
 appointed by the board of education for each 
 
 district. In L869, the system was again changed, 
 
 the board of education being composed of twelve 
 commissioners appointed from the city at large 
 by the mayor. In LB71, the educational system 
 was made a department of the city government, 
 all the officers — commissioners, inspectors, and 
 trustees being appointed by the mayor. In 1873, 
 the law was passed under which the schools are 
 now (1876) conducted. 
 
 Couuiii and City Superintendents. — The first 
 superintendent of schools in the city of New 
 York was William E. Stone, appointed in 
 pursuance of the state law passed .May 26., 
 
 1841, creating the office of county superin- 
 tendent to be appointed by the board of super- 
 visors in each county. Col. Stone served until 
 
 his death, in 1844, when he was sue:- led by 
 
 David \\. bee... till L847; William A. Walker, 
 till 1848; Joseph McKeen, till L853, as countj 
 and city superintendent, the latter from 185] : 
 S.S. Randall, till 1870; Henry Kiddle, from 
 1870 until the present time,- elected for the 
 fourth time in 1876. Mr. Kiddle had previously 
 served as first assistant superintendent from 
 
 56 to 1870. 
 
 Sckool System. — The board of education con- 
 sists of twenty-one members appointed from the 
 city at large by the mayor: each ward board 
 consists of live trustees appointed by the hoard 
 of education; and three inspectors are appointed 
 by the mayor for each of the eight school-districts 
 
 into which the city is divided, one consisting of 
 
 the district annexed to thecity in 1874. The 
 board of education has the general control of the 
 system, making all rules and regulations for the 
 
 schools, and for the trustees, whose duty it is to 
 
 have the care and safe-keeping of the school 
 property, to manage the schools, and appoint I lie 
 teachers, except principals and vice-principals, 
 w ho are appointed by the board of educal ion on 
 the nomination of the trustees, or, after such 
 nomination is made, in disregard of it. if they so 
 please. The inspectors supervise the schools, 
 audit bills incurred by the local officers, and 
 have concurrent authority with the city super- 
 
 intendent in granting teachers' licenses. The 
 
 city superintendent is elected by the board of 
 education for a term of office of two years; and 
 
 it is his duty, under such rules as the hoard may 
 
 establish, to visil and examine schools. and report 
 the result to the board with such recommenda- 
 tions as he may deem proper; with the concur- 
 rence of two inspectors to grant licenses to per- 
 
 proposed as teacher.-*; and to report annually, 
 
 oroftener if required, to the state superintendent. 
 I le may also revoke licenses, with the concurrence 
 of two of the inspectors of the district in which 
 the teacher is employed ; but the teacher has a 
 right of appeal to the state superintendent. Tin re 
 are also seven assistant superintendents, elected 
 in the same manner and for the same term as 
 the city superintendent, whose duties are to ex- 
 amine schools and assist in the examination of 
 teachers, under the direction of the city super- 
 intendent.— The schools are supported from the 
 general tax levied on the real and personal prop- 
 erty of the city for the support of the city 
 government, etc. The city.it is true, receives 
 from the state its distributive portion of the 
 state school moneys (see New X OBK) ; but its 
 contribution to the state for school purposes is 
 greatly in excess of all that it receives in return, 
 the difference, in 1875, amounting to $827,253.87. 
 — Teachers' certificates are conferred, after ex- 
 amination, by the city superintendent, but must 
 also be signed by at least two school inspector-. 
 certifying that they were present at the exami- 
 nation and that tiny concur in granting the 
 saint'. These certificates are, at first, provision- 
 al, and attest only the scholarship and mural 
 character of the holders; and no permanent 
 certificate, attesting the ability to teach, can 
 he conferred until at least six months' experi- 
 ence has been had in the public schools of 
 the city. No person is permitted to perform 
 service in any position as a teacher until duly 
 licensed, and no certificate is valid after a dis- 
 continuance of service of two years. ( 'andidates 
 for provisional licenses, or certificates, must be 
 examined in reading, spelling, English grammar, 
 history of the I nited States. English literature, 
 arithmetic, algebra (through quadratics), plane 
 geometry, descriptive astronomy, physics, zoology 
 
 or physiology; and the principles and methods 
 of teaching. In order to obtain a permanent 
 certificate for anj position or grade, the candi- 
 date's practical efficiency must be attested, and lie 
 
 must lie able to pa>s an examination in the par- 
 ticular subjects required to be taught in the 
 grade, as well as in the methods of teaching the 
 
 same. The schools are divided into grammar 
 
 and primary schools. Some of the school build- 
 ings contain three schools — a male grammar 
 school, a female grammar school, and a primary 
 school or department (mixed); others contain two 
 schools a grammar school, male or female, and 
 
 a primary school, male, female, or mixed: others 
 contain only one school, which is a primary 
 
 school (mixed). Each school, or department, is 
 under a separate principal, the other grades of 
 
 teachers being vice-principals and assistants. 
 
 There are also evening schools, including an 
 evening high school, and corporate schools, the 
 latter heing under the charge of their own 
 trustees, although participating in the apportion 
 
 incut of the state school fund. 'I hese scb 
 include those of the orphan asylums, t lie . I u\ . 
 
 nile Asvhun and House of Refuge | reformatories), 
 the schools of the Ohildrens' Aid Society, the 
 Female Guardian Society, etc. The salaries 
 
NEW YORK (City) 
 
 NEW rORK CITY COLLEGE 649 
 
 paid to teachers are aa follows: to principals 
 ., male grammar schools maximum, $3,000; 
 minimum, $2,250 ; of female grammar schools — 
 max., $2,006; min., $1,200; of primary schools 
 max., $1,800; min., $1,000; to vice-piHncipah 
 of male grammar schools -max., $2,500; min., 
 $2,000 ; of female grammar schools— maa;.,$] ,298; 
 win., $1,200; of primary schools max., $1,200; 
 n min., $900; to male assistants, an average aol 
 i weeding $1,652; to female assistants in male 
 grammar schools, an average of $850, in female 
 grammar schools, an average of $767; in primary 
 schools, an average of $600. The minimum of 
 salary payable to any teacher is $500. — The 
 school age is from 4 to 21 years; and "par- 
 tuts, guardians, or other persons having the 
 care or custody of children," residing in the 
 city, are entitled to send such children to any 
 of the public schools. — The course of study 
 of the grammar and primary schools embraces 
 reading, spelling, English grammar, geography. 
 arithmetic, the history of the United States. 
 astronomy, algebra, book-keeping, penmanship, 
 drawing, and vocal music. German or French 
 may be taught in the three higher grades of the 
 grammar-school course, whenever the parents or 
 guardians of at least thirty pupils desire it. Pu- 
 pils to be promoted to the grammar schools, must 
 be able to read in a Third Header, to cipher as far 
 as long division (with divisors not exceeding 25), 
 have learned the elements of geography, and 
 have made some progress in penmanship and 
 drawing. Sewing may be taught in the grammar 
 Bchools for girls. The amount of time t<> !«■ given 
 to each study is carefully fixed by the rules of 
 the board of education. 
 
 The whole number of schools under the care of 
 the board of education is 308, as follows: 46 
 grammar schools for males; 46, for females; 13, for 
 both sexes (mixed schools) ; GO primary depart- 
 ments (in the same buildings with grammar 
 schools) ; 45 separate primary schools ; T colored 
 schools: 40 corporate schools; 35 evening schools: 
 besides the Xormal College, the Saturday Nor- 
 mal School, for teachers, the Training School, 
 and the X. Y. Nautical School. The following 
 table presents the school statistics for 1875 : 
 
 Receipts (lor L875 -6): 
 Apportioned t" the city by 
 
 tic Btate superintendent J 584, 
 Raised l»y local tax 2,964,486.98 
 
 Grade of schools. 
 
 1 No. of 
 Ischools 
 
 No. of 
 teach- 
 ers 
 
 No. ot 
 pupils en- 
 rolled 
 
 Average 
 attend- 
 ance 
 
 Xormal College 
 
 Training School 
 
 Saturday Normal 
 School 
 
 1 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 L05 
 
 11! 
 
 7 
 1 
 
 34 
 
 18 
 
 9 
 1,112 
 
 1,388 
 
 3 
 
 2,031 
 803 
 
 560 
 46,813 
 
 109,003 
 
 1.1-2 
 1 35 
 
 1,071 
 517 
 
 393 
 
 Grammar Schools. . . . 
 Primary Departments 
 
 i lolored Schools 
 
 Nautical Srhool 
 
 3G.572 
 
 02,-1 Is 
 
 872 
 
 97 
 
 Total in day schools. . 
 
 227 
 
 2,601 
 
 160. 
 
 101,940 
 
 Evening Schools 
 
 35 
 
 408 
 
 24,149 
 
 10,343 
 
 Total in public schools 
 
 262 
 
 3,009 
 
 185,026 
 
 112,2 
 
 Corporate Schools. . . . 
 
 46 
 
 195 
 
 22,M2 
 
 9,092 
 
 Grand total 
 
 308 
 
 3,204 
 
 207,838 
 
 121.375 
 
 Total $3,649,141.56 
 
 Payments : 
 
 For teachers' salaries ^2, i'(9,G9G.36 
 
 '• buildings, sites, re- 
 pairs, etc 390,296.22 
 
 " school apparatus, 
 
 books, etc 144,273.29 
 
 Colored schools 39,503.82 
 
 Corporate " 103,126.05 
 
 Other expenses 432,2 15.82 
 
 Total 77~ ~$3,54&141.56 
 
 Prim/,'. Parochial, and Denominational 
 Schools. — Xo complete and reliable statistics in 
 relation to private schools in the city have been 
 collected since L867, in which year there were 
 •J.'S Roman Catholic free schools, having 16,342 
 pupils ; 24 IJ. ('. pay schools, with 6,070 pupils ; 
 "24 schools of the Protestant Episcopal < hurch. 
 with 2,367 pupils; 22 schools connected with 
 other Protestant denominations, with 5,713 pu- 
 pils ; 12 Hebrew schools, with 998 pupils ; 25 
 German schools, free and private, with 3,641 
 pupils; and Kis other private schools, with 11,875 
 pupils; making, in all. 298 schools, with 47,006 
 pupils. This class of schools has considerably 
 increased in number and attendance since that- 
 time. At the close of 1875, the Catholic paro- 
 chial schools numbered 57, with an enrollment of 
 30,732 pupils,— 13,062 boys and 17,670 girls, 
 taught by about 380 religious and lay teachers. 
 Besides these, there were L8 select schools belong- 
 ing to tins denomination, which gave instruction 
 to about 1,500 pupils. For information in re- 
 gard to the educational institutions of a higher 
 grade, see New York (State). 
 
 NEW YORK, College of the City of, 
 
 is the only free college as yet established by 
 any city of the United States which is supported 
 wholly by annual taxation. It was originally 
 organized as the New York Free Academy, in 
 the year 1848, the subject having been first sub- 
 mitted to a vote of the citizens, who approved it 
 by an overwhelming majority. In the year 1866, 
 by act of the legislature, it was "erected into the 
 College of the < 'ity i >f New York," but the course 
 of study remained unchanged. It is a part of 
 the common-school system of the city, and is 
 governed by a board of trustees, composed of the 
 members of the board of education and the pit s- 
 ident of the college. The law also establishes an 
 executive committee of nine trustees, including 
 the president, for the ''care, management, ami 
 government of the college." An annual ap- 
 propriation of 8150,000 is made for its support. 
 Every thing is free, — tuition, books, and station- 
 ery. The expenses for commencement exercises 
 and junior class exhibitions arc paid by the 
 board, and an annual appropriation of $200 is 
 made to each of the two literary societies of the 
 college. Its students are drawn from the com- 
 mon schools. The candidates for admission must 
 have attended one year at a common school in 
 the city, and must lie 14 years of age. The Bub 
 
050 NEW YORK UNIVERSITY 
 
 NORMAL SCHOOL 
 
 jects in which they are examined in June of 
 each year are those taught in the grammar 
 schools. The college curriculum extends through 
 5 years, and comprises two full courses of study, 
 
 —the ancient, and the scientific. The former has 
 for its main feature the study of Latin and 
 Greek; the latter, that of French and German. 
 The calculus and mixed mathematics are taught 
 only in the scientific course. There is a partial 
 course for introductory or first-year students. 
 finished in one year, and known as the com- 
 mercial course. The students are arranged in 
 five classes, introductory, freshman, sophomore, 
 junior, and senior. In the collegiate year. 1876 
 — 7, there were in the introductory class, 512; 
 freshman, L63; sophomore, 80; junior, 57; senior, 
 50; total, 862. Of these, there were in the an- 
 cient course 348 ; in the scientific course, 276 ; 
 in the commercial course, 238. As there is no 
 requiremenl in ancient or modern lane-liases for 
 admission, these are begun in the college. There 
 are 14 professors, who with the president form 
 the faculty. In addition to these, there are 18 
 tutors; total number of instructors, .'52. The 
 subjects taught are Latin, Greek, French, Ger- 
 man, Spanish, English, history, mathematics, 
 mechanics, chemistry, natural history, philosophy, 
 political economy, and drawing; and. in the com- 
 mercial course, phonography, book-keeping, and 
 penmanship. Two degrees arc conferred, Bach- 
 elor of Arts, and Bachelor of Sciences. There 
 is also a post-graduate course in engineering. In 
 
 L875 — (i, this had no students; in the presenl 
 year. L876 -7. there are .'!. The library con- 
 tains L 8,000 volumes, and its support is de- 
 rived from the interest on two bequests,— -the 
 Grosvenor fund of $30,000, and the Hblbrook 
 fund of $5,000. The apparatus of all kinds, 
 illustrating the principles of chemical, physical, 
 and mechanical science, is valued at $20,000. 
 The cabinet of natural history 18 estimated to be 
 worth $3,000, One of the best collections, in 
 the United States, of easts from the Elgin mar- 
 bles, is in the department of drawing; and, to- 
 gether with other easts from the antique, is val- 
 ued at $3,000. The fund for annual medals 
 donated by citizens is $5,250. The college 
 buildings together with the site are valued at 
 $190,000, and belong to the city. There have 
 been hut two presidents since the organization 
 of the institution: Horace Webster, LL. D., ap- 
 pointed in L848; Alexander S. Webb, LL. I >.. 
 the presenl incumbent, appointed in L869. 
 
 NEW YORK, University of the City of, 
 was founded in 1830. it is not denominational, 
 
 nor, as its name might imply, a city institution. 
 It comprises the Following departments: arts, 
 science, medicine, and law. Tuition in the de- 
 partments of arts and science is tree. The in- 
 stitution is supported by the rents of the uni- 
 versity building and the income of an endowment 
 1200,000, with tuition feesin the departments 
 
 oi law and medicine. The course in the depart- 
 ment of arts is similar to the ordinary college 
 course in the older colleges. A school of civil 
 
 with the scientific department. In 1874 — 5, the 
 number of instructors and students was as foL 
 lows: arts and science. 14 instructors and 140 
 students: tine arts, 1 instructor and 13 students: 
 medicine, 34 instructors and 385 students; law. 
 •"> instructors and 55 students: total, 54 instructors 
 and 593 students. The chancellors of the uni- 
 versity have been as follows : the Rev. James M. 
 Mathews, D. D., 1830— 38 ; the Hon. Theodore 
 Frelinghuysen, LL. D., 1838 — 49; the Rev. Isaac 
 Ferris, D.D., LL.D., 1852—70; and the Rev. 
 Howard Crosby. 1). D., LL. D., the present in- 
 cumbent, appointed in 1870. 
 
 NEW ZEALAND. See Aistralia. 
 
 NIEMEYER, August Hermann, a Ger- 
 man educator and author, born Sept. 1., 1754 ; 
 died July 7., 1828. In L779,'he was appointed 
 extraordinary, and. in 1784, ordinary professor 
 of theology in the university of Halle, holding 
 at the same time the position of inspector of the 
 theological seminary. He was a great-grandson 
 of A. II. Francke (q.v.),and gained great celeb- 
 rity as one of the directors of the institution 
 of Francke, to which position he was appointed 
 in L785; and when, in L787, a teachers' semi- 
 nary was added to these institutions. Niemeyer 
 
 Was placed ;it the head of it. In 1807, Owing to 
 his exertions, the university which had been 
 closed by Napoleon, was re-opened by King 
 Jerome; and Niemeyer was appointed chancellor 
 
 and rector /"•/•/"■/mis. Jn this office, he was con- 
 firmed by the king of Prussia, and held il with 
 greal success for nine years. Niemeyer is the 
 author of an important work on the principles 
 of education and instruction [Qrunasdtze <l< r 
 Wrziehung unddes Unterrichts, 1799). in which. 
 for the first time, German pedagogy was brought 
 
 into a system, and which contained one of the 
 earliest attempts at a history of education. As 
 the first principle of education, Niemeyer re- 
 gards the harmonious development of the facul- 
 ties with which we are endowed. His Grvrid- 
 stiize der Erziehung etc gradually grew from 
 
 one to three volumes, and he himself edited 
 eight editions of the work. 
 
 NORMAL COLLEGE. See New Yobk 
 I ( V/y). 
 
 NORMAL SCHOOL, the name given, in 
 the i oited States and some other countries, to 
 a school for the instruction and training of teach- 
 ers, being a translation of the French term ecole 
 normals (from the Latin norma, a rule or model). 
 applied t<> such schools on their establishment in 
 France. "The term normal school," says Hart 
 [In the School-Room, Phil., I868)"is an unfort- 
 unate misnomer, and its general adoption has led 
 
 to much Confusion Of ideas." In England, these 
 institutions are styled training colleges, and in 
 Germany seminaries. Connected with these 
 
 schools there are usually ///<"A7 schools, or schools 
 of practice, in which the theoretical principles 
 ana methods taught are applied to the actual 
 work of instruction and discipline. For full in- 
 formation in regard to the history, and the prin- 
 ciples and plan of organization, of normal schools. 
 
 rineering and a school of art are connected I see Teachers' Seminaries. 
 
NORTH CAROLINA 
 
 651 
 
 NORTH CAROLINA, one of the thirteen 
 original states of the American Union, having 
 an area of 50 > <04bq. m., and a population, in 
 
 I ^7<*. of I ."71 ,361 . of whom 678, L7U were whites, 
 391,650 colored persons, and 1.241 Indians. 
 Educational History. — The constitution of 
 
 177<> provided that "a school or schools shall be 
 
 established by the legislature for the convenient 
 
 instruction of youth, with such salaries to the 
 masters, paid by the public, a* may enable them 
 to instruct at low prices; and that all useful 
 learning shall be encouraged in one or more 
 universities." This is believed to be the first 
 declaration made by the authorities of the state 
 in the interest of education. Nineteen years after, 
 
 the state university was organized; but no action 
 was taken tor the establishment of public schools 
 till 1 S 1 G , when the general assembly, at the in- 
 Btance of the governor, took measures to pro- 
 vide a general system of public instruction. For 
 this purpose, a committee of three was charged 
 with the duty of devising such a system, in ac- 
 cordance with the recommendations of the gov- 
 ernor and the assembly, previously made. The 
 result of their action is best discussed under the 
 three following heads: (I) The establishing of 
 schools; (II) The mode of maintaining them; 
 (II 1 1 The mode of supervising them. 
 
 I. The plan proposed by the committee was 
 thorough, beginning with the establishment of 
 primary schools, to be followed by academies 
 which should prepare the way for admission into 
 the university already established, in their de- 
 bit 'rations, they considered the organization of 
 the schools, their discipline and government, the 
 course of studies to be pursued, the mode of in- 
 struction, the creation of a permanent school 
 fund, and the constitution of a board for its 
 management. Their report was favorably con- 
 sidered by the assembly, and passed to its first 
 rea ling, but, unfortunately, went no further, 
 owing to the difficulty of raising the money 
 needed to make the proposed system effective. 
 Nothing further was done till 1825, when a fund 
 was created for the establishment and support of 
 '•common and convenient schools for the instruc- 
 tion of youth in the several counties of the state." 
 For this purpose, the second section of the act of 
 that year constitutes the governor, the chief 
 justice of the supreme court, the speakers of the 
 senate and house of commons, and the treasurer 
 of the state, a board, "for the promotion of learn- 
 ing, and the instruction of youth". Under the 
 name of The President and Directors of the 
 Literary Fund, they were empowered to hold 
 real and personal property, and to sell, dispose of, 
 and improve the same. In 1832. Joseph Cald- 
 well, the president of the university, aroused the 
 attention of the state to the need of public 
 schools, by the publication of a pamphlet con- 
 sisting of eleven letters which had been furnished 
 by him to a local paper. In these letters, he 
 called attention to the progress made by the com- 
 mon schools of other states and count ries. enumer- 
 ated the difficulties in the way of such progress 
 
 mounting them. In 1836, the board was changed 
 
 so as to consist of the governor and three other 
 
 members appointed by him biennially. In ls:;7. 
 
 the legislature made it their duty to prepare a 
 plan for common schools, suited to the resources 
 and condition of the state. In obedience to this 
 act. the board, in L838, submitted an exhaustive 
 
 report, in which, after comparing the educational 
 condition of the state with that of others, and 
 
 of the countries in Europe most advanced in 
 this respect, they proposed to divide the static 
 into L,250 school-districts, and to erect in each a 
 School-house of the best materials, and according 
 to the most approved method in regard to size, 
 plan, and location. According to the condition 
 of the school fund at that time, it was estimated 
 that each of these schools would receive about 
 $240 annually. With the SCantj means at the 
 disposal of the people, they could hope only to 
 lay the foundation of a system, trusting to after 
 years to establish also schools anil colleges for 
 more advanced instruction. In January, 1839, 
 the legislature took positive action upon the re- 
 port, directing that counties should be divided 
 into school-districts six miles square, and that an 
 election should he held in each county to ascertain 
 the wishes of the people in regard to the schools. 
 Nearly every county voted in favor of their 
 establishment. In all such counties, the county 
 court was directed to levy a tax for the building 
 of a school-house in each district, large enough 
 to accommodate at least fifty pupils. It was 
 also made the duty of the court to choose not 
 less than five superintendents for the county, 
 whose duty it should be to make the division into 
 school-districts according to the plan already 
 mentioned, and to appoint not less than three 
 school-committee men in each, "to assist the 
 superintendents in all matters pertaining to the 
 establishment of schools in their respective 
 districts." — In 1840, a school law was passed 
 which substantially continued in force till 1865. 
 By an act passed in 1844, county superintend- 
 ents were permitted to lay out school-districts of 
 such form and size, for one school each, as they 
 might deem most convenient for the inhabitants 
 of the county. As the money appropriated by the 
 state was to be divided equally among the dis- 
 tricts, the effect was to increase greatly their 
 number. The result was, that about $250,000 
 was annually divided among the districts, the 
 number of which had increased to 3,000, but 
 without accomplishing the best results. 
 
 II. There have been two principal sources for 
 the maintenance of the schools: (1) the income 
 of permanent funds; and (2) taxes. 
 
 (1) The Income of Permanent Fundi. — In 
 1825, the legislature created a fund for the sup- 
 port of schools, to consist of the dividends re- 
 ceived from stock, then held or afterwards ac- 
 quired by the state, in banks and worksof inter- 
 nal Improvement; the liquor tax; the unexpended 
 balance of the agricultural fund: money paid to 
 the state for entries of vacant lands; money de- 
 rived from the sale of swam]) lands; and such 
 
 in North < larolina, and suggested means for sur- sums as the legislature might, from time to time, 
 
G52 
 
 NORTH CAROLINA 
 
 appropriate. In 1837, the state received, by the 
 removal of its deposits from the United States 
 treasury, the .sum of $1,433,757.39. This, with 
 the exception of $300,000, was transferred to the 
 literary board, to be set apart as a permanent 
 fund for the maintenance of the schools, the in- 
 come thence derived, with the amounts received 
 from sources above specified, constituting the an- 
 nual school fund <it' the state. The revenue from 
 this source, in 1838, amounted to 8100,000. In 
 1840, the permanent fund was $2,000,000, yield- 
 ing an annual income of $120,000. The present 
 permanent fund amounts to $2,190,564.65. 
 
 (2) Taoees.—Ia the report made to the legis- 
 lature in L838, by the literary board, the insuf- 
 ficiency of the income of the permanent fund 
 for school purposes was plainly pointed out. In 
 L840, a tax was levied in each district sufficient 
 to build a school-house; and, in L 844, each county 
 was required to levy a tax equal to one half of the 
 amount annually received from the literary fund. 
 In 1868, the constitution of the state directed that 
 "the general assembly, at its first session under 
 this constitution, shall provide, by taxation and 
 otherwise, for a general and uniform system of 
 public schools." The following year, the school 
 law provided that, in ease any township should 
 fail, at the annual meeting, to provide for schools 
 to be taught four months in the year, the school 
 committee should immediately forward to the 
 county commissioners an estimate of the neces- 
 sary expenses; and a tax equal to the amount of 
 
 such estimate should be levied on the township by 
 the county commissioners at the same time that 
 the COUnty (axes were levied. The act of L871 — 2 
 required that a tax of li ; cents on the 8100. and 
 I'll cents special tax. should lie levied: and this, 
 with 7") per cent of the slate ami county poll tax. 
 and all other public school funds, should he paid 
 at the rate of 50 cents per month, for each 
 pupil attending the public schools. The present 
 
 law, enacted in L872 -3, levies an annual tax of 
 •ents on the -SI 00, and a special poll-tax of 
 25 cents; and this, with 7"> per cent of the state 
 and COUnly poll-tax and all other school money. 
 is distributed among the school-districts according 
 to the number of children of school age in each. 
 
 111. The report of the president and directors 
 of the literary fund to the legislature, in L838, 
 
 called at ten! ion to the fact that no supervision of 
 the schools was maintained by the intelligent por- 
 tion of the community, on account of their want 
 
 of pecuniary responsibility, ami suggested that 
 the portion of th ■ literary fund due each county 
 should not he distributed till the county court 
 nil have levied and collected twice the amount 
 due from the fund to i he county. They recom- 
 mended a thorough organization ami supervision 
 of the schools. In 1852, Rev. Calvin II. Wiley 
 was appointed superintendent of schools, and re- 
 tained the position till 1865. At that time the 
 public school, were closed tor want of funds, ami 
 
 remained so till 1870. His successors have Keen 
 
 8. S. Adiley. till L872; Alexander Mclvcr. till 
 
 1 875; and Stephen D. Tool, the present incum- 
 bent i L876). 
 
 School Si/stem. — The general supervision of 
 the schools of the state is vested in a state board 
 of education, which consists of the governor, the 
 superintendent of public instruction, the secre- 
 tary of state, the treasurer, the auditor, and the 
 attorney-general. Of this board, the governor is 
 the president, ami the state superintendent, the 
 secretary. The immediate control of the schools 
 is committed to the state superintendent, who is 1 
 elected by the people for four years. County 
 commissioners are also chosen, who are charged 
 with "a general supervision and control of the 
 schools in their respective counties". Their duties 
 relate chiefly to the financial management of the 
 schools; though, in other respects, they have 
 considerable discretionary power. Their erhciem y. 
 however, is impaired by the fact that theirduties 
 are confined entirely to office business, there 
 being no visiting of the schools on their part, as 
 in other states. In each township, a school com- 
 mittee of three is elected biennially. This com- 
 mittee is empowered to purchase and hold real 
 estate and personal property, to receive any gift, 
 grant, or donation made for the use of any school 
 within its jurisdiction, and to sell or transfer the 
 same for school purposes. It is required to make. 
 for the use of the county board, an annual census 
 of all children of school age. designating race and 
 Bex, of all public schools, and the number of 
 children who do not attend school. It is also re- 
 quired to divide the township into suitable dis- 
 tricts, and to establish separate schools for white , 
 and colored children. Tins committee, also, has 
 the power io employ and to dismi.-s teachers, and 
 lo regulate their salaries, subject to certain re- 
 strictions as to grade. Public schools must he 
 maintained not less than four months each year. 
 The si boo! age is from (i to 21 years. The choice 
 of text books rests partly with the teachers and 
 partly with the state hoard: but no sectarian or 
 political text-books are permitted. 
 
 Educational Condition. — The nundter of 
 schools in the state, as reported in 1874, was 
 4,020, of which 2. Mil) were for white, and 1,200 
 for colored children. The support of the schools 
 was derived from the following source- : 
 
 Prom the Btate treasury $ 36,230.67 
 
 Prom poll-tax 143,609.92 
 
 From property-tax 10 »,434.94 
 
 Balance from previous rear.. . 202,129.70 
 
 Total $496,405.23 
 
 The expenditures were as follows: 
 
 For salaries of teachers el' 
 white schools (182,646.53 
 
 For Balarjes ol teachers of col- 
 ored schools 77,61* 
 
 For county examiners 2,854.56 
 
 For school-houses 22,676.46 
 
 For county treasurers' com- 
 missions. 11,802.06 
 
 Total •7..V.M.--. 
 
 In addition to this amount. $12,450 was dis- 
 tributed among 30 public schools from the 
 
 Peabody educational fund. 
 The principal items of school statistics were 
 
 t he following : 
 
 No. of children ol school age, white, 242,768 
 
 colored, 127,192 
 Total 369,900 
 
NORTH CAROLINA 
 
 NolM'IIKRN ILLINOIS COLLEGE 653 
 
 \ i. of children attending school, white, 119,083 
 
 colored, 56, 
 
 Total 175,0s:; 
 
 No. of teachers employed, white male, 1,496 
 
 white female, 613 
 
 Total white 2,108 
 
 Colored male. 615 
 
 colored female, 252 
 
 Total colored 767 
 
 Whole number of teachers employed 2,875 
 
 Xormul Instruction. — In the pamphlet pub- 
 lished by the president of the state university, 
 referred to above, special attention was called to 
 the need of qualified teachers, and a plan was 
 proposed for supplying this deficiency. Xo im- 
 mediate action, however, was taken. The report 
 of the president and directors of the literary 
 fund, in 1838, also called attention to the subject . 
 and urgently recommended the establishment of 
 normal schools for the education of teachers, and 
 a Ivised, also, the establishment of a normal de- 
 partment in the state university. The Ashboro' 
 Normal School was organized, in 1873, by the 
 Randolph County Educational Association, and 
 was conducted by the superintendent of the as- 
 sociation, one month in L873, and one in 1874. 
 In the former year, 100 teachers received in- 
 struction; in the latter, 75. The Lexington 
 Normal School was organized by the Davidson 
 County board of education, under aspecial act of 
 the legislature, in August, 1874, and continued 
 in session 25 days, under the direction of the 
 chairman of the county board of examiners. In 
 this scho )1. separate instruction was given to 36 
 white teachers, and 35 colored teachers. The 
 normal department of Shaw University, at Ra- 
 leigh, in 1874, had 3 resident instructors 
 and 60 pupils, of whom 40 were males, and 
 20 females. Besides these, teachers' institutes are 
 held in various parts of the state. The Williston 
 Academy and Normal School, at Raleigh, also 
 affords special instruction to teachers. It is sup- 
 ported by the American Missionary Association. 
 ■ — The State Educational Association was estab- 
 lished July 11., 1873. 
 
 Secondary Instruct inn. — Of institutions of 
 this grade, there were reported, in 1875, to the 
 I'. S. Bureau of Education, 27, with 84 teachers 
 and I. fills pupils, of whom 478 were in classical 
 studies, 201 in modern languages, 217 preparing 
 for a classical course in college, and 53 for a 
 scientific course. There are also preparatory de- 
 partments in several of the colleges, which, in 
 1875, reported 426 students. 
 
 Superior Instruction. — The institutions which 
 furnish instruction of this grade are included in 
 the following table. 
 
 
 
 When 
 
 Religious 
 
 NAME 
 
 Location 
 
 found- 
 
 denomina- 
 
 
 
 ed 
 
 tion 
 
 
 Dav. Coll. 
 
 1837 
 
 Presb. 
 
 North Carolina Coll.. 
 
 Bit. Pleasant 
 
 IS.")!) 
 
 Luth. 
 
 Rutherford College.. 
 
 Excelsior 
 
 1870 
 
 Non-sect. 
 
 Triuitv College 
 
 Trinity 
 
 1853 
 
 M. Epis. 
 
 Univ. of N. Carolina. . 
 
 Chapel Hill 
 
 1795 
 
 Non-sect. 
 
 Wake Forest CoUege. 
 
 Wake Forest 
 
 1884 
 
 Bap. 
 
 Wilson College 
 
 Wilson 
 
 1872 
 
 Non-sect. 
 
 Besides these, there are several institutions for 
 the higher education of women. Of these, 6 re- 
 ported, in L874, to the L. S. Bureau of Educa- 
 tion. 70 instructors and 580 students. 
 
 Scientific and Professional Instruction. — Con- 
 nected with the state university, there are schools 
 
 of natural science, including chemistry, physics, 
 
 and engineering, and a school of agriculture, en- 
 dowed with the congressional land grant. Shaw 
 University has a theological department; Trinity 
 College, a theological and a law department; and 
 
 Rutherford College, a law school. 
 
 Special Instruction. — The institution for the 
 instruction of the deaf and dumb, and blind, was 
 founded at Raleigh in 1847. It had, in L875, a 
 corps of 12 instructors, and 208 pupils, of whom 
 L32 were deaf-mutes, and 76 were blind. Special 
 attenl i< n is given to music, and there is a mechan- 
 ical department, in which practical instruction 
 is given in several industrial branches. The edu- 
 cation of colored children of this class was first 
 undertaken in this institution. The Oxford Or- 
 phans' Home, at Oxford, under the care of the 
 .Marion Fraternity, affords an asylum for 115 
 orphans. It is sustained by voluntary contribu- 
 tions. There is a branch asylum at Mars Hill. 
 
 NORTH CAROLINA, University of, at 
 Chapel Hill, N. ('..was chartered in 1787, and 
 organized in 17!).">. Exercises were resumed, 
 after a period of suspension, in Sept.. L875. It 
 comprises six colleges ; namely, of mathematics, 
 of literature (including the schools of Creek, 
 Latin, and modern languages), of philosophy 
 (schools of metaphysics, and of history and 
 political science), of natural science (schools of 
 chemistry, applied chemistry, and physics), of 
 engineering, and of agriculture (endowed with 
 the congressional land grant, and including 
 schools of natural history, chemistry, and mili- 
 tary tactics). Three regular courses have been 
 established : the classical (4 years), leading to 
 the degree of Bachelor of Arts; the scientific 
 (3 years), leading to the degree of Bachelor of 
 Science; and the course in agriculture (3 years), 
 leading to the degree of Bachelor of Agriculture. 
 The university has an extensive collection of 
 geological and mineralogical specimens, and a 
 library of about 5,000 volumes and 2,000 pam- 
 phlets; the libraries of the two literary societies 
 contain about 7,000 volumes each. The cost of 
 tuition is $60 a year. In 1876 — 7, there were 
 !) instructors and 100 students (45 classical, 31 
 scientific, 7 agricultural, and 17 optional). Kemp 
 P. Battle is (1876) the president. 
 
 NORTHERN ILLINOIS COLLEGE, at 
 Fulton, 111., was first opened, in 1861, as the Wes- 
 tern Union College and Military Institute. In 
 1866, it was chartered and opened as the Illinois 
 Soldiers' College for the education of disabled 
 soldiers and sailors of the state. The name was 
 chanced in 1873, when the college was thrown 
 open to both sexes. It is supported by tuition 
 fees and the income of an endowment of about 
 820,000. The college building originally cost 
 §1 00,000. The library consists of over 1 000 vol- 
 umes ; the cabinet is well furnished with spec- 
 
654 N.W.CHRISTIAN UNIVERSITY 
 
 NOR W I ( 'H UNIVERSITY 
 
 imens in geology, mineralogy, and palaeontology; 
 and the laboratory has a valuable set of philo- 
 sophical and chemical apparatus. The regular 
 tuition fees vary from $27 to $32 j per year. The 
 college lias a preparatory collegiate course, an 
 academic course (designed especially for those 
 preparing themselves for teaching or business), 
 and a regular graduating course of four years, 
 which seems to be similar to the courses of the 
 
 higher female seminaries. Female students who 
 
 complete the full course, or its equivalent, receive 
 the degree of Mistress of Liberal Arts (M.L.A.); 
 those completing the English studies of the 
 course, that of .Mistress of English Literature 
 (M.E.L.); and male students completing the 
 course, the degree of Bachelor of Science (1!. S.). 
 In 1ST") -6, there were 10 instructors and 111 
 Students (66 males and If) females). The pres- 
 idents have been, Leander II. Potter, A. M., 1866 
 — 73: William D. F. Luinmis. A. M., 1873 — ">; 
 and the Itev. Joseph W. Hubbard, A.M., the 
 present incumbent, appointed in L875. 
 
 NORTH WESTERN CHRISTIAN UNI- 
 VERSITY, at frvington, End., founded in L853, 
 is under the control of the Christian denomina- 
 tion. It was remove; I from Indianapolis to its 
 present site, about four miles east of that city, 
 in is;."). It has a fine new building and a cam- 
 pus of 2") acres, situated in a natural grove of 
 forest trees. It is supported by the interest on 
 an endowment of $300,000, the tuition fees be- 
 ing merely nominal. The endowment property 
 of the institution amounts to nearly $] ,000,000. 
 The university is open to all without distinction 
 of sex, race, or color. It comprises a college of 
 literature (classical), a college of sciences, a col- 
 lege of the Bible (theological), and a college of 
 business, with classes preparatory to the classical 
 and scientific departments. In 1 s 7 "> — 6, the stu- 
 dents were as follows: college of literature. -•"> ; 
 college of science, 12; preparatory, 48 ; college 
 of the Bible, 23; college of business, 44; total, 
 deducting repetitions, I '-'•'. There were 11 in- 
 structors. The presidents of the university have 
 been as follows: John Young, LL. I>.. L855 — 7; 
 S. K. Iloshour. I). I).. 1 858 -61; A. 15. Benton, 
 LL. I».. 1861—8; Otis A. Burgess, D. D., LL. D., 
 L868 70: W. V. Black, A.M.. L870 — 73; and 
 Otis A. Burgess again since. L873. 
 
 NORTHWESTERN COLLEGE, at Na 
 perville, 111., organized in L861, and chartered in 
 1865, is under the control of the Evangelical As- 
 sociation. It admits both sexes. The productive 
 funds amount to $85,000; the value of its grounds, 
 buildings, and apparatus is $50,000* The in- 
 stitution has a German course, an English-Ger- 
 man course, ,-i commercial department, and an 
 art department, in addition to the usual classical 
 and scientific courses. In l s ~ ;! '. there were 
 II instructors and 405 students, including 12 of 
 collegiate grade. The Rev. A. A. Smith. A. M., 
 
 I 876) the president 
 NORTHWESTERN UNIVERSITY, at 
 Evanston, 111., under Methodisl Episcopal con- 
 trol, was chartered in L851, organized in ls">.'{, 
 and opened in 1855. It consists of the following 
 
 ' departments, or colleges : (1 ) literature and 
 I science ; (2) technology ; (3) literature and art 
 
 Woman's College) ; (4) conservatory of music ; 
 (5) college of theology (Garret Biblical Insti- 
 tute) ; ((>) law (Union College of Law of the 
 University of Chicago and the Northwestern 
 University): (7) medicine (Chicago Medical Col- 
 lege); (8) preparatory school. Departments (6) and 
 (7) are located m Chicago. The university has 
 a library of about 25,000 volumes, including 
 pamphlets, and valuable apparatus and cabinets. 
 The value of its buildings, library, and apparatus 
 is $400,000; of other unproductive property, 
 $500,000; productive property. $440,000. In 
 the theological department, tuition is free: in 
 the first three departments enumerated above, 
 the cost is $45 per annum. There are six paral- 
 lel courses of four years each, three in the col- 
 lege of literature and science (classical. Latin, 
 and scientific, and a course in modern lan- 
 guages), and three in the college of technology 
 (a course in chemistry, a course in engineering, 
 and a course in natural history). The courses 
 in the W oman's College are the same as those iu 
 the colleges of literature and science, and of tech- 
 nology. In l. s 7.'5 — 4. the number of instructors, 
 in all the departments, was 62 ; and of students, 
 866. The presidents of the university have been 
 as follows : the Rev. Dr. Clark T. Ilinman. 
 L853— 6; the Rev. Dr. R. S. Foster, 1856—60 : 
 I'rof. Henry S. Noyes (vice-president), 1860 — 67; 
 the Rev. Dr. E. 0. Haven, 1869—72; and the 
 Rev. Dr. < harles II. Fowler, since 1872. 
 
 NORTHWESTERN UNIVERSITY, at 
 Watertown, AVis., chartered in L864, is under 
 the control of the Evangelical Lutheran Synod 
 of Wisconsin. It comprises a collegiate, a pre- 
 paratory, and an academic department. The 
 library contains about 2.000 volumes. The cost 
 of tuition is $30 per annum. In L874 — 5, there 
 were 6 instructors and ISO students: collegiate, 
 22 : preparatory, 61 ; academic. 97. The Rev. 
 A. F. Ernst, A. M., is (1876) the president. 
 
 NORWAY. See SWEDEH. 
 
 NORWEGIAN LUTHER COLLEGE, 
 at Decorah. Iowa, founded in 1861, is under 
 Lutheran control. It is supported by collections 
 in the congregations of the Norwegian Lutheran 
 Synod of America. It contains 7 classes or 
 grades, of one year each. Instruction is free, 
 pi in the two lower classes, where, since 
 
 Sept. I.. L876, $30 a year is paid for tuition. 
 'The value of buildings, grounds, and apparatus is 
 $120,000 : the libraries contain about 4,000 vol- 
 umes. In L875 6, there were < s instructors 
 and 200 students, the greater pari in the pre- 
 paratory department. The Rev. I-aur l^irsen 
 has been the president from the organization of 
 the college* 
 
 NORWICH UNIVERSITY, a military 
 college ;ii Northlicld. Vt.. founded in 1834, IS 
 under Protestant Episcopal control. It has a 
 preparatory, a business, and a collegiate depart- 
 ment, with a classical ami a scientific course, of 
 four yean each, and a philosophical course of 
 three" years, leading, respectively, to the degn 
 
NOTRE DAME DU LAO 
 
 NOVA SCOTIA 
 
 655 
 
 of B. A., U.S.. ami B. PL Drawing and military 
 science are pursued throughout the three courses. 
 The charge for tuition, hoard, etc., is $300 per 
 year. In 1874 — 5, there were s instructors and 
 49 students. The Rev. Josiah Swett, 1>. !>.. is 
 (I B76) the president. 
 
 NOTRE DAME DU LAC, University 
 of, a Roman Catholic institution at Notre Dame, 
 lnd.. was founded by the Congregation of the 
 Holy Cross in 1842, and chartered in 1844. It 
 has commodious buildings finely situated. The 
 libraries contain nearly 30,000 volumes. The reg- 
 ular charge for board, tuition, etc.. is $300 per year. 
 The university has a classical, a scientific, a civil 
 engineering, a law, and a commercial department, 
 with preparatory and post-graduate courses, in 
 187o — 6, there were 38 instructors and 324 stu- 
 dents. The Very Rev. Edward F. Sorin, the 
 founder of the institution, was its president for 
 twenty-two years. The Rev. Patrick .J. Colovin, 
 0. S. C, is (1876) the president. 
 
 NOTT, Eliphalet, an American educator, 
 born at Ashford, Ct., June 25., LTTi! : died at 
 Schenectady, N. Y.. Jan. 29., 1866. He studied 
 theology, and was sent, as teacher and missionary, 
 to central New York, locating himself at Cher- 
 ry Valley. He was soon after called to the 
 pastorate of the Presbyterian Church in Albany, 
 where his sermon on the death of Hamilton 
 made him celebrated. In 1804, he was chosen 
 president of Union College, at Schenectady, 
 which position he held till his death. During 
 this long period, nearly 4,000 students were 
 graduated. Dr. Notts principal works are Coun- 
 $els to Young Men (1810), often republished, 
 and Lectures on Temperance (1847), besides 
 many addresses, discourses, and sermons. Physical 
 science, also, received a large share of liis atten- 
 tion, about 30 patents for inventions having been 
 obtained by him. 
 
 NOVA * SCOTIA, a British province of 
 North America, forming a part of the Dominion 
 of Canada. It has an area of 21,731 sq. m.;and 
 its population, in 1871, was 387,800. It was 
 first settled, in 1605, by the French under De 
 Monte, at Port Royal (now Annapolis) ; but, 
 in 1621, the country being claimed as a part 
 of Virginia, James I. granted it to Sir William 
 Alexander, under the title of Nova Scotia. It, 
 however, continued in the possession of France 
 until 171.'!. when it was formally ceiled to the 
 English by the treaty of Utrecht. The island 
 of Cape Breton was annexed to it in 1763, and 
 the province of New Brunswick separated from 
 it in L784. In 1 867, it became a member of the 
 Dominion of ( 'anaila. 
 
 Educational History. — The highest school 
 'authority iu t lie province, is the council of public 
 instruction, composed of the members of the 
 executive council. The superintendent, who is 
 also a member, and the secretary of the council 
 are appointed by the lieutenant-governor. The 
 council appoints an inspector for each county, 
 upon the recommendation of the superintendent, 
 and with his concurrence prescribes text-books, 
 library books, and school-house plans. The coun- 
 
 cil also makes regulations for the expenditure of 
 the school grants, for the location, construction, 
 and control of county academies, and the classi- 
 fication of teachers: appoints four provincial 
 examiners for teachers' licenses \ determines ap- 
 peals from trustees, and may take such action 
 as any special exigencies require. The super- 
 intendent has. subject to the council, the super- 
 vision of the inspectors, the normal and the 
 common schools, and the county academies, also 
 the enforcement of the law. He inspects the 
 
 academies, and. if directed, other schools ; holds 
 meetings and teachers' institutes: reports on 
 school management and teachers' qualifications; 
 l'urni>hes printed regulations and instructions to 
 school officers, and makes an annual report with 
 suggestions. The lieutenant-governor appoints 
 
 for the several districts, corresponding to the civil 
 counties, a board of seven commissioners. The 
 commissioners are required to name a day when 
 all semi-annual school returns will be received at 
 the inspector's office, and to endorse on each of 
 such returns their approval or disapproval, and 
 they may authorize, on the inspector's recom- 
 mendation, the payment of a grant to a licensed 
 teacher of a poor section. The commissioners 
 may settle disputes in regard to teachers' .sala- 
 ries, and may appoint trustees in certain cases. 
 They may. upon the inspector's report, declare 
 school premises to be unfit for use : and in such 
 a case, the provincial aid to the section is with- 
 held unless the necessary improvement is pro- 
 vided. They may cancel or suspend the license 
 of a teacher for sufficient cause ; but in the case 
 of incapacity or negligence, they must notify the 
 trustees and the superintendent. The inspector 
 is required to inspect semi-annually each school 
 and academy in his district, and report thereon 
 to the superintendent. He must also give such 
 information to trustees and teachers as may be 
 required, and assist in improving the methods 
 i >f school management. lie must make an annual 
 report to the superintendent on the 1st of De- 
 cember, specifying the work performed and its 
 results. Every section lias a board of three trust- 
 ees, one elected each year, from among the qual- 
 ified voters at the annual meeting. If a section 
 fails to elect a trustee, ora trustee refuses or fails 
 to serve for twenty days, the commissioners are 
 required to fill such vacancy. If a person elected 
 a trustee, refuses or fails to serve, he is liable to 
 a line of $20, which is applied to aid the erec- 
 tion of school-houses. The school year consists 
 of two terms : the winter term, from Nov. 1. to 
 April 30., and the summer term, from May 1. to 
 Oct. 31. The school time, holidays, and vaca- 
 1 tions are regulated by the council. Trustees must 
 employ a licensed teacher, and. if necessary, an 
 assistant, for not less than five months, or in a 
 poor section, three months in a year. No teacher 
 can establish a school without an agreement with 
 the section trustees. The annual grant from the 
 provincial treasury for the public schools is 
 $117,000, of which the city of Halifax receives 
 $7,500. This grant is divided according to the 
 total days' attendance of registered pupils at the 
 
656 
 
 NOVA SCOTIA 
 
 NUMBER 
 
 common schools, the distrihution for each term 
 being made for the corresponding term of the 
 preceding year. Halifax constitutes one school 
 section, with a board of thirteen commissioners, 
 wlio form a corporation, and of whom seven are 
 appointed by tin- government, and six by the city 
 council. The governor may appoint principals 
 of the normal and model schools, who with the 
 approval of the council, may appoint their assist- 
 ants. The general control of the normal school 
 is in the hands of the superintendent. An an- 
 nual grant of 8<i<>(> is made to each county acad- 
 emy. The normal school has but one term, 
 commencing on the first Wednesday in Novem- 
 ber, and closing on the Friday preceding the 
 annual provincial examinations, in July. Before 
 entering, every student must declare his or her 
 intention to teach three years in the schools of 
 the province; otherwise, a fee of $20 is charged. 
 The chief town of each county is entitled to a 
 grant for an academy, on complying with certain 
 conditions. The first or highest department is 
 open, free of charge, to all children of the county 
 who are able to pass the required examination. 
 Whenever the chief town fails to obtain the 
 grant, or to maintain an efficient academy, the 
 council reserves the right to treat with any other 
 section in the county for the establishment and 
 proper maintenance of such academy.— The an- 
 nual examination of teachers takes place on the 
 first Tuesday after duly 1">. All licenses 'are 
 valid in any part of the province until revoked 
 for cause ; but nobody under I 5 years of age is 
 allowed to teach unless with the express approval 
 of the inspector. A system of evening schools 
 is authorized for persons over 13 years of age. 
 The number of teachers, in L874, was 686. The 
 number of pupils enrolled during the year was 
 93,512; and the number present, of each loo 
 registered, was, in the winter, 52.9; and in the 
 summer, 57.1. The normal school had 118 pu- 
 pils under instruction and training, of whom so 
 received licenses to teach. The total number of 
 teachers examined was L,198, of whom 594 were 
 licensed. The expenditure for the public schools 
 was $552,221, of which the government grant 
 was $lf>7,-181; and for the normal and model 
 schools, $4,733, all of which expense was borne 
 by the government. In 1875, there were 10 
 county academies, with 43 teachers and 2,614 
 pupils. There are also a number of special acad- 
 emies, of which the llorton Collegiate School, 
 with I \'i pupils, and the I'ictou Academy, with 
 
 L20 pupils, in L875, are the largest. The latter 
 
 institution was founded, in 1816, on the plan of 
 a Scotch college, hut without the power of con- 
 ferring degrees. In addition to these academies, 
 there is a aiffh school at NewGlaSffOW, founded 
 
 in I860. The Institution for the Deaf and Dumb 
 
 teal at entirely free : in L875,it had ."> teachers 
 
 and 42 students. The University of Dalhousie 
 
 now virtually fills the place for many Veal's OC- 
 
 cupied by the academy ; ami the latter is now 
 organized as the highest or academic grade of the 
 schools of the town. There were, in L875,five 
 colleges: Dalhousie College and University, Hali- 
 
 fax; St. Mary's College (Roman Catholic), Hali- 
 fax ; Acadia college (Baptist). W olfville ; St. 
 Francis College (Roman Catholic), Antigonish; 
 and King's College and University (Church of 
 England), Windsor. Of these, King's College and 
 Dalhousie < 'ollege are the largest. The former 
 originated in a recommendation made by a com- 
 mittee of the House of Assembly, in 1 <87. It 
 was founded by an act of parliament, in 1788, 
 and received a royal charter from George ill., 
 in 1802. I 'onnected with it. is a school of civil 
 engineering, a library of 6,000 volumes, and a 
 museum containing tine collections in the various 
 departments of natural history. A collegiate 
 school, which is also connected with it, prepares 
 boys for the college. It had, in 1 875, •"> professors 
 and an endowment fund of $106,891. I'alhousie 
 ( 'ollege had. in 1 B75, <i professors and an endow- 
 ment fund of $99,233. There is a medical facul- 
 ty in connection with the college, in which, in 
 ]s7"), there were 11 professors. — See Mabling, 
 Canada Educational Yearbook for 187t'» ; 
 Lovell's Gazetteer of British North America. 
 
 NOVELS. See Fiction. 
 
 NUMBER is here considered as a branch of 
 elementary or object instruction. Great impor- 
 tance should he placed on the means by which 
 children acquire their first ideas of number. 
 ie a child's knowledge of this .subject begins 
 with counting, the first exercises for teaching it 
 should be the counting of objects. The child 
 may first be taught to count as tar as / n by us- 
 ing tin; numeral frame dp v.), or buttons, pencils. 
 the fingers, sticks, marks, or other objects. Next 
 he should he taught to count groups of balls, 
 buttons, sticks, or other objects, used to repre- 
 sent the several numbers, vn<\ two, three, four \ 
 five, etc. By using the groups of objects thus 
 counted as illustrations of the several numbers. 
 figures may readily be taught. Let the pupil 
 ei unit one hall on the numeral frame, one pencil, 
 one finger, <>>n> mark, and then show him the 
 figure 1 to represent the number of each object. 
 Next let him count, in groups, /»'" balls on 
 the numeral frame, two pencils, tiro fingers, 
 two marks, etc.; then show the figure 2 as a 
 symbol of the number of objects in each group. 
 Afterward, require the pupil tocount balls, pen- 
 cils, and other objects in groups of three, and 
 then show the figure '. 3 as the representative of 
 the number counted in each group. In a similar 
 manner, the several figures from 2 to 9 may be 
 associated, and their value learned by means of 
 counting. In order to teach children the value 
 
 of the several figures by personal experience, let 
 
 them count in groups two balls, or bullous, etc.. 
 and ob& ne that each group contains two ones, 
 — that two iB equal to one and one more, or two 
 ones. After the pupils have counted several 
 kinds of objects in groups of three, lead them to 
 notice that one and one and one, or three ones, 
 make three, also that too and one make thnr. 
 
 Proceeding in the same manner to count in groups 
 
 • objects, let the pupilsobserve that four ones, 
 or two and one and one, or three and one, or two 
 and two, or two times two, make /our. By means 
 
NUMERAL FRAME 
 
 657 
 
 similar exercises, the value of each Dumber 
 from two to nine may be thoroughly learned by 
 children. As additional exercises, or a review 
 of previous Lessons, lei the pupils count as many 
 balls on the numeral frame, or hold up as many 
 fingers, as the given figure represents. By this 
 means, all the figures from 1 to 9 may he learned 
 as symbols of numbers. In subsequent lessons, 
 for teaching figures as representatives of num- 
 bers greater than nine, let the figures be arranged 
 in groups as follows : 
 
 First group, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9 
 
 ondgroup, 10, 1 1.12. L3, L4, 15,16,17, L8, 19 
 
 rd group, 20,21,22,23, 24,25,26,27,28,29 
 
 and so on to 99. Requiring the pupils to count 
 as many balls, or other objects, to represent in 
 order the numbers symbolized by each of these 
 groups, will lead them to understand the value 
 of the numbers that are expressed with two 
 figures. This part of the instruction may be 
 greatly facilitated by giving the pupil several 
 small sticks, like matches, and requiring him to 
 count and tie in bundles as many sticks as each 
 of the figures from 1 to 9 represents. Then to 
 furnish the pupil with favorable opportunities 
 of learning, by personal observation and experi- 
 ence, that each number represented by two fig- 
 ures in the second group is composed of one 
 buudle of ten ones, and one or more single ones 
 aided, let him count and tie in a bundle ten 
 sticks to represent the number 10 ; and then tie 
 ten sticks in a bundle and add to it one single 
 si lck to represent the number 11, and so on to 19. 
 Two bundles of ten sticks each may be made for 
 the number 20. and two similar bundles and a 
 single stick for 21; and so on to 29. In this 
 manner, children may be taught to comprehend 
 the value of all the simple numbers to 100. The 
 knowledge obtained by means of the exercises 
 described above will prepare the pupils to learn 
 readily and intelligently both the value and the 
 form of writing numbers through hundreds, and 
 thereby to understand the principles of numera- 
 tion and nutation. See Currie, Principles and 
 Practice of Early and Infant School Education. 
 (Edin. andLond.); X. A. Calkins, New Primary 
 Object Lessons ( New York, 1 ^71). 
 
 NUMERAL FRAME. This simple appa- 
 ratus has been in use for many centuries. In 
 some form or other, it is now used for teaching 
 number, in all parts of the world. It is sonic- 
 times employed to represent units, tens, hun- 
 dreds, thousands, etc., in numeration. This use of 
 the numeral frame renders it necessary to give ar- 
 tificial values to the balls on different wires; ami 
 notwitlistanding that this is analogous, in order, 
 to the arrangement of the numerical system of 
 figures, there is danger that young children, by 
 the use of it for this purpose, may become con- 
 fused between the actual numerical value of a 
 ball and its several artificial values. Inasmuch 
 as numeration can be illustrated much more in- 
 telligently by the method described under Num- 
 ber (q. v.), if aided by the use of the black- 
 bjard, it is not advisable to attempt an explana- 
 42 
 
 tion of it by the numeral frame; not, at least, 
 until the pupils have acquired a definite under- 
 standing 01 the relation between the value of 
 
 single figures, ami their values as dependent upon 
 their relative positions in regard toother figures. 
 The most important uses of the numeral frame 
 
 are. to teach a class of pupils to count, and to 
 illustrate the value of numbers and figures; also 
 to teach the first steps in adding, subtracting, 
 multiplying, and dividing. For the first steps in 
 adding, let the pupils add balls on the numeral 
 frame, by o//<>s as far as ten. When they can do 
 this readily, let them add on the blackboard a 
 column composed of Is; then let them add alike 
 column of figures on their slates. Subsequently, 
 teach them to add balls on the numeral frame bj 
 twos ; then to add a column of figure 2s on the 
 blackboard; and then on their slates. When the 
 adding of Is and 2s has thus been learned, pro- 
 ceed in the same manner with threes, fours, etc. 
 After the pupils have learned to add threes as 
 above, they may be taught by these three steps 
 to add Is and 2s in the same column ; then to 
 add Is, 2s, and 3s in the same column. In this 
 manner the pupils may be taught to add readily 
 and rapidly single columns composed of such 
 figures as 6, 7, 8, 9. To give children an idea of 
 subtraction, teach them to count backward on 
 the numeral frame from ten ; thus, 10, 9, 8, 7, 6, 
 5, 4, 3, 2, 1, 0. Subsequently, call on a pupil to 
 hold the numeral frame, to take one ball from 
 two balls, and tell how many remain; then one 
 ball from three balls, etc. Proceed in a similar 
 manner with other numbers, taking care to ar- 
 range the exercises so as to give the pupils as 
 much actual practice as possible in taking balls 
 or other objects from a larger number of ob- 
 jects. To illustrate the first ideas of multiplica- 
 tion to a class of young pupils, arrange the balls 
 on the numeral frame in groups of twos, threes, 
 etc. Place on one wire two groups of two each, 
 and lead the pupils to perceive that they may 
 say that, "two and two make four;" or that 
 ''two twos make four*' ; also that "two times 
 two make four. " Place on another wire 
 three groups of two each, and let the pupils 
 observe that "two and two and two make 
 six ;" or that " three twos make six," also that 
 "three times two are six." Proceed in a similar 
 manner with numbers, and so arrange the exer- 
 cises as to furnish the pupils as much individual 
 ] iractice as possibli •. A ft < r each step has been illus- 
 trated by the numeral frame, place figures on 
 the blackboard to represent what has been thus 
 taught. To illustrate the first ideas of division, 
 arrange balls in groups of four, six, eight, ten, etc.. 
 on the different wires. Lead the pupils to see that 
 each of these groups can be divided into groups 
 of twos. Then require them to divide the groups 
 thus and tell how many groups of twos can be 
 made, from four balls, six balls, eight balls, etc. 
 I^'t the pupils also find how many threes there 
 arc in six, nine, twelve ; and how many fours in 
 eight, twelve, etc. That which is learned in eai h 
 step may be represented by figures on the black- 
 board. — (See Xumber.) 
 
658 
 
 OBERLIN 
 
 OBJECT TEACHING 
 
 OBERLIN, Johann Friedrich, a noted 
 philanthropist, and the originator of infant 
 schools, was born in Strasbourg, Aug. 31., 1740; 
 died at Waldbach, in Alsace, June 1., 1826. He 
 was educated in his native city, was occupied as 
 private tutor for several years, and, in 1706, be- 
 came Protestant pastor of a district in Waldbach. 
 w Inch had been reduced to a condition of poverty 
 by the devastations of the Thirty Years' War. 
 1 lis office as pastor of "Waldbach, in the Han de 
 la Roche, in which district the people had been 
 brought to a condition of helplessness by igno- 
 rance and want, enabled him to exercise the power 
 almost of a dictator ; but this power he used 
 solely for their good. His first measures were 
 purely philanthropic. He introduced better 
 methods of cultivating the soil, caused good 
 roads, bridges, and dwellings to be constructed, 
 and established schools, hospitals, and various 
 new branches of manufacture. With the in- 
 crease of material prosperity, the moral condition 
 of the people was steadily advanced, till, at the 
 close of his sixty years' labors, the population, 
 originally f>(l(l, had increased to more than 5,l>uii; 
 and the success which attended his efforts, led, 
 in after years, to an unquestioned recognition of 
 his claim to a place among the world's benefact- 
 llis distinctive educational work was tin: 
 establishment of schools, since known as infant 
 s ihools, but then termed asylums, resembling the 
 crSche (([. v.). In these, he gathered together the 
 children of his parishioners for amusement and 
 instruction, while their parents were at work. 
 The idea of instruction seems originally to have 
 been secondary in Oberlin's mind, his first 
 thought being to occupy the children so as to 
 1 ■ ive tlnir parents free to carry out his plans for 
 the amelioration of their condition. The idea of 
 instructing them, however, must have presented 
 itself almosl immediately; and his method, by 
 combining these two ideas, was productive of the 
 happiesl results. In all his efforts, he was affec- 
 tionately seconded by his housekeeper. Louisa, 
 ■pier. Memoirs of the life of Oberliu have 
 b ien published as follows: T. Sims, Brief Memo- 
 rials of Oberlin (London, 1830); Memoirs of 
 Oberlin, with a snort notice of Louisa Schepl r 
 Lou Ion, L838 and L852) ; and a biography by 
 II. Wabb, Jb. (Boston, L845). 
 
 OBERLIN COLLEGE, at Oberlin, Ohio, 
 was opened in L833 as the Oberlin Collegiate In- 
 stitute, and received its present title in L850. It 
 is miller ( !ongregational control. Both sexes have 
 been a Imitted from the first; and. in L835, it was 
 resolved to admit colored students. It has valu- 
 able apparatus and cabinets, and libraries con- 
 taining about L 4,000 Volumes. The value of its 
 
 buildings, grounds, and apparatus is 8170,000; 
 
 the amount of its produd IV6 funds. Si I 5,000. The 
 tuition fees are small. The College I'm braces four 
 
 departments: (1) theology; (2) philosophy and the 
 arts, w ith a classical and scientific course, a literary 
 
 course, and select courses; (3) preparatory instruc- 
 tion, including a classical and an English school ; 
 and (4) a conservatory of music, in 1875 — 6, 
 there were 33 instructors. The number of stu- 
 dents was as follows: theological. 51; classical and 
 scientific, 147 ; literary, 14.~> : select. 66 : classical 
 schools, 250 ; English school. 37'J : conservatory 
 of music, 288 ; total, deducting repetitions, 1,216 
 (648 male and 568 female). The following are 
 the names of the presidents : the Rev. Asa Ma- 
 ban, 1835 — 50 ; the Rev. Charles G. Finney, 
 1851 — 66; and the Rev. James H. Fairchild, 
 the present incumbent, appointed in 1866. 
 
 OBJECT TEACHING, a method of instruc- 
 tion in which objects are employed by means of 
 which to call into systematic exercise the observ- 
 ing faculties of young pupils, with the threefold 
 object, (1) to cultivate the senses, (2) to train the 
 perceptive faculty, so that the mind may be 
 stored with clear and vivid ideas, and (3), simul- 
 taneously with these, to cultivate the power of 
 expression by associating with the ideas thus 
 formed appropriate language. The merit of 
 introducing object teaching as a special method 
 of elementary instruction, is usually attributed 
 to Pestalozzi; but Comenius. Locke. Rousseau, 
 Basedow, Bochow, and others based their systems 
 of education, more or less, upon the same prin- 
 ciple; that is. they recognized the necessity of 
 communicating ideas, or of affording to the mind 
 the means to grasp ideas from objects, by actual 
 perception, before attempting to teach the verbal 
 
 expression of those ideas, and that, without BU< h 
 ideas, mere ••book-learning" is useless. Pestalozzi 
 appears, however, to have had only a slight knowl- 
 edge of the works of those educationists. In- 
 spired by the reading of Rousseau's Emile to 
 study the phases of mental growth, he arrived 
 at the conclusion that the teaching of his day 
 was fundamentally wrong, from its violation of, 
 or inattention to. the laws of mental develop- 
 ment. These laws he believed to be, (1) that 
 
 the knowledge of things should precede thai of 
 words; (2) that, for the acquisition of this knowl- 
 edge, the only effective agents, in the first stages 
 
 of mental growth, are the senses, chief of which 
 is the eye ; (3) that the first objects to be studied 
 
 by the child are those immediately Burroundinc 
 
 it. and these, only in their simplest forms and 
 relations; and (4) that from these objects as a 
 center, the sphere of knowledge should be wid- 
 ened by a gradual extension of tin.' powers of ob- 
 servation to more distant objects. The lirst in- 
 struction, therefore, according to this plan, should 
 
 consist in concentrating the attention upon con- 
 crete things, in such a way as to result in a 
 thorough training of the observing faculties, so 
 
 that the conceptions with which the mind is 
 stored may N' as well defined, and as true to 
 nature, as possible. Bo impressed was I Ystalo/./.i 
 with the correctness, and the supreme importance, 
 of this method, that he declares in, Wit- Qertrud 
 
OBJECT TEACHING 
 
 659 
 
 
 ' 
 
 Hire Kinder h-lirt (1800), that the sum of his 
 achievements in education is the establishment 
 of the truth that "the culture of the outer and 
 inner senses is the absolute foundation of all 
 knowledge — the hrst and highest principle of 
 instruction." The failure of the first attempts of 
 Pestalozzi and his followers, however, in the 
 practical application of his theories, was dis- 
 couraging; and the faith of the progressive edu- 
 cators who had accepted them as a new gospel, 
 was seriously shaken. The reason of then? fail- 
 ure, however, was that their practice was in con- 
 flict with the very principles which Pestalozzi 
 had enunciated as fundamental. The human 
 body, with which they began their instructions, 
 is not only highly composite in its structure, and 
 difficult of description in the language of the 
 child, but, by its very nearness, is rendered unfit 
 for an object of study by children, their senses 
 being most powerfully, and, indeed, almost ex- 
 clusively, turned to the observation of objects 
 external to themselves. By attempting, there- 
 fore, to name in detail and to describe the limbs, 
 their form, color, size, actions, and uses, the 
 new theory was exposed to the ridicule of its 
 enemies, and placed in serious peril. In all the 
 Protestant countries of Europe, however, and 
 especially in Germany, the leaven of truth con- 
 tained in the principles of Pestalozzi, wrought a 
 gradual but sure reform in the old method of 
 instruction. Attention having been turned to a 
 serious consideration of the new system, a num- 
 ber of pedagogical writers contributed, by their 
 discussion of its principles, to give definite form to 
 the truth of the theory, and gradually to improve 
 its practice. Among these writers, the names of 
 Harnisch, Denzel, Dinter,Diesterweg, Grassmann, 
 Graser, Wurst, Curtmann.Volter, and Dittes, de- 
 serve mention, though scarcely any two of them 
 agree as to the order in which the objects should 
 be introduced, the relative importance of the 
 purposes for which they are used, or the extent 
 to which the exercises should be carried. Object 
 teaching became universal in the primary schools; 
 and the dignity and usefulness of the teacher 
 were increased by the very impossibility of pre- 
 scribing any one method in which the principles 
 should be applied, thus giving special prominence 
 to the fact that the determining cause in favor 
 of one method over another was the individual 
 ability of the teacher. Instead of one invariable 
 method, which might be unintelligently acquired 
 and mechanically applied, a variety of methods 
 now presented themselves, each dependent for its 
 success upon circumstances. The individuality of 
 the pupil suddenly acquired a new importance; 
 and the teacher's individuality, also, became, 
 more than ever before, an essential factor in the 
 successful conduct of the school. For the diffi- 
 cult work thus foreshadowed, a long and care- 
 ful preparation was necessary on the part of the 
 student. The first step in this preparation was 
 the observation of the educational work of some 
 good teacher; then, a thorough study, in the nor- 
 mal school, of the subjects of pedagogy, psychol- 
 ogy, the history of education, the natural 
 
 sciences, universal history, mathematics, and arts; 
 and, filially, a course of practical teaching in trial 
 lessons, under the supervision of model teachers 
 and the student's own associates. Among the 
 writers above mentioned, one of the principal 
 points of controversy was in regard to the neces- 
 sity of educating the senses. Many denied alto- 
 gether this necessity, and insisted that object 
 teaching should lie reserved exclusively for exer- 
 cises in using and understanding language. The 
 senses, so they argued, take care of themselves, 
 whenever an interest in surrounding objects is 
 awakened by the necessities of daily life; and the 
 common school, they said, can present but few ob- 
 jects of interest on which the senses can be prof- 
 itably exercised. If, for instance, pictures of ob- 
 jects are presented — as is most freq uently the case, 
 and if these pictures are large and faithful copies 
 of the originals — which is rarely the case — the 
 exercise is still confined to only one sense; and 
 experience proves that this is insufficient to 
 awaken a lively interest. The impression made 
 on the sight, therefore, is short-lived and feeble. 
 If, on the other hand, the objects themselves are 
 produced, as these are generally house utensils, 
 or articles of school furniture, only a languid 
 interest is aroused in the pupils' minds, because 
 there is rarely any new feature to be observed 
 in objects so familiar. The incentive to any ob- 
 servation or comparison of qualities, therefore, is 
 utterly wanting; and any sharpening of the senses 
 is improbable. If, on the contrary, the exercises 
 upon objects be carried on for the purpose of en- 
 riching the child's vocabulary, and of storing his 
 mind with just and accurate conceptions, by 
 causing him to connect with every word its proper 
 idea, all will have been done to benefit the pupil 
 that can reasonably be expected. The opponents 
 of this view, however, insisted that the use of ob- 
 ject teaching for the exclusive purpose of the ac- 
 quisition of language, would overthrow- that 
 fundamental principle of the system which dis- 
 countenances mere word learning. The correct 
 understanding and use of language, also, they 
 thought, could be learned as well from books and 
 conversation; while, if the child is made to under- 
 stand, that to talk fluently and correctly of ob- 
 jects is all that is required, and that a real knowl- 
 edge of those objects is of no consequence, clever 
 talk will always be more highly valued by him 
 than exact knowledge. According to their view, 
 the pupil brings with him to the primary school 
 only the raw material out of which objective 
 knowledge and the proper use of the senses may 
 be developed: his mental pictures are wanting 
 in definiteness and in order. These must be 
 taken to pieces, i. e., analyzed, and recomposed,. 
 i. e., synthetized, at the sight, hearing, or touch,, 
 of real objects. If the interest of the children in 
 the exercise of the senses is lacking, it is the 
 teacher's duty to excite it; and this should be 
 easy with young children, if the teacher's inter- 
 est in the subject is lively enough to communicate 
 itself to them. — While the rapid progress of 
 science and art in our day infinitely augments 
 the mass of knowledge which it is desirable and 
 
660 
 
 OBJECT TEACHING 
 
 important for every body to learn, the increasing 
 artificiality of our daily life tends to alienate us 
 from a spontaneous exercise of our senses: and 
 this deficiency must be supplied by education, to 
 enable us to compass the amount of knowledge 
 which it is desirable to acquire. The exercise of 
 the senses is not only practically useful, but it is. 
 in most cases, full of interest. To illustrate this, 
 let pupils be asked to estimate by sight the length 
 of a pen-holder, the dimensionsof a window pane, 
 distances on the floor or on the ground, the 
 weight of objects that can be held in the hand: 
 or to distinguish shades of color, and the differ- 
 ences in pitch or quality of musical sounds. Such 
 exercises are not only amusing, but useful ; while, 
 on the other hand, there is abundant evidence 
 that the circumstances of daily life do not, of 
 themselves, educate the senses. Thus, let a 
 dozen countrymen be asked the length of a cer- 
 tain way over which they often travel, and 
 the probability is that a dozen different answers 
 will be given, many of them wide of the mark. 
 Instance's might be multiplied indefinitely to 
 
 show thai the senses are not self-educative. Some 
 educators, while not objecting to any of the five 
 purposes to which object Lessons may l>e applied; 
 namely. (1) the preparation of the pupil for 
 serious learning; (2) the sharpening of the senses, 
 and the exercise of all the mental functions: 
 (3) exercise in language; (4) the acquisition of 
 knowledge; and (5) moral training; still have in- 
 sisted that a distinction should be made between 
 object teaching and objective teaching; the former 
 comprising exercises in which the objects 
 taught for themselves. /. e., for instruction in all 
 the properties which are peculiar to them ; the 
 latter, for the acquisition of thai generalized or 
 fundamental knowledge which is common to 
 
 many widely dilferent objects. The former, they 
 contended, should occupy only a part of the 
 time during the first year or two, after which 
 it should cease; but every branch of learning 
 should, in turn, be treated objectively. The 
 method of procedure should be, first, the presen- 
 tation of the object. This should be analyzed by 
 the pupils, and immediately reconstructed, the 
 teacher supplying nothing but technical terms 
 which are supposed to be unknown to the pupils, 
 but guiding them by conversation to observe, com- 
 pare, and reason correctly and in proper language, 
 to rise from the single features of the object to 
 its entirety, from similar features to generali- 
 zations, from the concrete to the abstract, from 
 facts to laws. The opponents of this view said 
 thai the principle was good, bu( did nol go far 
 enough. In the firsl place, there is a vasl bodj 
 of knowledge thai cannol be treated objectively. 
 All facts, for instance, in regard to the days of 
 
 the week, and the i it lis. their names, number, 
 
 etc.; many tacts iu regard to time, such as the 
 
 Dumber of seconds in a minute, the Dumber of 
 
 minutes in an hour, etc., the names of the 
 
 oiis, the method of telling time by the 
 clock, these and many other necessary . 
 
 cannot be objectively presented, but must lie 
 learned arbitrarily ; while, at a later period iu 
 
 education, there appear astronomical, geograph- 
 ical, and historical facts, which must simply be 
 taken on trust, and committed to memory. In 
 view of these things, text-books are indispen- 
 sable: and all attempts to teach without them are 
 useless, and result in a waste of precious time. 
 AVhile recognizing, therefore, the value of object 
 teaching in many branches, and its pre-eminent 
 value iii a few. they assert that it has its natural 
 limitations beyond which memorizing and an 
 adherence to the text-book are the only proper 
 means to he relied upon by the teacher. At the 
 presentthne, this latter view — that a combination 
 of the two methods should be employed, is in the 
 ascendant. In Europe, especially in Germany, this 
 reactionary movement is thought to be fostered 
 from political and religious motives. In the United 
 States, the demand for teachers has so far ex- 
 ceeded the supply from the normal schools, with- 
 out a corresponding rise in salaries, that the 
 standard of qualifications for teachers has not 
 been maintained at the height which many edu- 
 cational reformers had hoped it would be. In short. 
 the principles and system of Pestalozzi cannot be 
 said, at the present time, to be fully carried out. 
 Object teaching should be begun as early as pos- 
 sible, and in the manner of the kindergarten, 
 and should be followed by objective and con- 
 ccptive teaching, which should be carried through 
 every branch of learning. The mental growth of 
 pupils, however, should not be retarded by a 
 superfluous use of this method. A safe criterion, 
 by which the teacher may know, at any moment, 
 whether he has made a proper use of the object 
 method, may be found in the self-activity of 
 his pupils, their ability to grasp. in their answers 
 to his questions, the general fact, proposition, or 
 law. The new method is justly called the cL 
 oping method (q. v.), the pupils' minds being 
 
 made to develop themselves, the teacher only 
 
 suggesting what they are to discover. Every 
 pupil is. as it were, to rcdiscovi r every science in 
 the genetic method (q.v.),a difficult task for the 
 teacher, and apparently a circuitous way for the 
 pupil. But because of its thoroughness, it is the 
 most rapid way of learning; and its results are 
 
 indelibly fixed in the mind. This method, also, 
 if early begun, and consistently carried out. is 
 successful with every child, and saves precious 
 time, which, kit ei' in life, may be devoted to tlio>e 
 higher branches that lie beyond the common- 
 school course, but which are every year becom- 
 ing, in many cases, highly desirable, and, in some, 
 indispensable. The literature of object teaching 
 
 is much too extensive to permit the enumeration 
 
 here of more than a few of the principal works. 
 Pestalozzi'ti complete works are now (1876) 
 
 undergoing, in Germany, a second revision. Die- 
 sterwegs monthly, Rheinische Bldtter, contains, in 
 
 its Ion- scries. and in its continuation by \\ ichard 
 I.ange, more information on this subject than 
 any other work. The latest German work of 
 a progressive nature is Fr. Dittes's Die Methodik 
 der VoUcsschvle auf geschichtlicher Grundlagt 
 (Leipsic, 1 sT 1 1. In English literature, compare the 
 works enumerated under Kindergarten. 
 
OBSERVING FACULTIES 
 
 OHIO 
 
 66] 
 
 also. Kiusi's Biography of Pesialozzi (Tin., 
 L875) ; Haii.mw. History of Pedagogy i < 'in.. 
 
 IST-l) : ami. (>>///n/r.< if Object Teaching (N. V., 
 1867) : V A. Calkins, Primary Object Lessons 
 (X. Y.. 1873); Cubbie, Principles and Practice 
 of Early School - Education (Edin., L857) ; 
 Babnabd, Object Teaching (N. V., L860). (£ 
 also Color, Form, Number, and Pesialozzi.) 
 
 OBSERVING FACULTIES. See Ivn:i.- 
 lectual Education, and Object Teaching. 
 
 OHIO, one of the central states of the Amer- 
 ican Union, at first a part of the North-west 
 Territory, was admitted into the I'nion as a 
 state in L802, but not organized as such till 
 March, L803. Its area is 3 ( .I.%-1 sq. m.; and its 
 population, in 1870, was 2,665,260, of whom 
 (13.21.3 were colored persons. 
 
 Eihio d'u mid History. — The germ of public 
 education in Ohio is to be found in the ordinance 
 of July 13.. 1 7 s T , enacted to provide a terri- 
 torial government for the region north-west of the 
 ( >hio river. At that time, an association of people 
 of New England — chiefly soldiers of the Revolu- 
 tion- organized as the Ohio Company of Asso- 
 ciates, was negotiating with Congress tor a large 
 tract of land in the west. Gen. Rufus Putnam was 
 the acknowledged leader of the movement, and 
 the Rev. Manasseh Cutler. LL. I'., of Massachu- 
 setts, was the agent to purchase the land. The lat- 
 ter was a man of broad and liberal culture; and, 
 at the time the ordinance was framed, was con- 
 sulted as to its provisions. It is believed that to 
 1 him more than to any other person are to be 
 
 i 
 
 attributed those clauses which have made the or- 
 dinance so famous and useful: the prohibition of 
 slavery, and the declaration that "religion, moral- 
 ity, and knowledge being necessary to good gov- 
 ernment and to the happiness of mankind, 
 schools and the means of education shall be for- 
 ever encouraged." By the contract afterward 
 signed by Dr. Cutler and Winthrop Sargent, on 
 the part of the Ohio Company, and by the 
 Board of Treasury, Oct.. 1787, it was stipulated 
 that lot or section number sixteen in each town- 
 ship should be set apart for the maintenance of 
 schools, and also, that two complete townships 
 should be given perpetually for the purposes of 
 a university. Under this contract, a sett lenient 
 was made at Marietta. April 7., 1 788. This was 
 the first organized white settlement within the 
 present limits of Ohio. Stimulated by the 
 example of the Ohio Company, John Oleves 
 Symmes, of New Jersey, negotiated, in the lat- 
 ter part of the year 17*7. for a tract of land 
 lying between the two Miami rivers — the region 
 which now includes Cincinnati, [n connection 
 with this purchase, Congress gave another town- 
 ship of land for a university. Congress after- 
 ward gave the sixteenth section in each township 
 of the state, or an area equal to this, for the sup- 
 port of common schools. Thus one thirty-sixth 
 part of all the land of the state WRS devoted to 
 common schools, besides the three townships for 
 universities. The early schools in the state were 
 private schools. They were more numerous in 
 the settlements formed by immigrants from the 
 
 more enlightened portion of the older states. 
 Often graduates of Yale or Harvard were teach- 
 ers ; hut. as a rule, the teachers had little edu- 
 cation, and the range of instruction was very 
 limited. In the course of time, school-districts 
 were formed, and the small revenues from leases 
 of school lands were applied to the payment 
 of teachers. Thus the schools gradually were 
 changed from private schools to public scl Is 
 
 under legal control. The first general school 
 
 law was enacted in L821. This authorized the 
 division of townships into school-districts, upon 
 a. majority vote of the resident householders, the 
 appointment of these householders as school- 
 committee men. the erection of school buildings. 
 
 the employment of teachers, and the levying of 
 
 taxes upon all the parents and guardians of chil- 
 dren attending the schools, who were able to pay. 
 Cnderthis law, however, action on the part of 
 the people was not obligatory ; and the attitude 
 of charity assumed by its provisions toward the 
 poor man caused it to become unpopular. In 
 1825, another general school law was passed by 
 which, for the first time in the history of the 
 state, a countytax for the support of the schools 
 was directed to be levied. This law provided 
 for the '■ instruction of youth in reading, writing, 
 arithmetic, and other necessary blanches of a 
 common education." It authorized the appoint- 
 ment, by the court of common pleas, of exam- 
 iners of schools, whose duty it was to grant 
 teachers' certificates to such applicants only as 
 should pass a satisfactory examination in spelling, 
 reading, writing, and elementary arithmetic. In 
 1829, it was found necessary to supplement the 
 county tax by an assessment of rate bills on all 
 school patrons, in order to keep the schools open 
 for a reasonable period. The organization at 
 Cincinnati.- in 1831, of a college of teachers, 
 composed of the most prominent educators of 
 Ohio and the neighboring states, led to a gen- 
 eral awakening on the subject of education, and 
 to the need of a superintendent of common 
 schools. In 1837. accordingly, the office of 
 state superintendent was created ; and statistical 
 information in regard to the schools was first 
 collected by the state school department created 
 partly for that purpose. The first annual re- 
 port of the state superintendent \\ as largely in- 
 strumental in bringing about the enactment of 
 the school law of 1838, by which a state school 
 fund of $200,000 was created, a county tax of 
 2 mills, and local taxes for the building of school- 
 houses were imposed, and reports from teachers 
 were required, from 1840 to L853, the secre- 
 tary of State was, ex officio, state superintendent. 
 In the latter year, a law was passed making each 
 township a school-district, and creatine- a town- 
 ship board of education, whose duty it was to 
 make an estimate, annually, of the money re- 
 quired for the schools, except fur the payment 
 of teachers; to establish high schools in each 
 district, if deemed necessary by a. majority of 
 voters the latter to decide the amount of tax 
 to be levied for the purpose; and to levy a tax 
 of not more than 2 mills on the dollar, for the 
 
C62 
 
 OHIO 
 
 payment of teachers in such schools, or for the 
 purposeof extending the terms of the sub-district 
 
 schools beyond the time provided for by the 
 state funds. Every city or village of .'500 in- 
 habitants, also, was constitute 1 a separate school- 
 district. Various changes have been made in 
 the law from that time to 1873, relating prin- 
 cipally to the amount of the school tax, and the 
 manner in which it should be levied. In that 
 year, all previous school laws were codified : and 
 a general law was enacted, by which the various 
 systems of local organization were made uniform. 
 Slight amendments were made to this law during 
 that and the following year. 
 
 Stale Superintendents. — The first state super- 
 intendent of common schools was Samuel 
 Lewis, chosen by the general assembly, .March 
 31., 1837. lie held the office until his resigna- 
 tion, in 1840; when it was abolished, its duties 
 being assigned to the secretary of state. Mr. 
 Lewis was a man of great earnestness and vigor. 
 eloquent in his addresses, and of rare good sense. 
 He did a no! ile work for the cause of popular 
 education. The secretaries of state had little 
 time to devote to the cause of education, and 
 generally did little more than refer to the sub- 
 ject in their annual reports. Samuel Galloway, 
 who was elected secretary in 1844, gave the sub- 
 ject much attention: and. by his stirring ad- 
 dresses and reports, exerted a wide influence. 
 ile held the olliee for six years. In L853, the 
 office of state superintendent was again made a 
 distinct one, under the title of State School 
 Commissioner, such commissioner to lie elected 
 by the people, and to hold olliee for three years. 
 
 II. II. Barney was elected in the fall of L853. 
 
 He was succeeded by Anson Smith, who held 
 the olliee for two terms, from 1856 until L862. 
 
 C. W. II. Cathcart succeeded him, but resigned 
 after holding the office nine months; and E. B. 
 White was appointed by the governor to com- 
 plete the term, which expired in 1 865. I [is succes- 
 sor was John A. Norris, who was re-elected for 
 a second term, but resigned in L869 ; and W. I >. 
 Ilenkle was appointed to fill the vacancy. He 
 was succeeded 1 >y T. W. Ilarvev. who continued 
 in olliee one term. The present commissioner, 
 C. S. Smart, entered upon his duty in L875. 
 
 School System. -The principal educational 
 officer of tlie state is the state commissioner of 
 common schools, who is elected for three years. 
 His duties are the following: to prepare annually 
 a statistical report, showing the condition of 
 
 the common schools ; to make such suggestions 
 or recommendations to the legislature concern- 
 bag the schools of the state as he may deem 
 proper; to visit annually each of the nine 
 judicial districts of the state, ••superintending 
 
 and encouraging teachers' institutes, conferring 
 with boards of education, and other Bchool offi- 
 consulting teachers, visiting school-, and 
 lelivering Lectures on topics calculated to sub- 
 re the interests of popular education. "District 
 irds of education are elected by the people. 
 They maj authorize, for school purposes, a tax 
 not exceeding seven mills on the dollar, may di 
 
 rect any language to be taught in the schools, 
 and are required to provide instruction in (ier- 
 man when it is demanded by 7") freeholders, on 
 behalf of not less than 40 pupils who intend to 
 study both German and English. They may 
 also establish evening schools for whites, and 
 separate schools for colored children, when these 
 are more than '2(1 in number. In most of the 
 cities and towns, the boards of education ap- 
 point superintendents, as officers of the local 
 school systems. These superintendents have a 
 general oversight of the public schools, but are 
 themselves .subject to the control of the boards 
 of education. They visit the schools, give advice 
 to the teachers, and look after many matters 
 which would otherwise require the personal at- 
 tention of die board. If they are persons of 
 thorough culture, they elevate the literary char- 
 acter of the teachers and schools, and often exert 
 a very wide influence. In some cases, the super- 
 intendent dots a limited work of personal in- 
 struction in the schools. A state board of exam- 
 iners, three in number, is appointed for two 
 
 years by the state commissi r. to issue life 
 
 certificates to teachers after strict examination. 
 County boands of examiners are also appointed. 
 
 The COmmon-SChooJ fund of the state consists of 
 the amount derived from a one-mill tax on tax- 
 able property, and from the proceeds of the sales 
 (if public lands. r J he lands set apart for common 
 schools were for a time leased, bul have now 
 
 nearly all been sold. The proceeds of the sales 
 oi these school lands constitute "an irreducible 
 fund for the support of the common schools 
 
 of the township or other district having credit 
 for the same. " Tins fund yields an interest of 
 six per cent. To this should be added rents etc. 
 on unsold land, and the revenue from certain 
 lines and licenses. The chief support of the 
 schools, however, comes from direct taxes, state 
 and district. At present, each civil township is 
 a school-district, managed by a township board 
 of education ; and this district is divided into 
 sub-districts for the convenience of the inhab- 
 itants. The title to grounds, school buildings, 
 and all other property, is rested in the township 
 
 board. The local directors of the several sub- 
 districts employ the teachers, purchase or lease 
 
 BCl 1 house sites, rent school rooms, buy fuel. 
 
 and make all other provision necessary for the 
 
 schools. There are, besides these, city districts 
 
 of the first class, being cities with a population 
 of over L 0,000, city districts of the second 
 ■ hiss, containing a less population, and village 
 districts. In these districts, the hoards of cdu- 
 'ii have somewhat enlarged powers. The 
 legal school year is 24 weeks; the school age is 
 from 6 to 21 years. 
 
 Educational Condition.— The whole number 
 of township districts in the state, in 1875, was 
 1,337; of sub-districts in townships. 10,433; of 
 city, village, and special districts. 605; and of 
 (list lit-t di\isions included in city, village, and 
 special districts. 701. The whole number of 
 school rooms was I 1,868, of which 150 were 
 clas el a- hi'_li school moms. The whole nuin- 
 
OHIO 
 
 603 
 
 ber of school-houses was 10,695, the total value 
 of which, including grounds, was estimated at 
 
 Ss.o.'iT.I Hi. The whole amount of school rev- 
 enue was as follows : 
 
 From interest ou irreducible 
 
 funds 1215,718.86 
 
 Prom rents of school lands. .. 22,283.19 
 
 From Btate school tax 1,560,397.93 
 
 From local taxes 6,153,442.63 
 
 Prom Bale of bonds 489,408.32 
 
 From tines, licenses, etc 270,160.94 
 
 Total $8,711,411.86 
 
 The expenditures were as follows : 
 
 For teachers' salaries $4.7*7. !"i'.3.7ti 
 
 For superintendents' salaries 158,773.64 
 
 For sites ami buildings 1,313,514.86 
 
 For fuel and contingent ex- 
 penses 1,391,704.42 
 
 Total $7,651,956.68 
 
 The other important items of school statistics 
 are the following : 
 
 No. ot children of school age, males, 522,418 
 
 females,495,308 
 
 Total 1,017,726 
 
 Total enrollment: males, 37.3,436 
 
 females, 336,693 
 
 Total 712,129 
 
 Average daily attendance: males 225,531 
 
 females 209,918 
 
 Total 435,449 
 
 No. of teachers common schools: 
 
 males, 
 
 No. of teachers in high 
 
 9 759 
 females, 12^092 
 schools: 
 
 males, 427 
 
 females, 214 
 
 Total 22,492 
 
 Average monthly salary, common schools, males, 847 
 " '« "' " " feiiiales.Slil 
 
 " " " high " males, $72 
 
 " " " •• " females,$57 
 
 Normal Instruction. — There are, in Ohio, no 
 normal schools under state control. Such schools 
 have been officially recommended by governors, 
 school commissioners, etc., but the state has 
 never established them. To meet this want, 
 some of the cities have normal and training 
 schools as a part of their school systems; and 
 there are several private 1 independent normal 
 schools. The cities in which there are depart- 
 ments for training teachers connected with the 
 public schools, are Cincinnati. Cleveland. Day- 
 ton, and Sandusky. The primary design of 
 these schools is to prepare teachers for their own 
 schools. Such teachers are generally graduates 
 of the city high schools, or of schools of a similar 
 grade. The students are not only instructed in 
 the general principles and methods of teaching, 
 but in the special methods in vogue in the 
 schools of their respective cities. As a general 
 rule, the graduates of these normal departments 
 are given a preference, by the boards of educa- 
 tion, in tin' appointment of teachers for the city 
 schools. They also receive a larger compensation 
 than teachers not so trained. The private nor- 
 mal schools are the following: The McNealy 
 
 Normal School, at Hbpedale, Harrison Co.: the 
 National Normal School, at Lebanon, Warren 
 Co.; the Western Reserve Normal School, at 
 Milan, Erie Co.: the Orwell Normal School, at 
 
 Orwell, Ashtabula Co.; the Northwestern Ohio 
 Normal School, at Ada. Hardin Co.; the Ohio 
 Central Normal School, at Worthington, Frank- 
 lin Co.; and the Southern Ohio Normal School, 
 at Pleasantville, Fairfield Go. 
 
 71 ackers' Institutes. — The law authorizes the 
 teachers in each of the several counties to form 
 an association and to hold annually an institute 
 for the purpose of mutual benefit and instruc- 
 tion; and they are permitted to devote a week 
 to attendance at the institute without any de- 
 duction from their salary as teachers. The surplus 
 money derived from the examination fees paid 
 by all teachers when examined by the board of 
 county examiners, after the expenses of the 
 latter have been deducted, constitutes an insti- 
 tute fund. The county commissioners may add 
 to this fund, when necessary, a limited sum by 
 direct appropriation. The meetings of these 
 institutes are well attended, and are generally 
 conducted with spirit. Methods of teaching the 
 several branches of study, and of school man- 
 agement, are considered ami discussed. In 1875, 
 there were 92 institutes held, with an aggregate 
 attendance of 10,125 teachers, at a total expense 
 of $18,988. — Besides these county institutes, it 
 has been customary, in several of the cities, to 
 hold, each year, a local institute for the special 
 benefit of the teachers of the city schools, the 
 first week of the school year being devoted to 
 this purpose. 
 
 Secondary Instruction. — The first graded 
 course of instruction was adopted in Cincinnati 
 soon after the year 1840. Since then, high 
 schools have gradually been introduced into the 
 cities and towns. The Cincinnati Central High 
 School, with a graded course, was established in 
 1847, and classes w r ere admitted from the lower 
 schools once each year. The schools of Cleve- 
 land, Columbus, Dayton, and Portsmouth adopt- 
 ed, in the order named, the graded system; and 
 afterward the system met with general favor 
 in the larger places. These follow a graded 
 system of instruction and generally require four 
 years for the completion of the full course. 
 Pupils pass, by examination, to the high schools 
 from the grammar schools. In this way, there 
 is a perfect gradation, and the pupils are taken 
 through the progressive stages until they emerge 
 from the high school with an excellent education. 
 Eight years are spent in the common grades and 
 four in the high school — in all twelve years. 
 The high schools have largely displaced the old- 
 fashioned academies upon private foundations ; 
 and it the high schools were good preparatory 
 schools for the colleges, there would be no further 
 need of academies in the state. Few of the high 
 schools have a sufficiently thorough course of 
 classical study to fit boys for the best colleges. 
 Greek is often omitted altogether. Further- 
 more, in order to obtain the classical training 
 furnished by the high school, it is generally neces- 
 
itil 
 
 OHIO 
 
 sary to take all the other studies of the full four 
 years' course, sum.' (if which are included in tin- 
 usual college course. Hence, the high schools 
 do not, as a rule serve as preparatory schools for 
 the better class of colleges, such colleges in ( >hio 
 being obliged to organize preparatory depart- 
 ments of their own. 
 
 Superior Instruction.— Thre&sba,te institutions 
 for higher education have been established the 
 Ohio University, Miami University, and the 
 Agricultural and Mechanical < 'ollege. The state 
 has never directly aided any of them, their en- 
 dowments having been derived from lands 
 granted by the general government. 
 
 The state, under the first constitution, granted 
 college charters quite freely: and. under the pres- 
 ent constitution, adopted in L851, colleges may 
 be incorporated under a general law without a 
 special charter. Some of the colleges are close 
 corporations, and are independent of state or ec- 
 clesiastical control. Western Reserve, .Marietta, 
 and Oberlin, are of this class. The trustees of the 
 
 University of Cincinnati are appointed by the 
 
 city council. The larger part of the colleges are 
 under ecclesiastical supervision. Some of tin- 
 Ohio colleges are modeled after the best institu- 
 tions of the Eastern states, and are characterized 
 by thorough and exact scholarship. 
 
 The following table contains an enumeration 
 of all the important institutions of this grade in 
 the state. 
 
 [The names of those for females exclusively are pri 
 in Italia; those for both sexes, in small caps.] 
 
 NAME 
 
 Location 
 
 Antioch C i ... rellow Springs 
 
 Baldwin I'mvkksity. Berea 
 
 Buchtkl College. . . . V&ron 
 
 Capital University., . Columbus 
 
 ('in. Wetleyan t'olli'i/f. Cincinnati 
 
 Denison University.. Granville 
 
 Farmers' College College Hill 
 
 Franklin College New Athens 
 
 "Milium Wallace Cull. Berea 
 
 Heidelberg College... Tiffin 
 
 Hitltboro I'im. College. Billsboro 
 
 Hiram College Hiram 
 
 Kenyou College Gambier 
 
 BSoCorkle College.... Bloomneld 
 
 Marietta College marietta 
 
 Bit. St. Marys of the 
 
 West Cincinnati 
 
 Mr. Onion Colli si mi Union 
 \[ i SKINOI \i Col i.i -'■! .. New ( -uncord 
 
 i HM 1.1 i -. i ollege i tberlin 
 
 Ohio Cents ll i !oll. . . iberia 
 
 I Hllu I M\ I RS] IV Minns 
 
 Ohio Wetleyan Univ... Delaware 
 
 < me Stud; Universit) 8 sio 
 
 i ii n.Ki'.i is i m\ w eaten LUe 
 
 Richmond College. . . . Richmond 
 
 Bl Savier i 'ollege. . . . Cincinnati 
 
 I niv. of i incii.ii.il i ... i -incinnati 
 
 t ' ii i \ . oi w loster Woostei 
 
 i rbana University . . . Qrbana 
 
 i I i;n i;i -i i.\ l 
 
 Ooi Hudson 
 
 1826 Non sect. 
 
 >i i pis 
 u llmlngti m Isto Friends 
 
 Wlllonghby 1868 Moth. 
 
 a. Id i i. nth. 
 
 \. nia L850 M. i 
 
 Professional and Scientific Instruction. The 
 
 Ohio Agricultural and Mechanical (ollege was 
 
 opened, in LS73, near Columbus, the county of 
 
 \\ ii. in in i mi i Univ.. 
 Wiin: ollege. 
 
 WiUoughby < ' : 
 Wittenberg i lollege. 
 \i m \ Colli qi 
 
 When 
 ized 
 
 Reli . 
 d< n 
 nation 
 
 L853 
 L856 
 L872 
 1850 
 1842 
 1831 
 1S47 
 L825 
 1864 
 I860 
 1839 
 1867 
 1825 
 L873 
 Is;;;, 
 
 ls:,l 
 1 B58 
 i 61 
 1833 
 
 is., | 
 
 is n 
 
 lsll 
 
 1847 
 
 Is;;;, 
 |s;;| 
 1873 
 1870 
 
 is., I 
 
 I niiarian 
 M . I pis. 
 Univ. 
 
 K\ . I.Uth. 
 M. 1 pis. 
 
 Bap. 
 
 Nun-sect. 
 I n. 1'resb. 
 M. l'.pis. 
 Reformed 
 
 M. I. pis. 
 
 I lisciples 
 
 I'r. Kpis. 
 \ss. I r, -I,. 
 Non-sect. 
 
 K C. 
 M. Epis. 
 Non-sec! 
 Cong. 
 i . Presb. 
 set. 
 
 \1. I pis. 
 \\. I pis. 
 
 i ,Br. inC. 
 
 Nun ■ 
 K. C. 
 Non-sect. 
 Presb. 
 New Ch'ch 
 
 Franklin having offered §300.000 to secure it. 
 The proceeds of the land grant of 1862, which 
 constitute its endowment, have already reached 
 the Sum of $500,000. In addition to the neces- 
 sary buildings and apparatus, it has a farm of 
 320 acres. Its object is to supply a general and 
 scientific education rather than a professional 
 one; and to this end its provisions are ample, 
 consisting of well - equipped departments in all 
 the branches of natural science ordinarily taught. 
 supplemented by instruments, cabinets, and 
 laboratories. In the course of study, a union of 
 the obligatory and elective systems is followed. 
 A fixed preparatory course of 2 years is pursued, 
 at the end of which the student is permitted to 
 enter whatever department he may choose. The 
 number of instructors, in 1875, was '.); the num- 
 ber of students. 65. The Toledo University of 
 Arts and Trades has been recently organized for 
 the purpose of affording instruction to young 
 men and women in the branches indicated by its 
 name. In 1*7-4, one professor gave instruction 
 to 89 students. The institution still lacks many 
 requisites for thorough efficiency, owing to its 
 very recent establishment. The Lane Theological 
 Seminary, at Cincinnati, was founded in 1829 by 
 the Presbyterians. It provides a •! years' course 
 of study. In 1874, it had 5 resident professors 
 and 49 students. Instruction in theology is also 
 given at the St. Mary's Theological Seminary 
 I.'. 0.), at Cleveland; the Theological Seminary 
 ft St. Charles Borromeo (R. C), at Carthagena; 
 the I leidelberg Theological Seminary ( Reformed I, 
 at Tiffin; the Theological Seminary of the Evan- 
 gelical Joinl Synod of Ohio (Evang. Lutheran), 
 at Columbus; the Union Biblical Seminary (Un. 
 Brethren), at Dayton: and the United Presby- 
 terian Theological Seminary, at Xenia. Several of 
 the secular colleges and universities of the state 
 
 also bave separate departments for instruction in 
 theology. The Ohio State and Union Law Col- 
 lege was founded at Cleveland, in 1856. Its aim 
 is to give each student a thorough theoretical and 
 practical knowledge of law, and to accomplish 
 
 him as an extemporaneous speaker. For the latter 
 
 purpose, weekly debates are held, and law cases 
 arc provided in which the actual practice of the 
 court room is illustrated. In L874, the number of 
 professors of all kinds was 8. There is also a law 
 
 school c iceted with \V ilberforce I ' niversity, 
 
 besides the ('incinnati Law School, formerly a de- 
 partment of Cincinnati < ollege. closed since L8 15. 
 Several institutions exist for t he study of l nedicinc, 
 i lie principal of w Inch are the ( 'ollege of Medicine 
 
 and Surgery, the Medical College of Ohio, the 
 
 Miami Medical College, the Kclcctic Medical In- 
 stitute, the Ohio College of Dental Surgery, and 
 the College of Pharmacy, all at Cincinnati: the 
 
 Medical College and the Homoeopathic Hospital 
 College, at Cleveland; and the Starling Medical 
 I 'olleue and I lospital.ai I 'olumbus. There are de- 
 partments, also, for the study of medicine in some 
 
 of I he colleges and universit ies. Schoolsof draw - 
 
 ing and design exist in connection with the I Di- 
 versity of I 'incinnati and the Mechanics' Institute. 
 The Dumber of pupils in each is from 300 to 400 
 
OHIO 
 
 OHIO CENTRAL COLLEGE 665 
 
 Special Instruction. — The institutions for tin- 
 blind, and tor the deaf and dumb, Located at 
 Columbus, arc strictly speaking, schools. In 
 them are taught, in addition to the elementary 
 branches, all the studies of high schools, includ- 
 ing Latin. The instruction is thorough and 
 complete, and these institutions arc an honor to 
 the state. There is also, at < lolumbus, an asj lum 
 for idiotic and imbecile youth, which in its very 
 * nature is a school. Of the whole number un- 
 der instruction in 1875, '_''>•'> had been taught 
 to read and write. It has been ascertained that 
 one-third of the inmates can be so trained as to 
 be able to support themselves. 
 
 The Reform Farm for Boys, located near 
 Lancaster, Fairfield Co., is also a school. This 
 was the first reformatory in the United States 
 to adopt the "family plait" and has proved a 
 remarkable success. No walls, or cells, or iron 
 bars restrain the boys. They are grouped into 
 families under the care of "elder brothers", all 
 under the general supervision of the commissioner 
 in charge. Kindness, and appeals to the higher 
 and better nature, and to Christian principles, are 
 the guiding and controlling forces, the object 
 being nurture rather than discipline or punish- 
 ment. Of 704 boys, in ls7.~>. only 30 attempted to 
 ipe. Many fugitives return voluntarily. Half of 
 each day is spent in school, and the other half in 
 work upon the farm and in shops, where the hoys 
 learn useful trades. Most of those who have been 
 • discharged have become useful members of so- 
 ciety. There is a similar reform school for girls, 
 rat White Sulphur Springs. Delaware Co., called 
 the Girls' Industrial Home. The girls are grouped 
 into families and are well taught in the ordinary 
 branches of education. — The Soldiers" and Sail- 
 ors' Orphans' Home, located near Xenia, Greene 
 ( 'o.. is a school as well as a home. The graded 
 system is adopted, crowned with a high school. 
 Besides the above institutions supported by the 
 state, there are many of local character in which 
 instruction is given to the young. — The Cincin- 
 nati I louse of Refuge is a reform school, in which 
 study and work are combined. The Cleveland 
 House of Refuge is similar. The Industrial 
 School of Cleveland is a private enterprise, where 
 
 I instruction in letters, as well as in sound moral- 
 ity, is given. There are in the state many homes 
 for poor children, supported, in whole or in part, 
 by towns or counties, hi all these, the elementary 
 branches are taught. 
 
 Educational Literature. — Many different edu- 
 cational journals have been published in Ohio, but 
 most were short-lived. The Ohio School Journal 
 was established by Dr. A. D. Lord in L846, and 
 published at Columbus. In the same year, the 
 School Friend was issued by W. 15. Smith and < !o., 
 - of Cincinnati. These two journals were united, in 
 1850, under the joint names. The last issue was 
 in September. L861. The Ohio Journal of Edu- 
 cation was issued in .January, L852, under the 
 auspices of the State Teachers' Association, with 
 Dr. Lord as chief editor, assisted by several of 
 the leading educational men in the state. It has 
 had a Ion- succession of editors and several dif- 
 
 ferent publishers. In L 860, its name was changed 
 to The Ohio Educational Montldy; and, in L861, 
 it passed under the coi it ml of 1''.. K. White and Co.. 
 Anson Smyth being the partner. Mr. Smyth 
 retired after two sears, and Mr. White continued 
 to edit and publish it until L875, when it was 
 transferred to its present proprietor. W. D. 
 Henkle. In L870, Mr. White issued an edition 
 of the Monthly for circulation within the state. 
 which A\as called the National Teach r. This 
 journal has been the leading educational publica- 
 tion in the state since the day of its establish- 
 ment. In 1875, W. D. Henkle commenced the 
 publication of the Educational Notes and Que- 
 ries, which supplies a want, and has already at- 
 j tained a wide circulation. 
 
 Teachers' Associations. — In 1829, "somo 
 twenty" teachers in Cincinnati organized an as- 
 sociation for mutual benefit, called the Western 
 Literary Institute and Board of Education. 
 They held monthly meetings and an anniversary 
 meeting. In 1831, this institute was merged in a 
 new association, entitled the College of Teachers, 
 having in view the elevation of the profession of 
 teaching. Annual meetings were held, in which 
 valuable and elaborate addresses and reports 
 were made by the more prominent teachers and 
 friends of education of Cincinnati and of tin; 
 Ohio valley. In the fourteen years of its exist- 
 ence, more than three hundred such addresses 
 and reports were given. The first state conven- 
 tion for the promotion of public education was 
 held in Columbus. January 13., 1836. Similar 
 conventions Mere held in L837 and in 1838. The 
 Oli io State Teachers' Association was formed at 
 Akron, Dec. 30., 1847. This association has been 
 continued to the present time, and has proved a 
 most efficient aid in promoting the progress of 
 popular education in the state. It meets annually, 
 and is conducted with intelligence and spirit. 
 A somewhat similar association for mutual con- 
 sultation was formed, in lSGT.by representatives 
 of many of the colleges, which is called the 
 Association of Ohio Colleges. Annual meetings 
 are held, and the association is doing much good. 
 In addition to these state associations, there are 
 several more local in character, such as the 
 North-Eastern Ohio Teachers' Association, and 
 the Central Ohio Teachers' Association. There 
 are also many county teachers' associations. A 
 History of Education in Ohio was published in 
 
 1876, as "a centennial volume", by order of the 
 general assembly of the state. It was accom- 
 panied by a volume of Historical Sketches of 
 the Public Schools, ami another of Historical. 
 
 Sketches of the Higher Educational Institutions. 
 OHIO CENTRAL COLLEGE, at Iberia, 
 founded in 1854, is anon-sectarian institution. 
 I It comprises an English department, especially 
 designed for those preparing to be teachers in 
 the common schools: a preparatory department; 
 and a collegiate department, with a classical and 
 a scientific course. Both sexes are admitted. 
 The cost of tuition ranges from Sis to $2 I per 
 year. The Rev. Win. Maclaren, D.D., is (187(i) 
 the president. 
 
G66 
 
 OHIO UNIVERSITY 
 
 ONE STUDY UNIVERSITY 
 
 OHIO UNIVERSITY, at Athens. Ohio, 
 was founded upon a grant of two townships of 
 land by the general government for the endow- 
 ment of a state university. This was the first 
 educational endowment by the general govern- 
 ment, being made in 1787. The lands to be de- 
 voted to the support of the university were 
 located in 1795 : and. in ISO'J, an act was passed 
 by the territorial legislature, establishing the 
 institution under the name of the American 
 Western University. Nothing was done under 
 this act ; and. in L804, the institution was char- 
 tered as the Ohio University. Instruction com- 
 menced in 1809; but a full faculty was not 
 organized till 1822. The institution is supported 
 by the rents from its endowment and" by tuition 
 fees. It has a cabinet, apparatus, and libraries 
 containing 8,000 volumes. The university com- 
 prisLS a preparatory department and a collegiate 
 department, with a classical course of four years, 
 and a scientific course of three years. Both 
 sexes are admitted. The cost of tuition is Sis 
 a year in the preparatory, and $30 in the col- 
 legiate, department. One student from each 
 county of the state is admitted free of tuition. 
 In 1ST.") — (1, there were (5 instructors and LOO 
 students (46 collegiate and 54 preparatory). The 
 presidents have been as follows : the Rev. .lames 
 Irvine, A. M., 1822— 4; the Rev. Robert < i. Wil- 
 son, D.D., L824— 39; the Rev. William H. 
 McGuffey, D. D., LL. D., 1839— 43 ; the Rev. 
 Alfred Ryors, l>. D., L848 -52; the Rev. Solo- 
 mon Howard, D. D., LL. D., L852— 72; and the 
 Rev. William If. Scott. A. M., the present in- 
 cumbent, appointed in L873. 
 
 OHIO WESLEYAN UNIVERSITY, at 
 Delaware, Ohio, founded in L842, is under Meth- 
 odist Episcopal control. The grounds consist 
 of 30 acres, and contain four college buildings. 
 There are cabinets of archaeology, geology, min- 
 eralogy, and natural history, and libraries con- 
 taining 13,000 volumes. The university has an 
 endowment of $300,000; and the value of its 
 buildings, grounds, etc., is $200,000. Scholar- 
 ships, admitting the student to all the studies 
 required for graduation, can be purchased at the 
 university at prices as follows: perpetual scholar- 
 ships, $500; for twenty years, $100; ten years, 
 $50; six years, $30 ; four years, $20 ; two years. 
 SI 5. There is a collegiate and a preparatory depart 
 
 incut (with a classical and a scientific course), 
 
 and a teachers' course. In L875 — 6 there were 
 lo Instructors, 335 students il 11 collegiate), and 
 about Too tiiiinuil. The presidents of the univer- 
 sity have been as follows: the Rev. Edward Thom- 
 son, I). I).. LI, !>.. is 1 1 -60; the Rev. Frederick 
 Merrick, M. A.. L860 -73; the Rev. Lorenzo D. 
 McCabe, l>. I>.. LL. I), (acting, is::; <; : and 
 the Lev. Charles II. Payne, l>.l»., LL. D., elected 
 in 1876. 
 
 OLIVET COLLEGE, at Olivet, Mich., was 
 founded in L844. It is supported by tuition U'r<- 
 if from $15 tu $21 a year, and the income of 
 
 .-in endowment i>\' $] ll).(MH). The library contains 
 
 ibouf 6,000 volumes. The institution comprises 
 :i collegiate department, with a classical, a scien- 
 
 tific, and a ladies' course : and a preparatory 
 department, with a classical, an English, and a 
 ladies' course. Facilities are afforded for instruc- 
 tion in art, music, and normal school branches. 
 In 1875 — -6, there were 14 instructors and 317 
 
 J students (124 collegiate and 193 preparatory), of 
 whom 151 were males and 166 females. The 
 presidents of the college have been as follows : 
 the Rev. M. W. Fairfield, 2 years; the Rev. N. 
 
 | J. Morrison. 8 years ; the Rev. J. H. Hewitt 
 (pro tern.), 2 years ; the Rev. Oramel Hosford 
 (pro tern A 1 year ; and the Rev. II. Q. Butter- 
 field, D. I)., the present incumbent (1876). 
 
 OLMSTED, Denison, a natural philosopher 
 and educator, born in East Hartford, Ot., June 
 18., 1791 ; died in New Haven. May 13., IS.")'./. 
 He graduated at Yale College, and shortly after 
 became a tutor there. In 1 81 7, he was appointed 
 professor of chemistry in the University of 
 North Carolina: and, while in that position, he 
 proposed and completed the first state geological 
 survey ever made in the United States. In 1825, 
 he was appointed professor of mathematics and 
 natural philosophy in Yale College, with which 
 institution he remained connected till his death. 
 In ls.'SO, he published a theory of hail-storms, 
 which, after much discussion, was accepted as 
 a valuable contribution to scientific knowledge. 
 Three years later, he began an investigation into 
 the cause of the shower of shooting-stars which 
 occurred in 1833, and made such suggestions in 
 regard to them as, followed up by astronomers 
 in this country and in Europe. have led toa great 
 addition to our knowledge of these singular 
 bodies. Professor Olmsted, besides being a fre- 
 quent contributor to scientific periodicals, has 
 been the author of many text-books on natural 
 science, the principal of which are : Introduction 
 to Natural Philosophy (1831); Compendium of 
 Natural Philosophy (1832); Introduction to 
 Astro/ami)/ (1839); Compendium of Astronomy 
 (1841); Letter* on Astronomy (1841) ; and Ru- 
 (liments af Natural Philosophy and Astronomy 
 (1844). 
 
 ONE STUDY UNIVERSITY, at Scio. 
 Harrison Co.. Ohio, under Methodist Episcopal 
 control, was opened in the fall of 1859, at Har- 
 lem Springs, Ohio, and was known as the Rural 
 Seminary, which name it retained, until 1867, 
 when it was removed to New Market Station, 
 
 and the name changed to New Market College. 
 In L874, the legislature chanced the name of 
 the village from New Market to Scio: and 
 the name of the college was then changed to 
 One Study University. The institution was char- 
 tered in 1866; and since then, 11 1 students have 
 graduated. The distinctive feature of this in- 
 stitution is the plan if study. Bach student 
 passes through t!ie course by taking up and 
 thoroughly completing one study at a time. It is 
 Claimed that "a practical test of six years shows 
 
 a great gain in scholarship, and a saving of about 
 
 one third of the usual time." Loth >e\es are 
 admitted. There is a collegiate (classical and 
 Scientific), a preparatory, and a normal course. 
 
 Facilities are afforded for musical instruction. 
 
ONTARIO 
 
 GOT 
 
 The cost of tuition in the classical and the 
 scientific course is 812 per quarter, of twelve 
 weeks. In L874— 5, there were 1 instructors and 
 11!) students (82 collegiate, * preparatory, ami 
 29 in, music). Alfred I*. Lee, A. M.. has been 
 the president from the opening of the university. 
 ONTARIO, the most populous province of the 
 Dominion of Canada, having an area of 107,780 
 sq. in., and a population, according to the census 
 of L871, of L ,620,851, of whom 466,786 are 
 Methodists; 356,442 Presbyterians; 330,995 Epis- 
 copalians; and 274,162 Roman Catholics. Origi- 
 nally a part of the old province of Quebec,it was, 
 in 1791. organized as an independent province. 
 under the name of Upper Canada. In 1841, it 
 was reunited with Quebec ; and. in 1867, it be- 
 came a part of the Dominion of Canada under 
 its present name. — The first settlers in Ontario 
 Mere chiefly from England ami Scotland; and. as 
 most of them had received a good education at 
 home, they were anxious to provide good schools 
 for their children. As early as 1807, each of the 
 eight districts into which the province was at 
 that time divided, had its grammar school. In 
 1816, the legislative assembly passed the first law 
 for the organization of primary instruction, and 
 appropriated &6,000 for carrying it out. In 1 823, 
 Sir Peregrine Maitlandobtaine I permission from 
 the imperial government to establish a board of 
 education for the province, with power to super- 
 intend the schools, and manage the university 
 and school lands. In 1S44, the Rev. Dr. Ryer- 
 & 'ii was appointed superintendent of schools; and. 
 before entering upon his office, he visited Europe 
 and the United States, and presented a report, 
 in which he suggested the principles upon which 
 the school system of the province was afterwards 
 constructed. Dr. Ryerson has ever since remained 
 at the head of the school system, the develop- 
 ment of which is chiefly his work. In 1<S50, the 
 comprehensive school bill, which was prepared by 
 him, became a law ; and, in 1853, an amendment 
 act was passed making several improvements in 
 the system. Separate Protestant and colored 
 schools were now permitted, as well as Roman 
 Catholic schools. A most important measure, 
 making all the public schools free, and introducing 
 compulsory education, was passed in 1871. and 
 somewhat modified in 1874. The council of public 
 instruction consists of the chief superintendent, or 
 in his absence, of the deputy, eight members ap- 
 pointed by the crown, one member by each of the 
 colleges having university powers, one by masters 
 and teachers of high schools, one by the public- 
 school inspectors, and one by the public and sepa- 
 rate school-teachers. Bach member holds office 
 for two years, and is eligible to re-appointment. 
 The council prescribes textd>ooks for the normal, 
 high, and public schools, and makes rules and reg- 
 ulations for their government. It has the ap- 
 pointment of the high-school inspectors, the cen- 
 tral committee of examiners, and the teachers of 
 the normal and model schools. It prescribes the 
 qualification of, and grants certificates to, inspect- 
 ors, examiners, ami teachers, prescribes library 
 and school books, and makes regulations for the 
 
 superannuation of teachers, to whom pensions 
 are granted. The chief superintendent is ap- 
 pointed by the lieutenant-governor. It is his 
 duty to see that all moneys drawn from the pro- 
 vincial treasury are duly applied, and to have the 
 general supervision of the schools. The county 
 councils levy for teachers' salaries an amount equal 
 
 to the chief superintendent's apportionment; and 
 designate and pay the county's proportion of 
 
 the salary of legally qualified inspectors, each of 
 whom must have not more than 120 nor less 
 than 50 schools. WhereFrench or German is the 
 language spoken, the inspector may have not less 
 than 40 schools ; if there are more than .">0 schools, 
 the county must have two or more inspectors. 
 The council is empowered to fill a vacancy in the 
 office of inspector, and to appoint not more than 
 four pei-sons. who, with the inspector, form a 
 board for the examination of teachers. Township 
 councils form school sections with not less than 
 50 children. The township councils are also em- 
 powered to establish township school boards, if 
 t \\ i (-thirds of the sections desire it, each board to 
 consist of five trustees; to levy sums requiredfor 
 purchasing a township library, and for the support 
 of a township model school, of which the coun- 
 cilors are the trustees. City, town, and village 
 councils have the same powers and duties as 
 county and township councils. For every school 
 section, a board of three trustees is elected by the 
 people. Inspectors are appointed by county coun- 
 cils, or by city or town school boards, and may 
 be dismissed for misconduct by the lieutenant- 
 governor, or by the county or town councils. All 
 the public schools are free; the rural trustees and 
 the municipal councils being required to levy the 
 tax upon the taxable property, in order to defray 
 the school expenses according as the trustees 
 determine. Ts'o pupil can be compelled to join 
 in any exercise of devotion or religious study 
 objected to by the parents ; but pupils may re- 
 ceive such religious instruction as their parents 
 desire, subject to general regulations. The union 
 of the high and public school boards of a city 
 is called the Board of Education of that city, 
 and this board possesses the same powers as 
 the high and public school trustees. Parents 
 neglecting to have their children between the 
 ages of 7 and 12 years instructed for four months 
 in the year, are liable to a penalty ; but no Ro- 
 man Catholic can be required to attend a public 
 school, nor a Protestant, a I Ionian < 'atholic school. 
 The clergy of any persuasion, or their represent- 
 atives, may use the school-house to give religious 
 instruction to the pupils of their own church, 
 at least once a week, after 1 o'clock. The daily 
 exercises must be opened by reading a portion 
 of the Scripture, and by prayer; and the Ten 
 ( lommandments must be taught to all the pupils, 
 and lie repeated at least once a week; but no 
 pupil need he present at these exercises against 
 the written request of his parents. The master 
 of the school may suspend, or, with the consent of 
 the trustees, may expel a pupil. All teachers are 
 required to attend regularly the teachers' meet- 
 ings ; and any teacher may be absent two 
 
068 
 
 ONTARIO 
 
 ORAL INSTRUCTION 
 
 days every half year for the purpose of visiting 
 other schools, and observing the methods prac- 
 ticed therein. The laws governing I toman Catho- 
 lic separate schools arc nearly the same as those 
 of t lie public schools. A separate school may 
 share in the provincial or municipal grants, but 
 not in municipal assessments. The public or sep- 
 arate school hoard of any city may establish an 
 
 industrial school for destitute, vagrant, and de- 
 praved children. The number of children between 
 the ages of •"• and L6 years, in L874, was 51 1 ,603; 
 the number of schools. 4,758 ; the number of j>u- 
 pils, 464,047 ; and the number of teachers, 5,736. 
 The amount expended from grants was$267,782; 
 and the amount raised and expended from local 
 sources, $2,597,550. The Roman Catholic sepa- 
 rate schools, which are included in the above, 
 were 1 <i<"> in number, with 22,786 pupils.— By the 
 law of 1 871 . the former grammar schools were 
 changed into high schools. The course of study 
 in these schools comprises the English language, 
 arithmetic, algebra, geometry, natural philos- 
 ophy, French. German, Latin, Greek, chemistry, 
 botany, physiology, history, geography, book- 
 keeping, writing, drawing, and penmanship. The 
 governor may confer on any high school, the 
 name of collegiate institute, if four masters are 
 fully employed, and an average of 60 male pupils in 
 the classics is maintained; and such institute may 
 receive an additional $750 per annum, while that 
 standard is maintained. The Dumber of high 
 schools, in L874, was 10,'!. with 240 teachers, a 
 
 total enrollment of 7,871 pupils, and an average 
 attendance of 4,621. The expenditure, including 
 a grant of $78,494, was $286,593. Besides the 
 
 public schools, there were, in L874, 280 colle- 
 giate and private schools, organized independently 
 of the school laws, with aboul 8,500 pupils and 
 
 540 teachers. The University of Toronto was 
 
 established, in L827, as King's College. The in- 
 stitution was inaugurated, and the first students 
 were admitted, in L843. The university confers 
 
 the degrees of Master of Arts, and [Bachelor of 
 
 Arts. Connected with the university there is a 
 faculty of medicine ami of law, a school of civil 
 engineering, and a department of agriculture. 
 
 each department < ferring the usual degrees. 
 
 The University College of Toronto was original- 
 ly a part of the university : but was separated 
 from it in L853. By this act. the university be- 
 came the examining body, also conferring de- 
 grees in arts, law, and medicine ; and the college 
 
 was constituted a teaching institution for the 
 
 faculty of arts. The course of instruction pre- 
 scribed by the university has been adopted by 
 the college, ami its lectures are given on the sub- 
 jects appointed for candidates for the degree nl 
 I!. A., in- lor the diplomas in civil engineering 
 ami agriculture. The University of Victoria is 
 under the control of the Wesleyan Methodisl 
 Church. It was opened as an academy for both 
 sexes, in L836, ami received the usual university 
 
 powers, in L841, and its present name. It has a 
 
 faculty of arts, a scientific department, a faculty 
 
 medicine, a faculty of law. and a faculty of 
 
 theology. It confers the usual degrees in each 
 
 faculty. ^ The Cobourg Collegiate School serves 
 as a preparatory department for the university. 
 Queen's University and College, in Kingston, 
 was established by an act of the legislature of 
 Upper Canada, in 1840, as the University of 
 Kingston. This act was disallowed: and. in 
 1841, the queen issued her letters patent, incor- 
 porating the institution. The first session was 
 opened in L842, with 11 students. A faculty of 
 medicine was organized in 1854, but became a 
 separate school in 1 H(>6, under the name of the 
 Royal College of Physicians and Surgeons. It 
 has its seat in Kingston, and is connected with 
 the university. The faculty of law which was 
 opened in L861,was discontinued in 1863. Since 
 the opening of the college. 871 students have 
 been enrolled, and ">'_'fi degrees have been con- 
 ferred. The university is under the control of 
 the Presbyterian Church. Trinity College was 
 established by an act of the legislature in 1851, 
 and was opened the same year. The Cniversity 
 of Trinity College was established by a royal 
 charter in L852, and was empowered to confer 
 degrees in divinity, arts, law. and medicine. < »t- 
 tawa College, in Ottawa, was incorporated, and 
 empowered to grant university degrees, in 1866* 
 
 It is under the direction of the Oblate Fathers 
 of Mary Immaculate. Albert Cniversity. in 
 Belleville, was incorporated in ls.">7.as Belleville 
 Seminary, by the Methodist Episcopal Church. 
 It received limited university powers in 1866, 
 and full powers, in 1871. It has faculties of arts, 
 law. music, theology, and engineering, and a de- 
 partment of agriculture. There are, also in the 
 provinces large number of professional and scien- 
 tific schools. Institutions for the special instruc- 
 tion of the deaf and dumb, and the blind, for 
 orphans, and for vagrants and young criminals 
 are also provided. The number of Sunday-schools, 
 in 1874, was about 3,500, with 197,000 scholars 
 and 22,700 teachers. — See Mauling, Canada 
 Educational Yearbook and Director)/ for 1 - 
 I,o\ ki.i.'s Gazetteer if British North America^ 
 
 I 873) : I 'u u \ i: w (formerly minister of instruc- 
 tion in the pro\ inee of Quebec), in Si hmid's l-'.n- 
 cy clopddie, art. Canada (2d edit., L876). 
 
 ' ORAL INSTRUCTION is a technical term 
 in use in the common schools of the United 
 
 States to denote instruction, without text-books. 
 
 in the nature and uses of common objects, and 
 
 also in the elements of natural science. In a 
 certain sense. till instruction given by the teacher 
 
 in the .lass room, either to supplement the text- 
 book, or by way of general explanation, may be 
 said to be oral : and. considered in this sense, it 
 belongs to every subject taught. Cut oral instruc- 
 tion, as it appears in courses of study, is limited 
 to a distinct channel of teaching, and, therefi 
 is nut to he confounded with general class in- 
 struction in the entire range of subjects. Il is 
 distinct from object teaching, because it is i • t 
 Confined to teaching through sensible objects. It 
 
 deals also with more advanced pupils those. for 
 
 example, who have passed through the lowest. 0T 
 primary grade.;, and who may be supposed to 
 
 have benefited by what is known as object teach- 
 
ORAL INSTlirCTION 
 
 660 
 
 lug. It has to do, moreover, with elementary 
 knowledge, and has been gradually narrowed to 
 instruction in natural science. A3 might be gath- 
 ered from the word oral, its leading or cardinal 
 idea is instruction without a fcext-book. The 
 teacher is in the place of the book. The informa- 
 tion given flows entirely from him ; and the skill 
 with which he imparts this, is the measure of his 
 Buccess. Closelyallied in importance to die fore- 
 going, is the principle that the instruction shall 
 be familiar. In its methods, it must approach 
 closely those that arc adopted in an intelligent 
 family circle; it must emulate the kindliness, 
 patience, and watchfulness of a parent, or of 
 a deeply interested friend. With a clear i lea as 
 to the kind and amount of instruction to be 
 given at each lesson, it must avoid mere amuse- 
 ment and puerilities, on the one hand, and the 
 danger of a mechanical and hard method, on the 
 other. The test of such familiar instruction is 
 the interest which the teacher creates and main- 
 tains; the want of life and animation on the part 
 of the pupils is an unfailing measure of the 
 teacher's short-coming. But instruction to lie 
 familiar must be fertile in illustration. In no 
 part of the teacher's work is there greater need 
 of versatility. It is in this that the vast advan- 
 tage of oral teaching over that which depends on 
 the text-book is apparent. Pliancy, variety, suit- 
 ableness to the particular wants of certain pupils, 
 or of the class as a whole, simple familiar allu- 
 sions and illustrations, all come iuto play. If ex- 
 periments are necessary, they should be always of 
 the simplest kind, and with the commonest mate- 
 rials, such as nearly every child can obtain, if he 
 can be induced to imitate the experiments. So far 
 as objects are needed, those that are easily obtain- 
 able are to be preferred. The approach to the 
 pupil's mind through his senses is carefully to be 
 kept open; most constantly of all, the avenue of 
 sight, although, of course, the other senses are 
 not to be neglected. As a natural result of this 
 familiar instruction, the interest of the pupils 
 will manifest itself in inquiries, and especially in 
 a desire to communicate the glimmerings of their 
 own knowledge. This will render the exercise still 
 more familiar, break down the barrier of reserve 
 on the part of the pupils, stimulate observation 
 and thought throughout the class, and react on 
 the mind of the teacher, com] idling perhaps new 
 illustrations, a more carefully considered state- 
 ment, or fresh investigation outside of school. 
 From wdiat has been stated, it will be seen that 
 oral instruction is widely separated from lectur- 
 ing. The children are brought immediately in 
 contact with the mind of the teacher, by means 
 of skillful questioning on his part, by requiring 
 from them connectedstat tments, and by stimulat- 
 ing them with his approval when a happy answer 
 or statement has been made. This method never 
 loses sightof class instruction, and, therefore, can- 
 not be carried on without the assistance of the 
 class. Nor is it a recitation in the generally recei vo 1 
 acceptation of the word. There is no lesson to 
 be learned in the sense implied by a recitation, 
 nor any to be recited. The memory is of course 
 
 taxed, but it is not taxed by any lesson to be 
 committed as a task. The measure of the pupil's 
 
 interest is the measure of his acquisition. What- 
 ever he learns is in no sense compulsory. Skillful 
 reviewing is. indeed, used to test the hold that the 
 oral instruction has kept on the pupil, and to 
 
 supplement what has been imparted, by new or 
 more lively illustration. But repetition, in a 
 
 mechanical or rote sense, as understood to he ;m 
 underlying principle in text-book instruction, is 
 not used in oral instruction. The subjects to which 
 oral instruction, as a special method, is usually 
 confined, are embraced, under the head of natural 
 science. While it does not aim to make the 
 instruction in these subjects scientific, it doe- 
 aim to impart such instruction in a methodical 
 way. and with the most careful accuracy. Wher- 
 ever classification is necessary, such classifica- 
 tion, naturally, beconfes more or less scientific. 
 Whenever definitions are necessary, they must 
 approach scientific accuracy. But the scientific 
 nomenclature, except in those cases in which it 
 has passed into common use. is carefully avoided. 
 Latin or Greek terms, therefore, being burden- 
 some to the young, however instructive to the 
 adult, arc generally to be discarded. and familiaror 
 common names to be used. As a thorough 
 scientific classification is not the object of oral 
 instruction, neither does it endeavor to make the 
 treatment of the various subjects exhaustive. It 
 has done much of its true work when it has 
 awakened attention, strengthened observation, 
 led the pupils to collect illustrative objects, taught 
 them to group and arrange what they have ob- 
 served, and implanted in them a tolerably clear 
 idea of the simpler elements of the science, to 
 which the instruction has been confined. It has 
 done its full work when, in addition to this, it has 
 accustomed the pupil to express, in his own 
 language, what he has learned and retained, 
 without the painful halting and poverty of 
 language so often manifest in the class room. 
 With some approach to scientific accuracy, oral 
 instruction may be defined as the union of con- 
 ceptive and objective training. It does not dis- 
 card objective illustration, nor does it depend 
 entirely on the development of perception to 
 furnish new ideas. It proceeds on the principle, 
 that, in the mind of every healthy child of eight 
 years of age, there is a vast number of tolerably 
 distiuct conceptions, obtained through the 
 senses, as well as from conversation, from read- 
 ing, from home instruction, and from play; that 
 these conceptions are particularly abundant in 
 relation to natural objects; and that it is the of- 
 fice of the oral instructor to recognize their exist- 
 ence by using them to form more complex ideas, 
 or as the nucleuses around which to arrange the 
 new ideas imparted during instruction. As to 
 tin' age when this instruction should be given, as 
 well as its importance, the following words of 
 President Porter, in flu 1 Human lnti'!i,-<i, may 
 be cited. "The studies which should be tint 
 pursued are those which require and discipline 
 the powers of observation and acquisition, 
 and which involve imagination and memory, in 
 
670 
 
 ORDER 
 
 OREGON 
 
 contrast with those which demand severe efforts 
 and trained habits of thought. Inasmuch also as 
 material objects are apprehended and mastered 
 in early life with far greater ease and success 
 than the acts and states of the spirit, objective 
 and material studies should have almost the ex- 
 clusive precedence. The capacity of exact and 
 discriminating perception, and of clear and re- 
 tentive memory, should be developed as largely 
 as possible. The imagination in all its forms 
 should be directed and elevated— we do not say 
 stimulated, because in the case of most children, 
 its activity is never-tiring, whether they be at 
 study, work, or play. We do not say, cultivate 
 perception, memory and fancy, to the exclusion 
 or repression of thought, for this is impossible. 
 These powers, if exercised by human beings, must 
 be interpenetrated by thought. If wisely culti- 
 vated by studies j »•< iperly arranged, they will neces- 
 sarily involve discrimination, comparison, and 
 explanation. To teach pure observation, or the 
 mastery of objects or words, without classifica- 
 tion and interpretation, is to be ignorant even 
 to simple stupidity." Further on, the same author, 
 in speaking of the various studies to be prose- 
 cuted in childhood says, "Natural history in all its 
 branches, as contrasted with the sciences of 
 nature, or scientific physics, should be mastered 
 with the objects before the eye -flowers, miner- 
 als, shells, birds, and beasts. These studies should 
 all be mastered in the spring-time of life, when 
 the tastes are simple, the heart is fresh, and the 
 eye is sharp and clear. I Jut science of every kind. 
 whether of language, of nature, of the soul, or of 
 God, as science should not be prematurely 
 taught."— See How to Teach (X. V.. L874); 
 Baenard, Oral Training Lessons in Natural 
 Science (N. Y., 1871); Youmans, The Culture 
 Demanded by Modern Life (X. V., 1867); 
 Burton, The Culture of the Observing Faculties 
 (X. Y.. 1865). 
 
 ORDER, in school management, implies 
 (1) the existence of a judicious system of regu- 
 lations, and (2) a uniform and habitual observ- 
 ance of them by the pupils. It is one of the 
 most important elements of a good school, since 
 it enables the teacher to concentrate all its edu- 
 cative agencies without embarrassment OT inter- 
 ruption. The characteristics of good order are 
 1 1 j attention on the part of the pupils to the 
 Legitimate work of the school. (2) obedience and 
 n sped to teachers. (.'{) decorous deportment — ■ 
 the absence Of tumult, rudeness, frivolity, and 
 frolicsome actions, calculated to disturb the 
 school, and (4) propriety and exactness in the 
 Bchool evolutions and drill. Order is the result 
 
 of skill and tact on the part of the teacher: but 
 
 it cannol be fully maintained unless he is vested 
 
 with suitable authority, so as to be able to cor- 
 rect disorder, as soon as it manifests itself. Gen- 
 eral disorder in a school can result only from 
 bad management, indicating incompetency on 
 
 the part 01 the teacher. "If a school be well or- 
 ganized", says Wickersham, "its classes well ar- 
 ranged, its work well systematized; if pupils be 
 properly employed in study, in recitation, in ex- 
 
 ercise: if school-government l>e well understood 
 and wisely administered, a large proportion of 
 the offenses which now occur in school will dis- 
 appear. ' — (See Dis ciplin e, and Government.) 
 
 ORDER OF STUDIES. See Course of 
 Instruction. 
 
 OREGON, one of the Pacific states of the 
 American Union, originally a part of the ter- 
 ritory of Oregon, which was organized in 1848, 
 and comprised all the U. 8. territory west of the 
 Rocky mountains and north of the parallel of 
 42°. From this, the territory of Washington 
 was formed, in L853; and, in 1 851). Oregon was 
 admitted into the Union, as a state, with its 
 present limits. Its area is 95.274 sq. in.; and its 
 population, in 1870, was 90,923, of whom 340 
 were colored persons, 3,330 Chinese. 
 
 Educational Histori/. — As early as 1850, while 
 ( Iregon was yet a territory, its laws provided for 
 the establishment of public schools: but the want 
 of teachers, and the unsettled character of the 
 population, made it difficult to organize any ef- 
 fective system. According to the census of 1850, 
 there were in the territory '-V1 academies; a flour- 
 ishing institute belonging to the Methodists, near 
 Salem: and two female seminaries at Oregon 
 City. A general recommendation in behalf of 
 education was made by the first constitution of 
 the state, adopted in L859; and certain specified 
 sources of revenue were assigned for the produc- 
 tion of a permanent school fund. No state super- 
 intendent or board of education was. however, 
 created, the governor being required to include 
 the care of the schools with his other duties; but 
 one of tin- sections provided that . after five y> ars. 
 
 it should be competent for the legislature to pro- 
 vide for the election of a superintendent, in 1872, 
 
 a general school law was passed, which created 
 
 the office of state superintendent of public in- 
 struction, and provided for the election of county 
 superintendents and district directors. This law 
 is Still in force. The first superintendent was 
 Sylvester ( '. Simpson, appointed, ad inU rim, by 
 the governor, in 1873 ; and. in 1874, L. L. Kow- 
 land was elected to succeed him. 
 School System. — By the law of 1872, which 
 
 went into effect in L873, the state board of 
 education, consisting of the governor, secretary 
 of State, and state superintendent, is charged 
 
 with the care of the public schools. It holds semi- 
 annual meetings, at which it examines teachers, 
 prescribes a course of study for the public schools. 
 
 designates the text-books to be used, and lays 
 
 down general rules for the management of the 
 
 schools. The diplomas issued by the board are 
 
 of two kinds, life and state the latter valid for 
 6 years throughout the state. It also issues first 
 
 and second giadc certificates, valid for 2 years, 
 
 and 6 months, respectively. The state super- 
 intendent of public instruction is elected by the 
 people for I years, and is. ex officio, secretary of 
 
 the board of education, lie exercises a general 
 supervision over the public Bchools and over 
 subordinate officers; holds annually, at the cap- 
 ital, a state teachers' institute, and local insti- 
 tutes in the judicial districts; and makes a report 
 
OREGON 
 
 671 
 
 to the legislature once in 2 years. Com//// super- 
 intendents aw elected biennially. Their duties 
 are to divide their counties into school-districts; 
 to establish new districts when directed by a 
 majority of the legal voters; to apportion the 
 school fund ; to take charge of the school lands, 
 selecting in each township the Kith and 36th 
 sections; and to examine teachers, granting cer- 
 tificates graduated according to qualifications. 
 They are. also, required to visit the schools under 
 their jurisdiction, and to make annual reports to 
 the state superintendent. Three district directors 
 are elected, whose terms of office are 3 years, one 
 director being chosen annually in each district. 
 A district clerk, also, is annually elected, who 
 acts as the executive officer of the board of 
 directors. The permanent school fund consists 
 of the proceeds of all lands granted to the state 
 for educational purposes, except university lands; 
 all money accruing to the state by escheat and 
 forfeiture; all money for exemption from military 
 services; all gifts, devises, and bequests made by 
 any person to the state for common-school pur- 
 poses; all the proceeds of the lands granted to 
 the state by Congress, in 1841; and 5 per cent 
 of the proceeds of the land to which the state 
 was entitled on her admission into the Union. 
 In 1875. this fund, derived mainly from the sale 
 or rent of the 500,000 acres of lands given by the 
 general government, amounted to 8564,000, be- 
 sides about 8*750,000 not then available. The in- 
 come from this was, at that time, $56,400. The 
 university land grant of 66,080 acres has, thus 
 far, yielded about §100,000. The school revenue 
 is further increased annually by a state 3 mill 
 tax. by county and district taxes, by rate-bills, 
 and by voluntary contributions. The legal school 
 age is from 4 to 20 years ; the school year, 60 
 days ; the school week, 5 days. The course of 
 study comprises orthography, reading, writing, 
 mental and practical arithmetic, English gram- 
 mar, geography, and modern history, in addition 
 to these branches, which are obligatory, others 
 may be taught, up to, but not including, training 
 for college. In one of the schools, in every dis- 
 trict of not less than 10,000 inhabitants, instruc- 
 tion is directed to be given in the German lan- 
 guage, if applied for by 100 voters. 
 
 Educational Condition. — The whole number 
 of schools in the state, in 1875, was 594, of 
 which 4 were high schools, 31 were graded 
 schools, and 559, ungraded. The income was as 
 follows: from state tax, 830,273 ; from interest 
 on the permanent fund, $56,400; total, 886,673 
 Other items of school statistics are the following: 
 
 Xuniber of children of school age: 
 
 males 23,265 
 
 females 21,396 
 
 Total ~~ ~~44,6G1 
 
 Number of teachers in public schools: 
 
 males 40(5 
 
 females. . 4") 7 
 
 Total . 053 
 
 Average duration of school, in days 105| 
 
 Average monthly salary of male teachers $.". 1 .45 
 
 " " " " female " $45.50 
 
 Estimated value of school property $350, QUO 
 
 Normal Instruction. — Provision is made for 
 the professional education of teachers by the 
 
 Pacific University, Willamette University, and 
 
 Me.Minnville College. In the first, a COUTSe of 2 
 
 years is provided, admission to which is granted 
 alter a satisfactory examination is passed in 
 arithmetic, penmanship, reading, spelling, En- 
 glish grammar, geography, the history of the 
 United States, and elementary algebra. A 
 limited number of teachers' institutes have been 
 held since the organization of the public-school 
 system. The State Teachers' Institute held a 
 meeting at Salem, in L875. 
 
 Secondary Instruction. — Of the 4 high schools 
 existing in 1874, the mosl important is that at 
 Portland. Besides giving instruction in all the 
 higher English branches, it affords opportunities 
 for the study of Latin, Greek, French, and 
 German. Its course of study extends over 3 
 years. Five private schools and academies exist 
 in the state, and there are preparatory classes 
 connected with nearly all of the colleges. The 
 commercial department of Willamette I University 
 furnishes instruction to between 60 and 70 stu- 
 dents in a single year's course, in this respect 
 taking the place of the ordinary business college. 
 
 Denominational and Parochial Schools. — A 
 few institutions of this class exist, the prin- 
 cipal being the Portland Academy and Female 
 Seminary (Methodist Episcopal). St. Mary's 
 Academy for Young Ladies (Roman Catholic), 
 and the Bishop Scott Grammar and Divinity 
 School (Episcopal). In all these, the grade of 
 instruction is secondary, or above; in one, the 
 course extending as far as the third year of the 
 college curriculum. The Chinese Mission School 
 of Portland was established by the Baptists, in 
 1874. While imparting religious instruction, it 
 also supports an evening school, in which music 
 and the ordinary branches of an English edu- 
 cation are taught. 
 
 Superior Instruction. — The colleges and uni- 
 versities are as follows: 
 
 NAME 
 
 Christian College 
 
 Corvallis College 
 
 McMinnville College 
 
 ( tn >g( >n State University . . 
 Pacific Univ. and Tualatin 
 
 Academy 
 
 Philomath College 
 
 Willamette University. ... 
 
 Location 
 
 Monmouth 
 
 Corvallis 
 
 McMiimviUe 
 
 Eugene City 
 Forest Grove 
 
 Philomath 
 Salem 
 
 When 
 found 
 
 ed 
 
 1865 
 1868 
 1858 
 1872 
 
 Is.M 
 
 1865 
 
 1853 
 
 Denomi- 
 nation 
 
 ' 'hristian 
 M. Ep. s. 
 Baptist 
 Non-sect 
 Evang. 
 
 0. Breth. 
 M. Epii 
 
 Of the above, the Oregon State University, 
 though founded in 1872, had not, up to 1875, 
 been opened; $25,000 yet remaining to be raised 
 by the county, in order to entitle the regents to 
 the use of the 8(50,000 already raised. In all 
 the other institutions enumerated in the table, 
 both sexes are admitted. St. Helen's Hall, Port- 
 land, is the only institution in the state for the 
 higher education of women exclusively. The 
 regular course of study occupies 5 years, but 
 academic degrees are not conferred. 
 
 Professional and Scientific Instruction. — ■ 
 Corvallis State Agricultural College (q. v.), 
 
GT2 
 
 ORPHAN ASYLUMS 
 
 ORTHOGRAPHY 
 
 +hough founded by the Methodists, has received 
 the congressional grant of !M),IMIO acres, and is 
 the only institution in the state in which in- 
 struction in agriculture is given. Though still 
 iimler sectarian control, it receives annually from 
 1 he state an appropriation of 95,000. There is, 
 also, a scientific department and a medical de- 
 partment in Willamette Iniversity. 
 
 Special LislriirHnii. — The Institution for the 
 Deaf and Dumb, at Salem, was founded in 1*70, 
 by an annual appropriation of $2,000 for '_' years. 
 In L873, a further appropriation of $4,500 was 
 made, which was increased, in L874, to $5,000. 
 It had, in 187">, 3 instructors, and an average of 
 
 pupil 
 
 Tlic Oregon School for the Education 
 
 22 
 
 of the Blind was founded at Salem, in 1872, by 
 an appropriation of $4,000. It was opened in 
 L873 with one instructor and 7 pupils. The fol- 
 lowing year, the legislature authorized an an- 
 nual appropriation of $2,000 for its support. 
 In addition to instruction in the elementary 
 branches which are usually taught in common 
 schools, special instruction is given in pin-type 
 printing, music (vocal and instrumental', plain 
 sewing, and fancy work. 
 
 ORPHAN ASYLUMS, or Orphan Houses, 
 are institutions in which orphans arc received 
 and educated. Although some arrangements for 
 the support of orphans arc met with in the 
 history of ancient Greece and Rome, and, to a 
 much greater extent among the Hebrews, the 
 establishment of special institutions for their 
 care ami education is due to the influence of 
 Christianity. The first orphan houses [orphano- 
 trophic?) appear to have been founded in the time 
 of Constantine L; and the church law expressly 
 placed them under the control of the clergy. In the 
 1 1 tli century. France had a confraternity whose 
 chief object was the support of orphans. The 
 number of special orphan institutions remained, 
 however, comparatively small, until A.I I. Francke 
 (q. v.) excited a mure general interest in their 
 behalf, and gave a powerful impulse to their more 
 rapid progress. Among the rulers of Europe, 
 none gained so great a distinction for a kindlj 
 ami active promotion of orphan education as the 
 empress Maria Theresa of Austria. The num- 
 ber of orphan asylums in the United States is 
 very large, nearly every state being represented 
 in the list. Girard College, in Philadelphia, is, 
 in every respect, one of the foremost orphan 
 houses of the world. Its founder. Stephen Gi- 
 rard (born in Bordeaux, France, in 1750; died 
 in L831, in Philadelphia), left by his last will 
 $2,000,000 for the erection of an institution in 
 
 which should l>e maintained and educat sd asmany 
 
 white male orphans as might be in need of such 
 support. It was opened in L848, with a class of 
 
 11)0 orphans, and, in L875, contained .">:">(); but, 
 
 in thai year, the erection of additional buildings 
 had been resolved upon. The permanent income 
 From the estate will support about L,050orphans. 
 The large majority of orphan houses, both in the 
 
 United States and in Europe, arc charitable in- 
 stitutions, supported by endowments and volun- 
 tary contributions. Quite a number are main- 
 
 tained and controlled by each particular religious 
 denomination, a noble rivalry existing among 
 the churches of the civilized world, to provide in 
 an efficient manner for their own orphans. Only 
 quite recently have state and municipal govern- 
 ments begun to recognize the care of orphans 
 as a duty, and to make appropriations for their 
 education. Thus, there were, in 1874, in the 
 United States. "_'l soldiers' and Bailors' orphans' 
 homes, chiefly maintained by state appropria- 
 
 j tions. — It is natural to expect that, in a great 
 many orphan houses, the instruction imparted 
 would lie inferior to that which children under 
 
 \ the care of their parents usually receive at school 
 
 and at home. In ] rly endowed schools, the 
 
 number of inmates is too large in proportion to 
 that of the instructors and other employes ; and. 
 consequently, sufficient attention cannot be be- 
 stowed upon individual wants. It has been espe- 
 cially noticed that the too strict uniformity to 
 which orphan children are usually subjected in 
 their daily occupations, produces a lack of versa- 
 tility and sprightiiness, which, when they are dis- 
 missed from the asylums, prejudices employers 
 against them. The hygienic condition of these in- 
 stitutions has also been found, in many instances. 
 to be very unsatisfactory. As many Orphans are 
 
 the offspring of depraved parents, there is great 
 
 danger from the admission of children of \ icious 
 habits. It has. therefore, been proposed to bring 
 I together only a small number of orphans (from 
 lo to 20) into a kind of family, and thus to fur- 
 nish the best attainable substitute for a good 
 home education, others have recommended that 
 orphans should be committed, for their educa- 
 tion, to private families rather than to institu- 
 tions. Experience, however, has shown that even 
 these methods of providing for orphans are by 
 no means devoid of danger. A full and inter- 
 esting account of the orphan asylums in the 
 United States is given in No. 6 of the Circulars 
 of Information of tli<> V. S. Bureau of Educa- 
 tion, containing Statements relating to Reform- 
 atory, Gliaritable, <ni<l Industrial Schools for tin' 
 Young (Washington, 1875). The early history 
 of orphan houses is fully treated of by De Ge- 
 rando, in his work De la Bienfaisance Pub- 
 lique. (Sec also Foindi.ini; Asylums, Industrial 
 Schools, and Reform Schools.) 
 
 ORTHOGRAPHY, as a science, treats of 
 the representation of spoken language by visible 
 signs; it includes a systematic history of such 
 
 signs, and a discussion of the principles accord- 
 ing to which they should be made and used. 
 
 ■ 
 
 Picture writing is first used; pictures of objects 
 
 are used as signs of the names of the objects, 
 then of initial syllables in such names, and final- 
 
 l\ of elementary sounds. The pictures, meantime, 
 are abbreviated and modified to what we call 
 letters. The essential principle of alphabetic 
 writing is that a perfect alphabet must have one 
 character for eacti elementary sound in the lan- 
 guage, and only one. Subordinate rules arc. that 
 the characters should be easy to write and to 
 
 distinguish, and shapely : like sounds should have 
 like signs, and similar series of sounds should 
 
ORTHOGRAPHY 
 
 673 
 
 have analogous sots of signs; each character 
 should In' so shaped as to suggest, to some extent, 
 the position of the organs of speech in form- 
 ing the sound ; derived alphabets are esteemed 
 the better for embodying important history ; all 
 cations should use the same signs with similar 
 values. No nation has ever made any near ap- 
 proach to a perfect alphabet. The growth from 
 picture writing goes on without much guidance 
 from ideas ; and all the qualities which are mere- 
 ly matters of history and symmetry, are of little 
 consequence in comparison with the essential 
 principle of phonetic convenience. A good his- 
 torical sketch of writing is to be found in Whit- 
 ney's Language and the Study of language 
 iNew York, L867); see also Steinthal's The Ent- 
 wickelung der Schrift (Berlin, 1 ^~>'l i. The Anglo- 
 Saxon language was reduced to writing in Ro- 
 man letters by the missionaries, who converted the 
 people to ' 'hristianity.and gave them a pretty good 
 alphabet. The letters were used in their Roman 
 values, or nearly so. and new characters were 
 added for the sounds of a infat,th in their, (dh) 
 ill in thine, and w. After the Norman conquest, 
 chaos came again with Anglo-Saxon , or rather 
 English, spelling. A large part of the words of 
 each rare of the new people were difficult for 
 the other to pronounce. The scholars inclined 
 to spell in the old hook fashion: but the Normans 
 dropped the special Anglo-Saxon discriminations, 
 and left many of their own letters standing which 
 were not pronounced by the people; and many 
 letters were inserted to no purpose in ill-directed 
 attempts to represent the strange combinations. 
 Then followed a change in the whole gamut, so 
 to speak, of the vowel sounds. The close vowels 
 changed under the accent into diphthongs by 
 taking an a sound before them. The old i as in 
 machine has thus changed to ai, as in mine; u 
 as in rule has given rise to au, as in house. The 
 open and mixed vowels have become closer: a, as 
 in far, changing to a (i. e.. e) in fate or wall, or to 
 o in home ( A-S. ham) ; e as in they, changing toe 
 ( i. e., i) in me; o as in. foe, changing to oo (i. e., u) as 
 in moon (A-S. mona). Single characters have thus 
 come to stand for diphthongs, and the long and 
 short sounds, which go in pairs in other languages, 
 are denoted in ours by different characters, and 
 come from different sources. Intermediate between 
 the old a [far) and e (met) has become established 
 a in fat, fare ; between a [far) and o (note), o in 
 not and nor, and the sounds of u in but, burn, 
 have also arisen. All these have no special signs. 
 Four consonants sh, zh. if/, dh are in the same 
 condition. The people have long since ceased to 
 feel any necessity for keeping sounds and signs 
 together. Changes go on without any record in 
 the writing: etymologists slip in new silent let- 
 ters, on the ground of imaginary derivations: old 
 monsters, fertile in the popular fancy, propagate 
 themselves in the congenial environment : and. 
 altogether, we have attained the worst alphabet- 
 ical spelling in the world. For the history of all 
 these changes, see Ellis's History of English 
 Pronunciation (Ixmdon, 1867): Sweet's History 
 '/English Sounds (London, 1874); Haldeman's 
 43 
 
 Analytic Orthography (Phila., 1858); Mabch*8 
 Anglo-Saxon Grammar (N. Y ., 1870) : and the 
 articles Anglo-Saxon, and English, the Study 
 op, with the authorities there referred to. 
 
 Orthography, in a narrower sense, is the art of 
 spelling correctly, according to the standard of a 
 language. It firsl demands me attention of teach- 
 ers as the art of inculcating the spelling of English 
 according to the dictionaries of our language. In 
 early times, there was no standard English spell- 
 ing. The printers added or subtracted letters for 
 
 convenience of spacing; the same word will be 
 found spelt several different ways on the same 
 
 page. Dr. Johnson's Dictionary (1755) was the 
 iirst recognized standard. The common way of 
 teaching spelling, is to teach from a spelling-book 
 the form and name of each of the letters of the 
 alphabet ; then to practice on combinations 
 of the letters in pairstnaming each letter and 
 then uttering the sound of the combination : 
 then to practice in thesame way on combinations 
 of three letters: then on words of two syllables, 
 
 and so on. These syllables and words are selected 
 with care; similar sounds are grouped together, 
 and the groups arranged in a progressive order 
 of difficulty in spelling-books. The first steps 
 of this process maybe made easier by using blocks 
 with the letters on them for the learner to name 
 and arrange into syllables; by setting him to 
 write the letters on the slate, the paper, or on the 
 blackboard; by adding picturesoi the objects the 
 names of which are spelt; or by the use of rhj mes, 
 and other contrivances of artificial memory. An- 
 other method is to begin with words as who 
 ami. after some progress has been made in reading 
 in that way, to direct attention to the separate 
 letters, their names, and sounds (word method] 
 Teachers proceeding in this way often name the 
 letters by the sounds which they have in the word 
 to be spelt, and not by their proper names. Thisis 
 sometimes called the phonic method. Scholars are 
 led on to more difficult words. Text-books of hard 
 words, more or less classified, with rules for the 
 most puzzling groups, are prepared, and blanks 
 for written exercises in Spelling. Some little help 
 may be gained by rules, and mnemonic contriv- 
 ances ; but the standard spelling of our language 
 is so irregular, that continual practice for many 
 years is necessary to make any approach to the 
 mastery of it. Among the most efficient helps 
 to the teacher is the spelling match, for which 
 sides are chosen which contend for the victory. 
 It should be noted that continual practice in read- 
 ing and writing is needed, or training to spell 
 aloud in class will not save from mistakes in 
 writing. Further, the most important words for 
 each person are his own vocabulary, — the words 
 which he uses in his own writing. Perfect ac- 
 curacy in these is the end most to be desired in 
 teaching. If this habit is once established, un- 
 usual words will be looked up. when the writer 
 has occasion to Use them. With all aids ami arts, 
 
 good s] idling is one of the rare ami costly accom- 
 plishments : and, naturally, stress is laid on it as 
 the sien of a thoroughly educated person out of 
 all proportion to its real value. It is made prom- 
 
t>T4 
 
 ORTHOGRAPHY 
 
 inent in all civil service examinations and en- 
 trance examinations to colleges and universities. 
 In the civil service examinations in England, out 
 of 1,972 failures 1,80(5 candidates failed in spell- 
 ing. But it is said that the documents prepared 
 by the prime ministers of England show that no 
 one of them could have passed these examina- 
 tions in spelling. The best teachers in other re- 
 spects often fail in spelling. English orthography 
 is the opprobrium of English scholarship, and 
 the greatest hindcrance to education and to the 
 spread of our language. < >ur children spend three 
 years in learning to spell a little; while German 
 children get further in a t welvemonth. There are 
 about 5,500,000 illiterates in the United States. 
 (See articles on Illiteracy and Phonetics.) 
 M i I lions of dollars are spent every year in printing 
 silent letters. Earnest efforts are now making for 
 reform. The philological associations of Eng- 
 land and America, teachers' associations, state 
 and national, in England and America, and some 
 state legislatures, have committees appointed on 
 the subject. Several schemes of reform have 
 been presented, the most important of which 
 are those of A.. I. Ellis and I. Pitman, E. Jones, 
 A. M. Bell, and E. Leigh. Mr. Hell has invented 
 a set of characters wholly unlike our present let- 
 ters, which indicate by their form the position 
 of the organs of speech. It can hardly come into 
 speedy use in common books. Scholars have be- 
 gun to use it somewhat in scientific treatises. 
 (See Bell, Visible Speech, London, L867.) Mr. 
 Pitman has proposed an alphabet containing 16 
 new letters; and there is already quite a body of 
 literature in that alphabet. I le publishes a Pho- 
 neiic Journal, having a circulation of 1.0,000 cop- 
 ies in various parts of the world. ( 'harts for lect- 
 urers, and for school display, and other means of 
 instruction adapted to it, are at hand. 1 >r. E. I <eigh 
 has combined a phonetic print, like Pitman's, 
 with the standard spelling. (See Leigh, Pro- 
 nouncing Orthography, St. Louis, 1864, and his 
 later publications in New York.) Elementary 
 books for schools, printed according to his system, 
 have been used for ten years in St. Louis, Wash- 
 ington, New York, Boston, and other cities, and 
 are said to save much of the time usually spent 
 in learning to read. Editions of must of the 
 elementary books (primers, etc.) published in the 
 United States are issued in Leigh's print. (See 
 Phonetics.) Mr. Kllis and Mr. Jones propose 
 systems based on the present spelling, using 
 always the same letters for ea cl I Bound that are 
 now oftenest used to denote it, as follows: 
 Mr. Jones's scheme) ,i as in at, aa (fathei 
 ai{aid),au [taught), b,c (cat),ch (chip),d, e [met 
 ee (eel),/, g(go), h, i (in), ie I pie), ./'. /. m, n, rig 
 (8ing),o (on),oe(foi \,oi(oil),oo out), 
 
 ■. s (sun i. 8h (snip), /. ill [their, thine), u (bun I, 
 ue (hue), v, to, il). This scheme is de- 
 
 fective in giving the letters different values in com- 
 bination from those which they have when alone, 
 and in representing so many elementary sounds 
 by digraphs. Besides, it does not serve to bring our 
 
 spelling into harmony with other languages. Its 
 advantage is, that it can be set up from common 
 
 printer's cases, and that it can be read by any one 
 who can read the old spelling. (See A. J. Ellis, 
 Early English Pronunciation, London. 1867; 
 E. Jones, A Revision of English Spelling a Na- 
 tional Necessity, London, 1875 ; E. B. Burns, 
 A/tr/lr>-Aii/< ri'<;i//(Jrt//n : /r<ij>l/>/,'Se\\'YoTk,18'~iG). 
 
 According to the principles laid down by the 
 American Philological Association, by the In- 
 ternational Convention for the Reform of English 
 ( hi hoeraphy, held in Philadelphia. August. 1876, 
 and by the Spelling Reform Association, which are 
 generally approved by scholars, the Roman alpha- 
 bet is so widely used that it cannot be displaced, 
 and the eff< >rts of scholars in adaptingit to English 
 should Ijc directed to using it with uniformity 
 and in conformity with other nations. The let- 
 ters now used in nearly their Roman sound are 
 a [far), b, c (k), d, e (met),f,g (go), h, i (pick), 
 I. in. //. o (note), p, q, r, s (so), t, u (rude). To 
 these it is agreed to add r, >t\ y,z with their com- 
 monest English power. Three new short vowels 
 need signs, those iii fa!, not, but; for easy intro- 
 duction, these should be slight modifications of a. 
 0, ". such as for example a, o\ v. The Romanic 
 languages have heretofore used onesicn for a short 
 vowel and its corresponding long sound, adding 
 a diacritical mark when great precision is needed. 
 This would be acceptable in English for a (ask, 
 far), a (fat, fare), o (obey, note), er (net, nor), 
 u (full, rude), d (but. burn). For e (let, 1 
 two characters are needed, a variation of e look 
 ing like a is of good promise; such as, for example. 
 s as in fate : i in pick, pique, perhaps may stand, 
 for diphthongs there follow at (by), au (house). 
 m ii. rise), iu (music); but it is best to use for at 
 some modification of i, and for iu some modifi- 
 cation of >i, such as, for example, j. ip 
 
 The consonants sh (as s in sugar), zli (as s in 
 pleasure), /// (as in thin), <lh (as /// in thine 
 (as in sing), and perhaps also tsh (as ch in church) , 
 dzh (as dg in judge) call for single signs: bur the 
 present notation will answer tolerably well, if car- 
 ried out with uniformity, though scholars seek to 
 revive the old signs for th and <lh. Thus we have 
 described a complete alphabet, such as the prin- 
 ciples of the philologists would seem to call for. 
 
 A first siep for teachers who favor this reform 
 is to cease to use the old names of the letters 
 which do not contain the sounds here given tothe 
 letters, and call them by names having those 
 sounds; e. //., n should be called a(re) \ <> should 
 
 be named as sounded in met, c as sounded in can. 
 Then drop silent letters, and finally spell all 
 words with these letters uniformly, according to 
 their names. Seed. HaDLEY, Essays Pliilolog- 
 
 ical and Critical N Y '; W. D. Whitney, Ori- 
 ental and Linguistic Studies, 2d series. (N. Y.)\ 
 Proceedings of the American Philological Asso- 
 ciation. 1S75, 1876; Address to the American 
 Philological Association. by the President, F. A. 
 March (Hartford, 1874); 8.8. Haldeman, Ana- 
 lytic Orthography (Phila.,1858); Proceedings if 
 the International < onventionfor the Amemlmnit 
 if English Orthography (Phila.,1876); Proceed- 
 ings of the Spelling Reform Association (Phi\&., 
 1876) ; Pitman's Phonetic Journal (Path. Eng.). 
 
OSKALOOSA COLLEGE 
 
 OWENS COLLEGE 
 
 675 
 
 OSKALOOSA COLLEGE, at Oskaloosa, 
 Iowa, founded in L856, is under the control of 
 the Christian denomination. The value of the 
 buildings, grounds, and apparatus is $50,000; the 
 amount of its productive funds, $30,000. Et com- 
 prises a preparatory department, a collegiate de- 
 partment (with a classical course of four years 
 ami a ladies' course of three years), a Bible depart- 
 ment, and a commercial department. Facilities 
 arc afforded for normal instruction, ami for in- 
 struction in music, pointing, and drawing. The 
 cost of tuition is $30 a year. In 1874 — 5, there 
 were (i instructors and 200 students (deducting 
 repetitions); namely, irregular, 106 ; collegiate, 
 16 ; preparatory, 34 ; Bible department, 14 ; com- 
 mercial, 47. F. M. Bruner, A. M., is the pres- 
 ident (1875). 
 
 OTTERBEIN UNIVERSITY, at Wester- 
 ville. Ohio, founded in 1S47. is under the control 
 of the United Brethren in Christ. It is supported 
 by tuition fees and the income of an endow- 
 ment of sso.noo. The tuition fee. including in- 
 cidental expenses, is $24 a year. The university 
 ci u uprises a preparatory and a collegiate depart- 
 ment, with a classical, a scientific, and a ladies' 
 course. The last is especially designed for females 
 who, however, are also admitted to the other 
 courses. In 1874 — 5, there were 12 instructors, 
 and 201 students (72 collegiate and 129 pre- 
 paratory). The presidents have been as follows: 
 William R. Griffith (principal), 1847—9; the Rev. 
 William Davis, 1849 — 50 ; the Rev. Lewis Davis, 
 1 850 — 57 ; the Rev. Alexander Owen, 1858— CO ; 
 the Rev. Lewis Davis, D. D., 1860—71 ; the Rev. 
 Daniel Eberly, A. M., 1871 — 2; and the Rev. 
 1 1. A. Thompson, D. D., the present incumbent, 
 appointed in 1872. 
 
 OWENS COLLEGE (Manchester, England) 
 was founded by the bequest of Mr. John Owens, 
 a merchant of Manchester, who. at his death in 
 1846, bequeathed the bulk of his property, 
 amounting to nearly £100.000, to trustees to 
 found an institution for teaching such branches 
 of learning and science as were or might after- 
 wards be taught in the English universities. 
 After extensive inquiries, a college was founded 
 and opened in 1851, which, like rniversity Col- 
 lege. London, was to be in connection with the 
 London University, and was to be absolutely free 
 from any religious disqualification. The terms 
 of the original bequest allowed no portion of the 
 endowment to be expended on land or buildings. 
 Accordingly, in the earlier years of the college, 
 624,000 was contributed by the trustees and the 
 people of Manchester in aid of Mr. Owens's 
 bequest and for the foundation of scholarships. 
 The home of the college, for twenty -two years, 
 was in a large building in Quay .^t.. which had 
 formerly been a private house. But, in 1867, j 
 the old buildings had become inadequate ; and 
 an influential committee was formed to prepare 
 a scheme for the erection of new buildings in a . 
 better part of the city, also for the endowment of 
 new professorships, and to make an appeal for 
 the necessary funds. The response, in contribu- 
 tions and legacies, down to July 1876, was the 
 
 sum of £211,000, contributed partly for B] 
 eial, and partly for general, purposes. In ad- 
 dition to this, Mr. Beyer's recenl legacy will prob- 
 ably yield £100,000 more. The new college wan 
 opened in 1873; and, including the site and the 
 chemical laboratory, which has room for more 
 
 than KID students', it cost above £100,000, and 
 
 when completed will cost £50,000 or £60,000 
 more. A further sum of £15,000 was expended 
 
 upon the adjoining buildings of the medical 
 
 school, previously known as the Manchester 
 Royal School of Medicine, which was now 
 for the first time, united with the college. Ac 
 cording to the new constitution of the college, 
 the governors are 42 in number. Fourteen of 
 them form an executive committee, called the 
 council, which transacts the external business of 
 the college, while the senate, i. e., the body of 
 professors, transacts its internal or academic 
 business. 
 
 The college began with six professors, several 
 allied subjects being assigned to one chair. 
 There are now, 20 professors, and 22 assistants, 
 in arts, science, law, and medicine. The profess- 
 orships are endowed : one important result of 
 this is that it is possible to charge lower Ices, and 
 to bring the benefits of the college within the 
 reach of much larger numbers. The more im- 
 portant chairs have an endowment generally of 
 £350 a year, to which a large proportion of the 
 fees is added. In 1852, evening classes were be- 
 gun for the sake originally of school-masters; but 
 afterwards of all who chose to come. The Work- 
 ing Men's College in Manchester was incorpo- 
 rated with these evening classes in 1861. and the 
 result was a large increase in the number of stu- 
 dents. These students, in the session ending 
 in May, 1875, numbered 863, including 35 who 
 were also students in the day classes. In the 
 same session, there were 375 day students with 
 159 medical students, making a total of 1,362. 
 There are many valuable scholarships and ex- 
 hibitions in connection with the college. The 
 Rumney and Ramsbottom scholarships, with five 
 Whitworth exhibitions, were founded with the 
 design of enabling young artisans to pursue 
 scientific studies at the college for two or three 
 years. In 1872 — 3, the income of the college, 
 out of which it defrayed its general expenditure, 
 was about £11,000, of which £6,000 was derived 
 from endowments, and £5,000 from students' 
 fees. This does not include the medical depart- 
 ment. It may be added that a proposal for 
 erecting Owens College into a university has. 
 been widely discussed this year (1876), and has 
 met with considerable approval. 
 
 The first principal of the college was the late 
 Prof. A. J. Scott ; the second and present prin- 
 cipal is Prof. J. G. Greenwood. Students live 
 outside the college, and for the most part make 
 their own arrangements as to residence. — See 
 The Calendar oi the college; Fifth Rejwrt of 
 the Royal Commission on Scientific Instruction 
 (1874) unlh the Minutes of Evidence ; Letter by 
 Principal Greenwood in the Athenaeum for 
 April 10., 1875. 
 
676 
 
 OXFORD UNIVERSITY 
 
 OXFORD, University of, one of the two 
 great universities of England. Legend ascribes 
 its origin to Alfred the Great, and university 
 College claims to date from A. 1). 872; but of 
 this we have no proof. Oxford first became 
 famous as a school of learning in the reign of 
 Stephen, about 1 140. Prom John it won its ear- 
 liesl charters; and. under bis successor, the num- 
 
 ■ of students is said to have risen to .'!0,000 
 (though this included many attendants and me- 
 nials); at the end of the I Itli century, it had fallen 
 to lf>. nun: after the Reformation, to 5,000; it is 
 now about 2,500. This popularity in the earliest 
 times was due mainly to the influence of in- 
 dividual teachers, famous men, like Grosseteste, 
 Roger Bacon, Duns Scot us. and ( tecam.attracte I 
 students, who came from the universities of 
 Paris and Bologna to attend lectures at Oxford. 
 Each teacher lived in a hall, or inn, with his 
 
 students, for colleges did not yet exist. Th il\ 
 
 endowed teachers were the monks. But the rule 
 that every student should resile in a recogni 
 boarding-house, and the example of University, 
 Mertou, and Balliol colleges, all incorporated 
 toward the end of the Kith century, gradually 
 effected the extinction of the halls, and broughi 
 about the pr ollege system. The old chron- 
 
 3 tell us of the division of the studentsi 
 nations — North and South, of the quarrels 
 between them even on such questions as Nom- 
 inalism versus Realism, of theirelecting proctors 
 to protecl their privileges against the chancellor, 
 
 heir long feud and many rims with the citi- 
 i }, and of the chancellor's summoning the citi- 
 zens in arms to keep the pear-, thereby often a 1- 
 
 _ in J to the tiaines. In I "Jo.), we readoi a riot 
 
 serious that the diversity incurred papal ex- 
 communication, and was force. 1. with tin.- king, to 
 accept the pope's terms: and, after another great 
 tumult, subsequent to the Black Death, town and 
 university both put themselves into the king's 
 hands to settle their differences, the settlement 
 made being greatly in favor of the latter. Al- 
 though, during the barons' war, in Henry 
 Third's reign, and in the Lollard movement, un I t 
 Edward III. and Richard II., Oxford bad shown 
 
 popular sympathies, yet in the next century it 
 
 became decidedly ecclesiastical, and for some 
 time the lay element played but a small part in 
 it. With the revival of learning, came the fresh 
 stimulus of Pox's, Wolsey's, and Benry the 
 Eighth's patronage; and ten out of the twenty 
 colleges, as well as all the professorships, date 
 from 1500, or later. The principles of the Ref- 
 ormation were tobecarried out by a commis- 
 : Bent dow n t.. t kford by Edward V I. but the 
 
 < 1 1 1 i ■ - k succession of Mary prevented this: and we 
 
 find evidence of the '• iathoBc reaction in the foun- 
 dation of Trinity | I 55 I i, and St. John's i I 
 Under Queen Elizabeth, Protestantism was def- 
 initely established (1571), the statutes of 1549 
 being enforced; bu1 very little change occurred ex- 
 cept in the matter of religion. Even the old rule 
 of enjoining celibacy on the fellows was retained. 
 The last contest betwei □ the nations took place in 
 this reign, in the election of Leicester's suce< 
 
 to the chancellorship. James T. granted the par- 
 liamentary franchise to the universities in 1606, 
 ami divided between them such church patronage 
 as was still in the hands of < atholics. ( )xford tak- 
 ing the south of England, Carnl nidge the north; 
 and, in L617, be made adhesion to the Thirty- 
 nine Articles of the Church of England a neces- 
 sary qualification far the degree, which was after- 
 wards extended to the matriculation. In 1628, 
 the election of proctors was taken out of the 
 ha 1 1. Is of the masters, and given to the colleges in 
 turn; and. in 1638, something like a real exami- 
 nation for degrees was introduced in place of the 
 merely formal disputations. In the civil wars, 
 Oxford sided with Charles L, and consequently 
 suffered from Cromwell, though only slightly. 
 
 To Charles 1 1. she was heartily loyal. but even the 
 
 firmest belief in "passive obedience" was shaken 
 by his brother's measures. Nevertheless though 
 William was generally welcomed as a savior 
 
 of so, niy. very many of the fellows continued 
 friendly to the old dynasty, and talked Jacobit- 
 ism against the I lanoverians. 
 
 In considering the actual state and working 
 of the University nowadays, we must carefully 
 distinguish between it and the colleges. The lat- 
 ter are corporate bodies consisting of fellows and 
 scholars, possessing property and a building — 
 the college pro] and the unen- 
 
 dowed students reside. The University, while 
 technically described as consisting of the "chan- 
 cellor, masters, and scholars", consists practically 
 of certain fellows and heads of colleges who till 
 various public posts, and administer public trusts. 
 Within their own walls, the members of a coll 
 are independent, the fellows carrying out the 
 sen ices, lectures, and organization generally: out- 
 side the university, officers intervene, whether 
 
 the proctors to enforce public order, the profi -s- 
 
 ors to give public instruction, or the examiners 
 
 to test candidates for degrees, and the \ 
 chancellor to confer them. To qualify for these, 
 a student must reside in a college or licensed 
 lodging-house L2 terms, i.e., three academic years 
 of 6 months each, and must pass three examina- 
 tions.- Responsions, Moderations, and Pinal 
 Schools. The first is the same for every candi- 
 date: in the latter two. however, he has a el. 
 of either taking a pass degree, or going iii for 
 "honors" in one or mere subjects. The lie. 
 Schools in Moderations an classical and 
 
 mathematical: but. in the Pinal, a choice is off. red 
 
 between classics, mathematics, law, history, nat- 
 ural science, and theology. As the competition 
 in these subjects is strong, and as the result in- 
 fluences greatly a man's chances of getting a fel- 
 lowship, most candidates defer their filial exam- 
 ination until their Kith or 18th term, the latter 
 2 the latest allowed. 
 Fellowships are given Upon examination, to be 
 held either indefinitely, or only if the bolder 
 come a clergyman, and if. in either case, he re- 
 main a bachelor. Some few have, of late yi 
 
 been granted (or renewed) to married men. Their 
 value varies from B200 to £300 per annum; but 
 a resident fellow is generally a tutor also, and for 
 
OXFORD UNIVERSITY 
 
 671 
 
 that receives a proportion of the tuition fees paid 
 by the students. The average total is then from 
 E600 to 6800. The fellows manage the affairs 
 of the college entirely; one of their Dumber is 
 elected head -known by various titles at differ- 
 ent places, as rector, provost, master, president, or 
 the like— and he is allowed to marry. These are 
 all said to be "in the foundation", as arc also tin.' 
 scholars — with incomes of from £20 to £100, 
 -ranted by the college, and tenable 4 or 5 years 
 ind the exhibitioners, or holders of inferior 
 scholarships. Many colleges offer very valuable 
 rewards of tins kind; and many large schools 
 throughout the country confer similar si holar- 
 ships to last during a similar period. Such 
 sistance, of course, materially lessens a student's 
 expenses, which, on the average, may be reckoned 
 at £200 to £250 a year. A less sum, however, 
 will suffice, and frequently does; as is shown by 
 die reported expenditure (£60 or even less) of 
 
 several "unattached" students, that is. those who 
 attend lectures as members of the university, 
 but live always in lodgings, and are members of 
 no college. Such students were first admitted 
 in 1868, specially to diminish the expense of ac- 
 quiring a degree. Their numbers have steadily 
 increased: and the object of their institution — 
 economy — is certainly gained. There are. also, 
 many scholarships offered by .the university, in 
 contradistinction to the colleges, which are ■ 
 to all undergraduates, and some of which arc of 
 considerable value. The most important of these 
 are the Ireland. Hertford. Craven, and Derby, 
 for classical excellence; the Junior and Si 
 mathematical, in their own province: the Bo- 
 den in Sanskrit ; the Radcliffe Travelling Fel- 
 lowship and the Burdett-Coutts scholarship, in 
 science: the Pusey and Ellerton, and the Hall 
 and Houghton, in divinity. Special prizes are 
 given for essays in certain subjects: and one, 
 for poetry. The university, besides the award 
 of these honors, has also the charge of all 
 public examinations, of which it fixes both 
 the manner and the matter, appointing the ex- 
 aminers and regulating the standard of knowl- 
 i' ige. Within the last few years, it has exercised 
 its powers in creating separate schools — or ex- 
 aminations — for law and history (previously 
 united) and for theology. It elects and defines 
 the duties of the professors, ami its own olii 
 For the former, the oldest foundations date from 
 Henry vTEL.who instituted the professorship of 
 Divinity. Civil Law, .Medicine, Hebrew, and 
 Greek. Before his time there was only one — the 
 Lady Margaret Divinity (1502); between 1619 
 and 1624, live others u ir ndowed, and the 
 rest are of later origin. Readers are also ap- 
 pointed in several subjects, and for modern lan- 
 guages teachers, who hold a somewhat less dig- 
 Dined position. The whole number of public 
 instructors is 50. Their lectures are, in some cases, 
 free; in most, a small fee is charged; and. though 
 but few command large audiences, their teaching 
 not being supposed to "pay" for the examinations. 
 almost all give valuable assistance to the more 
 thoughtful and industrious students. — Of the 
 
 university officers, it will be sufficienl to men- 
 tion the chancellor, the high steward, the vice- 
 chancellor, and the proctors. 'I lie firsl was, in 
 old times, the ruling head of the University; he 
 was the nomine, of the Bishop of Lincoln, and 
 the guardian of his rights ami privileges. < Iradu- 
 ally, the nomination fell into the hands of the 
 masters, the ratification only resting with the 
 bishop, till, in 1338, that too was taken awaj bj 
 a papal bull. At present, he is little more than 
 an ornamental appendage; the practical duties of 
 his office being discharged by the vice-chancellor, 
 who is nominated annually by the chancellor 
 from the heads of colleges, and holds office gen- 
 erally lor a term of four years; under him arc 
 four pro-vice-chancellors. He is the resident head 
 
 of the university, and presides in all its meetil 
 and, being invested with the pow< ra of a justice of 
 the peace, jio.~se.-scs ci\ il and criminal jurisdiction 
 over its members. The proctors rank next in 
 importance. These are two in number, fellows of 
 
 colleges, elected according to a cycle of rotation, 
 for one year only. Their business is to maintain 
 discipline among the students outside their college 
 w;ills, to appoint public examiners, and to attend 
 meetings of the authorities: and. ex officio, they 
 arc members of most boards of management mi 
 university property and tru.-ts. 1 he highsteward 
 — who was once elected for his local intluci.ee 
 and power to protect tin' university — is now of 
 somewhat less importance than the chancellor, 
 his only duty being to try serious criminal cases, 
 such as treason or felony. The present 
 high steward is the Earl of Carnarvon; the 
 chancellor, the Marquis of Salisbury. The rep- 
 resentatives in the Commons are the lit. Hon. 
 Gathorne Hardy, secretary for war. and the lit. 
 1 [on. John Mowbray, both elected by ( Jonvocatii i . 
 The assemblies governing — or, we might ale 
 say. forming — the University, are four : (1) The 
 House of Congregation ; ('_') The House of Con- 
 vocation; (3) The Congregation of the Univer- 
 sity of Oxford ; ami (4) The Hebdomadal Coun- 
 cil, constituted according to the aci of C 
 (1) Congregation consists of Regents [i. e., Masters 
 of Arts of a certain standing) of all kinds, am! 
 merely ratifies the nomination of examiners, and 
 the ordinary degrees. (2) Convocation consists 
 of Regents and Non-Regents {i.e. all admitted 
 o>l; g ■my. who have k ir names on the 
 
 college books). I; transacts all the other corporate 
 of the university, grants moneys, sanc- 
 tions statutes, elects to all university offices and 
 livings, and chooses the burgesses for parliament. 
 In this assembly, the vice-chancellor (or his dep- 
 uty) has the right of veto on all proceedings 
 
 save elections: as have also the proctors if agreed. 
 {'.',) The Ca/igregation if the University em- 
 braces certain officials, and all members of Con- 
 vocation residing in Oxford during the year. !(s 
 business is legislative, the statutes of the Heb- 
 domadal Council being promulgated in it. and 
 amendments proposed, which, if allowed, are 
 passed on to Convocation for approval or rejec- 
 tion. (4) Lastly, we come to the Hebdomadal 
 Council, in which sit the chancellor, vicc-chaucel- 
 
678 
 
 PACIFIC UNIVERSITY 
 
 PACIFIC METHODIST COLLEGE 
 
 lor and proctors, ex officio, as well as G I [eada of 
 Colleges, 6 Professors, and 6 members of Convo- 
 cation, elected for a term of 6 years by the Con- 
 gregation of the University. This assembly meets 
 weekly, and initiates all legislation. 
 
 About twenty years ago, the two universities 
 started schemes for the examination of boys — 
 under the aame of the middle class loeal exami- 
 nations. In the Junior Group, candidates were 
 to be under 1G, in the Senior, under 1 s years of 
 age; every thing was conducted by nominees of 
 the university ; perfect impartiality and a high 
 standard of merit were secured ; and the exami- 
 nations soon became popular. Scholarships are 
 offered at three colleges in Oxford to the most 
 distinguished of the senior candidates. Such a test 
 has doubtless been of great service in improving 
 the teaching in middle-class schools, and in calling 
 forth the emulation both of masters and boys ; 
 but it has brought with it the apparently inevi- 
 table result of "cramming" and overworking boys 
 of promise. It has lately been extended to girls, 
 by Cambridge and also by Oxford. The latter 
 university is behindhand, however, in that it has 
 not yet supplied any thing analogous to the 
 Cambridge higher examinations for women (over 
 18 years of age), and to the lectures given by 
 Gantabs in support of university extension 
 throughout the kingdom; but, at Oxford itself, 
 there has, probably, never been a period when 
 teaching was more careful and effective, or study 
 more earnest, and its results more highly prized, 
 than to-day. 
 
 The names of the colleges with the dates of their 
 foundation are as follows: University, A..D. 872 (?), 
 incorporated in L280, from funds left, in I- 1'.'. by 
 Win. de Durham for 12 poor masters from Dur- 
 ham; Balliol, 12G3 — 8; Morton, founded in L264, 
 at Maldon, removed to Oxford in L274; Exeter, 
 1314; Oriel, 1326; Queen's, 1340; New, 1386; 
 Lincoln, 1427; All Souls, 14.'57; Magdalen, 1458; 
 Brasenose, 1509 ; Corpus Christi, L516 ; Christ 
 Church, 154G— 7; Trinity, 1554; St. John's, 1555; 
 Jesus. 1571 : Wadham, 1G09 ; Pembroke, 1624 ; 
 Worcester, 1714: Eeble,1870; Hertford, 1874. 
 The Halls are : St. Mary's, 1333 ; New Inn. used 
 as a mint under Charles I.; St. Albans: and 
 St. Kdmund's, the last as an adjunct of Queen's 
 College. Of the colleges, the largest and richesl 
 is Christ Church, begun by Wolsey under the 
 name of Cardinal College ; completed and en- 
 dowed by Henry VIII.; its undergraduates 
 number 249; those at Baliol. L82. The most com- 
 plete is New ( 'allege, which has, as its nursery, 
 
 Winchester School, founded by the same munif- 
 icent patron, Wm, of Wykeham, and proportion- 
 ately endowed. New College and Magdalen are 
 both famous for their handsome chapels and 
 grounds. The total number of undergrade > 
 in the calendar for 1876 is 2,542, of whom 213 
 are unattached I to any college or hall). The num- 
 ber of matriculations was, in the last academic 
 year, 718; of conferred degrees: Bachelors', 3,!)-l 1 . 
 and Masters'. 2">4. The revenue of colleges and 
 university together is £420.(1(10. — Besides the 
 above collegiate buildings, there are others of 
 great interest, also belonging to the university. 
 The oldest is the Divinity School, opened in 
 1480, and now used chiefly for conferring de- 
 grees. Close to it are the schools (1G11 seq.), 
 in which examinations are conducted ; and the 
 Sheldonian Theater (built by Abp. Sheldon 
 from the designs of Wren, in 1683b in which 
 honorary degrees are given and prize composi- 
 tions read, at the annual commemoration. The 
 Bodleian library was founded, in L597, by Sir 
 Thomas Bodley, in place of the small library, 
 which had been scattered at the Reformation. 
 Bodley bought largely for it during the Thirty 
 rears' War; but its usefulness dates from 
 dames I. Connected with it as a reading-room, 
 is the library built by 1 >r. Radcliffe, founder also 
 of the Infirmary and the Observatory. The Afih- 
 molean museum (1632) is the properly of the 
 university, which has also its own press. Found* d 
 about L672, it was extended in 1711. chiefly 
 
 through the profits of Lord Clarendon's History 
 of lltn Civil Wars, the copyright of which he 
 presented to the university. It was removed to 
 new buildings in 1833, and is now a very large 
 establishment, distinguished by the chancellor's 
 name. The most recent building of importance 
 is the new museum, elaborately furnished with 
 scientific collections and apparatus. The Tay- 
 lorian Institute, also, is of late date; it contains 
 a picture gallery and has an endowment for en- 
 couraging the study of modern languages. 
 A nioiig t he under-graduates i hemselves, there are 
 many private clubs : but the only one of these 
 possessing buildings of its own is the Union 
 Chili, which, besides the ordinary appliances of 
 a club-house, has a large debating-room, in which 
 the members meet for weekly discussions, during 
 term. Sec IlntKK. English Universities, trans- 
 lated and edited by P. W, Newman; Oseford 
 Calendar and Ten Tear Book; The Students 
 Handbook to the University and Colleges of 
 Oxford (Clarendon Press, Oxford). 
 
 PACIFIC, University of the, at Santa 
 Clara, CaL, under Methodist Episcopal control. 
 was organized to L 851, and chartered in L853. It 
 
 admits both sexes. It has productive funds to the 
 
 amount of $40,000, Libraries containing about 
 
 2,00(1 volumes. The cost of tuition varies from 
 '-'i' per term of I I weeks, with] lem lan- 
 guages. The collegiate department has 
 
 thn 
 
 courses: classical, 4 years; Latin scientific, 3 years: 
 and scientific, 3 years. There is also a prepar- 
 atory and a commercial department. In 1875 — 6, 
 
 there were 10 instructors and 212 students (69 
 collegiate and L43 preparatory). The Rev. A. S. 
 ( dUions. A. ML, M. I'., is (187G) the president. 
 
 PACIFIC METHODIST COLLEGE was 
 organized in L861, at Vacaville, Solano Co., CaL; 
 
PACIFIC UNIVERSITY 
 
 PARAGUAY 
 
 679 
 
 chartered in 18G2 ; and removed to Santa Rosa, 
 Sonoma Co.. in 1870. It is under the control of 
 the Methodist Episcopal Church. South. Candi- 
 dates for a degree have the choice of four courses 
 of study. Two are for males — one in letters, and 
 one in science; two are for females — a special 
 course in letters, and a special course in science. 
 Females may also pursue the two former courses. 
 The college has a preparatory department, and 
 affords instruction in pedagogics, painting and 
 drawing, music, and commercial branches. The 
 regular tuition fees vary from $30 — '570 per year. 
 In 1874 — 7 o, there were 9 instructors and 276 stu- 
 d snta, i >f whom 59 were of the collegiate grade. The 
 presidents have been A. L. Fitzgerald, A. M., from 
 1870— 76. and Rev. \Y. A. Pinlay, I >.!>., since 1876, 
 
 PACIFIC UNIVERSITY, at Forest Grove, 
 Oregon, chartered in 1853 — 4, is under evangel- 
 ical, but not denominational, control. Connected 
 with it is the Tualatin Academy, chartered in 
 1849. It has an endowment of about $65,000, 
 and a library of 5,000 volumes. The university 
 has four courses; namely, classical. 4 years, leading 
 to the degree of A. B.; scientific, 3 years, leading 
 to the degree of B. S. ; ladies' course, 3 years, 
 leading to the degree of M.S. (Mistress of Sci- 
 ence) ; and normal, 2 years. The cost of tuition 
 in these courses is $45 per year; in the academy, 
 $30. In 1875 — 6, there were 8 instructors, and 
 118 students (13 collegiate and 105 academic). 
 
 PAGE, David Perkins, one of the most 
 useful and eminent of American educators, born 
 at Epping, N. H., July 4., 1810 ; died at Al- 
 bany, N. Y., Jan. 1., 1848. The first part of 
 his life was spent in agricultural labor on his 
 father's farm ; and it was not untd his sixteenth 
 year that he was permitted to enjoy the ad- 
 vantages of any thing beyond an elementary 
 education. In 1826, he entered Hampton 
 Academy, where he spent two terms preparing 
 for the vocation to which he afterwards devoted 
 his life. His first service as a teacher was in 
 the district schools, from which, in a short time, 
 he became associate principal of the Newbury- 
 port High School, in which he remained 12 
 years. He distinguished himself also as a mem- 
 ber of the Essex County Teachers' Association, 
 before which he delivered several lectures that 
 elicited the highest encomiums from Horace 
 Mann and others. One of these, on The Mutual 
 Duties of Parents and Teachers, was especially 
 -admired, more than 6,000 copies being printed 
 and distributed. As a speaker, Mr. Page was 
 fluent and impressive. " He possessed," says 
 Horace Mann, " that rare quality, so indispen- 
 sable to an orator, the power to think, standing 
 on his feet, and before folks." " As a teacher," 
 says Barnard, " he exhibited two valuable quali- 
 fications, — the ability to turn the attention of 
 his pupils to the principles which explain facts, 
 and in such a way that they could see clearly 
 th_> connection ; and the talent for reading the 
 character of his scholars, so accurately, that he 
 could at once discern what were their governing 
 passions and tendencies — what in them needed 
 encouragement, and what repression." In 1844, 
 
 preparations were making to open the state nor- 
 mal school at Albany, N. V.; and on the recom- 
 mendation of Horace Mann and others, in Mas- 
 sachusetts. Mr. Pace was invited to assume its 
 principalship, which he did the following year. 
 The school commenced with 25 pupils ; but, be- 
 fore the close of the first term, the number had 
 increased to 100 ; and. at the commencement of 
 the second term, there were 200 students. 
 Numerous obstacles, incident to every experi- 
 ment, such as this was at that time, opposed its 
 progress ; but the indefatigable energies, con- 
 summate ability, and devoted spirit of its prin- 
 cipal overcame them all; and every new term 
 increased the popularity and success of the 
 school. Mr. Page's incessant labors, however, 
 had exhausted his vital energies ; and at the 
 close of December, 1-17. he was attacked with 
 violent fever, from which he did not recover. 
 Few men have possessed that rare assemblage of 
 moral and intellectual qualities which madf him 
 truly a model teacher. " Of the himdreds of 
 teachers," says his biographer, " who were under 
 his care at Albany, there was not one who did 
 not look up to him with admiration and love ; 
 not one who did not bear, to some extent at 
 least, the impress of his character and influence." 
 His Theory and Practice of Teaching, origin- 
 ally published in 1847, has been universally ad- 
 mired, and has had a very wide circulation. — 
 See Barnard, American Teachers and Educa- 
 tors (N. Y., 1861). 
 
 PALEONTOLOGY. See Geology. 
 
 PALATINATE COLLEGE, near the vil- 
 lage of Myerstown, Lebanon Co., Pa., founded in 
 1868, is under the control of the Reformed 
 Church. It has a commodious building situated 
 on high ground, amid fine scenery. The institu- 
 tion comprises an elementary, an academic, a col- 
 legiate, and a musical department. Both sexes 
 are admitted. In 1874 — 5, there were 7 instruct- 
 ors and 208 students. The Rev. George W. 
 Aughinbaugh, D. D., is (1876) the president. 
 
 PARAGUAY, a republic of South America; 
 area 56,715 sq. m. ; population, about 221,000. 
 The inhabitants are chiefly Indians, the Guarani 
 language being dominant throughout the repub- 
 lic, although Spanish is the official language. 
 The Roman Catholic is the prevailing religion. 
 I 'araguay was discovered by Sebastian Cabot, in 
 1530. It remained a part of the Spanish domin- 
 ions until 1811, when it declared its independence. 
 The early history of Paraguay presents one of the 
 most remarkable attempts ever made to educate 
 a barbarous nation. After missionaries of other 
 orders had been unsuccessful among the Gua- 
 ranis, the Jesuits entered the country, in 1557, 
 and met with wonderful success. They collected 
 the Indians in villages, which they called reduc- 
 tions, and enlisted their sympathies, by opening 
 to them profitable sources of employment, chiefly 
 by extending the commerce with mate, the so- 
 called Paraguay tea. At the same time they 
 strictly forbade them to hold any intercourse 
 with the Spanish colonists, and obtained from 
 Philip III. a mandate forbidding every body from 
 
630 PARENTAL EDUCATION 
 
 PASSOW 
 
 entering their reductions without their permis- 
 sion. After these measures had been firmly es- 
 tablished, they began with a strong hand to pul 
 their plans into execution. Every rerfuc&on re- 
 ceived tw<> missionaries, one for religious and 
 the other for secular affairs. Every village was 
 built in the same style, having in the center a 
 targe square, fronting on which were the church 
 and the school-house. The streets were wide and 
 regular. Every Luxury, both in dress and habi- 
 tation, was strictly prohibited ; but the churches 
 were decorated with gold and silver. The Jesuit a 
 administered all property belonging to the vil- 
 lages, and governed by means of the native ca- 
 zi(j">:x, who. although chosen by the inhabitants, 
 wen- entirely dependent on the fathers. The 
 slightest, infractions of the law were severely 
 punished. The instruction given by them con- 
 sisted in teaching to read and write. and to recite 
 the catechism; but, owing to their seclusion 
 from the outer world, their acquirements availed 
 them but little. Edgar < v >uinet, one of the most 
 bitter opponents of the Jesuits, recognized that 
 this method of education, "which would have 
 destroyed older nations, was admirably adapted 
 to a ki in I of grown-up children like the Guara- 
 nis" ; but, at the same time, he adds that -it 
 showed an unsurpassed ability to attract these 
 children by granting them every thine-, but what 
 
 would have rendered them men." As theirpower 
 increase I. the fathers grew more independent, 
 and finally broke off all connection with the 
 home government. In 17(>7, a royal decree 
 ordered their expulsion from the three provinces 
 of Buenos Ayres, Rio de la Plata, and Tucu- 
 man, to which they offered no resistance. Their 
 reductions gradually disappeared, while the Indi- 
 ans relapsed into barbarism. Under the dictator 
 Francia (1814 — 1840), who practiced the same 
 policy of seclusion that the Jesuit fathers had pre- 
 viously adopted, and under Lopez, schools were 
 
 founded, and education generally, though alow- 
 ly. advanced : SO that, in L861, Paraguay had as 
 many primary schools in proportion to her popu- 
 lation, as any of the other South American states. 
 
 But during the disastrous war that followed, 
 education was entirely neglected. Since L870, 
 determined efforts have been made to extend the 
 benefits of instruction. The amount appropriated 
 for schools, in L874, was $34,860. The capital, 
 Asiineion. formerly, had a colegio, which was 
 founded iii L 783, and in which, among others, 
 candidates for the priesthood were educated. 
 
 Lopez founded a gymnasium under the name 
 
 Accidentia Literaria; but the course of in- 
 struction embraced only two subjects, latin 
 and philosophy. Subsequently other subjects, as 
 
 mathematics, law. and theology were added. It 
 was re-organized under the name Instituio </'■ /'ii- 
 sefiama; the establishment of several colleges in 
 
 provincial towns was resolved upon, and a num- 
 ber of young men were sent to France to be edu- 
 cated as professors. See Lb Roy, in Schmid's 
 Wncyclop&die, art. Sudamerica. 
 
 PARENTAL EDUCATION.— See Homk 
 Enuc \tion. 
 
 PAROCHIAL SCHOOL, an elemental v 
 school which is united with a parish, and under 
 the control of its pastor. Schools of this kind 
 arose early in the middle ages. Although the 
 mass of the people did not yet appreciate the 
 value of school instruction, the popes repeate 
 urged the erection of parish schools in connec- 
 tion with the churches. Teachers of Holy Writ, 
 and instructors in ecclesiastical obligations, w< 
 in particular, to be appointed in all parishes; 
 for it was no! conceived that any person could 
 profitably take part in divine service, if he had 
 not received proper instruction. !n France, 
 bishop Theodulph of Orleans admonished the 
 parish priests to instruct the boys gratuitously 
 in science. Charlemagne decreed that youths 
 should be educated in reading, singing, arith- 
 metic, grammar, and writing. A synod held at 
 Mayence, before the middle of the 9th century, 
 enjoined that the children be sent either to the 
 convent or to the parochial school, in order to 
 learn, at least, the creed and the Lord's Prayer 
 in the native tongue. — For many centuries, the 
 elementary schools grew and developed inclose 
 
 connection with the church. The Reformation 
 did not change ihis relation; and. in Protestant 
 as well as in Catholic countries, the common 
 school continued to be a parochial school. More 
 recently, in most countries, state authoril 
 have assumed the. chief control of the common 
 schools ; and the parochial character of such in- 
 stitutions has more or less disappeared : although 
 many governments still delegate to the 
 of the established churches certain rights of in- 
 spection, and maintain separate schools for dif- 
 ferent denominations. In the United States, the 
 name parochial schools is now generally applied 
 to Roman Catholic and to Episcopalian Echo 
 which have been organized m close connection 
 
 w ith the parishes : because, in the opinion of their 
 
 founders, all elementary schools should provide 
 religious as well as secular instruction, and should, 
 therefore, have a strictly denominational char- 
 acter. (^'■'.- DENOMINATIONAL Schools.) 
 
 PARSONS COLLEGE, at Fairfield, fowa, 
 founded iii 1855, is under Presbyterian control. 
 
 It has a campus of I'll acres. '_' handsome and 
 commodious brii k buildings, philosophical and 
 chemical apparatus, and a library of about 700 
 volun es. Itsproducl ive funds amount to $24,000, 
 
 nearly. There is an academic department, with 
 a preparatory and a normal course, and a col- 
 legiate department, with a classica] 1 1 years), and 
 a scientific (3 years) course. I he . osl of tuition 
 
 IS $30 a year in the academic, and $36 in I 
 collegiate department. Both sexes are admitted. 
 
 Jn L875- 6, there were ('< instructors and 63 stu- 
 dents (I collegiate and 62 academic). 
 
 PASSOW! Franz Ludwig Karl Friedrich, 
 one of the foremost representatives of lexi 
 graphic literature, bornin Ludwigslust, Germany, 
 Sept. 'Jit.. 1786; died in Breslau, March 11.. L833. 
 
 Me became, in 1807, professor at t he gymnasium 
 
 of Weimar, in L810, director of the ( kmradin 
 ofJenkau, near Dantzic, and in 1815, prof eSBOl 
 | at the university of Breslau. lie was an en- 
 
PATIENCE 
 
 PEABODY FUND 
 
 G81 
 
 tlmsiastic admirer of Greek culture, and not 
 only preferred the Greek language anil literature 
 to the Latin, but made a practical attempt, in the 
 school of Jenkau. to have the study of Greek 
 begun before that of Latin. His tame chiefly 
 rests on his Greek lexicon, which not only began 
 an entirely new era in the history of classical 
 dictionaries, but is generally regan lei 1 as i >ne of the 
 most remarkable productions in the entire range 
 of lexical literature. The first edition of the work 
 {HandwGrterbuch der griecliischen Sprache, 
 2 vols., Leips.. 1 Si 9 — 2-1), appeared as a revision 
 of the Greek-German lexicon of Schneider: but, 
 in the following editions, it was so completely re- 
 written by him, that the 4th edition (1831) bore 
 only his name on the title page. Passow's work 
 constitutes the basis of the Greek- English lexi- 
 con of Liddell and Scott. (See Greek Language.) 
 The Prussian minister of education, A. Falk, 
 (q. v.). is a son-in-law of Passow. 
 
 PATIENCE, the calm endurance of neces- 
 sary toil or suffering. This quality, though 
 similar to perseverance in the prolonged effort 
 which its exercise presupposes, differs from it 
 chiefly in the equable temper with which that 
 effort is made. A patient spirit is one of the 
 most important elements in the character of a 
 successful educator. Many occasions, indeed, 
 will occur, when patience will be the only virtue 
 which will command success. Its cultivation, 
 therefore, is desirable both on this account, and 
 because of its value in mental discipline. Its 
 possession, moreover, is necessaiy both to the 
 teacher and to the pupil. To the former, it is of 
 special use in his treatment of the varying dis- 
 positions with which he has to deal. The prov- 
 ocations to impatience and ill temper are so 
 many and so constant, that, without patience, 
 the teacher's life will be a continued series of an- 
 noyances. Impatience in children is the result 
 either of temperament or hereditary predisposi- 
 tion ; and, in dealing with it, the teacher should 
 remember that nothing so tends to develop and 
 foster it in his pupils, as a constant practical ex- 
 hibition of it in his- daily intercourse with them. 
 As nothing is so infectious as ill temper, so 
 nothing tends so rapidly to curb ill temper as 
 that quiet forbearance which a patient spirit 
 diffuses around it like an atmosphere. The 
 mental powers, also, act with much greater effect 
 when the calmness of the judgment is undis- 
 turbed by ill temper or impatience. Perseve- 
 rance may. indeed, exist without patience, and to 
 a certain extent may accomplish its objects ; but 
 it is safe to say that more than half the good 
 results which perseverance aided by patience 
 might accomplish, are thrown away if patience 
 does not accompany it. 
 
 PAYNE, Joseph, one of the most noted 
 English educators of our times, born in 1808 ; 
 died April 30., 1876. He received his educa- 
 tional training at the University of London, and 
 early distinguished himself as a teacher of En- 
 glish. For a number of years, he was connected 
 with his alma mutter. In 1873, he was ap- 
 pointed to the newly-founded professorship of 
 
 education in the College of Preceptors, the first 
 chair in any public institution in England as- 
 
 sig 1 to that subject. He devoted himself, in 
 
 this position, and also by his writings, to the 
 promotion of education, making the improv 
 
 nient nt methods of teaching his special object. 
 
 He was tin' author of Lectures on Education, 
 
 and numerous lectures and pamphlets on allied 
 subjects, lie also took an active part in the 
 
 Woman's Education Union. Mr. Payne con- 
 tributed several papers to the proceedings of the 
 Philological Society chiefly on English dial. 
 and the relation of Old English to Norman 
 French. Among his other publications, were 
 textbooks on English literature, entitled Stud- 
 ies in English (5th ed., London, L864) ; Studies 
 in English Prose (1867); and Select Poetry /i r 
 Children, which had a very large circulation 
 (15th ed., 1868). 
 
 PEABODY, George, an American merchant 
 and banker, born in Danvers, Mas.-... Feb. 18., 
 1795; died in London. Nov. -1., 1869. Mr. P 
 body's gifts to charitable and educational institu- 
 tions have been enormous, if not unequaled. < >f 
 the latter, the principal are the following : the 
 Peabody Institute, in South Danvers. which he 
 founded by a gift of $30,000, afterwards in- 
 creased to $200,000 ; a similar institution in 
 North Danvers, endowed with $50,000 ; the 
 Peabody Institute in Baltimore. Md., founded 
 by a bequest of 8300,000, to which he added 
 $700,000; the Archaeological Institute of Har- 
 vard College, with an endowment fund of 
 $150,000; and the department of physical 
 science, in Yale College, with an equal fund. 
 The total amount of his bequests to the cause 
 of education exceeds $5,365,000. 
 
 PEABODY FUND (Educational), an 
 endowment of extraordinary munificence, cre- 
 ated for educational purposes, by George Pea- 
 body (q. v.), the first announcement of which 
 was made Feb. 7., 1867. in the following word.- ; 
 " I give one million of dollars for the encourage- 
 ment and promotion of intellectual, moral, and 
 industrial education among the young of the 
 more destitute portions of the southern and 
 southwestern states of the Union." Ten trustees 
 were selected by him to carry his wishes into 
 effect ; and, at a meeting held in New York, 
 March ID., 1867, a general plan was adopted, 
 and Dr. Barnas Sears was appointed agent. On 
 duly 1.. 1869, Mr. Peabody added a second mil- 
 lion to the cash capital of the fund. Besides 
 this, there were donations of Mississippi and 
 Florida bonds amounting to about $1,500,000, 
 not realizing, however, any income. According 
 to the donor's directions, the principal must 
 remain unchanged for 30 years, the trustees be- 
 ing enjoined from expending any portion of 
 it or adding to it any part of the accruing in- 
 terest. The manner of using the latter, as well 
 as the final distribution of the principal, was 
 left entirely to the discretion of the trust, 
 who are vested with authority to fill vacancies 
 in their number. " Not a single Southern state." 
 says the agent, " had a modern system of public 
 
C32 
 
 I'KDACOGY 
 
 PEET 
 
 schools when the trustees first entered upon 
 their work, and now (1875) do state is without 
 such a system, existing at least in law; and every 
 state has either already organized or is now 
 organizing its schools." While it is not claimed 
 by the trustees that all this has been done by 
 means of the distribution of the proceeds of the 
 fund : it must be conceded that this great work 
 has been greatly aided and stimulated thereby. 
 'liie promotion of primary education for the 
 masses has been the chief object kept in view : 
 ami. iii the effort to accomplish it. the trustees 
 have followed the "sound maxim of giving help 
 to those, and only to those, who help themselves." 
 Hence, whenever efficient measures have been 
 inaugurated by state, city, or town to estab- 
 lish and support a permanent system of schools, 
 and aid has been needed to meet the outlay 
 necessary at first, contributions have been 
 promptly and liberally made to supplement the 
 funds publicly raised. The rules followed in the 
 distribution have been as follows: (I (All schools 
 ailed must have at least LOO pupils, with a 
 teacher for every 50 ; must be properly graded, 
 and must be continued during ten months in the 
 
 year, with an average attendance of not less than 
 85 per cent ; (2) The trustees act in concert with 
 i\\ ■ state authorities, and with the co-operation 
 of the state superintendent in each; (3) The 
 largest sum given to a school of loo pupils is 
 $300; to one of '-'mi pupils. $600, and to one 
 of .'500 pupils, SI 000 : but always on the condi- 
 tion that the district pay at least twice the 
 amount given from the fund. 
 
 PEDAGOGY, or Pedagogics ((Jr. 
 •yuyia, from rraZc, waiS6c, a boy, and ayuydg, Lead- 
 ing or guiding), the science and art of giving in- 
 struction to children, particularly in school, or 
 as by a school-teacher [~aii)<r 1 i.))uc). This term 
 is more generally used in Germany than in the 
 United States or Hreat Britain, in which the 
 theory and art of the teacher or educator is de- 
 signated as instruction or education : indeed, 
 the word pedagogue is, in these countries, used 
 as a term of reproach. For information in re- 
 gard to the various departments of pedagogy, 
 Em cation, Instki it ion. Didactics, etc. 
 
 PEET, Harvey Prindle, a noted teacher 
 of the deaf and dumb, born in Bethlehem, •'!.. 
 
 Nov. in.. L794;died in New York, Jan. L., 1873. 
 
 The ordinary life of the country boy. working 
 on the farm in summer, and attending the district 
 School in winter, when associated with an ardent 
 
 thirst for knowledge, is by mi means an inap- 
 propriate School for the development of a self- 
 reliant character. Such was the early life of Dr. 
 I Vet, with this additional advantage, that he Wiis 
 .surrounded by a society exceptionally reline I and 
 cultivated foi- a. country town. At the age of 21, 
 
 h ■ began to teach; but. becoming ambitious tor 
 illege e Lucation, he entered upon a course of 
 study while he was teaching. and having finished 
 his preparatory course at A ndover, Ma^s.. entered 
 Yale College, from which he graduated in L822. 
 Ill' received an invitation to teach in the Amer- 
 ican Asylum for the Deaf and Dumb, at I lartford, 
 
 and entered there upon a career which he never 
 afterwards abandoned. His own qualifications. 
 and the society of several eminent and successful 
 instructors in this peculiar held, soon gave him 
 a proficiency that led to his appointment as 
 steward of the institution, and. shortly after- 
 wards, to his selection, by the directors of the 
 New York Institution for the Deaf and Dumb, 
 for the situation of principal. He entered upon 
 his new duties in L831, and found, in the neces- 
 sary re-organization of the institution, ample field 
 lor all his energy. In the training of teachers 
 for the instruction of the unfortunate class with 
 whom he was associated, his peculiar ability and 
 patience were more particularly manifested. This 
 work of re-organization and instruction was long 
 and arduous: but the marked improvement which 
 followed placed the institution on a higher level 
 of usefulness and reputation, that afterwards led 
 to the rebuilding of it on an enlarged scale, and to 
 its incorporation by the state, Dr. Peet becoming 
 its president. This position he continued to hold 
 till his death.— His peculiar service in the cause 
 of deaf-mute instruction deserves not only com- 
 mendation but careful study by all engaged in 
 that peculiar field of educational labor. In L844, 
 
 Horace Mann, after an extended examination of 
 
 the school systems of Europe, made the assertion 
 that the institutions for deaf-mutes in Prussia, 
 Saxony, and Holland were decidedly superior to 
 any existing in America: the ground of this asser- 
 tion being that while the American system taught 
 
 pupils to converse by signs only, the systems 
 m those countries taught the pupils actually to 
 speak, as well as to understand spoken language, 
 
 and that this latter was the only way in which 
 their defect could be thoroughly remedied. Mr. 
 Matin's ereat reputation, though not shaking Dr. 
 1'eet's belief in the superiority of his favorite 
 method that of signs, made it necessary to 
 answer this charge in the most conclusive way. 
 To this end, Dr. Weld, of the Hartford Asylum. 
 and Dr. Day, of the New York institution. Mere 
 sent to Europe on a tour of investigation: and, in 
 the New York institution, a class of the most 
 promising pupils was formed for practice in artic- 
 ulation ami lip-reading. After a year's exper- 
 iment, the class ]iro\ed a failure, and the ex- 
 haust ive report made by Dr. Day. on his return 
 from Europe, did not sustain Mr. Mann in his 
 assertions. Dr.Peel regarded uneducated deaf- 
 mutes as children in intelligence; because, of the 
 
 avenues through which intelligence i> increased 
 and perfected, two — hearing and speech are 
 closed from birth. An evidence of this childish 
 condition is found in the fact that their minds 
 are engrossed by concrete ideas to the almost en- 
 tire exclusion of abstract ones. Having satisfied 
 himself of this, therefore, instead of attempting to 
 impose upon these immature minds complex and 
 abstract ideas, such as only a person in the full 
 possession of his faculties can entertain, he placed 
 
 himself on their level, and endeavored to watch 
 the very birth of thought, following the processes 
 by which perceptions become conceptions, and 
 st tidying t he nature of the conception.-- so formed. 
 
PEET 
 
 PEIRCE 
 
 683 
 
 This led him to adopt a strictly natural method 
 in the instruction of deaf-mutes — a method 
 which should conform to the natural, in the kind 
 of objects first presented for observation, and in 
 the order of presentation. According to this 
 plan, the first to be employed are simple, tan- 
 gible, or sensuous, objects, the abstract ideas, 
 formed by a generalization of these, having no 
 existence till the concrete ideas have become per- 
 fectly familiar by long usage. As to the means 
 to be employed for communicating with deaf- 
 mutes during instruction, his position was always 
 that articulation, except in its most elementary 
 stage, being an arbitrary method for the com- 
 munication of thought, can be learned, with any 
 degree of accuracy, only by persons in possession 
 of the faculties of both ear and speech; that deaf- 
 mutes, therefore, i. e., born deaf-mutes, will only 
 lose time and patience by attempting to acquire 
 the faculty of speech; and that their efforts should 
 be turned to the developing and perfecting of 
 t'i ! sign language as their most efficient means 
 of conversation. Exceptions to this are made 
 in the case of semi-mutes, by which term he 
 meant those who had lost the faculty of hearing 
 after they had learned to speak or read, the 
 semi-deaf, and a few deaf-mutes of exceptional 
 ability; but as these constitute only about fifteen 
 per cent of the whole number of the deaf, the 
 method to be pursued should be that which will 
 benefit the remaining eighty-five percent. While, 
 however, he considered the sign language the 
 only one natural to deaf-mutes, and therefore 
 the fittest for the development of their minds, 
 it was necessary to keep constantly in view, not 
 only the means by which they were to com- 
 municate with each other, but more especially the 
 means by which they were to communicate with 
 the world around them, with the members of 
 which they were to associate, as nearly as possible, 
 on terms of equality. For this purpose, the defi- 
 ciency of the sign language is at once evident. 
 In the investigation of the causes of this defi- 
 ciency, Dr. Peet discovered that the natural lan- 
 guage of signs had a syntax of its own, which dif- 
 fered from spoken English principally in the fol- 
 lowing particulars: (1) the order of expression 
 is inverted; (2) the time is marked once only, as 
 in the Hebrew; (3) of the radical elements, there 
 are no variations corresponding to parts of speech; 
 
 (4) there are no inflections to denote gender, 
 number, person, case, voice, mood, or tense; 
 
 (5) particles and pronouns are seldom used. 
 Methodical or arbitrary signs, were, therefore, 
 necessary to supply these deficiencies, and the 
 extent to which these should be used, and the 
 method of using them, became a subject not only 
 of difficulty but of controversy. Dr. Peet looked 
 upon the deaf-mute, while learning written 
 English, as in the condition of an English boy 
 learning any foreign language — Latin, for in- 
 stance. To such a boy, the English word and 
 tin- Latin word were both, he thought, direct 
 representatives of the idea. His opponents held, 
 on the contrary, that only one of these — the En- 
 glish word — was the direct representative; and 
 
 thai the Latin word represented the idea indi- 
 rectly, ;'. e., through the English one. Holding, 
 therefore, as he did, that the written word and 
 the sign were equally direct representatives of 
 tin 1 idea, he considered that, in the use of lan- 
 guage, the sign should be dropped as soon as 
 possible, and the idea attached directly to the 
 written word. Acting on these views, Dr. Peet 
 prepared, for use in bis institution, a course of 
 instruction, arranged to embody two other prin- 
 ciples; namely, that ideas should be taught before 
 words, and that difficulties should be gradually 
 and singly overcome. It is not necessary, how- 
 ever, to describe the manner in which these ideas 
 are practically illustrated, in his series of text/ 
 1 looks, or to trace their further development in 
 subsequent works. Enough has been said to in- 
 dicate the distinctive character of his system; and 
 the success which has attended the use of it in 
 the institution which he conducted so many 
 years, and which is, at present, under the care of 
 his son, Isaac Lewis Peet — trained under parental 
 care for the work — appears to be an ample vin- 
 dication of its correctness. Of the place Dr. Peet 
 should hold in the ranks of those noble men who 
 have given their lives to the work of education, 
 of his high place among the exceptional men 
 who have devoted their energies to the difficult 
 task of lifting the veil from intelligences clouded 
 by misfortune, there can be no question. The 
 essentially Christian character of the work un- 
 dertaken, the ability and patience with which 
 it was pursued, and the success with which it 
 was attended, must always claim our admiration 
 and demand for Dr. Peet a place among the 
 benefactors of his race. Besides his Course of 
 Instruction, and History of the United States 
 (1869), Dr. Peet's published works are to be 
 found in articles furnished to various periodicals, 
 in annual reports, addresses, and discourses. By 
 means of these, in addition to hisown researches, 
 the results reached by De Gerando, Schmalz, 
 and Guyot were first brought to the attention of 
 the English-reading public. Perhaps, his most 
 valuable contribution, however, was the Report 
 on the Legal Rights and Liabilities of the Deaf 
 and Dumb, published in the Herald of Health 
 (New York, 1868). It will be seen at once that 
 deficiency of intellect on the part of deaf-mutes 
 raises important questions in regard to their legal 
 rights. This report furnishes valuable infor- 
 mation on marriage, the disposal of property, 
 the comprehension of the oath, and many other 
 subjects ; and being unique in kind, and sup- 
 plying, as it does, information not hitherto at- 
 tainable, it will long be quoted as an authority. 
 — See Barnard, American Teachers and Edu- 
 cators; Syle, Summary of the Recorded Re- 
 searches and Opinions of H. P. Peet (Wash- 
 ington, 1873), reprinted from American Annals 
 of the Deaf and Dumb. 
 
 PEIRCE, Cyrus, a noted tco.cheT, born in 
 Waltham, Mass.. August L5, 17;>i;; died in West 
 Newton, Mass., April 5,1860. After attending 
 a district school and the academy at Framing- 
 ham, lie entered Harvard College, and graduated 
 
G84 
 
 PEIRCE 
 
 PENMANSHIP 
 
 in 1810. For two years, he taught school in 
 Nantucket, but. in L812, returned to college to 
 prepare himself for the ministry. After three 
 years spent in the study of theology, the per- 
 suasions of his former patronB at Nantucket in- 
 duced him to return to the charge of the school 
 he had relinquished there; and, for three years 
 more, he devoted himself to the work of teach- 
 ing. Attheendof that time, lie entered the 
 ministry, in which he continued eight years. Sus- 
 pecting, however, that his want of a pleasing ad- 
 dress was preventing him from using his enei 
 to the best effect morally, and that the faults he 
 sought to correct in adults, could be dealt with 
 more successfully, if taken at an earlier period, 
 he determined to abandon the pulpit for the desk 
 of the teacher. Accordingly, he Decame with a 
 relative the joint prim-ipiil of an academy at North 
 Andover, but their want of agreement as to dis- 
 cipline and methods of teaching led to a sepa- 
 ration after four years; and, in L831, he returned 
 to Nantucket where, for six years, he conducted 
 a large and nourishing schi »ol. ( >ne of his most use- 
 ful measures was the grading of the public schools 
 of Nantucket. This led, shortly after, to his ap- 
 pointment as principal of the high school in that 
 place, whicn position he held for thirteen 
 months. In 1 -s.'J'J. he accepted the invitation, 
 extended by Horace Mane, to take charge of 
 the normal school at Lexington, the establish- 
 ment of which had been decided upon as an ex- 
 periment by the state board of educat ion. » raly 
 three pupils presented themselves at the opening 
 of the school, ami tin: prospect was most: dis- 
 heartening. The thoroughness of .Mr. Peirce's 
 instruction, however, and his ardent devotion to 
 his work soon attracted attention; the apathy 
 
 with which his labors were regarded by a large 
 majority of the friends of education gradually 
 gave place to confidence; and the superiority of 
 the graduates of his school to ordinary teachers 
 soon placed the new system in the pathway of 
 assured success. During the three years of his 
 labors at Lexington, more than fifty teachers were 
 graduated, and the testimony generally given as 
 
 to their fitness for the profession was cordial and 
 almost uniform. In connection with the normal 
 school, he established a model school, in which 
 the methods he taught were put to a practical test 
 
 under his own supervision. From 1844 to 1-1'.). 
 he taught the Normal School at West Newton, 
 whither it had been removed from Lexington. The 
 principal characterisl ics of ( 'yrus 1 'eirce \\ ere hi? 
 deep moral convictions, unwearied patience, and 
 Conscientious devotion to duty the deepest im- 
 
 Eion left on the minds of all with whom 
 e was associated being that of his unswerving 
 integrity. As the principal of the first normal 
 school in America, specially chosen for the work 
 
 by i eminenl in the educational annals of 
 
 the United States, and justifying thai choice by 
 
 Self-sacrificing and effective work, at a critical 
 
 moment, his name will always he accorded a 
 prominent place among American educators. — 
 See Barnard, American Teaclieis and Educa- 
 tors (New York, 1801). 
 
 PENMANSHIP, writing with the pen ; al- 
 though the term is sometimes used to indicate 
 any kind of handwriting, or chirography, the 
 pen being the most, important instrument for 
 writing. The ability to write is one of the two 
 fundamental characteristics of an educated per- 
 son, the inability to read and write constituting 
 what is technically called illiteracy', and yet. in 
 advanced education, a legible or elegant stj 
 of handwriting is not considered of great im- 
 portance ; for the cases are very few in which a 
 candidate either for admission to a college or 
 university, or for a graduating diploma, is re- 
 jected for not being able to write, any scrawl, 
 however illegible or inelegant, being usually ac- 
 cepted as evidence of such ability. The conse- 
 quence is, that good penmanship has not been 
 the distinguishing feature of college graduates, 
 but rather the reverse. "When the value of this 
 accomplishment, in every sphere of life, is con- 
 sidered, it will be obvious that the policy of thus 
 disparaging penmanship as the accomplishment 
 of a scholar is an entirely mistaken one. It is 
 true that it cannot be considered as an element 
 of superior instruction ; but those who have the 
 direction of that grade of instruction, should al- 
 ways insist upon the completion of the inferior 
 grades as an indispensable i prerequisite for ad- 
 mission to higher studies. In elementary sch 
 penmanship constitutes a very important brain h 
 of instruction; and, in these, sufficient tine 
 should be given to it to insure, at least . a respect- 
 able degree of excellence to each of the pupils. — 
 There are various so-called systems of teaching 
 penmanship, but the underlying principles are 
 the same in all, the difference chiefly consisting 
 in a, diversity in the arrangement of the elements 
 of the letters, with slight modifications in their 
 forms and mode of execution, and in the exer- 
 3 for practice. In order to write well, the 
 pupil must have (1) a thorough knowledge of 
 the forms of the letters, and (2) a command of 
 the pen to execute tliein. These two fundament- 
 al acquirements must be made simultaneously, 
 
 except that some pre\ ioiis elementary instruction 
 and practice in drawing will aid the pupil very 
 
 h in his first lessons in penmanship. In ti 
 lessons, the forms should be adapted to the 
 pupil's untrained muscles, and should increase 
 
 in complexity ami difficulty poripassu with the 
 training of the hand and arm. The proper posi- 
 tion of the body and the correct mode of hold- 
 ing the pen are indispensable prerequisites 
 successful work Lessons in penmanship also 
 
 presuppose a careful analysis of the elementary 
 forms of the letters; and. in this respect, systems 
 greatly differ. They have, however, many points 
 
 in common indeed every thing that is essen- 
 tial. Commencing with straight lines, to he made 
 
 at the proper slope. and with perfect parallelism, 
 i lie pupil advances progressively to the /"•/-/ 
 
 the loop, the ellipse, as ill the letter 0, etc.. till, 
 
 by practicing these ami their combinations, lie 
 has mastered all the small letters of the script 
 alphabet, when he proceeds, in a similar manner, 
 w it 1 l the capitals, from which he paases to words. 
 
PENN COLLEGE 
 
 PENNSYLVANIA 
 
 685 
 
 phrases, sentences, and paragraphs. The copy- 
 book should not be used after the pupil lias be- 
 come thoroughly familiar with the proper forms 
 
 of the letters, and thus acquired a fair style of 
 writing. Much time is frequently lost in com- 
 pelling pupils, year after year, to write copies. 
 Quantity as well .is quality should be required; 
 excellence in penmanship consisting both in cor- 
 rectness and spee.l of execution. Many useful 
 exercises may be blended with practice in pen- 
 manship, as the learning of the forms used in 
 business, such as bills, receipts, modes of super- 
 scribing and addressing letters, etc. Practice in 
 calligraphy, or artistic penmanship, is also of 
 use, but should not be carried to an extreme in 
 schools. The remarks of an experienced teacher 
 may here be cited: "Constant vigilance, and 
 continual correction of errors, are indispensable 
 to the formation of a good hand. To know how 
 to execute well, then, is the grand requisite in 
 the teacher : the next, to furnish good models ; 
 and the third, to have a quick eye to detect 
 faults, and a persistent determination for their 
 correction. These conditions existing, and the 
 principle carried out, your pupils will write well, 
 with a reasonable amount and duration of prac- 
 tice' | ( riDEON F. Thayer, in Barnard's Journal 
 of Education.) — See also Payson, Dunton, etc. 
 Theory and Art of Penmanship (N. Y., 1863) ; 
 Wiokersham, Methods of Instruction (Phila., 
 L865); How to Teach (N. Y., 1874). 
 
 PENN COLLEGE, at ©akaloosa, Iowa, under 
 the control of the Friends, was incorporated in 
 1866 as Iowa Union College Association of 
 Friends. The name was changed in 1873. It 
 has an endowment of $5,000, and a library of 
 about 2,000 volumes. The cost of tuition is $30 
 a year. The institution comprises a collegiate 
 (a classical and a scientific course) , a preparatory, 
 a normal, and a business department. Both sexes 
 are admitted. In 1874 — 5, there were 12 in- 
 structors, and 38 collegiate, 183 preparatory, 41 
 normal, and 32 business students, of whom some 
 belong to more than one department. John W. 
 Woody, A. M., is the president (1876). 
 
 PENNSYLVANIA, one of the largest and 
 most important of the thirteen original states of 
 the American Union. Its area is 46,000 sq. m., 
 and its population, in 1870. was 3,522,050, of 
 whom 65,294 were colored persons. Its popula- 
 tion in 1875, was estimated at 3,941,400. 
 
 Educational History. — This subject will be 
 treated under the following heads: (I) The 
 Colonial period:. (II) Under the constitution of 
 1790: (111) Under the constitutions of 1838 
 and 1873. 
 
 I. The Colonial Period. — From the founding 
 of Penn's colony on the banks of the Delaware, 
 may be said to date the beginning of Pennsyl- 
 vania's educational history. The first plan of the 
 {jroprietary government drafted by Penn before 
 eaving England, in 1682, stipulated that "the 
 governor and provincial council shall erect and 
 order all public schools, and reward the authors 
 of useful sciences and laudable inventions in said 
 provinces." During the following year, a law 
 
 was enacted by the council of the province, which 
 provided thai a school should be established for 
 the education of the young. Immediate steps 
 were taken to put this enactment into execution. 
 The governor and the council, perceiving "the 
 -ivat neeessitv iheiv is of a school-master, for the 
 instruction and sober edui ation of youth," elect- 
 ed <-ne Enoch Flower, a teacher of several y< 
 experience, to open a school. The (.ranches re- 
 quired to be taught were, reading, writing, and 
 the casting of accounts. According to the most 
 
 authentic records, this was the first school estab- 
 lished within the present territorial limits of 
 the state, in different parts of the province, 
 other schools were organized. In 1692, a school 
 was opened at Darby mow in Delaware Co.) ; 
 and in L 698, the Society of Friends established 
 a school in Philadelphia, where all the children 
 and servants, male and, female, "mighl be taught, 
 and provision made that the poor might 
 taughl gratis." The motto of the school, "Good 
 instruction is better than riches." was selected 
 by Penn. In 1 701 , the charter of this Friends' 
 School was confirmed by a new patent from 
 Penn, bearing date, I Ictober 25., 1701 . and, also, 
 by another, in 1708, whereby the corporation 
 was "forever thereafter to consist of 1 ."> discreet. 
 religious persons of the people called Quaki 
 by the name of Overset rs of the Public School 
 founded in Philadelphia at the request, cost, and 
 < harges, of the people called Quakers.'' Another 
 charter was granted by Penn, in 1711, for ex- 
 tending the rights and privileges of the corpora- 
 tion. Ibis was the first public school in Penn- 
 sylvania ; and the design of the governor and 
 council in establishing this institution is best set 
 forth in the preamble' of the last charter, which 
 reads as follows : 
 
 " Whereas tlie prosperity and welfare of any people 
 depend in a great measure, upon the good education 
 of youth, and their early introduction in ti.e principles 
 (if true religion and virtue, and qualifying them to 
 serve their country and themselves by breeding them 
 in reading, writing, and learning of languages and use- 
 ful arts and sciences, suitable to their sex, age, and 
 degree; which cannot be affected, in any manner, so 
 well as by erecting Public Schools for the purpose 
 aforesaid." 
 
 As the early settlers pushed their way west- 
 ward, the progress of education was accelerated 
 by the prosperity of the thrifty colonists. Thus 
 far, the schools established had been chiefly 
 under the direction of the governor and pro- 
 vincial council ; though do special provision was 
 made by the authorities regulating the number 
 of schools in accordance with the number of 
 families in each settlement, as was done in some 
 Other colonies. — It should be distinctly under- 
 stood that the school established by the Society 
 of Friends in 1 'i!ts, ami supported by them and 
 conducted under their direct and exclusive con- 
 trol, was open indiscriminately to persons of all 
 religious denominations, ami was. for more than 
 halt a, century, the only public school in the 
 province. In the mean time, new settlements 
 had Iwen formed in various parts of the province; 
 and the school, by reason of its location as well 
 
IJSti 
 
 PENNSYLVANIA 
 
 as the want of accommodations, had long been '. act, with a few changes, is still in force in 
 inadequate to meet the educational necessities that city. In L827, a number of citizens, ro- 
 of the province. Private schools were, there- Biding in the city and county of Philadelphia, 
 fore, called into existence, whenever the colonists formed an association for the promotion of edu- 
 could find means and the opportunity to provide cation in the state, by the establishment of a 
 for them.— Among the early German settlers the system of public schools ; and, after considerable 
 proper instruction of their youth was a subject agitation, the measure, being strongly urged by 
 of deep concern. As early as L755, they num- George Wolf, then governor, was adopted Dy the 
 
 bereil 30,000 souls; and. wherever a sufficient 
 number were settled, the church and the school- 
 house were erected. From L760 until the close 
 of the Revolution, the vicissitudes of the colony 
 were so great as to prevent the establishment 
 of any educational system whatever. At the 
 
 close of the Revolution the first fundamental 
 law adopted by the people recognized the 
 right to provide schools and defray the expense 
 thereof, to a certain extent, from the public 
 fun< Is. 
 
 II. Under the < bnstitvMon of 1 7!)0.— The con- 
 stitution of IT!»ii required that the legislature 
 should ■■ provide by law for the establishment of 
 schools throughout the state in such a manner 
 that the poor may lie taught gratis; - ' and, also, 
 that "the arts and sciences shall he promoted in 
 
 one or more seminaries of learning." 'The con- 
 stitutional convention of L790, however, did not 
 contemplate the establishment of a system of 
 
 common schools which should he five to all the 
 children of the commonwealth, nor, prior to 
 
 L 830, was the establishment of such a system 
 recognized by many as a legitimate object of 
 state legislation, or even regarded as a matter of 
 great public concern. The opinion which long 
 prevailed was, that this duty belonged exclusive- 
 ly to parents ami guardians; and when the legis- 
 lature, soon after die adoption of the constitu- 
 tion, took action on the subject, nothing more was 
 
 done than to make provision whereby the | r 
 
 children in every district were to be enrolled for 
 the purpose of attending school if they wished, 
 
 their tuition to lie paid out of the county funds. 
 Laws of the same import were enacted in L802, 
 
 l-oi. and L809. That of the last date was entitled 
 •■ Vn act to provide for the education of the poor 
 
 -rat is." and remained in force up to the time of 
 
 the adoption of the first common-scl I system. 
 
 in 1834. The new system was called l>y those 
 
 who disliked it the "pauper system." as it drew 
 
 a line of distinction between the rich and the 
 
 poor, the children in all the schools being divided 
 
 into two classes known as pay scholars and 
 
 paupers. The whole number of children who were 
 
 brought into the schools, in the year 1833, the 
 last iii which these acts were iii force, was only 
 I 7. KIT.. -ii id tin- whole amount expended iii their 
 
 behalf, $48,466.25. opposition to the pauper 
 system manifested itself from the beginning; hut 
 
 many years elapsed before the friends of a 
 
 broader and better system, were able to make 
 their influence felt in the legislature. This in- 
 fluence was increased in 1818, when Phila- 
 delphia was exempted from the operation of 
 the pauper system, by the passage of a special 
 
 act. which provided for the education of its 
 children at the public expense. This same 
 
 doptei 
 legislature, April 1.. 1834. The act passed" was, 
 
 however, defective, and encountered the most vio- 
 lent opposition. During the legislative session 
 of 1K-JT — 5, thousands of petitions were pre- 
 sented, asking for the repeal of the law. and few 
 of the representatives had sufficient courage to 
 defend it openly. Notwithstanding this, it was 
 
 defended by ThaddeuS Stevens, then a represent- 
 ative from Adams County, who, at this critical 
 moment, made oneof his most eloquent appeals 
 in its behalf, and thus saved the system. Accord- 
 ing to the report of dames Findlay, secretary of 
 the commonwealth, and superintendent of com- 
 mon schools.../- officio, only 93 districts, out of 
 900, accepted the system duiing the hist year it 
 
 was in operation. 'I he average length of the school 
 term at that time was .'!; months; the number 
 of schools. 451; and the number of pupils in at- 
 tendance. 10.S64. The average salary paid to 
 teachers was not quite £1 <i a month. ( Opposition to 
 the law creating the system, continued to in- 
 crease as its defects became more apparent, (hie 
 
 of the first official acts of Governor Ritner, in 
 1 835, was to appoint as secretary of the common- 
 wealth Thomas II. Burrowes, who, by virtue of 
 his office, became superintendent oi common 
 
 schools, lie remained, through his whole public 
 career, a steadfast friend oi the system. In 1835, 
 a new hill was presented "to consolidate and 
 amend the several ads in relation to a system of 
 education 1 • v common schools." in securing the 
 passage of which both Mr. Stevens and Mr. Bur- 
 rowes rendered valuable assistance. The accept- 
 ance of the new law was made optional with 
 each district, the citizens being allowed to vote 
 on the question of the continuance of the public 
 schools every third year. 'I he -real work now to 
 he done was to set u re the adoption of the syst( m 
 by the people, and to put it into operation. Mr. 
 Burrowes, the superintendent, undertook this 
 
 work. Me visited nearly all the counties in the 
 
 state, delivered addresses. explained the law. pre- 
 pared the necessary forms. and succeeded in 
 
 placing the system upon a firm basis. Hifl suc- 
 cess was so great that, in the third and last re- 
 port made during his term of office under Gover- 
 nor Ritner, he was able to present the followii g 
 statistics: accepting districts. 840; number of 
 schools. 5,269 : number of tea. •hers. n.T.'i'J ; num- 
 ber of pupils, I 7 1.7.'!.'!. The state appropriation, 
 also, had reached the sum of $308,819; a tax had 
 
 been raised tot- the support of schools, amount- 
 ing to S.'{s.'..T>>: and the average school term 
 
 had been extended to 5| months. 
 
 forty years elapsed from the time of the or- 
 ganization of the sta'e government to the adop- 
 tion of the COmmon-echool system. It must not. 
 
 however, he inferred that, during this period, 
 
PENNSYLVANIA 
 
 681 
 
 there was no legislation relating to education; 
 such as there was. however, was generally in the 
 interest of private schools. The policy of the 
 legislature seemed to be, to establish, first, acad- 
 emies, colleges, and universities. The whole 
 Dumber of acts passed, mostly in behalf of such 
 institutions, was L86j and the whole amounl of 
 appropriations, in money it its equivalent, he- 
 stowed chiefly on corporate bodies, including 
 academies, colleges, and universities, reached 
 nearly $300,000. In L833, there were '_' universi- 
 ties, 8 colleges, and 50 academies, all of which 
 bad been Liberally aided by the state. 
 
 111. Education under the < '(institutions of 1 838 
 one? 1873. — In L838, a convention met in Phila- 
 delphia to revise the constitution of the state. 
 On the subject of education, it recommended, 
 without change, the provisions found in the con- 
 stitution of L790. The common-school system 
 had now been in operation several years, and 
 was gradually commending itself to the people. 
 Important changes in the law took place from 
 time to time. In 1848, the people having pre- 
 viously, in the triennial election, in every part of 
 the state, voted for the continuance of the sys- 
 tem, an act was passed extending it over the en- 
 tire state. At this time, 360,000 youths of the 
 commonwealth were enrolled in the public 
 schools, and taught about five months in the year. 
 at a cost of about $600,000. In 1849, all the 
 laws relating to schools were collected and codi- 
 fied. In January, 1852, Thomas H. Burrowes 
 commenced the publication of an educational 
 journal, the title of which, at the end of the first 
 half year, was changed to the Pennsylvania 
 School Journal; and, in L855, it became the of- 
 tieial organ <>f the school department. In 1870, 
 •lames P. Wickersham, the state superintendent, 
 became its editor ; and, since that time, it has 
 gained largely in influence and circulation. On 
 the 28th of December, 1852, a small number of 
 prominent teachers and friends of education met 
 at Barrisburg and organized the State Teachers' 
 Association, wdiich has convened annually since 
 that time. In 1854, a general school law was 
 passed, wdiich created the office of county super- 
 intendent, abolished committees in sub-districts, 
 assigning, instead, additional duties to school di- 
 rectors, authorized the appointment of a deputy 
 state superintendent, introduced uniformity of 
 text-books into the schools of each district, fixed 
 the minimum school term at 4 months, and 
 authorized boards of school directors to levy a 
 spi 'i-ial tax annually for building pur] >i >st >s. A pri I 
 17., 1855, the Lancaster County Normal Insti- 
 tute wasopened in MiUersville by J. P. Wicker- 
 sham, who was then superintendent of the above 
 'named county. In 1857, the normal school act 
 was passed, also a law separating the office of 
 state superintendent from that of secretary of 
 the commonwealth, and creating, at the same 
 time, the department of common schools. The 
 county superintendency, which had just been put 
 in operation, under the new law. was. at this 
 time, so unpopular, that, at times, it seemed as 
 if its enemies would succeed in brin<_ r ing about 
 
 its abolition. Principally, however, through the 
 
 effortsof the state superintendent . Mr. ffickok, 
 
 the office was retained: and his administration 
 throughout was successful in the highesl degree. 
 —In L859, the MiUersville Normal Institute, 
 
 under the supervision and principalshin of Ms 
 founder, was recognized by the state authorities 
 as the first normal school under the law. In 
 l B67,cities and boroughs of over L0.000 inhabit- 
 ants were authorized to elect superintendents; 
 teachers' institutes were legalized in all the 
 
 counties of the state, and authority was given 
 
 to the state superintendent to issue a high grade 
 of certificate, called the permanent certificate, to 
 teachers possessing superior qualifications. 
 
 Article \. of the constitution of L873 de- 
 clares that the general assembly shall provide an 
 efficient system of common schools, for all chil- 
 dren above six years of age. and shall appropriate 
 each year at least $1,000,000 for its support. It 
 
 prohibits the use of any of this m y for the 
 
 support of sectarian schools, and provides that 
 "women twenty-one years of age and upwards, 
 shall be eligible to any office of control or man- 
 agement under the school laws of this state". It 
 changes the title Superintendent of Common 
 Schools to Superintendent of Public Instruction, 
 and makes the term of that office four years. 
 
 The following table gives the leading items 
 of schools statistics for L866 and 1876, thus 
 showing, in part, the progress of the common- 
 school system during the last ten years : 
 
 ls<;i; 
 
 1870 
 
 $2,748,795 08 $4,856,888.91 
 
 725,000.01 1,735,] 18.87 
 
 4,195,258.57 9,163,928.08 
 
 355,000.00 1,000,000.00 
 
 Number of districts 1,863 2,103 
 
 " "schools 13,146 17,497 
 
 " " graded schools. 2,800 5,951! 
 
 " "pupils 789,389 902,345 
 
 Cost of tuition 
 
 " " school-houses. . 
 
 Total cost of system. . . . 
 
 State appropriation. . . . 
 
 The state superintendents have been as fol- 
 lows: James Findlay, 1835- 6; T. II. Burrowes, 
 1836—8; F.E. Shunk, L839 II ; A. Y. Tar- 
 sons. 1841—2; Charles .Met lure, 1843—5; 
 Jesse Miller, 1846— 8 ; Townsend Haines, 1849 
 —50; A. L. Russell, 1851—2; P. W. Bughes, 
 1853—4 ; C. A. Black, 1854- 5 : A. (J. ( lurtin, 
 I 356 — 7. The persons above named tilled the 
 office of superintendent, by virtue of holding 
 the office of secretary of the commonwealth. 
 In dune, 1857, the Department of Common 
 Schools was organized: and. since that time, the 
 following named persons have been commis- 
 sioned as superintendent : II. C. Hickok, 1858 
 —60; T. II. Burrowes, I860 63; C. II. Coburn, 
 1863—6; J. P. Wickersham, from 1866 to the 
 present time 1 1*77). 
 
 School System. — The educational interests of 
 the state are intrusted to a. superintendent of 
 public instruction, who is appointed by the gov- 
 ernor of the commonwealth, and confirmed by 
 the senate. His term of office is I years. Ill's 
 duties are to decide all controversies between 
 school officers ; to give advice and explanation 
 
088 
 
 PENNSYLVANIA 
 
 relative to the common-school law, the duties of 
 school officers, and the rights and duties of 
 parents, guardians, teachers, and pupils : to sign 
 all orders on the state treasurer for the payment 
 of the state appropriation to the several districts, 
 and for salaries of county superintendents ; to 
 prepare blank forms fur the use of school officers 
 and the department of public instruction ; to 
 commission county, city, and borough superin- 
 tendents; to appoint trustees for normal schools, 
 and committees to examine annually the grad- 
 uating classes of the state norma! schools; to fill 
 all vacancies among county superintendents : and 
 to make an annual report to the governor and 
 the state legislature.- The school directors of 
 etch county meet in convention at the county 
 scat, on the first Tuesday of May, every third 
 year, and elect a county superintendent for a 
 term of three years, and fix his salary for the 
 same time, lie must be a legal resident of the 
 county; and must have one of the following 
 documents : a diploma from a college, a diploma 
 from a state normal school, a professional or 
 
 permanent certificate, or a certificate of com- 
 petency from the state superintendent. lie 
 must. also, have skill and experience in teach- 
 ing. — The duties of the county superintendent 
 are. to examine teachers and give Certificates, 
 
 setting forth the qualifications of applicants; to 
 visit the schools as often as possible, and give 
 instruction in teaching and school government ; 
 
 to see that orthography, reading, writing, arith- 
 metic, geography, and grammar are taught in all 
 the schools; to hold annually a teachers' insti- 
 tute which must remain in session 5 days; to 
 
 annul certificates of teachers for incompetency, 
 cruelty, negligence, or immorality: to examine. 
 affirm, and forward to the state department the 
 annual reports of the several boards ; and to make 
 an annual report to the state superintendent. 
 
 Cities and boroughs having not less than 7,000 
 
 inhabitants, may elect superintendents of their 
 
 own. The duties and powers of such officers 
 ire similar to those of county superintendents. 
 The state is divided into school-districts; each 
 
 township, borough, and city constituting one 
 
 district. School directors, generally six in Dum- 
 ber, are elected in each district by the people 
 for a term of 3 years, and constitute the distncl 
 
 school board. The officers of each of 1 hese boards 
 
 area president, a secretary, and a treasurer. It is 
 the duty of the president to issue warrants for 
 
 the collection of taxes; to sign all orders. Av><\>. 
 
 and contracts ; to allot by oath or affirmation 
 
 the correctness of the annual statement of ex- 
 penses, liabilities, etc.. which must be presented 
 
 to. an 1 accepted by, the department of public 
 instruction before a warrant for the annual state 
 appropriation is issued. The duties of the Becre- 
 tarj are to keep minutes of all the proceedings 
 of the board; to prepare duplicates for the tax 
 collector: to prepare and forward the annual 
 
 district report and certificate; to examine and 
 
 approve tnonthlj reports of teachers; and to keep 
 in charge all valuable papers. The treasurer 
 
 :\. b all moneys, disburses the school inonej - 
 
 on proper orders : and settles his accounts an- 
 nually with the board and auditors. The school 
 boards must organize each year within ten days 
 after the first Monday in June. Their duties 
 are to establish a sufficient number of schools ; 
 to fill vacancies in the board; to levy a tax for 
 school and building purposes; to select sites for, 
 and erect, school houses : to fix the length of the 
 school term ; to appoint teachers and fix salaries; 
 to grade schools when necessary; to direct what 
 branches shall be taught : to decide what text- 
 books shall be used : and to visit the schools at 
 least once a month. These boards, also, may dis- 
 miss teachers tor cruelty, negligence, incompe- 
 tency, or immorality. 'I hey pay all expenses by 
 order on the treasurer, and publish annually a 
 statement setting forth the receipts and expend- 
 itures of the district. The school revenue is 
 derived fnun the following sources : (1) a State 
 
 appropriation of not less than $1,000,000, to be 
 annually distributed among the several districts 
 upon the basis of the number of taxable citizens; 
 (2) a school tax not to exceed L3 mills on each 
 dollar of the assessed valuation, to be levied and 
 collected annually, to pay teachers' salaries and 
 other necessary expenses of the schools; (3) a 
 "building tax to be levied and collected annually. 
 if the school board deem it necessary, but not to 
 exceed the amount levied for school purpos 
 This tax is used in paying for sites for school- 
 houses, and the erection and repairs of school 
 
 buildings. The studies to be pursued in the 
 
 common schools, not being strictly designated 
 by law, have been left, bj the interpretation of 
 the state superintendent, to the discretion of the 
 local boards, who are governed in their decision 
 
 by the wants of their districts. These boards, 
 
 also, may establish separate schools for colored 
 children, whenever they can be so located as to 
 
 accommodate 20 or more pupils. The school 
 age is from (i to 'i\ years; the school year, 
 
 •"' months of 22 days each. 
 
 Educational Condition. — The number of 
 school-districts in the State is 2,103 ; the num- 
 ber of schools. IT.l'JT.of which f'.'.C'T are graded. 
 The school revenue, exclusive of £"2S.OOO for nor- 
 mal schools, for the year ending June 1., 1870, 
 was as follows : 
 
 Prom local tax $8,669,738.67 
 
 " state appropriation... 972,000.00 
 
 Total....". $9,631,73 
 
 The expenditures for common-school purposes 
 
 were as follows ; 
 
 For tuition $4,866,888.91 
 
 l 'or building, purchasing, and 
 
 renting school-housea 1,735,1 i s . v 7 
 
 For luel, contingencies, etc. 2,471,890.90 
 
 Total $9,0 
 
 The principal items of school statistics for 
 
 1876 are as follows: 
 
 Number of children enrolled in public schools. 902,346 
 
 \ , . i i i u v attendance 578,718 
 
 Number of teachers 20,192 
 
 Average monthly salary of male teachers $38.72 
 
 ••■••' ■■ female " $30.42 
 
 Estimated value of school property ; 
 
PENNSYLVANIA 
 
 G80 
 
 Normal Instruction. — The normal school law, 
 enacted in 1^:">7, divides the state into 12 dis- 
 tricts, allowing one normal school in each. Nine 
 have already been organized, and arc in operation 
 under this act. Philadelphia has a girls' normal 
 school, which was opened in 1848. The whole 
 number of students who attended the state nor- 
 mal schools during 1875, was 3.724; the number 
 of graduates, 191 ; the number of professors and 
 teachers, 1 14; the number of volumes in the libra- 
 ries, 13,000 ; the value of buildings and grounds. 
 $9 (0,000; the whole amount appropriated to all 
 the schools. 33f)0,000. The entire income from 
 all sources during the same time was $357,996.91 : 
 total expenditures for all purposes, $350,1 73.83. 
 
 Teachers' Listittttes. — In 1807, a law was 
 passed requiring a teachers' institute to be held 
 once a year in each county, to continue in ses- 
 sion 5 days. To defray the expenses, superin- 
 tendents are entitled to draw from the county 
 treasury a sum of money not exceeding $200. 
 The attendance of teachers in 1875, was 13,523; 
 the number of school directors, 1,812 ; the num- 
 ber of instructors and lecturers, 435 ; the whole 
 amount expended was $21,160.54. 
 
 Secondary Instruction. — The number of pub- 
 lic schools in the state in which instruction in 
 the higher branches was given in 1875, was 1,601. 
 I Jesides these, there were 88 academies and sem- 
 inaries, that reported to the U. S. Bureau of Edu- 
 cation, and also 7 preparatory schools, and 10 
 business colleges. 
 
 Superior Instruction. — The following is a list 
 
 of colleges and universities iu the state : 
 
 [The names of those for females exclusively are print- 
 ed in italics : those for both sexes, in Small Caps.] 
 
 NAME 
 
 Location 
 
 Ar.i.KUHENT College.. 
 
 Allentown Femali < '"II . . 
 
 Dickinson College 
 
 Franklin and MarshaU 
 
 College 
 
 Haverford College .... 
 Irving Female College . . 
 Lafayette College. . . . 
 
 La Salle College 
 
 Lebanon Valley Coll. . 
 LehighUniversity. . . . 
 Lincoln University. . . 
 Mercersburg College . 
 
 M< >N' iNHAHELA COLL. . 
 
 Muhlenberg College. . 
 Nkw Castle College. 
 Palatinate College. 
 Pennsylvania College. 
 Perm. Female Co 
 I'' n,i. Fi mail I < 
 Penn. Military Acad. . 
 Pittsburgh Female Coll. 
 St. Francis College . . . 
 St.Joseph'sCollege.. . 
 St. Vincent's College.. 
 
 SWABTHMORE COLLEGE 
 
 Thiel College 
 
 I'niv. at LeWTSBUBG . . 
 University of Penn.. . 
 
 I'rsinus College 
 
 Villauova College 
 
 Washington and Jef- 
 
 i'lTsun College 
 
 Waynesburg College, 
 Western Univ.of Penn. 
 WZSXMTNBTZB COLL... 
 
 Wilson College 
 
 44 
 
 MeadviUe 
 Allentown 
 Carlisle 
 
 Lancaster 
 Haverford Coll. 
 Mechanicsburg 
 Easton 
 Chiladelphia 
 Annville 
 So. Bethlehem 
 Chester Co. 
 Mercersburg 
 Jefferson 
 Allentown 
 New Castle 
 Myerstown 
 Gettysburg 
 CollegeviUe 
 Pittsburgh 
 ( Iheater 
 Pittsburgh 
 Loretto 
 Philadelphia 
 Latrobe 
 Swarthmore 
 | GreenevUle 
 Lewisburg 
 Philadelphia 
 Freeland 
 Villauova 
 
 Washington 
 
 Waynesbarg 
 
 Pittsburgh 
 
 NewWilrningt'n 
 Chanibersburg 
 
 Date 
 of 
 
 char- 
 ter 
 
 1817 
 1867 
 1783 
 
 1853 
 1833 
 
 1857 
 1826 
 1S63 
 1867 
 1866 
 1854 
 1865 
 1867 
 1867 
 1875 
 [868 
 1832 
 1853 
 1 sen 
 1862 
 1*54 
 1844 
 1852 
 1870 
 1864 
 1870 
 1846 
 
 1755 
 1869 
 
 1848 
 
 18112 
 1850 
 1819 
 1852 
 1869 
 
 Denomi- 
 nation 
 
 M. Epis. 
 Kef. 
 M. Epis. 
 
 Eef. Ger.) 
 
 Eriends 
 
 Non-sect. 
 
 Presb. 
 
 R C. 
 
 Un.Breth. 
 
 Pr. Epis. 
 
 Presb. 
 
 Ref. 
 
 Bap. 
 
 Luth. 
 
 Non-sect. 
 
 Ref. 
 
 Ev. Luth. 
 
 Non-sect. 
 
 Non-sect. 
 
 Non-sect. 
 
 M. Epis. 
 
 R. C. 
 
 R. C. 
 
 R. C. 
 
 Friends 
 
 Ev. Luth. 
 
 Bap. 
 
 Non-sect. 
 
 Ref. 
 
 R. C. 
 
 Presb. 
 Cu. presb. 
 Non-sect. 
 Uu. Presb. 
 Presb. 
 
 For further information in regard to these in- 
 stil ut ions, see the respective titles, in other parts 
 of this work. 
 
 Professional ami Scientific Instruction. — 
 
 Many of the institutions enumerated under the 
 head of superior instruction have special depart- 
 ments in which professional or scientific instruc- 
 tion is given. The principal schools of each class 
 are enumerated in the following tables: 
 Medical Schools. 
 
 NAME. 
 
 Hahnemann Med. Col- 
 lege of Philadelphia. 
 
 .letters. in Med. college 
 
 Penn. Coll. Of Dental 
 Surgery 
 
 Phila. College of Phar- 
 macy 
 
 Phila". Dental College. 
 
 Woman's Med. ( lollege 
 
 of Pennsylvania 
 
 Location 
 
 Philadelphia 
 Philadelphia 
 
 Philadelphia 
 
 Philadelphia 
 Philadelphia 
 
 Philadelphia 
 
 Q-8 
 
 1848 
 
 1825 
 
 1856 
 
 1822 
 1863 
 
 1850 
 
 3 £ 
 fc O 
 
 i5S 
 
 13 
 
 17 
 
 20 
 
 3 
 
 21 
 
 14 
 
 11 
 
 140 
 500 
 
 90 
 
 316 
 105 
 
 75 
 
 Schools op Science. 
 
 NAME. 
 
 Location 
 
 Franklin Institute 
 
 Polj technic College of 
 
 the State of Penn.. . . 
 Penn. stun- College.. . 
 Wagner Free Institute 
 
 of Science 
 
 Philadelphia 
 
 Philadelphia 
 State College 
 
 1824 
 
 1854 
 1855 
 
 Philadelphia 
 
 Theological Schools 
 
 li 
 
 o c 
 
 V 
 
 6-2 
 fc2 
 
 144 
 ( 300 
 \ to 
 (1200 
 
 NAME. 
 
 Augustinian College. . 
 
 of Villanova 
 
 Crozer Theological 
 
 Seminary 
 
 Div. School of Prot. 
 
 Epis. Church 
 
 Moravian College and 
 
 Theol. Seminary 
 
 MeadviUe Theological 
 
 School 
 
 Missionary Institute. . 
 St. Michael's Seminary 
 St. Vincent's Seminary 
 Theol. Seminary of St. 
 
 Chas. Borromeo 
 
 Theol. Seminary of the 
 
 Eef. Church 
 
 Theol.Semiuary of Ev 
 
 Luth. Church 
 
 Theol.Semiuary of Ev. 
 
 Luth. Church 
 
 Theol. Seminary of 
 
 Un. Presb. Church.. . 
 Western Theol. Sem. 
 
 of Presb. church... . 
 
 Location 
 
 ViUanova 
 
 Upland 
 
 Philadelphia 
 
 Bethlehem 
 
 Meadville 
 Selin's Grove 
 Pittsburgh 
 Philadelphia 
 
 Lower Merion 
 
 Lancaster 
 
 P3 r. 
 
 1848 
 
 1867 
 
 1862 
 
 1864 
 
 1846 
 1858 
 1845 
 
 1838 
 1831 
 1827 
 
 1830 
 1844 
 
 Denomina- 
 tion 
 
 R. C. 
 
 Bap. 
 
 Prot. Epis. 
 
 Moravian 
 
 Unitarian 
 Evan. Luth. 
 R. C. 
 R. C. 
 
 R. C. 
 
 Ref. 
 
 Evan. Luth. 
 
 Evan. Luth. 
 
 Un. Presb. 
 
 Presb. 
 
 Gettysburg 
 Philadelphia 
 Allegheny 
 Allegheny 
 
 Special Instruction. — The Pennsylvania Insti- 
 tution for the Deaf and Dumb was founded at 
 Philadelphia, in 1821. The minimum age for 
 admission is 10 years. It combines with a course 
 of elementary instruction in common school 
 branches, special instruction in industrial pur- 
 suits, principally shoe-making and tailoring. The 
 number of instructors, in 1875, was 17 ; the 
 number of pupils, 338. The number of gradu- 
 ates, since the organization of the institution, is 
 1,5(JG. There is a day school for deaf-mutes at 
 
690 PENNSYLVANIA UNIVERSITY 
 
 PA. MILITARY ACADEMY 
 
 Pittsburgh, which was founded in 1869, as a part 
 of the school system of that city, and is supported 
 partially by a small appropriation from the city 
 school fund. The Pennsylvania Institution for the 
 instruction of the Blind, at Philadelphia, was 
 founded in 1833, as a private institution, but has 
 been for some time in receipt of a state appro- 
 priation, which, in 1875, amounted to $39,000. 
 It gives instruction in music and common-school 
 branches, and special instruction in a large num- 
 ber of mechanical and industrial pursuits. The 
 number of instructors and employes, in 1876, 
 was 63 : the Dumber of pupils, 207. Since its 
 foundation, 885 pupils have been admitted. The 
 Pennsylvania Training School for Feeble-Minded 
 Children was established, in L853, at Media. In 
 1875, the number of instructors and employes 
 was GO; the number of pupils, 225. Of .'!72 
 children admitted since 1864, about 247 have 
 been dismissed in an improved, and 49 in a self- 
 supporting, condition. The three institutions 
 above mentioned are open to inmates from t he 
 two adjoining states. New Jersey and Delaware. 
 Girard College was established, in 1848, for the 
 benefit of wtate male orphans born in Pennsyl- 
 vania, The course of study covers from 8 to 9 
 years, and includes common-school branches, and 
 such additional studies as lit for progress in prac- 
 tical or business life. The Educational Home for 
 Boys, and the Lincoln Institution, both in Phila- 
 delphia, are intended principally for orphans ; the 
 latter, for those of soldiers especially, though 
 others are admitted. Elementary instruction is 
 given in both. The Aimwell School Association, 
 in Philadelphia, was incorporated in L859, its 
 origin being traced to the efforts of Anne Parish, 
 a Friend, who resided in Philadelphia in L796. 
 The association formed by her cumbered ai first 
 only three members, but, in L799, had increased 
 ighteen. Their object was to teach poor girls 
 the common English branches and sewing, rhe 
 association now numbers 119 members. in- 
 struction of an elementary grade, or in special 
 branches, is also given in '_' reform schools, and 
 more than 30 orphan homes and industrial 
 schools in various parts of the state. 
 
 PENNSYLVANIA, University of, in 
 Philadelphia, comprises four departments : the de- 
 partment of arts, the Towne scientific school, the 
 department of medicine, and the departmentof 
 law. It grew out of a charitable school established 
 by subscription in L 745, became an academy in 
 I 7 19, and was chartered > u ' 755, ;|S The Coll 
 Academy, and < Iharitable School of Philadelphia- 
 It was created a university in L779; and, in 1791, 
 the present organization was established. The med- 
 ical department dates from 1765, and the lawde- 
 partment from L789.In L 865, anAuxiliary Faculty 
 of Medicine was constituted, for the purpose of 
 supplementing the ordinary course of medical in- 
 i in. -lion by Lectures given during the spring 
 months on certain collateral branches of science. 
 
 The university buildings, situated in the portion 
 of the city known as West Philadelphia, are new, 
 
 and comprise a hall for the departments Of arts, 
 science, and law, the medical hall, and the uni- 
 
 versity hospital. The institution has extensive 
 chemical and physical apparatus, cabinets of fos- 
 sUs and minerals, and valuable medical cabinets. 
 The libraries contain about 20,000 volumes. The 
 endowment amounts to about §1,000,000, of 
 which only one half is, at present, productive. 
 The cost of tuition in the departments of arts and 
 science is 81 50 a year. The regular course in the 
 department of arts, comprising the usual collegiate 
 branches, is four years. The regular courses in 
 the scientific school, each of four years, are: 
 (1) analytical and applied chemistry and min- 
 eralogy; (2) geology and mining; (3) civil en- 
 gineering; (4) mechanical engineering; (5) draw- 
 ing and architecture; (6) general course. There 
 is also a postgraduate course. In 1875—6, the 
 number of professors was as follows : department 
 of arts, 13; science, 14; medicine, 7: medicine 
 (auxiliary faculty), 5; hospital 12; law, 5; total, 
 deducting repetitions. 43, besides which, there 
 were 5 lecturers and other instructors. There 
 were 857 students; namely, arts, L14; science, L26; 
 medicine, 415; medicine (auxiliary], 110; law. '.'2. 
 The charity schools connected with the university 
 (one for boys and one for girls) affording instruc- 
 tion in the English branches, had three teachers 
 and L3() pupils. Charles .). Stille, LL. D., is 
 (1876), the provost of the university. 
 
 PENNSYLVANIA COLLEGE, at Gettys- 
 burg, Pa., founded in 1S32, is under Lutheran 
 control. It grew out of the Gettysburg Gymna- 
 sium, an institution that had been established for 
 the preparation of young men for the Lutheran 
 ministry. It is supported by tuition fees and the 
 
 income of an endowment 01 $140,000. The col- 
 lege has an astronomical observatory, chemical 
 and philosophical apparatus, a chemical laboratory, 
 and a botanical and a mineralogical cabinet. The 
 libraries contain 1.9,550 volumes. There is a 
 sieal and a special scientific course, and a prepar- 
 atory department. The cost of tuition, in the 
 college, is $50 a year: in the preparatory depart- 
 ment. $39. In 1 there were 12 instructors 
 and L52 students (83 collegiate and 69 prepar- 
 atory). The presidents ha\e been as follows: the 
 
 Rev. Charles Philip Crauth, D.D.,18! the 
 
 Rev. lieiiry Lewis Baugher, I >. I >.. 1850 — 68; and 
 the Lev. Milton Valentine, l>. D., the present in- 
 cumbent (1876), appointed in L868. 
 
 PENNSYLVANIA MILITARY ACAD- 
 EMY, at (holer. Pa., was founded in 1862, 
 
 and is designed for resident cadets only. It has 
 
 jnodious buildings situated on an elevated 
 
 site, the grounds comprising 25 acres, in part 
 
 fully laid out and ornamented with trees. It 
 
 has astronomical, chemical, mathematical, and 
 
 physical apparatus, and a library of 1,200 
 
 The cost of tuition, board, etc., is 
 
 §550 a year, with music extra. The courses of 
 
 instruction are the English (2 yrs.), collegiate 
 
 preparatory, scientific (4 yrs.), civil engineering 
 
 1 yrs.), chemical and mining engineering (each 
 
 1 yr.), designed for graduates in civil engineering, 
 
 and collegiate or classical (4 yrs.). The degrees 
 
 conferred are S. I!„ ( '. L„ Ph. B., M. E., and A. 
 B. .Military instruction, theoretical and practi- 
 
PA. WESTERN UNIVERSITY 
 
 FERSIA 
 
 09 1 
 
 cal. is given. The former is optional : the latter 
 is required of all, and consists of drills in in- 
 fantry and artillery tactics etc. In 187(5 — 7, 
 there were 10 instructors and 12(1 students 
 (scientific course, L13; English course, 13). The 
 number of graduates (all 0. E.), including those 
 of 1876, is 7(>. CoL Theodore Hyatt, M. A., is 
 (1876) the president. 
 
 PENNSYLVANIA, The Western Uni- 
 versity of, at Pittsburgh, Pa., was founded 
 in L819. It is undenominational, and is sup- 
 ported by tuition fees, ranging from STL' to $100 
 a year, and the income of an endowment of 
 $275,000. It has a well-equipped astronomical 
 observatory (situated in Allegheny), a cab- 
 inet containing over 10,000 choice specimens in 
 geology, conchology, mineralogy, and zoology, 
 extensive philosophical and chemical apparatus, 
 and libraries containing- about G,000 volumes. 
 The university has a collegiate department, with 
 a classical course of 1 years, two scientific courses 
 of 3 years each, and two engineering courses 
 (civil and mechanical) of 1 years each, leading 
 respectively to the degrees of A. B., Ph. B. or S. 
 B., and, C. E. or M. E.. besides, a preparatory 
 department, with a classical and an English 
 course of 3 years each. In 1875 — 6, there wire 
 1G instructors and 272 students, of whom 186 
 were preparatory and 86 collegiate (29 unclas- 
 sified, 11 engineering, 28 scientific, and 18 clas- 
 sical). The present chancellor is (1870) George 
 Woods, LL. 1)., appointed in 1858. 
 
 PENSIONS, Teachers'. The justice and 
 expediency of granting pensions to teachers of 
 public elementary schools, on retiring after a 
 long and faithful service, have frequently been 
 urged ; and. with others, the following arguments 
 have been advanced hi support of such a meas- 
 ure : (1) The office of elementary teacher re- 
 quires an amount of bodily and mental vigor, 
 patience, tact, and elasticity of spirit, rarely met 
 with in any one who has spent twenty or thirty 
 years in a harassing profession ; (2) the salaries 
 received by such teachers afford them no suffi- 
 cient margin by means of which to make ade- 
 quate provision for old age ; (3) there is no 
 prospect that the salaries of teachers will be in- 
 creased to any great extent in the future ; since, 
 by means of normal and training schools, the 
 supply of teachers is generally greater than the 
 demand ; (1) since, therefore, teachers cannot 
 themselves make due provision for old age, the 
 government employing them should do so ; be- 
 cause, if it does not, the service will suffer by 
 the retention of aged and worn-out teachers 
 beyond the period of superannuation. In view 
 of these facts, the Committee of Council on Edu- 
 cation, in England, by a minute dated Dec. 21., 
 L846, enacted the following: "That a retiring 
 pension maybe granted by the Committee of 
 ' 'ouncil to any school-master or school-mistress 
 who shall be rendered incapable, by age or in- 
 firmity, of continuing to teach a school efficient- 
 ly ; provided that no such pension shall 1 >c 
 granted to any school-master or school-mistress 
 who shall not have conducted a normal or ele- 
 
 mentary school for fifteen years, during seven, 
 at least, of which Buch school shall have been 
 under inspection." This minute was afterward 
 modified, and the amount to be annually es 
 
 pended in pensions was limited, Aug. 6., L851, 
 to £6,500; but, subsequently, even this was 
 ignored. English teachers and their friends 
 have, however, claimed that the govemmeni 
 having held out the inducement to persons to 
 enter upon and continue in the service as teach- 
 ers, is morally bound to giant the pensions thus 
 virtually promised. In L872,aseled committee 
 of the Bouse of Commons, appointed to con- 
 sider the matter, reported against the teachers' 
 claims; but the code of 1876 permits the payment 
 of pensions. — In 1876, a law permitting such 
 pensions passed the assembly, in the state of 
 New Voric. but failed in the senate. — In Prus- 
 sia, teachers of public schools, being regarded 
 as state officers, are entitled to pensions. 1 Iverj 
 teacher, however, is required to make an annual 
 contribution to the pension fund (from 1 to 2 
 per cent of his annual salary), and has also to 
 pay into the same one-half of his first year's 
 salary. Special funds have been established, by 
 private munificence, in connection with many of 
 the schools, for the support of the widows and 
 orphans of deceased teachers. The / estalozzi- 
 verein of Germany is a society one of the sp 
 cial objects of which is to aid superannuated 
 teachers. — In France, the pensions of school 
 teachers and their widows are regulated by the 
 law of June 9., 1853. All the pensions are 
 entered in the grand book of the public debt. 
 In aid of the pension fund, contributions an 
 made from the following sources : (1) a deduc- 
 tion of 5 per cent of the regular salary ; (2) one- 
 twelfth of the first year's salary, and of every in- 
 crease of salary ; (3) all deductions made in con- 
 sequence of absence, and all fines imposed upon 
 teachers. A tea . ins to be entitled to a 
 
 pension when he is GO years i r after hav- 
 
 ing been in office 30 years. The amount of the 
 pension is based upon the average of the incomes, 
 subject to the above deductio ived during 
 
 the last six years of service. (For a full account 
 of French legislation on this subjeei . see ( .' ui":ai:i>. 
 La Legislation de I'lnst, ire, vol. 
 
 in.) — In Servia, in 1875, regulations were 
 adopted granting to teachers who resigned after 
 ten years' service, 40 per cent of the salary pre- 
 viously received, and 2 per cent more for eveiy 
 additional year's service, for 35 years, after 
 which the teacher, of whatever grade, is entitled 
 to his full salary as a pension. 
 
 PERCEPTION, or Perceptive Faculties- 
 
 See [nTELLECTUAL EDUCATION. 
 
 PERSIA, a country of western Asia, having 
 an area of about 638,000 sq. in., and a popula- 
 tion estimated at 5,000,000, nearly all of whom 
 are Mohammedans. 
 
 I. Ancient Persia. — Among the Indo-Ger- 
 manic tribes west of India, the Bactrians were 
 the first to attain any considerable culture. 
 They were, however, soon reduced in impor- 
 tance by the neighboring and kindred nation, 
 
692 
 
 PERSIA 
 
 PERU 
 
 the Medes, and subsequently still more by the 
 Persians, who in the 6th century B. C, under 
 Cyrus the Great, overran a large part of west- 
 ern Asia. While China had its family educa- 
 tion, and India that of caste, education in Per- 
 sia was decidedly a national institution. There, 
 as in India, the people were divided into sev- 
 eral distinct castes; but the separating line 
 was qoI strictly drawn; and, before the king, all 
 were equal. The state, as represented by the 
 king, was the highest object of veneration; and 
 all interests, whether of caste, of the family, or 
 of children, were subordinated to it. The edu- 
 cation of the people was like their life. In 
 Persia, the child was born and educated for 
 the state ; and, for that reason, we see here, for 
 the first time, physical combined with mental 
 education. The national education of the Per- 
 sians comprised the first twenty-four years of 
 life. Very little was done for the education of 
 girls, since they occupied, as among most of the 
 oriental nations, an inferior position. Boys re- 
 mained, up to their 7th year, with the women; 
 but after that, the national education began. In 
 all the' larger towns, there were public educa- 
 tional institutions in which the boys lived to- 
 gether. These schools were open to every one, 
 as any Persian could legally occupy the highest 
 offices. In their schools, they were instructed 
 to practice truth, justice, and self-command, and 
 were trained in riding, the use of the bow and 
 arrow, and other weapons. Reading anil writing 
 were also taught, but in a limited degree. < >n the 
 completion of his 1 5th year, the boy \\ as regarded 
 as entering upon the age of a young man. The 
 bond connecting the parents and the children was 
 now dissolved; for the young man, now belong- 
 ing to the state, must prepare himself, by suitable 
 physical exercises, for the chase and for war. 
 On completing his 25th year, the youth became a 
 man and a citizen. 1 To accepted the duties which 
 he had to perform up to his 50th year, after w hich 
 he was obliged to care for the general welfare by 
 supervising or conducting the education of the 
 boys. Persian education was. on the whole, au 
 effort to in lpart moral and physical perfection. 
 School instruction seems to have been neglected, 
 probably because the state needed, al first, only 
 moral and physical exct Hence in its citizens; for 
 when the Persians had become a great nation, 
 they regarded the preparation for citizenship as 
 the grand object of education; and, if in this 
 they partly lost sight of the individual, they, 
 for the first time in history, recognized educa- 
 tion as a matter of public concern a duty of 
 
 the state. This principle was, however, not fulls 
 
 carried out; for the female aex were almost en- 
 tirely excluded from public education, and the 
 of the people had no time for it. be- 
 ing forced to work in order to support the king 
 ami his servants, or to expose their lives in war. 
 
 \< nophon tells us that, besides the general edu- 
 cation, there was a particular education for 
 
 the higher classes. In the dialogue Alcibiades 
 which is ascribed to Plato), the education of 
 the kings is described as follows : "At the com- 
 
 pletion of his 7th year, the boy learns to ride 
 and to hunt; and, in his 14th year, he is handed 
 over to the so-called royal preceptors. These are 
 four noble Persians, selected for their virtues. 
 and known as the wisest, the most just, the most 
 temperate, and the bravest of men." 
 
 II. Modern Persia. — According to the in- 
 stitutions of modern Persia, the boy. in his C»th 
 year, is consigned to the care ■ if a private teacher, 
 or is sent to school. It was formerly considered 
 unneces:,ir\ to educate girls; but, at the present 
 time, in Persia, female education is steadily gain- 
 ing ground. For the poorer classes, there are 
 mixed schools, in which instruction is given for 
 a certain small compensation; but all schools are 
 private institutions, and any man able to write 
 may open a school. As soon as the children 
 possess a knowledge of the alphabet, and can 
 spell with some facility, the Koran is taken up, 
 which is read by the teacher with an Arabic ac- 
 cent, and is repeated and learned by heart by 
 the children, without being translated or under- 
 stood by them. At the same time, the most im- 
 portant and most difficult study, writing, is be- 
 gun. The teacher writes a line as a model, and 
 the children are required to imitate the char- 
 acters on a piece of paper. When the Koran 
 has been read several times, the children are 
 given Saadi'a Gulistan to read; and they read 
 the numerous tales contained in this work with- 
 out understanding their meaning, and learn its 
 epigrams by heart. This is considered the high- 
 est attainment of education; for the Persians 
 like to spice their conversation with quotation-. 
 On completing their loth year, the poorer boys 
 enter the business of their father, or accept the 
 position of page. The wealthier boys, however, 
 are consigned to the care of a teacher, who in- 
 structs them in grammar and letter-writing, ex- 
 plains to them difficult passages from the legends 
 and the laws, and reads with them the Shaft 
 Nameh [Book of Kings) of Firdousi.the odes of 
 Mali/, and other works. This generally com- 
 pletes their education, and, at the 15th or 16th 
 year of age, they enter the civil or military 
 service of the state. Recently, high schools or 
 colleges have been established ill the principal 
 cities, ( .n the European plan. The studies pur- 
 sued are astronomy, astrology, rudimentary 
 chemist r\ alchemy, logic, metaphysics, mathe- 
 matics, theology, and the Arabian and Persian 
 languages. In the government college, in Teheran, 
 ruction is given in French and English. 
 Shiraz has the largest number of colleges (ten), 
 but the most extensive college is al Ispahan. For 
 a full account of the educational system of mod- 
 ern Persia, see Polak, Persien. JJas Land und 
 Bewohner ( Leipsic, 1 86 
 
 PERU, a republic of South America, having 
 an area of 510,000 sq. m.. and a population ol 
 abc-Ul 2,500,000. Of the inhabitants. :.7 per 
 cent are Indians. 22 percent, half-breeds, II per 
 cent, whites, and 7 per cent, negroes and their 
 descendants. Nearly all the inhabitants be- 
 long to the Roman Catholic Church. Peru 
 was first discovered by Francisco Pizarro, who, 
 
PERU 
 
 PESTAL0ZZ1 
 
 
 in 1531, began the conquest of the country for 
 the king of Spain: and, in less than twenty 
 years, the Spanish rule was completely estab- 
 lished. Among the Spanish provinces of South 
 America, which, during the tirst part of the 
 litth century, achieved their independence, Peru 
 was the last to rebel; but, in L826, it gained a 
 final victory over the Spaniards, by the capture 
 of Callao. — Under the incas, the native rulers 
 of Peru, the people made considerable advance- 
 ment in education: but they remained, in this 
 respect, inferior to the Aztecs. The Spaniards, 
 soon after their conquest of the country, began 
 to introduce their educational system. The uni- 
 versity of Lima was founded in L551; and, in 
 L571, its faculties were regularly organized. In 
 1650, it had over '20 professors of the Spanish 
 and Quichua languages, law, medicine, philoso- 
 phy, and theology. Besides the university, 
 there were in Lima several other institutions of 
 learning, one of which was particularly devoted 
 to giving instruction in Latin and literature. 
 The elementary schools were free, and even 
 furnished the children with books and writing 
 materials. Owing to the numerous civil wars, 
 education was. for a long time, at a stand-still 
 in the republic. In L855, public instruction of 
 all grades was placed under the supervision of a 
 direction general de estudios ; and, since that 
 time, it lias made steady progress. President 
 Pardo, in his message of IS 74. states that - ad- 
 mission to the universities is now confined to 
 such as are quite prepared to enter upon uni- 
 versity stui lies. A number of competent teachers 
 have been engaged in Europe, and the services 
 of many more will be engaged. Arrangements 
 are likewise on foot for the establishment of 
 suitable normal schools. The departmental coun- 
 cils are authorized to institute correctional agri- 
 cultural schools for uneducated children, to be 
 supported out of certain branches of the ordinary 
 contributions." According to the latest accounts. 
 there were in the republic 790 elementary or pri- 
 mary schools. Of these, 502 (450 for boys, and 52 
 for girls) were public, and 288 (206 for boys, and 
 62 for girls) were private. The number of pupils 
 was 34,326, of whom 29,687 were boys, and 4,639 
 were girls. The normal school for primary 
 teachers. in Lima, had 300 pupils: of whom, 36 
 were supported by the state. In order to improve 
 female education, the Peruvian congress, in 1873, 
 passed a law that every community of more than 
 500 inhabitants, should establish a school for 
 girls. There are 5 universities — in Lima. Trujillo, 
 Ayacucho. Cuzco, and Puno. These universities, 
 however, only confer degrees, the studies being 
 pursued in colegios, of which there were, accord- 
 ing to the latest accounts. .'{0, and of these. .'! were 
 for girls. The largest of these were the Colegio 
 ili- San Carlos, and the Colegio de /</ Tndepen- 
 dencia, both in Lima, the latter of which is con- 
 sidered the best medical school in South America. 
 There are also 38 private colegios, of which 14 
 are for girls: and. in the principal cities of the 6 
 dioceses, there are so-called seminarios concilia' 
 res, in which, besides theology, mathematics and 
 
 | law are taught. There is, also, in Lima a mil- 
 itary school, a school of navigation, ami a Bchool 
 
 of midwifery. See Li: Hoy in ScHMID's Ency- 
 
 clopddie, art. Swdamerica. 
 
 PESTALOZZI, Johann Heinrich, on,' of 
 the greatest of modem educators, was born Jan. 
 •'-'•■ L746, al Zurich. Switzerland, and died at 
 Neuhof, Febr. 17.. L827. Ashe lost. when only 
 
 six Mars old, his father, who was a physician 
 
 of modesl means, his training depended chiefly 
 upon his mother. Even in earlyyouth, Pestalozzi 
 evinced those characteristics which distinguished 
 him through life — piety, sympathy for the poor 
 and degraded, a love of children, and an uncom- 
 promising sense of justice. In compliance with 
 the wish of his grandfather, who was a Protestant 
 clergyman, he studied theology; but his very 
 first effort at preaching proved such a decided 
 
 failure, that lie turned directly to the Btudj of 
 
 law. Ahout this time (1764), Rousseau's tlmite 
 fell into his hands, and gave him the hopethal 
 his longings for the improvement of hiscountry'a 
 
 lower classes could be successfully Satisfied. fie 
 
 had come to realize that the principal cause of 
 
 the misery of the multitude was their ignorance, 
 which prevented a proper and advantageous use 
 of the political rights they enjoyed. His fun- 
 damental conclusion, therefore, was. that wh en- 
 tile masses are stupid and brutalized, democracy 
 can produce no blessings; and. hence, that his first 
 effort should be to aid in the rearing up of good 
 citizens, the preparing of devoted hearts and 
 manly intellects for his countn*. He proposed 
 to effect this result not simply by instruction 
 but by a judicious blending of industrial, intel- 
 lectual, and moral training. He rightly saw that 
 it was not enough to impart instruction to chil- 
 dren, but that their moral nature should be par- 
 ticularly cared for. and habits of activity instilled 
 into them through agricultural and industrial 
 labors. To his way of thinking, the great draw- 
 back on the side of industry was the weakening 
 of the natural affections and the development of 
 the mercantile spirit, without having the moral 
 resources and consolations afforded by rural oc- 
 cupations. He, therefore, preferred to withdraw- 
 to a farm, there to gather about him the children 
 of the poor, and to foster, in the coining men and 
 women, the taste for domestic life and the senti- 
 ment of human dignity. Previous to the purchase 
 of land in order to put his scheme into practice, 
 he retired to the estate of a friend, celebratedfor 
 his improved methods of cultivation, and there 
 prepared himself for his new task with his usual 
 zeal. In 1 761). he bought a tract of about 100 
 acres, and named this possession Neuhof. In 
 the same year he married a lady of means and 
 culture. By 1775, the place was ready for the 
 realization of his projects. He opened what mav 
 be considered the first industrial school for the 
 poor. He gathered about him a number of 
 ragged and half-starved children, and lived with 
 them the life of the poor, in order to teach them, 
 in their poverty, how to become active members 
 of the great human family. He soon found, 
 however, to his great sorrow, that these vagabond 
 
694 
 
 PESTALOZZI 
 
 children could never be made to accommodate 
 themselves to the laborious and regular life 
 lie desired, as long as their parents were not far 
 removed ; for the latter had but too frequently- 
 encouraged vagabondage as a source of income. 
 In 1780. his own straitened financial circum- 
 stances obliged him to abandon the enterprise. 
 His experience he embodied in the publication 
 Evenings of a Recluse (1780). which proves 
 that, in the midst of his failures, he bad profited 
 by important discoveries in the realm of human 
 knowledge, and in the principles which underlie 
 all true processes of education, — results which 
 have transmuted his individual disappointments 
 and failures into blessings for the world. He 
 published, in this little treatise, a programme 
 for his future exertions, surveyed the mode of 
 life of the people, and laid bare their defi- 
 ciencies, indicating the only remedy ; namely, 
 a return to nature and to truth. The general 
 favor with which his views were received in- 
 duced him to follow with other writings in 
 their advocacy. Of these publications, bis L/ien- 
 h<ir<l und Gerirud (Basel, 1781 — 9, -t vols.) — 
 a popular tale, presenting a picture of exalted 
 virtue in the midst of crime and error — created 
 quite a sensation. It circulated far and wide, 
 and was translated into many languages. '1 he 
 government of Bern decreed him a gold medal. 
 which he was afterward obliged to turn into 
 money to supply his family with the necessaries 
 of life. Not until 17!). w . did Pestalozzi's oppor- 
 tunity come again to put his theories into practice. 
 In this year, Ins friend I. (grand, one of the Swiss 
 Directory, appointed him to establish an orphan 
 school at Stanz, in the canton of Uhterwalden. 
 The French revolution had given rise to turbu- 
 lence anil anarchy. Stanz had been sacked by the 
 French troops, and stood inflames. Thousands 
 were homeless. Many a child saw itself bereft 
 of parents and friends. Of such children, Pes- 
 talozzi gathered eighty in the Ursuline convent. 
 which had been spared; and alone (his wife hav- 
 ing remained at Neuhof) he cared tor them, lived, 
 played, and prayed with them, and earnestly In- 
 structed them. Hi' "manifested an amount of 
 vigor, self-forget fulness, and enthusiasm such as 
 the world has seldom seen combined in the soul 
 <>f one frail mortal" (Krusi). "I had to act.'' 
 ■ays he himself, ••amidst a confusion of elements. 
 
 und amidst unbounded misery; but the zeal that 
 
 urged me on to .seize the possibility of realizing, 
 at last, the dream of my entire life would have 
 transported me to the summit of the highest 
 Alps, and through air and tire." liis aim was 
 to imparl to the school the character of a family. 
 
 Being without books and without apparatus, lie 
 
 directed his v\ hole attention to those natural ele- 
 ments which are found in the mind of every 
 child, lie taught numbers, instead of figures; 
 
 living sounds, instead of dead character-: deeds of 
 faith and love, instead of abstruse creeds; suh- 
 Btanoe, instead of shadow; realities, instead of 
 signs. His main object Beemed to be. to ascertain 
 
 the kind of instruction most needed by the 
 
 Iren, and how to base it upon their previous 
 
 knowledge. When he saw them interested, he 
 pursued the same topic for hours, and left it only 
 when the interest flagged or the point was 
 gained. He gave them no lessons to commit to 
 memory, but always something to mvestigate. 
 They gained little positive knowledge, but their 
 love of knowledge and power of acquiring it in- 
 creased daily. Being without assistance, he was 
 driven by necessity" to set the elder and better- 
 taught scholars to teach the youuger and more 
 ignorant : and thus he struck out the mutual in- 
 struction system, which, about the same time. 
 Lancaster (q.v.) was, under somewhat similar 
 circumstances, led to adopt in England. At the 
 end of a single term, the result of this course of 
 instruction was manifestly' great. The children 
 had improved so much, both physicahy and 
 morally, that Pestalozzi said : '1 hey seemed en- 
 tirely different beings from those 1 had received 
 six months before, neglected, ragged, and filthy.'' 
 But yet the troubles of that agitated period 
 would not allow him to continue his benevolent 
 labors. Already, in 1799, the orphan house was 
 converted into a military hospital, and Pestalozzi 
 left Stanz. A vacancy in a school at Burgdorf, 
 in the canton of Bern, was offered him shortly 
 after, and he promptly engaged to fill it. though 
 a very inferior position for a man who had made 
 all Europe talk about his theory of education. 
 But, even from this humble position, he was dis- 
 missed in a very short time, the head-master per- 
 ceiving that Pestalozzi had succeeded in gaining 
 the attention and affection of the children in a 
 higher degree than he himself. Fortunately, 
 another school in the town, taught by an old 
 dame, made room for him; and, in this obscure 
 place, he taught until the vacant chdteam was 
 placed at his disposal for the establishment of a 
 normal school. Several well-known educators, 
 Kriisi. Tobler, and Buss, joined him in the en- 
 terprise; and it was not long before the celebrity 
 and success of the school led the government to 
 adopt and support it. In 1803, when the castle 
 was needed by the Bernese authorities, Pestalozzi 
 was assigned a deserted monastery in Miincheu- 
 Buchsee, near Hofwyl, and was invited to co- 
 operate with Pellenberg (q.v.), who had sus- 
 tained a similar establishment at that place for 
 nearly 20 years. The two educational reform- 
 ers failed, however, to agree in plans; and Pesta- 
 lozzi was. in L805, permitted to occupy the va- 
 cant castle of Vverdun. canton of \ and. There 
 he met with his greatest success. Celebrated 
 
 men and women of the refined nations of the 
 
 world visited the institution, and went away 
 speaking only words of praise. 1 lis corps of in- 
 structors had been strengthened, from time to 
 time, until it contained 22. Among the pupils 
 of Vvetilun. nearly every nation of Europe was 
 represented. Many of the students were of 
 mature mind, and were graduates of other 
 schools. The school was. of Course, a home. 
 The pupils were made to rise early, their food 
 was good but plain, and special attention was 
 
 paid to physical exercise. The contemplation of 
 
 nature and her laws w;is regarded as lirst in the 
 
PESTALOZZI 
 
 PHARMACEUTICAL SCHOOLS G95 
 
 curriculum of study, and from it a basis was 
 secured for formal exercises in language and 
 composition. According to Pestalozzi's plan, 
 composition comes before analysis, and the use 
 of language before rules. Mathematics was the 
 branch in which the pupils made the greatest 
 progress; and that because the science of num- 
 bers could be most easily brought within the 
 laws of progressive development, which form 
 the basis of the Pestalozzian philosophy. His 
 principle was: "The organism of the human 
 mind is subject to the same laws that nature 
 universally observes in the development of her 
 organic products." 1 [ence, he founded all knowl- 
 edge on perception, and demanded that, by a 
 progress as uninterrupted as possible, and with a 
 constant incitement of the pupil to self-activity. 
 he should be made to advance from what had 
 been already acquired by him to higher results, 
 these results being arrived at as consequences 
 following from wdiat had been previously estab- 
 lished. Objects themselves became, in Pesta- 
 lozzi's hands, the subjects of lessons tending to 
 the development of the observing and reasoning 
 powers — not lessons about objects. For the suc- 
 cessful accomplishment of his purpose, he classi- 
 fied all science in its relation to the work of in- 
 struction, and adopted, by analogy from nature. 
 the doctrine of form and number as universal 
 educational means, and to these added, ultimately. 
 that of sound. This continues, to our day, the 
 guide of objective teaching, though improve- 
 ment has been made in classification. He as- 
 signed to form the subjects drawing, writing, 
 and geometry; to number, arithmetic, in all its 
 departments; and to sound, speaking, reading, 
 singing, and all the possible exercises of the 
 organs of speech. He placed under sou ml. 
 geography, history, and natural science ; but 
 modern object teachers have provided a special 
 class, called that of place. Special attention, 
 however, was directed by Pestalozzi to moral 
 and religious training as distinct from mere in- 
 struction. His object was to lead the pupil to 
 the living source from which spring humility, 
 s "It-devotion, and an active striving for perfec- 
 tion of character. And here, too, gradation and 
 3. regard to the nature and susceptibilities of 
 children were conspicuous features of his sys- 
 tem. The one great fundamental principle of 
 his pedagogical system, is the natural, progres- 
 sive, ana symmetrical development of all the 
 powers and faculties of the human being. This 
 great truth had long existed as an intellectual 
 conviction in the minds of philosophers, and had 
 even been expressed in proverbs and apothegms; 
 but it was Pestalozzi who first showed, by nat- 
 ural experiment, how it might be made the 
 basis of universal education, and the means by 
 which humanity might be elevated. (For a crit- 
 icism on Pestalozzi's system, see Kriksi, Pes- 
 talozzi: His Life, Work, and Influence!) 
 
 Unfortunately for the material success of 
 Pestalozzi, dissensions arose among his teachers, 
 in which he himself became implicated. The num- 
 ber of his pupils rapidly diminished, the estab- 
 
 lishmeiit became a losing concern, and Pestalozzi 
 was again involved in debt, which even the pub- 
 lication of his works in a collected form (Stutt- 
 gart and Tubingen, L5 vols., 1819 -26) failed 
 to liquidate. En 1825, he retired from his 
 laborious duties to Neuhof, where his grandson 
 
 then resided. His g I wife had died In 1815; 
 
 and, in great despondency and mortification, ha 
 
 spent his remaining days. A great many insti- 
 tutions bear his name; and the first centennial 
 anniversary of his birth was celebrated, in 1846, 
 with appropriate ceremonies, not only in Switzer- 
 land but all over Germany. At his grave, a 
 
 monument was erected by the cant( f Aaigau. 
 
 The best biography of Pestalozzi in German is 
 that by Blochmann (1846), the latest by Morf 
 (1864). In French, the most complete is by 
 Chavanne (1853). In English, the latest is by 
 Kriisi (Cincinnati, 1815). — See also Barnard, 
 Pestalozzi and Pesfalozzianism (New York, 
 
 L859), and the article ( >BJECT TEACHING. 
 PHARMACEUTICAL SCHOOLS. The 
 
 healing art has. for ages, embraced both the ap- 
 plication of therapeutical knowledge and the 
 supply and preparation of remedial agents: and. 
 until the separation of these branches as the arts 
 of medicine and of pharmacy, at a comparatively 
 recent time, the history of medicine, and of med- 
 ical schools and literature, embodied that of 
 pharmacy; while, on the other hand, at an earlier 
 period, both medicine and pharmacy were 
 merged, to a large extent, in the pursuits and 
 history of alchemy. Aside from the earliest 
 traditions of the first crude stages of medical and 
 pharmaceutical science in Egypt, at so remote an 
 age as the Kith century B. ('.. as recorded in the 
 Papyrus Ebers, the art of pharmacy, as a spe- 
 cial branch of that of medicine, seems to have 
 been first practiced among the Arabs; and 
 establishments, recognized for the supply of re- 
 medial agents, are said to have been first insti- 
 tuted in Bagdad, in the year 754 A. I). The 
 first systematic attempt at a methodical collec- 
 tion and classification of recognized formula is 
 said to have been compiled by the Arab physi- 
 cian and philosopher Sabor elm Sahel. in the 
 latter part of the 9th century. In conjunct inn 
 with medicine, pharmacy was first taught, as a 
 branch of university instruction at the celebrated 
 school at Salerno. During the following cent- 
 uries, the establishing of pharmacies and meas- 
 ures for a legal regulation of the art of pharma- 
 cy extended into western Europe; and the 
 newly established universities became centers of 
 research and learning. Yet the absorbing prob- 
 lems of the transmutation of base metals into 
 gold, and of the existence of a universal remedy, 
 potent to avert disease, to heal sickness, to main- 
 tain or restore youth, and to prolong life, for 
 centuries engaged the aims and inspired the ef- 
 forts of the wisest and most learned men, in a 
 search throughout nature for the -philosopher's 
 stone" and the "elixir of life." The long pur- 
 suit of these phantoms, and the visionary but 
 most productive speculations of alchemy, re- 
 sulted in the accumulation of a vast amount of 
 
(596 
 
 PHARMACEUTICAL SCHOOLS 
 
 chemical and physical knowledge, and in the most 
 important discoveries in the domain of chem- 
 ical operations, processes, and products. These 
 added largely to the compass of the materia 
 med 'tea, and contributed much to prepare that 
 revolution in the intellectual world, no less than 
 in the material resources of men. which, at the 
 close of the last century, culminated in the over- 
 throw of old ideas and systems, and laid a foun- 
 dation for the modern theories of chemical philos- 
 ophy, for the subsequent wonderful strides in 
 their practical applications to all the affairs of 
 industrial and social life, and for their productive 
 influence upon the advancement of physiological, 
 pharmaceutical, and analytical chemistry. — Dur- 
 ing the struggles of this remarkable revolution, 
 which, among its other results, separated medi- 
 cine and pharmacy as independent correlative 
 branches, the latter was the leading and most 
 successful cultivator of chemistry, and attained 
 at that time, and especially at the close of the 
 last and the first half of the present century, in 
 continental Europe, its culmination. It supplied 
 from among its ranks the newly-created chairs 
 both of chemistry and of pharmacy, and fre- 
 quently of botany also, at the universities and 
 special schools for medicine, pharmacy, agri- 
 culture, and kindred arts; the increasing 
 branches of chemical industry and manufacture, 
 too, were largely and successfully occupied and 
 cultivated by pharmacists. Pharmacy emanci- 
 pated itself more and more, in the civilized coun- 
 tries, from co-education with, and subordination 
 to, medicine ; special schools, or at the univer- 
 sities, special chairs, for instruction in pharma- 
 ceutical chemistry and pharmacognosy, were es- 
 tablished ; and both the standard of qualification 
 and the practice of pharmacy, like that of med- 
 icine, were restricted and controlled by the 
 state. Since the middle of the present century, 
 by the rapid strides in the progress and applica- 
 tion of the physical sciences, particularly of 
 chemistry in its various relations, the position 
 of pharmacy has somewhat changed. Chemistry 
 lias risen to a commanding station among the 
 physical sciences, and in the industry and wealth 
 of nations; its application in the manufacture 
 and supply of all chemical products cheaply on 
 a commercial scale, has largely deprived the 
 pharmacist of one of the original and most im- 
 portant and instructive objects of his pursuit, — 
 tin' preparation of medicinal chemicals and many 
 of the pharmaceutical products. On the other 
 
 hand, pharmacy is losing scope by the decrease 
 in the use of medicines, in consequence of the 
 general increase of hygienic knowledge, and the 
 progress of medical science. The former pre- 
 eminently professional character of pharmacy 
 has, in consequence, gradually given way to a 
 
 more mercantile and trade aspect. But, notv ith- 
 standing the diminution of its resources and of 
 its former scope of application, the rcqui.»ite 
 Standard of proficiency is. as yet. every-where 
 maintain* d ; and, in countries of a growing civi- 
 lization, pharmaceutical education is continually 
 
 and correspondingly raised. Most countries, then- 
 
 fore, at present, either have special schools for the 
 higher education of pharmacists, or else afford 
 instruction in the pharmaceutical branches at 
 universities, or medical or technical institutions. 
 In the amount of the preparatory education 
 required, the high standard of scientific and 
 practical qualification, and the restrictions en- 
 forced by law and controlled by the government, 
 Germany ranks highest. The candidate for 
 apprenticeship must have attained maturity for 
 the second class (Ober-S<>< -u mln) of the gymna- 
 sium, or must have passed through a real school. 
 The apprenticeship must last three years; during 
 which time the pupil's progress, and the obliga- 
 tory instruction by his master, are controlled 
 by annual examinations by a delegate of the 
 district government. At the close of the appren- 
 ticeship, and after successfully passing an exami- 
 nation before a board, also appointed by the 
 district government, the candidate has to com- 
 plete his practical experience by serving for three 
 years more as clerk : and he is then entitled to 
 enter upon the obligatory course of university 
 study at any one of the 20 < rerman universities. 
 Be is five to attend such lectures as he may 
 choose : and. at the close of each lecture term 
 he may select another university, according to 
 his option : while the state requires, with un- 
 compromising severity, the satisfactory passage 
 of a comprehensive final examination. To this 
 
 the Student is only admitted after having at- 
 tended the lectures and laboratory instruction 
 for at least three lecture terms \\\ years) : and. 
 upon passing it. the state grants him a license for 
 the practice of pharmacy throughout the empire. 
 Many graduates choose to acquire, by a continu- 
 ation <,(' university and laboratory studies. and 
 by the subsequent passage of an examination be- 
 fore the philosophical faculty of a university. the 
 degree of Ph. D. — Similar, and nearly equally 
 strict, is the course of pharmaceutical education 
 and qualification in Austria. Hungary. Russia, 
 Switzerland. Sweden. Norway, and Denmark; 
 but somewhat less strict in lioumania. Italy, and 
 Greece. In France, pharmaceutical education is 
 
 controlled by the state so far that students, after 
 a more or less brief experience in drug-stores, 
 have to attend, for one or two years, the lectures 
 at one of the pharmaceutical schools at Paris, 
 Nancy, or MontpeUier, or at the medical and 
 pharmaceutical schools at Nantes or Marseilles, 
 and subsequently must pass an examination. 
 Upon the satisfactory passage of this. the student 
 receives, according to the time of his study and 
 the price he is able to pay. the diploma ;us a 
 pharmacien of the first, or of the second class. 
 The former is entitled to establish himself indis- 
 criminately, while the latter is allowed to do BO 
 onl\ in small cities. The standard of pharma- 
 ceutical education is somewhat higher in Bel- 
 gium and the Netherlands, but perhaps less strict 
 
 in practical proficiency. The student has lir-t 
 to attend lectures, and then to attain skill and 
 experience in pharmacy, when he is admitted 
 to examination and subsequently to practice. In 
 Spain and Portugal. the courst of pharmaceutical 
 
PHARMACEUTICAL SCHOOLS 
 
 PHILADELPHIA 
 
 69T 
 
 education, and the qualification required on the 
 part of the state, seem to be similar to those in 
 France. The three Spanish universities in Mad- 
 rid, Barcelona, and Granada, and the medical 
 schools at Lisbon, Oporto, and Coimbra, in Port- 
 ugal, afford lectures to pharmaceutical students. 
 Education in this department, in Turkey, while 
 it is not uniformly obligatory, embraces an ap- 
 prenticeship of three years, and a subsequent 
 attendance upon the lectures at the Imperial 
 Institute, in Constantinople, which also has 
 the direction of the examination, and grants 
 licenses to those who apply for and pass it suc- 
 cessfully. In Great Britain, the state has exert- 
 ed an obligatory influence on the qualification 
 of pharmacists since 1868; but it leaves this 
 control to the Pharmaceutical Society of Great 
 Britain, and to the Privy ( Ymncil. The only re- 
 striction consists in a registry statute, requiring 
 two successive examinations: a preliminary one 
 for registration as " apprentice or student'*, and a 
 minor examination, for a license as "chemist and 
 druggist", or a major examination for a license 
 as "pharmaceutical chemist." The state of 
 pharmacy, and the standard of pharmaceutical 
 education, in the various countries of Spanish 
 and Portuguese America, is comparatively little 
 known. In several of them, as for instance, in 
 Mexico, Brazil. Peru, and others, the state exer- 
 cises a more or less strict, although not uniform- 
 ly efficient, control; while, in other states, either 
 . the qualification for the practice of pharmacy is 
 not restricted, or the control is more nominal 
 than real. Pharmaceutical education and prac- 
 tice in Canada stand in close relation to those of 
 Great Britain and the United States. 
 
 The standard of pharmacy and pharmaceu- 
 tical education in the United States is not uni- 
 form, because it is not obligatory ; and until 
 recently it has been left entirely to individual 
 option and efforts. AVhile sporadic attempts to- 
 ward some kind of legal regulation have mostly 
 failed of virtual effect, yet a strong and increas- 
 ing body of accomplished pharmacists, largely 
 strengthened by the immigrated German element, 
 has grown up ; and, by its influence and efforts, 
 has contributed gradually to raise the standard 
 of pharmacy, and to attain, in several states, and 
 in a number of the largest cities, some authori- 
 tative control of the qualification of pharma- 
 cists. Chartered local associations (colleges of 
 pharmacy) have been established in these cities 
 and states, and they have, in pursuit of their 
 aims and objects, founded schools of pharmacy. 
 Chartered schools of pharmacy were in existence, 
 in 1870, in the following cities: Philadelphia 
 (founded in 1821); New York (1831); Balti- 
 more (1855): Chicago (1859); Boston (1867); 
 Ann Arbor (1868); Cincinnati (1870); St. Louis 
 (1871); Louisville (1871); San Francisco (1872); 
 Washington. 1). C. (1873); Nashville (1873). 
 These institutions grant, upon their own mutual- 
 ly recognized authority, diplomas with the de- 
 gree of Graduate of Pharmacy, to those candi- 
 dates, without regard as yet to their preliminary 
 education, who have had experience in drug- 
 
 stores for four years, have attended a1 least two 
 
 courses of lectures at one of the pharmaceutical 
 
 schools, or at some medical or kindred college, 
 
 where chemistry, chemical analysis, botany, phar 
 macognosy, and practical pharmacy are taught, 
 and who subsequently have passed a satisfactory 
 examination before a board of trustees of the 
 College of Pharmacy. The colleges and schools 
 of pharmacy in the United States have thus far 
 
 acted harmoniously in their voluntary and suc- 
 cessful efforts for a gradual and uniform eleva- 
 tion of the scope and the standard of education 
 and proficiency among pharmacists. The most 
 serious drawback to general .and permanent re- 
 sults consists in the absence of any authoritative 
 national or state restriction and control of the 
 practice of pharmacy, and in a consequent exce.-.- 
 ive and detrimental overcrowding of the pro- 
 fession, and for causes previously stated, in a 
 general decrease in the compass of legitimate ap- 
 plication, and in the resources and material pros- 
 perity of the art of pharmacy. 
 
 PHILADELPHIA, the chief city of the 
 state of Pennsylvania, and the second in popu- 
 lation in the United States, the number of its 
 inhabitants, in 1870, being 674,022, and the es- 
 timated number, in 1876, "50.000. 
 
 Educational History. — The first school opened 
 in the city of Philadelphia was the private En- 
 glish school of Enoch Flower, in 168.*!. Recom- 
 mendations in favor of education had been pre- 
 viously made by William Penn, but had no1 
 been acted on. In 1689, the Society of Friends 
 ! established a public school — not public, however, 
 in the modern acceptation of the word, since it 
 was founded "at the request, costs, and charges, 
 of the people called Quakers." This school is 
 still in existence. In 1750, a charitable school 
 for young men was founded by Franklin : and. 
 by 1752, the number of schools in the colony of 
 Pennsylvania — and probably, therefore, in Phil- 
 adelphia — must have considerably increased, as 
 the legislature, in that year, found it expedient 
 to appoint trustees and managers for them. The 
 provisional constitution of the state, adopted in 
 1776, declares, in its 44th section, that " a school 
 shall be established in each county by the legis- 
 lature, for the convenient instruction of youth, 
 with such salaries to the masters, paid by the 
 public, as may enable them to instruct youth at 
 low prices;'' but no immediate steps appear to 
 have been taken to make this provision of any 
 practical value. In 1786, a tract of 60,000 acres 
 of land was set apart by the legislature for the 
 public schools of the state; and the 7th section of 
 the constitution of 1790 provides that "the legis- 
 lature shall, as conveniently as may he.provide by 
 law for the establishment of schools throughout 
 the state, in such manner that the poor may be 
 taught </r>i/is." The dissatisfaction, however, 
 caused by this law, rendered it inoperative for 
 several years. In L809, another ad for the free 
 education of the poorwas passed; but the same 
 dissatisfaction caused the law to remain a dead 
 letter, the rich objecting to being taxed in behalf 
 of the poor, and the poor being too proud to ac- 
 
698 
 
 PHILADELPHIA 
 
 cept as a gift the education of their children. 
 These objections on the part of the two classes 
 appear frequently in the early legislation of the 
 colonies in regard to free public schools. When 
 it became apparent that the law of 1809 was of 
 no practical value, a supplement was procured in 
 favor of the city of Philadelphia, by which the 
 commissioners of Philadelphia County, with the 
 approval of the councils and commissioners of 
 districts, were directed to establish pubhc 
 Schools. Under this system, 2,000 children re- 
 ceived instruction in 1816, at an expense of 
 $23,000. Serious objections to this system, 
 however, were made, on account of its class dis- 
 tinctions, and its want of economy, which re- 
 sulted in tlie formation of the Society for the 
 Promotion of Public Economy, of which Rob- 
 erts Vaux was chairman. In Is 18, this society, 
 both composed of, and aided by, the ablest 
 and mosl influential citizens of Philadelphia, 
 procured the passage of an act which provided 
 for the free education of all the children of the 
 city, and which did not contain the objectionable 
 features of previous acts. This erected the city 
 and county of Philadelphia into a separate 
 school-district, each district of the city being de- 
 nominated a section. Sectional directors were 
 appointed by the several councils, as well as con- 
 trollers, one from each section, to be known as 
 the Board of School Controllers. Of this board, 
 Huberts Vaux was the first president. This act 
 is generally regarded as the foundation of the 
 present common-school system of Philadelphia. 
 It applied, however, to that city alone ; and the 
 people, failing to discriminate between its pro- 
 visions and those of the law of 1809, which was 
 still in force in the remainder of the state, in- 
 cluded them all in their condemnation. The 
 friends of the Philadelphia law, therefore, formed 
 an association known as the Pennsylvania 
 Society for Promoting Public Schools, with 
 branches in various parts of the state ; and de- 
 tcriniii >d, if possible, to procure the passage of 
 a new common-school law, which should extend 
 th • advantages of the local law over the state. 
 This was accomplished in 1834, \\h n a general 
 law was passed providing for the free education 
 of all persons in the state between the ages of 6 
 an 1 21 years. Faults were soon found, however, 
 with the practical operation of this measure: an 1 
 >mpts were made to repeal it. but failed, 
 owing largely to its able advocacy by Thaddeus 
 Stevens, then a member of the legislature. In 
 the session of L835 — (J, an improved law was 
 passed, after an animated contest in the legis- 
 lature, an 1 remained in force substantially till 
 L854. Shortly after the establishment of the 
 Schools on a permanent basis, it was discovered 
 that the elementary character of the instruction 
 given was iua lequate to the wants of the city. 
 
 lii L 838, accordingly, the Central High School 
 was opened, with 1 teachers ami (i.'t pupils. 
 This was Followed, in L840, by the establishment 
 of the Girls' High and Normal School, an in- 
 stitution which, in 1875, reported an average 
 attendance of 641 .students. The growth of the 
 
 ' schools is best shown by the following figures: 
 attendance in 1820, 5,369: in 1830, 5,371; in 
 L840, 23,192 ; in 1850, 48,056 ; in i860, 63,530; 
 in 1870, 82,891 ; in 1875, 95,552. 
 
 School System. — The city constitutes one school 
 district, known as the First School- District of 
 Pennsylvania. The control and management of 
 the pubhc schools is intrusted to a board of 
 public ediicaiion consisting of 31 members, one 
 from each ward, with a subordinate board for 
 each ward. The members of the board are ap- 
 pointed for 3 years by the judges of the court of 
 common pleas, and of the district court. They 
 exercise a general supervision over the common 
 schools, making such rules for their own govern- 
 ment aad for that of the schools, as they deem 
 expedient. They appoint a secretary and an 
 assistant secretary, whose powers are limited. 
 There is no city superintendent. The schools are 
 supported by a city tax. They are divided into 
 primary, secondary, grammar, and high schools: 
 and it is claimed that this distinction was first 
 made in Philadelphia. There are, also, consol- 
 idated schools and night schools. The number of 
 the schools, in 1 ^7."). was 224 primary, 127 sec- 
 ondary. 29 consolidated, 63 grammar, and 2 high 
 schools. 
 
 The principal items of school s(a(is/ics are as 
 follows : 
 
 Total attendance in 1875 95,552 
 
 Average " " " 82,976 
 
 Number of teachers, males 77 
 
 " females 1.P01 
 
 Total 1,878 
 
 Receipts $1,1 46,929.29 
 
 Expenditures 1,634,653.26 
 
 The sttidies. taught in the primary schools, are, 
 reading, spelling, penmanship, arithmetic— men- 
 tal and practical — ami music, accompanied by 
 
 exercises in dictation, object lessons, and gymnas- 
 tics, and by instruction in morals and manners. 
 To these are added, in the secondary schools, ar- 
 ticulation and pronunciation, drawing, composi- 
 tion, definitions, and geography, and a general 
 review of the studies pursued in the previous 
 grade. The studies peculiar to the grammar 
 Bchools, are grammar ami history, with instruc- 
 tion in, and reviews of, previous studies. Pupils 
 Erom the grammar schools arc admitted to the 
 Central High School and to the Girls' Normal 
 School semi-annually, upon a satisfactory ex- 
 amination by a committee of principals oi the 
 boys' ami girls' grammar schools. The Central 
 High School, in addition to the studies usually 
 pursued in schools of this class, sj\es instruction 
 in Latin, German, the natural sciences, the higher 
 mathematics, and mental and moral philosophy. 
 It is authorized to confer upon all Students who 
 complete the l years' course, the degree of Bach- 
 elor of Arts, and that of Master of Arts upon 
 all graduates of not less than ■> years' standing 
 
 who shall be entitled to it. The number of stu- 
 dents in attendance, ill L875,was 601. The Girls' 
 
 Normal School grants diplomas to its pupils at 
 graduation. The average number of students in 
 attendance, in 1 ^ 7 ."> , has been previously stated 
 
PHILADELPHIA 
 
 PHONETICS 
 
 099 
 
 to be 641 ; the number in its graduating class 
 ■was 135. Annual examinations of applicants for 
 
 the position of teacher, or special examinations, 
 when necessary, are held by a committee of the 
 board of education, assisted by principals of gram- 
 mar schools and members of tlic Faculty of the 
 Central High School. Two grades of certificates 
 — principals" certificates and assistants' certifi- 
 cates — are issued, the first, to persons not under 
 20 years of age who pass a satisfactory exam- 
 ination in the studies prescribed by the board; 
 the second, to persons not under 17 years of 
 age who obtain, in the same studies, a Stated 
 average somewhat less than that necessary for 
 the position of principal. The holder of a prin- 
 cipal's certificate is immediately eligible to any po- 
 sition lower than that of principal ; and, after one 
 year's teaching, is eligible to the position of prin- 
 cipal of a primary school; after 2 years' teaching, 
 to that of a secondary school: and. after .'! years 
 teaching, to that of a grammar Bch< M >1. The hi >1< ler 
 of an assistant's certificate may hold the position 
 of assistant in any public school; and, after 3 
 years' teaching, may become principal of a pri- 
 mary or secondary school. Principals and assist- 
 ants" certificates are also issued to the graduates 
 of the Girls' Normal School. The number of 
 public evening schools opened in 1875 was 47, — ■ 
 20 for males, 11 for females, 10 for both sexes, 
 and (> for colored people (both sexes). They re- 
 mained open 4 months, the aggregate number of 
 pupils being 14,443; the number of teachers, 
 226. Three important events, occurring in 1875 
 in connection with the common-school system of 
 the city, may be mentioned. The first was the 
 offer of the trustees of the University of Penn- 
 sylvania to receive into its scientific department 
 annually, for a four years' course, 10 pupils from 
 the public schools free of expense. The second 
 was a similar offer from the directors of the 
 Philadelphia School of Design — 10 female pupils 
 being offerei 1 free instruction in art for the pre- 
 scribed course, of 4 years. The third event of im- 
 portance was the examination made, during the 
 summer, by a committee of the board of educa- 
 tion and a corps of scientists, into the sanitary 
 condition of the schools of the city. The results 
 of their inquiries have been arranged in tabular 
 form, and published : and. bearing as they do 
 upon the schools of other cities and states, can- 
 not fail to be of permanent interest and value. 
 The number of private, denominational, and 
 parochial schools in Philadelphia is very large ; 
 but no statistical report of their number or re- 
 sources is attainable. The institutions for higher, 
 professional, scientific, and special instruction 
 are, also, numerous, chief among which may be 
 enumerated, in addition to those given under 
 the title Pennsylvania (q. v.), Girard College. 
 which, though not, strictly speaking, an educa- 
 tional institution of a superior grade, but an or- 
 phan asylum, provides an 8 i years' course of study 
 for the children and youth under its care ; the 
 Polytechnic College, incorporated in 1853; the 
 Franklin Institute; the Wagner Free Institute 
 of Science ; the Divinity School of the Protest- 
 
 ant Episcopal Church : the Evangelical Lutheran 
 Theological Seminary ; the Jefferson, the Eclec- 
 tic, the Hahnemann, and the Women's Medical 
 colleges; the Pennsylvania College of Dental 
 Surgery; the Philadelphia Dental College; and 
 the Philadelphia College of Pharmacy. There 
 
 are. also, a philosophical and a historical society, 
 
 academies for science and art, and many libraries. 
 
 PHILANTHROPIN, or Philanthropi- 
 
 num, the name of an educational institution, 
 
 founded in 177 1. by Basedow (q. v.). It soon 
 became so famous that its admirers, who wi 
 called Philanthropinists, expected from it an 
 entire regeneration of educational systems, and 
 
 founded numerous schools, in imitation of il.as a 
 model. Most of these were short-lived, that 
 founded by Salzmann (q. v.), at Schnepfenthal, 
 alone maintaining itself until the L9th century. 
 Some of the principles and practices on which 
 
 the Philanthropinists laidgreal stress, have beea 
 
 generally abandoned by modern educators; others 
 have quite Commonly been accepted, and have 
 
 contributed to the progress made by the science 
 and art of education in our days. — Bee Quick, 
 Educational Reformers (Cine., 1^74). 
 
 PHILOLOGY. See Langi use. 
 
 PHONETICS ((Jr. tjuwrrrticd, from <,uv> h 
 voice), a term used to denote not only the 
 science of voice-sounds (phonology), but the arts 
 of phonotypy (printing words by their sounds), 
 andphonography (writing words by their sounds). 
 It is also used to designate phonetic teaching, or 
 the practical application of phonetics. In all 
 these cases, the use of the term phonetic as an 
 adjective is more common: as. phonetic scietta , 
 phonetic print, phonetic writing, and phonetic 
 teaching. In this article, these will be severally 
 treated in the order here enumerated. 
 
 I. Phonology,or phonetic science,is, properly, 
 a branch of the science of acoustics, which em- 
 braces a consideration of the sounds used in 
 speech, as well as those used in singing, and in 
 other departments of music. Phonology is related, 
 on the one hand, to physiology, as far as the organs 
 of speech, and their action, are concerned ; and, 
 on the other, to philology, being now recognized 
 by the most eminent philologists as lying at the 
 very foundation of that science, and hence of 
 much greater importance than any mere ortho- 
 graphic etymology can be.- This subject can be 
 best presented and understood by approaching it 
 from the side of our own language, and consider- 
 ing the elementary sounds of that language in 
 their natural order and relations. This will lay 
 a good foundation for the study of general pho- 
 nology, and for a comparison of the sounds of all 
 languages. The Knglish language contains nearly 
 all the sounds needed for a full outline of pho- 
 nology; and, moreover, in Webster's and Worces- 
 ter's dictionaries (now very generally accepted as 
 standards oi reference. — in the United States, 
 universally adopted as such), there is to be found 
 a complete analysis of these sounds — one in 
 which they fully agree, though neither presents 
 them in their natural order, giving them merely 
 as the particular sounds of the letters. In ar- 
 
700 
 
 PHONETICS 
 
 ranging them according to the latest results of 
 phonetic science, we may take these distinctions 
 as we rind them in the dictionaries, where they 
 are correctly made : (1) the sixteen simple vowel 
 sounds heard iii the following words : fate (same 
 
 as ei in re/7). i<tt, C'/iv, tV/r. /«k. "11. wlwt (same 
 
 as o in not) ; mete (same as / in pique), met, fin, 
 note, whole [recognized as an English sound, but 
 
 not sanctioned in orthoepy], r//de, p/dl, //s, "in. 
 These naturally arrange themselves in the fol- 
 lowing ofder. with tin; addition of ii and S from 
 the German to complete the scale : 
 
 VOWELS. 
 Full Vowels. Stopped Vowels. 
 
 Long, when accented. Staccato or exploded. 
 
 Brief, when unaccented. Always short in English. 
 
 (1) 
 
 'a, 
 
 (8) 
 
 FBONT 
 
 SERIES 
 
 pique 
 
 i 
 
 veil 
 
 e 
 
 MIDDLE 
 
 SEHIES 
 
 kiihn 
 
 it 
 
 Goethe 
 
 
 care her 
 X 9 
 
 far 
 
 a 
 
 BACK 
 SERIES 
 
 rude 
 
 u 
 
 note 
 
 all 
 O 
 
 FRi INT 
 SERIES 
 
 fin 
 
 met 
 
 e 
 
 MIDDLE 
 SERIES 
 
 Kiinste 
 
 fat 
 U 
 
 it 
 
 Boecke 
 
 mb what 
 
 ask 
 
 a 
 
 BACK 
 SERIES 
 
 pull 
 
 U 
 
 whole 
 
 
 my 
 
 oil 
 
 vi 
 
 Diphthongs. 
 out 
 
 tune 
 
 iu 
 
 use 
 [I 
 
 The full and stopped vowels occur in pairs, 
 and in three corresponding series, as shown in 
 
 the following table 
 
 pique fin 
 
 i i 
 
 \i i\ in- 1 
 
 e e 
 
 kiihn Kiinste 
 
 it It 
 i kw the Bflcke 
 
 o b 
 
 care fat 
 3d 13 
 
 her vs 
 ,i 9 
 
 rude pull 
 11 II 
 note whole 
 
 all what 
 V) V 
 
 far ask 
 
 u a 
 
 No distinction is made in these tables between 
 the sound of e in term or i in girl, and that of 
 ii in urn <>r in /«;•/. These sounds, however, 
 though kindred, are distinguishable, and are so 
 marked by Webster, who says, "The vulgar uni- 
 versally, and many cultivated speakers both in 
 England and America, give thee in such won Is 
 the full sound of " in urge, as murcy for mercy, 
 turm for term, etc. Hut. in the most approved 
 style of pronunciation, the organs are placed in 
 a position intermediate between that requisite 
 
 for sounding U in furl and that for soundi 
 
 in met, thus making as Smart observes) 'a com- 
 promise between the two'. - ' The vowel sounds. 
 as arranged in the above tables, may be thus de- 
 scribed. Starting from the fundamental sound, 
 
 a IU far (or a in ask), they branch upward in 
 
 (I) a front series, with the tongue risingupward 
 and forward, lo i in />/'/"<■•, (2j a middle series, 
 with the tongue rising to ii. directly upward, 
 and not pushed forward or backward ; and 
 a back series, with the tongue rising upward 
 and backward to n in rude. 'The succession in 
 
 the order of the sounds as judged by the ear. 
 corresponds to that of the movements of the 
 tongue, as perceived by the muscular sense. The 
 diphthongs are arranged below the simple vowels 
 according as they terminate in the upper front 
 vowel i or the upper bach vowel u. 'The rela- 
 tions of the full and corresponding stopped vow- 
 els to each other, as affected by quantity, may 
 be further studied by the aid of the following 
 arrangement of words, in which they respective- 
 ly occur in accented and unaccented syllables 
 (the double letters indicating prolonged sounds): 
 
 eat 
 
 ii 
 
 11 
 mate 
 
 ee 
 
 eternal 
 
 i 
 
 kulm 
 
 it 
 
 Kiinste 
 
 ii 
 
 ee 
 
 care 
 
 ;iec 
 
 it 
 
 i 
 
 maternal 
 
 e 
 
 Goethe Bocke 
 
 
 V.V 
 
 met 
 
 e 
 
 clairvoyant cut 
 X 80 
 
 carry 
 13 
 
 99 
 
 curtail 
 
 curry 
 
 9 
 
 prude 
 UU 
 
 prudentda 
 U 
 
 
 wood 
 
 u u 
 
 U 
 
 oak 
 
 location 
 
 00 
 
 O 
 
 
 spoken 
 
 OO 
 
 O 
 
 aught 
 
 authentic 
 
 DO 
 
 T) 
 
 
 not 
 
 VV 
 
 V 
 
 part 
 (HI 
 
 act 
 
 partake 
 U 
 
 ask 
 
 a 
 
 It may be observed that the stopped vowels 
 do not, and cannot, rise quite BO high in the 
 scale as their corresponding full vowels: but 
 this difference is reduced to a minimum in the 
 fundamental pair, a a, and in the lower front 
 pair, a' B- 
 
 The following is a synoptical arrangement of 
 consonant sounds, a e German sounds be- 
 ing added, [a, indicates aspirates ; /. subtonics : 
 //.nasals; I, liquids ; r. vowel consonants] : 
 
 CONSONANTS. 
 
 
 LIP 
 
 I.IP- 
 
 TONGUE- 
 
 TIP- 
 
 TOP- 
 
 BOOT* 
 
 
 
 TEETH 
 
 TEETH 
 
 xoNoxnt 
 
 TONGUE 
 
 roNous 
 
 
 tip 
 
 
 
 tone 
 
 c/iin 
 
 cat 
 
 (a) 
 
 p 
 
 
 
 I 
 
 ch 
 
 C 
 
 
 be 
 
 
 
 do 
 
 jar 
 
 .ait 
 
 W 
 
 1) 
 
 
 
 (I 
 
 J 
 
 (r 
 
 
 son 
 
 V 
 
 tMn 
 
 u* 
 
 *Ae 
 
 let 
 
 (") 
 
 
 
 f 
 
 th 
 
 S 
 
 Bh 
 
 fi) 
 
 
 trie 
 
 veil 
 
 Mis 
 
 zone 
 
 oraal 
 
 Tay 
 
 w 
 
 ro 
 
 V 
 
 dli 
 
 / 
 
 zb 
 
 9 
 
 
 7ii e 
 
 
 
 no 
 
 Beftor 
 
 M/"/ 
 
 w 
 
 111 
 
 
 
 n 
 
 lot rare 
 
 Q 
 
 Dg 
 
 (0 
 
 ut&at 
 
 
 
 1 r.i 
 
 
 he 
 
 («) 
 
 ll\V 
 toe 
 
 
 
 
 ye 
 
 b 
 
 («} 
 
 W 
 
 
 
 
 y 
 
 
 For an 
 
 account of the development 
 
 of the 
 
 Dret 
 
 .111 UK 
 
 ■thod I 
 
 f indicat 
 
 ine tins 
 
 • soundi 
 
 in the 
 
PHONETICS 
 
 701 
 
 English language, the reader is referred to the 
 
 article Oil ORTHOGRAPHY. 
 
 II. Phonetic Print. — The elementary Bounds 
 nf the English language are usually represented 
 
 in dictionaries by diacritical marks ; but various 
 methods of phonotypic notation, other than this, 
 have been employed. That of Dr. Edwin Leigh 
 h;is been extensively used for school purposes, 
 and has attained a considerable degree of pop- 
 ularity. An ingenious system of representation 
 approximating to the diacritical, is used in 
 Shearer's ( 'ombinaiion Speller (NewTork.,181 1 1. 
 The notation employed in the above vowel and 
 consonant scales, using only the common letters 
 of the alphabet for temporary and critical use, 
 is in substantial accordance with the plans of 
 Dr. Thornton (1790), of the Dutch alphabet, of 
 .Mr. Bill's in the Alphabet of Nature (1844), and 
 Palaeotype (1868), of Prof. Haldeman (1860), 
 and of 3. P. Andrews (1876). It is not incon- 
 sistent with those of Pickering, Lepsius, and 
 others, which have been used in printing Asiatic 
 and new languages. It harmonizes these various 
 plans, and is in very exact accordance with a 
 phonotypic plan that is, perhaps, as good as any 
 yet proposed, and has, moreover, a good and 
 facile script corresponding to both. 
 
 III. Phonography, or phonetic writing,ia its 
 more general sense, would include any script in 
 which the letters are used to denote sounds; but 
 it is now appropriated, in a special sense, to Pit- 
 man's particular system of phonetic short-hand. 
 For an account of various efforts to construct a 
 phonetic long-hand script, for the English and 
 other languages, see the publications of Isaac 
 Pitman and Elias Langley. For a history of 
 short-hand (stenography) , see a valuable treatise 
 by Mr. Pitman published in connection with his 
 '• Fonotypic Journal" in 18-47, in which he 
 describes 120 systems, and gives the alphabets 
 of 86 A-B-C systems, from that of Tyro — 
 Cicero's freedman — (B. C. 60), down to those of 
 Gurney (1753), Byrom (1767), Taylor (1786), 
 Mayor (1789), Lewis (1815), and Floyd (1818) ; 
 giving, also, specimens of passages written in the 
 seven most successful systems, and adding the 
 alphabets and specimens of the seven phonetic 
 systems from Tiffin (1750) to Sproat (1846). — 
 Pitman's phonography was invented in 18.37, 
 and so thoroughly matured by its author before 
 1844, that its main features remain unchanged ; 
 though, with the co-operation of leading phonog- 
 raphers in England and America, some of its 
 minor details have been improved or modified. 
 It can be studied in Pitman's manuals, especially 
 those of 1860 and 1865 ; or as it appears in the 
 text-books of Andrews and Boyle (Boston. 1 84 fi i : 
 Langley (Cincinnati, 1851), Graham (X. Y.. 
 L858), Ben Pitman (Cincinnati, 1855), .Marsh 
 (San Francisco, 1868), Munson (X. V.. 1866), 
 and E. V. Bums (X. Y., 1872). In connection 
 with any of these (especially those prior to 1860), 
 Parkhurst's Stenophonographer (X Y.. 1852 — I 
 76) can be used, and will give to the investigator, 
 teacher, or practical reporter, the history and 
 discussion of the various improvements, proposed I 
 
 or made, simv 1852. — Phonography, notwith- 
 standing its many advantages over the ordinary 
 
 script, has made but little progress since that 
 
 time as a general method of writing, its use, 
 at present, being almost exclusively technical. 
 I fence, it has not been generally tut reduced as a 
 
 branch of instruction, except iii commercial 
 schools, or for the special purposes of preparing 
 for the occupation of the reporter. 
 
 IV. Phonetic teaching now quite generally 
 constitutes a part of the lowest grade of ele- 
 mentary instruction, its object being to facilitate 
 the teaching of children to read. (See PHONIC 
 
 Method.) By means of phonetic exercises, the 
 
 vocal organs of children are trained to clearness 
 and correctness of enunciation, while the ear is 
 cultivated so as to be able readily to distinguish 
 sounds. At the same time, children necessarily 
 acquire a better idea of the use of letters and of 
 the sounds which they are employed to denote. 
 Most educators, at the present time, recommend 
 this mode of teaching; although there is some 
 diversity in the manner in which it is applied. 
 Beginning with simple words in which single 
 Letters are used to denote simple sounds, and in 
 which no silent letters occur, the child is led to 
 perceive the use of the letters, and to associate 
 with them their proper sounds, the teacher 
 passes progressively to more complex and ir- 
 regular combinations, until the pupil is able to 
 analyze words into their component sounds, and 
 state how these sounds are represented. After 
 such preliminary exercises, in order that the 
 pupil may fully understand the relations of the 
 sounds to each other, and be systematically 
 drilled in their utterance, all the elementary 
 sounds must be presented synoptically. This is 
 done by phonetic charts, which should exhibit 
 (1) a logical enumeration of the elementary 
 sounds, illustrated by their use in well-chosen 
 words; and (2) the letters of the alphabet with 
 their various sounds, and diphthongal combina- 
 tions. Very many of the faults in articulation 
 so frequently met with may be prevented or re- 
 moved by persistent drilling in the elementary 
 sounds. These phonetic drills may comprise 
 exercises in the vowel sounds by themselves; 
 but the consonant sounds are often most effect- 
 ively practised in combinations with vowels. In 
 teaching persons, whether children or adults, to 
 pronounce a foreign language, this training is in- 
 dispensable. Of course.it should be preceded 
 by a careful investigation into the particular 
 defects which constitute what is called the 
 "foreign accent,'' so that the elementary sounds 
 involved may be made the special subject of the 
 drill. Phonetic analysis should not cease in the 
 Lower grades, but should, at every stage, consti- 
 tute a part of the regular reading or elocution- 
 ary exercises. Like the fingers of the pianist or 
 violinist, the vocal organs need constant tech- 
 nical exercise in order that they may perform 
 their office most effectively. The enunciation 
 of the open vowel sounds constitutes a most 
 important part of vocal training. (See Voice, 
 Culture ok the.) 
 
702 
 
 PHONIC METHOD 
 
 PHYSICAL EDUCATION 
 
 PHONIC METHOD, a term applied to a I 
 method of teaching reading, in accordance with I 
 which pupils are taught, in pronouncing words, 
 to use the sounds of the letters, instead of their 
 names, so that they may at once perceive the 
 result of the combination, and thus without dif- 
 ficulty give the correct pronunciation. For ex- 
 ample, when the pupil is required to pronounce 
 the word dog, he does not say de-o-ge, dog, but 
 gives to each letter the proper sound, phoneti- 
 cally, and thus at once pronounces the word dog 
 as the necessary product of the elements thus 
 combined. This method is considered by teach- 
 ers to possess many advantages over the old- 
 fashioned way of compelling the pupils to learn 
 the names of the letters of the alphabet, and 
 then teaching them to read by spelling exercises. 
 (SeeOaTHOOB \i'nv.) 
 
 PHONICS. See Orthography, and Phonet- 
 ics. 
 
 PHRENOLOGY. See Character, Discern- 
 ment OF. 
 
 PHYSICAL EDUCATION maybe defined 
 as that systematic training of the bodily powers 
 which tends to render them, in the highest pos- 
 sible degree, efficient in their several functions. 
 The necessity for this training is generally ac- 
 knowledged, as a basis for the higher depart- 
 ments of education. Among the ancients — the 
 Persians, the < J reeks, and the Romans, especially, 
 the highest respect was accorded to physical cult- 
 ure; and the means employed were generally 
 well adapted to the purpose, although merely 
 empirical : but, at the present time, the re- 
 searches of science ought to supply a far better 
 and more accurate basis for an effective system 
 of bodily training. — Physical education looks to 
 two objects : (1) to encourage a normal devel- 
 opment of bodily powers ; and (2) to check mor- 
 bid growth. Incidentally to these, of course, 
 the preservation of health, that is, protection 
 against disease, is an important object ; since a 
 condition of health is the foundation upon which 
 all physical culture must rest ; indeed, if chil- 
 dren are successfully protected from morbid in- 
 fluences and disturbances, normal development 
 must result. 
 
 (1) The application of appropriate means to 
 stimulate or guide the development of the bod- 
 ily powers ates what is called physical 
 
 training. This training may be (1) general, or 
 I'l) special. Up to a certain age, all physical 
 exercise must have for its object general develop- 
 ment; beyond that, the special purpose of the 
 training must dictate the nature of the exercise 
 to be employed. Military drill, it is tru< 
 often employed in schools to promote general 
 development, bu1 there is very much required in 
 military discipline thai is quite unnecessary for 
 ordinary physical culture. The importance of 
 
 bematic e has been considered in the 
 
 articles calisthenics and gymnastics (q. v.). Such 
 
 rcise, however, musl nol look exclusively to 
 
 muscular development ; 1 mt to the prompt OS6 
 
 of muscular power in obedience to the dictates 
 
 of mind. Such power systematically exercised 
 
 in any given direction becomes almost automatic, 
 as is seen in the case of the skillful oarsman, 
 rider, or swordsman ; or in adepts in athletic 
 games, such as those of ball and cricket. All 
 si uli means of physical culture become of special 
 value, as bringing the powers of the body under 
 the immediate control of the will ; and, hence, 
 under the name athletics, they have been gener- 
 ally encouraged by those who have the direction 
 of superior education. In the same category, are 
 to be placed the exercises which regard the due 
 development of other physical powers, as the 
 senses, the vocal organs, the lungs, and. in a closer 
 relation to intellectual education, the brain. 
 Educators err greatly in forgetting that the 
 brain is a physical organ, and that its exerci- 
 subject to the same laws and to the same limita- 
 tions as other bodily organs : and that, therefore, 
 physical considerations should have a controlling 
 weight in determining the means and. to Bome 
 extent, the methods of intellectual training. (See 
 Brain.) — .Many are inclined to regard the direc- 
 tion of physical training as unnecessary. They 
 think that the physical powers of children and 
 youth receive, in the instinctive and irrepressible 
 exercises natural to that age. a sufficient educa- 
 tion for ordinary purposes. From this view 
 arises a neglect which is fraught with serious 
 injury. Not only does the individual fail to act 
 appropriately and energetically at every trying 
 period of his life; but. in most eases, his action 
 falls somewhat below what is required for effect- 
 ive results, through want of the full co-operation 
 of the bodily powers: and, toward the close of life, 
 decrepitude is accelerated by the partial atrophy 
 occasioned by imperfect development and by 
 disuse. 
 
 i '_' i To check morbid growth or to prevent dis- 
 ease, careful attention must be given to the sur- 
 roundings of the child, particularly in school; 
 as there he is subjected to constant restraint, 
 and. hence, cannot exercise his natural instincts 
 which would prompt him to escape from such 
 surroundings. The preservation of children 
 from morbid influences in school depends upon 
 a great variety of circumstances, for a full enu- 
 meration of which, see BvQIEHE, SCHOOL. — The 
 
 practical aim of physical education, under the in- 
 fluence of modem fife, is almost always intellect- 
 ual. Gymnastics and calisthenics, however, in- 
 directly exert a moral influence which, of itself, 
 makes their practice desirable. This is that 
 magnanimity which is produced in generous 
 minds by the consciousness of bodily health ami 
 power, and a disposition to use that power 
 worthily. A feeling of inferiority has always 
 associated with it an element of immorality, 
 which leads its possessor to acts of duplicity ami 
 
 meanness to preserve his equality. There is still 
 
 another phase of physical education to be con- 
 that which relates to the joint action 
 
 of tin mind and body through the i hum of 
 
 the senses. (See EAR, EYE, and SENSES, EdUCA- 
 non OF.) The minute subdivision of labor char- 
 acteristic of the age in which we live, by giving 
 a utilitarian value to the cultivation of the 
 
PHYSICS 
 
 senses is rapidly constituting this an element of 
 increasing importance. Already, the success of 
 
 numerous trades and employments is dependent 
 upon a nicety of discrimination by means of the 
 eye, the ear, the taste, or the touch; and the number 
 
 of these is steadily increasing. The cultivation 
 of the senses, therefore, is desirable from a merely 
 
 utilitarian point of view; while for general cult- 
 ure, such as is required in many of the arts, its 
 absolute necessity is manifest. Many considera- 
 tions and interests, therefore, conspire to make 
 the subject of physical education one of con- 
 stantly increasing importance. 
 PHYSICS. See Science. 
 _ PHYSIOLOGY i ( .'r. v , « f> nature, and ?,; ; oc, 
 discourse), the science which treats of vital 
 phenomena — as contradistinguished from anato- 
 my, which treats of the structure of living 
 bodies and the materials of which they are com- 
 posed. In the course of education, it presup- 
 poses some preliminary knowledge of chemistry, 
 physics, anatomy, and especially of microscopic 
 anatomy, or histology; and. in turn, it precedes the 
 study of hygiene, or the laws of health, and that 
 of pathology, or the science of abnormal function. 
 As a science, physiology is of recent origin; though 
 the name has been in use from antiquity. Like all 
 other natural sciences, as Dalton observes, "there 
 is only one means by which physiology can 1 ie 
 studied; that is, by the observation of nature." 
 It has been built up by experiment ; and many 
 of its most essential truths, and these in their 
 practical results the most important to man- 
 kind, have been gained through vivisection. As 
 the principal foundation of hygiene, it is obvi- 
 ous that its principles should be so far made an 
 element of general education as may conduce to 
 a just appreciation of nature's sanitary code 
 How this may best be accomplished is a question 
 that has hardly received the attention it deserves. 
 School physiology, in many cases, consists of a 
 smattering of anatomy; in others, of a still more 
 unsubstantial fabric of information regarding 
 function ; or. in still others, of a blending of the 
 two with hygienic doctrines, often based not on 
 a wide conception of biological truths, but on 
 the meager knowledge gained by personal ex- 
 perience. The difficulty has always consisted in 
 attempting to build upon too narrow a founda- 
 tion, and that by means of an erroneous method. 
 Thus, the attempt is made to teach the elements 
 of physiology without a sufficient groundwork 
 of chemistry and physics, and exclusively from 
 books, instead of from practical experience in 
 the laboratory. The results have been — as those 
 of book learning and lecture teaching in natural 
 Science, without observation and experiment, 
 always must be — unreal and evanescent ; hence. 
 by such instruction the true nature of vital 
 phenomena is never clearly apprehended; and 
 the hygienic deductions are, of course, corre- 
 spondingly illogical. Doubtle-s. a greal amount 
 of knowledge has been imparted, in these later 
 days, to the people in general on this subject; 
 but the advance that has been made in sanitary 
 practice is, probably, due not so much to the 
 
 rnYSTOLocY 
 
 ro.3 
 
 results of school education, as to the Improved 
 
 education of medical men. and to tlieir advice 
 
 spoken and written to communities, learning im- 
 practical experience the penalty of infringing 
 hygienic laws. The real n^msite in general 
 education on this subject, appears to be, that, 
 
 when a, Sufficient foundation has been laid, a 
 
 practical course of biology should be employed 
 
 to elucidate the general laws of lit-: and then 
 'he habit of scientific thought and reasoning, 
 formed by such training, will lead to a correct 
 application of general principles to the special 
 conditions of human life. Some such course oi 
 biological study as .1 Course of Practical Instruc- 
 tion in Elementary Biology,by Huxley and Mar- 
 tin.might properly form a part of the curriculum 
 
 of every collegiate institution; and, in all scl Is 
 
 of a lower made, as much preparation should be 
 made for such a course as is practicable. Ob- 
 jective teaching, in outline, of anatomy, by the 
 dissection of the lower animals, accompanied by 
 such simple practical suggestions as arise from 
 the interpretation of the mechanical arrange- 
 ments of the body, may be early commenced: 
 but, in all cases, this foundation should be laid 
 systematically, with a definite end in view, and 
 by instructors who have qualified themselves to 
 teach, by following a complete practical course, 
 such as is above suggested. 'J caching merely from 
 text-booksand by pictures, will be almost useless, 
 because superficial ; and no demonstrations, even 
 from the best models, can ever be so effective 
 as those from actual dissections of the lower ani- 
 mals. A pupil will gain a better idea of the 
 appearances presented by his own organs, and of 
 tlieir own relations to one another, from seeing 
 a demonstration of those of a rabbit or a dog, 
 for example, than from any rigid, and necessarily 
 unreal, model, however skillfully constructed i 
 colored. Such models, however, admirably si 
 serve secondary demonstrations. The educator 
 who contemplates laying a foundation for physi- 
 ology should refer to. I Course of I try 
 /'rue/if,/ Physiology, by Poster and Langley — a 
 work intended to succed that of Huxley and 
 Martin, above mentioned. From this guide to 
 laboratory work, he will learn what physiological 
 investigation implies and requires; and he will 
 realize upon what basis rests the information 
 contained in the re-organized physiological text- 
 books: such as Dalton's Treatise mi Human 
 Physiology, Flint's Physiology if Man. and 
 the more reliable of school physiologies, such as 
 Huxley'.-, Elementary Lessons in Physiology, and 
 Dalton's Treatise on Physiology and Hygit 
 and Draper's Anatomy and Physiology. To 
 aid him in demonstrations of the dissections of 
 the lower animals, hi 1 should have at hand a 
 trustworthy treatise on human anatomy, such 
 
 as Morrell's Studenfs Manual of Comparative 
 Anatomy and Ghiideio Dissection, and Mivart's 
 Lessonsin Elementary Anatomy. Everyteacher 
 
 should.also.be familiar will: Carpenter'B Prin- 
 ciples qf Mental Physiology; also, by the same au- 
 thor, PrinMples of < 'omparative Physiology, and 
 Principles of Human Physiology. (See Science.) 
 
704 
 
 PIARISTS 
 
 PIO NONO COLLEGE 
 
 PIARISTS, or Fathers of the Pious 
 Schools, a religious order in the Roman Catholic 
 Church, the members of which are specially de- 
 voted to the gratuitous instruction of youth. This 
 order was founded by Joseph of Calasanza, or 
 Calasantius. a Spanish priest, by the opening of 
 a free school, at Rome, in 1 .V.)7. A large number 
 of children were soon gathered in this school, 
 under the instruction of Calasanza and his asso- 
 ciates; and, by a decree of Paul V., the association 
 assumed the rank of a religious congregation. 
 
 O DO 
 
 Soon afterward (1G22), it was made a religious 
 order, Calasanza being its first general, and 
 soon spread through Germany, Poland, Italy, 
 and some other ci m nt ries. In 1860, the Piarists 
 bad 33 houses in Germany, 28 in Italy, 32 in 
 Hungary, 11 in Poland, and at least 30 in Spain. 
 In Italy, they have since been suppressed ; and 
 the only country in which they conduct, at 
 present, educational institutions of note, is the 
 Austro - 1 lungarian Monarchy. In Cisleithan 
 Austria, in 1870, they had 2'J houses, with 297 
 members ; included in which were 4 under-gyni- 
 nasia. (See Roman Catholic Church.) 
 
 PICTURES. One of the earliest efforts of 
 the human mind, after spoken language, appears 
 to be the communication of ideas by tangible ob- 
 jects. The use of pictures and images is com- 
 mon among savages every-where. It is no less 
 characteristic of the infant mind among civilized 
 races, children being not only interested in look- 
 ing at pictures, but, by a natural prompting, at- 
 tempting to imitate them. The first ideas which 
 the child takes from objects being concrete, 
 its means of expressing them takes the concrete 
 form — its first effort being, as near as possible, a 
 reproduction of the objects themselves. Not till 
 a higher development has been reached, is it 
 fitted to make use of a system in which purely 
 arbitrary forms are employed. This early and 
 almost universal instinct, therefore, involving, as 
 it must, the ability to understand ideas so com- 
 municated, suggests the peculiar fitness of this 
 method for use in the instruction of children. 
 This form of expression being attended with so 
 much pleasure, it finds its natural place in the 
 kindergarten system ; and wc find, accordingly, 
 various exercises there for the employment of it. 
 It is even extended into the ordinary school sys- 
 tem in the shape of object lessons. But this 
 method, useful as it is at certain stages, has its 
 limitations. It should not be forgotten that, 
 with children, the object itself, for purposes of 
 insi ruction, is always better than any represen- 
 tation of it. As the picture of an animal, for 
 instance, is only one phase of the form of that 
 animal, and docs not usually lake into con- 
 sideration size, color, and many other essential 
 qualities, only a \cry imperfect impression call 
 be gained from it. This fact should suggest the 
 
 limitations mentioned. These have reference 
 
 principally to the end to be attained, to the cor- 
 rectness of the picture, and the number and 
 
 nature of the objects represented. As to the 
 
 '■"i-rectncss of the picture, little need be said; as 
 modern publications, ill this respect, show a 
 
 ' constant improvement, and leave little to be de- 
 J sired. The number of objects represented in 
 i each picture should be limited, single figures 
 being, at first, given ; afterwards two or three. 
 The objects represented, also, should be familiar 
 things, and several of a kind, inasmuch as, by 
 the contemplation of these, the child's conceptivc 
 facidty, or imagination, and powers of general- 
 ization are exercised. In this respect, also, the 
 right method in primers and elementary books, 
 is, as a rule, instinctively taken — though not al- 
 ways. The value of this last restriction, at a 
 later period, may be easily illustrated. If the 
 object be to give an idea of some animal never 
 seen — the camel, for instance — the task is made 
 comparatively easy from the child's having seen 
 illustrations of somewhat similar objects with 
 which it is familiar ; as the horse, cow, etc. It 
 seizes at once upon the points of resemblance, 
 and, immediately after, upon the points of dif- 
 ference, and thus makes a positive addition to 
 its knowledge. But let the same child be con- 
 fronted with a picture of a star-fish, or a print- 
 ing-press, and the probability is, if it has never 
 seen these or any similar objects, that it will 
 get only a very imperfect idea of either. The 
 reason is obvious. AVith no previous prepara- 
 tion, it is called upon to establish in its mind an 
 entirely new conception, solely from the picture, 
 without any corresponding tangible basis in its 
 experience. The result is a thwarting of the 
 tendency to generalization — so strong with chil- 
 dren always — and a confusing of the mind by 
 an indistinct conception, invariably accompanied 
 with a loss of interest. The special uses to 
 which pictures are put, whether as diagrams in 
 illustration of particular studies, or as part 
 of a higher, artistic education, need not here be 
 considered. The publication of the Orbis Sfen- 
 I suoHium Pictus, by Comenius, was. probably, 
 the earliest attempt to use pictures as a direct 
 I and systematic means of instructing children. 
 (See Comenius.) 
 
 PIO NONO COLLEGE, at St. Francis Sta- 
 tion on Chicago and North-western Railroad, 4 
 m. from Milwaukee, Wis., was founded in 1871. 
 It is under Roman Catholic control, and admits 
 none but Catholics. It is supported by tuition 
 fees, which, including board, tuition, etc are ■- 
 per quarter of 21 months. For music, telegraphy, 
 and phonography there is an extra charge. The 
 course of study embraces thorough instruction 
 in the English, German, and French languages, 
 mathematics in all its branches, book-keeping 
 and history. The number of pupils, in L875 6, 
 wasaboul 60. The first president was the Rev. 
 •Joseph Sal/.inann. I>. !>.. who was succeeded by 
 the present incumbent (1876), the Rev. Theo- 
 dore Bruner. The normal school at the same 
 
 place, for the education of teachers and organ- 
 ists for Catholic schools and churches, has been. 
 
 since the organization of the institution, under 
 the same presidency as the college. In L876, 
 
 this school had 70 pupils. A Catholic deaf and 
 
 dumb institution, in connection with the normal 
 school, was founded in L876. 
 
PITTSBURGH 
 
 •705 
 
 PITTSBURGH, a large and important city 
 ©f Pennsylvania, having a population, in 1870) 
 of 121,215, which, in 1876, was estimated to 
 have increased to 130.000. The town was laid 
 out in 1704, incorporated as a borough in 1 79 I, 
 and as a city in 1816. Since that time, its bound- 
 aries have been enlarged no less than live times 
 —in 1836, '46, '66, '68, and "7'2. 
 
 Educational History. — Pittsburgh promptly 
 availed itself of the provisions of the state school 
 law of 1834 (see Pennsylvania); and. the next 
 year, a public school was opened, which com- 
 menced with au enrollment of only 5 pupils. 
 From that time till 1855, the Pittsburgh schools 
 were under the control of the state, and each 
 ward board had full control of the educational 
 and financial interests of its own school ; but, at 
 the latter date, the legislature, by a special act, 
 consolidated the several wards into one school- 
 district, placing the management of the schools 
 under the control of a central board of educa- 
 tion, composed of one member from each ward, 
 or sub-district, to be elected by the ward board. 
 The following year, the first public high school 
 "was established. In 1808, in pursuance of an act 
 establishing the office of city superintendent of 
 schools, (ieorge J. Luckey was elected to that 
 office, to which he has several times been re- 
 elected, his fourth term expiring in May, 1878. 
 Previous to his election, there was great diversity 
 in school management and methods ; but, under 
 his earnest and efficient administration, a good 
 degree of uniformity has been established. The 
 following shows the growth of the public schools 
 since their consolidation in one school-district, in 
 1855. In 185(5, the enrollment of pupils was 
 6,724; in 1860, it was 7.608 ; in 1865, it had in- 
 creased to 8,743; in 1870. to 12,883 ; in 1875, to 
 20,483 ; and, in 1876, to 21,488. 
 
 School Si/stem. — The general management of 
 the system is vested in the Central Board of 
 Education, consisting of 36 members, one from 
 each district, and holding office for three years, 
 one-third of the board being changed each year. 
 There are. besides, sub-district boards, one in 
 each ward, each consisting of 6 members, having 
 the same term of office as the members of the 
 central board, and one-third retiring annually. 
 Each of these ward boards appoints its own 
 teachers, and levies the tax necessary for the 
 payment of janitors and other expenses ; but the 
 central board appoints the teachers of the high 
 school, fixes the salaries of all the teachers em- 
 ployed in the city, and levies the tax necessary 
 for their payment. It has the exclusive control 
 of the high school, and prescribes the text-books 
 to be used in all the schools. — The course of in- 
 struction prescribed for the ward schools com- 
 prises the usual common-school branches, in- 
 cluding music and drawing. There are 13 grades, 
 embracing a 7 years' course. Pupils, in passing 
 from the ward schools to the Central High 
 School are required to pass an examination in 
 reading, spelling, grammar, composition, arith- 
 metic, algebra, geography, history, and the ele- 
 ments of natural philosophy, besides writing. 
 45 
 
 drawing, music, and calisthenics. Tn order to 
 succeed in this examination they must give, on 
 
 an average. 65 per cent of correct answers in all 
 the studies, and not tall below ID percent in any. 
 
 The High School is divided into three depart* 
 ments; (1) academical, (2) normal, and (3)oaa> 
 
 lnereial. Ike studies pursued in the academical 
 depart incut are Latin. < J reck. German, algebra, 
 
 geometry, trigonometry, surveying, astaMmojaay, 
 chemistry, physics, botany, physiology, physical 
 geography, zoology, geology, general history, 
 composition and rhetoric, mental and moral 
 philosophy, mechanical and free-hand drawing, 
 elocution, and music. In the normal department, 
 the course consists of arithmetic and algebra; 
 English grammar, literature, and composition ; 
 geography; the history and constitution of the 
 I cited States: drawing and music; physiology 
 (by lectures]; elements of chemistry, geology, and 
 physics ; theory of teaching, and two or more 
 weeks' practice in the same. The commercial 
 course includes the department of theory (3 
 months), the intermediate department (3 months), 
 and the department of practice (4 months). — 
 The superintendent has authority by law to call 
 teachers' institutes, and, like the comity super- 
 intendents, to draw from the county treasury 
 moneys for their support ; also to elect a com- 
 mittee on permanent certificates for the city of 
 Pittsburgh. Four stated sessions of the teachers' 
 institute are held annually in the city ; namely, 
 on the third Friday evening and the following 
 Saturday forenoon of the months of January, 
 March, May, and October ; and a three days' 
 session during the week preceding the annual 
 opening of the schools. The stated meetings are 
 devoted to professional lectures and discussions, 
 and practical exemplifications of methods by the 
 introduction of actual classes of pupils, who re- 
 ceive lessons in the presence of the institute. — 
 Examinations for teachers' licenses are held by 
 the superintendent, assisted by a board of ex- 
 aminers, in accordance with the general law of 
 the state. 
 
 School Statistics. — Besides the I Vntral High 
 School, there are 39 ward schools, each of which. 
 in pursuance of the law of 1869 consolidating 
 the w T ards, is known by a distinctive name, in- 
 stead of a numerical designation. There are also 
 evening schools. The other items of importance, 
 for 1876, are as follows : 
 
 Number of pupils enrolled 21,488 
 
 Average monthly enrollment 17,180 
 
 Average daily attendance 14,501 
 
 Enrollment in evening schools 4,086 
 
 Attendance in evening schools 1,769 
 
 Number of teachers in day schools. 419 
 
 Total tax levied for school purposes $602,941.37 
 
 Total valuation of school property $1,904,500.00 
 
 Goal pei pupil, on annual enrollment $16.00 
 
 There arc 9 secondary schools, including 2 
 commercial colleges, and 1 school of design, em- 
 ploying 16 teachers, and attended by 2,297 pu- 
 pils. The Roman I latholic parochial schools are 
 attended by 8,073 pupils. — For information in 
 regard to higher institutions of learning, see the 
 article on Pennsylvania. 
 
S06 
 
 PLATO 
 
 POETRY 
 
 PLATO, one of the greatest of the Greek 
 philosophers, was born at Athens, 42!> or 430 
 B. ( '-. and died about 348. Jle was of illustrious 
 descent, on both his father's and his mother's side: 
 but v«tv little is definitely known regarding his 
 early life. From his own writings, we learn that 
 lie intended to enter public life, but became dis- 
 gusted with the corruption and general depravi- 
 ty of the times, and turned his attention to the 
 siinly of philosophy. When he was twenty years 
 old, he became a pupil of Socrates; and, for eighl 
 years, he constantly atteuWl his great teacher. 
 Alter the death of Socrates, Plato made ex- 
 tended journeys, and, about 389, spent a short 
 time at the court of the tyrant Dionysius, in 
 Syracuse. Alter an absence of twelve years, he 
 returned to Athens, and founded a school for the 
 instruction of youth in the principles of philos- 
 ophy, in a small garden in the Accidentia, a pub- 
 lic grove or park which Academus had given 
 for gymnastic exercises; and hence. Plato's school 
 was called the Academy. Adorned with statues, 
 temples, and sepulchers, surrounded with high 
 trees, and intersected by a gentle stream, it af- 
 forded a delightful retreat for contemplation. 
 How much Plato valued mathematical studies, 
 
 as a preparation for higher speculations, appears 
 from the inscription he put over the entrance of 
 his private house, in which he gave instruction to 
 a few select disciples : Let im one ignorant of 
 <i 'ometry enter here. 1 le was attended by a crowd 
 of hearers of every description. Among them 
 were many who became celebrated as statesmen 
 or as philosophers. Kven women attended, and 
 people of distinction did not hesitate to be his 
 hearers. (See Atiif.ns, and A.CADEMY.) lie was 
 surnamed the Divine, because of his wisdom and 
 learning. Statues and altars were erected to his 
 
 memory, and the day of his birth was long cele- 
 brated as a festival, Under his name we have 41 
 dialogues, L3 letters, and a collection of philo- 
 sophical definitions ; but only the dialogues have 
 been positively ascertained to be genuine. Plato, 
 alone among the pupils of Socrates, had carefully 
 studied all the philosophical systems of antiquity 
 as far as they were accessible to a I rreek inquirer; 
 ami, in his dialogues, he considers the various 
 theories in turn, and develops his own system 
 only in his strictures in relation to them. As 
 
 with Socrates, BO with Plato, ethics, i. ''., the 
 
 metaphysical idea of the good, is the principal 
 
 .subject of philosophy. The highest g 1 is not 
 
 pleasure, nor knowledge alone, but the greatesl 
 ible likeness to the I »i\ inity, as the absolute 
 I. Virtue is the imitation of God, or the free 
 effort of man to attain to a resemblance to his 
 original or. in oilier words, a unison and har- 
 mony of all our principles and actions, according 
 
 to reason, whence results the highest deizreeoi 
 happiness, virtue is one, but compounded of 
 
 ■ elements: wisdom, courage Or constancy. 
 
 temperance, and justice; these arc otherwise 
 
 termed the four cardinal virtues. They arise 
 out of an independence of, and superiority to, 
 the influence of the senses: they are the product 
 
 of I ne health and beauty of the soul. — The State, 
 
 being a society of individuals, is, therefore, sub- 
 ject to the same obligations on a large scale. 
 Its end should be liberty and concord: its highest 
 mission, the training of the citizens to virtue. 
 The education of youth should be regulated by a 
 consideration of the duties which they are ex- 
 pected to perform in the state. In the ideal 
 state, each of the three principal functions and 
 corresponding virtues of the soul is represented 
 
 by a particular class of citizens: (1) the rulers, 
 w hose virtue is wisdom: (2) the guardians or war- 
 riors, whose \irtne is valor: and (3) the manual 
 laborers and tradesmen, whose virtue is obedience 
 and self-restraint, and whose training should be 
 only in their particular trades. The education 
 of the other or higher classes is to begin as early 
 as the third year of age, and to continue until 
 the sixth, by the narration of myths : to be fol- 
 lowed, from 7 to 10, by gymnastics : from 10 to 
 13, by reading and writing; from 1-1 to 16, by 
 poetry and music; from 16 to 18, by mathe- 
 matical sciences; and from 18 to 20, by mili- 
 tary exercises. At this last age, the tirst sifting 
 takes place -those of inferior mental capacity 
 but valorous, to become warriors; the rest to 
 continue until the age of 30, learning the 
 sciences in the more exact and general form 
 becoming their maturity. Next, the talent for 
 dialectics is tested; and then follows a second 
 sifting. The less promising are given practical 
 public offices ; theresl pursue the study of dia- 
 lectics until the age of 35, and are then intrusted 
 with positions of authority, continuing in the 
 study of philosophy, so as to become, finally, the 
 best fitted in liie state for its highest offices. 
 Regarding a good teacher as one of the agents 
 most essential for the formation of good pupils, 
 Plato lays down rules by which to distinguish 
 
 between a good and a bad teacher, and recom- 
 mends those in ] lower to exercise the lit most scru- 
 tiny and care in the selection of instructors to he 
 employed by the state. — This theory of educa- 
 tion, principally set forth in his Republic and in 
 his Laws, was probably never fully reduced to 
 pract ice; ye1 the spirit of all Ins doctrines seems to 
 bave exerted a powerful intlueiice o\cr his coun- 
 trymen for centuries. Foranaccounl of Platq'a 
 attempt to establish a model government in Syr- 
 acuse, see Grote, History of Gr e, vols. x. and 
 xi. The best English edition of Plato's Dialog - 
 isbyJowETT (Oxf. and N.Y.. L871). For litera- 
 ture on Plato's Philosophy, and the different 
 
 edit ions of his writings, we must refer to 1' i la i;- 
 
 weg, History of Philosophy, on his educational 
 system, see Schmidt, Geschichte </• r Pddagogik, 
 vol. i.; Kapp, Platan's Erziehungslehre (Minden, 
 L833); Bomback, Entwickelung der Platonischett 
 Erziehungslehre (Rottweil, L854); Wittmann, 
 Ergiehung mnl Uhterricht bei l'l<tt<> (Giessen, 
 L868) ; Cramer, Geschichte der Erziehung im 
 I erthum (Elberf., 18381 ; Draper, Intellectual 
 
 opmentof Europe (rev. edit., L876). 
 POETRY, or the written expression of 
 beauty, IS an important instrument in certain 
 depart nts of intellectual culture, besides aid- 
 ing in the education of the emotions and scnsibil- 
 
rOETTlY 
 
 ro7 
 
 ities.and in the cultivation of taste. (See Esthetic 
 i 'i i. ii re.) — The pupil's first knowledge of writ- 
 ton poetry is usually obtained from the school 
 reader. The manner of its presentation there, 
 however, is susceptible of improvement. The 
 free use of figures of rhetoric, and of obsolete or 
 unusual words and phrases, renders poetry in- 
 appropriate to the minds of children till after 
 the usual modes of expression have become 
 familiar. Its proper time for presentation, there- 
 fore, is when rhetoric is studied — that is, during 
 the latter part of a high-school course, or in 
 the college. Vet nothing is more common than 
 to find a highly-involved passage from Shake- 
 speare, or an abstruse paragraph from Words- 
 worth, in a reader intended for pupils of iron: 
 ten to fifteen, years of age. Some vague or half- 
 considered idea that these passages are. in sum - 
 way. to serve as models, by being thus presented, 
 or are necessary for elocutionary purposes, is 
 probably in the mind of the compiler. But what 
 should we think of the music teacher who should 
 present a symphony of Beethoven, as a model, to 
 a beginner practicing the scales? The parallel 
 case is quite as absurd. The result is bad in 
 two ways: (I) the unintelhgibility, to the child, 
 of such a poetical selection deprives it of all 
 use as a model ; and (2) the disgust thus occa- 
 sioned becomes permanent, and leads the pupil, 
 even in manhood, to avoid a reperusal of the 
 author thus used. How many persons, of mature 
 years, date their dislike to Milton, for instance, 
 from an enforced use of his works as reading or 
 parsing exercises in early youth ! The introduc- 
 tion of poetry into the school curriculum should 
 follow the natural plan, the first poems used 
 being exceedingly simple, containing no words 
 beyond the vocabulary of the child, and treating 
 of subjects and objects of every-day familiarity. 
 An excellent plan would be to place, as an intro- 
 ductory lesson in reading, a paraphrase in prose 
 of the poem to be used. In this way, the pupil, 
 being possessed beforehand of the meaning of 
 what he is approaching, is at liberty to give more 
 attention to the poetical mode of expression, 
 this being the principal thing to be considered : 
 for. if the meaning were the principal thing, 
 prose would be preferable — it being more direct 
 and in more familiar language. — The fact that 
 rhythmical language is, in many cases, of assist- 
 ance to the memory, indicates its peculiar fitness 
 for certain educational purposes. By its aid, 
 abstract truths and arbitrary rules may often be 
 fixed in the mind, in a way not possible by any 
 other. Moral truths, also, may often be better 
 retained in the memory by their expression in 
 rhythmical form. The experience of most 
 persons will probably furnish illustrations of this 
 fact. There appears to be a limit to this use of 
 rhyme, however, determined partly by the nat- 
 ure of the things to be remembered, and partly 
 by the esthetic effect produced by such use. It 
 may be said, in general, that all concrete ideas 
 and relations, — those which, upon suggestion, 
 call up in the mind material images — do not 
 require the aid of rhyme to fix them in the 
 
 memory; while ideas and relations of an es- 
 sentially abstract or arbitrary nature, are more 
 easily retained in the memory by a rhythmical 
 expression of them. As an illustration of a vio 
 lation of the first proposition, may be mentioned 
 a rhymed text-book ou geography. In the rtudj 
 of geography, the definitions, descriptions, i 
 hem- always accompanied by pictures and maps, 
 are firmly fixed in the mind by the eye the 
 most effective of all the agents used in acquir 
 in- knowledge. To call in the aid of the ear 
 
 therefore, is Superfluous, and tends, rather, to 
 
 distraction. It' there had been originallj anj 
 vagueness of conception left by the image ad- 
 dressed to the eve. the ear might, with propriety , 
 
 he called in to aid it: but. from the nature of 
 things, this is impossible. 'I he picture of a 
 material object will always present to the mind 
 a clearer idea of it. than any verbal description. 
 A further objection, in this case. is. that the 
 rhymed version, degenerating, as it isalmosl bum 
 to do, into grotesque doggerel, familiarizes the 
 mind of the pupil with the most degraded form 
 of poetry, ami tends to unlit it for an appre- 
 ciation of the higher. In regard to the second 
 proposition mentioned above, it may be said that 
 we naturally seek some short, succinct form for 
 expressing generalizations, and abstract and ar- 
 bitrary relations, which shall make them conve- 
 nient for use ; and that form is often found. If 
 the poetic form would enable us to remember 
 them more distinctly, and if no objection to its 
 use could be raised, it would he allowable; but 
 if this form, besides adding little toour ability to 
 remember, is open to the additional objection 
 that it presents to the undiscriminatmg mind of 
 the pupil a bad poetical model, it would seem 
 that it ought not to In' used. It can hardly be 
 claimed that rhymed versi 'lis of the Lord's 
 Prayer, or of the Proverbs, for instance — of the. 
 propositions of geometry, or of the rules of 
 arithmetic, have helped us materially to learn 
 more readily or appreciate more fully the truths 
 contained in them. The very nature of some 
 truths is averse to ornament; and the use of it, in 
 such cases, should be discountenanced.— A fre- 
 quent result of the appreciation of the beautiful, 
 which underlies all poetry, is the attempt of 
 youth souner or later to write poetry. Every 
 teacher's experience will supply instances of this. 
 This inclination usually makes its appearance 
 between the ages of L5 and 20, in minds that 
 have a natural taste for beautiful objects, after 
 a considerable command of language has been 
 obtained, and before the realities of lite have 
 come to darken, with their shadows, the bright 
 sky of youth. As not one in a hundred, how- 
 ever, of those who write verses, at this age, will 
 become a poet, the teacher's course is plain. His 
 method of cure should be. unsparing criticism. 
 but applied in a kindly spirit. It will require only 
 a few exposures Of had rhymes, false similes and 
 
 metaphors— and of these, the most preposterous 
 
 will generally be found to be the most cherished 
 by the writer — to recall the would-be poet to a 
 more sober and useful pursuit. 
 
708 
 
 POLITENESS 
 
 PORTUGAL- 
 
 POLITENESS. See Manners. 
 
 POLITICAL ECONOMY. See Social 
 Economy. 
 
 POLYTECHNIC SCHOOLS. See Scien- 
 tific Schools. 
 
 POPULAR EDUCATION. See EDUCA- 
 TION, and National Education. 
 
 PORTUGAL, a country in the Booth-west of 
 Europe, having an area of 35,813 square miles, 
 and a population, in L872, of 4,367,882, nearly 
 all of Whom belong to the Roman Catholic 
 Church, and speak the Portuguese language. 
 
 Educational History. -The first ruler in 
 Portugal to ex^rt himself actively in behalf of 
 education was Dom Diniz, in the L3th century. 
 In L290, he founded the University of Lisbon, 
 which, after several changes of locality, was 
 finally settled at Coimbra; he also established 
 elementary schools for the poorer classes. In 
 1 ."'40, the Jesuits were called to Portugal, and 
 gradually obtained an almost complete control of 
 secondary instruction ; but, in the I sth century, 
 they were expelled from the country by Pombal. 
 At the same time, a decree was issued to secu- 
 larize instruction, and faculties of philosophy 
 and mathematics were added to the University 
 of Coimbra. No record in relation to elementary 
 instruction is found until the 18th century; and 
 the number of primary schools, previous to I 772, 
 was only about 400, while Creek and Latin were 
 
 taught only in convent scl Is. Pombal estab- 
 lished 257 Latin primary schools, and founded 
 and provided for 21 professorships of rhetoric 
 
 and history, besides schools of philosophy, logic, 
 metaphysics, and the moral sciences, lie also 
 gave his attention to the endowment and super- 
 vision of seminaries fur the priesthood, and re- 
 organized the University of Coimbra after the 
 model of the Italian universities. With the 
 overthrow of Pombal, the clergy and nobility 
 again resumed control of public education. I Hir- 
 ing the wars and revolutions of the first half of 
 the present century, education was necessarily 
 neglected. Iii 1836, a general system for the 
 re-organization of the public schools of all grades 
 was prepared by De Compos, vice-rector of the 
 
 Coimbra University. This was modified by the 
 regulations of Is 11. In ]S~f>, a new law was 
 prepared by the minister of the interior, which 
 is now in force. 
 
 Primary Instruction. — According to the law 
 of L875, there must be two classes of primary 
 schools, the elementary. and the higher element- 
 ary schools. Instruction is free only in the 
 
 former. Every parish must have separate ele- 
 mentary schools for boys and for girls; but. in 
 very small parishes, mixed schools are allowed. 
 Every arrondissemeni must have a higher ele- 
 mentary school. Teachers are appointed by the 
 communal council, upon the nomination of a 
 school commission. This commission consists of 
 three members of the communal council, a v>\> 
 ivsen tat ive of the charitable institutions of the 
 commune, ami the sub-inspeetor of the auron- 
 disnement. The communal council can remove 
 tea hers, but only in connection with the signer 
 
 of the contract of appointment, after a trial of 
 the accused, and after the school commission 
 has passed a unanimous resolution to that effect. 
 At the head of the educational system, is the 
 supreme council of studies: with the minister of 
 the interior as president, and the rector of the 
 university of Coimbra, or his delegate, as vice- 
 president. It is. furthermore, composed of eight 
 regular judges and a large number of irregular 
 judges. The regular judges are men distinguished 
 for learning and good character: while the irreg- 
 ular judges are profeSBOzs at Coimbra, or grad- 
 uates from that university. Candidates for the 
 position of teacher must be twenty-one years of 
 age. and possess a certificate of health and mor- 
 als, signed by the pastor of their place of resi- 
 dence. They must pass a public examination, 
 which is intended to ascertain their maturity of 
 mind, rather than their actual acquirenn 
 Teachers are of two degrees. Those of the first 
 degree are appointed either for life or for three 
 
 years: those of the second degree, for life only. 
 Instruction is given in the primary schools daily, 
 except on Sundays and holidays: but when there 
 is no holiday during the week. Thursday is free. 
 The daily sessions are from 8 to 11 o'clock in the 
 i and 2 to 5 in the afternoon, from Oc- 
 tober till Easter; the rest of the year, from 7 to 
 111 A. M. and from 3 to 6 P. M. 'The study com- 
 missioners may also authorize teachers to form 
 evening classes for adults. Every year the study 
 commission publishes a list of all children of 
 school age. The names of those parents who fail 
 
 to have their children registered, are read by the 
 minister from the pulpit, and a list of them is 
 nailed to the church door. Upon repeated of- 
 jes, lines are imposed. In the same manner, 
 regular attendance is enforced. The branches of 
 instruction in the elementary schools comprise 
 reading, writing, arithmetic, language, morals, and. 
 for girls, sewing. In the higher elementary schools, 
 there are taught, in addition to these branches, 
 linear drawing, history, the elements of the nat- 
 ural sciences, and agriculture. Five seminaries 
 are to be established for male, an 1 two for female 
 
 teachers. In 1869, there were, 1,997 schools for 
 boys ami .'!ti'_' for girls, making a total of 2,359. 
 The number of pupils enrolled was 1 1 7,.''>n. r >, of 
 whom 99,358 were boys, and 17,947 girls. The 
 number of pupils attending the schools was 
 62,937, of whom frj. 7*_'ll were boys, and 10,217 
 
 were girls. Besides these, there are many ex- 
 c'llent private scl Is in the principal cities. 
 
 There wre also 5 normal schools for males, with 
 100 students, and one for females, with 2(1 
 students. 
 
 5 condcary Instruction. — Secondary instruc- 
 tion is imparted in Lyceums, which correspond 
 pretty much to the French institutions of that 
 name. At some of the lyceums, agriculture and 
 rural economy an- taught; and. at lunchal, 
 Madeira, and other places on the islands belong- 
 ing to Portugal, I'rench and English; while, in 
 oilier places, tin urse of studies comprises 
 
 chemistry, natural history, mechanics, book-keep- 
 ing, trigonometry, mathematical geography, and 
 
POTTER 
 
 PRECEPTORS, COLLEGE OF 709 
 
 other branches. Greek, German, and Knglish are 
 
 not obligatory: hut a knowledge of these Ian 
 
 guages is advantageous ;it the final examination. 
 Candidates for the appointment of professor in 
 a lycenm must he at Least 25 years of age. The 
 examination is both oral ami written. Graduates 
 of thf Coimbra university are preferred, ami the 
 appointments are made for life, ami in the name 
 oi the king. Besides the lyceums of the state. 
 there are private colleges, the teachers of which 
 must also possess a license to teach. They are 
 likewise subject to inspection by thegovermni nt. 
 
 Teachers in the lyceums. as well as in the pri- 
 mary schools, are exempt from taxation and mil- 
 itary duty. Independently of the lyceums. the 
 government may establish Latin classes in L20 
 of the most important places near the capitals 
 of the several districts. These classes are in- 
 structed in public building, have each a library, 
 and are provided with the necessary books of 
 instruction. The number of lyceums, in 1869, 
 was 21, with 3.744 students. 
 
 Superior Instruction. — Superior instruction 
 is afforded in the University of Coimbra, which 
 has five faculties: theology, medicine, math- 
 ematics, and philosophy. In 1859, Dom Pedro V., 
 in order to excite a greater interest in education. 
 opened, at his own expense, a faculty of bt 
 lettres, with five professorships, which hold the 
 same rank as those of the university. The Univer- 
 sity of Coimbra has from 900 to 1.000 students. 
 
 Special Instruction. — Special instruction is 
 given in the following schools: 19 theological 
 schools and courses, one polytechnic school at 1 .is- 
 bon. and one at Oporto, 3 medico-surgical schools, 
 one school of veterinary surgery, one general 
 agricultural institute, one commercial school, five 
 industrial schools, two academies of fine arts, one 
 conservatory of music, an army school, a navy 
 school, and a military college, in Lisbon. — See 
 Schmid. Pddagogische Erua/clopadie,$at. Portu- 
 gal; Brachhllt, Die Staaten Europa's; < Tironik 
 des Volksschulwesens, 1875; Report of the U. S. 
 Commissioner of Education for 1873. 
 
 POTTER, Alonzo, an American educator, 
 born in Beekman, N. Y., July 6., 1800 ; died in 
 San Francisco, Feb. 4., 1865. He graduated 
 with first honors at Union College in 1818, be- 
 came a tutor there in 1819, and, in 1821, was 
 made professor of mathematics and natural phi- 
 losophy. While holding the latter position, he 
 declined the presidency of Geneva College. He 
 was rector of St. Paul's church. Boston, from 
 1826 to L831, which position he resigned in the 
 latter year to accept that of professor of moral 
 philosophy in Union College, of which institu- 
 tion he became vice-president in L838. He was 
 made bishop of Pennsylvania in 1845, which po- 
 sition he held till his death. He was the author 
 of a treatise on logarithms, and one on descrip- 
 tive geometry, both prepared for the use of his 
 classes while professor in Union < lollege, hut not 
 published. His most noted educational work 
 was that published in connection with G. B. 
 Emerson, entitled Tin- School and the School- 
 ■muster (1842). Besides this, he was the author 
 
 of many addresses, discourses, etc., upon SUbjectB 
 connected with education. Interesting notices 
 
 Of his life and works mas be found ill llishop 
 
 Stevens's funeral ser n (Oct. 19., 1865), and in 
 
 Memoirs of tht h\feand Services of the Rt. Rev. 
 .1. Potter, l>. I).'. I.L. !>.. by the Rev. Dr M. 
 
 A. De Wolfe iF'hila.. 1-71). 
 
 PRACTICE, Schools of. See Teachers' 
 Seminaries. 
 
 PRAXIS (Gr. -/mc, from rrpdaaeiv, to do), 
 a particular form of exercise designed to afford 
 practice to the pupils: as a praxis for parsing or 
 analysis, in teaching grammar. 
 
 PRECEPTORS,' College of f L »n< l< m), is a 
 body founded in 1846 to enable teachers, partic- 
 ularly in private schools, to acquire a sound 
 
 knowledge of their profession, and to give 
 
 them the opportunity of obtaining certificate- 
 attesting their attainments and fitness to teach. 
 The first promoters of the college, deploring 
 the incompetency of so many teachers, desired 
 that every one entering the profession should 
 
 provide himself with such a certificate, as a 
 guarantee to the public and to his fellow- 
 teachers. The movement (which had originated 
 
 at Brighton! spread rapidly: and. within a year. 
 there were 1000 members. (As to the qualifica- 
 tion for membership, sec below.) These were 
 formed into a corporate body, in 1849. The 
 lowest diploma which the college grants is 
 that of Associate, ncxi come those of Licen- 
 tiate and Fellow. Candidates for all these 
 diplomas are examined in the science and ait oi 
 education: and are excused the other Subjects, if 
 they have previously passed els,. where what is 
 recognized as an equivalent examination, (hie 
 peculiarity of the examination for those who 
 have to pass in all the subjects, is. that each sub- 
 ject may be taken up separately, and the rest 
 when the candidate pleases. This is very con- 
 venient for hard-worked teachers who have 
 little leisure. There is not. however, a very 
 large demand for these diplomas. The number 
 of persons, male and female, at present holding 
 them is 33S. of whom 19 are Fellows. L30 
 licentiates, and 159 Associates. Unfortunately, 
 in regard to the membership, the very error, 
 for many years, was committed which the 
 college was founded to do battle against. The 
 promoters intended to include among the first 
 members all persons of respectability, both males 
 
 and females, who were at the time engaged 
 in teaching, ami paid a yearly subscription of 
 one guinea. But they also intended, at no 
 distant date, hut a date not assigned, to sub- 
 ject all candidates for membership to examina- 
 tion. Amid the pressure of other business, 
 however, and of crippled resources, the latter 
 intention was lost Bight of. It would seem, also. 
 that there hail been some laxity in the grant- 
 ing of diplomas. The consequence was that 
 A. c. I'.. L.C.P., F. C. P. with M.c. P. became 
 involved in one common depreciation. It must 
 he understood that the college, in its documents, 
 
 had always drawn a char distinction between 
 examined and unexamined members — a distinc- 
 
no PRECEPTORS, COLLEGE OF 
 
 PRESBYTERIANS 
 
 tion which the general public could not be ex- 
 pected to bear in mind or even to apprehend. 
 
 The investigations of the Schools Inquiry 
 Commission, along with a general movement on 
 the part of various learned bodies for stricter 
 conditions of membership, drew the attention of 
 the more active members of the college to the 
 necessity of reform ; and, since the spring of 1870, 
 no member has been admitted without either be- 
 ing examined by the college, or showing that he 
 has passed, elsewhere, one of the examinations 
 specified in the regulations. The college, there- 
 fore, was never in a more healthful and hopeful 
 state than at the present time. The stricter reg 
 ulations have not diminished the number of 
 applications for membership, there being 970 
 members in Nov.. 1876. Of these, 243 are also 
 holders of diplomas. The remaining 95 holders 
 of diplomas are not members, and do not share 
 in the government of the college. — The journal 
 of the college, which publishes reports of its 
 proceedings, is the Eiluaitiniiul Tinifs, which 
 
 was commenced in Oct., L847, and is published 
 
 monthly; hut. though the official organ, it is not 
 the property of the college. 
 
 In 1872, a professorship of education was 
 instituted; and the late Joseph Payne was 
 appointed to the chair. He commenced bis first 
 course, at the beginning of L873, to a class of 
 about 70 teachers, most of whom were ladies. 
 The office has since been held by the Rev. R. 
 II. Quick, author of Essays on Educational 
 Reformers (London and Cincinnati); by Mr. 
 Mciklejohn, lately appointed to the new chair 
 of education at St. Andrews, Scotland ; and by 
 Mr. ('room Robertson, professor of logic at Uni- 
 versity College, London. 
 
 There are other kindred duties, in addition to 
 those at first contemplated, which the college lias 
 undertaken. A.t Christmas, L850, it conducted 
 its first examination of schools; and the system 
 was in full operation in L854, two years before the 
 scheme of the Society of Arts, and four years be- 
 fore that of the University of Oxford. These 
 examinations are held every half year at various 
 centers, simultaneously; and certificates, with 
 prizes for the most distinguished, are bestowed 
 upon the successful boys and -iris. The number 
 01 candidates at these examinations, in 1 875, was 
 about 2,800, coming from about L50 schools. 
 
 There is also a system in operation for the 
 examination of schools .by visiting examiners; 
 
 under which the examiner makes an official 
 
 reporl of the state of the school, but no certifi- 
 cates are granted. The ( lollege, moreover, eon- 
 ducts the preliminary examinations in arts, for 
 various medical corporations, The number of pu- 
 pils at these examinations is about 5,800 a year. 
 
 [n June L861, were commenced the monthly 
 me stings of members and their friends, at which 
 
 * ill* 
 
 papers on educational subjects arc read and dts- 
 
 cussed. These meetings tend to "corporate feel 
 
 ing and helpful union." for those members, at 
 
 least, who live in London or its vicinity. The 
 papers, many of them of great value, are gener- 
 ally reported at length in the next number of the 
 
 Educational Times. There is an educational 
 library of nearly 4,000 volumes, to which con- 
 stant additions are made, mostly by gift. — 
 The college is managed by a council of 48 
 members, twelve of whom retire every year. 
 They are elected at a general meeting of mem- 
 bers. In addition to these 48, all ex-presidents 
 of council become members of it for life. Anions 
 the presidents of the council, have been Dr. 
 Jacob, late of Christ's Hospital; Dr. Kennedy, 
 late of Shrewsbury; and Dr. Haig-Brown, of 
 the Charterhouse. At present Dr. Jex-Rlake, of 
 Rugby, is the president. 
 
 The college is doing a good and useful work 
 for middle-class schools, and its further useful- 
 ness is hindered only by its want of funds. It 
 needs a more complete educational library, a 
 more commodious home than its present one (at 
 42 Queen Square, Bloomsbury), and an endow- 
 ment for its professorship, lor this last purpose 
 between £400 and £500 has been contributed up 
 
 to the present time. In 1875, the members' sub- 
 scriptions yielded £521 ; the net profits from the 
 examinations produced a sum perhaps somewhat 
 larger than this ; and there seem to be no other 
 sources of income. — See a paper by J. Payne on 
 the history of the college in the Educational 
 Times, July, 1868; The Charter, Regulaticms, &nd 
 other documents of the College; Speech of Dr. 
 
 Jex-Blake, in the Educational Times for Feb., 
 I >- 7 1 '> : Demogkst and Montdcci, De VEnseigne- 
 ment Secondaire en VAngleterre, vol. i.; Schools 
 Inquiry Commission, vols. i.. iv„ vii„ ix. (1868). 
 
 PREPARATORY SCHOOLS, schools for 
 secondary instruction, in which pupils are pre- 
 pared tor admission to the college or university. 
 
 PRESBYTERIANS, a denomination of 
 ( Ihristians distinguished by theirsupport of asys- 
 tcin of church government by presbyters.in oppo- 
 sition, on the' one hand, to Episcopalians (q. v.), 
 and, on tin' other, to Congregationalists (q. v.). 
 The Presbyterians, in this respect, agree with 
 the Reformed churches (q. V.), and were, like 
 them, modeled after the plan laid down by Cal- 
 vin, in his Institutes. The Presbyterians con- 
 stitute the established church in Scotland, and 
 are a numerous body in all other parts of the 
 British Empire, as well ae in the United States. 
 
 Both in Europe and in the United States, they 
 are divided into a number of independent or- 
 ganizations. In 1875, delegates from a large 
 number of Presbyterian and Reformed churches 
 met in London. England, to form an Alliance of 
 Reformed Churches throughout the World, 
 
 which is to be a voluntary and co-operative, but 
 not an organic union. We treat in this article 
 (I) of the Presbyterians in thePritish Empire; 
 and (II) of the Presbyterians in the United 
 States. 
 
 1. Presbyterians in the British Empire. — 
 (1) The bulk of the population of Scotland has 
 been Presbyterian since the middle of the 16th 
 century; and. at present, the aggregate number 
 of the different Presbyterian bodies exceeds 85 
 per cent of the total population. The established 
 church, called the Church of Scotland, has about 
 
PRESBYTERIANS 
 
 111 
 
 1.300 congregations ; the Free Church of Scot- 
 land (organized in 1843), 900 ; the United 
 Presbyterians, GOO; and, besides these, there are 
 several smaller bodies. The progress of edu- 
 cational institutions of all classes has, therefore, 
 been, to a great extent, under the influence of 
 the Presbyterian Churches. (See Scotland.) 
 No church in Europe has taken more prompt 
 and energetic steps for the general diffusion of 
 ■school education than the Presbyterians of Scot- 
 land. As early as 1695, it was enacted "that 
 there be a school founded and a school-master 
 appointed in every parish by advice of the pres- 
 byteries, and to this purpose that the heritors 
 do, in every congregation, meet among them- 
 selves, and provide a commodious house for a 
 school, and modify a stipend to the school- 
 master, which shall not be under 10 merks 
 (£6 13 s. 4d.) nor above 20 merks". As almost 
 all the population of the country is Presbyterian, 
 the common-school system has preserved a pa- 
 rochial character. When, in 1843, the Free 
 Church of Scotland was organized, it was re- 
 solved to erect schools in connection with the 
 congregations of the Free Church, and the edu- 
 cational scheme which, in consequence, has 
 sprung up, is co-extensive with the parochial 
 system of the Established Church. In 1873, of 
 2,108 schools inspected by the government in- 
 spectors, 1,379 belonged to the Established and 
 577 to the Free Church; while, of non- Presby- 
 terian schools, there were 86 belonging to the 
 Episcopal, and 66 to the Catholic Church. — The 
 Scottish universities of Edinburgh, Clasgow, 
 .and Aberdeen are in organic connection with 
 the Church of Scotland, by means of theological 
 professorships ; while, at St. Andrews, an entire 
 college, St. Mary's, is appointed solely to the 
 teaching of theology and the languages connected 
 with it. The Free Church has established a 
 divinity school in Edinburgh, called the New 
 College of the Free Church. This college, which 
 was completed at a cost approaching £40,000, is 
 provided with a more complete staff of profess- 
 ors than any similar institution in Scotland, 
 and with more effectual means of training an 
 educated ministry than is to be found elsewhere 
 in Great Britain. The Free Church has also built 
 a divinity hall in Aberdeen. It has also two 
 normal schools, — one in Edinburgh and one in 
 Clasgow, for the training of school-masters. The 
 teachers receive a salary from a general fund, 
 which is raised by monthly contributions in all 
 the conoresations, and which is divided, at the 
 •end of the year, according to a certain scale, 
 proportioned to the qualifications of the re- 
 spective teachers. — The United Presbyterians 
 have likewise a divinity hall. The number of 
 their Sunday-schools is 12,129, with 92,502 
 scholars. 
 
 (2) In Ireland, the Presbyterians constitute 
 about 8 per cent of the total population, and are 
 almost confined to the province of Ulster. In 
 the schools of the National Board of Education, 
 the Presbyterian children, in 1874, numbered 
 115,258, equal to about 11 per cent. — A Pres- 
 
 byterian college (Magee College) was opened 
 at Londonderry, Oct. 10., L865. In 1846, Mrs. 
 Magee, widow of the Rev. William Magee, a Pres- 
 byterian minister, left £20,000 in trust, for the 
 erection and endowment of a Presbyterian col- 
 lege. This sum was allowed to accumulate for 
 some years, until eventually the trustees were 
 authorized, by a decree of the Lord Chancellor. 
 to select a convenient site at or near London- 
 derry. The Irish Society have granted an an- 
 ; nual endowment of £250 to the chair of natural 
 philosophy and mathematics, and £250 for five 
 years toward the general expenses of the col- 
 lege. The Rev. Richard Dill, who died in 1858, 
 bequeathed £5,000, to establish two professor- 
 ships. The* appointment of the trustees is vested 
 in the General Assembly. The professors are 
 required to sign the Westminster Confession of 
 Faith, but no religious test is prercribed for 
 students. — The majority of the Irish Presby- 
 terian ministers are educated in the Ceneral As- 
 sembly's Theological College, at Belfast. Previous 
 to the passing of the Irish Church Act, in 186!). a 
 parliamentary grant of £1.750 per annum suf- 
 ficed for the maintenance of six professors, at 
 £250 each, leaving £250 to defray the expense of 
 management. The government, on the passing 
 of the act, granted a sum of £43,976 as compen- 
 sation; and the interest of this sum, together 
 with that on £5,000 subscribed by friends of the 
 institution, and the fees of the students, makeup 
 the annual income. Patrons have recently add- 
 ed prizes, worth from £20 to £50 per annum. 
 
 (3) In England, the first presbytery was 
 formed in 1572 ; and, for a time, the Presby- 
 terians formed the leading Puritan element in 
 the Church of England. At the time of the West- 
 minster Assembly, Presbyterianism was, for a 
 short time, even raised to the position of the 
 established religion of England. The Presby- 
 terians having been overthrown politically at the 
 Restoration, and crushed ecclesiastically by 
 their ejection from the national church, a large 
 portion gradually merged into Congregationalism 
 or Unitarianism. The scattered fragments of the 
 old orthodox Presbyterianism of England form- 
 ed, in 1836, the English Presbyterian Church, 
 which, in 1876, numbered 157 congregations, 
 and 29,045 communicants. It had also 2,926 
 Sunday-schools, with 27,000 scholars. By a union 
 with the United Presbyterians of England, con- 
 summated in 1876, the number of the Congre- 
 gations was raised to 263, and that of members, 
 to 50,000. The Church has a theological college 
 at London, which is partially endowed, and is 
 under the charge of three professors. 
 
 (4) British Dependencies. — In the Dominion 
 of Canada, the Presbyterians are, in point of 
 numbers, the third among the religious denom- 
 inations, being only exceeded by the Roman 
 Catholics and the Church of England. The four 
 provinces of Ontario, Quebec, Nova Scotia, and 
 New Brunswick, had, in 1871, a population of 
 107,259 connected with the Church of Scotland, 
 and 437,439 persons connected with various 
 Presbyterian bodies. Ontario has a Presbyterian 
 
712 
 
 PRESBYTERIANS 
 
 university at Kingston, called Queen's University 
 and College, which received a royal charter in 
 
 1841 , and contains the four faculties of theology, 
 law, medicine, and arts. In Quebec, there is 
 McCill University, at Montreal, with several 
 affiliated colleges, and. in Nova Scotia, a Pres- 
 byterian college, at Halifax. In Australia, the 
 colony of Victoria had, in 1K7<>. .'5 Presbyterian 
 colleges— Scotch College at Melbourne. Ceelong 
 College, and Ballarat College, 
 
 II. The Presbyterians in the United States in- 
 clude several bodies, here considered separately. 
 
 (1) Presbyterian Ghterch in tfie United States 
 of America. — Presbyterian churches had been 
 established in Maryland before the close of the 
 1 7th century. In 1710, the first 'synod was 
 formed, and in 17SH the Ceneral Assembly was 
 organized. The Cumberland Presbyterians se- 
 ceded in 1810; and, in L838, the Church divided 
 into the Old School and the New School, which 
 reunited in 1871. The churches in the South- 
 era States withdrew in 1861, and have since 
 maintained a separate organization. In 1876, 
 there were under the jurisdiction of the Ceneral 
 Assembly 4.7 1 1 ministers, 5,077 churches, and 
 535,210 members. The Presbyterian church. 
 
 from the earliest period, has been an earnest 
 worker and Strenuous advocate for education : 
 and one of the chief causes of the secession of 
 the Cumberland branch was the tenacity with 
 which the General Assembly insisted on high 
 
 educational qualifications for ministers. As 
 
 early as L739, a proposition was brought before 
 tile Synod of Philadelphia for the election of a 
 school or seminary of learning. The synod ap- 
 proved of the design and appointed a 
 
 committee to carry it into effect, and in 
 1741. a synodal SCl I was established. The 
 
 College of New Jersey, at Princeton, chartered 
 in 1746 and opened in 1717. was founded 
 under the auspices of the Synod of New 
 fork. Other institutions have been organ- 
 ize'! under Presbyterian auspices, as follows : 
 
 Washington and Jefferson College, Washington, 
 Pa.. 1802; Hamilton College, Clinton. N. V.. 
 1815; MarwilleColle.ee. Maryvffle, Tenn., L819; 
 Centre College, Danville, Ky., 1823; Hanover 
 College, Hanover, Ind., 1*27; Lafayette College, 
 Easton. Pa., L831; Wabash College, Crawfords- 
 ville, Ind.. 1832; Lincoln University, Oxford, 
 Pa., L853; University College, San Francisco, 
 OaL, 1859; Blackburn University, Cariinville, 
 DL, 1867; Kin-- College, Bristol, Tenn., 1868; 
 University of Wooster, Wooster, <>.. L870; 
 Evans University, Evans, Col., 1*71 ; and Par- 
 sons College, Fairfield, Iowa. L875. Three colleges 
 are jointly under Presbyterian and Congrega- 
 tional control; namely, Knox, at Calesbuig. III.. 
 1841 : I'.eloit.at Beloit. Wis., 1847 ; and Olivet, 
 at olivet. Mich., L828. The academies and female 
 colleges under the auspices of the denomination 
 
 are numerous. The Church has 1 3 theological 
 seminaries, as follows : at Princeton, V J., 
 1812; ai Auburn. N. V.. L820 ] Western. Alle- 
 
 fheiiy < 'it v. Pa.,1 625; Lane, ( Cincinnati, <>.. L832; 
 Inion,N. Y.City. L836; at Danville, Ky., 1853; 
 
 Theological Seminary of the Northwest. Chicago, 
 111., 1859; Blackburn University (theological 
 department), 1867; at San Francisco. < !al., L869; 
 t ierman. Newark. N.J., 1869; < ierman, Dubuque, 
 la., 1870; Lincoln University (theological de- 
 partment). 1871; and Fiddle Memorial Institute 
 (theological department), < harlotte. N. C. 1867. 
 Of these, the last two are for colored people, and 
 the two immediately preceding them, for Ger- 
 mans. In 1*7."> — 6. they bad. in all. 56 profess cs 
 and 578 students. The number graduating that 
 year was 134. The board of education of the 
 Church, in 187(>. received $72,040, and gave 
 financial aid to4f>S students i'1'22 theological, 21 8 
 collegiate, and 18 academical). In the same year, 
 the Church maintained, for freednaen, 39 day 
 schools, with 65 teachers and 3,176 pupils, and 
 f> higher schools, with 903 students, of whom 
 43 were preparing for the ministry. The foreign 
 mission field of the Presbyterian Board embraces 
 — besides several Indian tribes in the United 
 States- Mexico, the United States of Colombia, 
 Brazil, < hili. Liberia and Gaboon ( Africa), 
 India, Siam, China. Japan, Persia, and Syria. 
 '1 he mission schools had 13,501 pupils in 1*7C>. 
 
 (2) The Presbyterian Church in ///- i'uii<<I 
 States, frequently, also, called The Presbyterian 
 Cfwrch South.- Cn the 4th of December 1861, 
 commissioners from all the presbyteries of the 
 Presbyterian Church within the Confederate 
 States met in Augusta, Ga., and organized as a 
 General Assembly. The style and title chosen 
 for the Church was. The Presbyterian Church 
 of the Confederal States of America; but after. 
 
 the capitulation of the Confederate armies, the 
 
 name was changed as above. After the dose 
 of the war. the presbyteries in Kentucky and 
 Missouri, with a large majority of the con- 
 gregations and people, united themselves with 
 the Southern < hurcb. This Church now il v 7ti) 
 (insists of 1*-' synods. 62 presbyteries, 1,82] 
 churches. 1,079 ministers, and 112,183 commu- 
 nicants. The moneys contributed for all the pur- 
 poses in the last ecclesiastical year amounted to 
 §1,138,681. The General Assembly, through 
 committees of its appointment, maintains for- 
 eign missions in the Indian Territory. Mexico. 
 South America, Greece, Italy. India, and < hina: 
 and domestic missions in new and destitute 
 localities in the South. It also aids in the educa- 
 tion for the ministry of young men of limited 
 means. and in the publication and dissemination 
 
 of a religious and doctrinal literature. It has a 
 publishing house in Richmond, \'a. The Pres- 
 byterian Church declares. in its constitution, that 
 ••because it is highly reproachful to religion, 
 and dangerous to the < burch, to intrust the holy 
 ministry to weak and ignorant men. the presby- 
 tery shall try each candidate, as to his knowledge 
 
 of the Latin language, and the original languaj 
 
 in which the Holy Scriptures were written. 
 
 They shall also examine him in the arts and 
 sciences." The first written text required of the 
 
 candidate is "a I >ut in exegesis on some common 
 
 head in divinity." The common requirement m 
 
 its presbyteries is equal to the ctirriculum ;i 
 
PRESBYTERIANS 
 
 713 
 
 most American colleges. The demands of the 
 Church for the education of its ministry and its 
 own youth have every-where made it the patron- 
 ess of learning' and engaged it in the founding of 
 institutions for higher education. It has been 
 ijhe pioneer of education in nearly all the older 
 Southern communities. During the civil war. 
 many of the institutions of learning founded 
 and endowed }y the Presbyterian Church in the 
 South, perished by the loss of endowments in the 
 general financial wreck. Among them, were 
 Oglethorpe University, via., Oakland College, 
 Miss., La Grange College, Tenn., and other 
 valuable institutions of less prominence. Centre 
 ( 'ollege, Ivy., was lost through decisions of the 
 United States courts in favor of a minority ad- 
 hering to the old Assembly. Others were sus- 
 pended by the enlistment of the students in the 
 armies, and were crippled by the partial loss of 
 endowments. The following, founded and en- 
 dowed by Presbyterians, survived the disasters 
 of the war, and now, under Presbyterian control 
 or auspices, are rendering valuable service to the 
 country: Hampden Sidney College, Va., David- 
 son College. X. C, Stewart College, Tenn., West- 
 minster College, Mo., King College, Tenn., and 
 Austin College, Texas. Central Cniversity, at 
 Richmond, Ky., has been founded and success- 
 fully opened since the war. The synods of Nash- 
 ville, Memphis, Alabama, Mississippi, Arkansas, 
 and Texas, conjointly, have also projected a uni- 
 versity (the South- Western) to be strictly under 
 Presbyterian control, for which they are now 
 soliciting an endowment. It has been located 
 at Clarkesville, Tenn. Stewart ( 'ollege has been 
 merged in it. The financial prostration of the 
 South since the war, has rendered the endow- 
 ment of its institutions of learning slow and dif- 
 ficult. — Of academies and schools, competent to 
 prepare boys for college, or young men for the 
 university, or to give a good mathematical and 
 classical education, thorough as far as it goes, to 
 those whose means do not admit of more elaborate 
 courses, there is a great insufficiency throughout 
 the South. Those which had previously ac- 
 quired success and reputation, were generally 
 broken up through the disastrous effects of the 
 war, and the poverty and depression of the people 
 have operated to the discouragement of efforts 
 to establish others. Of such institutions, there 
 are some of a high character, maintained under 
 Presbyterian auspices ; as, the Bingham School, 
 Mebanesville, N. C, Pleasant Ridge Academy, 
 Green Co., Ala., Edgar Institute, Paris, Ky., 
 Military and Classical Institute, Danville, Ky., 
 Finlay High School, Lenoir, N. C, and Kemper 
 Institute, Booneville, Mo. — The Southern Pres- 
 byterian Church has two theological seminaries, 
 each endowed and furnished with buildings, 
 libraries, and four professors of eminent ability 
 and learning : Union Seminary, at Hampden 
 Sidney, Va., and Columbia Seminary, at Colum- 
 bia, S. C. It has recently established a third, at 
 Tuscaloosa, Ala., for the education- and training 
 of colored men for the ministry; and for this, it 
 is now gathering an endowment. There are no 
 
 Presbyterian schools or colleges for girls in the 
 South endowed beyond the provision of build- 
 ings, apparatus, and libraries; but there are many 
 institutions under Presbyterian control or au- 
 spices, in which every reasonable comfort is com- 
 bined with advantages lor the t borough educa- 
 tion and accomplishment of girls. Among these, 
 are many female colleges, collegiate institutes, 
 and seminaries which afford a high grade of in- 
 struction, and are widely esteemed for general 
 excellence and efficiency. 
 
 The work of education for the ministry is con- 
 ducted by the General Assembly, through an 
 executive committee located at Memphis, Tenn. 
 In the last ecclesiastical year, the committee 
 received from the churches, for this purpose, 
 $15,131, from which 95 young men, prosecuting 
 their studies at various colleges and theological 
 seminaries, received assistance. 
 
 (3) The Cuml/erloml Presbyterian Church. — 
 This Church was organized February 4., 1810, 
 in a log cabin, in Dickson Co., Term., by three 
 Presbyterian ministers. !t grew out of the con- 
 troversies incidental to the ( ireat Western Revival 
 of 1800, which is regarded by many as one of the 
 most important religious movements in the his- 
 tory of the Protestant < hunch of the United 
 States. as it firmly fixed the people of the Valley 
 of the Mississippi in the < hristian faith. After 
 ten years of anxiety and distress, the new Pres- 
 byterian Church was organized upon what is 
 claimed to be a medium theology, as between the 
 extremes of low Arminianism (Semi-Pelagian^ 
 ism) and high Calvinism (Antinomianism). In it, 
 an evangelical follower of John Calvin or of 
 John Wesley could alike feel at home. The 
 Church grew very rapidly. The Minutes of the 
 Forty-Sixth General Assembly, 1876, show 26 
 synods, including nearly 125 presbyteries, ex- 
 tending over the territory between the Great 
 Lakes and the Gulf of Mexico, and reaching from 
 the Appalachian Mountains on the east, to the 
 Pacific Ocean on the west. The following sta- 
 tistical summary is approximately correct: minis- 
 ters, 1,275; licentiates. 280; candidates, 220; 
 congregations, 2,000 ; elders, 6,750 ; deacons, 
 2,000; total communicants,100,000; persons in the 
 Sabbath schools, 55,000; value of church proper- 
 ty, $2,250,000 ; contributed during the year, 
 $350,000. The following are the principal institu- 
 tions of learning under the control of this Church: 
 Cumberland College, Princeton, Ky., founded in 
 1829, discontinued in 1861; Cumberland Univer- 
 sity, Lebanon, Tenn.. founded in 1 842, which has 
 the leading law school in the South ; Bethel Col- 
 lege, McKenzie, Tenn., 1847 ; Waynesburg Col- 
 lege, Waynesburg, Pa., 1850 ; McGee College, 
 College Mound, Mo.. 1853, now suspended; 
 Lincoln University, Lincoln, 111.. 1866 ; Trini- 
 ty University, Tehuacana, Texas, 1876 ; Cane 
 Hill College, Boonsboro, Ark., 1 852. The General 
 Assembly, in 1876, approved the establishment 
 of a Union Medical College, in connection with 
 the three universities of the Church, namely,' 
 Cumberland, Lincoln, and Trinity. It is to be 
 located at St. Louis, or some other large city. 
 
T14 
 
 presbyteriaxs 
 
 Waynesburg, Lincoln, and Trinity, admit young 
 ladies on equal terms with young men. There 
 are also several institutions exclusively for girls, 
 owned by, or under the patronage of. the < 'hurch. 
 
 (4) The United Presbyterian Church of North 
 America was founded, in 1858, by the Union of 
 the Associate, commonly called Seceder, Church 
 (which originated in the secession of the Erskines 
 and others from the established church of Scot- 1 
 land, in 1733, and sent its first missionaries to I 
 America, in 1753), and the Associate Reformed 
 Church, which was formed, in 1782, by the 
 union of part of the Associate Church and part 
 of the Reformed, or Covenanter, Church, which 
 organized its first presbytery in America in 
 1770. The Church, in 1876, had 8 synods, 57 
 presbyteries, 77.11 1 members, and 638 Sabbath 
 schools with 53,364 scholars. 
 
 Previous to the Revolutionary war. the As- 
 sociate Church in Scotland, and that in America, 
 were not two churches but one; and its ministers 
 were educated in Scotland. Prom the first, the 
 ministers were well educated, must of them hav- 
 ing received university degrees. Even when the 
 churches in the colonies suffered from a scarcity 
 of clergymen, they did not propose to license the 
 uneducated, but to provide for an education as 
 thorough as that of a Scottish university, in L764, 
 the Presbytery (organized in 1754) made a re- 
 quest lor more ministers, and forone ableto teach 
 '•the languages and philosophy", which brought 
 from Scotland, the Rev. John Smith, who, lor the 
 next lour years (1778 L782), by appointmenl 
 of the Presbytery, "directed the Studies of such 
 as were pursuing a course with a view to the h< ily 
 ministry." The way was prepared for ecclesi- 
 astical as well as for political independence. The 
 reception of a minister from a division of the 
 Seceder Church (Burgher), different from that 
 (Anti-Burgher) by which the ministers of the 
 American Presbytery had been sent out. pre- 
 pared the way for a separation, which was prac- 
 tically effected in 178 1, when the Presbytery of 
 Pennsylvania prepared and adopted a "Narra- 
 tive and Testimony" in addition to the ConfeS- 
 siOD of Faith, without consultation with the 
 
 homes; 1. Although, after this, many of its 
 
 ministers came from Scotland and Ireland, often 
 with a formal appointment, yet from this date. 
 
 more than before, the Church proposed to edu- 
 cate its own clergy. In L792, a Log-house was 
 
 built for a theological seminary; a good num- 
 ber of books, contributed largely by friends in | 
 Scotland, wire placed in Eudolpha Ball; and 
 the Rev. lb-. John Anderson was elected pro- 
 fessor. The first, of its ministers educated in the 
 United States was licensed in 1 7 95. At the time 
 
 of the union, the Associate Church had 253 min- 
 isters, almost all educated in its own seminaries. 
 The Associate Reformed Church was independ- 
 ent i)f the mother churches from the beginning. 
 In 1796, its synod resolved to establish a fund 
 
 to sustain a prof essoT of theology, and to assist 
 
 students. The fund ($5,000), WTth avaluable li- 
 brary, was collected, for (hi most part, bj the 
 
 l.' t. J. M. Mason, I >.l >., in Scotland and England. 
 
 The seminary was established in Xew York City 
 in 1804. At the time of the union, it had 231 
 ministers, almost all American by birth and edu- 
 cation. Now (1876) the United Presbyterian 
 Church has three theological seminaries: oue at 
 Xenia, Ohio (1855), the legal successor of those 
 at Service, Pa. (1T'.*2 — 1819), at Philadelphia 
 (1821 — 6), at Canonsburg (1821 — 55), at Ox- 
 ford, Ohio (1839—58), at ' Monmouth. 111. (1858 
 — 74); a second at Xewburg. \. Y., which was 
 at first in New York City (1804—21), and was 
 removed to its present location in 1829, where, 
 except an interval of !) years (1858 — 67). it has 
 continued in operation ; and a third at Alle- 
 gheny I lity, Pa. .which has received students every 
 year since its establishment, in 1825. Over 500 
 students have been educated in the third, and 
 over 800. in the others. The endowment fund 
 of Xenia is $30,000; of Xewburg. $50,000; and 
 of Allegheny. $80,000. All have good buildings 
 and libraries, numbering 6,000, 5.0(10. and 8,000 
 volumes, respectively. I'revious to 1852. the As- 
 sociate and Associate Reformed churches made 
 no attempt to found independent colleges. Their 
 members joined with other Presbyterians in 
 establishing and endowing colleges, as in the 
 case of Jefferson, Canonsburg, Pa. (1802 — (15), 
 often taking a leading part in the enterprise, 
 and frequently furnishing the presidents, most 
 of the professors and .students, and the largest 
 share of the funds. A Presbyterian College was 
 started in Washington. Iowa (1855— 64), but was 
 soon abandoned. Ohio Central, at Iberia, Ohio, 
 was, for a time (18(37 — 75), under the control of a 
 presbytery of the United Presbyterian Church; 
 an 1, under another presbytery, was placed Lin- 
 coln College (1872), Greenwood, Mo.. Westinin- 
 ter I 'ollege, Xew Wilmington, Pa. (1852), estab- 
 lished by the Associate Church, and Monmouth 
 ("ollege, Monmouth, 111. (1855), by the Associate 
 Reformed Church, became the property of the 
 United Presbyterian Church in 1858. These in- 
 stitutions have been open, from the first, to both 
 sexes, as well as to colored students. Knoxville 
 i Tenn.i College (1876), costing $20,000, is for the 
 education of colored students. The Freedinan's 
 Hoard of the C. P. Church, organized soon after 
 the slaves were emancipated, rcpoi ted. in L876, 
 
 its receipts for the previous year as amounting 
 to $12,388. The college at KJnoxville is sustained 
 by this board, and is designed to furnish teach- 
 ers and preachers for the I reedmen. lntheC.P. 
 foreign mission stations, a large number of boys 
 and girls (about 3,000) are under instruction 
 every day. The Training College. Osiout, Upper 
 Epypt, in L874, had an attendance of 84 art 
 students and 10 theological students, the whole 
 number being 237. It has also a building and 
 an endowment fund.— No ladies' seminary has 
 been endowed in the I". P. Church, but many 
 excellent schools have been conducted and 
 
 patronized by the members. The Church has a 
 
 board of education, which reported to the Gen- 
 eral Assembly, in L876, that its total receipts 
 for the year had been $2,673. This board aided 
 
 20 young men in preparing for the ministry. 
 
PRIMARY INSTRUCTION 
 
 PRIMARY INSTRUCTION. See Edu- 
 cation. 
 
 PRIMER (Lat. liber pHmarius, a little book 
 containing the offices of the Roman Catholic 
 Church, so called because used at prime prima 
 hora — the tirst hour), originally a small book of 
 prayers, or for elementary religious instruction, 
 but, at the present time, an elementary reading- 
 book of the lowest grade. The literature relating 
 to primers, or A-B-C books, is very curious and 
 interesting, some of these books having had great 
 fame on account of their long and extensive use. 
 One of the very earliest was Luther's (or Melanch- 
 thon's) Child's Little Primer, containing the 
 Lord's Prayer, etc. (See Luther.) In 1534, a 
 Prymer in Englyshe with certain prayers, etc., 
 was printed by John Byddell; and. in 1545, King 
 Henry VIII. ordered an English Form of Public 
 Prayer, or Prymer, to be printed ; and to be 
 "taught, lerned, and red'' throughout his domin- 
 ions. Bienrod's primer, containing an illustrated 
 alphabet, was the earliest publication of this kind 
 in German, dating back to the middle of the 
 10th century. The horn-book was the simplest 
 and most noted of primers. (See Horn-Book, 
 and Christ Cross Row.) The Royal Primer 
 of Great Britain and the New England Primer 
 also had great fame. — See Barnard's Journal, 
 vol. xii., art. A-B-C Books and Primers. 
 
 PRINCE EDWARD ISLAND, a British 
 province of North America, formerly (until IT!)!') 
 called St. John, having an area of 2,175 square 
 miles, and a population, according to the census 
 of 1871, of 94,021. It was under French rule 
 until 1703, when it was ceded, by the treaty of 
 Paris, to the British. In 1873, it became a mem- 
 ber of the Dominion of Canada. 
 
 The free-school system dates from 1853 ; but 
 the existing law went into operation in 1808. The 
 lieutenant-governor appoints a board of educa- 
 tion, consisting of 11 members, including the 
 two provincial examiners. This board may can- 
 cel a teacher's license on proof of misconduct, 
 may alter a school site on the requisition of two- 
 thirds of the householders, and may also alter 
 district boundaries. There are five trustees for 
 each district, elected by the resident householders. 
 Two trustees are elected and two retire annually. 
 The trustees may allow the school-house to be 
 used as a place of worship, and may also permit 
 the teacher to hold an evening school therein. 
 Exclusive of grammar-school masters, there are 
 two classes or grades of teachers. Those of the 
 lower grade must be qualified to teach book- 
 keeping, English grammar, reading, arithmetic, 
 and geography; while those of the higher grade 
 are expected to be proficient in algebra, geom- 
 etry, trigonometry, mensuration, surveying, nav- 
 igation, and the use of the globes. If the 
 school of his own district is not in operation, a 
 child may attend the nearest school, unless the 
 attendance there exceeds 50. All residents from 
 6 to 17 years of age are entitled to attend the 
 district school. The normal school is under the 
 control of the board. A grammar school may be 
 established for two adjoining districts, instead 
 
 PUBLIC SCHOOLS 
 
 715 
 
 of district schools; but the teacher must be 
 competent to teach Latin, Greek, and French. 
 The salaries of the teachers range from £40 to 
 £100 a year, paid from the provincial treasury. 
 In 1874, there were 355 schools in operation, of 
 which L 8 were grammar schools. The number 
 of pupils was L6.292, and of teachers 453. The 
 number of teachers licensed during the year was 
 46, besides whom the normal school had 27 pupil- 
 teachers. In addition to the public Bel Is, there 
 
 are several private institutions. A higher educa- 
 tion is provided for in two colleges,- Prince of 
 Wales College (Protestant Episcopal), and St. 
 Dunstan's (Roman Catholic). — See Marling, 
 Canada Educational Directory for 1876; 
 Lovell's Gazetteer of British North America. 
 
 PRIZES. See EMULATION. 
 
 PROGRAMME. See S. i i, MANAGEMENT. 
 
 PROMOTION. See School Management. 
 
 PRUSSIA. See Germany. 
 
 PUBLIC SCHOOLS. Free Schools, or 
 Common Schools, arc designations applied to 
 schools established for the free elementary edu- 
 cation of all the children in a community or state. 
 The support of such schools, either wholly or in 
 part, by the state, presupposes that it is for the 
 general interest of every community to promote 
 the diffusion of education among all classes. (Sec 
 National Education.) In ancient times, this 
 principle was recognized by free or democratic 
 states: Sparta based her safety and prosperity 
 upon the proper education of every child in the 
 community ; and Athens had public schools for 
 all classes of her free citizens. It was, however, 
 reserved for modern times, and for the free states 
 of the American Union to carry out this principle 
 to the fullest extent, providing gratuitous edu- 
 cation, of every grade, for all classes — making 
 common schools not eleemosynary institutions, 
 but seminaries in which the children of the rich 
 and the poor might meet together in common. 
 and share alike in the blessings and advantages 
 of education. Free schools, so called, that is. 
 "schools for the gratuitous instruction of poor 
 children can be traced back," says Barnard, "to 
 the early ages of the Christian Church. Wher- 
 ever a missionary station was set up, or the 
 bishop's residence, or seat [cathedra, hence 
 cathedral) was fixed, there gradually grew up a 
 large ecclesiastical establishment, in which were 
 concentrated the means of hospitality for all the 
 clergy, and all the humanizing influences of 
 learning and religion for that diocese or district." 
 Connected with these, were the song scoles, 
 where poor boys were taught to chant, iuullecture 
 scoles, where clerks were instructed in reading, 
 and subsequently, grammar schools, for classical 
 instruction. Convent schools, connected with the 
 monasteries, were the germs of the universities; 
 and the endowments which these schools received 
 from princes and prelates enabled them to afford 
 an education to the children of the indigent as 
 well as to those of the wealthy. (See Cathedral 
 Schools.) Royal grammar schools were founded 
 out of the old endowments by Henry VIII. 
 (See Grammar Schools.) "The free schools in 
 
716 
 
 "PUBLIC SCHOOLS 
 
 PUPIL TEACHER 
 
 England,'' says Barnard, "were originally estab- 
 lished in towns where there was no old convent- 
 ual, cathedral, royal, or en< 1< m& 1 grammar schools. 
 With very few exceptions, these schools were 
 founded and endowed by individuals, for the 
 teaching of Creek and Latin, and for no other 
 gratuitous teaching. The gratuitous instruction 
 was sometimes extended to all the children born 
 or living in a particular parish, or of a particular 
 name. All not specified and provided for in 
 the instruments of endowment paid tuition to 
 the master." (See England.) For the history 
 of public or free schools in othtiy countries, and 
 in the several states of the American Union, see 
 under the respective titles. — One of the most im- 
 portant questions in regard to public schools is, 
 whether the education afforded should be wholly 
 free, or whether, in the case of all children whose 
 parents are able to pay, a tuition fee should 
 be demanded, gratuitous instruction being given 
 to those only who are in indigent circumstances. 
 In many countries, the latter system is in oper- 
 ation. The arguments against it were clearly 
 and forcibly summarised at a meeting of the 
 Birmingham (England) school board, in June. 
 1875, acting in behalf of the free system : 
 "(1) Because compulsory education is enforced 
 in the interest of the whole community, and will 
 be most effectually and economically carried out 
 under a tree system; (2) because the cost of this 
 education is unfairly distributed by any other 
 plan; (3) because the fees act as a direct tax 
 upon attendance, and tend accordingly to prevent 
 the result for which the schools are established, 
 the expense incurred, and the compulsory laws 
 enforced: I 1) because the alternative practice of 
 partial exemption is calculated to pauperize great 
 numbers of persons who have hitherto escaped 
 any form of charitable relief." In defense of b 
 free system, many citations, both of opinion and 
 fact may be made. Talleyrand said : "The chief 
 
 object of the state is to teach children to become 
 one day its citizens. It initiates them, in a man- 
 ner, into the social order by showing them the 
 laws by which it is governed, and giving them 
 the first of their means of existence. Is it not 
 jnst, then, that all should (earn gratuitously what 
 
 ought to be regarded as the necessary condition 
 of the association of which they are fco become 
 
 members? This elementary instruction seems to 
 
 be a del it which society owes to all, and which 
 it must pay without the slightest deduction." 
 
 This sentiment has been repeated by scores of 
 
 the best and most liberal thinkers. It IB con- 
 tended that the establishment of free schools by 
 
 the state is not only proper as an act of justice, 
 
 but expedient as a measure of policy. England, 
 
 it ha- been said. pays for pauperism and crime 
 five times as much as for education: while 
 
 Switzerland pays seven times as much for edu- 
 cation as for pauperism and crime: and. it is 
 contended that wherever U-rv education prevails, 
 there is more freedom, more public and private 
 virtue, and more Bocial and political stability. — 
 
 It has been said, on the other hand, that uni- 
 versal education unfits the members of a com- 
 
 munity for the lower and more laborious pur- 
 suits of life; at any rate, that it reduces the 
 ranks of t he mechanic and day-laborer, and in- 
 ordinately increases those of the professions, and 
 of those connected with commercial life, thus 
 diminishing the producers and increasing the 
 non-producers. But to this, it is replied that 
 (1) the education of the masses will, under all 
 circumstances, not extend beyond elementary in- 
 struction, which will be beneficial in every pur- 
 suit, however humble: (2) those who from lowly 
 stations rise to positions of eminence by means 
 of free education, must do so by means of talents 
 the proper exercise of which must be beneficial 
 to the community; and (3) many of those who 
 are denominated non-producers are often the 
 persons who, by their inventions and discoveries, 
 increase the producing power of labor sometimes 
 a hundred-fold. The inventor of the steam-engine, 
 the cotton-gin, or the sewing-machine, might 
 never have done a day's labor in his life: but he 
 certainly would not have been a non-producer 
 on that account. Scotland offers an instructive 
 example of the effects of a free system of edu- 
 cation. Dr. L. I'layfair. in a speech delivered 
 June 20., 1870, said : "Every peasant in Scotland 
 knows that it is his own fault if he docs not ac- 
 quire such knowledge in his own school as will 
 enable him to aspire to the university rOut of 
 3,500 students at the Scotch universities, about 
 500 are the sons of wage-making artisans or 
 peasants." A similar state of things exists 
 in nearly all of the United States. There is, 
 however, no lack of peasants or farmers in either 
 country. (See Morlet, The Struggle for National 
 Education, London. 1873.) The educated intel- 
 ligence and industrial skill, not merely the mus- 
 cular power of its people, constitute the most im- 
 portant and most productive part of a nation's 
 capital : and this the free school is the most 
 effective instrumentality in maintaining and en- 
 larging. (Bee Crime and Education.) 
 
 PUBLIC SCHOOLS, English. See Eng- 
 land. 
 
 PUNISHMENT. See Corporal Punish- 
 ment, and bi: w:. 
 
 PUPIL-TEACHER, a term used, chiefly 
 in England, to designate a boy or a girl employed 
 
 to perforin certain duties connected with the 
 teaching and management of a school. The 
 English Elementary Education Act of 18/0, re- 
 quires that ''pupil-teachers (1] be not less than 
 L3 years of age, at the date of their engagement; 
 lie of the same sex as the certificated teacher 
 
 under whom they serve, except that, in a mixed 
 
 school, female pupil-teachers may serve under a 
 master, and may receive instruction from him 
 out of school hours, on condition that some re- 
 spectable woman, approved by the managers, be 
 
 invariably present during the whole time that 
 
 such instruction is being given; (3) be presented 
 to the inspector for examination at the time and 
 place fixed by his notice; (4) pass the required 
 
 examinations and produce tin- proper certificates; 
 (5) that not more than four pupil-teachers are 
 in the school for every certificated 
 
 engaged 
 
PYTHAGORAS 
 
 QUEBEC. 
 
 717 
 
 teacher serving in it. — Such a system is favorable 
 to economy, but cannot be productive of tin- 
 best results in the teaching of the school. It is 
 an offshoot of the monitorial system (q. v.); and, 
 to some extent, is subject to the same objections. 
 Hence, we find complaints of its inefficiency, 
 arising from the circumstance, inseparable from 
 the system, that " pupil-teachers are regarded too 
 much as teachers, and too little as pupils." A 
 correspondent of the Schoolmaster (London, July 
 17., 1875), writing from personal experience, 
 says: "Schools can frequently be found where 90 
 or 100 children are placed under a master, who, 
 instead of being supplied with teachers compe- 
 tent to instruct the several classes into which the 
 scholars must necessarily be divided, is only 
 furnished with one. or perhaps two lads, whom 
 he is expected to instruct in the art of teaching, 
 in addition to the ordinary duties of the school." 
 Of course, the pupils, in such a school, must be 
 very imperfectly taught. In December, 1874, 
 there were employed in the public schools of 
 England and Wales. 20.162 certificated teachers, 
 1,999 assistants, and 27,321 pupil-teachers. The. 
 engagement of pupil-teachers is for five years, at 
 the end of which time they may be admitted 
 into a training college, on passing the required 
 examination. — The system of pupil-teachers 
 formerly prevailed in some of the cities of the 
 United States, notably in the city of New York, 
 in which it was continued, in the schools of the 
 Public School Society, for many years. These 
 pupil-teachers, called monitors, were, as in the 
 English schools, apprentices, and were expected 
 to attend a Saturday or evening normal school ; 
 and, on passing a final examination, were em- 
 ployed as full teachers. This system has ceased 
 to exist in most of the American schools. 
 
 PYTHAGORAS, a celebrated Greek philos- 
 opher, born on the island of Samos, in 580 B. G; 
 died in Metapontum, in southern Italy, about 
 500. He was so enthusiastic in his search for 
 knowledge that he spent 30 years (as is said) in 
 travel, in order to obtain it, visiting Egypt, 
 Phoenicia, Arabia, Babylonia, India, and even 
 Gaul. Too modest to take the title aofog (wise 
 man), lie was the first to assume that of (pu.6<jo<j>og 
 
 (lover of wisdom). "I Te was, "says Schmidt (ffis- 
 tory of Education), " the first < J reek in whom the 
 spirit of the East was united with that of the 
 West, and in whom the culture of Babylon, 
 Egypt, and westernmost Asia combined to de- 
 velop that of the Greeks in a new and glorious 
 form." At Croton. in southern Italy, whither 
 he emigrated about 531) B. ('.. lie established his 
 famous school, and enunciated the doctrines of 
 his peculiar system, the fruit of his researches 
 and contemplations. < >f this system, the metemp- 
 sychosis was a cardinal principle, co-ordinate with 
 that of the purification of the soul (/co&zftxnc), 
 since the former was the necessary agency for 
 effecting this purification ; and the latter, in its 
 ultimate consummation, was designed to bring 
 man into a fit condition to hold communion with 
 the Deity (dfufatlv toJ Qey). Self-knowledge 
 he regarded as the indispensable condition for 
 self-improvement — as the basis of all culture, 
 the highest aim of which is to obtain a full 
 understanding of the essence and relations of the 
 objects around us. and to live in harmony with 
 them, and with the true end of man's being. 
 Music (fiovatK?/ irtufitia) was in itself one of the 
 most important instruments of this culture, em- 
 bodying and typifying the harmony of the uni- 
 verse, as well as aiding the soid in its efforts to 
 bring itself into the same harmony. Religious 
 devotion was an important means to consum- 
 mate this result ; and hence he based education 
 upon religion. The good of society could be pro- 
 moted only by such education, the fruit of 
 which would necessarily be civil and political 
 liberty, because it would produce nobleness of 
 soul in every citizen. His practical system, there- 
 fore, comprehended special means for the educa- 
 tion of children, as well as the instruction of 
 adults. His school at Croton was, however, 
 designed only for the latter ; and its pecidiar 
 rules, practices, and arrangements deserve a care- 
 ful study. — See Schmidt, History of .Education 
 (N.Y.,1872); Grote, History of Greece; Schmidt. 
 Geschichte der Padagogik, vol. i.; Zeller, Die 
 P ythagorassage (Leipsic, 1865) ; Ueberweg, 
 History of Philosophy, trans, from the German 
 (N. Y., 1872). 
 
 aUADRrVIUM. See Arts. 
 
 QUEBEC, a province of the Dominion of 
 Canada, having an area of 193,355 sq. miles ; 
 and a population, in 1871, of 1,191,516. (See 
 Ontario.) 
 
 Educational History. — The first school in the 
 province was that of the Franciscan Father Du- 
 plessis. at Three Rivers, founded in 1616. In 1632, 
 the Jesuits, who afterward exercised great in- 
 fluence on education, opened their first school in 
 Quebec for the instruction of the Indians; and, in 
 1635, they founded the Seminary of Notre Dame 
 des Anges, which afterward became the Jesuit 
 college of Quebec. For over a century, education 
 remained almost exclusively in the hands of the 
 
 Catholic clergy. Among the larger schools estab- 
 lished during this period, were the convent of 
 the Ursulines, founded in 1639, the Seminary of 
 Quebec, in 1 678, and the theological seminary in 
 Montreal, in 1647. In 1653, Sister Margaret 
 Bourgeois founded the order of the congregation 
 of Notre Dame at Montreal, and established a 
 number of schools. The Recollets and Jesuits 
 also supported many primary schools. In 1737. 
 the Christian Brothers undertook the task of 
 popular instruction, but were unsuccessful, owing 
 to the apathy of the government and of the set- 
 tlers. In 1774, the order of Jesuits was sup- 
 pressed in Canada, and its estates vested in the 
 Crown. It was not, however, until 1831 that 
 
718 
 
 QUEBEC 
 
 these estates were surrendered to the provincial 
 parliament for the support of education. In 
 1 801, an act was passed providing for the estab- 
 lishment of free schools, under the Royal Insti- 
 tution for the Advancement of Learning. This 
 act produced but slight results; and the Royal 
 Institution, at present, has charge of very little 
 else than of the McGill institutions, and these 
 only by the special desire of their founder. 
 
 School Law. — The principal provisions of the 
 present school law are as follows: The estates 
 of the Jesuits form the so-called Superior Edu- 
 cation Investment Fund, the revenues of which, 
 together with other moneys appropriated for the 
 purpose, form an income fund, to be distributed 
 among the universities, and all other educational 
 institutions, except the elementary schools. To 
 this fund. $20,000 is annually added from the 
 revenue of the province; and a sufficient amount 
 must be added from the common-school fund, 
 so as to make up the sum of Sss,000. The 
 council of public instruction is appointed by 
 the lieutenant-governor, consisting of 1 (i Roman 
 Catholics and 8 Protestants. The superintend- 
 ent is president, e.r (ifficio, and a member of both 
 committees, with a vote in that of his own 
 religion. The council makes rules for schools 
 and examiners, and selects, or causes to be pub- 
 lished, the books to be used, except those on 
 religion and morals; and it may hold the copy- 
 right thereof, the profits accruing from which 
 go to the income fund. It may, also, revoke a 
 teacher's certificate for sufficient cause. Every 
 municipality elects a board of five commission- 
 ers, who hold office for five years. The religious 
 minority in any municipality may dissent; and 
 may nominate, in writing, to the chairman of the 
 commissioners three trustees, who may exercise, 
 in respect to the dissentient schools, the same 
 
 powers that the commissioners have in regard 
 
 to the common schools. The commissioners ap- 
 point the teachers, and regulate the studies, fees, 
 
 etc. No other books than those prescribed by 
 the council can be used ; but the cure, priest, or 
 
 officiating minister has the exclusive right to des- 
 ignate the books for religious instruction tube 
 used in the sehoois of his faith. The schools 
 are open for children from 5 to 10 years of age; 
 but a fee may be charged only for those from 7 
 tn II. Separate schools for girls may be estab- 
 lished. Inspectors are appointed by the lieuten- 
 ant-governor ; and, in their visits, have the power 
 
 of the superintendent, from whom thej receive 
 instructions. The resident clergy of the denom- 
 ination to which the school belongs, the superior 
 judges, the members of the legislature, resident 
 
 justices of the peace, the warden or mayor, the 
 
 senior captain and superior resident officers of 
 militia and the superintendent, are school visit- 
 ors, and, as such, may take pari in the exami- 
 nations of teachers, and have access to all docu- 
 ment.-. In Quebec and Montreal, the corporation 
 appoints six I! an Catholic, and six Protestanl 
 
 C issi re, one balf to be renewed annually. 
 
 » Mherw ise. the same law applies to these eit iea as 
 to the reel of the province. Any fabrique, i. e-. 
 
 the cure and church-wardens of a parish, may 
 establish one school for every hundred families. 
 and acquire and hold, for each school, property 
 not exceeding $ W0 in value. Such schools may 
 be placed for one or more years under the school 
 laws, if the fabrique and school commissioners. 
 agree; and the cure or church-warden of any 
 fabrique contributing nol less than $50 a year 
 to a school under commissioners, may hold the 
 office of commissioner; but no fabrique or 
 school can be united with the schools of coni- 
 missioners of another faith. 
 
 Primary Schools. — In L873, there were 3,25 f 
 elementary schools under the school laws, with 
 141,990 pupils; 4 normal schools, with 246 pu- 
 pils; 156 independent schools, with 6,261 pupils; 
 TH) dissentient schools, with 7,665 pupils; L29 
 teaching convents, with 24,236 pupils, and 343 
 model schools, with 28,588 pupils. Of the dis- 
 sentient schools. 186, with 6,156 pupils, were 
 Protestant; and 34, with 1,509 pupils, were 
 Roman Catholic. During the same year, 662 
 candidates for teachers' certificates were ex- 
 amined, of whom 58 were rejected. There 
 were, in L874, three normal schools; the Jacques 
 Cartier, with b> male pupils, and the McGill 
 school, with 6 male and L06 female pupils, both 
 in .Montreal : and the I aval school, in Quebec, 
 with 43 male and 56 female pupils; making, in 
 all. 254 pupils for the three normal schools. 
 
 Secondary Schools. — There are two classes of 
 
 colleges, classical and industrial, which occupy 
 a position similar to the high Bchools of Ontario. 
 They are chiefly boarding-schools, although a 
 
 few day scholars are also admitted. The course 
 of studies in each comprises those usually taught 
 
 in high schools. The time accessary to complete 
 
 the course, varies from 4 to 111 years. The total 
 number of colleges, in 1873, was 37, with 7.113 
 students. 
 
 Universities. — There are three universities, — 
 McGill College and University, in Montreal; the 
 University of Laval, in Quebec; and the Ini- 
 versity of Bishop's College, in Lennoxville. 
 McGill College was established by a bequest of 
 •lames Met rill, a merchant of Montreal, who died 
 in L813. Byroyal charter, which was received 
 in L821, and amended in L852, the governors. 
 
 principal, and fellows of McGill College con- 
 stitute the corporation of the university; and, 
 under the statutes framed by the governors, 
 
 have the power of granting degrees in all the 
 
 arts and faculties in Met rill t 'ollege, and coif 
 affiliated with it. These arc Morrin ('ollege. in 
 Quebec; the Congregational College of British 
 North America, in Montreal: and the Pres- 
 byterian College oi Montreal. Teachers trained 
 in the McGill Normal School arc entitled to 
 
 provincial diplomas. McGill University had. in 
 L873, 1 'J professors and l_ students in the legal 
 
 faculty, I'-l professors and L30 students in the 
 medical faculty, and 1<> professors and 290 stu- 
 dents in the faculty of arts. The University of 
 Laval, in Quebec, was founded in L852, and re- 
 ceived the royal charter the same year. It 
 is governed by the Roman Catholic Church. 
 
QUESTIONING 
 
 The Quebec Seminary is the collegiate depart- 
 ment of Laval University. The university had, 
 
 in 1873, 5 professors and 54 students in the 
 theological, 5 professors and .'!7 students in the 
 legal,!* professors and SS students in the medical 
 faculty, and ID professors and !)" students in 
 t lie faculty of arts. The University of Bishop's 
 College, in Lennoxville, is governed by the Prot- 
 estant Episcopal Church. It was opened in 
 1845, and, in 1853, received the royal charter 
 which gave it university powers. It had, in 
 1873, a theological faculty, with 5 professors and 
 54 students, and a faculty of arts, with 9 pro- 
 fessors and ss students. A medical faculty has 
 been organized since that time. There is also a 
 large number of professional colleges and col- 
 legiate schools. — See Marling, Canada Educa- 
 tional Directory and Yearbook for 1870; 
 Lovell's Directory of British North America 
 (1873); Ciiauveau (formerly minister of public 
 instruction in Quebec), in Schmid's Encyclopadie 
 (2ded., 187G),art. Canada). 
 
 QUESTIONING. See Interrogation. 
 
 QUINTILIAN ( Quintilian us), Marcus Fa- 
 bius, a Roman teacher and educational writer, 
 
 RAIKES 
 
 719 
 
 was born probably in Calagurris, Spain, in 40 
 A. D.; died about 118. lie was the first 
 public teacher of oratory at Home, receiving a 
 regular salary from the imperial treasury, and 
 continuing his instruction for about 20 years. 
 His principal work. Be Fnstitutione Oratoria 
 Libri XII, called also Tnstitutiones Oratorio;, 
 is of considerable importance in the history of 
 
 education, as the first and second hooks contain 
 Quintilian's views on all important educational 
 questions. He insisted that the education of the 
 child should begin with the nurse, who should 
 teach the child a correct pronunciation, lie 
 strongly recommended public schools in prefer- 
 ence to private schools. The study of Greek 
 should begin before that of the native language 
 (Latin): and the course of instruction should 
 embrace reading, writing, grammar, music, and 
 geometry. Elocution should be taught by an 
 actor. The educational principles commended by 
 Quintilian, have, however, only the training of 
 good rhetoricians in view. — See Pilz, Quintilian, 
 ein Lehrerleben aus der romisdu-u Kaiscrzcit 
 (Leipsic, 1863) ; Barnard's Journal of Edu- 
 cation, vol. x. and xi. 
 
 RABANUS {Hrabanus or Rhabamis) Mau- 
 rus, one of the greatest scholars of the middle 
 ages, born about 776, died in 856. He re- 
 ceived his education partly in the monastery 
 of Fulda, and subsequently studied at Tours, 
 where he became the favorite pupil of Alcuin. 
 Having returned to Fulda, he assumed the direc- 
 tion of the convent school. When he was elected 
 abbot of Fulda, in 822, he gave up the instruc- 
 tion of the non-clerical, but continued that of 
 the theological, students. The school of Fulda 
 became, through him, one of the most famous 
 of the age. Young men from Germany, France, 
 and Italy flocked to it in great numbers, and its 
 pupils were eagerly sought for as good teachers. 
 Eabanus has frequently been called the first 
 teacher of Germany (primus prceceptor Ger- 
 man ice), not only because he instructed large 
 numbers of young men, through whom learning 
 was spread throughout that country, but 
 also because he was the first to instruct in the 
 German language, and to establish a school for 
 other than clerical students. Among his nu- 
 merous works, was a kind of encyclopaedia of 
 knowledge, entitled De Universo, which exerted 
 considerable influence upon the progress of edu- 
 cation in the middle ages. — See Kixstmann, 
 Eabanus Mdgnentius Maurus (1841); Bach, 
 Ueber Rabanus Maurus. als ScJn'i/fer des deut- 
 schen Schulwesens (1835); Spengler, heben des 
 heiliqen Rhabanns Maurus (1856). 
 
 RACINE COLLEGE, at Racine, Wis., 
 founded in 1852, is under Protestant Episcopal 
 control. It has a classical and a scientific course, 
 with a classical and a mathematical school as 
 preparatory institutions. The regular charge for 
 tuition, board, etc., is $400 per year. The 
 
 library contains 3,000 volumes. In 1874 — 5, 
 there were 18 instructors and 180 students (35 
 classical, 10 scientific, 102 in the classical school, 
 and 33 in the mathematical school). The Rev. 
 James De Koven, I). P., is (1877) the warden. 
 
 RAGGED SCHOOLS. See Reform 
 Schools. 
 
 RAIKES, Robert, an English printer and 
 philanthropist, born at Gloucester. 1735 ; died 
 April 5., 1811. His attention was specially di- 
 rected to the condition of the children of the 
 poor, on taking a walk one Sunday through the 
 suburbs of his native place, lie engaged four 
 women, keepers of dame schools, to instruct as 
 many children as he should send to them on 
 Sunday, for which they were to receive a shilling 
 each. The children came in large numbers, caus- 
 ing a marked improvement in the manners and 
 morals of the place. In these efforts, he was greatly 
 aided by the Rev. T. Stock. This was the origin of 
 our present Sunday-school. By means of publica- 
 tions, notably that of a letter of Mr. Paikes in 
 the Gentleman's Magazine, in L784, public at- 
 tention was called to his scheme ; and the system 
 was adopted in all the principal towns and cities, 
 and spread rapidly through Creat Britain, even 
 attracting the attention of the queen, who ex- 
 pressed her approbation to Mr. Paikesin person. 
 The first obstacle lie encountered was a want of 
 funds to pay the teachers. This was soon over- 
 come by the teachers' offering their services 
 gratuitously. The secular teaching, which was a 
 part of the original Sunday-school system, was 
 discontinued, with the exee| ition of reading which, 
 for a long time, held its place, in course of time, 
 however, week-day schools becoming general, 
 this was given up ; and the Sunday-school, as we 
 
720 RANDOLPH MACOX COLLEGE 
 
 RAUMER 
 
 now know it. took its place among recognized 
 educational agencies. From that time, its spread 
 has been rapid and uninterrupted; and through- 
 out Great Britain and the United States, the 
 Sunday-school is now the constant attendant 
 of the church. — See Sketch of the Life of 
 Robert Rat ken mid the History of 'Sunday-Schools 
 (New York) : and W. M. Cornell, Life of Rob- 
 ert Raikes (New York, 1864). (See also Sunday- 
 Schools.) 
 
 RANDOLPH MACON COLLEGE, at 
 Ashland. Ya.. chartered in 1832 and or- 
 ganized in 1834, is under the control of the 
 Methodist Episcopal Church, South. It has 
 productive funds to the amount of $25,000, ex- 
 tensive philosophical and chemical apparatus, a 
 cabinet of minerals, and libraries containing 
 1 1 .000 volumes. The course of study is distributed 
 into separate schools, including schools of Latin, 
 Greek, Knglish, French. German, pure mathe- 
 matics, applied mathematics, natural science, 
 chemistry, physiology and hygiene, moral philos- 
 ophy and metaphysics, Biblical literature', and 
 oriental languages. The degrees conferred are 
 Graduate in a school. Bachelor of Science, 
 Bachelor of Arts, and Master of Arts, the last 
 three requiring graduation in several schools. 
 A handsome new lecture hall has recently been 
 erected. This, with the other buildings, now 
 planned, and an additional endowment fund, 
 will considerably increase the facilities of the hi- 
 st itution. The tuition fee for three or more 
 schools is $75 per year. Candidates for the 
 ministry are exempt from the payment of 
 tuition fees. In 1875 — 6, there were 11 instruct- 
 ors and 235 students. The Rev. James A. 
 Duncan, A. M., D. D., is (187(5) the president. 
 
 RATICH, Wolfgang, a distinguished Ger- 
 man educator, was born in 1571. at Wilsten, in 
 Boktein, and died in 1(535, at Rudolstadt. A 
 difficulty in his speech compelling him to give up 
 the design of becoming a preacher, he applied 
 himself to the study of the 1 1 el new and Arabic 
 Languages, and mathematics. He claimed to be 
 the inventor of a new system of instruction, 
 vastly superior to the prevailing ones. In L612, 
 he addressed a memorial to the Diet at Frank- 
 tort in behalf of his system, in which, he as- 
 serted, that not only could old and young in a 
 short time easily learn I lebrcw, < ireek, Latin, I Ger- 
 man, philosophy, theology, and the arts and scien- 
 ces, but that uniformity of Language and religion 
 could he introduced into the whole empire. Sev- 
 eral princes were led to interest themselves in his 
 scheme. Professors Bel wig and •lung, of Giessen, 
 and Granger, Brendel, Walter, and wolf, of Jena, 
 were invited to investigate it. They judged it 
 excellent ill theory, and made a favorable report 
 upon it. b'atich agreed with Prince Ludwig, of 
 Anhalt Kolheii, and I hike John Krnest. of WVi 
 mar, to instruct children by his new system, and 
 also by it to qualify teachers to give instruction 
 in any language in less time, and with less labor, 
 than by any other method used in Germany, A 
 printing-office was furnished him in kothen, 
 and his 1 looks were printed in six languages. A 
 
 school was established for him, with 135 schol- 
 ars. But Ratich proved incompetent to give 
 practical effect to his theories. He became un- 
 popular, and, being an earnest Lutheran, fell 
 under the ban of the religious prejudices of 
 a community attached to the Reformed faith. 
 His school failed, in a short time. Prince Lud- 
 wig quarreled with him, and, in 1619. impris- 
 oned him ; but released him in 1620, upon his 
 giving a written declaration that "he had 
 claimed and promised more than he knew, or 
 could bring to pass." His system was now 
 attacked by some who had been his friends. 
 The Countess Anna Sophia von Schwarzburg- 
 RudoLstadt, however, recommended him tu the 
 Swedish chancellor Oxenstiern ; and, at there- 
 quest of that statesman. Drs. Bruckner, .Meylart, 
 and Ziegler having examined his method, made 
 a favorable report upon it, in 1634. — Ratich. 
 without doubt, had a practical conception of the 
 objects of education. He preferred to give in- 
 struction in those branches which could be made 
 useful in life, rather than to pay so much atten- 
 tion to the dead languages. In his memorial to 
 the Diet at Frankfort, he held that the child 
 should first learn to read and speak the mother- 
 tongue correctly, so as to be able to use the 
 ( !ei man Bible. Hebrew and Greek should then 
 be learned, as the tongues of the original texts 
 of the Bible, after which Latin might be studied. 
 His views were embodied in a number of rules, 
 or principles, the chief of which are : (1) Every- 
 thing should be presented in its order, a due 
 regard being always had to the course of nat- 
 ure ; (2) Only one thing should be presented at 
 a time; (3j Kach thing should be often repeated: 
 (4) Every thing should be taught, at tirst. in the 
 mother-tongue ; afterward, other languages may 
 be taught; (5) Every thing should be done with- 
 out compulsion j ((>) Nothing should be learned 
 by rote ; (7) There should be mutual conformity 
 in all things; (8) First the thing by itself, and 
 afterward the explanation of it; that is to say. 
 a basis of material must be laid in the mind before 
 any rules can be applied to it : thus, in teaching 
 grammar, he gave no rules, but began with tha 
 reading of the text, and required that the rules 
 should be deduced from it ; (9) Every thing by 
 expression, and the investigation of parts. In 
 his Methodus, he has left minute directions to 
 teachers concerning the details of the course, and 
 the proper methods of instruction ; but they are 
 very prolix, and impose an immense amount of 
 labor on the teacher, without seeming to call for a 
 corresponding degree of exertion on the part of 
 
 the pupil. < 'oinenius, after reading his book, re- 
 marked that he "had not ill displayed the faults 
 of the schools, but that his remedies were not 
 distinctly shown." Ration's works were written 
 in Latin, and are diffuse, tedious, and some- 
 what pedantic. 
 
 RAUMER, Karl Georg von, a German 
 professor and author, born in Worlitz, April 9., 
 L783; died in Eriangen, June 2., 1865. He was 
 educated at Gottingen, Halle, and Freiberg, and 
 was appointed to a position in the mineralogies] 
 
READING 
 
 721 
 
 bureau in Berlin, in 1811 ; and, shortly after, to 
 that of professor of mineralogy in the university 
 of Breslau. He acted as aid to (jneisenau in the 
 campaign of 1813 — 14 against the French. From 
 1819 to 1 823, he was a professor in the university 
 of Halle, and afterward taught in Nuremberg till 
 1827, when he received the appointment of pro- 
 fessor of natural history and mineralogy in the 
 university of Krlangeu. He is chiefly known by 
 his geographical and geological works ; but his 
 principal claim to the attention of educators is his 
 Geschichtc der Pddagogik, or History of Peda- 
 gogy, published in 4 volumes (Stuttgart, 1846 — 
 55). An English translation of the larger portion 
 of this work has appeared in Barnard's Journal 
 of Education; also, separately, under the title 
 German Educators. 
 
 READING, as the basis and instrument of 
 all literary education, is the most important 
 branch of school instruction. After the child 
 has learned to talk, he may be taught to under- 
 stand, and to give vocal expression to, such writ- 
 ten language as is adapted to his degree of men- 
 tal development. To do this involves an asso- 
 ciation, in the mind, of the printed form of the 
 word (1) with its proper sound, or pronunciation, 
 and (2) with the idea, which it is intended to 
 express. In teaching children to read, the first 
 of these processes requires the principal atten- 
 tion ; but, as progress is made, the second con- 
 stantly increases in importance. The word, and 
 not the letters composing it, is the true element 
 in reading. No one can be said to know how 
 to read who is obliged to stop at the word, and 
 study its composition, before he can pronounce 
 it. The due meaning and pronunciation of every 
 word must be immediately recognized by the 
 mind, without pause or hesitation, in the act of 
 reading. But the word is made up of separate 
 characters, representing elementary sounds ; and 
 hence arises a diversity of methods in teaching 
 children to pronounce words. The alphabet 
 method, or A-B-C method (q. v.), requires that 
 the child should learn the names of all the letters 
 of the alphabet, and then, by means of a spelling 
 process, learn the proper pronunciation of their 
 combinations. This process is condemned by 
 most teachers of the present time, as long and 
 tedious, as well as illogical ; the method most 
 generally preferred being that denominated the 
 word method (q. v.) , by which the child learns 
 at once to pronounce short words, and is taught 
 the sounds and names of the letters, by an anal- 
 ysis of them. When the sounds of the letters 
 are used instead of the names, the process has 
 been called the phonic method (q. v.), which, in 
 modern didactics, is most generally approved. 
 < 'ertainly, it is more rational to expect that a 
 child will perceive the true pronunciation of a 
 word through an analysis of the sounds of the 
 letters, than by using their names, many of which 
 afford no key to the sound. For example, if the 
 word be cat, the child reaches the pronunciation 
 at once by enumerating the sounds Tc-a—t ; while 
 by spelling, he is obliged to say se-d-te, introdu- 
 cing souncls entirely foreign to the word. In the 
 46 
 
 I one case, the mental association required is sim- 
 | pie and direct ; in the other, it is complex and 
 indirect, it is true that, by long and diligent 
 rote-teaching, children learn to read by the latter 
 method; but the question arises, are they not 
 to a certain extent unfitted for other instruction 
 by so illogical a process? Auxiliary to the phonic 
 method, and, indeed, dictated by its needs, is the 
 phon$tic method, in which the absurd contradic- 
 tions of the alphabet are removed by using the 
 letters slightly modified, so as to have a character 
 for each separate sound, and each sound repre- 
 sented by one, and only one, character. (See 
 Orthography, and Fhonktics.) These various 
 methods are dictated by what may perhaps be 
 called the mechanics of reading; but, in con- 
 nection with that, the teacher must always bear 
 in mind, that what the child is learning to pro- 
 nounce is a symbol of thought ; and, hence, at 
 every step, the pupil's understanding is to be ad- 
 dressed. Beading, as a part of education, has a 
 twofold object : (1) to understand what is read ; 
 and (2) to give proper oral expression to it; 
 that is to say, reading is either for the purpose 
 of gaining information for one's self, or for im- 
 parting information to others. To teach a pupil 
 to read properly implies far more than correct 
 elocution. It implies the development of that 
 judgment and spirit which, being brought to the 
 perusal of useful books, or other reading matter, 
 will enable the student to gather up information, 
 and, in every available manner, make the realm 
 of books tributary to his own mental wants. 
 Hence, as auxiliary to reading, the proper mean- 
 ing of words, phrases, and idioms must be taught ; 
 and exercises must be employed for the purpose 
 of ascertaining to what extent the pupil has re- 
 ceived correct ideas from what he has read. 
 When the object is to teach the pupils elocution, 
 the exercises should be specially adapted to that 
 end. Thus, the pupil, having read in order to 
 understand for himself, should be required to 
 read the same passage for the information of his 
 fellow pupils. For this purpose, it has been rec- 
 ommended, in class teaching, to permit only 
 the pupil reading to use the book, all the others 
 being required to listen ; because, in this way. 
 the pupils will be on the alert to hear and know 
 the meaning of what is read, and will, besides, 
 better appreciate the true end of reading ; while, 
 on the other hand, the one reading will endeavor 
 to pronounce correctly, enunciate distinctly, and 
 emphasize naturally. Reading-books should be 
 constructed with a special reference to the accom- 
 plishment of this object ; and hence, the lessons 
 should be adapted, at each stage, to the mental 
 status of the pupils. Moreover, the material 
 should not consist of mere fragments, without 
 any logical continuity ; but should be of such a 
 character as to discipline the mind in connected 
 thinking upon suitable subjects, and to awaken 
 an interest in the minds of the pupils. Usually, 
 this essential object of reading in schools is de- 
 t 'ea ted by the use of extracts from essays on dif- 
 ficult, abstract subjects, or from authors whose 
 style is too complex, and whose vocabulary is too 
 
722 
 
 REAL SCHOOLS 
 
 ponderous for children. Simultaneous reading 
 is commended by some teachers as an elocution- 
 ary drill, as being useful (1) to impart habits of 
 distinctness of enunciation, (2) to remove the 
 habit of too rapid or too slow a style of reading, 
 (3) as a means of voice culture fur elocution. — 
 See Currie, Principles and Practice of Com- 
 mon-School Education; Wickeksham. Methods 
 of Instruction : How to Teach (X. Y., 1874). 
 (See also Elocution, and Voice.) 
 
 REAL SCHOOL, or Real Gymnasium, 
 the name used in Germany to designate a kind of 
 high school. This term was used as early as 1706; 
 but the first permanent real school was founded 
 by J. J. Hecker in 1747. (See Germany, and 
 Heckee.) The real schools are utilitarian in char- 
 acter, and aim to teach, like the scientific depart - 
 1 1 n j nts of the American college, only those branches 
 designed to develop the jirac/icul man. They are 
 strictly the people's schools, and aim to fit espe- 
 cially for occupation in trade and industry. Hence 
 they are sometimes called higher burgher schools. 
 Their course of study is more advanced than thai 
 of the elementary and common schools ; and they 
 should always bear the name, as they do in some 
 instances, real gymnasia, because they are the 
 preparatory schools for institutions affording to 
 the would-be merchant, artist, artisan, etc.. ad- 
 vantages like those offered by the classical gym- 
 nasia to the future theologian, lawyer, physician, 
 etc. The realists claim that the gymnasium is a 
 preparatory school for the patient toiler in in- 
 vestigation, giving a (raining unfit for practical 
 life : but that the real schools meet this want by 
 educating the boy to become n/ tract ical manj not a 
 scholar. They pay less regard to verbal knowl- 
 edge, but more to mathematics and its appli- 
 cation to the arts, and arrange the whole course 
 so as to facilitate the development of those 
 mental habits which are favorable to the highest 
 
 practical success, and yet provide an adequate 
 intellectual culture. According to the Prussian 
 school regulation, their purpose is to afford a 
 scientific preparatory training for those higher 
 pursuits which do not absolutely require academ- 
 ical studies under any special faculty. The Prus- 
 sian government, though it lias refused to sup- 
 port these schools, obliging the towns in which 
 they are located to maintain them, has recog- 
 
 ni/.eil their efficiency by permitting, since 1871, 
 graduates of those of the first order to be re- 
 ceived into the different branches of the civil 
 service, and to be relieved from military duty. 
 like gymnasia students, after one year's service, 
 instead of three, with the privilege of advance- 
 ment to the commissioned ranks in case of mobil- 
 ization. Since the unification of the German 
 nation, the schools of this order in the different 
 States are being bp lUghl to a standard harmonious 
 with the Prussian, Those of northern Germany 
 are quite well regulated ; those of southern Ger- 
 many are slowly but steadily improving. — The 
 genera] division and management of the real 
 
 ■ols of the first order are the same as those of 
 
 the gymnasia. The course of study extends over 
 
 nine years and through six classes. The average 
 
 age of admission is nine years, and of discharge, 
 eighteen. The attention which the gymna- 
 sium gives to the classical languages, the real 
 school pays to the modem. V* hde the former 
 schools teach only French, and merely enable 
 the learner to read it without a dictionary, and 
 to compose in it with moderate ease; the latter, 
 substituting English for Greek, give the learner 
 a good knowledge of both French and English. 
 Thus, the same familiarity which the classical 
 stiu lent acquires with the history of ancient litera- 
 ture, the realist acquires with modern literature. 
 AN'hilo ancient history is not ignored, the events 
 of the last three centuries, and the political 
 changes which brought about the present status 
 of civil society are carefully considered. Far 
 greater attention, also, is paid to the exact scien- 
 ces. There are some real gymnasia whose students 
 are exempt from the restrictions put upon the 
 graduates of the real school. They teach Creek, 
 though less of it than the classical gymnasia, 
 and permit the substitution of a modern for a 
 classical language, in the last two years of the 
 course, or, at least, for Hebrew, which is an 
 elective study in all the Prussian gymnasia. Of 
 the real schools of inferior order, the so-called 
 higher burgher school has a course extending 
 through only seven years, the prima, or highest 
 class, alone requiring two years; while all other 
 classes require one year's attendance. The real 
 schools of the second grade provide, in their 
 lower classes, for elementary and common- 
 school training. They also permit a deviation 
 from the regular course, and provide for elective 
 Studies, among which is Latin; but some ex- 
 clude Latin altogether. These schools are 
 certainly misnamed; they are. really, of the 
 third grade, and the higher burgher schools are 
 of the second grade. In 1875, an effort was lie- 
 gun to modify the course of the gymnasia so as 
 to admit of a choice of classical or scientific 
 study, in older to do away with the real schools; 
 but the probability is that the last-named schools 
 will continue in their present organic form, pos- 
 sibly so modifying their course of study as to 
 ignore the wants of the civil service, to which 
 hitherto more or less attention has been paid, 
 and to secure greater efficiency of training for 
 
 mechanical and commercial pursuits. In Ger- 
 many, there are now about 300 real schools of 
 the first order, and 600 of the inferior grade. 
 In the German provinces of Austria, there are 
 'A~ of the firsl grade, and about LOO of an inferior 
 grade. Ileal schools have been generally estab- 
 lished in Switzerland, the Netherlands, and very 
 
 recently, in Russia, where they are rapidly in- 
 creasing. See M vqee, Diedeutsche Burgerschule 
 (Stuttgart. L840); Loth, Die Reakcliid-Frago 
 (l.eips.. L870) : KuKissn;, Velter Renlismus und 
 ttealschulwesen (Berl., L872), fair, critical, and 
 complete; Gai.i.enkami 1 . Die Reform il<r Itiihe- 
 ren Lehranstalten (Berl., 1874); Schmidt, (■'■- 
 schichte der P&dagogik, vol. n.; and. especially, 
 Barnard, Qerman Teachers and Educators. 
 Against their maintenance, see Laas, Gymna- 
 sium und Realschule (Berl., L875). 
 
RrA ESSES 
 
 RECITATION 
 
 7 '23 
 
 RECESSES. See Hygiene, School, and 
 
 School MANAGEMENT. 
 
 RECITATION, a term used in American 
 colleges and schools, to denote the rehearsal of a 
 lesson by pupils before their instructor, or the 
 repetition of something committed to memory. 
 The manner in which the teacher should con- 
 duct the daily recitations of his class is a matter 
 of very great importance, since apparently perfect 
 recitations may be gone through with which not 
 only have little educative value, but may even be 
 productive of positive harm to the mind of the 
 pupil. The surest guide, in this respect, is that 
 which is derived from a consideration of the es- 
 sential meaning of the word education, no method 
 of recitation having any value which does not 
 keep constantly in view the development of the 
 pupil's mental powers. It should always be re- 
 membered by the teacher that the supreme ob- 
 ject of the recitation is to accustom the pupil, by 
 daily practice, to use the faculties of which he 
 is possessed. Many a so-called recitation results, 
 by too much explanation on the part of the teach- 
 er, in a reversal of the functions of the teacher 
 and his class — the former reciting to the latter, 
 instead of the latter to the former. The passive 
 attitude of mind in which pupils listen to a long 
 explanation is the very attitude from which 
 they need to be roused. There are two stages 
 in the development of a mental power as pro- 
 duced by the exercises of the class room: (1) the 
 knowing what to say; and (2) the saying of it. 
 The first stage the pupil is supposed to have 
 reached by the study of the lesson; the second, 
 and most important one, is not passed through 
 by the pupil in the case above supposed. Of far 
 greater service is it, therefore, to the pupil, to be 
 allowed to state the result of his study in his 
 own language, halting and imperfect though it 
 be, than to compel him to listen to an exposition 
 by the teacher. Under the first condition, it will 
 be apparent, at every step, whether he really 
 understands his lesson; and, if he does, every day 
 will add to the copiousness of his vocabulary, 
 and his ease of mental action, and give to his 
 recitation its highest educative result; while, 
 under the second — the condition of a ''passive 
 recipient"', — there will always be apparent to 
 every discerning person, an inexact apprehension 
 of the thought presented, a certain degree of 
 insincerity, strengthened into a mental habit 
 through fear of ridicule, and mental powers 
 "rusting in disuse". Even apt pupils, under such 
 conditions, will become, at best, theorists or 
 dreamers — critics, ready to pass judgment upon 
 others' performances, but powerless to act for 
 themselves. The utmost that can be claimed for 
 this method is, that a single faculty, that of 
 memory, has been cultivated; while this culti- 
 vation has been accomplished not only by the 
 neglect, for the time being, of the other powei-s, 
 but at their expense; since the pupil is daily be- 
 coming confirmed in the idea that they are 
 properly exercised, and, by pursuing all future 
 studies in the same way, acts to their permanent 
 injury. It is not intended by this to discoun- 
 
 tenance the explanation of those difficult points 
 which will always occur, sometimes thr6ugh a 
 feebleness of the pupil's understanding, and at 
 others through a failure of the text-book to sup- 
 ply a link necessary to the continuity ofthought. 
 Such explanations are Legitimate, and should be 
 made in language suited to the pupil's compre- 
 hension; the most thoughtful educators agreeing 
 in this, that one of the gra\ est errors on the part 
 of the teacher is an explanation in terms so un- 
 familiar as to be unintelligible, or so as to leave 
 on the mind of the pupil only a vague and un- 
 satisfactory impression. One of the most con- 
 spicuous merits of an able teacher is [usability 
 to explain, in concise and simple language, the 
 difficulties which necessarily beset the paths of 
 his pupils. But it must always be borne in 
 mind that one of the greatest merits of a recita- 
 tion is to compel the pupil to discover and present 
 for himself the difficulties which he has encount- 
 ered. — The method of simultaneous recitation is 
 open to the objection that by it the errors of 
 backward pupils — and those, therefore, who are 
 most in need of instruction — are concealed under 
 the readiness of the more forward. The result 
 usually anticipated from this method, i. e., a 
 quickening of the mental powers of backward 
 pupils under the spur of emulation, does not ap- 
 pear in practice. Says an eminent teacher, 
 "Simultaneous recitation may sometimes be use- 
 ful. A few questions thus answered may serve 
 to give animation to a class, when their interest 
 begins to flag; but that wdiich may serve as a 
 stimulant must not be relied on for nutrition. 
 As an example of its usefulness, I have known a 
 rapid reader tamed into due moderation by 
 being put in companionship with others of 
 slower speech, just as we tame a friskful colt by 
 harnessing him into a team of grave old horses. 
 But aside from such definite purpose. I have seen 
 no good come of this innovation." Though this 
 method is resorted to often from necessity in 
 large schools, its operation should be carefully 
 watched. It is open, also, to the objections com- 
 mon to all rote teaching, the answer committed 
 to memory from the book being never so sure an 
 indication of the pupil's apprehension of the 
 meaning, as his answer, before the class, in his 
 own language. This latter furnishes not only an 
 accurate register of the pupil's real progress, but 
 is a mental exercise of the highest value, since it 
 leads to accuracy of conception and expression, 
 and increases the power of continuous thinking. 
 (See Concert Teaching.) — The first requisite 
 for skillfully conducting a recitation is a thor- 
 ough preparation by the teacher for the partic- 
 ular lesson he is to hear, so that he may be able 
 to follow each step taken by the pupil, and may 
 stand ready, at any moment, to supply the needed 
 word in which the pupil is striving to embody 
 his thought. This word, in case the pupil's con- 
 ception of the idea is correct, but its expression 
 unfamiliar, will usually be some simple generic 
 one for which the special or technical word may 
 properly be substituted by the teacher. Another 
 point to be remembered is the order in which the 
 
*24 
 
 IM CITATIONS 
 
 REFORM SCHOOLS 
 
 different parts of a subject are presented. Where 
 these parts depend upon each other by a natural 
 progression, as they frequently do, a skillful 
 teacher will so order the recitations of a class 
 that those parts of the subject which are the 
 natural stepping-stones to other parts, shall be 
 presented first, such an arrangement conducing 
 powerfully to a correct comprehension of the 
 subject as a whole. In some studies — in the 
 natural and exact sciences, almost always — this 
 method is absolutely necessary: but, while in 
 other branches its value is not so apparent, the 
 advantage to be derived from its adoption is 
 generally considerable. — A thorough compre- 
 hension by the pupils of the subject under con- 
 sideration will insure the maintenance of three 
 other conditions necessary to success in teaching, 
 and usually quite strenuously insisted on by 
 writers on the subject; namely, animation, at- 
 tention, and a natural tune. When pupils under- 
 stand what they are reciting, their attention and 
 animation are, by that fact, made certain; and a 
 natural tone is instinctively adopted. In youth, 
 the appetite for new truths is so eager, the ex- 
 ultant feeling which accompanies the conquest of 
 difficulties is so keen, that the reflection of this 
 in the voice and manner of the pupil is a matter 
 of certainty. Indeed, their opposites, — inat- 
 tention and want of animation, are generally 
 considered by educational writers as an indica- 
 tion of a want of comprehension — as the sure 
 test by which the teacher may, at any moment, 
 judge of the success of his instruct ion. The length 
 of recitations has been more carefully considered 
 during the past few years than ever before, the 
 weight of authority having constantly inclined 
 to a diminution of the time considered proper 
 for this purpose only a generation ago. Currie, 
 for example, considers that fifteen minutes is the 
 proper medium for classes of very young children. 
 twenty being the maximum; while half an hour 
 is the average for classes generally, the fixing of 
 the attention for a longer period not being at- 
 tended with profit. In classes of older children, 
 and in advanced instruction, the time of recitation 
 may, of course, be considerably prolonged beyond 
 these limits, the principle, however, being still 
 carefully observed. — 1>. 1*. Tag' says on this 
 subject : 'Asa motive for every teacher to study 
 carefully the art of teaching well at the recitation, 
 it should be borne in mind that then and there 
 
 be comes before his pupils in a peculiar and 
 prominent manner; it is (here his mind comes 
 specially in contact with theirs, and there thai he 
 lays in them, for good or for evil, the foundations 
 
 of their mental habits. It is a1 the recitation in 
 
 a peculiar manner thai he makes his mark upon 
 
 their minds; and as the seal upon the wax. so his 
 mental character upon theirs leaves its impress 
 
 behind." 3« I'. I'. Page, Theory and Practice 
 of Teaching (N. T., L854); Currie, Common 
 S<h<><>[ Education, and Early mid Infant Sc 
 Education (Edinburgh, L857); Lb Vawx, The 
 nee oud Art if Teaching (Toronto, l v 7."' : 
 and -I. P. Wickebsham, School Economy (Fhila., 
 1868). 
 
 REFORM SCHOOLS, or Reformatories, 
 
 are institutions founded for the purpose of re- 
 claiming children who. from various causes — 
 neglect, early subjection to evil influences, innate 
 depravity, etc.. — have entered upon a career 
 of vice or crime. Such schools strive not only 
 to prevent the youth from committing offenses 
 which tnusl be dealt with by law. but to edu- 
 cate him so that his influence shall be active 
 for good. Though the name reform school has 
 been somewhat loosely applied to various houses 
 or institutions for reclaiming children or youth 
 from evil courses, an important distinction exists 
 between such institutions and the reform school 
 proper. Notwithstanding this strict definition, 
 
 j however, the term will be used in this article to 
 designate all institutions whose object is, by 
 active educational means, to reclaim their in- 
 
 1 mates whether under judicial sentence or not. 
 The manlier in which this reclamation has been 
 effected in different countries, furnishes an inter- 
 esting chapter in the history of human ingenuity 
 and philanthropy. The history of reform schools 
 in Germany begins with the Reformation, when 
 work-houses were established in Amsterdam. Ley- 
 den, Hamburg, Lubeck, and other cities, for the 
 purpose of giving occupation to those who were 
 prohibited from vagrancy by laws then first en- 
 acted. Young thieves were placed in the care of 
 the magistrate to receive religious instruction, 
 and every work-house was provided with a special 
 department in which refractory children were 
 placed for discipline. Parents were permitted 
 to send there obstinate or froward children to 
 undergo treatment, either gratuitously or for a 
 small charge, which entitled them to certain priv- 
 ileges. The benevolent movement thus begun 
 soon led to the establishment of houses of correc- 
 tion, industrial schools, orphan houses, and kin- 
 dred institutions, all differing somewhat from the 
 reform school and from each other, but all spring- 
 ing from substantially the same idea — the rescue 
 of children from a condition, actual or prospect- 
 ive, of vice or crime. The originator of the mod- 
 ern reform school in Germany was J. D.Falk, 
 Avho formed a society, called Friends in A 
 which, in L818, had found homes for 300 cliil- 
 i. to whom elementary instruction was 
 given in religion and industrial branches. The 
 institution thus founded at Weimar was named 
 Lutherhof, and was followed by the establish- 
 ment of similar ones in Erfurt, Goldberg, and 
 I allien. ( 'on temporal icons with the institution of 
 I'alk were those of Overdyk and Dusselthal, 
 founded by Counts Adalbert and Werner von 
 der Ricke, which arc still in existence, and have 
 an average attendance of 300 children. The re- 
 form school of B< llggen, in the southern part of 
 Baden, was founded in L816. It was the fij 
 school of the kind in southern Germany, and was 
 followed by one in Neiihof. and a reform school 
 for girls in Krlangen. The first reform school 
 in Berlin was opened in L825, and has recently 
 been very much enlarged. It is the model on 
 which similar institutions have been d at 
 
 MemeL Frankfort on the Oder, Pceen, KLonigB- 
 
REFORM SCHOOLS 
 
 725 
 
 berg, and Stettin. The foundation of houses of 
 correction, however, by the government, has 
 caused the disappearance of all these later in- 
 stitutions except that at Stettin. A house of 
 correction was founded in Hamburg, in L829. 
 At the present time, there are 12 houses of fliis 
 class in Prussia, 3 in Saxony. 1 in Wiirtemberg, 
 1 in Hamburg, and 1 in Bremen. A reform 
 school was established in Lichtenstein, in 1836, 
 and another in Tempelhof, in 1843 — both in 
 connection with the normal schools in those 
 places. There is also a central school of this 
 class at Reutlingen, with 7 associated schools or 
 branches. It appears that Wiirtemberg has 
 done more in this direction than any other Ger- 
 man state. In 1867, it contained 32 reform 
 schools : 26 Protestant, 5 Catholic, and 1 Jew- 
 ish, with accommodations for 1,667 children, and 
 an actual attendance of 1,269. Many societies 
 exist for the purpose of bringing neglected chil- 
 dren into homes and schools, all of which work 
 under the direction of a central committee of char- 
 ity. In Switzerland, 7 farm and reform schools 
 were established between 1810 and 1830 ; from 
 1830 to 1*40, 12 more were founded; from 1841 
 to 1846, 10 more ; and from that to the present 
 time, 15; so that now Switzerland has 44 schools 
 of this kind, with 1.543 pupils. In Baden, in 
 1843, a Protestant school was founded at Dur- 
 lach, and a Catholic one at Mariahof, the pupils 
 in each numbering about 50. The most cel- 
 ebrated of these reform schools, however, was 
 the Rauhes Haus, formed in Hamburg by J. H. 
 Wichern, in 1833. As this has been for a long 
 time a model for schools of the kind, a short ac- 
 count of its organization and management will 
 not be out of place. In 1833, J. H. Wichern 
 went, with his mother, to live on a small, rude- 
 ly cultivated farm near Hamburg, taking with 
 him, in accordance with a vow made to compan- 
 ions in a home missionary society, 12 boys gath- 
 ered from the w r orst haunts of vice and misery in 
 the city. The organization naturally suggested 
 to him by the circumstances, was that of the 
 family; his mother personating the mother of the 
 family, and himself the father. Here the boys 
 received elementary instruction, mental and re- 
 ligious, and were trained to labor on the farm. 
 The project attracted general attention; and, from 
 time to time, other cheap houses were built, some 
 for boys, and some for girls, each to accommodate 
 about the same number of inmates, till, in time, 
 the rough farm was converted into a little village 
 with its church, school-house, workshops, and 
 gardens. This w as the origin of the "family plan."' 
 since adopted in reformatory institutions in many 
 parts of the civilized world. The fundamental 
 idea of the Rauhes Haus, however, originally pro- 
 claimed and never lost sight of, was that of mis- 
 sionary work among poor and neglected children. 
 It became at once a training school for mission- 
 aries. The heads of families, teachers, overseers 
 of workshops, etc., formed a religious brotherhood 
 known as the Brotherhood of the Rauhes I laus, 
 the members of which, after serving an apprentice- 
 ship in this simple community, where poverty 
 
 was their lot, ami devotion to duty their only 
 reward, went out into the world as missionaries, 
 particularly among thepoor. From its foundation 
 to 1867, the Rauhes I laus had received and edu- 
 cated nearly 800 children, the average annual 
 j attendance being about L20. The number of per- 
 sons connected with the establishment, in the 
 year mentioned, was 450. The whole number of 
 reform schools in Germany, in L867, was 354. 
 The influence of the Rauhes I laus has been very 
 great, reformatory institutions on the family plan 
 having been established in Russia. Switzerland, 
 France, Belgium. Sweden. England, and in many 
 of the states of the American Union. — The first 
 reform school in England was founded near Lon- 
 don by the Philanthropic Society, in 1788. This 
 was followed by one in Warwickshire, in 1818 f 
 in wdiich outdoor labor was first made a part of 
 the training. In 1830, another school was estab- 
 lished by Captain Brenton, who believed that no 
 person under the age of 16 should be sent to 
 prison. His institution, however, and that in 
 Warwickshire were closed for want of support. 
 In 1834, a reformatory school for girls was estab- 
 lished at Chiswick, to which the name of The 
 Victoria Asylum was given. In 1838, a separate 
 prison was established at Parkhurst for prisoners 
 under the age of 16, the discipline in which was 
 reformatory rather than penal. The institution 
 founded by the Philanthropic Society at St. 
 George's in the Fields became, through lack of 
 interest in its success, at first a poor-house, and 
 afterwards a penitentiary; and, i:i 1850, was dis- 
 continued, its property being removed to Redhill 
 in Surrey, where, on the family plan, it now con- 
 stitutes the largest reformatory in England. 
 Since that time, schools have been established at 
 Ilardwicke Court, Kingswood, Stoke Farm, and 
 Saltley. In 1854, the Reformatory Schools Act 
 was passed, magistrates being authorized to com- 
 mit to reform schools youths under 16 years of 
 age, for not less than 2 nor more than 5 years, 
 making an allowance in each case for their main- 
 tenance. In Scotland, industrial schools were es- 
 tablished, at the same time, for destitute and 
 vagrant children under 14 years of age. In 1856, 
 there were 34 reform schools in existence in 
 Great Britain; and, in 1863, there were 64 in ex- 
 istence, with an attendance of 4,677. of whom 
 1,0(10 were girls. The English law divides reform 
 schools into two kinds : reform schools proper, 
 intended for correction ; and industrial schools, 
 intended for prevention, admission to one or the 
 other being determined by differences in age and 
 previous condition in regard to crime. In 1*7.'!. 
 there were in Great Britain 45 reformatories for 
 boys, and 20 for girls, with 4,424 inmates in the 
 former, and 1,151 in the latter. The number of 
 industrial schools at the same time was 1011, with 
 an attendance of 7,598 boys, and 2.587 girls. — 
 In England and Scotland, there is another class 
 of reform schools, called ragged schools, designed 
 to bring together and instruct poor and neglected 
 children — generally boys, and thus prevent them 
 from falling into vice and crime. The idea of 
 such schools is attributed to John Pounds, a 
 
T26 
 
 REFORM SCHOOLS 
 
 poor shoe-maker of Portsmouth, who, in 1819, 
 commenced to gather around him the ragged 
 children of his district, in order that he might 
 instruct them as he sat at work; and in this 
 benevolent task, he continued till his death, in 
 L839. A more effective movement in that direc- 
 tion was commenced by Sheriff Watson, of Aber- 
 deen, in which city a ragged school was opened 
 in 1841 ; but there was a large Sunday-school of 
 this kind in London, in 1838; and the Field 
 Lane school was opened in 1843. Through the 
 systematic efforts of the Ragged School Union 
 of London, a large number of such schools have 
 been established. These include day and evening 
 schools and Sunday-schools. Similar schools 
 under different names have been organized in 
 other countries. 
 
 In France, reform schools are known as cor- 
 rectional and penitentiary colonies. Some are 
 founded and supported entirely by the state, 
 others, by individuals, under government sanction. 
 The maximum age is 16. The penitentiary colony 
 receives children who have committed crime 
 through ignorance, and who are acquitted, there- 
 Fore, from want of evidence of criminal intent. 
 but are thought to require special training, and 
 young prisoners sentenced for more than 'i months 
 but not more than 2 years. The correctional colony 
 receives prisoners sentenced for more than 2yearSj 
 and insubordinates from the penitentiary colony. 
 In 1862, there were 36 colonies for boys, and 25 
 for girls; the number of inmates being 6,604 
 boys, and 1,878 girls. The most successful of 
 the French reform schools is that at Mettray, 
 founded by Demetz, in L839. The inmates 
 are divided into families of 50; the average 
 number in the school or colony being, at the 
 
 present time, 700. Agricultural and mechanical 
 labor is carried on, the colony being, in lar^e 
 measure, self-supporting. Less than 4 per cent of 
 those who have left the colony have relapsed into 
 crime. The success of the school is largely attrib- 
 uted to the correspondence and supervision kept 
 up between it and the pupils after they have left. 
 The number of similar organizations founded 
 after the example of Mettray is 411. — In Belgium, 
 agricultural reform schools exist at Ruysselede, 
 \\'yngheiie, and Beernem. They form practically 
 one institution, the object of which is the rec- 
 lamation of juvenile delinquents of both sexes, 
 who are not criminals. — In the United States, 
 the name usually given to the reform school is 
 house of refuge. The oldest institution of the kind 
 is that on Randall's Island. N.Y., which was found- 
 ed in L825. It is the largest reformatory of its class 
 in the United States, the average number of its in- 
 mates being 800. They are of both sexes, and are 
 sent to the institution upon conviction for petty 
 offenses. Their discipline consists of daily labor 
 for 6 or 8 hours, and study for about 3 hours. 
 The period of detention depends upon their con- 
 duet; and. on their discharge, homes are found for 
 the more deserving. The house of refugein Boston 
 was opened iii 1827; that in Philadelphia, in 
 the following year: and that in New Orleans, in 
 I J- 17. The establishment of reformatories as 
 state institutions was first made in Massachusetts, 
 in 1848, the state reform school at Westborough 
 being then established. Since that time, individ- 
 uals, cities, and several of the States, have estab- 
 lished schools, many of them on the family plan. 
 A list of such institutions existing at the present 
 time in the United States, is given in the sub- 
 joined table : 
 
 Reform Schools in the United States. 
 
 NAME 
 
 City and I lonnty Industrial School.. 
 
 Connecticut industrial School for (iirls 
 
 " Reform School 
 
 St. Mary's Reformatory 
 
 state Reform School 
 
 Indiana Reform Institute for Girls 
 
 House ol Itel'llge 
 
 Iowa State Reform School 
 
 state Reform School (girls) 
 
 House ol Refuge 
 
 Hoys' House ol UH'ugc 
 
 State Reform School 
 
 House of Refuge for Juvenile Delinquents 
 
 House of Ref. a Institution for I iolored Children 
 
 [.inland Industrial School for Girls 
 
 city of Boston Almshouse School 
 
 Hod I Reformation for Juvenile Offenders.. 
 
 :-tatc Industrial School for Girls 
 
 Lawrence Industrial Bel I 
 
 i loose of Employment and Reformation 
 
 State Primary School 
 
 I'lummer Farm School 
 
 Mate Reform School 
 
 Worcester Truant Reform School 
 
 Detroit Bouse of Correction 
 
 Michigan State Reform School 
 
 Minnesota state Reform School 
 
 1 Lou e ol Refuge 
 
 Location 
 
 San Francisco, Cal. 
 
 Middletown, Ct 
 
 W.Meriden,Ct 
 
 Chicago, 111 
 
 Pontiac, HI 
 
 Indianapolis, lnd.. . 
 
 l'laintield, lnd 
 
 Eldora, Iowa 
 
 Balem, Iowa 
 
 Louisville, Ky 
 
 .New Orleans, La.. . 
 Cape Elizabeth, Me. 
 Baltimore, Md 
 
 Howie. Md 
 
 Orange drove, Md. 
 Boston, Mass 
 
 Lancaster, Mass.. . . 
 
 Lawrence, Mass.. . . 
 
 Lowell. Mass 
 
 Monson, Mass 
 
 Balem, Mass 
 
 \\ estborough, Mass 
 Worcester, Mass. 
 
 Detroit, Mich 
 
 Lansing, Mich 
 
 St. Haul. Minn 
 
 St. Louis, Mo 
 
 When 
 
 
 founded 
 
 Control 
 
 1858 
 
 
 1870 
 
 Corporate 
 
 1 85 1 
 
 State 
 
 L863 
 
 — 
 
 1871 
 
 State 
 
 1*74 
 
 State 
 
 
 
 State 
 
 1868 
 
 
 lsi;;, 
 
 Municipal 
 
 I860 
 
 Municipal 
 
 1 B62 
 
 Mate 
 
 1 85fi 
 
 Municipal 
 
 Is;:; 
 
 ( lorporate 
 
 L866 
 
 Directors 
 
 1856 
 
 Municipal 
 
 1827 
 
 Municipal 
 
 L856 
 
 State 
 
 L874 
 
 Municipal 
 
 1 85 1 
 
 Municipal 
 
 L866 
 
 State 
 
 L870 
 
 Private 
 
 1848 
 
 Slate 
 
 L863 
 
 Municipal 
 
 lsr,| 
 
 Municipal 
 
 L866 
 
 State 
 
 L868 
 
 State 
 
 Is,, 4 
 
 — 
 
 
REFORMED CHURCHES 
 Reform Schools in the United States (continued). 
 
 727 
 
 NAME. 
 
 New Hampshire State Reform School 
 
 New Jersey State Reform School 
 
 State Industrial School (girls) 
 
 Truant Home 
 
 House of the Good Shepherd 
 
 Industrial School 
 
 House of the Holy Family Association etc. 
 
 House of Mercy 
 
 Home for Women 
 
 House of the Good Shepherd 
 
 Home for Fallen and Friendless Girls 
 
 House of Refuge 
 
 The Isaac T. Hopper Home 
 
 The Midnight Mission 
 
 Western House of Refuge 
 
 New York Catholic Protectory 
 
 House of Refuge 
 
 Protectory for Boys 
 
 Hume of Refuge and Correction 
 
 The Retreat; 
 
 State Reform School 
 
 Ohio Girls' Industrial School 
 
 House of Refuge 
 
 Pennsylvania Reform School 
 
 House of Refuge (white) 
 
 House of Refuge (colored) 
 
 Western House of Refuge 
 
 Sheltering Arms 
 
 Providence Reform School 
 
 Vermont Reform School 
 
 Industrial School for Boys . . 
 
 Girls' Reform School 
 
 Reform School of the District of Columbia. 
 
 Location 
 
 Manchester, N. H.. . 
 Jamesburg, X. J., . 
 
 Trenton, X. J 
 
 Brooklyn, X. Y... . 
 E. New York, X. V. 
 New York, X. V.. . 
 
 Randall's Island, X. Y. 
 New York, X. Y 
 
 Rochester, X T . Y 
 
 Westchester, N. Y. 
 
 Cincinnati, O 
 
 Cleveland, 0. 
 
 Lancaster, 
 
 Lewis Centre, 0.. 
 
 Toledo, 
 
 Allegheny, Pa.. . . 
 Philadelphia, Pa. 
 
 Pittsburg, Pa.. . . 
 Wilkinsburg, Pa. . 
 Providence, R. L. 
 Waterbnry, Yt.. . 
 Waukesha, Wis.. 
 Washington, D.C. 
 
 When 
 founded 
 
 1 855 
 L867 
 1871 
 1857 
 1868 
 L868 
 lvTl) 
 Is.",. | 
 1867 
 L867 
 1866 
 1 825 
 1845 
 18(J7 
 1846 
 1863 
 1850 
 1868 
 1870 
 
 ISIlit 
 
 Is.") 7 
 1869 
 Is:.", 
 1854 
 1826 
 1850 
 1854 
 1873 
 1850 
 1865 
 1m;o 
 1873 
 ISO!) 
 
 Control 
 
 State 
 State 
 
 Municipal 
 Municipal 
 .Municipal 
 
 Trustees 
 
 Managers 
 < iorporate 
 Private 
 
 Trustees 
 
 State 
 
 Municipal 
 
 Municipal 
 
 Catholic 
 
 Municipal 
 
 State 
 State 
 Municipal 
 
 Managers 
 
 State 
 
 Managers 
 
 Private 
 
 Municipal 
 
 State 
 
 State 
 
 Trustees 
 
 Territorial 
 
 REFORMED CHURCHES.— After the 
 
 Tise of the Reformation, in the 16th century, it 
 vas for a time common to divide the Protestants 
 of Europe into two large bodies, the Lutheran 
 ( 'hurch (q. v.) and the Reformed Church. The 
 latter included all the ecclesiastical organizations 
 which regarded Zwingli and Calvin as their 
 •earliest and foremost leaders. In the British 
 Isles, these churches assumed the name Presby- 
 terians (q. v.) ; and the name Reformed Churches 
 was henceforth only applied to the churches of 
 this type on the continent of Europe. When 
 the Evangelical Church was formed, by the union 
 of the two sister churches in Prussia, in 1817, 
 and afterward in other parts of Germany, the Re- 
 formed ( 'hurch entered heartily into the union, 
 casing to exist in name, but not in spirit or life. 
 In Switzerland, the Netherlands, Austria, Hun- 
 gary, France, and Russia, the Reformed ( 'hurch 
 continues to exist under its old name. In the 
 I "nited States, offshoots of the German Reformed 
 and Dutch Reformed churches occupy a prom- 
 inent place among the churches of the country. 
 This subject will be distributed under the follow- 
 ing heads: (I) The Reformed Churches of Eu- 
 rope; (II) The Reformed Churches in the New 
 World. 
 
 I. The Reformed Churches of Europe. — 
 (1) The Reformed Church of Germain/ properly 
 commenced its history in the Palatinate, in the 
 jfear 1563, when the Elector Erederick published, 
 for the use of his schools and churches, the Hei- 
 delberg Catechism, which had been prepared by 
 two professors of the university of Heidelberg — 
 
 Olevianus, a disciple of Calvin, and Ursinus, a 
 disciple of Melanchthon. The tenets of the Re- 
 formed ( 'hurch were also accepted in Bremen, 
 Nassau, Anhalt, Lippe, Hesse Cassel, and by the 
 Elector of Brandenburg ; but were never enter- 
 tained by more than a small minority of the Ger- 
 man Protestants. They are closely allied to what 
 has been called, in history, Melanchthon ian Lu- 
 theranism. The university of Heidelberg was the 
 most famous school connected with the German 
 Reformed Church. (2) In Holland, the Reformed 
 Church became early the prevailing religion, and 
 greatly distinguished itself by its interest in both 
 popular and university education. The eager 
 choice of a university, in preference to a perpet- 
 ual annual fair, by the people of Leyden, in 
 1574, is a well-known incident. A free univer- 
 sity was also established at Franeker, in 1585. 
 The universities of Groningen and Ctrecht were 
 founded, respectively, in 1614 and 1636. In 
 these famous schools, most of the ante-Revolu- 
 tionary ministers of the Dutch Church in 
 America, who were of Hollandish birth, had 
 been trained, being about 70 in number. The 
 cause of education in Holland was identified 
 with that of Protestantism. At the Synod 
 of Dort (1618 — 19), decrees were passed in 
 behalf of education, and parochial schools were 
 established throughout Holland. Intelligence 
 so rapidly increased in this little state that she 
 was called compendium orbis. Motley says that 
 the New England pilgrims had previously 
 found the system of free schools already estab- 
 lished in Holland. The Reformed Church, as 
 
728 
 
 REFORMED CHURCHES 
 
 the church of the majority of the people and of 
 the government, has exerted, and still exerts, a 
 considerable influence upon the entire educational 
 system of the country, although the school law- 
 sanctions the principle of unsectarian instruction. 
 A theological faculty is connected with each of 
 the universities of Leyden, Utrecht, and Gron- 
 ingen, which, in 1874. had an aggregate of 10 
 professors and about 300 students. The < 'hurch. 
 in 1875, had 1.340 congregations, 1,660 clergy- 
 men, and, in 18G9, a population of 1,956,593 
 souls. The Christian Reformed Church, which 
 separated from the state church, on the ground 
 that the latter was subject to Rationalistic in- 
 fluences, in 1875, had 3-10 congregations and 240 
 ministers; and. in 1869, a population of 107,123 
 souls. This Church has a theological seminary 
 at Kampen. (See Netherlands.) (3) In Switz- 
 erland, the Reformed Church is still, as in the 
 Netherlands, the church of the majority of the 
 people (about 1,500,000, or 58 per cent of the 
 population), and is the state or national church in 
 all the Protestant cantons. As such, it is directly 
 or indirectly connected with educational institu- 
 tions of all grades. (See Switzerland.) The- 
 ological faculties are connected with the univer- 
 sities of Zurich, Bern, Basel, ami < reneva. As the 
 church is without self-government, but is entirely 
 ruled by the state authorities, Free Churches 
 have been organized in a number of cantons, 
 which have established theological schools at 
 Geneva, Lausanne, and Neufchatel. (■!■) In 
 Austria proper, Hungary, France, and Russia, 
 the Reformed Church constitutes only a small 
 minority of the population, but has been re- 
 organized and supported by the State govern- 
 ments. In Austria proper, the Reformed popula- 
 tion amounts to I L2,000 (0.51 percent); in Hun- 
 gary, to 2,143,000 (13 per cent); in France, to 
 467,000 (1.29 percent); and, in Russia, to about 
 250.000 (0.3 per cent). The school laws of these 
 countries provide for some kind of co-operation 
 by the clergy of the recognized religions in all 
 schools supported by the state : and the theolog- 
 ical schools are, to a much greater extent than in 
 Switzerland, under the control of church boards. 
 The church of Austria has. in common with the 
 Lutheran Church, an evangelical theological fac- 
 ulty at Vienna; Hungary has Reformed colleges 
 at Pesth, Saros-Patak, Kecskemet, Debreczin, 
 and Nagy-Enyed ; Prance has a Reformed fac- 
 ulty of theology at Montauban. 
 
 II. Reformed Churches in the TUTew World — 
 There are two branches of the Reformed < 'hurch 
 in the United States. After the nationality of 
 the colonies in which they originated, they were 
 
 formerly called the I hitch Reformed Church and 
 the German Reformed Church; but, of late, 
 both have changed their official names, ami the 
 former now calls its,. If the Reformed Church in 
 America; the latter, the Reformed * 'hurch in the 
 United states. The former, in L876, consisted of 
 506 churches. 5 Hi ministers, and about 75,000 
 communicants, and represented a population of 
 
 about a quarter Of a million. The latter had li.")(l 
 ministers, 1.350 congregations, and a member- | 
 
 ship of 150,000, representing a population of 
 about 250.000 souls. In the former, the Dutch 
 language has. in all the old congregations, given 
 way to the English; in the latter, the same is the 
 case. in a majority of the congregations, in respect 
 to the German; though, owing to the extensive 
 immigration of Germans, the number of Ger- 
 man-speaking congregations is still on the in- 
 crease, and 2 of the 6 synods into which the 
 church is divided. 4 of the 16 periodicals, and 2 of 
 the literary institutions, are exclusively German. 
 (1) The Reformed Church in America, for- 
 merry known as the Reformed Dutch Church, is 
 the oldest body of the Presbyterian form of gov- 
 ernment and doctrine in the United States, 'i his 
 denomination consisted originally of the Dutch 
 and Walloon colonies, planted by the West India 
 Company on the Hudson and Delaware rivers, 
 and on Long Island. The West India Company 
 repeatedly promised to provide and support min- 
 isters and school-masters in New Netherlands, 
 though these promises were often forgotten. The 
 people, at such times, though poor, taxed them- 
 selves. School-masters were obliged to undergo 
 an examination before the classes; and the office 
 could not be assumed voluntarily. The yet un- 
 published voluminous correspondence between 
 the Dutch churches in America and the parent 
 church in Holland, has frequent references to the 
 subject of schools. While parochial schools in con- 
 nection with the Dutch Church have not become 
 general in America, nevertheless the church of 
 New York has maintained such a school from 
 1633 to the present time. (See Dunshee, Hi8~ 
 ton/ of the School of the Dutch Reformed Church 
 <f New York.) A Latin or high school was 
 also founded as early as I 659.— The English gov- 
 ernors were naturally opposed to the Dutch 
 schools, and sought to anglicize the whole popula- 
 tion. It became increasingly difficult, to secure 
 ministers from Holland. This fact forced the 
 subject of American institutions and the need of 
 an American trained ministry upon the attention 
 of the people. Those who had been trained in 
 the universities of Europe, thought that no ade- 
 quate education could be provided in America; 
 
 but the churches must nevertheless be Supplied 
 
 with ministers. The debate grew very Mann. and 
 divided the church into parties for 17 years. In 
 the mean time, about a dozen American youths 
 were sent to Holland for education: and about 
 as many were trained by pastors in this country 
 before 1771. when the denomination became ec- 
 clesiastically independent of Holland. An effort 
 was made | L755) to found a theological chair for 
 the Dutch in King's (Columbia) College, by an 
 amendment to the charter of that institution: 
 hut the plan was not acceptable to the people. 
 A charter was secured, in 1 7(ili. for a distinctive- 
 ly Dutch institution in New Jersey, but this was 
 thought to be un-American. A charter upon 
 the most liberal principles, and capable of in- 
 definite expansion, was finally secured (in 1771 1 
 for Queen's (Rutgers) College, situated at New 
 Brunswick. Union College, at Schenectady, was 
 also organized, largely under Dutch patronage. 
 
REFORMED CHURCHES 
 
 7lM> 
 
 as may be seen from the fact that it lias given 
 more than 1 00 ministers to the Reformed ( I hitch) 
 Church- Hope College was organized in 1st;,!, 
 in Holland. Michigan, to meet the necessities of 
 the mon- recent emigrants from Holland. There 
 is a theological department in connection with 
 the college. — Efforts were made immediately 
 after ecclesiastical independence (1771 ), to found 
 a theological seminary. The Revolution delayed 
 the work: but, in 1784, the Rev. John H. Living- 
 ston, a graduate of the University of Utrecht, 
 and the last of the American youths who had 
 gone to Holland for education, was appointed 
 professor of theology ; and Dr. H. Meyer was 
 appointed, at the same time, professor of the 
 sacred languages. In 1810, this seminary was lo- 
 cated permanently at New Brunswick, and was 
 united with Rutgers College until 1804. It has 
 sent forth (1784 — 1876) 657 ministers. If to 
 these be added 27 American youths, educated 
 here or elsewhere before 1784, and about 50 in 
 Hope College, we have a total of 734 persons edu- 
 cated directly by this church for her own min- 
 istry, besides those educated for other professions. 
 The Theological Seminary now has property at 
 New Brunswick, X. J., amounting to almost 
 3350,000, and four well-endowed professorships. 
 Hertzog Hall is a spacious residence for students ; 
 Suydam Hall contains lecture rooms and a fully 
 equipped gymnasium ; and Sage Hall contains a 
 library of about 27,000 volumes, and is receiving 
 constant additions. A board of education (or- 
 ganized in 1828) affords aid to needy students. 
 Its own and other educational funds under 
 the control of the denomination, amount to 
 3160,000, with direct yearly contributions, from 
 the churches, of from 310,000 to 315,000 more. 
 (2) The Reformed Church in the United States, 
 originally called the German Reformed Church, 
 was founded by emigrants from Switzerland, Hol- 
 land, and the Palatinate, in Germany, in the early 
 part of the last century. As the fathers of the 
 Reformed Church were accustomed to parochial 
 schools in Germany, when they emigrated to 
 this country, they sought, at an early day, to es- 
 tablish such schools in connection with their con- 
 gregations. The school and the church belonged 
 together; and the teacher, accustomed to play the 
 organ and to conduct the singing in the sanctuary, 
 was next in rank to the minister in public esti- 
 mation. The schools, of course, were all religious 
 and Christian, and in them the New Testament, 
 the psalter, and the Heidelberg catechism were 
 used as text-books. This was generally the case in 
 both branches of the German Church, Reformed 
 and Lutheran ; but. as the country was new and 
 many of the people poor and scattered, they were 
 often unable to secure even the services of the 
 ministers of the gospel, much less school-masters 
 to instruct their children. There was, therefore, 
 a sad decline, for a time, both in religious and 
 educational interests. But in 1746, Rev. Michael 
 Schlatter came to Pennsylvania as a missionary 
 under the direction of the Reformed Church of 
 Holland, and proceeded not only to organize 
 churches, but also to establish schools. He was 
 
 shocked at the ignorance prevailing among the 
 young people, and did much to improve their 
 condition. I le collected money in Germany, Hol- 
 land, and England for the establishment of 
 schools and the support of teachers, in which 
 
 good work he was assisted by the authorities of 
 the province and many patriotic citizens. In many 
 places he slices led in building up schools which 
 continued to flourish for a long time, and hence 
 may be regarded as the first superintendent of 
 public instruction in the state. In 1787. the 
 legislature of Pennsylvania granted a charter for 
 the establishment of Franklin College, at Lan- 
 caster, Pa., and, in addition, made a grant of 
 10,000 acres for this object from the public 
 domain; which grant, although at first more ex- 
 pensive than profitable, became in the course of 
 time valuable. The project originated with a num- 
 ber of reputable citizens of German extraction; 
 and, as it was intended more particularly for the 
 benefit of the German population, "through whose 
 industry and patriotic services the state had 
 arisen to such a high degree of prosperity," it was 
 in effect placed under the control of the Lutheran 
 and Reformed people. It excited considerable in- 
 terest at the time and enlisted the warmest 
 sympathies of such patriots as Hush and Frank- 
 lin, of Philadelphia. It received its name from 
 the latter, who was president of the state. In- 
 tended from the tirst to be an institution of a 
 high order, something like a German university, 
 it nevertheless continued to be, for many years, 
 only a respectable high school, and did not attain 
 to the dignity of a college until the year 1853. — 
 The German population looked with suspicion on 
 the free-school system when it was first broached 
 in Pennsylvania, because it did not make ad- 
 equate provision for the religious education of 
 youth, seeming to eliminate the religious ele- 
 ment altogether. They were, from the beginning, 
 supporters of parochial schools, and were then, 
 as they are still, wedded to the idea that educa- 
 tion and religion ought to go together. They 
 yielded at last in their opposition, because com- 
 mon schools seemed to be the best that could be 
 had under the circumstances. Their German gov- 
 ernors, Wolf and Eitner, the one of Lutheran and 
 the other of Reformed persuasion, under whose 
 administration, and by whose support, the pres- 
 ent free-school system was introduced into the 
 state, had much to do in reconciling them to the 
 new order of things. With the consolidation of 
 this system, the old parochial schools, in a great 
 measure, passed away. As far as the Reformed 
 Church is concerned, however, it may be said, 
 that while it supports public schools as a ne- 
 cessity and a great public benefit, it would gener- 
 ally prefer a system of parochial schools, if they 
 could be maintained in a flourishing condition. 
 It may also be said, judging from some of the 
 recent ecclesiastical utterances, that it is probable 
 the church will yet revive these schools in some 
 degree, not in opposition to the public schools, 
 but to serve as their proper supplement, and as 
 a vindication of the theory of Christian edu- 
 cation. 
 
•730 
 
 REFORMED CHURCHES 
 
 REGENTS OF THE UNIVERSITY 
 
 In the year 1825, the Synod of the German 
 Reformed Church, in order to increase and im- 
 prove the character of its ministry, established 
 a theological seminary at Carlisle, Fa., under the 
 charge of Dr. Lewis Mayer, in close connection 
 with Dickinson College; but, as the seminary 
 was removed to York, Fa., in L829, it soon be- 
 came evident, that, in order to give it the neces- 
 sary efficiency, a classical school was needed. Such 
 a school was. therefore, established in connec- 
 tion with the seminary ; and, under the care of 
 Dr. Frederick Augustus Ranch, a ripe scholar 
 from the father-land, who took charge of it in 
 L832, and Prof. Samuel W. Budd, a graduate of 
 Princeton I 'ollege, it flourished, and accomplished. 
 for the time being, the work of a college for the 
 Church. In the fall of 1835, it was removed to 
 Mercersburg, 1 'a., where, having received a charter 
 from the legislature, it was converted into a reg- 
 ular college, under the name and title of Mar- 
 shall College. Dr. Rauch was its first president; 
 and to him it owes its German- American charac- 
 ter, that of an American institution pervaded with 
 the spirit of German science and literature. In 
 the year 1841, at the early age of thirty-five, he 
 died, in the midst of his rising fame, deeply la- 
 mented by all who knew him. Dr. Rauch's place 
 in the college was ably filled by the Rev. John 
 Williamson Kevin, from the year 1841 to 1853, 
 who during the same time served as the regular 
 professor of theology in the seminary, which had 
 been removed to Mercersburg soon after the re- 
 moval of the high school. Dr. Xevin labored to 
 promote the interests of the college with much 
 energy and self-sacrifice, and gave it a national 
 reputation; but, whilst it flourished internally, 
 and performed important service in the cause 
 of education, letters, and sound learning, it suf- 
 fered from the want of an adequate endow- 
 ment, which at times made even its permanence as 
 an institution problematical. Accordingly, when 
 the trustees of old Franklin ( 'ollege, at Lancaster, 
 which had an endowment of over $50,000, but 
 was without college classes or college arrange- 
 ments, proposed to unite the two institutions, the 
 proposition was favorably received; and they 
 were consolidated by an act of the legislature, 
 under the name of Franklin and Marshall Col- 
 lege. This arrangement went into operation in 
 1853, since which time the college has pursued 
 a Successful career in the midst of a large ( iertnan- 
 American population, upon whom it lias acted as 
 
 an e lucational stimulant with greater influence, 
 perhaps, than any purely American institution 
 could have exerted. The German language is a. 
 
 regular branch of study, as much so as Latin and 
 Greek. In its philosophical course.the college seeks, 
 in accordance with the idea of its first president. 
 
 Dr. Rauch, to unite the practical spirit of this 
 
 country and Blngland with the speculative and 
 idealistic tendencies <>f the father-land. At the 
 
 same time, much stress is laid on the religious 
 
 ining of the students. To accomplish this ob- 
 
 . the student sand the families of the professors, 
 
 be seminary and college, are organized into a 
 reculan it ion under the direction of classes. 
 
 The students serve as deacons and elders; and the 
 professors — such as are clergymen, as pastors. 
 Collections are taken up for benevolent purposes 
 every Sabbath, and students are prepared for 
 confirmation yearly by a course of catechetical 
 lectures. The college has, thus far, performed a 
 very important service for the cause of education 
 among a huge and intelligent class of people. Pre- 
 vious to its organization, in 1835, comparatively 
 few young men of German extraction went to 
 college at all; and but few of the German-Amer- 
 icans, even in the ministry, had enjoyed the ben- 
 efit of a classical training. Now college graduates 
 from this source, filling important positions in 
 society, are counted by scores or hundreds. Many 
 of them, in turn, have been active in founding 
 other colleges and classical schools in different 
 ] iarts of the country. The Reformed Synod of ( )hio 
 has a flourishing literary (Heidelberg < 'ollege, q.v.) 
 and theological institution at Tiffin, Ohio. Mer- 
 cersburg ( 'ollege. which grew out of a high school 
 that was established after the removal of Mar- 
 shall College to Lancaster, is a young and vigor- 
 ous institution. It is the child of the Mercersburg 
 Chassis. Catawba College, at Newton. N. C, under 
 the jurisdiction of the North Carolina Classis, 
 although it suffered much in the loss of its en- 
 dowment during the war. has been revived, and 
 
 shows signs of returning prosperity. Palatinate 
 College, at Myerstown, Fa., carries its students 
 as far as the junior class. It is located in a 
 populous German section of the state, and is per- 
 forming a good work. It is also a church insti- 
 tution, and is owned by the Lebanon Classis. 
 [Jrsinus College (q.v.). at Collegeville. Mont- 
 gomery Co.. Fa., Avas opened a few years ago, by 
 the Rev. J. H. A. Fomberger, and others who 
 sympathized with him in his theological tenden- 
 cies. It has manifested considerable energy, but 
 is not under any direct ecclesiastical control. 
 Clarion Collegiate Institute, at Rimersburg, Fa„ 
 and Flairstown Academy. Blairstown, Iowa, are 
 classical high schools, established by the classes 
 within whose bounds they are located. The for- 
 eign German population of the Church have two 
 institutions under their care : Calvin Institute, 
 at Cleveland. Ohio: and the Mission House, at 
 Howard's (.'rove. Wis. The one is a classical 
 school ; and the other, a theological seminary. — 
 While the growth of institutions for the educa- 
 tion of young men has been encouraged, female 
 education has not been overlooked in the Re- 
 formed Church. The 1'ast Pennsylvania ' lassie 
 has established the Allentown Female Seminary, 
 at Allentown. Fa., under the presidency of 
 Rev. W. R. HotVord. A. M. In the Maryland 
 Classis, Rev. Ceo. L. Staley has a seminary of 
 a high order, for females, at Knoxville, Md. ; 
 Rev. J. Bassler, A. M., has another at Mercers- 
 burg. Da.: and Rev. I.ucian Colt. A. M.. has also 
 the management of one at Greensburg, Da. These 
 institutions are. at present, in a thriving condition 
 and give promise of being well patronized by (he 
 
 people of the Deformed ( 'llUl'eh. 
 
 REGENTS OF THE UNIVERSITY. 
 
 See \i:w Youk. 
 
RELIGIOUS EDUCATION 
 
 REUCHLIN 
 
 731 
 
 RELIGIOUS EDUCATION is that which 
 has for its special object the cultivation of that 
 faculty of the human soul by means of which it 
 is enabled to realize the existence and constant 
 presence of the Deity, to know Him, and to com- 
 mune with Him in worship and prayer. Some 
 have designated this the religious sentiment ; but 
 strong exception has been taken to that term, as 
 belittling the basis of religion in the human soul. 
 An experience of human nature, in its various 
 degrees of culture, shows that there are what 
 may be called religious intuitions, common to all 
 minds of whatever grade of development; but 
 that while these may prompt to worship, yet, 
 without religious instruction, they can lead only 
 to superstitious and debasing practices. The re- 
 ligious or spiritual instinct does not necessarily 
 involve any act of the intellect ; for those whose 
 intellectual education and endowments are quite 
 inferior, often show a surprising degree of spirit- 
 ual insight and religious fervor. This fact, how- 
 ever, does not supersede the necessity of appeal- 
 ing to the understanding in imparting a knowl- 
 edge of those religious truths which have been 
 communicated by divine revelation ; but, in re- 
 ceiving these truths, the intellect assumes the 
 attitude of faith rather than of inquiry ; that is 
 to say, having become satisfied of the authentici- 
 ty, or the authority, of the source whence these 
 truths, or dogmatic teachings emanate, it does 
 not exercise its powers to establish their validity, 
 but only to conceive them in their true import 
 and relations. Hence, the intellect is not to be 
 cultivated by means of religious instruction ; al- 
 though its exercise cannot wholly be dispensed 
 with. The specific office of religious education 
 is thus twofold : (1) to cultivate the religious 
 instincts; and (2) to impart religious truth. The 
 one is accomplished by means of devotional exer- 
 cises ; the other, by dogmatic teachings. — In the 
 first stages of religious education, appropriate 
 exercises constitute almost the only agency 
 needed, nothing but the simplest religious truths 
 being requisite (such as are usually contained in 
 the catechism); but, in the more advanced period 
 of culture, the importance of dogmatic instruction 
 increases. Simple prayers and hymns, with just 
 enough teaching to enable the child to realize 
 their full significance, are the usual and the 
 most effective means of exercising the religious 
 faculty. It must, however, be borne in mind, 
 that the mere saying of a prayer, or the singing 
 of a hymn, will not necessarily give this exercise, 
 any more than merely committing to memory a 
 definition or a rule will exercise the intellect. The 
 mechanical repetition of prayers, in religious 
 education, is just as useless as rote-teaching in 
 intellectual education. By an inattention to this 
 principle on the part of parents and religious 
 teachers, no doubt, many children become dis- 
 gusted with religious devotion, while others 
 imbibe the notion that religion is only a matter 
 of forms and ceremonies, or the repeating of 
 the catechism. In either case, the religious in- 
 stinct becomes dormant for the want of due 
 exercise. 
 
 The relation of moral and religious education 
 should be carefully studied. In brief, it may be 
 said that the former deals with the relations 
 which mankind sustain to each other; and the 
 latter, with those which man as a spiritual being 
 sustains to the Infinite Spirit, the Creator and 
 I 'rescrver of all things. In the one. the principle 
 addressed is that of conscience (q. v.), the sense 
 of right; in the other, it is I he religious principle, 
 the spiritual instinct, by which man is brought 
 into communion with his Maker. (See Moral 
 Education.) In a certain sense, these two de- 
 partments of education are independent; for 
 conscience operates independently of religion; 
 but a religious sanction is the strongest founda- 
 tion for moral precepts. For this, the Christian 
 revelation affords the fullest authority, the "first 
 and great commandment" being to love God; 
 and the second, "to love thy neighbor as thyself." 
 The several departments of education are not to 
 be divorced from one another, but all are to be 
 carried on together, so as to produce a harmonious 
 development of character. (See Harmony of De- 
 velopment.) — In imparting religious instruction, 
 the same principles are to be applied as in intel- 
 lectual education, as far as language is the vehicle 
 of the instruction. Very much of the religious 
 teaching given in the Sunday-school is of no 
 value, because of the neglect to observe these prin- 
 ciples. Committing to memory formulated dog- 
 mas, verses from the Bible, doctrinal lessons, etc., 
 without any proper appreciation of their signifi- 
 cance, can be of little service ; and in some cases 
 may do positive harm. Oral instruction jilays a 
 most important part in this kind of teaching ; 
 and Bible expositions, when clear, definite, and 
 illustrative, always prove the most effective as 
 well as the most attractive means of instruction. 
 — The questions as to the relation of religious and 
 secular instruction are considered in the article 
 on Denominational Schools. — (See also Bible, 
 and Sunday-Schools.) 
 
 REUCHLIN, John, one of the foremost 
 representatives and promoters of classical studies 
 in the 1 5th and 1 6th centuries, was born at Pforz- 
 heim, in 1455, and died at Stuttgart, June 30., 
 1522. His lectures on (heck authors, delivered 
 at the university of Basel, are regarded as 
 the first of the kind. He disagreed with Eras- 
 mus in regard to the true pronunciation of 
 Greek, and those who adopted his views, were 
 called Reuchlinists. (See Greek Language.) The 
 Hebrew grammar, published by him in 1506, 
 under the title Rudimenta Ekbraicce Linguae, 
 was largely instrumental in introducing the 
 study of this language into the sphere of ordi- 
 nary studies. In consequence of his appreciation 
 of Jewish learning, he was violently attacked by 
 the Dominicans. The emperor, having been pe- 
 titioned to order all the books of the Jews de- 
 stroyed except the Old Testament, Reuchlin was 
 directed by the Elector of Mavence to declare 
 what should be done in the matter. He decided 
 thai only those books that directly attacked 
 Christianity should be destroyed. He was now 
 subjected to active persecutions. His enemies 
 
732 
 
 I IK WARDS 
 
 RHETORIC 
 
 declared him to be a heretic, and accused him of 
 being secretly inclined to Judaism. He was tried 
 by Hoogstraaten. at Mayence, and his writings 
 were condemned to the dames. I le appealed to 
 the Pope; and the ease was referred to the Bishop 
 of Spire, who decided in Reuehlin's favor. An 
 appeal from this decision was taken to Rome, 
 but was never directly acted upon. A league of 
 Reuchlinists (so called) was formed to take the 
 part of Reuchlin. It assumed the champion- 
 ship of the cause of classical learning, as opposed 
 to the scholasticism which had prevailed, and en- 
 listed the co-operation of many of the most dis- 
 tinguished men of Germany. In 1510. Franz 
 von Sickingen ordered the Dominicans to make 
 good to Reuchlin all the costs of court which 
 he had incurred in consequence of their pro- 
 ceedings against him, and to give security 
 against his further prosecution ; and they did 
 so. In 1520, Reuchlin read lectures at Ingol- 
 stadt, under the patronage of the Duke of Ba- 
 varia, on Hebrew grammar and the Pluius of 
 Aristophanes, to more than three hundred hear- 
 ers. A lew months before his death, he was 
 invited to teach Hebrew and the Greek gram- 
 mar in the university of Tubingen. 
 
 REWARDS, as an instrument of family or 
 school discipline, are benefits or privileges con- 
 ferred to incite children to well-doing. Primarily, 
 the offer of a reward, as an incitement to effort 
 on the pari of the pupil, appeals to hope, as pun- 
 ishment does to/ear (q. v.): but there are other 
 elements of individual character also addressed. 
 depending on (1) the nature of the reward of- 
 fend, and (2) tin' individuality of the pupil. 
 Thus, the pupil who is particularly fond of praise, 
 if offered a valuable gift as an inducement to do 
 right, would strive to obtain it as a striking 
 token of his teacher's approval; while one who 
 was naturally acquisitive, or eager for gain, 
 would regard only the intrinsic value of the 
 reward. Hence, in one case, the pupil's approba- 
 tiveness would be stimulated; and, m the other, 
 his acquisitiveness; but in neither would tin- 
 sense of duty be cultivated. The necessity of ex- 
 ercising great care in offering rewards will, 
 therefore, be obvious. While an appeal to hope 
 as an incentive to do right, is in most cases, if 
 
 not always, preferable to an appeal to fear; yet. 
 
 it must be borne in mind that rewards as well as 
 punishments constitute only a temporary expe- 
 dient in the discipline of children, and should, as 
 
 soon as possible, give place to a direct appeal to 
 conscience, or the sense of right. (See Con- 
 Science.) When rewards are offered to a number 
 of pupils, to be conferred upon those who excel 
 
 all the others, they become prizes, and are liable 
 
 to all the objections which have been urged 
 against the prize Bystem : bul when rewards 
 [premiums), whether gifts of money, hooks, picl 
 
 urcs. or other articles of value, or merely tickets 
 
 or certificates of merit, are offered to all who 
 reach a certain specified standard of merit, either 
 
 in study or behavior, these objections are ob- 
 viated: as. although the mercenary spirit may 
 still be addressed, there is no1 the same liability 
 
 I to injustice, or the same cause of envy and 
 > jealousy. Rewards may, however, consist merely 
 of special privileges conferred upon meritorious 
 pupils; such as dismissal before the usual time 
 for closing school, permission to occupy some post 
 of honor or authority in connection with the 
 management of the school or class, or to engage 
 in some special sport or recreation planned by the 
 teacher, as a means of encouraging well-doing. 
 All these, doubtless, have their place in a proper 
 scheme of school discipline: and. when used 
 with discrimination, are beneficial. — A system of 
 rewards has been objected to as appealing to the 
 lower, rather than to the higher, motives: but an 
 educator must not be led astray by any tran- 
 scendental view of human nature. He must r» <•- 
 ognize the moral imperfections of his pupil, and 
 strive to lift him gradually to a higher plane of 
 thought and action. In this connection, it has 
 been properly remarked, "whatever may be pi >- 
 sible in the mature man. in the line of that sub- 
 lime abstraction, virtue is its own reward, the 
 child is neither equal to such abstractions, nor 
 are they demanded of him. They may. it is true. 
 be graduallv wrought bv instruction into the 
 bodv of his thought, for the sake of their ulti- 
 mate effect on his principles as a man: but. em- 
 braced, as he is. in a world of perceived realities, 
 and only capable of attaining the subtler ideals 
 by passing to them through the fine gradations 
 of a progressively reduced and sublimated reality. 
 it is absurd and tyrannous to rob him of the 
 stimulus, guidance, and aid of proper rewards as 
 outward realities foreshadowing the ideal of 
 absolute virtue, and rendering possible both its 
 conception and attainment.'" — See JEWELL, 
 School Government (New York. 1866); Mor- 
 rison, Mm mil of Hchool Management, s. v. 
 Discipline (5th ed., Glasgow, 1*74). 
 
 RHETORIC (Gr. faropiidt, art of oratory) 
 was originally applied to that branch of study in 
 which students were trained for public speak- 
 big. In Greece and Home, the orator was di- 
 rectly the most powerful exponent of truth and 
 
 opinion. As a teacher, as well as a persuader, 
 
 his influence was. to a great extent, confined to 
 his hearers: and eloquence was. therefore, in the 
 
 greatest request. But. even in the writings of 
 
 the three greatest of the ancient rhetoricians. — 
 
 Aristotle. Cicero, Quintilian, there is evidence 
 that rhetoric embraced compositions not intended 
 
 for delivery in public. In modern times, rhet- 
 oric as an art treats of all coinposit ion. whether 
 spoken or written. It has been well defined as 
 tlie mi of discourse, and discourse itself as ••the 
 capacity in man of communicating his mental 
 -tales to other minds by means of language." It 
 embraces poetry as well as prose "because," as 
 Campbell says, ••the same medium, language, 
 
 is made use df : the same general rules ot com- 
 position, in narration, description, and argumen- 
 tation, are observed: and the same tropes and 
 
 figures, cither for beautifying or invigorating 
 
 the diction, arc employed by both. The versifi- 
 cation is to be considered as an appendage rather 
 
 than a constituent of poetry." In the it 
 
RHETORIC 
 
 733 
 
 recent treatises on rhetoric, elocution, or the art 
 of delivery, has been omitted. Day very justly 
 says, " that this mode of communication is not 
 essential. The thought may be conveyed by the 
 pen or by the voice. Elocution, or the vocal ex- 
 pression of thought, is not, accordingly, a neces- 
 sary part of rhetoric." In Whately's treatise 
 [Elements of Rhetoric), however, a work con- 
 siderably used by students, a large part is de- 
 voted to elocution. — It has often been observed 
 that there must have been orators before there 
 were rules in oratory ; and this is often used as 
 an argument for undervaluing the study of rhet- 
 oric, just as kindred arguments are advanced 
 against the study of logic and grammar. But 
 there can be no question that immense progress 
 has been made through the critical study of 
 writers of standard reputation, by comparing, 
 discriminating, and deciding on, their faults and 
 graces, thus teaching us what to avoid, and what 
 to emulate. In its best sense, rhetoric presup- 
 poses an acquaintance with logic — the science 
 and art of reasoning; because conviction and 
 persuasion are two of the great- objects present 
 in the minds of speakers and writers. It also re- 
 quires an acquaintance with grammar, as teach- 
 ing the proper arrangement of words and sen- 
 tences. Rhetoric may be regarded from two points 
 of view : (1) as a purely critical study ; and 
 ('!) as the constant practice of an art. To the 
 extent that either of these views becomes more 
 prominent in the teacher's mind, will the 
 character of his instruction be affected. It is 
 quite possible to prepare students to recite well 
 in the statement of principles and definitions ; 
 and yet the same students may be veiy deficient 
 in the development or expression of spoken or 
 written thought. The condition of such stu- 
 dents may lead us to say with Butler : 
 
 " For all a rhetorician's rules 
 
 Teach nothing but to name his tools." 
 
 In the celebrated treatise of Blair, Lectures on 
 Rhetoric and Belles-Lettres, taste and style are 
 so treated as to occupy a very large part of 
 the subject. It is largely so with Campbell's 
 Philosophy of Rhetoric. Whately drew par- 
 ticular attention to the subject of invention ; 
 but he follows style with a chapter on elocution. 
 The practice, at present, which seems to be in- 
 creasing in favor with teachers, is to omit elocu- 
 tion, or the training in mere delivery, and to ex- 
 tend the importance of invention even beyond 
 that assigned to it by AVhately. The two great 
 divisions of rhetoric are thus invention and 
 style. There can be no question as to the im- 
 portance of invention in rhetoric. The arrange- 
 ment of the thoughts according to their logical 
 dependence must be the foundation of the 
 art of discourse. Good thinking must always 
 precede good writing. The office of invention 
 is to train the pupil to habits of correct think- 
 ing. It does more than this ; it seeks to sup- 
 ply the thought. Thus, invention is naturally 
 divided into two parts, — the supplying of the 
 thought, and its proper arrangement ; and of 
 
 these two divisions, the second is dependent on 
 the first. In a cyclopaedia, where the space is 
 necessarily limited, it will not he expected that 
 any systematic development of the steps and 
 processes used in invention can be given. The 
 reader is referred, on this and on other points, 
 to the works enumerated at the end of this 
 article. While, however, there is no dispute as 
 to the place of invention in rhetoric as an art, it 
 may reasonably he doubted, whether it can be 
 properly studied at the early age when pupils 
 are usually required to study rhetoric. In many 
 of its steps, it is essentially logical, and presup- 
 poses an acquaintance with that subject, — and 
 this again demands some considerable maturity 
 of mind. The preparation of arguments, or the 
 art of influencing the will by discourse, is a 
 power the development of which goes on past 
 middle age; but it is a power that cannot be 
 successfully trained in very early years. The 
 chief danger in teaching this particular division 
 of rhetoric, is that it may be made too scientific. 
 There are few young minds so trained, or of such 
 native, vigor, as to be capable of dwelling long, 
 and with benefit, upon even well enunciated 
 truths and definitions; but, even where it is 
 insisted on and continued, the results are not 
 always beneficial. 
 
 The second grand division of rhetoric— style 
 deals more particularly with the form of the 
 thought. Perhaps no word has given more dif- 
 ficulty to define. Without speech, " thought is 
 not possible in reality." Though so endlessly 
 variable in its form, so subtle as almost to defy 
 minute analysis, so subject to the moods of 
 thought, and yet so plastic as to conform to its 
 most sinuous and involved movements, we soon 
 reabze by a little study, how completely it is a 
 part of the thinking. The thought and the 
 style are thus seen to be one living body. As a 
 subject of study, it is that part of rhetoric which 
 has always created and maintained the greatest 
 interest in the minds of young students. Treat- 
 ing of the form of the sentence, and also of its 
 component words, it depends, to some extent, on 
 grammar, and may be said to follow it, in a nat- 
 ural order of study. It is, therefore, to young 
 minds more suitable than the other division — 
 invention. The practice which it requires in 
 the substitution of words, the inversion of sen- 
 tences from grammatical to rhetorical forms, 
 the use of rhetorical figures, the expansion and 
 contraction of language, furnishes a constant 
 stimulus to mental exertion. Such exercises in 
 style show the student how powerfully the thought 
 is influenced by the vehicle of thought, how it 
 may he modified by the substitution of a clearer 
 word, or remarkably affected by a different 
 position of the same words. 
 
 The advantage of sentential analysis in the 
 careful study of style can scarcely be overrated. 
 The arrangement of words, phrases, and clauses, 
 peculiar to the great English writers, affect most 
 powerfully the turn of the thought, and are open 
 to investigation through this analysis. The 
 kind of sentences they use, and the variety in 
 
734 
 
 RHETORIC 
 
 RHODE ISLAXD 
 
 which they indulge, give that harmony of move- 
 ment so indescribably pleasing. We, thus, see 
 from what arise the clearness and greatness of 
 Hume, the energy and brilliancy of -Macaulay, 
 the grace of Irving, the manly vigor of Sydney 
 Smith, the philosophic calmness of Helps, the 
 incomparable plasticity and fire of Byron's prose. 
 Perhaps no part of rhetoric offers a finer field 
 for both teacher and student than the application 
 of sentential analysis to an investigation of the 
 striking peculiarities in the style of great writers. 
 — In no branch of stir I v, is there greater necessity 
 for abundance of practice on the part of the 
 student. In none is there greater necessity that 
 the student, and not the teacher, should do the 
 chief part of the work. The value of rhetoric, 
 as a branch of study, is to be tested by its prac- 
 tical utility, by what it contributes towards de- 
 veloping cleanups, force, and beauty of expression 
 in language. Any thing else, however scientific, 
 in this branch must prove to the young student 
 a comparatively barren and irksome task. In 
 this light, the constant application of a few 
 simple principles to the criticism of great writers 
 is an admirable part of the training. In Blair's 
 Lectures on Rhetoric, there is a seri ss of papers 
 from Addison illustrating this view; and it is to 
 be doubted whether mo Lern treatises on rhetoric, 
 aiming at a more philosophic treatment of the 
 subject, while they have gained in scientific ar- 
 rangement, may not have lost some of this crit- 
 ical training. Accuracy, as well as force of ex- 
 pression, purity, propriety, grace, are. to most 
 students, the result 01 constant, careful practice, 
 combined with criticisms on distinguished writ- 
 ers. Franklin, in his autobiography, gives a 
 most interesting account of what can be accom- 
 plished under limited opportunities, without a 
 teacher, by careful criticism and revision. The 
 various steps, related in his remarkably simple 
 English, are worthy of the notice of those en- 
 din the instruction of youth. — In the two 
 leading American colleges, Harvard and Yale, 
 the time allotted to the Btudy of rhetoric is. in 
 the former, a part of the sophomore and junior 
 years; in the latter, the senior year, although 
 lectures on rhetoric are delivered to the sopho- 
 more class. Supposing the average age of stu- 
 dents, at the time of admission, to be 17 — and 
 this is, probably, below the true average — it 
 may be said thai rhetoric, as a distinct branch of 
 study, is pursued by the students in their twen- 
 tieth year. This age gives some degree of ma- 
 turity. By a thorough course in the classical or 
 modern languages, students are, to a certain ex- 
 tent, prepared to enter upon the study of inven- 
 tion, ml the criticism of style. See K wir.s, Ele- 
 ments of i hriticism; Addison, Essays on Paradise 
 Los/, in the Spectator; BuLiR,Lectures on Rhetoric 
 and Belles-Lettres ; Campbell, Philosophy of 
 Rhetoric, Whately, Elements of Rhetoric; De 
 Qoincey, Rhetorical and Critical Essays, art. 
 Style; Berbert Spencer, Essays, Moral, Polit- 
 ical, and /Esthetic, art. Style; II. N. I>.w, The 
 Art of Discourse' (N. Y., L869). (See also 
 Belles-Lettres.) 
 
 RHODE ISLAND, one of the original 
 states of the American Union, and the smallest 
 of all now composing it. having an area of 1,30G 
 sq. in., and a population, according to the cen- 
 sus of L870,of 217,358. 
 
 Edua tfion < tl History. — It is claimed by Rhode- 
 Islanders that the first school established by 
 public vote in New England, was at Newport, 
 Ft. I., in 1(1 10. The early town records are very 
 defective; but it appears, from Calender's His- 
 torical Discourse (1738), that, in 1640, Mr. 
 Robert Leuthal was. by vote, " called to keep a 
 public school for the learning of youth." and. 
 further, that an appropriation of one hundred 
 acres of land was made for the permanent sup- 
 port of a school. •■ for encouragement of the 
 poorer sort, to train up their youth in learning." 
 This school tract of 100 acres was allotted in 
 what is now the town of Middletown; but. in 
 L661, was exchanged for a tract afterwards 
 known as Newtown, or School-land. In 
 1 663, this tract was ordered to be divided into 
 lots ; and the income arising from the sale or 
 lease of them was to constitute a fund for the 
 •schooling and educating of poor children." — 
 The first public act in behalf' of education in 
 Providence was in May. 1663, when the pro- 
 prietors voted that 100 acres of upland and 
 6 acres of meadow should be laid out as school 
 lands, and - reserved for the maintenance of a 
 school in this town." The earliest allusion to a 
 chool-house is made in 1 7->li : audit is probable 
 that the town simply allowed the school-master 
 the use of the building, at a fixed rent, the pu- 
 pils paying him for his sendees. At a town 
 meeting held Dec. 2.. 1767, the citizens voted to 
 build "three school houses for small children 
 and one Eor youth, to provide instructions, and 
 pay the exp use i'mm the treasury, and these 
 schools to he under the SU] ■ervi.-ioii of the school 
 committee." A plan for the organization of 
 the schools was reported by the Committee, 
 
 through Governor Jabez Bowen, and may be 
 
 found in the pages of StapleSB Annals of Proih 
 idence. It is an admirable report, and is based 
 upon this wide provision: "Thai every inhabi- 
 tant of this town, whether they be free of the 
 town or not. shall have anil enjoy an equal right 
 and privilege of sending their own children, and 
 the children of others that may be under their 
 care, for instruction and bringing up. to any oi 
 all of said schools." This beneficent plan was, 
 
 however, defeated . on grounds thus stated by 
 
 Moses Brown, another member of the com- 
 mittee : 
 
 " ITt'.s. i.aid before the town by the committee, 
 luit a number of the inhabitants (and what i- most 
 surprising ami remarkable the plan of a free Sellout, 
 supported by a tax. was rejected by the Poobi r sort 
 of the people,) being Btrangely led away not to 
 their own as well a- the public interest therein, (bj a 
 leu objectors at tirst.) either because they were not 
 the projectors, or had not public spirit to execute bo 
 laudable a design, and which was lirst voted by the 
 tew ii with great freedom. M. B." 
 
 The town, at last, built a school-house, con- 
 jointly with private proprietors, the town owning 
 
 only the lower story, but having the supervisit f 
 
RITODK ISLAM) 
 
 735 
 
 both private and public schools, through a school 
 committee. 
 
 In Bristol, the original proprietors, in 1680, 
 granted land "for the common improvement, for 
 the encouragement and use of an able orthodox 
 minister, and for the use and encouragement of 
 an able schoolmaster in the town." The first 
 recorded act of the citizens of Bristol in regard 
 to schools is dated in September, 1682, when 
 it was voted : 
 
 "That each person that hath children in town ready 
 to go to school, shall pay three pence the week for 
 each child's schooling to the schoolmaster, and the 
 town by rate according to each ratable estate shall 
 make the wages to amount to £24 the year. The 
 selectmen! to look out a grammar schoolmaster and 
 use their endeavor to obtain £5 of the cape mon 
 granted for such an end.*' " September, 1684, voted 
 £24 the year for Mr. Cobbitt, he officiating in the 
 place of a schoolmaster in this town." 
 
 These seem to have been the main attempts 
 at popular education in this state, before 
 the Revolution. There were, also, some local 
 efforts for the instruction of the Indians, 
 beginning with a gift of land made by Judge 
 Sewall, of Massachusetts, for that purpose. In 
 regard to the colored popidation, then quite 
 numerous in Rhode Island, the Xewport Mer- 
 cury, of March 29., 1773, had the following : 
 
 '•Whereas a school was established, several years 
 past, in the town of Xewport, by a society of benev- 
 olent clergymen of the church of England, in Lon- 
 don, with a handsome fund for a mistress to instruct 
 thirty negro children in reading, sewing, etc. And 
 whereas it has hitherto been found difficult to supply 
 ' the said school with the number of children required"; 
 notice is hereby given, that the said school is now 
 kept by Mrs. Mary Brett, in High Street, nearly op- 
 posite to Judge Johnston's, and is open to all societies 
 in the town, to send their young blacks, to the num- 
 ber of thirty ; And, provided, that the number can- 
 not be nearly kept up for the future, the gentlemen to 
 whose care and direction the said school has been en- 
 trusted will be obliged to give it up entirely at the ex- 
 piration of six months." 
 
 There were many reasons why popular edu- 
 cation met with less general support in Rhode 
 Island than in Massachusetts. The population 
 was far more scanty — not exceeding 7,000, in 
 1680, and being only 17,935 in 1730. Over 
 much of the territory, there was no settled gov- 
 ernment, there being boundary disputes in sev- 
 eral directions. Rhode Island was a peculiar 
 sufferer by the Indian w r ars, and the continued 
 existence of slavery was a fatal obstacle to pub- 
 lic schools. Finally, there was no such power- 
 ful body of clergymen as existed in Massachu- 
 setts, sustaining by potent influence the whole 
 system of schools. There was, on the contrary, 
 a strong reaction against this clerical influence, 
 and against the traditional institutions of Mas- 
 sachusetts and Connecticut. It was due to all 
 these reasons that public schools, though planted 
 so early in Rhode Island, flourished less than in 
 these other states. The reminiscences of Samuel 
 Thurber, an aged citizen of Providence, record 
 the general condition of education, before the 
 Revolution : 
 
 "As respects schools, previous to about the year 
 1770, they were but little thought of; there were in 
 my neighborhood three small schools perhaps about 
 
 a dozen scholars in each. Their books were the Bible, 
 
 spelling-book, and primer. I was kept by John 
 
 foster, Esq., in his office, one by Dr. Benjamin West 
 Their ices were seven shillings and Bixpence per quar- 
 ter. One was kept by George Taylor. Esq., for the 
 church scholars. Be, it was said, received a small 
 compensation from England. Besides these, there 
 were two or three women schools. When one had 
 learned to read, write, and do a sum in the rule of 
 three, he vi as lit for business. * * * The Rev. James 
 Manning did great things: in the way of enlightening 
 and informing the people. Schools revived by means 
 of his advice and assistance. Previous to hii'u it was 
 not uncommon to meet with those who could not 
 write their names." 
 
 This testimony links Brown University with 
 the history of common-school education in Rhode 
 Island. i>r. .Manning was president of what was 
 then Rhode Island College, when it was removed 
 to Providence, in 1770 ; and the impetus given 
 by him would, doubtless, have borne more im- 
 mediate fruit, but for the absorbing excitement 
 of the Revolution. A colony which saw one of 
 its chief towns long held by the enemy, could 
 not give much attention to schools. The con- 
 flict left the young state terribly depleted and 
 impoverished. It had hardly recovered itself, 
 when it was urged on to the adoption of a pub- 
 lic-school system, through the far-seeing energy 
 of one man. The real founder of public schools 
 in Rhode Island was John Howland, who was 
 born in Xewport, in 1753, and w*as sent to Prov- 
 idence at thirteen, to be a barber's apprentice. 
 He was afterwards a soldier of the Revolution, 
 and was then for many years a barber in Prov- 
 idence. He was also a member of the Me- 
 chanics' Association, founded in 1789. Mr. How- 
 land has left fully on record the successive stejis 
 in the agitation which resulted in the establish- 
 ment of public schools; and it is a curious fact 
 that, by his showing, it met with no opposition 
 from the wealthy, but only from the very class 
 it was especially designed to benefit. It was 
 warmly approved in Providence, and was en- 
 dorsed iu Newport, but was regarded with in- 
 difference in the country towns. In these, in- 
 deed, it had been but little agitated, a fact to 
 which the early repeal of the measure was mainly 
 due. The bill establishing public schools was 
 enacted in the February session, 1800. Its vital 
 provisions were as follows : 
 
 " Section 1. Be it enacted by the General Assem- 
 bly, and the authorities thereof, and it is hereby en- 
 acted; — That each and every town in the State shall 
 annually cause to be established and kept, at the ex- 
 pense of such town, one or more free schools, for the 
 instruction of all the white inhabitants of said town, 
 between the ages of six and twenty years, in reading, 
 writing, and common arithmetic, who may stand in 
 need of such instruction, and apply therefor." 
 
 "Sec. 2. And belt further enacted, That it shall be 
 the duty of the Town Council of every town, to divide 
 said town into so many school-districts as they shall 
 judge necessary and convenient." 
 
 It was further provided that each town might 
 retain, for school purposes, twenty per cent of 
 its state taxes, so long as the sum thus retained 
 did not exceed $6,000. In case any town failed 
 to establish the schools required, this allowance 
 was to be forfeited ; but there was no other 
 penalty imposed, nor was action made obliga- 
 
736 
 
 RHODE ISLAND 
 
 tory. As a result, the law was an absolute fail- 
 ure, except as regarded the city of Providence. 
 No other community carried it into effect, and 
 the law itself was repealed in 1803. 
 
 In organizing the schools of Providence, John 
 Rowland was made one of the committee ; and 
 go thoroughly was his work done in his own 
 city, that the school system was there sustained 
 after the repeal of the general law, and the 
 schools of Providence remained, until within a 
 few years, far in advance of all the rest of the 
 state. — For twenty-five years after the repeal of 
 John Howland's law, there was iu Rhode Island 
 no state system of schools, even on paper; 
 though the local schools of Providence were well 
 sustained at the public expense, and there were, 
 at Newport and elsewhere, some endowed schools, 
 most of them established by lottery. In 182 7, there 
 were petitions for a school system ; and, in 1828, 
 a law was passed, authorizing towns to appoint 
 school committees, and to tax themselves for 
 schools ; and providing that sums paid into the 
 general treasury by lottery dealers and auction- 
 eers should be appropriated to the support of 
 public schools, to an amount not exceeding 
 §10,000. This act was the foundation of the 
 present school system of the state ; and though 
 its provisions seemed in some respects unsatis- 
 factory, it was yet a great step forward. During 
 the next fifteen years, the system underwent 
 some important modifications, especially as to 
 the plan of distribution of the school money, 
 which was at first allotted to each town in pro- 
 portion to the number of inhabitants below the 
 age of sixteen ; but, after wan Is, according to 
 
 (1) the number of white persons under sixteen, 
 
 (2) the number of colored persons under ten, 
 
 (3) five-fourteenths of the colored persons be- 
 tween ten and twenty-four. This complicated 
 method remained in force from 1832 to 1845. — 
 The first document answering to a general school 
 report was prepared by Oliver Angell.a veteran 
 teacher, in behalf of a committee appointed at a 
 public meeting in Providence. It was printed in 
 pamphlet form, and dated May 17., 1832. The 
 most important statistical facts contained in 
 this report were the following : 
 
 Whole number of public schools in the state.. . 323 
 
 Whole number of scholars taught in them 17,0:; I 
 
 Number of male teachers employed 31S 
 
 Number of female teachers employed 147 
 
 Number of schools continued through the year 20 
 
 Average time of the others 3 months. 
 
 Whole amount appropriated by the towns for 
 
 the support of schools $11 . 490 
 
 Amount drawn from school fond $10,000 
 
 Whole amount expended for support of public 
 
 schools $21,490 
 
 Number of private schools continued through 
 
 the year, under male teachers 30 
 
 Number of private schools continued through 
 
 the year, under female teachers 88 
 
 (In nearly all the country towns, the private schools 
 may be considered as tin- public school-; continued by 
 individual subscription, from three to six months.) 
 Whole number of scholars taught in them (ex- 
 clusive of the Friend's Hoarding- School, 
 
 Providence) 3,403 
 
 Total estimated expense of private schools, $81,375 
 
 Expended for support of schools for one year. $102,805 
 
 Some strange facts may be gathered from 
 these statistics. It appears that, in 1832, Prov- 
 idence had five times as many public schools as 
 private; Newport. sixteen times as many; and the 
 amount expended on private schools throughout 
 the state was four times that spent on public 
 schools. Only twenty public schools were con- 
 tinued through the year, the average time of the 
 others being but three months; and men out- 
 numbered women, as teachers, almost two to one. 
 In 1843, a bill was introduced into the Rhode 
 Island assembly, by Wilkins Updike, of .South 
 Kingstown, to authorize the governor of the stata 
 "to employ some suitable person as agent;" and, 
 in advocating its passage, he boldly declared the 
 school system, as it then existed, to be "not a 
 blessing, except in the city of Providence, and 
 possibly, a few other towns." He asserted that 
 Rhode Island was behind the other New England 
 states, and that the remedy for this was the ap- 
 pointment of a commissioner to revise the whole 
 system, to codify the laws, and to visit and ex- 
 amine the schools throughout the state. The 
 bill was passed, and Henry Barnard was ap- 
 pointed the school agent in December, 1843. In 
 May, the following year, he made his report of a 
 school law, which was passed June 27., 1845. 
 This law created the office of commissioner of 
 public schools, to be appointed by the governor, 
 made provision for the financial support of the 
 schools, defined the powers and duties of towns 
 in regard to public education, provided for school- 
 districts, and trustees of schools therein, and also 
 for the examination and legal certification of 
 teachers. Mr. Barnard's labors and services were 
 very great ; and he must stand second only to 
 Horace Mann among the school reformers of New 
 England. In his very first report, for 1845, he 
 made a searching review of the school buildings 
 and school methods prevailing in the state. Like 
 Horace Mann, he strongly urged the employment 
 of women as teachers, and spoke with satisfaction 
 of the fact that he had caused the employment 
 of more than fifty additional female teachers 
 during the past year. He had also, he reported, 
 seen more than fifty new school-houses built, 
 mostly on plans furnished by himself. It was 
 declared by the teachers of the state, on his retire- 
 ment from office in 1849, that he had effected a 
 "revolution" in school architecture; and the 
 amount of printed matter circulated by him, was 
 very great. More than 16,000 educational pam- 
 phlets were distributed by him gratuitously, ex- 
 clusive of the official documents of the state, and 
 the Journal of the Institute of Education. Dur- 
 ing our year, not an almanac was published in 
 Rhode Island without at least sixteen pages of 
 educational matter, added to it. During his five 
 years of administration, more than eleven hundred 
 educational meetings were held, at which more 
 than fifteen hundred addresses were made. Thi 
 facts arc stated by Rev. Edwin M, Stone in his 
 history of the Rhode Island Institute of Instruc- 
 tion, an organization which was formed in Jan- 
 uary. 1845, and rendered the most important aid 
 to the labors of the commissioner. Mr. Barnard 
 
RHODE ISLAND 
 
 737 
 
 retired in 1840, on account of ill health, and was 
 succeeded byElisha R. Potter, now Judge Potter. 
 This gentleman's legal experience was of the 
 greatest benefit to the school legislation of the 
 state. He secured the gradual abolition of the 
 rate-bill system, which in many towns assessed 
 part of the school expenses upon the pupils. 
 He also established the principle of entire relig- 
 ious freedom in the public schools, taking the 
 position that, under the Rhode Island constitu- 
 tion, the school committees had no right "to pre- 
 scribe religious exercises for a school". The matter 
 was to be settled by general consent: but nochild 
 could be compelled to take part in any religious 
 exercise, in opposition to the wishes of his par- 
 ents. Accordingly, in the local school laws of 
 this state, the school committees usually "recom- 
 mend" that the schools be opened with the read- 
 ing of the Bible, but do not require it. Other im- 
 portant services rendered by Mr. Potter were the 
 recommendation (in 1850) of a state board of 
 education, and the persistent advocacy of a nor- 
 mal school. Through his efforts, a normal depart- 
 ment was first established (1850) in Brown Uni- 
 versity, and was placed under the charge of Prof. 
 B. S. Greene, then superintendent of the Provi- 
 dence schools, but whose title in the university 
 was Professor of Didactics. To this arrangement, 
 su reeded (in 1852) a private normal school, in 
 Providence, taught by Messrs. Greene, Russell, 
 Colburn.and Guyot; and finally (in 1854), a state 
 normal school, under Dana P. Colburn. This 
 school was afterward removed to Bristol, and, 
 after Mr. Colburn s death, was placed under 
 Joshua Kendall's charge. It was, however, abol- 
 ished in 1865, but was re-established at Provi- 
 dence in 1871, under the care of J. C. Green- 
 ough, who still remains its principal. The suc- 
 cessors of Mr. Potter in the office of school com- 
 missioner have been Robert Allyn (1854 — 7), 
 John Kingsbury (1857 — 9), Joshua B. Chapiu 
 (1859—61, and again 1863—9), Henry Rous- 
 maniere (1861—3), T. W. BickneU (1869—75), 
 and Thomas B. Stockwell, the present incumbent , 
 elected in 1875. 
 
 A state board of education was created in 
 1870; and there have been various improvements 
 hi organization since that time, including the 
 extension of the term of school committees from 
 one to three years, and the authorization of a 
 school superintendent in eveiy town. Women 
 have also been occasionally elected members of 
 school committees, and have performed their 
 duties with marked success. Evening schools 
 have also received particular attention, being 
 especially important in a manufacturing state 
 like Rhode Island. 
 
 School System. — -The constitution of the state 
 provides (1) that "it shall be the duty of the 
 general assembly to promote public schools, and 
 to adopt all means which they may deem neces- j 
 sary and proper to secure to the people the 
 advantages and opportunities of education"; 
 ('-) that "the money appropriated by law for 
 the establishment of a permanent fund for the j 
 support of public schools shall be securely in- I 
 47 
 
 vested and remain a perpetual fund for that 
 purpose"; (3) that -all donations for the support 
 of public schools or other educational purposes 
 shall be applied according to the terms prcscril>ed 
 by the donors." The officers ©f the system con- 
 sist of (1) a state board of education, (2) a com- 
 missioner of public schools, (."{) trustees of the 
 state normal school, I I) town school committees, 
 (5) town superintendents, (6) district trustees, 
 and (7 1 district clerks, treasurers, and collectors. — 
 The state board of education is composed of eight 
 
 members, the governor and the lieutenant-gov- 
 ernor being members, m itjjiri,,. and each of the 
 five counties of the state "being entitled to one 
 member, except Providence, which is entitled to 
 two. The members are elected by the general 
 assembly for three years. This board has the 
 general supervision and control of the public 
 schools, its particular duties being to hold quar- 
 terly meetings, to prescribe and enforce general 
 regulations, and to make an annual report to the 
 general assembly. The governor of the state is 
 the president of the board, and the commissioner, 
 secretary. — The commissioner of public Schools 
 is elected annually by the board of education, 
 and is the chief executive officer in the admin- 
 istration of the system. His duties are to advise 
 with school officers and teachers in all matters 
 pertaining to education; to visit and inspect the 
 schools; to deliver addresses in the several towns 
 on subjects pertaining to the progress of the 
 schools; to arrange for and conduct teachers' in- 
 stitutes; to secure, as far as is desirable, a uni- 
 formity of text-books; to assist in the establish- 
 ment of school libraries; to draw orders on the 
 treasurer for the school moneys to which the 
 towns are entitled; and to make an annual report 
 to the board of education on the last Monday in 
 December of each year. He also decides disputes 
 and controversies arising in the administration 
 of the school laws: but, if requested, he must lay 
 a statement of the facts of the case before one 
 of the justices of the supreme court, whose de- 
 cision is final. — The trustees of the normal school 
 consist of the members of the board of education 
 and the commissioner of the public schools, and 
 have the control, management, and general super- 
 vision of the normal school. They also examine 
 candidates for teachers' licenses, and give certifi- 
 cates to such as are found qualified. — School com- 
 mittees, each composed of not less than three 
 members, are elected in the towns for the term 
 of three years, one retiring annually. Their duties 
 are to meet for consultation at least four times a 
 year, to fix the boundaries of school-districts, to 
 locate school-houses, to examine and license ap- 
 plicants to teach, and to revoke licenses when 
 necessary; to visit, by one or more of their num- 
 ber, every public school in the town at least 
 twice during each term, to make rules for the 
 management and instruction of the schools, and 
 to draw all orders for the payment of the school 
 moneys. They are at all times subject to the 
 supervision of the commissioner. In towns under 
 the district system, the trustees have the care of 
 the district-school property, and make contracts 
 
 
733 
 
 RHODE ISLAND 
 
 with teachers; while the school committee exer- 
 cises all other authority over the schools. School 
 superintendents, elected by the voters of the 
 towns, or, upon their failure to do so, by the 
 school committees, perform such duties and ex- 
 ercise such powers as may be assigned to them 
 by the school committees. District trustees, one 
 or three for each district, as the latter may de- 
 cide, are annually elected by the voters of the 
 districts, but receive no compensation unless the 
 district vote to levy a special tax for that pur- 
 pose. They have the custody of the school prop- 
 erty, and employ the teachers; and they are re- 
 quired to visit the schools twice each term, and 
 to report to the school committee. — District 
 clerks, one for each district, are elected by the 
 voters of the district to keep the records of all 
 meetings in the district, and of the boundaries of 
 the school-districts. — District treasurers keep 
 the school moneys, pay it out on proper orders, 
 etc.; and district collectors are appointed to col- 
 lect the taxes levied in the district for the sup- 
 port of schools. — The permanent school /tout of 
 the state, in L875, amounted to $265,142.51, 
 only the income of which may be appropriated 
 to public schools. The mm mil fund for distri- 
 bution among the schools, arising from state and 
 local taxation, interest on permanent fund, and 
 other sources, amounted to $761,796.92. The 
 state appropriates annually $90,000 for the sup- 
 port of public schools — §63,000 to the several 
 towns in proportion to the number of children 
 under the age of 15; and $27,000 according to 
 the number of school-districts in each town. The 
 money thus appropriated — called teachers' money 
 — can be used only for the payment of teachers' 
 salaries. No town can receive any part of such 
 state appropriation, unless it raise bytax, for the 
 support of schools, an amount equal to what it is 
 entitled to receive from the state. There is also a 
 special state appropriation tor evening schools — 
 Every district is required to maintain a school; 
 and. if it neglect for seven months to open one. 
 the town committee may establish a school, and 
 
 employ a teacher. Two or more districts may 
 unite to maintain a school for older children. — 
 No minor under L5 years of age may be employed, 
 under a penally of $20, in any manufacturing 
 establishment, unless he lias attended school at 
 leasi three months during the preceding year. 
 nor may any such minor be employed for more 
 than nine months in any year. Towns may 
 enact truant laws. 
 
 Educational Condition. — The number of pub- 
 lic day schools in the state, in L875, was 7,'iT (grad- 
 ed, 436; ungraded, 301 ); <>f evening schools, 39; 
 ami the number of school-houses, 426, the esti- 
 mated value of which was $2,360,017. The receipts 
 for the support of the schools were as follows: 
 Prom state appropriation for 
 
 ■ lav schools $110,000.00 
 
 I i Btate appropriation for 
 
 evening schools 2,495.00 
 
 From town appropriations. 666,766.14 
 
 " district taxes 47,626.43 
 
 " other sources 54.010.35 
 
 Total. J761.796.92 
 
 The expenditures for the same year were as- 
 follows : 
 
 Forteach.ers'salarie6,dayschools $383,284.14 
 " " " evening " .0.50 
 
 " Bites, bnildingB, and furniture 274,320.41 
 
 " school supervision 11,081.02 
 
 " other purposes 80,001.07 
 
 Total $764,643.74 
 
 The school statistics, for the year ending April 
 30., 1875, are the following: 
 
 No. of children of school age (4—10) 53,:;ii; 
 
 " " different pupils enrolled in day schools. 38,5 I 
 
 Average number belonging ." 30,102 
 
 Average daily attendance 26,163 
 
 Number enrolled in evening schools 4,600 
 
 Average attendance " " 2,256 
 
 Number of teachers employed, males. . . . 196 
 " " " " female s .. .861 
 
 Total 1,056 
 
 Average monthly salary of teachers, males $85.1* 
 
 " " " females. . $46.17 
 Average length of school term 0.38 mo. 
 
 In the following cities and towns, the town 
 system of school management has been adopted 
 wholly or in part: Providence. Bristol, fcasl 
 Providence, Newport, Warren, Woonsocket, 
 Pawtucket, Barrington, and North Providence. 
 — The commissioner's annual report for 1875 
 gives the following brief summary of what is 
 now attempted in the public elementary schools: 
 ■An examination of our schools shows that read- 
 ing, spelling, penmanship, arithmetic (mental and 
 written), and geography are taught in all the 
 Bchoole of the state of an intermediate and gram- 
 mar grade. United States history and Knglish 
 grammar are taught in most of our grammar 
 schools. Vocal music is practiced in many of our 
 schools, and taught in a few, particularly in those i 
 of all grades in Providence and Newport. Draw- 
 ing is taught in the intermediate and gran, mar 
 grades of Providence and Newport. Sewing is 
 taught in a few of the schools in Providence." 
 
 Normal Instruction. — The Rhode Island State 
 Normal School, at Providence, from its opening, 
 September 1871, to January, 1876. gave instruc- 
 tion to "'-I pupils, of whom I>1 graduated from 
 the institution. While fitting teachers for schools 
 of a higher grade, it especially aims to prepare 
 for teaching elementary schools— primary, inter- 
 mediate, and grammar. The whole number of 
 pupils taught, during the year 1875, was 159. 
 Three teachers' institutes were held under the 
 direction of the state commissioner. 
 
 Secondary Instruction- There are 13 cities 
 and towns which have separate high schools, or 
 
 scl Is «>f that grade, either public or private, as 
 
 follows: Providence, Newport. \Y isocket, 
 
 Pawtucket, Bopkinton, Bristol, Warren, Wi 
 erly. Lincoln. East Greenwich, Barrington, Scit- 
 uate, and Easl Providence. In his report for 
 L 875, the commissioner remarks: '-In the high 
 schools, we find the pupils pursuing the studies 
 of natural philosophy, chemistry, astronomy, 
 botany, algebra, trigonometry, book-keeping, 
 
 general history, mental and moral philosophy, 
 
 English Literature, and Latin and Greek." 'Mine 
 
 private academies and seminaries reported to the 
 
 U.S. Bureau of Education, in 1875, a total of 
 
RHODE ISLAND 
 
 RICHTER 
 
 739 
 
 269 students, of whom 130 were pursuing a clas- 
 sical course; 4b\ a course in modern languages; 
 and 32 were preparing for college. The whole 
 number of teachers employed in these schools 
 was 18. The University Grammar School, at 
 Providence, is the oldest institution of learning 
 in the state, its foundation dating back to 1764. 
 It was the germ of Brown University, under 
 whose control it still is, and for which it has 
 prepared nearly 300 students. The East Green- 
 wich Academy is connected with Boston Uni- 
 versity. The Friends' Academy, Mowry and 
 Goff's English and classical school, and Dr. Stock- 
 bridge's school for young ladies, all in Providence, 
 are schools of high repute for efficiency. It 
 should also be mentioned that the Rogers High 
 School, in Newport, partakes, in some respects, 
 of the nature of an academy, having been based, 
 in its present form, upon the bequest of $100,0(10 
 to the city of Newport, to be used, under certain 
 conditions, for the establishment of a high school. 
 Four schools in the state for the preparation of 
 students for college, in 1875, reported 33 teach- 
 ers and 465 pupils. Two business colleges reported 
 to the U. S. Bureau 19 teachers and 605 pupils 
 — 405 day scholars and 200 evening scholars. 
 
 Superior Instruction. — This grade of education 
 is represented by Brown University (q. v.) , first 
 established at Warren, but, in 1770, removed to 
 Providence. This institution contains an agricult- 
 ural and scientific department. 
 
 Special Instruction. — -The only institution of 
 this character in the state is the Reform School, 
 at Providence, in which both boys and girls are 
 well cared for, being provided with the means 
 for acquiring a common-school education, and 
 trained in habits of neatness, order, and industry. 
 In 1875, the whole number of inmates was 197, 
 — boys, 162; girls, 35. 
 
 Teachers' Associations. — The Rhode Island 
 Institute of Instruction held its thirtieth annual 
 session at Providence, in January, 1875. This 
 association, during its long career, has numbered 
 among its members the most distinguished edu- 
 cators of the state, and has exerted a most im- 
 portant influence upon the progress of every de- 
 partment of education. 
 
 Educational Journals. — The first educational 
 journal published in the state was the Journal 
 of the Rhode Island Institute of Instruction. 
 which was continued about three years, till 1849. 
 Under the administration of commissioner Pot- 
 ter, the Rhode Island Educational Magazine 
 was commenced, and continued for two years. In 
 1855, the Rhode Island Schoolmaster was first is- 
 sued, and continued to be published for twenty 
 years, being merged, in 1875, in the New England 
 Journal of Education, now published in Boston, 
 under the editorship of T. W. Bicknell. 
 
 For fuller information in regard to the educa- 
 tional history of this state, see the Centennial 
 Volume, A History of Public Education in 
 Rhode Island from 1636 to 1876, compiled by 
 authority of the Board of Education, and edited 
 by Thomas B. Stockwell. Commissioner of Public 
 Schools (Providence, 1876). This volume includes 
 
 j A History of the Public School System of Rhode 
 Island, by Thomas Wentworth niuginson. 
 
 RICHARDSON, Charles, an English lexi- 
 cographer, born in July. 17,."' : died at l'Vliham, 
 Middlesex, Oct. 6.. 1865. Little is recorded of 
 his early life or education. After some Btudy of 
 the literature of the law. he turned his attention 
 to philology, which was always afterwards the 
 business of his life. His principal works are: 
 Illustrations of English Philology (London, 
 L815); New Dictionary of the English Langm 
 1 1 837); and On the Study of Language s 1 1 35 1 1. 
 It is on his dictionary that his fame principally 
 rests. Its publication was begun in 1835, and 
 finished in 1K!7; but its preparation was the 
 labor of 20 years. Though now superseded in 
 great measure by the larger works of AVorces- 
 ter and Webster, its reception at the time of 
 its publication was remarkably cordial ; and crit- 
 ical notices, almost without exception, mentioned 
 it with praise. (See Dictionary.) 
 
 RICHMOND COLLEGE, at Richmond, 
 Va., under Baptist control, was founded in 
 1844. It is supported by tuition fees and the 
 income of an endowment of $100,000. The value 
 of its buildings and grounds is 8150,000. Its 
 libraries contain about 6,000 volumes. The col- 
 lege is composed of eight independent schools ; 
 namely, of Latin, Greek, modern languages. En- 
 glish, mathematics, physics, chemistry, and philos- 
 ophy. The students are free to choose any of 
 these schools, but everyone is required to attend 
 at least three. The following degrees are con- 
 ferred, according to the number and character of 
 the schools attended : B. L., B. S., A. B., and 
 A. M. The tuition fee varies from $50 per an- 
 num upward, according to the number of schools 
 attended. In 1875 — 6, there were 7 instructors 
 and 150 students. The presidents have been as 
 follows: the Rev. R. Ryland, D. D., 1844—66; 
 the Rev. Tiberius G. Jones, D. D., 1866—9 ; 
 and B. Puryear, A. M. (chairman of the faculty), 
 from 1869 to the present time (1876). 
 
 RICHTER, Johann Paul Friedrich, an 
 illustrious German author, popularly known as 
 Jean Paul, born in Wunsiedel, Bavaria. March 
 21., 1763; died in Baireuth, November 1-1., 1825. 
 He was educated at the university of Leipsic, 
 and, after leaving it, passed ten years of his 
 life as a private tutor, his condition, during 
 much of that time, being one of extreme 
 poverty. While occupied as a teacher, he 
 wrote several works: but, lor a long time, 
 was unsuccessful in finding a publisher, and was 
 still longer in finding readers, the extravagance 
 and oddity of his thought and style baffling 
 popular comprehension, and depriving his genius 
 
 I of that recognition which it afterwards secured. 
 The turning-point in his fortunes came at last, 
 however : and. from 1793 to 1 798, he published 
 several of his best works, which rapidly raised 
 him to a position among the most celebrated 
 authors of his day. I lis views on education are 
 embodied chiefly in his Levana, oder Erzieh- 
 lehre, published in Brunswick, in 1807, and in 
 Stuttgart, in 1861 ; an English translation of 
 
740 
 
 EITMiK VILLK COLLEGE 
 
 ROM AX CATHOLIC CHURCH 
 
 which was issued in Boston, in 1863. Jt is 
 characterized by just and profound views ex- 
 pressed in striking language; and many of its 
 aphoristic sayings have long since passed un- 
 questioned into the literature of education. 
 
 RIDGEVILLE COLLEGE, in Ridgeville, 
 Lid., under the patronage of the Freewill Bap- 
 tist denomination, was founded in 1867, for the 
 education of both sexes. It is supported by the 
 income of a small endowment and by tuition 
 fees, varying from §1H to $30 a year. It pro- 
 vides the following courses: classical, scientific, 
 practical (of .'! years, intended to be equivalent to 
 an ordinary high-school course), classical prepar- 
 atory, and a general preparatory course. In 
 L875 — 6, there were 5 instructors and 112 stu- 
 dents: classical, 1; scientific, 11: practical course, 
 5; classical preparatory. 1 ; general preparatory, 
 85; in instrumental music, 6. The Rev. Samuel 
 J>. Bates, A. .M., is (i876) the president. 
 
 RIPON COLLEGE, at Ripon, Wis., was 
 founded in 1851, and organized as a college in 
 ! 363. It is non-sectarian. It has an endowment of 
 about $50,000, a library of over 3,800 volumes, a 
 cabinet of minerals, and chemical and physical 
 apparatus. The regular tuition fees vary from 
 ■r J 1 to $24 a year. There is a collegiate de- 
 partment (with a classical as itific course), 
 a preparatory, and a musical department. Both 
 sexes are admitted. In 1875 — 6, there were 13 
 instructors, and 358 students (165 male and 193 
 female), of whom (i!) were of collegiate grade. 
 211 preparatory, and -15 were studying music 
 only. The Rev. William B. .Merriman. D. !>.. wai 
 president of the college from 18G3 to 1876, 
 when he was succeeded by the Rev. Edward II. 
 Merrell, A. M. 
 
 ROANOKE COLLEGE, at Salem, Ya.. 
 founded in 1852, is under the patronage of the 
 Lutheran Church, though not by its charter de- 
 nominational. It derives its support from the 
 Ices of students ($50 a year). The college 
 has a library of 1.4,000 volumes, extensive chem- 
 ical and philosophical apparatus, a mineral 
 cabinet containing over 1 1 ,000 specimens, and a 
 museum of curiosities. There is a collegiate, a 
 normal, and a preparatory department, besides a 
 select course designed to afford a good business 
 education. In 1ST.") — (J, there were 7 instructors 
 aud 171 students (93 collegiate, 3] select, and 47 
 preparatory). The Bev. D. F. Little. I>. I>.. ha, 
 been the president from the opening of the 
 college. 
 
 ROCHESTER, University of, at Roches 
 ter, N. V., under Baptisi control, was founded 
 in 1850. It is supported by tuition fees and 
 
 the income of an endowment of $212,000. Its 
 unproductive property (land, buildings, etc 
 valued at $378,662. It bas extensive collections 
 in geology and mineralogy, and a library of 
 
 L2,500 volumes. The cost of tuition is $75 a 
 year; but then; are fifty scholarships affording 
 
 tree tuition. The university has a classical and 
 a BCientific course, each of four years, leading 
 
 respectively to the degrees of A. B. and L. s. 
 
 Eclectic courses are provided for those not can- 
 
 didates for a degree. In 1876 — 7, there were 8 
 professors and 163 students. Martin Brewer 
 Anderson, LL. !>., elected in 1853, lias been the 
 only president. 
 
 ROCK HILL COLLEGE, a Roman Catho- 
 lic institution at Ellicott City, Md., under the 
 direction of the Christian brothers, was organ- 
 ized in 1857, and chartered in 18G5. It has a 
 geological and mineralogies] cabinet, containing 
 about 1,000 specimens; a herbarium, containing 
 about -,5oii specimens ; and a library of 6,500 
 volumes. The cost of tuition, board, etc., is $200 
 a year; of tuition alone, §80. The college 
 comprises a preparatory and a collegiate depart- 
 ment, the latter having a commercial course 
 (2 years), a scientific course (4 years), and a 
 (dassieal course (4 years). In 1875 — 6, there were 
 '_".' professors and other instructors and 165 stu- 
 dents (137 preparatory and 28 collegiate). The 
 presidents have been as follows: Bro. Aphraau b, 
 Bro. Tobias, Bro. Lucian, and Bro. Bettelin (for 
 the last 1 2 years). 
 
 ROD. See Corporai, Punishment. 
 
 ROMAN CATHOLIC CHURCH is the 
 name popularly given to the body of Christians 
 who are in communion with the bishopof Rome 
 and recognize him as their spiritual head. The 
 Roman Catholic Church is by far the n 
 numerous division of Christendom. The follow- 
 ing table gives an estimate of the proportion, at 
 present (1877), of Roman Catholics to the Prot- 
 estants and to the total population of the world: 
 
 
 Total 
 population 
 
 Roman 
 Catholioa 
 
 Protestants 
 
 
 86,520,900 47,200,000 
 
 909,180, 147,300, i 
 
 826,560,000 1,700,000 
 
 199,'.>20,000 1.1 in 
 
 30.000.000 
 
 
 Tl.sOO.OOO 
 
 Asia 
 
 1,800, 
 
 1.200,000 
 
 Australia aud Poly- 
 
 4,750,000 
 
 000,000 
 
 2,000,000 
 
 
 
 Total 
 
 1,423,920,000 
 
 •Jt iii. '.100,000 
 
 100,800,000 
 
 It will lie si •en. from this table, that the Roman 
 
 Catholic Church embraces a majority of the total 
 population of America, and nearly one half of 
 that of Europe; and that it exceeds the Prot- 
 estanl population in Asia, but is exceeded by 
 it in Africa, and in Australia and Polynesia. 
 France, Italy, Spain. Portugal. Belgium, the 
 larger portion of Austria and Ireland. the Polish 
 districts of Germany and Russia, a number of 
 Swiss cantons, all the states of South and Cen- 
 tral America and Mexico, arc almost wholly in- 
 habited by Roman Catholics.-- From the down- 
 fall of the Western Roman empire toward the 
 close of the Mh century, down to the 16th, the 
 
 progress of education in all the western states 
 of Europe was chiefly controlled by the Catholic 
 
 I lunch, for a I Dg time, the schools of the IVnc- 
 dictines, the convent, and the cathedral and eol- 
 itc schools, all of which were not only found- 
 ed, hut exclusively conducted, bj priests, were 
 the only institutions to which the rising genera- 
 tion of the new European states were indebted 
 for their education. Charlemagne was the first 
 monarch who conceived the idea of org anizin g 
 a system of popular education; but be WSJ 
 
ROMAN CATHOLIC CHURCH 
 
 i4] 
 
 far from anticipating any conflict of jurisdiction 
 between state and church that he spent his ener- 
 gies chiefly in urging the ecclesiastical author- 
 ities to establish a larger number of schools, all 
 of which remained under the exclusive man- 
 agement of the church. The establishment of 
 town and burgher schools, which assumed large 
 dimensions after the 12th century, and. later, 
 the rise of the universities, marks the beginning 
 of the organization of schools which, though they 
 had to conform their teaching strictly to the 
 creed of the church, were partly or wholly man- 
 aged by boards not exclusively consisting of 
 church functionaries. The separation of a large 
 portion of Europe from the Catholic Church, at 
 the beginning of the 16th century, led, on the 
 one hand, to the establishment of Lutheran and 
 Reformed, and later of Congregational, Baptist, 
 and other denominational schools, and, on the 
 other hand, caused even the government in Cath- 
 olic countries, to take a more direct part in edu- 
 cational matters. The Jesuits hoped, by means 
 of superior schools, to preserve the Catholic 
 Church from further losses and to recover the 
 lost ground; and the extraordinary efforts made 
 by them in this direction, led to the establish- 
 ment of numerous colleges which excited the 
 admiration of many patrons of education, even 
 among Protestants, and which occupy a con- 
 spicuous place in the annals of education. The 
 laurels won by the Jesuits as educators, proved 
 a spur for the other religious orders of this 
 Church; and not only did the Benedictines, Pia- 
 rists, and other orders, vie with the Jesuits in 
 the establishment of learned institutions, but a 
 large number of orders and congregations spe- 
 cially devoted to teaching arose, which, from that 
 time until the present day, have constituted a 
 very large proportion of the instructors of Cath- 
 olic schools of all grades. — In the course of the 
 1 8th century, the government in many countries 
 began to look upon the general introduction and 
 organization of popular education, as a state 
 affair of the highest importance. Special state 
 boards were intrusted with the care of schools ; 
 seminaries for the training of teachers were estab- 
 lished; and, from a thorough conviction of the 
 necessity of elementary education, many of the 
 European states adopted the policy of making 
 the instruction of all the children in the state 
 obligatory. As religion formed an essential 
 part of the course of instruction in every coun- 
 try, the government generally endeavored to 
 sjcure the co-operation of the church author- 
 ities in the management of the elementary 
 schools. In some cases, severe conflicts arose, 
 S3 in Austria during the reign of the emperor 
 •Joseph II.. against whose educational reforms 
 the Catholic Church entered an earnest protest : 
 but, as a general rule, the co-operation of the 
 church authorities in the instruction and man- 
 agement of the state schools was secured. During 
 the 19th century, the government of nearly 
 every European country has endeavored, more 
 and more, to centralize in its own hands the 
 direction of schools of every kind ; and though, 
 
 in most states, Protestant as well as Catholic, 
 
 the authorities of the Catholic Church have 
 been invited to co-operate in the governmenl 
 and inspection of the elementary schools, the 
 
 state governments have reserved to themselves 
 
 the supreme righl of legislation. The prog 
 ress of tin's legislation has led to numerous con- 
 flicts between the governments and the Cath- 
 olic Church. The articles iii this work on th( 
 important countries of Europe furnish numeroui 
 details of these conflicts, as well as of the com- 
 promises by which many of them have been 
 ended. The general tendency in Europe ap- 
 pears, however, at this time (1876) to he rather 
 toward a widening than a narrowing of the con- 
 flict ; since the legislatures in most states. ( ath- 
 olic as well as Protestant, arc unwilling to con- 
 cede to the Church that extensive control over 
 the schools supported by the state, which she 
 claims as belonging to her by divine right. No- 
 where has the conflict between the state and the. 
 Catholic Church assumed such proportions as in 
 Germany, and especially in Prussia. (See Pale, 
 and Germany.) In but few states, in recent 
 times, has so full an understanding between the 
 two powers been arrived at as in Austria, which, 
 by its concordat of 1855, conceded the most im- 
 portant demands of the Church. The majority 
 of the Reichsrath, however, viewed the conces- 
 sions thus made as derogatory to the rights of 
 the state : and, in 1869, a new school law was 
 passed which did not meet with the approval of 
 the Catholic bishops. — In the Syllabus of ///<■ 
 Principal Errors of our Time, which I 'ope 
 Pius IX., in his Encyclical Letter of Dec. 8., 
 1867, communicated to all the Catholic bishops 
 of the world, the following theories are stigma- 
 tized as contrary to the teaching of the Catholic 
 Church: "(45) The entire direction of public 
 schools, in which the youth of the ( 'hristian 
 states are educated, except (to a certain extent i 
 in the case of episcopal seminaries, may and 
 must appertain to the civil power, and belong 
 to it so far, that no other authority whatever 
 shall be recognized as having any right to inter- 
 fere in the discipline of the schools, the arrange- 
 ments of the studies, the taking of degrees, or 
 the choice or approval of the teachers. (46) Mu( li 
 more, even in clerical seminaries, is the course 
 of study to be adopted subject to the civil 
 authority. (47) The best theory of civil society 
 requires, that public schools, open to the chil- 
 dren of all classes, and. generally, all public in- 
 stitutions intended for instruction in letters and 
 philosophy, and for conducting the education of 
 the young, should be freed from all ecclesias- 
 tical authority, government, or interference, and 
 should be fully subject to the civil and political 
 power, in conformity with the will of the rulers 
 and the prevalent opinions of the age. (48) This 
 system of instructing youth, which consists in 
 separating them from the Catholic faith, and 
 from the power of the church, and teaching ex- 
 clusively, or at least primarily, the knowledge of 
 natural things and the earthly ends of social life. 
 alone may be approved by Catholics." 
 
742 
 
 ROMAN CATHOLIC CHURCH 
 
 En opposition to the theories stigmatized in the 
 papal syllabus as the fundamental errors of our 
 time, the Catholic bishops in all countries ad- 
 here to the following principles. Catholic youth, 
 in schools of all grades, from the primary 
 school to the university, should be brought up in 
 conformity with the teaching of the < 'atholic 
 Church. The Church should not be hindered 
 in establishing free schools of all gi'ades. When 
 a state government organizes a system of public 
 instruction, separate schools for Catholic youth 
 should be established; and, in the Catholic 
 schools, the Catholic Church should concur in 
 the management and superintendence, in order 
 to exclude or keep off all influences not in full 
 accordance with the Catholic religion; and the 
 religious instruction and education of the pupils 
 sh add be placed under her control. As the 
 school regulations relate chiefly to the primary 
 schools, the negotiations between state govern- 
 ments and the < 'atholic ( Ihurch aiming to bring 
 about an amicable cooperation in the manage- 
 ment of the schools, concern chiefly schools of 
 that grade. In many countries, a co-operation of 
 this kind exists; although, in but few countries 
 lias a perfect and lasting understanding, as in 
 Belgium, been attained. (For information on 
 this subject, the reader is referred to the articles 
 on the several large countries.) Where the < Ihurch 
 has found it impossible to secure the establish- 
 ment by the state of separate schools for Catholic 
 children, it has endeavored to supply the want 
 by opening five parochial schools. (See Denomina- 
 tional Schools.) 
 
 As the establishment, of colleges, gymnasia, 
 academies, and other institutions of tikis grade 
 by the state is far from being so general as that of 
 primary schools, the attention of the Church, in 
 this field, has been less directed to a co-opera- 
 tion with the state authorities than to the estab- 
 lishment of free secondary schools. Among the 
 Catholic schools of this class, the colleges of 
 the Jesuits occupy the first rank. (See JESUITS.) 
 Numerous colleges and academies are also con- 
 ducted by other religious orders: and the higher 
 c lucation, especially of ( atholic girls, i in many 
 countries, to a great extent, carried on in con- 
 vent schools, many of which have also a con- 
 si lerable number of Protestant pupils. 
 Catholic Directory of England for L877, men- 
 tions 22 Roman Catholic colleges in England, 
 
 ami 1 in Scotland which prepare their students 
 
 for (lie universities and public examinations. 
 So of them are affiliated to the London 
 
 Universities. There are (i English or Scotch 
 
 Catholic colleges on the continent of Europe. 
 
 In Ireland, the bishops made a vigorous opposi- 
 tion to the establishment by the government of 
 undenominational queen's colleges. There were. 
 in l^Tti. five Catholic colleges, affiliated with 
 the Catholic university of Dublin, at Clonliffe, 
 Tuam. Clane, Armagh, Carlow, Athlone, Tulhv 
 nioiv. Thurles, Castleknock, Kilkenny. Fermoy, 
 Longford, and Ennis. In the United Sta 
 there were, in L 875, according to the Report of 
 the Commissioner of Education, 52 chartered 
 
 ( 'atholic colleges or universities, situated in the 
 following states and territories: Alabama, 1; 
 California."): Illinois. 4; Indiana, 3; Kansas, 1; 
 Kentucky, 2: Louisiana, 2: Maryland, 3; Mas- 
 sachusetts. 2: Minnesota. 1 : Mississippi, 1; Mis- 
 souri, 1: New Jersey, 1; New York. 7; Ohio. 2: 
 Pennsylvania, ~<: Tennessee.]; Texas. 2; Wis- 
 consin, 2; District of Columbia, 2; Washington 
 Territory. 1. 
 
 The Church lias now but little influence upon 
 the great universities of Europe, which, in the 
 middle ages, were almost entnely under her 
 control. '1 he faculties of < 'atholic theology, have, 
 however, remained so far under her direction that 
 the bishops may forbid the attendance of the 
 students at any lectures which appear unsound 
 in faith. The total abolition of the theological 
 faculties in Italy and Spain, which may ere long 
 be imitated in other countries, indicated a tend- 
 ency to disconnect still more the university from 
 the Church. In order to afford to Catholic stu- 
 dents, in high schools purely Catholic the same 
 facilities for study which are afforded by the 
 state universities, the < 'atholic ( Ihurch, in several 
 of the countries of Europe, has begun to estab- 
 lish free Catholic universities. The lead in this 
 movement was taken by the bishops of Belgium, 
 who founded, in L 835, the university of I.ouvaim. 
 Following their example, the Irish bishops 
 founded, in L854, the * 'atholic University of 
 Dublin; ami the English bishops, in 1875, the 
 Catholic University College, at Kensington. A 
 grand movement of this kind has taken place in 
 Prance, where, up to the close of h s ~<i, three 
 Catholic universities had been organized. The 
 I lominion of < 'anada possesses a similar institu- 
 tion in the University of Laval, at Quebec. 
 
 In addition to the theological faculties of the 
 universities, there are schools of theology con- 
 nected with most of the episcopal sees. More- 
 over, every male religious order supports schools 
 of theology for its own members. (For a fuller 
 account of these institutions, see Theological 
 Schools.) The Council of Trent enjoined upon 
 all bishops to establish special preparatory 
 schools lor such boys as intended to devote 
 themselves to the study of theology. In many 
 countries, these seminaria puerorum (boys' 
 seminaries) are in successful operation, and 
 educate almost the entire clergy; in others. 
 are almost unknown. In addition to (he 
 priests' and boys' seminaries, the ('atholic 
 Church possesses a number of missionary schools, 
 for educating Catholic missionaries for pagan 
 and non-Catholic countries. The most famous 
 of these is the College of the Propaganda [Col- 
 legium de propaganda fide), in Rome. During 
 the present century, a number of other missionary 
 colleges have been founded, as All 1 1 allows, near 
 
 Dublin, and St. Joseph's College, of the Sacred 
 Heart, for Foreign Missions, in England. 'I he 
 
 missionaries, in their turn, have established, in 
 connection with their missions, a large number 
 of colleges and schools, in pagan and uncivilized 
 countries, many of which nave gained, to a high 
 degree, the confidence of the native population 
 
ROMAN CATHOLIC CIU'RCII 
 
 ROMANIC LANGUAGES 743 
 
 
 and the admiration of tourists. — In England, 
 tin- United States, and Belgium, tin Catholic 
 Church has established a number <>t' teachers' 
 seminaries, independent of all state control; 
 while, in other countries, as in Germany, the 
 state concedes to the Catholic Church some de- 
 gree of co-operation in the control of Catholic 
 institutions of this class. In the schools which 
 ai>! under the absolute control of the Church, a 
 very large proportion of the teachers are mem- 
 bers of religious orders. The educational efforts 
 of the Benedictines, Hieronymians, Jesuits, and 
 Piarists have already been referred to. When 
 the organization of elementary schools, in all the 
 ci immunities of civilized countries, assumed larger 
 dimensions, La Salle (1679) founded the first 
 organization of school brothers, called the 
 Brethren of the Christian Schools. (See La 
 Salle.) None of this order are allowed to en- 
 ter the priesthood, or to hold any ecclesiastical 
 •office ; but they bind themselves by a vow to 
 devote themselves wholly to instruction, which 
 is to be gratuitous, and conducted according to 
 the method prescribed by the authorities of tin' 
 congregation. How rapidly this congregation 
 has grown, may be inferred from the fact that, 
 while, at the death of the founder (1719), the 
 congregation had 27 houses, 274 brethren, 122 
 classes, and 9.885 pupils, in 1869, it had 1,117 
 houses, 9,930 brethren, 7,435 classes, and 395,458 
 pupils. In the United States, 323 brethren gave 
 instruction to about 15,000 pupils. The congre- 
 gation of La Salle was followed by a number of 
 similar congregations, most of which have houses 
 in the United States. The majority of these con- 
 gregations arose like the Brethren of the Chris- 
 tian Schools in France. As the school regula- 
 tions drawn up by La Salle provide that at least 
 two brethren must be sent to any locality in 
 which there is a desire to intrust to them the 
 -elementary schools, many small places were un- 
 able to obtain their services. For the purpose of 
 providing schools for such places, Abbe Jean de 
 la Mennais founded, in 1820. in Brittany, a con- 
 gregation which, in 1822, was sanctioned by the 
 French government under the name of the Con- 
 gregation of Christian Instruction. The Supreme 
 Council of Instruction authorizes every member 
 who holds a certificate from the Superior < feneral 
 of the congregation, to give instruction. The 
 congregation, in 1875, had 150 houses, with about 
 800 members. The chief seat of the congrega- 
 tion is at Ploermel, in Brittany. — In Belgium, the 
 congregation of Xaverian Brothers was founded 
 at Bruges, in 1839, by Theodore Sacques Ryken, 
 with the special view to establish ami conduct 
 schools in the United States. They had, in 1875, 
 several houses in Kentucky and .Maryland. — In 
 Ireland, the Rev. K. Rice, of Waterford, founded 
 the order of the School Brothers of Ireland, which 
 •closely resembles the Brethren of the < 'hristian 
 Schools, and which has spread from Ireland to 
 England, as well as to several of the English 
 colonies. The female congregations which devote 
 themselves to instruction are even more numer- 
 ous than those of the School Brothers. The 
 
 earliest, and still one of the largest, is that of the 
 Ursulines, which was founded, in the Kith cent- 
 ury, by Angela Merici, of Brescia (died L540, 
 canonized L 807), and the members of which, at 
 the beginning of the L 7th century, assumed, in 
 
 addition to the three usual monastic vows, n 
 fourth vow to instruct young girls gratuitously. 
 The Ursulines spread from France into many 
 countries of Europe and America, and. in L875, 
 had. in the United States, houses iii New York. 
 Ohio, Illinois. Georgia, Louisiana, Texas, Ken- 
 tucky, and .Missouri. The order of the Sisters of 
 Notre Dame, or the School Sisters of the Blessed 
 Pierre Fourier, was founded in France by Pierre 
 Fourier (q. v.), at the close of the L 6th century. 
 The largest number of their houses is still found 
 in France, but they have also spread to many 
 other countries, and were, in L875, represented 
 in nine states of the American Union. — The 
 Ladies of the Sacred 1 leart. an order founded in 
 France inl800,are chiefly devoted to the educa- 
 tion of young ladies. The growth of this order 
 has been very rapid, the number of its establish- 
 ments, in France, amounting, in 1875, to 42, and 
 in the United States, to 21. — In Canada, the 
 Cray Nuns, or Sisters of Charity, of Montreal, 
 an order founded in 1745, in 1875 had 21 houses 
 in the Dominion of Canada and the United 
 States ; and in these countries several other j 
 numerous congregations have been founded. 
 
 ROMANIC LANGUAGES, or Romance 
 Languages, the collective name of those mod- 
 ern languages which, after the downfall of the 
 Western Roman Empire, were gradually devel- 
 oped from the lingua Romana rustica, or vul- 
 gar Latin, by the admixture of German, Celtic, 
 and other idioms. The independent Romanic 
 languages are the Italian, Spanish, Portuguese, 
 Provencal, French, and Roumanian (also called 
 Wallachian or Daco-Roumanian). In the five 
 former, the language of the Germanic conquerors 
 of south-western Europe has left marked traces ; 
 while the Roumanian language has been con- 
 siderably influenced by Slavic tongues. The lan- 
 guage, called Roman sch, which is spoken in some 
 districts of the Swiss canton of Orisons and 
 the Tyrol, is not regarded by Diez as an in- 
 dependent Romanic language. The most im- 
 portant among the Romanic languages are the 
 French, the Spanish, and the Italian, the his- 
 tory and study of which are treated in special 
 articles of this work. The Comparative Gram- 
 mar, and the Etymological Dictionary, of the 
 Romanic languages, by Friedrich Diez. are not 
 only universally recognized as standard works 
 on the subject, but are esteemed by all linguists 
 as belonging to the classic productions of com- 
 parative philology. The derivation of the Ro- 
 manic languages from the Latin has been fully 
 treated by Fuchs [Die Romanischen Spracken 
 in ihrem VerhcO.tn.iss zum Lateinischen, Halle, 
 L845), and by Pott, in ETofer's Zeitschrift fix 
 Wissenschaft der Spracke, in Aufrecht's and 
 Kuhn's Zeitschrift fvx vergleichende Sprach- 
 forschung, and in the Zeitschrift fur die AHer- 
 ihums-wissenscha/t. 
 
744 
 
 ROME 
 
 HOME, the capital of the ancient world, was 
 founded, in 753 B. C, by the Latins, and was in- 
 tended a-s a border fortress of Latium, on the 
 Kiruscan march. But that border fortress grew, 
 step by step, to be the head of Latium, the head 
 of Italy, the head of the whole Mediterranean re- 
 gion, the mistress of the world. "It is in Rome", 
 says Freeman (Comparative Politics), "that all 
 the states of the earlier European world lose 
 themselves ; it is out of Rome that all the states 
 of the later European world take their being." 
 Rome gathered unto itself the traditions of all 
 that had ever been great and illustrious in the 
 human race. — Assyrian, Egyptian, Persian, He- 
 brew, Phoenician, Greek, Etruscan; and extended 
 its sway over the multitudinous western tribes 
 — Italian, Gallic, Iberian, and Teutonic, the latter 
 as yet only known as warriors. The civilization, 
 the arts and sciences, the laws and institutions, 
 the poetry and philosophy, the accumulated liter- 
 ary treasures of all past generations, were grad- 
 ually merged in Rome. Its history, then, is that 
 of the whole civilized world, down to the modern 
 period. And yet, the history of Roman educa- 
 tion is neither as interesting nor as valuable as 
 that of Greece. In the latter country, a love for 
 the esthetic predominated, the Greek taking a 
 peculiar delight in the beautiful ; but, with the 
 Roman, the practical prevailed, and the beautiful 
 was simply an esthetic amusement, lie was 
 harder, coarser, delighting more in power and 
 less in beauty, more in facts and less in specula- 
 tion, more in the real and less in the ideal. 
 Rome's chief object was conquest, extension of 
 power : and, hence, the education of her youth 
 aimed to fit them for citizenship and for war. — 
 Among the Latins and the Etruscans, though 
 they had teachers, as we learn from Livy, literary 
 training cannot have prevailed, as they were too 
 much animated by warlike zeal. The priests culti- 
 vated religious science, and the principal subject 
 of instruction was probably divination. In the 
 early days of the Republic, education was en- 
 tirely domestic ; and the amount of intellectual 
 culture was very scanty. Plutarch regarded it 
 as a deficiency in the Roman laws that they did 
 not, like those of the Spartans, prescribe a cer- 
 tain system of regulations for the education of 
 youth; but, in fact, the manners and customs 
 
 of the people replaced that want. For, first, edu- 
 cation was not regarded, as in Athens ami Sparta, 
 
 as a duty of the state ; and. secondly, woman 
 
 had a much higher place than in the Greek 
 
 tines. Lome honored her vestal virgins, and the 
 
 vil '■• was not. as in Greece, the servant, hut the 
 
 companion of her husband, and was revered by 
 
 him as the mother of his children. Maternal 
 duties were considered sacred : and the care- 
 ful nursing of infants, the needful occupations 
 in the household, and the imparting of the rudi- 
 ments of education, were regarded as the most 
 prominent points of womanly merit. Tin' so- 
 called patria potestas gave to each head of a fami- 
 ly an unlimited authority over all its members. 
 
 Otlt that tremendous power — which was felt 
 iuid acknowledged to lie a natural right — was 
 
 never abused. The father was regarded with 
 reverence and respect, though, probably, not al- 
 ways with very strong affection: for the Latin 
 word pii'hts. which expressed the feeling of the 
 dutiful child toward his parent, hardly implies 
 much of love. After boys had attained the 
 age when their mothers considered another 
 instructor desirable, tiny were placed under the 
 care of the pcedagogus. Frequently, these p(eda- 
 gogi were liberated slaves. Sometimes, however, 
 the father would himself assume this task. as. & 
 <•/.. ( 'icero and < ato ( 'ensorinus. who taught their 
 children to read and write. Cato also trained 
 his sons in gymnastics, the use of weapons, 
 boxing, horseback riding, and even swimming, 
 but never bathed with them, in order not to 
 offend their modesty. The boys were also taught 
 songs commemorating the courageous and heroic 
 deeds of their ancestry, ami were obliged to com- 
 mit to memory the laws of the 12 tallies. These 
 were the usual subjects of instruction. The boys 
 of wealthy parents had sometimes several poeda- 
 gogi. — The first schools in Rome were private, 
 and were located in public booths or shops; 
 hence, the name trivium. They were also char- 
 acteristically called //"//'.because their work was, 
 in distinction from other practice, regarded 
 simply as a recreation, or play. The first teach- 
 ers were not paid any fees, which were not 
 introduced until 201 15. < '. The boys were con- 
 ducted to these schools, which existed as carin- 
 as 449 L. < '., by capsarii, i. e., slaves who car- 
 ried the books, writing materials, etc. Vacations 
 occurred only during harvest time. The first 
 teacher was called tin' literator. He taught 
 reading and writing, proverbs, and arithmetic, 
 the latter being, on account of its usefulness, 
 more esteemed by the Romans than by the 
 ( i reeks. A second course devolved on the gram- 
 matista, who taught language, grammar, and com- 
 position. This work was completed by the rhetor 
 in a more skillful manner. It was necessary, in 
 order to be a well-educated Roman, to be a fin- 
 ished orator; and, therefore, very great stress was 
 laid on correctness and pureness of expression. 
 Mock-trials were of common occurrence, and at- 
 tendance at the Forum was regarded as an ob- 
 ligation. The most distinguished teachers were 
 either natives of the colonies or provinces, 
 or freedmen of (deck extraction. Resides re- 
 ceiving instruction at home, the youth not un- 
 frequently went to Athens, Rhodes, or Alex- 
 andria to complete their education. The first 
 favor bestowed by the government upon the 
 teachers was under Julius Caesar, who gave them 
 the right of citizenship; and Augustus added 
 exemption from all public duties and occupa- 
 tions. Luring his administration, several new 
 schools of high repute were established in the 
 provinces; among them, those of Mityleiie. Ma-- 
 
 silia (Marseilles), and Oorduba, to all of which 
 students Hocked in great numbers. To keep the 
 
 young men at Lome. Augustus gave FlacCUS 
 Catiline's house, and paid him a salary of 
 100,000 sesterces ($3,600), and, besides, gave 
 prizes to diligent scholars. Vespasian recognized 
 
ROTE-TEACHING 
 
 uorssK.u' 
 
 U5 
 
 the entire system of educational institutions as 
 an integral element in the organism of the state. 
 
 Existing schools, both elementary and higher, 
 were strengthened as far as seemed necessary, 
 and new facilities for instruction were added 
 to those already in use. The lirst school re- 
 sembling a college, called the Athenceum, was 
 founded, professors of Greek literature were ap- 
 pointed, and the course of study was extended, 
 after the Alexandrian model, to embrace the 
 circle of theories liberates — grammar, dialectics. 
 rhetoric, geometry, arithmetic, astronomy, mu- 
 sic — and drawing. Vespasian's successors, Had- 
 rian, the two Antonines, Marcus Aurelius. and 
 Alexander Severus — in a word, all the most vir- 
 tuous, and not a few of the most sanguinary anil 
 atrocious, among the Caesars, showed great zeal 
 in the promotion of learning, in all its various 
 forms, throughout the empire. The age of Mar- 
 cus Aurelius is especially distinguished for the 
 complete endowment of what may well be 
 called the University of Athens. This munifi- 
 cent liberality of the Roman Caesars was not 
 without many happy effects upon literature and 
 learning in the declining ages of the empire. 
 Thus Athens, e. g., became again the focus of 
 learned activity in an age which, marred as it was 
 by an increasing tendency to pedantry and affec- 
 tation, still succeeded in reviving some reminis- 
 cences of the nobler past, and exhibited what has 
 not inappropriately been described as the after 
 summer of Greek genius. — Among Roman edu- 
 cational theorists are M. Terentius Varro, "the 
 most learned man in Rome" (110 — 27 B. C), 
 and author of Capi/s. aid de liberis educandis ; 
 Cicero, who treats of education incidentally in 
 his De Officii*; Tacitus, in De Oratoribus, com- 
 monly attributed to him ; and Quintilian (40 — 
 118 A. D.), in the first book of his Institutio Ora- 
 torio,. — See Bernhardt, Grundriss der romi- 
 schen Literatur; Champ agny, Les Cesors, and 
 Les Ank»iines (Paris, 1871) ; Friedl.ender, 
 iSiltengeschichte Boms, vol. in. (4th ed., Leips., 
 1874), Teiffel. Hist, of Roman Literature 
 (Lond., 1873) ; Pfeiffer. Erziehung bei den 
 Griechen und Romern (Wien, 1857); History 
 of Education (N. Y.,1874). 
 
 ROTE-TEACHING, or Teaching by- 
 Rote (Fr. route, road, whence routine), a method 
 of giving instruction by means of constant repe- 
 tition, particularly of certain forms of speech, 
 with little or no attention to their meaning. 
 Hence, such teaching is often described as 
 mechanical, that is, impressing the memory 
 through the ear and the eye, but not exercising 
 the understanding. Rote-teaching may be re- 
 garded as an abuse of the principle of repetition. 
 [See Association, and Concert Teaching.) 
 
 ROUMANIA, a dependency of Turkey. 
 having an area of 46,710 sq. m., and a popula- 
 tion of 4,500,000, mostly Roumans, but com- 
 prising also 150,000 Jews and 200.000 gypsies. 
 About 90 per cent of the inhabitants belong to 
 the Greek Church. Roumania was formed, in 
 1859, by the union of the two principalities of 
 Moldavia and AVallachia. — Education in Rou- 
 
 mania is in a depressed state. Although the 
 school law of L864 makes attendance compulsory, 
 die schools have, nevertheless, very few pupils. 
 The higher classes of society have their children 
 instructed by private teachers ; and. in some cases, 
 scud them to Paris to finish their education. The 
 lower classes, on the other hand, do not generally 
 smmI their children to school: and, in many 
 places, no schools have been established. In L875, 
 Moldavia was reported to have only 15 public 
 elementary schools, besides a i'cw well-organized 
 private institutions, established by Armenians; 
 but, in \\ allachia. almost every community has 
 its elementary school. The total number of pu- 
 pils in Roumania, in 1875, was about 55,000; 
 while the number of teachers of all grades was 
 about 4,000. There are 8 seminaries for the 
 education of primary teachers. -Secondary in- 
 struction is afforded in gymnasia (of four classes), 
 of which one must be supported in every district 
 capital, in lyceums (of seven classes), and in real 
 schools. In 1872, there were 7 lyceums. 14 gym- 
 nasia, and 1 real school, with an aggregate of 
 0,002 pupils. There are 2 universities — in 
 Bucharest and Jassy. each having four faculties: 
 philosophy and literature, law, medicine, and 
 mathematics and natural science. Jassy, in 1872, 
 had 155 students and 51 professors; Bucharest, 
 416 students and 46 professors. The institutions 
 for scientific and professional instruction are 3 
 | agricultural schools, 7 industrial schools, 7 com- 
 mercial schools, 8 seminaries for Greek theology. 
 a Roman Catholic seminary for priests, in Jassy, 
 a school for engineering, a military school, in 
 Bucharest, two art schools, in Jassy and Bucha- 
 rest; and the central school of agriculture and 
 forestry, in Ferestren. Besides these schools, 
 there are several French and German private 
 colleges. — See Ghronik des Volksschidwesens, 
 (1875); Report of U. S. Commissioner of Edu- 
 cation for J S74. 
 
 ROUSSEAU, Jean Jacques, a celebrated 
 French author, born in Geneva, June 28., 1712; 
 died at Ermenonville, near Paris, July 2., 1778. 
 He calls for notice here chiefly from an educational 
 point of view. His father was a watch-maker, and 
 was of French origin, though his family had been 
 long settled in the city of Geneva. The boy was 
 of a visionary, restless disposition; and his sickly 
 habit soon led to his separation from other children 
 of his age, and developed in him a fondness for 
 works of fiction. After several years of wander- 
 ing and of desultory work, the latter consisting 
 of apprenticeships from which he invariably ran 
 away, a priest at Confignon, in Savoy, intro- 
 duced him to Mme. de AVarens. at Annecy, who 
 sent him to a charity-school in Turin. From this 
 place, also, he ran away, and again became a 
 wanderer. After another interval of adventure, he 
 returned for shelter, in 1729, to the roof of Mme. 
 de Warens, Avho sent him to a theological semi- 
 nary at Annecy, from which he was dismissed as 
 unfitted for the priesthood. Subsequently, he 
 accepted a position as tutor in a private family 
 in Lyons, where he remained two or three years, 
 and, in 1741, went to Paris. Here he became 
 
740 
 
 ROUSSKAU 
 
 intimate with Diderot, Grimm, D'Holbach, and 
 Mme. d'fipinay, the last of whom, in 1756, pro- 
 vided a retreat for him in the vicinity of Paris, 
 called the Hermitage. He maintained now for 
 many years, by musical and literary labor, a doubt- 
 ful struggle with adversity. In 1760, he published 
 Julie, ou La Nbuvelle HeldCse, which, by its 
 idealization of .Mine, dlloudctot. offended his 
 patroness .Mme. d'Epinay. and led to his retire- 
 ment from the Hermitage. The duke and duchess 
 of Luxembourg now received him, and induced 
 him to take up his residence at Montmorency, in 
 one of their chateaux. While there, he wrote 
 Emile, and the Control Social. The former was 
 condemned by the parliament, and he was obliged 
 to leave the country to escape arrest. He went 
 to Geneva, then to Bern, and finally to Xeuf- 
 chatel, where he was befriended by the governor. 
 Lord Keith. In L767, he returned to France; 
 and, after living in several places, settled again in 
 Paris, in L770. The hostility of the philosophers 
 and literary men of Paris, which he had incurred, 
 the persecution to which he had been subjected, 
 and the privations he had endured, had preyed 
 upon his health, which was now utterly broken. 
 In 1 ITS, he accepted the invitation of M. de Girar- 
 din to visit him at his country-seat at Ermenon- 
 ville. where he died. His fame, however, suffered 
 no diminution by his death, but steadily in- 
 creased. In 1 79 1. his remains were remove 1 to the 
 
 Pantheon at Paris, where a statue of him had 
 been erected; and. in 1815, the allied sovereigns 
 exempted Ermenonville from the payment of 
 
 war taxes, in honor of his memory. — The character 
 of Rousseau has been a puzzle to moralists. In 
 him, the affectionate, sensitive nature of the girl, 
 the subversive spirit of the communist, and the 
 shamelessness of the libertine, were united. His 
 writings have been the fruitful source of contro- 
 versy, the bitternessof which has been aggravated 
 by the errors of his life. The subtle beauty of 
 his style, which has always commanded for him 
 a place among the most illustrious of French 
 prose writers, has served to place in stronger 
 relief the radical and dangerous theories which it 
 served to introduce. The virulence with which 
 his writings were assailed during his life-Lime has 
 not yet ceased, after the lapse 01 more than, a 
 hundred years. 
 
 iluiii''. ou de V Education was published in 
 
 1762, and was the last product of the twelve 
 years of his literary activity, nothing of the first 
 
 importance being afterwards written by him, with 
 the exception of the Confessions. It appeared 
 at the time of the suppression of the Jesuits in 
 Prance, when education, therefore, was a general 
 theme; and nothing was more natural than that 
 
 Rousseau, from his own point of view, should join 
 in the discussion, and show how man. who in the 
 stateof nature was entirely good, might by educa- 
 tion be preserved from the prevailing degenera- 
 tion. We can give but the barest outline of the 
 work. The parent is warned that nothing can 
 compensate for the lack of his own time and at- 
 tention in his children's education, and is assured 
 that, should these be wanting, he will certainly 
 
 repent of this neglect in the bitterness of sorrow, 
 and never be comforted. Rut. in case a wealthy 
 parent should not have .sufficient time, he is 
 directed in the choice of a governor or tutor, to 
 one who should be the guide, philosopher, and 
 friend of young Emile from his tenderest years 
 to "the time of his marriage. Why this shadowy, 
 unreal personage should be set forth, as Emile 's 
 only source of instruction rather than his pari 
 ents — why the exceptional case, rather than the 
 general one. should be so fully worked out, can 
 he explained only by the fact that Rousseau neg- 
 lected so notably his own parental responsibil- 
 ities. — From his second to his twelfth year, Emile 
 is to live a life of healthy objectivity. There 
 are to be no books, no moral discussions. He is 
 not to be lectured or reasoned into submission. 
 but must learn to bow to a law of necessity: his 
 tutor must be firm with him. Punishment, also, 
 that it may not seem arbitrary, is to be such 
 only as naturally springs from his actions them- 
 ; elves. This period, therefore, is to be one of 
 physical development mainly, only such moral 
 notions being communicated as relate to the 
 pupil's actual state. If we wish to see Emile in 
 an English dress, we have but to turn to Harry 
 Clinton, in Henry Brooke's Fool of Quality 
 (1st ed.. 17G6; last edition by Charles Kings- 
 ley), or to Harry Sandford, in Sandford and 
 Merton | 1st ed.. L783). 
 
 From the age of 12 to that of 15, the notion 
 of utility plays an important part in Emile's 
 education. He is happy who keeps a due pro- 
 portion between his desires ami his powers. 
 I >esires may be for things necessary or unneces- 
 sary. Emile must, therefore, be accustomed to 
 limit his desires to real needs; and his education 
 must be such as will fit him. out of his own re- 
 sources, to satisfy these needs. He must now learn 
 geography, physics, and chemistry, but only so 
 far as he can be brought to see their utility, and, 
 therefore, to feel an interest in what he is doing. 
 He is to read Robinson Crusoe, that he may 
 learn to prefer the useful to the ornamental. He 
 must even learn a trade, such a one as Crusoe 
 found of most service on his desert island (namely, 
 that of a carpenter). — In the fourth book. Emile 
 learns to know his fellows, from whose contami- 
 nating influence he has hitherto been most care- 
 fully Ei jit. As a preparative to entering into 
 society, he reads Plutarch's Lives, and studies 
 history. Now. also, when he is between 15 and 
 20 years of age, does he, for the first time, hear of 
 God, and receive religious instruction. It is here 
 that the well-known profession of faith of the 
 Savoyard vicar is inserted. In connection with 
 Kmile's marriage, in the fifth book. Rousseau deals 
 with the education of woman. His view is briefly 
 this: that as woman exists only for man, her 
 education must be entirely relative to him. — 
 The groundwork of Emile is to be found in 
 Locke; hut Rousseau treated the subject with 
 such interest as to provide a powerful stimulus 
 for the educational workers of his time. J I is in- 
 fluence is distinctly seen in Basedow, Pestalozzi, 
 am! Etichter, in Germany; and in Richard Edge- 
 
RUSSIA 
 
 747 
 
 worth and Thomas Day, in England. — Mr. Morley 
 writes forcibly of two great deficiencies in Emile 's 
 education: Rousseau, who was himself not strong 
 on the intellectual side, as compared with the 
 emotional, has not in his scheme made any ade- 
 quate provision for thorough intellectual disci- 
 pline; and, by keeping Emile in seclusion until 
 he is on the verge of manhood, he has made it 
 impossible for "a passion for justice'' to develop 
 itself. The merit ol Entile, indeed, does not lie 
 in its being a body of incontestable doctrine on 
 education, but rather in its method, and in its 
 sympathetic observation of children's ways from 
 their earliest years. Any one who, like Thomas 
 Day, should follow the directions in Emile, could 
 not but be involved in ludicrous results (as may be 
 seen very notably by referring to the life of Day's 
 friend, Eilgeworth); whilst William Cobbett, an- 
 other reader of Rousseau, but one who mixed some 
 common sense with what he read, has left us, in 
 his Advice, a picture of family life and home edu- 
 cation which is truly charming. "Not Rousseau's 
 individual rules", says Eichter, in the preface to 
 his Levana, "many of which may be erroneous 
 without injury to the whole, but the spirit of 
 education which fills and animates the work, has 
 shaken to their foundations and purified all the 
 school rooms, and even the nurseries in Europe. 
 In no previous work on education, was the ideal 
 so richly and beautifully combined with actual 
 observation as in his." — M. Alphonse Esquiros 
 in his half-story, half-essay, entitled L 'Emile du 
 dix-neuvieme Steele (Paris, 1870), has followed 
 in Rousseau's track, and considered from a pres- 
 ent-day point of view the various problems in 
 education from infancy onwards. — See Rousseau's 
 Emile, particularly bks. i., n.,ni.; Morley's Life 
 of Rousseau, especially ch. xm. ; Jules Paroz, 
 Histoire Universelle de la Pedagogie (Paris, 
 1869); Quick, Educational Reformers; Girardin, 
 Rousseau, sa Vie el ses Ouvrages (Paris 1875). 
 
 RUSSIA, an empire in eastern P^urope and 
 northern and central Asia, having an area of 
 8,563,421 sq. m., and a population of 86,486,000. 
 The area of the Russian empire is inferior only 
 to that of the British empire ; while its con- 
 tinuous territory is larger than that of any other 
 nation in the world. More than two-thirds of 
 its population belong to the Greek Church ; but, 
 in the former kingdom of Poland, the Catholic 
 religion prevails ; and, in Finland and the Baltic 
 provinces, the Lutheran Church is predominant. 
 Mohammedanism is still the ruling religion in 
 the new possessions in central Asia, its adher- 
 ents numbering, in the entire empire, more than 
 7,000,000. The vast majority of the population 
 of Russia belong to the Slavic race, the chief 
 representatives of which are the Russians, com- 
 prising about 52,000,000. Of the other Slavic 
 tribes, the Poles, numbering about 5,000,000, are 
 the most numerous. 
 
 Educational History. — Until the beginning 
 of the 1 6th century, no schools appear to have 
 existed in Russia, except in a few convents. 
 Ivan III. called foreign artists and scientists into 
 the country ; but no progress of importance 
 
 could be made in education, because of the con- 
 tinual wars both foreign and intestine. Ivau IV. 
 established schools in the cities, and, in 1564, 
 founded the iirst Russian printing-office in Mos- 
 cow. In L588, the patriarch .Jeremiah established 
 a school in Kief, for instruction in reading and 
 in the service of the church, which was gradually 
 enlarged into the iirst theological academy. 
 With the accession of Peter the Great, a new 
 era began for education. He forbade any noble- 
 man to marry who did not possess a knowledge 
 of the elements of reading, writing, and arith- 
 metic, and established, in all the cities, arith- 
 metic schools, which imparted instruction in 
 reading, writing, arithmetic, and the elements of 
 geometry. Their original object was to prepare 
 young men for the service of the state ; and 
 hence they were almost exclusively attended by 
 children of government officers, who, upon leav- 
 ing, were required to give the teacher one ruble. 
 In 1719, arithmetic schools for children of all 
 classes were opened, and also schools for the 
 army, the navy, and the priesthood. Peter the 
 Great also founded an academy of sciences, in 
 connection with a gymnasium and a university. 
 Under his successor, Catharine I., the Academy 
 of Sciences was opened in Moscow, in 1755. The 
 empress Anna allowed no private soldier or non- 
 commissioned officer to be promoted who could 
 not read, and the empress Elizabeth imposed fines 
 on parents who allowed their children to grow up 
 without any education. Catharine II. proposed 
 to organize educational institutions throughout 
 the country, according to a uniform plan ; 
 but, after experimenting for twenty years, she 
 found that nothing of importance had been ac- 
 complished. She then determined to establish 
 schools like the Austrian model schools ; and, 
 at her request, the Austrian government sent 
 Von Jankowicz, the director of the Illyrian 
 normal schools, to Russia. A commission of 
 three was appointed to govern the schools estab- 
 lished, which were to be of three kinds : higher 
 schools, in the capitals of governments ; inter- 
 mediate schools, in the capitals of circles ; and 
 elementary schools, in small towns and villages. 
 In every government, a school board was to be 
 appointed, while the schools of the circles were 
 to be governed by a director. A teachers' semi- 
 nary was established in St. Petersburg ; and, in 
 the university of Moscow and the three theolog- 
 ical academies, a three years' course was pre- 
 scribed to prepare pupils for the seminary. The 
 emperor Paul took an interest only in the prog- 
 ress of the higher schools. Alexander II., in 
 1862, established the ministry of " popular en- 
 lightenment." In 1874, a new school law was pro- 
 mulgated, which is in force at the present time. 
 The necessity for a compulsory attendance law 
 has, in recent years, been considerably discussed. 
 In order to make a beginning, it was resolved, 
 in 1875, to establish in St. Petersburg a suffi- 
 cient number of schools, at the expense of the 
 city, and to carry into effect the compulsory edu- 
 cation of all children between the ages of 8 and 
 12 years. According to the calculation of the min- 
 
748 
 
 RUSSIA 
 
 i8try.it will be necessary, to this end, to estab- 
 lish L57 primary schools, in addition to those 
 existing at present. These schools will be gov- 
 erned by a school board of six members, besides 
 the chief officer of the city government, who is 
 to preside. For the absence of children, unless 
 excused, parents are to be fined ; and, when the 
 offense is repeated, are to be imprisoned. < >ne of 
 the principal troubles under which the Russian 
 schools are laboring at present, is the absence of 
 unity in their government, every ministry having 
 a number of special schools under its control. 
 
 Primary Instruction. — According to the new 
 school law of 1874, the elementary schools com- 
 prise (1) the primary schools, under the direction 
 of the clergy; (2) the primary schools, under 
 the ministry of public instruction, both public 
 and private; (3) the elementary schools, under 
 other ministries, which are supported by the 
 communes; and (4) Sunday-schools. The course 
 of instruction comprises reading, writing, the 
 four fundamental rules of arithmetic, the cate- 
 chism, Bible history, and, as far as possible, 
 singing. The language used in giving instruc- 
 tion must be the Russian. Religious instruction 
 is confided to the clergy; while, otherwise, the 
 superintendence is given into the hands of the 
 nobility. The ecclesiastical schools consist of 
 four annual courses, imparting free elementary 
 instruction to the children of priests, but are open 
 to other children for a small fee. The subjects 
 of instruction are religion, the Russian and old 
 Slavic languages, Latin and Creek, geography, 
 arithmetic, spelling, and church history. Private 
 schools may he established, with the consent of 
 the director of the circle, either as day schools or 
 boarding schools. This class of schools also com- 
 prises the schools of all other denominations. All 
 private schools are divide 1 into three kinds, hav- 
 ing respectively the rank of a gymnasium, of a 
 district school, and of elementary schools. The 
 numerous Jewish population of the western and 
 southern governments, for a long time, possessed 
 a complete system of private and public institu- 
 tions, which were, up to 1864, left strictly to 
 themselves. In that year, they were placed un- 
 der the general school council, and were divide I 
 into three classes: elcm-ntary schools, intermedi- 
 ate schools, and schools for rabbis. In Bpite, 
 however, of the exertions of the government, 
 these schools are decidedly unpopular with the 
 dews. Quite recently a desire for the estab- 
 li shment of industrial schools has been e\ inced by 
 the middle and lower classes of the people. These 
 schools are rapi lly increasing, and now comprise 
 independent industrial schools, industrial schools 
 in connection with district and communal schools, 
 and industrial schools in connection with char- 
 itable institutions. In the Polish provinces, the 
 Sunday-schools are also industrial schools. The 
 firBt Sunday-schools were opened in Kief, in 1859, 
 by students who desired to instruct the laborers 
 on Sundays and holidays. Shortly after this, 
 similar BchoolB were opened in St. Petersburg, 
 and spread rapidly; so that, in 1862, there were 
 already 300 schools, with about 211.0:10 pupils. 
 
 Unfortunately, they did not exist long; for. in con- 
 sequence of disturbances in two of these schools 
 in St. Petersburg, the government ordered that 
 all should be closed, with the exception of those 
 in the school-district of Dorpat. — The schools in 
 the circles must be regarded as an intermediate 
 link between the elementary schools and the 
 gymnasia. The law of 1828 provided that a dis- 
 trict school should be established in the capital 
 of every circle for the children of the merchants. 
 the trades-people, and other inhabitants of the 
 cities. The course of study comprises three an- 
 nual classes: and the .-indies taught are religion, 
 the Russian language, arithmetic, geometry. 
 geography, and Russian and general history. Jn 
 some of these schools. Latin, and in others 
 French, is taught. These schools have consider* 
 ably decreased in number, owing to the fact 
 that some have been changed into progymnasia, 
 and others into city schools. The education of 
 teachers for primary schools is provided for in 
 various ways. Special teachers seminaries and 
 teachers' institutes, have recently been estab- 
 lished. The oldest seminary is that of Dorpat, 
 founded in 1828. Since then, a number of sem- 
 inaries have been established, partly by the gov- 
 ernment, partly by provinces and private endow- 
 ments. Teachers' institutes have been estab- 
 lished in connection with the city schools, the 
 students in the highest classes being trained to 
 instruct, under the supervision of their teachers. 
 The normal number of pupils in each of these 
 institutes is 75, of whom 60 are completely sup- 
 ported at the expense of the ministry of public 
 worship; and the remaining L5, by funds from 
 private persons the government, the city, or other 
 sources. The students, in return, are obliged 
 
 to serve six years in a city school, wherever 
 the government may send them. Besides, special 
 courses of instruction for the training of school- 
 teachers have been established in connection 
 with a number of circle schools, gymnasia, and 
 other institutions. For the education of teach- 
 ers for the Mohammedan schools in the Fast, and 
 in the < 'rimea. there are special schools in Kasan 
 and Simpheropol. In 1874, there were 421 district 
 schools, with 30,616 scholars, and 22,653 popular 
 schools, with 933,900 scholars i 7 18,866 boys and 
 1.85,034 girls). Included in this number are the 
 church schools, the village schools of the Baltic 
 
 provinces, and the industrial scl Is. i.e., all the 
 
 schools under the minister of public instruction. 
 
 There were. also, in that year, 54 teachers' semi- 
 naries and institutes with 25,552 students. The 
 number of private schools, of all three grades, not 
 belonging to any church, iii 1869, was 886, with 
 31,500 children; and the number of denomina- 
 tional primary and district schools not belong- 
 ing to the Creek Church, was 121, with 24,291 
 pupils. The number of ecclesiastical schools for 
 the children of the clergy, in L868,was 187, with 
 25,000 pupils. The number of ecclesiastical 
 elementary schools, in 1868, was 16,287, with 
 390,049 pupils, of whom 335,130 were boys, and 
 54,919 girls. The statistics of the Jewish schools 
 
 for dan.. I., 1869, show the following: There are 
 
RUSSIA 
 
 749 
 
 2 schools for rabbis and Jewish school-teachers in 
 Wilna and Schitomir, 5 schools of the second 
 class, similar to the district schools, with 220 
 pupils; 96 schools of the first class, in which the, 
 Jewish religion, Russian and Hebrew, and arith- 
 metic and penmanship, are taught; 51 reading and 
 writing schools, in the school-districts of Wilna 
 and Warsaw, with 1.9s2 pupils; 2 female schools, 
 with 260 pupils, and a number of female read- 
 ing and writing schools. Besides these schools, 
 under the control of the government, there are 
 a number of private schools, with about 26,500 
 pupils. In 1870, there were about •"><> industrial 
 schools, with about 3.000 pupils, ami. in 1874, 
 115 Sunday-schools, with 8,565 male pupils and 
 22 female pupils. The following table gives the 
 ratio of the number of schools, and of the num- 
 ber of pupils, to the total population, in each of 
 the nine school-districts into which Russia is 
 divided : 
 
 School-districts 
 
 Ratio of 
 
 schools to total 
 population 
 
 Rntio of 
 
 pupils to total 
 
 population 
 
 
 1 : 039 
 1 : 2,248 
 1 : 2,330 
 1 : 3,814 
 1 : 3,109 
 1 : 4,3(34 
 1 : 4,076 
 1 : 3,708 
 1 : 5,845 
 
 1 : 18 
 
 Warsaw 
 
 1 : 34 
 
 St. Petersburg 
 
 1 : 72 
 
 
 1 : 81 
 
 Wilna 
 
 1 : 85 
 
 Kharkof 
 
 1 : 90 
 
 Kasan. . 
 
 1 : 100 
 
 Kief 
 
 1 : 144 
 
 
 1 : 173 
 
 Secondary Instruction. — In the beginning of 
 the present century, there were, in the whole 
 empire, with the exception of the Raltie and 
 Polish provinces, only 3 gymnasia. Catharine II., 
 in 1776, established in the capitalsof the govern- 
 ments people's high schools, and in the other 
 cities lower people's schools, the former to con- 
 sist of four the latter of two classes. In 1804, 
 Alexander I. ordered that every capital of a 
 government should have at least one gymnasium. 
 The change of the people's high schools into 
 gymnasia extended over twenty years; and fi- 
 nally, in 1825, 56 gymnasia, with 9,682 pupils, 
 were established, making an average of 132 
 pupils to each gymnasium. The highest average, 
 44S, was in the Wilna school-district ; and the 
 lowest, 69, in Kasan. In 1828, a reform was in- 
 troduced. The gymnasia comprised seven an- 
 nual classes, which had for their basis the study 
 of the ancient languages. Latin was taught in 
 all gymnasia, and in all classes; while ( J reek, 
 which was not obligatory, was gradually intro- 
 duced. In 1849, a new change was introduced, 
 With the object of bringing the instruction in 
 closer connection with practical life. Instruction 
 was either general, in three lower classes, or 
 special, in the other classes. In consequence of 
 these changes, the gymnasia were divided into 
 three groups: 36 gymnasia, in which natural 
 sciences and law were taught; 29, in which law 
 only was taught; and 12, in which Greek was re- 
 tained. In 18G4, an imperial decree classed all 
 gymnasia as classical or real gymnasia. In the 
 former, the classical languages, in the latter, 
 
 mathematics and the natural sciences, were the 
 principal studies. In 1872, the real gymnasia were 
 changed into real schools, of from two to six 
 classes, in which the ancient languages were 
 entirely abolished. The progymnasia, of four 
 classes, correspond to the four lower classes of 
 the gymnasium. — Very little was done for female 
 education in Russia previous to the middle of 
 the last century. In 1764, the first institute for 
 young ladies of the nobility was opened in St. 
 Petersburg. Since that time, the number of these 
 institutes, which are open only for the nobility, 
 has considerably increased. The empress Maria 
 Feodorowna took particular interest in these 
 schools. As they pursued a particular object, how- 
 ever, and as they thus became separated from 
 the general school system, they have always been 
 under the particular charge of the reigning em- 
 press, and are known as the schools of the em- 
 press Maria. But not until the beginning of the 
 reign of Alexander II., did the ministry of public 
 instruction establish female schools for secondary 
 instruction. These schools were of two grades, — 
 schools of the first grade, corresponding to the 
 gymnasia: and those of the second grade, cor- 
 responding to the district schools. By a law of 
 1870, the schools of the first grade were changed 
 into gymnasia, and those of the second grade in- 
 to progymnasia. In some of the former, a special 
 course, of one year, was instituted for those pupils 
 who wished to become governesses or teachers. 
 The course of study compiises religion, the Rus- 
 sian language and literature, French or German, 
 history, geography, natural history, arithmetic, 
 geometry, the elements of pedagogy, drawing, and 
 penmanship. English is taught for an extra fee 
 of 5 rubles per year. This law, however, is only 
 for the purely Russian provinces. In the Porpat 
 school-district, there are female schools with a 
 higher and lower course, in which instruction is 
 given by means of the German language. An ex- 
 ception to this rule is the female gymnasium in 
 Riga. During the last decade, female gymnasia 
 have also been established, in which girls of all 
 ranks are admitted. In 1874, the number of 
 gymnasia was 123, with 36,268 pupils; of pro- 
 gymnasia, 44, with 5,454 pupils; and of real 
 schools, 30, with 4,275 pupils. In 1874, there 
 were 195 female gymnasia and progymnasia, 
 with 23,854 pupils, and 28 female institutes with 
 5,4.33 pupils. The number of gymnasia belong- 
 j ing to the schools of the empress, in 1870, was 
 ' 57, with about 10,000 pupils. There were, also, 
 in 1869, six gymnasia, with 1,617 male and 844 
 female pupils, belonging to other churches than 
 the Greek church. 
 
 Superior Instruct inn. — The first effort to 
 provide superior instruction in Russia was 
 made by Peter the Great, who, in 1723, decreed 
 the establishment of an academy of sciences and 
 a university, at St. Petersburg. The academy 
 was not opened until 1726, the year after the 
 ! emperor's death; while the university only ex- 
 isted in name, as there were no students for it. 
 Indeed, it was not until 1 755 that the first Rus- 
 sian university was established at Moscow, by 
 
750 
 
 RUSSIA 
 
 the empress Elizabeth. It consisted of three 
 faculties, and was entirely modeled after the 
 German universities. Under I latharine II., after 
 the division of Poland, the Wilna Academy was 
 added to the higher institutions of learning; and. 
 in 1803, it was raised to the rank of a university. 
 In 1802, the Dorpat University, founded by 
 Gustavus Adolphus in 1632, was entirely re- 
 organized; and, in L804, the universities of 
 Kharkof and KLasan were founded. On account 
 of the poor condition of die schools for secondary 
 instruction at thai time, the number of students 
 and of good professors, was at first very small: 
 and mme than one half of the latter were for- 
 eigners. The native prof essors were educated in 
 the principal pedagogical institute, which was 
 founded at St. Petersburg, in L804. This insti- 
 tute did not have a long existence; for. in 1819, 
 it was changed into the University of St. Peters- 
 burg. In L832, on account of political disturb- 
 ances, the Wilna University was closed, with 
 the exception of the medical faculty, which con- 
 tinued to exist as the Medico-Surgical Academy. 
 In its place, the St. Vladimir University of Kief 
 was formed from the lyceuin, which shortly be- 
 fore had been transferred to that place from 
 Krenieiieis. In 1 s.'i.'i. a new university law was 
 passed, which withdrew from the universities the 
 superintendence of the other schools, and gave to 
 a particular inspector the discipline of the stu- 
 dents. A decree of the emperor Nicholas, in 1849, 
 limited the number of students in each univer- 
 sity to 300; but this decree was revoked in L856. 
 
 In L863, a new general law for the imperial uni- 
 versities was published, intended for all excepl 
 that of Dorpat, which continued to be governed 
 
 by its special charter of ls-jt). In accordance 
 with this law. iii L865, the Russian university of 
 Odessa, previously a lyceum, was established: 
 ami. in L869, Warsaw University, previously a 
 high school. According to the new law, every 
 university must be composed of at least four 
 faculties: of history and philology, of natural 
 philosophy and mathematics, of law, and of 
 medicine. From this order, however, there are 
 many deviations. Thus the University of St. 
 
 Petersburg has no medical faculty: but, instead 
 thereof, a faculty of oriental languages. In the 
 Universityoi Odessa, the medical faculty has not 
 yet) n opened; in that of Dorpat, there is, in 
 
 addition to I he four nient ioned above, a faculty 
 of Protestant theology. A candidate for admis- 
 sion to the university musl be. ,-it least. IT years 
 of age, and must possess a certificate of gradu- 
 ation from a gymnasium. The entire university 
 course comprises 5 years in the medical faculty, 
 and I in all the others. 
 
 In lso |. Alexander I. ordered that the course 
 of instruct ion of some of the gymnasia Bhould be 
 extended, and that gymnasia for the higher sci- 
 ences should be established, as stepping-stones 
 from the gymnasia to the universities. In a short 
 time, four such institutes were founded, chiefly 
 at the expense of private persons: (1) that of 
 
 Yaroslav. in L805, which was changed into a 
 
 lyceum in L833; (2) the Volhynian gymnasium, 
 
 founded at Kremenets, in 1805. changed into a 
 lyceum in 1820, transferred to Kief in 1832, and 
 subsequently changed into a university : (3) the 
 Lyceum Richelieu, founded in 1817, and after- 
 ward changed into a university ; and (4) the 
 Gymnasium for Higher Learning, founded in 
 Nezheen, in L 820, which received the name of 
 lyceum in L832. The lyceums under the minister 
 of public instruction have three classes, each for 
 one year: a lyceum belonging to the Schools of 
 the Empress .Maria has hair classes, of one and 
 one half years each: while the Lyceum of the 
 (hand-duke Nikolai, in Moscow, has an eight 
 years' course. 
 
 The following table presents the statistics of 
 the universities for 1875 : 
 
 Universities 
 
 Instructors 
 
 Students 
 
 St. Petersburg 
 
 8G 
 117 
 65 
 69 
 72 
 42 
 63 
 75 
 
 1,196 
 1,473 
 
 Moscow 
 
 kharkof 
 
 11^ 
 
 Kief 
 
 522 
 
 s.V.i 
 
 ( >i]rs~;i 
 
 316 
 
 1 lorpal 
 
 794 
 
 Warsaw 
 
 830 
 
 Total. 
 
 569 
 
 6,408 
 
 Of the total number of students, 36 per cent 
 study law: .'!1 percent, medicine: II percent at- 
 tend the course of mathematics and natural phi- 
 losophy; !' per cent are free hearers, but only 8 
 per cent attend the historical and philological 
 faculty. The remaining 2 per cent arc made up 
 of the theological students in Dorpal and the 
 students of oriental languages in St. Petersburg. 
 The number of lyceums, in 1874, according to 
 the Russian Annals, was 5, with about 600 
 students. 
 
 Special Instruction. — The special schools be- 
 long to different ministries. The following sta- 
 tistics are for dan. L. 1874. There are I higher 
 theological Bchools, with 178 professors and 446 
 students: 51 intermediate theological schools. 
 with 789 professors and 13,103 students: and 
 187 lower theological schools, with 1,375 profess- 
 ors and 26,671 students: 7 higher. 25 interme- 
 diate, and 31 lower military schools, with 1,416, 
 <;„'i.'!0. and 6,863 students, respectively; 7 naval 
 schools, with L ,109 students; •'> higher and 16 
 lower agricultural schools, with 293 and 1,025 
 
 students, respectively; 6 higher technical schools, 
 with 2,666 students, 12 lower technical schools. 
 
 5 Schools of art and drawing. .'» schools of music 
 and the drama, I business colleges. I law school, 
 w ith 320 students, and •'* schools of philology. 
 Caucasia. The schools of Finland fq.v.) and 
 
 of the < 'aueasus are the only schools in the whole 
 
 empire that are not subject to the Russian govern- 
 ment, but to their own school authorities. Cau- 
 casia forms one school-district, the Inspector of 
 which is responsible to the governor only. In 
 L862, there were, in Caucasia, I gymnasia, — ' ► 
 district schools. 1 progymnasium, L8 elementary 
 
 Schools, 31 private schools, and 13 schools lx'long- 
 
 ing to the church, making a total of s 7 schools, 
 
RUTGERS COLLEGE 
 
 SAINT CHARLES'S COLLEGE 751 
 
 with 7,362 pupils. — Sec Schmid, P&dagogiscke 
 Wncyclopddie ; Rolfus and Pfister, RealrEn- 
 cydopaidie des Wrziehungs- und Unterrichtswe- 
 sens ; Lengenfeldt, Russland im neunzehnten 
 Jahrhunderi ] Report of the U.S. Commissioner 
 of Education, L874 ; Chronik des Volksschulr 
 wesens, 1st"). 
 
 RUTGERS COLLEGE, at New Brunswick, 
 N..L, under the control of the Reformed ( thurch 
 in America, was founded in 1 770. It is supported 
 by tuition fees and an endowment of about 
 100,000; the value of its buildings, grounds, and 
 apparatus amounts to about the same sum. Its 
 cabinets and apparatus are extensive ; the libra- 
 ries contain about 9,500 volumes. There are 
 two departments : the classical or college proper, 
 and the scientific (state college of agriculture 
 and the mechanic arts, endowed with the con- 
 gressional land grant). The latter department has 
 three courses : civil emdneerinoi and mechanics, 
 chemistry and agriculture, and a special course in 
 chemistry. There is an extensive model farm. 
 The tuition fee in both departments is $7;') per 
 annum. There are a number of beneficiary funds 
 for the aid of students intended for the ministry; j 
 and 40 students, resident in the state, are ad- ' 
 mitted to the scientific department without 
 charge. In 1875 — 6, there were 13 professors 
 and 188 students (131 classical and 57 scientific). 
 The Rev. Wm. Henry Campbell, D. D., LL. D., 
 is (1876) the president. 
 
 RUTHERFORD COLLEGE, at Happy 
 Home, Burke Co., N. G, was commenced by 
 its present and only president, the Rev. R. L. 
 Abernethy, A. M., in 1854, and was chartered as 
 Rutherford Academy in 1858. In 1861, under 
 the title of the Rutherford Seminary, it was given 
 
 the righl to confer degrees; and. in 1870, it was 
 made a college, it is a college for young men, 
 with a ladies' department, Each sex has its own 
 curriculum ; but the females recite with the males 
 in all those classes in which the courses of study 
 are the same. The college is composed of six 
 regular schools : Latin. Greek, mathematics, En- 
 glish literature and rhetoric, natural science, and 
 mental and moral philosophy. '1 he libraries con- 
 tain about 3,500 volumes. The cost of tuition 
 ranges from $1 to $5 a month. The children 
 of ministers of all denominations of Christians, 
 as well as all indigent orphans, are instructed 
 iri ■ of tuition charges. In 1n7-1 — 5, there were 
 19 instructors and 319 students (229 males and 
 90 females), mostly of the preparatory grade. 
 
 RYERSON, Adolphus Egerton, a noted 
 Canadian clergyman and educator, born at 
 Charlotteville, near Victoria, in the province of 
 Ontario, March 24., 1803. He at first taught 
 school, but in 1825 entered the Wesleyan min- 
 istry, and, in 1829, assumed the editorship of the 
 Christian Guardian, a Methodist journal, estab- 
 lished by himself. In 1842, he was appointed 
 principal of Victoria College, Cobourg, C. W., 
 and two years afterward, chief superintendent 
 of education for Upper Canada, now Ontario, 
 which position he still occupies. Mr. Ryerson's 
 services as a superintendent have been quite dis- 
 tinguished. The public-school system which is 
 under his supervision was organized upon a plan 
 arranged by him, in 1849; and his school reports 
 have uniformly presented very valuable material. 
 He has also published a history of Canada, and 
 has written a history of the British Un itet I Empire 
 Loyalists, who emigrated from the United States 
 to British America in 1783. 
 
 SAINT AUGUSTINE, Missionary Col- 
 lege of, at Benicia, Cal., an Episcopal institu- 
 tion, was founded in 1867, and incorporated 
 iu 1868. The course of study is arranged for 
 eight forms or classes, in three departments ; 
 namely, primary, grammar school, and collegiate 
 (in which ancient and modern languages are 
 optional). The students are under military dis- 
 cipline, and instruction is given in infantry, caval- 
 ry, and artillery tactics. The regular charge for 
 board, tuition, etc., is from $350 to $370 per 
 annum. In 1875, there were 12 instructors, and 
 89 students. The Rt, Rev. J. H. D. Wingfield, 
 D. D., LL. D., is (1876) the rector. 
 
 SAINT BENEDICT'S COLLEGE, at 
 Atchison, Kan., a Roman Catholic institution 
 "under the superintendence of the Benedictine 
 Fathers, was founded in 1859, and chartered in 
 1868. It has a preparatory, a commercial, and a 
 classical department. The regular charge for tui- 
 tion, board, etc., is 890 per session of five months; 
 for tuition alone, 825. The library contains 2,000 
 volumes. In 1874 — 5, there were 6 instructors 
 and 79 students. The Very Rev. Oswald Moos- 
 mueller, O. S. B., is (1876) the president. 
 
 SAINT CHARLES COLLEGE, at Grand 
 Coteau, La., a Roman Catholic institution, under 
 the direction of members of the Society of Jesus, 
 was founded in 1836, and incorporated in 1852. 
 The course of instruction embraces Latin. Greek, 
 English, French, poetry, rhetoric, history, geog- 
 raphy, mathematics, natural and mental philos- 
 ophy, with the addition of the usual commercial 
 branches. It had the highest number of stu- 
 dents in 1861, just before the breaking out of 
 the civil war. Recently the numbers have de- 
 clined, owing to the impoverished state of the 
 country. The libraries contain 5,500 volumes. 
 The regular charge for board, tuition, etc., is 
 $250 a year. In 1876, the number of students 
 was 35. The Rev. R. Ollivier, S. J., is (1876) the 
 president. 
 
 SAINT CHARLES'S COLLEGE, near 
 Ellicott City, Md., under Roman Catholic control, 
 was chartered in 1830, and organized in 1848. It 
 was founded by Charles Carroll of Carrollton, 
 and forms the petit seminaire and classical de- 
 partment of St. Mary's University and Theolog- 
 ical Seminary of St. Sulpice, Baltimore. The 
 course of instruction is a full classical one, re- 
 
752 ST. FRANCIS X A V IKR COLLEGE 
 
 SAINT JOHNS COLLEGE 
 
 quiring a period of 6 years for those who 
 complete it, and embracing all the branches 
 preparatory to the higher ecclesiastical studies; 
 such as Latin, Knglish. Greek, French, German. 
 belles-lettres, mathematics, sacred and profane 
 history, Christian doctrine, plain chant, and 
 church ceremonies. The libraries contain 4,500 
 volumes. The charge for tuition, board, etc., is 
 $90 per half session of five months. In 1875 — 6, 
 there were 12 instructors and 1 75 students. The 
 Rev. S. Ferte, 1>. 1>.. is (1876) the president. 
 
 SAINT FRANCIS XAVIER, College of, 
 in New York City, a Roman Catholic institution 
 conducted by the Fathers of the Society of 
 Jesus, was founded in L847, and chartered in 
 1861. It is supported by a tuition fee of $60 
 per annum from each student. Its library con- 
 tains 16,000 volumes. It has a post-graduate 
 course of one year, leading to the degree of A. 
 M..; an undergraduate course of four years, lead- 
 ing to the degree of A. !>.: a grammar course of 
 three years, preparatory to the preceding: a com- 
 mercial course of three years; and a preparatory 
 or elementary course, for beginners. In 1875 — 6, 
 there were 26 instructors and 456 students. The 
 following have been the presidents of the college: 
 the Rev. John Larkin. the Rev.John Ryan, the 
 Rev. Michael Priscol, the Rev. Joseph Durthaller, 
 the Rev. Joseph Loyzance, and the Rev. Eenry 
 Eudon, the present incumbent (1876). 
 
 SAINT IGNATIUS COLLEGE, in San 
 Francisco, Cal., was opened in 1855, and char- 
 tered in L859. It isa Roman Catholic institution, 
 conducted by the Fathers of the Society of Jesus. 
 The course of studies embraces the Greek, Latin, 
 and English languages, poetry, rhetoric, elocu- 
 tion, history, geography, arithmetic, book-keeping, 
 penmanship, mathematics, chemistry, and mental, 
 moral, and natural philosophy. The study of the 
 French and Spanish languages is optional. There 
 is also, a preparatory department. The regular 
 tuition fee ranges from $3 to $8 a month. In 
 1875 — 6, there were 22 instructors and 7! 58 stu- 
 dents. The Rev. A. .Masnata, S. .1.. is 1 187G) the 
 president. 
 
 SAINT IGNATIUS COLLEGE, in Chi- 
 cago. 111., a Roman ( 'atholic institution conducted 
 bj members of the Society of Jesus, was founded 
 in 1870. It possesses a library of L0.000 volumes; 
 and a museum containing a rare and valuable 
 collection of minerals. It comprises a classical 
 course of six years, corresponding to the prepar- 
 atory and collegiate departments of most col- 
 leges, a commercial course of tour years, embra- 
 cing all the branches of a good bullish education; 
 and a preparatory or elementary course. The 
 cost of tuition is s<'><> a year. In 1*74 — 5, there 
 
 were II instructors and 214 students. The pres- 
 idents have been as follows : the Rev. A. Damen, 
 >..L, 1870—72; the Rev. F. Coosemans, S. J., 
 L872 -I; and the Rev. J. De Blieck, S. J., since 
 1874. 
 
 SAINT JOHN'S COLLEGE, at Fordham, 
 New Fork City, was founded by the- Rev. John 
 I [ughea, first Roman < 'atholic archbishop of New 
 
 York, and was opened in L841. It was chartered 
 
 in 184G, and the same year was transferred to the 
 Jesuits, by whom it has since been conducted. 
 It is supported by the students' fees for board 
 and tuition, amounting ordinarily to §300 per 
 annum; the charge to day scholars is $60 per 
 annum. The college library contains 20.000 vol- 
 umes, besides which the students have the use of 
 a circulating library of over 5,000 volumes. There 
 are valuable chemical and philosophical ap- 
 paratus, and a geological and mineralogical cabi- 
 net, with about 2,500 specimens. The college 
 combines the ordinary features of preparatory, 
 grammar, and commercial schools with those of 
 a university. There are also several supplement- 
 ary classes. Students are received at any age. 
 In 1875 — (>. there were 21 instructors and 178 
 students. The presidents have been as follows: 
 the Rev. John Mc( loskev. now Cardinal Arch- 
 bishop of New York; the Bev. Ambrose Manahan. 
 D.D,; the Rev. Roosevelt Bayley.now Archbisliop 
 of Baltimore; the Rev. .lames Early, A.M.: the 
 lev. Aug. d. Thebaud, i^.-h; the Rev. John 
 Larkin. S. J. ; the Rev. RemigiusJ. Tellier, S. .1.: 
 the Rev. Edward Doucet. S. J.; the Rev. William 
 Movlan, S..I. ; the Rev. Joseph Shea. S. d.: and 
 the Rev. William Cockeln, S. J., the present in- 
 cumbent ( 1 876). 
 
 SAINT JOHN'S COLLEGE Brooklyn, 
 N. V., a Roman ('atholic institution, conducted 
 by the Priests of the Congregation of the .Mis- 
 sion, was founded in 1 870. It has a full classical, 
 an English, and a commercial course, including 
 French and ( lerman. The cost of tuition is SI 5 pel 
 quarter, in L875 — 6, there were (J instructors, 
 and L45 students. The Rev. 1*. M. O'Regan, 
 C M., is ( L876) the president. 
 
 SAINT JOHN'S COLLEGE, at Annapolis, 
 Mil., was chartered in 1784, and opened in 1789. 
 From L861 to L866, it was dosed in consequence 
 of the civil war. It is supported chiefly by state 
 appropriations, at present amounting to $25,000 
 a year, in return for which L 50 Students (<j from 
 each senatorial district) arc entitled toroom rent 
 and tuition free; and 50 of these (2 from each 
 senatorial district) are entitled, in addition, to 
 
 gratuitous board. These latter are required to 
 
 leach school within the state for not less than 
 two years after having college. For those not 
 holders of scholarships, the annual charge for 
 tuition, board, etc.. is $275; for t tut ion alone $60 
 
 in the preparatory, and $90 in the collegiate 
 department. The library contains 5,000 volumes. 
 The collegiate department embraces an under- 
 graduate course of four years, leading to thi 
 degree of A. B.; a post-graduate course of two 
 years, leading to the degree of A. M.: and select 
 courses. In L875 — 6, there were 11 instructors. 
 including those in music and gymnastics, .and 
 121 students (69 collegiate and 52 prepar- 
 atory), of whom, including the 50 who receive 
 gratuitous board, about two-thirds were in- 
 structed free. The number of aliemni was 481. 
 The principals of the College have been as fol- 
 lows: John McDowell, LL. 1>. (appointed in 
 L790);the Rev. Bethel Judd, D. D. (1807); the 
 Rev. Henry byon Davis, D. D. (1820); the Rev. 
 
SAINT JOHNS COLLEGE 
 
 ST. LOUIS 
 
 753 
 
 William Rafferty, D. D. (1824); the Rev. Hector 
 Humphreys, D.D. (1831); the Rev. Cleland K. 
 Nelson, O. D. (1857); Henry Barnard, LL. D. 
 (1866); James 0. Welling, LL. D. (1867); and 
 James M. Garnett, M. A., LL. 1). (1870). 
 
 SAINT JOHN'S COLLEGE, 4 miles from 
 St. Joseph, Stearns Co., Minn., a Roman Catholic 
 institution, conducted by the Benedictine Fathers, 
 was founded in 1857, and chartered the same 
 year, under the name of St. John's Seminary, 
 but it is better known as St. John's College. By 
 an act of the legislature, approved March 5., 1869, 
 it is "authorized to confer such degrees and grant 
 such diplomas as are usual in colleges and uni- 
 versities." It is supported by the fees of students, 
 the regular charge for tuition, board, etc., being 
 $90 per session of five months. The institution 
 comprises an ecclesiastical, a classical, a scientific, 
 a commercial, and an elementary course. The 
 libraries contain about 2,000 volumes. In 1874 — 5, 
 there were 15 instructors and 168 students (30 
 ecclesiastical, and 138 classical and commercial). 
 The Rt. Rev. Alexius Edelbrock, O. S.B., D.D., 
 is (1876) the president. 
 
 SAINT JOHN'S COLLEGE OF AR- 
 KANSAS, at Little Rock, was chartered in 
 1 850, and opened in 1 859. It was founded by the 
 Masonic Fraternity of Arkansas, and has been 
 sustained by the Grand Lodge since its opening. It 
 was suspended from May, 1861, to October, 1867, 
 during the greater part of which time the build- 
 ing was used as a hospital either by the Confed- 
 erate or by the Federal troops. The value of the 
 college property is $72,600. The cost of tuition 
 is $50 per annum, except to sons of Masons with- 
 in the jurisdiction of the Grand Lodge of Ar- 
 kansas, who are instructed without charge. The 
 college has a preparatory course of three years, 
 a course for A. B. (4 years), a course for Sc. B. 
 (3 years), and a course for Ph. B. (2 years). In 
 1875 — 6, there were 3 instructors and 55 stu- 
 dents. R. H. Parham, Jr., A. M., is (1876) the 
 president. 
 
 SAINT JOSEPH'S COLLEGE, atTeutop- 
 olis, HI., was founded in 1861, under the auspices 
 of the Rt. Rev. H. I). Yunker, D. D., Roman 
 Catholic bishop of Alton, and is under the direc- 
 tion of the Franciscan Fathers. The course of 
 studies embraces the Greek, Latin, English, 
 French, and German languages ; rhetoric, poetry, 
 composition, history, geography, book-keeping, 
 arithmetic, mathematics, natural philosophy, 
 natural history, drawing, penmanship, and in- 
 strumental and vocal music. The study of Ger- 
 man (for English students) , French, book-keep- 
 ing, drawing, and music, is optional. It is an 
 ecclesiastical seminary (designed to prepare can- 
 didates for the priesthood for the study of phi- 
 losophy and theology) . and admits only Catholic 
 pupils ; but the course also furnishes a qualifica- 
 tion for secular pursuits. There are two prepar- 
 atory and four collegiate classes. The charge for 
 tuition, board, etc.. is $75 per session of five 
 months to those studying for the priesthood, and 
 $90 to others. In 1875 — 6, there were 10 in- 
 structors and 112 students. The Very Rev. P. 
 
 48 
 
 Mauritius Klostermann, 0. S. F., is (1876) the 
 rector of the College. 
 
 SAINT JOSEPH'S COLLEGE, in Buffalo, 
 N. Y., a Roman Catholic institution conducted 
 by the Christian Brothers, was founded in 1861. 
 It is supported by the fees of students, the reg- 
 ular charge for board and tuition being $200 a 
 year; for tuition alone, from $16 to $50 a year. 
 The institution comprises three departments: 
 primary, 2 years; preparatory collegiate, 4 years; 
 and collegiate, 4 years. There is a commercial 
 course, and facilities are afforded for instruction 
 in music and drawing. The library contains 2,500 
 volumes. In 1875 — 6, there were 11 instructors 
 and 318 students. The Rev. Bro. Joachim is 
 (1876) the president. 
 
 ST. LAWRENCE UNIVERSITY, The, 
 at Canton, N. Y., chartered and organized in 
 1856, is under Universalist control. Jt comprises 
 a college of letters and science, and a theological 
 school, independent of each other in their faculties, 
 and in the instruction and government of their 
 students. Its productive funds amount to 
 SI 65,000, and its libraries contain 7,366 volumes. 
 Both sexes are admitted to each of the depart- 
 ments. The college has a classical and a scientific 
 course, each of four years. In 1875 — 6, it had 8 
 instructors and 54 students (28 males and 16 fe- 
 males); the theological school had 3 professors 
 and 28 students. The Rev. A. G. Gaines, I). I>.. 
 is (1876) the president of the college, and the 
 Rev. E. Fisher, D. 1)., is the president of the 
 theological school. 
 
 ST." LOUIS, the chief city of Missouri and 
 of the Mississippi valley, having a population, 
 in 1870, of 310,864, and an estimated popula- 
 tion, in 1875, of 450,000. 
 
 Educational Hisiorij. — On the 13th of June, 
 1812, the Congress of the United States passed 
 an act to set apart certain lands in St. Louis 
 and other towns in Missouri, "for the support of 
 schools in the respective towns or villages afore- 
 said." In 1817, an act was approved by which 
 a board of trustees for the schools of St. Louis 
 was incorporated. The first business of the 
 board was to define and take possession of the 
 school lands previously given. This was a mat- 
 ter of some difficulty, as the original act convey- 
 ing the land contained a proviso to the effect 
 that the rights of claimants should not be vio- 
 lated ; and such claimants, by action in the 
 courts, prevented the using of the land for 
 school purposes, till two supplementary acts of 
 Congress, in 1824 and 1831, compelled them to 
 prove their titles. The tract of land thus con- 
 veyed to the city comprised a little less than 50 
 acres, and is the land now reported annually by 
 the board of public schools, as "real estate held 
 for revenue." A new school board was created 
 in 1 833 by the legislature, styled the " Board of 
 President and Directors of the St. Louis Public 
 Schools." An election took place, the same year, 
 which resulted in the choice of six school direct- 
 ors, Edward Bates being of the number. 
 The first money from the rent of the school 
 lands was received in 1834 ; and, the following 
 
754 
 
 ST. LOUIS 
 
 year, the money was loaned, by permission of 
 the legislature, the time for establishing schools 
 not yet having arrived. In lS.'S", two school- 
 houses were built — the south and the north 
 school-house — the former of which is still stand- 
 ing on the corner of Fourth and Spruce streets. 
 The latter was abandoned in 1842, and was 
 afterwards burnt. In April, 1838, the first 
 school was opened ; and, shortly after, the sec- 
 ond. In 1841, the third school-house was built 
 at a cost of $10,925, an expense which the 
 board was very much embarrassed to meet 
 In 1845, two more school-houses were built, and, 
 the following year, occupied. Other schools 
 followed. In Ls4!t, two evening schools were 
 opened. The first high school was established 
 in L853, with an attendance of over TO pupils. 
 On the first .Monday in June, 1849, the question 
 of supporting the public schools by taxation was 
 voted upon by the people, the legislature having 
 so directed, in answer to a petition from a com- 
 mittee of the school board. The anxiety felt by 
 the friends of popular education in regard to 
 this election proved to be unnecessary, as the law 
 was endorsed by a large majority; and the first 
 tax under it, amounting to 818,000, was col- 
 lected the following year. At the session of 
 ls.">;{ — 4, the legislature repealed the law by 
 which St. Louis was prevented from participation 
 in the state school fund. This law had been 
 passed on the erroneous supposition that the 
 special grant of land made to the city by Con- 
 gress, in 1812, would be ample for school pur- 
 poses. On the establishment of the high school, 
 tin' same opposition to it was encountered that 
 lias been observed in other cities during the first 
 half of the century. This opposition arose from 
 a conception, common at that time, that it was 
 unjust to tax the people generally for any thing 
 beyond elementary instruction. In the school 
 board, fortunately, were several men of sufficient 
 foresight and firmness to disregard the clamor 
 of the hour, and to provide for the new Bchool 
 in the most efficient manner. The wisdom of 
 their action is proved by the fact that, in the 
 words of the present superintendent, " no other 
 
 measure ever adopted by the Hoard has had so 
 powerful an influence as this in popularizing and 
 strengthening the public schools." In L 855, the 
 school buildings were found insufficient to ac- 
 commodate the children of the city, and primary 
 schools were established in leased houses. The 
 success of the schools of St. Louis now attracted 
 
 attention throughout the state, and a law was 
 
 passed by the legislature, appropriating '-■"> per 
 cent of the state revenue to the support of free 
 schools. By this apportionment, St. Louis re- 
 ceived $27«456.51, in L854. The schools had 
 now been in operation about 20 years, and the 
 increase in the Dumber of pupils caused the 
 
 want which always attends this inereas( — that 
 
 of trained teachers- -to !»■ severely felt. Iu 1857, 
 
 accordingly, the first normal school was estali- 
 
 1 i.died. and Ira Divoll became superintendent of 
 
 schools. The city had now gone so far in the 
 Completion of its school system, that the remain- 
 
 ing steps were easy. The Franklin school-house 
 was begun in 1857, but was not finished till the 
 following year. It was built on the Lancasteriau 
 plan, then extensively used in nearly all of the 
 large cities of the Union, and was the last house 
 bo built by the city, the era of graded schools, 
 which required a different plan, having begun. 
 In the summer of L857, the new superintendent 
 went upon a tour of observation through the 
 principal eastern cities, and on his return, drew 
 up a comprehensive plan for the re-organization 
 of the school system, in every thing that related 
 to the construction and size of school-houses, 
 the style of furniture and appointments, 
 the mode of organization and classification, 
 methods of instruction, etc.: and the principles 
 then discussed and agreed upon were made 
 the basis upon which an entire reconstruction 
 of the system was begun. It was ordered that 
 the school-houses should be built thereafter 
 according to the plan for graded schools, that 
 they should be, as nearly as possible, of uni- 
 form size, and that they should be the property 
 of the city; that pupils should be classified 
 according to attainment ; and that there should 
 be but one organization and one principal teacher 
 for each building. The city, at that time, con- 
 tained 135,000 inhabitants, of whom 25,000 
 were children of school age: yet the schools 
 could accommodate only 5,361. This insuffi- 
 ciency of the school accommodations was forci- 
 bly presented to the hoard by .Mr. Divoll in his 
 report for l8."»s, and the erection of several new 
 buildings was urgently recommended. Eight 
 new school-houses were, accordingly, begun, and 
 shortly after, four of the old buildings were re- 
 constructed, and made to conform to the new 
 plan. The changes went steadily on till all 
 the old school-houses were adapted to the graded 
 system. The German language was introduced 
 into five of the public schools of the city, in 
 L864, as an optional study tor pupils who had 
 advanced in English as far as the "Second 
 Reader and Primary Geography." A serious 
 difficulty immediately presented itself— that of 
 finding teachers properly qualified to give such 
 instruction. Several were obtained, however, 
 from the German-American schools of Cincin- 
 nati: and the first year, 450 German children 
 ived instruction in their native language. 
 
 ■ 
 
 The following year, this study was introduced 
 into two more schonls. and the office of German 
 Assistant Superintendent w as created. In L866, 
 
 the organization of German classes was author- 
 ized in any school containing LOO German-speak- 
 ing pupils who requested it. and its introduction 
 
 in the Study of Object lessons only, was directed 
 in all schools of the lowest grade. This action 
 met with considerable opposition on the ground 
 
 that the homogeneity of feelings and interests be- 
 tween German residents and natives required 
 
 that the children of the former should have the 
 
 whole time during the firsl year in school to he- 
 come familiar with English. It was pointed 
 out. on the other hand, that the absence of the 
 study of German was having the effect of 
 
ST. LOUIS 
 
 755 
 
 keeping German children out of the schools. 
 Whatever the cogency of these opposite views 
 may have been, the study of German spread 
 rapidly till, in 1870, the number of pupils re- 
 ceiving instruction in it was more than 6,000. 
 About this time, also, the study of German and 
 geography was made optional with the pupil in 
 the highest grade of the district school, and 
 American pupils were permitted to com- 
 mence the study of German in any grade. This 
 led to an increase in the number of Amer- 
 ican pupils studying German, the number, 
 in 1872, being, 1,356. The German language is 
 now taught in every school in the city except 
 the colored schools. Difficulties have, from time to 
 time, arisen from the introduction of this study, 
 the first being in regard to the comparative 
 grades of German and English classes ; but this 
 was met by a rule of the board which required 
 that pupils studying German should belong, in 
 this branch of instruction, to the same grade as 
 in their English studies. The system of parallel 
 grading thus adopted, supplemented by improve- 
 ments looking steadily towards a practical rather 
 than a theoretical knowledge of the language, has 
 produced an increased interest in the study, 
 till, in 1875, this department contained over 
 17,000 pupils, one-third of whom were Amer- 
 icans, taught by 73 teachers. — Another im- 
 provement, due to the foresight and energy of 
 Mr. Divoll, is the Public School Library, which 
 was founded in 1865. Beginning at that time 
 with a miscellaneous collection of 453 volumes, 
 it numbered 36,507 volumes, in 1874, with an 
 annual membership of 5,477. The establish- 
 ment of a kindergarten in connection with the 
 public schools, was decided upon between the 
 years 1872 and 1873. The experiment was 
 made at the Des Peres School, and proving suc- 
 cessful, was soon repeated in two others. Two 
 difficulties were at once encountered : the apathy 
 towards the schools of the poorer classes, for 
 whose benefit they were established, and the 
 comparative costliness of this kind of school. The 
 first difficulty was soon overcome ; the second 
 remains, as it always will, a stumbling-block to 
 those who consider the mere question of expense 
 in dollars and cents, and take no account of the 
 kind of instruction imparted, as compared with 
 that furnished at a cheaper rate. The advantages 
 derived from the kindergarten, as stated in the 
 published reports, are a readier submission to 
 school discipline, an increase of average intel- 
 ligence, and a special aptitude for arithmetic, 
 drawing, natural science, and language — the last 
 shown in a quicker comprehension and greater 
 ability to express ideas. — The first superintendent 
 of schools was John W. Tice (1854 — 7); the next 
 was Ira Divoll (1857 — 68) ; his successor was 
 William T. 1 larris. the present incumbent, who 
 was appointed in 1868. 
 
 School System. — The entire control and man- 
 agement of the public schools is committed to 
 The Board of President and Directors of the 
 St. Louis Public Schools. This board consists 
 of 26 members — two from each ward — who are 
 
 elected for 3 years, one-third going out of office 
 each year. A superintendent of public schools 
 is elected annually by the board, whose duty it 
 is to exercise a general supervision over the public 
 schools of the city, visiting and examining them 
 for this purpose, and reporting upon their con- 
 dition quarterly, or whenever required by the 
 board. He appoints two assistant superintend- 
 ents, one of whom must be able to speak Ger- 
 man. The school revenue is derived from a 
 state school fund, rent of lands given by the 
 general government, a four or five mill tax (the 
 amount varying from year to year) on each 
 dollar of the city property, and fines in criminal 
 cases. The two sexes are educated together. 
 All religious or sectarian instruction is prohib- 
 ited. The length of the school year is 40 weeks ; 
 the school age is from 6 to 16 years. The school 
 system comprises three grades of schools — the 
 district, the normal, and the high school, the 
 former composed of a primary, an intermediate, 
 and a grammar department, all in the same 
 building. Owing to the overcrowding of the 
 schools, in 1866 and subsequently, a system of 
 half-time sessions was begun in the first year of 
 the primary school in some districts, and is still 
 on trial. By this arrangement, in crowded dis- 
 tricts, a slight addition to the teaching force is 
 all that is needed to supply the necessary in- 
 struction, one set of pupils coming in the morn- 
 ing, and another in the afternoon. As its action 
 is to diminish the school hours of the smallest 
 children only, it is thought to be beneficial. The 
 course of stud)/ in the district school comprises 
 reading, spelling, writing, drawing, vocal music, 
 descriptive and physical geography, mental and 
 written arithmetic, English grammar, history 
 and constitution of the United States, conq^osi- 
 tion, and outlines of physics and natural history. 
 In the high school, the course of study is a gen- 
 eral and classical one of 4 years ; in the normal 
 school the course covers a period of 2 years, the 
 branches pursued being principally advanced stages 
 of the district-school studies, with the addition of 
 Latin, elocution, human anatomy and physiology, 
 algebra, general history, geometry, mental philos- 
 ophy, English literature, practical instruction in 
 the teaching of all of these, and general instruction 
 in the theory and art of teaching. In the even- 
 ing schools, and the O 'Fallon Polytechnic In- 
 stitute, which serves as a high school for them, 
 the course of study inclines toward elementary 
 English branches and technological instruction. 
 The session of the evening schools is 4 months. 
 The rapid growth of these schools — the increase 
 being from 1,149, in 1861, to 5,751, in 1875 — is 
 attributed to their intimate relation to the 
 Public School Library, a years membership in 
 which is granted to each student who attends 
 an evening school punctually 60 evenings of the 
 course, and maintains a satisfactory standing 
 therein. The certificate of such membership is 
 equivalent to one-third payment of the cost of 
 life membership. Certificates of the former kind 
 are thus obtained annually by more than 1,000 
 students. 
 
756 SAINT LOUIS UNIVERSITY 
 
 The number of schools in the city is as fol- 
 lows : district schools, 44 ; high schools and 
 branches, ; normal school, 1; evening schools, 
 24; colored schools, 6; kindergartens, 12; total, 
 93. The principal items of school statistics for 
 1875 are as follows : 
 
 Number of children of school age 95,539 
 
 " " " enrolled 41,692 
 
 Average daily attendance 24,438 
 
 Number of teachers, males GO 
 
 females 594 
 
 Total 654 
 
 Receipts (187.')) $849,513.24 
 
 Expenditures (1875) $81.">,4i:i.s:» 
 
 Total value of school property $2,386,620.44 
 
 There are about 70 denominational schools in 
 St. Louis under the control of the Roman Cath- 
 olic and o1 her churches, and a number of private 
 schools ;iik1 academies. In addition to the in- 
 stitutions fur special and higher instruction men- 
 tioned under the head of Missouri (q. v.), there 
 is the Concordia College and Theological Semi- 
 nary, founded in L839, and controlled by the 
 German Evangelical Lutherans; the Academy 
 of Science, established in lsf>0, and now pos- 
 sessed of a library of 3,000 volumes and a large 
 museum; the Missouri Historical Society, found- 
 ed in 1865; and three public libraries, special 
 and general, with an aggregate of nearly 80,000 
 volumes. 
 
 SAINT LOUIS UNIVERSITY, in St. 
 Louis, Mo., a Roman Catholic institution, con- 
 ducted by members of the Society of Jesus, was 
 founded in L829, and chartered in 1832. It is 
 supported by the fees of students, the charge for 
 tuition', board, etc., being $280 a year, and for 
 tuition alone, from Si" to $60. It has a classical 
 course of 6 years, corresponding to the prepara- 
 tory am' collegiate departments of most colleges. 
 and a commercial course of 4 years, embracing 
 all the branches of a good English education. 
 There is also a preparatory or elementary class. 
 'i lie library belonging to the institution numbers 
 over 16,500 volumes. The seleci libraries, open 
 to the students, form a separate collection 
 over 8,000 volumes. In 1875 — 6, there were 22 
 instructors and 353 students. The presidents of 
 the university have been as follows : the Rev. P. 
 J. Verhaegen, S.J , L829 -36; the Rev. J. A. 
 Elet, S.J., 1836 — in; the Rev. J. Vandevelde, 
 S. J.,1840- 13; the Rev. G. A. Carrell, S. J., 
 
 13— 7; the Rev. J.B.I)ruvts.S..T.,1847— 54 ; 
 
 be Rev. J. S. Verdin, S. .1 , 9; the Rev. 
 
 Ooosemans, S. J., 1859—02; the Rev. T. 
 
 O'Neil, S. J., 1802— 8; the Rev. P. II. Stunt. - 
 
 beck, S. J., 1868— 71; the Rev. J. Zealand, S. J., 
 
 j 871 — i; the Rev. I,. Bushart, S. J., since l 
 
 SAINT MARY'S COLLEGE, a Roman 
 < 'atholie inst itut [on in San Francisco, < !aL, con- 
 ducted by the Christian Brothers, was founded 
 in L863. Ii is supported by the fees of students, 
 be regular charge for hoard, tuition, etc., per 
 term of five months being $125. It bas a pre- 
 paratory, a commercial, and a collegiate depart- 
 ment, the la t with a classical and a scientific 
 course. The library contains 3,000 volumes. The 
 
 SAIXT VINCENT'S COLLEGE 
 
 number of students, iii 1876, was 320. Bro. Justin 
 is I 1876) the president. 
 
 ST. MARY'S COLLEGE, at St. Marys, 
 Marion Co., Ky.. a Roman Catholic institu- 
 tion, conducted by ecclesiastics of the Congrega- 
 tion of the Resurrection of Our Lord, was 
 founded in 1821. It is supported by the fees of 
 pupils. The regular charge for hoard, tuition. 
 etc., is $200 a year ; for tuition alone $40. It 
 has a preparatory, a commercial, and a collegiate 
 course. In Ls7f> — 0. there were 8 instructors 
 and 103 students. The Rev. 1>. Fennessy, C. R.. 
 is (1870) the president. 
 
 SAINT MEINRAD'S COLLEGE, at 
 St. Meinrad, Spencer Co., Ind., founded in 1854, 
 is connected with St. Meinrad's Abbey, and is 
 under the control of the Benedictine lathers of 
 the Roman Catholic Church. It is supported 
 by the i''rs of students, amounting to $90 per 
 session of live months for hoard and tuition. It 
 is the seminary of the Roman Catholic Diocese 
 of Vincennes, in which the priests of that dio- 
 cese are educated, and offers a full course of En- 
 glish, commercial, classical, and theological stud- 
 ies. The library contains 6,000 volumes. The 
 
 number of students, in I876,was80. The ab- 
 bot, or superior.of the monastery is the principal 
 of the college; he appoints #ne of the Fathers 
 to act as president, or prefect of studies and 
 morals. The present prefect (1876) is the Rev. 
 '<. Isidore Bobi, 0. S. B., appointed in 1871. 
 
 SAINT STEPHEN'S COLLEGE, at An- 
 andale, 1 hitchess < !o., N.Y., was founded in 1 860. 
 It is an academic body composed of religious men 
 
 — trustees, professors, and students — who are 
 communicants of the Protestant Episcopal 
 ( 'hurch. The religious culture of the students is 
 a prominent object. Its special design is the 
 i lassical education of candidates for the ministry 
 of the Church. It is chiefly supported by the 
 contributions of friends. '1 he only charge to 
 student-; is $225 per year for hoard, etc. The 
 
 college bas valuable philosophical apparatus, and 
 a library of 2,000 volumes. In 18/5 — 6, there 
 
 were 8 inst ruetors and 71 students (45 collegiate 
 
 and 29 preparatory). The presidents bave been 
 as follows: the Rev. Geo. F.Seymour, I'. 1'., 
 1860— 61; the Rev. Thos. Eichey, D.D.,1861— 3; 
 and (1876) the Rev. Robert 15. Fairbairn, 1>. !».. 
 
 LL. D., since 1863. 
 
 SAINT VINCENT'S COLLEGE, at Cape 
 Girardeau, Mo., a Woman Catholic institution 
 conducted by the Priests of the Congregation of 
 
 the .Mission, was chartered in 1843. It has a 
 theological and a collegiate department. The 
 curriculum of studies in the collegiate depart- 
 meiit covers five years, and embraces a complete 
 course of English and classical literature. Ger- 
 man, French, Italian. Spanish, and instrumental 
 music are optional. * hristian doctrine is taught 
 throughout the course. The library contains 
 5,500 volumes. The regular charge for tuition, 
 board, etc., is S'J.">u a year; for tuition alone. $40. 
 in 1875—6, there were 12 instructors, and 125 
 students ill) theological). The Rev. J. W. Hickey, 
 • '. M., is 1 1 876) the president. 
 
 
SAINT VINCENT'S COLLEGE 
 
 SAN FRANCISCO 
 
 (07 
 
 SAINT VINCENT'S COLLEGE, .it Beat- 
 ty, Westmoreland ( 'o., Pa., 2 miles from Latrobe, 
 is a Roman Catholic institution, founded in L846 
 by the Rt. Rev. Boniface Wimmer, 0. S. B., of 
 St. Vincent's Abbey, and incorporated in L870. 
 It is conducted by the Benedictine Fathers, 
 under the immediate supervision of its founder. 
 There are four distinct courses of study: the 
 theological, the philosophical, the classical, and 
 the commercial, besides an elementary school for 
 beginners. In all these, special attention is paid 
 to religious instruction. The German, French, 
 Italian, and Spanish languages are optional. 
 Tlie regular charge for tuition, board, etc., is 
 $90 per session of five months. In 1875 — 6, 
 there were 37 instructors and 306 students (ec- 
 clesiastical course, 38; philosophical, 30; classical, 
 152; commercial, 64; elementary, 22). The Rev. 
 Hilary Pfrrengle, O. S. B., is (1876) the director 
 of the college. 
 
 SAINT XAVIER COLLEGE, in Cincin- 
 nati, Ohio, was established in 1831, by the Rt. Rev. 
 E. D. Fenwick, D. D., the first Roman Cath- 
 olic Bishop of Cincinnati, under the name of The 
 Athenaeum. In 1840, it was transferred to the 
 Fathers of the Society of Jesus, who have con- 
 ducted it ever since under its present title. It 
 was incorporated in 1842. The college library 
 numbers about 12,000 volumes. There are, also, 
 select libraries for the use of the students. The 
 course of instruction embraces four departments: 
 the collegiate, academic, commercial, and prepar- 
 atory. The regular tuition fee is $60 a year. 
 In 1875 — 6, there were 14 instructors and 262 
 students (54 collegiate, 101 academic, 90 com- 
 mercial, and 17 preparatory). The presidents, 
 since 1840, have been as follows: John Elet, 
 7 years; Jno. De Blieck, 3; Isidore Boudreaux, 3; 
 John Blox, 1 ; George A. Carrel, 2 ; Maurice 
 Oakley, 5 ; Jno. Schultz, 4 ; Walter II. Hill, 3 ; 
 Thos. O'Neil, 2; Leopold Bushart, 3 ; and the 
 Rev. Edward A. Higgins, S. J., the present in- 
 cumbent (1876), since 1«74. 
 
 SALADO COLLEGE, at Salado, Bell Co., 
 Tex'., was founded in 1859 by a joint stock 
 association. It is not denominational. It is 
 supported by tuition fees, which range from $10 
 to $25 per session of five months for the regular 
 branches. It admits both sexes, and has a pre- 
 paratory and a collegiate department. In 1874 — 5, 
 there were 5 instructors and 204 students (112 
 males and 92 females). The presidents of the 
 college have been as follows: James L. Smith, to 
 1874 ; Samuel D. Sanders, 1874—6 ; and O. H. 
 ^IcDmber, A. M., since June 1876. 
 
 SALZMANN, Christian Gotthilf, one of 
 the most distinguished educators of Germany, 
 'was born June 1., 1744. at Sommerda, and died 
 Oct. 31., 1811. Having studied theology, he 
 became pastor, in 1768, of a Lutheran church at 
 Rohrborn, near Erfurt; and, in 1772, of one of 
 the churches in the city of Erfurt. The writings 
 of Rousseau and Basedow made a strong impres- 
 sion on his mind; and, in 1781, he resigned his 
 pastorate, in order to connect himself with the 
 Philanthropin (q. v.). In consequence of the 
 
 dissensions and confusion which arose in the 
 Philanthropin, he left it in 1 784, and established, 
 at a, villa purchased by him at Schnepfenthal, 
 near Gotha, a new educational institution, for 
 the sons of persons belonging to the higher 
 classes of society. The literary reputation which 
 Salzmann had already acquired by the publica- 
 tion of several pedagogical works, the efficient 
 co-operation of an excellent wife and of several 
 eminent educators, as Gutsmuths (q. v.), Lenz, 
 Weissenborn, and the three brothers Ausfeld, 
 soon made this institution one of the most fa- 
 mous in all Germany, and attracted pupils from 
 all parts of Europe. In course of time, his son, 
 Karl Salzmann, and several of his daughters and 
 sons-in-law took an active part in the management 
 of the institution, which thus, to a degree rarely 
 equaled in the history of education, possessed 
 the character of an enlarged family circle. After 
 Salzmann 's death, his son Karl assumed the 
 direction of the school; and, in 1848, he was 
 succeeded by Wilhelm Ausfeld, a grandson of 
 the founder. A collection of the educational and 
 juvenile works of Salzmann, which are highly 
 esteemed, has been published at Stuttgart, in 12 
 vols. (1845 — 6). Salzmann was by far the most 
 successful among the Philanthropinists, being 
 especially distinguished for common sense, mod- 
 eration, and perseverance. The school established 
 by him, is the only one among the original Phil- 
 anthropinic institutions which has survived to 
 the present day. His first pupil at Schnepfen- 
 thal was Karl Bitter, the founder of comparative 
 geography, who always gratefully remembered 
 the indelible impressions which he had received 
 from Gutsmuths, his teacher in geography. 
 
 SANDWICH ISLANDS. See Hawaiian 
 Islands. 
 
 SAN FRANCISCO, the metropolis of the 
 state of California, and the largest city on the 
 Pacific coast, having a population, in 1870, of 
 149,473, estimated, in 1875, at 234,000. 
 
 Educational History. — The first systematic 
 instruction given in San Francisco was that at 
 the mission Dolores, which was founded by the 
 Franciscan Brothers, in Oct., 1776. This instruc- 
 tion, however, was chiefly religious, and was 
 given to a favored few. The first English school 
 in the city was opened in April, 1847, in a 
 small shanty erected on the Plaza. It was a 
 private institution, and was supported by tuition 
 fees and voluntary contributions. Nearly all 
 the children in the city (2(1 or 30 in number) 
 received instruction there. This school was con- 
 tinued but a few months, however ; and, in the 
 autumn of the same year, the citizens organized 
 a public school. This was opened in a small, 
 one-story building, which \vas used for various 
 purposes till 1848, when the discovery of gold in 
 the state caused its abandonment as a school-house; 
 and in 1850, it was demolished. On the 23d 
 of April, 1849, Rev. Albert Williams opened a 
 small select school in his church, which he 
 taught for a few months. This was followed by 
 the school of J. O. Pelton, who conducted it as 
 a private enterprise from October, 1849, to April, 
 
158 
 
 SAN FRANCISCO 
 
 1850, -when it was made a public school by an 
 act of the common council. This school opened 
 with only 3 pupils, but the number increased 
 rapidly till 1850, when the disastrous fires of that 
 and the following year broke up the school. The 
 Happy Valley school, situated near the corner 
 of Second and .Minna streets, was opened in 
 July, 1850. This soon became a flourishing 
 school of about 100 pupils, but the great fires of 
 1851 caused its suspension. It was supported 
 by tuition fees and voluntary contributions; but, 
 as it received a small appropriation from the 
 common council, the children of the poor re- 
 ceived free instruction there. Another school of 
 the same kind, i. e., partly private and partly 
 public, was established in Spring Valley, in 1851. 
 This is now the Spring Valley Primary School. 
 A few other small schools were taught during 
 1850 and 1851, and several large Catholic 
 parochial schools were also established. — The 
 first extended provision for a system of free' 
 schools was made September 25., 1851, when 
 the common council passed an ordinance author- 
 izing the organization, support, and regulation 
 of common schools. Under this ordinance, 
 Thomas J. Nevins was appointed superintend- 
 ent, and James Denman the first teacher. The 
 first board of education was elected in October 
 following ; and, at the end of the school year in 
 November, is. VJ, seven schools had been estab- 
 lished, with an attendance of 791 pupils. At 
 that time, the number of children in the 
 city between the ages of 1 and 1 s, was 2,050; 
 and the average number attending the schools 
 was 115. In L853, the amount expended for 
 tlu support of the schools was #35,040, the aver- 
 age number of pupils being 1,182. The first 
 high school was opened August 1G., 1856, with 
 80 pupils — 35 boys and 45 girls. The usual op- 
 position to this school, on the ground that the 
 people's money should be spent for elementary 
 instruction only, Avas at once encountered, but 
 rapidly passed away upon an exhibition of the 
 substantial benefits conferred by the school. In 
 June, 1864, this school was divided into a boys' 
 and a girls' school, in separate buildings. During 
 lh ■ same year, the city was divided into 7 grani- 
 mar-schoo] districts; and the classes in each were 
 placed under the supervision of a grammar 
 master, for the purpose of securing greater uni- 
 formity and efficiency in classification and in- 
 struction. In L867, a normal training class for 
 teachers was organized ; but, for want of ap- 
 preciation by the board of education, it was dis- 
 continued. In lsiis, graded evening schools 
 were established. In 1ST'-' — 3, instruction in 
 French and German was introduced into oearlj 
 all the public schools, the study of one or the 
 Other language, in some cases, and in others, of 
 both, being compulsory ; but, in February, L87 L, 
 ih ■ study of any language but English was pro- 
 hibited, except in the Girls' and the Boys' High 
 
 tool. In.liiK of the latter year, the study of 
 
 French and German was again introduced into 
 
 four primary and four grammar schools. A 
 
 grammar 
 
 < hinese bc! 1 was organized in L859, bm was 
 
 never popular with the class it was intended to 
 benefit. In I860, it was converted into an even- 
 inn school, and as such was continued till 1871, 
 when it was suspended. Two colored schools 
 were established — one in 1854, the other in 1871; 
 but, in 1875, all colored schools were abolished, 
 and their pupils were transferred to the other 
 schools of the city. Evening schools, on the 
 contrary, have steadily grown in public favor, 
 till tiny are now regarded as "the most useful 
 and prosperous schools in the city." The city 
 superintendents have been as follows: T. J. 
 Nevins, L852— 4; W. II. O'Crady, 1854— C ; 
 E. A.Theller, 185G— 7; J. C. Pelton, 1857—8; 
 II. B. Janes, 1858— CO ; J. Denman, I860— 62; 
 G. Tait, L862— 6; J. C. Pelton, 1866—8; J. 
 Denman, 1868—70; J. H. Widber, 1870—7:!; 
 J. Denman, 1873 — 5 ; and H. N. Bolander, the 
 present incumbent, who was elected in J 875. 
 
 School System.— '1 he city constitutes but one 
 school-district, parents being permitted to send 
 their children to any school they may choose. 
 The management of the schools is intrusted to a 
 board of education composed of 12 members, 
 elected, at large, biennially, by direct vote of the 
 people. This board has all the powers usual !y 
 conferred upon such bodies. The superintendent 
 of common schools is, also, elected biennially by 
 the people, and may appoint an assistant. The 
 support of the schools is derived from state and 
 city taxes, the latter being fixed bylaw at an 
 amount equal to $7 for each actual attendant. 
 The school age is from 5 to 17 years. There are 
 33 primary, L3 grammar, and 2 high schools, and 
 one evening school. The system contemplates a 
 course of 1 years in the primary schools, -1 in the 
 grammar, and 3 in the high schools, pupils con- 
 tinuing one year in each grade. The course of 
 study in the high schools is such as to prepare 
 students for the state university. In the gram- 
 mar and the primary schools, it docs not differ 
 materially from that of other large cities ; and in- 
 cludes industrial drawing, vocal music, French, 
 and German. To the two latter, where taught, 
 1$ hours a day for each class are given, 30 spe- 
 cial teachers being employed for the purpose. 
 
 The principal items of school statistics, for 
 1875, are as follows : 
 
 Number of children of school age 37,583 
 
 " " " enrolled is public schools. .31,128 
 
 A\ erage daily attendance 21,014 
 
 Number of teachers, males 63 
 
 females 1 17 
 
 Total :... 510 
 
 Receipts $757,849.75 
 
 Expenditures $707,4 i 
 
 The number of private schools and colleges, in 
 
 1875, was about LOO, aboul one-fifth of which 
 are managed by the Roman Catholics, and a 
 considerable part of the remainder, by other 
 
 denominations. In si/.e and character, they range 
 from the small family school of a few pupils, tO 
 
 the flourishing college which numbers its students 
 by hundreds. The number of pupils attend- 
 ing such institutions, in L875, was reported at a 
 little over 6000. Among the agencies for 
 
SANTA BARBARA COLLEGE 
 
 SCHMIDT 
 
 759 
 
 higher education, the city contains an academy 
 of sciences. For an enumeration of the institu- 
 tions for superior and special instruction, sec 
 California. 
 
 SANTA BARBARA COLLEGE, at 
 Santa Barbara, Cal., was incorporated in 1869. 
 It is not denominational. Both sexes are ad- 
 mitted. It contains six departments : (1) math- 
 ematics, (2) languages, (3) literature and history, 
 (4) natural science and physics, (5) art, (6) mu- 
 sic. There are three courses of study: juvenile. 
 preparatory, and academic ; a collegiate course 
 is also to be established. The regular charge for 
 tuition, board, etc. ranges from $150 to $17") 
 per term of five months ; for tuition alone, from 
 $5 to $10 a month. In 1874—5, there were 
 8 instructors and 120 students. Ellwood Cooper 
 is (1876) the principal. 
 
 SANTA CLARA COLLEGE, at Santa 
 Clara. < !al., a Roman ( atholic institution under 
 the superintendence of the Fathers of the Soci- 
 ety of .Jesus, was founded in 1851, and chartered 
 in 1 855. It is supported by the fees of students, 
 the regular charge for tuition, board, etc., being 
 $350 a year ; for tuition alone, from 84 to $5 a 
 month. The library contains over 10.000 vol- 
 umes. The plan of instruction embraces two 
 distinct courses, the classical and the scientific. 
 There is, besides, a preparatory department. In 
 l87.*> — 6, there were 26 instructors and 257 
 students. The presidents have been as follows : 
 Rev. John Xobili, 1851 — 6 ; Rev. Nicholas 
 Congiato. 1 856 — 8 ; Rev. Felix Cicaterri, 1858 — 
 61 ; Rev. Burchard Yilliger, 1861 — 5; Rev. Aloy- 
 sius Masnata, 1865 — 8 ; Rev. Aloysius Tarsi, 
 1868 — 76; Rev. Aloysius Brunengo, since 1876. 
 
 SANTO DOMINGO (sometimes called San 
 Domingo, or the Dam/in lean Rep ublic) , a republic 
 in the West Indies, occupying the eastern and 
 larger portion of the island of Hayti (q. v.). It 
 has an area of 20,600 sq. m.; and a population of 
 about 1 75,000. The greater part of the popula- 
 tion are a mixed race of Spaniards, Indians, and 
 negroes. They speak the Spanish language, and 
 belong to the Roman Catholic Church. — Public 
 instruction can scarcely be said to exist. Spain, to 
 which Santo Domingo formerly belonged, never 
 cared for the education of the natives; and nearly 
 all the priests, physicians, officers, and teachers 
 came from the mother country. At present, 
 there is freedom of instruction ; but, with the 
 exception of a few private schools in the cities, 
 which charge exorbitant fees, there are no ele- 
 mentary schools, and, consequently, the wealthy 
 classes still continue to send their children to 
 Europe to be educated. In 1860. there was but 
 one public primary school in the entire northern 
 and eastern part of the republic ; and but little, 
 if any, improvement has been made since that 
 time. Special branches of study, like law, medi- 
 cine, pharmacy, and architecture, are taught ex- 
 Iclusively by private teachers. 
 SARMIENTO, Domingo Faustino, a 
 South-American statesman, born February 15., 
 1811 . in San .Tuan de la Frontera, now a western 
 
 
 came director of a school in the province of San 
 Luis as early as L826, but removed to ('liili in 
 
 1831. In L836, he left Chili, and opened a, 
 
 female school in San Juan, but returned to 
 Chili a few years after, where he devoted him- 
 self to the cause of education, by establishing 
 schools and colleges, publishing school books, 
 and editing educational journals. The establish- 
 ment of the normal school at Santiago was one 
 of the results of his labors at this time. In 1845, 
 at the request of the Chilian government, he 
 visited Europe and the United States for the 
 purpose of observing the primary-school systems 
 of those countries. Subsequently, he again took 
 up his residence in the Argentine Republic, and 
 was made, successively, minister of the interior, 
 colonel in the Argentine army, governor of San 
 Juan, and minister of public instruction of the 
 republic. From 1864 to 1868, he was minister 
 plenipotentiary to the United States from that 
 country; and, in October of the latter year, was 
 inaugurated president of the Argentine Repub- 
 lic, which office he continued to hold six years, 
 in this position, his efforts, always directed to- 
 wards the development of the resources of his 
 country, and the improvement of her people, 
 were remarkably successful. The introduction 
 and extension of railroad and telegraph facilities, 
 the encouragement of immigration and foreign 
 commerce, and the establishment of schools and 
 colleges, were the principal events of his adminis- 
 tration. The foundation of the national observ- 
 atory at Cordoba, under the supervision of 
 Prof. B. A. Gould, an institution which has 
 already rendered important service, is chiefly 
 due to President Sarmiento. His principal edu- 
 cational works are the following : De la Educa- 
 tion popular, and Las escuelas, the latter pub- 
 lished in New York. 
 
 SAXONY. See Germany. 
 
 SCHMIDT, Karl, a German educator, was 
 born July 7., 1819, and died Nov. 8., 1864. After 
 studying theology and philosophy at the univer- 
 sities of Halle and Berlin, he was appointed, in 
 1846, teacher at the gymnasium of Kothen. In 
 1863, he was appointed director of the teachers' 
 seminary and school councilor at Gotha, and hi 
 the latter position was called upon to re-organize 
 the school system of the duchy. Fie wrote a large 
 number of educational works, some of which are 
 regarded as belonging to the best part of German 
 literature. The most important of his works is 
 a general history of pedagogics (Geschiclite der 
 Padagogih, 1862, 4 vols.; 3d ed., revised by 
 Wichard Lange, 1872 — 5, 4 vols.). Among his 
 other works are : Geschiclite der Erziehung und 
 des Unterrichts (1860); Das Buck der Erziehung 
 (1854) ; Gymnasialpadagogik (1857) ; Zur Re- 
 form der Lehrersemtnare und der Volkssehule 
 (1863); Zur Erziehung und Religion (1865) j 
 Anthropologic (1865). Schmidt regarded the 
 whole of anthropology, not psychology alone, as 
 the only safe and adequate foundation of peda- 
 gogy. He accepted the theories of Call (q. v.) 
 and his successors, and himself made notable con- 
 tributions to the development of phrenology. 
 
760 
 
 SCHOLASTICISM 
 
 SCHOOL BOARD 
 
 SCHOLASTICISM, a name generally ap- 
 plied to the Christian philosophy of the middle 
 ages, though there is no agreement among schol- 
 ars as to its exact definition. In its first period, 
 which extends from the !*th tfl the 1 lth century, 
 philosophical speculations were limited to theo- 
 logical problems. Among the greatest represent- 
 atives of scholasticism are Scotus Erigeua, <!er- 
 bert (Pope Sylvester II.), and Anselm of Can- 
 terbury. About the middle of the 12th century, 
 the controversy between the Realists and Nomi- 
 nalists led to the full development of scholasti- 
 cism, which denied to philosophy any right to 
 extend its speculations beyond the tenets of the 
 Church, but assigned to it the task of systema- 
 tizing the doctrines of the Church, and of defend- 
 ing them (philosophia theologies ancilla). Thus, 
 the scholastics were led to cultivate chiefly logic 
 and dialectics. Among the greatest scholastics, 
 during the classic period of the system, were 
 Alexander de Hales, Albertns Magnus, Thomas 
 Aquinas, and Dims Scotus. In the 15th century, 
 scholasticism began to decline: and. though sub- 
 sequently the Jesuits tried to revive it, and 
 have partly retained its method of teaching to 
 l lie present day, it has never been able to recover 
 anywhere its mediaeval supremacy. Its impor- 
 tance in the history of education depends chiefly 
 on the influence which it exerted, during the 
 middle ages, upon all schools, but more especially 
 upon the cathedral ami eon vent schools. Among 
 the best works on the history of scholasticism, 
 are HaurKjau, De In philosophie scolastique 
 1 1! vols., L850) ; Eaulich, Geschichte der scho- 
 htsiiiiclir.il Philosophic, (1853); Stceck, Geschickie 
 'lerPhilosophiei/'s Mitt-h titers (.'5 vols.. 1 86 I — 6); 
 I \t, i. am. Introduction to the Literature of 
 Europe. 
 
 SCHOOL (Lat. schola, from Gr. oxoM, lei- 
 sure, especially for literary studies, and hence 
 applied to the place where such studies were pur- 
 sued, — a school), a term now applied to an educa- 
 tional establishment, particularly of the primary 
 or secondary grade; as a primary school, a gram- 
 mar school, a high school, a classical school, etc. 
 Schools of the secondary grade are. however, of- 
 ten designated academies, seminaries, etc. The 
 term school is not applied to an institution of 
 learning of the superior grade, but institutions for 
 scientific or professional instruction are usually 
 called schools; as theological schools, medical 
 schools, law schools, polytechnic schools, art 
 schools, etc. For information in regard to each 
 kind of schools, see under the respective titles. 
 
 SCHOOL AGE, or Scholastic Age. the 
 age fixed by law. during which pupils may at- 
 tend the public schools. This varies consider- 
 ably in different countries, both as to its com- 
 mencement and termination. Thus, in Prussia, 
 i he school age is from 5 to l I years; in France, 
 
 from T to L3; in Switzerland, from 6 to 1 .'! ; and 
 
 in England, from .': to L8. In the latter coun- 
 try, the rule is as follows: "Attendances may 
 
 not be reckoned for any scholar aliove L8, OT in 
 
 a day school, under 3, or. in an evening school. 
 
 Under 12 yean of age.'' The legislation on this 
 
 subject in the different states of the American 
 Union, also presents considerable diversity, as is 
 shown by the following table : 
 
 State 
 
 School 
 age 
 
 State 
 
 School 
 age 
 
 Alabama 
 
 7-21 
 6-21 
 5—17 
 5—21 
 4— lfi 
 5—21 
 6—21 
 6— is 
 6—21 
 6—21 
 5-21 
 5—21 
 6—20 
 6—21 
 4—21 
 5—20 
 5—15 
 5—20 
 5—21 
 
 Mississippi 
 
 Missouri 
 
 5—21 
 
 5 21 
 
 Arkansas 
 
 
 Nebraska 
 
 5—21 
 6—18 
 5—15 
 5—18 
 6 21 
 
 Colorado 
 
 N'evada 
 
 New Hampshire. . . 
 
 New York 
 
 North Carolina. . . . 
 Ohio 
 
 Connecticut 
 
 Florida 
 
 Georgia 
 
 6 ''1 
 
 Illinois 
 
 Indiana 
 
 6 21 
 
 Oregon. . 
 
 4 20 
 
 Iowa 
 
 Pennsylvania 
 
 Rhode Island 
 
 South Carolina . . . 
 Tennessee 
 
 6 21 
 
 Kansas 
 
 4 16 
 
 Kentucky 
 
 Louisiana 
 
 6—16 
 6 18 
 
 Maine 
 
 .Massachusetts. . . . 
 .Micliigan 
 
 6—18 
 5 20 
 
 Virginia 
 
 West Virginia 
 
 5—21 
 6—21 
 4—20 
 
 It will thus be seen that the school age begins 
 at 4 years in five states : at 5 years, in seventeen 
 states ; at (J years, in fifteen states ; and at 7 
 years, in only one state ; also, that the school 
 age ends at 21 in twenty-two states ; at 20 in 
 six states: at 1 s, in five states: at IT. in one 
 state: at Hi. in three states: and at 15, in two 
 states- -Massachusetts and New Hampshire. 
 
 The statistics showing the age of the children 
 who actually attend school, is very meager, but 
 tew of the state school reports giving any infor- 
 mation on the subject. It has been estimated 
 that the vast majority of children leave school 
 before the age of 1 5 years. The average age of 
 pupils in the evening schools must, however, be 
 much higher. In the rural districts, the average 
 ageof pupils in the public schools must be higher 
 than in the large cities, especially in the winter 
 term. After a comparison of all available sta- 
 tistics, Francis Adams, in Free School System 
 of the United States, remarks, "There can be no 
 doubt, however, that, as a general rule, children 
 remain at school much later in America [United 
 States] than in England." It is also stated by 
 the same writer that. " in England and Wales. 
 the percentage of children over 1 1. in schools re- 
 ceiving grants, in L874, was 0.99." The age 
 fixed by most compulsory attendance laws, is 
 from 8 to 11 years. 
 
 SCHOOL ' BOARD, the name generally 
 given to the body of school commissioners, di- 
 rectors, trustees, etc. constituted by law to have 
 the care and regulation of' schools in states, cities, 
 towns, district.-, etc. Such a board is often 
 
 called the Board of Education, or Board of 
 Public Instruction. In most of the New Eng- 
 land states, the school board is called the School 
 
 Committee. Formerly, in New England, the 
 usual term was Prudential Committee, which 
 
 title is still retained in some places. State boards 
 of education usually have a paramount authority 
 in all educational matters in the state. In Eng- 
 land, School Board is the name given by the 
 " Elementary Education Act" of 1870, to the 
 
SCHOOL liROTIIKRS 
 
 SCHOOL (KNSI'S 
 
 761 
 
 constituted school authority in each district, sub- 
 ject to the Education I lepartinent of the govern- 
 ment. 
 
 SCHOOL BROTHERS. See Roman Cath- 
 olic Church. 
 
 SCHOOL CENSUS, in its wider sense, is 
 an official census relating to school affairs, and 
 embraces tlie number of schools, teachers and 
 pupils, children of school age, school libraries, 
 etc. The great progress of statistical science, 
 in late years, has led, in different countries, to 
 much more minute inquiries into school affairs. 
 and is preparing the way for a much fuller and 
 more comprehensive school census than has been 
 accessible in the past. Heretofore, a school census 
 has commonly been understood in a narrower 
 sense to denote an enumeration of all the chil- 
 dren of school age residing in any country, state, 
 city, etc. This enumeration has always formed a 
 part of the general decennial census of the United 
 States, and of the state enumerations. In some 
 states, an enumeration of the children of school 
 age is taken annually, as the appropriation of 
 state aid for public schools is based upon it. Such 
 a census is of great importance, as showing the 
 number of children to be educated, in comparison 
 with the sehool attendance. The following table 
 shows the number of white and colored children 
 between the ages of 5 and 19 in each of the states 
 of the Union, according to the census of 1870 : 
 
 School Census of the United. States. 
 
 School Census of the United States. 
 
 < < >I A >E ED >.) 
 
 ' 
 
 (WHITES.) 
 
 Alabama 
 
 Arkansas 
 
 California .... 
 Connecticut . . 
 Delaware .... 
 
 Florida 
 
 Georgia 
 
 Illinois 
 
 Indiana 
 
 Iowa 
 
 Kansas 
 
 Kentucky 
 
 Louisiana .... 
 
 Maine 
 
 Maryland 
 
 Massachusetts 
 
 Michigan 
 
 Minnesota. . . . 
 Mississippi.. . . 
 
 Missouri 
 
 Nebraska .... 
 
 Nevada 
 
 N. Hampshire 
 New Jersey . . 
 New York". . . 
 North Carolina 
 
 Ohio 
 
 Oregon 
 
 Pennsylvania . 
 Rhode Island. 
 South Carolina 
 
 Tennessee 
 
 Texas 
 
 Vermont 
 
 Virginia 
 
 West Virginia. 
 Wisconsin .... 
 
 Total 
 
 5 to 9 10 to 14 15 to 17 18 to 19 
 
 60,16b 
 44,915 
 60,189 
 52,130 
 12,7.50 
 12,005 
 79,078 
 
 336.43S 
 
 220,340 
 
 I04,72!i 
 44,042 
 
 152,087 
 45,010 
 65,185 
 74,714 
 
 138,700 
 
 143,849 
 03,021 
 47,190 
 
 222,593 
 
 15,143 
 
 2,510 
 
 28,171 
 
 102,500 
 
 478,073 
 n.'v,:;i 
 
 Mi's, m 2 
 12,348 
 
 425,529 
 19,920 
 34,715 
 
 123,409 
 74,482 
 34,309 
 83,701 
 58,591 
 
 145,522 
 
 4,105,742 
 
 70,301 
 52,514 
 49,523 
 54,133 
 12,954 
 13,493 
 91,489 
 
 318,948 
 
 220,420 
 
 154,436 
 39,404 
 
 147,302 
 48,276 
 69,874 
 73,904 
 
 147,149 
 
 138,428 
 55,018 
 53,040 
 
 210,179 
 
 13,049 
 
 1,850 
 
 31,808 
 
 100,344 
 
 478,639 
 92,349 
 
 326,740 
 11,352 
 
 415,580 
 22,114 
 39,223 
 
 128,075 
 81,552 
 34,854 
 93,060 
 57,432 
 
 139,010 
 
 4,095,388 
 
 39,25b 
 28,430 
 21,074 
 30,350 
 6,083 
 6,718 
 47,192 
 
 155,422 
 
 112,041 
 73,919 
 18,880 
 75,779 
 24,932 
 39,972 
 39,010 
 82,810 
 70,800 
 24,236 
 28,439 
 
 102,470 
 
 0,110 
 
 817 
 
 18,640 
 
 51,310 
 
 201,050 
 47,757 
 
 170,870 
 5,358 
 
 217.070 
 12,581 
 20,226 
 00,29s 
 40,009 
 20,385 
 48,826 
 28,999 
 67,948 
 
 2,114,025 
 
 25,149 
 17,203 
 12,902 
 19,963 
 
 4,203 
 
 4,401 
 29,800 
 102,530 
 72,179 
 48,092 
 12,817 
 40,306 
 15,003 
 20,536 
 25,435 
 57,826 
 46,636 
 15,158 
 lb.osf, 
 64,780 
 
 4,216 
 
 704 
 
 12,839 
 
 33,960 
 
 107,502 
 
 30,084 
 
 110,012 
 
 2,947 
 143.501 
 
 8,727 
 13,247 
 41,151 
 24,538 
 13,202 
 30,207 
 17,758 
 42,214 
 
 1,303,289 
 
 Alabama 
 
 Arkansas 
 
 California 
 
 Connecticut . . . 
 
 Delaware 
 
 Florida 
 
 Georgia 
 
 Illinois 
 
 Indiana 
 
 Iowa 
 
 Kansas 
 
 Kentucky 
 
 Louisiana 
 
 Maine 
 
 Maryland 
 
 Massachusetts . 
 
 Michigan 
 
 Minnesota 
 
 Mississippi 
 
 Missouri 
 
 Nebraska 
 
 Nevada 
 
 New Hampshire 
 New Jersey. . . . 
 New York. . . . 
 North Carolina. 
 
 Ohio 
 
 Oregon 
 
 Pennsylvania . . 
 Rhode Island. ., 
 South Carolina. 
 
 Tennessee 
 
 Texas 
 
 Vermont 
 
 Virginia 
 
 West Virginia. . 
 Wisconsin 
 
 07,547 
 
 63,388 
 
 30,221 
 
 15,645 
 
 15,702 
 
 8,193 
 
 383 
 
 385 
 
 ISO 
 
 Too 
 
 945 
 
 575 
 
 2,900 
 
 2,918 
 
 1,536 
 
 13,442 
 
 12,010 
 
 "5,538 
 
 79,091 
 
 74,493 
 
 35,502 
 
 3,044 
 
 3,187 
 
 1,722 
 
 3,017 
 
 3,000 
 
 1,049 
 
 625 
 
 014 
 
 353 
 
 2,137 
 
 2,237 
 
 1,120 
 
 31,180 
 
 31,975 
 
 15,565 
 
 44,K70 
 
 42,329 
 
 20,493 
 
 115 
 
 160 
 
 129 
 
 22,274 
 
 22,574 
 
 11,371 
 
 1,075 
 
 1,201 
 
 782 
 
 1,579 
 
 1,485 
 
 70S 
 
 02 
 
 00 
 
 39 
 
 62,152 
 
 59,099 
 
 28,308 
 
 10,700 
 
 17,133 
 
 8,328 
 
 65 
 
 81 
 
 47 
 
 18 
 
 15 
 
 5 
 
 34 
 
 57 
 
 46 
 
 3,217 
 
 3,458 
 
 1,952 
 
 4,556 
 
 4,984 
 
 2,972 
 
 54,775 
 
 54,4S!i 
 
 26,581 
 
 7,548 
 
 7,038 
 
 4,222 
 
 33 
 
 34 
 
 12 
 
 6,271 
 
 6,960 
 
 4,020 
 
 364 
 
 433 
 
 309 
 
 57,792 
 
 55,324 
 
 26,508 
 
 43,637 
 
 45, Oss 
 
 22,462 
 
 38,345 
 
 34,239 
 
 10,054 
 
 07 
 
 92 
 
 02 
 
 07,908 
 
 69,352 
 
 33,894 
 
 2,277 
 
 2,389 
 
 1,155 
 
 211 
 
 2 (is 
 640,408 
 
 142 
 
 655,854 
 
 152,318 
 
 19,490 
 
 5,205 
 
 112 
 
 474 
 
 1,031 
 
 3,945 
 
 22,700 
 
 1,294 
 
 1,120 
 
 305 
 
 090 
 
 9,738 
 
 13,769 
 
 106 
 
 7,432 
 
 079 
 
 530 
 
 57 
 
 18,203 
 
 5,448 
 
 47 
 
 9 
 
 50 
 
 1,378 
 
 2,300 
 
 17,087 
 
 3,053 
 
 12 
 
 3,092 
 
 217 
 
 17,229 
 
 13,756 
 
 9,830 
 
 74 
 
 20,728 
 
 826 
 
 112 
 
 Total 655,854 640,408 152,318 202,72s 
 
 The school age, in some of the states, extends 
 to 21 years ; but, practically, the above table 
 includes all the children who attend school. 
 
 In the countries of Europe, the school age (q. 
 v.) generally extends only to the 14th, 13th, or 
 12th year of age. The following table exhibits 
 the number of schools and pupils, and the pro- 
 portion of the latter to the entire population, in 
 the several countries of Europe : 
 
 Countries 
 
 Year 
 
 Number 
 
 of 
 
 public 
 
 schools 
 
 Number 
 
 of 
 pupils 
 
 Number 
 of pupils 
 to every 
 
 1,000 
 inhabit. 
 
 Switzerland (Prima 
 
 German Empire (es- 
 timated, without 
 Alsace and Lor- 
 
 1871-2 
 
 1872 
 1874 
 1873 
 1875 
 1873 
 1867 
 1872 
 1872 
 1870-72 
 
 1871-4 
 1873 
 
 1873-4 
 1874 
 1873 
 1870 
 1873 
 1874 
 1873 
 
 5,088 
 
 56,000 
 644 
 6,502 
 8,123 
 2,790 
 3.064 
 
 70.179 
 5,078 
 
 31,069 
 
 22,578 
 
 27,760 
 
 42,920 
 
 1,227 
 
 1,382 
 
 3,500 
 
 2,221 
 
 517 
 
 23,183 
 
 412,789 
 
 6,000.000 
 
 28,437 
 
 243.969 
 
 606,876 
 
 ;,(in. o.v.i 
 
 220.079 
 4,7'2().IIU(I 
 
 618,937 
 3,285,485 
 
 2,848,295 
 
 1,381,972 
 
 1,827,381 
 
 81,449 
 
 76,477 
 
 140,000 
 
 82,145 
 
 23.278 
 
 1,009,037 
 
 155 
 153 
 
 Luxemburg 
 
 142 
 138 
 
 
 138 
 
 
 136 
 135 
 
 
 131 
 
 
 123 
 
 Austria-Hungary 
 Great Britain and 
 
 91 
 
 88 
 
 
 82 
 
 Italy 
 
 70 
 
 
 50 
 
 
 42 
 
 
 32, 
 
 
 17 
 
 
 17 
 
 
 14 
 
T62 
 
 SCHOOL-DISTRICT 
 
 SCHOOL FESTIVALS 
 
 SCHOOL-DISTRICT, a district formed by 
 the division of a town, or township, for the pur- 
 pose of establishing, managing, and supervising 
 
 schools. It is usually the smallest territorial sub- 
 division of a state The oldest law, in the United 
 
 States, establishing school-districts and the dis- 
 trict system,waa that passed in Massachusetts, in 
 
 1789. In most" of the states, at the present time, 
 the district system has been wholly or partly 
 superseded by the township system, which has 
 been found to have many advantages over it. In 
 Massachusetts, the district system was, in the 
 main, abolished in 1809 ; and the change is 
 strongly commended. The system still exists to 
 some extent in the western part of the state, elic- 
 iti i li*: the following comment from one of the 
 .state agents, in his report of December, 1875 : 
 '•With little or nothing of consideration in its 
 favor, with a troop of evils attendant upon it, 
 with many peculiarly incident to its existence, 
 it would seem that it should be abolished at 
 once, and forever, by legislative enactment."' In 
 some of the other New England states, permis- 
 sory laws have been passed, allowing the inhabit- 
 ants to accept the township system instead of the 
 district system. — Each school-district has a 
 trustee, or a board of trustees, or, as styled in New 
 England, a school committee, elected by the in- 
 habitants, and authorized to have the safe-keep- 
 ing of the school-house and other school property, 
 to hire and pay the teacher, or teachers, and to 
 make all necessary regulations for the manage- 
 ment of the school. The mode of forming school- 
 districts, and of changing their boundaries, varies 
 in the different states. — The objections to the 
 district system seem to lie based upon the small- 
 ness of its area and its consequent inadequate 
 resources to support suitable schools. "Little 
 money, poor school-houses, short schools,'' said the 
 state superintendent of Maine, in 1872, "an 1 the 
 necessary attendants of this system." This cir- 
 cumstance has led, in New York, to the establish- 
 ment of Union free-school districts, formed by 
 uniting two adjoining districts for the purpose 
 of establishing and supporting a better school 
 than the resources of either by itself would per- 
 mit. In the English Education Act. the parish 
 is constituted the school-district, in relation to 
 which I''. Adams remarks, in The Free School 
 System of the United States, "it has been sug- 
 gested that in selecting the parish as the school- 
 district, we have selected too small a division. 
 We have, however, happily steered clear of the 
 system which, in the United States, has been 
 very prejudicial to harmonious and efficient 
 action." — For information in regard to school- 
 districts in the several states, see under the re- 
 spective titles. 
 
 SCHOOL ECONOMY, a general term ap- 
 plied t<> the collective body of principles and 
 rules by which the keeping of schools is regU- 
 lated. In its widest sense, it embraces all that 
 
 pertains to the construction and furnishing of 
 (he school-house, the proper apparatus to be em- 
 ployed in carrying on the processes of instruc- 
 tion, the various modes of school organization 
 
 and administration, including a consideration of 
 the length and arrangement of school sessions 
 and terms, the proper records to be kept, the 
 course of study, programme of daily exercises, 
 ami the modes of discipline, management, and 
 instruction. The treatment of all these various 
 matters will be found in this work under the re- 
 spective titles. 
 
 SCHOOL FESTIVALS, like the vacation 
 and holidays, are an interruption of the regular 
 school work : but while the latter only aim at a 
 cessation from work in order to give to teachers 
 and pupils time for rest and recreation, school 
 festivals are intended to substitute enjoyment 
 for mental labor. Ancient Home had at the be- 
 ginning of March, a school festival, called the 
 quinquatria, at which the teachers collected 
 presents. In order to give to this festival a 
 Christian character. Fope Gregory IV. (827 — 
 •Mi appointed the 12th of March (the day on 
 which the Church commemorated the death of 
 I 'ope Gregory I.) as a special festival for the 
 schools of Rome. The Gregorian festival spread 
 throughout Italy. France, and Germany, and to 
 other countries : and, in some places, has main- 
 tained itself to the present day. — Next to the 
 day of St. Gregory, the festivals of the Apostle 
 Andrew, of the Innocent Children, of St. Nicho- 
 las, and others, came early into general use. 
 Among these, the riri/ahun-f/ehat may be men- 
 tioned. (See Germany.) Processions and masquer- 
 ades were a common feature of all these fes- 
 tivals*— In Germany, as well as in the Scandina- 
 vian countries, there were also May festivals, 
 to celebrate the departure of winter and the 
 advent of spring. The pupils of the schools, in 
 solemn procession, marched around the field, 
 and, in the evening, were treated to a common 
 banquet. This festival is still in common use in 
 Bavaria and Wurtemberg. The most celebrated 
 among the school festivals in Germany, are the 
 Kirschenfest, at Naumburg, and the Ruihenfest, 
 at Ravensburg. The celebration of these usually 
 draws a large concourse of people. Where the 
 public schools have a denominational character, 
 great church holidays arc frequently the occa- 
 sion for special school festivals. Thus, in many 
 Protestant schools of Europe, it is common 
 to celebrate annually the introduction of the 
 Reformation. Monarchical governments have 
 made the celebration of the birthday of the 
 sovereign obligatory in all the schools of the 
 country, in order to implant sentiments of loyal- 
 ty and Bubmissiveness in the minds of the rising 
 generation. Some of the German educators who 
 
 are favorable to school festivals, have 1 , by way 
 
 of experiment, organized them on the grandest 
 
 scale. Thus Froebel spent, in 1850, several 
 months in preparing a school children's and 
 people's festival, which was held in a castle of 
 the duke of Saxe-Meiningen. It is quite com- 
 mon for the elementary schools in Germany to 
 
 spend at least one day of the year in an excur- 
 sion, d urine,- which the children amuse themselves 
 
 with the national games. To close the school 
 
 year with appropriate festivals, is quite common 
 
SCHOOL FUND 
 
 SCHOOL FURNITURE 
 
 7G3 
 
 in civilized countries. The best known among 
 the school festivals of the United States are those 
 connected with the college commencement. (See 
 Commencement.) Among schools of all grades, 
 school exhibitions and receptions have become 
 very popular, and rarely fail to be numerously at- 
 tended by the relatives and friends of the pupils. 
 School picnics are more frequently held during the 
 summer vacation than in the midst of the school 
 year; but. without regard to the season, are sure 
 to delight the scholars. — Educators are generally 
 agreed that school festivals, if well arranged and 
 superintended, exert a beneficial influence. 
 
 SCHOOL FUND, property or money set 
 apart by legislative enactment for the support of 
 schools. In the United States, the school fund 
 in each state has been chiefly derived from na- 
 tional and state appropriations, particularly of 
 lands. Of the latter, the 16th section grant is 
 an example. The U. S. Deposit Fund, some- 
 times called the Surplus Revenue Fund, was 
 also a national grant. (See United States.) 
 The mode of apportionment varies in the dif- 
 ferent states ; it is, however, wholly or partly 
 based upon the number of pupils, in each town 
 or district, of the legal school age. For an ac- 
 count of the amount of the school fund in each 
 state, see under the respective titles. 
 
 SCHOOL FURNITURE. Under this head 
 will be considered (1) desks and seats; (2) plat- 
 form ; (3) blackboard ; and (4) miscellaneous fur- 
 niture and apparatus. 
 
 Desks and Seats. — In the matter of health, 
 these are, perhaps, the articles of the greatest 
 importance in the school room. Notwithstanding 
 their importance, however, as deciding the pu- 
 pil's position for several hours of the day, and 
 thus determining, in a great measure, his future 
 health and bearing, school authorities are not yet 
 entirely agreed as to their style, dimensions, or ar- 
 rangement ; each civilized country using its own, 
 on account of some peculiar advantage, the rela- 
 tive value of which is determined by observation 
 from its own stand-point. The first consideration , 
 in the construction or arrangement of desks and 
 seats, should have regard to their influence upon 
 the health of the pupils; the second, to the con- 
 venience of the teacher and pupils, in the ad- 
 justability of the desk and seat for different 
 exercises, or for purposes of school government, 
 which last would be determined principally by 
 the arrangement, and the means afforded for 
 facilitating the entrance or exit of the pupils. 
 Of the comparative advantages of different 
 styles of desks or seats, it is not necessary 
 here to speak, the subject being treated exhaust- 
 ively in the works referred to at the end of this 
 article. The books that have been written on 
 this subject in different countries form almost a 
 library of themselves. Perhaps the best form 
 yet devised is that described in the report of M. 
 Buisson, French commissioner to the Exposition 
 at Vienna in 1873, which was selected for special 
 commendation, after an examination of all the 
 styles there presented. It is known as the Bapte- 
 rosses desk and seat, from the name of the in- 
 
 ventor, who designed it for use in his factory at 
 Briare. It has recently been introduced into the 
 normal school at Auteuil. The chair is single, 
 the seat being of wood, round or square in shape, 
 and supported by an iron leg which slides up or 
 down in a sheath, or hollow cylinder, the base of 
 which is firmly screwed to the floor. The leg and 
 sheath together form the support of the seat, 
 which is checked at any height, in its upward or 
 downward motion, by a thumb-screw. The back 
 of the chair is of the ordinary pattern, and is 
 slightly inclined. The desk is stationary, and is 
 supported by a cast-iron upright. Its upper sur- 
 face is divided into two parts in the usual man- 
 ner — a narrow horizontal part at the back, and 
 a sloping part, much larger, and nearer the pupil. 
 It is provided either with a lid which converts 
 the desk into an ordinary box, or, if the top is 
 not movable, with compartments which open 
 laterally. A small leaden pipe, extending the 
 whole length of the desk, under the horizontal 
 part of the upper surface, serves as an inkstand. 
 It is provided with a vent at each end, secured 
 by a copper cap. and, opposite the pupil, is pierced 
 to receive a small copper funnel of sufficient size 
 to allow only the point of the pen to enter. By 
 this arrangement, the pupil can neither dip his 
 pen too deeply, so as to get too much ink, nor 
 upset his inkstand. Near the foot of the leg of 
 the desk is a foot-rest, which may be raised or 
 lowered by the same device of slide and thumb- 
 screw that is used for the seat. The thumb- 
 screws used on the chair and desk are so arranged 
 that they cannot be turned except by a key, 
 which is kept by the teacher. The principal ad- 
 vantage of this desk is, that it can be adapted 
 to pupils of different heights ; its other recom- 
 mendations are obvious. An improvement, per- 
 haps, might be made by providing the desk with 
 two supports instead of one, thus securing a firm- 
 ness which desks supported by one central pfllar 
 do not usually have. The single desk should be 
 2 feet long, from 25 in. to 29 in. high, and 18 
 in. wide ; the double desk should be 4 feet long, 
 the other dimensions being the same as those of 
 the single desk. The seats should be from 12 in. 
 to 16 in. high. Recitation seats as well as desk 
 seats should be provided with backs. It should 
 not be forgotten, however, that no arrangement 
 of desk or seat, however ingeniously adapted to 
 the pupil's comfort, can take the place of that 
 frequent change of position which is a necessity 
 of his being. Of the dimensions of desks and 
 seats, Robson says, after a careful comparison of 
 the works of Zwey, Falk, Frey, Cohn, Kleiber, 
 and Tirchow, "The weight of opinion is to the 
 effect that the height of the seat should corre- 
 spond to the length of the scholar's leg, from 
 the knee to the sole of the foot. There must be 
 no stretching of muscles ; therefore, the sole of 
 the foot must rest on the floor or upon some flat 
 surface. If the seat be too high, the swinging of 
 the foot in the air causes a compression of the 
 blood-vessels and nerves of the hinder part of 
 the leg and knee ; if it be too low, the thighs of 
 the scholar are pressed against his stomach to the 
 
764 
 
 SCHOOL FURMTl'RK 
 
 disadvantage of health. * * * In order to prevent 
 the scholar's slipping forward, the seat should be 
 slightly declined backward. The height of the 
 desks should be so arranged, that the under part 
 of the arm may rest comfortably on the desk-top, 
 and that the powers of vision may not be strained, 
 or, in other words, that the normal distance of vi- 
 sion may be preserved. Desks which are too low 
 cause, by the bending of the scholar, a pressing 
 on the chest and lower part of the body : while 
 those which are too high cause the right shoulder 
 to be so lifted, as to remove the upper part of 
 the arm so far from the body, that the lowerarm 
 cannot be laid flat on the table, thereby causing 
 the arm to be unsteady and easily tired." Much 
 ingenuity has been exercised in devising seats 
 capable of transformation into a variety of forms. 
 The tendency in this respect is frequently to- 
 wards a mechanism so complicated that it de- 
 feats its own object by becoming easily disar- 
 ranged: and. even if this were not the case, many 
 of the transformations will usually be found to 
 be useless. The really desirable changes of form 
 are very few. Says an eminent educator: "If 
 seats could be so contrived as to remain firm 
 when placed horizontally, to allow the pupil to 
 lean forward easily to write upon his desk, and 
 then could be made to have an inclination back- 
 ward when the pupil desires to read or study. 
 it would add much to his comfort in sitting.and 
 something, perhaps, to the comeliness of his 
 figure." Concerningthe distance of the seat from 
 the desk, a considerable difference of opinion ex- 
 ists, some teachers considering only one inch nec- 
 essary, others as much as three. On this point 
 Dr. Wiese says : "It is, therefore, desirable, that 
 the inner edge of the desk should be distant from 
 the front of the seat only about one inch." Rob- 
 son says : " The scholar who sits too far from the 
 desk, either bends too much, and thereby hurts 
 his chest and eyes, or he glides too far forward on 
 his seat, and so gets an unsteady position. * * " : 
 It is recommended that the vertical distance from 
 the desk to the seat-top should be the length 
 of the fore-arm, or one-sixth the size [height] of 
 the body of the scholar. Too great a distance 
 encourages crooked growth: for the scholar, while 
 writing, has his body weighing on one arm. in- 
 stead of having the arm naturally resting on his 
 body. If the difference in height between desk 
 and seat be too slight, then the chest sinks, and 
 the back is bent out so as to encourage stooping." 
 Of the arrangement of desks, many methods 
 have been advocated, and different ones prevail 
 in different countries; but the weight of author- 
 ity seems to be in favor of Beating the pupils in 
 pairs, this method being economical as to space, 
 and more advantageous for both teacher and 
 pupil in the efficient carrying out of the daily 
 exercises, Its superiority, also, in the matter of 
 
 [ngreSS and egress of the pupils is manifest. The 
 
 arrangement of desks in regard to space and light 
 has Keen considered in the article Hygienk, 
 
 SCHOOL. Many Other considerations present 
 themselves in this connection, the chief of which 
 are the following: the form and height of the 
 
 back of the seat : its attachment to, or inde- 
 pendence of. the desk immediately behind it : the 
 variation in the height of seats and desks as ar- 
 ranged on the same level for pupils of different 
 sizes ; the slope of the floor, or its construction in 
 steps, for the same purpose ; the movable desk or 
 seat as compared with the stationary; the mount- 
 ing of desks and seats on casters : the varying 
 ■ slope of the desk-top for different purposes; the 
 space between the desks ; the breadth of aisles. 
 etc. These are all considered, however, in works 
 specially written for the purpose : and the merits 
 of each for different purposes are fully set forth. 
 
 The Platform. — 1 his is now considered high- 
 ly desirable, if not indispensable, in the school 
 room. On all public occasions, whether of ex- 
 amination ore.xhihition.it is indispensable: while 
 there are many occasions in the usual routine 
 of the school, when it is exceedingly useful. It 
 should be not less than 6 feet wide, and 15 inches 
 high, and should be divided into two levels or 
 risers. In schools in which all the exercises are 
 conducted in one room, closets for the storing of 
 school apparatus are often placed at each end of 
 the platform. Recitation looms are usually 
 fitted up without platform8, the teacher's d.sk 
 standing on the floor. 
 
 The Blackboard. — At the back of the plat- 
 form, against the wall, and facing the school or 
 class, is placed the blackboard. It should extend 
 the entire length of the platform, should beat 
 least 4 feet wide, and extend to within 3 feet of 
 the floor. It should be provided with a frame all 
 around, and a trough at the lower edge for the 
 chalk, and to catch dust, and should have hooks, 
 on which pointers may be hung. The material 
 of blackboards is of three kinds: wood, slate. 
 and a kind of slate-surface made to lay directly 
 on the wall. The last, by combining in a medium 
 the best qualities of the two others, is the most 
 desirable. (See BLACKBOARD.) 
 
 Miscellaneous Furniture and Apparatus. — 
 The principal consideration under this head is 
 not so much the comparative values of different 
 articles, but what articles an' indispensable or. at 
 least, highly necessary. Among these, may be 
 mentioned a clock, a small bell for the calling 
 and dismissing of classes, chairs for visitors, clos- 
 ets or wardrobes, provided with wrought-iron 
 hooks and pegs, a thermometer, sets of maps and 
 charts, a terrestrial globe, an abacus, or numeral 
 frame, and a collection of miscellaneous articles 
 to he used in giving object lessons. The extent 
 to which the articles desirable for tin- school 
 
 room have been added to. and perfected, both in 
 
 the United States and on the continent of Eu- 
 rope, is remarkable; the list given above, how- 
 ever, furnishes a tolerably complete outfit for a 
 
 primary school. One consideration remains to be 
 insisted on: namely, the exercise of good ta^to in 
 the selection of furniture and articles intended 
 to be in constanl sight of the pupils. On this 
 subject, the architect of the London School 
 Board remarks: "The furniture of the school 
 room should be graceful in form, and good in 
 quality and finish. Children are particularly BUB- 
 
SCHOOL GROUNDS 
 
 SrilOOMlolSK 
 
 765 
 
 eeptible of surrounding influences, and their dai- 
 ly familiarization with beauty of form or color, in 
 the simplest ami most ordinary objects, cannot 
 fail to assist in fostering the seeds of taste, just 
 as daily discipline tends to promote habits of 
 order. Furniture finished like good cabinet work 
 is more likely to be respected, even by the mis- 
 chievous school boy, than that of an unsightly or 
 rough character." For further information on 
 this subject see Robsox, School Architecture (Lon- 
 don, 1874); Wickersham, School Economy 
 (Phila.. 1868); Oorrie, Common-School Educa- 
 tion (Edinburgh, 1857); Buisson, Rapjjort sur 
 Vinstruction primaire a fexposition universelle 
 de Vienne en 1873 (Paris, 1875). 
 SCHOOL GROUNDS. See I Iygiexe, School. 
 SCHOOL-HOUSE.— Of the first importance 
 in any system of public instruction, is school 
 architecture, including every thing that relates 
 to the building in which the instruction is to be 
 imparted. All matters that concern the health 
 of the school; namely, the' situation of the school- 
 house, its furniture, the temperature of the 
 rooms, and the means for warming, lighting, and 
 ventilating them, are considered either in sepa- 
 rate articles in this work, or under the head of 
 Hygiene, School. It is designed here specially to 
 treat of (I) the construction of the school- 
 house, and (II) its internal arrangement. 
 
 I. Construction of the School-House. — What 
 material should be used in the construction 
 of a school building depends entirely upon its 
 location and the means at command. Owing to 
 the improved modern methods of building, wood, 
 brick, or stone may be used indifferently, as far 
 as healthfulness is concerned, economic consider- 
 ations alone deciding which is to be employed. It 
 may be said, in general, that these considerations 
 point to the use of stone or brick in cities and 
 towns, and of wood, in the rural districts, except 
 in old and thickly-settled countries where wood is 
 scarce. The increased attention bestowed upon 
 the appearance of the school-house at the present 
 time is one of the most encouraging proofs of 
 the general and permanent interest aroused in 
 the welfare of schools, since purely esthetic con- 
 siderations are generally the last to make them- 
 selves felt. The rudeness of the district-school 
 building is proverbial ; yet, the expression of 
 the cherished memories that cluster around it, 
 forms a part of the choicest literature of every 
 civilized country. If the transfiguring power of 
 early association, therefore, renders it an object 
 of affection through life, in spite of its uncouth- 
 ness, how much stronger would that affection be 
 if the matured taste of later years confirmed the 
 preference of childhood ! Not only the testimony 
 of eminent writers, but the unwritten experience 
 of every observing person, bears abundant wit- 
 ness to the subtle and enduring influence of 
 early associations ; and now, when the subject of 
 education is receiving so large a share of careful 
 thought, with a view to discover all available 
 ways to perfect its means and methods, it 
 would seem that this powerful agent should not 
 be neglected. Without squandering money, 
 
 therefore, to make the school-house pretentious, 
 or a perfect specimen of one of the conventional 
 orders of architecture, pains should betaken that 
 it should not be an offense to the eye, or out of 
 harmony with the landscape. Since this can 
 generally be done, also, without any, or with 
 only slight, additional cost, the educational 
 value, moral and esthetic, of the appearance of 
 the school-house, may properly be included in 
 the plans of the architect. As to the solidity of 
 the school building in all its parts, it is not too 
 much to say that no financial objections which 
 would impair this, should, for a moment, be en- 
 tertained. The contingencies which may hap- 
 pen at any moment where large numbers of chil- 
 dren are gathered together, are so momentous 
 in their character, as to render this imperative. 
 The size of the school-house should be deter- 
 mined, of course, by the number of pupils it is 
 intended to accommodate. An eminent author- 
 ity says that, a building designed for an ungraded 
 school to be taught by a single teacher, should 
 contain, at least, 900 sq. ft. of floor-space ; be- 
 ing intended to accommodate from 50 to 80 pu- 
 pils. In regard to the proper size of class rooms, 
 see Hygiene, School. 
 
 II. Internal Arrangement of the School-House. 
 — Every district-school house should have a 
 vestibule, a main room, and one or more class- 
 rooms, unless the school is taught by only one 
 teacher. The vestibule should be commodious, 
 dry, well-lighed, and properly supplied with 
 pegs for hats and outer garments, mats, wash 
 basins, and all means for ensuring personal 
 cleanliness. In mixed schools, it should be 
 divided into two rooms. The best authorities 
 are almost unanimous in the opinion that the 
 shape of the school room proper should be that 
 of an oblong about twice as long as broad, the 
 size being determined by the probable attend- 
 ance. The ceiling should be from 12 to 15 feet 
 in height, the controlling consideration being that 
 each pupil should have uot less than 108 cubic 
 feet of air space. The door and the teachers 
 desk should be at opposite ends of the room, the 
 former, when practicable, at the southern ex- 
 tremity, the northern being without windows, 
 and provided with a shallow platform about 15 
 inches high. This arrangement enables the 
 teacher to survey the school, and is simple and 
 convenient for examination or exhibition pur- 
 poses. Yery large school rooms are not ex- 
 pedient, experience having shown that a large 
 number of pupils may be supervised and taught 
 to better advantage in two rooms of medium 
 size, the teacher having an assistant for the pur- 
 pose, than in one large room. A separate class 
 room is indispensable in all schools, except the 
 smallest, the number being increased according 
 to the size of the school. In its construction, 
 the class room should conform proportionally to 
 the school room, and should, if possible, be in 
 immediate connection with it, but separable from 
 it completely as far as noise is concerned. The 
 teacher's room, in small schools, could be utilized 
 as the school library, or as a temporary storing 
 
766 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT 
 
 SCHOOL RECORDS 
 
 place for such delicate apparatus as required 
 special care. Schools of other grades and sizes 
 will, of course, require a different arrangement 
 of rooms. Nearly every civilized country, in 
 fact, has its own plans for the construction of 
 school-houses, and the arrangement of school 
 and class rooms, determined by the peculiarities 
 of its school system, or by national character- 
 istics. Interesting exhibits of these are made at 
 every world's fair ; and the comparison there in- 
 stituted will, probably, result in a retention and 
 general diffusion of the best. It is possible here 
 only to refer to the subject, and to cite a few 
 standard works which open the door to a vol- 
 uminous literature. (SeeBoissoN, Rapport sur 
 T instruction primaire a V exposition universette 
 ile Vii'inii'. en 1873 (Paris, 1875) ; Barnard, 
 School Architecture (N. Y., 18(53) ; Johonnot, 
 Country School-Houses, (N. V.. L858); and Our 
 School-Houses (N. Y.. 1873); Eveleth, School- 
 House Architecture (\. Y.. 1874). (See also 
 the references at the end of the article School 
 Furniture.) 
 
 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT is a department 
 of the teacher's profession which includes (I ) the 
 organization of the school, and (II) its conduct. 
 Under the former, must be considered (1) the 
 classification (see Class); (2) the distribution, 
 as to order and time, of the branches to lie taught, 
 (course of instruction and programme) ; and 
 3) the proper assignment of the work of instruc- 
 tion (in a graded school) to the several teachers, 
 either in accordance with the class system orwith 
 the departmental system (q.v.). The conduct 
 of the school has reference (1) to instruction, 
 and (2) to discipline. Great care should betaken, 
 by means of a carefully constructed programme, 
 or daily order of exercises, to secure to eat h subject 
 its proper amount of time, according to its place 
 in the course of instruction, as well as to insure 
 an equable advancement on the part of the pupils 
 in each subject of the grade, as preliminary to 
 promotion. The promotion of pupils is ;i matter 
 i if great pracl Leal importance in the management 
 of a school. ( >ne of the most serious errors made 
 by teachers is the too rapid advancement of their 
 
 pupils. Promotions should always he based upon 
 
 a careful examination; and, in a graded school, 
 care should be taken that every grade is passed 
 
 through in a legitimate manner, thai is, without 
 
 hurry or cramming. When the school is un- 
 
 ided, the advancement of individual pupils is 
 
 to be considered ; but there is the same need of 
 
 avoiding haste, so as to secure thorough proficien- 
 cy, as the basis of promotion. Government is, 
 
 i, an important department of school manage- 
 ment; since, without efficient government, all 
 attempts at effective school instruction must be 
 
 fruitless. (See OOURBE OF 1 NSTE1 (TIox, DISCI- 
 PLINE, anil < io\ ERNMENT.) 
 
 SCHOOL RECORDS are of great impor- 
 tance, both in connection with the management 
 of the school itself, and for the purpose of af- 
 fording a means of obtaining accurate and train- 
 able return- to !„■ embodied in a general system 
 boo] statistics. These records are. therefore, 
 
 to be arranged from a twofold stand-point : 
 
 (I) What are needed as auxiliary to the keeping 
 ami instruction of the school itself; and 
 
 (II) What are required for a proper administia- 
 tion of the school laws, as well as to show the 
 condition of the system to which the school be- 
 longs, and the progress of education in the 
 town. city, and state in which it is located, as 
 compared with other places. 
 
 I. For the carrying out of the first object, 
 there should be an accurate registration of each 
 pupil's name and age, his parent's name, the 
 date of his admission into the school, of his suc- 
 cessive promotion from grade to grade, and of 
 his discharge, with the cause of the same, thus 
 presenting a history in outline of the pupil's 
 whole career in the school. The register kept 
 for these items should be in such a form as to be 
 easy of reference, either by a numerical designa- 
 tion of the pupils in the order of their admis- 
 sion, or by an alphabetical arrangement. Aux- 
 iliary to the school register, there may be (in 
 large schools, should be) an admission book, and 
 a discharge book, the entries being first made in 
 these books, and transferred at stated times 
 i weekly or monthly) into the register. The ad- 
 mission book should contain a statement of the 
 antecedents of the pupil, and the discharge book, 
 the cause of his leaving the school. and his desti- 
 nation. There should, also, be books showing 
 the school history of the pupil more in detail, as 
 his daily attendance, conduct, merit and de- 
 merit marks for recitations, etc. One book, 
 usually called the roU book, may be w^a] for all 
 these particulars, there being, in a graded school, 
 one such book for each class, and kept by the 
 class teacher. En this book may also be entered 
 the place of residence of each pupil, in order to 
 facilitate communication with the parents. The 
 sellout diary is auxiliary to this, containing 
 transcripts from the roll book, with summaries 
 of marks and a statement of class standing, the 
 pupil being required to take this diary home for 
 the inspection and signature of his parents. 
 Other records, besides those enumerated, maybe 
 kept for special purposes; but. ordinarily, these 
 are all that are indispensably requisite to cany 
 on the internal operations of the school. 
 
 II. The records made necessary by the pro- 
 visions of law under which the school is 
 tablished and supported, will vary, of course. 
 
 with the nature of those provisions, and with 
 the organization of the system to which the 
 
 school belongs. Hut there are cert on common 
 
 and indispensable features, inasmuch as there 
 are f acts which all school records for this pur- 
 pose should aim to show, among which may be 
 
 mentioned the following: (1) The number of 
 
 pupils enrolled during the year: (2) The average 
 
 enrollment, or "average number belonging"; 
 
 I he number in attendance at each session of 
 the school; and ill the number of pupils of 
 
 each grade, and of certain specified ages.— No 
 
 attempt is made in this article to present the 
 forms of these records, as there is a wide diver- 
 sity of form in different places, and as the form 
 
SCHWARZ 
 
 SCIENCE 
 
 7GT 
 
 is of secondary importance to the presenting of 
 the required facts. — See Morrison, Manual of 
 School Management, s. v. Registration (Glasgow 
 and London. L874) : Wickersham, School Econ- 
 omy (Phila., L868) : Wells, 21ie Graded 
 School (New York, 1862). 
 
 SCHWARZ, Friedrich Heinrich Chris- 
 tian, an eminent German educationist, born in 
 lTTti, at (Jicssen; died at I leidelberg, in 1837. 
 His chief work is Erziehungslehre [Doctrine of 
 Education), of which the first part appeared in 
 1802 ; the fourth and last, which was issued in 
 1813, contains the Gesckichte der Erziehung 
 (History of Education), a work of permanent 
 value. "Among teachers," says Dittes (Schule 
 dei- Padagogik), " the Lehrbuch der Padagogik 
 und Didaktik (1805) of Curtmann is better 
 known than the Erziehungslehre." He, how- 
 ever, asserts that, while Schwarz has not given so 
 clear an exposition of the principles of education 
 and instruction as Xiemeyer, his writings are 
 more replete with practical observations and 
 suggestions. 
 
 SCIENCE, The Teaching of. In this ar- 
 ticle, the treatment will refer to the teaching of 
 science (I) as a branch of elementary instruction, 
 and (II) as a department of higher education. 
 
 I. This subject is one into which great con- 
 fusion has been introduced by the use of the 
 words science and scientific in two different 
 senses. In the strict sense of the term, the scien- 
 tific knowledge of a subject is a knowledge of the 
 laws which harmonize and explain its various 
 phenomena. Science goes beyond mere appear; 
 ances, and finds that, amidst endless variety, 
 there is unity; and, amid apparent discord, there 
 is harmony. In this sense, it is the highest out- 
 come of intellectual effort. The human mind 
 deals first with the concrete. For a long time it 
 scarcely rises above the information of the senses. 
 It then groups the impressions of the senses into 
 more comprehensive unities, and in this process 
 gains a certain power of abstraction. But science 
 supposes that the mind has been long practiced 
 in that power of abstraction and generalization. 
 It views in succession the principal facts in any 
 department of nature as a whole, and it seeks to 
 find the invisible order which pervades them all. 
 In this sense of the term, also, all subjects admit 
 of scientific treatment ; as there can be no doubt 
 that law pervades all phenomena, there must be 
 a science of mental phenomena as well as of 
 physical phenomena: and, therefore, no single 
 phenomenon can exist which has not its own 
 place in the systsm of the universe. But, from 
 various considerations, the term science has been 
 often restricted to the explanation of the laws 
 which regulate matter, and this is the sense in 
 which it is used in this article. Now it is plain 
 that, in the strict sense of the term, children can- 
 not be taught science. If the scientific stage is 
 the highest in the development of the intellectual 
 faculties, we cannot expect to find it in the 
 school. It belongs to the university. But we 
 may lay the foundation of it at an earlier period. 
 Indeed, we cannot help doing something toward 
 
 this work; but we may do it awkwardly and un- 
 consciously, or skillfully and consciously. The 
 latter is the function of the educated teacher. 
 We must, therefore, inquire more minutely into 
 the mode in which the foundations of science are 
 laid. For this purpose, we shall quote the words 
 of the late Professor Payne, to whom the prep- 
 aration of this article for the Gychpcedia of 
 Education was first assigned. (See Payne, J.) 
 Science, he defined, as "organized knowledge'', 
 and, after explaining the meaning of organized 
 in this definition, he proceeds: "Returning to the 
 other factor of the definition, knowledge, we ob- 
 serve that there are two kinds of knowledge — 
 what Ave know through our own experience, and 
 what we know through the experience of others. 
 Thus, I know by my own knowledge that I have 
 an audience before me, and I know through the 
 knowledge of others that the earth is 25,000 miles 
 in circumference. This latter fact, however, I 
 know in a sense different from that in which I 
 know the former. The one is a part of my ex- 
 perience, of my very being. The other I can only 
 be strictly said to know when I have, by an 
 effort of the mind, passed through the connected 
 chain of facts and reasonings on which the dem- 
 onstration is founded. Thus only can it become 
 my knowledge in the true sense of the term. 
 Strictly speaking, then, organized knowledge, or 
 science, is originally based on unorganized know- 
 ledge, and is the outcome of the learner's obser- 
 vation of facts through the exercise of his senses, 
 and his own reflection upon what he has observed. 
 This knowledge, ultimately organized into science 
 through the operation of his mind, he may with 
 just right call his own ; and, as a learner, he can 
 properly call no other knowledge his own. "What 
 is reported to us by another is that other's, if 
 gained, at first-hand, by experience; but it stands 
 on a different footing from that which we have 
 gained by our own experience. He merely hands 
 it over to us; but, when we receive it, its condition 
 is already changed. It wants the brightness, def- 
 initeness, and certainty in our eyes, which it had 
 in his; and, moreover, it is merely a loan, and not 
 our property. The fact, for instance, about the 
 earth's circumference was to him a living fact ; 
 it sprung into being as the outcome of exper- 
 iments and reasonings, with the entire chain of 
 which it was seen by him to be intimately — in- 
 deed, indissolubly and organically — connected. To 
 us it is a dead fact, severed from its connection 
 with the body of truth, and, by our hypothesis, 
 having no organic relation to the living truths 
 we have gained by our own minds. What I in- 
 sist on, then, is, that the knowledge from expe- 
 rience — that which is gained by bringing our own 
 minds into direct contact with matter — is the 
 only knowledge that, as novices in science, we 
 have to do with. The dogmatic knowledge im- 
 posed on us by authority, though originally 
 gained by the same means, is really, not ours, but 
 another's — is, as far as we are concerned, unor- 
 ganizable, and, therefore, though science to its 
 proprietor, is not science to us. To us it is merely 
 information, or hap-hazard knowledge." — The 
 
7<is 
 
 SCIENCE 
 
 account here given contains the very pith of the 
 matter, and cannot be too deeply pondered and 
 impressed on the mind; and we shall, therefore, 
 put the same thoughts in another shape. The 
 child first perceives individual objects, lie notices 
 the qualities in these objects; and, when he finds 
 the same qualities recur in different individual 
 objects, he naturally groups them together under 
 the same notion or name. This is the child's 
 first effort at generalization. (See Intellectual 
 Education.) Now, it is plain that if he had not 
 known the individuals, he could never have made 
 the generalization ; and that, if any one were to 
 tell him the generalization without his having 
 seen the individuals and noticed the similarity, 
 the generalization would be of no real use 
 to him. Out of this fact flow some of the prin- 
 cipal rules in regard to the method of teaching 
 science: (1) The pupil must be brought face 
 to face with nature; he must see tin- indi- 
 vidual ; he must himself make the experiment. 
 (2) He must make the generalization, himself; 
 he must lie a discoverer. It is here, however, that 
 the skillful teacher can wisely interfere. The 
 child, if left to himself, might lie too long 
 in making the discovery, for he might not 
 stumble upon individuals which contain sim- 
 ilarities. The teacher, therefore, takes care to 
 bring similar individuals before his pupils in 
 sufficient number, lie sternly checks his own 
 wish to shorten the work by telling the generali- 
 zation; but be prepares the way for the pupil's 
 making it by adducing instance after instance, 
 until the similarities cannot but become visible 
 to the pupil's mind. And this rule suggests an- 
 other, — that, wherever it is possible, the pupil 
 should be led along the road over which mankind 
 traveled in making the discovery originally. He 
 
 must. of course, commit many blunders before he 
 reaches the truth; yet, under a skillful teacher, 
 such a process is eminently educative. But, 
 besides the making of generalizations, there i 
 also the faculty of observation to be carefully 
 cultivate I. Indeed the cultivation of the faculty 
 of observation is essentially necessary to the for- 
 mation of correct generalizations. At first, the 
 child makes his generalizations unconsciously. 
 I le sees a tree, and then another tree, and then 
 another, and somehow they impress him as 
 being like; but he has no accurate conception in 
 regard to the points in which they are like. — ■ 
 Even when he becomes conscious of the points 
 
 of resemblance in objects, he may rind that the 
 resemblances in them are on the surface. and that 
 there are greater differences separating the ob- 
 jects from each other, lie is now coining nearer 
 the stage in which he can deal with a subject 
 scientifically. For observation has to furnish, as 
 the basis of scientific conceptions, a more accurate 
 knowledge than that possessed by the ordinary 
 
 observer. The pupil has to notice qualities which 
 
 ordinarily escape observation. The teacher again 
 must take the utmost care thai the pupil has 
 really observed the peculiarity before be tells him 
 
 the special name given to it. Else the pupil's 
 
 mind will be crammed vrith a number of tech- 
 
 nical terms of the meaning of which he probably 
 will have no clear conception; and even should he 
 have a clear conception of their meaning when 
 he hears it from his teacher, he will be sure to 
 forget it very soon. In one word, the pupil must 
 conquer every step in science by personal obser- 
 vation and experience. He must find out every 
 thing himself. The teacher has simply to arrange 
 the order in which the facts of nature are to be 
 presented to the pupil, and to lay before him 
 only those phenomena which it is important for 
 him to observe. From what has been said, it is 
 plain that the plan of going through all the 
 principal phenomena of a science is not to be 
 adopted in schools. This is a method appropri- 
 ate only to the last stage of scientific instruction. 
 The teacher must select the portions of science 
 which will be most educative : and he will treat, 
 them in such a way as to interest the pupil, and 
 make him take an active part in ascertaining the 
 facts of nature. At the same time, he will take 
 care to make his various lessons bear on each 
 other. Though he does not disclose a law, but 
 leave it to dawn upon the pupil's mind from the 
 presentation of instances, he will see to it that 
 each lesson adds to the structure which the pre- 
 vious one has helped to raise. He will have a fixed 
 plan in his own mind: and lie will look forward 
 to the intellectual result which he is to produce. 
 in process of time, by the examples and experi- 
 ments which he makes the pupil observe and 
 perform. — In all these considerations, we have 
 been looking at science as a subject worthy of 
 being studied for its own sake. This is unques- 
 tionably true. The intellectual powers of man 
 are an essential feature of man's nature, and they 
 demand exercise. This exercise is invariably ac- 
 companied by an intense pleasure. Now. the 
 scientific knowledge of nature is eminently cal- 
 culated to call the intellectual powers into activ- 
 ity, and therefore it opens up to man a source of 
 pure and lasting enjoyment. Bui the teacher may 
 look on the knowledge of science from other 
 points of view. .Man is corporeal, and his physical 
 well-being depends on his coining into proper 
 relations with physical nature. It is important 
 
 for him to know these relations, and the teacher 
 
 of youth will endeavor to enlighten the mind of 
 
 his pupil in regard to them. At the same time, 
 these relations are most deeply impressed OH the 
 mind, when the facts of science are taught ac- 
 cording to the laws of education. If I inform a 
 boy that carbonic acid gas is deleterious, the im- 
 
 pression is of the faintest nature, anil will no; 
 had. in nine eases out of ten. to any action; but 
 if I show the boy how to produce carbonic add 
 gas by the union of its Component elements, that 
 is. if 1 lead him to make experiments by which 
 the truth will be forced upon his mind without 
 my telling him that it is injurious to life: and if. 
 in addition to this. 1 make him discover that he 
 is continually exhaling ibis gas, he will be deeply 
 impressed with the necessity of ventilation, and 
 
 will make every effort to procure it. Then. 
 again, nature presents herself not merely as the 
 embodiment of law but also as the embodiment 
 
SCIENCE 
 
 09 
 
 of beauty ; and the teacher should, therefore, en- 
 deavor to bring out this feature occasionally. 
 He will point, for example, to the exquisite 
 structure of flowers ; he will lead the child to 
 feel the loveliness of landscapes; he will interest 
 him in the habits of animals ; in fact, he will try 
 to make nature reveal herself to him in her con- 
 crete loveliness and variety. 
 
 Among the questions keenly discussed in con- 
 nection with science teaching are (1) the order 
 in which the sciences should be taught, and 
 (2) what sciences are suitable for schools. Opin- 
 ions on these subjects will necessarily differ until 
 agreement as to the meaning of terms is reached. 
 'i'he fact is, as we have seen, that all the sciences 
 call for processes of thought which can be reason- 
 ably expected only in mature minds ; but it is 
 true, at the same time, that separate facts, in all 
 these sciences, tending towards a unity, may be 
 discovered by a child of eleven or twelve years 
 of age. Faraday said that chemistry could be 
 taught to a boy of eleven; others denied that it 
 could; and in a certain sense, both were right, 
 from their respective points of view. At the 
 same time there is no doubt that the facts of 
 some sciences, in the average, are much more 
 complicated than those of other sciences ; and, 
 therefore, there is wisdom in teaching them in a 
 certain order. Botany, for instance, is among 
 the simplest of the sciences. It calls into play 
 the power of minute observation. The child is 
 interested in examining the structure of the 
 plant and the growth of the various parts. An 
 appeal is also made to his powers of grouping or, 
 in other words, of classification. And the pupil 
 has a large field in botany for these two activities. 
 (See Botany.) The same is true of the other 
 science of classification, zoology; but the processes 
 are a little more complicated. It should, there- 
 fore, naturally follow botany. From these, the 
 pupil should proceed to some department of 
 physics, and from that, advance to chemistry. 
 The one should go before the other; because the 
 processes of chemical motion are much more dif- 
 ficult to observe accurately than those of me- 
 chanical motion. And the course of science might 
 well end with physiology, in which many of the 
 modes of reasoning employed are abstruse, and 
 the student is continually liable to be misled by 
 appearances and analogies. 
 
 II. One of the most important aims of the 
 educator is to lead man to recognize how to 
 live most successfully for himself ; to realize the 
 responsibilities of his position, and, by seeking 
 to comply with these responsibilities, to attain to 
 the greatest possible happiness. h\ this process 
 of education, the student must be led to recognize 
 the material and physical conditions of his ex- 
 istence ; to know himself, not as an independent 
 being, but as one dependent upon the multifa- 
 rious conditions of the vast scheme of nature, and 
 as one, who. alike in what he is and in that of 
 winch he is capable, is strictly under the control 
 of natural law. In other words, man can only 
 know himself by comparison with other objects 
 in nature, — can only know his powers by com- 
 49 
 
 parison with the forces by which other forms of 
 matter are controlled. Again, as a mere question 
 of material prosperity, the study of natural science 
 is forced upon our consideration. No thoughtful 
 man wandering through the aisles of a great inter- 
 national exhibition can fail to see that all prog- 
 resa in applied science and the arts must be based, 
 in the first place, upon an exact knowledge of 
 natural resources, material and physical. It will 
 lie admitted that knowledge of all kinds is fun- 
 damentally based upon the evidence of our senses, 
 but such evidence is apt to mislead, unless cheeked 
 by experiment; experiment, to be of real utility, 
 must be exact and systematic. The reasoning that 
 draws conclusions from such experiments must 
 be logical; and language, at once ample and exact, 
 is required as an implement, only of value when 
 wielded with precision, to widen the fields of in- 
 quiry with the utmost economy of mental labor. 
 We are compelled to make these remarks because 
 the true importance of a scientific study of nature 
 has not been recognized by the greater part of 
 those who are engaged in education. A knowl- 
 edge of the leading truths of natural science is. 
 however, essential to education, (1) because of 
 their fundamental character, and (2) because of 
 the method by which such sciences are pursued . 
 which method is the same as that which ought to 
 obtain m every action of our every-day lives. 
 Comparing the training given by language and 
 mathematics with that given by natural science. 
 we see that, whilst language cultivates the mem- 
 ory, and mathematics trains the reasoning facul- 
 ties, neither affords any means for the cultivation 
 of observation and experiment. Turning to the 
 natural sciences themselves, we find that the 
 physical branches cultivate observation, experi- 
 ment, and inductive reasoning; while the material 
 branches, including the natural history sciences, 
 cultivate especially the faculties of observation 
 and systematic classification. But, in addition 
 to this, from the multitudinous data with which 
 the latter deal, and the impossibility of obtain- 
 ing complete series of such data, these studies in- 
 evitably lead the inquiring mind to a constant 
 consideration of probabilities, or, in other words, 
 to a habit, of the utmost importance to us prac- 
 tically, of justly weighing circumstantial evidence. 
 In view of the vast mass of facts accumulating 
 more and more rapidly each day from the various 
 fields of scientific investigation, it is impossible 
 that any human mind can grasp all the details of 
 even a single branch. The following considerations 
 are, however, important in this view of education: 
 
 (1) that, by experience in some two sciences, the 
 one physical and the other relating to the forms 
 assumed by matter, the student should learn the 
 principles on which these natural sciences are 
 pursued, and therefrom be able to appreciate the 
 value of scientific training and knowledge ; 
 
 (2) that he should understand the general scope 
 of the various sciences ; (3) that he should be 
 familiar with the broad generalizations of science; 
 (4) that he should not be ignorant of such com- 
 mon scientific details as occur to us every day. 
 and have an immediate and direct connection 
 
TO 
 
 SCIENCE 
 
 SCIENTIFIC SCHOOLS 
 
 with our welfare and success in life; and (5) that 
 he should be taught how to obtain information 
 by reference, and how to weigh the trustworthi- 
 ness of authorities. In order that the second 
 and third of tliLsc requirements may lie intelli- 
 gently obtained, they must logically be preceded 
 by the first, and simultaneously the acquisition 
 of the knowledge implied by the fifth may well 
 be commenced. In the physical branches of 
 scientific inquiry, qualitative analytical chemistry 
 theoretically best meets the requirements of the 
 ease; in the material sciences, we may select one 
 of thosc> which are called natural history sciences. 
 Under this head, certain of the natural sciences 
 which treat of the living forms of matter wire 
 formerly included ; but the term is a most indef- 
 inite one, and must cease to be used at all, if con- 
 fined to its old signification. The sciences espe- 
 cially included under it, botany and zoology, have 
 been placed upon altogether new and broader 
 foundations as branches of biology, so that they 
 now cover morphological and physiological 
 ground never contemplated in the old use of the 
 term. There would seem to be a propriety in 
 using the term to express that pursuit of nature 
 winch is essentially out-of-door in its character. 
 — the study of the external relationship of beings 
 to each other ; and in this view we should cer- 
 tainly need to include geological investigations. 
 At the same time, it will be apparent to every 
 naturalist that the scope of such a term could 
 not be rigorously defined. There can be no 
 doubt that an out-of-door study of nature ought 
 to be an essential element of education. It may 
 belong before it is generally introduced into the 
 courseof school education, but it should certainly 
 be enforced upon the community as a dut\ al 
 least in home culture. It should be used to cul- 
 tivate habits of close, exact, and systematic ob- 
 servation, commence I in the field and continued 
 in the laboratory; of judiciously collecting, care- 
 fully preserving and classifying, some one or 
 more series of natural objects; ami of referring 
 for information not to be obtained by personal 
 inquiry, regarding the objects observed and col- 
 lected, to trustworthy sources. I'.y well-judged 
 training in either botany or any one of the 
 branches of zoology, the ends above indicated 
 may be attained ; whilst the general spirit of ob- 
 servation an inquiry in the wide field of natural 
 science that will be encouraged, 'will lead to a 
 breadth and liberality of mental tone. Nor need 
 this general and more desultory observation be 
 
 dreaded, as apt to lead to hasty, unfounded, and 
 
 inexact acquirements, if the mind is duly drained, 
 as had ben suggested, in rigorous methods of 
 
 thought by the exact pursuit of some special sub 
 
 jeet of Scientific study. If there be any truth in 
 
 the suggestions just thrown out, it will be ap- 
 parent that such training in the natural history 
 sciences cannol be commenced too early in life, 
 because the spirit of the training is such that ii 
 should imbue the entire mental cultureof the in- 
 dividual; and, furthermore, if this early training 
 has been neglected, the study of science in an 
 advanced period of education, will not be so suc- 
 
 cessful, because it will lack the vivid conceptions 
 which can only lie acquired by the exercise of 
 the observing faculties in early life. It only 
 remains to add that, as all teaching by the very 
 nature of these sciences must be objective, the 
 duty of the instructor, at every stage of science 
 teaching, is to supplement nature and not to 
 take her place, — not to impart information butto 
 guide the pupil in the self-acquirement of knowl- 
 edge. Books, similarly, are only to lie permitted 
 as dictionaries to explain such points as the pupil 
 cannot elucidate by his own efforts. — See Payne. 
 The True Foundation of Science-Teaehing 
 (London): Welson, Essay on Teaching Natural 
 Science in Schools, in Farbab's Essays on a 
 Liberal Education (London); Lectures on Edu- 
 cation — delivered at the Royal Institution of 
 Great Britain (London. 1855) ; Whewell, Oh, 
 the Principles of English Education (lxmdon, 
 1838); Yodmans, The Culture Demanded by 
 Modern I/ife (New York, 1867); BrwacKR,What 
 Knowledge is of Most Worth in Education: In- 
 tellectual, Moral, and Physical (NewYbrk,1866). 
 
 SCIENCE OF GOVERNMENT, the 
 name given to a branch of instruction in pri- 
 mary or secondary schools, which is designed to 
 impart to the pupils a know ledge of the political 
 system under which they live, and to make 
 them, as far as requisite, familiar with the dif- 
 ferent functions of government, and the mode 
 in which they are performed. It, generally, in- 
 cludes a consideration of the constitution of the 
 country or state, tin' qualifications and duties of 
 the principal officers of government, the legal 
 restrictions imposed upon citizens, and an out- 
 line of civil ami municipal regulations. Many 
 excellent treatises have been prepared for this 
 purpose for use in elementary schools: and. 
 there can be no question of the value of this de- 
 partment of instruction for all classes of pupils, 
 particularly in public schools, one of the most 
 important objects of which is to prepare for in- 
 telligent and useful citizenship. 
 
 SCIENTIFIC SCHOOLS are higher insti- 
 tutions, in which instruction in science, practical 
 and theoretical, is the special object. They in- 
 clude polytechnic schools (those in which va- 
 rious branches of science are taught ;. and special 
 
 schools, such as those of mining, engineering, etc. 
 — In Europe, they are generally supported by 
 the state. The real schools (q. v.) in Germany 
 are essentially scientific schools of a lower grade. 
 In Austria Hungary, there are seven polytech- 
 nic institutes (having, in the winter of 1875 6, 
 327 instructors and 4,405 pupils); namely, in 
 Vienna, Buda-Pesth, Prague (one German and 
 one Bohemian), Gratz, Lemberg, and Briinn. 
 The oldest are those in Prague, founded in 1806. 
 That in Vienna, founded in 1815, has five de- 
 partments (one of general Bcience, and schools of 
 engineering, architecture, mechanical engineer- 
 ing, and chemistry); the others lack one or more 
 of these departments.— The German Empire 
 has It) scientific institutes (having, in the winter 
 of L875 n. 198 instructors and 6,644 pupils); 
 namely, the Academy of Architecture (Bau- 
 
SCIENTIFIC SCHOOLS 
 
 771 
 
 a&ademie) in Berlin; the Technological Academy 
 fGewerbe-Akademie) in the same place, with de- 
 partments of mechanics and engineering, of chem- 
 istry and metallurgy, and of naval construction: 
 and the polytechnic schools in Hanover, Aix-la- 
 Chapelle, Munich, Dresden, Stuttgart, Carlsruhe, 
 Darmstadt, and Brunswick. The last, founded 
 in 1745, is the oldest. The Berlin academies 
 were founded in 1799 and 1820, respectively. 
 The polytechnic schools have several depart- 
 lents : that in Munich includes one of agri- 
 culture ; that in Dresden, one of mathematics 
 and physical science for teachers ; that in ( 'arls- 
 ■uhe, one of forestry ; and that in Brunswick, 
 me of pharmacy, and one of forestry. Common 
 most of them, as branches of instruction, are 
 mechanics, engineering, architecture, mathemat- 
 ics, physics, and chemistry. — In Fnut.ce, the 
 Polytechnic School in Paris is organized on a 
 military basis, and has for its object the prepa- 
 ration of engineers, and candidates for positions 
 in the artillery, the navy, the public works, mines, 
 the general staff, the powder and saltpeter facto- 
 ries, the telegraphic institutions, and the tobacco 
 administration. It was founded in 1795, and, 
 in 1873, had 426 pupils. It is, properly, only 
 preparatory to higher special institutions, mili- 
 tary and civil. The latter include the Central 
 School of Arts and Manufactures {Kcolecentrale 
 des (iris et manufactures), designed for the in- 
 struction of civil engineers and directors of fac- 
 tories and metallurgical establishments ; the 
 School of Bridge and Road Building (Ecole des 
 pouts et cJ/aussees); and the Conservatory of 
 Arts and Trades [Conservatoire des arts et me- 
 tiers) . These are all in Paris. The last-named has 
 a collection of machines, instruments, products 
 of agriculture and industry, and a library. There 
 are thirteen scientific courses in technical sub- 
 jects, political economy, industrial legislation, 
 and statistics, and, also, an inferior school of 
 drawing and descriptive geometry. The Museum 
 of Natural History in Paris affords instruction 
 to students. — In Italy, there are scientific schools 
 in Milan, Turin, Naples, Rome, Padua, and 
 Palermo, the last three being connected with 
 the universities in those places. — In Russia are 
 found the Technological Institute, the Engineer- 
 ing Institute, and the School of Architecture, 
 in St. Petersburg, and polytechnic schools, in 
 Riga, Moscow, Lodz, and Helsingfors (Finland). 
 The last, in 1872 — 3, had 118 students; the 
 others, in 1874, 2,570. The institution in Riga 
 has seven departments: an agricultural, a chem- 
 ical, a surveying, an engineering, a mechanical 
 engineering, an architectural, and a commercial 
 department. — In Belgium, scientific schools are 
 connected with the universities.- — Switzerland 
 has a polytechnic school in Zurich, with eight 
 departments : an architectural, an engineering, 
 a mechanical, and a chemical department, a 
 school of agriculture and forestry, a depart- 
 ment for the education of special teachers of 
 mathematics and natural sciences, a general 
 philosophical and politico-economical depart- 
 ment, and a preparatory mathematical course. 
 
 This institution was founded in 1854; and, in 
 1875 — 6, had 92 instructors and 912 students. 
 There is, besides, a scientific department in the 
 Academy of Lausanne, and an architectural de- 
 partment in the Lyceum of Lugano. The other 
 
 ' continental nations also have scientific schools. 
 
 ' — In Great Britain, there are no polytechnic 
 schools. There are, however, private associations 
 that offer instruction in science; and the South 
 Kensington Museum in London, which possesses 
 rich collections in art, natural history, and sci- 
 
 | ence, also maintains schools. Lectures are also 
 given on scientific subjects in the universities 
 of London, Glasgow, Edinburgh, and Dublin. 
 The Royal College of Science, in Dublin, and 
 the Royal Mining School, in London, may also 
 be mentioned. 
 
 In Europe, there are numerous special schools 
 of agriculture and forestry. Austria has a school 
 of vine culture and pomology at Klosterneuburg. 
 The principal mining institutions of the conti- 
 nent are as follows : in Austria-Hungary, the 
 mining academies at Leoben, Pribram, and 
 Schemnitz, and eight mining schools ; in Ger- 
 many, the mining academies in Berlin, Claus- 
 thal, and Freiberg (opened in 1766), and 14 
 mining schools; in France, the National Mining 
 School in Paris (of a higher grade), and the 
 mining schools at St. Etienne and Alais; in Italy, 
 the mining schools at Caltanisetta and Agordo, 
 and the special school for quarrying and working 
 marble, at Carrara ; in Russia, the Imperial In- 
 stitute of Mining and Metallurgy, in St. Peters- 
 burg, and seven intermediate and lower mining 
 schools ; in Sweden, the mining department of 
 the Technological Institute of Stockholm ; in 
 Belgium, the special school of mines in the Uni- 
 versity of Liege, and the provincial school of 
 trades, industry, and mining, at Mons. 
 
 In the United States, the Commissioner of 
 Education reports, in 1875, 74 schools of science 
 (mining, engineering, agricultural, etc.), including 
 separate institutions and departments of colleges 
 and universities, with 758 instructors and 7,157 
 students. Of these, 41 are endowed by the na- 
 tional land grant as agricultural colleges ; but 
 most or all of them have one or more additional 
 courses, as of general science, engineering, etc. 
 (For their special features, see Agricultural, 
 Colleges.) The terms of admission to Amer- 
 ican scientific schools vary somewhat in the dif- 
 ferent institutions, but include arithmetic, ele- 
 mentary algebra and geometry, geography, En- 
 glish grammar and composition, and history. 
 The course generally covers four, sometimes only 
 three years, and leads to the degree of Bachelor 
 of Science, or appropriate special degrees (as 
 Civil Engineer, etc.). The curriculum commonly 
 embraces the higher mathematics, English lan- 
 guage and literature, history, French and Ger- 
 man, chemistry, drawing, physics, natural his- 
 tory, astronomy, mental science, and political 
 economy, besides special branches appropriate to 
 the particular course pursued. Of separate in- 
 stitutions, the oldest is the Rensselaer Polytech- 
 nic Institute in Troy, N. Y., founded in 1824, 
 
 
772 
 
 SCIENTIFIC SCHOOLS 
 
 and re-organized in 1840. It has a course in 
 civil engineering (understood to include mechan- 
 ical or dynamical engineering, road engineering. 
 bridge engineering, hydraulic engineering, etc.). 
 Other prominent institutions are the Massachu- 
 setts Institute of Technology (opened in L861), 
 in Boston, with 10 courses (civil engineering, 
 mechanical engineering, mining engineering, 
 architecture, chemistry, metallurgy, natural his- 
 tory, physics, science and literature, philosophy); 
 the Illinois Industrial University (1867), at Ur- 
 bana, 111., with courses in agriculture, horticult- 
 ure, mechanical, mining, and civil engineering, 
 architecture, chemistry, natural history, English 
 and modern languages, ancient languages, mili- 
 tary science, commerce, and domestic science 
 and art (for women); the Stevens Institute of 
 Technology (1871), in Iloboken, N. J., a school 
 of mechanical engineering; Purdue University 
 (L874),at Lafayette, End., with a course in gen- 
 eral science, and courses in agriculture, horti- 
 culture, civil engineering, industrial design, 
 physics and mechanics, chemistry and metal- 
 lurgy, and natural history ; the State School of 
 -Mines (1874), at Golden, Col.; and the New 
 Market Polytechnic Institute, at New Market, 
 \'a., with a mechanical-engineering, a civil-en- 
 gineering, a chemical, and a classical course. 
 Among scientific departments (for mention of 
 which see the articles on the institutions to 
 which they belong), may be instanced the Law- 
 rence Scientific School (Harvard University), 
 the Sheffield Scientific School (Vale < 'ollege), the 
 School of Mines of ( lolumbia < 'ollege, the Chand- 
 ler Scientific I department and the Thayer School 
 of Civil Engineering (Dartmouth College), the 
 John C. Green School of Science (('ollege of 
 "New Jersey), the Scientific School of Rutger3 
 ( 'ollege, the Engineering School of Union Uni- 
 versity, the Pardee Scientific Department of 
 Lafayette College, and the Missouri School of 
 Mines ami Metallurgy (University of Missouri). 
 Cornell University and some other institutions 
 have various scientific courses, without a distinct 
 organization. The Worcester County Free In- 
 stitute of Industrial Science, at Worcester, 
 Mass., was opened inl8(J8. It offers instruction 
 in mechanical engineering, civil engineering, 
 drawing, physics, chemistry, English, French, 
 and German. The course occupies three and a 
 half years for those preparing to become mechan- 
 ical engineers, and three years for all others. 
 Much attention is given in this institution to 
 practice, it being designed to impart sufficient 
 practical familiarity with some branch of ap- | 
 l>liei I science, to secure to its graduates a liveli- 
 hood. At the middle of the firsl year, every 
 student (except the mechanical section) chooses 
 home department, under the advice <>l" the in- 
 structors, and devotes ten hours a week and the 
 month of duly, to practice in that department 
 until his graduation, that is, for two and a half 
 years. The mechanical section practice in the 
 machine shop from the beginning, that is, for 
 three ami a half years. Students who select 
 • hemistry, work in the laboratory ; the civil en- 
 
 S GOTLAND 
 
 gineers, at field work or problems in construc- 
 tion; and the designers, at problems in design. 
 The shop is managed as a manufacturing estab- 
 lishment, in order that the students may always 
 work in the wholesome atmosphere of real 
 business. 
 
 SCOTLAND, the northern part of the island 
 of Great Britain, and an important division of 
 the United Kingdom of the same name. Its 
 area contains 30,463 sq. m.; and its population, 
 according to the census of 1ST1 . was 3,360,018. 
 
 Educational History. — The system of com- 
 mon schools, under which Scotland became cel- 
 ebrated for tin- general diffusion of education 
 among its people, was founded in 1 695, by the 
 law which required that a school should be 
 
 established and "a. school-master appointed i, 
 every parish by advice of the presbyteries." (See 
 Prksbyteriajss.) The fundamental principle of 
 
 tree schools was recognized in this act. thus en 
 titling Scotland to the credit of having firsl 
 established schools for primary instruction to be 
 supported at the public expense. Indeed, as early 
 as L617, King -lames visited Scotland to oblige 
 the privy council to establish parish schools, in 
 L 69 6, the system was completed by an act of par- 
 liament. The minimum of salary to be paid the 
 teacher was fixed, and the proprietors were re- 
 quired to meet, and vote the requisite funds,which 
 if they failed to do ,the commissioners of taxes wer • 
 required to levy the school tax. It is the effect of 
 this law. and of the parish schools that it created, 
 which has been said tobe. ••beyond contradiction, 
 one of the most memorable examples of the 
 action which the diffusion of knowledge exerts 
 upon (he morality and well-being of nations. " 
 In L803, the salary of the school-master was 
 fixed at £16 13s. 4d. as a minimum ; and, in 
 L 828, it was again raised, to £25 13s. In addi- 
 tion to the salary fixed by law. the teachers re- 
 ceived a small fee from each pupil. Besides the 
 parish schools, many others have been estab- 
 lished by the Societv in Scotland for Propagat- 
 ing Christian Knowledge, as well as by the 
 Established Church, and other religious denomi- 
 nations. But, while the parochial system was 
 most beneficent in its operation for many gener- 
 ations, it was found inadequate for the wants of 
 the great modem towns. There was, however, 
 no difficulty in regard to religion; because, in 
 every class of schools, the religious views of 
 
 parents were carefully respected. Hence. Roman 
 
 Catholic children often attended the Presbyte- 
 rian schools, which constituted the great major- 
 ity of all the schools in the country. By the 
 act of Aug. ('>., L872, a new system was inau- 
 gurated, built on the old parochial system. 
 
 Primary Instruction.- According to the law 
 of 1872, "to amend and extend the provisions 
 
 of the law of Scotland on the subject of educa- 
 tion." the management of that department ol 
 
 state affairs is intrusted to the Committee ot 
 Council on Education. The provisions of law 
 
 here referred to are those of the several laws of 
 L696, L803, and L828, already referred to, and 
 the laws of 1837j L838 (to facilitate the founda 
 
 
SCOTLAND 
 
 773 
 
 tion and endowment of additional schools), and 
 1861 (the Parochial and Burgh School-masters 
 
 Act). A board of education has been temporarily 
 established, consisting of five members, appointed 
 by the queen, but to be responsible to the Scotch 
 Education Department. The national system 
 organized under the law of 1872, is, iu its main 
 features, similar to that established in England 
 by the law of 1870. The denominational system, 
 however, is more thoroughly interwoven with it ; 
 but parliamentary grants cannot be made "for 
 or in respect of religious instruction." The "con- 
 science clause" provides that every public school 
 shall be open to children of all denominations, 
 and any child may be withdrawn by his parents 
 from any religious observance in the school, 
 which must be practiced, if at all, at the be- 
 ginning or at the end of the session. A school 
 board, consisting of not less than 5 nor more 
 than 15 members, is elected in each parish and 
 burgh ; and the electors consist of all persons 
 on the latest valuation roll, as owners or occu- 
 piers of " lands or heritages of the annual value 
 of not less than £4, situated in the parish or 
 burgh. Every voter is entitled to as many votes 
 as there are members to be elected, and may 
 distribute them among the candidates as he 
 thinks fit. These school boards have the charge 
 of the schools, and appoint and dismiss the 
 teachers ; but they are not required to make any 
 restriction as to religious teaching beyond the 
 provisions above stated. All the teachers must be 
 certificated, after an examination by examiners 
 appointed by the school board ; and such exam- 
 iners must be "professors in a Scotch university, 
 or teachers of distinction iu a higher-class public 
 school." The revenues of the school consist of 
 (1) contributions payable from the common 
 good of the burghs in which they respectively 
 exist ; (2) all endowments applicable to the gen- 
 eral purposes of the respective schools ; (3) en- 
 dowments for the promotion of instruction in 
 particular subjects, or for the benefit of teachers of 
 particular branches in the respective schools; and 
 (4) fees paid by scholars. The schools are not 
 free, except to indigent pupils, the fees for whose 
 instruction must be paid out of the poor fund 
 of the parish or burgh, on the order of the school 
 board. The compulsory clause prohibits any 
 person from employing a child under the age of 
 13, who has not attended school regularly, for at 
 least 3 years, between the ages of 5 and 13, and 
 is unable to read and write, unless he makes pro- 
 vision for the education of the child. To exempt 
 such employer from prosecution under this 
 clause, an inspector's certificate of the child's 
 ability to read and write must be shown. The 
 general provisions of the Scottish Education Code 
 are similar in character to those of the English 
 code. (See England.) — The chief items of school 
 statistics for 1875 are as follows : 
 
 Number of children of school age (5. — 13) 629,254 
 
 " " pupils enrolled iuthe public schools. 2!t() 874 
 
 Average daily attendance 211'. Jim; 
 
 Number of schools under school boards 2,803 
 
 " " certificated teachers 3, 35 I 
 
 " " pupil-teachers 2, 17") 
 
 In 1874, the whole number of pupils enrolled 
 in the schools was 344,628, of whom 46,276 
 were under years of age; 252,521. between 
 6 and 12 ; and 45,831, above 12. The aggregate 
 average attendance was 263,748 ; and the num- 
 ber ot certificated teachers, 3,165. Accommoda- 
 tion was afforded for 372,00(1 pupils at 8 square 
 feet of superficial area per child. In 1876, the 
 annual grants schools showed an average at- 
 tendance of 304,000. r l lie average attendance 
 all over Scotland is about 75 per cent of the 
 enrollment. The number of schools inspected 
 in 1874 was 2,609, of which 221 did not fulfill 
 the conditions permitting annual grants. There 
 were 102 night schools, attended by 5,555 
 scholars above 12 years of age. There were 6 
 training colleges, attended by 822 students. 
 There were 12 reformatory schools, with 791 
 boys and 257 girls; and 27 industrial schools, 
 with 2,493 boys and 992 girls. The compulsory 
 education system of Scotland is represented as 
 being remarkably efficient and satisfactory, hav- 
 ing increased the attendance, from 1872 to 1875, 
 to the extent of 42 per cent. The inspec- 
 tion is similar to that of England, the grants 
 being allowed only on results as shown by 
 passes under the inspector's examination. To 
 this system much objection is made, the teach- 
 er's success and pay depending too much on the 
 judgment, and, as is said, sometimes on the 
 caprice, of the inspector. 
 
 Educational Associations. — There are several 
 educational associations in Scotland, especially 
 distinguished among which is the Educational 
 Institute of Scotland, of comparatively recent, 
 establishment, which has its branches in various 
 parts of the country, its roll of members now 
 numbering about 2,000. The Parochial Associa- 
 tion for the Advancement of Education, recently 
 organized at Eogart, under the auspices of the 
 Duke of Sutherland, aims at the advancement 
 of education in the parishes by means of an an- 
 nual distribution of prizes, and the awarding 
 of bursaries to promising pupils of the element- 
 ary schools, so as to enable them to obtain a 
 higher education. The Edinburgh Ladies' Edu- 
 cational Association has rendered valuable ser- 
 vice in improving the opportunities of their sex 
 for a higher education. 
 
 Secondary Instruction. — In many of the large 
 country parishes, subsidiary schools have been 
 established, which provide for secondary as well 
 as primary instruction. The chief representatives 
 of secondary instruction are, however, the high 
 schools and academies. Among them, the High 
 School and the Academy of Edinburgh, the High 
 School of Glasgow, and the academy of Perth, are 
 specially distinguished. The High School of Edin- 
 burgh is mentioned, even in 1519, as the Cram- 
 mar School of the City. It was re-organized in 
 1598, and received from King James VI. the 
 name Schokt Regia Edinburgensis. It prepares 
 its pupils, who at the time of their admission 
 must be 8 years of age, either for the university 
 or for business life, and, therefore, corresponds 
 partly to the German gymnasium, and partly to 
 
774 
 
 SCOTLAND 
 
 the real school. The branches of study arc 
 partly compulsory or imperative, as Latin, the 
 English language and literature, history and 
 geography, and natural history; and partly op- 
 tional, as Greek, French, German, mathematics, 
 book-keeping, drawing, and gymnastics. The 
 Edinburgh Academy was opened, in 1824, by 
 Sir Walter Scott. It consists of 7 classes, and 
 likewise comprises a classical and a scientific 
 course (Classical Side and Modern Side), It be- 
 longs to a stock company, which elects from its 
 own midst 15 directors, who appoint the rector 
 and the other teachers, regulate, conjointly with 
 the rector, all the affairs of the school, attend 
 the examination, and distribute the prizes. The 
 classical course prepares for the university; the 
 scientific course, for the civil and military ser- 
 vice, and for commercial life. — The .Madras Col- 
 I ige, at St. Andrews, owes its origin to the 
 liberality of l>r. Andrew Bell (q.v.), who be- 
 queathed the sum of £45,000, in three per cent 
 stock, for the erection of a seminary, on a com- 
 prehensive plan, in this, his native, city. 'I be 
 seminary affords instruction gratis to the poor, 
 and the fees are very low even for others. It is 
 one of the best attended schools of this class in 
 Scotland, having more than 1,000 pupils. The 
 grammar school of Perth was formerly the most 
 celebrated in Scotland, and was attended bypu- 
 
 Jiils from all parts of the kingdom.— The Jesuits 
 iave a college (St. Aloysius') , at Glasgow. The 
 education of women has long been on a higher 
 level in Scotland than in England. Of late, 
 E Hue important improvements have been made. 
 
 (See Women, Higher Education of.) 
 
 The Universities. Scotland has four univer- 
 sities: St. Andrews, founded in L410, ami 
 confirmed by papal decree in 1111 ; Glasgow, 
 founded in 1450 ; Aberdeen, founded in 1494; 
 ami Edinburgh, founded in 1552. The three 
 former were established by papal authority; that 
 
 of Edinburgh,by King .lames VI. In regard to 
 their organization, the Scotch universities have 
 
 always resembled more those of the continent of 
 Europe than those of England. The students 
 
 were divided into four nations, as they still are 
 in Glasgow and Aberdeen. They do not live in 
 the college halls, like the students of the En- 
 glish universities, but the jurisdiction of the 
 university authorities over them ceases when 
 they are beyond the walls of the university. 
 In 1858, a uniform constitution was given them 
 by the university act. Each of the universities 
 has three governing bodies, - a senatus oca- 
 demicus, a university court, and a general coun- 
 cil. The senate, which consists of the principal 
 
 (elected for life by the Crown) and the professors. 
 takes charge of instruction, of discipline, and of 
 the finances of the University. Its decisions are 
 
 reviewed by the university court, consisting of 
 
 the rector, its president, the principal, and as- 
 sessors Dominated respectively by the chancellor, 
 the rector, the general council, and the senate. 
 In Glasgow, the dean of faculties, elected an 
 
 nuallv by the senate, is also a member : and. in 
 
 Edinburgh, there are two additional members, 
 
 the Lord Provost of the City, and an assessor, 
 elected by the city corporation. It is also the 
 office of the university court, to fix the fees, to 
 superintend the professors, and, if necessary, to 
 censure, suspend, or deprive them of office. The 
 general council, which is composed of all the 
 registered graduates and alumni, and is a merely 
 deliberative body, discusses all questions con- 
 cerning the interests of the university, and sub- 
 mit.-; tin in to the decision of the university 
 court. The general council elects a chancellor 
 for life, who becomes its president, and. in turn. 
 appoints a vice-chancellor. The general coun- 
 cils of St. Andrews and Edinburgh, and also 
 those of Aberdeen and Glasgow, conjointly re- 
 turn a member of Parliament. The matriculated 
 ' students elect, for the period of three years, the 
 rector, an office which is of a merely honorary 
 character, and usually conferred upon distin- 
 guished non-residents. The Scotch universities 
 
 confer the degrees of .Master of Arts. Bachelor 
 of Divinity, Doctor of Divinity. Bachelor of 
 .Medicine. .Master in Surgery, Doctor of Med- 
 icine, and Doctor of Laws. At Clasgow, the 
 
 degree of Bachelor of Science is also conferred: 
 at St. Andrews and Edinburgh, the degrees of 
 
 Bachelor of Science and Doctor of Science; and. 
 at Glasgow ami Edinburgh, the degrees of Bach- 
 elor of Law and. Doctor of Law. Besides the uni- 
 versity medical degrees, licenses are issued in Scot- 
 land by the Royal College of Physicians (incor- 
 porated in 1681 i. Edinburgh, the Royal College 
 of Surgeons (incorporated in L505), Edinburgh; 
 and the faculty of Physicians and Surgeons of 
 » dasgow (incorporated in I 592). — The university 
 of St. Andrews originally consisted of three col- 
 leges. St. Salvador's, St. Leonard's, and St. Ma- 
 rys, the two former of which were united in 
 1747. when the buildings of St. Leonard's were 
 pulled, down. The two colleges are in different 
 parts of the town, each having its own principal; 
 and their professors and discipline are quite dis- 
 tinct. The United College is appropriated to 
 the studj of languages, philosophy, and science: 
 and St. Mary, to that of theology. The United 
 College, in 1876, had '.'.and St. Mary's. I. pro- 
 fessors. The number of matriculated students 
 was L43, of graduates. 20; the proceeds available 
 
 for bursaries, prizes, and scholarships amount an- 
 nually to about £2,000. Aberdeen had formerly 
 
 two universities, in each of which one college had 
 been founded. That of ( Hd Aberdeen was founded 
 
 by Bishop William Elphinstone, in 1494, under 
 
 a papal bull of Alexander VI.; and early re- 
 ceived the name of King's College, instead of 
 that of the Virgin Mary, to whom it was origin- 
 ally dedicated. The other was established in 
 N.w Aberdeen, in 1593, and called Marischal 
 College, from its founder George Keith. Earl 
 Marischal. The two foundations were united 
 by Charles 1. under the name of King Charles's 
 University of Aberdeen, but retained their 
 character' of distinct colleges till I860, when 
 
 they were finally incorporated as the University 
 of Aberdeen. In 1876, the university had 21 
 professors, 3 ••Murray lecturers.'' 1 •■ MurtlcL 
 
SCOTLAND 
 
 SELF-EDUCATION 
 
 115 
 
 urer"' (on the evidences of Christianity), and 
 
 1 •• Fordyec lecturer." The total number of 
 matriculated students was 845; of graduates, -1 1 ; 
 of members of general council, 2391. There is 
 
 an annual public competition for bursaries, and, 
 in L876, the sum of £4468 was held in bursaries 
 by 254 students. King's College now com 
 prises the faculties of arts and divinity, and Ma- 
 rischal, those of law and medicine. — The Uni- 
 versity of Glasgow was founded, in 1450, by 
 Bishop Turnbull. In 14l>0, James Lord Ham- 
 ilton bequeathed for the use of the college a 
 tenement in the High Street, with four acres of 
 land adjoining ; ami, in buildings on this side, 
 the university classes met for 410 years. In 
 1577, James VI. made provision for the support 
 of a principal and three regents. In 1870, the 
 (.•lasses of the university were transferred from 
 the old buildings in the High Street to a magnif- 
 icent edifice erected in Gilmorebill, in the west of 
 Glasgow, the estimated cost of which was about 
 £350,000. The curriculum is divided into the 
 four faculties of arts, divinity, medicine, and 
 law. There were, in 1876, 27 professors and 1 
 lecturer ; the number of matriculated students 
 was 1601; of graduates. 178; of registered mem- 
 bers of the General Council, 2,835. The total 
 university income amounts to £15,756. — The 
 University of Edinburgh was chartered by 
 James VI. in 1582 : and, in 1583, the college 
 was opened with 1 professor, or regent, and 48 
 students. It has since outgrown the older uni- 
 versities ; and, in 1876, counted 36 professors, 
 29 assistants, and 2,065 students. The professor- 
 ships are divided into the four faculties of phi- 
 losophy, law, medicine, and divinity. The 
 medical faculty has long been celebrated as one 
 of the best medical schools in Europe, and still 
 continues to have the largest number of stu- 
 dents. Its library contains over 126,000 printed 
 volumes, and 700 volumes in manuscript. Re- 
 cently, a chair of the Theory of Teaching has 
 been established in this university, like that of 
 the Theory and Practice of Education in the 
 University of St. Andrews, in order to afford 
 instruction in practical pedagogy. 
 
 Special and Professional Instruction. — (1) The 
 ministers of the Established Church of Scotland 
 are required to study at one of the four Scotch 
 universities, all of which have theological profess- 
 orships. After devoting four years to a literary 
 and philosophical curriculum, they are admitted 
 into the divinity hall, and spend four other ses- 
 sions in prosecuting the study of theology. The 
 Free Church has a large divinity school at Edin- 
 burgh, called the New College of the Free 
 Church; it has also divinity halls at (Glasgow 
 and Aberdeen. The United Presbyterians have 
 a "divinity hall." the Congregationalists a- theo- 
 logical hall" (established in 1811). in Edinburgh ; 
 the Baptists likewise have a theological institu- 
 tion. The Roman Catholic St. Mary's ( !ollege, 
 Blairs, Aberdeen, was established in 1829. — 
 (2) Anderson's University, or Andersonian In- 
 stitution, in Glasgow, founded by Dr. John An- 
 derson, professor of natural philosophy (died 
 
 in 179(>) embraces a medical school, mechanics' 
 classes (the first established in the empire), and 
 a department of general studies for youth. 
 Mechanics' institutions, embracing classes in me- 
 chanics, chemistry, English literature, etc., have 
 been established in Glasgow, Edinburgh, and 
 other cities. Edinburgh has, in addition to the 
 medical faculty of the university, a school of 
 medicine. — (3) Academies of art have been es- 
 tablished at Edinburgh and Glasgow; the former 
 city has also a naval and military academy.- See 
 Sir J. K. Shhttlewobth, On Public Education 
 (3 vols., L853) ; H.Mann, Education in Great 
 Britain (1854); Blackik. On the Advancement 
 of Learning in Scotland (1855) ; Lorimer, Tlie 
 Universities of Scotland, past, present, and pos- 
 sible; Voigt, Mittheilungen iiberdas Unierrichts- 
 wesen Englands und Sckolllands (2d edit., 1863). 
 
 SECONDARY INSTRUCTION, that 
 grade of instruction which is usually afforded 
 in high schools, academics, etc., or in institutions 
 above the ordinary grade of a common or pri- 
 mary school. This grade- of instruction is 
 intermediate between primary instruction and 
 superior instruction, or that afforded in colleges 
 and universities. (See Education, and High 
 Schools.) 
 
 SELF-EDUCATION, that development of 
 the powers which is carried on by the individual 
 himself, without the aid of others. To a certain 
 extent, this education is not only unconscious, 
 but inevitable. The constant recurrence of like 
 conditions or actions, the knowledge of which is 
 conveyed to the individual by the senses, during 
 the growth of mind and body, is always attended 
 with an increased skill in the use of the powers 
 of both, which, of itself, constitutes an education. 
 The agents by which this knowledge is converted 
 into an unconscious education are chiefly habit 
 (q. v.) and experience; the one producing in- 
 creased ease of action under like circumstances, 
 and thus rendering the individual more capable; 
 the other enabling him to systematize his knowl- 
 edge, and to use it as an instrument for further 
 acquisition. To determine, in all cases, just 
 where this education ceases, and voluntary self- 
 education begins, would probably be very diffi- 
 cult; yet, in general, it may be said that the 
 active intervention of the will is the most obvious 
 feature by which self- education may be distin- 
 guished. It is usually regarded as that educa- 
 tion which is carried on intentionally, outside, or 
 beyond the influence, of the school. Even here, 
 however, the definition is imperfect ; for it must 
 always be difficult to estimate at its true compar- 
 ative value the strength of each of two impulses 
 which act thus at the same time and invisibly; but. 
 probably, a truer conception of the two powers, 
 self-education and school education, may be ac- 
 quired by supposing the difference between them 
 to be one of function rather than of degree — 
 school education serving rather as a director or 
 systematizer of power, while self-education must 
 often be looked upon as identical with innate 
 power, from our inability to separate the one 
 from the other. We know what training the 
 
776 
 
 SELF-EDU CATION 
 
 SEMINARY 
 
 school gives ; and, though we cannot analyze the 
 results it produces with sufficient accuracy t 
 sign to the school and to the individual the 
 proper share due to each, we know from many 
 comparisons made between countries with schools 
 and those without them, that the advantage lies 
 decidedly with the former. That the school is 
 rather a director of power than a creator of it. is 
 shown by contrasting the large number of men 
 who have enjoyed its advantages without mani- 
 festing special ability afterward in any walk of 
 life, with those who have risen to the highest po- 
 sitions without this privilege. In every civilized 
 country, the number of eminent self-educated 
 men is huge enough to justify the paradoxical 
 saying of Emerson, that one of the chief values 
 of a college education is to teach its worthless- 
 ness. Whatever truth there may be in this remark 
 is due to the fact that education is of two kinds, — 
 practical and theoretical, the first based princi- 
 pally upon facts and experience, and dealing 
 largely with human nature: the other, acquired 
 from books, and concerning itself in great measure 
 with abstractions ami theories which, though val- 
 uable enough for purposes of general culture, are 
 of little use in practical life. and. if exclusively 
 pursued, produce a positive disqualification for it. 
 Of these two kinds of education, it is hardly ton 
 much to say that the former is the more avail- 
 able, in the ordinary affairs of life, in a vast ma- 
 jority of eases. Hence, it should never be forgot- 
 ten by the educator, that the facilities for mental 
 acquisition which he offers the pupil by system- 
 atic instruct ion, ton frequently result in vacilla- 
 tion, or feebleness of purpose, and are almost in- 
 evitably accompanied with a loss, on the part of 
 the latter, of that vividness of apprehension 
 which experimental acquaintance gives. The only 
 amends, therefore, he can make is to render his 
 instruction as practical, and as far removed from 
 mere book-learning, as possible. Knowledge and 
 rote-learning have often a wonderful resemblance, 
 while, essentially, they may have nothing in com- 
 mon. The picture of a Lincoln, hastily gathering 
 book-knowledge by the lighl of the cabin tire: or 
 of a Franklin, finding in the intervals of his work 
 in a chandler's shop and a printing-office, an 
 equivalent for the school, should lie a sufficient 
 admonition to every teacher, that the privileges 
 of the school TOOm are not indispensable to the 
 most brilliant success. It is not necessary to 
 multiply instances of self-taught men ; the ranks 
 of greatness have been almost exclusively tilled 
 
 from this class. Three most valuable attributes 
 
 are strengthened, if not created, by a course of 
 self-education: self-confidence, independence of 
 
 judgment, and perseverance. He only who has 
 always depended upon himself, knows accurately 
 
 the limit of his power.-, measures beforehand 
 
 every difficulty, and docs not look, at the last 
 
 moment, for extraneous aid: while the habit of 
 self-reliance thus cultivated, lays the foundation 
 
 for a solidity of character which, in critical 
 
 moments, is not swayed by fitful or transient in- 
 fluences. The thini attribute, perseverance, is 
 
 the neeessar\ result of such an education. I la\ ing 
 
 always been accustomed to encounter obstacles, 
 and having always overcome them, the joy of 
 conflict and the joy of conquest, become, to self- 
 taug t, synonymous. The atmosphere of 
 
 difficulty is as the breath of life, and the result is 
 never doubtful to those who gather strength from 
 opposition. These are the most essential elements 
 of success, and. in practical matters, weigh more 
 than all the advantages of the school. On the 
 other hand, the commonest error of the self- 
 taught man is a depreciation of all studies or 
 pursuits which have no practical bearing. (Jeneral 
 culture — know ledge for itself alone, with all the 
 pleasures and consolations which it brings — is 
 underestimated. Accustomed always to see his 
 thoughts followed by tangible results, the moral 
 aspect of thought is lost sight of : ami his ideal 
 standard never rises above this utilitarian level. 
 This narrowness of mind leads almost inevitably 
 to a want of sympathy with liberal pursuits, and 
 sometimes to a kind of hardness or positiveness 
 of character which bears the appearance of ar- 
 rogance. Weakness being scarcely understood 
 by 'he successful, self taught man. want of char- 
 ity is a natural fruit of his habits of thought. 
 These defects, however, are frequently removed 
 by age: and. even at their worst, can hardly be 
 said to be so serious as those which have been 
 cited as incident to misdirected education in the 
 school. Of the two kinds of education — self- 
 education and school education it may. there- 
 fore, he said in general, that the former is of 
 greater value than the latter ; that for all prac- 
 tical action in the familiar matters of daily 
 life, all great emergencies, whether of peace 
 or war, which require independence of judg- 
 ment, promptness of decision or action, and 
 inflexible perseverance, the self-taught man is 
 vastly the superior; while, in purely speculative 
 pin suits, in researches or projects undertaken 
 without hope of immediate or material result, 
 the man of the schools, whose ( ducat ion has been 
 conducted with that broader outlook upon life 
 which leads directly to cull ure solely for its own 
 
 sake, manifests a far greater zeal and activity. 
 N either kind of education is to be commended 
 by itself: since the deficiencies of one need to 
 
 be supplied by the advantages of the other. 
 Their relation is well expressed by I >e < i t rando, 
 in Self-Education: "If all the means of educa- 
 tion which are scattered over the world, and if 
 all the philosophers and teachers of ancient and 
 modern times were to be collected together, and 
 
 made to bring their combined efforts to bear 
 upon an individual, all tiny could do would be to 
 afford the opportunity of improvement" — i. <-.. 
 self-education. (See G£rando.) 
 
 SEMINARY (l.at. seminarium, a place 
 where seed is .-own. from semen, seed), a term, 
 used in education to denote an institution of 
 
 [earning of any grade, though ofteiiei applied to 
 
 one of secondary grade. It is also applied to 
 
 certain kinds of professional schools: as a theolog- 
 ical seminary, a teacher.-' seminary, etc., the idea 
 intended to lie eomeved by the term being that 
 of preparation for suli.-cipie lit OSefulni 
 
si; NEC A 
 
 SENSES 
 
 77- 
 
 SENECA, Lucius Annseus, the Last great 
 representative of the Stoic philosophy, born in 
 Corduba (Cordova), Spain, about 7 B.C.; died 
 in Rome A. D.65, lie was the son of Manns 
 Annieus Sonera, a noted Roman rhetorician, 
 and the author of Oratorwm, et Rhetorwm Sen- 
 fentice, etc., a work containing the memorable 
 sayings which he had heard from the orators and 
 rhetoricians of his time. The first studies of the 
 younger Seneca were eloquence and the affiliated 
 sciences; but. later, he developed a taste for 
 philosophy, in which he enjoyed the instructions 
 of Papirius Fabianus, Attains, Demetrius, and 
 Sotion. 1 lis connection with the imperial court 
 caused him much misery, and nave a tone of 
 sadness and weariness to his whole philosophy. 
 He was banished to Corsica by the emperor on 
 false charges, and remained in exile eight years ; 
 at the end of which time he was recalled, through 
 the intercession of the empress Agrippina, who 
 hoped, by this means, to gain favor for her son 
 Nero with the citizens, who held Seneca in high 
 esteem. On the accession of Nero, Seneca, who 
 had served him as tutor, became his adviser ; 
 but he was unable to restrain the emperor's 
 monstrous excesses and crimes. lie, therefore, 
 endeavored to withdraw entirely from the Ro- 
 man court, offering to the emperor to surrender 
 to him his property ; but this was refused. He, 
 however, succeeded in keeping himself in seclu- 
 sion, but could not escape the cruelty of Nero, 
 by whom he was condemned, on a false charge 
 of complicity in Piso's conspiracy, and ordered 
 to commit suicide. His death was painful but 
 heroic, and his last words were, To Jove the Lib- 
 erator ! — Surrounded by the dissipations of a 
 corrupt age, Seneca, with great earnestness, ad- 
 vocated the education of youth in pure morals, 
 self-control, and truthfulness. He believed, that 
 human nature, from birth, tended to evil, but 
 that Cod, who is the soid of the world, inspires 
 every man with thoughts upright, just, and pure. 
 Seneca recognized, however, the great variety of 
 infantile individualities, rendering it necessary 
 for the educator to accommodate himself to par- 
 ticular cases. He recommended a just medium 
 between severity and remissness. He insisted 
 that boys should learn what is useful and prac- 
 tical in life ; and. from his complaint that the 
 youth of his times were studying not for life, but 
 for the school, the well-known maxim has been 
 deduced. Nan sckolce, sed vitce discendum est. 
 His remark that the teacher himself advances 
 in knowledge by imparting instruction, has 
 given rise to another maxim: Docendo discimus. 
 — The recent literature in regard to .Seneca is 
 fully reviewed in an exhaustive article in the 
 Methodist Quarterly Review (1876), by Hurst. 
 An edition of Seneca, designed for schools and 
 colleges, and embracing his principal essays, epi- 
 grams, epistles, alleged correspondence with St. 
 Paul, and parallels with sacred writers, by Hurst 
 and Whiting, appeared in New York, in 1877. 
 
 SENSES, the Education of the. Edu- 
 cation, through the senses, has received a great 
 amount of attention in recent times, and a spe- 
 
 cial effort to systematize it. is made in the kin- 
 dergarten (((. v.); but comparatively little thought 
 has been given to the training of the senses 
 themselves. A i id, yet, there is ample experience 
 to prove that much can be done in this direction 
 In eases where special senses have been called 
 into the most vigorous action, they have attained 
 capabilities which could scarcely have been 
 dreamed of. It may not be advisable to attempt 
 to cultivate each sense in every individual to 
 the same degree of acuteness that has been 
 reached in these extraordinary instances; but, 
 there is no doubt that the neglect to train the 
 senses, now almost universal, is not justifiable. 
 The special attributes which we may assign to 
 the senses, are quickness in receiving impressions, 
 strength in taking hold of the impressions, and 
 vivacity in noticing not merely the unity which 
 is presented to the mind, but in remarking the 
 various details which compose or characterize 
 this unity. These three qualities are quite dif- 
 ferent from each other. If an object is held up 
 before a number of children, some will be found 
 able to form an impression of it much more 
 quickly than others, while some will be very 
 slow to catch a notion of it. So. again, they 
 will differ in the strength of grasp with which 
 they seize hold of the object. On some it will 
 produce but a feeble impression, and that im- 
 pression will, consequently, soon die away ; but 
 by others the object will be grasped firmly, and, 
 consequently, held firmly. Many, too, that may 
 be able to take strong impressions, may be sur- 
 passed by others of less strength in the capacity 
 to catch the multiplicity of details which are 
 presented to the view. In fact, the strong sense 
 is generally absorbed in the unity ; but the less 
 vigorous notices the details along with the unity. 
 Now, these qualities are inborn with the senses; 
 and it is likely that the original difference, in 
 these respects, which exists in different minds, 
 is sufficient to account for the mental differences 
 that ultimately appear among human beings. 
 Circumstances will explain the rest of the phe- 
 nomena ; but these qualities are capable of cul- 
 tivation, being intensified in proportion to the 
 healthy exercise of the senses. In attempting 
 to train the senses, the most essential process is 
 isolation. The blind man becomes singularly 
 expert in the sense of touch, because he brings 
 it into continual play, and trusts much to it. 
 He must voluntarily follow the course which 
 necessity compels him to follow. Science has 
 not thrown much light, as yet, on the lower 
 senses; and, therefore, little can be done for 
 their training. The vital sense is so closely con- 
 nected with processes which take place in un- 
 consciousness that little can be made of it. 
 Somewhat more can be done with the senses of 
 taste and smell. If the child were asked to shut 
 his eyes, and determine, by taste, what objects 
 were presented to him, the sense might become 
 much more perfect and much more useful. At- 
 tention could be called to the general harmony 
 that exists between the taste and healthfulness 
 of objects, and the child might thus learn, in 
 
778 
 
 SENSES 
 
 SEEYIA 
 
 many cases, to choose the good and reject the 
 evil. The same remarks apply to the sense of 
 smell; but a wider range could be given to its 
 activities. The child, for example, might be re- 
 quired to determine flowers bytheir smells. But" 
 it is when we come to the higher senses that 
 much can be done by isolating practice. In re- 
 gard to the sense of touch, there arc three ex- 
 ercises which may be usefully practiced. First. 
 the sense of touch over the body may be rendered 
 much more acute; and, in consequence, what 
 are called the sensory circles, very much nar- 
 rowed. Experiment has proved this fact most 
 conclusively. Then, from touch we derive the 
 sense of pressure. Here the child may find in- 
 teresting exercise in trying to estimate the 
 weight of an object from its pressure on the 
 hand, or on other parts of the body. This con- 
 stitutes one of the peculiar exercises of object 
 teaching (q. v.). Moreover, touch gives the 
 notion of temperature; and here again the child 
 might be taught to come very i lose to the exact 
 degree of Fahrenheit by the sense of heat which 
 he has in his touch. The training which may 
 be given to the sense of hearing, is also various. 
 The child might he exercised in ascertaining 
 from what direction sounds come. lie might 
 be taught to distinguish various sounds, and, es- 
 pecially, musical sounds; and he might learn to 
 
 analyze complex sounds. Some think, thai the 
 
 last exercise Should always he preliminary to 
 learning to read. Thus, the instructor niters a, 
 word, and draws the chill's attention to the 
 fact that it consists of several sounds. The 
 child is then askeil to analyze tin; sounds; and 
 the chilil does not, commence to learn to read 
 until he is able to analyze short words into their 
 ■simplest sounds. Spelling, in the sense of ana- 
 lyzing the sounds, according to this method, 
 precedes reading. According to the phonic 
 method, the analysis of sounds is employed to 
 facilitate the pronunciation of words, and. hence. 
 as auxiliary to reading. (See Phonic Method.) — 
 The sense of sight is the ,,]| ( . through which edu- 
 tsation takes place most of all. it is, therefore. 
 brought into continual activity, and thus re- 
 ceives greater training. In the object-teaching 
 system, this is accomplish d in various ways, 
 but. particularly, by the use of color (q.v.). Dis- 
 
 tind colors are first brought before the child's 
 
 eye. ami he is gra Lually practiced in distinguish- 
 ing them, so as, ultimately, to he able to n 
 
 the minutest shales of difference. Then, again, 
 the child is taught to form from sight an ac- 
 curate idea of size and distance. — The space 
 here does not admit of more than a mere glance 
 at this important subject ; and only in connec- 
 tion with the training of children. But, while 
 
 there is no doubl that the greatest good can he 
 done in I he earliest years, the training may 
 
 profitably he continued throughout the whole 
 period of education. The organization of meth- 
 ods for Such I raining has still to be discussed by 
 
 educationists. Moreover, physiologists are still 
 
 reat uncertainty as to many points. Greal 
 
 ■discoveries have been recently made l>y the re- 
 
 searches of Weber, Wundt, Helmholtz, and 
 others; but we may expect still more important 
 discoveries from the investigations now going 
 on; and there is no doubt that such discoveries 
 will throw light on the proper method of train- 
 ing the .senses. — Sec <i. Wit. sox. The Five Gate- 
 ways of Knowledge (4th cd.. London, 1863); 
 Wyld, Physics and Philosophy of the Senses 
 (London, 1856) ; Julius Bernstein, The Five 
 Senses of Man (New York, 1876). (See also 
 K u;. and Eve.) 
 
 SENTENTIAL ANALYSIS. See Anal- 
 ysis, Grammatical. 
 
 SERVIA, a dependency of Turkey, having 
 an area of 16,81 7 square miles, and a population 
 of about L,338,000. The large majority of the 
 inhabitants belong to the Servo-Croatian branch 
 of the southern Slaves, and are members of the 
 ( rreek Church. 
 
 Educational Legislation. — Fifty years ago, 
 Servia had no public primary schools, but owing 
 to the interest taken in the cause of education 
 by the ruling house of Obrenovitch, and by the 
 Skupshtina, the national assembly, elementary 
 instruction has. of late, made considerable prog- 
 ress. The public-school system is under the con- 
 trol of the ministry of education, composed of 
 the minister, a chief of section. -I secretaries and 
 3 actuaries. The four secretaries, with the chief of 
 the section, form a school board which is presided 
 over by the minister, and publishes all school 
 laws and regulations. 
 
 / rimary Schools. — The primary schools are 
 immediately subject to the chief of the district. 
 The next highest authority is the prefect of the 
 circle, the minister being the highest. Education 
 is compulsory, and is free to all, in the highest as 
 well as in the lowest schools. Every teacher who 
 has served ten years, and has become unfit for 
 further service, is entitled to a pension equal to 
 -10 per cent of his salary, and each additional 
 year entitles him to an increase of 2 percent. 
 After 35 years' service, he receives his entire sal- 
 ary as a ] tension. The salaries of teachers are the 
 same in huge and in small communities, being 
 a I mi it S'250 a year. In 1874, there were 517 
 public schools, with 650 teachers and 23,278 
 pupils. .Most of the schools have, thus far, had 
 three classes, but a law. passed in b v 7e. provides 
 that in future all schools shall have four classes. 
 The number of private schools is small. A nor- 
 mal school was established, in L872, at Kraguye- 
 
 vatz, which, in L873, had •">!• pupils. 
 
 Secondary Instruction. — Secondary instruction 
 
 is under the immediate control of the minister 
 of education. The secondary schools comprise 
 gymnasia, sub-gymnasia, real schools, and sub- 
 real schools. The gymnasia and real schools, 
 had. in l!s7.">. live classes, the sub -gymnasia, four 
 Or three: and the sub-real schools, two. In 1875, 
 the Skupshtina passed a law, providing for the 
 establishment of a real school in the capital of 
 
 each circle. In L873, there were '_' gymnasia and 
 
 5 Bub-gymnasia, with an aggregate of 72 teach- 
 ers and L ,323 pupils, and 1 real school and 8 sub- 
 real sel Is. with an agcrecate of ID teachers ami 
 
SETON 
 
 SHURTLEFF COLLI Xi E 
 
 779 
 
 436 pupils. There is, also, for the instruction of 
 girls, one secondary school, with 238 pupils. 
 
 Superior Instruction. — The high school in 
 Belgrade, the only institution for superior in- 
 struction, is, like the secondary schools, under the 
 direct control of the minister of education. It 
 had, in 1873, three faculties, — of law, technology, 
 and philosophy, with 19 teachers and 207 stu- 
 dents. All the lectures are public, and no fees 
 are charged. 
 
 Special and Professional Schools. — Special 
 instruction is imparted in a school of forestry 
 and agriculture, a theological seminary of the 
 Greek Church, an artillery school, and a military 
 school. — See Citron Ik ales Volkssc}iulwesens,\x~i?>, 
 187-1, and 1875. 
 
 SETON, Camuel Waddington, eminent as 
 a philanthropist and educationist, particularly in 
 connection with the public schools of the city 
 of New York, was born in that city Jan. 23., 
 1789; and died in the same, Nov. 20., 1870. His 
 father was the first president of the Bank of 
 New York, then the second banking-house in 
 the country. By the decease of both his parents, 
 he was left an orphan at an early age. After re- 
 ceiving an academic education, he entered upon 
 a commercial life, and, aided by John Jacob 
 Astor, he made a trading voyage to China. This 
 was unsuccessful ; and, on his return to New 
 York, in 1*07, he obtained an appointment in 
 the Bank of New York, where he remained some 
 years. In LS23, he was elected by the Public 
 School Society a trustee of the schools ; and, in 
 1826, at considerable pecuniary sacrifice, he ac- 
 cepted the appointment, from the board of trust- 
 ees, of agent of the society, virtually, super- 
 intendent of the schools, the duties of which 
 position he discharged until the dissolution of 
 the society, in 1853. In 1854, he was elected by 
 the Board of Education of the city an assistant 
 superintendent, in which office he continued un- 
 til his death. He also took great interest in 
 Sunday-school instruction, having had, at the time 
 of his death, the charge of a Baptist Sunday- 
 school (though himself an Episcopalian) for 50 
 years uninterruptedly, during which period, it is 
 said, he was absent from his self-imposed duty 
 only twelve Sundays, and this in consequence of 
 sickness or absence from the city. Mr. Seton 
 was peculiarly qualified for his duties as a super- 
 intendent of schools — particularly primary 
 schools, by his gentle, loving spirit, his sympathy 
 with children, and his ardent zeal in behalf of 
 early education. This subject he had studied 
 with the deepest interest ; and his suggestions 
 were eminently wise and practical. In this work, 
 he was the active associate of Josiah Holbrook 
 (q. v.) and Joseph Curtis (q. v.), as well as many 
 others, whose efforts, at that time, were given 
 to improving the methods of common-school in- 
 struction. His annual reports are replete with 
 valuable information for teachers of young chil- 
 dren. His philanthropic zeal was not confined 
 to the schools, but extended to all the poor and 
 helpless within his reach. Few lives have been 
 so strongly marked by purity and disinterestedness 
 
 of character and active beneficence ; and, haying 
 never married, lie was able to devote himself 
 wholly to his benevolent efforts to improve the 
 condition of his race. He was a fertile and taste- 
 ful writer boili in prose and verse — the latter 
 only for children, many of his poems still sur- 
 viving as models of the kind. He was also sin- 
 gularly effective in his addresses to the young, 
 mingling information, impressed with the quaint- 
 est and most humorous of illustrations, with pas- 
 sages of the most touching pathos. His dying 
 request breathed the spirit which had pervaded 
 his life of over fourscore years, — "Bury me 
 a mongthe children ! "— and, accordingly, his grave 
 was made in the center of the children's plot, in 
 ( i reenwood Cemetery, over which a monument 
 was erected by the public-school teachers of the 
 city, bearing the appropriate epitaph : Peace ! 
 — See Bourne, History of the Public School 
 Society (New York, 1870). 
 
 SETQN HALL COLLEGE, at South 
 Orange, N. J., under Roman CathoUc control, 
 was founded at Madison, in 1856, removed to its 
 present location in 1860, and incorporated in 
 1861. It is supported by the fees of students, 
 the charge for tuition, board, etc., being $400 
 a year. The library contains 8,000 volumes. 
 There is a commercial, a preparatory, a col- 
 legiate, and a theological department. In 1875 
 — 6, there were 15 instructors and 140 students, 
 of whom 39 were in the theological department. 
 The presidents have been the Rt. Rev. B. J. 
 McQuaid, B. D., 1856—68, and the Rt. Rev. M. 
 A. Corrigan, D. D., since 1868. 
 
 SEX IN EDUCATION. See Co-Education. 
 
 SHAW UNIVERSITY, at Holly Springs, 
 Miss., founded in 1870, is under Methodist 
 Episcopal control, and is supported by the Freed- 
 men's Aid Society of that Church. It was designed 
 especially for colored youth,but is open to all with- 
 out distinction of race or sex. It has an English, 
 a normal, a preparatory, a collegiate, a theological, 
 and a law department. Tuition, except in law and 
 music, is free. In 1875—6, there were 8 instruct- 
 ors and 113 students (38 of the collegiate grade). 
 The presidents have been the Rev. A. C. McDon- 
 ald, 1870—74, and (he Rev. W. W. Hooper, 
 since 18 < 4. 
 
 SHAW UNIVERSITY, at Raleigh, N. C, 
 founded in 1865, and chartered in 1875, is under 
 Baptist control. It id supported by a small 
 charge upon the students, and by contributions 
 from friends in the North. It was especially de- 
 signed for colored youth ; but none are excluded 
 on account of race or sex. The university has 
 an elementary, a normal, a collegiate, and a the- 
 ological department. In 1875- — 6, there were 8 
 instructors and 236 students. The Rev. H. M. 
 Tupper, A. M.. is (1876) the president. 
 
 SHURTLEFF COLLEGE, at Upper Al- 
 ton, 111., under Baptist control, was established 
 as Alton Seminary, in 1832. and chartered as 
 Alton College, in 1835. Soon after its establish- 
 ment, the Rock Spring Literary and Theological 
 Seminary, organized in 1827, and likewise under 
 Baptist control, was removed to this place, and 
 
780 
 
 SI CARD 
 
 SINGING-SCHOOLS 
 
 merged in this college. The Rev. Hubbell Loomis, 
 who was the principal of the seminary from 
 L 832 to L835, contributed largely to the estab- 
 lishment of the college, which, by virtue of its 
 origin in L827, is claimed to be the oldest insti- 
 tution of the kind in the Mississippi Valley. 
 The name was changed, in 1836, in honor of 
 Benjamin Shurtleff, M. !>.. of Boston, who had 
 donated Si 0.000 to the institution. It consists 
 of an academic and preparatory department, the 
 college proper, and a theological department. 
 Students of both sexes are admitted to the col- 
 lege, as well as to the academic and preparatory 
 department. The college has a classical and a 
 scientific course of four years each, and a three 
 years' Latin course. It has an endowment of 
 si 25,000, and its libraries contain 10,000 volumes. 
 The cost of tuition ranges from $36 to $48 a 
 year: but in the theological department it is free. 
 Ministerial students are assisted by the Illinois 
 Baptist Education Society. In L875 — 6, there 
 were 12 instructors and L89 students (deducting 
 repetitions), namely: theological, 6; collegiate, 54; 
 preparatory and academic L31. The presidents 
 of the college have been as follows: the Rev. 
 Washington Leverett, A. M.. 1835 — 11; the Rev. 
 Adiel Sherwood, D. D., L841— 5; the Rev. 
 Washington Leverett, A. M.. again, 1 9 16 — 9; the 
 Rev. Norman X. Wood, D.D., L850— 55; the 
 Rev. S. T. Mc.Masters. LL. D. (proiem.), I 
 —6 : the Rev. Daniel Read, LL.D., 1856 71 ; 
 and the Rev. A. A. Kendrick, D.D., since L872. 
 SICARD, RochAmbroiseCucurron, abbe, 
 a French philanthropist and teacher of the deaf 
 and dumb, born in Fousseret, September 20., 
 171'.': died in Paris, May 10.. L822. lie was edu- 
 cated for the ministry, at the university of Tou- 
 louse, and was made vicar-general of I londom and 
 canon of Bordeaux. Having received instruction 
 from the abbe de I'Epee, he opened a school for 
 deaf-mutes in Bordeaux, in 1 786; and, three years 
 after, succeeded his teacher in the management of 
 
 a private school of that kind, which the latter had 
 opened in 17<i0. Two years after, he succeeded 
 in causing its adoption by the government. It is 
 now known as the Imperial Institution of Paris. 
 Owing to his connection with the church, he 
 
 became an object of suspicion to the revolution- 
 ists, in L792, and was thrown into prison, barely 
 escaping with his life. Be was afterwards ban- 
 ished. In 1815, he made a visit to England, 
 taking with him his pupils Massieii and Laurent 
 
 Olerc, the latter of whom formed the acquaint- 
 ance there of Dr. Gallaudet, whom he accom- 
 panied to the United States in L816. The dis- 
 tinctive work of the abbe Sicard was his enlarge- 
 ment of the resources of the deaf-mute language 
 taught by De I'Epee by the addition of signs for 
 metaphysical ideas. He constructed an elaborate 
 analytical system of visible signs, for the purpose 
 of conveying to deaf-mutes the functions and re- 
 lations of words in sentences, and thus succeeded 
 in making them acquainted with the principles 
 of grammar an achievement which, from its 
 ingenious and imaginative method-, secured for 
 
 him the title of "the painter of syntax and the 
 
 poet of grammar." His principal works are 
 Theorie des Signes and Cours d' Instruction. 
 
 Deaf-Mutes.) 
 SIGNS, LANGUAGE OF. See Deaf- 
 Motes, and I'kkt. II. I'. 
 
 SIMPSON CENTENARY COLLEGE, 
 
 at Jndianola. Iowa, founded in 18G7, is under 
 .Methodist Episcopal control. It is supported by 
 tuition fees ranging from $24 to $30 a year, and 
 by the income of an endowment of about $70,000. 
 It comprises a preparatory department and a 
 collegiate department, with a four years' classical 
 course and a three years' scientific course. Facil- 
 ities are afforded for instruction in music, teleg- 
 raphy, book-keeping, penmanship, phonography, 
 and Hebrew. Both sexes are admitted. In 1875 
 — (J, there were 10 instructors and 259 students 
 I undergraduates. 00: preparatory students. L69; 
 pursuing special studies. 30). There is also, at 
 Pes Moines, a law department (the Iowa College 
 of Law), organized in 1875; anda medical depart- 
 ment is about to lie organized there. The Rev. 
 Alexander Burns, l». D., has been the president 
 of the college since its foundation. 
 
 SIMULTANEOUS INSTRUCTION. See 
 Com Kin' Te uiiixc 
 
 SINGING-SCHOOLS. From the days of 
 St. Ambrose and Gregory the Great to the pres- 
 ent age, singing-schools and classes have existed. 
 for purposes of instruction in elementary vocal 
 and choral exercises. Chiefly through the efforts 
 eclesiastics and choirs of an earlier period, 
 those substantial and permanent forms of church 
 music, the single chant, the hymn, and the 
 choral, have been preserved to warm and enliven 
 
 the sacred services of a later time. There was. 
 undoubtedly, a very strong and direct effect pro- 
 duced through the instrumentality of men and 
 boys, uniting their voices within a limited com- 
 I ass, associating their music with words of solemn 
 
 and living import, and uttering their hymns of 
 praise under the direction of a religious leader. 
 
 Guido Aretino (1020 A. D.) must have perceived 
 
 the neet ssity of a certain order in conducting the 
 musical exercises of his classes, since portions of 
 
 bis method have lasted eight centuries; the staff, 
 
 completed to nearly its present state, and the 
 
 syllables Ut, Re, Mi. Fa, Sol, La, Si, improve- 
 ments of his ami introduced under his immediate 
 
 eye, being still in full and vigorous use. The Ref- 
 ormation, with Martin Luther fur one of its 
 musical as well as one of its ei elesiastical guides, 
 
 gave the choral and the special hymn to all the 
 people. Subsequently, not only Germany, but 
 Great Britain, and the United States of America, 
 greatly encouraged the cultivation of vocal mu- 
 sic, in its higher relations, among all classes of 
 people. It is the opinion of some, however, that 
 
 the people of the United States ate a century 
 behind the more powerful and influential of the 
 European nations in a systematic fostering of the 
 
 science and art of music by the state: hut. through 
 
 the more general diffusion of knowledge by 
 means of schools, the press, and other agencies, 
 the individual efforts of Americans are wide- 
 spread, toward imparting a more thorough un- 
 
SINGING-SCHOOLS 
 
 781 
 
 derstanding of that which is, to the vast ma- 
 jority of people, an unknown language ; namely, 
 the secret of the independent reading of vocal 
 music with facility. 
 
 The origin of the staff, and the use of the syl- 
 lables 11, Jie, Jfi, Fa, Sol, La, Si, seem to have 
 been nearly contemporary. These, together with 
 the clefs, notes, and chromatic signs, constitute 
 the written language of music as recognized by 
 every civilized country ; and it is not possible 
 to change them for the letters only, valuable 
 as these are in certain relations, without disas- 
 trously revolutionizing the whole written system 
 of modern music, and all its magnificent acces- 
 sories. Large numbers of most valuable works 
 upon harmony, counterpoint, and orchestral ef- 
 fects have been written, besides innumerable 
 scores, with all of these well known musical signs, 
 and with the employment of the syllables 11, ll>>, 
 Mi, etc., as denoting absolute pitch constantly in 
 view ; and to reduce them to the dimensions 
 of lettered signs simply, and require singers and 
 players to translate them into music agreeable 
 to the ear, would be an interminable and tedious 
 task. The modern Italian method of present- 
 ing the scale through the familiar syllables Do, 
 Re, Mi, Fa, Sol, La, Si, has the merit of being 
 direct and of appealing to the ear; and it is. also, 
 quite unique, since the syllables are at once the 
 vehicles of variations of sound required in render- 
 ing the scale, and the signs denoting absolute 
 pitch, like the letters to the Germans and to the 
 English. So that, by this method, the pupil 
 has to remember only one particular syllable, 
 either in naming a key-note or in singing it. To 
 the Italians and to the French, and to very 
 many others who have been taught by this 
 method, this association of a certain syllable with 
 a certain key-note, that particular syllable being 
 the very vehicle for the production of the tone 
 desired, is deemed, in many respects, an advan- 
 tage. The fixed and immovable Do becomes the 
 middle C of the system. All other tones of that 
 octave, diatonic and chromatic, revolve around it, 
 as the planets around the sun. The major scale, 
 with its intermediate half-tones, becomes the 
 nucleus of the entire tonal system. In exact pro- 
 portion as the scholar acquires a thorough knowl- 
 edge of the scale, by regular degrees, by intervals 
 small and large, by chromatic as well as by dia- 
 tonic progression, and by all the varieties of me- 
 lodic and harmonic effect of which it is suscep- 
 tible,will his succeding study be made satisfactory 
 and available. Multiply this knowledge of the 
 resources of one scale within the compass of one 
 octave by twelve, the number of independent 
 key-notes included within the limits of the chro- 
 matic scale, and thereby are obtained the changes 
 of progression possible in all the twelve keys, 
 in the circle of harmony, through the transposi- 
 tion of the key-note. Now this may seem com- 
 plicated to the uninitiated ; but it is quite clear 
 to all who have mastered the changes obtainable 
 within the compass of one octave, and afterward 
 have learned the rule of transposition to the suc- 
 ceeding eleven keys. This, indeed, is the first di- 
 
 rect business of the faithful musical instructor 
 and his pupils. There is no escape from travel- 
 ing this well-known and well-beaten road, if 
 accuracy and a full comprehension of the 
 groundwork of music be really desired. In 
 schools where the very tender age of the pupils 
 hardly admits of any extended course of vocal 
 musical instruction, it is now positively ascer- 
 tained that the association of the sounds of the 
 major scale with the numerals 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7,8, 
 is of direct and permanent use. Practicing frag- 
 ments of the major scale, ascending and descend- 
 ing, by regular degrees and in wider intervals, 
 with frequent recurrence of the key-note 1 or 8, 
 and unisonant passages, has the effect of locating 
 the sounds of the scale in their exact order, and 
 immediately secures the attention and the active 
 participation of the pupils, because the order of 
 the numerals is already familiar to them ; and, 
 in this way, each sound of the scale becomes 
 gradually associated with its corresponding nu- 
 meral. If to the use of the numerals be added 
 that of the syllables Do, Re, Mi, Fa, Sol, La, Si, 
 which are more musical in themselves than the 
 numerals, there are obtained three indicators of 
 the different sounds of the scale ; namely, the 
 letters, the numerals, and the syllables, all of 
 which are useful for special purposes: the letters, 
 for denoting absolute pitch and the location of 
 the key-notes, changeable only with the clefs ; the 
 numerals, for drilling in the plain sounds of the 
 scale, and ultimately for practical use in the 
 study of harmony, one and eight' being used as 
 key-notes in one or all of the twelve keys ; and 
 the syllables, for sol-faing, used according to 
 the Italian method, C being always the fixed and 
 immovable Do. It is at this point that this 
 Italian method, -which recognizes the syllables as 
 necessary indicators of absolute pitch, and at the 
 same time as necessary in sol-faing for the pro- 
 duction of an equable and yet varied effect, dif- 
 fers from three other methods which are in ex- 
 tensive use : (1) from that of the Germans, wdio, 
 with a special name for every plain sound of the 
 scale, and for every augmented or depressed in- 
 terval thereof, rely chiefly upon vocalizing with 
 different vowels to secure accuracy in all chro- 
 matic as well as diatonic progressions ; (2) from 
 that of the United States, which quite generally, 
 but not entirely, employs a movable Do as the 
 starting-point or key-note of the major scale, the 
 key-note for any relative minor becoming La ; 
 and (3) from that of the Rev. J. Curwen, the 
 success of whose method in England has been 
 quite remarkable, — a method, which is identical 
 with that so extensively practiced in the United 
 States, in the use of a movable Do, but which 
 substitutes the syllable Te for Si ; the names of 
 Mr. Curwen's syllables being Dolt, Ray, Me, Fah, 
 Si J/, La, Te. This method of lettered and nu- 
 /ii' rid abbreviations, as substitutes for the staff, 
 clefs, chromatic signs, bars, measures, and time- 
 table of the present musical sign-language will 
 be more minutely considered further on. — To re- 
 turn to the two methods which are chiefly em- 
 ployed in the United States, it is, really, very 
 
Ts-2 
 
 SINGING-SCHOOLS 
 
 important to the beginner that lie adhere to 
 one method until it is thoroughly acquired. It 
 is the united testimony of experienced teachers 
 of vocal music that good readers are educated 
 I by both of these methods, provided the teacher 
 begins, continues, and ends the work of strict 
 reading by adopting only one method ai a time. 
 The pupil may afterward become acquainted with 
 all other methods, and with advantage; since 
 subsequent experience will enable him to test the 
 merits of the method which he most thoroughly 
 understands, and which he can make mosl ef- 
 fective. To attempt to teach, or to learn, both 
 methods at the same time, produces a confusion 
 of associations, and a consequent bewilderment, 
 which should be avoided. It has been the ex- 
 perience of the writer to be required to teach 
 contemporaneously according to both of these 
 methods; and while it must be admitted that the 
 method which retains the immovable Do has a 
 unity and consistency which demand time for 
 their thorough appreciation and practical use. it 
 is easier, in the first stages of instruction, to 
 change the Do with each successive key-note of 
 the entire twelve. By the former method. lh, 
 is invariably associated with a certain letter and 
 a certain line orspace; by the latter, Do becomes 
 the key-note, or numeral one or eight, of every 
 one of the major scales. — One or the other of 
 
 these ways of using the syllables being accepted. 
 the natural and ordinary divisions of elementary 
 vocal teaching into those of tune, time, and ex- 
 pression present themselves: time, or melody, 
 addressing itself more directly to the soul than 
 time or rhythm, is certainly first in order in the 
 musical education of the young. By common 
 consent, the major scale, in great variety, is now 
 practiced with numerals and with syllables in the 
 primary departments of schools, asa preparation 
 for the presentation of the staff, clefs, notes. etc.. 
 
 at a later period. It is a matter of no conse- 
 quence whether the scale be based upon one par- 
 ticular line or space in preference to another, if 
 the movable Do be used ; but if it be die teach- 
 er's design to employ the Italian method, with 
 its Do immovably fixed upon middle ('.it is 
 conducive to a clearer understanding of the sub- 
 ject of the fnt/isponiHon of the key-note to start 
 
 from this point. If another letter be selected as 
 the base of the scale in the earlier lessons, it is 
 necessary to return to middle (' when the sub- 
 ject of transposition is introduced, And the ordi- 
 nary rules for changing the place of the key-note 
 by help of the sharps and Hats, are fully ex- 
 plained. After some familiarity w ith the sounds 
 of the major scale is acquired, a division of the 
 
 class should he made, whereby singing in two 
 
 parts can lie attempted. 'This phase of element- 
 ary vocal instruction may he postponed, in 
 teaching children, until a considerable knowledge 
 
 of the diatonic intervals of the major scale has 
 been made familiar to them. With adults, how- 
 ever, the natural division of the class of mixed 
 voices arising from the selection of the soprano, 
 alto, tenor, and base voices, each to sing in a com- 
 pact body, and in a separate location, is obvious- 
 
 ly necessary as a measure of interest and advan- 
 tage to all fourof these parties. after the quality 
 of tone and compass of each voice have been as- 
 certained. Heating time should be introduced 
 and rigidly enforced as soon as the staff and its di- 
 vision into measures by bars have been explained, 
 especially in the simpler forms of twofold, three- 
 fold, and fourfold measure. The department 
 oi expression, with its more apparent varieties 
 of/", p, inf, legato, staccato, and ^_ -, • 
 
 may accompany the perforniani e of the simplest 
 exercises, and grow with the growth and 
 strengthen with the strength of the pupil as be 
 advances toward the execution of more elaborate 
 examples in melody, rhythm, ajidharmony.They 
 who clog the wheels of musical progress with 
 dull and incompetent ears must gradually dis- 
 appear. This is a ride without exception. 
 
 Allusion has been made to the success of the 
 Rev. J. Curwens Tonic-Sol-Fa system in ham- 
 land, of which Miss Sarah A. Glover, with her 
 so-called tetrachordal method, was the forerunner. 
 j It is claimed that it is better suited for vocal 
 practice than the ordinary signs, and many of 
 .Mr. Curwen's disciples consider it available for 
 the presentation of every possible variety of 
 music, instrumental as well as vocal. The syllables 
 Do, li'/i/. Mr, Wah, Soh, /."//. 7''. are pro- 
 nounced as they are spelt, Te being substituted 
 for Si, to avoid confusion with Soh when only 
 the initial letter is used, as in the printed music 
 the initial only is employed. To indicate the 
 higher or lower octaves, figures are placed by the 
 sides of the letters which stand for notes, as 
 d 1 , </-, iii' a , and So, M 2 ,d 2 . The tune America 
 is presented thus: | (/ d r t x d /• /// mfm r d r 
 dt 1} etc. Different key-notes are announced by 
 letter at the begjbning, as key G, key A. etc. 
 The key-noteof the relative minor is always Lah. 
 
 Changes of key are effected by what are called 
 bridge tones. The note, or rather the letter indi- 
 cating a certain sound, is placed side by side with 
 the letter indicating the pitch of the letter in the 
 key approached; and pupils are taught to think 
 and sing the sound of the first noteor letter, and 
 to call it by the name of the second. Thus d r in 
 f st t d would show a modulation to the key of 
 (i. Tonio-Sol-FaistS consider that this affords an 
 easier mode of making modulations and transi- 
 tions than the older system. The chromatic scale 
 
 is named by adding the vowel < to the initial of 
 
 sharped notes, and u (aw) to ilatted notes. Thus 
 de, re,fe, se, are respectively </. r.f. 8 sharp; and 
 ii/'/ (maw) /". /<>. hi. I. t tlat. The sharp or aug- 
 mented sixth of the minor scale is called bah, to 
 distinguish it from/is, the sharp or augmented 
 fourth of the major scale. Time and accent are 
 indicated by measurement across the page, thus: 
 
 I : I : J v : I 
 
 thespace between one sign and Jhe next repre- 
 senting the heat : the line showing the Stronger 
 accent, and the colon the weaker. Short divisions 
 are indicated, on halving the measure, by one dot 
 . : and commas are used to divide the 
 
 measure into quarters, and other divisions are 
 similarly shown. A stroke, through a beat or 
 
SINUIMJ-SCHOOLS 
 
 SOCIAL KCOXOMY 
 
 783 
 
 pulse, means that a previous sound is to be con- 
 tinued. Sol-Fa is Is esteem this mode of measur- 
 ing time a great advantage over the older nota- 
 tion. The first line of Pleyel's hymn is thus 
 written : j m : S | r : . w \ f : r \ m, etc. 
 
 The method cannot easily be understood with- 
 out reference to the Tonic-Sol-Fa arrangement, 
 i. e., the distinctive plan of teaching the musical 
 facts indicated by the lettered notation. It is the 
 result of laborious incpiiry and experience on 
 the part of Mr. Curwen and his fellow laborers. 
 Great importance is attached to the doctrine of 
 what is called mental effect, but which has been 
 previously named more properly emotional effect, 
 by which is meant a certain coloring or impres- 
 sion produced by each sound of the scale when 
 sung slowly. Thus doh is considered firm; te, 
 sharp and piercing ; lah, sorrowful \fah, gloomy; 
 soh, bright and clear, etc. Teaching by pattern 
 is also required ; the scale is taught in tire follow- 
 ing order : (1) the notes of the tonic common 
 chord d, m, s, or doli me soh, and their replicates; 
 (2) the notes of the dominant common chord 
 s, t, r,or soh, te, ray; (3) the common chord of the 
 subdominant /, I, d, or fall, la J/, doh, — which 
 are simply the fundamental harmonies of the 
 scale, embracing all it.: sounds, and giving birth 
 to the name of the system, Tonic-Sol-Fa. The 
 backbone of the system, however, is the Modu- 
 lator, without a proper use of which the method 
 cannot be taught. 
 
 f 1 
 
 d 
 
 t 
 
 d 1 
 
 t 
 
 1 
 
 f 
 m 
 
 d 
 t, 
 
 m 
 
 ri 
 
 I 
 
 m 
 
 d 
 
 ti 
 
 li 
 
 f 
 m 
 
 m. 
 
 m 
 
 d 
 
 h 
 s i 
 
 fi 
 m 
 
 -DOH 1 - 
 
 TE — 
 
 ta la 
 
 -LAH = 
 
 la se 
 
 -SOH - 
 
 ba fe 
 
 — FAH 
 
 -ME - 
 
 ma re 
 
 RAY — 
 
 DOH - 
 
 ti - 
 
 - li ' - 
 
 l, 
 
 m 
 
 d 
 t, 
 
 f 
 m 
 
 to 
 
 d 1 
 
 t 
 
 1 
 
 f 
 
 m 
 
 d 
 li 
 
 m, 
 
 m 
 
 d 
 ti 
 
 li 
 
 m, 
 
 to 
 
 lo 
 
 t 3 — 
 
 This Modulator is 
 
 f 
 
 m x — L r : s 2 
 a map of the musical 
 sounds to be read in an ascending order, showing 
 the scale, its minor, its chromatics, and its more 
 closely related keys or scales. By familiarity in 
 the use of this chart, the upward and down- 
 
 wanl motion of the notes all on one level, is 
 gradually Learned by the pupil. Syllables are 
 used to show the length of the notes according to 
 the French Cheve system. Sotaa is the name 
 of one beat, taa-tai of a half-beat, and ta-fa-te-fe 
 of quarter beats. < 'oiitinuations of any kind are 
 met by dropping the consonant. Sol- Foists con- 
 sider that the more intricate and refined of di- 
 vided beats can be sooner learned in this way than 
 in any other. But this Tonic-Sol-Fa-method, 
 more than any other, requires the living teacher 
 to illustrate the meaning of its signs ; and it fob' 
 lows, of course, that the teacher of any particular 
 method of imparting musical instruction will 
 best succeed with that which he most thoroughly 
 understands. 
 
 SMITHSON COLLEGE, at Logansport, 
 Tnd., founded in 1872 for the education of both 
 sexes, is under Universalist control. It is sup- 
 ported by tuition fees and the income of an 
 endowment of $20,000. The regular tuition fee 
 is $30 a year. The institution comprises a pre- 
 paratory, a commercial, a philosophical, a col- 
 legiate, and a normal department. In lisTti — 7, 
 there were 8 instructors and 50 students. The 
 presidents have been the Rev. Paul R. Kendall, 
 1872—4, and the Rev. R. N. John, since 1875. 
 
 SOCIAL ECONOMY. The place actually 
 held by the science of social or politic I economy, 
 in modern education, presents a strange contrast 
 with that which its importance demands. If the 
 object of education is to fit the young to become 
 self-supporting citizens in a progressive society, 
 conducing at once to the happiness of all, while 
 securing their own, then must the science whose 
 special function is the elucidation of the condi- 
 tions of man's well-being in society, rightfully 
 claim a foremost place in every school cur- 
 riculum. It is, nevertheless, to be noted that, up 
 to the present time, instruction in this science 
 has been limited to the few who attend colleges 
 and universities, and to the pupils of a small 
 number of schools, of which further mention will 
 be made in the course of this article. A part of 
 the difficulty popularly experienced in appreciat- 
 ing the proper position of this subject in the 
 course of study appropriate to youth, is probably 
 to be ascribed to the name, or rather to the dif- 
 ferent names which have, from time to time, 
 been given to the science. The most appropriate 
 term, of the many which have been suggested, 
 will be found, on examination, to be that under 
 which the subject is here treated, — that is, the 
 science which treats of the manner in which are 
 regulated the affairs that relate to man in 
 society, a meaning fully suggested by the etymol- 
 ogy of the words. Nevertheless, this term, as' 
 well as the allied name political economy, is apt 
 to suggest to the unprepared mind a science deal- 
 ing with a very different set of ideas from those 
 of which it treats. — The dissatisfaction which has 
 thus arisen with the name social economy has 
 led to the attempt to adopt various other forms 
 of expression to designate the science, of which 
 attempts the happiest perhaps has been the pro- 
 posal to call it the "science which teaches the 
 
784 
 
 SOCIAL ECONOMY 
 
 condition* o( human well-being." But this 
 
 title is not wf hout objection. In the first place, 
 it is wanting in that terseness which is a main 
 requirement in nomenclature; and. secondly, it 
 is wanting in precision. This expression would 
 logically include many other sciences ; as, for in- 
 stance, hygiene, a due regard to the laws of 
 which is assuredly a condition of human well- 
 being. If the science had to do solely with the 
 production and distribution of wealth, the term 
 originally employed by Adam Smith, the father 
 of the science, namely, the wealth of nations, 
 would be specially appropriate ; but, even this is 
 inadequate; for, although the laws of the pro- 
 duction and distribution of wealth influence 
 in a material degree the conditions of human 
 well-being, the science which we have called 
 social economy includes also most of the moral 
 elements that enter into the economy of society. 
 The diversity of names that, from tune to time, 
 have been suggested, has, not unnaturally, given 
 rise to the idea that there must be something espe- 
 cially abstruse in a science the ] nofessors of which 
 have been unable to agree even upon the name by 
 which it should be known. The difficulty prob- 
 ably arises from the modern use of the term 
 economy, which has, to some extent, lost its 
 original and etymological signification. Another 
 cause of the misapprehension of the proper place 
 of social economy in education, arises from the 
 intimate relations into which every person un- 
 avoidably enters with the subjects it elucidates, 
 at nearly every instant of his industrial life; SO 
 that all persons are unavoidably possessed of 
 some notions on the subjects of which it treats. 
 Now, us there is an infinite number of modes 
 of error and only one of truth, it is oidy by 
 starting rightly, and proceeding, systematically 
 or scientifically, from the known to the un- 
 known, that error can be avoided; hence, the no- 
 fions taken up in the course of practical life 
 are, in the absence of systematic study, gen- 
 erally erroneous. But it is usually the most 
 ignoranl who wrangle and dictate with the loud- 
 est assumption of knowledge ; and, hence, people 
 are led to suppose that there is a difference of 
 opinion on economic truths among the students 
 Oi the science, and that, therefore, the subject 
 must be too difficult to be understood by children. 
 It is, nevertheless, true that, as far as regards the 
 
 elements of the science, there is no more diffcr- 
 
 ■ of opinion among those who have given 
 
 systematic study to it, than there is among the 
 
 students of mathematics upon the elementary 
 principles of geometry. Another and more 
 serious obstacle to the introduction of social 
 
 economy, as a subject of instruction for the young, 
 is the following. Owing to the extremely com- 
 plex nature of human society, it ifl impossible to 
 
 take all of its factors into account when inves- 
 tigating its elementary principles. But it is also 
 true that the geometrician disregards the breadth 
 of the line, and the mechanician the weight of 
 the mechanical powers, when investigating the 
 laws of magnitude in space, or the relations of 
 forces; but as soon as the geometrician or the 
 
 mathematician begins to apply the principles of 
 his particular science to practical engineering, 
 these discarded factors form data in his prob- 
 lems; and their effects are estimated by means 
 of the very laws which Avere established while 
 disregarding their existence. So with the laws 
 of man in society. The laws of the produc- 
 tion and distribution of wealth were investigated 
 by rigorously excluding the sympathetic side of 
 man's nature and looking upon him as purely a 
 self-seeking being; but the principles of social 
 economy can only be understood by regarding 
 him from both points of view. This was well 
 understood by Adam Smith, whose Theory of 
 111" Moral Senlinn nts treats of man as a sympa- 
 thetic being, and is complementary to hm Inquiry 
 into the Wealth of Nations. Host of the followers 
 of this great master, have, since his time, lost 
 sight of the fact of this artificial exclusion, and 
 while pursuing with great zeal and intelligence 
 their researches into the one half of the subject, 
 have forgotten that, after all. it was but one half, 
 and that the other half, which they neglected. 
 was of little less moment toman's happiness than 
 that which tiny were investigating. It was, in 
 great part, owing to this f orgetfulness on the part 
 of the votaries of the science, that it acquired, 
 among persons of large sympathy but small 
 knowledge, the nickname of the dismal science; 
 and as the investigation of the setf -regarding half 
 of the laws of human well-being, divorced from 
 the sympathetic, would be apt to chill those 
 sentiments of generous sympathy with our kind 
 which, in youth, should be encouraged rather 
 than suppressed, a not unnatural disinclination 
 was felt to fortify the self-regarding side of our 
 nature by exhibiting it to the young as the basis 
 of a science on which to build up the structure 
 of human well-being. This well-grounded ob- 
 jection has been removed by the correlation of 
 these two aspects of our nature into one body 
 of science, — a correlation first illustrated by 
 the teachings of William Ellis, which has been 
 more or less successfully followed up by his dis- 
 ciples: so that, to-day, the science, when prop- 
 erly taught, instead of warping the minds of its 
 students into a one-sided egoism, develops a 
 largeness of views, a generosity of sentiment, and 
 a soundness of judgment perhaps unattainable 
 through any other study. — All educators have 
 ea that the earlier years of youth must be 
 directed to concrete, before proceeding to abstract, 
 studies — to observation rather than to causation. 
 While, speaking generally, this rule is sound.it is 
 not to lie understood as requiring the exclusion 
 of the reasoning process from even infant minds: 
 but, because the reasoning faculties arc compar- 
 atively dormant in early youth, knowledge should 
 be obtained through observation (as for instance 
 
 in natural history i : and from the tacts thus ob- 
 tained the child diou Id lie trained to reason logic- 
 ally. Now. for this purpose, social economy 
 presents many advantages, and this hardly less 
 BBS mental discipline than for the know ledge it 
 imparts. But the teaching of science to the vci \ 
 
 young should always he in connection with facts 
 
SOCIAL ECONOMY 
 
 T85 
 
 or subjects presented to the senses. For instance, 
 suppose a lesson is to be given upon bread to 
 children 8 or '.) years of age. After the children 
 have observed those properties which are direct ly 
 •cognizable by the senses, the judicious teacher 
 will proceed to the more elementary of those facts 
 relating to it which physics, chemistry, and 
 physiology have made known to us, and will not 
 shrink from gradually introducing the pupils, 
 DOthwithstanding their youth, to the terms used 
 by men of science in speaking of those facts. 
 Instruction of this kind has, for a long while, 
 been given by the best teachers, in what are 
 termed object lessons; and they have now only to 
 add the facts relating to bread which are made 
 known to us by the science of social economy to 
 complete their course. They will find it far 
 easier to adopt this course with the social bear- 
 ings of objects than with those which relate to 
 physics, chemistry, or physiology, because many 
 of the social facts will have been spontaneously 
 and unavoidably noticed by the children them- 
 selves; and when once they perceive that what goes 
 on around them at home, in the workshop, and 
 in the store, has a scientific value and importance, 
 and that an observation of surrounding facts and 
 events can be used in school work, and have a 
 lit ting place found for it, as a help to further 
 knowledge, their observation will be suddenly 
 and wonderfully awakened, and fresh facts and 
 events will be poured upon the teacher by the 
 children themselves. By this method, long before 
 children have passed out of the primary grades, 
 they may have acquired a knowledge of not only 
 the fundamental laws of the production of 
 wealth, but morals also, as well as many of the 
 consequences of the division of labor, and other 
 matters connected with the interchange of com- 
 modities. At an age even earlier than that at 
 which it is now deemed proper to commence 
 the study of geometry, that is to say, 11 or 
 12 years, social economy may be taught as a 
 special subject; but the opportunities afforded 
 by object lessons, of observing the social aspects 
 of the objects under consideration should always 
 be made available. In teaching social econ- 
 omy, as a special branch, to scholars of from 
 11 to 12 years of age, the subject should, as far 
 as possible, be introduced in a manner analogous 
 to that of object teaching. Attention should be 
 called to the comforts enjoyed by the children, 
 and by people in general, in the country in which 
 they live, — things to which they have perhaps 
 become so accustomed that they have given no 
 thought to the means by which they have been 
 provided at the time and place at which they 
 are needed to be used and enjoyed. With chil- 
 dren who have not before received any instruction 
 in the science, some simple object of their daily 
 use should be noticed, and its history examined, 
 from the first preparation for the production of 
 the raw material of which it is mainly composed, 
 down to its distribution in the form in which it is 
 required to be ready for their consumption. Such 
 an examination will bring vividly before the i 
 minds of the pupils the fact that nearly all the I 
 
 50 
 
 necessaries and comforts of life are produced by 
 labor; and then the name wealth, by which 
 these products of labor are to be thenceforth de- 
 noted, may be given to them. Industry, econ- 
 omy, knowledge, and skill will next be evolved as 
 necessary to individual as well as general well- 
 being ; and the division of labor will be examined, 
 with its resulting enormous increase in the pro- 
 ductiveness of labor. The opportunity should 
 then be taken to exhibit the groundlessness of 
 prevailing prejudices in regard to the relative 
 honor to be attached to one class of labor over 
 another, and to point out that those by whom 
 household labors are performed are as much en- 
 gaged in the business of production as other 
 laborers. The pupils will now be ready to ob- 
 serve with understanding the simpler phenomena 
 of interchange ; and then the paramount impor- 
 tance of honesty, truthfulness, and thorough trust- 
 worthiness on the part of all will be evolved and 
 made apparent. — While carefully avoiding all 
 appearance of dogmatism, the teacher can hardly 
 devote too much time to multiplying illustrations, 
 and reviewing the investigations of the pupils, 
 upon this head. The various forms of untrust- 
 worthiness, and the consequences thereof, should 
 be made very clear, nor should the subject be 
 left until the pupils have arrived at a hearty 
 detestation, not only of unsuccessful, but still 
 more of successful, dishonesty. The natural laws 
 regulating the relations of employer and employed 
 will next be studied ; and, either now or at a 
 later period, the rules of trades-unions, and the 
 effects of strikes and of combinations, should 
 be closely examined ; nor should the subject 
 of wages be left until the pupils see clearly, 
 that the wages which they, as sellers of their 
 labor, are destined to earn, will depend almost 
 exclusively on the productiveness of their labor, 
 and that all those rules of trades -unions etc. 
 which tend to diminish the productiveness of 
 labor, of necessity, lower also the wages of labor. 
 The laws determining the administration of 
 capital will next engage their attention; the idea 
 of profit will be evolved, and its nature determined 
 with precision; the mischievous results of com- 
 binations among capitalists, both to themselves 
 and to the community, will be investigated, until 
 it becomes apparent that the profit of the 
 capitalist is the reward paid him by society for 
 the services he has rendered, of which services it 
 forms also, in most cases, an accurate measure. — 
 Property in land will next claim attention, the 
 justification for its adoption, as well as its just 
 limitations, being ascertained, and the principle 
 of rent, determined. — As the next step in the 
 course of study, the idea of exchangeableness, and 
 the name value, will be evolved. The laws which 
 regulate value will then be investigated, and 
 the necessity of precision, alike in ideas and in 
 the use of words, will be again impressed upon 
 the minds of the pupils, and forcibly illustrated 
 by as many examples as possible. It will now 
 be time to examine into some of the means 
 which have been adopted to facilitate inter- 
 change, among which money will be seen to hold 
 
78.6 
 
 SOCIAL ECONOMY 
 
 SOCRATES 
 
 a prominent place ; the reasons for selecting gold 
 or silver for money will be examined ; the im- 
 possibility of fixing the relative values of the 
 two metals, and, consequently, the want of wis- 
 dom shown in enacting laws making both metals 
 a standard of value for the same contract, will 
 be readily perceived ; nor will it be difficult for 
 the pupils to discern the only proper function to 
 be fulfilled by a mint. The causes of fluctuations 
 in the value of money will be next investigated, 
 and the phenomena of price and its fluctuations 
 observed. The use and functions of credit will 
 now be inquired into, and the unhappy con- 
 sequences of its abuse traced to their source. 
 Now, or at a later period in the course, the 
 causes of the so-called "tightness in the money 
 market", of business derangements, commercial 
 crises, and of panics, will be rigidly investigated 
 and their only remedy discerned, namely, greater 
 trustworthiness and honesty, to be secured by the 
 improved teaching and training of youth. The 
 policy of laws for the recovery of debts may now 
 be profitably inquired into, as also the function 
 which, at best, governments may hope to perform 
 in the economy of society. — Bills of exchange, 
 rates of exchange, the par of exchange between 
 distant countries, rates of interest, bunks and 
 banking, may all now, in turn, be discussed, and 
 the want of wisdom shown by legislatures in the 
 enactment of usury laws, and of laws which at- 
 tempt to control or regulate banking, may be 
 made apparent. Paper money, and the promise 
 made by the issuers thereof, the dishonesty 
 evinced in breaking the promise thus made, and 
 the duty incumbent upon those who have either 
 dishonestly or ignorant ly broken such promises, 
 shoidd be dwelt upon, and illustrated by examples 
 drawn from history. Foreign commerce may 
 next be illustrated, its origin and the cause of 
 its existence observed, and the want of wisdom 
 shown by those legislatures which have attempted 
 arbitrarily to interfere with it. — The proper 
 mode of raising revenue, to be deduced in great 
 part from the truths discovered when consider- 
 ing the phenomena of rent and of its progressive 
 increase, will next be investigated ; and the 
 wisest methods of expenditure, both public and 
 private, may then be discussed. — With the con- 
 sideration of all these questions, and mainly in 
 the order in which they are here sketched, the 
 school course of study in social economy may 
 be closed. Not, however, without warning the 
 pupil that he has, by no means, mastered all 
 the truths of the science, but that, if he has 
 thoroughly assimilated the lessons he has re- 
 ceived, they will suffice to direct his path in in- 
 dustrial life.- -The course as sketched in these 
 pages should occupy from two to four years of 
 the school .in ■ricnliim, — two years, if the knowl- 
 edge to be acquired is to be learned from books; 
 but about four years, if the Socratic method he, 
 adopted by the teacher. Another method of in- 
 struction, and one which, like that already in- 
 dicated, has Keen successfully practiced, is the 
 division of the science into progressive problems, 
 demonstrating these either on the Socratic plan 
 
 or by a deductive process, as in the study of ge- 
 ometry. The former of these two plans is that 
 chiefly followed in the admirable Birkbeck schools 
 of Ixjndon, schools founded and endowed by 
 William Ellis (q. v.), of that city, for the special 
 purpose of introducing the science of social econ- 
 omy as a branch of school teaching, especially 
 for the children of mechanics and laborers. 
 Since the year 1848, this instruction has been 
 continued in these schools, and their example 
 has, at last, been followed by the London school 
 board. — See Ellis, Outlines of Social Economy 
 (a text-book for schools) ; Progressive Lessons 
 in Social Science (for teachers); Introduction to 
 the Stud// of the Social Sciences (London) ; 
 PhUo-Socrates (London); Lessons on the Phe- 
 nomena of Industrial Life, eft;., edited by the Dean 
 of Hereford London) ; J. J. Champlin, Lessons 
 on Political Economy (N. V.); M. R. Leverson, 
 Common Sense, or First Steps in Political Econ- 
 omy (N. Y. and Denver, 1876). 
 
 SOCRATES, a celebrated Greek philosopher 
 and teacher, born in a village near Athens, about 
 469 B. C; died in that city 399 B. C. He was 
 trained in his father's art, that of sculpture, and 
 pursued it for several years. At the same time, 
 he devoted himself to study, and attended the 
 lectures of Anaxagoras and other eminent phi- 
 losophers at Athens, and gained a reputation as 
 a man of superior intelligence. Indeed, one of 
 his friends asked the oracle at Delphi whether 
 Socrates was not the wisest man living, and was 
 answered in the affirmative. This answer sur- 
 prised and perplexed Socrates, who was deeply 
 impressed with his own ignorance ; but he Mas 
 incited by it to continue in his career as a phi- 
 losopher, in this, however, he assumed the 
 character of an ignorant person asking for in- 
 formation. Accordingly, he entered into con- 
 versation with the most eminent men in Athens, 
 particularly the Sophists ; and soon was con- 
 vinced that their claims to superior wisdom were 
 without foundation. He adopted a peculiar 
 method of questioning (since called the Socratic 
 method), by which, under the guise of seeking 
 information, he convinced the person whom he 
 questioned of ignorance, and showed him the 
 truth, lie passed much of his time wandering 
 about the streets of Athens in meditation, or 
 mingling, in the school and in the market place, 
 with people of all ages and conditions, and of both 
 sexes, and soughl to engage them in conversation, 
 his good humor and brilliant powers as a dis- 
 putant charming all classes. In his walks, he 
 was constantly attended by a crowd of persons 
 who were commonly looked upon as his disciples; 
 though he never opened a school, or assumed 
 the name of teacher. He selected, however, a 
 
 few as his special disciples and companions, 
 
 among whom were Plato and Xeiiophon ; and 
 to these he was particularly endeared. The 
 unselfishness of his aims is shown by the fact 
 that he never accepted payment for the instruc- 
 tion he gave, never sought public influence or 
 place, and only once in his life occupied a polit- 
 ical office ; while he frequently, in the interest 
 
SOCRATES 
 
 SOUTH CAROLINA 
 
 is: 
 
 
 of justice, defied popular clamor, when acquies- 
 cence in its demands would have been to his ad- 
 vantage, if his designs had liven ambitious. 1 lo 
 acted constantly as if under the sense of a divine 
 commission, lie professed to hear a super- 
 natural voice, proceeding from what he called 
 his genius (dai/zoviov), which exerted over him a 
 restraining, but never an inciting, influence. His 
 unsparing irony towards, and contempt for, the 
 Athenian rulers, and his demonstration of the 
 ignorance of men prominent in all walks of life, 
 which he made plain to others by his unrivaled 
 skill in questioning, created finally an intense 
 opposition to him, particularly on the part of 
 the Sophists. A conspiracy against him was 
 formed by an orator, a poet, and a demagogue 
 (Lycon, Melitus, and Anytus), who made a pub- 
 lic accusation against him that his teaching had 
 brought contempt upon the national gods, that 
 he had sought to introduce other gods in their 
 stead, and that he had corrupted the Athenian 
 youth. He approached his trial in the same 
 spirit of independence and defiance that he had 
 always exhibited. "With no expectation of ac- 
 quittal, he yet defended himself to the extent of 
 showing the falsity of the charges brought 
 against him, and declaring exactly what his 
 teaching had been. A court composed of citizen 
 judges, variously estimated at 557 to 567 mem- 
 bers, condemned him to death by a very small 
 majority. It is thought that the fearlessness of 
 his defense led to his condemnation, as the pros- 
 ecution was intended rather to humble than to 
 destroy him. After his sentence, he passed 30 
 days in prison, and ended his life by drinking 
 poison, according to the sentence of the court. 
 From a moral stand-point, Socrates has been 
 considered the type of the highest virtue at- 
 tainable by man when unaided by the spirit of 
 Christianity. The immediate and inevitable 
 product of his method, as an instrument of in- 
 tellectual research, is clearness of conception — 
 the most important prerequisite to precision of 
 thought. The result of his teaching, therefore, 
 was comprehensive and radical, leading to an 
 entire reconstruction of fundamental ideas in 
 many departments of human inquiry. The 
 sophistry which constantly enveloped every sub- 
 ject, under the methods pursued by the ancients 
 for centuries, was dissipated by his merciless 
 questioning. The practical character of his 
 mind, also, in regard to natural science, is re- 
 markable, considering the age in which he lived; 
 in this respect, forcibly recalling the similar 
 characteristic of Franklin. Thus, he would have 
 had the men of his time know only so much of 
 arithmetic, geometry, and astronomy, as would 
 be of use to them in the daily occupations of 
 fife, on the ground that the vast realm of human 
 nature, with its characteristics and duties, was at 
 that time unexplored, and was a more appro- 
 priate field for investigation than what he called 
 the divine phase of philosophy, by which he 
 meant what is now understood by speculative 
 science. In his estimate of the proper subjects 
 for investigation, this strongly practical bias is 
 
 always apparent, insomuch that Xenophon says. 
 
 "he continued incessantly to discuss human 
 affairs," and Cicero impressively declares that 
 '•he called philosophy down from heaven to 
 the earth." 'J he career of Socrates as a teacher 
 was a remarkably illustrious one. it was, also, 
 eminently successful. Those who listened to his 
 instructions always felt their minds enlarged, 
 and their virtuous inclinations strengthened. 
 Certainly, no teacher has ever presented a more 
 complete example of what should be the aim of 
 instruction, and none has ever employed a 
 method so well calculated to develop in the 
 minds of his pupils the ideas and truths which 
 he designed to impart. — See Grote, History of 
 Greece, chap, lxviii. 
 
 SOLON, the author of the Athenian system 
 of education, was born at Athens in G39. B. C; 
 and died, in 559, on the island of Cyprus. He 
 was one of the noblest men of his aye, and was 
 reckoned among the seven sages of Greece. A 
 modern historian (Duncker. Geschichte des 
 Alterthums) calls him the greatest political 
 genius of antiquity. Having been called to 
 the archonship, in 594 B. C, by all parties, with 
 authority to confirm, repeal, or modify the Dra- 
 conian laws, he gave to the Athenians a new 
 constitution, which educated the people to a 
 higher degree of culture than had been attained 
 by any nation before that time. The eminence 
 which Greece occupies in the history of educa- 
 tion, is chiefly due to the laws of Solon. (For 
 an account of the educational legislation of 
 Solon, see Athens.) 
 
 SOUTH, University of the, at Sewanee, 
 Tenn., is under the control of the Prot- 
 estant Episcopal Church. It was chartered in 
 1858, but was not opened until lyG8, its organ- 
 ization being interrupted by the civfi war. It is 
 situated on the Sewanee Plateau, a spur of the 
 Cumberland Mountains, 2,000 ft. above the sea, 
 and 1 ,000 ft. above the surrounding country. The 
 university domain comprises nearly 10,000 acres. 
 The value of its grounds, buildings, and apparatus 
 is $150,000; the amount of its productive funds, 
 350,000. The library contains 6,000 volumes. 
 The university consists of 10 schools ; namely, 
 civil engineering and physics, mathematics, mod- 
 ern languages and literature, theoretical and ex- 
 perimental chemistry, metaphysics and English 
 literature, geology and mineralogy, ancient lan- 
 guages, history and political science, commerce 
 and trade, moral science and evidences of Chris- 
 tianity and theology. There is also a grammar 
 or preparatory school. The charge for tuition, 
 board, etc., is $310 a year. In 1875, there were 
 12 instructors and 243 students (92 preparatory). 
 The vice-chancellor, who is the administrative 
 head of the university, is (1876) Gen. J. Gorgas. 
 SOUTH CAROLINA, one of the thirteen 
 original states of the American Union, having 
 an area of about 34,000 sq.m.; and a population, 
 in 1870, of 705,606, of whom 289,667 were 
 whites, and 415,814 colored persons. 
 
 Educational History. — The first constitution 
 of the state was silent on the subject of educa- 
 
TS8 
 
 SOUTH CAROLINA 
 
 tion, the custom at that time being to leave 
 elementary education in the hands of parents. 
 In 181 1, the legislature created a free-school fund, 
 the use of which was to be confined to the poor 
 in case of its inadequacy for all. This proviso, 
 imparting a sort of charity phase to the state 
 effort to promote education, has always proved 
 an obstacle in its way by alienating from it the 
 support of the wealthier classes. An effort was 
 made in 1 843 to revive an interest in the sub- 
 ject, but without permanent success. From the 
 earliest times, the city of < 'harleston has been 
 the recipient of benefactions for educational 
 purposes, but these have been limited in amount, 
 and their influence has not extended over the 
 state. Good public schools, however, existed in 
 that city previous to 1 8(51. In 1868, a new consti- 
 tution was adopted, which provided for a uni- 
 form system of public schools, to be supported 
 by an annual tax on property and polls, for the 
 establishment of a state normal school, a state 
 reform school, a state university, and educational 
 institutions for the deaf and dumb, and the blind, 
 ft also provided that all schools, colleges, ami 
 universities, supported wholly or in part by 
 public funds should be free to the children of 
 the state, regardless of color ; but this provision, 
 together with one compelling the attendance at 
 school of all children in the state between tli" 
 ages of <i and L6, has been disregarded. Separate 
 schools are now generally provided for colored 
 children. No state superintendent of public 
 infraction was chosen in South Carolina till 
 
 l868,whenJ. K. JillsOn was elected, lie was 
 
 re-elected in L872 ; and was succeeded by Hugh 
 S. Thompson, elected in L876. 
 
 School System. — The present school system of 
 the state was established in L870, the act which 
 established it receiving some slight modifications 
 the following year. The general supervision of 
 the schools rests with the state superintendent. 
 lie is elected for four years, is required to secure 
 uniformity in the text-books used in I he schools, 
 and to discharge all other duties usually pertain- 
 ing to the office. The n/.ft/>' board of education 
 consists of the superintendent, ami the several 
 county school commissioners. It convenes an- 
 nually in regular meet ings at the capital, or in 
 special meetings at such other times and places 
 as the superintendent, who is its chairman, may 
 direct. Count// school commissioners are elected 
 biennially, one in each county. They direct the 
 expenditure of the School funds, appoint teachers. 
 and manage the schools, generally with entire 
 independence of the state superintendent, whose 
 powers are chiefly advisory. County school 
 amh/<Ts, two in number, are appointed by the 
 county commissioner, the three constituting a 
 board, of which the county commissioner is chair- 
 man, for the examination of teachers, and the 
 appointment of district trustees. In addition 
 to these officers, the governor, the chairmen of 
 the committees of education in the two houses 
 of the legislature, and two others one appointed 
 by each house, constitute a committee of five 
 to choose a uniform scries of textbooks for the 
 
 schools of the state. The school revenue is 
 composed of the state school tax, the poll tax, 
 and district taxes. The first is derived from a 
 levy of two mills on every dollar of taxable 
 property. District taxes are subject to the will 
 of the people. Owing to the failure of the gen- 
 eral assembly to pass specific laws, as intended 
 by the constitution of 1868, various matters 
 necessary to give definiteness to the school law 
 and make it effective, are undetermined. The 
 school age is from 6 to 16 years. 
 
 Educational Condition. — The number of 
 school-districts in the state, in 1876, was 427 ; 
 
 the number of free schools, 2,776. The only 
 graded schools in the state are in the city of 
 Charleston. The school revenue for the year 
 1876 was as follows : 
 Prom state appropriation... $250,000.00 
 
 " district taxes 146,493.57 
 
 " poll tax 62,250.24 
 
 " Peabody Fund ::,s.,it,00 
 
 Total $462,593.81 
 
 The expenditures were as follows : 
 
 For teachers' salaries $377,920.33 
 
 Building and repairing 
 
 school-houses, etc. . 24,989.98 
 
 Expense of enumeration of 
 
 school children 4,230.65 
 
 For all other purposes 16,731.19 
 
 'total $423,872.15 
 
 This statement of expenditures is only ap- 
 
 pioximatrly correct, as complete returns from 
 
 some parts of the state had not been received by 
 
 i he superintendent. 
 
 'i'he chief items of sckool statistics, for the 
 
 year 1876, are the following : 
 
 Population of the state ot school . 
 
 Whites 86,678 
 
 Colored 15'2,-2'>3 
 
 Total 237,971 
 
 Number of children attending school: 
 
 Whites : 52,2s;; 
 
 Qolored 70,802 
 
 Total 123,0-v5 
 
 Teachers employed, males, white. . . . 1,140 
 
 " females " .... 841 
 
 " " males, colored. .. 774 
 
 " females " ... 313 
 
 Total 3,068 
 
 Monthly average paid to teachers, males... $30.40 
 
 « .< « .< << females.. | 
 
 Average number of months of school session 4,"> 
 
 Normal Instruction. — The State Normal 
 School at Columbia was opened in 1874. It 
 provides a two years' course of study in two de- 
 partments; the first, a training class for fitting 
 teachers for lower-grade positions; the second. 
 for fitting them for positions in the higher 
 schools. The board of regents determines the 
 number of students to be admitted annually. and 
 these are apportioned among the counties of 
 the state according to the number of represent- 
 atives of each in the general assembly. The can- 
 didates so apportioned, pass through a competi- 
 tive examination, conducted by the county school 
 commissioners and board of examiners, the com- 
 
 
SOUTH CAROLINA 
 
 S. W. BAPTIST UNIVERSITY 789 
 
 missioner recommending the candidates accord- 
 ing to their standing in the examination, ex- 
 cept in cases of special aptitude for teaching on 
 the part of the applicant. They are theme-ex- 
 amined by the president of the normal school, 
 and if found qualified, arc admitted upon a 
 pledge of intention to teach in the public schools 
 of the state. Certificates and diplomas are 
 gr uited according to the degree of proficiency 
 attained. During the first year of the school, 
 39 students were registered, 6 males and 33 fe- 
 males. The report for 1873 stated that the 
 school was in a flourishing condition. — Six. 
 teachers'' institutes were held during the year 
 1875 ; but the system has not yet been developed 
 sufficiently to affect materially the educational 
 interests of the state. 
 
 Secondary Instruction. — The institutions for 
 supplying this kind of instruction, are few in 
 number. In 1875, only 7 academies and sem- 
 inaries made reports to the U. S. Bureau of 
 Education, — 1 for boys, 2 for girls, and 4 for 
 both sexes. They employed 22 teachers, and 
 had an attendance of 663 pupils. The number 
 of pupils in the public schools pursuing higher 
 studies, was 2,752. There are no high schools 
 organized outside of Charleston. There is a 
 preparatory school at Orangeburg, having, in 
 1875, an attendance of 209 pupils. 
 
 Denominational and Parochial Instruction. 
 — -The denominational schools in the state are 
 not numerous, the instruction usually given in 
 such institutions, being furnished, as demanded, 
 by schools of other grades. 
 
 Superior Instruction. — The colleges and uni- 
 versities of the state are as follows : 
 
 
 
 When 
 
 Religious 
 
 NAME 
 
 Location 
 
 organ- 
 
 denomi- 
 
 
 
 ized 
 
 nation 
 
 Claflin University. . . . 
 
 Orangeburg 
 
 IS 70 
 
 M. Epis. 
 
 College of Charleston. 
 
 Charleston 
 
 1789 
 
 Non-sect. 
 
 
 Due West 
 
 1839 
 
 Rf. Presb. 
 
 Furman University.. 
 
 Greenville 
 
 18;H 
 
 Baptist 
 
 Newberry College .... 
 
 Walhalla 
 
 1858 
 
 Luth. 
 
 University of S. C 
 
 Columbia 
 
 1805 
 
 Non-sect. 
 
 Wofford College 
 
 Spartanburg 
 
 1853 
 
 M. Epis.S. 
 
 Professional and Scientific Instruction. — De- 
 partments for furnishing this kind of instruction, 
 are in operation in many of the colleges and 
 universities of the state, but there are, in addi- 
 tion, special institutions, as follows : The South- 
 ern Baptist Theological Seminary, at Greenville, 
 with 5 instructors and 66 students, in 1874 — 5 ; 
 and the Theological Seminary of the General 
 Assembly of the Presbyterian Church, at Colum- 
 bia, with 5 instructors and 57 students. 
 
 Special Instruction. — The South Carolina In- 
 stitution for the education of the deaf and 
 dumb and the blind, located at Spartanburg, is 
 a state institution. It has been closed, since 
 October, 1873. 
 
 SOUTH CAROLINA, University of, at 
 Columbia, S. C, was chartered as South Caro- 
 lina College in 1801, and was organized in 1805. 
 It became a university in 18G5. It is a state in- 
 stitution, supported by legislative appropriations. 
 Instruction is free to all, and there are no 
 
 charges for rent of rooms or matriculation. The 
 campus and grounds are in the center of the 
 city. They cover four squares, including eighteen 
 acres, and are adorned with shade trees. Within 
 the enclosure are the library building, recitation 
 rooms, dormitories, society halls, and residences 
 of tin' professors. The university has a museum 
 of mineralogy and geology, and a library of over 
 26,000 volumes. It comprises an academic depart- 
 ment, preparatory school, law school, and medical 
 school (suspended). In the academic department 
 there are two quadrennial courses, the classical, 
 leading to the degree of A. B., and the modern, 
 leading to the degree of Ph. B. The preparatory 
 school is designed for instruction in the higher 
 English branches, as well as to fit boys for the 
 college courses. Colored as well as white youth 
 are admitted to all the courses, The legislature, 
 in the session of 1873- — 4, established 124 bene- 
 ficiary scholarships, open for general competition, 
 each yielding $200 a year to the successful ap- 
 plicant. They are apportioned to the counties ac- 
 cording to the number of representatives to which 
 each is entitled in the lower branch of the general 
 assembly. The scholarships are tenable for four 
 years, or until graduation ; and the holder may 
 pursue either of the quadrennial courses. In 
 January, 187G, there were 12 instructors and 19G 
 students (11 law, 88 collegiate, 97 preparatory). 
 Of the college students. 35 were pursuing the 
 classical course, and 53 the modern course. The 
 Rev. Anson W. Cummings, A. M.,D. D., is (1877) 
 the chairman of the faculty. 
 
 SOUTHERN UNIVERSITY, at Greens- 
 boro', Ala., chartered in 1858, and organized in 
 1859, is under the control of the Methodist Epis- 
 copal Church, South. It has productive funds to 
 the amount of $51,000 ; the value of its grounds, 
 buildings, and apparatus is §90,000. Before the 
 war, its endowment was over $200,000. The li- 
 brary contains upward of 2,000 volumes, and the 
 laboratory is well supplied with apparatus, chem- 
 ical and philosophical. It was originally organized 
 on the plan of the University of Virginia, and, 
 besides the ordinary collegiate schools, has schools 
 of law, medicine, and Biblical literature. In 
 1876 — 7, there were 14 instructors and about 
 100 students. The Rev. A. S. Andrews, D. D., 
 was the chancellor until July, 1875, when he was 
 succeeded by the Rev. Luther M. Smith, D. D., 
 the present incumbent (1877). 
 
 SOUTHWESTERN BAPTIST UNI- 
 VERSITY, at Jackson, Tenn., was founded in 
 1874, by the Baptists of the south-western 
 States. It is supported by tuition fees ran- 
 ging from $12 i to $30 per term of 20 weeks, 
 and by the income of an endowment of $G0,00O. 
 The value of its real estate is $50,000. The 
 academic department consists of a primary school 
 and a grammar (or preparatory) school. The 
 university comprises two departments : (1) liter- 
 ature and science ; (2) law. The department of 
 literature and science comprehends the seven 
 schools, as follows: (1) Latin; (2) Greek; 
 (3) mathematics ; (4) natural science ; (5) moral 
 science ; (6) English; (7) German and French. 
 
V90 S. W. PRESB. UNIVERSITY 
 
 SPAIN 
 
 Two auxiliary preparatory schools are to be es- 
 tablished : one for East Tennessee, at Mossy 
 Creek, ami one for Middle Tennessee, in Mur- 
 freesboro, which will be component parts of the 
 university. In 1< S 7.">— (>, there were -i instructors 
 and 191 students (52 collegiate, 44 grammar, 95 
 primary). The presidents have been: Geo. W. 
 Jarman, A. M., 1S74 — 5 ; Wm. Shelton, 1). 1)., 
 1875 — (i ; and Geo. W. Jarman, A. M., again, 
 since 187G. 
 
 SOUTHWESTERN PRESBYTERIAN 
 UNIVERSITY, at ( 'larksville, Tenn., char- 
 tered in 1 875, was established by the Presbyterian 
 synods of the South-west. It succeeded to the 
 property and funds of Stewart < 'ollege, which was 
 continued on the existing plan, until the formal 
 organization of the university proper. The uni- 
 versity now has an endowment fund of $100,000, 
 24 acres of laud, with commodious college build- 
 ings, and a considerable building fund, besides 
 large and costly cabinets of minerals, fossils, and 
 shells, and a valuable scientific library, presented 
 by Prof. Win. M. Stewart, after whom Stewart 
 < 'ollege was named. The college received its name 
 in 18.")."), when the buildings, grounds, etc., of the 
 Masonic University of Tenn. (founded in 1850 
 by the Masonic Fraternity of the state) 
 purchased in behalf of the Synod of Nashville. 
 Jt was suspen led during the civil war, and re- 
 opened some tim.' after its clos '. It has a sub- 
 collegiate an 1 a collegiate department, and con- 
 fers the usual '1 sgrees. A Biblical course is pre- 
 scribed through the four college classes. The 
 cost of tuition ranges from $40 to $70 per an- 
 num. Free tuition is provided for all candidates 
 for the ministry, and lor all sons of Presbyterian 
 ministers. In 1875 — 6, there were 6 professors 
 and 131 students. The Rev. J. B. Shearer,D.D., 
 is (1876) the president. 
 
 SOUTHWESTERN UNIVERSITY, at 
 Georgetown, Williamson Co., Texas, under the 
 control of the Methodist Episcopal Church, 
 South, was opened as Texas University in L87 !. 
 and chartere I under its present title in 1875. In 
 it were merged Rutersville College, at Ru 
 ville, chartered in 1840; Wesleyan College, at 
 San Augustine, 1844; Soule University, at < Ihap- 
 pel Bill, 1856; and McKenzie College, a1 
 ville, 1860; all controlled by the same church. It 
 is supported chiefly by tuition fees, but has an 
 endowmenl of L 2, 000 acres of land. The tuition 
 fee is $30 for one term of five months, or $50 
 for one session of ten months. The university 
 comprises 12 schools; namely, mental and moral 
 philosophy, Latin, Greek, pure mathematics, ap- 
 plied mathematics, German, Spanish, English 
 language and literature, history and political 
 economy, chemistry and geology, a commercial 
 school, and a preparatory school. In 1875 — <>, 
 there were 6 instructors and 78 students. The 
 Rev. I'. \. Mood, l>. I'., formerly presidentof 
 Soule University, is now (1876) regent of this 
 university. 
 
 SPAIN, a country of Europe, having an 
 area of 1 95,77 1 sq. in., and a population, in L870, 
 of 16,835,500. With the except ion of the Basques, 
 
 in four of the northern provinces, almost all 
 the inhabitants are Spaniards, and speak the 
 Spanish language. Until quite recently, the 
 only form of religion allowed by law was the 
 Roman < 'atholic. 
 
 History of Education.- — Education, in Spain, 
 may be said to have begun with the establish- 
 ment of the Roman power, in the 2d century 
 before < Ihrist. The progress made by the natives 
 was so great that Strabo found no difference be- 
 tween a 1 Ionian and an Iberian youth. The 
 j schools of Cordova, especially, were, during the 
 first centuries of the Christian era. in a flourish- 
 ing condition, and educated some of the best 
 representatives of the later Roman literature. 
 It is noteworthy that the two Romans, who. un- 
 der the reign of the emperors, achieved the 
 highest reputation as writers on education — 
 Seneca and Quintilian, were both natives of 
 Spain. The invasion of the German tribes, for 
 a time, checked the progress of education ; but 
 the scholarship of the Spanish monasteries was 
 soon worthy to be compared with that of other 
 Christian countries. Some of the Gothic kings, 
 too, began to show an interest in education, 
 which was well calculated to raise great hopes 
 for the future. The conquest of Spain by the 
 A talis raised the country to the foremost rank 
 among the nations of the earth in regard to edu- 
 cation. The religious toleration of the Moham- 
 medan rulers allowed Christian and Jewish 
 scholars to teach in the schools side by side 
 with Mohammedans, and produced a literary 
 emulation which was followed by the mosl 
 beneficial results. Dozy, in his History of Ike 
 Mohammedans in Spain, shows that primary 
 schools were numerous and well conducted, 
 and that, while in the Christian countries only 
 the priests possessed a moderate knowledge, in 
 Andalusia the bulk of the people were able to 
 read and write. Aristotle became better known 
 to Christian Europe from translations made by 
 Mohammedan Arabs; and Cordova and other 
 seats of Mohammedan learning attracted the 
 most gifted students from all parts of Europe. 
 One of the most learned of the Popes of the 
 middle ages, Sylvester II., was chiefly indebted 
 for his scholarship to Mohammedan teachers. 
 When the power of Mohammedanism declined, 
 and the Christian kings began to recover the 
 losl ground, Spain found a distinguished patron 
 lucation in king Alfonso X.. sumamed the 
 Wise (1252 — 84), who, in his remarkable code 
 of laws, entitled Las Siete Par lidos, devoted 
 one chapter to Estudios Generates. Salamanca 
 became the most famous university of Christian 
 Europe, having, at one time, over L 0,000 students. 
 During the L6th and 17th centuries, the cause of 
 education visibly declined. In the second half of , 
 the L 8th century, Charles III. re-organized the 
 universities of Salamanca. Alcala de I [enares.and 
 Granada, and established elementary and higher 
 
 schools in all the market towns and villages. 
 
 Under Charles IV. (1788- L808), the Pestaloz- 
 /ian system was introduced ; bui ; t did nol lead 
 to any laslin- improvement. The new cousti- 
 
SPAIN 
 
 ■791 
 
 tution of 1812 favored the development of edu- 
 cation, but no real progress could be made dur- 
 ing the illiberal reign of Ferdinand VII. Sev- 
 eral attempts to re-organize the educational sys- 
 tem were made during the regency of Chris- 
 tina, the reigns of Isabella and Amadeo, and the 
 short republican administration ; but, in conse- 
 quence of the ensuing civil wars, no reform of 
 importance has as yet been carried into effect. 
 
 rrimary Instruction. — Primary instruction 
 is compulsory, and, since 18G9, free to all. By 
 the law of 1857, it was divided into an element- 
 ary and a higher grade. The course of studies 
 of the elementary schools comprised religion, 
 Scriptural histoiy, reading, writing, the elements 
 of Spanish grammar, and the rudiments of 
 arithmetic. In the higher primary schools, the 
 same subjects were taught and, in addition, the 
 elements of geometry, of linear drawing and 
 surveying, history and geography (particularly 
 of Spain), natural philosophy, chemistry, and 
 natural history. The law of 18G8 abolished the 
 above distinction.and divided the schools into four 
 •classes: (1) Escuelasde entrada, for communities 
 ■of from 500 to 1,000 inhabitants ; (2) Escuelas 
 de primero ascenso, for communities of from 
 2,000 to 10,000 inhabitants ; (3) Escuelas de se- 
 ll undo ascenso, for cities of from 10,000 to 20,000 
 inhabitants ; and (4) Escuelas de termino, for 
 the chief towns of provinces and cities of more 
 than 20,000 inhabitants. The course of studies 
 generally agreed with that of the law of 1857, 
 but required for the girls' schools practical in- 
 struction in needle work, and recommended the 
 introduction of music wherever possible. The 
 law of 1857 declared all those schools public 
 schools, which were sustained wholly or in part 
 by the state, by charitable institutions, or by 
 funds specially appropriated for this purpose. 
 The law of 1868 added to these all schools 
 .sustained by religious corporations, but the re- 
 publican government deprived the religious 
 corporations of all privileges formerly possessed 
 by them. An elementary school for boys is re- 
 quired to be established in every village of 500 
 inhabitants, and also one for girls, though nei- 
 ther need comprise, in the course of studies, all 
 the subjects enumerated above. Similar schools 
 for boys only, are admissible in communities 
 with less than 500 inhabitants. Every town 
 of 2,000 inhabitants must have two complete 
 schools for boys and two for girls ; and, for every 
 additional 2,000 inhabitants, there must be an 
 additional school for boys, and one for girls. 
 Private schools are accepted, but one-third of 
 the schools of a town must be public. In the 
 chief towns of provinces, and in cities of more 
 than 10,000 inhabitants, one of the public 
 schools must be of a higher grade. Schools for 
 children from two to seven years of age must be 
 kept in cities with more than 10,000 inhabitants. 
 At the same places, are evening schools and 
 Sunday-schools for adults. By the law of lsiis, 
 only the normal school at Madrid was retained ; 
 while, in the provinces, it was deemed sufficient 
 to permit the candidates for the office of teacher 
 
 to attend the model schools in the chief towns. 
 i he normal schools, however, were re-opened by 
 the revolutionary government. Every capital 
 of a province is required to have a normal school, 
 with a model school attached, which is generally 
 the higher school of the town. The school in 
 Madrid is called the Central Normal School. In 
 order to become a teacher, a candidate must be 
 20 years of age, possess a good moral character, 
 and must have passed the prescribed examina- 
 tion. Teachers can be removed only by the 
 government upon the recommendation of the 
 supreme council of study. The salaries of the 
 teachers are very small ; but, owing to the com- 
 plete exhaustion of the Spanish treasury, even 
 these are not regularly paid. The schools of the 
 kingdom are under the supervision of a supreme 
 council of study, consisting of 24 members who 
 are appointed by the king. This council is divided 
 into three sections : one for primary, special, and 
 art schools, one for secondary schools, and one for 
 superior schools. Every province has a provincial 
 junta for the schools of that province; and every 
 town has its local junta, consisting of the princi- 
 pal officers of the province or town, a priest, and 
 at least two heads of families. At least one in- 
 spector is appointed for every province, by the 
 king ; and sometimes two are appointed ; Mad- 
 rid is entitled to three. The inspectors visit 
 all the schools in their district, with the excep- 
 tion of the primary normal schools, which are 
 left to three general inspectors. In 1872, there 
 were 22,625 public schools, of which 10,294 were 
 for males (infants, boys, and adults), and 6,331 
 for females. The number of private schools was 
 5,135, of which 2,901 were for males, and 2,234 
 for females; making a total of 27,760 primary 
 schools. The number of male pupils in the 
 public schools was 745,686 ; and of female pu- 
 pils, 441,773 ; making the total number of pupils 
 in the public schools 1,187,459. The private 
 schools had 96.753 male and 97,760 female pu- 
 pils, or 194,513 pupils of both sexes. The total 
 number of pupils in the primary schools was 
 1,381,972. The number of normal schools was 31. 
 Secondary Instruction.- — -Secondary instruc- 
 tion is imparted in institutes, which are divided 
 into three classes according to the population 
 of their localities, that in Madrid being of the 
 first class ; those in the provincial capitals and 
 at the seats of universities, of the second ; and all 
 the rest, of the third. Every province has one 
 provincial institute ; and Madrid, two ; while 
 local institutions are opened wherever they are 
 needed. Colagios, or boarding-houses, have been 
 established in connection with most of the in- 
 stitutes; while private colegios may be opened 
 by any Spaniard of good repute and over 25 
 years of age, who holds the degree of licentiate 
 from a university. The law of 1857 prescribed 
 that all teachers in secondary schools should be 
 24 years of age, and should hold the degree of 
 Bachelor of Arts. This provision was abol- 
 ished by the revolutionary government, which 
 required a competitive examination. The in- 
 stitutes are under the control of the rectors of 
 
702 
 
 SPANISH LANGUAGE 
 
 the university districts, to whom the directors 
 of the institutes must furnish a monthly tinam 
 ci;il report. If no university is near, the report 
 is made to the minister. The course of instruc- 
 tion in the institutes is divided into genera] and 
 applied studies. The former comprise religion 
 and Scriptural history, reading, writing, uni- 
 versal and Spanish history, modern languages, 
 Spanish and Latin grammar and composition, 
 the rudiments of 'Jreek. logic, psychology, and 
 drawing. The course of general studies emu- 
 1 nises two periods, of two and four years re- 
 spectively, and prepares the student for the de- 
 gree of Bachelor of Arts. The applied studies 
 prepare the student to be an expert in mercan- 
 tile affairs, mechanics, chemistry, or survey- 
 ing, and cover a term of three years. They 
 comprise linear and object drawing, mercantile 
 arithmetic, and all such branches as can lie applied 
 ia agriculture, in the arts, in trades, and in com- 
 iuerce and navigation. The Dumber of insti- 
 tutes, in 1872, was 63, with about 30,000 pupils. 
 
 Superior Instruction. — Superior instruct ion 
 is imparted in the universities. There arc five 
 ♦'acuities; namely, philosophy and literature; 
 mathematical, physical, and natural sciences: 
 pharmacy; medicine: and laws. These faculties 
 however, are not all represented in each uni- 
 versity. Three degrees are conferred, the 
 baccalaureate, the licentiate, and the doctorate. 
 The universities, in lST.'J, were as follows: 
 Barcelona, with 55 prof essors and 2,440 students; 
 Granada, with 47 professors and l.lu ! students; 
 Madrid, with 76 professors and 6,496 students: 
 Oviedo, with L5 professors and 223 students; 
 Salamanca, with II prof essors and 419 students; 
 Santiago, with 28 professors; Seville, with 35 
 professors; Valencia, with -!7 professors and 
 t ,693 students ; and Valladolid, with 31 profess- 
 ors and 1,050 students. 
 
 Special Instruction. — Special instruction is 
 imparted in schools of agriculture, of architect- 
 ure, of fine arts, of commerce, of engineering, 
 and of mining. There is also a conservatory of 
 music, at Madrid ; a school of forestry, at Villa- 
 viciosa de Odon, and four schools of veterinary 
 I ittgery, — at Madrid, < -ordova, Leon, and Sara- 
 gossa. The total number of students receiving 
 special instruction, in L872, was L,372. See 
 .-'ciiMin, Padagogische EJncyclopadie ; Report 
 of U. S. Commissioner of Education for L873. 
 
 SPANISH LANGUAGE. The Spanish 
 language has but little claim to a place in the 
 regular course of instruction, in schools and col- 
 leges, in comparison with the French and 
 German languages. As Spanish, however, is 
 not only the language of one of the cations of 
 
 Europe, bu1 is spoken in all the countries of 
 South America, except Brazil; and also in 
 
 Central America, Mexico, and even in some 
 parts of the United States, and is thus the 
 vernacular language of at least 60 millions 
 of people, practical considerations commend 
 its study to thousands of persons, students 
 and others, in preference to either German or 
 ach, independently of this consideration, 
 
 ; the Spanish language, as a school accomplish- 
 ment, is not wnli'uit attractions. It ranks, in- 
 deed, among the most euphonious of modern 
 languages, being even preferred, by some linguists, 
 to the Italian : and its literature contains many 
 works of enduring interest and value. Among 
 historians. Mariana, and among poets, Lope de 
 Vega and Calderon, deservedly hold a very high 
 rank ; while Cervantes, the immortal author of 
 Don Quixote, has scarcely been surpassed for 
 humorous description and lively satire. The 
 Spanish language, like the French and the Italian. 
 
 is one of the so-called Romanic languages (q. v.); 
 
 but there are some words in it which may be 
 traced either to the ancient Iberians, the riding 
 race before the invasion of the Romans, and an 
 offshoot of whose language is supposed to sur- 
 vive in the Basque, or to the Celts who overran 
 Spain as well as other parts of western Europe. 
 The remarks made in the articles of this work on 
 the derivation of the French and Italian from 
 the Latin apply in a large measure also to the 
 Spanish. \\ hen the Visigoths had established 
 their rule in the country, they gradually adopted 
 the vulgar Latin, which had already become the 
 language of the bulk of the population. Thej 
 retained, however, and introduced into the com- 
 mon language, a number of terms designating 
 their political institutions and war customs 
 The use of the definite article, also, and the 
 employment of auxiliary verbs in the formation of 
 the past tenses of the active voice, and in all the 
 tenses of the passive, passed from the language 
 of the Teutonic conquerors into the new language 
 of Spain, as likewise into those of Prance and 
 Italy. 'I'he Arabs, with whom the Spanish 
 Christians, for nearly 800 years, had to wrestle 
 for the control of the country, introduced 
 into the language a number of words relating to 
 industry, science, and commerce; and some of 
 
 these words, especially those beginning with the 
 Arabic article al (as almanac, alcohol, etc.). have 
 passed, through Spanish, into the modem lan- 
 guages of Europe in general. While the Spanish 
 language presents a considerably larger number 
 of non-Latin elements than either French or 
 Italian, it deviates but little from these two sister 
 languages in its structure and grammar. In the 
 pronunciation of the vowels, n entirely agrees 
 with the Italian. The twodoublei onsonants and 
 /" are peculiar to the Spanish : and of the English 
 consonant sounds. ; (as in .-. m | is entirely want- 
 ing. Though substantives have only two genders, 
 masculine and feminine, the article has three, 
 
 el, In, ami lo; the last, which is the neuter form. 
 being used to change adjeethes into substant i\ es 
 
 [lo bueno, that which is good). The Spanish is 
 
 richer than either French or Italian in augment- 
 atives and diminutives: and the reflexive form 
 
 of the verb is used more extensively, perhaps, 
 than in any other language of Kurope. The sub- 
 junctive has tWO more ieiises than the Italian 
 or French (amare, future: amara, second condi- 
 tional). In words derived from Latin, the e and 
 
 of the accented pen ultima have frequently been 
 developed into ie and we, a change which, in 
 
SPARTA 
 
 SPENCER 
 
 "793 
 
 •this class of words, gives to the Spanish an un- 
 doubted superiority in euphony (Spanish tiempo, 
 faerie; French temps,fort; ltal. tempo, forte). — 
 The proper method of teaching Spanish does aol 
 differ from that of teaching the French language 
 (q. v.) A few lessons in comparative etymology 
 will greatly facilitate the study of this as of every 
 language. If, for instance, the pupil learns that 
 such combinations as c/, ,//. pi etc. in English 
 words of Latin origin are often changed into // 
 [l/a/nar, clamor; llama, flame: llano, plain), a 
 large number of words will, at once, be familiar 
 to him. — The first grammar, as well as the first 
 dictionary, of th.' Spanish language, was pub- 
 lished in L4D2 by Antonio de Lebrija. The gram- 
 mar and dictionary of the Spanish Academy 
 (first published in 1771) at once became, and 
 nave since remained, standard authorities. The 
 dictionary of the Academy has received many 
 valuable additions and corrections from Salva, 
 who has also written the best Spanish grammar 
 for natives. Etymological dictionaries have been 
 published by Covarrabias (1G74) and Cabrera 
 (1837). 
 
 SPARTA, one of the principal states of 
 ancient Greece, dates its important history from 
 the regency of Lycurgus (q.v.), who devised a 
 peculiar system of education, designed to foster, 
 as the highest virtue, a contempt of life and of 
 worldly goods, and, as worthy of the highest 
 honor, the habit of prompt obedience to all the 
 demands of the state. The central idea of his 
 system was, that the interests of the state are 
 paramount to every consideration of individual 
 rights or feelings. Hence, according to it, the 
 child was the property of the state, and its 
 officers alone had the right to decide its destiny, 
 even from its birth, infants physically incapable 
 of the prescribed training not being permitted 
 to five. In the early period of its life, the in- 
 fant was allowed to remain with its mother, who 
 was required to adopt every possible means to 
 invigorate its body. With the 7th year of age, 
 the state education began. The boys were com- 
 mitted to a public educational establishment (a 
 sort of military school); and, by living thus 
 apart from their friends, were made to realize 
 early their membership in the state organism, 
 with common interests and aspirations. The 
 general direction was entrusted to a superin- 
 tendent {-mSoKouoq), who was selected from 
 among those who had been previously invested 
 with the highest political dignities. Under him, 
 were officers whose duty it was to guide the ex- 
 ercises of the boys. The Spartan system aspired 
 to establish a perfect harmony between the will 
 of the individual and the interests and demands 
 of the state, as expressed by the laws. It pro- 
 vided a gradual transition from obedience to the 
 exercise of authority, on the principle that those 
 only know how to command who have learned 
 to obey. Thus, the elder boys were permitted 
 to participate in the training of the younger : 
 and the latter were obliged to wait upon the 
 former at table. As the purpose of the Spartans 
 "was to rear warlike citizens, physical training 
 
 ! constituted the chief part of a youth's education. 
 Every possible means was resorted to in order 
 to cultivate fortitude, and the habit of enduring 
 
 i hardship and pain. The youths' diet was not 
 only plain but scanty. They were permitted to 
 steal the provisions accessary to satisfy their 
 hunger, but if caught, were severely punished ; 
 as the intention was to develop cunning, agility, 
 and dexterity — qualities requisite in war. The 
 boys wore neither head nor foot covering, up 
 
 ! to the age of manhood. At the 12th year, every 
 kind of under-garment was laid aside, a long 
 cloak [xir&v) being the only article of clothing 
 worn, and that at all seasons. Their bed was 
 hard, being prepared of the rushes that grew on 
 
 i the banks of the Eurotas. Corporal punishment 
 was not only used as a means of discipline, but 
 was deemed to be indispensably requisite for the 
 formation of a manly disposition. The intel- 
 lectual cultivation of the Spartans was very 
 slight ; but, on account of their political life, 
 they were obliged to possess some learning. 
 They, therefore, acquired by oral instruction a 
 rudimentary knowledge of arithmetic and some 
 other branches. They also learned to dance, 
 sing, and play on some musical instrument, 
 especially the flute and lyre {m-dapa), and com- 
 mitted to memory the laws of Lycurgus. Girls 
 studied the same subjects as boys, and also 
 practiced gymnastic exercises to promote health 
 and beauty. (See Greece.) 
 
 SPENCER, Herbert, an English philos- 
 opher and author, born in Derby, April 27., 
 1820. At the age of seventeen, he became a 
 civil engineer ; but, at the end of eight years, 
 during w T hich he was a contributor to the Civil 
 Engineers' and Architects 7 Journal, he relin- 
 quished his profession, and engaged in study. In 
 1842, he began the publication, in the Xon-Con- 
 formisi, of a series of papers, entitled, The 
 Proper Sphere of Government. From 1848 to 
 1852, he was a regular contributor to the Econ- 
 omisi, and furnished reviews and criticisms on 
 various subjects to other periodicals. In 1854, 
 the theory of evolution, a belief in which, as the 
 cause of the present diversity in the animal 
 kingdom, had gradually become strengthened in 
 his mind, suggested itself to him as a universal 
 process ; and subsequent study has only served 
 to confirm the truth of the suggestion. This 
 view of evolution, as the method of nature in 
 every department, is reflected in the only dis- 
 tinctively educational work he has published — a 
 small volume, entitled, Education- : Intellectual, 
 Moral, and Physical (London and New York, 
 L860). This work, based upon the latest dis- 
 coveries and conclusions of science, confirms the 
 most important results of Montaigne, Locke, 
 Rousseau, Isaac Taylor, and others — results 
 reached only by an acute observation of mental 
 phenomena, but without a perception of the reason 
 or order of their development. It goes beyond 
 them, however, in its attempt to lay down a 
 complete scheme of education in accordance 
 with the doctrine of evolution. The dominant 
 idea of the method of Restalozzi, discovered by 
 
•794 
 
 STATE AND SCHOOL 
 
 STEPHENS 
 
 him empirically through his strong sympathy 
 for children, is in this work shown to be the 
 true one ; while his errors in the application of 
 the method — errors which he himself acknowl- 
 edged — are explained. Two of the distinctive 
 features of the system proposed by Mr. Spencer 
 are, that the concrete should precede the ab- 
 stract in all early instruction, and the corollary 
 which follows from this : namely, the superior 
 uses of science as an educator ; and the use of 
 pleasure or interest as a test of the efficacy of 
 the instruction. The gradual abandonment of 
 corporal punishment, the disuse of rote-teaching, 
 and the substitution of the direct appeal to nat- 
 ure, the increased attention given to physical ed- 
 ucation, and the general acceptance of the idea 
 of mental growth by inherent power, in place of 
 the artificial expansion produced by purely ex- 
 terior forces, seem to indicate a practical accept- 
 ance of the doctrines of Mr. Spencer, whatever 
 theoretical objections may be made to them. 
 
 STATE AND SCHOOL. In all civilized 
 countries, the control of public schools is looked 
 141011 as one of the most important and difficult 
 branches of public administration. Many states 
 have a special ministry of public instruction; 
 while others have established a bureau of edu- 
 cation, connected with one of the ministries. 
 Ministry of Public [nstbuction.) As has been 
 shown, in the articles on the history of education 
 an 1 on the several countriesof the world, ancient 
 and modern, the relation of state authorities to 
 school affairs has widely differed in different 
 times and countries. Even at the present time. 
 there is not only a vast diversity in the school 
 laws of different countries, but fundamental 
 questions in regard to the powers of state author- 
 ities, in educational affairs, are still warmly dis- 
 cussed. Generally, however, it is conceded that 
 the state has the right to require that every 
 child in the country shoukl receive a certain de- 
 gree of elementary education. (See Compulsory. 
 Education, and Public Schools.) But one of the 
 greatest educational controversies of the present 
 time is, whether the state authority has the sole 
 right to arrange a course of studies, without re- 
 gard to the different religious views existing in 
 a community. (See Denominational Schooi 
 Another controvert"! question is the right of 
 the state to support by the public money any 
 mis higher than those of an elementary grade. 
 1 1 11 : 1 1 Schools.) 
 STEPHANI, Heinrich, a German educator 
 and Protestant clergyman, born at Gemiind, in 
 Bavaria, April 1 ., 1761; died at Gorkau, in Sile- 
 sia. Dec. 21., L850. After having been for a few 
 ye irs at the head of the schools in the little state 
 of Castell, he was, in L808, after the incorporation 
 of Castell with Bavaria, appointed school coun- 
 cilor at Augsburg. Subsequently he held the same 
 iiosition at Bichstadl and Anspach; and. in L818, 
 ie became dean at Gunzenhausen. From the 
 latter position, lie was removed in L834, on ac- 
 count of his rationalistic views. I lis FHbel 1 L802), 
 
 I several works on an improved method of 
 teaching to read, contributed more than any 
 
 I other work to the progress of the phonic method 
 [Lautirmethode) of reading German. He pub- 
 lished several works on national education 
 ( Grundlinien der Staatserziehungswissenschqfl 
 (lTDT); and System der bffentlicken Erziehung 
 (1805), in which he took the ground that the school 
 should be separated from the church, and placed 
 under the exclusive control of the state author- 
 ities, but that parents should have liberty to send 
 their children to cither state or private schools. 
 
 STEPHENS, Henry (Lat. Stephanus, Ft. 
 Estienne or Etu nne), was born in Paris in 1528, 
 and died in Lyons in 1598. He was the grand- 
 son of Henry Stephens, who was the founder of 
 a remarkable family of scholars and printers, 
 which, for three generations, maintained its 
 peculiar eminence. He was distinguished by 
 the scholarly ability, but was wanting in the 
 worldly prudence, which characterized his an- 
 cestors. He continued the business of his 
 father in Paris and Geneva successively, publish- 
 ing, among other works, those of J.schylus, 
 Herodotus, Horace. Plato, Virgil, Pliny, and 
 Plutarch. In 1572, he issued his Thesaurus 
 Lingual Greece, an abridgment of which was 
 mane by Scapula. The costliness of this work. 
 by confining its sale to the wealthy, involved 
 him in pecuniary difficulties, which ended only 
 with his life. His remarkable ability as a clas- 
 sical scholar secured him the approval of the 
 learned, and would alone entitle him to an en- 
 during reputation. See Leon Feugere, Essai 
 l<t vie et les Ouvrages de H. Estienne, 
 (Paris, 1853); A. A. Renouard, A/males de 
 Vimprimerie des Estienne (Paris, 1837 — 43). 
 
 STEPHENS, Robert, the father of the 
 preceding, born in Paris in 1503; died, in 1559, 
 in Geneva, to which city he had removed on 
 account of persecution for his advocacy of the 
 doctrines of the Reformation. The occasion for 
 his persecution was found by his enemies in his 
 edition of the Bible and of the Greek Testament, 
 the former published in 1545. the latter, in 1549. 
 lie was considered one of the most excellent 
 scholars of his time. As early as his 2(ith year, 
 he published an edition of the New Testament 
 in Latin, with corrections by himself, and, in 
 L532, began the publication of the most famous 
 of all his works, his Dictionarium seu Thesaurus 
 Linguae Latince, a work which maintained an 
 acknowledged superiority for more than two 
 hundred years, new editions appearing, iii London 
 and Paris, as late as the present century. In 
 151.'!. he compiled the first Latin-French dic- 
 tionary, a work which was received with great 
 favor, lie was at once author, printer, and 
 publisher; and from his press were issued many 
 
 editions of the Bible and of the Greek and Latin 
 classics, all of which were marked by accuracy of 
 Scholarship and an artistic excellence which sur- 
 passed any thing that had been published, up to 
 
 that time, in France. The division of the New 
 
 Testament into verses, the method HOW generally 
 
 employed, was firsl introduced by him. See \- 
 I-'. Didot, in the Nbnvelle Biographic Gfeneralt : 
 ami London Quarterly Review for April, li. 
 
STEWART COLLEGE 
 
 STURM 
 
 795 
 
 STEWART COLLEGE, Clarksvffle, Tonn. 
 See Southwestekn Preshyteeian UNIVERSITY. 
 
 STONE, William Leete, an American 
 author, born at New Paltz, ]S. Y., April 20., 
 1792; died at Saratoga Springs, Aug. L5., 1844. 
 lie began life as a printer, but at 18 became an 
 ei litor — editing successively various journals, but, 
 from 1821 until his death, the _ZV! Y. Conn,/, n ; tl 
 Advertiser. For some years, he was one of the 
 school commissioners of New- York City; and, 
 during the years 1843 — 4, was the superin- 
 tendent of the common schools. lie will long be 
 remembered on account of his famous discussion 
 with Archbishop Hughes in relation to the use 
 of the Bible in the public schools, his last letter 
 to whom — occupying three columns of fine type 
 in the Commercial Advertiser — was dictated on 
 his death-bed but one week previous to his de- 
 cease. Although Col. Stone's influence was 
 widely extended throughout the country, it 
 was felt more particularly in New York <'it}'. 
 For many years, he was identified with all her 
 interests ; and she has reason ever to hold his 
 name in kindly remembrance. The religious 
 enterprises and benevolent associations of the 
 day commanded his earnest efforts in their be- 
 half ; and, at home, the Institution for the Deaf 
 and Dumb, and the Society for the Reformation 
 of Juvenile Delinquents, found in him a steadfast 
 supporter. "Col. Stone," writes Harvey P. Peet, 
 the president of the New York Deaf and Dumb 
 Asylum, " entered with characteristic energy into 
 the effort to build up a superior institution for 
 the Deaf and Dumb in New York ; and I ascribe 
 much of the success which crowned my labors 
 to his ready sympathy and encouragement and 
 his intelligent and zealous co-operation." Indeed, 
 it may be truly said that to the cause of edu- 
 cation he gave his whole energies and spared 
 not his decaying strength. "As Superintend- 
 ent of Common Schools," said Mr, Clark in 
 announcing the fact of his decease to the Board 
 of Education, at a special meeting called for the 
 purpose. " his loss is irreparable, and from any 
 knowledge I possess of the qualifications of 
 others, 1 fear it will be long before his place 
 will be fully supplied. His qualifications for that 
 office were pre-eminent." His published works 
 are quite numerous, but mostly on subjects per- 
 taining to American history. Of these, perhaps 
 the most admired are Life of Joseph Brant; 
 Tha-yen-da-ne-gea (1838), new edition edited 
 by VV. L. Stone, Jr. (Albany, 1865); Border 
 Wars of the American Revolution (1837); Life 
 of Red-Jacket — Sa-go-ye-wat-ha (1835), new edi- 
 tion with life of the author by his son, W. L. 
 Stone (Albany, 1866). 
 
 STOWE, Calvin E., an American clergy- 
 man, born at Natick, Mass., April 6., 1802. 1 le 
 graduated at Bowdoin College, in 1824, and at 
 Andover Theological Seminary, in 1828; and, in 
 the latter, he was immediately made assistant 
 professor. From 1830 — 33, he was professor of 
 Latin and Greek in Dartmouth ( 'ollege ; and in 
 1833, of languages and Biblical literature in the 
 Lane Theological Seminary. He visited Europe in 
 
 1G3G, to examine, for the State of Ohio, the pub- 
 lie-school system of the < iernian States, and pub- 
 lished Elementary l ublic Instruction in Europe 
 18), which was exb d: i \ < ly circulated in Ohio 
 by direction of the legislature. He published 
 reports, also, on the Education of Immigrants, 
 and the Course of Instruction in the I rimary 
 ">ls of Prussia. In 1850, he was made pro- 
 fessor of natural and revealed religion in Bow- 
 doin College, Me., and, in 1852, professor of 
 Biblical literature at Andover Theological Semi- 
 nary. This position he resigned in 1864. He 
 has published, also, a History of the Hebrew 
 Commonwealth, a translation from the German 
 of Johann Jahn (1828), Lectures on the Sacred 
 Poetry of the Hebrews (1829), Introduction 
 to the Criticism and Interpretation of the Bible 
 (1835), Origin and History of the Books of 
 the Bible (Part I., New Testament, 1867).— 
 See Barnard, American Teachers and Educa- 
 tors (New York, 1861). 
 
 STRAIGHT UNIVERSITY, in New 
 Orleans, La., founded in 1869, is under Congre- 
 gational control. It was especially designed for 
 colored youth, but none are excluded on account 
 of race or sex. It has an endowment of $10,000, 
 but is mainly supported by the American Mis- 
 sionary Association. The library contains nearly 
 2,500 volumes. It has now in operation a theo- 
 logical, a law, a normal, a classical, a preparatory, 
 and an English course, and elementary depart- 
 ments. In 1875 — 6, there w r ere 10 instructors 
 and 246 students. The presidents have been: the 
 Rev. Joseph W. Healy, 1869—71 ; the Rev. 
 Samuel S. Ashley, 1871 — 4; and James A. 
 Adams, A. M., since 1875. 
 
 STURM, Johann, one of the foremost edu- 
 cators of the 16th century, born at Schleiden 
 (now in Prussia), in 1507 ; died in 1589. After 
 teaching several years at Louvain and Paris, he 
 was, in 1538, appointed rector in the newly- 
 established gymnasium of Strasbourg, where his 
 success was so great, that the city was called 
 the New Athens; and pupils were sent there 
 from many parts of Europe, among them the 
 sons of noblemen and princes. In 1578, the in- 
 stitution contained more than a thousand pu- 
 pils. In 1566, the emperor Maximilian II. con- 
 ferred upon it the dignity and privileges of an 
 academy, and Sturm was appointed rector per- 
 petuus, in which position he continued till 1581. 
 His title to fame rests upon his conception of an 
 educational system, the record of his work in the 
 gymnasium at Strasbourg, and the impulse 
 which he gave to the establishment of classical 
 schools. His educational system is clearly set 
 forth in his treatise on the best mode of opening 
 institutions of learning [Be literarum ludis recte 
 aperiendis), written in 1539, and published in 
 his Epistolrp classics (Strasb., 1565). Sturm 
 was generally regarded as the greatest educator 
 connected with the Reformed Church, in the 
 times of the Reformation ; and, like Melanch- 
 thon, he received the title Prceceptor Germania?. 
 — See Barnard, German Teachers and Educa- 
 tors (N. Y., 1863) ; Schmidt, La vie ei les tra- 
 
T9G 
 
 -i \ DAY-SCHOOLS 
 
 ■rui/.r <li> Ji'ini Sturm (Strasb., 1855) ; Loos, Die 
 Padagogik des Johannes Sturm (Berlin, l' s ~lij; 
 Kikckki.iiaiix. Strassburg's erster Schuln 
 (Leips., L872). 
 
 SUNDAY-SCHOOLS, although of corn- 
 paratively recent origin, and even yet in a condi- 
 tion of partial development, are already entitled 
 to be ranked among the most important educa- 
 tional agencies of modern times, no less than 
 among the voluntary activities of the < Ihristian 
 Church. In the latter character, tiny have been 
 extensively established throughout Greal Brit- 
 ain and the United States, and every- where, even 
 beyond their primary object of moral and religious 
 influence, their incidental results have entitled 
 them to a high appreciation. They have given rise 
 to new and important improvements in church 
 architecture, and they have called into existence 
 an extensive literature contemplating their special 
 wants and use, while they have enlisted teachers 
 by hundreds of thousands, and scholars by mil- 
 lions. In the United States, more particularly, 
 they have claimed, and in fact assumed, a reky 
 toion to public (week-day) schools corresponding 
 to that which the sabbath holds to the secular 
 days of the week. In this relation, they seek to 
 supplement public and genera] education with 
 the moral and religious influences of < 'hristianity. 
 For this object, they secure the attendance of 
 scholars from the higher as well as the lower 
 classes of the community, and enlist for their in- 
 struction a quality of talent and an amount of 
 effort which money could never hire. The sub- 
 ject of Sunday-schools will be here considered 
 under the three follow in- heads: 1 1 1 Their origin 
 and early history; (2) Their leading agencies; 
 .'!) Their past progress and present position. 
 
 Orii/in and Early History. -Since Sunday- 
 schools became popular, various efforts have 
 been made to ti\ their origin further back than 
 the period to which it is usually assigned. The 
 most that such efforts have been able to accom- 
 plish has been to point out a few sporadic be- 
 ginnings somewhat analogous to that of Robert 
 Raikes; but, in no other instance than his. can 
 an actual historic connection be traced down- 
 ward to the existing system of Sunday-schools. 
 
 The effort of Raikes began in < lloucester, England, 
 
 in thi' year L781. It was purely philanthropic in 
 
 its design* and only contemplated local results. 
 
 Gl tester was a focus of pin manufacturing, at 
 
 which children were gathered together in ureal 
 numbers in order to be employed in the light 
 work of the factories. As mosl of them were 
 
 wholly uneducated, and many without parental 
 
 restraint or supervision, they naturally fell into 
 disorder and vice, especially on the Lord's day, 
 
 when they were n<>i employed in work. The 
 attention of Mr. I.'aikes. a worthy printer of thai 
 town, was arrested by a COnditi I' thing 
 
 distressing to a person of Christian sensibilities. 
 Bis own account of the origin of bis efforts to 
 establish Sunday instruction for those neglected 
 
 children has a permanent interest. It was 
 furnished in a letter to Col. Townley, and pub- 
 lished in the Gentleman's Magazine, oi London. 
 
 Gloucester, June 5th, K84. 
 
 "The utility of an establishment of this sort was first 
 suggested by a group of little miserable wretches, whom 
 I observed one day id the street, where many people 
 employed in the pin manufactory reside. 
 
 ''I was expressing my concern to one, at their for- 
 lorn and neglected Btate ; and was told, that if 1 were 
 to pass through that street upon Sundays, it would 
 shock me, indeed, to see the crowds of children, who 
 were spending that sacred day in noise and riot, to 
 the extreme annoyance of all decent people. 
 
 "I immediately determined to make some little effort 
 to remedy the evil. Having found four persons, who 
 had been accustomed to instruct children in reading, 
 1 engaged to pay the sum they required, for receiving 
 and instructing such children as I should send to them 
 every Sunday. The children were to come soon after 
 ten in the morning, and stay till twelve: they were 
 then to go home and return at one; and after leading 
 a lesson, they were to lie conducted to church. After 
 church, they were to be employed in repeating the 
 catechism till half after five, and then to be dismissed, 
 with an injunction, to go home without making a noise, 
 and by no means to play in the street. This was the 
 general outline of the regulations. R. Rajkks. 
 
 The terms in which the above letter was 
 Couched prove conclusively that the writer was 
 describing something new. audit may be deemed 
 
 fortunate that so intelligent an account of a 
 project, then in its infancy, was placed upon rec- 
 ord. So obvious was the utility of the schools 
 
 thus founded by Mr. Raikes, thai they immedi- 
 ately began to be imitatedin surrounding towns. 
 
 The period was favorable to their diffusion, 
 other philanthropists seized upon the idea. '! he 
 want of such schools was found to be urgent in 
 every large town, and in many smaller places. 
 
 A Sunday si I I society was formed, and so 
 
 general an interest was awakened on the subject, 
 that, in the course of a few years, Sunday-schools 
 were opened in nearly every part of England. 
 But they did not become universal till a higher 
 idea than that of mere philanthropy took po£ 
 sion of their promoters. -As in the case of Mr. 
 Raikes, most of the early Sunday-schools were 
 taught by hired teachers. This arrangement 
 made it necessary to raise considerable sums of 
 money which would need to be increased in 
 proportion to the multiplication of the schools. 
 Besides, it was found that persons engaged in 
 the task of teaching in them from motives of an 
 inferior if not mercenary character: and. hence, 
 even the philanthropic design of the instruction 
 was marred. It was. therefore, a grand improve- 
 ment upon the project of Mr. Raikes when 
 gratuitous instruction from persons who served 
 from Christian motives became generally intro- 
 duced into the rising Sunday-schools. Perhaps 
 no one individual was more instrumental in 
 promoting this great improvement than the Rev. 
 John Wesley, who was (hen in a most influential 
 position at the head of a growing religious or- 
 ganization, and accustomed frequently to travi 
 England from end to end. He earlj conceived 
 the idea of making these schools "Nurseries for 
 Christians", and encouraged good people to work 
 in them as teachers without pecuniary reward. 
 The idea of gratuitous instruction on the 
 
 Lord's day to pour children, when once brought 
 
 to the minds and hearts of the Christian people 
 
SUNDAY-SCHOOLS 
 
 7!>7 
 
 of Great Britain, was seen to be so perfectly in 
 accoul with the Saviour's command, "Go teach 
 
 all nations", that it was adopted with a zeal 
 and a universality that astonished the most san- 
 guine of the original supporters of Sunday- 
 schools. From that period, the success of the 
 Sunday-school enterprise was assured. It crossed 
 the Atlantic as early as 1786, during which 
 year Bishop Asbury organized Sunday-schools 
 in Virginia, in South Carolina, and in other 
 parts of the South. In America, the system of 
 gratuitous instruction has prevailed, with very 
 lew exceptions, from the first. It must, however, 
 be acknowledged that the circumstances of 
 society in the United States were veiy unfavor- 
 able to the general establishment and mainte- 
 nance of Sunday-schools at that early period. The 
 country was but thinly settled, and w r as just 
 emerging from its colonial condition under the 
 heavy burdens of the Revolutionary war. More- 
 over, in the Southern States, where Sunday- 
 schools were first introduced, an active prejudice 
 began, almost from the first, to develop itself 
 against the instruction of colored children, lest 
 they should be unfitted by it for the condition 
 of slavery. From these and other causes, some 
 twenty-five or thirty years elapsed before Sun- 
 day-schools sprung up extensively in America. — 
 Sunday-schools in England were for a long 
 period burdened with the task of teaching let- 
 ters and the lowest rudiments of knowledge to 
 the mass of their scholars. This was indispen- 
 sable as a means of preparing them to read the 
 Scriptures, and to comprehend moral and relig- 
 ious truth. The same necessity prevailed in 
 some sections, and classes of the population, in 
 the United States ; but, throughout the larger 
 portions of that country, the great majority of 
 children gathered into Sunday-schools were those 
 who received elementary, and indeed contin- 
 uous, instruction in the public schools. In both 
 countries, Sunday-schools have done not a little 
 toward elevating general intelligence and stimu- 
 lating secular study; but it is only where a good 
 system of ptiblic instruction has prevailed that 
 they have been able to do their best work. — As 
 Sunday-schools are for religious instruction on 
 the Sabbath, the Bible is the foundation and 
 central text-book of all proper Sunday-school 
 teaching. But as the word of God admits of 
 elucidation from all branches of sound learning, 
 it follows that the more knowledge persons, 
 whether young or old, bring to its study, the 
 greater progress they may be expected to make 
 in the comprehension of its truths. The recent 
 even more than the early history of Sunday- 
 schools corroborates this view, in the fact that 
 they have flourished most, and with the best 
 results, where their scholars were most intelligent. 
 Nevertheless, from first to last, they have shown 
 the capacity of adaptation to all phases of society 
 and all grades of intelligence. They have proved 
 of inestimable value among the most degraded 
 populations of great cities, and a fitting religious 
 counterpart to the highest and most progressive 
 secular schools. 
 
 Leading Agencies. — The whole history of 
 Sunday-schools illustrates the voluntary principle 
 in education, government aid having never been 
 sought in their support. The instruction given 
 in them has always been free ; and, there- 
 fore, whatever Sunday-schools have cost has 
 been the voluntary gift of the friends of religious 
 education. The gratuitous bestowing of time 
 and effort, on the part of teachers has remained 
 no less a gift of value than the money by which 
 rooms, fixtures, books, and apparatus have been 
 provided. Associated effort may be designated 
 as the generic agency by which the vast sum of 
 money has been obtained which has been fur- 
 nished in aid of Sunday-school instruction. As- 
 sociated efforts in behalf of Sunday-schools have 
 assumed two forms : (1) local ; (2) general; each 
 correspondent and supplementary to the other. 
 Local associations, whether in neighborhoods or 
 in churches, have, from the first, been necessary 
 to found and maintain individual schools. Gen- 
 eral associations were also, from an early day, 
 seen to be important, for the purpose of diffus- 
 ing information, and awakening public interest, 
 both as to the necessity and the means of in- 
 structing the young in religious truth. They 
 also did much to enlist and direct individual and 
 local effort in the work of organizing schools ; 
 while, at the same time, they practically served 
 as a bond of union between individual schools 
 not locally connected. — A brief enumeration of 
 the principal agencies and movements of the 
 latter class will illustrate the progress and ex- 
 pansion of the Sunday-school idea both in Eng- 
 land and America. In 1785, "The Society for 
 Promoting Sunday-schools in the British Domin- 
 ions'', was organized in London, under the leader- 
 ship of William Fox, who had previously proved 
 himself to be a true philanthropist, by his zeal 
 and liberality in efforts to educate the poorer 
 classes of his countrymen. This society, during 
 the first sixteen years of its existence, expended 
 £4,000 in paying for the services of hired 
 teachers. In 1790, the first official church action 
 of a general character in behalf of Sunday- 
 schools took place at a conference of the Method- 
 ist Episcopal ( liurch, held at Charleston, S. C, 
 in February of that year, under the presidency 
 of Bishop Asbury. That good bishop and the 
 ministers associated with him, had evidently seen 
 such fruits following the establishment of Sun- 
 day-schools in various placesduring the previous 
 four years, that they then sought to make them 
 universal by the enactment of the following 
 church ride : 
 
 "Let us labor, as the heart and soul of one man, to 
 establish Sunday-schools in or near the place of 
 public worship. Let persons be appointed by the 
 bishops, elders, deacons, or preachers to teach gratis 
 all that will attend and have a capacity to learn, from six 
 o'clock in the morning till ten, and from two o'clock in 
 the afternoon tiil six, where it does not interfere with 
 public worship. The council shall compile a proper 
 school book to teach them learning and piety." 
 
 In 1791, the First-day or Sunday School So- 
 ciety was formed in Philadelphia. This society 
 embraced persons of various denominations of 
 
798 
 
 SUNDAY-SCHOOL* 
 
 Christians, and contemplated the payment of 
 teachers for their services. In J TUT, the Gratis 
 Sunday School Society was established in Scot- 
 land, in 1802, the Sunday School Committee of 
 Wesleyans was organized in London, for the 
 purpose of correspondence and other efforts to 
 promote the organization and improvement of 
 Sum lay schools in the Wesleyan societies of 
 Great Britain. In 1803, the London Sunday 
 School Union was formed, a society still exist- 
 ing and in efficient action, though limited by its 
 plan to the city and its immediate vicinity. In 
 1809, the Hibernian Sunday School Society was 
 formed. In 181(5, the New York Sunday School 
 Union was formed; and, in 1817, the Philadel- 
 phia Sunday and Adult School Union. The 
 latter was merged in the formation of the Amer- 
 ican Sunday School Union, in 1824. In 1826, 
 the Sunday School Union of the Protestant 
 Episcopal Church was organized in New York; 
 and, in ts'27, the Sunday School Union of the 
 Methodist Episcopal Church, in the same city. 
 Since that period, several other Sunday-school 
 societies and unions have been formed in the in- 
 terest of different denominations of Christians, 
 both in America and in Europe. Prominent 
 among them maybe named the Massachusetts 
 Sunday School Society, located in Boston, and 
 supported by the Congregational churches of 
 the United States. The enlistment of the press 
 as an agency of help to Sunday-schools, was an 
 event of the highest importance. For a con- 
 siderable period, all efforts in their behalf were 
 made at great disadvantage, for lack of suitable 
 books of every kind, not excepting copies of the 
 Sacred Scriptures. The formation of the Brit- 
 ish and Foreign Bible Society, in 1804, and, 
 subsequently, of numerous other societies of a 
 similar design, tended to a gradual supply of the 
 Scriptures, in forms and at prices adapted to ex- 
 tensive use in Sunday schools. Aside from Tes- 
 taments and Bibles, and the elementary instruc- 
 tion books preparatory to their use, the first 
 publications extensively introduced into Sunday- 
 schools were used as rewards. They were small 
 tracts and story books, in paper covers, of a very 
 inferior quality, only such being then attainable. 
 About 1810, the Religious Tract Society of Lon- 
 don began issuing children's books of an im- 
 proved style as to paper, cuts, and matter, with 
 special reference to Sunday-school patronage. 
 The demand for such books increased with their 
 production, so that the society name 1 has gone 
 on to the present day, constantly enlarging th - 
 list and improving the quality of its publications 
 
 designed for the young, and also for teachers and 
 
 a lull per- his engaged in Sunday-schools. In 
 this respect, it has done a work of inestimable 
 
 value for the Sunday-schools of Great Britain. — 
 It is, however, in the United States that the 
 
 greatest work has been done in the preparation 
 and publication of Sunday-school literature. 
 
 There, circulating libraries and juvenile religious 
 books were first extensively adopted as auxil- 
 iaries of Sunday-school work. There, too, not 
 only Sunday-school library books, but period- 
 
 icals and requisites of every description have 
 been published in the greatest profusion, as well 
 as with great elegance and cheapness. Not only 
 have the Sunday-school unions made a specialty 
 of such publications, but various other religious 
 publication , e. g. the American Tract 
 
 Society of the Presbyterian and Baptist Hoards 
 of Publication; and, indeed, many private pub- 
 lishers have issued large lists of books designed 
 for youth and children. In fact, the Sunday- 
 school libraries of the United States have become 
 so numerous and important, as to secure enu- 
 meration in the official census of the govern- 
 ment, with the following result, in I -TO : Sun- 
 day-school libraries, 33,580 ; volumes, 8,3-iG.l 
 This aggregate, large as it is, does not include 
 the State of Connecticut, and, for other reasons, 
 is evidently far below the facts in the case at 
 the present time. No other libraries are so 
 widely diffused as those of Sunday-schools. 
 They are not only found in cities, where most 
 great libraries are located, but in the remotest 
 sections and neighborhoods of the land, and 
 everywhere circulated without charge to those 
 who desire to read them. In so vast an aggre- 
 gate of volumes, it would not be strange, if there 
 were some of an indifferent and, possibly, even 
 of a bad character. I >ut such would prove only 
 exceptions to the general rule that Sunday-school 
 libraries furnish wholesome as well as attractive 
 reading to millions of children and youth, thus 
 projecting the influence of the schools into the 
 week-day life of the scholars who attend them. 
 Most of the American Sunday-school unions 
 not only publish books, but maintain depart- 
 ments of missionary effort for the purpose of 
 founding new and aiding needy schools. In this 
 manner, they are constantly enlarging the 
 sphere of Sunday-school work and influence. 
 The sums of money expended by these societies 
 are, in the aggregate, very large, but yet small 
 w hen compared with the larger amounts locally 
 contributed for the same objects. — To pass from 
 external to internal agencies which have contrib- 
 uted largely to the success of Sunday-schools, 
 mention may be made of music, infant classes, 
 and measures for the training and special quali- 
 fication of teachers. The practice of devoting 
 a considerable portion of the time allotted to 
 Sunday-schools to the singing of hymns, origi- 
 oated very early, and has been continued to the 
 present day. It has proved at once a means of 
 attracting children to the schools, ami an easy 
 and pleasant method of impressing sacred truth 
 upon their memory. — In 1788, the Rev. John 
 Mosby recorded in his journal the opinion that 
 there were not to be "found together in any 
 chapel, cathedral, or music room within the four 
 seas, such a set of singers, as the boys and girls 
 selected out of our Sunday-schools in Bolton, in 
 which they had been accurately taught." — -"Be- 
 sides," said he, in concluding his record, " the 
 spirit with which they all sing, and the beauty 
 of many of them so suits the melody, that 1 defy 
 any to exceed it, except the singing of angels in 
 our father's house." The venerable man had 
 
SUNDAY-SCHOOLS 
 
 799 
 
 evidently caught the enthusiasm which pervaded 
 the children, and which, from that day to tins, 
 has been a great source of power throughout the 
 Sunday-schi k >1 world. In later years, hymns and 
 tunes specially designed fur the young have been 
 composed and published in great numbers, and 
 their use has become so common and so popidar, 
 as to have greatly influenced the singing in the 
 churches of all denominations of Christians. — 
 Infant-class instruction has had, by far, its widest 
 field and largest success as a branch of Sunday- 
 school effort. By means of oral instruction, 
 simple music, and diversified object lessons, it 
 has been found practicable to secure the regular 
 attendance of vast numbers of children of in- 
 fantile years, and to hold them under profitable 
 instruction till of sufficient age to be promoted 
 to higher classes. — For a long period, the most 
 that was thought possible to be done for the 
 training and special instruction of Sunday- 
 school teachers, was sought to be accomplished 
 through pastors' and superintendents' Bible 
 classes. But after the establishment of teachers' 
 institutes for the higher instruction of the teach- 
 ers of public schools, the query was raised 
 whether something analogous might not be de- 
 vised for the special improvement of Sunday- 
 school teachers. With a joint reference to that 
 design, and the kindred one of deepening and 
 widening public interest in the Sunday-school 
 enterprise, a system of conventions was projected, 
 which, from small beginnings, has grown to grand 
 proportions. In these conventions, lectures are 
 given on important topics, apparatus and new 
 publications are exhibited and explained, and 
 model and normal classes are taught by skilled 
 instructors. Wherever practicable, as in small 
 towns or villages, Sunday-school teachers are in- 
 vited to attend in mass. Conventions for larger 
 districts, counties, and states are composed of 
 delegates who are supposed to be representative 
 persons from their several localities. So en- 
 couraging have been the results following Sun- 
 day-school conventions, that they have been ex- 
 panded so as to transcend even the bounds of 
 large states, and to enlist national and even in- 
 ternational representation. A world's convention 
 met in London in 1862, and a German national 
 convention in Hamburg in 1874. In the United 
 States, in 1875. twenty-one state conventions 
 were held, besides one national and one inter- 
 national convention. One result of these large 
 conventions has been the extensive adoption, 
 since 1872, of a system of international lessons 
 for Bible study. Uniform schemes of simul- 
 taneous study had been previously adopted, to 
 a considerable extent, both in Great Britain and 
 • America. The international use of systems 
 prepared by joint committees has, undoubtedly, 
 given increased interest and impetus to Scriptural 
 studies throughout the Protestant world. This 
 kind of simultaneous study has been further 
 popularized by the publication of notes and 
 comments on the uniform lessons in hundreds of 
 periodicals throughout various countries and in 
 different languages. The one serious defect of 
 
 the convention system is the brevity of time 
 during which conventions can be held. Efforts 
 have been made, within a few years past, to 
 remedy this, by holding Sunday-school assem- 
 blies to continue in session from one to three 
 weeks at a time. The Chautauqua Sunday- 
 School Assembly has now held three successful 
 and largely attended annual sessions, at which 
 hundreds of persons have participated in thor- 
 ough and systematic Bible study, with a degree 
 of enthusiasm which has so far become con- 
 tagious, as to result in permanent arrangements 
 for similar annual assemblies, at summer resorts, 
 in various parts of the United States. Should 
 these assemblies become a permanent feature of 
 the American Sunday-school enterprise, as now 
 seems probable, they will go far towards form- 
 ing a parallel with the normal schools of the 
 various states for the training of public-school 
 teachers, and thus largely contribute to the con- 
 tinued elevation of the character, and increase of 
 the efficiency, of Sunday-school instruction. — It 
 is, perhaps, difficult to determine whether Sun- 
 day-schools are more indebted to modern archi- 
 tecture for helps toward their development, or 
 modern church architecture to Sunday-schools 
 for the material improvements they have de- 
 manded in recognition of the wants and welfare 
 of children. Certain it is that no church edifice 
 is now considered complete, or properly adapted 
 to its objects, that does not embrace, within it- 
 self, or some contiguous structure, ample rooms 
 and fixtures for the accommodation of infant 
 classes, youths' classes, and Bible classes, includ- 
 ing a general assembly room for the Sunday- 
 school, as a whole. These provisions already 
 exist in thousands of beautiful churches, which 
 thus stand as monuments of the Sunday-school 
 idea, and are. also, suggestive of other improve- 
 ments likely to be introduced hereafter. 
 
 Past Progress and Present Position of Sun- 
 day-Schools. — There are two modes of indicating 
 the progressive advance of Sunday-schools and 
 the position to which they have now attained. 
 The one is by general statements, and the other, 
 by the comparative showing of such numerical 
 statistics as are available. As neither of these 
 modes is fully adequate, both will here be em- 
 ployed to a limited extent, in order that they 
 may. as far as possible, supplement each other. 
 Going back to the beginning of 1781 — less than 
 100 years — we find no such institution as the 
 Sunday-school known in any part of the world. 
 At the present time, Sunday-schools are found 
 in active operation in all Protestant countries 
 and missions throughout the world. They have 
 also been adopted by Roman Catholics and 
 Jews, in all Protestant countries. Not to speak 
 of the influence of Sunday-schools, in the relig- 
 ious bodies last named, it is safe to say that the 
 great majority both of the members, ministers, 
 and missionaries of the Protestant world are, at 
 this time, the alumni of Sunday-schools, and are 
 found among their grateful and active support- 
 ers. In passing from general though significant 
 statements like these, to such showings as may 
 
800 
 
 SUNDAY-SCHOOLS 
 
 SUPERVISION 
 
 be made in figures, ii seems to be necessary to 
 explain that Sunday-school statistics as minute 
 and comprehensive as are now seen to be desir- 
 able, are nut in existence. Governments have not 
 
 been interested to collect them, and comparative- 
 ly few of the promoters of Sunday-schools have 
 recognized their importance. Hence, even up to 
 this time, there has been little uniformity in 
 methods, and still less co-operation in making up 
 comprehensive exhibits of numbers and results. 
 The most, therefore, that has been as yet pos- 
 sible in the way of such exhibits, has been to 
 form estimates based upon accurate statist i< - 
 taken within certain districts or churches, and 
 to extend the pro rata outward. The earliest. 
 Sunday-school estimate on record is that of the 
 Sunday School Society of London, which, in 
 1 "si;, live years after the opening of Haikes's first 
 school, estimated that 250,000 scholars were al- 
 ready enrolled in Sunday-schools. About 40 
 years later (1827), the American Sunday School 
 Union estimated that the number of Sunday- 
 school scholars in different countries reached the 
 number of 1,250,000. Prom about that period, 
 the growth of the Sunday-school enterprise was 
 more rapid than previously, so that the second 
 quarter of the current century witnessed re- 
 markable progress in it. About the middle of 
 the century, an effort was made in Kngland un- 
 der government sanction to ascertain the num- 
 ber and attendance of the Sunday-schools in 
 that country. On a given Sunday, the 30th of 
 March, L851,the Sunday-schools of England and 
 Wales were simultaneously inspected: and there 
 were found, in 23,514 schools, 302,000 teachers 
 and 2.280,000 scholars. The number of enrolled 
 scholars was 2,407,409, or about three-fifths of 
 the number of children enumerated by the cen- 
 sus of the country, between the ages of live and 
 fifteen. A similar proportion of children in 
 American Sunday-schools, at the same period, 
 would have reached the number of 3,000.000. 
 if to those aggregates, the probable number of 
 Sunday scholars in Scotland, Ireland, and other 
 countries, at the same date, be added, it seems 
 quite safe to believe that there were in Sunday- 
 schools throughout the world, at the end of 
 1850, not less than 6,000,000 of scholars. Simi- 
 lar estimates made at the end of another quarter 
 of a century, indicate that, at the end of 1875, 
 there were in operation, in all countries, I 1.0,000 
 Sunday-schools, embracing L,500,000 teachers 
 and 10,000,000 scholars. One statistician of 
 some prominence has estimated that there are, 
 in the United States alone, not less than 81,858 
 Sunday-schools and 6,869,696 scholars. On that 
 
 basis, the above aggregate for all countries might 
 sately be enlarged. Unquestionably, the proper- , 
 tion of Sunday-school Bcholars to the population, 
 or to the membership of churches, is greater in 
 
 that country than in any other. Hence, it seems 
 
 appropriate that there should exist in New York 
 a Foreign Sunday-school Union, having for its 
 
 design the promotion of Sunday-schools abroad. 
 
 particularly on the continent of Europe. That 
 society, though of recent origin, La in vigor 
 
 operation, and hopeful of increasing results from 
 Year to vear. 
 
 SUPERIOR INSTRUCTION, a term used 
 to denote instruction of the highest grade, or 
 that given in colleges and universities, both in 
 the acai lemic course, or in special or post-graduate 
 
 courses. 
 
 SUPERVISION, School, constitutes one 
 of the most essential elements of an efficient school; 
 system. The supervision which is necessarily 
 given by the principal of the school to the work 
 performed by his assistants is not here referred 
 to, but that which is usually assigned to a super- 
 intendent of schools, whose special function it is 
 to see that every school under his jurisdiction is 
 efficient both in discipline and instruction. As 
 a general rule, no extensive work employing a 
 large number of operatives, each performing cer- 
 tain prescribed duties, which contribute toward 
 the accomplishment of a general result, can be 
 carried on efficiently without constant supervi- 
 sion. School supervision is needed for two pur- 
 poses : (1) to enforce the general rules and reg- 
 ulations prescribed by school authorities: and 
 (2) to sic that the proper methods of instruction 
 are employed, and thai the teaching is made ef- 
 fective. To attain these objects, the schools must 
 be both inspected and examined. By inspection 
 the superintendent keeps himself informed in re- 
 gard to the discipline of the school and the 
 methods of instruction employed by the teachers: 
 by formal examinations at stated periods, he is 
 enabled to ascertain, to a certain extent, the 
 actual result of the teaching, that is, its effect 
 on the pupils' minds, both as to imparting in- 
 formation and training. Both of these are con- 
 sidered indispensable. "An inspection," says 
 Superintendent Philbrick, of Boston, "is a visita- 
 tion for the purpose of observation, of oversight, 
 of superintendence. Its aim is to discover, to a 
 greater or less extent, the tone and spirit of the 
 school, the conduct and application of the pupils, 
 the management and methods of the teacher, and 
 the fitness and condition of the premises. Good 
 inspection commends excellences, gently indicates 
 faults, defects, and errors, and suggests improve- 
 ments as occasion requires. * * * An examina- 
 tion is different from an inspection, both in its 
 aims and methods. An examination is a thorough 
 Scrutiny and investigation in regard to certain 
 definitely determined matters for a specific pur- 
 pose." The best methods of teaching, if not uni- 
 formlyand diligently employed, will not impress 
 
 the pupils' minds : and on the other hand, the 
 
 pupils may gain considerable knowledge of the 
 prescribed branches of study, but not in such a 
 
 \\a\ as to cultivate proper habits of thought, 
 ilar examinations, besides ascertaining the 
 
 merits and qualifications of the teachers, afford 
 a wholesome stimulus, when judiciously and 
 
 skillfully conducted, and afford a definite aim 
 toward which their efforts ma\ he directed. On 
 
 the other hand, if attempted by incompetent and 
 indiscreet persons, supervision of this and every 
 
 other kind may do much harm. The qualities 
 a ry for a good examiner are well defined 
 
SWARTHMORE COLLEGE 
 
 SWEDEN AND NORWAY W)l 
 
 by Supt. Philbrick : "In the first place, lie should 
 be independent, or, to speak more precisely, he 
 should not be dependent upon the teaching 
 corps. He ought to have bad experience in 
 teaching; and if he has had experience in grades 
 similar to those in which he examines, so much 
 the better. His mind ought to be liberalized 
 by a wide range of educational reading and 
 study. He ought to have a good deal of practical 
 common sense. He should be more inclined to 
 look on the bright side of things than on the 
 dark side. He should look sharper for merits 
 than for demerits. He should fear only two 
 things : he should fear to do injustice, and he 
 should fear himself. He should be eminent for 
 good breeding, as a guaranty of respectful treat- 
 ment from teachers and pupils. And to make 
 sure of the requisite sympathy, like Burke's law- 
 giver, he ought to have a heart full of sensibility. 
 In one word, for the successful exercise of this 
 delicate and most useful function, the very best 
 educators are demanded." The objection has 
 sometimes been urged against examinations of 
 this kind, that they encourage cramming ; but 
 this will, of course, depend upon the character 
 of the examinations themselves. — See Payne, 
 School Supervision (Gin. and N.Y., 1875); Thir- 
 tieth Semi-Annual Report of the Superintendent 
 of the Pi'blic Schools of Boston (Boston, 1876). 
 (See also Examinations.) 
 
 SWARTHMORE COLLEGE, at Swarth- 
 more, Delaware Co., Pa., was founded in 1869, 
 for the education of both sexes, who here pur- 
 sue together the same courses of study, and re- 
 ceive the same degrees. It is under the control 
 of the Society of Friends. It is supported by 
 the fees of students, and the income of an en- 
 dowment of about $75,000. For resident stu- 
 dents, the price of boai'd and tuition is $350 a 
 year. For day scholars th3 price is $200 a 
 year. The libraries contain about 3,000 vol- 
 umes. The institution embraces a preparatory 
 and a collegiate department. The latter has a 
 classical section, with an ancient course leading 
 to the degree of A. B., a modern course, lead- 
 ing to the degree of Bachelor of Literature; and 
 a scientific section, with a chemical and an en- 
 gineering course, each leading to the degree of 
 B. S. In 1875 — 6, there were 19 instructors 
 and 237 students, of whom 90 (56 classical, 26 
 scientific, and 8 pursuing an irregular or partial 
 course) were of collegiate grade. The presidents 
 have been Edward Parrish, 1869 — 71, and 
 Edward H. Magill, A.M., since 1871. 
 
 SWEDEN AND NORWAY, two king- 
 doms in Europe, united under one sovereign, 
 but otherwise independent of each other in their 
 constitution. Conjointly with Denmark, they 
 constitute the Scandinavian branch of the Teu- 
 tonic or Germanic nations. Nearly the entire 
 population of both kingdoms belong to the 
 Lutheran Church. The area of Sweden, is 
 171,761 square miles, and, in 1876, its popula- 
 tion was 4,383,291 ; the area of Norway is 
 122,280 square miles, and its population, accord- 
 ing to the same census, was 1,802,882. 
 51 
 
 I. Sweden. — Educational History. — During 
 the middle ages, Sweden compared favorably, in 
 regard to education, with the countries of central 
 and southern Europe. A larger proportion of 
 boys and girls than in most other countries re- 
 ceived an education in convent schools, and 
 home education was of a superior character. In 
 the 16th century, the cause of education began 
 to make rapid progress, and many common 
 schools, called pop.dagogia, were established, 
 which were at first of the primary, but soon of 
 a higher grade. The church order of 1571 con- 
 tained a chapter entitled, " How schools should 
 be taught," which must be regarded as the first 
 Swedish school law. Gustavus Adolphus estab- 
 lished the first gymnasium. His daughter, the 
 learned Christina, promulgated, in 1643, a school 
 order, dividing the schools into children's (ele- 
 mentary) and higher schools. In addition to 
 these, there were so-called " writing classes," 
 which may be regarded as the germ of the 
 burgher and real schools. The school order of 
 1693 provided that no one should be permitted 
 to marry, without a knowledge of Luther's small 
 catechism. This largely increased the demand on 
 the part of the peasantry for the establishment 
 of more schools. Teachers, however, as well as 
 schools continued in an unsatisfactory condition 
 until the beginning of the present century. In 
 1820, the consistories and the clergy were in- 
 structed to see that no unfit persons were ap- 
 pointed teachers ; and, in 1824, a new school 
 order provided for the introduction of the Lan- 
 casterian system. In 1842, the present school 
 law was introduced. It provides for the estab- 
 lishment of a stationary school in every church 
 district or parish ; but, in case of the extreme 
 poverty of a parish, or when other local circum- 
 stances prevent the establishment of a station- 
 ary school, instruction may be imparted in a 
 migratory school. Attendance at school is obli- 
 gatory for all children of school age. A teach- 
 ers' seminary is to be established in the chief 
 town of every diocese. In 1858, the support of 
 a higher elementary school was made obligatory 
 in villages and districts having more than 60 pu- 
 pils. A system of state supervision was provided 
 for in 1851. In 1864, the Peasants' or People's 
 High Schools were established on the plan of the 
 Danish schools of that name. (See Denmark.) 
 
 Primary Instruction.— According to the law 
 of 1842, primary instruction is imparted in 
 stationary and migratory schools, besides which 
 there are schools for young children, generally 
 under a female teacher. Besides the school 
 board of the district, there are one or more in- 
 spectors for each diocese, who are appointed by 
 the minister of instruction. The local manage- 
 ment of the rural schools is in the hands of a 
 committee, of which the oldest clergyman is the 
 chairman, whose vote in the election of a teacher 
 counts as much as one half of all the votes cast. 
 In the cities of Stockholm, Gothenburg, and Norr- 
 koping, the schools are governed by special laws ; 
 and, in each of the cities, they are under the man- 
 agement of a board of education. The salaries 
 
802 
 
 SWEDEN AND NORWAY 
 
 of the teachers are very small. The course of 
 stiu lies in the teachers' seminaries extends over 
 three years, and comprises religion, the Swedish 
 language, arithmetic and geometry, history, geog- 
 raphy, natural science, pedagogy, penmanship, 
 drawing, music, gymnastics, military drill, gar- 
 dening, and fruit culture. In every seminary, 
 there is a rector and at least three assistant 
 teachers, besides special assistants for music, 
 drawing. gymnastics, and military drill. In 1ST"), 
 there were 8,123 primary schools, with 606,876 
 children. The number of teachers' seminaries in 
 L'875, was 10. 
 
 Secondary Instruction. — The secondary schools 
 are either higher or complete schools, with 7 
 classes, or lower or incomplete schools, with L\ 
 3, or 5 classes each. From the first class up, 
 counting the lowest class as the first, the schol- 
 ars are separated into two departments, — the 
 classical and the real, of which the former cor- 
 responds to the Latin school and the gymnasium; 
 and the latter to the real school. The school 
 year comprises 36 weeks, and scholars are ad- 
 mitted only at the opening of the schools in the 
 autumn. All pupils must be at least nine years 
 of age. The immediate direction of the schools 
 is in the bands of the rector and the council of 
 teachers. The bishop, as ephorus of all the 
 schools in his diocese, stands above the council 
 of teachers. All matters that cannot be decided 
 by these authorities must be submitted to the 
 ministry of instruction, and by the ministry to 
 the king for a final decision. The king is, there- 
 fore, the highest school authority, and possesses, 
 in school matters, both legislative and executive 
 power. All matters pertaining to secondary 
 schools are arranged by the bureau of the min- 
 istry of instruction, the chief of the bureau acting 
 as inspector-general of all the secondary schools 
 in the kingdom, which he must visit from time 
 to time. For the two Lower classes, there arc 
 class teachers, for the two highest, teachers of 
 
 special subjects; and, in the intermediate classes, 
 a mixed system prevails. The course of studies 
 comprises religion, Swedish, Latin, Greek, lie 
 brew. French, German, English, mathematics, 
 general history, natural philosophy and mechan- 
 ics, chemistry and mineralogy, history, geog- 
 raphy, mental philosophy, penmanship, and draw- 
 ing. Of these, the ancient languages are not 
 
 taught in the real department ; nor are chemis- 
 try and mineralogy taught in the classical de- 
 partment. English and Hebrew are optional in 
 the chemical department, no special time being 
 assigned for them. Duringthe last few years 
 the study of German has made great progress. 
 In 1872, there were 98 schools, with 12,356 pu- 
 pils and 976 teachers. 
 
 Superior Instruction. Sweden has two uni- 
 versities,— at LTpsal ami at Lund, with L68 pro- 
 fessors and 2 .OHO students, in L871. Of these. 
 109 studied theology, 207 law, L88 medicine, 
 and 1,276 philosophy. 
 
 Special Instruct;,,,,. — In l H71, Stockholm had 
 ■ mi industrial school, with L,765 students, the 
 
 Royal Technical Institute, a college of pharmacy, 
 
 a royal college of surgery, an academy of fine 
 arts, and a royal academy of music. There were 
 also 2 academies of agriculture, at LTtuna and 
 Alnarp. 29 lower agricultural schools, an acad- 
 emy of forestry, 7 lower schools of forestry, 9 
 schools of navigation, 5 technical schools. 4 ele- 
 mentary technical schools, 2 elementary schools 
 of mining, the Chalmers Industrial School in 
 Gothenburg, 2 schools for nurses, 2 schools of 
 veterinary Burgery, and various military schools. 
 The military schools arc under the direction of 
 the ministry of war; and the other special 
 schools, partly under the ministry of the interior, 
 and partly under that of finance. 
 
 II. Norway. — Educational History. — Little 
 was done for public instruction in Norway prior 
 to the isth century. In 1736, a royal decree 
 provided that no children should be admitted to 
 confirmation, who had not been instructed in 
 the elements of Christianity. A school law. 
 based on this provision, was passed in 1739. hut 
 modified in 1741. Since the establishment of 
 Norwegian independence, in 1814, Hie Storthing, 
 or national legislature, has been actively engage* I 
 in promoting public instruction. A compre- 
 hensive school law was promulgated in 1 s •_» 7 ; a 
 special law on city schools appeared in 1848. In 
 1H60, the sel Is were re-organized under a new- 
 law, which, with a few additions, made in 1869, 
 is still in force. Children must attend school 
 from their eighth year until they are continued. 
 Those who receive private instruction, must at- 
 tend the examinations of the schools, and. if 
 found deficient, must attend school. 
 
 Primary Instruction. — Primary schools are 
 divided into lower schools and higher schools. 
 
 Norway is divided, for school purposes, into 591 
 communities, of which, in Is7">. 57 were city, 
 and 434, country communities. The communi- 
 ties are again subdivided into circles, of which. 
 in 1874, there were 6,371. Wherever 30 chil- 
 dren can attend school, a separate school-house 
 must he procured for them. Whenever the 
 houses of a circle are too far apart, or if. for any 
 other cause, a permanent school docs not seem 
 
 advisable. a migratory school must he supported. 
 This is particularly the case in the numerous 
 valleys on the coast, which are virtually shut off 
 from each other. The studies pursued in the 
 primary schools, are leading, writing, arithmetic. 
 religion, music and gymnastics and military 
 drill, wherever the latter is possible. All chil- 
 dren must attend school 1 2 weeks in the year, 
 or in some migratory schools, '.• weeks. Children 
 who have reached the fourteenth year, and are 
 backward in their education, musl receive special 
 instruction, until they are prepared to enter the 
 
 schools; and the necessary expense must he home 
 by the parents. The school authorities ma\ also 
 establish infant schools and industrial schools. — 
 Higher schools may he organized either in con- 
 nection with lower schools, or in connection with 
 teachers' seminaries. or independently. Whenever 
 the course of study extends over more than two 
 years, the school must he divided into two de- 
 partments, the first of which comprises the first 
 
SWEDEN AND NORWAY 
 
 SWITZERLAND 
 
 803 
 
 two years, and the other, the remainder. When- 
 ever necessary, the two departments may be situ- 
 ated in different parts of the district Besides 
 
 the studies of the lower school, there are taught 
 in the higher school the native tongue (Danish), 
 geography, history, natural sciences, drawing, 
 and surveying. In the higher department, are 
 still further added, mathematics, agriculture, 
 and a foreign language, where it i-; desirable. 
 No child under 12 years of age is admitted to 
 the higher school. The schools in a community 
 are under the direction of a school board, of 
 which the clergyman is chairman, which board 
 has charge of all school matters, while the clergj 
 man, in particular, must superintend the instruc- 
 tion given in the schools. The board has also 
 power to appoint agents, who must see that 
 all children of school age attend schools. The 
 provost has charge of the schools in his district; 
 and the directory of the stift, or ecclesiastical 
 province, of the schools in the ami. The king- 
 appoints a number of inspectors. The inspector 
 is entitled to a seat in the directory of the stift, 
 whenever school matters are under deliberation. 
 The direct supervision over the schools of a stift 
 is exercised by the inspector in conjunction with 
 the bishop. Burgher and real schools are, in 
 some cases, but little above the higher common 
 schools ; in others, they correspond to the Ger- 
 man realschtde ; one, the Latin and real school 
 at Frederiksstad, prepares its pupils for the uni- 
 versity. Of teachers' seminaries, there are two 
 classes : higher or stift seminaries, and the so- 
 called teachers' schools. In the higher seminaries, 
 the course of study comprises religion, the native 
 tongue, arithmetic, music, geography, history, 
 natural sciences, penmanship, drawing, gymnas- 
 tics, and pedagogics. A model school exists in 
 connection with each seminary. In the Teachers' 
 Schools, the course of study requires from 1 to 
 li years. In 1874, there were in Norway, ex- 
 clusive of Christiania, 4,277 permanent common 
 schools, 2,094 migratory schools, 131 work schools 
 for girls, 4 general work schools, and 1 3 infant 
 schools. The number of children of school age 
 was 213,908 ; the number of children in per- 
 manent schools, 169,737 ; in migratory schools, 
 36,577 ; the number of children instructed out- 
 side of the district schools, 3,235 ; and children 
 not attending school, 4,419. The expenditures 
 for primary schools amounted to $673,052, to- 
 ward which the state contributed $91,875. The 
 number of burgher and real-schools, in 1867, was 
 35, with 159 teachers and 2.531 pupils. The 
 number of stift seminaries, in the same year, was 
 6, with about 300 pupils; and the Teachers' 
 Schools were 15, with 217 pupils. Besides these, 
 a seminary for female teachers has been estal>- 
 lished in Christiania. Peasants' or People's High 
 Schools have been recently established in Norway 
 on the same plan as those in Denmark (q. v.). 
 Of these, in 1870, there were 11. In 1867, there 
 were, also, 20 Sunday-schools, with 1520 pupils, 
 and 27 asylums, with 2,876 children. 
 
 Secondary Instruction. — Secondary instruction 
 is imparted in middle schools and gymnasia. 
 
 The latter are divided into Latin and real gym- 
 nasia. The middle schools prepare scholars for 
 the gymnasia. The course of study comprises 
 religion, the native tongue. German, Latin. En- 
 glish, French, history, geography, the natural sci- 
 ences, mathematics, drawing, and penmanship. 
 In the Latin gymnasia, the studies comprise re- 
 ligion, the native tongue, ancient Norwegian, 
 Latin, Greek, French and English, history, and 
 mathematics. In the real gymnasia. Latin and 
 Greek are omitted; while geography, natural 
 sciences, and drawing are added, and more atten- 
 tion is paid to mathematics and the modern lan- 
 guages. Besides the state schools, there are 
 also private schools for secondary instruction. 
 There were, in 1875. 16 secondary schools, with 
 160 teachers and 2,099 pupils. The number of 
 private schools, in 1870, was 6, of which 4, with 
 1,266 pupils, were in Christiania. 
 
 Superior Instruction. — Norway has one uni- 
 versity, at Christiania, which was founded in 
 1811. It had. in 1874, 978 students. Connected 
 with the university is a library, also large scientific 
 collections, and an astronomical and a magnetic 
 observatory. The lectures are entirely gratui- 
 tous, and matriculation at the university is made 
 dependent upon a previous examination. 
 
 Special Instruction. — Agricultural schools are 
 found in almost every province, supported by 
 the provincial authorities ; while a higher agri- 
 cultural school is supported in Aas, near Chris- 
 tiania, by the government. The navigation 
 schools, of which there are 6, necessarily occupy 
 a prominent place in a country situated like 
 Norway. Besides these, there is a military high 
 school, a military and naval school, a polytech- 
 nic school, in Norten, and a drawing school, in 
 Christiania. — See Schmid, Encyclopcidie ; Bar- 
 nard, National Education, vol. n.; Report on 
 the Systems of Public Instruction in Sweden and 
 Norway, published by the U. S. Bureau of Edu- 
 cation (Washington, 1871) ; and Report of the 
 U. S. Commissioner of Education for 1873 and 
 1874. 
 
 SWITZERLAND, a federal republic of 
 Europe, having an area of 15,992 square miles, 
 and a population, in 1870, of 2,669,147. It is 
 composed of 22 cantons, 3 of which are each 
 subdivided into 2 sovereign half-cantons. About 
 59 per cent of the population are Protestants, 
 and almost 41 per cent, Catholics. The majority 
 of the inhabitants (about 69 per cent) are of 
 German nationality; nearly 24 per cent speak 
 French ; the canton Ticino and a part of the 
 canton Grisons are Italian. In the latter canton, 
 there are also about 9,000 families that speak 
 Romansch. 
 
 Educational History. — At the beginning of 
 the middle ages, we find within the present- 
 boundaries of Switzerland some of the most 
 famous monasteries of the Benedictine order. (See 
 Benedictines.) Later, the university of Basel 
 occupied a high rank among the earliest univer- 
 sities of Europe. After the Reformation in the 
 16th century, the canton Zurich took the lead in 
 the regulation of school affairs by forbidding any 
 
804 
 
 SWITZERLAND 
 
 one to keep school without permission of the 
 city council. Several other cantons could, in 
 the 16th century, boast of good schools ; but 
 down to 1830, there was a lack of efficiency in 
 the organization of the public-school system ; 
 and schools, more than in many other countries, 
 were left to private enterprise. At the begin- 
 ning of the 19th century, the educational 
 achievements of Pestalozzi, Fellenberg, Wehrli, 
 ( iirard, and others attracted the attention of the 
 civilized world. Xot only were hundreds of 
 pupils sent to Swiss institutions from various 
 countries, even from America, to obtain a good 
 education, but young teachers repaired there, in 
 large numbers, to study the new educational 
 methods. On the shores of the lake of Geneva, 
 a large number of private institutions arose to 
 Supply the universal demand at that time for 
 instruction in the French language. The increase 
 of these institutions stimulated an eagerness to 
 educate boys and girls as private tutors and gov- 
 ernesses: and for a long time, French Switzerland 
 furnished Europe with a larger supply of this 
 class of teachers than any other country. — Great 
 progress began to be made, about 1830, in most 
 of the Protestant and mixed cantons. In addition 
 to the mediaeval university of Basel, new univer- 
 sities, after the German model, were established 
 at Zurich and Hern; and. in French Switzerland, 
 the academies at (Geneva, Lausanne, and Xeuf- 
 chatel endeavored to rival tic best institutions 
 of the kind in I' 1 ranee. — lul v |s. t] u . federal con- 
 stitution of Switzerland, tor the first time, took 
 notice of educational affairs, which until then 
 had been under the exclusive jurisdiction of the 
 cantons, by providing for the foundation of a 
 federal university. In 1 S 7T. this project had not 
 yet been executed. In 1854, the federal assem- 
 bly resolved to establish in Zurich a federal poly- 
 technic school. Since then, a growing desire has 
 been evinced, especially among teachers, that the 
 federal government should exercise an authority 
 in school matters. Accordingly, the new federal 
 constitution, adopted in 1874, contains the fol- 
 lowing provision in regard to schools: "The 
 Build (confederation) is authorized to establish, 
 besides the existing polytechnic school, a univer- 
 sity and other higher institutions of learning, or 
 to aid such institutions. The cantons shall pro- 
 vide satisfactory primary instruction, which 
 shall be under t lie exclusive control of the govern- 
 ment. Primary instruction shall be obligatory 
 and free in all the schools. The public schools 
 shall be open to children of all creeds. Cantons 
 that fail to observe these provisions shall be pro- 
 ceeded against by the B mid. No one shall lie 
 
 forced to receive any religious education or 
 to perform any religious ceremony. The religious 
 -■ 'Ideation of children, up to the age of 1 6, shall 
 be left to their parent- or guardians." 
 
 Primary Schools. The primary schools in 
 the Swiss cantons are generally under the con- 
 trol of the communities. In L871, there wen. 
 
 in all Switzerland, ">,088 primary schools, with 
 
 II 1,760 pupils (205,228 boys. 206,532 girls) and 
 
 50 male and L,724 female teachers. Of these 
 
 schools. 3.924 were mixed; 578, boys' schools ; 
 and 586, girls' schools. In 58.1 per cent of the 
 6ehools, the German language is the medium of 
 instruction ; in 31 per cent, French ; in 9.6 per 
 cent, Italian; and in 1.3 percent, Romansch. The 
 expenditure fur primary schools amounted, in 
 1871, to 900,000 francs. In most of the can- 
 tons, the elementary-school systems have been 
 re-organized by school laws enacted since 1870. 
 According to the new school law of Zurich, pro- 
 mulgated in L872, which has served as the basis 
 of a number of school laws in other countries, 
 the communal school comprises nine annual 
 classes, instead of six classes as before that 
 time. The chief branches of instruction in the 
 primary schools of Switzerland are language and 
 object lessons, the latter receiving more attention 
 than in most other countries of Europe. The 
 other studies of a primary school are religion, 
 reading, writing, arithmetic, drawing, singing, 
 and gymnastics. The real schools add to these 
 studies geometry, history, natural history, and 
 composition. Industrial schools, in which boys 
 learn the elements of a trade or of agriculture, 
 and girls are instructed in needle-work, are 
 numerous in every part of Switzerland. For the 
 education of teachers, there were, in 1875, 32 
 teachers' seminaries, the course of studies in 
 which embraces pedagogy, religion, German, 
 French, arithmetic, geometry, history, geography, 
 natural history, singing, playing on a musical 
 instrument, penmanship, drawing, gymnastics, 
 military exercises, and agriculture. The larger 
 institutions have four annual classes. In the can- 
 tons of Zurich, Yaud, Bern, and Aargau, pen- 
 sions for superannuated teachers are obligatory; 
 in Schaffhausen, Glarus, and the city of Basel, 
 they are only permitted. The following table ex- 
 hibits the number of schools, and the number of 
 male and female teachers: also the proportion of 
 scholars to the total population: 
 
 Cantons 
 
 No. 
 
 of 
 
 schools 
 
 1. Zurich 
 
 2. Bern 
 
 3. Lucerne 
 
 4. Uri 
 
 5. Bchweitz 
 
 ti. (Tnterwaldt n, Upper. 
 
 7. i "iitcrwalili ii . Lower, 
 
 8. GlarnB 
 
 9. Zuo 
 
 10, Fribotirg 
 
 1 1. Boleure 
 
 Basel Citj , 
 
 iBBe] < '> untry 
 
 • h;i!lh;iusrll 
 
 15. Appenzell, I >ut< r I s 
 
 16. IppenzeU, [nn< c Bi 
 
 I Oall 
 
 i i. i trieons . 
 
 19. Aargau 
 
 aurgan 
 
 I lolno 
 
 33, \au,l 
 
 38 Valaia , 
 
 34. NeufchateJ 
 
 20. Gtoneva , 
 
 s77 
 
 163 
 
 29 
 
 74 
 
 26 
 
 24 
 
 S3 
 
 28 
 
 BOS 
 
 137 
 
 II 
 
 74 
 
 39 
 
 70 
 
 It 
 
 384 
 
 185 
 440 
 570 
 
 Ml 
 ISM 
 
 76 
 
 V 
 
 of 
 
 teachers 
 
 
 8 
 
 n 
 
 i 
 
 
 E 
 
 £ 
 
 
 565 
 
 8 
 
 1.098 
 
 604 
 
 249 
 
 15 
 
 37 
 
 9 
 
 57 
 
 44 
 
 9 
 
 26 
 
 16 
 
 17 
 
 65 
 
 — 
 
 41 
 
 33 
 
 •Jjs 
 
 
 187 
 
 6 
 
 48 
 
 10 
 
 111 
 
 — 
 
 116 
 
 o 
 
 86 
 
 — 
 
 is 
 
 4 
 
 406 
 
 13 
 
 :;ss 
 
 .'.1 
 
 505 
 
 33 
 
 340 
 
 2 
 
 309 
 
 266 
 
 589 
 
 205 
 
 381 
 
 169 
 
 146 
 
 172 
 
 86 
 
 54 J 
 
 3 
 £ - = 
 
 ■3 ofl 
 
 & 
 
 156 
 175 
 128 
 138 
 150 
 134 
 126 
 159 
 140 
 164 
 VA 
 
 66 
 196 
 199 
 lss 
 133 
 156 
 150 
 158 
 185 
 149 
 14'J 
 172 
 14. '. 
 
 72 
 

 SWITZERLAND 
 
 Secondary Instruction. — The gymnasia and 
 real schools of a higher grade are very differently 
 organized in the several cantons of Switzerland. 
 The state institutions in which a complete gym- 
 nasium is combined with a real school, under 
 one direction; are called cantonal schools. In 
 L873, there were, in Switzerland, 67 gymnasia, 
 colleges, and pro-gymnasia, with an aggregate of 
 4,900 pupils ; and 41 industrial and real schools 
 of a higher grade, with 3,800 pupils. 
 
 Superior Instruction. — Switzerland had, in 
 ] 876, four universities, — those of Basel, Zurich, 
 Bern, and Geneva. That of Basel was founded 
 in 1460 ; of Zurich, in 1833 ; of Bern, in 1834. 
 Geneva has had a higher institution of learning 
 since 1559 ; but it did not become a complete 
 university until 1875. The number of students, 
 in 1876, was, in Zurich, 328; in Bern, 385; in 
 Basel, 158; and in Geneva, 235. All these uni- 
 versities have the four faculties of theology, law, 
 medicine, and philosophy. The theological faculty 
 of each of the universities belongs to the 
 Reformed Church ; Bern has also, since 1874, an 
 Gld Catholic faculty of theology. At the uni- 
 versities of Zurich and Geneva, the phflosophical 
 faculty is divided into two sections: one com- 
 prising philology, philosophy, and history; and 
 the other, mathematics and natural science. In 
 Bern, the medical faculty is divided into a med- 
 ical and a veterinary section. — Besides the uni- 
 versities, there are 3 academies, or incomplete 
 universities, — at Lausanne, Neufchatel, and 
 Fribourg. That of Lausanne has faculties of 
 Reformed theology, law, science, and literature ; 
 that of Neufchatel, law, science, and literature ; 
 that of Fribourg, Catholic theology and law. The 
 universities of Bern and Zurich were among the 
 first in Europe to admit female students ; and 
 their example has been followed by the university 
 of Geneva. In 1875, Bern and Zurich had an 
 aggregate of 63, and Geneva, 24 female students. 
 Among those in Bern and Zurich, 39 were 
 Russians, 8 Americans, 5 Austrians, 4 Germans, 
 and 3 Servians. 
 
 Special and Professional Schools. — The Poly- 
 technic School, at Zurich, is the only Swiss 
 school under the control of the federal authorities. 
 It comprises eight departments : architecture, 
 civil engineering, industrial mechanics, industrial 
 chemistry, agriculture and forestry, a normal 
 school of mathematics and natural sciences, a 
 school of literature, moral sciences, and political 
 economy, and a preparatory course in mathe- 
 matics. The other technical schools are the 
 technical department in the academy of Lau- 
 sanne, and the department of architecture iu the 
 lyceum of Lugano. The lyceum of the Bene- 
 dictines, at Einsiedeln, has a philosophical and a 
 theological department. There is, also, a philo- 
 sophical department, connected with the lyceum 
 of Lugano. There are six Catholic theological 
 seminaries ; a Reformed theological faculty, at 
 Neufchatel ; and theological schools of the Free 
 Evangelical Church, at Lausanne and Geneva. 
 There is a veterinary school at Zurich ; an in- 
 dustrial school of higher grade, at Winterthur ; 
 
 SYRACUSE UNIVERSITY 805 
 
 a school for watch-makers, at Geneva ; several 
 commercial schools ; seven agricultural schools ; 
 and a school of line arts, in Geneva. There 
 were also, in 1*75. 13 institutions for de 
 mutes, with 233 boys and L59 girls; two in- 
 stitutions for the blind, in Zurich and Hern, 
 with 58 boys and 54 girls; and one asylum for 
 Hie blind, in Lausanne. — Sec Schmid, Encyclq- 
 pddie, art. Schweiz; Barnard, National Edu- 
 cation, vol. ii. ; Beer, Das Unterrichtswesen der 
 Schweiz (Vienna, 1868) ; Kixkelin, Statislik 
 <l<>s Uhterrichtswesens in der Schweiz im Jahre 
 1871 (Basel, 7 vols., 1874, seq.); Wirth, AUge- 
 meine Beschreibung und Statisltk der Schweiz, 
 vol. in.: Das Unterrichtswesen; also the annual 
 reports on the educational condition of Switzer- 
 land, in the Pdda gogischer Jahresbericht. 
 
 SYMPATHY, an instinctive feeling of in- 
 terest in and affection for others, which prompts 
 a correspondence of emotions. Persons in sym- 
 pathy readily discern the mental states of one 
 another, and evince by their actions that they 
 suffer, mentally, the same distress, and feel the 
 same joy. It is difficult to ascertain and define 
 the source and basis of this sympathetic relation- 
 ship ; but personal influence greatly depends 
 upon it. It is natural to some persons to be in 
 sympathy with others ; they seem to exert a 
 kind of positive influence, drawing and binding- 
 all around them to themselves. Others, on the con- 
 trary, seem to be negative in their influence ; they 
 repel instead of attracting. They are cold and 
 indifferent to others ; or, if otherwise, uncon- 
 sciously show that their apparent interest is 
 feigned, not felt, proceeding from a sense of duty, 
 not from natural warmth of feeling. — The 
 teacher, above all others, should be sympathetic, 
 because so much of his success depends upon 
 personal influence. He should habitually strive 
 to cultivate this quality, feeling assured that the 
 measure of his professional skill and efficiency 
 is the degree of sympathetic regard with which 
 he inspires his pupils. (See Antipathy, and 
 Love.) 
 
 SYRACUSE UNIVERSITY, in Syracuse, 
 N. Y., chartered in 1870, is under Methodist 
 Episcopal control. Genesee College, at Lima, 
 chartered in 1849, was merged in it. It is sup- 
 ported by tuition fees and the income of an en- 
 dowment of $150,000. The value of its buildings 
 and grounds is $300,000. It has valuable mu- 
 seums, and libraries containing 9,000 volumes, 
 The university consists of (1) The College 
 of the Liberal Arts, opened in 1871 ; (2) The 
 Medical College, opened in 1872; (3) The 
 College of the Fine Arts, opened in 1873. 
 Other colleges are contemplated by the charter. 
 All the colleges of the university are open for 
 the admission of women on the same terms as 
 men. The following seminaries, in different parts* 
 of the state, have entered into the relation of 
 gymnasia or preparatory schools to the universi- 
 ty : The Hudson River Institute and Female 
 ( 'ollege, at Claverack ; The Cazenovia Seminary, 
 at Cazenovia ; The Ives Seminary, at Antwerp ; 
 The Amenia Seminary, at Amenia ; and The 
 
806 
 
 TABOR COLLEGE 
 
 TEACHERS' INSTITUTE 
 
 Onondaga Academy, at Onondaga Valley. The 
 courses in the College of liberal Arts, with the 
 degrees conferred on their completion, are as fol- 
 lows: classical, A. I!.; Latin-scientific and Greek- 
 scientific, Ph. B.; scientific, U.S. The College of 
 the Fine A rts is intended ultimately to include in- 
 struction in all the fine arts, consisting of (1) the 
 formative arts, — architecture, sculpture, paint- 
 ing, engraving, and the various forms of indus- 
 trial art, and (2) the sounding arts, — music, 
 poetry and belles-lettres, and oratory. At present, 
 courses of instruction in architecture, painting 
 and engraving are all that have been organized. 
 Tor the advanced degrees, in either college, a 
 
 ! post graduate course of one year may be pursued. 
 Tin' cost of tuition in the College of Liberal Arts 
 is siio a year (to children of clergymen, 830); in 
 the other colleges tuition is $100 a year. The 
 number of instructors and students, in 1876 — 7, 
 was as follows : liberal Arts, 11 instructors and 
 155 students: Fine Aits, '.) instructors and 24 
 students; .Medical School, 15 instructors and 
 58 students : total, 35 instructors and 237 stu- 
 dents.— The number of pupils in the gymnasia 
 preparing for college was 165. The chancellors 
 of the university have been as follows: Alexander 
 Winchell, LL.D., 1872 — 1. and the Rev. Erastus 
 
 j 0. Haven, I). D., LL. D., since 1874. 
 
 TABOR COLLEGE, at Tabor, Fremont 
 Co., Iowa, chartered in 1854, is controlled by 
 Congregationalists. It was opened as an acad- 
 emy in L857, and as a college in 1866. It is 
 supported by the income of an endowment of 
 $40,000, and by tuition fees, amounting to 
 about $3,500 a year. It has a library of 3,500 
 volumes, and embraces the following depart- 
 ments: (1) College Department, including a 
 classical and a scientific course of four years 
 each; (2) Ladies' Department, with a four 
 years' course ; (3) Teachers' Department, with a 
 two years' course ; (■!) Preparatory Department, 
 with facilities for fitting for the higher depart- 
 ments; (5) Musical Department. Females are 
 also admitted to the college department. In 
 1874 — 5, there were 12 instructors and 246 stu- 
 dents ; namely, college, 24; preparatory, 104; 
 ladies' department, 89 ; teachers' department, 
 15 ; music, 50. The Rev. Win. M. Brooks, A. M., 
 is (1877) the president. 
 
 TALLADEGA COLLEGE, at Talladega, 
 Ala., chartered in L869, is under the control of 
 the American Missionary Association. It is 
 supported chiefly by contributions from the 
 Congregational churches in the North. Itwa3 
 established, especially, for colored youth of both 
 s Acs, and comprises a primary, a normal, a pre- 
 paratory, a collegiate and a theological depart- 
 ment, in 1875 — 6, there were L2 instructors 
 and 217 students : preparatory, 15; theological, 
 14; normal, 40; grammar, 25; intermediate an 1 
 primary, 1 17. The Rev. B. 1'. Lord, A. M., is 
 i L877) the principal. 
 
 TASMANIA. See Australasian Colonies. 
 
 TAYLOR, Isaac, an Rnglish author, born 
 in Lavenham, Aug. 17., 17*7: died in Stanford 
 I fivers, dune 28., 1805. lie was educated as an 
 artist, but relinquished that pursuit and devoted 
 himself to literature. In L818, he began his 
 literary career by contributions to the Eclectic 
 Review; ami. in L 865, he contributed to Good 
 Words. The Natural History of Enthusiasm, 
 which appeared in L829, was published anonj 
 mously,and was received with extraordinary favor, 
 in 1836, appeared Home Education, a work of 
 unusual interest to educators by reason of its 
 c irred analysis of the human mind, and its illus- 
 
 tration of the true order of the development of 
 its powers. It is hardly too much to say that 
 this book is invaluable to the teacher who would 
 learn the right method to be pursued in educa- 
 tion, or the rationale of that method, its general 
 conclusions are universally accepted by modern 
 educators ; while the detailed methods given for 
 the cultivation of the mental faculties, and the 
 illustrations of their unconscious exercise, are 
 exceedingly suggestive and interesting. Mr. 
 Taylor was the author of several other works, 
 among which may be mentioned The Elements 
 of TliougM (1822), and The World of Mind 
 ,1857,. 
 
 TEACHER, a person who assists another in 
 Learning, thai is. in acquiring knowledge or prac- 
 tical skill. A school-teacher's office is, for the 
 most, partjConfined to aiding the pupil in acquir- 
 ing knowledge, with the twofold object of 
 ill mental discipline, and (2) imparting valuable 
 information. \\ hich of these is to be considered 
 of primary importance depends upon the grade 
 of the instruction and the subject taught. Al- 
 though teaching is only a part of education, the 
 teacher should be an educator, since he is re- 
 quired to perform an office which bears an im- 
 portant relation to the general development, or 
 
 education, of the child; and. consequently, he 
 should clearly understand the nature of that re- 
 lation. In other words, no person can be merely 
 a teacher; he must, to be truly efficient, educate 
 while he teaches. Indeed, he cannot but do so. 
 I lis example, and his personal influence of every 
 kind, will necessarily educate- will tend to 
 form, permanently, the character of his pupil, 
 either for good or evil. This consideration should 
 
 determine the qualifications of the teacher, which 
 slnnild not consist merely in scholarship, book- 
 learning, or intellectual culture, bul that assem- 
 blage of personal qualities and accomplishments 
 
 (including scholarship) which will rentier his in- 
 fluence in everj respect effective and salutary. 
 (See Didactics, Education, and Instruction.) 
 
 TEACHERS' INSTITUTE, the name 
 given, in the United States, to an assemblage oi 
 teachers of elementary or district Bchools, called 
 together temporarily for the purpose of receiv- 
 ing professional instruction. Such meetings are 
 
TEACHERS' SEMINARIES 
 
 807 
 
 held under the direction of the school authorities, 
 usually the state, county, or town superintend- 
 ent ; and quite often there is a provision of law 
 requiring the teachers employed in the common 
 schools to attend, and permitting a continuance 
 of their salaries during such attendance. .V teach- 
 ers' institute is usually conducted by an experi- 
 enced teacher, having special skill for the work. 
 This requires a good knowledge of the practice 
 and theory of teaching, especially as applied to 
 the ordinary branches of common-school educa- 
 tion ; it also needs ability as a lecturer. Teach- 
 ers' institutes are designed to serve as a substi- 
 tute for, or as complementary to, normal in- 
 struction ; and as such they constitute a valuable 
 agency in connection with a system of common- 
 school instruction. — See Bates, Method of 
 Trackers' Institutes (Xew York), and Institute 
 Lectures (Xew York) ; Fowle, The Teachers' 
 Institute (Xew York) ; Phelps, The Teachers' 
 II aid-Booh- (Xew York). 
 
 TEACHERS' SEMINARIES. Schools for 
 the education and training of teachers are called 
 teachers' seminaries in Germany, Russia, Fin- 
 land. Norway, Sweden, Denmark, and the Ger- 
 man cantons of Switzerland; training schools, 
 in Austria and the Netherlands; preparatory 
 schools, in Hungary; and normal schools, in 
 France, Great Britain, Italy, Spain. Portugal, 
 Greece. Roumania, the French cantons of Switzer- 
 land, and the United States. In Great. Brit- 
 ain, the name training college is very generally 
 used. — The first establishment of the kind of 
 which there is any accurate account, was the 
 Institute of the Brothers of the Christian 
 Schools, founded, in 1681, by the abbe de la 
 Salle, canon of the cathedral at Reims. — In 
 1697, August Hermann Francke, in connection 
 with his orphan school at Halle, founded a 
 teachers' class, composed of poor students who 
 assisted him in the work of instruction in return 
 for their board and lodging. From this class he 
 selected, in 1704, twelve pupils who exhibited 
 '•the right basis of piety, knowledge, and aptness 
 to teach", and constituted them his seminarium 
 prceceptorum. These pupil-teachers were trained 
 for two years; and such was their aptitude for 
 teaching that their fame was spread over the 
 greater part of Germany, and hundreds flocked 
 to Francke's school to study his improved 
 methods and superior organization. Johann .Tu- 
 bus Hecker, a pupil of Francke's, established a 
 teachers' seminary at Stettin, in Pomerania, in 
 1735, and another in Berlin, in 1748. Hecker 
 worked under the patronage of Frederick the 
 Great, who issued a royai ordinance that all 
 vacancies in the schools on the crown-lands 
 should be filled by teachers trained in the Berlin 
 seminary. In addition to this, he granted an 
 annual stipend to twelve of the graduates, a 
 number afterwards increased to sixty. The 
 teachers' seminaries at Rekahn. in Brandenburg, 
 became the model schools of Germany. From 
 Prussia, the system gradually spread over the 
 greater part of Europe. It was introduced into 
 Hanover in 1 7 ."> 7 : into Austria in 1707; into 
 
 Switzerland in L805 : into France in 1808 ; into 
 Holland in L816; into England in L842; and 
 
 into Belgium in L843. Since then, it has been 
 introduced into the remaining countries of 
 Europe; into North and South America ; and 
 into British India and Japan. — As Prussia was 
 the in st nation to adopt and enforce the special 
 training of teachers, the following provisions of 
 the 1'russian law of L819 will serve to explain 
 the aims and purposes of teachers' seminaries, 
 not only in Prussia itself but in all the counties 
 into which they have been introduced : (1) No 
 seminary for teachers in the primary schools 
 shall admit more than seventy pupil-teachers. 
 (2) In every department in which the number of 
 Catholics and Protestants are about equal, there 
 shall be, as often as circumstances will permit, a 
 teachers seminary for the members of each de- 
 nomination ; but where the inequality is very 
 marked, the teachers of the least numerous de- 
 nomination shall be obtained from the teachers' 
 seminaries belonging to that denomination in a 
 neighboring department, or from smaller estab- 
 lishments, in the same department, annexed to an 
 elementary primary school. Teachers' seminaries 
 for the simultaneous education of persons of dif- 
 ferent religious belief shall be permitted when 
 the pupil-teachers can obtain, close at hand, suit- 
 able instruction in the doctrines of their own 
 church. (3) The teachers' seminaries shall be 
 established, whenever it is possible, in small 
 towns, so as to preserve the pupil-teachers 
 from the dissipations, temptations, and habits 
 of life which are not suitable to their future 
 profession, but without subjecting them to a mo- 
 nastic seclusion ; but the town must not be 
 too small, in order that they may profit by 
 the vicinity of several elementary and superior 
 primary schools. (6) No young man can be 
 received into a teachers' seminary who has not 
 passed through a course of instruction in an ele- 
 mentary primary school ; nor can any young man 
 be received, of the excellence of whose moral 
 character there is the least ground of suspicion. 
 The age of admission into the teachers' semi- 
 naries shall be from sixteen to eighteen years. 
 
 (7) As to the methods of instruction, the direct- 
 ors of the teachers' seminaries shall rather seek 
 to conduct the pupil-teachers by their own ex- 
 perience to simple and clear principles, than to 
 give them theories for their guidance; and, with 
 tin's end in view, primary schools shall be joined 
 to all the teachers' seminaries, where the pupil- 
 teachers may be practiced in the act of teaching. 
 
 (8) In each teachers' seminary, the course of in- 
 struction shall last three years, of which the first 
 shall be devoted to the continuation of the 
 comse of instruction which the pupils com- 
 menced in the primary schools; the second, to 
 instruction of a higher order: and the third, 
 to practice in the primary school attached to 
 the establishment. From the law of 1819, and 
 from the general regulations, the following pro- 
 visions have been gathered : Xo young man is 
 allowed to conduct a primary school until he 
 has obtained a certificate of his capacity to fulfill 
 
808 
 
 TEACHERS' SEMINARIES 
 
 the important duties of a school-master. The 
 examination of the candidates for these certifi- 
 cates is conducted by commissions, composed of 
 two laymen and two clergymen, or two priests. 
 The provincial consistories nominate the lay 
 members, the ecclesiastical authorities, of the 
 respective provinces nominate the clerical mem- 
 bers for the examination of the religious edu- 
 cation of the Protestant candidates; and the 
 Roman ( 'atholic bishop nominates the two priests 
 who examine the Roman Catholic candidates. 
 The members of these commissions are nomi- 
 nated for three years, but they can afterward be 
 continued in office if advisable. These certifi- 
 cates are not valid until they have been ratified 
 by the superior authorities, that is, by the pro- 
 vincial consistories. The provincial authorities 
 can re-examine the candidates, if they think that 
 there is any reason to doubt what is specified in 
 the certificate granted by the committee of ex- 
 amination, and can declare them incompetent; 
 and they can require the local authorities to pro- 
 ceed to another examination, if they are not 
 satisfied with the character of any of the can- 
 didates. Young women who are candidates for 
 the situation of school-mistress are obliged to 
 submit to the same kind of examination before 
 they can obtain the certificate enabling them to 
 take charge of a girls' school. — The provincial 
 consistories have the power to send any master 
 of a primary school who appears to be in need 
 of further instruction, to a teachers' seminary for 
 the time that may appear requisite to give him 
 the necessary additional instruction. During his 
 absence, his place is supplied by a student 
 from the teachers' seminary, who receives a 
 temporary certificate. The expenses of the mas- 
 ters who attend for a second time the teach- 
 ers' seminaries are generally defrayed by the 
 educational authorities. The school-masters are 
 encouraged to continue their education by the 
 hope of preferment to better situations, or to 
 superior schools ; but before they can attain this 
 preferment, they must pass a second examina- 
 tion, conducted by the same authorities that con- 
 ducted the former. -Teachers who show them- 
 selves entitled to promotion to the position of 
 directors of teachers' seminaries, are authorized 
 to travel, both in Prussia and in other countries, 
 for the purpose of extending their knowledge of 
 the organization, instruction, and discipline of 
 schools. A valuable ordinance, passed in 1826, 
 and renewed in L 846, requires every director of 
 
 a teachers' seminary, once a year, to visit a 
 certain portion of the schools within his circuit, 
 lie thus makes himself acquainted with the 
 condition of the schools, listens to the instruc- 
 tion, takes part in the same, and gives to the 
 
 teachers such hints for improvement as his ob- 
 servation may BUggest. The results of his Nearly 
 
 visits, he presents, in the form of a report to 
 the school authorities of the province. To 
 render the efficacy of the teachers' seminaries 
 
 more complete, it is provided that, at the end of 
 
 three years after leaving the seminary, young 
 teachers shall return to pass a second examina- 
 
 | tion. — Before a young man is eligible for exam- 
 i ination to enter a teachers' seminary, he must 
 j forward to the director or principal (1) a certifi- 
 ! cate signed by a priest or minister, certifying 
 that his character and past life have been moral 
 ' and blameless, (2) a certificate from a physician 
 ; attesting his freedom from chronic complaints 
 and the soundness of his health and constitution, 
 (3) a certificate of his having been vaccinated 
 within two years, (4) a certificate of his baptism 
 (if a Christian), and (5) a certificate, signed by 
 two or more teachers, of his previous industrious 
 and moral habits and sufficient ability for the 
 | teacher's profession. The subjects in which the 
 candidates are examined are Biblical history, 
 the history of Christianity, Luther's catechism, 
 writing, reading, arithmetic (mental and written), 
 grammar, geography, German history, natural 
 history, the first principles of physics, singing, 
 and the \ iolin. When the examination is fin- 
 ished, a list of the candidates is made out in the 
 older of their standing: and from this, as many 
 of the highest are elected students of the semi- 
 nary as will fill the vacancies of that year, 
 occasioned by the departure of those who have 
 left to take charge of village schools. The course 
 of instruction is twofold. — intellectual and in- 
 dustrial. The intellectual course consists in a 
 review of. and a continuation in, the sub] 
 above mentioned, to which are added botany, 
 
 pedagogy, drawing, Latin and French, and very 
 often English also. A knowledge of these lan- 
 guages is not required for a teacher's diploma; 
 lull, without a thorough familiarity with the 
 other subjects of study, he cannot be licensed to 
 teach. The industrial training COnsistsof the per- 
 formance of all the ordinary household work. — 
 preparing the meals, taking care of the sleeping 
 apartments, pruning the fruit-trees and culti- 
 vating, in the lands always attached to the Semi- 
 naries, the vegetables necessary for the use of the 
 household. At the end of the third year, the 
 young men are examined, and marked 1 . 'J. or .'!. 
 or are rejected. Those marked 1 are entitled 
 to teach as principals; and those marked L" or 
 .'{ are only permitted to act in the capacity of 
 assistants. 
 
 The increase in the number of teachers' semi- 
 naries in Europe, during the past twenty-five 
 years, has been very marked. The number report- 
 ed, in L875, in the different European countries. 
 British India, and the British Colonies, was as 
 follows : 
 
 Austria proper <U 
 
 Hungary 63 
 
 Prussia loi 
 
 ( ither German Btates. . . 73 
 
 France so 
 
 Italy II"- 
 
 Russia 4") 
 
 Finland 3 
 
 Bwi den 1(> 
 
 Norway 7 
 
 ad 41 
 
 Bcotland 6 
 
 Ireland 1 
 
 Denmark 5 
 
 Netherlands 5 
 
 Luxemburg 1 
 
 mm 33 
 
 Spain 31 
 
 Portugal 6 
 
 Gr< < ■•■<■ 1 
 
 Roumanja 8 
 
 Serrla 1 
 
 Switzerland 3'2 
 
 British Colonies 13 
 
 British India UU 
 
 Total 855- 
 
 Normal Schools in the United States. — Massa- 
 chusetts was the first state of the American 
 
 Union to introduce the system of teachers' semi- 
 
TEACHERS' SEMINARIES 
 
 809 
 
 naries, or normal schools. The people of New 
 England became familiar with the Prussian sys- 
 tem through the exertions of the Rev. Charles 
 Brooks who had obtained his knowledge of it 
 from Dr. .Julius, whose acquaintance lie had ac- 
 cidentally formed while crossing the Atlantic 
 Ocean. Dr. Julius had been sent to the United 
 States by the Prussian government to study pris- 
 on discipline; and it was while on a voyage to 
 Europe that he explained to Mr. Brooks the 
 method of training teachers for the country 
 schools. Mr. Brooks was so impressed and inter- 
 ested that he resolved to investigate for himself 
 the Prussian system of teachers' seminaries. This 
 he did with great care and attention to all the 
 details. After his return to the United States, 
 he devoted three years to the diffusion of his 
 ideas concerning the, necessity and importance 
 of institutions for the education and training of 
 teachers. He enlisted in the cause a considerable 
 number of able men, among whom were John 
 Quincy Adams and Daniel Webster. Finally, 
 the legislature of Massachusetts was prevailed 
 upon to establish a state board of education, 
 with Horace Mann as its secretary, and to make 
 an appropriation to institute two state normal 
 schools. Mr. Mann became the ardent advocate 
 of teachers' seminaries, institutes, and all other 
 means of educating and training teachers for their 
 work. Early in the -present century, De Witt 
 Clinton recommended the establishment of teach- 
 ers' seminaries in the state of New York. The 
 Public School Society of the city of New York 
 founded, in 1834, a Saturday Normal School for 
 teachers ; but this was only a high school in 
 which were taught the elementary branches of 
 an English education. The first public normal 
 school established in the United States was the 
 one opened at Lexington (afterwards removed 
 to Framingham, Mass.), July 3., 1839, under the 
 principalship of Cyrus Peirce (q. v.); although S. 
 R. Hall (q. v.) had opened a teachers' seminary of 
 a private character as early as 1823. From that 
 time till 1850, only seven schools were founded : 
 three in Massachusetts, and one each in New 
 York, Maine, Ohio, and Illinois. During the next- 
 decade, from 1850 to 1860, but twelve normal 
 schools were established, three in Ohio, two in 
 Massachusetts, two in Illinois, and one each in 
 Connecticut, Michigan, Missouri, New Jersey, 
 and Pennsylvania. Between 1860 and 1870, 
 fifty-two schools for teachers were established ; 
 and, from 1870 to the close of 1875, sixty-six 
 normal schools were founded. Very many of 
 these schools have connected with them model 
 schools, or schools of practice, sometimes called 
 training schools, in which the students of the 
 normal school proper are afforded an oppor- 
 tunity, under the supervision and direction of 
 experienced teachers, of putting in practice, 
 to some extent, the pedagogic principles and 
 rules which they have acquired theoretically, so 
 as to be prepared for actual work on emerging 
 as graduates from the normal school. Such schools 
 constitute a part of the means of professional 
 training, as indispensable to the teacher as the 
 
 hospital and clinique to the young and inexperi- 
 enced physician. The following table exhibits 
 the statistics of normal schools in the United 
 States for 1876. 
 
 NAME 
 
 tn <h 
 
 Alabama 
 
 Arkansas 
 
 California 
 
 Connecticut 
 
 Delaware 
 
 Georgia 
 
 Illinois 
 
 Indiana 
 
 Iowa 
 
 Kansas 
 
 Kentucky 
 
 Louisiana 
 
 Maine 
 
 Maryland 
 
 Massachusetts 
 
 Michigan 
 
 Minnesota 
 
 Mississippi 
 
 Missouri 
 
 Nebraska 
 
 New Hampshire 
 
 New Jersey 
 
 New York 
 
 North Carolina 
 
 Ohio 
 
 Oregon 
 
 Pennsylvania 
 
 Rhode Island 
 
 South Carolina 
 
 Tennessee 
 
 Vermont 
 
 Virginia 
 
 West Virginia 
 
 Wisconsin 
 
 District of Columbia. 
 
 Utah Territory 
 
 Total 
 
 V '/I 
 
 
 too 
 
 1 °"S 
 
 Z 8 
 
 
 4 
 
 307 
 
 2 
 
 21G 
 
 1 
 
 300 
 
 1 
 
 175 
 
 2 
 
 240 
 
 2 
 
 334 
 
 8 
 
 1,379 
 
 5 
 
 1,771 
 
 3 
 
 230 
 
 3 
 
 994 
 
 3 
 
 140 
 
 4 
 
 99 
 
 4 
 
 548 
 
 3 
 
 478 
 
 7 
 
 1,265 
 
 1 
 
 411 
 
 3 
 
 782 
 
 2 
 
 351 
 
 8 
 
 1,871 
 
 1 
 
 282 
 
 1 
 
 155 
 
 1 
 
 269 
 
 9 
 
 4,158 
 
 4 
 
 397 
 
 12 
 
 3,248 
 
 1 
 
 4 
 
 12 
 
 4,017 
 
 1 
 
 159 
 
 2 
 
 475 
 
 7 
 
 1,056 
 
 3 
 
 482 
 
 2 
 
 351 
 
 6 
 
 734 
 
 
 
 1,027 
 
 3 
 
 164 
 
 1 
 
 137 
 
 76 
 
 29,095 
 
 -o c 2 
 
 C-- o 
 
 - C *H 
 
 18 
 
 .") 
 
 10 
 
 8 
 19 
 
 3 
 56 
 24 
 17 
 20 
 13 
 
 6 
 19 
 21 
 70 
 13 
 2< 
 
 9 
 72 
 
 7 
 
 9* 
 
 10 
 
 158 
 
 15 
 
 S3 
 
 125 
 19 
 14 
 35 
 22 
 23 
 35 
 53 
 10 
 1 
 
 1,046 
 
 most 
 
 Teachers' seminaries have exercised the 
 beneficial influence in the communities in which 
 they exist. The moral effect of the instruction 
 of trained and educated teachers on the rising 
 generation is incalculable. The gain in time, 
 the better and simpler methods of teaching, the 
 knowledge of the children's physical, mental, and 
 moral nature, the good order, thorough organiza- 
 tion, and general spirit of harmony and humanity 
 which are the results of a thorough study of the 
 theory and practice of teaching, combine to con- 
 stitute the teachers' seminary one of the most 
 useful and economic institutions of modern civil- 
 ization. The teachers' seminaries of Prussia 
 have filled the country schools of that nation 
 with school-masters whose education, talents, and 
 attainments have caused them, in the words of 
 an enlightened English traveler, "to be respected 
 by the whole community." Prior to the estab- 
 lishment of such seminaries, these countrj 
 schools were taught by ''ignorant tailors, shoe, 
 makers, common soldiers, and old women." To 
 a great extent, the normal schools of the United 
 States have exercised a similar influence in fill- 
 ing teachers' positions with a superior class of 
 men and women. Although the normal schools 
 of the United States cannot yet furnish one- 
 tenth of the number of teachers required for 
 
810 
 
 TEACHERS' SEMINARIES 
 
 the common schools, they exercise a powerful, 
 though indirect, influence in creating a demand for 
 better teachers, and in imparting and diffusing 
 a knowledge of better methods of instruction. 
 Intelligent statesmen in Europe and America 
 have used their best efforts to establish teachers' 
 seminaries, wherever the state has undertaken the 
 education of the masses at public expense, as a 
 measure of wisdom and economy. Experience 
 has demonstrated the fact that, owing to the 
 material on which the teacher operates — the 
 childish mind — the profession of teaching dif- 
 fers from other professions, and cannot fall under 
 the law of supply and demand, but requires the 
 special interposition of private corporations or 
 of government itself. 
 
 The following table shows the location etc. of 
 the normal schools in the United States. 
 
 Normal Schools in the United States. 
 
 NAME 
 
 JN. C, Normal College; N. D. 
 N. 8., Normal School; T. S., 
 
 Normal Department; 
 
 Training School.] 
 
 X \mi: 
 
 Location 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 7 
 
 8 
 
 9 
 
 10 
 
 11 
 
 12 
 
 13 
 
 14 
 
 10 
 
 1G 
 
 17 
 
 1 
 
 19 
 
 20 
 21 
 22 
 
 2:3 
 21 
 
 as 
 
 26 
 
 27 
 
 28 
 29 
 30 
 31 
 82 
 33 
 
 35 
 3G 
 37 
 38 
 39 
 40 
 41 
 -I? 
 43 
 44 
 46 
 46 
 47 
 •is 
 49 
 
 r,i 
 
 fii 
 
 aal School 
 
 Rust Normal Institute... 
 Lincoln Ni ! iv 
 
 N. 1)., Talladega Colli 
 
 N. D., Arkansas Ind. Univ. 
 
 Pine Bluff N< >rmal Inst.. . 
 
 State X irmal School 
 
 State Norma] School 
 
 N. D. of Delaware College 
 Del. State Normal Univ... 
 
 N. D. of Atlanta Univ 
 
 Haven Normal School 
 
 Fvan.I.ut h. Normal Scl 1 
 
 Southern 111. Normal Univ. 
 
 Chicago Normal School. . . 
 N. D. of Bock IUver Univ. 
 Cook Co. Normal School. . 
 N.W. German-EnglishN.8. 
 State Normal University. . 
 Peoria Co. Normal School. 
 Normal and Class. School. 
 
 N.W. Normal School 
 
 La Grange Co. Nor. School 
 Ind. State Normal School. 
 N. Ind. Normal School audi 
 
 Business Institute . . . . 
 K. Iowa Normal School. . .1 
 i hair of Didactic, lmva 
 
 State University i 
 
 Nor. Inst. Whittier Coll. 
 
 Kan. State '\ i nial School 
 
 forma] School 
 
 mworth St. N. s 
 
 N. D. of Berea College 
 
 HCky Normal School. 
 
 I die Training School 
 Minden High PublicSohoo] 
 N. D., New i ni. ans Univ.. 
 N. D., Straight University 
 
 Peabody .Normal Sem 
 
 n State N. S 
 
 State Normal School 
 
 N. i >., Bfain < i uti al Inst. . 
 N. D., Oak Grove Seminary 
 Bait. N.S.forCol.Teachera 
 
 M. State Normal School . . 
 
 st. i latherine'a v ir. [net. 
 
 ii Normal School . . . 
 Normal Art School. 
 
 statu Normal School 
 
 Eramingham State V s. . . 
 
 Normal School 
 
 1.1 Stato N. S 
 
 State Normal School 
 
 Michigan State N. 8 
 
 Elon nee, Ala 
 
 Huntsville, Ala 
 
 Marion, Ala , 
 
 Talladega, Ala 
 
 Faj i'tt. \ ille, Ark.. , 
 
 Pine Bluff, Ark 
 
 sau Job . t'al , 
 
 New Britain, Conn. 
 
 Newark, Del , 
 
 Wilmington, Del 
 
 Atlanta, Ga 
 
 Waynesboro, Ga... 
 
 Addison, 111 
 
 Carbondale, 111 
 
 ( Ihicago, 111 
 
 Dixon, 111 
 
 Englewood, 111 
 
 Galena. Ill 
 
 Normal, 111 , 
 
 Peoria, 111 , 
 
 Goshen, Ind , 
 
 Rentland, Ind 
 
 La Grange, Ind. 
 
 Terre Haute, Ind.. . 
 Valparaiso, Ind 
 
 < ii-anih lew, Iowa. 
 Iowa City, Iowa. . . 
 
 1873 
 L866 
 1870 
 1870 
 1872 
 L870 
 L862 
 1850 
 1878 
 L866 
 1869 
 1868 
 1847 
 1874 
 L856 
 in;:. 
 
 1SG7 
 1868 
 1 857 
 1868 
 1873 
 1874 
 1875 
 1870 
 1873 
 
 1874 
 1872 
 
 Salem. Iowa 1868 
 
 ( loncordia, Kan 1874 
 
 Emporia, Kan 1864 
 
 Leavenworth, Kan.... 1870 
 
 Berea, Kv 1866 
 
 Carlisle, Ky ' s 7.i 
 
 1871 
 
 is;:; 
 
 1868 
 L867 
 
 Louisville, Ky 
 
 Minden, La 
 
 New Orl( ans, La 
 Now Orleans, Da. 
 Now Orleans, Da. 
 
 Castillo. Me 
 
 ETarmington, Ale 1864 
 
 Pittsneld, Me 1872 
 
 Vassalboro, Ale 1846 
 
 Baltimore, Aid 1866 
 
 Baltimore, Md 1866 
 
 Baltimore, Md 187B 
 
 Cost. .n. Alass L852 
 
 Host. .ii, Alass 1^73 
 
 t ater, BCass, . . L840 
 
 l'i '.-mi i 1 1 . ■ I i:in i. Bfass, . . 1839 
 
 Salem, Alass 1854 
 
 Westneld, Alass 1889 
 
 Worcester, Mass i , i 
 
 N psilanti, Mich L852 
 
 54 State N. S. at Mankato Alankato, Minn 1868 
 
 56 state N. s. at St. Cloud. . . St. cloud, Alum 1868 
 
 56 First State Normal School Winona. Aliun 1864 
 
 57 Mississippi State N.S Holly Springs, Aliss... 1870 
 
 58 Tougaloo I'n. & state N.s.Tougaloo, Miss Is7l 
 
 69 Normal Institute Bolivar, Ah. 1868 
 
 t'.u s. K. Missouri state N. S. Cape Girardeau, Mo... 1873 
 
 61 N. C, I'niv of Missouri. . Columbia, AIo 1863 
 
 62|Fruitland Normal Inst... Jackson, Mo 1864 
 
 63 N. D., Lincoln Institute. . Jefferson Citv, Mo.. . . 1866 
 
 t.4 X. Alissouri State X. S. . . . Kirksville, Mo 1867 
 
 65 Normal School St. Louis, Mo 1957 
 
 instate n s. District No. 2. Warrensburg, Mo 1871 
 
 07 Nebraska State N. S Peru. Neb... 1867 
 
 68 X. H. State Normal School Plymouth, N. H 1870 
 
 69 State Normal School Trenton, N.J 1855 
 
 70N.Y. state Normal School Albany, N. V 1844 
 
 71 State Normal School Brockport, N. V 1867 
 
 7J State Normal School Buffalo, N. Y 1871 
 
 73 State Normal and T. S ... Cortland. N. Y 1869 
 
 74State Normal and T. S.... Fredonia, X. Y 1S66 
 
 75 State Normal and X. S.. . . Geneseo, N. Y 1871 
 
 76 Female Normal College.. . New York. X. Y 1870 
 
 77 Oswego State Nor. ami T.s. Oswego, N. Y 1861 
 
 7* State Normal ami T. S. . . . Pots.lam. X Y 1869 
 
 70 Ray's Normal Institute.. Kernersville. N. ('.. . . L873 
 so Kliendale Teachers' Inst.LitUe River, N.0 1872 
 
 81 shaw University Raleigh, N. C 1865 
 
 82 I .1st. .ii Normal School.... Wilmington, N. C 1872 
 
 83 North western Ohio N. S.. Ada, Ohio 1871 
 
 84 Ohio. N.S.& Business Inst. Bloomingburgh, Ohio 
 
 85 Cincinnati Normal SchooLCincinnati, Ohio 1808 
 
 86Hopedale Normal School. Hopedale, Ohio 
 
 87 National Normal School. . Lebanon. Ohio 
 
 88 Western Reserve N. S Alilan. Ohio 1852 
 
 89 N. D. Mt. Union College.. Mt. Union, Ohio 1846 
 
 Oinirwell Normal Inst itute. Orwell. Ohio 1865 
 
 '.'i Southern Ohio N. s Pleasantville, Ohio... L876 
 
 92 Republic Normal School. . Republic, Ohio is74 
 
 o-ohio Centra] N. s Worthington, Ohio... 1871 
 
 oi n. s. of will., rforce Univ. Xenia, Ohio 1872 
 
 96 N. ( onrse in Pacific Univ. Forest Grove, Oreg.. . 1871 
 96| Allegheny Normal Inst... Allegheny City, Pa 1874 
 
 97 Bloomsburg state N.S... Bloomsbiirg Pa I860 
 
 98 Northwestern State X. S.. Edenboro', Pa lsr.l 
 
 99 State Normal School Indiana, Pa 1875 
 
 ion Keystone State N.S Kut/towu, Pa 1866 
 
 lOljCentral X. S. Association. Lock Haven, Pa 1870 
 
 L02 state Normal School .Mansfield, Pa 1862 
 
 L03 Southwestern N. C Sagamore, Pa 1865 
 
 104 state Normal School Millersville, Pa 1859 
 
 105 Snyder Co. Normal Inst.. Selin's (i rove. Pa 1872 
 
 106 Cn'mb. Valley State N. S... Shippensburgh, Pa... 1873 
 
 107 Westchester State N.S... Westchester. Pa 1871 
 
 I os Rhode Island N. S Providence, R. 1 1871 
 
 lwo Avery Normal Institute.. Charleston, 8. C 1866 
 
 II" state Normal Sel 1 Columbia, S. C 1874 
 
 111 Nor. or T. S. tor l'reedmeii Knoxville, Tenn 
 
 112 Freedmen's Normal Inst. Mary-wile, Tenn 1873 
 
 113 New Providence Institute 
 
 tfaryville College Maryville, Tenn 1868 
 
 114 Le Moyne Normal school. Memphis, Tenn 1871 
 
 116 N. D. of Pisa University. Nashville, Tenn 1866 
 
 1 16 N. i>. Centra] Tenn. Coll.. Nashville, Tenn 1866 
 
 1 17 state Normal University. Nashville, Tenn 1876 
 
 I188tate Normal School..... Castleton, VI 1867 
 
 no Johnson Normal School.. Johnson, vt isijt 
 
 120State Normal School Randolph, Vt 1866 
 
 121 1 lain]. t..n Normal and Agri 
 
 cultural Institute Hampton. Va 1872 
 
 122 Richmond Normal School Richmond. Ya 1m',7 
 
 123 Fairnioiint State N. S I'airmount. W. Va 1868 
 
 124 Glenville State N s Glenville, W. Vt 1876 
 
 126 Storer Normal School..., Harper's Perry, W.Va, 1868 
 
 126 Marshal] Coll. state N.s.. Huntington, w. Va... 1868 
 
 127 shepherd College Shepherdetown.W.Va. 1878 
 
 1870 
 
 1871 
 
 i so; 
 
 1ST5 
 1870 
 1868 
 
 1867 
 1873 
 
 1S75 
 
 128 W.st Libert} Stat.- N.S... West Liberty. W. Va 
 1'j; 1 State Normal School Oshkosh. Wis 
 
 130 Wisconsin State n 9 Platteville, Wis 
 
 131 River Palls Normal School River lulls. Wis 
 
 132 Holj Camih Teach. Sem st. Francis, Wis 
 
 13:; state Normal School W Int. water. Wis 
 
 134 Kit a N.S Washington, D. C 
 
 [36 n n. , ii.war.l University i Washington, D. C 
 
 136 Washington Nor. School., Washington, D. C. 
 
 157 St.i .. i . i - Normal School St. George, I'tah 
 
TECHNICAL EDUCATION 
 
 811 
 
 TECHNICAL EDUCATION has for its 
 object the improvement of the various arts ami 
 trades by imparting the requisite scientific 
 knowledge and practical skill for their successful 
 prosecution. Two great classes of tradesto which 
 it may be applied, may be noticed; (1) work- 
 ing trades (including chemical trades, as dyeing, 
 tanning, etc.; mechanical trades, as watch-making, 
 carpentry, etc.; artistic trades, as of the decorator, 
 jeweler, engraver, etc.), and (2) commercial trades, 
 as of the iron-monger and retailer of glass, ce- 
 ramic wares, etc. The higher branches, — those in 
 which the value of the product consists rather 
 in the labor and skill bestowed than in the ma- 
 terial used, and those involving the exercise of 
 taste, have been naturally found to exhibit most 
 improvement under a proper system of instruc- 
 tion, and, in this aspect, may be said to need 
 most a special training. The International Ex- 
 hibition in London, in 1851, which revealed the 
 superiority of the Continental nations in all 
 that relates to the application of art and beauty 
 to manufactures, gave a special impulse to tech- 
 nical education. This superiority was traced 
 directly to the facilities for special instruction 
 afforded to manufacturers, artisans, and others, 
 especially in France, Germany, and Switzerland, 
 (the need of which has been increasingly felt 
 with the progress of modern inventions), the ad- 
 vance of science, and the decay, in England, of the 
 system of apprenticeship. A theoretical knowl- 
 edge of principles, in addition to mere manual 
 dexterity and empirical insight, has become 
 more than ever necessary. Among the branches 
 generally requisite, are drawing, geometry, and 
 chemistry. Experience has proved that, to be 
 in the highest degree efficient, technical educa- 
 tion must begin in the primary school, and be 
 based on general literary culture. In continental 
 Europe, technical schools are generally supported 
 by the government, either local or general. The 
 means of instruction include lectures, evening 
 schools and Sunday-schools, museums, etc. In 
 Great Britain, mechanics' institutes are a prom- 
 inent feature. These generally have a library, a 
 reading-room, and evening classes in various 
 branches. In Germany, there are, among inferior 
 institutions, handicraft schools, further-improve- 
 ment schools, etc., in which, sometimes, the com- 
 mon-school branches are taught to apprentices 
 and journeymen, and, sometimes, instruction is 
 given in geometry, drawing, and other special 
 branches, as a qualification for the practice of the 
 lower trades. The higher institutions impart tech- 
 nical instruction calculated to aid in the pursuit 
 of the higher trades. They generally presuppose 
 such a training as is given, for instance, in the 
 higher real schools. Some are connected with the 
 real schools as their higher classes ; some are 
 separate institutions, with three or four classes or 
 courses, either similar to gymnasia, or between 
 these and the u ni versifies ; others are, in form, 
 technical universities on the plan of the Poly- 
 technic School of Paris. The branches taught 
 are mathematics, mechanics, physics, chemistry, 
 natural history, technology, drawing, modeling. 
 
 etc. There are many special schools for appren- 
 tices on the Continent (giving instruction to 
 weavers, watch-makers, machinists, etc. according 
 to the needs of the locality], in which labor per- 
 formed under the direction of experienced work- 
 men occupies a large part of the time, while the 
 rest is devoted to studies immediately bear- 
 ing on the art or industry taught. In West 
 
 Flanders, Belgium, there are communal schools 
 for apprentice weavers, in which primary and 
 religious instruction is joined with manual labor. 
 In the power-loom weaving school of Mulhouse, 
 Alsace, instruction is given of a grade to prepare 
 superintendents of factories. The most impor- 
 tant agency in the direction of technical educa- 
 tion in Great Britain is found in the numerous 
 art schools that have sprung up in various parts 
 of the kingdom, at the head of which are those 
 of the South Kensington Museum. These have 
 been instrumental in diffusing a knowledge of 
 industrial drawing, and their effects have been 
 widely felt. The establishment of a central 
 technical university (with subordinate colleges, 
 etc., in regular gradation) has been advocated. 
 In the United States, but little has been done to- 
 ward technical education. There are mechanics' 
 associations in various cities, which afford, to a 
 greater or less extent, means for the general or 
 technical improvement of the working classes, and 
 numerous business colleges, in which a knowl- 
 edge of book-keeping and other business opera- 
 tions is imparted. Industrial training is given 
 in Girard College. Philadelphia. The Worcester 
 County Free Institute of Industrial Science (see 
 Science, Schools of) may be classed as a tech- 
 nical school. Industrial art is taught in the 
 schools of the Cooper Union (New York), in 
 the Philadelphia School of Design for Women, 
 and in various scientific schools. In 1870, the 
 state of Massachusetts provided by law that 
 " Any city or town may, and every city and 
 town having more than ten thousand inhabitants 
 shall, annually make provision for giving free 
 instruction in industrial or mechanical drawing 
 to persons over fifteen years of age, either in 
 day- or evening-schools, under the direction of 
 the school-committee." Under this act, consider- 
 able progress has been made. A similar law was 
 enacted in the state of New York in 1875. 
 Among European institutions, the following may 
 be mentioned: in Austria-Hungary, the Imperial 
 Royal Commercial and Nautical Academy, in 
 Triest, the Commercial High School, in Vienna, 
 the commercial academies in Prague, Gratz, and 
 Buda-Pesth, the Imperial Royal Technical In- 
 stitute, in Cracow, the School of Industrial Arts 
 and the School for Architects and Machinists, in 
 Vienna, the schools for artisans in Gratz, Prague, 
 Briinn, Bielitz, Czernowitz, and Kaschau, the 
 Higher Weaving School, in Briinn, and numer- 
 ous inferior schools, special and general, for arti- 
 sans, etc.; in Germany, the higher commercial 
 institutions in Berlin, Breslau, Dantzic, Coblentz, 
 Frankfort, Hanover, Augsburg, Leipsic, Dres- 
 den, ( Jhemnitz, < Jera, Bostock, Brunswick, Ham- 
 burg, and Liibeck, the technical schools in Fran- 
 
812 
 
 TEMPER 
 
 TENNESSEE 
 
 kenberg and Mittweida, the 30 royal and pro- 
 vincial schools of trades in Prussia, the superior 
 school for artisans in Chemnitz, the commercial 
 
 and industrial art schools in Munich and Nurem- 
 berg, the art-industry school in Offenbach, the 
 8 art and architectural schools in Prussia, the 
 14 architectural schools in the other states, 
 the 8 superior weaving schools, the royal school 
 of pattern drawing in Berlin, the school of 
 modeling and ornamental and pattern drawing 
 in Dresden, the 21 navigation schools, and the 
 numerous inferior schools of commerce and 
 trades; in France, the 12 professional schools 
 (ecoles professionneUes), the schools of arts and 
 trades (ecoles des mis et metiers) at Aix, Angers, 
 and Chalons-sur-Marne.the courses of instruction 
 in the application of the sciences to industry, and 
 in drawing, in various cities, the watch-making 
 schools at Oluses and Besancon, the school of 
 tobacco-manufacture and the superior commer- 
 cial school in Paris, numerous inferior commer- 
 cial schools, and the 42 hydro-graphic schools 
 (for the instruction of seamen for the mercantile 
 marine) ; in Italy, the 74 technical or trades in- 
 stitutes (istituti teanici, islituti industrials epro- 
 fessionali) of the second grade, the royal superior 
 commercial school of Venice, the 2.'5 nautical in- 
 stitutes and schools, and the inferior schools of 
 special trades : in the Netherlands, the 42 inter- 
 mediate schools lor the working classes, the 30 
 drawing and handicraft schools, the school of 
 
 trade and industry in Amsterdam, the school 
 for architects at Bois-le-Duc, and the 9 aaviga- 
 tion schools : in Belgium, the superior commer- 
 cial institute in Antwerp, the 26 industrial 
 
 schools (including the provincial school of trade, 
 industry, and mining at Monsi. and the naviga- 
 tion schools in Antwerp and ( tatend ; in Switzer- 
 land, the technical institute in Winterthur. the 
 
 watch-making school in Geneva, and the com- 
 mercial schools in various places. According to 
 the regulation of March 21., 1870, the Prussian 
 schools of trades thereafter organized, consist 
 of three classes (each with a course of one 
 year), two lower and one higher : the last is the 
 special class, and embraces four departments 
 (one for the instruction of candidates tor higher 
 technical institutions, one of architecture, one 
 for mechanical trades, and one for chemical 
 trades). The complete technical institutes in 
 Italy have four departments Iphysico-mathcinat- 
 
 ical, agricultural, commercial, and book-keep- 
 ing); a few have a fifth department, the indus- 
 trial. Those at Kabriano and Tcrni are schools 
 
 of i banics and construction. The institute at 
 
 Girgenti has a department for the sulphur in- 
 dustry.— See Walter Smith. Art Education, 
 Scholastic <>i<<l l>><hi*irh/i (Boston, L872); Thom- 
 ib Twining, Technical Training (London, L874); 
 and Charles B. Stetson, Technical Edua ///>,,>. 
 (Boston, L876). 
 
 TEMPER, the disposition or constitution of 
 the mind, in relation particularly to the affec- 
 tions and the passions. Good temper implies a 
 serenity of mind, and a natural or habitual 
 
 cheerfulness, which is not easily disturbed. It 
 
 is opposed to peevishness and sullenness. which 
 seem to be characteristic of certain minds. As 
 good temper predisposes to docility, so ill-temper 
 is directly antagonistic to it ; hence, the educator 
 must cultivate the former in the mind of his 
 pupil, and strive to eradicate the latter. In 
 dealing with this fault, the utmost patience is 
 requisite ; since any exhibition of ill temper on 
 the part of the educator will, from the force of 
 example, as well as from the additional irritation 
 caused by it. aggravate the difficulty, and foster 
 the natural failing in the pupil's mind into a 
 confirmed vice. Allowance must always be 
 made for the natural peculiarities of children ; 
 since these cannot be immediately or forcibly re- 
 pressed, but must, by careftd training, be brought 
 under self-control, which is one of the earliest 
 lessons to be taught, but one of the last objects 
 attained in education. Discouragement may 
 sometimes take the form of ill temper ; and. in 
 such a case, the teacher must make concessions, 
 and give special attention to remove the feeling 
 and restore confidence. A violent, irascible, or 
 stubborn temper in the pupil is to be met with 
 calmness and firmness on the part of the teaehi r; 
 and very often the marked contrast between his 
 manner and that of the pupil will Serve to recall 
 the latter to himself, and excite in his mind a 
 feeling of shame at his haste or violence. Nothing 
 will tend so strongly as this to cure the vice, 
 since it really leads the child to punish himself 
 tor his Fault. Ill temper that takes the form of 
 obstinacy, is the most difficult to deal with ; and 
 it is this that- Locke reserves as the special and 
 only ease lor the use of the rod. A resort to 
 this should not. however, be hastily made, and 
 will scarcely ever be needed, if the circumstance s 
 
 admit of persistent discipline of another kind by 
 the educator. In school, unfortunately, this is 
 not always the case, the teacher being obliged 
 
 promptly to choose between the immediate con- 
 quest of his stubborn pupil, or the disorganiza- 
 tion of his school. (See CORPORAL PUNISHMENT.) 
 TENNESSEE, one of the southern states 
 of the American Onion, admitted in L796. Its 
 area, according to the federal census, is 45,600 
 
 square miles ; and its population, in L870, was 
 1 ,258,520, of whom 936,1 1 !> were whites. :;•_'•_>.:{.•{ 1 . 
 colored persons, and 70, Indians. 
 
 Educational History. — The first incorporated 
 
 seminary of learning in the valley of the Missis- 
 sippi was founded at Nashville, in L785. In L806, 
 this was raised to the rank and title of Cumber- 
 land College, and. in L826, became the University 
 of Nashville. In L794, Blount College, sA Knox- 
 \ille, was incorporated; and. immediately after- 
 ward. Greene College. In L795, Washington 
 College was founded. In L806, an act of Con- 
 gress provided that the state should appropriate 
 L 00,000 acres for the use of two colleges to be 
 established, one in east, and one in we.-t Tennes- 
 see; 100,000 acres for academies, and 640 acres 
 
 in each tract 6 miles s< place, when exist ing claims 
 would permit it. for the use of schools. The first, 
 at t em | it to create a school fund was made in I 823, 
 win ii the vacant lands north and east of the 
 
TENNESSEE 
 
 813 
 
 congressional reservation line were sold, and the 
 money was paid into the Bank of Tennessee, to 
 "remain and constitute a perpetual and exclusive 
 fund for the establishment and promotion of 
 common schools in each and every county in the 
 state." The taxes on these lands were, also, to 
 form a part of this perpetual fund. Considerable 
 additions were made to the school fund by the 
 act of 1827. In 1835, the revised constitution 
 declared it to be the duty of the state to preserve 
 the school fund inviolate, and to "cherish litera- 
 ture and science; knowledge, learning, and virtue 
 being essential to the preservation of republican 
 institutions." By the acts of 1837 and 1838, 
 and those of subsequent years, the school fund 
 was made a part of the capital of the Bank of 
 Tennessee; and $18,000 of the dividends was 
 annually set apart for the use of academies, and 
 $100,000 for the support of common schools, 
 the faith of the state being pledged for such an- 
 nual appropriations. An act, passed in 1844: and 
 amended in 1846, directed that certain school 
 lands in the state should be sold, and the proceeds 
 paid into the Bank of Tennessee. The principal 
 was to be invested by the bank in the bonds of 
 the state, if obtainable at par value or less, 
 the interest paid by the bank or realized upon 
 the investment, to be annually paid over to the 
 districts or townships to which the lands belonged, 
 according to the amount of deposits belonging to 
 each. In 1858, the amount of the school fund 
 to be made a part of the capital of the Bank of 
 Tennessee, was limited to $1,500,000 ; while the 
 fund was increased by the sale of lands for taxes, 
 escheated lands, etc. The annual distribution, 
 however, of the interest of this fund, which 
 amounted to about $90,000, was not productive 
 of much good, owing to the want of a proper 
 school system, with competent officers to super- 
 intend it. In 1863, according to the last state- 
 ment of the Bank of Tennessee, this fund con- 
 sisted of $663,752.65 in gold and silver. This, 
 amount, "put up in kegs and boxes, and sealed", 
 was removed from the state during that year, 
 and nearly all of it was deposited in the different 
 banks of Augusta, Ga. ; and the committee ap- 
 pointed by the legislature to investigate the re- 
 moval of the fund, reported that $50,000 of it 
 must be looked upon as lost. It was further 
 shown that, by the failure of the Tennessee 
 National Bank, $200,000 of the $612,250 in IT. 
 S. 7-30 bonds, deposited as a part of the school 
 fund, in 1866, was also lost. — The first attempt 
 toward a well-considered public-school system 
 was made in 1867 ; but, owing to the disturbed 
 political condition of the state, it did not prove 
 acceptable to the people. Under the law of 1867, 
 four kinds of school officers were created, — 
 school-fund commissioners, a state superintend- 
 ent, county superintendents, and district directors. 
 Teachers were examined and paid by the county 
 superintendent, on the order of the district clerk. 
 Separate free schools were maintained for white 
 and colored persons between the ages of 6 and 20 
 years, the money for their maintenance (consist- 
 ing of a yearly tax and the interest of the per- 
 
 manent fund) being paid by the state treasurer to 
 the county superintendents. Whatever additional 
 money was needed was to be raised by district 
 taxes, or in any way which did not interfere 
 with free tuition, prevention of which constituted 
 a bar to the state appropriation. Many obstacles 
 existed to the carrying out of the provisions of 
 this law, chief among which were the want of a 
 school census, the lack of reports of previous 
 systems, the poverty of the people, the almost 
 utter want of trained teachers, and the great 
 destruction of school property caused by the war. 
 The legislature, accordingly, in 1869 — 70, re- 
 pealed the act of 1867 ; and the state returned 
 to the "county system", by which each county 
 was empowered to establish and maintain schools 
 or not, according to its pleasure. The school 
 fund, at that time, exclusive of interest, amount- 
 ed to $1,887,154.36, of which $387,154.36 was 
 derived from the sale of school lands. By an 
 act subsequent to that passed by the legislature 
 of 1869 — 70, the state treasurer was made state 
 superintendent, ex officio; but as no special duties 
 were assigned to him, and as he had no authority, 
 the office was of little practical value. Aided, 
 however, by the trustees of the Peabody fund, 
 he engaged an assistant, who, in 1872, endeav- 
 ored to awaken public interest on the subject of 
 education. His report showed that, while in some 
 counties considerable attention was given to the 
 schools, not one-fifth of the educable children of 
 the state had any facilities for acquiring even an 
 elementary education. Inl873,it was directed that 
 the school fund, amounting to $2,512,500, with 
 the unpaid interest thereon to January 1., 1873, 
 the whole estimated to amount to $3,269,606, 
 should be' funded into one bond, bearing 6 per 
 cent interest payable semi-annually by the state 
 treasurer. At the same time, a new school law 
 was passed, which has continued in force to the 
 present time. — The slate superintendents have 
 been, William Morrow, until 1873 ; John M. 
 Fleming, from 1873 to 1875; and Leon Trous- 
 dale, now in office, appointed in 1875. 
 
 School System. — By an act of the legislature 
 approved March 23., 1875, the governor is 
 directed "to appoint a state board of education 
 to consist of six members, two of whom shall be 
 appointed for six years, two for four years, and 
 two for two years ; and after the expiration of 
 their first terms of office, their successors shall 
 be appointed for six years. The governor of the 
 state shall be, ex officio, a member, and president 
 of said board." It shall be the duty of the board 
 to make a report to the assembly of the condi- 
 tion of the schools. The principal school officer 
 is the state superintendent of public instruction, 
 who is appointed by the governor for two years. 
 He is required to discharge all the duties usually 
 devolving upon that officer, and to make an- 
 nually "a detailed report of his official proceed- 
 ings." The county courts elect biennially county 
 superintendents, whose duty it is to visit the 
 schools in their respective counties, keep the 
 school records, and see that the rules laid down 
 by the state superintendent are duly enforced. 
 
814 
 
 TENNESSEE 
 
 The salary of the county superintendent is fixed 
 by the county court, and. therefore, varies con- 
 siderably, sometimes to such an extent a- to 
 amount to a virtual annulment of the office. 
 This undue power of the county court, in this 
 and in other respects, enables it to thwart the 
 general school law. District directors, three in 
 number, are elected for three years, in each dis- 
 trict. They employ teachers, exercise a detailed 
 supervision over the schools, and disburse the 
 school money- apportioned to their districts. 'Che 
 total annual income of the permanent school 
 fund is about $600,000. To this is added a poll 
 tax of 81. and a tax of one mill upon every 
 dollar of taxable property in the state. When- 
 ever the money derived from the school fund 
 and state tax is not sufficient to keep a public 
 school for five months in the year, in any school- 
 district, the county court is required to levy an 
 additional tax for the purpose, or may submit 
 the proposition to do so to a vote of the people. 
 lie may also levy a tax to prolong the schools 
 beyond the five months: but this must not exceed 
 the entire state tax. The schools are free to all 
 persons between the ages of '.'> and L8 years, re- 
 siding within the Bchool-district, the only distinc- 
 tion between the races being that "white and 
 colored persons shall not be taught in the same 
 school, but in separate schools, under the same 
 general regulations as to management, usefulness, 
 and efficiency." Colored children are counted 
 alike with the white children in the apportion- 
 ment of the school money: and adult colored 
 persons are eligible as teachers, school directors, 
 and county or state superintendents. The school 
 course comprises orthography, reading, writing, 
 arithmetic, grammar, •_' •■■■juphy. elementary 
 geology of Tennessee, history of the United 
 States, and vocal music, the last being optional. 
 \ feature peculiar to the school system of this 
 state is that of consolidated schools, or school.-, in 
 which the branches prescribed by law for the 
 
 COmniOn Schools are taught tree of expense, ill 
 
 connection with other and higher branches, for 
 which a tuition fee is charged. This method has 
 tended to popularize the common schools by 
 keeping them before that class of the people who 
 ordinarily would semi their children to distant 
 localities for more advanced instruction. Of 
 such schools. I 7 I were iii operation in 1875. 
 
 Educational Condition. — The number of 
 schools in the state, in 1875, was 3,942, of which 
 3,127 were for white children. 770. for colored 
 children. and l">. unclassified. The school revenue 
 was as follow-: 
 
 the state 1212,840.57 
 
 counties 360,369.87 
 
 " other sources 167,106.19 
 
 Total $740,316.63 
 
 The expenditures were as follows : 
 
 For teachers' salaries 1582,918.11 
 
 Building ami repairing 
 
 school-houses 44,406.44 
 
 -;iliiriesof couuty sup' 
 
 intendents 16,384.64 
 
 1 Itaer expenses 59,649.79 
 
 Total $703,358.98 
 
 The principal items of school statistics for the 
 same year are the following : 
 
 Number of children between 6 and 18 years 426,fil2 
 Number of pupils enrolled in public schools 199 
 
 \ Average attendance 136,805 
 
 Number of teachers white, male 2,561 
 
 " " " female 823 
 
 " " colored, male 564 
 
 " " " female 217 
 
 " " unclassified 4.5 
 
 Total 
 
 Average monthly salary of teachers. 
 
 4,210 
 
 • 
 
 Xormitl Instruction. — By the law of March. 
 187"). the state board of education is required to 
 establish a normal school or schools ; no pupil 
 must be admitted therein who is under 16 or 
 over 30 years of age, and who has not passed 
 such examination as may be prescribed by the 
 board of education. < ity superintendents, or 
 county superintendents, on consultation with the 
 directors of t he schoi T< listricts of t heir respective 
 counties, may recommend certain pupils of the 
 public schools for admission to the normal 
 schools : and the pupils so recommended, on 
 passing a satisfactory examination, have prece- 
 dence over all other applicants. Separate normal 
 schools for white and colored students are author- 
 ized by the law. The Normal University, estab- 
 lished under this law, was opened Dec, 1.. 1875, 
 at Nashville. The trustees of the University of 
 Nashville gave the use of their college buildings, 
 grounds, etc. for two years, and also the income 
 of their permanent fund, and that of the Mont- 
 gomery Bell Academy, amounting in all to 
 $6,000 per annum, on condition that the academy 
 should be made a model and training Bchool to 
 the proposed university. To this was added an 
 annual appropriation of $6,000, for two years, by 
 the agent of the Pea body fund. Normal instruc- 
 tion for colored students is afforded in the Nash- 
 ville Normal and Theological Institute, the 
 Preedmen's Normal Institute, at Maryville. Fisk 
 
 University, the Central Tennessee College. ; ,t 
 Nashville, and the normal and training school, 
 at Knoxville. A normal school for the training 
 
 I Of Colored teacher- has recently been established 
 
 at Jonesboro, the building previously occupied 
 
 by the llolston Male Institute having been pur- 
 chased for its accommodation. There are. be- 
 sides, normal classes in many of the higher in- 
 stitutions of learning in the state. — Though no 
 provision is made by law for the support of teach- 
 ers' institutes, \foey have been Organised in sev- 
 eral counties. There is also a state teachers' as- 
 sociation which holds annual meetings. and which 
 has already exerted ati important influence upon 
 the progress of popular education in the state. 
 
 S condary Instruction.- -There are many high 
 schools and academies in the state, chiefly in the 
 Cities and larger towns; Na.-hvillc. .Memphis. 
 
 Shelbyville, Chattanooga, Gallatin, and Mur- 
 Ereesboro,each containing such schools or depart- 
 ment.-. There are many other secondary schools 
 in the state, chiefly private schools or prepara- 
 tory departments of colleges. There are. also. 
 several business colleges. 
 
TENNESSEE 
 
 TEXAS 
 
 815 
 
 Superior Instruction. — The chief colleges and 
 universities of the state are enumerated in the 
 following table : 
 
 
 
 When 
 
 Denomi- 
 nation 
 
 NAME 
 
 Location 
 
 found- 
 ed 
 
 Beach Grove College. . . 
 
 BeachGrove 
 
 1869 
 
 Non sect. 
 
 
 McKenzie 
 
 1847 
 
 Cumb. Pres. 
 
 Central Tennessee Coll. 
 
 Nashville 
 
 1866 
 
 Meth. Epis. 
 
 Christian Brothers't'oll. 
 
 Memphis 
 
 1872 
 
 B. C. 
 
 Cumberland University 
 
 Lebanon 
 
 1842 
 
 Cumb. Pres. 
 
 East Tennessee Univ.. .. 
 
 Knoxville 
 
 1840 
 
 Non-sect. 
 
 East Tenu. We 4. Univ.. 
 
 Athens 
 
 1867 
 
 Meth. Epis. 
 
 
 Nashville 
 
 18G6 
 
 Non-sect. 
 
 Greeueville and Tuseu 
 
 
 
 
 
 Greeneville 
 
 1868 
 
 Indep. 
 
 
 Sweetwater 
 
 1850 
 
 M.E.. South 
 
 
 Bristol 
 
 1868 
 
 Presb. 
 
 Manchester College — 
 
 Manchester 
 
 T85G 
 
 Non-sect. 
 
 Maryville College 
 
 Maryville 
 
 1842 
 
 Presb. 
 
 Mosheim M. and F.Inst. 
 
 Mosheim 
 
 1870 
 
 Luth. 
 
 S. W. Baptist Univ 
 
 •Jackson 
 
 1874 
 
 Baptist 
 
 S. W. Presb. Univ 
 
 Qarksville 
 
 1875 
 
 Presb. 
 
 Stewart College 
 
 Clarksville 
 
 1856 
 
 Presb. 
 
 University of Nashville. 
 
 Nashville 
 
 1785 
 
 Non-sect. 
 
 University of the South 
 
 Sewanee 
 
 1858 
 
 Pr<>t. Epis. 
 
 Vanderbilt University. . 
 
 Nashville 
 
 1873 
 
 M. E. South 
 
 There are several institutions for the higher 
 education of women in the state ; of which, 17 
 reported, in 1875, to the U. S. Bureau of Edu- 
 cation, 119 instructors, and 1,467 students, 91 G 
 of whom were pursuing collegiate studies. 
 
 Professional and Scientific Instruction. — The 
 Tennessee Agricultural College was established, 
 in 1869, as a part of the East Tennessee Uni- 
 versity (q. v.). The average attendance is 300. 
 The Nashville Normal and Theological Institute 
 was opened by the American Baptist Home 
 Mission Society in 1866. It is specially intended 
 for colored pupils of both sexes. Theological in- 
 struction is also given in Vanderbilt University, 
 at the Central Tennessee College. at Cumberland 
 University, at Fisk University, and at Nashville 
 Institute. A law school is maintained in Vander- 
 bilt University, and at the Cumberland Univer- 
 sity ; and a medical and surgical school, in con- 
 nection with the University of Nashville and 
 Vanderbilt University. 
 
 Special Instruction. — The Tennessee School 
 for the Blind was established at Nashville in 
 
 1843, by an annual appropriation of 81 ,500 for 
 2 years. This was increased by private contri- 
 butions ; aud, in 1846, a law was passed making- 
 two annual appropriations of $2,500. In 1848, 
 the sum of $5,000 was directed to be paid out of 
 the state treasury for two years. The civil war 
 not only put a stop to further progress, but al- 
 most obliterated the school by entirely destroying 
 the school building. In 1866, however, it was 
 re-established by the general assembly; and, by 
 liberal appropriations since then, it has been 
 placed among the first institutions of the kind in 
 the country. It has a library of 1,000 volumes. 
 The Tennessee School for the Deaf and Dumb 
 is located at Knoxville. It was established in 
 
 1844, and was maintained, for a long time, chiefly 
 by voluntary contributions. It is now chiefly sup- 
 ported by an annual state appropriation of $5,000, 
 and an additional allowance for each indigent 
 pupil admitted. It can accommodate 150 pupils. 
 
 TEXAS, one of the southern states of the 
 American Union, originally a part of -Mexico, 
 but acknowledged as an independent republic in 
 L836. It was admitted into the Union in 1845. 
 
 Its area is 271.356 sq. m. ; and its population, 
 in L870, was 818,899, of whom 253,-175 were 
 colored persons. 
 
 Educational History. — Six years before the 
 admission of Texas into the Union, measures 
 were taken to establish schools by setting 
 apart a portion of the public lands in each 
 county for school purposes. The first constitu- 
 tion of the state directed the legislature to pro- 
 vide for the establishment of schools, and created 
 for their maintenance a permanent fund by con- 
 firming all previous grants of land and funds. 
 In 1858, this fund was further increased by the 
 sale of public lands; but the act authorizing 
 this sale was subsequently repealed. The con- 
 vention of 1866 made provision for the appoint- 
 ment or election of a board of education and a 
 superintendent of public instruction ; and the 
 new constitution of the state, adopted in 1869, 
 directed that the legislature should make suitable 
 provision for the support of a system of public 
 schools, "for the gratuitous instruction of all the 
 inhabitants of the state, between the ages of 6 
 and 18 years." It also provided that a superin- 
 tendent of public instruction should be appointed 
 by the governor, with the consent of the senate 
 for one term of four years, and afterwards should 
 be elected by the people. Under this law. a 
 nomination was made by the governor, but was 
 not agreed to by the senate. The school bill, 
 also, was rejected by the same body. Under 
 the school law of August 13.. 1870, each organ- 
 ized county became a school-district, and the 5 
 justices of the peace composing the county court, 
 were constituted, ex officio, a board of school 
 directors. They were required to appoint a 
 board of school trustees and a board of exam- 
 iners, in each county, to divide the county into 
 as many sub-districts as might be necessary, 
 to locate school-houses, and to levy a tax not ex- 
 ceeding one per cent on all taxable property, for 
 the purpose of building school-houses. The in- 
 action of the county courts, however, led to the 
 enactment of a new law, April 24., 1871, by 
 which the superintendent of public instruction, 
 with the consent of the governor, was charged 
 with the appointment of 35 supervisors of edu- 
 cation, each of whom was intrusted with the 
 control of a district composed of several coun- 
 ties. Each supervisor was authorized to appoint 
 a board of school directors for each county in 
 his district, the duties of such boards being pre- 
 scribed by the state board of education. The 
 duty of subdividing the counties into school- 
 districts was vested in the supervisor. This law 
 remained in force till 1873. when anew law was 
 substituted which contained so many uncon- 
 stitutional features that it failed to receive the 
 governor's approval. In 1874, the law was 
 again changed, but the result was still unsatis- 
 factory ; and, August 19., 1876, an entirely new 
 law was passed, which remains in force at the 
 
S16 
 
 TEXAS 
 
 present time. The first state superintendent 
 was J. C. De Gress, appointed in April. 1871 ; 
 his successor was 0. N. Hollingsworth, who was 
 appointed in January, 1874, for 4 years. 
 
 School System. — The stale board of education 
 consists of the governor, comptroller, and secre- 
 tary of state. The governor is, ex officio, presi- 
 dent of the board, its only other officer being a 
 secretary who is appointed by the board, " if. in 
 their judgment, the educational interests of the 
 state require" it, at an annual salary of $1,500. 
 Upon this board devolve all the duties usually 
 performed by such bodies, as well as those dis- 
 charged in other states by state superintendents. 
 In all matters pertaining to the schools, this 
 board deals directly with the teachers and local 
 school officers, except in the disbursing of the 
 school moneys, which is done through the county 
 treasurers. Within the several counties of the 
 state, school communities are permitted to be 
 organized for the purpose of availing themselves 
 of the benefits of the public-school fund. These 
 communities consist of any number of parents 
 and guardians of children to be educated. They 
 are required to make out and sign, in person, a 
 list containing the names and ages of children to 
 be instructed, and to send it with an application 
 to the county judge. This officer, on satisfactory 
 evidence that the list is correct and the applica- 
 tion made in g I faith, must sanction "the 
 
 establisliing of said school community, and des- 
 ignate it by its name and number." Any in- 
 corporated city or town, however, may have ex- 
 clusive control of the public schools within 
 its limits, provided it is so determined by a 
 majority vote of the property tax-payers, in 
 which case the council or board of aldermen is 
 invested with exclusive power to maintain, reg- 
 ulate, control, and govern all the public free 
 schools established within the limits of said city 
 or town. Three trustees are appointed in each 
 school community by the county judge, whose 
 duties are to employ teachers, and look after 
 the general interests and management of the 
 schools under their charge. County boards of 
 examiners are also appointed by the county 
 judge annually. They consist of " three well- 
 educated citizens of the county," who are re- 
 quired to examine applicants for the position of 
 teacher, the certificate resulting from such exam- 
 ination being given by the county judge on rec- 
 ommendation of the board of examiners. The 
 available school fund is declared to consist of 
 one-fourth of the "occupation and ad valorem 
 taxes" assessed since March ."10., 1870 ; one-fourth 
 <>t' all the "ad ralnrem and occupation taxes" 
 thai may hereafter be collected, each exclusive 
 
 of the cost of collection ; all poll taxes due since 
 
 March 30., 1870, or collectable thereafter; the 
 
 interest arising on any bonds and funds, and all 
 i lie interesl derivable from the sale of lands, pre- 
 viously set apart as a permanent school fund, 
 and all conveyances, devises, and bequests of 
 property, made by any one for the benefit of 
 
 the schools. Separate schools are provided by 
 
 law for white and colored children, the available 
 
 school fund being divided between them pro 
 ruin. Sectarianism is strictly prohibited. The 
 selection of text-books is left with the teachers, 
 " subject to the approval of their community 
 trustees, and having due regard to the conveni- 
 ence of the parents in respect to books already 
 purchased." The daily school session is 7 hours, 
 but may be extended by agreement between the 
 teacher and trustees. The school year is for the"- 
 same reason indefinite. All children between 
 the ages of 8 and 14 years are entitled to the 
 benefits of the public schools. 
 
 Educational Condition. — During the year 
 1875, public schools were maintained in 139 
 counties; but reports were received from only 
 97. In the latter, there were 2,924 schools, and 
 the number of school-houses built during the 
 year was 158. Owing to the vast extent of ter- 
 ritory, the sparseness of the population, the in- 
 difference to the public schools in some parts of 
 the state, and the want of reports from school 
 officers, the items of school revenue for the year 
 I 875 are not accurately reported. Two items only 
 are given by the state superintendent to aid in 
 making an approximate estimate of what the 
 receipts should be : 
 
 Amount levied by boards of school directors. $244,879 
 Additional amount necessary to be levied to 
 
 meet outstanding liabilities clue teachers 
 
 for the year ' $50,598 
 
 The agent of the Peabody fund has also dis- 
 tributed to six public schools the sum of $2,250. 
 The expenses incurred were as follows : 
 
 For teachers' salaries $630,334 
 
 " sites, and building, repairing, and furnish- 
 ing Bchool-hooses 59,358 
 
 For other expenses 30,544 
 
 Total .$726,236 
 
 The other principal items of school statistics 
 for 1875, are as follows : 
 Estimated enrollment of school children (G to 
 
 18 years) 184,705 
 
 " average attendance 125,224 
 
 " number of schools 3,898 
 
 " " "teachers 4,030 
 
 Actual enrollment in 97 counties 124, 56 7 
 
 Average attendance " " 84,415 
 
 Number of teachers " " 3,100 
 
 Number of Bchools " " 2,924 
 
 Average teachers' salary per month $53 
 
 Normal Instruction. — No system for the 
 training of teachers has yet been devised by the 
 state. The only institution which furnishes nor- 
 mal instruction is Wiley University, at Marshall, 
 which has a department for the training of col- 
 ored teachers. A state teachers' institute was 
 
 organized in 1^72. at the close of the educational 
 Convention held that year at Austin. This led 
 to the organization of 25 county institutes the 
 same year. Since that time, institutes have been 
 held occasionally. 
 
 Secondary Instruction. — In 1875, twelve acad- 
 emies and seminaries were know ato exist in the 
 State, furnishing employment to 29 instructors, 
 and instruction to 1,166 pupils. Preparatory 
 schools existing independently of, or in connec- 
 tion with, the colleges of the state, reported, during 
 the same year, an attendance of 1,350 students. 
 
TEXT-BOOKS 
 
 THEOLOGICAL SCHOOLS 817 
 
 Superior Instruction. — The principal colleges 
 and universities of the state are enumerated in 
 the following table : 
 
 
 
 When 
 
 Religions 
 
 NAME 
 
 Location 
 
 organ- 
 
 denomi- 
 
 
 
 ized 
 
 nation 
 
 Austin College 
 
 Huntsvillo 
 
 1849 
 
 Presb. 
 
 Baylor University. . . . 
 
 Independence 
 
 18-15 
 
 Baptist 
 
 Henderson College. . . 
 
 Henderson 
 
 1871 
 
 Non-sect. 
 
 
 Waxahaehie 
 
 1873 
 
 Meth. 
 
 St. Joseph's College.. 
 
 Brownsville 
 
 1868 
 
 B. ('. 
 
 
 Salado 
 
 1 Still 
 
 Non-aect. 
 
 Southwestern Univ... 
 
 Georgetown 
 
 1840 
 
 M. E. S. 
 
 Trinity University . . . 
 
 Tehuacana 
 
 1870 
 
 i lumb. Pr. 
 
 Univ. of St. Mary.... 
 
 Galveston 
 
 1856 
 
 R. C. 
 
 
 Waco 
 
 IStU 
 
 Baptist 
 
 
 Marshall 
 
 1875 
 
 M. Epia. 
 
 In 1875, there were nine institutions in the 
 state for the superior instruction of women, 
 three of which conferred degrees. Among the 
 principal institutions of this kind, are the An- 
 drew Female College of Huntsvillo, the Bryan 
 Female Seminary of Bryan, the Chapel Hill 
 Female ( Jollege, the Lamar Female Seminary of 
 Paris, the Galveston Female High School, and 
 the Austin Collegiate Female Institute, the Bay- 
 lor Female College of Independence, the Waco 
 Female College, and the Nazareth Convent of 
 Victoria. 
 
 Scientific and Professional Instruction. — The 
 only institution for instruction of this kind, 
 aside from that furnished by special depart- 
 ments in the colleges and universities, is the 
 Agricultural and Mechanical College of Texas. 
 which* was established a few years since at Bry- 
 an. Some progress was made toward erecting 
 .buildings for its use; but, a discovery being made 
 of defects in the law concerning it, work was en- 
 tirely suspended in 1871. The Texas Medical 
 College and Hospital at Galveston was incorpo- 
 rated in 1871. The American Dental College is 
 situated at Austin. It w r as opened in 1873. In- 
 struction in theology is also given in a special 
 department of Baylor University. 
 
 Special Instruction. — The Texas Institution 
 for the Deaf and Dumb was opened in 1857, at 
 Austin. It is open for the education of every 
 deaf-mute resident of the state between the ages 
 of 10 and 20 years, if of sound mind, good char- 
 acter, and general good health. Board and tui- 
 tion are furnished gratuitously by the state. The 
 term of instruction is seven years, the branches 
 taught being those which are common to such 
 institutions. The Texas Institution for the Edu- 
 cation of the Blind is situated at Austin, where 
 it was founded in 1856. 
 
 TEXT-BOOKS, for educational purposes, 
 are books designed to be used by pupils in 
 connection with the instruction given by the 
 teacher. Their purpose is threefold : (1) to aid 
 the teacher, by affording to the pupil independ- 
 ent sources of information and instruments of 
 study; (2) to aid the pupil, in acquiring habits 
 of self-reliance in study ; and (3) to enable the 
 pupil to learn how to use books, as a means of 
 self-culture. These objects dictate the mode of 
 constructing school text-books ; and should all 
 be carefully kept in view by the teacher in the 
 
 59. 
 
 selection of books, so that they may be suited to 
 the mental status and grade of culture of his 
 pupils in regard to the following points: (1) lan- 
 guage and style ; (2) arrangement of topics and 
 general treatment of the subject, and (3) adapt- 
 ability to the time and general opportunities of 
 the pupil. — The object of using text-books is 
 often entirely defeated by a disregard of the first 
 of these points. A text-book written in a style 
 beyond the capacity of the pupil is not only use- 
 less, but positively injurious ; since the pupil 
 either becomes disgusted with the study and 
 neglects it altogether, or he commits to memory 
 the language of the book, under the impression 
 that he is acquiring knowledge ; and thus his 
 mental habits are seriously, if not permanently, 
 vitiated. — The following cautions should be par- 
 ticularly observed by teachers in the use of text- 
 books : (1) the book should not be permitted to 
 supersede the teacher, its use being always pre- 
 ceded, accompanied, and supplemented by oral 
 instruction ; (2) it should never be paramount, 
 in the pupil's mind, to the subject, the impression 
 being constantly inculcated by the teacher that 
 it is the subject that is studied, and that the 
 book is oidy an instrument of the study, or an 
 auxiliary to it ; (3) it should not be allowed to 
 supersede the necessity of acquiring knowledge, 
 as far as possible, by personal experience, par- 
 ticularly in elementary education. In advanced 
 instruction, it will always be found that those 
 will use text-books most effectively who have ac- 
 quired the most knowledge without them. (See 
 Oral Instruction.) 
 
 THEOLOGICAL SCHOOLS.— The earli- 
 est schools of this character, of which any au- 
 thentic account exists, were the Jewish "schools of 
 the prophets." (See Hebrews.) Schools for in- 
 struction in Christian theology sprung up accord- 
 ing to ecclesiastical tradition, about the close of 
 the apostolic period. At the close of the 2d cent- 
 ury, the school of Alexandria began to be cele- 
 brated throughout the Christian world. (See 
 Alexandrian School.) Other schools of the kind, 
 though of less prominence, existed during the 
 period of the ancient church at Antioch, Laodi- 
 cea, Nicodemia, Athens, Edessa, Nisibis, Seleu- 
 cia, Rome, and Carthage. At the end of the 5th 
 century, nearly all of the schools of the East had 
 greatly declined, or had become extinct. In the 
 West, the monasterium clericorum, founded by 
 Augustine, at Hippo, was the beginning of a 
 diocesan seminary, and as such marks a consider- 
 able progress in the history of theological schools. 
 A number of similar institutions arose in various 
 countries of southern Europe, and served as the 
 chief agency for training candidates for the sec- 
 ular priesthood ; while the convent and cloister 
 schools supplied whatever education was given to 
 persons subjecting themselves to monastic vows. 
 The chief study in the theological schools of this 
 period was ecclesiastical Latin, Greek and He- 
 brew being rarely studied. A considerable 
 improvement begins with the establishment 
 of universities, after the middle of the 13th 
 century. The appointment of faculties of theol- 
 
818 
 
 THEOLOGICAL SCHOOLS 
 
 ogy in the principal universities had the effect 
 to improve greatly the general education of the 
 clergy; but, at the Bame time, it reduced to com- 
 parative unimportance the schools of the bishops 
 and of the convents. Nevertheless, from that 
 period to the present, the Roman Catholic Church 
 has continued to recognize the three kinds of 
 theological education already named. Faculties 
 of catholic theology are at present (1877) con- 
 nected with s universities of Austria and Hun- 
 gary ( V ienna, < Jratz. Innspruck, Prague. Lemberg, 
 Cracow, Pesth, and A grain) ; with 7 of the Ger- 
 man Empire (Breslau, Bonn, Munich, Miinster, 
 W iirtzburg, Tubinyen, and Freiburg); with 1 in 
 England (the new Catholic university of London, 
 founded in 1875) ; with 1 in Belgium (the free 
 < atholic university of Louvain); with 4 in Fiance 
 (the new free ( 'atholic universities in Paris. An 
 gers, Lyons, and Lille) ; and with 1 in Portugal 
 ( I !i limbra). In France, there are, moreover, 6 iso- 
 lated faculties under control of the government. 
 At the Italian and Spanish universities the theo- 
 logical faculties have been abolished. Beside these 
 faculties of theology, there are a number of in- 
 dependent theological schools, of which especially 
 the Collegia Romano, in Rome, attracts students 
 from all Roman Catholic countries. Episcopal 
 seminaries in which theology is taught are con- 
 nected with nearly all episcopal sees, and every 
 older of monks lias one or several theological 
 schools for its own novices. In the United States. 
 according to the Report of the < 'oinniissioner of 
 Education for L875, the Catholic Church had 
 18 theological seminaries, or theological depart 
 incuts of colleges. A faculty of Old Catholic 
 theology has been established in connection with 
 the university of Hern: and. in 1876. the ma- 
 jority of the (.'atholic faculty at the university 
 of Bonn, were likewise Old Catholics. (See Ro- 
 man < 'atholic < !hdbch.) 
 
 Ill the Greek Church, the standard of theolog- 
 ical education is very low, not only among the 
 monks, but among the secular clergy. The only 
 faculties of theology connected with complete 
 universities, are at Athens (founded in L837)and 
 at Czernowitz in Austria (founded in L875). 
 None of the Russian universities has a faculty of 
 Greek theology, which is taught in the five eccle- 
 siastical academies of St. Petersburg, Moscow, 
 kasan, Kiel, and Wilna, and in the seminaries 
 connected with the episcopal sees. Of schools of 
 Greek theology, mostly in connection with the 
 episcopal sees, there arc. moreover. I in Austria. 
 5 in Hungary, I in Greece, 8 in Roumania, 1 in 
 Servia, I in Montenegro, and a large number in 
 Turkey. 
 
 Theological education among the Protestants 
 of Europe has been not a little diversified as to 
 method. In all the countries in which great uni- 
 versities have existed, professorships of various 
 branches of theology have been maintained since 
 the days of the Reformation. Hence, the clergy 
 of the stale churches have usually gone to the 
 universities to obtain theological instruction. In 
 the I German Empire, faculties of Protestanl theol- 
 ogy are attached to the universities of Berlin, 
 
 Bonn, Breslau, Erlangen, Giessen, Greifswalch 
 Gottingen. Halle. Heidelberg, Jena. Kiel, Konigs- 
 berg, Leipsic, Marburg. Rostock, Strasbourg, and 
 Tubingen. In Holland, there are three, at Oron- 
 ingen, Leyden, and Utrecht; in Denmark 1. at 
 ( lopenhagen ; in Sweden 2, at Upsal and Lund; 
 in Norway 1 . at Christiania; in Russia 1. at Dor- 
 pat : and in Switzerland 4, at Basel, Zurich. Bern. 
 and ( ieneva. France has a faculty of Protestant 
 theology supported by the state, at Montauban. 
 anil a free theological school at Paris (founded 
 in 1874) : and Austria. 1 at Vienna. Switzer- 
 land has :S theological schools, at I ausanne, Neuf- 
 chatel. and (ieneva. < lermany leads not only in 
 the number, but also in the prominence and in- 
 fluence of the theological schools, which, to a 
 larger extent than the schools of any other 
 country, are visited by students from all parts 
 of the Protestant world. While the evangelical 
 churches in the United States. England, and 
 other countries readily acknowledge the superior 
 scholarship of German theological schools, they 
 deplore the departure of many of them from the 
 creed of the Reformation, and from what they 
 regard as the fundamental doctrines of Christian- 
 ity. In England, the theological instruction given 
 at the universities of Oxford and Cambridge has 
 teen more uniform and conservative, but far less 
 influential, than that of the German universi- 
 ties. In fact, owing to the peculiar organization 
 of the English universities, each one being an 
 awrecation of a number of colleges, there has 
 been a lack of concentration and control in refer- 
 ence to theological study which has tended to 
 keep the standard very low. In neither of the 
 universities named has there been an organized 
 theological faculty or a well-planned, obligatory 
 course of instruction. As in literature and 
 science, so in theology, the actual teaching has 
 been mostly done by tutors. There have been, 
 in both universities, professors of divinity and 
 Hebrew since the Kith century, lmt the profeSS- 
 ors, as such, have had little to do with instruc- 
 tion or discipline. Attendance on their lectures 
 was not obligatory, excepl in a few merely formal 
 instances, lor the purpose of being admitted to 
 holy orders, it was necessity tor Bachelors of 
 Arts, to attend the lectures of the regius pro- 
 fessor of divinity for a short time, unless they 
 
 obtained a dispensation. In 1 842, professorships 
 
 of ecclesiastical history and of pastoral theo) 
 were established at Oxford. The university of 
 Dublin was organized under a charter trom 
 Queen Elizabeth, very much after the model of 
 
 the English universities. A rectus professorship 
 
 of divinity was founded in 1 li<>7. a professorship 
 
 of Hebrew, in L 637, and a king's lectureship in 
 
 divinity, in L718. In 1838, a professorship of 
 Biblical Creek was added, and. in 1850. a pro- 
 feSSOrship of ecclesiastical history. 
 
 The fact that the English universities ex- 
 clude from their advantages all students not 
 members of the Established Church, has made 
 it necessary for the various sects of Misscnters 
 that desired theological instruction for their 
 ministerial candidates, to establish institutions 
 
THEOLOGICAL SCHOOLS 
 
 THERMOMKTIIY 
 
 819 
 
 of their own. This lias been clone by the In- 
 dependents, the Wesleyans, the Baptists, and, per- 
 haps, some other religious bodies. In nearly all, 
 if not all. institutions thus established, provision 
 is made for preliminary classical instruction. The 
 Scottish universities, with the exception of that 
 of Edinburgh, were founded before the Reforma- 
 tion. After that event, a scheme of theological 
 education was proposed, at the university of St. 
 Andrews, which was theoretically a great im- 
 provement upon the irregular and incomplete 
 methods of theological instruction previously pre- 
 vailing in the universities every-where. St. Mary's 
 College was appointed solely to the teaching of 
 theology and the languages connected with it. 
 The course of study was to be completed in four 
 years, under the instruction of a principal and 
 four professors, each of the professors having 
 under his care only the students of one year. 
 The students were required to attend the lect- 
 ures of three professors every day during the 
 continuance of their theological course. Although 
 this scheme was not found in all respects practi- 
 cable, yet it had its influence upon the other 
 Scottish universities, at Glasgow, Aberdeen, and 
 Edinburgh, in each of which, several professor- 
 ships of divinity and auxiliary topics have been 
 constantly maintained, with some effort towards 
 systematic instruction. After the disruption of 
 the Established Church of Scotland, the Free 
 ( 'hurch established a divinity school in Edin- 
 burgh, called the New College of Free Church. 
 
 A prime object recognized in the foundation 
 of the earliest colleges in the United States, 
 such as Harvard and Yale, was to provide general 
 education for candidates for the ministry. No 
 professors of divinity were appointed, nor were 
 theological topics introduced into the courses of 
 study ; but the presidents of the colleges were 
 usually ministers of distinguished ability, who 
 were expected, by their presence and their 
 preaching, to exert a wholesome religious influ- 
 ence upon their students generally, and to be 
 able to give timely and special counsel to any 
 young men among them who might contemplate 
 devoting themselves to the work of the ministry. 
 Dr. Dwight, at Yale College, taught theology in 
 his Sunday sermons which were so prepared and 
 arranged as to form, when completed, a body of 
 divinity. Some candidates for the ministry went 
 directly from the college into ministerial service, 
 and others, without having attended college at 
 all. But the more general custom was for minis- 
 terial candidates to pursue a limited course of 
 theological reading and study, under the di- 
 rection of some influential pastor. 
 
 As society became more settled, and the 
 wants of the older churches became better de- 
 fined, the necessity of schools specially devoted 
 to theological instruction began to be felt almost 
 simultaneously in several denominations. The 
 first actual experiment in public theological in- 
 struction was commenced by the Rev. Dr. .John 
 M. Mason of New York, in 1804. Dr. Mason 
 had, after graduation at an American college, and 
 about a year spent in the private study of theol- 
 
 ogy, gone to Scotland to pursue a more complete 
 course in one of the universities. As a result, 
 he, subsequently, when a pastor in New York 
 city, felt called upon to devote a portion of his 
 time to the systematic instruction of ministerial 
 candidates, in the original languages of the Bible. 
 lie, also, delivered lectures on the standard 
 topics of divinity. For years he carried on this 
 course of instruction almost single handed, in 
 fact until disabled by failing health. The first 
 regularly organized theological seminary in the 
 United States was that formed by the Congre- 
 gationalists at Andover, Mass., in 1808. A foun- 
 dation had previously existed at New Brunswick, 
 X. •!., under the auspices of the Reformed I hitch 
 Church, but it remained for a long time unoc- 
 cupied. In 1812, the Presbyterians commenced 
 their theological seminary at Princeton. In 1 SI 7, 
 the General Theological Seminary of the Protest- 
 ant Episcopal Church was founded in New York. 
 — Since the dates named, most of the larger 
 Churches of the United States have founded 
 theological schools. The total number of theo- 
 logical departments and seminaries in the United 
 States, according to the Report of the U. S. 
 Commissioner of Education for 1875, was 123, 
 having (315 instructors and 5,234 students. 
 
 As to the methods pursued in the theological 
 schools of the United States, it may be remarked 
 that no uniformity, but a general similarity, pre- 
 vails. In nearly all, primary attention is given 
 to the study of Hebrew and New Testament 
 Greek, as the foundation of an enlightened 
 Scriptural exegesis. In the departments of eccle- 
 siastical history, and systematic and practical 
 theology, instruction is given largely by lectures, 
 with references to text-books, and collateral 
 reading. In all the fully-organized seminaries, 
 the course of study extends through three years, 
 and is planned in reference to the attainments 
 of graduates of colleges, although partial-course 
 students are admitted on specified conditions. 
 
 THERMOMETRY, Educational. Human 
 thermometry is the art of measuring the heat 
 evolved by the body, and the science of calcu- 
 lating thereby a person's vitality and working 
 power. Physicians now use thermometers to 
 ascertain mathematically the existence and prog- 
 ress of disease, instead of depending upon con- 
 jecture, as formerly. The same may also be done 
 by teachers, in order to appreciate exactly the 
 working capacity of their pupils ; to prevent the 
 spread of contagious diseases in the school, and 
 to warn ignorant or thoughtless parents of the be- 
 ginning of illness in their children ; and, more- 
 over, to discover the existence of disease when 
 it is purposely concealed. The means of doing 
 this is afforded by thermometry and tliermog- 
 raphy, the instruments employed being a ther- 
 mometer and a thermograph, to indicate and re- 
 cord the degree of heat. There are several kinds 
 of thermometers. That is, however, of special value 
 in education, the scale of which is based on some 
 physical phenomenon, as the melting of snow. 
 In the physiological thermometer, the health- 
 point is marked zero or norme, as seen in the 
 
820 
 
 THERMOMETRY 
 
 TRINITY COLLEGE 
 
 following scheme of human temperature (taken 
 on the physiological scale). 
 
 Onlv two alleged cases. 
 
 Above 
 tue 
 
 NORME 
 
 The Norme 
 
 Below 
 
 Tfft: 
 NOKME 
 
 I" 
 6° 
 
 5° 
 
 4° 
 
 3° 
 
 2° 
 
 1° 
 
 
 
 0.5° 
 
 1° 
 
 2° 
 
 3°-4° 
 
 4°-5° 
 
 Generally fatal. 
 
 Often fatal. 
 
 High fever. 
 
 < 'onsiderable fever. 
 
 Moderate fever. 
 
 Suspicious. 
 
 Standard of health 
 
 Subnormal. 
 
 Depression. 
 
 Collapse. 
 
 Algid collapse. 
 
 Fatal. 
 
 There are different instruments adapted to dif- 
 ferent thermometrical researches : (1) \&u& physi- 
 ological thermomeier, which, when introduced 
 into a natural cavity, as the mouth, or into an 
 artificial one, as the closed axilla, indicates the 
 rate of evolution of the central heat; (2) the 
 surface thermometer, used to differentiate the 
 superficial heat of two bodies, or of two parts of 
 the surface of the same body ; (3) the tkermo- 
 scope, which, in a few seconds, renders evident 
 differences of temperature which could not other- 
 wise be perceived (unless with the help of some 
 wry expensive thermo-electric apparatus ; (4) the 
 hand, an absolutely inexpensive apparatus, but of 
 inestimable value to those who have early ap- 
 preciated the importance of educating the senses. 
 The trained hand can be used as a central or as 
 a surface thermometer. It cannot, of coins,', 
 give its findings in figures : but it adds, to a 
 pretty accurate idea of the heat evolved, an esti- 
 mate of the depth or superficiality of the in- 
 flammation, of the tension of the tissues, and of 
 other signs that are like commentaries to the 
 usliuu (feverish burning). The hand lias, morever, 
 above every instrument, the advantage of being 
 used, at will, for the most informal and unsus- 
 pected diagnosis, in greetings, etc.; and when 
 such desultory exploration has revealed an anom- 
 alous degree of temperature, the thermometer 
 may be used fco ascertain the exact condition. — ■ 
 Thermography is the method of recording the 
 phenomena of ustion,m the order most favorable 
 to show their significance, Normal thermography 
 is the work of the mother; pathological thermog- 
 raphy, of the physician, aided by the mother or 
 nurse ; and school thermography, of the teacher, 
 who thus contributes bis share to the natural 
 history of his pupils. —Human thermometry 
 should constitute a part of every system of ped- 
 agogy studied in the normal school ; so that every 
 teacher may conduct his school, and teach his 
 pupils, On this matlicmatico physiological ba.-is. 
 rtaining constantly the power of endurance of 
 every pupil during the various exercises; for, 
 since mental force is luu converted physical £o 
 it is measurable by the expenditure of caloric 
 found necessary for the various intellectual proc- 
 i in, '/'■ mperature- Variations in 
 Diseases of Children (1871); Prevention of the 
 Spread of Contagious Diseases among Children 
 by the Indications of Thermometry (London. 
 L873); Manual of Thermometry for Mothers, 
 Curses, Teachers, etc. (N. Y ., L873). 
 
 THIEL COLLEGE of the Evangelical 
 Lutheran Church, at Greenville, La., is under 
 the care of the Pittsburgh Synod. It was found- 
 ed by Lewis Thiel, as an academy, at Philips- 
 burg, in 1866, chartered as a college, in 1870, 
 and removed to its present site, in 1871. Its 
 permanent endowment is over $60,000, chiefly 
 derived from the benefactions of its founder. It 
 has a library of nearly 4,000 volumes. The cost of 
 tuition is Sin per annum. It has an academic and 
 a collegiate department. A ladies' course has been 
 also established, embracing the studies of the 
 collegiate department, except that Creek is op- 
 tional, and French may be taken in the place of 
 German. In L s 7,"> — 6, there were 6 instructors 
 and 70 students (21 collegiate and 49 academic). 
 The Lev. Henry \Y. Roth, A.M., is (1877) the 
 president 
 
 TOPICAL METHOD. See Catechetical 
 Method. 
 
 TOUGALOO UNIVERSITY. at Tougal.o. 
 Miss., near Jackson, was founded in 1869, and 
 chartered in L871. It was especially designed 
 for the education of colored youth of both sex. s, 
 but is open to all. The expenses, including tui- 
 tion, board, etc.. are less than $12 a month. A 
 farm of five hundred acres attached to the uni- 
 versity, is cultivated mainly by the labor of stu- 
 dents, who thus pay a portion of their expenses. 
 It has in operation a normal, an intermediate, 
 and a primary department, its normal depart- 
 ment being recognized as one of the state normal 
 schools. In L875— 6, there were & instructors 
 and 'l\l students (normal and intermediate, 
 125 ; primary, 92). Prof. L. A. Darling is (1877) 
 the president. 
 
 TRAINING, a department of education, in 
 which the chief element is exercise, or practice; 
 the object being to imparl practical skill, or 
 facility in any bodily or mental operation. No 
 teaching can lie effectual that is not supplemented 
 by training ; that is to say, not only is the under- 
 standing of the pupil to be addressed, bu1 the 
 principle of habit to lie appealed to. (Sec II uut.) 
 TRAINING SCHOOLS. See Teachers' 
 S i:\iix \ i;i i s. 
 
 TRINITY COLLEGE, in Hartford, Ct., 
 under Protestant Episcopal control. Mas char- 
 tered as Washington College in L823, and 
 opened in L824. The name was changed in 
 L845. It has property to the value ol over 
 
 81, 1 ,000, a library of 18,000 volumes, and a 
 
 valuable cabinet. 'I here is a large number of 
 scholarships, nearly all designed to aid students 
 
 in preparing for the ministry of the church. 
 
 Besides the classical course, in which the studies 
 
 are all prescribed, there arc special courses, lead- 
 ing to the degree <>f B. S. In 187G — 7, there 
 
 were 15 instructors and L03 students. The pres- 
 idents have been as follows: the Rt. Rev. Thomas 
 
 C. Brownell, D. D., L824— 31 ; the Lev. N. S. 
 U healon.l). 1).. L831— 7; the Lev. Silas Totteii. 
 D.D.,1837— 48; the Rt Rev. John Williams, 
 l». I).. L848 53; the Lev. Daniel R. Goodwin, 
 
 D. D., L853 60 ; Samuel Eliot, LL. I>.. L861 
 ; the Rt. Lev. J. B. Kerfoot, L864 6; the 
 
TRINITY COLLEGE 
 
 TURKEY 
 
 821 
 
 Rev. Abner Jackson. D. D., 1867—74, who was 
 succeeded, in L874, by the Rev. T. R. Pynchon, 
 I). I)., the present incumbent (1877). 
 
 TRINITY COLLEGE, at Trinity, Ran* 
 
 dolph Co., X. C, founded in 1852, is under the 
 control of the .Methodist Episcopal Church, 
 South. The name of the post-office is the same 
 as that of the institution. The college is supported 
 by tuition fees ($40 to $60 per annum) and funds 
 contributed by the North Carolina Conference. 
 It has property to the value of $45,000, and 
 libraries containing 10,000 volumes. The chapel 
 for public exercises is said to be perfect in acous- 
 tics, and the finest auditorium in the Southern 
 states. The whole course of instruction is em- 
 braced in eleven schools: Latin, Civck, mathe- 
 matics, English literature, natural science, mental 
 and moral philosophy, modern languages, theol- 
 ogy, engineering and architecture, analytical 
 chemistry, and law. The studies of any school, 
 or any special study, may be pursued exclusively, 
 if desired. In 1875 — 6, there were 5 instructors 
 and 140 students. The Rev. B. Craven, I). D., 
 LL. D., has been the president from the organi- 
 zation of the college. 
 
 TRINITY UNIVERSITY, at Tehuacana, 
 Tex., under the control of Cumberland Presby- 
 terians, was organized in 18G9, and chartered in 
 1870, its principal design being to furnish an edu- 
 cated ministry. It has an endowment of $15,000, 
 and libraries containing about 3,000 volumes. It 
 comprises a collegiate, a preparatory, and a com- 
 ', mercial course, open to both sexes. In 1875 — 6, 
 there were 13 instructors and 372 students (197 
 preparatory and 175 collegiate). The Rev. AV. 
 E. Beeson, D. D., is (187G) the president. 
 
 TRIVIUM. See Arts. 
 
 TROTZENDORF, Valentine Friedland, 
 a distinguished German educator, born at Trotz- 
 endorf in Silesia, in 1490 ; died in 1556. His 
 father's name was Friedland, which he changed 
 into the name of his birthplace. After studying 
 the classical languages at Leipsic, and spending 
 five years with Luther, he entered, in 1523, 
 the school at Goldberg as a teacher, and ulti- 
 mately became its rector, in which position he 
 continued till within two years of his death. 
 Under his direction, the school of Goldberg be- 
 came one of the most famous educational insti- 
 tutions of the age, being attended by scholars 
 from many countries of Europe. It was emi- 
 nently a classical school, German, the real stud- 
 ies, and mathematics occupying a subordinate 
 place in the curriculum. Assistant teachers 
 were seldom employed, teachers for the lower 
 classes being generally selected from among the 
 students in the upper classes. Biographies of 
 'i'rotzendorf have been written by Pinzger (Hei- 
 delberg, 1825), and Loschke (Breslau, 185G). — 
 See Barnard, German Teachers a hi/ Educators. 
 
 TRUANT LAWS, legislative enactments 
 having for their object to prevent truancy from 
 school. Such laws, particularly in large cities, 
 have been of great service, especially in connec- 
 tion with compulsory attendance legislation. 
 (See Compulsory Education.) 
 
 TUFTS COLLEGE, in Medford, .Mass.. 
 chartered in 1852, and opened in L854, is under 
 Qniversalist control. It is supported by tuition 
 
 ices ($70 a year), and the income of an endow- 
 ment of over $1,000,000. The library contains 
 over 16,000 volumes and 5,000 pamphlets. 
 
 There are also good collections of minerals, 
 shells, birds, and botanical specimens. There 
 are twenty-seven scholarships in the gift of the 
 college, fifteen of $60, and twelve of $100 each. 
 It has a classical course of four years, a course 
 for the degree of Bachelor of Philosophy, also of 
 four years, and an engineering course of three 
 years. A divinity school was organized in 1867. 
 The theological students receive tuition and the 
 use of rooms free. In I 875 — (J, the collegiate de- 
 partment had 10 professors, 1 instructor, and 73 
 students; namely, classical course, 5G ; engineer- 
 ing, 12 ; philosophical, 2 ; resident graduates, 3. 
 The divinity school had 3 professors, 1 instruct- 
 or, 3 lecturers, and 23 students. The whole num- 
 ber of alumni of the college was 225 ; of the 
 divinity school, 21. The presidents have been as 
 follows ; the Rev. Uosea Ballou, 2d, D. I)., 
 i 1853—61; the Rev. Alonzo A. Miner, I). P., 
 LL. I)., 18G2— 7G; and the Rev. Elmer II. 
 ( !apen, since 187G. 
 
 TURKEY, an empire, embracing extensive 
 territories in Europe, Asia, and Africa, with an 
 aggregate area of about 2,230,000 square miles, 
 and a population of about 46,000,000. The 
 greater part of the population of the whole em- 
 pire are Mohammedans; but, in European Turkey 
 Christianity predominates. The chief dependen- 
 cies of the empire, — Servia, Roumania, and 
 Egypt, are treated of in special articles of this 
 work. 
 
 Educational History. — Up to 1846, public in- 
 struction was wholly left to the several religious 
 denominations ; but since then, the government 
 has made some efforts to promote the cause of 
 education, and especially to organize a school 
 system for the Mohammedan population. A 
 radical reform was attempted by means of a 
 comprehensive school law, issued in 1869; but 
 most of the provisions have, thus far, remained a 
 dead letter. The Mohammedan schools, in par- 
 ticular, have hardly been improved in any way. 
 The schools connected with the Creek churches 
 have received some good teachers, educated at 
 the university of Athens, or in the academies of 
 Greece. The Armenian schools have been greatly 
 benefited by the educational efforts of the Prot- 
 estant American missionaries. The religious 
 order of the MekMtarists, which belongs to the 
 United Armenian Church, and has its chief 
 seats at Venice and Vienna, has done much for 
 the education of the numerous Armenian pop- 
 ulation; and has. in particular, educated some of 
 the best Turkish scholars in the government 
 employ. French and Italian missionaries have, 
 established a number of ( Jatholic institutions of 
 different grades. The Jews of Turkey, with the 
 aid of wealthy co-religionists in other countries, 
 have also increased the number and improved 
 the condition of their schools ; and the progress 
 
-'J UNION CHRISTIAN COLLEGE 
 
 UNION UNIVERSITY 
 
 of the Christian and Jewish schools has given a 
 great impulse to educational progress among the 
 ii dive Turks. The provisions of the educational 
 law of 1869 are as follows: Primary instruc- 
 tion is made obligatory for boys from to 11, 
 and for girls from 6* to 10 years of age. Every 
 village and every ward of a town is required 
 to have at least one primary school. Primary 
 schools are of two kinds, — common primary and 
 superior primary. Whenever the number of 
 pupils is sufficient to warrant it, separate schools 
 are to be established for Mohammedans and for 
 Christians, for boys and for girls. Religious in- 
 struction in the Koran, or in tlie Christian re- 
 ligion, constitutes a part of the regular course 
 The school system is under the control of the 
 Imperial Council of Education. The school 
 authorities in the provinces and departments 
 are composed of Mohammedans and of persons 
 of other religious belief, the number of each be- 
 ing equal. 
 
 Primary Schools. — Primary schools, of some 
 kind, are quite generally met with in towns, and 
 even in villages; but reliable statistics in regard 
 to them are wanting. The city of Constantinople 
 had, according to the latest accounts, 454 primary 
 schools. of all denominations, with 33,000 pupils. 
 The total number of superior primary schools 
 in Turkey was 95, with about 7,600 pupils. The 
 establishment of normal schools was also pro- 
 vided for in the law of L869, previous to which 
 time teachers generally received their education 
 in the superior primary, or iu secondary schools. 
 
 Secondary, Superior, and special Schools. — 
 The law of lS(j() also provides for a complete 
 system of secondaiy schools. Of these there 
 are two kinds, — preparatory schools, and lye e- 
 uins. Every town with more than 1,000 hoi 
 is required to have a preparatory school ; and 
 the chief town of every province, a lyceum. The 
 course of instruction in the former lasts 3 years; 
 in the latter, <> years. The lyceum has a gram- 
 mar division for 2 years, and a superior (4 years') 
 division; the latter is again divided into a liter- 
 ary and a scientific section. The lyceum at 
 ( ralata-Serai is under the direction of French 
 scholars, and the medium of instruction is 
 French. Various secondary schools have also 
 been established by several Christian denomina- 
 tions. A university, organized after the model 
 of the universities of continental Europe, and 
 embracing, for the present, three faculties 
 (literature, law, and natural science and mathe- 
 matics i. was opened, in 1870. in Constantinople. 
 The medium of instruction is the Turkish lan- 
 guage; but the use of French is permitted. 
 Constantinople has a school of surveying and 
 architecture, a school of engineering and artillery, 
 a medical school, a law school, a military school, 
 and a school of military surgery. On the island 
 of Chalki, there is a naval academy. There are 
 numerous schools of theology in connection with 
 the mosques, for Mohammedans, and. in connec- 
 tion with Episcopal sees and monasteries, for the 
 education of priests of the Creek, Catholic, and 
 Armenian churches. 
 
 UNION CHRISTIAN COLLEGE, at 
 
 Merom, Ind., founded in 1858, is under the 
 control of the Christian denomination. It has 
 an endowment of SIOU.OOO; of which S-'U.OOO 
 is at present non-productive. The cost of tui- 
 tion is from SIS to 82 1 a year. Both sexes are 
 admitted. The curriculum embraces an academic 
 course, requiring 2 years, a scientific course, 1 
 years, and a classical course, 6 years. A prepara- 
 tory school is also connected with the college. 
 There is a course in normal instruction, also in 
 
 music and book-keeping. In 1875 — 6, there were 
 9 instructors and I .'ill students. The presidents 
 
 have been: Rev. X. Summerbell, D. D., L860 
 —65; Rev. Thomas Holmes, P. P.. L865 — T">; 
 and Rev. T. <'. Smith. M A., sine is;:.. 
 
 UNION UNIVERSITY, in the state of 
 New York, incorporated in 1st.'!, comprises 
 I niou College, with its preparatory classical in- 
 stitute ami school of civil engineering, in Sche- 
 nectady, and the Medical College, the Law School, 
 and the Dudley Observatory, in Albany. Union 
 <• >lle>;e was incorporated in L795, and was so I 
 called because several religious denominations 
 co-operated in its establishment. It is supported 
 by tuition tees (from $75 to 3100 a yean and 
 'lie income of endowments, amounting to about 
 $128,000. It has a library of 18.000 volumes, 
 .1 i I valuable chemical ami philosophical ap- ' 
 
 paratus and collections in natural history. 
 X umerous scholarships have been founded for 
 the benefit of indigent students. There is a 
 classical, a scientific, and an eclectic course. The 
 engineering school was founded in 1845. The 
 extensive garden and farm of the college afford 
 facilities for instruction in agriculture. Military 
 drill and gymnastic training were early intro- 
 duced. The Medical College was established in 
 
 1838, and the Law School in 1851. The Dudley 
 Observatory, incorporated in 1852 and inaugu- 
 rated in 1856, is furnished with the best astro- 
 nomical instruments, and hasa meteorological de- 
 partment. The number of instructors and stu- 
 dents, in L875 — ('), was as follows: Collegiate, 
 
 18 instructors and I7.~> students: engineering 
 School, 4 instructors and 35 students: medical 
 college, 16 instructors and 123 students: law 
 seh, ml. 6 instructors and '.»•'! students: total. 
 •I I instructors and 426 students. The following 
 
 have been the presidents of the College and Uni- 
 versity: the Rev. John Blair Smith. D. I)., 
 1795— 9 ; the Rev. Jonathan Edwards, D. D., 
 L799 — 1801 ; the Rev. Jonathan Maxcy, D. D., 
 1802—4; the Rev. Eliphalel Nott, D. I>.. 1804 
 66 ; the Rev. Lawrence P. Iliekok. P. P.. 
 
 L866— 8 : the I lev. Charles A. Aiken. P. D., 
 1869—71 : and the' Kev. Eliphalel Nott Potter, 
 
 P. P.. since L871. 
 
UNITARIANS 
 
 UNITED BRETHREN IN CHRIST 823 
 
 UNITARIANS are a body of Christians 
 ■who reject the doctrine of the Trinity, and assert 
 
 the absolute unity of God. They deny the deity 
 of Christ and his equality with Cud the Father 
 
 but do not reject his divinity, or any exalted 
 rank consistent with his subordination to God. 
 They reject the doctrine of total depravity and 
 moral inability, and of the necessity of a vicarious 
 atonement. They have no written creed, and in- 
 dividual Unitarians differ greatly on many 
 points. Arianism, originating in the 4th cent- 
 ury, was the parent of Socinianism, in the 1 6th ; 
 and from the latter. Unitarian ism has descended. 
 Persecution confined Socinianism, at the close of 
 the 17th century, to Transylvania, where there 
 are now over 100 congregations of Unitarians, 
 with nearly (50,000 members. They have a col- 
 lege at Klausenburg. They are governed by an 
 ecclesiastical council and a bishop. In England, 
 the growth of the denomination warranted the 
 foundation, in 1825, of the British and Foreign 
 Unitarian Association. In the United King- 
 dom, there are now not far from 400 congrega- 
 tions. The Unitarians have a college in Lon- 
 don, and another in .Manchester. The American 
 Unitarian Association was also organized in 
 1825. It was incorporated in 1817, and has its 
 headquarters in Boston. The National ('(infer- 
 ence of Unitarian and other Christian Churches 
 was organized in 1865. In the United States, 
 the Unitarians separated from the Congregation- 
 alists. They have about 350 or 3G0 congrega- 
 tions throughout the country, the denomination 
 being most uumerous in Massachusetts, especially 
 in Boston and its vicinity, where it took its rise. 
 Except in Transylvania, the Unitarians have a 
 congregational form of church government. In 
 the United States, the denomination has always 
 been largely constituted from the most highly 
 educated portion of the community; and its 
 members have been noted for their public 
 spirit, and their interest in educational and 
 benevolent affairs. The Society for Promoting 
 Theological Education (headquarters in Boston) 
 w r as organized in 1816, and. incorporated in 1831. 
 It aims to enlarge the apparatus of theological 
 instruction, and to afford assistance to merito- 
 rious theological students. The American Uni- 
 tarian Association has a committee on theolog- 
 ical education, and aids young men in preparing 
 for the ministry. The Unitarian Sunday-School 
 Society (Boston) was instituted in 1S27. Since 
 the early years of the century, the authorities of 
 Harvard University have been largely Unita- 
 rians, but the institution has never been under 
 denominational control. The Harvard Divinity 
 School was systematically established in Is Id. 
 In 187G — 7. it had 4 professors, 5 other instruct- 
 ors, 23 students, and a library of 17.000 vol- 
 umes. The Meadville Theological School, at 
 Meadville, Pa., was chartered in 1846, and 
 organized in 1«47. In 1870 — 7, it had 4 res- 
 ident and 3 non-resident professors, 12 students, 
 and a library of 12,000 volumes. Unitarians 
 have a share likewise in tin' control of Antioch 
 'i liege, Yellow Springs, Ohio. 
 
 UNITED BRETHREN IN CHRIST. 
 This church was founded by Philipp Wilhehn 
 Otterbein, a minister of the German Reformed 
 Church, who was horn dune -I., L726, at Dillen- 
 burg, < ■'erniany, and. in I 752. came to the United 
 States, being one of the six young men who ac- 
 companied the Rev. Michael Schlatter, the 
 pioneer missionary of the German Reformed 
 Church. (See REFORMED Church.) The church 
 which owes its foundation to him, originated in 
 no doctrinal disputes, hut was the result of the 
 growth of vital piety in individual members. 
 The name arose from the circumstance that, at 
 a great revival meeting, when both Otterbein 
 and Martin Boehm,a minister of the Mcnnonites, 
 were preaching, Otterbein clasped Boehm in his 
 arms, with the words, " We are brethren." In 
 1800, the words "in Christ" were added to 
 " United Brethren, - ' in order to distinguish the 
 church from the Moravians, who were also 
 called United Brethren. The church, in 1876, 
 had, in 43 annual conferences, 1.1)52 ministers 
 and 143,881 members. — When Otterbein, in 
 1774, organized, in Baltimore, an independent 
 church, whose doctrines and discipline, with 
 some slight modifications, became the doctrines 
 and discipline of the United Brethren in Christ, 
 one of the articles of the church provided for 
 the establishment of a German school. The 
 fathers of the church had, for a long time, 
 serious doubts about the expediency of establish- 
 ing denominational institutions for higher edu- 
 cation ; but, in 1 845, the < ieneral Conference 
 almost unanimously resolved " that proper meas- 
 ures be adopted to establish an institution of 
 learning." In 1846, the Scioto Annual Con- 
 ference appointed a committee to purchase from 
 the Methodist Episcopal Church the Blendon 
 Young Men's Seminary, at Westerville, O., and 
 thus, Otterbein University (q. v.), the first col- 
 lege of the church, was established. In 1847, 
 the Allegheny Conference resolved to establish 
 an institution at Mount Pleasant, Pa., or Johns- 
 town. It was finally located at Mount Pleas- 
 ant ; but, in 1858, the buildings were sold, and 
 the interests transferred to Otterbein University. 
 The seed thus planted rapidly took root. In ad- 
 dition to the institution already mentioned, the 
 following have since been established : Harts- 
 ville University, Hartsville, Ind. (1851) ; West- 
 ern College, Western, Iowa (1856); Westfiekl 
 College, Westfiekl, 111. (1865); Green Hill Sem- 
 inary, Poolsville, Ind. (1869); Avalon Academy, 
 Avalon. -Mo. (1869); Smithville High School, 
 Smithville. O.; Roanoke Classical Seminary, 
 Roanoke, Ind. (1869); Lebanon Yalley College, 
 Lebanon, Pa. (1866); Lane University. Leconrp- 
 ton.Kan.; Philomath College, Philomath, Oregon; 
 and Elroy Seminary, Elroy. Wis. (1874). The ag- 
 gregate number of students in these institutions, 
 during the year 1875 — 6, was over 1,000 males, 
 of whom about 125 were preparing for the 
 ministry, and about 600 females; the whole 
 number, since their foundation, is about 15,000; 
 and the total number of graduates. .'{00. The 
 aggregate number of volumes in their libraries 
 
824 UNITED BRETHREN IN CHRIST UNITED EVANGELICAL CHURCH 
 
 was 6,000; the endowment funds, collected .and 
 promised, amounted to $300,000. Co-education 
 of the b ixes lias been the uniform rule in all the 
 institutions of the church. As the fathers of 
 the church had an impression that college edu- 
 cation had a tendency to make men indolent. 
 they connected a manual labor department with 
 two or more of the institutions ; but the project 
 was soon found to be impracticable, and was, 
 consequently, abandoned. -A still greater op- 
 position than to the establishment of denomina- 
 tional colleges and high schools, was, for a long 
 time, made to the establishment of theological 
 schools. The opponents of these schools took 
 the ground that men cannot and should not be 
 " trained for the ministry," and the special 
 schools of theology were represented by them as 
 "priest factories." This feeling, however, has 
 gradually lost ground, and has now almost died 
 away. In 1S47, the Allegheny Conference re- 
 solved that thereafter •• a good theoretical and 
 practical knowledge of English grammar, a gen- 
 eral knowledge of geography, history (profane 
 and ecclesiastical, ancient and modern), and 
 theology should be a test for admission into the 
 itinerancy." Soon after, a'- course of reading for 
 applicants to the ministry" was provided; and 
 they were annually examined upon this, and pro- 
 moted and ordained, provided their progress 
 would permit. This course was enlarged and im- 
 proved from year to year, and is still the policy 
 of the church. In L865, the bishops, in their report 
 to the General Conference, suggested that some 
 plan superior, if possible, to the present "course 
 of reading" and imperfect method of examina- 
 tion, should be adopted, and enjoined upon the 
 conferences. The committee of the < ieneral < !on- 
 ference on education reported in favor of recom- 
 mending to the trustees of Otterbein University 
 the propriety of connecting with that institution 
 a theological department as soon as practicable: 
 but, as this plan appeared to many too radical 
 an innovation, the General Conference com- 
 promised "ii a recommendation to the trust 
 of the several colleges to connect with these 
 schools biblical classes, embracing the course 
 of reading recommended in the discipline of the 
 church. In L869, the General Conference ar- 
 ranged for a board of education, and instructed 
 this board lo establish a Biblical Institute. In 
 1871, this school was opened at Dayton, 0., un- 
 der the name of the I nion Biblical Seminary. 
 The sentiment in favor of a theological school 
 increased so rapidly, that by the meeting of the 
 Genera] Conference, in L873, every one of the 
 annual conferences had endorsed it. — A board 
 oi education was appointed in L873. h is to 
 make annual reports of the condition of the 
 educational work of the church, with Mich 
 
 ommendations as may seem besl for all its in- 
 sts The United Brethren have a well- 
 organized Sabbath-school department. The num- 
 ber of Sabbath schools, in IsTti, was 2,854, 
 iiih I ('.:;. i.'t'.i pupils, officers, and teachers. The 
 denominational book concern in Dayton, <>.. 
 publishes several periodicals, specially adapted 
 
 to Sabbath schools. Nearly every conference 
 is connected with some one of the colleges; 
 and aids in its maintenance. A collection is 
 annually taken up in each church for gen- 
 eral educational purposes; while the colleges, 
 through instrumentalities of their own appoint- 
 ment, are annually adding to their resources. 
 The number of students in attendance is in- 
 i creasing : the ministers are making better prep- 
 arations for their work : and the college gradu- 
 at s occupy influential positions in the church. 
 Much of the credit of the educational progress 
 of the church is due to the Rev. Lewis Davis, 
 D. I)., for eighteen years president of Otterbein 
 University, and now (1877) senior professor in 
 the Union Biblical Seminary. 
 
 UNITED EVANGELICAL CHURCH, 
 the name of a Protestant state church in Prus- 
 sia and most of the Cerman states. It was 
 formed, in 1M7. by the union of the Lutheran 
 and Reformed churches; and, in 1^71, the en- 
 tire population formerly connected with those 
 churches, except about (10,000 Lutherans, be- 
 longed to ir. Although the church has now 
 been in existence for more than half a century, 
 there is still a very great diversity in the views 
 entertained in regard to the nature and extent 
 of the Union. A large portion of the Luther- 
 ans, in particular, look upon it not as a new 
 church, but merely as an administrative con- 
 federation of the existing Lutheran and Re- 
 formed ehurt lies. The church in Prussia was 
 wholly under the administration of consistories 
 appointed by the state until 1*74, when the 
 government began to carry into effect the prin- 
 ciple of ecclesiastical self-government, by circle. 
 provincial, and national synods. — As the n i 
 
 nized state church in Prussia and other German 
 states, the United Evangelical Church co-oper- 
 ates with the government , to a very large 
 extent, in the control of primary, and, to some 
 extent, also, in that of secondary schools. (See 
 Germany.) The faculties of Protestant theol- 
 ogy (see Theological Schools) in all the Ger- 
 man universities, except Rostock, Leipsic, and 
 Erlangen, are in official connection with this 
 church; and it is universally admitted that, 
 through them, the church has theological learn- 
 ing at its command not surpassed by that of 
 
 other church. — Besides the theological facul- 
 ties, through which candidates for the ministry 
 
 ive their scientific education, the church has 
 established a number of preachers' seminaries, 
 
 some of which are connected with the theo- 
 logical faculties, while others are independent of 
 them.- The church, during the shorl period of its 
 existence, has displayed aremarkablezealinthees- 
 tablishmenl of reformatory schools, among which 
 the Rauhes 11 md, founded by J. II. Wichern,now 
 a member of the Supreme Ecclesiastical Council 
 of Berlin, has gained a world-wide reputation, 
 
 and Served as a model for numerous other insti- 
 tutions in and out of Germany. A not her of the in- 
 
 instil nt ions which owe their origin to i his church, 
 is that of the Protestant deaconesses, founded by 
 
 Dr. Fliedner, in Kaiserswerth, who, though chiefly 
 
UNITED STATES 
 
 825, 
 
 devoted to the nursing of the sick, arc also con- 
 ducting a number of reformatory, industrial, 
 and missionary schools.— In Europe, the United 
 Evangelical Church is confined to Germanv; 
 but, in L840, a branch was established in the 
 United States, which, in 1874, bad 800 ministers 
 and 40.000 communicants. The German lan- 
 guage is still exclusively used in all the congre 
 gations. The church has a theological seminary 
 in Warren Co., Mo., and another educational 
 institution at Elmhurst. 111. 
 
 UNITED STATES of America, the most 
 powerful nation of the Western Hemisphere, and 
 the largest republic in the world, having an area 
 of more than 3,600,000 sq. m., and a population, 
 according to the last decennial census, in 1870, 
 of 38,925,598, consisting of 33,592,124.") whites, 
 4,886.38" colored persons, 63.254 Chinese, and 
 383,712 Indians. 
 
 Educational History. — The character of the 
 early colonists of North America, courageous, 
 independent, and intolerant of oppression, would 
 of itself furnish presumptive evidence that the 
 cause of education in the New World was not 
 neglected. Positive evidence on this point, how- 
 ever, is not wanting. The earliest records of the 
 colonies attest the solicitude of the settlers for 
 the proper instruction of their children. This 
 is particularly true of the New England colonics ; 
 and a forcible illustration of it is afforded in the 
 early school legislation of Massachusetts, partic- 
 ularly in its famous school law of 1 (147. (See 
 Massachusetts.) A comparison of this law, 
 which enunciates, as an important principle, the 
 joint obligation of the family and the state to 
 provide an education for the young, with the 
 school legislation of the foremost European 
 countries in the 18th century, entitles Massa- 
 chusetts to a place in the front rank among the 
 enlightened communities of that period. The 
 history of some of the other colonies presents 
 facts equally interesting and creditable. The 
 most striking feature of the colonial school sys- 
 tems was the connection of the school with the 
 church, the clergyman, in many cases, being the 
 school-master. The Puritans, the Huguenots, 
 the Cavaliers, the Dutch settlers, and others 
 brought this principle with them to their new 
 homes ; and the strength of their religious con- 
 victions tended to perpetuate it. (For a fuller ac- 
 count of the educational history of the colonies, 
 see the articles on the thirteen original states.) — 
 \\ 'hen the independence of the United States 
 was established, education was not among the 
 subjects which were committed to the control of 
 the national government; but each individual 
 state engaged, in its own way, in the work of 
 establishing and developing an educational sys- 
 tem. Massachusetts, in the new constitution of 
 1780, and Connecticut, by its establishment of 
 a school fund, in 17!<5. re-asserted the principles 
 which had been proclaimed in the 17th century, 
 and made it the duty of legislatures and magis- 
 trates to cherish the interests of public schools, 
 grammar schools, colleges, and universities. New 
 Hampshire, when amending its constitution iu 
 
 L 784. expressed its entire concurrence in tin; 
 constitution of Massachusetts : and Vermont, in' 
 1 793, declared that a sufficient number of schools 
 should he maintained in every town. Rhode Is-' 
 land, which remained under the colonial charter 
 until L 840, and Maine, which was admitted into 
 the Union in L820, have since indorsed the same 
 principles; so that the people of New England 
 may he said to have been unanimous in their 
 views and in their legislation on tin- subject of. 
 public education. In New York, the progress of 
 the common-school system was not so rapid as' 
 in New England. The constitution of 1777 
 made an allusion to schools: hut. in 1785, the 
 legislature created the Board of Resents of the 
 University of the State, designed to promote the 
 establishment of academies and colleges; and. in 
 1 795, Governor George Clinton laid the founda- 
 tion of the common-school system, of which 
 Horace Mann, in 1845, could say. "the great 
 state of New York, by means of her county 
 superintendents, state normal school. and other- 
 wise, is carrying forward the work of education 
 more rapidly than any other state in the Union, 
 or any other country in the world."' Pennsyl- 
 vania, in 1790, required the legislature to pro- 
 vide for the establishment of schools throughout 
 the state, in such a manner, that the poor might 
 be taught gratis. New Jersey, in 1816, created 
 a school fund, but a general system of state. 
 county, and town supervision was not adopted 
 until J 846. The new states of the North- West 
 and on the Pacific have each built up a common- 
 school system on the New England basis : and 
 the plan includes, in every state except Ohio, a 
 university or high seminary of learning. In the 
 southern states of the Union, the progress of 
 educational institutions has been less satisfactory.- 
 Thomas Jefferson, in 1779, drafted a bill pro-' 
 viding a public-school system for Virginia, but 
 it was not adopted til 1796, and then with a pro- 
 viso which "completely defeated it." The con-' 
 stitution of 1851 applied one equal moiety of 
 the capitation tax upon white persons to the. 
 purposes of education in primary and free 
 schools ; but, neither in Virginia, nor in any other 
 Southern state, were there schools, of any grade, 
 which could compete, in number or efficiency, 
 with the best schools of the North. When the 
 civil war broke out. in 1861, several of the 
 Southern states were still entirely without any 
 system of common schools. The rapid growth of 
 the slave population for which no education was 
 provided, placed the Southern states among the 
 most illiterate countries of < Christendom. After 
 the close of the civil war. school systems rapidly 
 developed in that section, most of them fully rec- 
 ognizing the essential principles of free popular- 
 education. Virginia, Tennessee. Kentucky, and 
 Missouri have especially made progress in the 
 organization of effective systems of public in- 
 struction ; while, in most of the others, consider- 
 able progress has been made. — At the time of 
 the Declaration of Independence, the schools of 
 New England generally, and the great majority 
 of the schools in the other original states, were 
 
826 
 
 UNITED STATES 
 
 of an exclusively Protestant character ; and the 
 reading of the authorized version of the Bible, the 
 singing of hymns, the saying of the Lord's Prayer, 
 or other religious services, at the teacher's dis- 
 cretion, constituted a part of the scholastic ex- 
 ercises. When the vast influx of Irish and ( lerman 
 immigrants had given to many of the states a 
 numerous Roman Catholic population, two ob- 
 jections were raised to the prevailing school sys- 
 tem. Protesting against Catholic pupils' being 
 obliged to listen to the reading of a sectarian ver- 
 sion of the Bible, and to the use of hymns and 
 forms of prayer not sanctioned by their Church, 
 and arguing that, according to the principles of 
 the Catholic < 'hurch, religious and secular instruc- 
 tion should go hand in hand, the Catholics asked 
 for a division of the school fund, and thus com- 
 menced a heated controversy which is not yet 
 ended. (See Denominational Schools.) This agi- 
 tation has, on the one hand, led to the abandon- 
 ment of all religious exercises in the public 
 .schools, except the reading of the Bible without 
 note or comment; and even this now meets with 
 considerable opposition, and, in some places, has 
 been abolished. (See Bible.) On the other hand, 
 the expression of public opinion has been very 
 decided against the support of denominational 
 
 acl Is by public moneys, and in favor of the 
 
 continued support and encouragement of the 
 common-school system on a free secular basis. 
 
 The president of the Cuited States, in his mes- 
 sage to Congress, Deo. 7.. 1875, a Lvised, " that a 
 Constitutional amendment be submitted to the 
 legislatures of the several states for ratification, 
 making it the duty of each of the several states, 
 to establish and forever maintain full public 
 schools, adequate to the education of all the 
 children in rudimentary branches, within their 
 respective limits, irrespective of sex, color, birth- 
 place, or religion; forbidding the teaching, in 
 said schools, of religious, atheistic, or pagan ten- 
 ets, and prohibiting the granting of any school 
 fund or school taxes, or any part thereof, either 
 by legislative, municipal, or other authority, for 
 tlu benefit or in aid, directly or indirectly, of 
 any religious sect or denomination" ; but this 
 recommendation was not acted on. Properly 
 speaking, the I Inited States has no public school 
 
 system, the function performed by the general 
 government having always been that of fostering 
 public education without assuming any control 
 of it. (See Bure vr of Education!) 
 
 Congressional Land Ghrants. — The earliest 
 action of this nature, was that of the ordinance 
 
 for the government of the North-West Ter- 
 ritory, passed in 17s."). By this the sixteenth 
 section (one square mile) in every township 
 was set apart for the maintenance of common 
 .schools, this action being accompanied with the 
 
 declaration that " religion, morality, and knowl- 
 edge being necessary to good government and 
 the happiness of mankind, schools and the means 
 
 of education shall be forever encouraged." The 
 
 i bates \\ Inch have received the L6th section under 
 
 this law, are Ohio. Louisiana. Indiana, Missis- 
 sippi, Illinois, Alabama, .Maine, Missouri. Ar- 
 
 kansas, Michigan, Florida, Iowa, Texas, and 
 Wisconsin. In 1787, this ordinance was re- 
 newed, and the grant was increased by two town- 
 ships of land to be given to each state <- for the 
 purpose of a university." In 178'J, after the 
 adoption of the federal constitution, this or- 
 dinance was continued ; and, accordingly, every 
 state that has been organized since the begin- 
 ning of the present century, has received at least 
 two townships for the encouragement of higher 
 education, while Ohio received three — one while 
 in its territorial condition, and two as a state ; 
 and Florida and Wisconsin each received four. 
 In 1806, the first appropriation was made for 
 the education of the Indians: and, from that 
 time to lsTO, the sum expended for this purpose 
 has been $8,000,000. In 1836, the surplus fund 
 in the United States Treasury, amounting to 
 about $L">,000.0oo was loaned indefinitely to the 
 older states for educational purposes; and, in 
 many, this now constitutes a permanent school 
 fund (United States Deposit Fund). By the 
 act of 1841, sixteen states have received each 
 500,000 acres of land, as follows : Alabama, Ar- 
 kansas, California, Florida, Illinois, Iowa, Kan- 
 sas, Louisiana, .Michigan. Minnesota. .Mississippi, 
 .Missouri, Nebraska, Nevada. Oregon, and Wis- 
 consin. A large portion of the proceeds of the s;de 
 of these lands was devoted to common-school pur- 
 poses. From the beginning of the present century 
 down to L848, each state admitted into the 
 Union has received the Kith section for the sup- 
 port of common schools. In that year, the 36th 
 section was added to the 16th for the same pur- 
 pose, the territory of Oregon being the til's?; to 
 receive it. Since that time, each new territory 
 and state has received two sections. Under the 
 acts of 1*40. ]8f>0, and i860, a part of the public 
 domain, amounting to 62,4'JS,413 acres known 
 as "swamp lands", was given to the states of 
 Alabama. Arkansas. California, Florida. Illinois, 
 Indiana, Iowa, Louisiana, Michigan, Minnesota, 
 Mississippi. Missouri, Ohio, and Wisconsin. A 
 portion of the proceeds of this land, also, was 
 devoted to the cause of education. The land 
 granted by the general government, from 1785 
 to L862, amounts to nearly 140,000,000 acres; 
 the proceeds of nearly all of which have been 
 devoted to school purposes. In 1862, a further 
 
 giant was made, each state receiving 30,000 
 
 acres tor each senator and representative in 
 
 Congress, the amount derived from the sale of 
 such lands to be converted into a perpetual 
 fund for the maintenance of at least one college 
 in each state, in which the distinctive objecl 
 should be. "without excluding other scientific 
 and classical studies, and including military 
 tactics, to teach such branches oi learning as are 
 
 related to agriculture and the mechanic arts, in 
 such manner as the legislatures of the states may 
 
 respectively prescribe, in order to promote the 
 
 liberal and practical education of the industrial 
 classes in the several pursuits and professions 01 
 life." The amount of land subject to the dis- 
 posal of the states by this law. is 9,510,000 acres. 
 
 Thirty-seven states have thus far (1877) taken 
 
UNITED STATES 
 
 827 
 
 advantage of the liberal provisions of this law ; 
 ami many institutions have been opened, in must 
 cases, independently, but in some, as departments 
 
 of colleges or universities existing at the time. 
 These are the institutions usually known as 
 agricultural colleges; though erroneously, since 
 the law for their foundation does not exclude 
 classical studies, but expressly declares that the 
 intention of the Government is to promote the 
 "liberal" as well as practical education of the in- 
 dustrial classes. (See Agricultural Colleges.) 
 
 Bureau of Education, etc. — In 1867, the na- 
 tional bureau was established "for the purpose of 
 collecting such statistics and facts as shall show the 
 condition and progress of education in the several 
 states and territories, and of diffusing such in- 
 formation respecting the organization and man- 
 agement of school systems and methods of teach- 
 ing as shall aid the people of the United States 
 in the establishment and maintenance of efficient 
 school systems, and otherwise promote the cause 
 of education throughout the country." (See 
 Bureau of Education.) — In ls(>5, the Freed- 
 men's Bureau was established by the government, 
 for the purpose of watching over the interests of 
 4,000,000 slaves freed by the proclamation of 
 emancipation, and preparing them for citizen- 
 ship. In 1869, the Bureau was abolished, ex- 
 cept the educational department, which was con- 
 tinued till 1870. The result of its five years' 
 work has been the establishment of many in- 
 stitutions for the superior instruction of the 
 freedmen in the Southern States, mention of 
 which is made under their respective titles. The 
 field abandoned by it has since been occupied 
 by several societies and associations, chiefly re- 
 ligious. (See Freedmen's Schools.) 
 
 Free-School Si/stems. — The idea of providing 
 public instruction for all children at the expense 
 of the community is by no means novel, for we 
 find it in the celebrated school law of Massachu- 
 setts, already referred to ; but the complete pre- 
 dominance of the principle is a fact of recent 
 date. In 1865, rate-bills were in use in 
 New York, Connecticut, New Jersey, Rhode 
 Island, and Michigan; but a vigorous agitation 
 against this system ensued; and, in 1871, 
 the rate-bill had entirely disappeard. But 
 while free common schools are now found 
 throughout the American Union, and the citizens 
 may be said to be practically unanimous in their 
 support, a radical difference of opinion continues 
 to prevail in regard to the extension which 
 should be given to the application of the system. 
 While in many states secondary and even su- 
 perior schools are included within the plan, the 
 restriction of state support to elementary schools 
 has many supporters. — In the New England 
 states, in Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Missouri. Ohio, 
 and some other states, the township has always 
 been the political unit upon which has devolved 
 the obligation to make provision for education ; 
 but. in most of the states, the township, for a 
 time, almost disappeared as an element in the 
 organization of the school system, the only di- 
 visions being (1) the county, and (2) the 
 
 school-districts into which the county was divid- 
 ed. After an extended trial of the district 
 system, most of the states have re-organized their 
 school systems on the township plan. The town- 
 ship schools are under the control of local boards 
 which are variously styled school committees, 
 school visitors, school directors, school trustees, 
 school commissioners, school boards, and pru- 
 dential committees. These boards are generally 
 elected by the people, but in some cases, they are 
 appointed by the governor of the state. Of 
 late, compulsory education laws have been passed 
 in a number of the states ; but while the principle 
 appears to gain favor, it is found to be difficult 
 to enforce the laws. Twenty-three states, in 
 1 875, had each a state board of education for 
 the general regulation of their public school 
 systems : and all the states and territories (Dela- 
 ware, since 1875) have state superintendents of 
 public schools. — The expenses for the support of 
 the public schools are defrayed (1) from state 
 school funds (in 1875, $81,486,158 in the states, 
 and $323,236 in the territories), accumulated, 
 for the most part, from national grants of lands 
 and from appropriations made, from time to 
 time, by the state legislatures ; (2) from state 
 school taxes, which are raised in a majority of 
 the states, and apportioned among the school 
 districts; and (3) chiefly from local taxes. To 
 these regular sources of income, must be added 
 another which occupies an important position in 
 the school finances ; that is (4) donations. The 
 total income of the states, according to the report 
 of the Commissioner of Education for 1875, was 
 $87,527,278, and of the territories, $1,121,672. 
 There is an immense difference in the amount 
 of expenditure for the schools of different states, 
 ranging from $22 per capita of the school popu- 
 lation, in some states, to $1 in Florida, Virginia, 
 South Carolina, Tennessee, and Georgia. In the 
 number and amount of gifts for the promotion of 
 learning, this country is unequaled by any other 
 on the globe. In 1875, the sum total of donations 
 reported to the Bureau of Education in Wash- 
 ington was $4,126,562 ; in 1874, $6,053,304 ; in 
 1872, 811. '226.977.— The total school population 
 of the states and territories amounted, in 1875, 
 to 14,007,522. The number enrolled, which in 
 the public schools naturally comprises chiefly the 
 population between the ages of 5 or 6 and 15, was 
 8, 7 56, 659; the average daily attendance, 4,251. 808. 
 r l he private schools in the states, as far as they 
 were heard from, reported 180,635 pupils. In 
 the northern and western states, there are but 
 few native American children who do not attend 
 school during any part of their lives; and, in most 
 of these states, the enrollment of children (includ- 
 ing those of private schools) exceeds the whole 
 number between the ages of 5 and 1 5. (For detailed 
 statistics, see School Census.) — The total num- 
 ber of teachers reported in 1875, was 249,262, a 
 large majority of whom were females. The 
 necessity of schools for training teachers is 
 of comparatively recent recognition, but now 
 the number of normal schools is rapidly increas- 
 ing. (See Teachers' Seminaries.) They are sup- 
 
828 
 
 UNITED STATES 
 
 pigmented especially by Teachers' Institutes, 
 which have become a prominent and universal 
 feature of the American school system. The 
 highest average monthly compensation of male 
 teachers is $113 (in Massachusetts), the lowest 
 $27 (in Alabama); the highesl compensation of 
 female teachers $100 (in Arizona); the lowest in 
 .Maine, $18. Alabama, Delaware, Kentucky, 
 Nevada, and Texas report the same payment 
 of salaries for male and female teachers. 
 
 Grades of Instruction. — The division of 
 schools into the three grades of primary, sec- 
 ondary, and superior schools does not fully cor- 
 respond, in the United States, to that usual in 
 most of the European states. American colleges 
 and universities, which are designated as superior 
 schools, correspond, on the whole, to the higher 
 classes of the gymnasium rather than to the 
 university of continental Europe. (See ( !ol- 
 lege, and University.) The boundary line 
 between secondary and primary schools is not 
 sharply drawn; and the difference in the names 
 applied in different states and cities to the sub- 
 divisions of elementary schools renders an 
 account of primary and secondary instruction of 
 the United States exceedingly difficult. In New 
 York City, the elementary schools are divided in- 
 to primary and grammar departments. In Phila- 
 delphia, the schools are divided into four grades 
 or departments, — primary, secondary, grammar, 
 and high. In Boston, Cleveland, and Chicago, 
 the departments of the schools are high, grammar, 
 and primary ; in Cincinnati, they are known as 
 high, i uteri lie I Lite, and district; an 1 in St. Louis 
 as high, normal, ami district. In nearly all tli • 
 cities, the several departments of elementary in- 
 struction are divided into grades; and. even 
 in the smaller towns, grading is quite commonly 
 adopted, though some .states reporl tint the prog- 
 ress of th" grading system is but slow. The 
 kindergarten is rapidly gaining favor as an insti- 
 tution for preparing young children for the pri- 
 mary school; and, at the close of 1 8 7 . > . the num- 
 ber was reported as 95, against 12 in 1873, with 
 2,80!) pupils, against 1.272 in 1873.— Within the 
 last twenty years, the public high school, both for 
 boys and girls, has become tic favorite method 
 of securing secondary instruction ; and, in the 
 western stales, it is now almost the exclusive 
 method. (See limn Schools.) In Michigan and 
 Indiana, the public high schools already have 
 a recognized position as proper feeders of the 
 freshman classes in the universities of these two 
 states; and several others of the western states 
 
 are taking measures to adopt the same system ; 
 
 while, throughout th h isti rn 3tat is, the public 
 
 high school is supplying a demand which 
 
 it is 1 1 syond the power of the endowed or tuition 
 Bchools, usually known as academies, to meet. 
 
 In New Fork and Maine, an alliance has been 
 
 effect sd ht ween a number of academies and the 
 
 state and city systems, and the same is now at- 
 tempts! in Texas. The total number of 
 ondary (endowed or tuition) schools reported to 
 the I hn van of I'j 1 uca i ion. at Washington, in L871, 
 was 638, with 80,227 pupils ; in L873, 944, with 
 
 118,f>7<> pupils: in 1*7:1. 1,143 with 108,235 pu- 
 pils. Of the 1,143 institutions, in 1875, there 
 were 21") for boys, .'ill for girls, and 617 for 
 boys and girls together. The number of prepara- 
 tory schools reported in L 875 was 102,with 12,954 
 pupils. The schools for the superior instruction 
 of women have increased with a rapidity which 
 is one of the most marked features of the edu- 
 cational progress of the United States. The 
 number of institutions rose from 33 in 1870 to 
 222 in l!^7"'; the number of teachers, from 37s 
 to 2.-1(1") : the number of pupils, from 5,337 to 
 23.795. The aggregate number of graduates in 
 1875 was 17,379; and the number of degrees 
 conferred, 490. — The number of universities and 
 colleges is also rapidly increasing, being, in 
 L875, 3.">.">, against 266 in 1S70. The number of 
 instructors, in the same time, rose from 2,823 to 
 3,999; and of pupils, from 49,103 to 58,894. An 
 elevation of the standard for admission was 
 proposed, in 1873, by some of the leading col- 
 leges, and has .-inee made considerable progn 38. 
 There is. at the same time, a strong disposition 
 to relinquish the rigid uniformity of the old 
 college curriculum, and to allow the pupils a 
 greater liberty in die selection of their studies. 
 An organization for holding annual intercol- 
 legiate con tots in oratory was formed, in L874, 
 in Illinois; ami. in 1875, a kindred association 
 was organized among the students of some of 
 
 the eastern colleges. (See COLLEGE.) 
 
 Professional and Special Schools. — A lie! 
 of professional school,-, are now increasing in the 
 United States with great rapidity. In 1870, 
 there were 17 schools of science, with 1.413 stu- 
 dents; while, in L875, there were 74. with 7,157 
 student.-. The schools of theology, in the same 
 period, increased, from 80, with 3,254 students, to 
 123. with 5,234 students: the lawschools, from 
 28 to 13: the schools of medicine, from 63 to 106. 
 There were, in L875. also 41 institutions for the 
 deaf and dumb, with 5,087 pupils: 29 institu- 
 tions for the blind, with 2,054 pupils; 154 or- 
 phan asylums, with 14,118 inmates: 17 soldiers' 
 orphans' homes, with 2,382 inmates; 12 infant 
 asylums, with 2,816 infants; 24 industrial 
 schools, with 5,268 inmates: 17 reform schools, 
 with 8,111 male and 2,559 female inmates. 
 (For a fuller account of these institutions. Bee 
 
 the articles Agricultural Colleges, Blind, 
 Education ok the, Deaf-Mutes, Industrial 
 Schools, Law Schools. Medical Schools, Or- 
 phan Asylums, Pharmaceutical Schools, Re- 
 form Schools, SorENTDTTC Sen .s. and Theo- 
 
 logic \t. Schools.) 
 
 Educational Periodicals. — A list of all the 
 educational periodicals which appeared after 
 
 1811 and prior to 1865, is given in Barnard's 
 Journal of Education, 1865. In L876, 116 edu- 
 cational periodicals were issued indifferent parts 
 oi the Union. 
 
 Literature. — One of the most valuable soun 
 of information for the history of education in 
 America is Barnard's American Journal cf 
 Education (begun in 1856; 24thvol.,1876). Since 
 L867, the official reports published by the U. S, 
 
UXIY'KRSALISTS 
 
 829 
 
 Bureau of Education present the material for 
 
 a knowledge of the educational condition of the 
 country with a completeness which leaves little to 
 be desired, and are worthy of a comparison with 
 the official publications of any country of Eu- 
 rope. See also Oilman, Education in America, 
 177() — 1876, in North American Review, 1876; 
 Lawrence, Educational Progress, in Harper's 
 Monthly, Nov., 1875. — Among foreign works 
 on education in the United States may be men- 
 tioned the report made to the English government 
 by the Rev. James Eraser, who, in 1865,spentsix 
 months in studying the educational institutions of 
 the country ; Lavaleye, L' Instruction du peuple; 
 Hippeau, L 'Instruction publique aux Etats 
 Unis; Wimmer, Die Kirche und die Schule in, 
 Nbrd-Amer i kt i : (I jeips., 1853) ; Schaff, Amerika, 
 die politischen , socialen and kirchlich-religiSsen 
 Zustande (Berlin, 1854) ; Dulon, Ueber Schule, 
 deutsche Schide, amerikanische Schule und 
 deutsch-amerikanische Schide (Leips., 1866) ; 
 Troschel, Volkscharakter und Bildungsanstalr 
 ten der Nbrdamerikaner (Berlin, 1867); Fran- 
 cis Adams, The Free School System of the 
 United Stales (London, 1875) ; Rigg, National 
 Education (London, 1873). — On the peculiar 
 features of the American school system, see A 
 Statement of the Theory of Education in the 
 United States of America (Washington, 1874). 
 
 UNIVERSALISTS are distinguished from 
 other Christians by their belief in the final sal- 
 vation of all human souls. Rev. John Murray, 
 who came from England in 1770, is regarded as 
 the founder of the denomination in this coun- 
 try ; but no general denominational organization 
 was made until 1785. The organization and 
 government of the body ai'e essentially congre- 
 gational. Societies and churches are in many 
 respects independent. The present organized 
 strength of the denomination is exhibited in the 
 following summary for the United States and 
 Canada : 1 general convention ; 22 state con- 
 ventions ; 69 associations ; 880 parishes, em- 
 bracing 41,029 families; 656 church organiza- 
 tions, having 32,947 members ; 640 Sunday- 
 schools, having 59,463 teachers and pupils ; 756 
 church edifices, with a property, above indebted- 
 ness, of $7,465,495 ; and 706 ministers, includ- 
 ing licentiates and the superannuated. The 
 early preachers of the denomination were not 
 generally men of liberal education. They even 
 looked with distrust upon colleges and divinity 
 schools, because of the support which these in- 
 stitutions gave, directly or indirectly, to religious 
 doctrines, which Universalists deemed false and 
 pernicious in their influence. The free-school 
 system of instruction received, however, the 
 hearty approval of the growing denomination, as 
 being in perfect harmony with its cherished be- 
 lief in the common nature and common destiny 
 of man. Universal ists have ever, therefore, been 
 steadfast and zealous in their defense and sup- 
 port of common schools. Many faithful and 
 laborious school superintendents and teachers 
 are found among the clergy and educated lay- 
 men. They would retain the Bible in the schools, 
 
 but would be unwilling that it should be used and 
 interpreted in the special interestof any denomina- 
 tion. They would have education ( hristian, but 
 not narrowly sectarian. In the first efforts of 
 Universalists to establish schools under their 
 control and patronage, they were mainly desirous 
 of founding institutions which, while they should 
 be Christian. should be kept free from obnoxious 
 religious teachings and hurtful superstitions. 
 They detested illiberality and bigotry, and were 
 tardy, perhaps, in comprehending the full duty 
 which, in the matter of education, a Christian 
 denomination owes alike to itself, to the church, 
 and to the world. In later years, they have 
 manifested much interest and zeal in founding 
 and endowing denominational schools. In not a 
 few cases, schools have been commenced and 
 continued for a time, and then closed from lack 
 of patronage or endowments. Sometimes, enter- 
 prises begun have been merged in others that 
 promised a higher and better success. As the 
 result of many efforts, — some abortive, and 
 others partially successful, — Universalists have 
 now under their control, seven academies, five 
 colleges* and two divinity schools. — The first 
 successful movement to found an institution of 
 learning, was made in the state of Maine in 1830, 
 under the guidance of the Rev.Wm. A. Drew, and 
 the Rev. S. Brimblecom, men of high culture, and 
 experienced teachers. It resulted in the incor- 
 poration of Westbrook Seminary, in 1831, and 
 in the opening of a school for both sexes, under 
 the instruction of the Rev. S. Brimblecom, in 
 1834. After many struggles, the seminary was 
 permanently established, and its accommodations 
 were made ample. It has earned and enjoys a wide 
 l-eputation. The female department is collegiate 
 in character, and degrees are conferred upon 
 female graduates by state authority. In the same 
 year, 1831, through the exertions of the Rev. 
 Stephen R. Smith, Clinton Liberal Institute was 
 incorporated, in the state of New York, and 
 funds were raised to erect a suitable building. It 
 was opened for both sexes in 1832, two years be- 
 fore the Westbrook Seminary was put in opera- 
 tion. It offers superior opportunities to students. 
 The female department occupies a separate 
 building. Both departments have been effective 
 in educational work. Funds have recently been 
 raised to erect a large edifice for the accommoda- 
 tion of both sexes. The other academies of the 
 denomination are: in Vermont, the Green Mount- 
 ain Perkins Institute, incorporated in 1848, and 
 Goddard Seminary, chartered in 1863 ; in Mas- 
 sachusetts, Dean Academy, chartered in 1865; 
 in Wisconsin, Jefferson Liberal Institute, incor- 
 porated in 1866 ; and. in Iowa, Mitchell Semi- 
 nary, chartered in 1871. Males and females are 
 admitted to all. The denomination has no acad- 
 emy for one sex only. Goddard Seminary 
 has a very pleasant location. The school build- 
 ing is large, of commanding architecture, and 
 affords excellent accommodations for students. 
 Dean Academy is, in its buildings and ap- 
 pointments, unsurpassed by any institution of 
 its grade in New England. Dr. Uliver Dean, 
 
830 
 
 UNIYERSALISTS 
 
 whose name it bears, left a large bequest for its 
 endowment. — Tufts College, in Massachusetts, 
 chartered in 1852, and organized under the Rev. 
 Hosea Ballou, 2d, 1). 1)., its first president, in 
 1854, was the first college founded by Lnivers- 
 alists. Its appointments and courses of study 
 are those of an American university. Lombard 
 University, in Illinois, was chartered as an acad- 
 emy, by the name of The Illinois Liberal Insti- 
 tute, in 1851. It was opened for students in 
 1852. received college powers by legislative en- 
 actment in 1853, and the name of Lombard 
 University, with university powers, in L857. 
 St. Lawrence University, in Canton, X. V.. was 
 chartered in L856. Its collegiate department 
 was opened and placed under the charge of the 
 Rev.J.S. Lee, I>. I >.. in L859. The preparatory de- 
 partment was given up in 1 864. Bucntel I 'ofleg s, 
 in Akron, Ohio (assets 8:500,000) the Rev. S. II. 
 McCollester, I>. I>.. president, and Smithson Col- 
 lege, in Indiana (assets 8100,000) were chartered 
 in 1871. They have elegant and commodious 
 buildings, with superior school accommodations. 
 
 — Before theological schools were instituted by 
 CTniversalistS, young men desirous of entering 
 the ministry, were accustomed to avail them- 
 selves of the instruction and libraries of influen- 
 tial clergymen. The first theological school 
 known in the denomination, was the enteqjrise 
 of a single individual, and was temporary in its 
 duration. It was opened, in 1845, by the Rev. 
 Thomas J. Sawyer. D. I>.. at that time principal 
 of Clinton Liberal Institute. It was continued 
 by him till 1854, during which time about 25 
 students were carried through systematic courses 
 of theological study, and inducted into the 
 Christian ministry. Among them, are some of 
 the most highly esteemed clergymenof the order. 
 St. Lawrence Theological School, a departmenl 
 of St. Lawrence University, was the first per- 
 manently established divinity school. It was 
 chartered in L856,and opened in L858, under the 
 charge of the Rev. Ebenezer Fisher, l>. D., who 
 still continues in the position. It has a good 
 endowment, a large library. •'{ professors, and, at 
 the present time, has in attendance 25 students. 
 Tufts Divinity School, connected with Tufts Col- 
 lege, was chartered in L857, and organized in L868, 
 the Lev. Thomas .1. Sawyer, l>. I)., principal. 
 It has 4 regular professors, and .'5 non-resident 
 professors or lecturers; the present attendance 
 of students, is .'!:;. The amount of property de- 
 voted to denominational schools, — including acad- 
 emies, colleges, and divinity schools, is estimated 
 ,-it 82.385,000. The number of teachers con- 
 nected with them, is 99 : and the number of 
 students. 1,036. — Sunday-schools reported as 
 numbering 640 are, as a rule, maintained in 
 
 connection with all the churches, and a deep in- 
 terest is felt and manifested in them. The at- 
 tendance of pupils is generally large, and the 
 
 classification Complete. Instruction is made 
 
 and effective by the use of catechisms 
 adapted to pupils of different ages, uniform les- 
 son and other papers, and well selected libraries. 
 
 State and other Sunday-school organizations, the 
 
 normal training of teachers, public meetings, 
 celebrations, exhibitions, and concerts manifest 
 and intensify the interest felt by young and old 
 in this class of schools, which are regarded as an 
 effective means of imparting religious instruc- 
 tion. There is. at the present time, no organiza- 
 tion called an education society, connected with 
 the Iniversalist body of ( hristians : but each 
 state convention is. by constitutional provision, 
 required to devote special attention to the edu- 
 cational interests of the denomination, within its 
 territorial limits, including Sunday-schools and 
 the best methods for their management ; and the 
 trustees of the General Convention are directed 
 to present in their annual report "a general 
 statement as to the condition and wants of the 
 church, with respect to education and whatever 
 else concerns its interests, with such suggestions 
 as they may deem proper." It is also provided 
 that •• every school, academy, or college, main- 
 tained at its expense, or conducted under the 
 management of Universalists, shall send a copy 
 of its annual report to the secretary of the state 
 wherein it is situated, and to the secretary of its 
 convention. The General Convention controls, 
 also, the expenditure of the income from the BO- 
 called Murray Centenary Fund, of $120,000, 
 which is appropriated to aid in tin- education of 
 the clergy, and for other purposes connected 
 w ith the extension and upbuilding of the ( hurth. 
 The amount of convention aid rendered to stu- 
 dents in 1876, was $7,200. The denomination 
 has been honored by the services of teachers 
 of distinguished ability, great experience, and 
 wide reputation. The Rev. T. ( lowes, I.L. D., 
 one of the early principals of Clinton Liberal 
 Institute, was a superior scholar, and noted for 
 critical and learned research : the Lev. 1>. M. 
 Knapen is the author of a work on mathematics, 
 and Prof. George Robert Perkins, LL. 1>.. the 
 author of valuable mathematical text-books. 'I he 
 Rev. II. L«. Maglathlin is known as the editor of 
 the Greenleaf series and of other mathematical 
 works. The Lev. Otis A. Skinner. I>. D., second 
 president of Lombard University, as a teacher, 
 and as a superintendent of schools, and for emi- 
 nent services in raising funds for the establish- 
 ment of Tufts College, is held in grateful re- 
 membrance. Prof. J. V. N. Standish, of Lom- 
 bard University, is widely known as a teacher 
 
 of mathematics, and as a conductor of teachers' 
 institutes. The Lev. J. S. Lee. I ». D..a graduate 
 
 of Amherst College, in 1845, has. in various ca- 
 pacities, given 28 years to educational work in 
 
 the Universalis! denomination. The Lev. .lames 
 P. West on. I>.l>., has, also, been 28 years a teacher 
 in denominational schools. The Lev. Alonzo A. 
 Miner. I». I>.. I.L.D.. is distinguished as a divine 
 
 and a reformer, as well as a veteran educator. 
 
 Be opened, and successfully taught for several 
 years, the Unity Scientific Military Academy, and 
 
 was the second president of Tufts ( 'ollege. retain- 
 ing the position for 12 years. As a member of 
 th.' Massachusetts Board of Elducation, and as a 
 lecturer, he has also rendered valuable service to 
 the cause of education. 
 
UNIVERSITY 
 
 831 
 
 UNIVERSITY, a name first given, in the 
 middle ages, to institutions for superior instruc- 
 tion. In the second half of the 1 2th century, a 
 free union of students of medicine was formed 
 in Salerno (1150), and another of students of 
 law in Bologna (115.S). The students had equal 
 rights with the professors in these unions; 
 which soon attracted such crowds that, in 
 Bologna, the studies of medicine and theology 
 were added; and, in Salerno, those of law and 
 philosophy. This was the origin of the modern 
 European university. At the university of 
 Bologna, as well as at the universities of Padua 
 and Naples, which were early established, the 
 study of law remained predominant, ecclesias- 
 tical and secular law (decreta and leges) being 
 eagerly studied in order to obtain high offices in 
 church and state. — In Paris, a university arose 
 from the cathedral school, and, as the chief seat 
 of scholasticism, soon attained the rank of the 
 foremost university of western Europe. The 
 formation of nations and of faculties exerted 
 a decisive influence upon the further develop- 
 ment of the university. As scholars from all 
 parts of the Christian world flocked to Paris 
 in large numbers, and the government of the 
 state took no notice of them, they found it 
 necessary to form national groups for the pur- 
 pose of self government. Thus, the four nations 
 of the Gallicans (including Spaniards. Italians, 
 Greeks, and Orientals), the Picards, the Nor- 
 mans, and the English (including Germans and 
 Northmen) were formed. The formation of 
 special faculties was caused by the Mendicants' 
 orders, which early recognized the importance of 
 the rising university, and, as teachers of theology 
 and ecclesiastical law, assumed, in regard to the 
 nations, an independent position. In conse- 
 quence of the complications which were pro- 
 duced by their teaching, the professors of theol- 
 ogy (about 1270), and, somewhat later, those of 
 medicine and of ecclesiastical law, formed a 
 union, and in this way organized three distinct 
 faculties. The faculties represented, therefore, 
 special sciences ; while the four nations, as a 
 continuation and enlargement of the former 
 cathedral school, represented the tririnm and the 
 quadrivium, or the preparatory sciences. Fol- 
 lowing, at length, the example of the other facul- 
 ties, the nations gradually transformed them- 
 selves into the faculty of the liberal arts, which, 
 for a time, occupied a position inferior to that 
 of the older faculties. These developments 
 made the university of Paris the great literary 
 ceuter of Europe ; and, at times, it was attended 
 by more than 20,000 students. — In Germany, 
 the first university was founded by the emperor ; 
 Charles IV. at Prague, in 1348. It was fol- 
 lowed, in the course of the 14th and 15th cent- 
 uries, by many others, as follows: that of Vien- 
 na (1365), Heidelberg (originally founded in 
 1346,but notopened until 1386), Cologne (1388), 
 Erfurt (1392), Wurtzburg, Leipsic, Rostock, 
 Greifswalde, Freiburg, Treves, Tubingen, and 
 Mayence. The German universities, which owed 
 their establishment to the liberality of princes, 
 
 became the chief nurseries of the humanistic stud- 
 ies, and thus prepared the way for the Reforma- 
 tion in the 16th century. The new high schools 
 were called universitates (universities) not orig- 
 inally as universitates literarum, embracing the 
 universality of sciences, but as universitates ma- 
 gislrorum et scholarium (the universal union of 
 teachers and scholars). They were not regarded 
 as strictly national institutions, but rather as 
 high schools belonging to the entire Christian 
 world. Their privileges, therefore, had to be 
 sanctioned by the Pope; and the chancellor, with- 
 out whose consent no academic degree was valid, 
 exercised his functions in the name of the I 'ope. 
 In regard to their constitution, the universities 
 were entirely independent corporations. The 
 nations, as well as the faculties, had their own 
 statutes, seals, and treasuries. At the head of a 
 nation, was a procurator ; at the head of the en- 
 tire university, a rector. The students lived in 
 special halls, called colleges (in Germany, bursa?), 
 in which they were provided with the necessaries 
 of life, supported in their studies, and superin- 
 tended in their daily life. Instruction was im- 
 parted by means of lectures and disputations. 
 The independence of the universities led to the 
 organization of a system of academic degrees, in- 
 tended to mark the various steps from the ma- 
 turity of the student to the qualification of the 
 academic teacher. At the Italian universities, 
 the students, for a long time, chose their own 
 professors ; but, gradually, the authorization to 
 teach was limited to those who had been duly 
 licensed, or acquired the degree of licentiate. 
 After the Reformation in the 1 6th century, the 
 number of universities in Germany rapidly in- 
 creased, as every prince was anxious to have his 
 own, and as there was, moreover, a rivalry be- 
 tween the Catholic, Lutheran, and Reformed 
 churches. The Protestant universities, having 
 no connection with the Pope, became altogether 
 national institutions ; and, gradually, the Cath- 
 olic universities were likewise regarded by the 
 state authorities as being exclusively subject to 
 state jurisdiction. In the case of the faculties 
 of Catholic theology alone, some rights of super- 
 intendence were conceded to the bishops of the 
 country. Though stripped of their former in- 
 dependence, the universities retained, however, 
 until the time of the French Revolution, a con- 
 siderable number of privileges; and a remnant of 
 academic jurisdiction has, in some countries, 
 maintained itself to the present day. — The 
 Latin language continued for a long time to be 
 exclusively used in the lectures of the university, 
 but, from the beginning of the 1 7th century, it 
 gradually gave way to the native tongues. By i 
 this change, the universities became more in-/ 
 timately associated with the entire literary and 
 educational progress of the European countries, 
 and began to exert a more direct influence upon 
 primary as well as secondary instruction. — AVhile 
 the European universities may be said to have 
 been the leaders in the wonderful progress which 
 the world's literature, in all its departments, has 
 made during the 18th and 19th centuries, their 
 
S32 
 
 UNIVERSITY 
 
 UNIVERSITY COLLEGE 
 
 course of studies has been steadily expanded. 
 Though the mediaeval division into four facul- 
 ties has been generally retained, the number of 
 subjects taught in each faculty has been greatly 
 enlarged. In some universities, the faculty of 
 arts or of philosophy has been subdivided into 
 two sections ; in some, new faculties (of political 
 economy, or of natural sciences) have been added 
 to these four traditional ones ; in some, there 
 are two distinct theological faculties (one Prot- 
 estant and one Catholic) ; in others, the theolog- 
 ical faculty has been abolished. — It is generally 
 agreed that, in the present century, the univer- 
 sities of < lermanyhave attained the highest stage 
 of development. Recently, however, the Catholic 
 < 'hurch has availed herself of the new educational 
 law to establish a number of free Catholic univer- 
 sities which, as schools of superior instruction, 
 have the same organization as those in other 
 countries of Europe. All of them are under the 
 sole and absolute control of the state government, 
 and they represent the highest or superior stage 
 of the system of instruction which the state 
 organizes for the rising generation. The uni- 
 versity, as a Bchool of superior instruction, is 
 sharply distinguished from the secondary school, 
 or gymnasium. The state requires that many 
 classes of its officers should have spent three or 
 tour years at a university; and admission to the 
 university is made contingent upon passing a 
 successful examination at one of the state gym- 
 nasia. (Sec Germany.) The universities of Switz- 
 erland, Austria, the Netherlands, Belgium, the 
 Scandinavian kingdoms, Russia, and Greece, 
 also those of Italy, Spain, and Portugal, agree 
 substantially with the German institutions, 
 having four or more faculties, and being schools 
 of superior instruction. Those of recent origin, 
 like the universities of Athens and Christiania, 
 have been wholly fashioned after German mod- 
 els. The universities in the British isles, and in 
 the British possessions, materially differ from 
 those of continental Europe, and some of them 
 confine themselves to examinations and the con- 
 ferring of degrees. (See ENGLAND, SCOTLAND, 
 
 Ireland, Cambridge, London, and Oxford.)— 
 The universities of Trance were abolished in 
 1 7!).">; and, in the school legislation of Napoleon I., 
 the name University of Erance was used in a 
 different sense, being applied to the entire sys- 
 tem of public instruction. (See France.) The 
 states of Central and South America have a 
 number of institutions called universities, but 
 most of them have nothing in common with the 
 universities of Europe except the name. In 
 Turkey, China, Japan, and a number of other 
 countries, efforts Dave recently been made to 
 organize, or reorganize, schools of superior in- 
 struct ion after the model of the European univer- 
 sities; but all these institutions are still in their 
 infancy, or, at least, are not yet worthy of a i i- 
 
 parison with universities. In the United States. 
 
 tin- term university is generally used in the same 
 
 sense as that of college. (See Colleges.) Infor- 
 mal ion in regard to the universities of the United 
 States is given in the special articles in this work 
 
 on important institutions of that class. The 
 Johns Hopkins University, at Baltimore, which 
 was opened in 1876, is to be conducted after the 
 < u'i'inan plan. The establishment of a National 
 Ljiiversity, at Washington, to be, in the fullest 
 sense of the word, an institution for superior in- 
 struction, has been for several years agitated. 
 An account of the universities of each impor- 
 tant country of the world, embracing the latest 
 statistics, is given in the articles in this work 
 ti] ion the several countries. The articles on the 
 different classes of professional schools (Tdjeo- 
 logical, Law, Medical. Pharmaceutical, etc.) 
 refer to the development of the different facul- 
 i ties. — See Malden, Origin of Universities and 
 Academic Degrees (London, 1 835j ; II. von Sybel, 
 Diedeuisclu n unddieauswdrtigi n UhiversUdtt n 
 (Bonn, 1868); De Vikiville, llistoire des uui- 
 versites en France (Paris, 1847); Barnard, His- 
 tcry of German Universities, translated from 
 K w;i, von Raumer (N. Y., 1859) ; Schaff, Ger- 
 many, its Universities etc. (Phila., 1857); Hart, 
 German Universities (N. Y., 1874). 
 
 UNIVERSITY COLLEGE (London) was 
 opened in Oct., 1828, under the title of The 
 University of London. The object of its pro- 
 moters was to found, in the metropolis, a seat of 
 learning where all, without distinction of creed, 
 might obtain a liberal education, whilst remain- 
 ing under the care of their parents or friends 
 at home. No religious instruction is given with- 
 in the college walls, that being regarded as a 
 home matter, for which parents and guardians 
 must hold themselves responsible; and thus it 
 has been found possible to admit on terms of 
 perfect equality all races and creeds. 
 
 If the original intention had been adhered to, 
 the college would have resembled a Scotch uni- 
 versity, in which the teaching body and the body 
 that grains degrees are the same; but, when. 
 year after year, the application to the govern- 
 ment for ;i charter giving the right to confer de- 
 grces, was resisted by the older universities, and 
 
 by various medical bodies in the metropolis, a 
 
 compromise was at length agreed to, in 1836. By 
 tin's compromise, the institution which is now 
 known as University College, resigned its first 
 title of University of London in favor of a new- 
 body to he created by the Crown, which should 
 confer degrees upon students coming up to be 
 examined from such colleges, in town and coun- 
 try, as might, from time to time, be affiliated to 
 the university. The close connection originally 
 existing between University College and the 
 University proper, has been maintained, about 
 thirty-two per cent of the 2,665 degrees held by 
 
 graduates at the end of L873, having been con- 
 ferred on students from the college. 
 
 In University College, there an faculties of 
 arts, of laws, of science, and of medicine, with 
 ;m engineering department, and a fine arts de- 
 partment. These are served by about II profess- 
 ors. In the session ending midsummer, 187:"), 
 there were olio students in the faculties of arts, 
 of laws, and of science, including the tin.' arts 
 
 and the engineering departments, and 335 stu- 
 
UNIVERSITY COLLI* J E 
 
 UPPER IOWA UNIVERSITY 833 
 
 deius in the faculty of medicine. In 1832, a 
 school for boys was established in connection 
 with the college, and placed under the head- 
 mastership of the late professors Key and Mai- 
 den. In this school, there were, in 1 HT4 — 5. 
 700 pupils, the greatest number in any one term 
 that session being 589. Among the professors 
 in the college, there have been many men of 
 high eminence. Of these may be mentioned 
 Augustus De Morgan, who, for 34 years, was 
 professor of mathematics. Many of his pupil,-; 
 afterwards, at Cambridge, achieved the highest 
 honors, four, at least, becoming senior wrang- 
 lers, among them, Todhunter and Routh. - 
 The entire government of the college is vested 
 in the council, a body of 24 gentlemen who are 
 appointed by the members of the college from 
 themselves, and of whom (i retire every year; 
 but the senate, which consists of the professor/3 
 presided over by a member of council, often 
 exerts, by its advice, great influence upon the 
 decisions of the council. The presidents of council 
 have been successively Lord Brougham, George 
 Grote, and Lord Belper. 
 
 The college, as yet, has received no help from 
 the public funds. It originate:! entirely in the 
 efforts of private individuals. Its capital was 
 subscribed in £100 shares, of which, in 1843, 
 there were 1,710, the number of subscribers be- 
 ing 1,072. The original deed of settlement pro- 
 vided that the share-holders might receive a 
 dividend not exceeding 4 per cent ; but. as a 
 matter of fact, no dividend was ever paid, and, 
 in 1869, an act of parliament was obtained which 
 divested the college of its proprietary character, 
 and enlarged its powers by enabling it to give 
 instruction in the tine arts, and to teach women 
 as well as men. The subscribers, or those to 
 whom they have transferred or bequeathed their 
 shares, constitute, with the fellows and life- 
 governors, the members of the college, and, at 
 their annual meeting, fill the vacancies in the 
 council. In the course of years, many of the 
 shares had been ceded or forfeited, and lapsed 
 shares were bestowed upon distinguished grad- 
 uates of the college, styled fellows, or upon per- 
 sons of eminence who might advantageously be 
 associated in the government of the college, and 
 who were styled life-governors. The first fellows 
 were chosen in 1843 ; the fife-governors are of 
 much more recent origin, having been appointed 
 subsequently to the act of parliament. 
 
 The fine art or Slade schools (called into exist- 
 ence by the munificent bequest of Mr. Felix 
 Slade) have been very successful, so that already 
 the accommodation provided is not sufficient. 
 The number of students, . male and female, in 
 1874— 5, was 220. Ladies are, for the present, 
 admitted equally with gentlemen to the classes 
 of political economy, jurisprudence, Roman law, 
 and geology. A ladies' association, with the 
 concurrence of the council, arranges separate 
 classes also for ladies (taught, for the most part, 
 by the professors) in the following subjects : 
 French, German, Greek, mathematics, Latin, 
 Italian, history, hygiene, English literature, phys- 
 53 
 
 ics, and chemistry. In 1875 — G, these classes 
 numbered 17. and were attended by 394 ladies. 
 Very few of tin- professorships are endowed: 
 hence, many of the professors, having to rely 
 solely on fees, are inadequately paid. A royal 
 commission, two years ago, recommended that 
 the college should be helped by government 
 grants, both to extend its appliances for the 
 teaching of science, and to augment the stipends 
 of the science professors. 
 
 To the original share capital of the colkge. 
 many donations and bequests have been added. 
 Down to 1870. the expenditure on capital ac- 
 count amounted to £202,287. The income 
 arising, in the same year, from endowments 
 amounted to £2,97*, appropriated, for the most 
 part, to special purposes (as to scholarships and 
 professorships). Ihe amount received in fees, 
 in 1874 — 5, was over £27,000, nearly one-half 
 from the school for boys. These figures refer to 
 every part of the college except the hospital. 
 
 The eastern portion of the buildings, about 
 400 feet in length, was erected first. In the center 
 of this, is a handsome Corinthian portico, with 
 a dome. During the last eight years, the south 
 wing, which is occupied by the school, has been 
 commenced, and nearly completed. By means 
 of the Slade bequest, a portion of the north 
 wing has also been built. The hospital, on the 
 opposite side of Cower street, completes the quad- 
 rangle; it was opened in 1834. At University 
 Hall, near the College, are rooms for 30 students; 
 this is connected with the college, but under dif- 
 ferent management. — See Penny Cyclopaedia, 
 art. University College; yearly Reports and Cal- 
 endars of the College; Fifth Report of the Royal 
 Commission on Scientific Instruction (1874). 
 
 UNIVERSITY COLLEGE of San Fran- 
 cisco, Cal., founded in 1859, is under Presby- 
 terian control. It embraces a primary, a higher 
 English, a classical preparatory, and a collegiate 
 department. Females are admitted to the lower 
 departments. The cost of tuition ranges from $6 
 to $15 a month; but there is an extra charge for 
 modern languages, book-keeping, drawing, and 
 music. In 1874—5, there were 7 instructors and 
 90 students. The principals have been as fol- 
 lows: the Rev. Geo. Burrows, D. I).; the Rev. 
 Peter V. Veeder, D. D.; the Rev. Wm. Alexan- 
 der, D.D.; and the Rev. James Matthews, D. D., 
 the present incumbent (1877). 
 
 UPPER IOWA UNIVERSITY, at Fay- 
 ette, Iowa, under Methodist Episcopal control, 
 was opened as a seminary Jan. 1., 1857, and 
 chartered as a college in 1 8G0. It is supported 
 by tuition fees and the income of an endowment 
 of $15,000. It has libraries containing about 
 2,000 volumes. Both sexes are admitted. There 
 are six departments : collegiate, (with a classical 
 and a scientific course), preparatory, English, 
 commercial, of music, and of fine arts. In 1875 
 — 6, there were 9 instructors and 243 students 
 (deducting repetitions), as follows : collegiate, 
 30; preparatory, 56 ; English, 115 ; commercial, 
 48; music, 50; painting, 1G. The presidents 
 have been as follows : the Rev. William II. 
 
834 
 
 URB A N A U N I V ERSITT 
 
 UTAH 
 
 Poor, A. M., 1856 — 7 ; the Rev. Lucius H. Bug- 
 bee, D. D., 1857—60; the Rev. William Brush. 
 1). D., 1860—9 ; the Rev. Charles N. Stowers, 
 A. M., 1869—70; Byron W. McLain, Ph. 1).. 
 1870—2; the Rev. Rhoderic Norton, A.M., 
 1872—3; the Rev. J. W. Bissell. A. M. (vice- 
 president) 1873—4; and the Rev. J. AV. Bis- 
 sell. A. M.. president, since 1H74. 
 
 URB AN A UNIVERSITY, at Urbana. 
 Ohio, founded in 1850, is under Sweden borgian 
 control. It had a large attendance of pupils of 
 both sexes during the first ten years. At the 
 outbreak of the war the attendance fell off, ami 
 the collegiate department was discontinued. The 
 college was re-established, anil tihs faculty re- 
 organized in 1871. "The Union of Revelation 
 and .Science upon the basis of the theology given 
 in the writings of Emmanuel Swedenborg is the 
 distinctive principle of the New Church Uni- 
 versity." It is supported chiefly by tuition fees 
 and annual contributions. It lias an invested 
 fund of $10,000, and about $20,000 subscribed 
 toward an endowment of $50,000. There aiv 
 extensive botanical collections, a cabinet of min- 
 erals and fossils, apparatus, and libraries contain- 
 ing 5,000 volumes. The university embraces 
 three departments : the grammar school, the 
 college, and the school etf theology. The school jkw 
 girls is to be re-organized as soon as the means 
 can be provided. The college has a classical 
 course of four years, and a scientific course of 
 three years. The cost of tuition is from $36 to 
 $80 a year. In 1.S75 — 6, there were 6 instruct- 
 ors and 34 students (17 collegiate and 17 belong- 
 ing to the grammar school). The presidents have 
 been: MiloG. Williams. A. M., 1 S.l.'i — 7; the Kev. 
 Chauncey Giles, A. M., 1858—69; the Rev. Frank 
 Sewall, A. M., since 1870. 
 
 URSINUS COLLEGE, at Freeland, Mont- 
 gomery Co., Pa., chartered in 1<H(!9 and opened in 
 1870, is under the patronage of the Reformed 
 (German) Church. The post office is College 
 ville. The college is chiefly supported by tuition 
 fees (from $40 to S is a year) and contributions. 
 The institution has an academic or preparatory 
 department, a collegiate department (classical 
 course of four jean and scientific course of 3 
 years), and a theological department. The libraries 
 contain 6,500 volumes, In 1876 — 7, there wciv 
 10 instructors and 122 students (15 theological, 
 41 collegiate, and 66 academic). The Rev. J. 
 11. A. Bamberger. I). I>.. is (1877) the president. 
 
 URUGUAY, a republic of .South America, 
 having an area of 69,800 square miles, and a 
 population of about 300,000. The state religion 
 is the Roman Catholic, to which almost the 
 whole population belongs, but other creeds are 
 tolerated. Uruguay has been an independent 
 
 state since 1 828. 
 The instruction given in the government 
 
 schools, which are tew , is of a very inferior kind. 
 The foreigners, Germans. French, English, and 
 others, bave their own schools, which are of a 
 
 much higher order. A female school exists in 
 connection with the convent of the order of 
 Saint Francis of Sales, in Montevideo. 
 
 Secondary instruction is in a similarly de- 
 pressed state. The Colegio of Montevideo forms 
 a part of tlw Unirersidud mayor de la Bepublica. 
 This institution has from 5 to 7 professors, who 
 teach Latin, mathematics, chemistry, law. French. 
 English, navigation, and drawing. Although 
 the majority of the students are only youth. 
 numerous degrees of LL. 1). are granted every 
 year. The university is free, and is well attended. 
 There is also, in connection with the university, 
 a free primary school for poor children. Another 
 colegio has been recently established in La Union, 
 a short distance from Montevideo.— See St mni>. 
 Eneyclopadie, art. Siidamerika; Wovsch, Mil- 
 tlieilungen uher das&oziale mid kirchticke Leben 
 in Uruguay (1864) ; Yau"xant, La Bepvb/ica 
 Oriental del Uruguay (Montevideo, 1878). 
 
 UTAH, one of the territories of the United 
 States, forming a part of the land acquired, in 
 IMS, from Mexico. Its area is 84,476 «q. m.: 
 and its population, in 1870, was 86,786, of whom 
 1 1 8 were colored persons, 445, Chinese, and 1 ~\K 
 civilized Indians. 
 
 Educational History. — The first step taken 
 by the people of the territory for the promotion 
 of education, was an act passed by the provi- 
 sional government in 1851, incorporating the 
 1 Diversity of Deseret. with an annual appropria- 
 tion of $5,000. This contemplated not only the 
 founding of a university, but the establishment 
 of primary schools in connection with it. In 
 1851, the chancellor and board of regents of the 
 university were authorized to appoint a superin- 
 tendent of primary schools, to be under their 
 supervision, and to be paid by them a salary of 
 l ot more than SI, "00. Owing to limited pat- 
 ronage and want of funds, the university had 
 only a nominal existence till 1867, when it was 
 re-organized, and conducted as a commercial 
 college. At the time of the organization of the 
 territory, in 1850, the liith and 36th sections of 
 land in each township were set apart by Con- 
 gress for educational purposes ; and $5,000 was 
 appropriated for the purchase of a library for 
 the use of the inhabitants. In 1852, the assem- 
 bly petitioned the general government for an 
 appropriation of $24,000, for the use of schools; 
 but it was not granted. The same year, Con- 
 gress was petitioned to make for this territory the 
 same donations of land, to settlers, and for edu- 
 cational purposes, as were made to the territory 
 of Oregon in 1850. This also was refused. The 
 rejection of a similar petition for aid in establish- 
 ing schools, in 1854, led to the approval, by the 
 territorial governor and legislature, of an act, 
 which made it the duty of the chancellor and 
 board of regents of the university to appoint a 
 territorial superintendent of common schools, 
 who should make an annual report to the re- 
 gents of the number and condition of the 
 schools. It was further provided that county 
 courts should divide their respective counties 
 into school-districts, each of which should elect 
 .'{ trustees, who were to collect a tax on all tax- 
 able property in the district, at such rate as the 
 voters at the district meeting should determine. 
 
UTAH 
 
 835 
 
 With the funds thus collected, the trustees were 
 to establish and maintain the necessary number 
 of schools, and make an annual report of their 
 olhcial proceedings to the boards of examination 
 of their respective counties. The duties of these 
 boards, which were appointed by the county 
 courts, were to examine teachers, and make an 
 annual report of the condition and statistics of the 
 schools, to the superintendent of common schools. 
 In IS.");"), the sum of $2,500 was directed by the 
 governor and assembly to be appropriated for 
 the building of an academy, at Salt Lake City ; 
 but the low condition of the finances prevented 
 its accomplishment. An act of Congress, grant- 
 ing lands for schools and for university purposes, 
 was passed in 18.")"); and, to make it effective, the 
 assembly, in 1859, passed an act for the selection 
 of land equal to two townships, for the establish- 
 ment of a university. In 1864, the collection of 
 certain moneys for the maintenance of the 
 schools was authorized by the assembly ; and 
 this was followed, in 1865, by an act "consol- 
 idating and amending the school laws." These 
 two acts were superseded, in 1866, when a new 
 school law was passed. Congress was again in- 
 effectually petitioned, in 1867, for a donation, to 
 the territory, of the lands included in the recorded 
 plots of the several cities, towns, and villages of 
 the territory, to aid in laying the foundation of 
 a common-school fund. In 1868, the assembly 
 passed au act giving greater definiteness to the 
 meaning of the school law. The same year, and 
 again in 1870, attempts were made to obtain aid 
 from Congress for educational purposes, but 
 without success. In 1874, the assembly passed 
 an act appropriating annually § 15, 000, for two 
 years, for school purposes ; and this, with the 
 various enactments extending back to 1866, con- 
 stituted the school law of the territory till Feb- 
 ruary 18., 1876, when the present school law 
 was approved. The first superintendent of 
 common schools in the territory was Elias Smith, 
 who was appointed under the act of October, 
 1851. His successor was William Willes, ap- 
 pointed in 1856. In 1862, R. L. Campbell was 
 appointed, to the office by the chancellor and 
 regents of the university, and held the office till 
 1866, when he was elected territorial superin- 
 tendent, which office he held till his death in 
 1874. His successor was 0. H. Riggs, the pres- 
 ent incumbent (1877). 
 
 School System. — The new school law, enacted 
 in 1876, provides for the election of a territorial 
 superintendent of district schools for 2 years, 
 whose duty it is to exercise a general super- 
 vision similar to that usually devolving on this 
 officer. He is required to call a convention, to 
 be composed of himself, the county superintend- 
 ents, and the president of the university, for the 
 purpose, of determining what text-books shall be 
 used in the schools, such books to remain un- 
 changed, unless for sufficient cause, for 5 years 
 from the time of their adoption. County superin- 
 tendents are elected at the same time, and for 
 the same term, as the territorial superintendent. 
 1'hey are required to visit the schools at least 
 
 twice every year, examine and audit accounts. 
 apportion the school money, and make annual 
 reports to the territorial superintendent. District 
 trustees, three in number, are elected biennially. 
 Their duties are, to provide xehool houses, to 
 employ teachers, to visit the schools at least once 
 during each term, and to assess and collect an- 
 nually a tax of one fourth of one per cent on all 
 taxable property, which tax may be increased. 
 upon a two-thirds vote of the residents of the 
 district, to a sum not exceeding 3 per cent per 
 annum. There is a hoard of examination, con- 
 sisting of 3 persons, appointed annually in each 
 county, by the county court, for the purpose of 
 examining teachers and granting certificates. 
 The legislature is required to make an annual 
 appropriation of $25,000, of "widen $20,000 is for 
 the district schools, and $5,000 for the University 
 of Deseret, provided the said university instruct, 
 in its normal department, free of charge. 40 pu- 
 pils, apportioned equally among the counties of 
 the territory, such pupils pledging themselves to 
 teach in the district schools of their respective 
 counties, if required by the county superintend- 
 ents, as many years as they may have received 
 free tuition. The legal school age is from 6 to 
 16 years. The school year varies according to 
 the district, the county superintendents and 
 trustees in each prescribing its length. The 
 studies pursued are spelling, reading, writing, 
 arithmetic, geography, grammar, book-keeping, 
 history, music, and drawing. 
 
 Educational Condition. — The number of 
 school-districts, in 1875, was 236 ; the number 
 of schools, 296. 
 
 The receipts for the support of schools, for the 
 
 year 1875, were as follows : 
 
 From territorial tax $15,000.00 
 
 " rate bills and other sources 95,532.70 
 
 " local tax 20,207.28 
 
 " district tax 49,508.87 
 
 Total $180,308.85 
 
 The expenditures were as follows : 
 For general school pur poses.. $130,799.98 
 
 " buildings, repairs, etc 53,018.87 
 
 Total $183,818.85 
 
 The school statistics for the same year are : 
 
 Number of children of school age (4 to 10 years) 35,090 
 " " " enrolled in public schools. . 19,278 
 " " " " " private schools. 3,542 
 
 Average attendance in public schools 13,402 
 
 " " " private schools 2,437 
 
 Number of teachers, males and females 468 
 
 Average monthly salary of teachers $17.3*7 
 
 Normal Instruction. — The normal department 
 of the University of Deseret was established 
 August 23., 1875, to continue one year, the fund 
 for its maintenance being derived from appro- 
 priations made by the county courts. Applicants 
 for admission must be over 16 years of age, 
 must have a fair knowledge of reading, writing, 
 spelling, grammar, geography, and arithmetic, 
 and some natural tact for imparting instruction. 
 The course of study gives a prominent place 
 throughout to the theory and practice of teach- 
 ing. Ten counties are, thus far, represented 
 
836 YANPERB1LT UNIVERSITY 
 
 YASSAR COLLEGE 
 
 among the students, the average daily attend- 
 ance being .'50. The first teachers' association 
 was organized in Salt Lake City in I860. Since 
 that time, teachers' institutes have been organ- 
 ized in several counties, but they have not yet 
 been permanently established bylaw. The Terri- 
 torial Teachers' Association, of which the terri- 
 torial superintendent is president, ex officio, was 
 organized in 1870. and holds semi-annual sessions 
 in Salt Lake City. A territorial normal in- 
 stitute was convened by the superintendent in 
 the University of Deseret, in August, 1ST"), at 
 which special attention was directed to the best 
 methods of imparting instruction. 
 
 Secondary Instruction.— 'We number of in- 
 stitutions which afford anything beyond element- 
 ary instruction is very limited. A number of 
 select ami mission schools and academies exist 
 in the territory. Of these, the mission and 
 denominational schools give instruction annually 
 to about 1,250 pupils. The .Methodists have 
 six, — one each in Salt Lake City, Ogden, 
 Tooele < !ity, Provo, Xephi, and Beaver. The 
 Episcopalians have one in Salt Lake City, one 
 at Ogden, and one at Logan. The Presbyterians 
 have one each at Salt Lake City, Mt. Pleasant, 
 and Bingham. The Catholics have one at Salt 
 Lake City. A commercial college was opened 
 
 in the winter of 1 S T ."> . in Salt Like City. The 
 total number of Latter Pay Saint Sunday- 
 schools, in 1 876, was 1 62, with 2,588 teachers and 
 2(1,411 pupils. 
 
 Superior Instruction. — The University of Des- 
 eret is the only institution in the territory 
 established for the purpose of affording oppor- 
 tunity for higher education. It is non-sectarian, 
 and provides 3 courses, — a preliminary, a scien- 
 tific, and a classical preparatory. It has a well 
 supplied laboratory, a cabinet of several hundred 
 specimens, valuable mathematical, philosophical, 
 and chemical apparatus, and a library of 3,000 
 volumes. Youth of both sexes, who are unable 
 to bear the cost of tuition, are admitted free of 
 charge, on application to the president. In 
 | I87f>, the number of instructors was 4, and 
 the Dumber of students 2!)4, — 171 male, and 
 128 female. The Timpanogos branch of tin 1 
 university was established at Provo City, in 
 1870. It was suspended in 1875; but was re- 
 organized the same year under the name of the 
 Brigham Young Academy, the building and 
 grounds, valued at $15,000, having been donated 
 to the county by Brigham Young. It was opened 
 in January, l' s 7<i. with 70 students, since in- 
 creased to 1 25. This is the only school in the terri- 
 tory in which instruction in theology is afforded. 
 
 VANDERBILT UNIVERSITY, at Nash- 
 ville, Tenn., is under the control of the Metho- 
 dist Episcopal Church, South. It was chartered 
 in 1872 as The Central University of the Meth- 
 odist Episcopal Church, South ; the name was 
 changed, in 1873. in honor of Cornelius Vander- 
 bilt, of New York, who gave the institution 
 $500,000, to which he afterward added $200,000. 
 The university was opened in October, 1875. 
 The grounds and buildings cost $400,000. The 
 site is at the west end of the city, half a mile 
 from the corporation line. The library contains 
 6,000 volumes. There are cabinets of fossils, 
 minerals, and rocks, an astronomical observatory, 
 and valuable philosophical and chemical appara- 
 tus. The university is organized with four dis- 
 tinct departments, as follows: (1) the depart- 
 ment of philosophy, science, and literature; 
 (2) the Biblical department; (3) the law depart- 
 ment ; (4) the medical department. The first 
 department comprises 10 schools; namely, Latin, 
 (ireek, modern languages and English, moral 
 philosophy, philosophy and criticism, mathemat- 
 ics, physics and astronomy, chemistry, natural 
 history and geology, and engineering. The usual 
 degrees are conferred. The annual tuition fees 
 are as follows : Academic courses, 870 ; Biblical 
 department, free: law, SI 20; medical, $65. 
 There are several scholarships entitling the hold- 
 ers to free tuition, and fellowships are to be 
 established. In 1875 — G, there were 12 < > instruct- 
 ors (academic department, 10; Biblical. .'! ; 
 law, 3; medical, 10), and 307 students, including 
 52 in theology, 25 in law, and 115 in medicine. 
 
 Landon C, Carland, LL. D., has been the chan- 
 cellor of the university since its organization. 
 
 VASSAR COLLEGE (for women), at 
 Poughkeepsie. N. Y., was chartered in 1861, 
 and opened in 1865. It was named after Mat- 
 thew Yassar, of Poughkeepsie. its founder, 
 whose gifts to it amount to about 8778.000. It 
 is not denominational. The name was Vassar 
 Female College till 1867. The buildings are 
 situated on a farm of about 200 acres, two miles 
 east of the city. The unproductive property is 
 valued (duly L, 1876) at $681,286 (real estate. 
 $515,311 ; personal property, $165, 975); the 
 amount of productive funds (for library, cab- 
 inets, lectures, aid of students, and repairs), at 
 7 per cent, is $281 ,000. The salaries and other 
 current expenses are paid from students' fees. 
 The charge for board is $300 per annum ; for 
 tuition, 8100. Liberal aid is afforded, either in 
 gifts or loans, to students of high character and 
 superior scholarship in the regular course. The 
 college has valuable apparatus and cabinets, an 
 art gallery, an astronomical observatory, and 
 a library of over 10,000 volumes. The regular 
 course is for four years. All applicants for ad- 
 mission must beat least 1 6 years of age. The 
 curriculum embraces Latin, (ireek, French, Oer- 
 man, mathematics, botany, zoology, mineralogy, 
 geology, astronomy, physics, chemistry, physiol- 
 ogy, English literature, rhetoric, history, mental 
 philosophy, moral philosophy, etc. The arts taught 
 in the college are vocal and instrumental music, 
 drawing, painting, and modeling in clay or wax. 
 Students sufficiently mature and advanced may 
 
VENEZUELA 
 
 VENTILATION 
 
 837 
 
 take eclectic courses. Those who complete the 
 regular course receive the first or baccalaureate 
 degree in arts. A candidate for the second de- 
 gree in arts must pass an examination in studies 
 which have been approved by the faculty as 
 equivalent to a post-graduate course of two full 
 years. There is also a preparatory department. In 
 1875 — 6, there were 29 instructors (7 males) and 
 370 students, of whom 205 were of the collegiate 
 grade (2 resident graduates, 183 pursuing the 
 regular course, and 20, special courses). The 
 presidents have been Milo P. Jewett, 1 jL. J >., 
 1861 — 4; and John II. Raymond, LL. I)., since 
 1864. 
 
 VENEZUELA, a republic of South Amer- 
 ica, having an area of 368.000 square miles, and 
 a population of about 1.500.000. The religion 
 of the people is the Roman ( Jatholic, but others 
 are tolerated. 
 
 The education of the lower classes is very 
 much neglected. Primary instruction is left to 
 the care of the provincial deputations ; but, 
 owing to their indifference, the law requiring 
 every voter to be able to read and write, is in- 
 operative. The number of primary schools was 
 reported, in 1875, as 541 . of which only 141 were 
 government schools. The attendance at the for- 
 mer was 7,064; at the latter. 11.017. The new 
 constitution of 1876 provides that all moneys 
 formerly appropriated for ecclesiastical purposes, 
 shall henceforth be devoted to education. It also 
 provides that no minister or priest, of any de- 
 nomination whatever, shall be employed as a 
 teacher in the public schools. The education of 
 girls was for a long tune entirely neglected by 
 the government. Recently, however, the govern- 
 ment has paid considerable attention to this 
 subject. A higher female school has been estab- 
 lished; and, in 1870, a junta inspectora was ap- 
 pointed in Caracas, preparatory to the establish- 
 ment of a national female college. 
 
 Secondary as well as superior instruction is 
 in a much more satisfactory condition, owing to 
 the labors of the Jesuits, who, upon their expul- 
 sion, left a prosperous college in Maracaybo, in 
 which the .Spanish language, the ancient lan- 
 guages, poetry, rhetoric, and philosophy were 
 taught. The university of ( laracas was founded, in 
 1 696, as a colegio, anil raised to the rank of a uni- 
 versity in 1722. For a long time, the colegio 
 of Merida. which served as a university during 
 the 18th century, competed successfully with 
 the university of Caracas. At present, both of 
 these institutions, as well as the medical school 
 of Caracas, are under the control of the state. 
 The university of Caracas had. in 1874, 19 pro* 
 fessors and 165 students; and that of Merida, 12 
 professors and about. 1 50 students. The revenue 
 of the endowment fund of the university of 
 Caracas amounts to about $30,000. — Secondary 
 instruction is imparted in 13 colegios naeionales, 
 the total endowment funds of which amount to 
 about $260,000. Law is taught at Barcelona ; 
 and, at Maracaybo, law, anatomy, physiology, 
 and navigation. Besides the government schools, 
 there are also the following private institutions! 
 
 A colegio fur poor students, in Caracas; the 
 Colegio de la Independencia, in the same city; 
 the Colegio de la Fratemidad, in La Guayra; 
 
 an elementary school for art and science, and a 
 school for drawing and painting, in Caracas. — 
 See Sohmid, Ehicyclopadie, art. ISudamerica. 
 
 VENTILATION. I 'robably no subject con- 
 nected with the improvement of schools has, of 
 late years, been more fully and earnestly dis- 
 cussed than that of ventilation. Unfortunately, 
 however, the results reached have by no means 
 corresponded in importance to the* length or 
 vigor of the discussion. Notwithstanding the mi- 
 nute and elaborate experiments made by modern 
 science on this subject, it is hardly too much to 
 say that the only point of agreement is, that 
 ample ventilation is of paramount importance 
 in the economy of the school room. Any recom- 
 mendation of particular methods of effecting 
 this, or any appeal to statistics or experimental 
 details, becomes at once the occasion for fresh 
 dispute. The subject will be considered here under 
 the following heads: (I) The conditions favor- 
 able to proper ventilation; (11) The methods 
 employed to utilize those conditions; (III) Some 
 of the ways in which ventilation is prevented. 
 
 I. Under this head, Avill be considered (1) the 
 sources from which a proper supply of fresh air 
 for the school room is to be obtained, and the 
 quality of the air so obtained ; and (2) the de- 
 termination of the quantity needed by each pu- 
 pil for purposes of respiration. That the great 
 reservoir of the outer air which surrounds the 
 school room is the only proper source of supply 
 for the lungs of its inmates, requires no demon- 
 stration ; the only question being that which 
 concerns its purity. The direct and intimate con- 
 nection which has been ascertained to exist be- 
 tween the air which we breathe and the blood, 
 has been found to extend to the brain, and 
 healthful intellectual activity and pure air are 
 now almost convertible terms. Whatever causes, 
 therefore, tend to vitiate the air surrounding 
 the school building should be carefully eliminated. 
 (Concerning the proper site of the school build- 
 ing, as regarded from a sanitary stand- point, see 
 Bygtene, School.) Another cause which, in 
 certain sites, and, at certain seasons of the year, 
 in any site, may affect the quality of the air in- 
 troduced into the school room, is the height 
 above the ground from which it is drawn. The 
 danger to be apprehended from malarial fever, 
 one of the most insidious foes of the human 
 race detected by modern sanitary science, has 
 led recent writers on the subject of ventilation 
 to recommend that the- inlet for fresh air be 
 placed as high as possible, so that the lower 
 Stratum of air — that near the ground or from tin* 
 cellar — be not admitted. — Much of the difficulty 
 which attaches to the subject of ventilation, 
 arises from the fact that medical men who have 
 given special attention to the matter, are by no 
 means agreed as to the amount of pure air 
 needed by each person for purpases of respira- 
 tion ; their estimates of the number of cubic 
 feet of space required by each pupil in the 
 
838 
 
 VENTILATION 
 
 school room where the ventilation is ample, vary- 
 ing from 300 to 1,200. From a comparative 
 examination of various estimates, it appears that 
 the average amount of fresh air required by each 
 individual hourly is at least 1,000 cubic feet. In 
 school rooms provided with adequate means of 
 ventilation, this requires, according to most sani- 
 tarians, at least .'ion cubic feet of space for each 
 pupil. This, though hardly above the minimum, 
 exceeds, probably, in a majority of cases, the 
 most liberal allowance made by those school 
 officers who pride themselves on their generosity 
 in this respect. Usually, the allowance is less 
 than 110 cubic feet. The quantity of air, also, 
 admitted by the ventilating apparatus, bears a 
 constant relation to the size of the room. Hays 
 Dr. A. N. Bell on this point, "The smaller 
 the space, the greater the necessity for, and the 
 larger the opening required for, the admission 
 of fresh air. * * * It has been calculated that, 
 with ordinary exposure, an open space equal to 
 5 inches in tlie square, will admit the passage of 
 2,000 cubic feet hourly; this, of course, implies 
 that there should be an equal amount of open 
 apace for the escape of the air displaced.". 
 
 II. In considering the different methods of 
 ventilation, attention should, at the same time, 
 be given to the method of warming the school- 
 room ; since the two subjects are almost in- 
 separably connected. The entrance of warm air 
 into a room for breathing purposes, is inevitably 
 attended by. and naturally suggests, a corre- 
 sponding exit of vitiated ai)', and points unmis- 
 takably to the resulting current as the most effi- 
 cient means for ventilation. If the question 
 were merely that of determining the easiest way 
 of replacing a certain amount of impure, by a 
 corresponding amount of pure, air, the problem 
 would be on:' of easy solution ; since the differ- 
 ence of temperature which generally exists be- 
 tween the outer air and that of the school room 
 furnishes the condition most favorable to venti- 
 lation, the only agent needed being a connec- 
 tion between the two, which is readily supplied 
 by an open door or window. In summer, this 
 method, which may be called the natural one. i> 
 in almost universal use, and is accompanied gen- 
 erally with satisfactory results. In winter, how- 
 ever, the violent displacement of one atmosphere 
 by the other, which results from the greater dif- 
 ference in their temperature, and which immedi- 
 ately begins when a connection is made between 
 them, makes itself felt in the shape of dangerous 
 drafts. The problem for the inventor, therefore, 
 is how to pro luc ! this change of air without any 
 perceptible draft; and to this additional con- 
 dition, is to be attributed the practical failure of 
 so many ingenious devices which, in theory, are 
 admirable. One of the simplest and most effective 
 methods of ventilation is used in connection 
 with the method of warming described under 
 the head <>f school hygiene. (See Bygiene, 
 
 School.) It consists of a chimney with two 
 Hues, one for the tire, the other for ventilation. 
 The latter is separated from the former by a par- 
 tition of metal which becomes heated by the air 
 
 from the fire. and. by warming the column of 
 air in the ventilating flue, causes it to ascend. 
 tending thus to produce a vacuum, which the 
 vitiated air of the room flows in to fill. The 
 ventilating flue has two registers, one near 
 the floor, the other near the ceiling, both of 
 which can be controlled at pleasure. A more 
 economical method consists in making a ven- 
 tilating flue only, but making it sufficiently 
 large to permit the passage of the stove pipe 
 along its middle line, while leaving considerable 
 air space around the latter. By extending the 
 stove pipe to the top of the house, the heat of 
 the stove is used, as in the previous case. If the 
 
 j room is warmed by an open tire, the increase in 
 the amount of fuel used should be charged to 
 the account of ventilation, and the additional 
 expense incurred should not be regarded as a 
 violation of the laws of economy, but rather as 
 an observance of the provisions of that true 
 
 ; economy which does not look for immediate and 
 petty results, but is fundamental in its action, 
 and conducive to the permanent benefit of teacher 
 and pupil. For combined ventilating and warm- 
 ing purposes, in small school rooms, the open 
 grate tire has many advantages ; but. of course. 
 it should be carefully screened. For more elab- 
 orate methods of ventilation, with modifications 
 to suit circumstances, see the works quoted at 
 the end of this article, in which the subject is 
 exhaustively treated. 
 
 III. The great importance of effective ventila- 
 tion, to which it is exceedingly probable that 
 the public mind is not yet sufficiently aroused. 
 and the practical difficulty which attends it 
 when any but the simplest means ami appliances 
 are used, render it necessary to make some 
 mention of the ways in which proper ventilation 
 is thwarted, even when it is apparently provided 
 for. These are principally two: (1) a ventilating 
 apparatus, originally inadequate in size, or, if 
 
 a [equate, the ineffective working of it, through 
 frequent derangement ; (2) the overcrowding 
 of the school room after the originally liberal 
 estimates for air supply, based on a smaller 
 number of pupils, have been made. Insufficient 
 apparatus, from either the first or second cause 
 mentioned above, is one of the commonest dilfi- 
 culties with which intelligent school officers 
 have to contend; so easy is it for any one. in the 
 absence of decidedly bad results, to lose sight of 
 the essential conditions of a healthy school room, 
 and so clamorous is the tax payer usually for 
 smaller demands upon his purse. In the com- 
 promises which generally follow these contests 
 between the pocket and the lungs.it is too often 
 found that the greater concessions have been 
 made by the latter. In the second case — that of 
 overcrowding the same deleterious effects fol- 
 low, insufficient air space being the evil in both. 
 Even intelligent teachers are. in this way, fre- 
 quently deceived. The number of pupils is in- 
 creased bo gradually that the evil is for a long 
 time unsuspected, and not till its effects have 
 declared themselves in some unmistakable, and 
 perhaps fatal, manner, is attention called to the 
 
VKUMONT 
 
 S39 
 
 probable cause. — As has been said, the air pro- 
 vided for breathing purposes should be drawn 
 from out-of-doors, at a height above the ground 
 sufficient to preclude all danger from exhalations, 
 .and should be introduced into the room at the 
 opposite end from that at which the impure air 
 passes out, and at the top of the room, but in 
 such a way as to prevent drafts. This is best 
 done by providing a number of small apertures, 
 the air from which passes through the vitiated 
 air of the room in numerous small currents 
 which are imperceptible, and which cause the 
 fresh air to be evenly diffused. If warmed by a 
 cellar furnace, it should not be introduced into 
 the room by floor registers, since these are always, 
 more or less, traps for dust, which thus, in some 
 shape, is liable to be taken into the lungs. The 
 ventilating apparatus should not only be suf- 
 ficiently large at the outset, but should be thor- 
 oughly tested before it is introduced, so as to as- 
 certain whether its working sustains the theory 
 of its construction, and should be carefully exam- 
 ined, from time to time, with the view to secure 
 its constant efficiency. — See G. Wilson*, A Hand- 
 book of Hygiene and Sanitary Science (London, 
 1873); Parker, A Manual of Practical Hygien,e 
 (4th ed., London, 1873); Morin, On Warming 
 and Ventilation of Occupied Buildings, in re- 
 ports of Smithsonian Institution (1873 — 4); 
 Proceedings of the Department of Superintend- 
 ence of the National Educational Association, 
 at Washington, January 27. and 28., 1875; 
 Buissox, Rapport sur I' instruction primaire a 
 le.cposition universelle de Vienne (Paris, 1875); 
 The School Board Chronicle (London. March 
 and May, 1875); Robson, School Architecture 
 (London, 1874). 
 
 VERMONT, one of the New England states 
 of the American Union, into which it was ad- 
 mitted in 1791. Its area is 10,212 sq. m.; audits 
 population, in 1870, was 330,551. 
 
 Educational History. — In 1761, after the ex- 
 pulsion of the French from the valley of Lake 
 Champlain and from Canada had given a feeling 
 of security to the settlers, Vermont began to be 
 rapidly filled with immigrants. In 1777, it was 
 declared to be an independent state ; a constitu- 
 tion was adopted, in 1778, and a government or- 
 ganized. Some of the towns had already estab- 
 lished schools. Previous to 1763, the people of 
 Pennington had raised a school tax ; and, October 
 5., in that year, the town granted money to each 
 of the three school-districts to aid in building 
 school-houses. The first constitution of Vermont 
 declared that a school or schools should be estab- 
 lished in each town, by the legislature, for the 
 instruction of youth. The first law of the state 
 relating to schools was enacted October 22., 1 782, 
 by which towns were empowered to form school- 
 districts, and to elect trustees. The districts were 
 authorized to choose officers, to hold property, 
 to establish schools, build school- houses, etc. 
 From this beginning, the school system has been 
 gradually developed, without radical change at 
 any time. By the first school law, the action 
 <>': the towns in regard to the school was, in great 
 
 measure, optional; but, as the government became 
 settled in its methods, and the number of the 
 towns was increased, the legislature adopted a 
 different tone, and, in 1797, commanded the 
 towns to support schools, and later, in 1821, pro- 
 vided that the grand jury of each county should 
 inquire annually, whether the several towns in 
 the county had raised and properly expended 
 the state school tax ; and every delinquent town 
 was made liable to fine, — a provision which now 
 applies to all the public money. The early legis- 
 lation on the subject of schools gave to the town 
 power to divide its territory into school-districts 
 and to alter the same; but otherwise the district 
 was independent of the town, and it has since 
 come under the supervision and control of the 
 town only by a slow process. The first step in this 
 direction was a requirement that the town, in 
 the annual division of the public money, should 
 withhold the share otherwise due, from a district 
 that had not supported a school during the pre- 
 vious year. Next, came the provision, introduced 
 in 1827, that persons employed as teachers must 
 be licensed by town officers. The provisions re- 
 quiring the selectmen of the town, in certain 
 cases, to set up a school, and even to build a 
 school-house, in and for a district, and to assess 
 and cause to be collected a tax on the inhabitants 
 contained in the grand list of the district, in or- 
 der to pay for the same, left but a single step 
 further in that direction. This was taken in the 
 law of 1870, which permitted the towns to 
 abolish the districts, and to intrust the manage- 
 ment of the schools to a committee chosen by 
 the town. Under the first school law, the dis- 
 tricts had power to raise money by a tax on the 
 grand list or on the scholar ; consequently, the 
 question, shall the school, after expending the 
 public money, be supported wholly by a tax 
 based on the grand list, and thus be wholly free, 
 annually arose for decision in every school- 
 district in the state. This question, probably, 
 has been more widely and fully discussed, through 
 i a long period, than any other before the people 
 '■ of Vermont; and the history of the legislation on 
 | the subject is proportionally important. The law 
 I of 1782 gave to the prudential committee of the 
 district power to assess a tax, according to the 
 grand list of the district, sufficient to pay one- 
 half of all the school expenses, and to the district 
 the power to vote the other half on the basis of 
 the grand list, or on the scholar. The revised 
 school law of 1797 provided that the district 
 might vote the entire sum on either basis. In 
 1827, however, the power of the district to raise 
 money on the scholar to build and repair school- 
 houses, and, in 1850. the power to raise money 
 in a similar way to pay the wages of teachers, 
 were revoked ; and, in 18(54, it was enacted that 
 '•All expenses incurred by school districts for the 
 support of schools shall be defrayed by a tax 
 upon the grand list of the district." The deter- 
 mination of the people, after eighty-two years of 
 discussion, was, that the public schools should be 
 j wholly free. In the law of 1782, no enumeration 
 ! of studies to be pursued in the common schools 
 
840 
 
 VERMONT 
 
 was made. In 1797, English reading, writing, 
 and arithmetic were specified as subjects to be 
 taught; in 1827. orthography, English grammar, 
 geography, history of the United States, and 
 good behavior were added. Until 1841, no legal 
 provision existed for the maintenance of more, 
 or other, than one common school in each school- 
 district. Instruction of the grade between that 
 furnished by the common school and that fur- 
 nished by the college, was provided for only in 
 private schools, which existed at that time in all 
 parts of the state. ( 'ontiguous districts, retain- 
 ing their separate organization, privileges, and 
 duties in reference to supporting each a school 
 for the smaller children, were allowed to unite, 
 and constitute one school-district, for the purpose 
 of maintaining a school for the larger children. 
 Three years later, districts having more children 
 than could be well provided for in one school, were 
 authorized to establish any required number and 
 grade of schools. Later still, towns were empow- 
 ered to establish districts for the support of high 
 schools, and towns adopting the town system were 
 permitted to establish schools of any needei I grade. 
 The growth of high and graded schools, during 
 the last thirty-four years, is the most important 
 feature in the recent educational history of 
 Vermont. Within that period, public schools, 
 free to the inhabitants of the town or district 
 supporting them, in which instruction in the 
 higher branches of learning is regularly provided 
 for and given, have been established in at least 
 twenty-seven towns ; while, in more than a seine 
 of others, schools of two or three departments 
 are regularly supported. While, before that time, 
 no student could be prepared for college in 
 a public school, to-day as many students are 
 preparing for college in the public schools as in 
 the private schools. — The supervision of schools 
 by the town is involved in the requirement that 
 public money be distributed to such districts 
 only as support schools ; and supervision by the 
 state is very clearly implied in the requirement 
 that the grand jury in each county shall ascer- 
 tain whether the several towns of the county 
 have raised and properly expended the slate 
 school tax. In 1827, it was enacted, " that each 
 town in this state shall choose a superintending 
 committee who shall have the general charge of 
 all the public schools in said town." The law 
 further made it the duty of said committee to 
 require full and satisfactory evidence of the good 
 moral character of all instructors employed in 
 said town, and to satisfy themselves, by personal 
 examination, of their qualifications for teaching, 
 and their capacity for the government of schools: 
 and declared that no instructor should be entitled 
 to any compensation I'm- teaching in the public 
 schools, unless he hail obtained frmn the superin- 
 tending committee, or a majority of them, a cer- 
 I ih'cate of qualification. The superintending com- 
 mittee were required to visit the schools and to 
 
 make Careful examination thereof, to determine 
 
 the class hooks to be used in the several schools. 
 
 i 1 to make returns to the secretary of state. 
 
 rhe law requiring the election of a superintend- 
 
 ing committee was repealed in 1833, but was 
 revived in 1 845 by an act which provided for the 
 election of town superintendents, with powers 
 and duties very similar to those already described. 
 — The school law of 1827 required the secre- 
 tary of state to collect school statistics from the 
 towns ; and the same law provided that there 
 should be annually chosen by the legislature a 
 board of commissioners, consisting of five per- 
 sons, to be denominated the Board of Commis- 
 sioners for Common Schools. The board of com- 
 missioners were to meet at least once a year. They 
 were to prepare a list of text-books, and to ad- 
 vise the superintending committees to select 
 from the same for the use of the schools; to ex- 
 amine the effect of the school laws of the state, 
 and if, in their opinion, alterations in said laws 
 were necessary, to specify the same, in their an- 
 nual report to the legislature. The board of 
 commissioners made a report in 1828; and, in 
 I *:{.'}, all laws concerning the supervision of 
 schools were repealed.- V\ ith the restoration of 
 town supervision, in 1845, came the restoration 
 of state supervision by a state superintendent of 
 common schools, annually elected by the general 
 assembly, whose duties were essentially the same 
 as those of the secretary of state and board of 
 commissioners under the law of 1827, except that 
 he was not required to recommend text-books. 
 Six annual elections of state superindendeiit, and 
 six annual reports by that officer, followed the 
 enactment of this law ; but, in 1851, the general 
 assembly refused to choose a superintendent, and 
 thus, through legislative neglect, state super- 
 vision of the schools ceased. It was revived, how- 
 ever, under a new law, in 1856, which provided 
 for a board of education. To this board were in- 
 trusted substantially the same powers as those 
 granted to the earlier board of commissioners, 
 with the added power of appointing a secretary. 
 This officer was to keep a record of the official 
 proceedings of the board, to hold teachers' in- 
 stitutes, to visit all parts of the state and deliver 
 lectures on subjects pertaining to education, to 
 confer with town superintendents and visit 
 schools with them, to collect statistics, and to re- 
 port annually. Afterward, the supervision of the 
 normal schools, provided for in 1866, was com- 
 mitted to the board of education and their 
 secretary. The control and supervision of the 
 schools by a board of education continued till 
 1874, when it was replaced by the present 
 system. 'I he state superintendents have been as 
 follows: Hinder the title of Superintendent of 
 
 Common Schools) Horace Eaton, L845 — 50; 
 Chariest;, liurnham. L850 — 51; (as Secretary of 
 the Board of Education) J.S-. Adams. 1856- 67; 
 A. K. Rankin. 1S(17— 70; John II. French, 
 1870 71: las Superintendent of Education) 
 Edward Conant, elected in 1874. 
 School System. The supervision and control 
 
 of the public schools of the state are Committed to 
 
 a superintendent of education, who is elected 
 biennially by the legislature. Mis duties are 
 
 those discharged 1 >y the secretary of the board ot 
 education previous to 1874. Toum superintend- 
 
VERMONT 
 
 841 
 
 ents are chosen annually by the people. They 
 are required to visit the schools at least once a 
 year, to hold two examinations of teachers cadi 
 year, to grant certificates, and to report to the 
 state superintendent once a year. Each district 
 has a moderator, a clerk, a collector of taxes, a 
 treasurer, one or three auditors, and a prudential 
 committee, consisting of one or three voters re- 
 siding in the district. These are all elected an- 
 nually. The public money belongs to the 
 towns, and is by them distributed to the dis- 
 tricts, where these exist. It is derived from 
 lands reserved for the use of schools in the orig- 
 inal grants of the townships, from gifts to the 
 towns, from the income derived from the United 
 States deposit fund, which is apportioned to the 
 several towns according to their population, and 
 from taxation. Each town using the district sys- 
 tem, is required to appropriate annually as public 
 money for the use of schools, such a sum as 
 would be raised by a tax of nine cents on each 
 dollar of the grand list of the town, increased by 
 one half the income from the United States de- 
 posit fund. Towns using the town system, are 
 required to appropriate as public money all in- 
 come for school purposes, derived from any of 
 the sources mentioned above, except taxation ; 
 and, in these towns, the selectmen may appropriate 
 for the support of schools sums not exceed- 
 ing the amount that would be raised by a tax of 
 fifty cents on a dollar of the grand list of the 
 . town. All other moneys raised for school pur- 
 poses must be voted by the towns or by the dis- 
 tricts- Vermont has no state school fund. Each 
 town is required to support a school or schools, 
 the organization of which according to the town 
 or district system, is optional. The school-dis- 
 trict being the creation of the town, is subject, 
 in every respect, to town control. The public 
 schools are free to the inhabitants of the towns 
 or districts supporting them, and ample facilities 
 are furnished for the establishment and support 
 of graded and high schools. The studies pursued 
 by law in the common schools, are reading, spell- 
 ing, writing, arithmetic, English grammar, geog- 
 raphy, the history and constitution of the United 
 States and of Vermont, and good behavior. The 
 legal school age is from 5 to 20 years ; the 
 school year, 5 months or more. For children 
 between the ages of 8 and 1 4 years, and for a 
 period of 3 months, education is compulsory ; 
 and no child of this age, who has resided a year 
 in the state can, without violation of the law, be 
 employed in any mill or factory, unless he has 
 attended a public school for 3 months during 
 the preceding year. 
 
 Educational Condition. — The number of 
 organized school-districts, in 1874, was 2,224 ; 
 the number of fractional districts, 530 ; the 
 number of common schools, 2,782. The amount 
 of money received during the school year ending 
 March 31., 187(>, was as follows: 
 
 Prom local tax $425,958.69 
 
 " permanent fund 14,193.33 
 
 " oilier sources 40,000.05 
 
 Total $480,158.07 
 
 The expenditures were as follows : 
 
 For salaries of teachers $437,471.27 
 
 " sites, buildings, and fur- 
 niture 07,010.83 
 
 " fuel and incidentals 60,562.47 
 
 Total $505,044.57 
 
 The other chief items of school statistics are : 
 
 Number of children of school age 92,577 
 
 " " " enrolled in coinmoii schools 71,325 
 
 Average daily attendance 39,474 
 
 Number of teachers, males 005 
 
 females 3,448 
 
 Total .TT7TT 4,113 
 
 Normal Instruction. — There are three normal 
 schools in the state — at Castleton, Randolph, 
 and Johnson. Their financial management, and 
 the employing of teachers for them, is committed 
 to local boards of trustees. The arrangement of 
 courses of study is intrusted to the respective 
 boards of trustees and the superintendent of edu- 
 cation. The graduation of students is controlled 
 by a board of examiners, and the teachers em- 
 ployed must be nominated and approved by 
 the state superintendent. The graduates from 
 these schools are licensed to teach in the state for a 
 term of years. An annual appropriation of 
 S 1 .500 is made by the state to each school. — The 
 Chittenden County Teachers' Association, organ- 
 ized in 1847, and the Vermont State Teachers r 
 Association, organized in 1848, hold annual 
 meetings. 
 
 Secondary and Denominational Instruction. 
 — In a few of the large towns, the Roman Cath- 
 olics have established schools for the separate edu- 
 cation of their children, and movements tending 
 to the same end, are said to be in progress in other 
 towns. Private schools, incorporated as academies, 
 grammar schools, seminaries, etc., exist in all 
 parts of the state. The number of incorporated 
 academies, county grammar schools, and academic 
 departments of graded schools is about 100. 
 The number of pupils pursuing higher studies, 
 was reported, in 1875, as 7,334. 
 
 Superior Instruction. — Three institutions of 
 this grade exist in the state as follows : 
 
 . . 
 
 NAME 
 
 Location 
 
 When 
 found- 
 ed 
 
 Denomi- 
 nation 
 
 University of Vermont.. 
 
 Middlebury 
 
 Northfield 
 
 Burlington 
 
 1800 
 1834 
 1791 
 
 Cong. 
 Pr. Epis. 
 Non-sect. 
 
 The Vermont Methodist Seminary and Fe- 
 male College, at Montpelier, is the only institu- 
 tion in the state exclusively devoted to the su- 
 perior instruction of women. The value of its 
 property is estimated at $80,000. In 1875, it 
 hail 8 instructors and 1GG students. The Uni- 
 versity of Vermont also furnishes instruction to 
 women on the same conditions as to men. 
 
 Professional and Scientific Instruction. — The 
 agricultural and scientific department of the 
 University of Vermont constitutes the State 
 Agricultural College, established in 1865. It has 
 three regular courses, — one in theoretical and ap- 
 plied chemistry, one in civil engineering, and one 
 in metallurgy and mining engineering. There is, 
 
842 
 
 VERMONT UNIVERSITY 
 
 VIRGINIA 
 
 also, a literary and scientific course, and a labo- 
 ratory course, the latter for students in the med- 
 ical department, and for teachers in academies 
 who are required to give instruction in chemistry. 
 In 1875, the number of instructors was 7, and 
 the number of students, 20. Instruction in sci- 
 ence is also given in the scientific department of 
 Norwich University, and instruction in medi- 
 cine, in the department for that purpose in the 
 University of Vermont. 
 
 Special Instruction. — The Home for Destitute 
 Children, at Burlington, was founded in 1865, 
 its origin being a small private asylum, opened 
 at that time for seven indigent children. In 
 L8 17, a permanent fund of nearly $50,000, was 
 raised by subscription, and, in 1875, a new 
 building was dedicated and opened. 
 
 VERMONT, University of, at Burling- 
 ton, Vt., was chartered in 1791, and opened in 
 1800. In 1865, the congressional land grant to 
 the state, for the support of an agricultural and 
 mechanical college, was transferred to it, and it 
 was incorporated as the University of Vermont 
 and State Agricultural College. A medical de- 
 partment was organized in 1809. It is supported 
 partly by endowments and partly by tuition fees 
 [570 per annum in the medical and 815 in the 
 other departments). The university has a library 
 of 17,000 volumes and a valuable cabinet of 
 natural history. In the academic department. 
 there is, besides the classical course, a literary- 
 scientific course, embracing Latin, the modern 
 languages, and various branches of science, phys 
 ical, political, mental. and moral. In the agricult- 
 ural and scientific department, there are courses 
 in agriculture, in chemistry, in civil engineering, 
 and in metallurgy and mining engineering. In 
 each department, special courses may be pur- 
 sued by those not candidates for a degree. Both 
 sexes are admitted fco the academic and scien- 
 tific departments. In 1875 — 6, there were 21 in- 
 structors I I 2 in the medical department) and 1 68 
 students (76 medical). The presidents of the 
 university have been as follows : the Rev. Daniel 
 Clarke Sanders. D. 1>., 1800—14 ; the Rev. Sam- 
 uel Austin, D. I)., 1815—21; the Rev. Daniel 
 llaskel. A. M., L821— 4; the Rev. Willard Pres- 
 ton, D. 1)., 1825—6; the Rev. James Marsh, 
 !>.[)., L826— 33; the Rev. John Wheeler, D. D., 
 18:53 — 19; the Rev. Worthington Smith, D. D., 
 1849—55; the Rev. Calvin Pease, D. I)., 1855 
 —61 ; the Rev. Joseph Torrey, D. D., 1862—6; 
 James Burrill Angell, LL.D., 1866—71; and 
 Matthew Henry Buekham, A. M.. since 1871. 
 
 VILLANOVA, Augustinian College of 
 St. Thomas of, commonly called Villanova 
 Oollege, at Villanova, Delaware Uo.. Pa., was 
 (bunded in 1 842, and chartered in 1848. It is a 
 Roman Catholic institution, conducted by Her- 
 mits of the Order of St. Augustine. It is supported 
 by the fees of students, the regular charge for 
 tuition, board, etc. being $150 per session of 
 the months. The libraries contain 8,000 vol- 
 umes. In the classical department, the studies 
 necessary for graduation embrace a period of 
 seven years, three of which are devoted to the 
 
 preparatory classes, and four, to the collegiate. 
 The scientific course requires six years. There 
 is a commercial course of two years. The the- 
 ological department has a four years' course. In 
 1875 — 6, there were 17 instructors (2 theological) 
 and 79 students (13 theological). '1 he presidents 
 have been as follows: (I) Patricius Eugene 
 .Moriarty. O.S.A.; (2) Jno. P. O'Pwyer. U.S.A.; 
 (3) Win. Harnett, U.S.A.; (4) Ambrose A. Mul- 
 len, ( ). S. A. ; (5) Patrick A. Stanton, U. S. A.; 
 (6) Thomas ( J al berry, U.S.A.; (7) the Very Rev. 
 Thomas C. Middle ton, D.D., U.S.A.. the present 
 incumbent (1817). 
 
 VIRGINIA^the oldest of the thirteen orig- 
 inal states of the American Union, having an 
 area of about 45.000 sq. m., and a population, 
 according to the federal census of 1870, of 
 1,225, KJ3, of whom 712,069 were whites, and 
 512,841 colored persons. 
 
 Educational History, — The history of educa- 
 tion in Virginia may be divided into periods 
 marked by the great political epochs of the state: 
 (1) From 1607 to 1776; (II) From 1776 to 1865; 
 (III) From 1865 to the present time. 
 
 I. From 1607 to 1776. — Among the first cares 
 of the Virginia colony was the provision for 
 education. As early as 1619, some provision was 
 made for a college, and for a free preparatory 
 school; but the massacre of 1622 destroyed 
 these nasi cut institutions, and left education 
 without any organized form until the creation 
 of the College of William and .Mary, in 1693. 
 During the first three quarters of the 18th 
 century, this college served well its objects, 
 whilst the lower branches were taught by clergy- 
 men, parents, and chance teachers. The germs 
 of Washington College and Hampden Sidney 
 College were planted near the close of this pe- 
 riod. Some abortive efforts were made to edu- 
 cate Indians and negroes. 
 
 II. From L776 to 1865. — The education of 
 the people was an object of solicitude with the 
 Virginia legislature, even during the Revolution- 
 ary war, as was evinced by the report of an able 
 committee, with Mr. Jefferson at its head, in 
 favor of a scheme of public instruction. The 
 plan reported was finally adopted in 1796, with, 
 however, an important modification, which, by 
 changing it from a mandatory state system to an 
 optional county system, occasioned its failure. 
 'I he next public movement was the creation of a 
 literary fund in 1810, the interest of which was 
 at 6rel devoted exclusively to the education of 
 the poor. This fund grew by the addition of 
 lines, forfeitures, and escheats, until, by the end 
 of the period, it amounted to two millions of 
 dollars, and yielded an annual revenue of about 
 $100,000, of which $80,000 was apportioned 
 among the counties for paying the tuition of 
 th<' poor children, chiefly in private schools, 
 and the remainder was ultimately given to 
 the State University and the Military Institute. 
 — School commissioners wire appointed in every 
 county, to determine what children were entitled 
 to the benefit of the public money, and to pay 
 their tuition fees at a certain fixed rate, which 
 
VIRUINTA 
 
 843 
 
 varied at different times from 4 to 8 cents a day. i 
 Multitudes of children — sometimes more than 
 .'50,000 in one year — were thus sent to school, I 
 who otherwise would have had no opportunity 
 of receiving the simplest elements of education. 
 But badly qualified teachers were often em- 
 ployed, the poor experienced a feeling of humil- 
 iation, ignorance was but slightly diminished, 
 and the working of the system was so unsatis- 
 factory that, every few years, efforts were made 
 to provide something better. In 1829, an act 
 was passed by the legislature, looking to a com- 
 bination of private and public means for the 
 maintenance of schools free to all. To this end. 
 the school commissioners in any county were 
 authorized to district the county, and to offer to 
 contribute two -fifths toward the cost of the 
 building of a school-house in each district, and 
 one hundred dollars towards maintaining a 
 teacher, if the people would do the rest by vol- 
 untary contribution. In a few counties, the ex- 
 periment was tried vigorously, but not with 
 much success anywhere. — Soon after the census 
 of 1840 had revealed, for the first time, the large 
 proportion of illiteracy existing among the 
 whites, a strong and well-nigh successful move- 
 ment was made to establish a state system of 
 public free schools; but, in passing through the 
 legislature, the scheme was marred, as Jefferson's 
 had been before it, by giving it the shape of sim- 
 ply authorizing any county to adopt a free 
 school system for itself. This act was passed in 
 1 846, and nine counties by popular vote adopted 
 the system; but, owing to defects, it was not 
 satisfactory anywhere. The "Pauper System'' 
 still prevailed until the revenues of the Literary 
 Fund were applied to the military defense of the 
 state. — Unsatisfactory as was the condition of 
 primary education during this period, the higher 
 branches, on the other hand, were studied by an 
 unusually large proportion of the Virginian 
 youth. Many young men sought a liberal edu- 
 cation at Harvard and Yale, and especially at 
 Princeton College, while some crossed the ocean. 
 William and Mary. Hampden Sidney, and 
 AVashington colleges supplied the means of ad- 
 vanced education in the state previous to the 
 opening of the State University, in 1825. Sub- 
 sequently were added Randolph Macon, Emory 
 and Heury, Richmond, and Roanoke colleges — 
 of which a more particular account is given else- 
 where. A constantly increasing number of sec- 
 ondary schools existed in the state, and some 
 of them were conducted by highly educated 
 men. — In 1838, an institution was founded by 
 the state for the instruction and maintenance of 
 the deaf and dumb and the blind, and was en- 
 dowed with an annuity of 835,000. The only 
 special -provision for female education consisted 
 of private and denominational academies. 
 
 III. From 1865 to 1875. — At the close of 
 the civil war. in 1865, schools of all grades were 
 prostrate within the territory remaining to Vir- 
 ginia; but immediate efforts were made to revive 
 them and the census showed that the general 
 school attendance in 1870 was not greatly below 
 
 that of I860. By this time, however, about one- 
 sixth of the pupils were colored, owing to the 
 establishment of colored schools by northern so- 
 cieties and by the Kreedmen's Bureau. Increased 
 poverty and the failure of revenue from the 
 literary Fund occasioned the falling off of at- 
 tendance among the whites. — In 1869. the new 
 state constitution prepared by the convention of 
 1867—8, assembled under the Congressional 
 Reconstruction Acts, became the organic law of 
 the state. This constitution provided for a 
 system of public free schools to be supported by 
 taxation, state and local, and by the interest 
 derived from the Literary Fund. The system 
 was to be administered impartially as between 
 the races, and to be in full operation by 1876. 
 The first legislature which met after the adop- 
 tion of the constitution promptly took up the 
 subject, chose a state superintendent of public 
 instruction, and, on the 11th of July, 1870, 
 passed a complete school law, embodying a 
 thorough and effective public free-school system, 
 which was immediately put into successful oper- 
 ation, and has grown stea' ily in strength and 
 usefulness. — Before the establishment of the 
 public-school system in Virginia, we ascertain, 
 from the census of I860 ;md other sources, that 
 there were about 67,000 children attending school 
 in the present limits of Virginia, of whom 31,500 
 were pau] er children, whose instruction was paid 
 for out of a portion of the interest of the Liter- 
 ary Fund. The entire amount expended on 
 these pauper children was $80,000, so that the 
 instruction received was very rudimentary. There 
 has been no great change in the aggregate of 
 population of the counties now constituting Vir- 
 ginia since 1850. It may, therefore, be instructive 
 to observe the school attendance in all schools: 
 public and private, at different periods: 
 
 In 1850 51,808 (U. S. Census) 
 
 " 1860 67,024 " 
 
 " 1*70 58,974 
 
 " 1875 207,771 (Va. School Returns) 
 
 Of these, the colored pupils were about 10,000 
 in 1870, and 58,760 in 1875. — 
 
 Almost immediately on the establishment of 
 the public-school system, in 1870, the number 
 of pupils attending the public schools alone was 
 more than twice as great as the total number 
 which had, at any time previous, been found in 
 schools of all sorts; and, besides this, there were 
 over 20,000 children attendingthe privateschools. 
 While, in 1870, according to the U. S. census, 
 taken for 1869 — 70, the number of pupils enrolled 
 in schools of all sorts was 58.974; in 1870 — 71, 
 the total number was 157,841. or an increase of 
 nearly 100,000 in one year. The enrollment of 
 whites was more than doubled, while the colored 
 pupils increased fourfold. Excepting one year, 
 there was a gain in the public schools every year, 
 for the first five years, in the attendance of both 
 white and colored pupils. The number of whites 
 increased from 89, 734, in 1871, to 129,545, iu 
 1875: that of the colored pupils, from 38,554, 
 in 1871, to 54,941, in 1*75. — About 825,000, 
 more or less has been annually distributed in the 
 
844 
 
 VIRGINIA 
 
 state from the Peabody fund. The object and 
 conditions of distribution are the same in Vir- 
 ginia as in the other Southern States. The money 
 has been exceedingly useful, far more than would 
 have been the same amount forming part of the 
 ordinary local funds. There has been but one 
 state superintendent in Virginia, — - William 
 II. Ruffner, LL.D., elected in 1&70, and still in 
 office (1877). 
 
 School System. — The system is administered 
 by a state board of education, a superintend- 
 ent of public instruction, county and city 
 superintendents of schools, and district trustees. 
 The board of education consists of the gov- 
 ernor, the superintendent of public instruction, 
 and the attorney-general. Tt controls the state 
 school fund, appoints and removes county and 
 city superintendents, and also district trustees. 
 the latter absolutely, and the former subject 
 to confirmation by the senate. The city school 
 trustees are appointed by the city councils, but 
 are removable by the state board. There are no 
 popular votes in reference to either school offi- 
 cers or taxation. The state board is the final 
 tribunal for the decision of all appeals from the 
 action of the state superintendent. It is also 
 charged with regulating uniformity of text- 
 books, and all other matters of detail not ex- 
 pressly provided for by the law. The super- 
 intendent of public instruction is elected by the 
 legislature for four years, and receives a salary 
 Of $2,000, and 8500 additional for traveling ex- 
 penses, lie is provided with an office in the 
 state capitol, and has two clerks, lie is the chief 
 executive officer of the school system. His duties 
 are to see to the enforcement of the school laws 
 and regulations, and to promote an educational 
 spirit among the people, to interpret the school 
 laws, to decide appeals from the action of the 
 comity superintendents, to instruct and super- 
 vise the school officers, to provide blanks, to ap- 
 portion state school funds, to make tours of in- 
 spection, to require reports of local officers, and 
 to make an annual report, which goes to the 
 legislature through the board of education, and 
 is printed at state expense. ' ounty and city 
 superintendents are appointed for four years; 
 their pay is graduated according to population 
 and number of schools, but outside of the cities 
 no superintendent can receive less than $200 
 a year; which is drawn entirely from state 
 funds. They are charged with the usual duties 
 of such officers in the most approved school 
 systems. There are three, district school 
 trustees in each magisterial district (which cor- 
 
 res] Is to the township in other states). 
 
 Besidea the district boards, there is a county 
 
 school board, compose I of all the district trustees, 
 
 with the county superintendent as president 
 
 The county board annually examines the records 
 
 and vouchers of the district boards, and furnishes 
 
 to the Supervisors of the county estimates for 
 
 the amounts wanted for school purposes. Teach- 
 ers are examined and licensed by the count) 
 Superintendent, ami appointed by the district 
 boards under written contracts, Thesix primary 
 
 branches, reading, spelling, writing, arithmetic, 
 grammar, and geography, are required to be 
 taught in all the public schools, and other branches 
 are allowed in the rural districts under restric- 
 tions. The law imposes no restriction on studies 
 or the general management in the larger cities, 
 the subject being regulated by the city school 
 boards. The schools are free to all children be- 
 tween 5 and '21 years of age, residing in the dis- 
 trict, without charge for tuition, except that a 
 monthly charge of S'2.50 may be made for the 
 higher branches, which are taught, under pre- 
 scribed regulations, in some of the schools. Kqual 
 educational privileges are secured by law to white 
 and colored children, but they must be taught 
 in separate schools. The minimum school term 
 is 5 months, and 15 is the minimum number of 
 pupils prescribed to constitute a school. School- 
 houses are provided and furnished at the expense 
 of the district. School funds are derived from the 
 state, the county, and the district. The state funds 
 embrace the interest on the Literary Fund, a 
 capitation tax of one dollar on every male citizen, 
 and a tax of one mill on every dollar's worth 
 of property in the slate. Out of the state funds 
 are paid the expenses of flu- central office, and a 
 portion of the salaries of the county and city 
 .superintendents; the rest is apportioned among 
 the counties and cities to lie used exclusively for 
 the payment of teachers, except that the county 
 superintendent's salary may be supplemented 
 from this source in an amount not exceeding 
 that received from the state. District funds 
 (where they do not exceed a property levy of •"> 
 cents on the $] 00) are used exclusively for school - 
 houses, furniture, incidental expenses, and for 
 buying books for indigent children. Local funds 
 are raised by the supervisors on the presentation 
 
 of estimates from the school boards, but the 
 estimates may be cut down by the supervisors. 
 Cities having more than 10,000 inhabitants are 
 allowed to manage their own school affairs in 
 mosi respects. 
 
 Educational Condition. — The whole number 
 of school-districts in the state is 458; of public 
 schools, 4,185. The graded system has been 
 adopted in all the cities and towns, and in many 
 thickly-settled country places; so that, in 1 BtS, 
 there were L55 of such organizations, each hav- 
 ing from '2 to l.'i teachers. Some of the higher 
 branches are usually taught in the upper grades. 
 The schools are, with some exceptions, for both 
 sexes. 
 
 The most important school statistics (for 1 ^ 7 •> 
 
 arc the following: 
 
 Whole number. <>f pupils enrolled 184,486 
 
 iu.nverage attendance. 108..!i27 
 
 Percentage of school population enrolled. 38.2 
 
 No. of teachers in (nil 'lie schools 4,262 
 
 Average number of months schools were taught 6.59 
 
 Value ol publics-school pronei tv (757.181 
 
 Entire expenditure fur public education . . . . SI .<* - 1 
 
 Vverage monthly Balary of teachers $:!i>. W 
 
 Whole no.ofpupils in public and private Bchools207,-77l 
 ■■ leathers " 5.5S1 
 
 tfm'mal In sir ucfidn. —Legal provision has not 
 vet been made for normal instruction. There 
 
VIRGINIA 
 
 845 
 
 are three colored normal schools supported by 
 foreign means; and normal courses are supplied 
 by some of the colleges. This is .the case in 
 Roanoke College, at Salem, and (for females) in 
 llollins Institute, and Marion Female College. 
 The Hampton Normal and Agricultural Insti- 
 tute is accomplishing an important work, in the: 
 education of colored teachers. In 1ST"), it had 
 18 instructors and 243 students. — Teachers' in- 
 stitutes are held in most of the counties of the 
 state ; and the larger of these receive assistance 
 from the Peabody fund. 
 
 Secondary Instruction. — Three cities have 
 public high schools, separated from the lower 
 grades, and organized somewhat differently. But, 
 commonly the higher branches form a mere con- 
 tinuation of the lower, and are somewhat inter- 
 woven with them; and, as a means of supple- 
 menting the public funds, a law, passed in 1874, 
 allows a tuition fee to be charged of $2.50 per 
 month, which is the only fee allowed in con- 
 nection with the public-school system. Efforts 
 are making to define the limits of secondary 
 education, both public and private. 
 
 Private and Corporate Schools. — Taking all 
 grades of education, about 25,000, or less than 
 one-eighth of the school-going population, are 
 now educated outside of the state schools. The 
 number of private schools (exclusively primary) 
 is about G50. They are chiefly alphabet schools, 
 or those intended for children of from five to 
 ten years of age. There are also from 160 to 175 
 private schools, called academies or classical 
 schools, nearly every one of which has a primary 
 department in which a majority of the pupils arc 
 found. A few schools (including some orphan 
 asylums) are supported by church contributions, 
 the most of which are Catholic or Episcopal. A 
 large proportion of the academies, particularly 
 those for girls, are under some special denomi- 
 national influence. Superior teachers are often 
 found in these schools, both for females and for 
 males. Female incorporated academies are 
 more numerous, and generally better provided 
 for than those for males, and some of them are 
 called colleges. But as respects college education 
 proper, there has been no provision made for 
 girls from either private or public means, to be 
 compared with that made for boys. The higher 
 branches are taught, to a greater or less extent, 
 in about seventy female schools, twenty of 
 which are incorporated. There are about sixty 
 private male schools for secondary instruction, 
 only six of which are incorporated. Some of the 
 corporate academies have small endowments, but 
 the great majority of the schools are wholly de- 
 pendent on tuition fees and board bills. Besides 
 the academies for one or the other sex, there are 
 about 40 in which girls and boys are taught to- 
 gether. There is a very small number of elee- 
 mosynary boarding-schools, supported by the an- 
 nual interest of funds given by benevolent indi- 
 viduals. The number of pupils in private 
 schools, both primary and secondary, in 1 875, 
 was 23,285, of whom 19,4(J(J were white, and 
 3,819. colored children. 
 
 Superior Instruction* — The important insti- 
 tutions of this grade are enumerated in the fol- 
 lowing table : 
 
 NAME 
 
 Emory & Henry Coll.. 
 
 Hampden Sidney Coll. 
 
 Randolph Macon Coll. 
 
 Richmond College. . . 
 
 Roanoke College 
 
 I University of Virginia 
 
 Washington & Lee Un. 
 ! William & Mary Coll. . 
 
 Location 
 
 When 
 
 Religious 
 
 found- 
 
 denomi- 
 
 ed 
 
 nation 
 
 1838 
 
 M E. 8. 
 
 1775 
 
 Presb. 
 
 1832 
 
 M R. S. 
 
 1841 
 
 Eaptist 
 
 1853 
 
 Luth. 
 
 1819 
 
 Non sect. 
 
 1749 
 
 Non sect. 
 
 1693 
 
 Non sect. 
 
 Emory 
 
 Haiup. Sidney 
 
 Ashland 
 
 Richmond 
 
 Salem 
 
 Charlottesville 
 
 Lexington 
 
 Williamsburg 
 
 For further information in regard to these institu- 
 tions, see under their respective titles.) 
 
 There were 9 institutions for the superior in- 
 struction of women that reported to the United 
 States Bureau of Education in 1875, as follows: 
 Albemarle Female Institute (non-sectarian), at 
 Charlottesville; Farmville College (Meth. Epis. 
 S.),at Farmville; llollins Institute (Baptist), at 
 Botetourt Springs; Marion Female Institute 
 (Evangelical Lutheran), at Marion; Martha. 
 Washington College (Meth. Epis.), at Abingdon; 
 Petersburg Female College (Methodist), at Pe- 
 tersburg ; Southern Female College (non- sec- 
 tarian), at Petersburg; Virginia Female Institute 
 (non-sectarian) , at Staunton ; and Wesleyan 
 Female Institute (Meth. Epis. S.). at Staunton. 
 Most of these institutions are authorized to 
 confer degrees. 
 
 Professional and Scientific Instruction. — The 
 institutions which afford instruction in science, 
 theology, law, and medicine, are enumerated 
 below : 
 
 Schools of Science. 
 
 Namk 
 
 Location 
 
 1S70 
 
 1870 
 
 1872 
 1839 
 
 CO 
 
 u 
 o 
 
 c 
 20 
 
 7 
 18 
 
 O P 
 
 . a> 
 o "O 
 
 w 
 
 Hampton Normal and Agri- 
 New Market Polytechnic In- 
 
 Hampton 
 
 New Market 
 
 Blacksburg 
 Lexington 
 
 208 
 
 Virginia Agricultural and 
 
 Mechanical College 
 
 Virginia Military Institute. 
 
 222 
 221 
 
 The Hampton Normal and Agricultural In- 
 stitute is a manual labor school, and a reproduc- 
 tion of the Lahainaluna School in the Sand- 
 wich Islands. It is intended for colored stu- 
 dents of both sexes. The boys are taught 
 (besides the ordinary elementary and academic 
 branches) farm work and carpenter work, and 
 the girls, sewing and domestic work. It was 
 established by northern people, in conjunction 
 with the Freedmen's Bureau, and has received 
 probably .$500,000 from sources beyond the 
 state. The Virginia Agricultural and Mechan- 
 ical College was opened in 1872, and is sup- 
 ported almost exclusively by the proceeds 
 of two-thirds of the" land scrip donated by 
 Congress, the other third having been as- 
 signed to the colored school at Hampton — the 
 entire proceeds of the scrip amounting to 
 about $30,000. The state legislature has given 
 945,000 for buildings, and $20,000 was paid by 
 
«46 
 
 VIRGINIA 
 
 VJRGINIA UNIVERSITY 
 
 the county where it is located ( Montgomery). 
 The scheme of the college fixes it at about the 
 grade of a high school, with special scientific 
 and practical developments. It has a three 
 years' curriculum, bifurcating after the first year 
 into a special agricultural and a special mechan- 
 ical course, each of two years. The Virginia 
 Military Institute was opened at Lexington, in 
 183!), on a plan similar to that of West Point, 
 and at once became popular. The annuity, 
 originally $6,000, was subsequently increased :o 
 $15,000; and the number of cadets, before tne 
 war was about 250 (50 of them being state 
 cadets). The buildings were burned in 1804; 
 but since the war they have been restored, and 
 the institution has been more flourishing than 
 ever. The academic staff consists of 1 1 profess- 
 ors and 9 assistants, the course of study, which 
 is chiefly of a military and scientific character, 
 being arranged for four years. Instruction in 
 industrial chemistry, civil and mining engineer- 
 ing, and agriculture, is also given in special de- 
 partments of the University of Virginia, and in 
 civil and mining engineering in Washington and 
 Lae University. 
 
 Schools OP Tiii:oi,ooy. 
 
 Name 
 
 Richmond Institute. . 
 St.. tohu's Theol. Sem. 
 Theol. Sem. of the Ev. 
 
 Lutli. Church 
 
 Theol. Sem. of the 
 
 Prot. Epis. Church. 
 Union Theol. Sem. of 
 
 the Gen. Assembly. 
 
 The Richmond 
 
 Location 
 
 Richmond 
 
 Norfolk 
 
 Salem 
 Fairfax Co. 
 
 When i Religions 
 
 found- 1 denomi- 
 
 ed I nation 
 
 1868 iBaptist 
 — R. C. 
 
 1831 
 1823 
 
 1824 
 
 Luth. 
 Pr. Epis. 
 Presb. 
 
 Hampden Sidney 
 
 Institute was established for 
 the purpose of preparing colored young men for 
 the ministry, or for teaching. The qualifications 
 for admission are a good moral character and fair 
 intellectual ability. The number of instructors, 
 in 187"), was 3; the number of students, 45. 
 The Theological Seminary of the Evangelical 
 Lutheran Church, in 1875, had 3 instructors 
 and 1 1 students; the Theological Seminary of 
 the Protestant Episcopal Church, during the 
 same year, had 5 instructors and 51 students; and 
 the Union Theological Seminary of the Pres- 
 byterian General Assembly, 4 instructors and 74 
 students. — Law is taught in the Law School of 
 the University of Virginia, and the School of 
 Law and Equity of Washington and Lee Uni- 
 versity. In the former, the number of instruct- 
 ors, in 1875, was 2 ; the number of students, 93; 
 in the latter. 2 instructors and 17 students. — 
 The Medical College of Virginia, at Richmond, 
 is the only medical school in the state not con- 
 nected with a college or university. It was 
 founded in 1851, and, in 1875, had 18 profess- 
 ors and instructors and 37 students. The 
 course of study covers 2 years. Instruction in 
 medicine is also given in the medical depart- 
 ment of the University of Virginia, which pro- 
 vides a course of a year, and, in 1875, numbered 
 50 students and 5 professors. The equipment 
 
 tri the latter department for medical instruction 
 
 | is very complete, and. in some respects, its facil- 
 ities for this purpose are unequalled. 
 
 Special Instruction. — The Institution for the 
 Education of the Deaf and Dumb, and the 
 Blind, was opened in 1838, at Staunton. In- 
 struction is given in the elementary branches of 
 an English education, and in several trades and 
 mechanical pursuits. There were 7 instructors 
 and 100 pupils in the deaf-mute department, in 
 1 875 ; and in the department for the blind, 8 
 instructors and employes, and 42 pupils. The 
 Miller Manual Labor School had not been 
 opened up to the summer of 1870 ; but it has 
 an endowment of 81.000.000 left for its founda- 
 tion by the will of Samuel Miller, of Lynch- 
 burg, who died in 1809. leaving also the sum of 
 $300,000 for founding and maintaining an 
 orphan asylum at Lynchburg, and §100,000 to 
 the University of Virginia for an agricultural 
 department. The Manual Labor School, in the 
 county of Albemarle, is for the benefit of the 
 poor orphan white children of that county. 
 
 Educational Literature. — The Educational 
 Journal (monthly) is published jointly by the 
 state association of teachers and the superin- 
 tendent of public instruction, 12 pages of which 
 are official, and paid for out of the school funds. 
 A copy of the journal is sent to each county 
 superintendent, and also to the clerk of each 
 district school board. 
 
 VIRGINIA, University of, in Albemarle 
 Co., Va., a mile and a half west of Charlottes- 
 ville, was chartered in 1819 and opened in 1824. 
 It owes its organization, plan of government, and 
 system of instruction to 'I homas Jefferson. It is 
 partly supported by an annual state appropri- 
 ation of $30,000. and partly by tuition fees. In 
 consideration of the appropriation, the university 
 receives, free of tuition in the academic schools, 
 students from the state over 1 8 years of age who 
 have a suitable preparation. The tuition fees are 
 ordinarily from §75 to §110 per year. The uni- 
 versity library contains 30.000 volumes. Appli- 
 cants for admission must be at least 16 years of 
 age. In establishing the university of Virginia 
 Mr. Jefferson, for the first time in America, 
 threw open the doors of a University, in the true 
 sense of the name, providing, as amply as the 
 available means would permit, for thorough in- 
 struction in independent schools, in all the chief 
 branches of learning. Every student may select 
 the schools he will attend, but in the academic 
 department he is required, as a rule, to attend at 
 least three. The professors are paid in part by 
 salaries, and in part by tuition fees from pu- 
 pils who attend their several schools. The 
 schools in operation are as follows: 1. Latin; 
 2, Creek: 3, modem languages: 4, moral philos- 
 ophy; 6, history, general literature, and rhetoric: 
 6, mathematics; 7. natural philosophy (including 
 mineralogy and geology) ; B, general and applied 
 chemistry ; '.'. applied mathematics, engineering, 
 and architecture ; 10, analytical and agricultural 
 chemistry; 11, natural history, experimental and 
 practical agriculture; 12, comparative anatomy, 
 physiology, and surgery; 1 3, anatomy and materia 
 
VOICE 
 
 8-17 
 
 medica; 14, medical jurisprudence, obstetrics, 
 and the practice of medicine; 15, chemistry and 
 pharmacy; 16, common and statute law; 17, 
 equity, mercantile, international, constitutional 
 and civil law, and government. The academic 
 degrees conferred by the university are those 
 of (I) Proficient, for satisfactory attainments 
 in certain subjects of study; (2) Graduate in a 
 school; (3j Bachelor of Letters; (4.) Bachelor of 
 Science; (5) Bachelor of Arts; and ((>) Master of 
 Arts. The professional degrees are Bachelor of 
 Law, Doctor of Medicine, Civil Engineer, Mining 
 Engineer, and Civil and Mining Engineer. No 
 fixed time is required for the attainment of a 
 degree; but, in some of the principal schools, the 
 course commonly occupies three years. In 1875 
 — G, there were 17 instructors and 330 students. 
 .Tames F. Harrison, M.D., is (1877) the chair- 
 man of the faculty. 
 
 VOICE, Culture of the. The human voice 
 may be considered as the audible expression of 
 the mental and physical characteristics of its pos- 
 sessor; and, therefore, no means employed in the 
 varied processes of education are of more impor- 
 tance than those that have regard to its culture. 
 Its powers are often widely misunderstood and 
 misapplied, sometimes abused and destroyed. 
 In the very beginning of education, large num- 
 bers of boys, in addition to marked inherited 
 peculiarities, such as defective ears, weak lungs, 
 asthmatic and husky bronchial tubes, contracted 
 chests, elongated palates, and inflamed, swollen 
 tonsils, are permitted to indulge in the perni- 
 cious habit of loud shouting and hurrahing, and 
 in the baleful and distressing use of the chest 
 tones, so frequently heard in the singing of male 
 pupils. Every boy should be made to under- 
 stand that if he thus abuses his voice, he must not 
 expect to overcome his constitutional defects, or 
 retain a tone which, even by assiduous practice, 
 will become agreeable to his audience, in read- 
 ing, declamation, or vocal music. Girls, while in 
 many instances they have all the inherited dis- 
 advantages above referred to, present, through 
 their more delicate organization and guarded 
 habits, far more promising material for the pro- 
 duction of purely musical effects. Parents and 
 teachers may well take warning, also, in the 
 education of either boys or girls, against a long- 
 continued strain upon their vocal chords. Many 
 a young voice has been completely ruined 
 by this untimely forcing of the powers of the 
 youthful candidate for declamatory or musical 
 honors. A child five years of age, for example, 
 is placed on a chair, to amuse a large audience, 
 by speaking or singing in a forced utterance, 
 and with an unnaturally loud chest tone, entirely 
 beyond its years, or powers of endurance. Such 
 a tax upon its vocal chords, if long continued, 
 is exceedingly injurious. The medium or fal- 
 setto tone, that most mellow, most musical, most 
 sweet and expressive part of the female voice, or 
 of the unchanged voice of the boy, gradually de- 
 teriorates, and is finally lost by this injurious 
 process. The remedy for this destruction lies 
 in the early protection of the health, and in the 
 
 careful use of the young voice, at home, in 
 school, in the church, and wherever there is any 
 danger of this overstraining of its powers. The 
 vocal exercises should be within a limited com- 
 pass, — neither too high nor too low. All for- 
 cing of the voice should be positively forbidden 
 and avoided; and each lesson should come to a 
 close without fatigue. An easy and systematic 
 mode of breathing should be an early acquisi- 
 tion, since it lies at the foundation of all success 
 in singing, as well as in speaking. Tone, of itself, 
 being nothing more nor less than breath, or air 
 in motion through contact with a sonorous body, 
 it is important to know, to some degree at least, 
 the character of the organs which enter into 
 the production of vocal tone. All cultivated 
 speakers and singers are conscious of a thorough 
 employment of the abdominal muscles, and of 
 those of the diaphragm, in order to secure com- 
 plete control of the breath. Inhaling, however, 
 may be carried to excess, a result well known to 
 professional dramatic vocalists, who often pro- 
 tect themselves against rupture by wearing 
 shoulder braces, trusses, and abdominal sup- 
 porters. Exhaling involves that careful use of 
 the diaphragm, which keeps the intercostal 
 nerves and muscles in a state of tension, in or- 
 der that the lungs may have their fullest play. 
 To know when and where to inhale and to 
 exhale, is as necessary to the speaker, in his 
 written or extern paraneously delivered sen- 
 tences, as it is to the singer, in the enuncia- 
 tion of his musical phrases; and, in such case, 
 it assumes the dignity of consummate art, — 
 an indispensable and prime necessity to the con- 
 scientious interpreter of either classic language 
 or classic music. Without ease, sustained repose, 
 and a method made effective through long habit, 
 in the management of the breath, all subsequent 
 attention to details in the art of speaking or 
 singing is measurably lost. Demosthenes, with 
 pebbles in his mouth, declaiming to the winds 
 and waves on the sea-shore, and Braham, lifting 
 up his voice amid the hills and forests of North- 
 umberland, may profitably be remembered and 
 imitated by all students who desire to remedy 
 defects, anil to acquire new breathing power. — 
 A graceful attitude, and thorough skill in the 
 proper use of the breath being gained, the close 
 sympathy always existing between the bronchial 
 tubes and the stomach next demands attention. 
 A rapid and complete digestion is esteemed by 
 all intelligent persons the greatest of physical 
 blessings; and to no one is it a more necessary 
 condition of success than to the public speaker 
 or singer. So important is this to the pro- 
 fessional vocalist, that those times, in the daily 
 routine of duty, which find the lungs and 
 bronchial tubes freest from the oppression aris- 
 ing from sympathy with the stomach, in its 
 process of digestion, should be selected for prac- 
 tice. Proceeding upward toward the organs of 
 articulation, we arrive at the trachea, or wind- 
 pipe, the larynx, and the pharynx. Tt is a pro- 
 lific subject of discussion among speakers and 
 singers, wdiether the character of the tone de 
 
848 
 
 VOICE 
 
 pjnds as much upon the size of the lungs, the 
 bronchial tubes, the windpipe, the larynx, and 
 the pharynx, as it does upon the condition of 
 the muscles and nerves, and more remotely still 
 upon the general organization, temperament, 
 will, and endurance of the speaker or singer. It 
 is surprising to notice the compass and the 
 variety of tone which the larynx can produce, 
 by using the vowels alone. Beginning with the 
 lowest sounds of the base voice, and ascending 
 in regular order through its limits, of one and a 
 half or two octaves; through the compass of 
 the baritone, with a similar register, though 
 somewhat higher in pitch; and, successively, 
 through the registers assigned to the tenor, 
 contralto, mezzo-soprano, and soprano voices, 
 there is embraced a compass of four octaves of 
 available tones, susceptible of cultivation to an 
 almost infinite degree of excellence. Base voices 
 routine themselves mainly to the use of the 
 chest tones throughout their entire register; but 
 J he barytones by a prudent use of the somber 
 tone, and of the medium register, greatly increase 
 the pure quality and flexibility of the higher 
 portions of their voices. For the orator or 
 tleclaimer, there is no quality of tone compar- 
 able to that of the orotund base or barytone 
 voice ; and, in the oratorio and opera, it is as- 
 signed to characters of inherent dignity and 
 force. The tenor voice, undoubtedly, demands 
 a combination of native and acquired qualities, 
 which, in some countries, are exceedingly rare. 
 In its uncultivated state it is thin, reedy, and 
 somewhat nasal ; but steady, persevering prac- 
 tice upon the open vowels ah, oh, and oo, soon 
 corrects this defect, and renders the tenor, of all 
 male voices, the most tender and expressive. 
 (j reat care shouli 1 be exercised by tenor voices, lest 
 the clear timbre of the chest tone be carried too 
 high, thereby crushing out the delicacy of the 
 real medium register, which is the most flexible 
 and available part of the tenor voice. The 
 contralto, mezzo-soprano, and soprano voices en- 
 counter a similar difficulty, at the very outset of 
 their practice, in combining the chest with the 
 falsetto or medium voice. While this difficulty 
 occurs in the higher register of the male voice, 
 it is found in the lower register of the female 
 voice, and presents obstacles in the way of 
 cultivation, which nothing but long and per- 
 sistent practice can overcome, though the strain 
 upon the nervous system is far less than 
 that experienced by the male voice. The 
 contralto yields to no other female voice in 
 depth and richness of tone, as is clearly evident 
 after listening to singers like D'Angri and Al- 
 boni. Naturally not so flexible as the soprano 
 or mezzo-soprano, it is yet endowed with a won- 
 derful power in causing effects replete with the 
 most anient passion, and with the most noble 
 womanly feeling. There is a great temptation 
 to abuse the lower register of the contralto 
 voice by indulging in the disagreeable habit of 
 forcing the chest tones to a point bordering 
 upon masculineness. if not positive coarseness. 
 The practice of descending runs, diatonic and 
 
 chromatic, using the medium, veiled, or somber 
 tone, will gradually change this objectionable 
 habit. There are not wanting cases, either, of 
 contralto voices which have been destroyed by 
 attempts to cultivate the tone and compass of 
 the soprano, — a process absurd and unnatural 
 to the last degree. Notwithstanding the efforts 
 of some late authors to ignore the division of 
 the female voice into at least three different 
 registers, namely, the chest, the medium or fal- 
 setto, and the head ; these registers are now gen- 
 erally recognized by the highest and most 
 competent authorities. Elaborate methods and 
 studies for the development of the contralto, 
 mezzo-soprano, and soprano voices have been 
 devised with these three divisions constantly 
 in view. Home even assert that there are live 
 distinct registers, requiring as many different 
 modes of producing the tone, — a condition of 
 the larynx and pharynx suggesting an expert- 
 ness in the management of the voice which may 
 well be deemed bewildering. It is, however, too 
 certain to admit of a doubt, that the voices of 
 the most accomplished female vocalists living 
 have been trained by recognizing this division 
 into the chest, medium or falsetto, and head 
 registers, and are. moreover, preserved in their 
 wonted availability by adhering to the same 
 method. Allusion has been made to the phar- 
 ynx, or arched chamber immediately back of the 
 palate, a most important modifier of the voice 
 in its passage from the larynx, aud the expan- 
 sion and contraction of which gives greater or 
 less volume of tone, especially if the root of the 
 tongue be not artificially enlarged, so as to 
 produce an impure (hroaliness of tone, frequent- 
 ly heard in voices imperfectly cultivated and 
 badly managed. To know the important in- 
 fluence of a healthy pharynx under complete 
 control, it is only necessary to compare the voice 
 of one possessing it. with that of a vocalist suffer- 
 ing with a cold in the head, or with a catarrhal 
 affection ami swollen tonsils. The difference in 
 the clearness of the vibrations, and in the dif- 
 fusive character of the tone, is very perceptible 
 and marked. — A clear knowledge of the organs 
 which are employed in producing a vocal tone, 
 and of the proper combination of the registers 
 to secure power, purity, and equality throughout 
 the entire vocal compass being gained, the organs 
 of articulation present themselves for particular 
 consideration; and this leads directly to the sub- 
 ject of musical elocution. System and facility 
 in breathing, the employment of all the proper 
 organs, in their healthy condition, for the pro- 
 duction of a pure tone, expertness in reading 
 music, and the minutest attention to attitude 
 and gesture, will all fail to produce an impression 
 worth remembering, unless a true conception of 
 the meaning of the words and music, a bold 
 enunciation, a distinct articulation, a well- 
 rounded phrasing, ami an accurate intonation 
 be added to the acquirements of the finished 
 vocalist. Conception relates to both words and 
 music. If it be necessary for the speaker to 
 study well the signification of words, in order to 
 
VOM'K 
 
 849 
 
 get at the true meaning of the poet, it is even 
 more necessary for the singer lo do so, since the 
 effect of melody and harmony upon all per- 
 sons, is such as to deprive them, measurably, 
 of the power, for the time being, of judging of 
 the signification of words. '1 he singer who rests 
 upon the simple effect of his melody, is certainly 
 as weak as the speaker who relies upon his man- 
 ner of uttering tine language, rather than upon 
 the strength of the ideas involved. A true con- 
 ception, it is hardly necessary to add, is the 
 rarest of possessions among modern vocalists. 
 Pronunciation, in its musical connection, not- 
 only implies that enunciation, or careful throw- 
 ing out of each syllable a. id word which good 
 speech and declamation require, but also that 
 which, not particularly recognizing the inflec- 
 tions of reading or declamation, is entirely ab- 
 sorbed in the far more permeating channel of 
 sound, a melody or recitative song according to 
 a given key or scale. Dr. Hush alludes to this as 
 the special advantage which the singer has over 
 the speaker. Slowness and quickness of utter- 
 ance are also controlled, to so great a degree, in 
 music, by the relations of the notes, the bar, the 
 fractional measure-marks, and words indicating 
 varieties of movement, that there is left less lib- 
 erty to the singer than to the speaker, in many 
 lvspects. But such curtailment of liberty (which 
 liberty, by the way, is often a clog to inex- 
 perienced speakers), and, by consequence, greater 
 concentration upon the characteristics of the 
 melody, only tie the singer to a more vivid con- 
 ception of the subject, and to a more distinct 
 pronunciation of the words. For the correction 
 of marked inelegancies of pronunciation, whether 
 of foreign or native growth, no means are so 
 effective as the careful study of the classic lan- 
 guages, together with the study of the principal 
 modern languages taught by native professors. 
 Of these latter, the Italian is most musical in it- 
 self, and, therefore, is most useful to the musical 
 student, whose pronunciation of his native lan- 
 guage, particularly if he be English or German, 
 will be vastly improved by often reading and 
 singing in the most euphonious of modern lan- 
 guages. Of distinct articulation, it may in gen- 
 eral be said, that the vowels only are sung, while 
 the consonants are articulated ; in other words, 
 that the vowels are sung, and the consonants are 
 spoken. In vocalizing alone, the larynx, obedient 
 to the mind and will, performs unassisted, save 
 by the lungs, trachea, pharynx, and diaphragm, 
 all those changes which promote power, purity, 
 sweetness, and flexibility of tone. Some slight 
 changes in the position of the jaws, tongue, and 
 lips are necessary in vocalizing with all, ee, oh, 
 and oo ; but only the consonants, as initial, in- 
 termediate, or final letters, require a constant 
 and vigorous use of the tongue, teeth, and lips, 
 which are the chief agents in acquiring an effect- 
 ive articulation. Full respirations should be 
 the rule, and partial respirations the exception. 
 In plain music, where one or two notes are ap- 
 propriated to a syllable, the article should not 
 be separated from the noun or qualifying adjee- 
 54 
 
 tive. nor the adjective from the noun, by a sepa- 
 rate breathing; nor should the syllables of a word 
 be separated. Long diatonic or chromatic runs, 
 arpeggios, trills, and cadenzas, must, however, be 
 executed with an unbroken continuity of the 
 musical phrase. The orotund basso or barytone, 
 as well as the rich and deep contralto, require to 
 be particular in their articulation, in order to be 
 heard, since the very fullness of their voices pro- 
 duces a resonance not easily overcome in huge 
 assembly rooms. Good phrasing implies good 
 singing; such a knowledge of the composer's idea 
 on the part of the singer, as shall not mar, to say 
 the least, either the poetic or musical symmetry 
 of what is sung. The singer should be able to 
 analyze the phrases he sings, in order that, in 
 melodic and harmonic construction, he may dis- 
 cover where they begin, how they progress, and 
 where they end. But, if he cannot do this, he 
 should be able, intuitively to grasp a musical 
 passage to the fullest extent of its melodic 
 proportions, and spontaneously to present it 
 with such accessories as shall make it appear his 
 own. All the bright coloring which may be im- 
 parted by a vivid conception, a good pronuncia- 
 tion and articulation, will be seriously dimmed 
 by defective phrasing. Last, but by no means 
 least, there must be the accurate intonation 
 which is the result of a correct ear. Some per- 
 rons do not hear correctly, concords becoming to 
 them discords. Whether it be a local difficulty 
 of the tympanum, or, as is more probable, a 
 rigidity of the entire organization and sluggish- 
 ness of temperament, the fact is obvious that 
 defective ears are by no means uncommon ; and, 
 of course, to imitate musical sounds with the 
 voice, in such cases, is an impossibility. The 
 commonness of the defect increases, as we pro- 
 ceed low in the scale of social being, particularly 
 where, in addition to poverty and moral degra- 
 dation, there is superadded the prolific cause, ab- 
 sence of youthful opportunities of hearing music 
 well sung or played. Could all classes, without 
 exception, be gladdened, when young, by hear- 
 ing music correctly sung ami played, the num- 
 ber of those who pass through life unmoved " by 
 the concord of sweet sounds," would be much 
 diminished. It is important, also, that the sounds 
 heard by children, be correct both as to melody 
 and rhythm, if it be expected that such children, 
 when grown, shall have a so-called good ear for 
 music. In remarking upon articulation, the 
 value of the vowel sounds ah, ee, oh, and oo was 
 noticed ; and it is known that a thorough scale, 
 and rhythmical use of these, combined with all 
 the consonants as initial and final letters, will 
 not only develop a more distinct articulation, 
 but also a purer, more effective, and manageable 
 tone. For standard authorities, on this subject, 
 see Rush, Philosophy of the Human Voice 
 ( Phila.. 1 833) ; Edouard Fourniere, Physiologie 
 deia Voir, etde la Parole (Paris, 1866); Emanuel 
 Garcia, £cole du Chant (London); Bassini, Art 
 of Singing (Boston, 1856) ; New Method (Bos- 
 ton, 1869)'; Emma Seiler, The Voice in Singing 
 Phila., 1868). 
 
850 
 
 WABASH COLLEGE 
 
 WASHINGTON AND LEE UNIVERSITY 
 
 "WABASH COLLEGE, at Orawfordsville, 
 Intl., chartered in 1833, is under Presbyterian 
 
 control. It has productive funds to the amount 
 of $240,000, and libraries containing 17.000 
 volumes. It has an English and commercial, a 
 preparatory, and a collegiate department, the 
 Latter with a classical and a scientific course. 
 The cost of tuition is from 824 to !i?30 a year. 
 There are several scholarships. In 1875 — 6, 
 there were 12 instructors and 220 students (104 
 collegiate. 64 preparatory, and 52 English and 
 commercial). The Rev. Joseph F. Turtle, D. D., 
 is (1877) the president. 
 
 WACO UNIVERSITY, at Waco, Tex., 
 founded in 1861, is under Baptist control, lb 
 has a small endowment, but is supported chiefly 
 by tuition fees, the regular charge ranging from 
 $15 to 82."> per term of five months. The libra- 
 ries contain about 2,500 volumes. It has a pre- 
 paratory department, a collegiate department 
 for females, and a classical and a scientific col- 
 legiate course for males. In 1875 — 6, there 
 were 1 1 instructors and 279 students (157 males 
 and 122 females). The Rev. Rufus C. Burle- 
 son, I). I)., is (1877) the president. 
 
 WAKE FOREST COLLEGE, in Wake 
 Co.. N. 0., founded in 1834, is under Baptist 
 control. It is supported by tuition fees [$35 
 per term of five months) and the income of an 
 endowment of $25,000. The libraries contain 
 about 8.000 volumes. The course of study com- 
 prises six schools — Latin, Greek, modern lan- 
 guages, mathematics, natural science, and moral 
 philosophy. There is also a preparatory and a 
 commercial course. In 1875 — (J. there were 5 pr< >- 
 lessors and 91 students. The presidents have 
 been: the Rev. Sand. Wait, D.D.; the Rev. Wm. 
 Hooper, LL.D.; the Rev. John B. White; and 
 the Rev. W. M. Wingate, I). 1)., the present in- 
 cumbent (1877). 
 
 WASHINGTON. See District of Coli'miu \. 
 
 WASHINGTON COLLEGE, at Wash- 
 ington, Alameda Co., Gal., founded in 1872, for 
 the education of both sexes, is a non-sectarian 
 institution. It has a preparatory, and an academic 
 department with a four years' course. French, 
 Spanish, ( iennan, < J reek, and Latin, instrumental 
 and vocal music, painting, drawing, etc. are op- 
 tional studies. The institution is supported by 
 the fees of students, the charge for tuition being 
 
 from $50 to $80 a year. In L875— 6, there were 
 1 instructors and L76 students. Silas S. llar- 
 
 ii i< id. A. M.. has been the principal since the 
 opening of the college. 
 
 WASHINGTON COLLEGE, at (luster- 
 town. Md., founded in L782, is a non-sectarian 
 institution. There is a preparatory and a col- 
 legiate department. The COSt of tuition, except 
 to holders of scholarships, ranges from $40 to 
 $60 a year. The library contains aboul L,300 
 volumes. In L875 6, there wrere 3 instructors 
 and 'M students (10 preparatory and 27 col- 
 
 legiate). The presidents have been the- Rev. Dr. 
 W m. Smith, the Rev. l'r. Colin Ferguson. Dr. 
 Clowes, The Rev. Dr. Waters, R. W. Ringold, 
 the Rev. A. J. Sutton. R. ( '. Berkeley , and Wm. 
 J. Rivers, the latter since L873. 
 
 WASHINGTON AND JEFFERSON 
 COLLEGE, at Washington. 1 'a., under Pres- 
 byterian control, was formed, in 1865, by 
 the consolidation of Jefferson College (at Can- 
 onsburg, chartered in 1802), and Washington 
 College (chartered in 1806). The former grew 
 outof the ( 'anonsbuig Academy, opened in I 7!'l : 
 the latter had its origin in the Washington 
 Academy, chartered in 1 7 S 7 . and opened in 
 1789. The consolidated institution has an en- 
 dowment of .8220.000. a cabinet, and libraries 
 containing 9,000 volumes. Tuition to holders 
 of scholarships is free ; to others the fee is $2 I 
 a year. There is a preparatory and a collegiate 
 department, the latter having a classical and a 
 scientific course. In L875 — ti. there were 8 pro- 
 fessors and 175 students (140 collegiate and 35 
 preparatory). The presidents have been as fol- 
 lows: the Rev. Jonathan Edwards, 1). D., LL. 1 >.. 
 18G6— 9; the Rev. Sand. J. Wilson.D. D., LL. D. 
 [pro inn.). l' s <>!' : the Rev. James J. Brownson, 
 D.D. (protem.), 1870; and the Rev. Geo. P. 
 Hays, D. D.. since 1870. 
 
 WASHINGTON AND LEE UNIVER- 
 SITY, at Lexington, Ya., was chartered in 1782. 
 Its germ was a mathematical and classical school, 
 called the Augusta Academy, established, in 
 1749, near the site of Greenville, Augusta Co. 
 In 177(1. the name was changed to Liberty Hall. 
 After several removals, it was located near Lex- 
 ington, in 1785 ; and. in 1803, it was finally re- 
 moved to its present site, within the limits of 
 the town. The first commencement was held 
 in L785. In 1796, Washington donated to the 
 institution the 100 shares of stock in the old 
 James River Company, which the legislature 
 had given him. and the name was changed to 
 Washington College. In L803, the Cincinnati 
 Society appropriated their funds, nearly $25,000, 
 to the college. During the civil war. the insti- 
 tution was suspended. Soon after the death 
 of Gen. Lee. in 1S70, the present name was 
 adopted. The university is supported by tui- 
 tion fees (generally $70, a year, in the aca- 
 demic departments, and $85, in the professional 
 departments), and the income of endowments 
 amounting to $200,000. It has a library of 
 12.001) volumes, mineralogical, geological, and 
 zoological cabinets, and valuable philosophical 
 and chemical apparatus. The distinguishing 
 features of the university are : (1) The arrange- 
 ment of the course of study into distinct elect- 
 ive schools or departments; (2) The adaptation 
 of the several departments to certain courses of 
 study, to each of which is attached a correspond- 
 ina degree. No degrees are conferred in course; 
 
 but all are based upon actual attainments m a 
 
WAS HINGTON TERRITORY 
 
 WAY LA NO 
 
 851 
 
 completed course of study. 'I he full course for 
 Bachelor of Philosophy is ."> years ; for Bache- 
 lor of Science and Arts, and Civil and Mining 
 Kngineer, 4 years. In 1876, there were lo in- 
 structors and 196 students. The presidents have 
 been as follows: the Rev. Win. Graham, A.M., 
 L782 -96; Samuel L. Campbell. M. !>.. IT!) 6— 9; 
 George A. Baxter, D. 1>.. L799— 1829 ; Louis 
 Marshall. M. 1).. 1830-34; Henry Vethake, 
 LL.D.,1834— 6; Henry Ruffner, D.D., LL.D., 
 1836—48; George Junkin, D. D., 1848— 60 ; 
 (Jen. Robert E. Lee, 1865 — TO; and Gen. G. 
 W. Custis Lee, since 1ST1. 
 
 WASHINGTON TERRITORY, one of 
 the north-western territories of the United 
 States, originally a part of Oregon, but organ- 
 ized as an independent territory in 1853. It; 
 area is 69,994 sq. m. ; its population, in 1870, 
 was 37,432, of whom 22,19.") were whites, 20T 
 were colored persons, 234, Chinese, and 14, TOG, 
 Indians. 
 
 Educational History. — The first educational 
 act of the territorial assembly was in 1862, when 
 the University of the Territory of Washington 
 was established, two townships of the public 
 lands having been previously set apart by Con- 
 gress for its endowment. Special legislation for 
 the advancement of school interests has, from 
 time to time, taken place, but no law securing 
 uniformity in the administration of the schools 
 was enacted till 18T2, when the foundation of 
 the present school system was laid by the enact- 
 ment of a general law. The first territorial 
 superintendent was Nelson Rounds, who wai 
 appointed in 18T2. His successor was J. P. 
 Judson.the present incumbent (18TG), appointed 
 in 18T4. 
 
 School System. — A territorial superb dew leu I 
 of common schools is appointed biennially by 
 the governor, with the consent of the council. 
 His duties are those usually devolving upon 
 general superintendents. County superintendents 
 are also elected biennially. They are required 
 to possess the qualifications of a teacher, beforj 
 being eligible. Three school directors, in each 
 district, are elected, one each year. They make 
 out tax lists for assessments, build school-houses, 
 employ teachers, and visit the schools twice each 
 session. The permanent school fund is prospect- 
 ive only, being derivable from school lands which 
 cannot be sold till the territory becomes a state. 
 The schools are maintained by an annual four- 
 mill tax on every dollar of taxable property, a 
 county tax of not more than eight mills, a dis- 
 trict tax of three mills, fines under criminal 
 statutes, and private contributions. Districts, 
 also, may levy a tax of ten mills for building 
 and repairing school-houses. Sectarian instruc- 
 tion in the common schools is forbidden by law. 
 The school month consists of 4 weeks of 6 days 
 each ; the school age is from 4 to 21 years. 
 
 Educational Condition. — The number of 
 school-districts, in 18T5, was 267; and the num- 
 ber of districts in which schools were kept was 
 219. The amount of school moneys for distribu- 
 tion, in the same year, was $53,557. 
 
 The principal items of school statistics, for 
 1874 — 5, are as follows: 
 
 Number of children <>f school age 8,350 
 
 " " enrolled in Bchuol*. 6,699 
 
 " teacheys 220 
 
 The principal schools are at Olynipia, Port 
 Townsend, Vancouver, Seattle, and Tacoma. 
 Teachers' institutes have been held in some 
 counties, and a teachers' association has been 
 organized. '1 he university at Seattle provides a 
 preparatory, an academic, and a collegiate de- 
 partment, to all of which both sexes are ad- 
 mitted. Holy Angel's College (q. v.), at Van- 
 couver, is controlled by the Roman Catholics. It 
 has two courses, — a preparatory, and a collegiate. 
 
 WASHINGTON UNIVERSITY, at St. 
 Louis, Mo., was incorporated in 1853 and for- 
 mally inaugurated in 1857. The charter provides 
 that the institution shall be non-sectarian. It is 
 supported by the income of an endowment of 
 $500,000, and by tuition fees ranging from $50 
 to $160 a year. There are several scholarships, 
 entitling the holders to free tuition. Ihe uni- 
 versity comprehends five departments : the 
 academy, Mary Institute (founded in 1859). the 
 college (organized in 1859), the polytechnic 
 school (185T), and the law school (1867). The 
 course of instruction in the academy extends 
 through five years, and includes those studies 
 which are preparatory to the College and the 
 Polytechnic School of the LIniversity. It has 
 also a primary and a commercial class. Mary 
 Institute is a female seminary. Its grounds and 
 buildings are distinct from those of the other 
 departments ; but the chancellor exercises a 
 general supervision ; and instruction in the 
 languages, the higher mathematics, and the nat- 
 ural sciences is in part given by the professors of 
 the college and the polytechnic school. r l he in- 
 stitute affords various grades of instruction from 
 primary to collegiate. The course in the college 
 (4 yrs.) leads to the degree of A. B. The poly- 
 technic school (O'Fallon Polytechnic Institute) 
 has six regular courses of study (4 yrs. each), as 
 follows: (1) civil engineering; (2) mechanical en- 
 gineering; (3) chemistry; (4) mining and metal- 
 lurgy; (5) building and architecture; (6) a 
 general course. The Polytechnic Institute also 
 carries on a free evening school for instruc- 
 tion in the elements of technology, under the 
 immediate supervision and control of the board 
 of directors of the public schools of the city. 
 The law school (St. Louis Law School) has a 
 library of over 2 500 volumes. The university 
 library contains 3,000 volumes. In 1875 — 6. the 
 number of instructors in all the departments was 
 G5 ; of students, 902. The chancellors of the 
 university have been Joseph Gibson Hoyt, 1859 
 — 63 ; Wm. Chauvenet, 1863 — Tl ; and Wm. 
 Greenleaf Eliot, I). 1)., since 1871. 
 
 WAYLAND, Francis, an American clergy- 
 man and educator, born in New York, March 11., 
 1796 ; died in Providence, R.I., Sept. 30., 1865. 
 He graduated at Union College in 1813, studied 
 medicine, and was licensed to practice; but, mean- 
 while, his purpose was changed ; and, in 1816, 
 
852 
 
 WAV LAN I) 
 
 WEBSTER 
 
 he entered the Andover Theological Seminary. 
 The instructions of Prof. Moses Stuart enkindled 
 id bis miml an intense enthusiasm for study; but 
 
 poverty compelled trim to leave the institution. 
 During the next four years, he was a tutor in 
 Union College'; and, in 1 821 , became pastor 
 of the First Haptist Church, in Boston. In 1826, 
 he was appointed professor of mathematics and 
 natural history in Union College, and, early in 
 1*27, was chosen president of Brown University, 
 and entered on what was to be the work of bis 
 life. The college was in a depressed state. The 
 funds were inconsiderable; there was scarcely 
 library, cabinet, or apparatus; and the standard 
 of character, discipline, and scholarship was low. 
 The new president sought, first of all, to raise 
 the standard. In the recitation room, he intro- 
 duced thoroughness, exactness, self-dependence, 
 and freedom of inquiry, lie aimed to teach, not 
 the text-book, but the subject. He encouraged 
 questions germane to the topic. Finding that 
 the text books in us' were inadequate, lie taught 
 by lectures, till in time be created text-books in 
 the different branches. He next sought to in- 
 crease the material means of instruction. A fund 
 of 825,000 was raised for the increase of the 
 library and the apparatus ; a library building, a 
 laboratory, and a house for the president were 
 erected ; the library was also increased by special 
 Subscriptions Outside of the fund; and several new 
 departments of instruction were created. Yet, 
 with the lapse of time, the conviction grew in 
 the mind of the president that the college was 
 not fulfilling its destiny. His dissatisfaction 
 with the American college was expressed in his 
 little book, Thoughts on the Present Collegiate 
 System in the Untied States (1842); but no j 
 remedy was suggested. Gradually, his mind 
 worked itself clear; and, in 1850, his Report to 
 the Corporation of Brown University indicat- 
 ed both the evil and the remedy. The Amer- j 
 ican colleges were not meeting the demands of 
 the American people. They were molded by 
 the traditions of the middle ages rather than by 
 the wants of the 19th century. They were 
 offering an education suited only to a limited 
 class, to the members of the learned professions, | 
 especially the ministry, and were ignoring the 
 large and increasing industrial classes. They 
 were setting at naught the diversity of character 
 and needs on the part of young men. They 
 were crowding a vast number of studies into a 1 
 limited period of time, and were precluding the 
 hope of high attainments in any department. 
 The president proposed to enlarge the scope of the 
 college, by offering its advantages to every class, 
 welcoming the farmer, the mechanic, the artisan, 
 and not compelling any one to pursue classical 
 studies against his will. He desired also to afford 
 the student the means of attaining high excellence 
 in whatever department he entered. The prin- 
 ciples of the Report were carried into practice, 
 
 not indeed as completely as the president de- 
 sired, but far enough to afford marked and satis- 
 factory results. i>r. Waylands news of theo- 
 logical education were similarly practical and , 
 
 liberal. — The labors attending the re organization 
 of the university had been exhausting in the 
 extreme: and, in 1855, Dr. Way land felt com- 
 pelled to resign the presidency. In 1857 — 8. In- 
 acted for sixteen months as pastor of the First 
 Baptist Church in Providence. The remainder 
 of his life he passed in retirement, in study, and 
 in such benevolent and religious labors as his 
 strength allowed. In addition to the works 
 named above, he published Mont/ Sri, ,,<:>' I 1 835j; 
 Politicttl Economy (1837) ; Limitations of Hu- 
 man Responsibility (1838); Intellectual Philos- 
 ophy (1854), and many other volumes, besides 
 numerous sermons, articles, tracts. and addresses. 
 
 WAYNESBURG COLLEGE, at Waynes- 
 burg, Pa., founded in 1850, is under ( 'umber- 
 land Presbyterian control. It is supported partly 
 by tuition fees and partly by the income of its 
 endowments, amounting to $50,000. The cost 
 of tuition is .^20 a year. The libraries contain 
 about 2.(100 volumes. It has a classical, a sci- 
 entific, a ladies', a normal, and a commercial 
 course. In 1875 — 6, tin-re were 10 instructors 
 and 297 students (82 collegiate, 115 preparatory, 
 and 100 unclassified). The presidents have been 
 as follows : the Rev. .Joshua I.oughran, A. .M., 4 
 years; the Rev. J. P. Weethee. A. M., 3 years; 
 John C. Flenneken, 1 year; and the Rev. A. H. 
 Miller. D.D., the present incumbent, 17 years. 
 
 WEAVERVILLE COLLEGE, at Weav- 
 erville. it m. N. of Asheville. NT. ('., chartered in 
 1*7.'!. is a non-sectarian institution. It is beauti- 
 fully situated in one of the most picturesque re- 
 gions of North America. It has a primary, a 
 preparatory, and a collegiate department, to all 
 of which both sexes are admitted. The cost of 
 tuition ranges from $6.50 to $18 per session of 
 five months. In 1875 — (i, there were 7 instruct- 
 ors and L23 students (collegiate, 21 ; scientific 
 and preparatory, 74 : academic and primary, 28). 
 The Rev. dames S. Kennedy, 1). D., is (1877) the 
 president. 
 
 WEBSTER, Noah, an American lexicog- 
 rapher, was born in West Hartford. Ct„ Oct. 16., 
 1758; died in New Haven. May 28.. 1843. 
 After graduating at Yale College in 1778, he 
 taught school tor some time at Hartford. In 
 L782, he opened a classical school at Goshen, 
 \. Y.: and. in 1787. he became for one year, 
 principal of an academy in Philadelphia. He 
 began the preparation of school books as early 
 as \~s'A, in which year he published the First 
 Part of it Grammatical Institute of the English 
 Language. This first pari was followed, in the 
 course Ot the next two years, by the second and 
 third parts: and it was the basis of Webster's 
 spelling books, which, in various editions and re- 
 visions, met with a Buccess unparalleled in the 
 
 history of educational literature, as 70,000,0011 
 copies, it is said, had been sold of them up to 
 the cud of 1876. After spending several yean 
 
 in the practice of law, in publishing periodicals 
 and other literary works, Webster engaged, in 
 L807, upon the great work of his life, the Anu-r- 
 ican Dictionary of lie English Language. It 
 was not completed until L828, when an edition 
 

 WKIIRLl 
 
 of 2,500 copies was published in the United 
 States (New York, 2 vols.. 4to.), which was fol- 
 lowed by an edition of 3,(100 in England. In 
 1840 — 41. a second edition of 3,000 copies was 
 printed; and a revised appendix was published 
 soon after the author's death, in L843. In 1847, 
 Prof. Chauncey A. Goodrich, of Yale College, 
 Webster's son-in-law, published a thoroughly 
 revised edition of the Dictionary, at Springfield. 
 After the death of Professor Goodrich, in 1860, 
 the direction of the work of revision was com- 
 mitted to Professor (subsequently President) 
 Noah Porter, of Yale ( 'ollege. who published a 
 new and thoroughly revised edition, in 1864, at 
 Springfield. He had been assisted in the re- 
 vision by a large number of distinguished schol- 
 ars, among whom were Professors James I). 
 Dana. William I). Whitney, Chester S. Lyman. 
 Daniel C. Gilman, Thomas A. Thatcher, .fames 
 Hadley, all of Yale College, and Dr. C. A. F. 
 Malm, of Berlin, Prussia, the latter of whom re- 
 wrote the entire etymological department. In 
 this new shape, Webster's Dictionary is generally 
 recognized as one of the most notable productions 
 of tlie lexical literature of the world. Besides 
 the works already mentioned. Dr. Webster 
 wrote a History of the United States, revised 
 about 1838 ; Letters to a Young Gentleman 
 commencing his Eductdion (New Haven, 1823), 
 and a number of other works. A Memoir of 
 Xoah Webster is given in the editions of the 
 dictionary of 1847 and 1864. 
 
 WEHRLI, Johann Jakob, a celebrated 
 Swiss teacher of poor-schools, was born at Eschi- 
 koven, November 6., 1790. and died at Andwyl. 
 .March 15., 1855. He taught a small school at 
 Leutenegg during two winters, working in part 
 pay for his board. In 1809, he became an assist- 
 ant to Fellenberg. in his school at Hofwyl, where 
 he remained twenty-three years, bestowing the 
 most assiduous care upon the poor children and 
 scholars. (See Hofwyl.) 
 
 WESLEYAN UNIVERSITY, at Middle- 
 town, Ct.. the oldest college in the United 
 States under the patronage and control of tha 
 Methodist Episcopal Church, was organized in 
 1830, aud chartered in 1831. Since 1872, its 
 courses have been open to both sexes. It has 
 an endowment of about §400,000, extensive 
 astronomical, physical, and chemical apparatus, 
 a valuable museum of natural history, and a 
 library of over 26,000 volumes. The cost of 
 tuition is $75 a year. There are three regular 
 courses, each of four years : a classical course, a 
 I-atin-scientific course, and a scientific course ; 
 and in each there is a considerable range of 
 elective studies. There are also special and "post- 
 graduate courses. In 1875—6. there were 14 in- 
 structors, and 176 students (9 females). The presi- 
 dents have been as follows: the Rev. Wilbur 
 Fisk. D. D., 1831—9; the Rev. Stephen Olin, 
 D. D., 1839 — 11; the Rev. Nathan Bangs, D. I).. 
 1841—2; the Rev. Stephen Olin. P.P., 1842— 51 ; 
 Augustus Wm. Smith. 1852—7; the Rev. Joseph 
 Cummings, I). I)., 1857—75; and the Rev. Cyrus 
 Foss, I). I)., since 1875. 
 
 WESTFIELD COLLEGE 
 
 853 
 
 WESTERN COLLEGE, at Western. Linn 
 Co., Iowa, was founded in L856 by the Church 
 of the United Brethren in Christ, which still 
 controls it. It has an endowment of $16,000, 
 but has been chiefly supported by contributions. 
 The college and society libraries contain 1500 
 volumes. The tuition and incidental fees are 
 $25.50 a year. Both sexes are admitted. There is 
 I a classical and a scientific course, and a prepara- 
 tory and a commercial department. In 1875 — 6, 
 there were 11 instructors and 219 students (132 
 males and 87 females), of whom 37 were of col- 
 legiate grade. The presidents have been as fol- 
 lows : the Rev. Solomon Weaver, 1856 — 64; the 
 Rev. Wm. Davis, 1864—5: M. W. Bartlett 
 (principal). 1865—6; H. R. Page, 1866—7; E. 
 
 C. Ebersole, A.M. (principal), 1867 — 8; and the 
 Rev. Ezekiel B. Kephart, A.M., since 1868. 
 
 WESTERN MARYLAND COLLEGE, 
 at Westminster, Md., was founded in 1867 and 
 incorporated in 1868. It is under the special 
 patronage of the Maryland Annual Conference 
 <>f the Methodist Protestant Church. It is sup- 
 ported by contributions and the fees of students. 
 The cost of tuition is from $17.50 to $30 a year. 
 The institution has libraries comprising 3,500 
 volumes. Both sexes are educated, but in separate 
 departments, though mainly by the same pro- 
 fessors. The collegiate course for males extends 
 over 4 years, and for females, 3 years. Facilities 
 are also afforded for theological instruction. In 
 1876 — 7, there were 13 instructors and 113 
 students (66 male and 47 female, 65 collegiate 
 and 48 preparatory). The Rev. J. T. "\\ ard, 
 
 D. D., has been the president from the commence- 
 ment of the institution. 
 
 WESTERN RESERVE COLLEGE, at 
 Hudson, Ohio, was chartered in 1826, and opened 
 the same year. It is not under ecclesiastical 
 control, but its trustees and professors are all 
 connected with the Congregational or Presby- 
 terian denomination. It is supported by tuition 
 fees (from $25 to $30 a year), and the income of 
 an endowment of $210,000. It has an astronom- 
 ical observatory, valuable apparatus, and libraries 
 containing 11,(100 volumes. '1 here is a prepar- 
 atory and a collegiate department. Poth sexes 
 are admitted. In 1876 — 7, there were 11 in- 
 structors and 126 students (72 collegiate and 54 
 preparatory). 'I he Cleveland Medical College, 
 established in Cleveland in 1844, is a depart- 
 ment of the institution. The presidents of the 
 college have been as follows : the Rev. Charles 
 !'.. Storrs, 1830—33; the Rev. George E. Pierce, 
 I). D., 1834—55; the Rev. Henry L. Hitchcock, 
 I). I).. 1855—71 ; and the Rev. Carroll Cutler. 
 P.P., since 1871. 
 
 WESTFIELD COLLEGE, at Westfield, 
 111., under the control of the United Brethren in 
 Christ, was chartered in 1865, growing out of 
 the Westfield Seminary, founded in lSul. Both 
 sexes are admitted and graduated on an equal 
 basis of scholarship. It has an endowment of 
 $85,000. The regular charge for tuition is $24 
 a year. There is a preparatory, a normal, a sci- 
 entific, and a classical course. Facilities are 
 
854 WESTMINSTER COLLEGE 
 
 WEST VIRGINIA 
 
 also afforded for instruction in art and music. 
 In 1876 — 7, there were !) instructors and 193 
 students (34 collegiate). The Rev. Samuel B. 
 Allen, I>. I)., has been the president since 1869. 
 
 WESTMINSTER COLLEGE, at Fulton, 
 Mo., founded in lHf>3, is under the control of 
 the Presbyterian ( 'Imrch, South. It is support- 
 ed by tuition fees (from $30 to $50 a year] and 
 the income of an endowment of SN(J,U00. The 
 libraries contain about 5,000 volumes. There is 
 a classical and a scientific course (with a col- 
 legiate and a preparatory department), special 
 courses, ami an English course. In 1876 — 7, 
 there were 6 professors and 99 students (clas- 
 sical. 4.'i ; scientific, 15; special, 1">; English, 
 26). The presidents have been : the Rev. S. S. 
 Laws, LL. 1).; the Rev. John Montgomery, D. D.; 
 the Rev. N. I,. Rice, l». !>.; and the Rev. M. M. 
 Fisher. 1). I)., the present (1877) incumbent. 
 
 WESTMINSTER COLLEGE, at New 
 Wilmington, Fa., chartered in 1852, is under 
 United Presbyterian control. It has productive 
 funds to the amount of $74,000, raised by the 
 sale of scholarships, the owners or hirers of which 
 are entitled to tuition. The libraries contain 
 3,600 volumes. There is a classical, a preparatory, 
 and a scientific department. No distinction of 
 
 color or sex is made in the admission of students. 
 In 1875 — 6, there were s instructors and L65 
 students (71 classical, -IS preparatory, and 46 
 
 scientific). The presidents have been as fol- 
 lows: the Rev. .lames Patterson. I), i).. L853 — 
 66; the Rev. R. A. Browne, D. D., 1867—70; 
 and the Rev. E. 'I'. Jeffers, D. 1>.. since L872. 
 
 WEST POINT, the seat of the United 
 States Military Academy, is a village in Orange 
 < 'o.. N.V..OH the W. bank of the Hudson river, at 
 its passage through the Highlands, 52 no. above 
 New York City. The grounds over which the 
 Unite 1 Stal is has juris liction, and on which are 
 the principal buildings, occupy the plain of West 
 Point. Mil) to L80 ft. above the river, and are 
 tl inked on the west by abrupt hills and mountain 
 
 spurs from 500 to 1,500 ft. high. The point pro- 
 jects into the river with bold, rocky cliffs on the 
 east and north-east, and a more gentle slope on 
 the north. A large area is arranged for tactical 
 instruction and parades. The academy was 
 established at West Point by the a-; of March 
 Pi., L802. Under the present law, each congres- 
 sional district, each territory, and the District of 
 Columbia is entitled to have one cadet at the 
 academy, and ten ace also appointed yearly at 
 
 large. The appointments at larg ! are conferred 
 by the presi lent : those from each district and 
 territory, by the secretary of war, on the nomi- 
 nation of the representative or delegate in t'im- 
 gress. Candidates must be between 1 7 and '22 
 years of age. must lie well versed in arithmetic, 
 reading, and writing, including orthography, and 
 must have a knowledge of the elements of Rn- 
 glisli grammar, of descriptive geography, partic- 
 ularly of their own country, and of the history of 
 the united States. Ppon entering, they agree to 
 s •rvc eight years in the U. S. army, unless sooner 
 discharged. Kach cadet receives s.">!t> a year, 
 
 against which are charged his expenses, including 
 board, clothing, books, and stationery. For the 
 purposes of military police, discipline, and in- 
 fantry drill, the cadets are organized into a bat- 
 talion of four companies, commanded by an 
 army officer, styled Commandant of Cadets, the 
 battalion staff and the subordinate officers being 
 cadets. Each company is commanded by anarmy 
 officer, styled Assistant Instructor of Infantry' 
 Tactics. 'I he course is for four years. From about 
 dune 20. to Sept. 1., a period corresponding to 
 the vacation of other institutions. the cadets live 
 in tents and devote themselves to military du- 
 ties, riding, sword exercise, practical military en- 
 gineering, etc. On graduation, they are commis- 
 sioned in the engineers, ordnance, artillery, in- 
 fantry, or cavalry, according to their qualifica- 
 tions. r lhe academy is under the care of an army 
 officer, styled Superintendent, who has a military 
 staff of five officers. 'I here are professors of 
 (hawing; of mathematics; of chemistry; miner- 
 alogy, and geology; of the Spanish language; 
 of natural and experimental philosophy; of the 
 Freni h language ; of military and civil engineer- 
 ing; of law; and of geography, history, and 
 ethics (the chaplain). 'I here are also instructors 
 of artillery, cavalry, and infantry tactics (the 
 commandant of cadets): of practical military 
 engineering, signaling, and telegraphy; and of 
 ordnance and gunnt r\ : a music teacher, and a 
 sword master. Most of these have several as- 
 sistants. In 1877, there were 51 officers and 3C0 
 cadets. r l he number of graduates from 1802 to 
 
 1876 was 2,640, being less than half of tho.-e 
 who entered the academy during thai period. 
 
 WEST VIRGINIA, one of the states of 
 the American Union, organized, in L862, from 
 a portion of Virginia, and admitted into the 
 Union as a separate state in 1863. Its area is 
 23,000 Bq. m.; and its population, in 1870, was 
 442,014, of whom 17,980 were colored persons. 
 
 Educational History. — The school history of 
 the state is of course identical with that of Vir- 
 ginia ( 'i- v. . up to the time of their se] aiatiom 
 One of the conditions under which the state was 
 
 admitted to the Union, proi ided for Ihe < reation 
 of a school fund, for the organization of a free- 
 
 Bchool system, and the appointment of officers 
 necessary for its proper supervision and main- 
 tenance. In 1865, this System was established, 
 and remained in force till 1872, when the new 
 c onstitution, then adopted, made several t Langes. 
 In ls7.'5. the legislature amended the scliool law. 
 giving it its present form. -Since L869. th • 
 state superintendents have been as follows : 
 
 II. A. c. Hegler, till February, 1870 ; A. P. 
 Williams, till 1871 ; U.S. Lewis, till Is72; W. 
 K. Pendleton, till 1S7.'5: P. W. Byrne.till 1877 : 
 and W. K. Pendleton, again elected in 1*77. 
 
 School System.- The supervision and man- 
 agement of the state are entrusted to a State 
 
 superintendent, who is elected by the people 
 every four years, lie is required to cive direc- 
 tions to the county superintendents, and to per- 
 form all the duties usually pertaining tO the office. 
 
 making an annual report to the legislature. 
 
WEST VIRGINIA 
 
 855 
 
 County superintendents are elected for two 
 years. The organization of the schools is com- 
 mitted to these officers, with power to exercise 
 a general supervision over all subordinate offi- 
 cers. District boards of education, consisting of 
 a president and two commissioners, are elected 
 for two years. They have general control of the 
 district schools in all that relates to the building 
 and repairing of school-houses, the employment 
 of teachers, the determination of their number 
 and salaries, and the limiting of the school ses- 
 sion. District trustees are elected for two years. 
 They act under the direction of the district 
 board. They employ teachers, and report an- 
 nually to the board. Boards of examiners, each 
 consisting of the county superintendent, and two 
 teachers appointed by the president of the district 
 board, are convened in every county for the 
 ] airpose of examining teachers and issuing certif- 
 i sates, valid for one year in the county where 
 issued. These are authorized to grant certificates 
 of five grades. A stale board of examiners, 
 consisting of the state superintendent and two 
 professional teachers appointed by the governor, 
 also issues professional certificates, which entitle 
 the holder to teach anywhere in the state dur- 
 ing life, such certificates being revocable by the 
 state superintendent for good cause. The school 
 revenue of the state is derive! from (1) the in- 
 terest on the invested school fund ; (2) a poll tax 
 of SI on all male citizens; (3) a state tax of 10 
 cuts on every §100 of real and personal 
 property; (4) a district tax for a school fund; 
 and (5) a district tax for a building fund. The 
 last two are subject to a majority vote of the 
 people of the district. The county sheriff acts 
 ;h treasurer of the school funds, collecting and 
 disbursing "all school money for the several 
 districts and independent districts therein.'' 
 Mixed schools for white and colored children 
 are prohibited ; the establishment of separate 
 schools for the latter being provided for, when- 
 ever the number in a district exceeds 25. The 
 legal school age is from 6 to 21 years. 
 
 Educational Condition. — The number of 
 school-districts, in 1874, was 321 ; the number 
 of sub-districts, 2,845; the number of independ- 
 ent districts, 38. 
 
 The school revenue, in 1874 — 5, was : 
 
 From state tax 5194,791.32 
 
 " local " 541,090.98 
 
 Interest on permanent fund. . . 17,595.20 
 
 Total $753, 477.50 
 
 The expenditures were as follows : 
 
 F<>r teachers' salaries $541,358. S3 
 
 " sites, buildings, and furnit. 121,047.38 
 ' ; other expenses 52,754.38 
 
 Total $715,160.59 
 
 The principal items of school statistics are 
 as follows : 
 
 N>». of children of school age 179,897 
 
 " " " enrolled.... 115,300 
 
 Average daily attendance 79,002 
 
 Number of teachers, males 2,fi77 
 
 " " females 7S4 
 
 Total 3,401 
 
 Average monthly salary of male teachers $35.03 
 
 " ' "female " $: J .0.77 
 
 Normal Instruction. — The state normal 
 school, known as Marshal] College, at Hunt- 
 ington, was established in 1867. Five branches 
 were subsequently authorized, and most of them 
 were opened as follows : at Fairmont (1869); at 
 West Liberty (1870); at Glenville (1873); at 
 Shephcrdstown (1873); and at Concord (to be 
 opened in 1875). The number of graduates 
 from the parent school at Huntington, up to 
 1874, was 34. The school at Fairmont is divided 
 into a model school, and an academic and a 
 normal department, and will accommodate 200 
 students. The school at West liberty has ac- 
 commodations for 150 ; that at Shepherdstown, 
 for 200. The latter and the Glenville school are 
 under the management of a board of regents. 
 The appropriation from the Peabody fund for 
 these five schools, in 1875. was $2,500. — Teach- 
 ers' Institutes have been organized, principally 
 by the agent of the Peabody fund; and their 
 influence, in calling the attention of teachers to 
 improved methods of teaching and school gov- 
 ernment, has been very beneficial. A state 
 teachers' association is also in existence, which 
 holds annual meetings. Normal institutes, of 
 from 2 to 4 weeks' duration, were held, during 
 1874, in 15 counties. 
 
 Secondary Instruction. — The establishment of 
 high schools is dependent upon a three-fifths 
 vote of the citizens of each district. 1 he num- 
 ber of these institutions is not large. The 
 Harper's Ferry High School for colored pupil.; 
 was, in 1868, chartered as Storer College, but 
 the course of instruction hardly goes beyond 
 that of the ordinary primary school. Many 
 grammar schools exist, and the studies usually 
 pursued in high schools are, to some extent, pur- 
 sued in them. Besides these, there are several 
 private schools and academies in which secondary 
 instruction is given. Seven private schools of 
 this grade reported to the U. S. Bureau of Edu- 
 cation, in 1875, a total of 32 teachers and 873 
 pupils. Two of the colleges, also, have prepar- 
 atory departments. 
 
 Denominational and Parochial Schools. — 
 Several of these are in existence, principally un- 
 der the auspices of the Roman Catholics, and 
 the German Protestants. Five are reported in 
 Wheeling alone, — 3 Roman Catholic, and 2 Ger- 
 man Protestant. 
 
 Superior Instruction. — Three institutions for 
 education of this kind exist, as follows : 
 
 NAME 
 
 Location 
 
 When 
 irgan- 
 ized 
 
 Religious 
 denomi- 
 nation 
 
 Bethany College 
 
 West Virginia College 
 West Virginia Univ.. . 
 
 Bethany 
 
 Flemington 
 
 Morgantown 
 
 1840 
 1868 
 1867 
 
 Christian 
 Free W.B. 
 
 Non-sec. 
 
 There are two colleges for women, — the Park- 
 ersburg Academy of the Visitation, and the 
 Wheeling Female College. The former was 
 established by the Roman Catholics, in 1866. 
 Connected with it is a preparatory school in 
 which instruction in common-school branches is 
 given gratuitously. The academy is well sup- 
 
856 WEST VIRGINIA UNIVERSITY 
 
 WHITTIKR COLLEGE 
 
 plied with apparatus and all the means for im- 
 parting a higher education. It had, in 1875, 
 12 instructors, in all the departments, and 80 stu- 
 dents pursuing the college course. The Wheel- 
 ing Female < 'ollege provides a regular college 
 course of 4 years, besides special courses. It was 
 established in 1865, is non-sectarian, and has a 
 corps of 13 instructors— 4 male and 9 female — 
 and 139 students in all the departments. 
 
 Professional and Scientific Instruction. — The 
 agricultural department of the West Virginia 
 University, at Morgantown. is the state institu- 
 tion for instruction in agriculture. It was en- 
 dowed by Congress with land scrip to the value 
 of SI (10,000, to which the citizens of Morgan- 
 town have added from time to time. It also re- 
 ceives an annual appropriation from the legis- 
 lature. It has five departments : preparatory, 
 literary, scientific, agricultural, and military. 
 Optional courses are permitted. Nine regents 
 constitute the board of management, and two 
 ca let- from each regent "s district are entitled to 
 gratuitous instruction. St. Vincent's College, at 
 Wheeling, was established by the Roman Cath- 
 olics, in 1865, for the purpose of affording instruc- 
 tion in theologv. It is now temporarily suspended. 
 
 WEST VIRGINIA, University of, at 
 Morgantown, W. Ya.. was founded in 18(»7. It 
 has an endowment of $110,000, including the 
 proceeds of the lands granted by Congress for 
 the support of a state college of agriculture and 
 the mechanic arts. It is supported by the in- 
 come of the endowment, together with tuition 
 fees and annual state appropriations. Eour 
 cadets from each judicial circuit of the state are 
 educated free of cost for tuition, books, station- 
 ery, etc. Military drill is required of them. For 
 others.the tuition and contingent fees vary from 
 S'-M to S.5!) a year. The institution has a library 
 of 4,000 volumes. A United States signal sta- 
 tion has been established at the university. The 
 instruction is embraced in six departments: 
 classical, scientific, agricultural, engineering, and 
 military; and a preparatory department. The 
 agricultural course is for two years; the other 
 courses are for four years. In the military de- j 
 partment, besides tactics, etc.. the studies are 
 those of the classical, scientific, or other depart- 
 ment. In 1ST") — 6, there were 11 instructors! 
 and 96 students (39 collegiate and 57 prepara- 
 tory). The Rev. .1. W. Scott, 1). P.. LL. D., is 
 1 1 s 77) acting president. 
 
 WEST VIRGINIA COLLEGE, at Flem- 
 ington. Taylor Co., W. \'a.. founded in L868, is 
 under the control of Free Will Baptists. It is 
 supported by tuition i'n'^. ranging from $24 t" 
 
 $40 a year. It has a preparatory, a commercial, 
 an academic, a normal, a college preparatory, 
 and a collegia! ■ curse. Both sexes are ad- 
 mitted. In Is7i'> 7. there were 5 instructors 
 
 and 7."> students. The presidents have been the 
 Rev. A. 1». Williams. \. M.. [868 70, and the 
 
 Rev. W'm. Colegrove, A. M., since L870. 
 
 WHATELY, Richard, archbishop of Dub- 
 lin, born in London, Feb. 1., 17*7: died in 
 Dublin Oct. 8., 1863. lie was educated al Oriel 
 
 College. Oxford, was elected fellow in 1811, and 
 became Bampton lecturer in 1822. In 1825, he 
 was appointed principal of St. Alban's Hall, Ox- 
 ford ; in 1 830, professor of political economy ; 
 and, in 1831. archbishop of Dublin. In the lat- 
 ter position, he was very energetic in all ques- 
 tions Avhieh affected the welfare of Ireland. He 
 was one of the members of the board of national 
 education, a position which he held till L853, re- 
 signing it then because of a departure on the part 
 of the board from the plan on which they had, 
 up to that time, acted. His activity in all char- 
 itable enterprises, and his energy as an author, 
 were very marked. His educational works are : 
 Elements of Logic (1826); Elements of Rhetoric 
 (1828); Introductory Lectures to Political Econ- 
 omy (1831) ; English Synonyms (1851) ; and 
 Introductory Lesson* mi Mind (1859). 
 
 WHEATON COLLEGE, at Wheaton. 111., 
 was organized in 1858, and chartered in 1860. 
 It was founded by Wesleyan Methodists, but is 
 now under the control of Congregationalists. 
 It has productive funds to the amount of $30,000; 
 the buildings, grounds, and apparatus are valued 
 at >1 ill ).( KM); and the libraries contain about 2.000 
 volumes. The cost of tuition is from $24 to §30 
 a year. There is a classical, and a ladies 1 col- 
 legiate course, preparatory courses, and an En- 
 glish course: instruction is also given in music, 
 drawing, and painting, and commercial branches. 
 In 1875 — G, there were 17 instructors and 21.'! 
 students. The Rev. Jonathan Blanchard is 1 1 877) 
 the president. 
 
 WHEWELL, William, an English philos- 
 opher and educator, born in Lancaster, May 24., 
 1791 : died in Cambridge, March ">., 1866. He 
 graduated at Trinity ( 'ollege in 1816, of which he 
 became fellow, and. subsequently, tutor. In 1820, 
 he was made a fellow of the Royal Society, and 
 from L828 to L832, was professor of mineralogy 
 in Cambridge. In L841, he was appointed Master 
 
 ofTrinity: and. from L838 t<> 1 855, was] irofeSSOr 
 of casuistry. In the latter year, upon his ap- 
 pointment as vice-chancellor of the University 
 of Cambridge, he resigned his professorship. 
 I lis great mental activity is shown by the con- 
 stant accessions to his stock of knowledge, his 
 varied attainments, and the amount of literary 
 labor which he performed, in the shape of inde- 
 pendent works, besides reviews, criticisms, and 
 translations. To this activity, his uninterrupted 
 good health contributed not a little. His edu- 
 cational works are: Astronomy and General 
 Physics (1833); TJioughts on the Study qf 
 Mathematics (1835); On tin- Principles of En- 
 glish University Education (1837); History qf 
 the Inductive Sciences (1837); Philosophy of the 
 Inductive Sciences (1840) ; On Liberal Educa- 
 tion (1845 — 52); Lectures on the History if 
 Moral Philosophy in England (1852) ; Of the 
 Plurality qf Worlds (1853); The Platonic Dia- 
 logues for English Readers (1859 61); and 
 Lectures on Political Economy (1863). 
 
 WHITTIER COLLEGE AND NOR- 
 MAL INSTITUTE, at Salem. Henry Co., 
 Iowa, founded in lHi7. is under the can- of the. 
 
WICHERN 
 
 WILLIAM AND MARY COLLEGE 857 
 
 Society of Friends. It is open to both sexes, 
 and is supported by tuition fees varying from 
 $24 to $30 a year. It has a collegiate, a normal, 
 and a business department. The course of study 
 in the first and second years of the collegiate de- 
 partment is regarded as preparatory to the sci- 
 entific course. The third year completes the 
 scientific course, the ancient languages being 
 elective. This course is soon to be increased, 
 and arrangements are in progress to extend both 
 courses so as to constitute a complete college 
 curriculum. The classical course extends through 
 the fourth year. In 1875 — 6, there were 5 in- 
 structors and 200 students in all the depart- 
 ments. Wm. Penn Clark is (1877) the president. 
 
 WICHERN, Johann Heinrich, a German 
 philanthropist ami educator, was born in Ham- 
 burg, in 1808. lie studied theology, engaged ac- 
 tively in the different departments of benevolence 
 connected with the home missionary work of 
 the Evangelical Church, and especially interested 
 himself in the care of poor children, and in the 
 amelioration of the inmates of hospitals and 
 prisons. He has founded a number of institu- 
 tions, the most important of which is that called 
 the Rauhes Haus (das Rauhe Bans), at Horn, 
 near Hamburg, a house of refuge for homeless 
 children, which is established upon peculiar and 
 novel principles, and has already become the 
 model upon which many other institutions of the 
 kind have been organized. (See Reform Schools.) 
 
 WILBERFORCE "UNIVERSITY, near 
 Xenia, ()., founded in 1863, is under the control 
 of the African Methodist Episcopal ( 'hurch. It 
 has a small endowment. The cost of tuition 
 ranges from $4.75 to $6.75 per term of 14 weeks. 
 The library contains 4,000 volumes. The insti- 
 tution is especially designed for the education of 
 colored youth of both sexes. It embraces a 
 preparatory, a normal, a collegiate (classical, and 
 scientific), a theological, and a law department. 
 in 1875 — 6, there were 12 instructors and 138 
 students (96 preparatory, 5 normal, 6 collegiate, 
 and 36 theological). The Rt. Rev. Daniel A. 
 Payne, D. D., is (1877) the president. 
 
 WILEY UNIVERSITY, at Marshall, 
 Tex., was established, in 1873, by the Freedmen's 
 Aid Society of the .Methodist Episcopal Church, 
 for the especial benefit of colored youth of both 
 sexes, though open to all without regard to race 
 and color. It is supported by the Society. 
 Tuition is free. There are the following courses : 
 primary, 2 years ; intermediate, 2 years ; aca- 
 demic and normal, 2 years ; preparatory, 2 years; 
 collegiate, 4 years ; theological, 3 years. In 
 1 875 — 6, there were 4 instructors and 248 stu- 
 dents. The presidents have been the Rev. 
 Francis C. Moore, 1873—5, and the Rev. Wm. 
 H. Davis, since 1875. 
 
 WILLARD, Emma, a celebrated American 
 educator, born in Berlin, Ct., in 17N7': died in 
 Troy. N.Y., in 1870. After many struggles to 
 obtain a liberal education, she commenced to 
 teach at the age of 17 ; and her fitness for that 
 vocation was so marked that, at the age of 20, 
 she received many invitations to take the charge 
 
 of schools, finally occupying the principalship of 
 a female seminary at Middlebury, Vt. After 
 her marriage, she withdrew from the schoolroom 
 for a time ; but, in 1814, she resumed her voca- 
 tion by opening a boarding-school at Middle- 
 bury. Subsequently, she removed her school to 
 Waterford, N. V.. having presented to Gov. De 
 Witt Clinton a plan for the higher education of 
 women in that state. In L 821, her school was 
 removed to Troy, assuming the title of the Troy 
 Female Seminary ; and Mrs. Willard continued 
 in its charge till 1 H38. Her active interest in 
 education was, however, never relaxed. In 1840, 
 she took the supervision of the schools at Ken- 
 sington, Ct.; and, in 1854, she attended the 
 World's Educational Convention in London, and 
 afterward visited the schools of Germany. Switz- 
 erland, France, and other countries. Mrs. Wil- 
 lard s improvements in text-books were numer- 
 ous and valuable. In geography, she separated 
 what is to be learned into two parts. — that which 
 can be learned through the eye, i. e., from the 
 map, and that which is to be learned from the 
 text. The latter she treated comparatively, the 
 length of rivers, for instance, of one country be- 
 ing studied in connection with the same feature 
 in other countries ; then the size of continents, 
 islands, height of mountains, etc.. in the same way. 
 She also invented a peculiar kind of time map 
 to assist in the study of history. The place which 
 Mrs. Willard will occupy in the annals of edu- 
 cation in America, must always be a prominent 
 one, not only from the fact that almost the whole 
 of her long life was spent in its service, and that 
 the improved methods she originated have be- 
 come recognized necessities, but because the was 
 the first to lift up her voice against the exclusion 
 of her sex from a participation in the advantages 
 of a higher education, and for a long time, 1 y 
 voice and pen, was their earnest, and almost ex- 
 clusive advocate. Very largely to her, and to her 
 school, standing as an evidence of the feasibility 
 of her demands, is the cause of female education 
 indebted, for the victory it has won over moss- 
 grown prejudice and error. How great that 
 prejudice was, let the record of her first triumphs 
 attest, when w y e are told that the examination of 
 her first female pupil in geometry caused " a 
 wonderful excitement," many declaring that no 
 woman ever did, or could, understand geometry, 
 Mrs. Willard's publications are quite numerous,, 
 including: A Plan for Improving Female Edu- 
 cation (ISO); The Woodbndge and Willard 
 (feograpliies and Atlases (1822); History of the 
 United States (1828); Universal 1 listory in Per- 
 spective (1837) ; Temple of Time (1844); Last 
 Leaves of American History (1849) ; Morals 
 for the Young (1857), besides numerous ad- 
 dresses, pamphlets, letters, and poems. 
 
 WILLIAM AND MARY, College of, 
 at Williamsburg, Ya., next to Harvard, the old- 
 est college in the United States, was formerly un- 
 der Protestant Episcopal control, but at present 
 is not connected with any religions denomination. 
 In 1660 — 61. the colonial assembly passed an act 
 for the establishment and endowment of a col- 
 
858 WILLIAM AND MARY COLLEGE 
 
 WISCONSIN 
 
 lege; and, in 1(393, a royal charter was granted. 
 the name being derived from the reigning king 
 and queen. This was the only college charter 
 given in the colonies by any of the English 
 monarchs. The first commencement exercises 
 were held in 1700. In 1776, it was the wealth- 
 iest college in the colonies ; but the Revolution 
 deprived it of its chief endowments. In 1781, 
 the exercises were suspended, and the buildings 
 were alternately occupied, before and during the 
 memorable siege of Vorktown, by the British 
 and the French and American troops. While 
 in possession of the latter, the college building 
 was injured, and the president's house was de- ! 
 stroyed by fire. The latter was afterward rebuilt 
 at the expense of the French government. The 
 college was, probably, not closed more than a 
 year. Early in May, 1861, the existence of war 
 at its threshold rendered it necessary to suspen 1 
 the college exercises, and to close its doors. The 
 college was reopened at the close of the war; 
 but the building was not restored, nor the faculty 
 fully re-organized, till L869. The college is sit- 
 uated just outside of the city limits. It has 
 an endowment of about 860,000, good chemical 
 and philosophical apparatus, and a library of 
 5,000 volumes. The cost of tuition is l$40 a 
 year. Fur meritorious young men in limited 
 circumstances, fifteen scholarships, exempting 
 those admitted on them from the payment of 
 tuition fees, have been founded. In addition to 
 the above, each professor has the power to 
 confer, as a reward of merit, a scholarship on 
 two students, selected annually. The instruction 
 is comprised in eight departments: Latin; 
 Greek; mathematics; French ; German ; natural 
 philosophy and mixed mathematics; chemistry, 
 geology, mineralogy ; and physiology; moral and 
 intellectual philosophy and belles-lettres. There 
 is also a preparatory department. In 1875 — (i, 
 there were 7 instructors and 86 students (71 col- 
 legiate and 1 5 preparatory). Thomas Jefferson, 
 James Monroe, John Tyler, Chief Justice Mar- 
 shall, Peyton Randolph, the president of the first 
 American Congress, John Randolph of Roanoke, 
 and Wintield Scott were graduates of this col- 
 lege. The Visitors and Governors are the gen- 
 eral governing body of the college; and these 
 choose one of thsir number rector. The fac- 
 ulty, which is the corporation, appoints some 
 .suitable person chancellor, who is the titular 
 head of the institution. Th • internal manage- 
 ment is in the hands of the president and fac- 
 ulty. Until L776, the chancellors of the college 
 were the bishops of London, excepting in L764, 
 when the office was conferred on the carl of 
 Itardwieke. George Washington was chancellor 
 from 1788 to 179'.). an I e\ president John Tyler 
 from 1859 to 1862. During the intervening 
 periods, the office was no1 filled. The present 
 chancellor (1877), Hugh Blair Grigsby, LL. I'., 
 was elected in 1H71. The presidents have been 
 as follows: the Rev. dames Blair, I>. !>., L693— 
 L743; the Rev. William Dawson, L743— 52; 
 the Rev. William St it h. L752— 5 ; the Rev. 
 Thomas Dawson, 1755—61; the Rev. William 
 
 Yates, 1761 — 4 ; the Rev. James llorrocks, 
 1 7 64 — 71 : the Rev. John Camm, 1771 — 7; the 
 lit. Rev. dames Madison. 1777 — 1812 ; the Rev. 
 John Bracken, 1812 — 13 : Dr. John Augustine 
 Smith, 1814—26; the Rev. Wm. H. A\ ilmer, 
 1). 1)., 1820—7; the Rev. Adam P. Empie, D.D., 
 1827—36; Thomas R. Dew, 1836 — 16; Robert 
 Saunders, 1847 — 8; Benjamin S.Ewell. 1848 — 
 9; the Rt. Rev. John Johns, 1849 — 54; and 
 Benjamin S. Ewell. LED., since 1854. 
 
 WILLIAM JEWELL COLLEGE, at 
 Liberty. Mo., founded in 1849, is under Baptist 
 control. It is supported by tuition fees (from §30 
 to $40 a year) and the income of an endowment 
 of $100,000. It has a library of 3,500 volumes. 
 The college has a preparatory and a collegiate 
 department, and embraces eight schools : Latin, 
 Greek, mathematics and astronomy, modern 
 languages, English and history, natural science, 
 moral philosophy, and theology. In 1875 — 6. 
 there were 6 instructors and 137 students, of 
 whom 46 Mere connected with the school of 
 theology. The presidents have been as follows : 
 E. S. Dulin.D. D., LL.D.; the Rev. R. S. Thom- 
 as, A. M .: Wm. Thompson, LL. D.; Thomas 
 Rambaut, I). D., LL. D.; and W. R. Bothwell, 
 1). 1)., the present incumbent (1877). 
 
 WILLIAMS COLLEGE, at Wffliamstown, 
 Mass., owes its origin to the will (1755) of Col. 
 Ephraim Williams. The property bequeathed 
 was allowed to accumulate till 1785, when a 
 free school was incorporated, which was opened 
 in 1791. A college charter was obtained in 
 1 79.'!. ami the first commencement was held in 
 I7!'5. ddie institution is under Congregational 
 control. Its productive funds exceed $300,000, 
 and its funds for the aid of needy students 
 amount to $90,000. It has a large cabinet 
 of natural history, chemical, physical, and 
 astronomical apparatus, and a library of 
 17.000 volumes, besides the society libraries. 
 The cost of tuition is $75 a year. It adheres 
 strictly to the old college curriculum. In 1875 
 — 6, there were 13 instructors and 17(1 students. 
 The presidents have been as follows : the Rev. 
 
 Ebenezer Fitch, 1793 — 1815; the Rev. Zephaniah 
 Swift Moore, 1815—21 ; the Rev. Edward Dorr 
 Griffin, L821— 36; the Rev. Mark Hopkins, D. 
 D., LL. D., 1836—72; and the Hon. Paul Ansel 
 Chadbourne, D. D.. 1.1.. D., since 1872. 
 
 WILMINGTON COLLEGE, at Wil- 
 mington, Ohio, under the control of the Society 
 of Friends, was organized in 1870. and chartered 
 in 1875. Doth sexes arc admitted. It has a 
 small endowment, being supported chiefly by 
 tuition fees ($39 a year), 'i here is a preparatory 
 and a collegiate department, with a classical and 
 a scientific course. In 1875 — 6. there were 4 
 instructors and 90 students (19 collegiate and 71 
 preparatory). The presidents have been Lewis 
 A. Estes, 1870 — 74, and Benjamin Trueblood, 
 since 1 874. 
 
 WISCONSIN, one of the western states of 
 the American I'nion, originally a part of the 
 territory of the same name, which was formed in 
 
 1836, of lands previously embraced in the terri- 
 
WISCONSIN 
 
 859 
 
 tory of Michigan. It was admitted into the 
 i i lion as a state in 1848; but, the following 
 year, its limits were changed by transferring a 
 portion of it to the territory of Minnesota. The 
 area of the state is 53,924 sq. m. : and its pop- 
 ulation, in 1870, was 1,0(54,985, of whom 2.1 l.'i 
 were colored persons, and 11,521, Indians. 
 
 Educational History. — The earliest schools 
 held in the state, are believed to have been con- 
 ducted by the French Jesuits ; but the school at 
 Green Bay, of which James Porlier was teacher, 
 in 1791, is the first of which there is any definite 
 information. Post schools, also, were established. 
 in the early part of this century, near the forts 
 of the United States, at which instruction was 
 given to the children of officers, soldiers, and 
 settlers. Usually, they were conducted by the 
 post chaplains; but one of the earliest mentioned 
 — that at Prairie du ( 'hien — was taught by a 
 sergeant of the garrison. A few years after, 
 Indian schools were opened by religious denomi- 
 nations; and, in 1832, a clause of the treaty con- 
 cluded between the Winnebago Indians and the 
 United States, stipulated that the latter should 
 maintain for 27 year's a school near Prairie du 
 Chien, for the education of such children as the 
 tribe might send to it. In 1830, the first school- 
 house in the lead district was built at Mineral 
 Point. This was followed by others ; but they 
 were not numerous, the attention of the in- 
 habitants being, in great measure, absorbed by 
 their occupation as miners. The principal im- 
 pulse given to the founding of schools, came 
 from the settlers from the eastern states, who 
 sought the territory after the financial distress 
 of 1837. The first organized action taken by 
 the territory in regard to schools, was in 183(i, 
 when a bill was introduced into the assembly, 
 " to prohibit persons from trespassing on the 
 school lands." This was followed, shortly after, 
 by another, to " regulate the sale of school 
 lands, and to provide for organizing, regulating, 
 and perfecting common schools." In 1839, this 
 law was revised, so that every town of not 
 less than ten families was constituted a school- 
 district, and was required to provide a teacher. 
 County commissioners were authorized to ap- 
 point inspectors in towns which refused or 
 neglected to choose them, the duties of these in- 
 spectors being to lease the school lands, take 
 charge of the school-houses, and make reports 
 to the county commissioners of the number of 
 pupils. Trustees might be elected in each district, 
 to perform the duties ordinarily assigned to the 
 inspectors. A tax of one-fourth per cent also 
 was authorized to be raised for the building of 
 school-houses and the maintenance of the schools. 
 In 1840 and 1841, the school laws were amended. 
 The office of town commissioner was restored, 
 superseding that of inspector ; five officers. — 
 a clerk, a collector, and three trustees, were 
 chosen in each district ; and taxes were assessed 
 in each for the building of school houses. By 
 this time, the interest of the people in the sub- 
 ject of schools had become very general. In 
 1845, a free school — the first in the state — was 
 
 founded at Kenosha, by Col. M. I'" rank. The 
 idea— since so familiar in the older states — of 
 taxing all assessed property for the support of 
 common schools, was then new. and met with 
 strenuous opposition on the part of property 
 holders who had no children to educate. After 
 many public meetings and lectures, devised for 
 the purpose of enlightening the public mind on 
 the subject, a bill embodying this idea was intro- 
 duced by Col. Frank into the territorial legis- 
 lature, and passed in 1845. In the constitutional 
 convention held in 1846, for the purpose of 
 forming a constitution for the prospective state, 
 and again in the convention of 1H4H, the subject 
 of education created much discussion. InlM9. 
 three commissioners were appointed to revise 
 the school laws, and reduce them to one system 
 uniform in its action throughout the state. r l he 
 earliest school fund was derived from the sale of 
 lands granted by the general government for 
 school purposes. 1 hese were the sixteenth sec- 
 tion in every township, any grant the purposes 
 of which had not been specified by the general 
 government, and the £00,(,00 acres granted by 
 the act of 1841. This was further increased, in 
 185(5, by the addition of three-fourths of the 
 proceeds of the swamp lands granted to the state 
 by act of Congress in 1850. This, however, was 
 subsequently diverted to the normal-school and 
 drainage fund. The school fund was also in- 
 creased in other ways, till, in 1875, the total in- 
 come from it amounted to $184,624.04. The 
 first state superintendent was Eleazer Root (1 849 
 — 52) ; and his successors were Azel P. I add 
 (1852—4) ; II. A . Wright (1 854—5) ; A. C. Barry 
 (1855—8); Lyman C. Draper (1858— (50); J. L. 
 Pickard (1860—64); J. G. McMynn (1864- 8); 
 A. .1. Craig (18(58—70) ; Samuel Fallows (1870 
 — 74) ; Edward Searing, since 1874. 
 
 School Si/stem. — The general supervision of 
 educational interests is vested by the constitu- 
 tion in a state superintendent, who is elected 
 biennially. In addition to the duties usually 
 devolving upon state superintendents, he is in- 
 trusted with some that are ordinarily delegated 
 to state boards of education. He is, also, a 
 member, ex officio, of the board of regents of 
 the state university and of the normal school. 
 County superintendents are chosen biennially. 
 They have an oversight over school property, in- 
 spect the schools, conduct teachers' institutes, 
 examine teachers, and grant certificates of three 
 grades. In 1875, the law was so amended as to 
 open the office of county superintendent to 
 women, and several have since been elected. An 
 independent system of supervision and manage- 
 ment exists in the cities, by which city superin- 
 tendents are appointed, with powers and duties 
 similar, in most respects, to those of county 
 superintendents. Boards of education are elect- 
 ed in the cities, which, for school purposes, 
 have been erected into independent districts by 
 charters from the legislature. These boards 
 choose a president, a clerk, and a superintend- 
 ent, establish schools, and adopt rides for their 
 management. The superintendent examines and 
 
8G0 
 
 WISCONSIN 
 
 licenses teachers, visits the schools, and makes 
 an annual report. The schools are supported 
 by the income of the state school fund, and 
 by a tax levied in each county to the amount 
 of one-half of that received from the state 
 for school purposes. Special school taxes, also, 
 may be authorized by the county boards of su- 
 pervisors. No sectarian instruction is permitted 
 in the schools. Five months constitute the legal 
 school year; and 20 days, the school month. The 
 school age is from 4 to 20 years. 
 
 Educational Condition. — The number of school- 
 districts, not including cities with separate sys- 
 tems, is 5,423 : the number of public schools. 
 5,260; the number of graded schools, 304. The 
 school revenue for 187:> was as follows : 
 From the school fund $17H, 072.00 
 
 '• county taxes 1 ,637,679.00 
 
 " "supervisors' taxes 241,920.00 
 
 " all other sources 200,616.00 
 
 Total $2,238,187.00 
 
 1'he expenditures were as follows: 
 
 For teachers - salaries $1,350,784.00 
 
 " building, repairing, ami 
 
 furnishing school-houses 371,390.00 
 " all other purposes '241,777.00 
 
 Total $1,963,957.00 
 
 The principal items of school statistics axe as 
 
 follows : 
 
 Number ol children of school age 461,829 
 
 " " " attending public schools. . .279,854 
 " " teachers employed in the Bchools. . 6,22 I 
 
 Average monthly salary of teachers in counties: 
 
 males $t."...">i) 
 
 females . . $27.1:; 
 Average monthly salary of teai hers in cities: 
 
 males $109.40 
 
 females. . $39.4 I 
 
 Normal Instruction. — The first constitution 
 of the state provided for the establishment and 
 
 maintenance of normal schools; and the state 
 legislature, in 1 848, organized the University of 
 Wisconsin, with a department for instruction in 
 the theory and practice of teaching. In \X'u, 
 the legislature directed that 2;") per cent of the 
 income of the swamp-lands fund should be ap- 
 plied to the uses of normal institutes and acad- 
 emies. In L865, one-half of the swamplands 
 fund was set apart as a normal-school fund, the 
 income of which, with the exception of one- 
 fourth, was to lie used to establish and support 
 normal schools. In L870, the fourth which had 
 
 been excepted, was restored. In L866. a board 
 of regents of normal schools was incorporated; 
 and the Platteville Normal School was opener] 
 in October of that year. The Whitewater Nor- 
 mal School was opened in L868; the Oshkosb 
 Normal School, in 1871; and the River Falls Nor- 
 mal Scl 1. in L875. In all these schools, there 
 
 are two courses of study., an elementary course of 
 
 '_' years, and an a Ivanccd course of I. ( Vrt ilieatcs 
 
 are given on the completion of the first; diplomas. 
 on completion of the second. When the holder 
 of a certificate has taught successfully one year 
 after graduation, the superintendent of public 
 instruction is authorized to countersign bis cer- 
 tificate, which makes it equivalent to a ."> years 
 
 state certificate. A similar countersigning of 
 the diploma renders it equivalent to a permanent 
 state certificate. ( 'ounty and city superintend- 
 ents nominate six representatives from each as- 
 assembly district for admission to the normal 
 schools, tuition in which is free to all. In Sep- 
 tember, 1875, the permanent fund for the sup- 
 port of these schools, had reached the sum of 
 $976,364.34. Normal instruction is also given in 
 Milton College, at Milton, and in the Seminary 
 of the Holy Family, at St. Francis Station. 
 
 Teachers' Institutes. — An annual expenditure 
 of $5,000, by the board of regents, is author- 
 ized, for the support of teachers' institutes, of 
 which 57 were held during the year 187;"). the 
 number of teat hers attending being 3,668. 1 he 
 average number of days they were in session, 
 was 12. '1 he law of L871 provides for the hold- 
 ing of normal institutes, of not less than 4 con- 
 secutive weeks each, and appropriates annually 
 for their support a sum not exceeding $2,000. 
 
 Teachers' Associations. — 'I he II isconsin State 
 Teachers' Association holds an annual and a 
 semi annual meeting. 'I here are also county and 
 district associations, which hold meetings at 
 stated times. 
 
 Secondary Instruction. — The need of high 
 schools, intermediate between the primary schools 
 and the State University, had lone- been felt: and 
 an attempt was made, in 1*7-4. to supply the de-» 
 ficiency. '1 he graded schools of the state, in- 
 eluding those in the cities, number about 400. 
 'I he law of 1872 provides that "all graduates of 
 any graded school of the state, who shall have 
 passed an examination at tuch graded school 
 satisfactory to the faculty of the university, for 
 admission into the sub -freshman class and col- 
 lege classes of the university, shall he. at once 
 and at all times, entitled to free tuition in all 
 the colleges of the university." Under this law. 
 •!.'{ graduates entered the university in 1S74; 
 but only a few graded schools in the state arc 
 yet qualified to act as preparatory schools for 
 the university. Under the new law, admission 
 to tin' high schools wherever established is 
 granted after a satisfactory examination, the 
 minimum standard forwhich has been prescribed 
 
 by the state Superintendent. 'I luce courses .if 
 instruction, also, have been laid down by him: 
 two designed for the high schools of towns 
 having a population of (i.uiiu or more, and com- 
 prising 1 years: the third, of .'{ years, and in- 
 tended for districts having each a population of 
 less than 6,000.— The number ol pupils attend- 
 ing private schools and academies, in 1875, was 
 ll).7.'{.'{. Many such institutions are known to 
 exist in the state: but their independence of 
 
 the sel I system renders it difficult to procure 
 
 statistics iii regard to them. Seven business col- 
 leges, located in the principal cities, in L875, 
 reported to the U. S. Bureau of Education an 
 attendance of more than 1300 students, under 
 
 the instruct ion of 26 teachers. The prepar- 
 atory departments of l<> colleges reported an 
 
 -oc attendance of 1,359 students. 1,007 
 males and 352 females. 
 
WISCONSIN 
 
 WISCONSIN UNIVERSITY 8<>1 
 
 Superior Instruction. — The following are the 
 chief colleges and universities in the state: 
 
 NAME 
 
 Location 
 
 When 
 
 found- 
 ed 
 
 1S45 
 1846 
 1 s.V.i 
 1847 
 1867 
 1864 
 
 Religions 
 denomi- 
 nation 
 
 1H5'2 
 18.-,.-, 
 187:5 
 1848 
 
 Meth. Epis. 
 MCeth. Epis. 
 
 7th Day Bap. 
 
 Luth. 
 
 H. C. 
 
 Prot. Epis. 
 
 Cong. 
 
 R. C. 
 
 Non-sect. 
 
 Beloit College Beloit 1845 | Cong. 
 
 Carroll College Waukesha 
 
 Oalesville Uuiv Galesville 
 
 Lawrence Univ Appleton 
 
 Milton College Milton 
 
 Northwestern Univ. Watertowu 
 
 Pio Nono College. .. St. Francis 
 
 Racine Collegia Racine 
 
 Ripou College Ripon 
 
 St. John's College.. Prairie duChieu 
 
 Univ. of Wisconsin. Madison 
 
 The second and third of these are, as yet, doing 
 only preparatory or academic work. The Mil- 
 waukee Female College, the Wisconsin Female 
 • 'ol lege, at Fox Lake, and the St. Clara Acad- 
 emy, at Sinsinawa Mound, are the only institu- 
 tions for the superior instruction of women, in 
 the state. The first was organized in 1852. It 
 has a preparatory and a collegiate course, and, 
 in 1875, reported 17 instructors and 106 stu- 
 dents. It is non-sectarian. The second was 
 organized, in IS 56, by the Congregationalists. In 
 1875, the number of its instructors was 6 ; the 
 number of students, 65. The third is under 
 Roman Catholic control, and, in 1875, had 15 
 instructors and 57 students. 
 
 Professional and Scientific Instruction. — The 
 .state agricultural college exists as a department 
 of the state university, the grant by Congress, 
 in 1862, having been applied, in 1866, in this 
 way. Bonds to the amount of $40,000 were 
 issued to the state by Dane County, for the pur- 
 pose of purchasing an experimental farm. This 
 farm, containing 200 acres, adjoins the university 
 grounds; and a four years' course of study is pro- 
 vided in that institution, comprehending all the 
 branches that relate to the practice of agricult- 
 ure. The agricultural college fund was, in 1875, 
 $236,133.90. There are still upward of 52,000 
 acres of agricultural college lands unsold. The 
 Nashotah Theological Seminary was founded, 
 near the Nashotah Lakes, by the Episcopalians, 
 in 1842. It provides the course of instruction 
 common to such institutions. The Seminary of 
 St. Francis of Sales, at St. Francis, was founded 
 by the Roman Catholics, in 1856, for special 
 instruction in theology. In 1875, the number of 
 its instructors of all kinds was 12 ; the number 
 of its students, 245. A school of science, called 
 the College of Arts, exists as a department of 
 the state university, which also provides for an 
 advanced course in law. 
 
 Special Instruction. — The Institute for the 
 Blind, originally a private school, at Janesville, 
 was, in 1850, adopted by the state, and is sup- 
 ported by annual appropriations. It is managed 
 by 5 trustees, appointed by the governor for 3 
 years. It is intended for residents of the state 
 between the ages of 8 and 21. It has 3 depart- 
 ments : one furnishing instruction in the ordi- 
 nary branches of an English education ; the 
 second, in vocal and instrumental music, and the 
 theory of musical composition ; the third, in 
 
 various mechanical and industrial pursuits. The 
 number of instructors and employes is 21 ; the 
 number of pupils, 82. The Institute for the 
 Deaf and Dumb was opened at Dclavan in 1852. 
 In 1862. it was incorporated as a state institu- 
 tion. Like the institute for the blind, it is un- 
 der the management of 5 trustees, appointed by 
 the governor for 3 years. Board and tuition are 
 free to all deaf and dumb children over 10 years 
 of age, who reside in the state. Clothing and in- 
 cidental expenses ale the only items tor which 
 pupils are charged. The course of instruction 
 
 occupies 5 years, and is of 7 grades. The same 
 studies are pursued as in the public schools; and 
 the same text-books are used, except in the two 
 lower grades of the study of language, in which 
 special books are provided. The sign language is 
 the medium of instruction for all, with the ex- 
 ception of a special class of 20 in articulation. 
 Two trades are taught, — cabinet-making and 
 shoe-making. The number of instructors, in 
 1875, was 9 ; the number of pupils, L81. The I n- 
 dustrial School for Boys was opened at Wau- 
 kesha in 1860. " It is designed as a " place of 
 confinement and instruction for all male children 
 between the ages of 10 and 16 years, who shall 
 be legally committed by any competent court as 
 vagrants, or on conviction of any criminal 
 offense, or for incorrigible or vicious conduct." 
 The school is divided into 8 families, each with 
 its separate building, play-ground, etc. School is 
 held 11 months of the year, the branches of a 
 common-school education being taught. A farm 
 of 233 acres, under good cultivation, is connected 
 with the school. An annual appropriation by 
 the state is the chief support of the institution; 
 but something is derived from the sale of the 
 products of its workshops and farm, and from the 
 payments made by counties for the maintenance 
 of certain classes of inmates. The number receiv- 
 ing shelter and instruction, is annually about 290. 
 WISCONSIN, University of, at Madison, 
 was founded in 1848. Its productive funds be- 
 ing the proceeds of lands granted by Congress 
 to the state for the support of a university and 
 of an agricultural and mechanical college, amount 
 to about $460,000. The institution is supported 
 by the income of these funds, and by state ap- 
 propriations. Tuition is free to all residents of 
 the state. The buildings and grounds of the 
 university are valued at $300,000. The legis- 
 lature has appropriated a tax of one-tenth of a 
 mill on the valuation of the state to the univer- 
 sity. This tax now yields $42,000. The whole 
 income of the institution is about $80,000. The 
 appliances for instruction in the physical sciences 
 are very superior. The university has extensive 
 and valuable geological and mineralogical cab- 
 inets and collections in natural history ; well- 
 selected philosophical and chemical apparatus; 
 and a library of 7,600 volumes. It comprises 
 (1) a college of arts, embracing the departments 
 of general science, agriculture, civil engineering, 
 mining and metallurgy, mechanical engineering, 
 and military science; (II) a college of letters, with 
 a department of ancient classics (embracing the 
 
862 
 
 WITTENBERG COLLEGE 
 
 WOMEN 
 
 ancient classics, mathematics, natural science. En- 
 glish literature, and philosophy, and intended to 
 be fully equivalent to the regular course in the 
 best classical colleges in the country), and a de- 
 partment or modern classics, in which German 
 and French take the place of Greek ; (III) a de- 
 partment of law. There is a preparatory and a 
 post-graduate course. Both sexes are admitted. In 
 L875 — 6, there were 27 instructors (7 in the law 
 department) and 345 students (collegiate, 200; 
 preparatory. 71; special students. 4'.); law, 25). 
 John H. Lathrop, LL. I>., was the chancellor 
 from 1848 to 1858, and Henry Barnard, LL. D., 
 from 1859 to 18(51. Since the re-organization of 
 the university, in 1867, the chief officers, styled 
 presidents, have been as follows : Paul A. ( !had- 
 bourne, M. D., LL. D.. 1*07—70; John H. 
 Twombly, I). D., 1871 — 4; and John Bascom, 
 D.D., LL. D., since 1874. John W. Sterling, 
 Ph. D., was dean of the faculty from 1860 to 
 1865, and vice-chancellor from 1865 to 1869; 
 since 1870, he has been vice-president. 
 
 WITTENBERG COLLEGE, at Spring- 
 field, Ohio, founded in 1S45, is under the control 
 of the English Evangelical Lutheran Church, as 
 represented by the General Synod. It is support- 
 ed by tuition fees ($30 a year) and the income 
 of an endowment of 8125,000. Its libraries con- 
 tain 8,000 volumes. There is a theological, and a 
 collegiate (classical and civil engineering) course, 
 and a preparatory department. In 1875 — 6, there 
 were Id instructors and 161 students (18 the- 
 ological, 80 collegiate, and 66 preparatory). 
 1 indi sexes are admitted. The presidents have 
 been as follows : the Rev. Ezra Keller, P. D., 
 4 years; the Rev. Samuel Sprecher, 1). 1)., LL. I)., 
 25 years ; and the Rev. J. B. Ilelwig, D.D., the 
 present incumbent, 3 years. 
 
 WOFFORD COLLEGE, at Spartanburg, 
 S. C, chartered in L851 and opened in 1854, is 
 under the control of the Methodist Episcopal 
 Church South. It owes its origin to the will 
 of the Rev. Benjamin Wofford, who bequeathed 
 $100,000 to found it. It is supported by the in- 
 come of an endowment of $50,000, by tuition 
 fees (from £14 to S6 I a year), and by assess- 
 ments on the Metho lists of the state. Its libraries 
 contain 15,000 volumes. In L875 —6, there were 
 7 instructors and 125 students (95 collegiate and 
 .*{(» preparatory). The presidents have been as 
 follows: the Rev. W.-M. Wightman, 1 >.!>., 1854 
 —60: the Rev. A. M. Shipp, D. I)., 1860— 75; 
 and James II. Carlisle, A. M., LL. D.. since 1875. 
 
 WOMEN, The Higher Education of (in 
 Great Britain). This subject has already been 
 treated in the articles on Co-Education and 
 /•'« male Education, in which the progress of the 
 recent movement in favor of the higher educa- 
 tion of women in the United States, is treated 
 with considerable fullness. The movement in 
 Greai Britain lias some peculiar features which 
 ii is the special design of this article to describe. 
 
 England. The numerous educational ad- 
 vantages offered to women are the results of a 
 
 remarkable and spontaneous movement, which 
 has had a rapid growth. It commenced about 
 
 the year 186 J, when, at the request of an in- 
 fluential committee, the Cambridge University 
 Senate permitted an experimental examination 
 for girls in connection with the junior and 
 senior local examination for boys. r l he results, 
 if contrasted with those of the entrance exam- 
 ination for Bristol College, in 1876, will show 
 the improvement in the education of women, 
 during 13 years. In 1863. half the junior; 
 passed, but 35 out of 41 seniors failed in pre- 
 liminary arithmetic ; at the Bristol examination 
 for scholarships, in 1876. the women took two 
 out of three open scholarships, in addition to 
 the four specially appropriated to them. In 1864, 
 a government Schools Inquiry Commission was 
 appointed, "to inquire into the state of educa- 
 tion of boys and girls of the upper and middle 
 classes." The report on private, endowed, and 
 proprietary schools was published in 1868, in 
 20 volumes, of which only one-twentieth referred 
 to girls. The inspectors appointed by the com- 
 mission had visited private schools for girls, by 
 the courtesy of the owners. They reported even 
 the best as too small in numbers, and the teach- 
 ing as wanting in thoroughness, arithmetic and 
 oilier mathematics, and Laiin. being mostly neg- 
 lected, and French and German taught super- 
 ficially. — Endowed schools were reported as 
 few; principally orphanages, and with instruction 
 scarcely raised above the elementary, ''the en- 
 dowments bearing an infinitesimal proportion to 
 similar endowments for boys." — Under the head 
 of Projiriehirii Schools -were included Chelten- 
 ham School, Queen's College, Bedford College, 
 Miss Buss's North London ( 'ollegiate School, and 
 two schools at Liverpool. In these, the teaching 
 was commended. Several ladies— amongst them 
 Miss Buss, Miss Davics, and Miss Beale — were ex- 
 amined by the commissioners, and confirmed the 
 unfavorable verdict of the inspectors on the gen- 
 eral state of girls' education. They advised the 
 establishment of public schools for girls, and the 
 opening of university examinations to girls and 
 women. On the publication of the report, various 
 efforts were commenced to secure endowments for 
 girls' schools. In 1871, Miss Buss made her North 
 London School a public school. She placed it 
 in the hands of trustees, and opened a second- 
 grade school under the same trust. In 1875. th< Be 
 schools received an endowment of £16.000 for 
 buildings, from the Brewers' Company, and be- 
 came endowed schools; and, in 1876, the number 
 of pupils was 800 : 400 in each school. Several 
 scholarships are held in the schools. In the above- 
 mentioned year (1871), the Women's Education 
 Union was formed, at the suggestion of Mrs. 
 W. Grey; and this Union, in L872, started a 
 company, called The Girls' Public Day School 
 Company Limited, with a capital of £12,000 
 (since increased to £50,000), in £5 shares, "to 
 pro\ ide schools at a moderate cost for girls of all 
 grades above the elementary." — In framing a 
 school scheme, the council of the company were 
 
 aided by schemes already published, although 
 
 not enforced until later by the Endowed Schools' 
 • lommission, appointed after the inquiry, and by 
 
WOMEN 
 
 863 
 
 the scheme for Miss Buss's school. The Com- 
 pany's first schools were opened in 1813, at 
 Chelsea and at Notting Hill; and since then, 8 
 additional high schools, have been opened, — at 
 Cloydon, Norwich, Hackney, Bath, Nottingham, 
 Oxford, St. John's Wood, and Gateshead; and 
 one middle school, at Clapham. In 1876, there 
 were upward of 1,400 children in attendance. 
 Every school is placed under the charge of a head- 
 mistress. There are examinations by independent 
 examiners, and a fair proportion of girls have 
 passed in the Oxford and Cambridge local and 
 higher local examinations ; one, from Notting 
 Hill, has obtained a scholarship at Newnham 
 Hall. — The school buildings, with one or two 
 exceptions, are arranged to hold from 200 to 300 
 girls ; the numbers, therefore, will probably in- 
 crease, and it is expected that the company will 
 be successful, financially as well as educationally. 
 Companies have also been formed at Leeds, 
 Manchester, Plymouth, Devonport, and U rant- 
 ham, for the establishment of high schools. 
 Simultaneously with the improved provision for 
 the education of girls, colleges have been opened 
 for women, and lectures established throughout 
 the country, by voluntary effort. In 1868, con- 
 tributions were solicited for the establishment 
 of a college for women, "designed to hold to girls' 
 schools and home teaching, a position analogous 
 to that occupied by the universities toward pub- 
 He schools for boys." A temporary building 
 was opened at Hitchin, in 1869, with 6 students. 
 The regulations of the University of Cambridge 
 were enforced upon the students, and professors 
 came from Cambridge to give class teaching. In 
 1870, five students were, on application, exam- 
 ined informally for the previous examination ; 
 but, since then, through the kind permission of 
 the senate, and the courtesy of the examiners, 
 many of the students have been examined, some 
 in the classical, mathematical, and moral science 
 triposes; seven have taken honors, and three have 
 passed the examination for the ordinary B. A. 
 degree. — In 1873, the college was removed to 
 Girton, near Cambridge, to premises built at a 
 cost of £16,000, and since then enlarged at a 
 further cost of £6,000. In 1876, there were 33 
 resident students. Scholarships have been held 
 amounting to £2,385, and £600 additional will 
 be given in 1877. — In 1871, Miss Clough opened 
 a house at Cambridge for students attending the 
 lectures of the Association for the Higher Edu- 
 cation of Women, or certain university lectures 
 open to women. The accommodation soon be- 
 came insufficient ; and, in 1874, Newnham Hall, 
 Cambridge, was built by a company to receive 
 Miss Clough 's students. In 1876, there were 29 
 "students (some holding scholarships) , all studying 
 for the Cambridge higher local examinations. — 
 In previous years, students have been examined 
 informally in the papers of the mathematical, clas- 
 sical, and moral science triposes.— (For Univer- 
 sity College, London, see University College.) 
 University College, Bristol, was opened in 1876, 
 with 300 students, about one-half women, and was 
 intended to supply, to persons of both sexes, ad- 
 
 vanced instruction in science, languages, history, 
 and literature. — In the College of Physical Sci- 
 ence, Newcastle-upon-Tyne, all classes are open 
 to women. — The London School of Medicine for 
 Women opened, in 1874, with 23 students. The 
 classes on medical subjects were arranged for a 
 3 years' curriculum. One additional year of practi- 
 cal work is required. Societies have been formed 
 throughout the country, since about 1864, for 
 the establishment of lectures and classes for 
 women; but the necessity for separate organiza- 
 tion will probably be superseded by the scheme 
 for university extension adopted by the Cam- 
 bridge senate, in 1874, at the suggestion of Mrs. 
 James Stuart. — By means of this scheme, uni- 
 versity graduates are sent to the various country 
 towns, to give lectures and form classes, open to 
 both men and women, and to hold examinations 
 and grant certificates. The scheme commenced 
 at Nottingham, with 2000 students, and has 
 rapidly extended. Colleges will be built, in con- 
 nection with it, at Nottingham and Sheffield. — 
 In London, lectures are open to women at the 
 Science and Art Department, South Kensing- 
 ton, the Birkbeck Institution, etc. Instruction in 
 music, with numerous scholarships, is given at 
 the National Training School, South Kensing- 
 ton, opened in 1876. — The following examina- 
 tions have been arranged : university examina- 
 tions open to girls and women, in 1876 — for girls 
 under 18 ; local examinations of the universities 
 of Cambridge;, Oxford, and Durham — for women 
 over 18 ; higher local examinations, Cambridge; 
 examinations for women, at the University of 
 London, and at Oxford (commenced in 1877) ; 
 and government examinations in science and art, 
 Science and Art Department. The University 
 of London, in 1877, decided to admit women to 
 medical degrees. 
 
 Scotland. — The education of women has long 
 been on a higher level in Scotland than in Eng- 
 land ; girls have received some higher education 
 with boys, in the common schools of the country; 
 and they have also attended high schools with 
 boys, in towns, and special girls' classes in the 
 large cities. Therefore, the same urgent need for 
 reform has not existed, as in England ; yet two 
 important improvements may be named. By act 
 of parliament, in 1870, the rich endowments of 
 the Edinburgh Merchants Company, of the an- 
 nual value of £20,800, were appropriated to the 
 education of boys and girls, and three large 
 girls' schools were opened. Also a complete course 
 of study for women has been established by the 
 Ladies' Educational Association in Edinburgh, 
 assisted by the professors of the university. — 
 Examinations for girls and women are held in 
 connection with the University of Edinburgh. 
 
 Ireland. — See Ireland. 
 
 For further information on this subject, see Re- 
 port of Schools' Inquiry Commission ; the same 
 abridged by D. Beale ; Hodgson, Education of 
 Girls; Year-Book of Women's Work; Journals 
 and Pamphlets published by the Women's Edu- 
 cation Union (London). (See also Co-education 
 op the Sexes, and Female Education.) 
 
 ■ . 
 
804 
 
 WOODBRIDGE 
 
 WORD METHOD 
 
 WOODBRIDGE, William Charming-, an 
 American teacher and educational writer, bora 
 in Medford, .Mass.. Dec. is.. 1794; died in 
 boston, November. 1845. He graduated at Yale 
 College at the age of IT. and from 1 Si 2 to 1814 
 "was principal of the Burlington Academy in 
 New Jersey, and subsequently studied theology 
 at the theological seminary in Princeton, N.J. 
 While at the latter place, be received an invita- 
 tion to assist in the establishment of the Ameri- 
 can Asylum for the Deaf and Dumb, at Hart- 
 ford, which he accepted. His labors there seri- 
 ously affected his health, and made a voyage to 
 the south of Europe desirable. This was under- 
 taken in L820. He returned in 1821; and. in 
 the beginning of 1822, finished his Rudiments 
 of Geography. This was followed, in 1824. by 
 Universal Geography. (See Geography.) Short- 
 ly after, failing health again led to his relinquish- 
 ment of active work, and to a second voyage to 
 Europe. There he visited many educational in- 
 stitutions, giving particular attention to that of 
 Fellenberg, at llofwyl, where he spent three 
 months, giving the first description of it to the 
 American public. (See Hofwyl.) In 1829, he 
 returned to Hartford for the purpose of enlisting 
 the sympathies'of influential friends in a plan 
 for the general improvement of education in the 
 United States, and the establishment of a school 
 for teachers III health, however, and the labor 
 required for the revision of his geographical 
 text-books, prevented the realization of his hopes. 
 In L831, he purchased the American Journal 
 of Educ(ttio)t, changed its name to the Annals 
 of Education, and became its editor. He con- 
 ducted this journal over six years, until sickness 
 compelled him to resign the editorship, when lie 
 embarked again for Europe, but returned in 
 1844. As an earnest friend of the cause of edu- 
 cation. Mr. Woodbridge is entitled to special 
 mention. He was one of the first to recognize 
 the necessity of normal schools; and the intro- 
 duction of vocal music as a part of elementary 
 instruction, is. in great measure, due to his 
 zealous advocacy. (See Mason. Lowell.) 
 
 WOODSTOCK COLLEGE, at Woodstock, 
 Baltimore Co., Md.. was chartered in 1867. It is 
 a Roman Catholic institution, devoted exclusive- 
 ly to the younger members of the Society of 
 Jesus. Its course of studies embraces three years 
 of philosophy, and four years of theology, to- 
 gether with the accompanying branches of the 
 natural sciences. Its faculty numbers 3 professors 
 of dogmatic theology, 2 of special metaphysics, 
 and one each for the remaining chairs of moral 
 theology. Sacred Scriptures, ecclesiastical history, 
 Hebrew, general metaphysics, chemistry, math- 
 ematics, and natural philosophy. During the 
 scholastic year 1873 — 4, the number of students 
 in regular attendance was L02,of whom 12 were 
 
 engaged in the study of philosophy, and (ill in 
 the course of theology. The Rev. .James IVrron, 
 S. J., is ( 1 877) the president. 
 
 WOOLSEY, Theodore Dwight, an Amer- 
 ican scholar and educator, born in New York, 
 Oct.31., L801. He graduated at Yale College 
 
 in 1820. and from 18211 to 1825, was a tutor 
 there. From 1827 to 1830, he studied in Ger- 
 many, and on his return was appointed professor 
 of Oreek in Yale College, and, in 1846, was 
 chosen president, which office he resigned in 
 ls71. He has published valuable editions of 
 several classical authors, among which may be 
 particularly mentioned Tw Alxsstis of Euripides 
 (1833); The Antigone of Sophocles (1835); The 
 I Mectra of Sophocles (1837); The Prometheus 
 of .. 7:sc// //Ins vls.'JT : and the ' 'lorqius of Plato. 
 
 WOOSTER, University of," at Wooster, 
 Ohio, founded in 1866, and opened in 1870, is 
 under Presbyterian control. It is supported by 
 tuition fees (§30 to $45 a year) and the income 
 of an endowment of $250,000. A handsome 
 building, costing over $100,000, has been erected. 
 and contains, besides ample recitation rooms, a 
 large cabinet and museum, a valuable telescope 
 with many philosophical and chemical instru- 
 ments, a chapel, and halls for literary societies. 
 It has a library of about 4,000 volumes. Doth 
 sexes are admitted. There is a collegiate, a pre- 
 paratory, and a medical department, the last at 
 ( 'leveland. The collegiate department has three 
 regular courses: classical, philosophical, and 
 scientific. In 187£ 6, there were 28 instructors 
 (13 in the niedii al department) and 350 students 
 (170 collegiate. H preparatory, and 80 medical). 
 'i he presidents have been : the Rev. Willis Lord, 
 D. D.. LL. D.. 1870—73, and the Rev. A. A. E. 
 Taylor. D. D., since 1873. 
 
 WORCESTER, Joseph Emerson, an 
 American lexicographer, born at Bedford. Aug. 
 24., 1784; died at Cambridge. Mass., Oct. 29., 
 1865. After graduating at Yale College, in 
 1811, he taught Echool for several years at 
 Salem, and while there, prepared the greater 
 part of his Geographical Dictionary, or Uni- 
 versal Gazetteer (2 vols., Andover, b s 17). This 
 work was followed by a Gazetteer of the 
 United States (1818), Epitome of History 
 (1827), and several other works. His first con- 
 tributions to the lexical literature of the En- 
 glish language were an edition of Johnson's En- 
 glish Dictionary, as improved by Todd and 
 abridged by Chalmers, with Walker's Pro- 
 nouncing Dictionary combined (1827), and an 
 abridgment of Webster's American Dictionary. 
 Mis Pronouncing and Explanatory Dictionary 
 appeared in L830; the Universal and Critical 
 Dictionary, in L846 ; the Pronouncing and 
 Synonymous Dictionary, in L855; and his great 
 Dictionary <f ike English Language (-ito, Ros- 
 ton), in I860. 
 
 WORD METHOD, a term applied to the 
 analytic method of teaching children to read. 
 The process consists in using short words instead 
 of letters in the lirst lessons, the pupil learning 
 to recognize and pronounce these words, Bome- 
 
 times to read easy sentences, before learning the 
 names of the letters. When a sufficient number 
 of words have been learned, the pupil is shown 
 their composite character, and taught the names 
 and sounds of the letters which form them, thus 
 learning the alphabet. In this process, care 
 
WORDS 
 
 865 
 
 should be taken to select appropriate words, and 
 present them in a progressive manner ; as, cat, 
 rut, hat, mat, — man, fan, an/, — dog, log, etc. 
 The pupil, in this way, perceives the power of 
 each letter, and soon learns to spell and pro- 
 nounce words, after which the synthetic method 
 may be employed. 
 
 WORDS, Analysis of. The analysis or 
 resolving of words into their elementary parts, is 
 an important branch of the study of languages, 
 the native as well as foreign. In ordinary school 
 parlance, this branch is usually styled etymology, 
 since the analysis comprehends not only an ex- 
 planation of the meaning of each of the parts 
 of a word — both root and affixes, but a knowl- 
 edge of the derivation of these. For elementary 
 school purposes, however, it 'should be borne in 
 mind that the latter is of secondary importance. 
 In the study of the native tongue, it will be 
 acknowledged, the importance of training pupils 
 to analyze compound and derivative words can 
 hardly be overestimated. The fact that the En- 
 glish language derives about one-half of the 
 words in ordinary use from Latin, renders ex- 
 ercises in word analysis, of far greater necessity 
 for the study of English, than for that of most 
 other languages. That, without being trained 
 in this analysis, pupils will scarcely be able to 
 grasp the true meaning of English words, prob- 
 ably no experienced teacher, at present, will be 
 inclined to dispute. To very many of the pu- 
 pils who are merely drilled in spelling and read- 
 ing, the force even of the most common Anglo- 
 Saxon prefixes, like a, be, en, etc., and of suffixes, 
 like duni, hood, ship, etc., must remain unknown. 
 How many, for example, will be able to infer 
 the meaning of for or fore in forswear and 
 forego? The knowledge of the Latin prefixes 
 and suffixes, even in the words of ordinary life, 
 will be acquired with still greater difficulty by 
 pupils not sufficiently trained in word analysis. 
 On the other hand, only a slight knowledge of 
 the simplest Latin prefixes, as, ad, con, pre, pro, 
 sub, etc., affords a key to the distinctive meaning 
 of a large number of words. It is, therefore, a 
 znatter of gratification to find that, at present, 
 this branch of study is scarcely ever entirely 
 omitted from the common-school course of in- 
 struction. — In regard to the method of teaching 
 word analysis, it may justly be said that there 
 are few subjects taught in elementary schools to 
 which the fundamental principles of the devel- 
 oping method can so easdy, and with so much 
 -advantage, be applied as to this. At whatever 
 stage of the pupil's progress the instruction may 
 begin, provided a knowledge of reading and writ- 
 ing has been acquired, the number of words 
 already learned, will be found ample for the first 
 and easiest exercises. Hardly any arbitrary 
 memorizing is needed, since, if the teacher fol- 
 low a natural course, he will only have to de- 
 velop the knowledge already in the child's mind. 
 Thus, children, even in the lowest grades, know- 
 ing the meaning of words like teacher and 
 preacher, will not find the least difficulty in un- 
 derstanding that er, in both these words, means 
 
 55 
 
 oiie who, and in perceiving that these words 
 mean, respectively, one who teaches, and our 
 who preaches. Nine-tenths of a class of pupils, 
 of ordinary intelligence, will now readily find, 
 among the words they are accustomed to use, 
 several others in which the suffix er has the same 
 meaning. They will not only fully comprehend 
 this initiatory lesson, but they will feel a manifest 
 delight that one simple explanation has so greatly 
 added to their knowledge of the meaning of 
 words. The intelligent teacher will not fail to 
 perceive that the more closely he is able to ac- 
 commodate his teaching to the knowledge of the 
 words which belong to the pupils' own vocabu- 
 lary, the more rapid will be their progress, and 
 the more intense will be the interest which 
 they will take in the new study. It is obviously 
 a point of great importance that the first ex- 
 amples of prefixes or suffixes that are presented, 
 should fully illustrate their general meaning. 
 Thus, the word teacher would be a better selec- 
 tion for this purpose than (/rover; sailor, better 
 than tailor; and repay, better than receive. In 
 the further progress of the study, it is important 
 that the most common prefixes and suffixes 
 should be learned before those of rarer use. It 
 shows a great lack of pedagogical tact in a 
 teacher to drill his pupils on preter, suiter, and 
 retro, before they know the meaning of sub, con, 
 and in. A more difficult stage of this branch 
 of study, is that which treats of the Latin roots, 
 and their use in English words. Here, also, a 
 strict adherence to the principle that we should 
 proceed from the " known to the unknown" — 
 from an analysis of what is already in the pu- 
 pil's mind to that which is new, will guide the 
 teacher with unerring certainty on the right 
 path. For example, a judicious teacher who 
 desires to familiarize his pupils with the deriv- 
 atives from the Latin root due or duct (from 
 duco), will not, at first, select such words as in- 
 duct, inductive, superinduce, etc., or even words 
 like adduce, conduce, deduce, before his pupils 
 have learned to analyze words of a more ob- 
 vious meaning ; as introduce, produce, reduce, 
 aqueduct, viaduct, etc. What is here meant is, 
 that the first lessons in this kind of analysis 
 should concern only those words the meaning of 
 which may readily be explained by showing the 
 meaning of their parts. In every subject of in- 
 struction, the order of presenting the various 
 matters which are to be learned by the pupil, is 
 of vital importance ; but in none is it more es- 
 sential than in the etymological analysis of words. 
 The numerous class of words which cannot be 
 explained, except by the history of their forma- 
 tion (such as ambition, candidate, chancellor, pe- 
 culiar ; also sycopha?it, gazette, quarantine, etc.) 
 should be reserved for a higher grade of this 
 study. — The analysis of words derived from the 
 Greek, should follow that of words derived from 
 Latin roots ; and the discussion of the etymo- 
 logical affinity of the words of different lan- 
 guages should be reserved for that stage of the 
 course of studies which comprehends compara- 
 tive philology. — For the teaching of this subject, 
 
866 WORKING MEN'S COLLEGE 
 
 WYOMING 
 
 important hints may be derived from the fol- 
 lowing works : Trench, A Select Glossary of 
 English Words etc. (N. Y., 1859); also. On the 
 Study of Wards f X. Y., 1859); Haldemax. Af- 
 fixes in their Origin and Application (Phila., 
 1865J; De Yere, Studies in English (N. Y., 
 1867). (For other works on this subject, see 
 English, The Study of.) 
 
 WORKING MEN'S COLLEGE (London), 
 founded in 1854, resembles, in intention and or- 
 ganization, the Birkbeck Institution, founded in 
 1823. The Rev. F. D. Maurice was its principal 
 up to the time of his death, in 1872. After a 
 short interval, Thomas Hughes, author of Tom 
 Brown's School Days, became, and still is, the 
 principal. It provides instruction, at the small- 
 est possible cost (the teaching being almost 
 wholly unpaid), in the subjects with which it 
 most concerns English citizens to be acquainted, 
 and thus tries to place a liberal education with- 
 in the reach of working; men. The college is 
 situated in Great Ormond Street, London. Six 
 class rooms have recently been built, at a cost 
 of more than £2.400. There is a museum and 
 library; and a coffee and conversation room is also 
 provided. Classes are formed in art, history, lan- 
 guage and literature, mathematics, and physical 
 science. These compose the chief work of the 
 college ; but classes in singing and other sub- 
 ordinate subjects are also formed. 
 
 The college year commences about the begin- 
 ning of October, and consists of four terms of 
 eight or nine week each, and a vacation term of 
 eight to ten weeks. — The ordinary classes meet 
 for one or two hours a week. General lectures 
 are delivered on the ordinary subjects of the col- 
 lege on Saturday evenings, to which the public 
 are admitted. There are also practice classes for 
 supplementary tuition, conducted for the most 
 part by certificated students. — Other advantages 
 connected with the college, are a Natural 1 1 is- 
 tory Society and Field Club, which holds weekly 
 meetings, and arranges geological and botanical 
 excursions ; an adult school, under the special 
 superintendence of the secretary, for teaching 
 the subjects required for entrance to the college; 
 and a night school, held twice a week, for boys 
 mider 17. — The fees are as low as possible, and 
 the conditions of entry are, that students must be 
 above 17 years of age, must know the first four 
 rules of arithmetic, and must be able to read and 
 write. — Examinations are held in the last week 
 of December. Certificates of honor, and schol- 
 arships or associateships are granted to success- 
 ful candidates who have attended the requisite 
 number of terms. The council of the college is 
 composed of founders, teachers, and elected 
 members, among whom are many who originally 
 joined it as students. The average number of 
 students is 360. At an early date, the college 
 
 was affiliated to the London University, and 
 some of the students have taken their degrees. 
 \s the scheme of the Working Men's College 
 did not admit women, another institution of a 
 similar kind was founded in L864; and another 
 
 Working Mens College was organized in L868. 
 
 WRITING. See Penmanship. 
 
 WURTEMBERG. See Germ ax v. 
 
 WYOMING, one of the territories of the 
 United States, formed, in 18G8, from portions 
 of Utah. Idaho, and Dakota. Its area is 97,883 
 sq. m.; and its population, in 1870, was 9,118; 
 but in 1875, it was estimated at 24,000. 
 
 Educational History. — In 1869, an act was 
 passed by the territorial legislature, which pro- 
 vided for the organization of schools, and this 
 was amended in 1*70. At that time, the num- 
 ber of schools of all kinds was 9, giving employ- 
 ment to 15 teachers, and instruction to 364 
 pupils. In 1 873, all previous school laws were 
 repealed, and a new law was substituted, under 
 which the schools are at present organized. The 
 first superintendent of public instruction was 
 J. H. Ifayford, who became such in lsG9.by 
 virtue of his position as territorial auditor. He 
 was succeeded, under the last law. by John 
 Slaughter, the present incumbent, who, as ter- 
 ritorial librarian, is, ex officio, superintendent of 
 public instruction. 
 
 School System. — The care of the public schools- 
 of the territory is intrusted to the superintendent 
 of public instruction, whose term of office is two 
 years, and who. in addition to the usual duties 
 pertaining to his office, apportions the school 
 fund, and makes a report direct to the assembly, 
 on the first day of each regular session. A 
 county superiittr/idcnt is elected biennially in 
 each county, and three district directors are an- 
 nually elected in each district. The duties of 
 these are almost identical with those of similar 
 officers in other parts of the country. The 
 public schools are open to all children between 
 the ages of 7 and 21. When there are 15 or 
 more colored children in any district, a separate 
 school may be organized, for their instruction, 
 by the district directors and the county superin- 
 tendent. The schools are supported by a two-mill 
 tax levied annually in each county, school-dis- 
 tricts assessing themselves for additional amounts 
 when necessary. In the employment of teach- 
 ers, no discrimination can be legally made on ac- 
 count of sex. All children in good he t alth are 
 compelled by law to attend school at least three 
 months each year. The schools are elementary in 
 character; but graded schools may be established 
 in any district, upon the decision, to that effect, 
 of the district directors and the county superin- 
 tendent. The territorial superintendent and the 
 several countv superintendents are required to 
 hold annually a teachers" institute, not less than 
 four nor more than ten days in length, at which 
 a uniform series of textd>ooks, for three years. 
 
 throughoul tin' territory, is designated. The 
 
 length of the school year is 10 months. 
 
 Educational Condition, — The following are 
 
 die principal items of school statistics for 1*75: 
 
 Number of Bchool-houaes IS 
 
 " " pupils enrolled 1,222 
 
 " " teachers 23 
 
 Total expenditures ?ir;.-too 
 
 Value of Bchool property | not including land) 132,600 
 No provision for superior or special instruction 
 of any kind has yet been made. 
 
XENIA COLLEGE 
 
 YALE COLLEGE 
 
 867 
 
 XENIA COLLEGE, at Xenia. Ohio, char- 
 tered in 1850, and organized 1851, is under 
 
 Methodist Episcopal control. It was originally 
 organized for females only, but was soon thrown 
 open to young men also. It comprises a collegiate 
 course (classical and scientific), and a preparatory, 
 a primary, and a normal department. Facilities 
 
 are also afforded for instruction in music. The 
 regular tuition fees vary from $26 to $36 a year. 
 In 1875 — (J, there were !• professors and other 
 instructors and 230 students (83 collegiate, 19 
 preparatory, 30 primary, and 98 normal). Wil- 
 liam Smith, A. M., is (1877) the president of 
 the college. 
 
 YALE, Elihu, an American merchant, the 
 patron, though not the founder, of Yale ( 'ollege, 
 was born in New Haven, April 5., 1648; and died 
 in London, Eng.. duly 22., 1721. In 1678, he went 
 to the East Indies, and, from 1687 to 1692, was 
 governor of Fort St. George, Madras. lie was 
 afterward made governor of the East India 
 Company, and a fellow of the Royal Society. 
 His gifts to the institution which afterwards 
 bore his name, were estimated at £500. At 
 first, only the new building, which had been 
 erected in New Haven, was named after him ; 
 but, by the charter of 1745, this title was ex- 
 tended to the whole institution. A synopsis 
 of his life may be found in the Yale Literary 
 Magazine, April, 1858. 
 
 YALE COLLEGE, in New Haven, Ct., is 
 one of the oldest and most important educa- 
 tional institutions in the United States. In 
 1701, the general assembly granted a charter for 
 a " colleghite school,'' and the trustees selected 
 Saybrook as its site. The first commencement 
 was held in 1702. The instruction seems to 
 have been given partly at Saybrook, and partly 
 at Killingworth and Milford, where the first 
 tw r o rectors resided. In 1716, the trustees voted 
 to establish the college permanently at New 
 Haven, and, in 1718, a budding was completed 
 there, which, in honor of Elihu Yale, a bene- 
 factor, was named Yale College, a designation at 
 first confined to the building, but authoritatively 
 applied to the institution as a whole, by the new 
 charter of 1745. The principal buildings oc- 
 cupy a square of about eight acres, west of 
 the public green. They are 16 in number. The 
 two buildings of the Divinity School, the two 
 buildings of the Scientific School, and the Med- 
 ical School are off the main square. The Law 
 School is in the county court-house. The in- 
 vested funds, in 1875, amounted to §1,550,000 ; 
 the income was $235,465, including $107,000 
 from students. The institution possesses valu- 
 able museums, cabinets, and apparatus. The 
 departments of instruction in Yale College are 
 comprehended under four divisions, as follows : 
 the faculty of theology (organized in 1822) ; of j 
 law (1824); of medicine (1812); and of philosophy J 
 and the arts. Under the last-named faculty are 
 included, the courses for graduate instruction, 
 the under-graduate academical department, the 
 under-graduate section of the Sheffield Scientific 
 School (1847), and the School of the Fine Arts j 
 (1866)— each having a distinct organization. In 
 the academical department, the course is for four 
 years, and leads to the degree of A. B. The 
 
 charge for tuition and incidentals is $140 a year. 
 The sum of $1 1.000 and upward, derived partly 
 from permanent charitable funds, is annually 
 applied by the Corporation for the relief of stu- 
 dents who need pecuniary aid, especially of those 
 preparing for the Christian ministry. About 
 100 thus have their tuition either wholly or in 
 part remitted. There are two fellowships, the 
 holders of which are required to pursue non- 
 professional post-graduate studies in New Haven. 
 The catalogue of 1876 — 7 shows some changes in 
 the course of studies published in that of 1875 — 6 
 (from which the statement in the article College 
 was taken), especially in the greater range of 
 elective studies. There are professorships of 
 moral philosophy and metaphysics ; natural phi- 
 losophy and astronomy; geology and mineralogy; 
 Latin language and literature ; mathematics ; 
 Greek language and literature ; rhetoric and 
 English literature ; history ; molecular physics 
 and chemistry ; modern languages ; German 
 language and literature ; political and social sci- 
 ence. The Sheffield Scientific School received 
 its name in 1860, when it was re-organized upon 
 a more extensive scale through the munificence 
 of Joseph E. Sheffield, of New Haven. In 1863, 
 it received the congressional land grant, and be- 
 came the College of Agriculture and the Me- 
 chanic Arts of Connecticut. The under-graduate 
 courses of instruction, occupying three years, are 
 arranged to suit the requirements of various 
 classes of students. The first year's work is the 
 same for all ; during the last two years, the in- 
 struction is chiefly arranged in special courses. 
 The special courses most distinctly marked out 
 are the following : (1) in chemistry ; (2) in civd 
 engineering ; (3) in dynamic (or mechanical) en- 
 gineering; (4) in agriculture; (5) in natural his- 
 history ; (6) in the subjects preparatory to med- 
 ical studies; (7) in studies preparatory to mining 
 and metallurgy ; (8) in select studies preparatory 
 to other higher studies. These courses lead to 
 the degree of Ph. B. The charge for tuition is 
 $150 a year. There are professorships of miner- 
 alogy; civil engineering; astronomy and physics; 
 dynamic engineering; theoretical and agricultural 
 chemistry ; agriculture ; mathematics ; botany ; 
 English ; palaeontology ; political economy and 
 history ; analytical chemistry and metallurgy ; 
 zoology ; chemistry ; and comparative anatomy. 
 The School of the Fine Arts has for its end the 
 cultivation and promotion, through practice and 
 criticism, of the arts of design; namely, paint- 
 ing, sculpture, and architecture, both in their ar- 
 tistic and esthetic aims. The design is, (1) to pro- 
 
8G8 
 
 ZOUUMiY 
 
 vide thorough technical instruction in the arts of 
 painting, sculpture, and architecture; and (2) to 
 furnish an acquaintance with all branches of 
 learning relating to the history, theory, and 
 practice of art. The course of technical in- 
 struction covers three years. No provision has 
 been made fur instruction in the departments of 
 sculpture and architecture ; but it is hoped that, 
 before long, this will be provided. There is a 
 professor of painting, a professor of drawing, 
 and an instructor in geometry and perspective. 
 The chairs of sculpture, architecture, and anat- 
 omy are unfilled. The school is open to both 
 sexes. The charge for tuition is $36 for three 
 months. In the departments of philosophy and 
 the arts, there are various post-graduate courses, 
 which may be pursued by candidates for the de- 
 grees of A. M., I'll. 1)., and civil ami dynamical 
 engineer, or by graduates not candidates for a 
 further degree. In the theological department, 
 there is no charge for tuition or for room rent. 
 There are several scholarships for the aid of 
 needy students. In the law department, the 
 undergraduate course is two years. There is a 
 post-graduate, course of one year for the deg 
 of Master of Law, and of two years, for the 
 degree of Doctor of Civil I .aw. The libraries of 
 the institution contain 117,000 volumes; namely, 
 college library (exclusive of pamphlets), 80,000 ; 
 Linonian and Brothers (society) library, 20,000; 
 
 libraries of the professional schools, 17,000. The 
 Peabody Museum of Natural History was 
 founded, in 1866. by George Peabody, by a gift 
 of $150,000. One wing of the building has been 
 completed. In 187G — 7, there were 87 instructors 
 in all the departments, besides special lecturers. 
 The students were as follows : theological, 95 ; 
 law, (Id ; medical, 36 ; department of philosophy 
 and the arts, slid (graduate students. 07 ; special 
 students. 2; academic under-graduates, 569; sci- 
 entific, 206; tine arts, 16); total, deducting rep- 
 etitions, 1,021. The number of degrees conferred, 
 prior to 187~>. was 10,605, including 870 honor- 
 ary degrees; the number of academic alumni 
 was 8,404. The government of the college is ad- 
 ministered by the president and is fellows, of 
 whom the governor and lieutenant-governor of 
 Connecticut are. ex officio, two. Six are elected 
 by the alumni; ami the remaining ten. who are 
 Congregational clergymen, are chosen by the 
 fellows themselves. The rectors and presidents 
 have been as follows: Abraham Pierson, 1701 
 7; Samuel Andrew [pro tern.), 1707 — 19; 
 Timothy Cutler, 1719 — 22: Samuel Andrew 
 (pro tern.), 1722 — 5; Elisha Williams, 1725 — 
 :'.'.): Thomas Clap, 1739—66; Naphtali Dag- 
 gett, 1766—77: Ezra Stiles, 1777— 95 ; Timothy 
 I (wight, 1795—1817 ; Jeremiah Pay, 1817 — 16; 
 Theodore Dwight Woolsey, 1846 — 71; and 
 Noah Porter, since 1871. 
 
 ZOOLOGY (Or. £<:>ov, an animal, and Myoq, 
 a discourse) treats of the structure, classification, 
 habits, etc., of animals. It is an important 
 branch of descriptive natural science, or natural 
 history, and usually forms a part of the course 
 of study in various grades of schools. In ele- 
 mentary instruction, it constitutes, with its sister 
 science, botany, one of the most effective and 
 available subjects for training the observing fac- 
 ulties ; and, hence, is often comprised in the 
 course of instruction prescribed for common 
 schools. This subject has peculiar attractions 
 for children ; since, as is well known, they in- 
 variably manifest a deep interest in animal life. 
 The principles by which the teacher should be 
 guided in giving instruction in this, as in other 
 branches of natural science, have been to some 
 extent explained in previous articles. (See 
 Astkon'omy. and IJotany.) In teaching zoology, 
 care must be particularly taken to exhibit as 
 much as possible" the natural objects themselves : 
 and, in elementary teaching, this comes first. 
 That is to say, the pupils are not to be required 
 to commit to memory dry definitions and for- 
 mulated statements; but their minds should be 
 brought in contact with the living realities. 
 (For a full synopsis of topics and methods for 
 
 elementary instruction in this subject, see How 
 to Teach, N. Y., 1874.) In the higher grades 
 of instruction, the three different departments 
 of the science — morphology, physiology, and 
 distribution, should systematically be treated. 
 In every grade of instruction, however, the 
 teacher or professor cannot too closely follow 
 the principle laid down by Huxley : "The great 
 business of the scientific teacher is to imprint 
 the fundamental, irrefragable facts of his sci- 
 ence, not only by words upon the mind, but by 
 sensible impressions upon the eye, and ear. and 
 touch of the student, in so complete a manner, that 
 every term used, or law enunciated, may after- 
 wards call up vivid images of the pa it icular struct- 
 ural, or Other, facts which furnished the demon- 
 stration of the law, or the illustration of the term." 
 Moreover, every teacher should bear in mind that 
 a good share of his own knowledge should be at 
 first-hand - acquired by his own observation, not 
 simply gleaned from books — or he will not suc- 
 ceed in awakening an interest in the minds of 
 his pupils. The proper method of teaching this 
 subject has been clearly shown by one of its great- 
 est masters. (See Huxley, On the Study <>f Z<>i>l- 
 in/i/. in The Culture ilemnniled hi/ Modem Life, 
 N. V., 1867.) (See SciEMCB, TilK TEACHING OF.) 
 
 THE KM). 
 
ANALYTICAL INDEX. 
 
 [Titles of special articles in full-faced letters; all others, in Italics.] 
 
 Abacus — 1 
 
 Abbassides — 36, 414 
 
 Abbenrode — 426 
 
 Abbot, Benjamin — 1 
 
 Abbott, Jacob — 1 
 
 ABC— 1 
 
 A-B-C Book— 1 
 
 A-B-C Method — see Alphabet 
 Method. See also 721 
 
 A-B-C Shooters — 1. See also 67 
 
 Abecedarian — 1 
 
 Abelard, Pierre — 1 
 
 Abercrombie, John — -1. See also 
 307 
 
 Aberdeen, University of— 774 
 
 Aberdeen Theological Hall — 711 
 
 Abingdon College — 2 
 
 Abse nteeism — 2 
 
 Abstract and Concrete — 2 
 
 Academie francaise — 3"> 
 
 Academies of Art — 308 
 
 Academy — its origin and ordinary 
 meaning, 2 : secondary meaning, 
 Accademia delta Crusca, Acalemie 
 francaise, etc., 3. See also 70S 
 
 Academ ;/ of Music — 3 
 
 Acadia College — 656 
 
 Accademia delta Crusca — 3 
 
 Accomplishments — distinguished 
 from culture, kinds of, 3 ; tend- 
 ency in regard to at the present 
 time; proper object of, 4. See also 
 303 
 
 Ackworth School — 327 
 
 Acquaviva, Claudio de — 359, 492 
 
 Acquisition — 1 
 
 Acquisitive Faculties — 469 
 
 Acroam.itic Method — 4 
 
 Adam, Alexander — i 
 
 Adams, Francis— 191, 305, 377, 422, 762 
 
 Adams, John — 1 
 
 Adams, John Quincy — 809 
 
 Adams Female Academy— 627 
 
 Adelbert— 81 
 
 Adelphi Academy — 104 
 
 Adelung — 225 
 
 Adrian College — 5 
 
 Adults, Schools for — in Germany, 
 in Austria, in the United States, 5 
 
 Adventists — 5 
 
 sEsop— 598 
 
 ^•Esthetic Culture — see Esthetic 
 Culture 
 
 Affectation — 6 
 
 African Free School— 157, 638 
 
 Agassiz, Ij. J. K. — 6 
 
 Age, in Education — 6 
 
 Agonistics — 396 
 
 Agram, University of — 438 
 
 Agricola, Johann — 118 
 
 Agricola, Kodolphus — biographical 
 sketch, educational works and 
 views— 8 
 
 Agricultural Colleges — congres- 
 sional land grants for, 8; progress 
 of, state appropriations for, 9 ; 
 laboratories, workshops, farms, 
 etc., expediency of grants for, 10; 
 course of study in. European 
 schools, 11; statistical table, 12, 
 13. See also 271 
 
 Abn, J. l-\— 14 
 
 Ahn's Method — 593 
 
 Aimwell School Association— 690 
 
 Ainsworth, Kobert — 14 
 
 A ir Space in School. Rooms — 439, 838 
 
 Aix-la- Chapelle—36'i 
 
 | Alabama — area and population, edu- 
 cational history, state superin- 
 tendents, 14: school system, edu- 
 cational condition, school statis- 
 tics, normal instruction, 15 ; 
 teachers' institutes ; secondary, 
 superior, professional, scientific, 
 and special instruction, 16 
 
 Alabama, University of — 16 
 
 Albemarle Female Institute — 845 
 
 Albert, Prince— -266 
 
 Albert University— 668 
 
 Albigenses — 83 
 
 Albion College— 17 
 
 Alcibiades — 56 
 
 Alcott, A. B 17 
 
 Alcott, W. A 17 
 
 Alcuin— 17, 122, 300, 315, 357 
 
 Alexander the Great — 39 
 
 Alexandra College—US, 566 
 
 Alexandria, Museum of— -3 
 
 Alexandrian School — 17 
 
 Alfonso of Maples— 482 
 
 Alfonso A'., of Spain — 790 
 
 Alfred the Great — biographical 
 sketch, influence on education, 1? . 
 See also 245, 262, 676 
 
 Alfred University — 18 
 
 Algebra — definition of, literal nota- 
 tion, 18 ; positive and negative, 
 19 ; exponents, methods of dem- 
 onstration, 20 ; range of topics 
 embraced, 21; class-room work, 
 22 
 
 Algeria — education in, 24 
 
 Alkmaar — 8 
 
 Allegheny College — 24 
 
 All Hallows College— 479 
 
 Alma Mater — 24 
 
 Alphabet — Greek and Latin alpha- 
 bets, etc., origin of the English 
 alphabet, imperfections in it, 
 table of vowel elements, 25. Sea 
 also 131, 390, 673, 674 
 
 Alphabet Method— 25, 721 
 
 Altenstein—36i, 528 
 
 Alumneum — 26 
 
 Alumnus— 26 
 
 Ambulatory Schools — 417 
 
 American Annals of Education — 17, 
 40D, 864 
 
 American Education Society — 170, 171 
 
 American Institute of Instruction— 258, 
 400, 430 
 
 American Journal of Education — 828 
 
 American Lyceum — 130 
 
 American Missionary Association— 16 
 
 Amherst College — 26 
 
 Ammonius — 18 
 
 Analogy, Sense of— 313 
 
 Analysis, Grammatical — definition 
 of, 26 ; parsing, value of analysis 
 as a mode of teaching, 27 ; diagram 
 system, 28. See also 3 -tl 
 
 Analysis, Mathematical — see 
 Mathematics 
 
 Analytic Method of Teaching— 28. 
 See also 221. 336 
 
 Anaxagoras — 786 
 
 Anaximander—311 
 
 Anderson, Hans — 307 
 
 Anderson School (Penikese 1.1— 
 
 Anderson's University — 775 
 
 Andover Theological College — 170 
 
 Andrea", J. V.— reforms introduce I 
 by. 28 
 
 Andrews, E. A.— 224 
 
 Anglo-Saxon — origin of, modifica- 
 tions of by other languages, pe- 
 culiarities of, its value in com- 
 mon schools, 29 ; in the high 
 school or academy, in normal 
 schools, in colleges and univer- 
 sities, 30; text-books for the study 
 of, 31. See also 673 
 
 Anselm. of Canterbury — 31 
 
 Anselm, of Laon — 1 
 
 Anthon, Prof.— 392, 514 
 
 Antiorh College — 32 
 
 Antiochus — 2 
 
 Antipathy— 32 
 
 Aphorisms, Educational — value of 
 education, 32; scope of education, 
 teacher and pupil. 3:! ; training 
 and habit, development of the 
 faculties,language,self-cducation, 
 34 : moral education, discipline 
 and government, 35 
 
 Apollonius poet, — 18 
 
 Apparatus, School — 35, 764 
 
 Appleton, Samuel — 549 
 
 Apportionment — see School Fund 
 
 Appr< nlices — 811 
 
 Approbation, Love of— 525 
 
 Aptitudes, Special— 332, 401 
 
 A rabian Sights — 307 
 
 Arabian Schools — 36 
 
 Arabic Numbers — 37 
 
 Arabs — 792 
 
 A rcesilaus — 2 
 
 Archaeology — 37 
 
 Architecture — see Fine Arts 
 
 Architecture, School — see School- 
 House. See also 765 
 
 Aretino, Guido — 780 
 
 Argentine Republic — area, popula- 
 tion, religion, etc., 37; history, 
 political and educational, schools 
 and universities, 38 
 
 Ariosto — 483 
 
 Aristophanes of Byzantium — 390 
 
 Aristotle — his early life,38;appointed 
 teacher of Alexander, the peri- 
 patetic school, method of teach- 
 ing, theory of education, ante- 
 natal influences, habit as an edu- 
 cator, when instruction begins, 
 classes of subjects to be taught, 
 mechanical work, fine arts, vi- 
 olent exercises opposed to 
 growth, 39 : antagonism of bod- 
 ily and mental activity, music, 
 political economv. works of Aris- 
 totle, 40. See also 32, 33, 34, 36, 
 68, 330, 471 
 
 Arithmetic— faulty method of teach- 
 ing, 40; what should constitute 
 the course in, 41; principles and 
 maxims to be kept in view. 4:'.; 
 reasons for the rule in short di- 
 vision, pure and applied arith- 
 metic, 44 ; stages ot mental de- 
 velopment to be kept in view in 
 teaching arithmetic, 45. See also 
 556, 635 
 
 Arizona — organization, area, and 
 population, educational history. 
 45 : school system, educational 
 condition, 46 
 Arkansas — organization, and admis- 
 sion as a state, educational his- 
 tory, 46; state teachers' associa- 
 tion, 47; state superintendents, 
 school statistics, present law; 
 
JI 
 
 ANALYTICAL IXDEX 
 
 Arkansas 
 
 elementary, normal, superior, 
 and special instruction; educa- 
 tional journal, etc., 48 
 
 Arkansas Industrial University — 
 48 
 
 Army Schools — see Military 
 Schools 
 
 Arndt. E. M.— 19 
 
 Arnobius — 142, 246 
 
 Arnold, Thomas — 49 
 
 Arnold, Thomas K. — 50, 513 
 
 Arnolil Arboretum, The — 405 
 
 Arrangement of Desks — 764 
 
 Art-Education — necessity of, con- 
 dition of among the ancients, po- 
 litical value of, 50; history of in 
 the U. S., methods of art-instruc- 
 tion, 51; art-schools in the P. S., 
 table of art institutions in the 
 U. S. ; instruction in drawing, 
 52 ; mode of establishing art- 
 schools, importance of art-edu- 
 cation, 63 
 
 Articulation— 701, 849 
 
 Artisans. Education of — see Tech- 
 nical Education 
 
 Art Schools— 52, 266 
 
 Arts, Liberal— 63 
 
 Asbury, Bishop — 797 
 
 Aschain, Koger — 54 
 
 Ashmolean Museum — 678 
 
 Ashmun, John Hooper — 517 
 
 Aspasia— 302 
 
 Assembly Catechism — 118 
 
 Asser — 18 
 
 Association of Ideas — 54,470 
 Lstronomy — claims of in education, 
 ."4 ; practical uses of, proper 
 method of teaching, elementary 
 course iii, .")">: diagrams and ap- 
 paratus, religious aspects, 56 
 
 Athelstan — 18 
 
 At heneum — 66, 745 
 
 Athenian*— 300, 396 
 
 Alliens [Ancient)— Athenian educa- 
 tion distinguished from Spartan, 
 grammatist and critic, writing, 
 use ot ink and stylus, . r >('p; music, 
 gymnastics, baths, education of 
 girls and orphans, 57. See al 
 
 Atherton, G. FT.— 10 
 
 Athletics— 153, 234,397, 702 
 
 Atkinson, Prof. — 10 
 
 Atlanta University — 57 
 
 Atlas— 57 
 
 Attendance, School — annual aver- 
 age, how found, 57 ; table of, in 
 the V. S., school age in different 
 states, percentage of population 
 enrolled, school attendance in Eu- 
 ropean countries, 58; in cities, 59 
 
 Attention — great value of, interest 
 the chief agent, not to be ex- 
 ercised too long, memory de- 
 pendent upon, 59 : attention de- 
 pendent upon physical condi- 
 tion, proper time for its exercise, 
 60. Bee also 483, 469 
 
 Auburn Theological Seminary — 712 
 
 Auguatana College — 60 
 
 Augustine, Saint — his early life, 
 teaches eloquence and rhetoric, 
 is converted to Christianity, tho 
 Confessions, objects to the use ot 
 the pagan classics in schools, lays 
 
 the foundation of Episcopal sem- 
 inaries, 60; and of Christian cat- 
 echetics, Id. See also 1H5, 204 
 AutfUd— 767 
 
 Austin. John — 515 
 
 Austin College — 61 
 
 Australasian Colonies — area and 
 
 population, educational systems, 
 
 New South Wales. Victoria, 61 ; 
 
 South Australia. West Australia. 
 (Queensland, Tasmania, New /.ca- 
 lami, 62 
 \ustrla -area and population, 62; 
 s.i i history , present sohoo] sys- 
 tem, school statistics. 64; educa- 
 tional periodicals, 65, Bee also i S 
 
 A ustro-IIungarian Monarchy — 62 
 Authority — its twofold application 
 its dual nature, limits of, mode 
 of enforcing, description of, 65; : 
 its use in intellectual instruc- 
 tion, expressive use of hurtful to 
 mental growth, 66. See also 374, 
 375 
 Avicenna — 557 
 
 Bacchants— 67. See also 1, 247 
 
 Bach, Johann Sebastian — 605 
 
 Bachelor— 67 
 
 Backus, Dr.— Hi 
 
 Bacon, Francis — early education, 
 appointed lord high chancellor, 
 Novum Organum, convicted ot cor- 
 ruption, philosophical views, 67; 
 experiment, Instauratio Magna, 
 Essays, influence on education, 68. 
 See also 179, 307, 494 
 
 Bacon, Roger — 676 
 
 Bacon, Rev. Thomas — 544 
 
 Baden — see Germany. See also 725 
 
 Bagdad, Schools at — 36 
 
 Bahrdt, C. F.— 68 
 
 Bailey, Nathan— 223 
 
 Bain, Prof— iii 
 
 Baldwin, Theresa — 171 
 
 Baldwin University — 69 
 
 Ballarat College — 712 
 
 Baltimore — history of education in, 
 school statistics, school system. 
 examination and qualification of 
 teachers, 69 ; industrial educa- 
 tion, training of teachers, 70 
 
 Baltimore City College— 70 
 
 Baltimore Female College — 70 
 
 Hangar Theological College — 170 
 
 Bangui f of Fulila — 123 
 
 Banks, N. P.-550 
 
 Bapterosses Desk and Seat — 763 
 
 Baptists-sects of, early history, 70; 
 principal colleges in England 
 and Wall's, history of in Anion, a, 
 colleges and theological semi- 
 naries in America, 71; epochs in 
 educational work, distinguished 
 Baptist educators, 72 
 
 Barbauld, A. L.— 72 
 
 Barbier, Charles— 100 
 
 Barcelona, University of— 792 
 
 Bardas 386 
 
 Barnard. F. A. P.— 72 
 
 I tar nard. Henry — his early life, edu- 
 cational works — 73. See also 173. 
 177. 736 
 
 BarUett, R. .if.— 109 
 
 Basedow, .LB. — his early life. 73;e In 
 cational views and publications. 
 Elementarwerk, the philanthro- 
 pic its failure, his death, his in- 
 fiuenei — 74. See also 243 
 
 Basel, University of— 804 
 
 Basil of ('a wn'<i— 178 
 
 Basques— 790, 792 
 
 Bales, Joshua— 640 
 
 Bates College— 74 
 
 Bavaria- see Germany 
 
 Baylor University — 75 
 
 Beach Urovc College — 75 
 
 Beale— 290 
 
 Beania — 367 
 
 Beauty— 284, 285 
 
 Betel— 360 
 
 Bcblan. B. A. A 75 
 
 Bee, Monash ry of — 81 
 
 Becker— 362 
 
 Beile— 76, 204 
 
 Bedford ('allege (London)— 269 
 
 /;. aouins — 37 
 
 Beecher. Catharine E.— 260, 303 
 
 it, trs, Seth J'.—lli 
 
 Beethoven 606 
 
 Belfast Theological Hall -711 
 
 Belgium— area ami population, 75; 
 
 educational history, primary and 
 secondary instruction. 78; sala- 
 ries of teachers, educational sta- 
 tistics. 77. Bee aKo (66 
 Bell, Andrew — his early life, John 
 
 Frisken, 77; monitorial system, 
 
 Bell, Andrew 
 
 controversy with Lancaster, the 
 National Society, the British and 
 Foreign School Society, his be- 
 quests. Madras College, 78. See 
 also 263, 594. 774 
 
 Bell, Dr. A. N.— 838 
 
 Bellarmin — 118 
 
 Belles-Lettres — early instruction 
 in, 78; order in which the es- 
 thetic is developed in the mind, 
 method of instruction to be pur- 
 sued, i>roper text-books, original 
 composition one of the most ef- 
 fective means for fostering a taste 
 for the beautiful, the esthetic in 
 foreign literature, text-books to 
 be used, 79; illustration of the 
 esthetic criticism of a scene from 
 Ju'ius Casar, etymology of single 
 words sometimes a department 
 of belles-lettres, 80 
 
 Belolt College— 80 
 
 Helper, Lord— 833 
 
 liembo, Cardinal — 482 
 
 Henecke — 352 
 
 Benedict— 178, 246 
 
 Benedictines, Schools of the — their 
 origin, peculiar features of in- 
 struction in, 80, list of the most 
 famous, 81. See also 178 
 
 Beneke, F. E.— 81, 220, 248 
 
 Benevolence — 81 
 
 Bengel, J. A 81 
 
 Bennett, J. .4.-109 
 
 Benseler — 224 
 
 Bentley, Richard— 82, 514 
 
 Berea College — 82 
 
 Berkeley Divinity School — 176, 177 
 
 Hiiiin. University of— 368 
 
 Bern, University of— 805 
 
 Bernhardt, A. F — B2 
 
 Berquin—SOl 
 
 Bethany College— 82 
 
 Bethel College— 82 
 
 Bible — difference in the views of Cath- 
 olics and Protestants concerning 
 the, use of the Bible in schools, 
 the Bible question, 82. See also 
 219. 362, 532, 826 
 
 Bible Expositions — 731 
 
 Bible History— 84 
 rod's Primer — 715 
 
 Bifurcation, system of— 366 
 
 Biology— 103 
 
 Birch— 84 
 
 Bishop Seatt Grammar and Divinity 
 School — 671 
 
 Bishop's College, University of ■ — 718 
 
 Blackboard — substitutes for, its 
 uses, 84. See also 764 
 
 Blackburn I'niver.slty — 85 
 
 Blackie— 197 
 
 Blahoslav— 599 
 
 Blair— 788, 734 
 
 Blake, Mrs. Jcx—48 
 
 I tlliid. Education of the — statistics 
 of the blind, tirst public asylum 
 for, first attempts at teaching, 85; 
 institutions for, in the U. 8. 
 methods of instruction. S6; music, 
 mechanical training, government 
 and discipline, systems of print- 
 ing ami notation, W 
 
 Blochmann, K. J 88. 896 
 
 Blookmamn'sche TnsUtut 88, 198 
 
 Block Combin at io ns 81 8 
 
 Blue-Coat School — see Christ's 
 Hospital 
 
 Board of Education — see School 
 Board 
 
 Boardlnji-School — its str.tus in dif- 
 ferent i ouutries, relation to pub- 
 lic schools, 88 
 
 BOckk. Aumutr-Wd 
 
 Bodleian Library — 678 
 
 Boehim, Martin — S'J3 
 Botthiut—481 
 Bolivar— VH 
 
 Bolivia — area and population, 88, 
 condition of education in, 89 
 
 Bologna, University of— '206, 43* 
 
ANALYTICAL INDEX 
 
 ill 
 
 Bonavetitura College — 624 
 
 Bonet, J. P.— 89..204 
 
 Bonn, University of— 368 
 
 Boiinycastle, John — 89 
 
 Book-Keeping — single and double 
 entry, 89; philosophy of, increase 
 of number of schools for, 90 
 
 Book-Manual — 91 
 
 Booth— 223 
 
 Bopp—352, 377 
 
 Borgi, Giovanni — 91 
 
 Bossuet — 118 
 
 Boston — population, school history, 
 school system, 92; salaries, pri- 
 vate schools and other institu- 
 tions, 93. See also 124 
 
 Boston College — 94 
 
 Boston University — 94 
 
 Botany — the educational value of, 
 method of studying, 95; simplic- 
 ity in manner of teaching, sys- 
 tematic botany, herbarium, mi- 
 croscope, identification of plants 
 not the chief object, utility of, 96. 
 See also 769 
 
 Boutwell, George S. — 510 
 
 Bowdoin, James — 540 
 
 Bowdoin College — 97 
 
 Boxing — 235 
 
 Boyhood — 7 
 
 Boys, Kducation of — objects to be 
 kept in view, 97; systems of the 
 ancients, Cyropcedia, Spartan sys- 
 tem, custos or pcedagogus, ludi 
 magister. Institutions Oratorios, 98; 
 training and instruction in mod- 
 ern times, necessity of discrim- 
 inating between the sexes, re- 
 quirements of modern civiliza- 
 tion, 99. See also 793 
 
 Bracke.tt, Anna C. — 303 
 
 Bradford Academy — 301 
 
 Brahmanism — 456 
 
 Braidwood, Thomas— 99, 206 
 
 Braille, Louis— 99 
 
 Brain — 100, 702 
 
 Brazil — area and population, 100; 
 educational condition, school 
 statistics, Collegio de Pedro II., 
 101 
 
 Jireslau, University o/— 363 
 
 Brethren of the Christian Schools — 510, 
 743 
 
 Brethren of the Common Life — 510 
 
 Brewers' Company's School — 269 
 
 Brian Boru — 477 
 
 Bridgman, Laura — 102. See also 435 
 
 Bristol— 71 
 
 British Columbia — area and popula- 
 tion, educational history and 
 condition, 102; school statistics 
 and finances, 103 
 
 British and Foreign School Society — 78, 
 263, 266, 594 
 
 Brooklyn — first free public schools 
 established there and in New 
 York, school history, 103; school 
 statistics and system, examina- 
 tion and qualification of teach- 
 ers, private seminaries and 
 schools, 104. See also 636 
 
 Brooks, Rev. Charles — 809 
 
 Brougham— .263, 833 
 
 Brown, George 11 4 
 
 Brown, Goold— 10.3, 378,379,380 
 
 Brown, Nicholas — 72 
 
 Brown University — 105 
 
 Bruder- Hauser — 358 
 
 Bruno, Giordano — 433 
 
 Brunswick-Celle, Duke of— 165 
 
 Brussels, University of — 77 
 
 Bucharest, University of — 745 
 
 Buchtel College — 105 
 
 Buckle— 195 
 
 Buda-1'esth, University of — 432 
 
 Buddhism— ibii, 456 
 
 Buffalo — population, educational his- 
 tory, city superintendents, school 
 system, educational condition, 
 school statistics, parochial and 
 private schools, 106 
 
 Bugenhagen, Johann — 107 
 
 Buisson, M. — 763 
 
 Bureau of Education, National — 
 
 its organization, objects, officers, 
 
 and functions, 107. Sir also 827 
 Burgher School — 108, 247 
 Burlington University— 109 
 Barney— 606. 8 »7 
 liurrowes, Thomas— 686, 687 
 B u rsch ensch aft — 367 
 Bushy, Kicliard— 109 
 Business Colleges — their origin and 
 
 progress, improvements in, 109; 
 
 differences in, 110 
 Buss, Miss — 862 
 Butler, B. .F.— 637 
 Buttniann, I'll. K.— 110 
 Byzantine Literature — 385 
 
 Cadet — see Military Schools, and 
 
 Naval Schools 
 Cadets' College— 110 
 
 Cagliari, University of — 486 
 
 Cairo, University of— 256 
 
 Calasanza, or Calasantius — 704 
 
 Calculus — 553 
 
 Calderwood — 561 
 
 Caldwell, Joseph — 651 
 
 Calepino — 224 
 
 California — organization, education- 
 al history, 110 ; state superin- 
 tendents, school system, 111 ; 
 educational condition ; normal 
 and secondary instruction, de- 
 nominational schools, superior 
 instruction, list of colleges and 
 universities, special instruction, 
 teachers' associations, 112 ; edu- 
 cational literature, 113 
 
 California College — 113 
 
 California, University of— 113 
 
 Caliphs— 36 
 
 Calisthenics — definition of, 113: 
 value of, proper time for, precau- 
 tions to be taken, 114. See also 702 
 
 Calistheniuiu — 114 
 
 Calligraphy — see Penmanship. See 
 also 56, 685 
 
 Calvin— 183, 247 
 
 Cambridge — 549 
 
 Cambridge, University of — history, 
 organization, 114; professorships, 
 terms, members of colleges, de- 
 grees, examinations, triposes, 
 local examinations, names of col- 
 leges, under-graduates,university 
 buildings, 115; societies, 116. See 
 also 269, 818 
 
 Camden School for Girls — 269 
 
 Camerino, University of — 486 
 
 Camp, David A'.— 174 
 
 Campbell, Alexander and Thomas — 229 
 
 Campe, J. H. — his educational the- 
 ories and works, 116 
 
 Canaanites — 411 
 
 Canada, Dominion of — 116 
 
 Cane Hill College— 116 
 
 Canisius — 118 
 
 Canons Regular, 118, 119 
 
 Canterbury — 81 
 
 Capital University — 116 
 
 Capitularies of Charlemagne — 164 
 
 Capo d' Istria, Count — 386 
 
 Caracas, University of— 837 
 
 Caracci — 308 
 
 Cardan — 204 
 
 Carleton College — 116 
 
 Carlo Borromeo — 301 
 
 Carlsruhe Polylechnical School— 369 
 
 Carneades — 2 
 
 Carpenter, Miss — 457 
 
 Carthage College— 117 
 
 Cartograj/h ij— 337 
 
 Cass iodorus — 48 1 
 
 Caste— 451. 456 
 
 Catania, University of — 486 
 
 Catawba College — 730 
 
 Catechetical Method — its limits, 
 true uses, superseded by the 
 topical method, 117. See also 229 
 
 Catechetical School — see Alexan- 
 drian School 
 
 Catechetics— 61, 463 
 
 Catechism — definition and origin, 
 117; history, 118 
 
 Catechists — 18 
 
 Catechumen — 118 
 
 Cathedral and Collegiate Schools 
 — their history, 11« j scope of, 
 decline of, 119. See also 178 
 
 CathoUpistemiad — 219 
 
 Catholic Free Schools— 647, 649 
 
 Catholic Universities — 742, 818 
 
 Cutlin, John— 622 
 
 Cato— 98, 744 
 
 Caucasia— 150 
 
 < 'aw ndish / 'ollege — 115 
 
 Cecilian College— 119 
 
 Celsus— 896 
 
 Celles, Conrad— 358 
 
 ' 'i ii Sic Languages — 464 
 
 Census. School — see School Census 
 
 Census Reports — 450 
 
 Centenary College— 119 
 
 Central America — area and popula- 
 tion .educational condition of Gua- 
 temala, Honduras, 119 ; San Salva- 
 dor, Nicaragua, and Costa IUca, 20 
 
 Central College— 120 
 
 Central Tennessee College — 120 
 
 Central University — 120 
 
 Centre College— 120 
 
 Certificate — see License, and In- 
 centives,School. See also 732, 808 
 
 Certificated Teachers — 522 
 
 Cervantes— 792 
 
 Chapsal, C. P.— 121 
 
 Character, Discernment of — neg- 
 lect of, harni resulting thereby, 
 sacrifice of the individual to the 
 mass, temperament, how to dis- 
 cern it, 121; phrenology, 122 
 
 Charlemagne — his educational 
 aims, 122; education of the clergy, 
 course of study, system of public 
 instruction, 123. See also 118, 139, 
 164, 246, 300, 357, 740 
 
 Charles, Duke of Brunswick — 116 
 
 Charleston, College of — 123 
 
 Chart— 123. See also 36 
 
 Charterhouse School — 267 
 
 Cheever, Ezekiel — his life, 123; his 
 work and characteristics, 124. See 
 also 547 
 
 Cheke, Sir John— 124 
 
 Cheltenham Ladies' College — 269 
 
 Chemistry — its practical value, habit 
 of memorizing, 125; three meth- 
 ods, lectures, text-book study, ar- 
 rangement of material, sensa- 
 tional experiments, 126 ; proper 
 method illustrated, 127 
 
 Cherokee Nation — 462 
 
 Cheve System — 783 
 
 Chicago — population, school statis- 
 tics and system, 128; examina- 
 tion, licensing, and appointment 
 of teachers, salaries of teachers, 
 private schools, 129 
 
 Chicago, University of — 129 
 
 Chicago Congregational Theological Sem- 
 inary — 170 
 
 Chicago Theological Seminaries — 72, 
 170, 712 
 
 Childhood — see Age 
 
 Chili — area and population, educa- 
 tional condition, primary instruc- 
 tion, school statistics, 130; second- 
 ary, superior, and special instruc- 
 tion, 131. See also 759 
 
 Chilwell (Engl.) Baptist College — 71 
 
 China Proper — area and population, 
 early history, religion, alphabet, 
 131; classics, estimate of educa- 
 tion, primary schools, 132: lect- 
 ures, degrees, examinations, in- 
 fluence of Europeans on Chinese 
 instruction, University of Peking, 
 133. See also 244, 299,378, 379, 380 
 
 Ch irography — 684 
 
 Christ Cross Kow— 134 
 
 ChristianVI., of Denmark— 213 
 
 Christian Brothers,College of— 134 
 
 Christian Brothers' College — 134 
 
 Christian College— 134 
 
IV 
 
 ANALYTICAL INDEX 
 
 Christiania, University of— 802 
 
 Christianity— 245, 246, 247, 300, f.72 
 
 Christian Schools, Brethren of— 510 
 
 Christian University — 134 
 
 Christians— 134 
 
 Christina, of Sweden — 801 
 
 Christ's Hospital— 135 
 
 Chrodegang, Bishop — 118 
 
 Chronology — see History 
 
 Church Catechism — 118 
 
 Church of God— 135 
 
 Chrysoloras, Emmanuel —139, 482 
 
 Chrysostom — 178 
 
 Cicero— '2, 312, 565, 744, 745 
 
 Cincinnati— population, educational 
 history, school system and statis- 
 tics, 136 
 
 Cincinnati, University of— 137 
 
 Cisleithania— 62 
 
 Civil Government — see Science of 
 Government 
 
 Civil Rights Bill— 157 
 
 Claflin University— 137 
 
 Clarke, Dr. E. H.—Ul, 302 
 
 Clarice Institution for Deaf Mutes — 206, 
 553 
 
 Class — definition of, 137; size and 
 constitution of, basis of classifi- 
 cation, teaching by classes or by 
 subjects, 138; loose classification, 
 139 
 
 Classical Studies — Latin, Greek, 
 139; decline in study of, 140; ob- 
 ject for winch taught, method of 
 
 teaching, text.-l ks, translations, 
 
 141. See also 224, 225,373, 51] 
 
 Classics, Christian— history of, 142; 
 peculiar value of, 143 
 
 Classification— see (lass 
 
 Class Rooms — 139 
 
 Claxton, Timothy — 430 
 
 Cleanliness — 441 
 
 Cleator, Joseph — 636 
 
 Clement— 18, 246 
 
 Clerc, Laurent— 206, 329 
 
 Clermont — 81 
 
 Cleveland — population, educational 
 history, 143; school system and 
 statistics, 144 
 
 Clinique— 144 
 
 Clinton, De Witt — biographical 
 sketch, political career, his aid to 
 the cause of education, 144; be- 
 comes president of the Society 
 for Establishing a Free School in 
 the City of New York, advocates 
 the Lancaster ian system, is made 
 president of the Presbyterian 
 Society for the Promotion of the 
 Education of Youth, the Infant 
 School Society of New York, New 
 York Hospital, New York His- 
 torical Society, estimate of his 
 ability, 145. See also 521, 594, 
 so; l 
 
 Clinton, George— 144, ('.37, 825 
 
 Cloister Schools— 382 
 
 Clothing— Ml 
 
 Clowes, 7'.— 830 
 
 Coach— 14S 
 
 ( 'ebb, Lyman 186 
 
 Cobbett, William— HI 
 
 Codrington < 'ollege—VJO 
 
 Co-Education of the Sexes — how 
 regarded In the r. s.. 146; argu- 
 ments for and against, statistics, 
 1 1 i; progress of co-education in 
 
 the 0. S.. 117: effeel "I the ordi- 
 nary college course on the health 
 of women, progress of co-educa- 
 tion in Europe, 1 18 
 
 CoimbraA niversUy <i/"-70-s, 709 
 
 i 'nil, urn. Dana I'. — 737 
 
 < oiiiiirn. Warren i 19 
 
 < 'ullni. i;, ml in r 540 
 
 Colby Unlversltj -149 
 . CadivaUader—lVt 
 
 i ;,/ ii,i i, 
 
 Colel. Dr. John 879, 521 
 Collard, Rojer -192 
 
 lions College I'd 
 Collectivi : i 19 
 
 College — history of in France. 160; 
 in Great Britain. Ireland, and the 
 U.S. ,151; Harvard, Yale, 152; table 
 of colleges in the U.S., conven- 
 tion of college presidents in the 
 U. S. in 1874, 153 
 
 College de France — 151, 316 
 
 College of Teachers — 665 
 
 Colleges, Denominational — 153 
 
 College Society (Congregational) — 171 
 
 Collegiate Schools — see Cathedral 
 Schools 
 
 Colombia, United States of— area 
 and population, educational his- 
 tory, school system, 154 
 
 Colony School, Aeiu Haven — 175 
 
 Color — value of instruction in, 
 method of teaching, harmony of 
 colors, 155. See also 778 
 
 Colorado — organization, area and 
 population, educational history, 
 school system, 166; educational 
 condition, secondary and other 
 instruction, 157 
 
 Colorado College — 157 
 
 t 'olor-Blindness—'MX, 293 
 
 ( 'olor Charts— WS 
 
 Colored Schools — their number, ex- 
 pediency of, 157; state laws in re- 
 gard to, advocates of, 168 
 
 Columbia College — 158, 637 
 
 Columbia, District of — seelMst rid 
 of Columbia 
 
 Columbian University — 159 
 
 Columbia Theological Seminary — 713 
 
 Coinenius, J. A. — his early life, 159; 
 Janua linguarum reserata, Didac- 
 tica magna sen omnes omnia do- 
 cendi artificium, Orbis sensualium 
 pictus, and other works, his po . 
 tion as an educational reformer, 
 ideal order of instruction, equal 
 instruction of both sexes, educa- 
 tion and development identical, 
 physical education, school room-, 
 and play-grounds, words to be 
 learned in connection with 
 things, 160 ; language to be 
 learned by practice, anniversary 
 of Comenius'S death, statu 
 erected, 161. See also, 33, 34, 2 is, 
 599, 720 
 
 Comer, George X. — 109 
 
 Commence me nt — 161 
 
 Commercial Colleges — see Busi- 
 ness Colleges 
 
 Commissioner of Education — see 
 Bureau of education 
 
 < 'ommodian — 142 
 
 Common-School Fund 638 
 
 Common Schools — 162 
 I 'urn in una I Colli t/es — 160 
 Com munid Sch ools — 1 65 
 Companionship — necessity of, 162 
 
 Comparative Philology— VIS, 37s. tr,i 
 Competitive Examinations — sco 
 Examinations 
 
 Composition— oral composition, ac- 
 curacy of expression, method Of 
 
 composing, preliminary train- 
 ing, 163; daily practice necessary . 
 correction of compositions, rhet- 
 oric. 164 
 
 Compulsory Education— first inti- 
 mation of, history of, 164; Bchi 1 
 age tirst defined by law, L66 
 cut aspect of, 167. See also 164, 213 
 
 Comstock, .1. L.— 167 
 
 Comte— 553, 564 
 
 Conception— the concept, predomi- 
 nance of conceptive faculty dur- 
 ing Infancy, basis of judgment, 
 
 ends to be kept ill view, value oi 
 
 object teaching, illustrations, 
 168; conceptions dependenl upon 
 feelings, 169, See also 163, 469 
 
 Conceptive Faculty — 167 
 
 Concert 'reaching a kind oi rOti 
 teaching, memorizing, exi i 
 rote teaching Injurious, to 
 voice iii responses 169 
 
 Concord College — 170 
 
 Concordia College — 170 
 
 Concordia Theological Seminary — 534 
 (.'mill iliac — 204 
 Con dorcet— 316 
 Confucius — 132 
 
 Congregational ists — their history, 
 originators of common schools, 
 list of schools and colleges, 170; 
 American Education Society, 
 church government, educators, 
 171 
 Congregations University —115 
 Connecticut — area and population, 
 educational history, 171; taxes, 
 172; tuition fees, permanent fund, 
 173; state superintendents, state 
 teachers' association, school sys- 
 tem, educational condition. 174; 
 statistics normal and secondary 
 instruction, 175; denominational 
 schools, superior, professional, 
 scientific, and special instruction, 
 176; educational literature, 177. 
 See also 166 
 Conscience, Culture of— its compar- 
 ative strength or weakness, moral 
 precepts not necessarily a culti- 
 vator of, 177. See also 597, 731 
 Const rvatory, Musical— 606 
 Constantinople, University of — 395 
 ( (institution of U. S.— 178 
 Convent Schools — their history,. 
 
 its; influence of Reformation on, 
 
 basis and distinguishing features 
 of, 179. See also 24(1, 715 
 Conversation — its uses, 179 
 Conversational .Method — its value 
 
 in early education, L80 
 
 i 'onvocation, University — 6 16 
 
 Cooper Institute — see Cooper, Pe- 
 ter 
 
 Cooper, Peter — his early life, in- 
 tentions in regard to the educa- 
 tion of the industrial classes. 
 Cooper Union for the Advance- 
 ment of Science and Art, course 
 of instruction in. 180, 181 
 
 Cooper Union, 180, 181 
 
 Coote, Edward— 182 
 
 Copenhagen, University of— 914 
 
 Copy-Hooks — see Penmanship 
 
 Copying— 182 
 
 ( ■„, bie— 81 
 
 Corderius, Mathurin— 183 
 
 < 'ordova— 36, 790 
 
 < 'omelia—98, 302 
 Cornelissen, Jan — 636 
 ( 'arm It, Ezra — 9 
 
 Cornell College— 183 
 Cornel] University— 183. See also 9 
 Corporal Punishment — advocates 
 Of, abuse of, History of the Hod. 
 
 |s.v the Terrors of the Hod, hors- 
 ing. L86; disciplinary value of, 
 ls7; justifiable as a last resort, 
 statistics, 188; present practice of 
 the civilized world, legal aspects, 
 offenses justifying the use of, 189 
 Bee also 346, 819, 869, 630, 793 
 
 Cum a di (tin-lira — 101 
 
 CorvalllS College— 190 
 Rico— 120 
 
 Council of Trent— 742 
 
 Counterpoint— 604 
 
 Course of Instruction — a prop, r 
 curriculum, 190; division into 
 grades, L91. See also n. 1:12 
 
 Cousin. Victor— 192. See also 1.165, 
 318 
 
 Cut, 11I x St. Mary't Institution— 645 
 
 Cowper— 196, 260, \Si 
 
 Cracow, University of— 64 
 
 Cramming — 192 
 
 Creche— 193, 668 
 
 crime ami Education—- their rela, 
 tion. 193; prison co >■ sta- 
 
 tistics, 194 : prison schools, crime 
 rni 1 bj fixed, natural laws. 
 195 
 
 Crocheting— 466 
 
 Crooks, !»'. 234 
 
 Croton, School of-3M 
 
ANALYTICAL INDEX 
 
 Crozer Baptist Theological Seminary— 
 72 
 
 Cruelty (to Animals) — prevailing 
 trait in children, 195: training oi 
 the aft'e< - tions necessary, 19(5 
 
 Crusades — 178 
 
 Crusca. Accademia delta — 3 
 
 Crysttiloli)yi/—?<-" 
 
 Culleoka Institute— 569 
 
 Culture — general and special, self- 
 exertion, 196; moral culture 197 
 
 Cumberland Oniverslty — 197 
 
 Curiosity — 197 
 
 Curriculum — see Course of In- 
 struction 
 
 Currie— i68, 169, 231, 336 
 
 Curtis, Joseph— 197. 
 
 Curlius, Alexander Carolus — 63 *> 
 
 Curtius. George — 198. See also 390 
 
 Curwen, Rev. J.- 781, 782, 783 
 
 Cusanus, Nicolaus — 421 
 
 Cutler, Manasseh — 661 
 
 Cyclopaedia of Education — 253 
 
 Cygnaus, Uno — 303 
 
 Cyprian — 142, 246 
 
 Czernowitz, University of— 64 
 
 Dacier, Andre — 198 
 
 Dacier, Anne — 198 
 
 Dactylology— 198 
 
 Dakota — area and population, edu- 
 cational history, 198: school sys- 
 tem.educational condition, school 
 statistics, normal instruction, 199 
 
 Dalberg, Johann von — 358 
 
 Dalgarno, George — 200, 205 
 
 Dalhousie College and University — 653 
 
 Dall, Caroline H— 304 
 
 Damascus — 35 
 
 Dame Schools— 200 
 
 Dana, J. D.— 202. See also 580 
 
 Dancing and Dancing Schools — 
 history of, the "jumping proces- 
 sion," religious character of, so- 
 cial aspects of, 201 
 
 Dane, Nathan — 517 
 
 Danish Language — 351 
 
 Dante — 4-<2 
 
 Danville Theological Seminary — 712 
 
 Darmstadt Polytechnical School— 369 
 
 Dartmouth College— 202 
 
 Davidson College — 203 
 
 Davies, Charles — 203 
 
 Davis, Rev. Lewis — 824 
 
 Day, Jeremiah— 203, 171 
 
 Day, Thomas — 747 
 
 Deaf-Mutes — 203; number of, errone- 
 ous ideas in regard to, mental con- 
 dition, Alphabetum Natural, 204: 
 history of the instruction of deaf- 
 mutes, table of institutions for in 
 the U. S., 205; the American 
 Asylum; systems of instruction, 
 
 206. See aiso 682, 683 
 Dean Academy — 829 
 
 Debating — 206; debating societies, 
 
 207. 'See also 231, 273 
 
 Debating Societies— 201 
 
 Decimal Notation — 207 
 
 Declamation — 207 
 
 Deductive Method — 465 
 
 Deflnitions— 207; How to Teach, 203 
 
 Degerando — see Gerando 
 
 Degrees — original signification, his- 
 tory, 208; list of, in the U. S., 
 Doctor of Medicine, value of de- 
 grees, Mommsen, 209. See also 
 133 
 
 Delaware — area and population, edu- 
 cational history, school system. 
 210; educational condition, school 
 statistics, normal instruction, 
 teachers' institutes: secondary, 
 superior, professional, and scien- 
 tific instruction, 211 
 
 Delaware College — 212 
 
 Delft Polytechnical School — G'.9 
 
 Delphin Classics— 212, 4^5 
 
 De m osthenes — 182 
 
 Dempster John — 567 
 
 Denison University — 212 
 
 Denman, James — 758 
 
 Denmark — area and population, his- 
 tory, 212; history of public in- 
 struction, primary instruction, 
 213; peasants' high schools, 214; 
 secondary, superior, and special 
 instruction, Iceland, 215. See also 
 165 
 
 Denominational Schools — 215 : 
 arguments for, PUdagogisehi a 
 HandbucH, 216; Dr. Bigg, oppo- 
 sition to denominational schools 
 in the U.S., advocacy of by the Ro- 
 man Catholics. \v. H. Seward, 217; 
 Bishop Hughes, 218 
 
 Dental College — 560 
 
 Dentistry, Schools of — see Med- 
 ical Schools 
 
 Departmental System — 218 
 
 Deposit Funds— VIS, 63S 
 
 Depravity — see Moral Education 
 
 De. Quincey, Thomas— 350 
 
 Derby, Lord — 477 
 
 Des Cartes — 316 
 
 Deseret, University of— 834, 835 
 
 Desks and Seats — 763 
 
 Des Moines, University of— 218 
 
 Detroit — population, 218; educa- 
 tional history, city superintend- 
 ents, school system, school statis- 
 tics, 219 
 
 Developing Method — definition of, 
 Herbart, Beneke, improvements 
 in, self-consciousness, 220; the 
 teacher is the school, phonetic 
 spelling, Griiser, Vogel, reading 
 in concert, value of number, 221; 
 the developing method as an 
 auxiliary, 222. See also 660 
 
 Deventer, School at — 7. 421 
 
 Devotional Exercises— see Relig- 
 ious Education 
 
 Dialectics — 231 
 
 Dialogues — 207 
 
 Diary, School— 222 
 
 Dickinson College— 222 
 
 Dictation— 223 
 
 Dictionary — definition and history 
 of, 223; in England, France, Ger- 
 many, 224 and 225 
 
 Didactics — 225; general and special, 
 226 
 
 Didymus the Blind — 18 
 
 Diesterweg. F. A. W.— 226; his op- 
 position to the union of church 
 and school, 227 — see also 433 
 
 Diez, Friedrich — 743 
 
 Diffidence — its nature, Cowper, 
 Washington, means for correct- 
 ing. 228 
 
 Diligence— 228 
 
 Dilworth, Thomas— 228 
 
 Dinter, G. F.— 229 
 
 Diodorus Siculus — 254 
 
 Dionysius — 18 
 
 Dionysius Thrax — 377 
 
 Diploma— 229 
 
 Disciples of Christ— 229 
 
 Discipline— intellectual and moral, 
 order, 230. See also 35, 440 
 
 Disputations — 231 
 
 D'lsraeli— 234 
 
 District Libraries— 511, 639 
 
 District of Columbia — area and 
 population, history, 231; educa- 
 tional history, 232: school sys- 
 tem, educational condition: nor- 
 mal, secondary, superior, profes- 
 sional, scientific, and special in- 
 struction. 233 
 
 District .School Journal — 240 
 
 District Schools — see Public 
 Schools. See also 162 
 
 Diitriet System— 172. 762, 827 
 
 Dlttes, Friedrich — 234. See also 
 :«:>. 401 
 
 Diversions — during childhood and 
 youth, athletics, 234 
 
 Divination — 744 
 
 Divoll, Ira— 689, 754. 755 
 
 Doane College — 235 
 
 Doctor — see Degrees 
 
 Doederlein, Uudwig— 235 
 
 Dominicans — 178, .157 
 
 Donaldson,.!. W.— 235. SeeaLso5<4 
 
 Donaius — 514 
 
 I'm inns — 300 
 
 Dorpnt, University of — 750 
 
 Drawing — definition of, usefulness, 
 of, 235: two classes of, instru- 
 mental drawing, 236 : free-hand 
 drawing, advisability of teaching 
 
 it in common schools, its intro- 
 duction into English schools, 
 237; conditions necessary for its 
 successful teaching, programmes 
 for instruction in different grades 
 
 of schools. 238. Bee also 51, 52. 
 
 53, 181 
 Dresden Polytechnical School — 309 
 Dressier — 81 
 
 Drew Theological Seminary — 631 
 Drill— 239 
 
 Dringenberg, Ludwig — 358 
 Druids— 315 
 
 Dmry College— 239 
 
 Dublin University — see Ireland 
 
 Ducpetiaux — 194 
 
 Duil lei/ Observatory — 822 
 
 Buffey, Mrs. E. A— 304 
 
 Dull Scholars— 239 
 
 Dulwich College — 269 
 
 Dunce— 239 
 
 Dunedin University — 61 
 
 Dupanloup— F. A. P 239 
 
 Duplessis — 717 
 
 Durham, University of — see Eng- 
 
 Durseh, M. G.— 240 [land 
 
 Duruy, Victor— 240, 165 
 
 Dusseldorf, School of Fine. Arts — 308 
 
 Dutch— 103, 491. 636, 646 
 
 Dutch Language — 351 
 
 Duval, William— 309 
 
 Dwight, Edmund— 549, 550 
 
 Dwight, Francis — 240 
 
 Dwight, Timothy — 240. See also 
 
 171, 187, 260 
 Dymond, J. — 177 
 
 Ear, Cultivation of — music, lan- 
 guage, cure of deafness, 241 
 
 Earlham College — 242 
 
 Eastern Empire — 247 
 
 East Tennessee University — 242 
 
 East Tennessee AVesleyan Uni- 
 versity — 242 
 
 Economy, School — see School 
 Economy 
 
 Ecuador — area and population, 242: 
 school history; primary, second- 
 ary, superior, and special instruc- 
 tion, 243 
 
 Edessa, Theological School at — 246 
 
 Edgeworth, Maria— 243. See also 
 196, 303, 399 
 
 Edgeworth, Richard L— 243 
 
 Edinburgh, University of — see 
 Scotland 
 
 Edinburgh Academy — 774 
 
 Edinburgh High School — 4, 773 
 
 Edinburgh Men-hunts' Company — 863 
 
 Education— definition of, 243; kinds 
 of, instruction, history of educa- 
 tion, 244; idea of among the an- 
 cients, among the Hebrews, ad- 
 vent of Christianity, 245; school 
 of Alexandria, Christian schools, 
 convents, 246; town or burgher 
 Bchools, peripatetic schools, Mo- 
 hammedanism, the Reformation. 
 247 ; Jesuit schools, the Pietists. 
 Comenius, Locke, Humanists and 
 Realists. Rousseau, Basedow, Pes- 
 taloz/.i. Froebel, Herbart, Beneke, 
 Spencer, '.it*: histories of educa- 
 tion, theory of education, 249; 
 physical, intellectual, and emo- 
 tional education, 251; religious 
 education, educational works, 253. 
 See also 56, 226, 'I'M. 283, 284, 298, 
 3ii:; 321, 332, 372, 377, 383, 399, 
 •117. 419, 497, 595, 695, 706, 717, 
 744. 746, 777, 793, 794 
 
 Education, Female — see Female 
 Education 
 
VI 
 
 ANALYTICAL INDEX 
 
 Education and Crime — see Crime 
 and Education 
 
 Educational Note* and Queries — 665 
 
 Educative Instruction — 4.W, 468 
 
 Egbert, Benedictine Monk — 81 
 
 Egypt — urea, population, and his- 
 tory, educational history, ancient 
 Egypt, 254; modern Egypt, 255; 
 missionary and foreign schools, 
 266. See also 300 
 
 Eickhorn, Minister — 364 
 
 Elaboratlve Faculty— 267, 169, 472 
 <•« Studies — 152 
 
 Elementary Schools — 257 
 
 Elementary Science — see Science, 
 Teaching of 
 
 Elementary Mounds — 700 
 
 Eliot, President— 10 
 
 Elizabeth, Queen — 479 
 
 Ellis, A. J.— 674 
 
 Ellis. William— 257, 784, 786 
 
 Elocution — 257, 721, 733 
 
 Elphlnston, James — 257 
 
 Ely, Isaac M.— 197 
 
 E yot, Sir Thomas— 22i 
 
 Emerson, (i. B.— 257. See also 149, 
 187,301 
 
 Emerson, Italph Waldo — 124 
 
 Eminence Col lege — 258 
 
 Emory College — 258 
 
 Emory and llenry College — 259 
 
 Emotions— 269. Bee also 261, 252 
 
 Empirical Methods — 259 
 
 Emulation — definition of, expedien- 
 cy of its use. 260 
 
 Encouragement — 261 
 
 Encydopatdism — 278 
 
 Endowed Schools— 262, 269, 382, 828, 
 B62 
 
 Endowments, Special — 102 
 
 Enfield— 223 
 
 Engineering Schools — 771, 772 
 
 England— area and population, 261; 
 educational history, endowed 
 schools commission, 262; condi- 
 tion Of schools at the tunc of the 
 
 Reformation, Lancaster. Bell, 
 Brii i-!> and Foreign Society, and 
 
 National Society, Brougham, 263; 
 
 committee of inspection appoint 
 ed, school laws of 1870, L873, and 
 1876, school boards, 261; national 
 system,265; educational statistics, 
 266; London school board, i 
 ers' associations, secondary e lu- 
 catiou, 267: public schools, 268; 
 endowed ami proprietary schools 
 aud colleges, Ladies' colleges, su 
 perior instruction, 269; profes- 
 sional and scientific instruction, 
 270; theological colleges, inns of 
 court, etc., 271. See also 2*7, 
 862 
 
 England, Church of — see Epis- 
 copal Church 
 
 English, The Study of — early study 
 in infant schools, etc., to speak 
 well, learning to read, 272; gram- 
 mar, advanced study in high 
 schools, etc., skill in speaking, 
 273; skill in writing, philological 
 study Of English, 274; compara- 
 tive philology, phonology, gram- 
 matical etymology, 275; course in 
 Lafayette College, text-books. 276 
 
 English Literature— what to teach 
 and how to teach it. 277; enoydo- 
 p.e Usui and abridgment, course 
 anil method of study, 278; Amer- 
 ican literature, books of refer- 
 ence, 279 
 
 Enthusiasm -280 
 
 Epee, 0. >L, Al.l.c de 1*— 280, 205 
 
 Epicureans — 384 
 
 Epiru 
 
 Episcopal Church— Churob of Eng- 
 
 I oid, 280 ; Church of Ireland, 
 
 Protestant Episcopal Church In 
 
 the i '. s.. 2xi 
 Episcopal Nethodlxl College— 282 
 /; of History — 124 
 
 Equal ion see Algebra 
 
 Erasmus, Desiderius— life and in- 
 fluence, 282; educational views, 
 283. See also 33, 115, 304, 389 
 
 Erasmus Hall — 637 
 
 Eratosthenes — 18, 333 
 
 Erigena, J. S.— 283 
 
 Erlangt n. University of- — 368 
 
 Ernest, Duke of Got ha — 361 
 
 Ernest i, J. A. — 2s4 
 
 Erskine College — 281 
 
 Esquiros, il. Atphonse — 747 
 
 Esthetic Culture — the esthetic ele- 
 ment among savages, taste, 281; 
 sense of the beautiful to be cul- 
 tivated practically, drawing to be 
 taught before writing, love of 
 the beautiful, music, poetry, 
 esthetics of the school room, 285. 
 See also 252 
 
 Etacism — 390 
 
 Ethics— 706 
 
 Ethnographic Method — 125 
 
 Etienne or Estienne, Henry and 
 Hubert — see Stephens 
 
 Etiquette — 543 
 
 Eton College — see England. See 
 also 432 
 
 Etymology— 28G. See also, 225, 275 
 
 Euclid— 18, 342 
 
 Eureka College— 286 
 
 Evangelical Association — 286 
 
 Evening Schools — objects of their 
 establishment, 286; their status in 
 different countries, organization 
 and management, detects of in 
 New York, 287. See also 5, 42:'.. I 16 
 
 Everett, Edward— 288 See also 1, 
 33, 34. 35, 243. 422 
 
 Exa m inat io n Qui it ions — 291 
 
 Examinations — 288; of schools, of 
 teachers, college and university 
 examinations, 289; in Germany, 
 comparative values ot written 
 and oral examinations, 290. See 
 also 133, 800 
 
 Example, The Influence of — 291 
 
 Exchanges, Educational — see Hol- 
 brook, .losiah 
 
 Exercise— 398, 441, 597, 268 
 
 I', j- It Hi it inn ers —292 
 
 Exhibitions, School— 292 
 
 Explanation — 723 
 
 Expulsion — 292 
 
 Eye, Cultivation of the— -eight sus- 
 ceptible of Improvement, aims of 
 education in, 292; when to begin 
 the cultivation of the eye, kinder- 
 garten methods, color-blindness, 
 injury to the eye from faulty 
 school methods, 293. See also 440 
 
 Factory Schools — English legisla- 
 tion in regard to, legislation on 
 the Continent, 294; in the U. S., 
 296. See also 54s 
 
 Faculties (Jf< ntal)— 31, 250, 469, 562 
 
 Faculty— 295 
 
 lagging— 295. See also 268 
 
 1': mingle — 564 
 
 Falk, .1. D — 295 
 
 Falk, P. L. A.— 295, 724 
 
 Family Plan— 665, 672 
 
 Farmers' College— 297 
 
 Farm villi- College — B4S 
 
 Farnum P r e p a ratory School — 631 
 
 Fauvii-Goitraud. E. — 564 
 
 Fear — its relation to education, 297; 
 
 the method of nature, 298 
 Feelings — 259 
 
 Felblgcr, J. I. von— 298. See also 63 
 Fellenberg, Pi B, von— 299. See 
 
 also 33. 375 ,429 
 
 Fellow— Ml 
 
 Fillnn 1st 
 
 Female Education — history. 299; 
 
 feiual lucation in ancient 
 
 times. Influence of Christianity 
 
 ii poii, 300; the Reformat ion .statis- 
 tics in Russia, in Austria, in other 
 Catholic countries, 30] : in the 
 
 i.s.. degrees conferred, theory 
 of female education, 302, Bee also 
 
 Female FMucation 
 
 132, 229, 256, 283, 298, 299, 185, 
 857, 862 
 
 Female Teachers — number of, in 
 the TJ. S., 304 ; why women are 
 preferred as teachers, 305 
 
 Fencing— 99, 235, 578 
 
 Fenelon, F. dc Salignac de la 
 Mot lie— 305 
 
 Ferrara. University of — 486 
 
 Ferule— 30... See also ls5, 189 
 
 Festivals. School — see School Fes- 
 tivals 
 
 Flchte, J. G.— 306, 362, 165 
 
 Ficinus, Marsilius—i^l 
 
 rlctlon, Works of — interest of chil- 
 dren in, 3U6: educational uses of, 
 errors to be avoided, 307 
 
 Field Lane School — 726 
 
 Fillmore, Millard— 106 
 
 1 ine Arts— 308 
 
 Finland — area and population, educa- 
 tional history, school system, 308 
 
 Firnuan. Bishop of I'assau—Gi 
 
 Fisher, John D. — 434 
 
 l-isk University— 309 
 Fide, Wilbur— 667 
 
 Filzn illiam Museum — 116 
 
 Flagellum—306 
 
 Hattich, J. F.— 309 
 
 Fletcher— 194 
 
 Fleury— 81 
 
 Floor Mpnce, in School Booms — 439 
 
 Florida— area and population, edu- 
 cational history, 309; state super- 
 intendents, school system, 310; 
 school fund, educational condi- 
 tion, seminaries, superior in- 
 struction, educational literature, 
 311 
 
 Florida Education Society — 430 
 
 Flounders < 'ollege — 327 
 
 Flowt r, Enoch — 685 
 
 ForceUini— 224 
 
 Foreign Education — 811; disadvan- 
 tages of, foreign travel, 312 
 
 Forestry, Schools of— 11 
 
 ForgetfuVness — 663 
 
 Form — 312; method of training the 
 observing faculties, 313. See also 
 343, 695 
 
 Forster, William A".— 165, 261 
 
 Fortescue — 515 
 
 Fort Wayne College— 313 
 
 Foundation' rs — 157. 268 
 
 Foundling Asylums — 313 
 
 Fourier. Pierre — 314 
 
 Fox, George — 327. 628 
 
 Fox, William — 7'J7 
 
 Fract ions—see Arithmetic 
 
 France — ana, population, and terri- 
 tory. 314; educational history, 
 315, 316; primary instruction, 317, 
 318; secondary and superior in- 
 struction. 319: special and profes- 
 sional instruction. 320. See also 
 166, 189, 691 
 
 Franciscan College — 321 
 
 Franciscans — 178. 315, 357 
 
 Franc kc, A. II. — educational and 
 charitable labors, institutions 
 founded by him, educational 
 views. 321. See also 465, 672, 807 
 
 Franekt r. University of— 618 
 
 Franklin. Iie>ijamin — 697 
 Franklin College (Ind.)— 322 
 Franklin College (Ohio)— 322 
 Franklin and Marshall College — 
 
 322 
 Frederick College— 322 
 Frederick IV.. oj Denmark— 213 
 Frederick VI.. of Denmark— 213 
 Frederick tin Great— 807 
 /■",-.-■ Academy, New Fork — 647 
 Fret Church of Scotland— 111, 819 
 
 Freedinen's Aid Society — 568 
 
 Freedmen'i Bureau— 828, 837 
 
 Freed men's Schools— 898 
 
 Free Schools— see Public schools. 
 
 s, e also 882 
 Free School Society of Wets York — 637, 
 
 . 647 
 
ANALYTICAL INDEX 
 
 "VII 
 
 Free School Systems — 827 
 Freewill Itaptists— :iJ3 
 Freiburg, University of— 368 
 French Language— its origin, 324; 
 
 prevalence :!'-•"); methods of 
 
 teaching it, 32(1; text-books, 327. 
 
 See also 592 
 Fresh Air (in the school room) — 838 
 Freund— 224 
 
 Friends, .Society of— 327, 685, 697 
 Frieric Language — 29, 275, 351 
 Frisch — 225 
 Froebel. Friedrich— life and labors, 
 
 the kindergarten, 328. See also 
 
 220, 248, 293, 330 
 Fruitland Normal Institute — 590, 
 Fulda, School of— HI, 719 
 Fuller, Margaret— SOI 
 Funuan University — 328 
 Furniture, School — see School 
 
 Furniture. See also 440 
 
 Gaiety- 396 
 
 Galesville University— 329 
 
 Gall, F. J.— 329 
 
 Gall, James — 87 
 
 Gallaudet, T. H,— 329, 205, 20o 
 
 Gallery Lessons — 169 
 
 Galloway, Samuel — 662 
 
 Games— 329. See also, 235, 398 
 
 Garret Biblical Institute — 448 
 
 Gauuie, J. J. — 330 
 
 Gazetteer— 223 
 
 Gedike. Friedrich— 331 
 
 Geelong College — 712 
 
 Geiger, Abraham, 415 
 
 General Culture — 776 
 
 Generalization— 468, 469, 470, 704, 768 
 
 Genetic Method— 331, 537 
 
 Geneva, University of— 804 
 
 Geneva Catechism — 118 
 
 Geneva College — 331 
 
 Genius — 331 
 
 Genoa, University of— 400 
 
 Geography— its scope, 332; element- 
 ary instruction in, history of, 
 333: first text-books, 334; mental 
 faculties exercised by, stages of 
 instruction, 335 ; proper age to 
 begin the study of, 330; methods 
 of teaching, 337. See also 277, 035 
 857 
 
 Geology — its claim to recognition in 
 elementary schools, basis of, 338; 
 mental powers cultivated by the 
 study of, improper methods of 
 teaching, 341 
 
 Geometrical Invention — 345 
 
 Geometry — 341; how to be approach- 
 ed by the learner, a mechanical as 
 well as a logical science, 342; ar- 
 rangement of subject matter, 343; 
 class-room work, 344; geometrical 
 invention, changes in demonstra- 
 tion, 345 
 
 Georama — 372 
 
 Georgens—i65 
 
 Georges — 224 
 
 Georgetown College (D. C.)— 345 
 
 Georgetown College (Ky.) — 340 
 Georgia — area, population, and edu- 
 cational history, state superin- 
 tendents, 340 ; school system, 
 educational condition, school sta- 
 tistics, 347; normal, secondary, 
 superior, special, and professional 
 instruction, 348 
 Georgia, University of — 349 
 G^rando, J. M. de — 349. See also, 35 
 
 Gerbert {Sylvester II.')— 37 
 
 German-American Schools — 349 
 German College— 350 
 German Language — comparative 
 value of, 350; its origin and his- 
 tory, 351; German philology, 352; 
 prevalence of German, method 
 of studying in England and Annr- 
 ica, 353; pronunciation of, juve- 
 nile literature, study of, German 
 in the U. S., 354; views of school 
 superintendents in regard to, 355; 
 arguments against, 350. See also 
 
 German Language 
 
 liii'.. I'J'.i. 186, 144, 530, 579, 614, 049. 
 754, 758 
 German States — 165 
 German Wallace College — 356 
 
 Germany — historical sketch of, edu- 
 cational history, 350; the school 
 subordinate to the church, the 
 gymnasium. 369; Ritu rakademien, 
 the I'mdagogium, 301; Gesner, Er- 
 nesti, Heyne, the Humanists, Pes- 
 talozzi, Fichte, 302; Sailer, Die- 
 sterweg, Froebel, primary in- 
 struction, 303; school statistics, 
 304; Prussian school administra- 
 tion, secondary instruction. 365; 
 course of study in the gymnasia, 
 teachers' seminaries, 300; univer- 
 sities, 307: professional, technical, 
 and scientific instruction, mili- 
 tary academies, educational pub- 
 lications, 309. See also 167, 189 
 
 Gesner, J. M 370 
 
 Gesticulation^— 201 
 
 Gettysburg Theological Seminary — 534 
 
 Ghent. University of — 77 
 
 Gibbon — 385 
 
 Giessen, University of— 368 
 
 Gifts, Kindergarten — 370 
 
 Gilbert de la Porree — 209 
 
 Oilman, Daniel C. — 174 
 
 Gilmanton Academy — 627 
 
 Girard, Gregoire — 371 
 
 Girard, Stephen — 672 
 
 Girard College— 400, 672, 690 
 
 Girlhood— 1 
 
 Girls, Education of— see Female 
 Education 
 
 Girton College— 149, 269, 863 
 
 Gladstone, William E. — 140 
 
 Glasgow, University of — 774, 775 
 
 Globe, Artificial — its construction, 
 371; history and advantages of, 
 372. See also 336, 337 
 
 Glossary — 223 
 
 Gnosis — 18 
 
 Goddard Seminary — 829 
 
 Goethe, J. W. von — his theory con- 
 cerning education, 372. See also 
 454, 462 
 
 Gdttingen, University of— 368 
 
 Gonigraph — 373 
 
 Gonville and Caius College— 115 
 
 Gonzaga College — 373 
 
 Goodrich, S. (i.— 373 
 
 Gothic Language — 275, 351 
 
 Gottsched— 352 
 
 Gould, James — 517 
 
 Gouraud, F. Fauvel — 564 
 
 Governess — 373 
 
 Government, School — 373; its nat- 
 ure, rewards, 374; efficacy of, siig- 
 gestions to the teacher, occupa- 
 tion one of the most effective 
 agents in school government, 375. 
 See also 35 
 
 Grade — 375 
 
 Graded Course — 190 
 
 Graded Schools — 375 
 
 Graded System— '315 
 
 Graduate — 377 
 
 Graefe, Heinrich— 377 
 
 Graham, Isabella — 377 
 
 Grammar— 377. See also 140, 330, 
 352, 391, 420, 512, 514, 560, 602 
 
 Grammar, English — its function, 
 distinction between the science 
 and the art of grammar, 378; his- 
 tory of, 379; methods of instruc- 
 tion, language lessons, science of 
 the sentence, scheme for teach- 
 ing grammar, 3H0; analysis and 
 parsing, errors in teaching, 381. 
 See also, 27, 273, 277 
 
 Grammarians, Roman — 377 
 Grammar Schools — 382. See also 
 209, 715 
 
 Grammatical Exercises — 104 
 
 Grammatist — 56 
 
 Granada, University of— 192 
 Grant, President — 218 
 
 Granville Female College — 302 
 
 eraser, J. IJ.— 383. See also 221 
 Gratz, University of— 64 
 
 Gray Nuns, Order of— 743 
 Grazzini — 3 
 
 Great Britain and Ireland, The 
 United Kingdom of— 3«3 
 
 Great Elector — 363 
 
 Greaves, James P. — 17 
 
 Greece— area and population, his- 
 torical sketch, ancient (ireece, 
 383: educational views of the an- 
 cient Greeks, 384; the Greek Em- 
 pire, mode rn Greece, 386; pri- 
 mary instruction, 380; secondary 
 instruction, 387; superior and 
 special instruction, 388 
 
 Greek, Christian — 142 
 
 Greek Church— 388, 818 
 
 Greek Language— origin and his- 
 tory, 389 ; the Greek alphabet, 
 rivalry with Latin, methods of 
 teaching, 390; grammars and lex- 
 icons, 391 ; reaaers, 392. See also 
 50, 301, 303, 420, 681 
 
 Greeks— 241, 396 
 
 Green, S. S.— 551, 737 
 
 Greenevllle and Tusculum Col- 
 lege— 392 
 
 Greenland — 600 
 
 Greenleaf Simon — 517 
 
 Gregorian Tones — 604 
 
 Gregory IX. Pope)— 67, 208 
 
 Greifswald, University of— 368 
 
 Grey's "Memoria Technica" — 564 
 
 Grimm, J. L. — 392 
 
 Grimm, W. K.— 393 
 
 Grimbald — 18 
 
 Griscom, John — 393 
 
 Griscom, J. H. — 393 
 
 Groen van Prinsterer — 018 
 
 Groningen, University of— 618 
 
 Groot, Gerard — see Hieronymians. 
 See also 358 
 
 Grote, George— 304, 833 
 
 Grounds, School — see School 
 Grounds 
 
 Guatemala — see Central America 
 
 Guggenbuhl, Dr. — 444 
 
 Guggenmoos — 444 
 
 Guizot, F. P. G 393. See also 165, 
 
 317, 318 
 
 Gusta vus Adolph us — 801 
 
 Gutsmuths, .1. C. F 394, 396, 757 
 
 Gnyot, A. H. — 394. See also 334 
 
 Gymnasiarch — 57 
 
 Gymnasium — history of, 394; mod- 
 ern meaning of in Germany and 
 on the Continent, 395. See also 
 57, 358, 386 
 
 Gymnastics — agonistics and ath- 
 letics, games and exercises, 396; 
 gymnastics as a part of education, 
 397. See also 39, 57, 153, 213, 300, 
 384, 394, 528, 702 
 
 Habit — 397; its power, bad habits, 
 teacher's duty toward, good hab- 
 its, proper time for forming, 398. 
 See also 34, 259 
 
 Hackett, Horatio B. — 72 
 
 Hadley, James — 399 
 
 Hadrian — 81 
 
 Haehn, J, F 399 
 
 Hahnemann — 560 
 
 Haldeman, Prof— 101 
 
 Hale, Chief Justice— 405 
 
 Half-Time Schools— 399 
 
 Hall, S. R.— 400. See also 260 
 
 Halle, University of— 308 
 
 Halls English Universities) — 151 
 
 Hamilton, Alexander — 037 
 
 Hamilton, James — 400 
 
 Hamilton, Sir William — 555 
 
 Hamilton Baptist Theological Seminary 
 —71 
 
 Hamilton College — 400 
 
 Hamiltonian Method — see Hamil- 
 ton, James. See also 488 
 
 Hampden Sidney College — 401 
 
 Hampden Sidney Theological Seminary 
 
 713 
 Handel— 606 
 
VIII 
 
 ANALYTICAL INDEX 
 
 Hannibal College— 401 
 
 Hanover College — 401 
 
 Hanover Polytechnxcal School — 369 
 
 Harderwick, University of— 618 
 
 Harmony In Development — the 
 most important aim in educa- 
 tion, 401; abnormal development 
 destroys happiness and impairs 
 intellectual effort, 402 
 
 Harnlsch, C. W.— 402 
 
 Harris, James — 379 
 
 Harris, William T.— 376, 755 
 
 Harrow School— 1W, 269 
 
 Hartford— 171, 172, 175 
 
 Hartford Theological Seminary — 170 
 
 Hartley— 177 
 
 Hart lib, Samuel— 403 
 
 Hartsvillc University — 403 
 
 Hartmick Theological Seminary — 534 
 
 Harvard College — 17(1 
 
 Harvard, John— 403, 549 
 
 Harvard I "nl versify — departments 
 of, history of, 403 : buildings 
 and property, the curriculum, 
 404; tuition tecs, degrees, etc., 
 405; presidents, 407. Sec also 152, 
 611 
 
 Haiiy, Valentine — 407. See also 85 
 
 Haven, K. ().— 407, 568 
 
 Havcrlord College — 407 
 
 Hawaiian Islands — area and popu- 
 lation, educational history, 407; 
 school system and statistics, 103 
 
 H ay 1 1—408 
 
 Blazing -408 
 
 Heads of Houses — 151 
 
 Beart, Education of— see .Moral 
 Education 
 
 Hebrew Language— origin and ear- 
 ly history, alphabet, scientific 
 
 study of Hebrew, foil; philology, 
 method to be pursued in till 
 dy Of, U0 
 
 Hebrews, Education among the— 
 education among the ancient He- 
 brews, 411; Simon lien Shetach, 
 schools held in high estimation, 
 412: organization and mode of in- 
 struction, subjects of study, edu- 
 cation of girls and women,! L8; ed- 
 ucation under the Mohammedan 
 rule, 414 : decline of education 
 from the 13th to flic 17th centu- 
 ry, educational history in recent 
 times, 415. See also 245, 345 
 
 Hecker, John — 121 
 
 Becker, .1. .1.-416, 807 
 
 Bedding < 'oi lege— 417 
 
 Sedge-School — 117 
 
 11. 'gel, <;. w. I'.— 417. See also 35 
 
 Hegeman, Adrian — \:w> 
 
 Begins, Alexander— 417 
 
 Heidelberg, University of— 368 
 
 Heidelberg Catechism -lis, 727 
 
 Heidelberg College— 418 
 
 Heinichen — 224 
 
 Belnlcke, Samuel— lis. See also 
 2U5 
 
 Hellenic Schools— 387, 388 
 Hemsterhuis- 889 
 Henderson College — 418 
 //■ new— 598 
 Henfn >/. Prof.— 96 
 Henkle, W. D. — 666 
 // itn, P, 93 
 Henry VIII. 677, 678, 715 
 Benrj Joseph 1 1 B. Se also 34 
 // 'ir:/, /', im i , the Navigator -378 
 Hens low, ./. S. — 95 
 Heraelcu is 
 
 Berbart, J. F.— 418; his psychology 
 and educational views, U9. Bee 
 
 also 8, 220 
 Herder. .1. (i. , on I l'i 
 
 Hermann, Gottfried -420. Sec also 
 
 362, 3v.i 
 HersfeU i 
 
 Hesperian College 120 
 Hessus, Eobanus 120 
 Hej ne. «ii. <;. 120 
 // ./• 
 
 -18 
 
 Hleronymians — 421 
 
 High Schools— 421, 828 
 
 Higher Education — see High 
 Schools, Secondary Instruc- 
 tion, and Superior Instruction 
 
 Highland University— 423 
 
 Hildebrand — 225 
 
 Hillsdale College— 423 
 
 Hindoostan — 455 
 
 Hippocrates — 557 
 
 Hiram College — 423 
 
 History — 423: proper mode of teach- 
 ing, stages of, 424; different meth- 
 ods, 425; dates, lectures, kind of 
 material for elementary study, 
 426; the philosophy of history, 
 value of testimony, criticism, 427 
 
 Hiwassee College — 128 
 
 Hobart College — 428 
 
 Bofwyl, Schools of — description of, 
 428; Wehrli, 429. See also 11, 299 
 
 Hogarth— 195 
 
 Holbrook, Josiah — 129 
 
 Holiday — see School Festivals 
 
 Holland — see Netherlands 
 
 HoUis— 72 
 
 Hollins Institute— 345 
 
 Holy Angels' College — 430 
 
 Holy Cross, College of the — 430 
 
 Holyoke, Edward — 171 
 
 Home Education — 130; unconscious 
 tuition, the mother, home and 
 school education contrasted, 431. 
 See also 234. 245, 291 
 
 Home Lessons — 11(2 
 
 Homer — 56 
 
 Horn ceopath ic Colleges — 560 
 
 Honduras — 119 
 
 Hope — see Incentives, Prizes, and 
 Rewards 
 
 Hope College — 133 
 
 //'</* weU Baptist Academy — 71 
 
 1 liipi.in*, Edward — 175 
 
 Hopkins, Johns — 494 
 
 Bopkins. Mark — 1.13. See also 171, 
 257 
 
 Hopkins Grammar School — 175 
 
 I It I race — 185 
 
 Horn-Hook— 433 
 
 Horsing — 186 
 
 Hospice des (Jninze- Vinr/ts — 85 
 House of Refuge — see Reform 
 
 Schools. See also 197 
 Howard College — 434 
 Howard University — 434 
 Howe. S. G.— 434. See also 102 
 //■ viand, John — 735 
 Hra'aius — see Kalanus 
 Buarte, Juan — 135 
 Huddlestone, William —676 
 
 Huet, P. I) 435 
 
 Hughes, Archbishop — 218, 795 
 
 Humanists— 248, 362 
 
 Humanities — 435 
 
 Humboldt, K, W. von— 436 
 
 Humboldt College— 435 
 
 Hungarian Language — 609 
 
 Hungary— 435; area and population, 
 educational history, 436; school 
 system, primary instruction, sta- 
 tistics. 437: secondary, superior, 
 and special instruction, 438 
 
 Hutton — 556 
 
 Huxley— ill, 868 
 
 Hydrographic Schools — si 2 
 
 Hygiene. School — site of SCti 
 building. 138 : c. instruct!. I 
 class rooms, windows, their size, 
 number, etc., 439; mode of venti- 
 lation, heating, temperature, fur- 
 niture, discipline and school man 
 agement, 440; personal condition 
 upils, phj steal exercise, 141; 
 
 t hi play-ground. 442 
 Hymns— 131 
 
 /, land— 216 
 
 ie !, indie Language 278, :;:.] 
 
 Idaho ar.a and population, cdu a 
 
 Uonal history. bcI 1 system, 442; 
 
 school statistics, school fund, 143 
 
 /./ at 169 
 
 Idiocy— 443, 445 
 
 Idiots. Education of— first attempts 
 to educate, history of. 443: insti- 
 tutions for, at the present time, 
 444: table of statistics, intellect- 
 ual aspect of idiocy, adaptation 
 of kindergarten methods, num- 
 ber of idiots in the civilized 
 world, 445 
 
 Illinois— area and population, 445; 
 educational history, school sys- 
 tem, 446; school fund, teachers' 
 certificates, educational condition, 
 statistics, 447; normal, secondary, 
 superior, technical, and profes- 
 sional instruction, 448; special 
 instruction, educational associa- 
 tions. 44'.! 
 
 Illinois College — 44'.i 
 
 Illinois Wesleyan University — 449 
 
 Illiteracy — definition of, influence 
 of on communities, 449; sources 
 of information in regard to, pres- 
 ent condition of different coun- 
 tries in regard to. 450; percentage 
 of, in different countries, cause of, 
 influence oi education on, 461; 
 tabular view of in different coun- 
 tries, 452. See also 323. 
 
 /// T, niper— 681 
 
 Imaginal Ion, Culture of— necessity 
 for its cultivation, its early devel- 
 opment, methods of cultivation. 
 45:S: the fixing of the attention a 
 prerequisite, studies into which 
 it particularly enters, works of 
 fiction, 454. See also 307, 335, 345, 
 .-,.-,4 
 
 Imbi ciles. Schools for — 176 
 
 Imitation — 454 
 
 Impatii nee — 681 
 
 Incentives, School — 455. See also 
 
 231 
 
 India — area and population, early 
 history, 455; ancient and modern 
 India, 456; educational conditi n 
 and statistics, 457. See also ■'•<<" 
 
 Indiana— area and population, edu- 
 cational history, 457: school su- 
 perintendents, school sytiiu, 458; 
 school fund, school taxes, edu- 
 cational condition and statistics, 
 normal instruction, 459; seconda- 
 ry, superior, professional, scien- 
 tific, and special instruction, edu- 
 cational libraries and journals, 460 
 
 Indiana Asbury University — 460 
 
 Indiana I Diversity — 461 
 
 India 11s, A mciican — 461 
 
 Indian Schools — 643 
 
 Indian Territory— area and popula- 
 tion, educational oondin. n.462 
 
 Individuality— 462. Bee also 872 
 
 I ndO-GermanlC Languages — 464 
 Inductive .Method — 465 
 
 Industrial Drawing— 238, 466 
 Industrial Schools — early legisla- 
 tion concerning in England, Italy, 
 and Germany, 4r>5; iu the D. 8., 
 466. See also 5, 266 
 Industry— 467. See also 332 
 infant Schools— see Kindergarten 
 Ingerslev — 224 
 
 Innae: ill ///.— 17S 
 
 Inns of Court— 271, 515, 616 
 Inspection. School— see Supervi- 
 sion 
 Tnspl eh, mill Examinations — 289 
 Institul d I'ean. 
 
 Instil, 1 mology (Boston) — 772 
 
 Institutes, Teachers'- Bee Teach- 
 ers' Institutes 
 
 I usi ruction — distinguished from 
 
 education, earlj phases, 467: gen- 
 eralization, classes of subjects on 
 which instruction should be 
 given. 468. Bee als 1 U9, 173, 4s7. 
 720 
 
 Intellect— 469 
 
 Intellectual Education— the intel- 
 lect onlj B part of the nun. I 
 
 s. Ideas, eonceition, 469; 
 
ANALYTICAL INDKX 
 
 IX 
 
 Intellectual Education 
 
 association, generalization, 470; 
 resemblanoe, classification, 471; 
 intuitive generalization, Indivi- 
 dualization, memory, imagina- 
 tion, 47-2. Sec ills.. 251 
 
 Inter -Collegiate Contests — 397 
 
 Interest— 473. See also 250, '289, 6G9 
 
 Intermediate schools — 473 
 
 l interrogation — 473 
 
 Intuitive Generalization — 470 
 
 Intuitive Method — see Object 
 Teaching, and I'estaiozzi 
 
 Invention, Rhetorical — 733 
 
 Ionians — 396 
 
 lotacism — 390 
 
 Iowa — area and j>opulation, educa- 
 tional history, 473; state super- 
 intendents, school system, school 
 revenue, 474; educational condi- 
 tion, statistics, normal and sec- 
 ondary instruction, 475; superior, 
 technical, professional, and special 
 instruction, educational journals, 
 476 
 
 Iowa, State University of — 476 
 
 Iowa College — 476 
 
 Iowa Wesleyan University — 477 
 
 Iranian Languages — 464 
 
 Ireland — area and population, edu- 
 cational history, 477; national 
 system, educational condition 
 (national system), 478; other edu- 
 cational agencies, secondary and 
 superior instruction, special and 
 professional instruction, 479 
 
 Ireland, Church of — '280 
 
 Irenoeus — 2 46 
 
 Irnerius — 203, 515 
 
 Italian Language — its relative im 
 portance, special motives for the 
 study of, 4S0; philology, 481 
 
 Italian Method of Book-keeping — 90 
 
 Italy — area and population, historic- 
 al sketch, educational history, 
 481; school statistics, present sys- 
 tem, 483; primary instruction, 
 statistics, 484; secondary instruc- 
 tion, 435; technical and superior 
 instruction, 486; special instruc- 
 tion, 487 
 
 Hard, Dr.— 443 
 
 Ivy Hall— 631 
 
 Jacobi, Mary P. — 304 
 
 Jacobs, C. F. W.— 487 
 
 Jacobson, Israel — 415 
 
 Jacotot, Joseph — 487; his method 
 of teaching, maxims, 488 
 
 James I. — 676 
 
 James VI.— Hi 
 
 Jansz, Andries — 636 
 
 Japan — area and population, early 
 history, 488; educational history, 
 489; present school system, 490. 
 See also 450 
 
 Jassy, University of—US 
 
 Jay, Peter ^.—197 
 
 Jefferson College — 490 
 
 Jefferson, Thomas— -232, 825, 842, 846 
 
 Jeffrey, Francis — 243 
 
 Jena, University of— 368 
 
 Jersey City — population, educational 
 history, city superintendents, 
 school system, school revenue, 
 491; school statistics, 492 
 
 Jesuits — their educational work, 492; 
 school system, 493; their influ- 
 ence, schools and colleges in the 
 U. S„ 494. See also 38, 179, 234, 
 248, 330, 359, 741, 742 
 
 Jewell, Edward — 71, 72 
 
 Jewell, F. 5.-374 
 
 Jewish Schools — 245 
 
 Jex-IUake, Dr.— 110 
 
 John C. Green School of Science — 631, 
 632, 772 
 
 Johns Hopkins University — 494 
 
 Johnson, AdeliaA. F. — 148 
 
 Johnson, Dr. Samuel— 34, 54, 99, 185, 
 186, 223, 298, 307, 398 
 
 Johnson, Rev. Samuel — 637 
 
 Jonas, Justus — 118 
 Jonson, JSen — 379 
 Joseph of Calasanza — 704 
 i Joseph II.. of Austria — 68, 741 
 Journal of Education — 177 
 Judgment, Training of — 495. See 
 
 also 385, 427 
 Julius. Dr.— 809 
 Justinian, Code of— 204 
 Juvenal — 185 
 
 Kalamazoo College— 495 
 
 Kansas — area and population, edu- 
 cational history, school system, 
 495; educational condition, school 
 statistics, normal, secondary, and 
 superior instruction, 496; profes- 
 sional, scientific, and special in- 
 struction. 497 
 
 Kansas, University of— 497 
 
 Kant Immamiel — his philosophical 
 system, his view of education, 
 497; his influence, 498. See also 
 32, 33, 34, 35, 465, 564 
 
 Kapp— 417 
 
 Kasan, University of— 750 
 
 Ko.vi — 435 
 
 Kempis, Thomas a — 358, 417, 421 
 
 Kentucky — area and population, 
 educational history, 498; school 
 system, educational condition ; 
 normal, secondary, and superior 
 instruction, 499; professional, 
 scientific, and special instruction: 
 society for the advancement of 
 education; state teachers' associ- 
 ation, 500 
 
 Kentucky Military Institute — 501 
 
 Kentucky University — 500 
 
 Kentucky Wesleyan College — 501 
 
 Kenyon College— 501 
 
 Kern, Dr. — 444 
 
 Kharkof, University of— 750 
 
 Kidd, John — 136 
 
 Kidder, Dr.— 118 
 
 Kiddle, Henry — 648 
 
 Kief, University of— 150 
 
 Kiel, University of — 368 
 
 Kildare Society— 477 
 
 Kimball Union Academy — 627 
 
 Kimchi, David — 414 
 
 Kindergarten — Froebel's theory, 
 501 ; amusement the principal 
 medium for the education of 
 the child, family education alone 
 insufficient, social education to 
 begin early, the first teacher 
 should be a woman, rapid adop- 
 tion of kindergarten methods, 
 gifts, exercises, concrete facts the 
 first to be taught, 502; incorpo- 
 ration of the kindergarten with 
 the public school, reception in 
 the U. S., 503; condition of in 
 Germany, skillful preparation of 
 the teacher necessary, 504. See 
 also 241, 293, 445, 828 
 
 Kindermann, Ferdinand — 504 
 
 Kinesipathy—396, 524 
 
 King College — 505 
 
 King Edward's School — 382 
 
 King*s College — 505 
 
 Kingston, University of— 668 
 
 Kirkland, John T. — 171 
 
 Klausenburg, University of — 438 
 
 Knights' Academies — 361 
 
 Knowledge — 453, 767 
 
 Knox College — 505 
 
 Kobo (of Japan) — 489 
 
 Kunigsberg, University of— 368 
 
 Krosigk, Ernestine von — 364 
 
 Kunze, Johann Christoph — 534 
 
 Labor Schools — 465 
 
 Labrador — 600 
 
 Lachmann — 352 
 
 Lactanlius — 142 
 
 Ladies' Colleges— 267, 269 
 
 Ladies' Course — 302 
 
 Lafavctte College — 506. See also 31, 
 
 276 
 La Grange College — 50G 
 
 Lahainaluna School — 845 
 
 Lancashire Independent College — 171 
 
 Lancaster, Joseph — 506; opens a 
 school in Southwark, Dr. Bell, 
 success of Lancaster, modes oi 
 punishment, decline in the pop- 
 ularity (if his method, 507. See 
 also 145, 268, 594 
 
 Land Grants, Congressional — see 
 United States. See also 10, 826 
 
 Lane Theological Seminary — 664 
 
 Lane I'nivcrsity— 508 
 
 Lanfranc — 31 
 
 Lange, Rudolph — 358 
 
 Langhorne — 186 
 
 Language — its varieties, compara- 
 tive study of languages, 508; the 
 child's mastery of language, in- 
 struction in, 509 ; classical and 
 modern languages, 510. See also 
 34, 241, 271, 293, 362, 471 
 
 Laplace — 575 
 
 La Salle, J. 15.— 510 
 
 La Salle College— 510. See also 743, 
 S07 
 
 Lascaris — 391 
 
 Eatin, Christian — 142, 143 
 
 Latin Language — its derivation, 
 510; lingua urbana. lingua rustica, 
 Latin in the middle ae,es, the al- 
 phabet, 511; study of Latin at the 
 present time, 512; exercises in 
 composition and versification, 
 513 ; history of Latin grammar, 
 514. See also 142, 143, 357, 493 
 
 Latin Schools— 515. See also 357, 358, 
 366, 511 
 
 Lausanne, University of— 805 
 
 Laval, University of — 'i 18 
 
 Law Schools — their early history, 
 515 ; recent history in England 
 and the U. S., 516; statistics, or- 
 ganization, course of study, ad- 
 mission, length of course, gradu- 
 ation, 518; table of law schools in 
 the U. S., 519 
 
 Lawrence, Abbott — 519 
 
 Lawrence, Amos — 519 
 
 Lawrence Scientific School — 405, 772 
 
 Lawrence University of Wiscon- 
 sin— 519 
 
 Layritz, P. £.—599 
 
 Lebanon Valley College — 519 
 
 Lebrija, Antonio de — 793 
 
 Lectures — lecture defined, differ- 
 ence between a lecture and a les- 
 son, in what grades of schools 
 used as a means of instruction, 
 520. See also 126, 426 
 
 Lecture Schools — 382, 715 
 
 Lecture System — 520 
 
 Legal Education Society — 516 
 
 Lehigh University — 520 
 
 Leigh, Dr. Edwin— 674, 701 
 
 Leipsic, University of— 368 
 
 Leland University — 520 
 
 Lemberg, University of — 64 
 
 Lennoxville, University of— 718 
 
 Lenz— 757 
 
 Leo, Prof— 227 
 
 Leonardo da Vinci— 308 
 
 Lerinum Theological School — 178 
 
 Leslie, Sir John — biographical 
 sketch, his chief publications, 520 
 
 Lessing — 362 
 
 Lessons — 432, 441 
 
 Letter-Blocks— 25 
 
 Leuthal, Robert— 734 
 
 Leverett — 221 
 
 Lewis, IMo— 521 
 
 Lewis, Samuel — 662 
 
 Lewisburg, LTuiversity at — 521 
 
 Lewis College — 521 
 
 Lexicon — 223 
 
 Leyden, University of — 618 
 
 L'Homond, Ch. F.— 526. See also 143, 
 513 
 
 Liber, Antonius — 8 
 
 Liberal Education— 521 
 
 Liberia — area and population, its 
 settlement, the native tribes, the 
 Mandingos, their schools, tin 
 
A XALYTICAL INDEX 
 
 Liberia 
 
 Veys, mission school, system of 
 public schools, statistics, Mesu- 
 rado, 521 
 
 libraries — the value of, legislation 
 in regard to school libraries, 521 ; 
 school-district libraries in New 
 York and other states, public li- 
 braries in Massachusetts, how 
 generally regarded, utility of 
 school libraries, 522 
 
 License, Teacher's — defined, how 
 usually conferred, the object of, 
 law in relation to, state certifi- 
 e.it s. standard for, incompetent 
 examiners, proper conditions far 
 awarding teachers' certificates, 
 522; how conferred in New York, 
 provisions of the English Ele- 
 mentary Education Act, of the 
 Scotch Education Act, require- 
 ments in Austria, in Franc > 
 Sweden, Denmark, and other Eu- 
 ropean countries, 523. See also 289 
 
 Lieber, Francis — biographical 
 sketch, his principal publica- 
 tions, importance of his labors, 
 528 
 
 Liebreich — 293, 44,0 
 
 Liege, University of— -77 
 
 Light, in School Rooms — 140 
 
 Lily. William— his early life, edu- 
 cational works, his Latin gram- 
 mar — Breeissima Institutio seu 
 Ratio Orammatices Cognoscsndje, 
 524. See also 379 
 
 Lincoln College — .Y_!l 
 Lincoln / nil it lit'' — 590 
 Lincoln Institution — (590 
 
 Lincoln University (111.)— 524 
 Lincoln University (Pa.)— 524 
 Llndsley, Philip— 624 
 Ling, P. B.— 524 
 
 Lingg, llurkard — 67 
 
 Linguistics — see Language 
 
 Lisbon, University of — 708 
 
 Litc'i /i''< I l.nm School — 176 
 
 Literal Method— 399 
 
 Literature, Educational— 8X8 
 
 Literature Mot'tematical — 556 
 
 Lithology — 581 
 
 Lithuania Languages — 464 
 
 Littre— 225, 327 
 
 Liverpool — 165 
 
 Locke, John — biographical sketch. 
 524; educational views. 526. See 
 also 6, 83, 34, 35, 66, 185, 195, 196, 
 197. 284, 24s, 291, 330, 424, 434, 513 
 
 Logic — 733 
 
 Lombard University — 526 
 
 London. University of— 526, 832 
 
 London School Hoard — 267 
 
 London Theological Hall — 711 
 
 Longfellow, /I. H\— 97 
 ile Vega — 792 
 
 Lord, A. V.— 665 
 
 Lord, Nathan — 171 
 
 Lorlnser, K. I. — 528 
 
 Lorsch—81 
 
 Lotteries— 4538 
 
 Louis XI V.— 212, 308 
 
 Louisiana — area and population, 
 educational history, 528; school 
 system, educational condition, 
 school statistics, normal and sec- 
 ondary Instruction, 529; superior, 
 scientific, professional, and spe- 
 cial Instruction, 530 
 
 Louisiana Slate I' nl versify— 530 
 Louisville population, 580; educa- 
 tional history, school system, 
 e In. atioual condition, school sta- 
 tistics. 581 
 Louvain, University qf—16, 77 
 
 Love -632. S te BISO J"il 
 
 Lowell, John — 93 
 
 / John Jr. — ."i49 
 
 Lowth, Hi hop 878, 379 
 
 i.o\ oia ( iollege 
 
 Loyola, Ignatius — 492 
 
 Lucn Hut 
 
 l.uni. University of— 802 
 
 Luther. Martin — 532. See also 34, 
 117, 118, 164, 247, 300, 301, 605, 780 
 
 Lutherhof—i2& 
 
 Lutheran Church — its history, 
 number of adherents, the General 
 Synod, the General Council, the 
 Syuodical Conieivuce, the South- 
 ern Synod. 533; educational in- 
 stitutions in the U. S., 534 
 
 Luyck, JBgidius — 636 
 
 Luzzato, S. D. — 115 
 
 Lyceum — 534. See also 150 
 
 Lyceum, American — 430 
 
 Lycurgus — 535, T'.KS 
 
 Lyon, Mary — 535 
 
 McCarty, H. D.— 167 
 McCorkle College— 535 
 
 McCosh, James — 535. See also 10 
 
 McDonough Institute — 547 
 
 McEMgott—201 
 
 Macerata, University of — 486 
 
 McGee college — 713 
 
 Mri ; hi University— 712, 718 
 
 McGufTey, W. H. —635 
 
 Mnrkny, Dr. A. — 565 
 
 Mi-Kern. Joseph — 646, 648 
 
 M'Kendree College — 536 
 
 McMlnnvllle College— 636 
 
 McNealy Normal School— 663 
 
 Madison University — 536 
 
 Madras College — 78, 774 
 
 Madras System — see Monitorial 
 Svstem 
 
 Madvig, J. X.— 536 
 
 Magre College — 179. 711 
 
 Hager Karl— 536; the genetic meth- 
 od, his views of, 537. See also 
 221, 222. 593 
 
 M agister — 80 
 
 Maglathlin, II. ft.— 830 
 
 Maimonides, Moses — 414 
 
 Ma im on ides College — 4 16 
 
 Maine — area and population, educa- 
 tional history, 537; taxes, income 
 of permanent funds, supervision 
 of schools, school system. 588; 
 educational condition, 539; school 
 statistics, normal and secondary 
 instruction, denominational and 
 parochial schools: superior, pro- 
 fessional, and scientific instruc- 
 tion. 540; special instruction, 
 educational literature, 541 
 
 Maitland, Sir Peregrine — 667 
 
 Male Teachers — 305 
 
 Malpagh ino, io va n n i — 482 
 
 Manchester — 165 
 
 Mandingos, Education among the — 521 
 
 Manhattan College — 541 
 
 Manitoba — area and population, edu- 
 cational condition. 541 
 
 .Mann. Horace — early life and educa- 
 tion of, 541; secretary of I he board 
 of education, 542: his work, 543. 
 See also 33, 85, 147. 187, 188, 297, 
 548, 660, 679. 682, son. 826 
 
 Manners — 543 
 
 Manning, James, D. D. — 105 
 
 Mantel, H. L. — 47o. 471 
 
 Mansfield, E. D.— 179 
 
 Manual Labor Schools — see Indus- 
 
 t rial Schools 
 .l/n» u in ission Society — 647 
 
 Map-Drawing— see Geogra phy 
 
 Maps, Study of— 336. 337 
 Marburg, University of — 868 
 Maria Theresa— -68, 672 
 Mariana— 792 
 
 .Marietta College — 544 
 Marion Female Institute — 846 
 Martha Washington College — 846 
 Maryland — area and population, edu- 
 cational history, school s\steiii, 
 
 5ti: educational condition, school 
 
 statistics, normal and secondary 
 
 instruction. 646; denominational 
 
 and parochial Schools; superior. 
 
 profi asional, Boientiflc.and special 
 
 Instruction ; teachers' associa- 
 tions. 546 
 
 tfaryville College "it 
 
 Mason. J. M., D. D.— 714, 819 
 
 Mason, Lowell — 547 
 
 Massachusetts — area and popula- 
 tion, educational history, 547: in- 
 dividual gilts, tuition fees, taxes, 
 income ot permanent funds. 549; 
 special appropriations, supervi- 
 sors of the common schools, tru- 
 ant laws, school system, 550: edu- 
 cational condition, school statis- 
 tics, normal Instruction, 551 ; 
 evening schools, secondary in- 
 struction, denominational and 
 parochial schools; superior, pro- 
 fessional, and scientific instruc- 
 tion. 552: special instruction, 553. 
 See also 166 
 
 Master of Arts — see Degrees 
 
 Mastery Method — see Latin Lan- 
 guage 
 
 Mail mat Education — 431 
 
 Mathematics — what it compre- 
 hends, definition of, use of in 
 mental training, 553: to what ex- 
 tint it should he pursued in pri- 
 mary schools. 666; principles gov- 
 erning methods ot instruction in. 
 mathematical literature, 556. See 
 also 706 
 
 Math, r. t otlim— 124, 186 
 
 Matiu r, 1 inn use — 171 
 
 Matriculate — 557 
 
 Matzner— 31, 277, 326 
 
 Maud, Daniel— 547, 549 
 
 Maudsley— $02 
 
 Mam y, Jonathan, D. D. — 105 
 
 Mayer, Dr. Lewis — 7:;u 
 
 MaynooQi College — 47'.) 
 
 Mi chanical ?'• aching — 745 
 
 Mechanics' Institutes — 811 
 
 Medical schools — earliest accounts 
 of, 557: organization of in differ- 
 ent countries, history of in the 
 TJ. S.. 568; list of medical schools, 
 dental colleges, etc., 560. See also 
 209 
 
 Medici, The— 482 
 
 Mehemet AH— -255, 266 
 
 Meierotto, .1. U. L.— 560 
 
 Meiklejohn— 710 
 
 Mi Ibourne, University of — 61 
 
 Melancht lion. Philip — 561. See also 
 164, 186, 389, 396, 605 
 
 Memorizing— 561. See also 208, 326, 
 312. 344 
 
 Memory — its nature, conditions of 
 its exercise, method of strength- 
 ening. 562 : repetition, strength 
 of memory dependent somewhat 
 on bodily health, relative value 
 of things to be remembered, 56:.; 
 Kant's distinctions, mnemonics, 
 Memoria Technica, system of Fau- 
 vi 1 Gouraud, 564; Alex. Mackay's 
 Facts and Dates, 565. See also 554, 
 723 
 
 Mend* Issohn, Moses — 415 
 
 Mention it cs — 565 
 
 .i/c rcator — 57 
 
 Mercersburg College — 565 
 
 Mercers Company's School — 269 
 
 Mercer Unlversltj 666 
 
 i/ •int Taylors' school — 267 
 
 Merit i. Amiela — 743 
 
 Messina, Un\ oersity of — 486 
 
 .Methodists— their origin and distri- 
 bution, colleges and schools. 666, 
 567 : foreign missions, board of 
 education. Sutnla) -schools, atti- 
 tude ot the Methodists toward 
 
 the public schools. 668; ooU 
 and universities, 669. Bee also 323 
 
 Methods— 269 
 
 Mexico ana and population, edu- 
 cational history, secondary in- 
 struction. University of Mexico, 
 670 
 
 Miami University— 671 
 
 Michigan— area and population, edu- 
 cational history, school system, 
 571; educational condition and 
 statistics, normal and secondary 
 
ANALYTICAL INDEX 
 
 XI 
 
 Michigan 
 
 instruction, 572; denominational 
 ami parochial schools; superior, 
 professional, scientific, and special 
 instruction, 573; educational lit- 
 erature, 574 
 
 Michigan, I'liiversity of — 574 
 
 Mlddlebury College— 575 
 
 Wdille Schools — 1 73 
 
 Military Drill— 397, 702 
 
 Military Schools — organization of in 
 different countries, in the U. S., 
 575; military tactics taught in 
 colleges, 576; contrast of the 
 French and Prussian systems of 
 military education, 577 
 
 MiU, John Stuart— UO, 514, 613 
 
 Miller, Samuel— 846 
 
 Miller Manual Labor School — 846 
 
 Milne Orphan Asylum — 634 
 
 Milton, John — life and career, Tract- 
 ate on Education, 577 ; educati >n- 
 al views, 578. See also 33, 99, 140, 
 242, 403 
 
 Milton College— 578 
 
 Milwaukee- population, 578; educa- 
 tional history, city superintend- 
 ents, school system and statistics, 
 579 
 
 Miner, A. A. —330 
 
 Mineralogy — definition and general 
 view of; minerals, rocks, fossils, 
 crystalline forms, 530; impor- 
 tance from an educational stand- 
 point, at what stage to be pur- 
 sued, lithology, 581 
 
 Mines, School of — see Scientific 
 Schools 
 
 Ministry of Public Instruction — 
 581 
 
 Minnesota — 581 ; area and popula- 
 tion, educational history, school 
 system, educational condition, 
 school statistics, 582; normal and 
 secondary instruction, denomina- 
 tional and parochial schools, su- 
 perior instruction, 583 ; profes- 
 sional, scientific, and special in- 
 struction, educational literature, 
 584 
 
 Minnesota, University of — 584 
 
 Mischievousness — 534 
 
 Mississippi — 584; area and popula- 
 tion, educational history, school 
 system, educational condition, 
 school statistics, normal instruc- 
 tion, 585 ; secondary, superior, 
 professional, scientific, and spe- 
 cial instruction, 586 
 
 Mississippi, University of — 586 
 
 Mississippi College — 586 
 
 Missouri — 586; area and population, 
 educational history, 587 ; perma- 
 nent school fund, school super- 
 vision, state superintendents, 
 school system, 589; educational 
 condition, school statistics, nor- 
 mal instruction, teachers' insti- 
 tutes, secondary instruction, 590; 
 superior, professional, scientific, 
 and special instruction, educa- 
 tional journals, 591 
 
 Missouri, University of the State 
 of— 591 
 
 Mnemonics — see Memory 
 
 Model Schools — see Normal 
 Schools. See also 478, 651, 809 
 
 Modena, University of- — 486 
 
 Modern Languages — 591; French, 
 English, and German, the oriental 
 languages, proper time in the 
 school course to introduce tier 
 study of modern languages, their 
 value as compared with the clas- 
 sical, 592; comparative linguistics, 
 methods of teaching, 593. See 
 also 224. 225 
 
 Modulator — 783 
 
 Mohammedanism— -24, 36, 247, 256, 413, 
 
 790 
 Monastic Orders— 246, 301, 314 
 
 Monitorial System — its history, 
 
 Monitorial System 
 
 Bell, Lancaster. 594; its peculiar 
 features, 595. See also 371, 386 
 
 Monitors — 478, 717 
 
 Monmouth College — 595 
 
 Montaigne. Michel — his educational 
 views, 595. See also 33, 35, 185 
 
 Montana — area and population, edu- 
 cational history, school system, 
 educational condition, school sta- 
 tistics, normal instruction, teach- 
 ers' institutes; secondary, supe- 
 rior, professional, scientific, and 
 special instruction, 596 
 
 Monte Casiyw — 81 
 
 Montgomery Bell Academy — 814 
 
 Montpellier, University of— 315 
 
 Montreal, University at — 718 
 
 Montucla— 556 
 
 Moon, Washington — 603 
 
 Moore's Hill College— 596 
 
 M oort— 80 
 
 Moral Education — 597. See also 35, 
 177, 230, 291 
 
 Moralizing — 598 
 
 Moral Suasion — see Corporal Pun- 
 ishment 
 
 Moravian Brethren — their origin, 
 ancient church, 598 ; Renewed 
 Brethren's Church, primary 
 schools, boarding-schools, 599; 
 classical schools and colleges, 
 theological seminaries, special 
 schools, schools in the mission- 
 ary provinces, principles of edu- 
 cation, 600; statistical summary, 
 601 
 
 Morbid Growth— 702 
 
 More, Hannah— 303 
 
 Morgan, Augustus de — 833 
 
 Morley—lil 
 
 Morocco — 601 
 
 Morse, Jedidiah — 57/334 
 
 Morse, Sidney E.—57, 334 
 
 Moscow, University of — 750 
 
 Mosque Schools — 37 
 
 Mother — see Home Education 
 
 Mother-Tongue — 601. See also 591 
 
 Mount Holyoke Seminary — 535 
 
 Mount Saint Mary's College — 602 
 
 Mount Saint Mary's Seminary of 
 the AVest— 602 
 
 Mount Union College— 602 
 
 Muhlenberg College— 602 
 
 Mt. St. Mary's Academy — 627 
 
 Motives, Secundary — 597 
 
 Movement Cure — 524 
 
 Miihler, Von — 364 
 
 MQXler, K. O— 362, 378 
 
 Mutter, Polyearp— 599 
 
 Munich, University of — 368 
 
 Murray, Lindley — 602. See also 379 
 
 Murray, Rev. John — 829 
 
 Music — history and general view of, 
 603, 604; harmony, 604; musical 
 education, 60G ; conservatories, 
 606, 607, 608, 609, 610; musical in- 
 struction in schools and colleges, 
 610, 611. See also 40, 241. 285 
 
 Musical Conservatories — 606, 607, 608 
 
 Music Schools — 606 
 
 Mutual System — see Monitorial 
 System 
 
 Myopia— 293 
 
 Naples, University of- — 486 
 
 Napoleon I. — 317 
 
 Napoleon, Louis — 165 
 
 Nashville, University of— 612 
 
 Nassau Hall — 632 
 
 National Education— 612. See also 
 
 264, 692 
 National Academy of Sciences — 3 
 National History — 670, 770 
 National Language — 613 
 Notional Society (English)— 266 
 Noli on at University — 832 
 Natural Science — see Science, The 
 
 Teaching of 
 Nature, Method of— 298 
 Nautical School, Neiv York — 645, 649 
 Nautical Schools — 615 
 
 Naval Schools— 615 
 
 Navigation schools — 812 
 
 Nazareth. Halt— KM) 
 
 Nebraska — area and population, edu- 
 cational history, school system, 
 educational condition, school sta- 
 tistics. 616 : normal instruction, 
 teachers' institutes, educational 
 journal; secondary, superior, sci- 
 entific, professional, and special 
 instruction, 617 
 
 Nebraska, I'liiversity of — 617 
 
 Nebraska College — 618 
 
 Needle-Work — see Female Educa- 
 tion, and Industrial Schools. 
 Sec also 466 
 
 Negative. Marks, for Examinations — 291 
 
 Neoplalonism — 17, 255, 385 
 
 Netherlands— area and population, 
 educational history. 618; primary 
 and secondary instruction, 619 ; 
 superior and special instruction; 
 Luxemburg, 620. See also 165 
 
 Nevada — area and population, educa- 
 tional history, 620; school system, 
 educational condition, school sta- 
 tistics; normal, secondary, supe- 
 rior, professional, scientific, and 
 special instruction, 621 
 
 Nevin. Rev. J. It'.— 730 
 
 .Y. aim, T. J. — 758 
 
 New Amsterdam — 636 
 
 Newark — population, 621 ; educa- 
 tional history, school system, sta- 
 tistics, 622 
 
 Newark Theological Seminary — 712 
 
 Newberry College — 623 
 
 New Britain — 175 
 
 New Brunswick — area and popula- 
 tion, educational condition, 623 
 
 Newbury Theological Seminary — 714 
 
 New Castle College— 624 
 
 New England — 170, 825 
 
 New England Journal of Education — 
 177,541 
 
 Newfoundland — area and popula- 
 tion, educational condition, 624 
 
 New Hampshire— area and popula- 
 tion, educational history, 625; 
 school system and revenue, 626; 
 educational condition, school sta- 
 tistics; normal, secondary, denom- 
 inational, and superior instruc- 
 tion, 627; teachers' association, 628 
 
 New Haven— 123, 171, Vr2. 175 
 
 New Jersey — area and population, 
 educational history, 628 ; school 
 system, educational condition, 
 school statistics, 630; normal, sec- 
 ondary, private, denominational, 
 superior, professional, scientific, 
 and special instruction, 631 
 
 New Jersey, College of— 632 
 
 New Jerusalem, Societies of the — 
 632 
 
 New Mexico — area and population, 
 educational history, 632; school 
 system, educational condition, 
 school statistics, private and pa- 
 rochial schools, 633 
 
 Newnham Hall—lid, 863 
 
 New Orleans — settlement of, 633; 
 educational history, school sys- 
 tem and statistics, 634 
 
 New South Wales — 61 
 
 Newspapers — as means of instruc- 
 tion, 6 !.">. See also 332 
 
 Newton, Sir Isaac — 142 
 
 Newton Baptist Theological Seminary — 
 71 
 
 New York (State)— area and popu- 
 lation, educational history, 6.;6; 
 state superintendents, 639 ; edu- 
 cational system, 640; regents of 
 the university, financial, 641 ; 
 common-school fund, school sta- 
 tistics, 642 ; normal instruction, 
 643; denominational schools; sec- 
 ondary, superior, scientific, and 
 professional instruction, 644; spe- 
 cial instruction, educational asso- 
 ciations, 645; school journals, 646 
 
SII 
 
 ANALYTICAL INDEX 
 
 New York (City) — educational his- 
 tory, 646; county and city su- 
 perintendents, school system. 04s ; 
 school statistics, private and de- 
 nominational schools, 049 
 
 New York, College of the City of 
 —049 
 
 New York, University of the City 
 of— 660 
 
 New Zealand — see Australasian 
 Colonics 
 
 Nicaragua — 120, 531 
 
 Nieolai — 74 
 
 Niemeyer, A. H 050. See also 34, 
 
 767 
 
 Nisibis Theological School — 240 
 
 Xitschmann — ■'.'■.> 
 
 Y '. F. J.—V21 
 
 Normal Art School — 552 
 
 Normal College — see New Y'ork 
 (City) . See also 422, 049 
 
 Normal School— 650. See also 221, 
 
 MIS 
 
 Normal Schools in U. .9.-810 
 
 Normal University — 814 
 
 Normans — 678 
 
 North, Roger— QM 
 
 North Carolina — area and popula- 
 tion, educational history, sell io] 
 income. 651; taxes, school system, 
 educational condition, school 
 tistics. 652 : normal, secondary, 
 superior, scientific, professional, 
 and special instruction, 653 
 
 North Carolina, University of— 
 653 
 
 Northern Illinois College— 653 
 
 Northrop, B. ff.— 166, 174, 312, 551 
 
 Northwestern Christian Univer- 
 sity— 654 
 
 Nort h western College — 654 
 
 Northwestern University (HI.) — 
 654 
 
 Northwestern University (Wis.)— 
 654 
 
 Norway — see Sweden 
 
 Norwegian Luther College—:;.")! 
 
 Norwich University — 654 
 
 Notre Dame des Angus — 024 
 
 Notre Dame Du Lac, University 
 of — 665 
 
 Nott, Ellphalet — 655 
 
 Nova Scotia — area and population, 
 educational history, 655; school 
 system. 656 
 
 Novels — see Fiction 
 
 Number — 050, 695 
 
 Numeral Frame — 657 
 
 Oakland College— 586 
 Oberlin, J. P.— 658 
 Oberlln College 
 
 Oln rlin Tlu illogical Seminary — 170 
 
 Object Teaching — history of, Pesta- 
 lozzi, 658; views of educators 
 concerning, 659; present status, 
 660. Se,- also 168, 221, 272, 313, 
 696, 785 
 
 Oblate Fathers of Mary Immaculate — 
 668 
 
 Observing Faculties — see Intel- 
 lect u.il Education, and Object 
 Teaching. See also 770 
 
 Occam — 070 
 
 Odeschalchi 166 
 
 Odessa, University of- — 750 
 
 O' Fallon Polytechnic Institute — 755, 861 
 
 ohio-ana ami population, educa- 
 tional history, 001; state super 
 Intendments, Bchool system, edu- 
 cational condition, 662; school 
 revenue and statistics, normal in- 
 struction, teachers' institutes, 
 secondary instruction, 003; supe- 
 rior, professional, and scientific 
 instruction, 664; special Instruc- 
 tion, educational literature, teach- 
 ers' associations, 666 
 
 Ohio Central Collegi — 005 
 
 ohlo University 666 
 
 Ohio Wesl.yan I' u Iverslty— 666 
 
 Olivet College— 666 
 
 Ollav Fola — 477 
 
 Ollendorff System— 513, 593 
 
 Olmsted, Denison — 666 
 
 Ommiyades — 36 
 
 One Study University— 666 
 
 Ontario — area and population, edu- 
 cational history, present school 
 system, 007 
 
 Opitz— 352 
 
 Optional Studies — 153 
 
 Oral Examination — 290 
 
 Oral Instruction — definition of, 668; 
 proper use of, 669 
 
 Order — 670 
 
 Order of Studies — see Course of 
 Instruction. Bee also 769 
 
 Oregon — area and population, edu- 
 cational history, school system, 
 670; educational condition, school 
 statistics; normal, secondary, de- 
 nominational, superior, profes- 
 sional, and scientific instruction, 
 671; special instruction, 072 
 
 Origen—la, 240 
 
 Orphan Asylums— 072 
 
 Orthography — definition of, 072; 
 effect of Anglo-Saxon and Norman 
 on the English alphabet, syn- 
 onymous with spelling, r>7;i ; dif- 
 ferent systems of phonetic spell- 
 ing proposed, improvements sug- 
 gested by the international Con- 
 vention of 1870, 074 
 
 Oryctology—338 
 
 Oskaloosa College— 075 
 
 Ostrogoths — isi 
 
 Otho University — 388 
 
 on, ,wo. College <»/— oiv; 
 
 Otterbein, P. FT.— 828 
 
 ( itterbein University — 075 
 
 Overcrowding — 838 
 
 Owens, John — 075 
 
 Owens College — 675 
 
 Oxe.nsli' rn — 160 
 
 Oxford, University of— history of, 
 organization, 676 ; political rep- 
 resentatives of, government of, 
 677; list of subordinate coll 
 678. See also 165, 209, 818 
 
 Pacific, University of the— 678 
 Pacific Methodist Collegi — 678 
 
 I'aeific Theological Seminary — 170 
 I'ar'iflc University— 679 
 
 Packer, William S.— 104 
 
 I'acicer Collegiate Institute — 1(14 
 
 Paderborn, Cathedral School of— 119 
 
 Padua, University of- — 486 
 
 Pcedagogium — 301 
 
 /'ad, :,),,, in mi nf Halle — 321 
 
 Page, I). P 679. See also 35, 66, 
 
 187, 188, 192.374,375, 433, 723, 721 
 Palaentology — see Geology 
 Palatinate College — 679 
 Palatinate School — 122 
 1'alatium Scholar — 283 
 
 Palermo, University of — 486 
 
 Palsgrave — 320 
 
 Pantcenus — 18 
 
 Paradis, Th e resa von — 87 
 
 Paraguay area and population, 
 
 educational history. 079; educa- 
 tional condition, 080 
 
 Parental Education — see Home 
 Education 
 
 Paris, University of— CI, 208, 315 
 
 Parish, Anne — 090 
 / 'a rith Schools — 772 
 I'arma, University of— 486 
 Parochial School— 680 
 Parsees — 460, 455 
 Parsing— "XI, 381 
 
 Parsons College — 680 
 
 Passion — 259 
 
 Passiveness (in pupils) — 723 
 
 Passow, F. L. K. F.— 680. See also 
 
 891 
 Pastor's College— 11 
 Patience— 681 
 Pauperism —460, 713 
 Pauper System 686 
 Pav\a, Univi rsity of— 486 
 
 i Payne, Joseph— 681. See also 710,767 
 
 Peabody, George — 681 
 
 Peabody Fund (Educational) — 681 
 
 Peabody Institute — 546 
 
 Pedagogics— 244 682, 759 
 
 Pedagogue — 1 182 
 
 Pedagogy— 692. See also 220 
 
 Pedro Ponce de Leon — 204 
 
 Peet, II. P. — his early life, made 
 president of the N. Y. institu- 
 tion for the Deaf-and-Dumb, hifl 
 theory regarding deaf-mutes, 682; 
 his method, syntax of the natural 
 language of signs, 683. See also 
 795 
 
 Peet, Isaac L.— 683 
 
 Pelrce, Cyrus— 683 
 
 Pekin, University at — 133 
 
 /■■/in ,i, J. ('.— 757 
 
 l'i ink, se School — 6 
 
 Penmanship— 684. See also 221, 285, 
 488 
 
 Penn, FPtUtam— 686, 097 
 
 Pi nnalism— 295, 367 
 
 Peim College — 685 
 
 Pennington & minary — 631 
 
 Pennsylvania — area and population, 
 educational history, the colonial 
 period, 685; under the constitu- 
 tion ot 1790,686; under the con- 
 stdtutions of 1838 and 1873, table 
 of progress, state superintend- 
 ents, school system, 687: educa- 
 tional condition, school statistics, 
 Oss; normal instruction, teach- 
 ers' institutes ; secondary, su- 
 perior, professional, scientific, 
 and special instruction, 689 
 
 Pennsylvania, The Western U/ni- 
 rersity of— 691 
 
 Pennsylvania, University of — 690 
 
 Pennsylvania College — 690 
 
 Pennsylvania Military Academy 
 — 090 
 
 Pensions, Teachers' — 691. See also 
 266, 365, sii4 
 
 Perception — see Intellectual Edu- 
 cation. See also 453, 469, 058 
 
 Perikltone— 300 
 
 Perkins, G. E.— 830 
 
 Perkins I nst Hut ion for the Blind — 553 
 Persia — area aud population, ancient 
 Persia, 691; educational history, 
 modern Persia, educational his- 
 tory. 092. See also 300 
 Personal Influence, of Teacher — 291 
 Peru— area aud population, 092; edu- 
 cational historj . 693 
 Perugia, University of — 486 
 Pesialo/./.i, J. H. —early life, edu- 
 cation, early impressions con- 
 cerning, opens the first industrial 
 school, 09;t; Evenings of a Recluse, 
 
 l.i, n hard ami <,'■ rtrud. his method, 
 his success, 694; his theory of in- 
 struction, 696. See also 34, 35, 
 248,299, 307, 302.058 
 
 PtstalOfei- Vi retn — 691 
 
 Peter, Lombard— -209 
 
 Peter Martyr— 18 
 
 J ',ii r the Great — 717 
 1 'eii rs. Absalom — 646 
 Peters, C. ff. P.- 101 
 Petersburg, University at — 750 
 FWrarcA.482 
 
 /'lister— see HolfllS 
 
 Pharmaceutical Schools — early 
 historj of, 696; influence of chem- 
 istry on. recent progress of, con- 
 dition of in Europe, 090; in the 
 V. s.. 697 
 
 Philadelphia —population, educv 
 tional history. 697; school sys- 
 tem, statistics. 698 
 
 Philadelphia llii/h School— 422 
 
 Phllanthropln— 699. See also 68, 
 
 74. 299. 362, 757 
 Philanllirojiinists- 757 
 / 'h Han th rapists— -36 1 
 Philbrick, J. !>.— 174. 423, 800 
 Phillips Academy, Andover — 4, 170 
 Phillips Aeadnny, Exeter— 1, 170, 627 
 
ANALYTICAL INDEX 
 
 XIII 
 
 PhHo—412 
 
 J'hilological Study— 214 
 Philology— see Language 
 Philosophy of History— 421 
 
 I 'hint lis— 300 
 
 Phippt, A. B.— 551 
 
 Phonetic Method— -721 
 
 Phonetic Print— Ml 
 
 Phonetics— definition of, phonology. 
 699; phonetic print, 700: phonetic 
 writing and teaching, 701. See 
 also 275, tj73 
 
 Phonetic Teaching — 701 
 
 Phonic Method— 702. See also 673, 
 721 
 
 Phonics — see Orthography, and 
 Phonetics 
 
 Phonography — 699, 701 
 
 Phonology— 215, 699 
 
 Phonotypy — 699 
 
 I'hotius—3SS, 389 
 
 Phrenology— see Character, Dis- 
 cernment of. See also 329, 759 
 
 Phrenomnemotechny — 564 
 
 Physical Education — physical 
 training, prevention of disease, 
 702. See also 234, 251, 441, 521 
 
 Physical Exercise — 441 
 
 Physical Training — 702 
 
 Physics— see Science, The Teach- 
 ing of. See also 769 
 
 Physiology — -its place and value as 
 a part of education, 703 
 
 Piarists— 701. See also 741 
 
 Pickering — 224 
 
 Pictou Academy — 656 
 
 Pictures— 704. See also 453, 454, 659 
 
 Pierce, J. D. — 571 
 
 Pierius — 18 
 
 Pietists— SI, 248 
 
 Pietro di Castro— 204 
 
 Pinkerlon Academy — 627 
 
 Pio Nono College— 701 
 
 Pisa, University of — 486 
 
 Pitman, Isaac — 674, 701 
 
 Pittsburgh — population, etc., edu- 
 cational history, school system, 
 statistics.secondary and parochial 
 schools, 705 
 
 Place — 695 
 
 Platen, Thomas— 67 
 
 Platform— 764 
 
 Plato — biographical sketch, the Acad- 
 emy, his system of philosophy, 
 educational views, 706. See also 
 32, 33, 34, 330 
 
 Platonic Philosophy — 246 
 
 Play— 329 
 
 Play-Ground— 442 
 
 Plegmund — 18 
 
 Pliny— 1* H 
 
 Plotinus— IS 
 
 Plutarch— 186, 368,744 
 
 Pico of Mirandola — 482 
 
 Poetry— its use in the school, 705 
 
 Polite Literature — 435 
 
 Politeness — see Manners 
 
 Political Economy — see Social 
 Economy. See also 783 
 
 Polytechnic Institute, Brooklyn — 104 
 
 Polytechnic School (Paris)— 575, 771 
 
 Polytechnic Schools — see Scien- 
 tific Schools. See also 771 
 
 Pomponatius— 482 
 
 Pontypool College — 71 
 
 Popular Education — see Educa- 
 tion, and National Education 
 
 Porlier, James — 859 
 
 Porter, President— 251 , 669 
 
 Port Royal^-'SIG 
 
 Port Royal Writers— 326 
 
 Portugal — area and population, edu- 
 cational history, primary and 
 secondary instruction, 708; su- 
 perior and special instruction,709. 
 See also 166 
 
 Post-graduate Course— 152 
 
 Potter, Alonzo— 709. See also 33, 
 34, 302 
 
 Potter, E. R.—1S1 
 
 Pounds, John — 725 
 
 Poydras Female Orphan Asylum — 634 
 
 Poynet, John — 1 L8 
 Practical Training — 635 
 Pracl lce,School80f — see Teachers' 
 Seminaries 
 
 Prague, University of— Hi 
 
 I 'raise— 111 
 
 Praxis— 7o;i. See also 344,381 
 
 Prayi r — 731 
 
 Preceptors, College of (London) — 
 709 
 
 Pri cocity — 177 
 
 Premiums— 1S2 
 
 Preparatory Schools— 710. Seealso 
 s07 
 
 Presbyterians — definition of, con- 
 dition of in the British Emp 
 710,711; Presbyterian Church in 
 the United States of America, 
 Presbyterian Church South, 
 712; Cumberland Presbyterian 
 Church, 713; United Presbyterian 
 Church of North America, 714 
 
 Presents to Teachers — 359 
 
 Priestly— 379 
 
 Primary Instruction — see Educa- 
 tion 
 
 Primer— 715. See also 532 
 
 Prince Edward Island — area and 
 population, educational condi- 
 tion, 715 
 
 Prince of Wales College — 715 
 
 Princes, Education of— 49, 74 
 
 Princes' Schools — 360 
 
 Princeton Theological Seminary — 712 
 
 Printing, Art of— 247 
 
 Prison Congresses — 194 
 
 Privat-Docenlen — 363 
 
 Private Adventure Schools — 200, 262 
 
 Private Schools— 827 
 
 Prizes — sea Emulation. See also 732 
 
 Proclus— 18 
 
 Profession, Educational — 260 
 
 Professional Schools in U. S.' — 828 
 
 Programme — see School Manage- 
 ment 
 
 Progressive Maps — 426 
 
 Progymnasium — 366 
 
 Promotion — see School Manage- 
 ment. See also 376, 766 
 
 Pronunciation — 849 
 
 Propaganda, College of the — 742 
 
 Proprietary Schools— 262, 269, 862 
 
 Protestant Episcopal Church— see Epis- 
 copal Church 
 
 Protestantism — see Reformation 
 
 Proverbs, Book of— 185 
 
 Prudential Committees— 551, 625, 760 
 
 Prwn— 81 
 
 Prussia— see Germany. See also 165, 
 189, 691, 807 
 
 Psammetichus— 254 
 
 Psychology, New— 220,253, 468 
 
 Ptolemies, The— 255 
 
 Ptolemy (geographer)— 18, 333, 334, 371 
 
 Ptolemy, Philadelphia — 412 
 
 Ptolemy, Soter — 3 
 
 Public School Society— 145, 157, 181, 
 198, 637, 647, 809 
 
 Public Schools — definition, an- 
 cient history of, 715 ; whether 
 instruction should be entirely or 
 partly gratuitous, relation of the 
 state to free schools, 716. See also 
 422 
 
 Public Schools, English— see Eng- 
 land. See also 267, 268, 269, 432, 
 526 
 
 Punishment— see Corporal Pun- 
 ishment, and Fear. See also 177, 
 230 
 
 Pupil-Teacher — definition of, En- 
 glish law concerning, 716. See 
 also 265, 807 
 
 Purdue University— 460, 772 
 
 Purmont, Philemon— $2, 547 
 
 Putnam, Rufus — 661 
 
 Pythagoras— 717. See also 34, 300,603 
 
 Pythagorean Method — 18 
 
 Quadrivium— see Arts 
 
 I Quakers — 686 
 
 I Qualified Teachers— 522, 641 
 
 Quebec— population, educational his- 
 tory, 71 1 ; school l»w, primary 
 and secondarj schools, universi- 
 7 is 
 
 Quebec, University of — 71k 
 
 Queen Elizabeth'* School — 269 
 
 Queen's College — 479 
 
 Qui i ntland—61 . 62 
 
 Quet n's i niversity — 170 
 
 Questioning— see Interrogation 
 
 Quetelet—VX. 
 
 Quick, R. //.— 7M 
 
 Quinet, Edgar- 
 
 < J 1 1 i i i i ilia it — life and educational 
 
 views, Institutions Oratorio;, 719. 
 
 See also 33, 98, 121, 431, 432 
 
 Rahanus, Maurus — 719 
 
 Rabbinical Institutes — 414 
 
 Race Illiteracy — 451 
 
 Racine College— 719 
 
 Radewin, F. — 368 
 
 Ragged School Union — 726 
 
 Ragged Schools — sec Reform 
 Schools. See also 91, 266, 725 
 
 Ralkes, Robert— 719. Seealso 263,796 
 
 Randall, B.—i'ii 
 
 Randall, S. .5.-104, 639, 646, 648 
 
 Randall's Island School — 726 
 
 Randolph Macon College— 720 
 
 Rappapoi t, S. L. — 115 
 
 Riijipites — 201 
 
 Rate Bills— 172, 549, 638, 827 
 
 Ratich, Wolfgang — biographical 
 sketch, rules for instruction, 720 
 
 Rationalism — 68, 229 
 
 Ratio Studiorum — 492 
 
 Rauhes Haus— 125, 824, 857 
 
 Raumer, K. G. von — 720. See also 
 8, 231, 302, 312, 482 
 
 Rawdon College — 71 
 
 Reading — the alphabet method, the 
 word method, the phonic and the 
 phonetic method, twofold object 
 of reading, proper and improper 
 reading-books, 721. See also 132, 
 221, 272, 284, 354, 488, 635 
 
 Reading- Books— 721 * 
 
 Reading Frame — 25 
 
 Real Gymnasium — 722 
 
 Realists— 248, 722 
 
 Real Schools — definition of, Prus- 
 sian law concerning, studies pur- 
 sued in. progress in their estab- 
 lishment in Europe, 722 
 
 Reasoning Faculties — 555 
 
 Recesses — see Hygiene, School, 
 and School Management. See 
 also 440 
 
 Recitation — proper method of con- 
 ducting, memorizing, explana- 
 tions, simultaneous recitation, 
 preparation on the part of the 
 teacher necessary, order in which 
 the parts of a subject should be 
 presented, 723; tests of the efficacy 
 of a recitation, length of recita- 
 tions, 724. See also 344, 473 
 
 Reed, Sir C— 267 
 
 Reeves, Timothy — 516 
 
 Reformation, The— 101, 139, 262, 263, 
 300. 301, 358, 605, 676 
 
 Reformatories— 266, 724 
 
 Reformed Churches — their origin. 
 Reformed Churches of Europe, in 
 Holland, 727 ; in Switzerland, 
 Austria, Hungary, France, Russia, 
 and the New World, the Reformed 
 Church in America (Reformed 
 Dutch Church), 728; the Reformed 
 Church in the United States (Ger- 
 man Reformed Church), 729; col- 
 leges and seminaries in the U. S., 
 730 
 
 Reform Schools— definition of, ori- 
 gin of in Europe, the modern re- 
 form school, Falk, 724; number of 
 reform schools in Germany and 
 Switzerland, the Rauhes Haus, 
 Wichern, influence of the Rauhes 
 Haus in other countries, reform 
 schools in England, raggel 
 
XIV 
 
 ANALYTICAL INDEX 
 
 Reform Schools 
 
 schools, 725 ; reform schools in 
 France and in the U. 8., list of re- 
 form schools in the latter coun- 
 try, 726. See also 824 
 
 Regents of the University — see 
 New York, 641 
 
 Regent's Park College— 11 
 
 Regiomontanus — 483 
 
 Registration — 766 
 
 Regulations, School — 441 
 
 Reichel, Bishop J. F.—599 
 
 Reid—Ul 
 
 Religious Education — its object, 
 the religious sentiment, the two- 
 fold office of religious education, 
 faulty methods of instruction, 
 731. See also 178, 253, 372 
 
 Religious Orders — 301 
 
 Religious Sentiment — 731 
 
 Religious Services in Schools — 826 
 
 Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute — 771 
 
 Repetition— 378, 561, 563 
 
 Representative Faculties — 469 
 
 Repton School— 269 
 
 Resemblance — 47 1 
 
 Restraint — 441 
 
 Results' Fees— 478 
 
 Keuchlln,John— 731. See also 389,409 
 
 Reviewing Schools — 5 
 
 Rewards — as means of discipline, 732, 
 See also 177, 455 
 
 Reynolds, Sir J\— 332 
 
 Rhetoric — restriction in the original 
 meaning of the word, its later 
 meaning, 732; two views in which 
 rhetoric may be regarded, inven- 
 tion, style, sentential analysis, 
 733 ; necessity of practice, 734. 
 See also 164 
 
 Rhizarian School — 388 
 
 Rhode Island — area and population, 
 educational history, 734; school 
 system, 737; educational condi- 
 tion, school statistics, normal and 
 secondary instruction, 738; supe- 
 rior and special instruction, 
 teachers' associations, education- 
 al journals, 739 
 
 Rhode Island College — 105 
 
 Rhyme— 707 
 
 Rice, £.—743 
 
 Richardson, Charles— 739 
 
 Richelieu— 8, 324 
 
 Richmond College — 739 
 
 Richmond Institute — 846 
 
 EUchter, .1. P. P 739. See also 34, 
 
 36, 66, 146, 747 
 
 Kldgeville College— 740 
 
 Bigg, Dr.— 217. 613 
 
 Ripon College — 740 
 
 Ritner, Governor — 686 
 
 Hitter, Karl—Xii, 894, 7. r >7 
 
 Roanoke College— 740 
 
 Robertson, Croom — 710 
 
 Robinson Female Seminary — 627 
 
 Robson— 439, 442, 763 
 
 Rochester, University of— 740 
 
 Rochester Baptist Theological Seminary 
 —71 
 
 Rock Hill College— 740 
 
 Rod — see Corporal Punishment 
 
 linrlnntsi-n, A. — 637 
 
 Roll Book— 166 
 
 Roll of Honor — 455 
 
 Rolfus —216, 253 
 
 Rollin— 316 
 
 Romaic — 390 
 
 Soman Catholic Church — number 
 of its adherents, its control of 
 ■ education in tho middle ages, 740; 
 the Jesuits, conflict between 
 church and state, the papal syl- 
 labus of 1*67, 741; educational 
 principles of the Catholics, col- 
 leges, relation of the Church to 
 the university at the present 
 time, 742; establishment of teach- 
 ers' seminaries, educational sool- 
 tics and orders, 748, Bee also B8, 
 133. 167, 179, 206, 247. 477, 624, 818 
 
 fl"man Education— 245, 3UU 
 
 Romance Languages— 743 
 
 Romanic Languages — 743 
 
 Romans — 300 
 
 Romansch — 743 
 
 Rome — foundation of, ancient school 
 system, 744 
 
 Rome, University of — 486 
 
 Rosenkranz— 187, 307, 397, 417 
 
 Rostock, University of— 368 
 
 Rote-Learning — 561 , 
 
 Rote-Teaching— 745 
 
 Rotherham Independent College — 171 
 
 Roumania — area and population, 
 educational condition, 745 
 
 Rousseau, J. J. — biographical 
 sketch, 745 ; synopsis of Emile, 
 746. See also 33, 35, 66, 248 
 
 Rudinger — 599 
 
 Ruffner, W. II.— 158, 844 
 
 Rumelin — 167 
 
 Rush, D-r.— 849 
 
 Russia — area and population, educa- 
 tional history, 747 ; primary in- 
 struction, school statistics, 748 ; 
 secondary and superior instruc- 
 tion, 749; recent school legisla- 
 tion, statistics, special instruc- 
 tion, Caucasia, 750. See also 165, 
 189, 300, 301 
 
 Rutgers College — 751 
 
 Rutherford College— 751 
 
 Ryerson, A. E — 751. See also 667 
 
 Ryken — 743 
 
 Sacred Heart, Ladies of the — 743 
 Sailer, J. M.—363 
 
 St. Andrews, University of— 111, 774 
 St. Augustine, Missionary College 
 
 of— 751 
 St. Benedict's College— 751 
 St. Charles College (La.)— 751 
 St. Charles's College (Md.)— 751 
 St. Clara Academy — 861 
 St. Cyr, Militai-y School— 575 
 St. Dunstan's College — 715 
 St. Francis Academy — 546 
 St. Francis College (Antigonish) — 656 
 St. Francis Xavier, College of— 752 
 St. Gall^-Sl 
 St. Gregory— 359, 603 
 St. Helen's Hall— 611 
 St. Ignatius College (Cal.)— 752 
 st. Ignatius College (111.)— 752 
 St. Jerome — 421 
 St. John of Beverly— 204 
 St. John's College (Brooklyn, N.Y.) 
 
 —752 
 St. John's College (Fordham, N.Y.) 
 
 —752 
 St. John's College (Md.)— 752 
 St. John's College (Minn.)— 753 
 St. John's College of Arkansas— 
 
 753 
 St, Joseph's Academy — 645 
 St. Joseph's College (111.)— 753 
 St. Joseph's College (N. Y.)— 753 
 St. Lawrence University — 753 
 St. Iiouls — population, educational 
 
 history, 753; school system, 755; 
 
 school statistics, 756 
 St. Louis University— 766 
 St. Diary's College (Cal.)— 756 
 St. Mary's College (Halifax)— 656 
 St. Mary's College (Ky.)— 756 
 St. Mary's Hall— 631 
 St. Meinrad's College— 756 
 St. Paul—1M> 
 St Paul's ScJiool—261, 524 
 St. Paul's School (N. H.)— 627 
 St. Saviour's School— 269 
 St. Stephen's College— 756 
 St. Vincent de raul — 143 
 St. Vincent's College (Mo.)— 756 
 St. Vincent's College (Pa.)— 757 
 St. Xavier College— 757 
 Salado College— 757 
 Salamanca (Arabian School)— 36 
 Salamanca, University of— 790, 792 
 Salaries— 305, 366, 691, 772 
 Salvd— 225 
 Salvandy — 317 
 Salzniaun, C. G — 757. See also 400 
 
 Sanborne, J. B.— 194 
 
 Sanders — 225 
 
 Sandhurst Military College — 575 
 
 Sandwich Islands — see Hawaiian 
 Islands 
 
 San Francisco — population, educa- 
 tional history, 757 ; school system, 
 school statistics, 758 
 
 San Francisco Theological Seminary — 
 712 
 
 San Salvador— 120 
 
 Sanskrit— 9,17, 464 
 
 Santa Barbara College — 759 
 
 Santa Clara College — 759 
 
 Santiago — 130 
 
 Santiago, University of— 131, 792 
 
 Santo Domingo — 759 
 
 Sassari, University of — 486 
 
 Sarmlento, D. F.— 759. See also 38 
 
 Saxony — see Germany, See also 164 
 
 Scalia, £.—194 
 
 Scandinavian Kingdom — 165 
 
 Scheller— 224 
 
 Schem. A. J.— 224 
 
 Schepler, Louisa — 658 
 
 Schlatter, Rev. Michaels- 729, 823 
 
 Schmid, 216, 253 
 
 Schmidt, Karl— 759. See also 8, 717 
 
 Schnepfenthal — 757 
 
 Schola Palatina— 315, 357 
 
 Scholastic Fraternity — 421 
 
 Scholasticism — 760. See also 246, 
 284, 358 
 
 Scholasticus— SO, 357 
 
 School— 760. See also 432 
 
 School Age — table of school ages in 
 the U. S., 760. See also 165 
 
 School Board— 760 
 
 School Brothers — see Roman 
 Catholic Church. See also 743 
 
 School Building — 439 
 
 School Census — tables of in the U. S. 
 and Europe, 761 
 
 School District— 762 
 
 School Economy— 762 
 
 School Exchanges — 430 
 
 School Festivals — 762 
 
 School Fund — 763. See also 549 
 
 School Furniture — desks and seats, 
 763; the platform, the blackboard, 
 miscellaneous furniture and ap- 
 paratus, 704 
 
 School Grounds — see Hygiene, 
 School 
 
 School-House — construction and in- 
 ternal arrangement of, 765. See 
 also 247, 285 
 
 School Law— 189 
 
 School Life, A verage Length of — 305 
 
 School Management — 766. See also 
 287. 292, 376, 440, 493 
 
 School Premises — 265 
 
 School Records— 766 
 
 School Register— 766 
 
 School Site— 438 
 
 School Tax—5i9 
 
 School Windows — 439 
 
 Schrevelius — 224 
 
 Schwarz, F. H. Ch.— 767. See also 8, 
 34, 99, 162, 302, 303 
 
 Science, The Teaching of — its 
 place in elementary instruction, 
 767; generalization. proper method 
 of teaching it, 768; the order in 
 winch science should be taught, 
 science as a branch of higher edu- 
 cation, 769 
 
 Science of Government — 770 
 
 Scientific Schools — in Austria-Hun- 
 gary and the German Empire, 770; 
 in France. Italy, Russia, Belgium, 
 Switzerland, Great Britain, and 
 the r. s., 771 
 
 Scolding— 177 
 
 Scotland — area, population, etc., 
 educational history, 772; element- 
 ary instruction, 773; secondary 
 instruction, 774 ; superior and 
 special instruction, 775. See also 
 so: i 
 
 Scott, Sir ir.— 774 
 
 Scottish Universities— 111, 819 
 
ANALYTICAL INDEX 
 
 XV 
 
 ■Scutica — 303 
 
 Searing, E. — 166 
 
 Sears, Barnas — 550 
 
 Seceder Church — 714 
 
 Secondary Instruction — 775. See 
 also 442 
 
 Secondary Schools in U. S. — 828 
 
 Seguin, Dr.— 443, 445 
 
 Seidenstucker — 14 
 
 Selectmen— 173 
 
 Self-Control— 597 
 
 Self-Education— 775. See also 34 
 
 Self- Knowledge— 717 
 
 Semi-Mutes — 683 
 
 Seminaria Puerorum — 743 
 
 Seminary — 776 
 
 Semitic Languages — 409, 509 
 
 Semler— 361 
 
 Seneca, L. A. — 777 
 
 Senior— 80 
 
 Senior Optimes — 115 
 
 Senior Wrangler — 115 
 
 Sense Perception — 469 
 
 Senses, The Education of the — 
 mental impressions received 
 through the senses of varying 
 strength, necessity of cultivating 
 the senses, 777; object teaching, 
 the phonic method, color, 778. 
 See also 220, 659 
 
 Sensibility — 469 
 
 Sentential Analysis — see Analy- 
 sis, Grammatical. See also 733 
 
 Sentiments — 259 
 
 Septuagint — 412 
 
 Serapion — 18 
 
 Servia — area and population, school 
 legislation, primary schools, sec- 
 ondary instruction, 778; superior 
 instruction, special and profes- 
 sional schools, 779. See also 691 
 
 Sessions, School — 440 
 
 Seton, S. W.— 779. See also 594 
 
 Seton Hall College— 779 
 
 Seventh Day Adventists—5 
 
 Seventh Day Baptists — 18 
 
 Seville (Arabian School) — 36 
 
 Seville, University of — 792 
 
 Seward, W. H.— 217, 647 
 
 Sewing — 466 
 
 Sex Illiteracy — 451 
 
 Sex in Education — see Co-Educa- 
 tion. See also 302 
 
 Sforza, Francesco — 482 
 
 Shacklewell School — 628 
 
 Shakers— 201 
 
 Shaw University (Miss.) — 779 
 
 Shaw University (N. C.)— 779 
 
 Shearer's "Combination Speller" — 701 
 
 Sheffield Scientific School— lid, 772 
 
 Shenstone— 186, 200, 434 
 
 Short-sightedness— 293 
 
 Shrewsbury School— 267, 268, 269 
 
 Shurtleff College— 779 
 
 Shute, John— 6S6 
 
 Shultleworth, Sir J. Kay—I&i 
 
 Sicard, K. A. C 780. See also 205 
 
 Signs, The Language of — see Deaf- 
 Mutes, and Feet, H. P. See also 
 683. 
 
 Simpson Centenary College — 780 
 
 Simultaneous Instruction — sec 
 Concert Teaching. See also 169 
 
 Siena, University of — 486 
 
 Simon, Jules — 165, 317 
 
 Simon ben Shetach — 412 
 
 Simultaneous Reading — 722 
 
 Simultaneous Recitation — 723 
 
 Singing-Schools — early history of, 
 780; origin of the staff and musi- 
 cal syllables.modern Italian meth- 
 od of notation, substitution of 
 numerals for musical syllables, 
 method used in Germany, in the 
 U.S., 781; description ofCurwen's 
 method, 782; the Modulator, 783 
 
 ■Sizars — 115 
 
 Skinner, O. A. — 830 
 
 Slade Schools— 833 
 
 Slaves, Education of — 40 
 
 Slavic Languages— 464 
 
 Smart— 223 
 
 Smith, Adam — 784 
 
 Smith Walter— 550 
 
 Smlthson College— 783 
 
 Social Economy — its importance as 
 a branch of common school edu- 
 cation not recognized, variety of 
 names a disadvantage, 783; Adam 
 Smith, Inquiry into the Wealth of 
 Nations, the dismal science, 784; 
 example of an elementary lesson 
 in social economy, proper method 
 to be pursued in teaching, 785 
 
 Social Education — 179 
 
 Sociology — 468 
 
 Socrates — his life and habits, the 
 Socratic Method, 786; his trial, sen- 
 tence, and death, mental charac- 
 teristics, influence of his method 
 on the progress of human inquiry, 
 his success as a teacher, 787 
 
 Socratic Method — 473 
 
 Soldiers' Orphan Homes — 176 
 
 "Song Scales" — 715 
 
 Solon— 787. See also 164 
 
 Sophists— 786 
 
 Sorbonne, The — 150 
 
 Sound — 695 
 
 South, University of the— 787 
 
 South Carolina — area and popula- 
 tion, educational history, 787; 
 school system, educational con- 
 dition, school statistics, normal 
 instruction, 788; secondary, de- 
 nominational, parochial, supe- 
 rior, professional, scientific, and 
 special instruction, 789 
 
 South Carolina. University of— 789 
 
 Southern Bap. Theol. Sem.—li 
 
 Southern Female College — 845 
 
 Southern States — 825 
 
 Southern University— 789 
 
 South Kensington Museum — 811 
 
 Southwestern Baptist University 
 —789 
 
 Southwestern Presbyterian Uni- 
 versity— 790 
 
 Southwestern University — 790 
 
 Space for Class Rooms — 265 
 
 Spain — area and population, educa- 
 tional history, 790; primary and 
 secondary instruction, 791 ; su- 
 perior and special instruction, 
 792. See also 36, 166 
 
 Spanish Language — comparative 
 value of, origin and peculiarities, 
 792 
 
 Sparks, Jared — 171 
 
 Sparta — educational system of Ly- 
 curgus, 793. See also 164, 300 
 
 Spartan System— 98, 245, 300 
 
 Speaking — 273 
 
 Special Schools in U. S. — 828 
 
 Spelling — 273 
 
 Spelling Books — 673 
 
 Spelling Match — 673 
 
 Spelling Reform — 674 
 
 Spencer, Herbert— 793. See also 
 66, 177, 194, 248, 249, 612 
 
 Spiegelberg — 358 
 
 Spiritual Instinct — 731 
 
 Spurzheim — 329 
 
 Squarcione — 308 
 
 Stael, Mme de — 195 
 
 Standards — 265 
 
 Stanfordville, Ch. Bib. mst.— 135 
 
 State Agents— 550 
 
 Stale Certificates— 521 
 
 State Education— 612 
 
 State and School— 794 
 
 Steinthal— 378 
 
 Stephani, Heinrich— 794 
 
 Stephens, Henry— 794. See also 391 
 
 Stephens, Robert— 794 
 
 Stevens, E. A .—631 
 
 Stevens, Thaddeus—GSG 
 
 Stevens Institute of Technology— 631, 772 
 
 Stewart College — see Southwest- 
 ern Presbyterian University 
 
 Stiehl, Fr.—36i 
 
 Stoics— 384, 385, 391 
 
 Stone.W. E.— 795. See also 648 
 
 Story, Joseph — 517 
 
 Stowe, C. E.— 795. See also 34 
 Slrabo— 333, 334 
 Strabus, Walafried — 357 
 Straight University— 795 
 
 Strasbourg, Gymnasium at — 795 
 
 Strasbourg, School at — 359 
 
 Strasbourg, University of— 368 
 
 Studienanstalt — 515 
 
 Studies, Classification of — 468 
 
 Sturm, Johann — 795. See also 359 
 
 Stuttgart Polytechnic School — 369 
 
 Style— 733 
 
 Suffrage, Right of— 451 
 
 Sumner, George — 444 
 
 Sunday-School Books — 307 
 
 Sunday-Schools — their relation to 
 the common schools, origin and 
 early history, Robert Raikes, John 
 Wesley, 796; rapid spread of Sun- 
 day - schools, leading agencies, 
 William Fox, Bishop Asbury, 797; 
 prominent Sunday-school socie- 
 ties, their dates of organization, 
 Sunday-school literature, tracts, 
 libraries, etc., singing in the Stm- 
 day-school, 798; infant-class in- 
 struction, Sunday-school conven- 
 tions; county, state, international, 
 and world's conventions ; past 
 progress and present condition of 
 Sunday -schools,799 ; statistics,800. 
 See also 5, 198, 263, 287, 307, 719 
 
 Superannuated Teachers — 691 
 
 Superior Instruction — 800 
 
 Supernatural Narratives — 306 
 
 Supervision,, School — its, necessity 
 inspection and examination, 800. 
 See also 264 
 
 Surgery — 557 
 
 Surplus Revenue Fund — 763 
 
 Sutherland, Duke of— 113 
 
 Swamp Lands — 826 
 
 Swan-pan — 1 
 
 Swarthmore College — 801 
 
 Sweden and Norway — area and 
 population (Sweden) educational 
 history, primary instruction, 801; 
 secondary, superior, and special 
 instruction, (Norway) educational 
 history, primary instruction, 802; 
 normal, secondary, superior, and 
 special instruction, 803 
 
 Swedish Language — 351 
 
 Switzerland — area and population, 
 educational history, 803; primary 
 schools, tabular statement of 
 schools, 804; secondary, superior, 
 special, and professional instruc- 
 tion, 805. See also 165, 189, 725 
 
 Sydney, University of— 61 
 
 Syllabus, Papal— HI, 742 
 
 Sylvester II.— 36, 482, 790 
 
 Sympathy— 805. See also 307 
 
 Synchronistic Method — 425 
 
 Syracuse University— 805 
 
 Tabor College— 806 
 
 Tabular Method— 399 
 
 Tachygraphy — 56 
 
 Tacitus — 262 
 
 Talladega College— 806. See also 16 
 
 Talleyrand— 316, 716 
 
 Talmud— 413 
 
 Talmudic Science — 3 
 
 Tangible Letters — 87 
 
 Tangible Point Printing — 87 
 
 Tanneguy-Lefevre — 198 
 
 Tappia, Giovanni di — 606, 
 
 Tara— 477 
 
 Tasmania — see Australasian Colo- 
 nies 
 
 Tasso — 483 
 
 Taste— 285, 286 
 
 Taws— 306 
 
 Taylor, Isaac— 806. See also 34, 138, 
 168, 234, 432, 471 
 
 Taylor, J. O. — 645 
 
 Teacher — 806. See also 57, 132, 
 221, 222, 226, 228, 231, 239, 261, 285, 
 286, 287, 289, 290, 291, 293, 297, 298, 
 299, 305, 331, 333, 375, 398, 401, 453, 
 523, 532, 723 
 
XVI 
 
 ANALYTICAL INDEX 
 
 Teachers. Examination of— 289 
 
 Teachers' Institute— 806 
 
 Teachers' Seminaries — names of 
 indifferent counties, their origin, 
 A. H. i'raucke, gradual J^aread of 
 teachers' seminaries in different 
 countries, Prussian law concern- 
 ing, 807; statistics for 1876, nor- 
 mal schools in the U. S.. 808; 
 Charles Brooks, Horace Maun, 
 De Witt Clinton, Cyrus Peirce, 
 S. R. Hall, increase of nor- 
 mal schools in the U. S., table 
 showing the number of BUCh 
 schools, aud teachers and students 
 in the U. S. in 1m7('>, influence of 
 normal schools, 809; list of nor- 
 mal schools in the U. S., 810. See 
 also 229, 366, 709 
 
 Technical Educat Ion — its object, in- 
 creasing importance of, branches 
 usually taught, laws concerning 
 in Massachusets and New York, 
 list of European schools, 811 
 
 TilSmaque—SOG, 883 
 
 Temper— 812 
 
 Temperament — 121, 122 
 
 Tennessee — area and population, 
 educational history, 812; school 
 system, 813; educational condi- 
 tion, school statistics, normal and 
 secondary instruction, 814 ; su- 
 perior, professional, scientific, and 
 special instruction, 815 
 
 Ttrlullian—m, 142, 316 
 
 Texas — area and population, educa- 
 tional history, 815; school sys- 
 tem, educational condition, school 
 statistics, normal and secondary 
 instruction, 810; superior, scien- 
 tific, professional, and special in- 
 struction, 817 
 
 Text-Hooks— 817. See also 273, 342, 
 343, 399, 427 
 
 Thaulow— 417 
 
 Thayer, Nathaniel— 6 19 
 
 Thayer School of Civil Engineering— 
 627 
 
 Theano— 300 
 
 Theodore of Tarsus — 81 
 
 Theodoi ic the Great — 481 
 
 Theodulf of Orleans — 123 
 nostes — 18 
 
 Theological Schools — early history 
 of, HIT; Roman Catholic schools 
 
 in Europ i and the 0. S., Bchoola 
 of the Greek Church, Protestant 
 schools, want of uniformity in 
 theological instruction in Eng- 
 land, 818; method pursued in 
 Scotland, ris i and progress of 
 theological Bchoola in the r. s., 
 819. Bee also 282, 667 
 
 Theology— 246 
 
 Thermography— 819, 820 
 
 Thermometry, Educational — its 
 Q in the school, instruments 
 employed, 819; the hand a nat- 
 ural I h. rnioiiK tcr, thermography, 
 820 
 
 Thesaurus — 223 
 
 Thatrup 213 
 
 Thlel College of the Kvangcllcal 
 Lutheran church — 820 
 
 Thrax, Dionytiiu — 377 
 
 Thring 561 
 
 Tlnin, i 'niuil Leo — 64 
 
 Tilda n Seminary — 627 
 
 / * midity — 261 
 
 Todd 223 
 
 TodhunUr 289, 290 
 
 Tolcio, i niversity of 186 
 
 Toledo i Arabian School)— 366 
 
 Tombes — 71 
 
 Tonic Sol-Fa System— 182, 783 
 
 Topical Method BO Catechetical 
 
 Method. See also 117, 426 
 Toronto, Vhivertity of— t'.r.s 
 Tougaloo University— 820 
 Toulouse, University of— 315 
 Tours, School at— HI 
 Town System— 172 
 
 Toivnship System— 762, 827 
 
 Training— 820. See also 34, 695 
 
 Training College* — 266, 807 
 
 Training Schools — see Teachers' 
 Seminaries 
 
 Trial of Witt— 436 
 
 Trinity College (Ct.)— 820. See also 
 177 
 
 Trinity College (Dublin) — 179 
 
 Trinity College (N. C.)— 821 
 
 Trinity College (Ont.)— 668 
 
 Trinity Hall— mi 
 
 Trinity University— 821 
 
 Tripos — 115 
 
 Trittow, Philanthropin at — 116 
 
 Trivium — see Arts 
 
 Trotzendorf, V. v.— 821 
 
 Troy Female Seminary — 857 
 
 Truant Laws — 821. Sej also 550 
 
 Tubingen, University of— 368 
 
 Tufts College— 821 
 
 Tuition Fees— 649, 716 
 
 Turin, University of — 486 
 
 Turkey — area and population, edu- 
 cational history, 821 ; primary, 
 secondary, superior, and special 
 schools, 822. See also 165 
 
 Ulfilas— 351 
 Ultramontanism — 155 
 Unconscious Tuition — 291, 431 
 Undenominational Schools — 216, 217 
 Union Christian College— 822 
 Union Free School Districts— -638, 762 
 Union University— 822 
 Unitarians— 823 
 
 United Brethren In Christ — how 
 founded, schools and colleges, 
 n2:S: theological schools, Biblical 
 institute, board of education. 
 Sabbath schools, 824 
 United Evangelical Church — his- 
 tory, administration, theological 
 education, preachers' seminaries, 
 reformatory schools, Raulws Hans. 
 Protestant deaconesses, *24; the 
 Church in the United States, 825 
 United States — area, population, 
 etc., educational history, 825 ; 
 congressional land grants, 826 ; 
 Bureau of Education, free-school 
 systems, school revenues, educa- 
 tional gifts, school population, 
 school statistics, normal schools, 
 827; grades of instruction, profes- 
 sional and special schools, educa- 
 tional periodicals, literature, 828; 
 works on American education,829. 
 See also 151, 305, 333 
 r. ,s\ Deposit Fund 638, 763 
 l* niversulists — foundation, organi- 
 zation, statistics, schools, acad- 
 emies. 829; colleges, theological 
 schools, Sunday-schools, expend- 
 itures, distinguished (Jniversal- 
 ist teachers, ,s:!o 
 University — origin of, the Univer- 
 sity of Paris, establishment of 
 universities in Germany, and 
 
 Italy, their increase alter the 
 
 Reformation, Latin the medium 
 of instruction, 881 ; recent estab- 
 lishment of free i latholic unh er- 
 sities. differences sf universities 
 as to organization and function 
 in civilized countries, 832. See 
 also 151, 217 
 University College (London)— ob- 
 ject for which founded, its (acui- 
 ties, 832 : revenue, the Blade 
 schools, admission of women, do- 
 nations and bequests, buildings, 
 
 833 
 University College (San Francisco, 
 
 call -833 
 / '» iversity Exam /nations — 290 
 Upper Iowa University — 833 
 Upsal, University of— 802 
 Urbana University— 884 
 
 UrbinO, University of— 486 
 I'rslnus College — 834 
 
 Ursulines— 179, 743 
 
 Uruguay — area and population, edu- 
 cational condition, 834 
 
 I'tah — area and population, educa- 
 tional history, 834 : school sys- 
 tem, educational condition, school 
 statistics, normal iustruction.835; 
 secondary and superior instruc- 
 tion, 836 
 
 Utrecht, University of— 618 
 
 Vacarius— 515 
 
 Vacations— 441 
 
 Vaccination — 441 
 
 Valckenaer. University of — 389 
 
 Valla, Laurentius—4tS3 
 
 Valencia. University of— 102 
 
 Valle, Lorenzo delta — *4h2 
 
 Van Bokkelin, Rev. 8.— 303, 304, 544 
 
 Vanderbilt. Cornelius— 569 
 
 Vanderbllt University— 836 
 
 Van der Smissen — 565 
 
 Van Helmont — 214 
 
 Varro, M. Terentius — 745 
 
 Van der Ende — 6 1 8 
 
 Vanin, I'ere— 280 
 
 Van Rensselaer, Stephen — 430 
 
 Vassar, Matthew— 836 
 
 Vassar College— 836. See also 312 
 
 Vaux, Roberts— 698 
 
 Vi gins. Maf, ur— 482 
 
 Venezuela — area and population, 
 primary instruction, secondary 
 and superior instruction, 837 
 
 Ventilation — conditions favorable 
 to, 837; different methods of, 
 difficulties in effecting, 838 
 
 Vermont — area and population, edu- 
 cational history, 839; school sy- 
 stem, 840; educational condition, 
 normal instruction, secondary 
 and denominational instruction, 
 superior instruction, professio- 
 nal and scientific instruction, 841 
 
 Vermont, University of — 842 
 
 Verses, Writing of— 707 
 
 Vesalius, Andreas — 557 
 
 Vestius, William — 630 
 
 Pipy*— 621 
 
 Vices to be corrected — 597 
 
 Victo) ia, 61 
 
 Victoria, in iversity of— 668 
 
 V iri a, oi College — 761 
 
 Vienna, Univt rsity of— 64 
 
 Vincent, Rev. J. //.— 568 
 
 Virgatum Geht n— : 59 
 
 Virginia — area and population,. 
 educational history, ^4.' ; school 
 Bystem, educational condition, 
 normal instruction, 844; second- 
 ary instruction, private and 
 corporate schools, superior in- 
 struction, professional and sci- 
 entific instruction, schools of sci- 
 ence 846 ; schools of theology. 
 special instruction, educational 
 literature, 846 
 
 Virginia, University of— 846 
 
 Viri Roma — 526 
 
 Virtue— 706 
 
 Virtues to be cultivated — 597 
 
 Visigoths— 192 
 
 Vogil— 221 
 
 Voice, Culture of— 847 
 
 Von Raumer — 231 
 
 Voss, J. H.— 362 
 
 Wabash College— 860 
 
 w aco Unlverslty- 
 fVadswoi th. James- 268 
 Wagner Free Institute — 699 
 Wait, William li.—M, 100 
 Wake lores! College— 850 
 
 Wales— 166, 266 
 Walker, William— 879 
 
 WaUiS, Dr. John— 205, 379 
 
 Warsaw, University of— 150 
 
 Wartburg Theological Seminaiy—HH, 
 634 
 
 Wash burton-— see District of Co- 
 lumbia 
 
 Washington, George, on State Educa- 
 tion— 10 
 
ANALYTICAL INDEX 
 
 XVII 
 
 Washington College (Cal.)— 850 
 
 Washington College (Md.)— 850 
 
 Washington and Jefferson Col- 
 lege— 850 
 
 Washington and Lee University 
 —850 
 
 Washington Territory — area and 
 population, educational history, 
 school system, educational con- 
 dition, school statistics, teachers' 
 institutes and associations, 851 
 
 Washington University — 851 
 
 Waterville College— 540 
 
 Watson, Richard — 118 
 
 Wayland, Francis — biographical 
 sketch, 851 ; re-organization of 
 Brown University, 852 
 
 Waynesburg College — 852 
 
 Wearmouth Convent School — 75 
 
 Weavervllle College— 852 
 
 Webster, Daniel— 203, 430, 809 
 
 Webster, Horace — 647 
 
 Webster, Noah— 852. See also 223 
 
 Wegweiser, Diesterweg's — 556 
 
 Wehrli, J. J. — biographical sketch, 
 enters Hofwyl, 852; opens the 
 normal school at Kreuzlingen, 
 establishes a new seminary at 
 Guggenbuhl, 853. See also 11, 429 
 
 Weigand — 225 
 
 Weissenborn — 757 
 
 Wel/esley College— 111 
 
 Wellington College— -269 
 
 Wends— 613 
 
 Wesley, John— 566, 796 
 
 Wesleyan Female Institute — 845 
 
 Wesleyan University — 853 
 
 Wessel, Johann — 358 
 
 Wtsselhoeft, .Dr.— 560 
 
 Western College— 853 
 
 Western Maryland College — 853 
 
 Western Reserve College — 853 
 
 Westfleld College— 853 
 
 Westminster College (Mo.) —854 
 
 Westminster College (Pa.)— 854 
 
 Westminster Public School — 267 
 
 Weston, James P. — 830 
 
 West Point — location of academy, 
 when established, appointments 
 to, etc., 854 
 
 West Virginia — area and population, 
 state superintendents, school sys- 
 tem, 854; educational condition, 
 school statistics, normal, second- 
 ary, denominational, and superi- 
 or instruction, 855; professional 
 and scientific instruction, 856 
 
 West Virginia, University of— 856 
 
 West Virginia College— 856 
 
 Whately, Kichard— 856. See also 471 
 Whcaton College— 856 
 wit, atstone, < 'harles — 505 
 Wheelock, Eleazar— 171, 461 
 Whewell, William— 856. See also 
 
 264, 289 
 Wliipping Hoys — 186 
 Whipple— 279 
 
 Whipple Home for Deaf- Mutes— 176, 206 
 Whitbread— 263 
 White, E. £'.—376,665 
 White, Joseph — 550 
 Whitney — 378 
 
 Whit tier College and Normal In- 
 stitute — 856 
 
 Wiehern, J. H 857. See also 725 
 
 Wickersham, James P.— 139, 285, 381, 
 
 424, 687 
 Wiese, Dr.— 764 
 
 Wilberforce University — 857 
 Wilbur, H. B — 444, 645 
 Wiley University— 857 
 Will— 253, 469 
 
 Willard, Emma — biographical 
 sketch, her plan for the higher 
 education of women, the Troy 
 • Female Seminary, improvements 
 in text-books, 857. See also 114, 
 187, 303, 334 
 William and Mary, College of — 
 
 history and organization, 858 
 William Jewell College— 858 
 William of Wyfcsham — 678 
 Williamsburg — 103 
 Williams College— 858 
 Wilmington College— 858 
 Wilson, James — 478 
 Wimpfeling, Ludwig — 388 
 Winchester Public School — 267 
 Winckelmann— 37, 362 
 Wines, Dr. — 194 
 
 Wisconsin — area and population, 
 859; educational history, school 
 system, 859; educational condi- 
 tion, school statistics, normal in- 
 struction, teachers' institutes 
 and associations, secondary in- 
 struction, 860; superior, profes- 
 sional, scientific and special in- 
 struction, 861 
 Wisconsin, University of— 861 
 Wittenberg College— 862 
 Wofford, Rev. Benjamin — 569 
 Wofford College— 862 
 Wolf, Friedrich .4.-362 
 Wolf, George— 686 
 Wo'lsey— 524 
 
 Women (as Teachers etc.) — 305, 549 
 Women, Examination for — 290 
 
 Women, The Higher Education of 
 
 — in England, 862; in Scotland 
 and Ireland, 863. See also 147, 
 209, 212, 290, 301, 303, 674, 774, 836 
 
 Woodbridge, W. C— 863. See also 
 17, 334, 547 
 
 Wood Engraving, 181 
 
 Woodstock College— 864 
 
 Woolsey, T. ]> — 864. See also 171 
 
 Wooster, University of— 864 
 
 Worcester, Joseph Emerson— 864. 
 See also 223 
 
 Word Method— 864. See also 673, 721 
 
 Words, Analysis of— etymology, its 
 importance in elementary in- 
 struction, Latin prefixes and suf- 
 fixes in the English language, 
 method of teaching, application 
 of the developing method to this 
 subject, 865 
 
 Work-House Schools — 478 
 
 Working Men's College — 866 
 
 Wrangler— 115, 231 
 
 Wrestling— 578 
 
 Writing — see Penmanship. See 
 also 182, 273, 274 
 
 Wr iting- Schools— 247 
 
 Wiirtemberg — see Germany. See 
 also 164, 165, 287, 725 
 
 Wurtzburg, University of — 368 
 
 Wyoming — area, population, etc., 
 educational history, school sys- 
 tem and statistics, 866 
 
 Xenia College— 867 
 
 Xenia Theological Seminary — 714 
 Jenophon— 98, 307, 692, 786, 787 
 
 Yachting, Academy of— 3 
 Yale, Elihu— 867. See also 176 
 Yale College— 867. See also 151 
 Yarrow — Convent School — see Wear- 
 mouth 
 Yorkshire College of Science — 270 
 Youth— 8 
 Yverdun — 694 
 
 Zarncke — 352 
 
 Zembsch, C. T.— 599 
 
 Zeno— 384 
 
 Zimmermann — 508 
 
 Zinzendorf— 599 
 
 Zoology— its place and value in edu- 
 cation, what principles are to be 
 observed in teaching it, 868. See 
 also 770 
 
 Ztvingli — 247 
 
 Zurich, University of— 148, 805 
 
 ZUrich Catechism — 118 
 
APPENDIX 
 
 TO THE THIRD EDITION OF THE 
 
 CYCLOPEDIA OF EDUCATION. 
 
 LATE EDUCATIONAL STATISTICS. 
 
 ALABAMA. Population (Census of 1880), 
 1,262,794. Number of children of school age 
 (7—21), —white, 224,464; colored, 176,538; 
 total, 387,769. Number enrolled in public 
 schools, — white, 107,949 ; colored, 69,479. 
 Average daily attendance, ■ — white, 67,381 ; 
 colored, 47,146. Number of schools, — white, 
 3,058; colored, 1,566. Number of teachers, — 
 white, 3,056; colored, 1,508: males, 2,938; 
 females, 1,626. Annual educational income, 
 8392, 904. State Superintendent, H. Clay Arm- 
 strong, Montgomery. 
 
 ARIZONA. Population (1880), 40,441. 
 Number of children of school age (6 — 21), 
 5,291. Enrolled in public schools, 3,143. 
 Average daily attendance, 1,992. Number of 
 schools, 51. Number of teachers, — male 27; 
 female, 24. Average monthly salary, — of 
 males, 884; of females, 868. Educational in- 
 come, 832,421. Superintendent of Schools, 
 Moses H. Sherman. 
 
 ARKANSAS. Population (1880), 802,564. 
 Number of children of school age (6 — 21), — 
 white, 212,940 ; colored, 69,113 ; total, 282,053. 
 Number attending public schools, 117,696. Num- 
 ber of schools, 1,172. Number of teachers, — 
 males, 1,977; females, 441. Raised for school 
 purposes (year ending June 30, 1882), 8717,- 
 371. Expenditure, 8388,412.22. State Super- 
 intendent, W. E. Thompson, Little Rock. 
 
 CALIFORNIA. Population (1880), 864,- 
 686. Number of children of school age (5 — 17), 
 — white, 214,368; colored, 1,120; Indian, 842. 
 Enrolled in public schools, 168,024. Average 
 daily attendance, 107,177. Number of schools, 
 3,036. Number of teachers, — males, 1,156; 
 females, 2,621. Average monthly salary, — of 
 males, 879.67; of females, 864.48. Educational 
 income, 83,791,384. Value of school property, 
 87,237,669. State Superintendent, Wm. T. 
 Welcker, Sacramento. 
 
 COLORADO. Population (1880), 194,649. 
 Number of children of school age (6 — 21), 
 49,208. Enrolled in public schools, 31,738. 
 Average daily attendance, 18,488. Number of 
 school districts. 511. Number of teachers, 900. 
 Annual income, 8768,032. Value of school 
 property, 81,235,491. State Superintendent 
 L. S. Cornell, Denver. 
 Al 
 
 CONNECTICUT. Population (1880), 622,- 
 700. Number of children of school age (4—16), 
 146,188. Enrolled in public schools, 121,185, 
 Average attendance, — winter, 77,041 ; summer, 
 69,636. Number of children attending private 
 schools, 12,899 (approximate). Number of 
 schools, 1,624. Number of teachers, — in winter 
 
 — males, 617 ; females, 2,213; in summer, — 
 males, 316; females, 2,503. Average monthly 
 salary, — of males, 863.44; of females, 835.94- 
 Total school revenue, 81,563,750.30. School ex- 
 penditure,^, 553, 065. 16. Secretary ofSlateBoard 
 of Education, Charles D. Hine, Hartford. 
 
 DAKOTA. Population (1880), 134,560. 
 Territorial school census (1882), 229,432. Ninn- 
 ber of children of school age (5 — 21), 58,715. 
 Enrolled in public schools, 31,800. Number of 
 school districts, 1,593. Number of teachers, 
 1,649. Average monthly salary, — males, 833; 
 females, 826. Educational income (entirely by 
 taxation), 8379,400. Superintendent of Public 
 Instruction, Wm. H. H. Beadle, Yankton. 
 
 DELAWARE. Population (1880), 146,654. 
 Numbe)' of children of school age (6 — 21), — 
 white, 33,133 ; colored, 4,152. Enrolled in 
 public schools, — white, 26,578 ; colored, 2,254. 
 Number of schools, 583. Number of teachers, 
 
 — males, 237 ; females, 346. Average monthly 
 salary, — of males, 831.49 ; of females, 827.56. 
 Educational income, 8150,901. School fund, 
 8495,749. State Superintendent of Free Schools, 
 James H. Groves, Smyrna. 
 
 DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA. Popula- 
 tion (1880), 177,638. Number of children of 
 school age (6 — 17), — white, 29,612; colored, 
 13,946. Enrolled in public schools, — white, 
 18,678; colored, 9,642. Average daily atten- 
 dance, 22,830. Number of teachers, — male, 
 37; female, 448. Average annual salary, — 
 of males, 81050; of females, 8650. Education- 
 al income, 8546,811. School Superintendent, 
 J. Ormond Wilson, Washington. 
 
 FLORIDA. Population (1880), 267,351. 
 Number of children of school age (4 — 21), 
 72,985. Enrolled in public schools, 39,315. 
 Average attendance,'!* ,046. Number of schools, 
 992. Number of teachers, 1,095. Expenditure 
 for school purposes, 8114,895.41. Slate Super 
 J intendent. E. K. Foster, Tallahassee. 
 
LATE EDUCATIONAL STATISTICS 
 
 GEORGIA. Population (1880), 1,539,048. 
 Number of children of school age (6 — 18), — 
 white, 236,319; colored, L97,125. Enrolled in 
 public schools, — white, 153,156; colored, 
 91,041; total, 244,197. Average attendance, 
 149,908. Number of teachers, 6,535 (about 
 1,600 colored). Number of schools, — white, 
 4,053; colored, 1,704. Educational income, 
 $498,533 ($1 .15 per capita on school popula- 
 tion, $2.04 on enrollment, and $3.32 on average 
 attendance). State School Commissioner, Gus- 
 tavus J. Orr, Atlanta. 
 
 IDAHO. Papulation (1880), 32,611. Number 
 of children of school age (5 — 21), 9.650. Num- 
 ber of schools, 200. Educational income, 360,000. 
 Superintendent of Schools, James L. Onder- 
 donk, Boise City. 
 
 ILLINOIS. Population (1880), 3,078,769. 
 Number of children of school age (6 — 21), — 
 males, 526,461; females, 511,106. Enrolled in 
 public schools, — males 364,043; females, 349,- 
 498. Average daily attendance, 452,485. Num- 
 ber of children attending private schools, 67,380. 
 Number of schools, — graded, 1,120; not grad- 
 ed, 10,828. Number of teachers, — males, 8, 076 ; 
 females, 14,225. Average monthly sidary, — of 
 males, $46.86 ; of females, $37.76. Educational 
 income, $10,537,296. School expend dure (1882), 
 $8,043,430. State Superintendent, HexryRaab, 
 Springfield. 
 
 INDIANA. Population (1880), 1,978,362. 
 Number of children of school age (6 — 21), 
 710,458. Enrolled in public schools, — white, 
 males, 255,762; females, 234,402: colored, males, 
 4,224; females, 4,404. Total number of children 
 enrolled, 490,164. Average daily attendance, 
 305,513. Num >,<■)■ of schools, 9,647. Number of 
 teachers, — males, 8,573; females, 6,810 (colored, 
 1 15). Total school funds, 89,207,411.51. Annual 
 educational income, $3,000,000. State Super- 
 intendent, John M. Bi.oss, Indianapolis. 
 
 IOWA. Population (1880), 1,624,620. Num- 
 ber of children of school age (5 — 21), — males. 
 303,239 ; females, 291,491. Enrolled in public 
 schools, 431,513. Average attendance, 254,088. 
 Number of schools, — graded, 503; ungraded, 
 10,741. Number of teachers, — males, 6,5-16; 
 females, 1 5.230. Average monthly salary, — of 
 males, $32.50; of females, 327.25.' School fund, 
 $3,547,123. Educational income. $4,879,909. 
 Value of school properly, $9,738,623. State 
 Superintend, ut. John W. Akers, l>es Moines. 
 
 KANSAS. Population (1880), 995.966. 
 Number of children if *<•/,,„, l age (5 — 21), — 
 males, 184,774; females, 173,146. Enrolled in 
 public schools,— males, L39.484; females, L30.461. 
 Average dad// attendance, 1.62,0] 7. Number of 
 
 schools, 6.003. Number of tcacl/crs. -- males. 
 
 3,342; females, 1,808. Average monthly salary, 
 — of males. $31.42; of females, si- 1.95. School 
 fund, $2,550,000, besides 2,600,000 acres of 
 lands. Educational income, $2,301,001.09. 
 Value qf school property, $4,633,044 State 
 
 Superintendent, II. ( '. SpREB. Toiieka. 
 A2 
 
 KENTUCKY. Population (1880), 1,648,708. 
 Number of children of school age, — whites 
 (6—20), 478,554; colored (6—16), 70,234. En- 
 rolled in public schools. — whites, 208,500 ; 
 colored, 19,107. Attending ]>ric ate schools, 35, 000. 
 Average daily attendance, — whites, 139,179; 
 colored, 1 3,393. Number of teachers, — white, 
 6,335 (1,989 females); colored, 435. Average 
 monthly salary, — of males, $40 ; of females, 
 $35. 'School fund, $1,600,000. Educational 
 income, si, 827, 575. Value of school property, 
 $2,300,000. Slate Superintendent, Joseph 1). 
 Pickett, Frankfort. 
 
 LOUISIANA. Population (1880), 940,103. 
 Number of children of school age (6 — 18), — 
 white, 139,657 ; colored, 150,379. Enrolled in 
 public schools, — whites, 31,642 ; colored, 22.670. 
 Number if schools, 874. Number of teachers, 
 — white, .959; colored, 327. Average monthly 
 salary, — in New Orleans, $52.50 ; in country 
 parishes, 325.62. Educational income, $444,979. 
 State Superintendent, Edwin H. Fay, Baton 
 Rouge. 
 
 MAINE. Popidation (1880), 648,945. 
 Number of children of school age (4 — 21), 
 212,521. Enrolled in public schools, 147,697. 
 Average daily attendance, 99.814. Number 
 of schools, 4,955. Number of free high schools, 
 101. Number of teachers, — in summer, male, 
 226; female, 4,698: in winter, male, 2,113; 
 female, 2.587. Average monthly salary, — of 
 males, $29.59; of females, $14.60. Annual 
 educational expenditure, $933,829. Value of 
 school property, $3,070,326. State Superinten- 
 dent, N. A. Luce, Augusta. 
 
 MARYLAND. Population (1880), 934,632 
 Number of children of school age (6 — 21), 
 602,952. Enrolled in 'public schools, 159,945. 
 Average daily attendance, 79,739. Number of 
 schools, 2,058. Number qf teachers, 3,197. 
 Average monthly salary, $43.49. School fund, 
 $906,229. Educational expenditure, $1,604,580. 
 Secretary of Slate Board of Education, M. A. 
 Newell, Baltimore. 
 
 MASSACHUSETTS. Population (1880), 
 1,783,012. Number if children of school age 
 (5 — 15), 321,377. Enrolled in public scla 
 330,421. Average daily attendance, 235,739. 
 Number of children attending private and 
 parochial schools and academies, 29.865. Num- 
 ber qf schools, 6,090. Number of high schools, 
 221. Number of teachers, — male, 1,079; 
 female, 7.858. Average monthly salary, — of 
 males, 81 02.90; of females, $34.32. School fund, 
 $2,711,263. Annual educational expenditure, 
 $5.881 .1 23. Secretary qf Stale Hoard of Edu- 
 cation. John W. DICKINSON, Boston. 
 
 MICHIGAN. Population (1880), 1,636,331. 
 Number of children qf school age (5 — 20), 
 538,802. Enrolled in public schools, 385,504. 
 Attending private schools. 20,577. Number 
 qf public schools, — graded, 439; ungraded. 
 6,191. Number qf teachers, — male, .'i.887 ; 
 female. 10,580. Average monthly Salary, — 
 
LATE EDUCATIONAL STATISTICS 
 
 of males, 841.56; of females, $27.44. Per- 
 manent School fund, 83.619,959.96. Annual 
 income, from all sources, 84,747,421.65. Value 
 of school property, 89,848,493. (Report for 
 the year ending Dec. 31, 1882). State Super- 
 intendent, Yarnum B. Cochran, Marquette ; 
 Deputy Superintendent, W. L. Smith, Lansing. 
 MINNESOTA. Population (1880), 875,000 
 (estimated). Number of children of school age 
 (5 — 21), 315,948. Enrolled in public schools, 
 196,643. Number of schools, — .graded, 136; 
 ungraded, 4,501. Number of teachers, — males, 
 winter, 1,625; summer, 662; females, winter, 
 2,711; summer, 3,338. Average monthly salary, 
 
 — of males, 836. 50 ; of females, 828.50. School 
 fund, 85,295,101.47. Annual income, 8267,082.- 
 32. Total Revenue, 82,120,364. Value of school 
 property, 83,947,057. State Superintendent, 
 D. L. Kiehle, St. Paul. 
 
 MISSISSIPPI. Population (1880), 1,131,- 
 592. Number of children of school age (5 — 21), 
 
 — whites, 156,434 ; colored, 205,936. Enrolled 
 in public schools, — whites, 111,655; colored, 
 125.633. Number of teachers, — whites, 3,414 ; 
 colored, 2,644: male, 3,577; female, 1,790. 
 Average monthly salary, — of males, 830.07; of 
 females, 830.07. School fund, 8815,229. Edu- 
 cational income, 8716,342. State Superintendent, 
 J. A. Smith, Jackson. 
 
 MISSOURI. Population (1880), 2,168,804. 
 Number of children of school age (6 — 20), — 
 whites, 704,550 ; colored, 37.891 . En rolled in pub- 
 lic schools, — whites, 467,811; colored, 25,069. 
 Number of schools, — for whites, 8,321; for col- 
 ored, 501. Number of teachers, 10,743. School 
 fund, 89,554,349. Educational income, 8641,- 
 483. Value of school property, 87,521,695. State 
 Superintendent, R. D. Shannon, Jefferson City. 
 
 MONTANA. Population (1880), 39,157. 
 Number of children of school age (4- — 21), — 
 males, 5,832; females, 5,437. Enrolled in public 
 schools, 6,000. Average daily attendance, 3,700. 
 Number of schools, 189. Number of teachers, 
 
 — male, 64; female, 127. Average monthly 
 salary, — of males, 875.74; of females, 864.20. 
 Educational income, 890,204. Superintendent 
 of Public Instruction, R. H. Howey, Helena. 
 
 NEBRASKA. Population (1880), 452,433. 
 Number of children of school age (5 — 21), — 
 male, 86,395 ; female, 79,116. Enrolled in 
 public schools, 116,546. Number of schools, — 
 graded, 74; ungraded, 3,241. Number of teach- 
 ers, — male, 1,706; female. 3,120. Average 
 monthly salary, — of males, 836.20; of females, 
 829.40. School fund, 82,402,455. Value of 
 school property, 82,234,465. Educational in- 
 come, 81,540,952. State Superintendent, W . \Y . 
 W. Jones, Lincoln. 
 
 NEVADA. Population (1880), 62,265. 
 Number of children of school age (6 — 18), — 
 male, 5,223; female, 5,369. Number of teach- 
 ers, — male, 92, female, 105. Number of schools, 
 195. School fund, 8415,000. Educational 
 income, 8161,405. State Superintendent, D. R. 
 Sessions, Carson City. 
 A3 
 
 NEW HAMPSHIRE. Population (1880), 
 346,984. Number of children of school age 
 (5—21), 72,002. Enrolled in public schools, te,- 
 347. Average daily attendance, 43,996. Num- 
 ber of schools, 2,644. Number of teachers, — 
 male, 477: female, 3,117. Average, salary 
 (including board), — of males, 836.45; of fe- 
 males. 822.36. Educational ii<-ome, 8584,527.74. 
 Value of school property, 82,303,248.03. State 
 Superintendent, J. W. Patterson, Concord. 
 
 NEW JERSEY. Population (1880), 
 1,130,983. Number of children of school age 
 (5 — 18), 343,897. Enrolled in public schools, 
 209,526. Average attendance, 113,532. Number 
 of children attending private schools, 44,560. 
 Number of school districts, 1,366; of school 
 buildings,!^!; of separate school departments, 
 3,511. Number of teachers, — male, 991; 
 female, 2,594. Average monthly salary, — 
 of males, 856.96; of females, 833.41. Total 
 appropriation for school purposes, 82,142,384.- 
 74. Slate Superintendent, Ellis A. Apgar, 
 Trenton. 
 
 NEW MEXICO. Population (1880), 118,- 
 430. Number of children of school age, 25,000. 
 Enrolled in public schools, 5,151. Number of 
 teachers, 147. Monthly salary, from 816.30 to 
 840. Educational income, 825, 47 3. 
 
 NEW YORK. Population (1880), 5,082,871- 
 Number of children of school age (5 — 21), 
 1,681,161. Enrolled in public schools, 1,041,068. 
 Average daily attendance, 569,472. Number 
 of school districts, 11,257. Whole number of 
 pupils taught, — in common schools, 1,041,068; 
 in normal schools, 6,152; in academies, 34,171 ; 
 in colleges, 6,496; in private schools, 115,646; 
 in law schools, 609; in medical schools, 3,011; 
 total, 1,207,153. Number of children in Indian 
 schools, 1,174. Number of teachers, — male, 
 7,123; female, 24,110. Average monthly salary, 
 843.28. Capital of Common • School Fund, 
 83,802,902. Annual income, 812,544,210. 
 State Superintendent, Neil Gilmour, Albany. 
 
 NORTH CAROLINA. Population (1880), 
 1,399,750. Number of children of school age 
 (6—21), — whites, 291,770; colored, 167,554. 
 Attending public schools, — white, 136,481; 
 colored, ' 89,125. Average daily attendance, 
 147,802. Number of schools, — for whites, 3,523; 
 for colored, 1 ,789. Number of teachers, — male, 
 2,006; female, 1,721: white, 2,727; colored, 
 1,403. Average monthly salary, 821.91. Edu- 
 cational income, 8523,555. State Superintendent, 
 J. C. Scarborough, Raleigh. 
 
 OHIO. Population (1880), 3,198,239. Num- 
 ber cf children of school age (6 — 21), — males. 
 552,587, females, 528,734; total, 1,081,321 (of 
 whom 25,074 are colored). Enrolled in public 
 schools, — males, 390,303; females, 360,798. 
 Average daily attendance, — males, 246,425; 
 females, 236,807. Number of schools, 12,264. 
 Number of teachers, — male, 11,086; female, 
 13,049. Educational income, 812,236,358. State 
 Commissioner of Common Schools, D. F. De 
 Wolf, Columbus. 
 
LATE EDUCATIONAL STATISTICS 
 
 OREGON. Population (1880), 174,767. 
 Number of children of school age (4 — 20), 
 56,464. Enrolled in public schools, 32,718. 
 Average daily attendance, 20,840. Number of 
 teachers, — male, 539; female, 460. Average 
 monthly salary, — of males, $43.90; of females, 
 $33.80. School fund, $562,830, besides 1,000,000 
 acres of land. Educational income, $351,673. 
 State Superintendent, L. J. Powell, Salem. 
 
 PENNSYLVANIA. Population (1880), 
 4,282,786. Number of children of school age 
 (6— 21) , 1,200,000. Enrolled in public schools, 
 
 — males, 482,286; females, 463,059. Average 
 daily attendance, 611,317. Number of schools, 
 
 — graded, 7,812; ungraded, 11,371. Number 
 of teachers, — male, 9,051; female, 12,778. 
 Average montlily salary, — of males, $35.12; of 
 females, $28.89. Educational mco?ne,$8,263,244.- 
 00. State Superintendent, E. E. Higbee, Harris- 
 burg. 
 
 RHODE ISLAND. Population (1880), 
 276,528. Number of children of school age 
 (5—15), — males, 28,273; females, 27,559. 
 Enrolled in public schools, 41,658. Average 
 daily attendance, 27,467. Number of children 
 attending private or select schools, 6,964. 
 Number of schools, — graded, 539; ungraded, 
 294. Number of teachers, — male, 182; female. 
 933. Average monthly salary, — of males, 
 $77.44; of females, $43.53. Educational in- 
 come, $608,125. Value of school property, 
 $2,064,693. State Commissioner of Public 
 Schools, Thomas B. Stockwell, Providence. 
 
 SOUTH CAROLINA. Population (1880), 
 995,577. Number of children of school age 
 (6—16), — whites, 101,189; colored, 180,475. 
 Enrolled in public schools, — whites, 65,399; 
 colored, 80,575. Number of school districts, 
 484. Number of public schools, 3,183. Number 
 of teachers, — white, 2,126; colored ,1 ,287: males, 
 1,940; females, 1,473; total, 3,413. Average 
 monthly salary, — of males, $26.00; of females, 
 $23.97*. Educational income, $452,965. State 
 Superintendent, A. Coward, Columbia. 
 
 TENNESSEE. Population (1880), 1,542,- 
 463. Number of children of school age (6 — 21), 
 
 — whites, 403,353; colored, 141,509*. Enrolled 
 in public schools, — whites, 229,290; colored, 
 60,851. Average daily /((tendance, — whites, 
 150,854; colored, 40,607. Number of schools, 
 
 — for whites, 4,334; for colored, 1,188. Number 
 of teachers, — white, male, 3,506; female, 
 1,201: colored, male, 913; female, 334. Average 
 monthly salary, $26.66. Educational income, 
 $930,734. State Superintendent, W. S. Doak, 
 l>. D., NashviUe. 
 
 TEXAS. Population (1880), 1,592,574. 
 Number of children of school age (8 — 14), 
 300,000. Enrolled in public schools, 250,000. 
 Number of schools, — for whites, 5,500; for 
 colored, 1,500. Number of teachers, — white, 
 male, 2,895; female, 760: colored, male, 562; 
 female, 113. Average monthly salary, — of 
 A4 
 
 males, $42; of females, $33. School fund, 
 $3,385,571. Educational income, $972,904. 
 Secretary State Board of Education, 0. N. 
 Hollingsworth, Austin. 
 
 UTAH. Population (1880), 143,906. Number 
 of children of school age (6 — 18), — males, 
 22.087; females, 21,216. Enrolled in public 
 schools, — males, 14,566; females, 12,650. 
 Average daily attendance, 17,594. Number 
 of schools, 388. Number cf teachers, ■ — male,. 
 261; female, 234. Average monthly salary,. 
 
 — of males, $46.43; of females, $26.93. Edu- 
 cational income, $136,689. Superintendent of 
 District Schools, L. John Nuttall, Salt Lake 
 City. 
 
 VERMONT. Population (1880), 532,286.. 
 Number of children of school age (5 — 20) v 
 92,535. Enrolled in public schools, 73,068- 
 Average daily attendance, 47,772. Number- 
 of children attending private schools, 7,468. 
 Number of schools, 2,527. Number of teachers, 
 
 — male, 653; female, 3,723. Average monthly 
 salary (with board), — of males, $30.52; of 
 females, $18.24. School fund, $669,087. Edu- 
 cational income, $491,021. State Superintendent, 
 Justus Dartt, Ascutneyville. 
 
 VIRGINIA. Population (1880), 1,512,806. 
 Number of children of school age (5- — 21), — 
 whites, 314,827; colored, 240,980. Enrolled in. 
 public schools, — whites, 172,634; colored,. 
 85,328. Average daily attendance, — whites,. 
 97,997; colored, 46,907. Number of children 
 attending private schools, 25,720. Number of 
 schools, — for whites, 3,939; for colored, 1,443. 
 Number of teachers, — white, 4,538; colored, 
 1 ,059. A rerage monthly salary, — of males, 
 $29.47 ; of females, $25. 61 . Educational income, 
 $1,290,288. Stale Superintendent, R. P*. Farr, 
 Richmond. 
 
 WASHINGTON. Population (1880), 
 75,120. Number of children of school age- 
 (5 — 21), 29,871. Enrolled in public schools, 
 17,003. Average daily attendance, 11,135, 
 Number of schools, 602. Number of teachers, 
 
 — male, 287; female, 371. Average monthly 
 salary, — of males, $44.17; of females, $35.62. 
 Educational income, $120,000. Superintendent. 
 of Schools, C. W. "Wheeler, Waitsburg. 
 
 "WEST VIRGINIA. Population (1880),. 
 618,443. Number of children of school au<> 
 (6—21), 216,605. Enrolled in public schools, 
 155,544. Average daily attendance, 96,652. 
 Number of schools, 4,028. Number of teachers, 
 
 — male, 3,045; female, 1 ,315. Average monthly- 
 salary, — of males, $28.03; of females, $30.04. 
 Educational income, $988,620. School fund, 
 $509,305. Value of school property, $1 ,823,987. 
 State Superintendent, B. L. Butcher, Wheeling. 
 
 WISCONSIN. Population (1880), 1,315,- 
 480. Number of children of school age (4 — 20) > 
 
 — males, 251,828; females, 243,885 ; 'total, 495,- 
 713. Enrolled in public schools, 303,807. Num- 
 ber of schools, — graded, 486; ungraded, 5,300 
 

 LATE EDUCATIONAL STATISTICS 
 
 Number of teachers, — male, 2,463; female, 
 7,632. Average monthly salary, — of males,$7l.- 
 50; of females, $31. School funds, $4,486,215. 
 Educational income, $3,241,342. Value of 
 school property, $5, 614,939. State Superinten- 
 dent, Robert Graham, Madison. 
 A5 
 
 WYOMING. Population (1880), 20,788. 
 School Age, 6—21. Enrolled in public schools r 
 — males, 1,332; females, 1,245. Number of 
 schools, 65. Number of teachers, 68. Educational 
 income, $41,882. Superintendent of Public 
 Instruction, John Slaughter, Cheyenne. 
 
 
COLLEGES AND UNIVERSITIES IN THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 
 
 
 Religious 
 
 President 
 
 
 
 Name. 
 
 Location. 
 
 Org. 
 
 Denomination. 
 
 or other Chief Officer. 
 
 PI 
 
 St. 
 
 
 
 1859 
 
 Meth. E.South 
 
 iRev. L. M. Smith, D.D 
 
 
 Howard College 
 
 
 1842 
 
 
 James T. Murfee, LL.D 
 
 5 
 
 103 
 
 
 
 1830 
 
 Rom. Cath. 
 
 Rev. D. Beaudequin, S.J 
 
 
 
 
 
 1831 
 
 Non-sect 
 
 Harwell B. Lewis, LL.D 
 
 13 
 
 150 
 
 
 
 1872 
 
 Presbyt 
 
 Rev. Isaac J. Long, D.D 
 
 Rev. F R. Earle A M 
 
 
 
 Cane Hill College 
 
 
 18J8 
 
 3 
 
 15 
 
 ♦Arkansas Industrial Uni- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Fayetteville, Ark. . . . 
 
 1871 
 1871 
 
 
 Gen. D. H. Hill 
 
 6 
 
 
 
 Rev.RichardS.James,D.D.,LL.D. 
 
 26 
 
 *St. John's College of Ar- 
 
 
 
 
 
 1859 
 
 
 
 
 
 Missionary College of St. 
 
 
 
 
 
 1867 
 
 Prot. Episc. . . 
 Non-sect 
 
 Rt Rev J H DWinffield DD 
 
 
 
 
 
 1868 
 
 LL.D 
 
 6 
 52 
 
 IS 
 
 TJniversity of California 
 
 W. T. Reid 
 
 721 
 
 Pierce Christian College.... 
 
 College City, Cal. . . . 
 
 Ull 
 
 
 James C. Keith, A.B 
 
 8 
 
 85 
 
 
 
 1«6J 
 
 Rom. Cath. . . 
 
 Rev. M. V. Richardson, CM. . . . 
 
 6 
 
 
 University of Southern Cali- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 San Francisco, Cal... 
 
 18S0 
 1855 
 
 Meth. Episc. . 
 Rom. Cath. . . 
 
 
 10 
 
 50 
 
 
 
 
 San Francisco, Cal.. . 
 
 186 J 
 1851 
 
 Rom. Cath. . . 
 
 
 12 
 27 
 14 
 
 78 
 201 
 110 
 
 
 Rev. John Pinasco, S. J 
 
 Rev. C. C. Stratton, A.M., D.D... 
 
 University of the Pacific. . . . 
 
 Santa Clara, Cal 
 
 1852 
 
 Meth. Episc. . 
 
 Pacific Methodist College.. . 
 
 
 1861 
 
 Meth. E.South 
 
 O. H. Roberts, A.M 
 
 9 
 
 114 
 
 •College of our Lp.dy of Gua- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Rom. Cath... . 
 
 
 
 
 
 Vacaville, Cal. . .[Cal. 
 Washington Corners, 
 
 1860 
 
 Non-sect 
 
 Rev. Uriah Gregory, D.D. • . , . . 
 S S.Harmon, AM 
 
 
 
 
 1871 
 I860 
 
 6 
 
 
 
 A M Elston A M 
 
 50 
 
 *University of Colorado 
 
 
 1877 
 
 
 Joseph A. Sewell, M D., LL.D... 
 
 
 
 Colorado Springs, Col. 
 
 1.S74 
 
 Congregation- 
 Meth. Episc. . 
 
 Rev. E. P. Tenney... 
 
 8 
 
 12 
 
 
 1880 
 
 Rev. David H. Moore, A.M., D.D. 
 
 37 
 
 
 
 
 1823 
 
 Prot. Episc. .. 
 Meth. Episc. . 
 
 Rev.Th.R. Pynchon, D.D..LL.D. 
 Rev. John Wesley Beach, D.D... 
 
 9 
 
 70 
 
 
 Middletown, Conn... 
 
 1830 
 
 
 Yale College 
 
 New Haven, Conn. . . 
 
 1701 
 
 
 Rev Noah Porter D D LL D 
 
 104 
 
 614 
 46 
 
 
 
 1881 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 Yankton, Dakota .... 
 
 1881 
 1870 
 
 Congregation. 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 William H. Purnell. A.M., LL.D. 
 
 
 
 Georgetown, D. C .. 
 
 1789 
 
 Rom. Cath. . . 
 
 Rev. James A. Doonan, S.J 
 
 44 
 
 140 
 
 
 Washington, D. C... 
 
 1821 
 
 
 James C. Welling, LL.D 
 
 
 
 •Gonzaga College 
 
 Washington, D. C 
 
 1848 
 
 Rom. Cath. .. 
 
 Rev. Robert Fulton, S.J 
 
 
 
 
 Washington, D. C 
 
 i 867 
 
 
 Rev Wm W Patton D D LL D 
 
 y 
 
 18 
 
 
 1801 
 
 Non-sect 
 
 Rev. P. H. Mell. D.D.. LL.D 
 
 
 
 
 1869 
 
 
 Edmund A. Ware, A.M 
 
 
 
 
 
 1867 
 
 
 Lucius C. Adamson, A.B 
 
 ? 
 
 65 
 
 
 
 L873 
 
 1838 
 
 Rom. Cath. . . 
 
 
 5 
 9 
 
 36 
 
 
 Rev A J Battle D D 
 
 102 
 
 
 
 1874 
 
 Rt. Rev. William H. Gross, D.D. 
 
 
 
 Oxford, Ga. . 
 
 1837 
 
 Meth E South 
 
 
 J "5 
 
 252 
 
 
 Bloomington, 111. . . . 
 
 1855 
 
 Disciples 
 
 Meth. Episc. . 
 Meth. Episc. . 
 
 
 
 
 1 366 
 
 
 11 
 
 100 
 
 Illinois Wesleyan University 
 
 1856 
 
 Rev. W. H. H. Adams. D.D 
 
 16 
 
 602 
 
 
 Bourbonnais Grove, 
 
 1805 
 
 Rom. Cath 
 
 Rev. Peter Beaudoin, P.S.V 
 
 
 
 
 Carlinville, 111... [HI. 
 
 1860 
 
 Presbvteriau . 
 
 Rev. E. L. Hurd, D.D 
 
 10 
 
 96 
 
 Northern Illinois Normal 
 
 
 1873 
 
 Evang. Luth. 
 Rom Cath. . 
 
 Rev. A. Kunkelman, D D. . , 
 
 
 
 
 1870 
 
 Rev. Thomas O'Neil, S J. . 
 
 8 
 
 40 
 
 60 
 
 
 1857 
 
 
 Rev. Galusha Anderson, 8.T.D. 
 
 70 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 School & Dixon Business 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Dixon, 111 
 
 1880 
 1875 
 1855 
 1855 
 
 Non-sect 
 
 Christian . 
 Meth. Episc. . . 
 
 J C.Flint 
 
 15 
 69 
 
 
 •Rock ltiver University .... 
 
 
 
 
 Eureka, 111 
 
 Evanston, 111 
 
 H. W. Everest, A.M 
 
 Rev. Jos. Cummings,D.D.,LL.D. 
 
 
 Northwestern University... 
 
 668 
 
 
 
 1874 
 
 
 
 7 
 
 30 
 
 
 
 1837 
 1866 
 
 Universali.it . . 
 
 Newton Bateman, A.M., LL.D... 
 Rev. Neheniiah White, Ph.D 
 
 15 
 
 141 
 
 
 
 
 
 1863 
 
 Presbyterian . 
 
 Non-sect 
 
 Presbvteriau . 
 
 Rev. Edgar W. Clarke, A.M 
 
 E. A. Tanner 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 1829 
 1857 
 
 28 
 
 
 
 Rev. Daniel S. (iregory, D.D. ... 
 
 70 
 
 McKendree College 
 
 Mendota, 111 
 
 1835 
 
 1868 
 
 Meth. Episc. . 
 Oumb. Presb.. 
 Evang. Luth . 
 
 Rev. Daniel W. Phillips, A.M.... 
 Rev.A J.McGlumphy,D.D.,LL.D. 
 Bev. S. I'ntschel, D.D 
 
 10 
 12 
 
 100 
 
 
 430 
 
 •Evang. -Luther. Collegium. 
 
 
 Monmouth College 
 
 Monmouth. Ill 
 
 Mount Morris, 111.... 
 
 1856 
 1H40 
 1861 
 
 Unit. Presbyt. 
 German Bapt. 
 
 Rev. J. B. McMichael, D.D 
 
 D. L. Miller 
 
 14 
 
 8 
 
 101 
 
 
 °63 
 
 •.Northwestern College ... . 
 
 Rev. A. A Smith. A.M 
 
 
 Chaddock ('..liege 
 
 
 1856 
 
 Methodist. . . . 
 
 John T. Long, LL.D 
 
 80 
 
 251 
 
 Augustana College 
 
 Keck Island. Ill 
 
 I860 
 
 Swedish Luth. 
 
 Rev. T. N. Hassclquist, D.D 
 
 14 
 
 77 
 
 St. Josephs l>iocesan College 
 
 Teutopolls, Hi 
 
 1861 
 
 Rom Cath.... 
 
 Very Rev. P. Michael Richards, 
 
 8 1 
 
 100 
 
 Shurtleff College 
 
 
 IS07 
 
 
 Rev. A. A. Keinlnck, D.D. (O.S F. 
 
 8 
 
 56 
 
 Illinois Industrial University 
 
 Frbana, 111 
 
 1863 
 
 
 Selim 11. IVabody. Ph.D., LL.D. 
 
 24 
 
 2 SO 
 
 Westfleld College 
 
 Westfleld, 111 
 
 l 365 
 
 Unit. Brethren 
 
 Rev. 8amuel B. Allen, D.D 1 
 
 7 
 
 15 
 
 
 
 1800 
 
 Independent . 
 
 
 10 
 
 25 
 
 Orpr = Year of Organization. PI = Number of Professors and other Instructors. St. = Number of Students of 
 Collegiate G 
 
 From Colleges marked • no recent information has been received [Jan. 1883.) 
 
COLLEGES AND UNIVERSITIES IN THE UNITED STATES. — Continued. 
 
 Name. 
 
 *Bed."ord College... 
 
 Indiana University 
 
 * Wabash College 
 
 Concordia College 
 
 Fort Wayne College 
 
 Franklin College 
 
 Indiana Asbury University. 
 
 Hanover College 
 
 Hartsville University 
 
 Butler University 
 
 Union Christian College 
 
 Moore's Hill College 
 
 University of Notre Dame. . 
 
 Earlham College 
 
 Ridgeville College 
 
 St. Meinrad's College 
 
 Amity College 
 
 Griswold College 
 
 Norwegian Luther. College.. 
 
 Drake University 
 
 ♦University of Des Moines. . 
 
 St. Joseph's College 
 
 ♦Parsons College 
 
 Upper Iowa University 
 
 •Iowa College 
 
 ♦Humboldt College 
 
 Simpson Centenary College. 
 
 State University of Iowa 
 
 ♦German College 
 
 Iowa Wesleyan University.. 
 
 Cornell College 
 
 ♦Oskaloosa College 
 
 Peun College 
 
 Central University of Iowa. 
 
 Whittier College 
 
 ♦Tabor College 
 
 ♦Western College 
 
 St. Benedict's College 
 
 ♦Baker University 
 
 Highland University 
 
 University of Kansas 
 
 ♦Lane University 
 
 Ottawa University 
 
 St. Mary's College... 
 
 ♦Washburn College 
 
 ♦St. Joseph's College 
 
 ♦Berea College 
 
 ♦Cecilian College 
 
 Centre College 
 
 ♦Eminence College 
 
 ♦Kentucky Militarylnstitute 
 
 ♦Georgetown College 
 
 Kentucky University 
 
 Kentucky Wesleyan College. 
 
 ♦Murray Male and Female 
 Institute 
 
 ♦Concord College 
 
 Kentucky Classical Business 
 College 
 
 ♦Central University 
 
 Bethel College ... 
 
 ♦St. Mary's College 
 
 Louisiana State University 
 & Agricultural & Mecha- 
 nics College 
 
 ♦Jefferson College 
 
 ♦St. Charles College 
 
 ♦Centenary College of Loui- 
 siana 
 
 ♦College of the Im. Concep- 
 tion 
 
 ♦Leland University 
 
 New Orleans University 
 
 Straight University 
 
 University of Louisiana 
 
 Jefferson College (St. Mary's 
 
 Bowdoin College 
 
 Bates College 
 
 Colby University 
 
 ♦St. John's College 
 
 ♦Baltimore City College. . . . 
 
 Johns Hopkins University. . 
 
 Loyola College 
 
 Washington College 
 
 Rock Hill College 
 
 St. Charles' College 
 
 Mt. St. Mary's College 
 
 Location. 
 
 Bedford, Ind 
 
 Bloomingtou. Ind. .. 
 Crawl'ordsville, Ind. . 
 
 Fort Wayne, Ind 
 
 Fort Wayne, Ind 
 
 Krankliu, Ind 
 
 Greencastlc, Ind 
 
 Hanover, Ind 
 
 Hartsville, Ind 
 
 Irviugton, Ind 
 
 Meroin, Ind 
 
 Moore's Hill, Ind 
 
 Notre Dame, Ind 
 
 Richmond, Ind 
 
 Ridgeville, Ind 
 
 St. Meinrad, Ind 
 
 College Springs, la.. . 
 
 Davenport, la 
 
 Decorah, la 
 
 Des Moines, la 
 
 Des Moines, Iowa . . . 
 
 Dubuque, la 
 
 Fairfield, Iowa 
 
 Fayette, la 
 
 Grinnell, Iowa 
 
 Humboldt, la 
 
 Indianola, la 
 
 Iowa City, la 
 
 Mt. Pleasant, Iowa. . 
 
 Mt. Pleasant, la 
 
 Mt. Vernon, la 
 
 Oskaloosa, Iowa 
 
 Oskaloosa, la 
 
 Pella, la 
 
 Salem, la 
 
 Tabor, Iowa 
 
 Toledo, Iowa 
 
 Atchison, Kans 
 
 Baldwin City, Kans.. 
 
 Highland, Kans 
 
 Lawrence, Kans 
 
 Lecompton, Kans 
 
 Ottawa, Kans 
 
 St. Mary's, Kans 
 
 Topeka, Kans 
 
 Bards town, Ky 
 
 Berea, Ky 
 
 Cecilian, Ky 
 
 Danville, Ky 
 
 Eminence, Ky 
 
 Farmdale, Ky 
 
 Georgetown, Ky 
 
 Lexington, Ky 
 
 Millersburg, Ky 
 
 Murray, Ky 
 
 New Liberty, Ky . . . . 
 
 [Ky. 
 
 North Middletown, 
 
 Richmond, Ky 
 
 Russellville, Ky 
 
 St. Mary's, Ky 
 
 Baton Rouge, La. . . . 
 
 Convent, La 
 
 Grand Coteau, La. . . . 
 
 Jackson, La 
 
 New Orleans, La 
 
 New Orleans, La 
 
 New Orleans, La 
 
 New Orleans, La 
 
 New Orleans, La 
 
 St. James, La 
 
 Brunswick, Me 
 
 Lewiston, Me 
 
 Waterville, Me 
 
 Annapolis, Md 
 
 Baltimore, Md 
 
 Baltimore, Md 
 
 Baltimore, Md 
 
 Chestertown, Md. . . . 
 Ellicott City, Md. . . . 
 
 Ellicott City, Md 
 
 Emmittsburgh, Md.. 
 
 Org. 
 
 1871 
 1828 
 1830 
 
 1839 
 184G 
 1841 
 1837 
 
 lts.ct 
 
 1851 
 1852 
 1859 
 1851 
 1842 
 L869 
 1867 
 1857 
 1876 
 1859 
 1861 
 1861 
 1866 
 1878 
 1875 
 1857 
 1818 
 1869 
 1867 
 1847 
 1873 
 1855 
 1857 
 186Q 
 1872 
 1853 
 1867 
 1866 
 1857 
 1859 
 1857 
 1858 
 1865 
 1862 
 1866 
 1869 
 1865 
 1819 
 1858 
 1860 
 1821 
 1857 
 1845 
 1830 
 1858 
 1866 
 
 1871 
 1867 
 
 1877 
 1874 
 1856 
 1821 
 
 1860 
 1864 
 1837 
 
 1825 
 
 1871 
 1873 
 1869 
 
 1847 
 
 1802 
 1863 
 1820 
 1789 
 1839 
 1876 
 1852 
 1782 
 1857 
 1848 
 1808 
 
 Religious 
 Denomination 
 
 Pi e -i' hi 
 or other Chief Officer. 
 
 Christian 
 
 Non-sect 
 
 Presbyterian. 
 Evang. Luth.. 
 Meth. Episc. . 
 
 Baptist 
 
 Meth. Episc. . 
 Presbyterian. 
 Unit Breth... 
 
 Christian 
 
 Christian 
 
 Meth. Episc. . 
 
 Rom. Cath 
 
 Friends 
 
 FreeWillBapt. 
 
 Rom. Cath 
 
 Non-sect 
 
 Prot. Episc-.. . 
 Evang. Luth. 
 
 Christian 
 
 Baptist 
 
 Rom. Cath.. . . 
 Presbyterian . 
 Meth. Episc... 
 Congregat. .. 
 
 Non-sect 
 
 Meth. Episc. . 
 
 Non sect 
 
 Meth. Episc. . 
 Meth. Episc. . 
 Meth. Episc. . 
 
 Christian 
 
 Friends 
 
 Baptist 
 
 Friends 
 
 Congregation. 
 Unit. Breth... 
 
 Rom. Cath 
 
 Meth. Episc. . 
 Presbyterian . 
 
 Non-sect 
 
 Unit. Breth. . . 
 
 Baptist 
 
 Rom. Cath. .. . 
 Congregation . 
 Rom. Cath. . . 
 Congregation. 
 Rom. Cath. .. 
 Presbyterian . 
 
 Christian 
 
 Non-sect 
 
 Baptist 
 
 Christian 
 
 Meth. Episc. . 
 
 Non-sect 
 
 Baptist 
 
 Christian 
 
 South Presb 
 
 Baptist 
 
 Rom. Catb. . . 
 
 Non-sect 
 
 Rom. Cath.... 
 Rom. Cath — 
 
 Meth. Episc.S. 
 
 Baptist 
 
 Meth. Episc. 
 Congregat... . 
 Non-sect. ... 
 Rom. Cath. . 
 Congregat. . . 
 Free Baptist 
 
 Baptist 
 
 Non-sect. ... 
 Non-sect. . . . 
 Non-sect. . .. 
 Rom. Cath. . 
 Non -sect. ... 
 Rom. Cath. . 
 Rom. Cath. . 
 Rom. Cath. . 
 
 J. A. lieattic, B.S., C.E 
 
 Rev. Lemuel Moss 
 
 Rev. Joseph F. Tuttle, D.D 
 
 H. A. Bischoff 
 
 Rev. W. F. Yorum, A.M 
 
 Rev. W. T. Stott, D.D 
 
 Rev. Alex. Martin, D.D., LL.D.. 
 
 Rev. D. W. Fisher, D.D 
 
 Rev. C. H. Kiracof, A. M 
 
 11. W. Everest 
 
 Rev. Elisha Mudge 
 
 L. G. Adkiuson, A.M 
 
 Rev. T. E. Walsh, C.S.C 
 
 Joseph Moore, A.M 
 
 Rev. Samuel D. Bates 
 
 Rt. Rev. F. Mundwiler, O.S.B ... 
 
 Rev. S. C. Marshall, A.M 
 
 Rev. J. W. Sprague 
 
 Rev. Latir. Larsen 
 
 Geo. T. Carpenter 
 
 Rev. David Forrester Call, A.M.. 
 
 Very Rev. R. Ryan, V G 
 
 Rev. T. D. Ewiug, D.D 
 
 Rev. J. W. Bissell, D.D 
 
 Rev. George F. Magoun, D.D. . . 
 
 Rev. Edw. L. Parks, A.M., B.D.. 
 
 Josiah L. Pickard, LL.D 
 
 Rev. William Balcke, A.M 
 
 Rev. W. J. Spaulding, Ph.D 
 
 Rev. Wm. F. King, D.D 
 
 G. H. Laughlin, A.M 
 
 Eenjamin Trueblood, A.M 
 
 Ceo. W. Gardner, D.D 
 
 Cuss. Walters 
 
 Fev. William M. Brooks, A.M. . . 
 Lev. Ezekiel B. Kephart, A.M. . . 
 Rt. Rev. Inn. Wolf, D.D., O.S.B. 
 
 Rev. W. H. Sweet. A.M 
 
 H. D. McCarty, LL.D 
 
 Rev. James Marvin, D.D 
 
 Rev. L. S. Tohill, A.M 
 
 T. M. Stewart, A.M 
 
 Rev. C. Coppens, S.J 
 
 Rev. Peter Mc Vicar, M.A., D.D.. 
 
 Rev. W. P. Mackin 
 
 Rev. E. H. Fairchild 
 
 H. A. Cecil 
 
 Ormond Beatty, LL.D 
 
 W. S. Giltner 
 
 Col. R. D. Allen, M.A., M.D., C.E. 
 Rev. Richard M. Dudley, D.D.. . 
 Chas. Louis Loos 
 
 D. W. Batson, A.M 
 
 H. E. Holton 
 
 James Rice 
 
 E. V. Zollars 
 
 Leslie Waggoner, LL.D 
 
 Rev. David Fenniessy, C.R 
 
 Wm. Preston Johnston 
 
 Very Rev. John J. Grimos, S.M. 
 Rev. John Montillot, S.J 
 
 Rev. C. G. Andrews, A.M..D.D. . 
 
 Very Rev. Th. W. Butler, S.J . . 
 
 Seth J. Axtell, Jr 
 
 James A. Dean, D.D 
 
 Rev. W. S. Alexander, D.D 
 
 Hon. Rondell Hunt. LL D 
 
 Very Rev. J. B. Bigot, S.M 
 
 Joshua L. Chamberlain, LL.D.. . 
 
 Rev. Oren B. Cheney, D.D 
 
 Rev. George D. B. Pepper, D.D 
 James M. Garuett, M.A., LL.D.. 
 
 William Elliot, Jr 
 
 Daniel C Gilman. A.M., LL.D... 
 
 Rev. Edward A. McGurk, S.J 
 
 Wm. J. Rivers, A.M 
 
 Itev. Brother Azarias 
 
 Rev. Peter Paul Denis, S.S ,A.M 
 Very Rev. William Byrne, D.D.. 
 
 PI 
 
 16 
 
 8 
 I J 
 
 r 
 
 ]C 
 
 9 
 
 21 
 
 10 
 
 7 
 
 4*. 
 
 8 
 
 6 
 
 14 
 
 7 
 6 
 7 
 
 3;.» 
 
 6 
 
 8 
 
 S 
 37 
 
 6 
 
 20 
 
 7 
 
 10 
 4 
 
 17 
 
 f. 
 M 
 
 4 
 13 
 
 11 
 4 
 
 10 
 5 
 
 10 
 
 6 
 13 
 24 
 15 
 21 
 
 9 
 10 
 
 38 
 10 
 
 16 
 11 
 18 
 
COLLEGES AND UNIVERSITIES IN THE UNITED STATES. — Continued. 
 
 Name. 
 
 Frederick College 
 
 * Western Maryland College. 
 
 Amherst College 
 
 Boston College 
 
 Boston University 
 
 Harvard College 
 
 Tufts College 
 
 * Williams College 
 
 College of the Holy Cross. . . 
 
 •Adrian College 
 
 •Albion College 
 
 University of Michigan 
 
 ♦Battle Creek College 
 
 •♦Grand Traverse College . . . 
 
 * Detroit College 
 
 ♦Hillsdale College 
 
 ♦Hope College 
 
 Kalamazoo College 
 
 Olivet College 
 
 St. John's College 
 
 Augsburg Seminary Gr. De- 
 partment 
 
 ♦Hamline University 
 
 •Macalester College 
 
 University of Minnesota 
 
 Carle ton ( 'ollege 
 
 Mississippi College 
 
 Bust (formerly Shaw) Uni- 
 versity 
 
 ♦University of Mississippi. . 
 
 ♦Alcorn University 
 
 Tougaloo University only 
 
 Normal Dep. in operation 
 ♦Southwest Baptist College 
 
 ^Christian University 
 
 St. Vincent's College 
 
 ♦University of the State of 
 
 Missouri 
 
 Central College 
 
 I Westminster College 
 
 ♦Lewis College 
 
 Pritchett Institute 
 
 ♦Lincoln College 
 
 ♦Mount Pleasant College. . . 
 
 La Grange College 
 
 ■♦William Jewell College. . . . 
 
 ♦st. Joseph College 
 
 •College of the Christian 
 
 Brothers 
 
 St. Louis University 
 
 •Washington University 
 
 Drury College 
 
 Si nwartsville College 
 
 Central Wesleyan College... 
 
 ♦Uoane College 
 
 University of Nebraska 
 
 •Nebraska College 
 
 •Creighton College 
 
 •Nebraska Wesleyan Uni- 
 versity 
 
 '•State University of Nevada 
 
 •Dartmouth College 
 
 •St. Peter's College 
 
 ♦St. Benedict's College 
 
 Rutgers College 
 
 < '"liege of New Jersey 
 
 ♦Seton Hall College 
 
 ♦Alfred University 
 
 •St. Bonaventure's College. 
 
 St. Stephen's College 
 
 Wells College 
 
 ♦Brooklyn Coll. k Poly.Inst. 
 
 ♦8t. Francis College 
 
 St. John's College 
 
 •Canisius College 
 
 ♦Martin I.uther College.... 
 
 St. Joseph '8 College 
 
 St. Lawrence University ... 
 
 Hamilton College 
 
 Kliuira Female College 
 
 ♦St. John's College 
 
 II hart College 
 
 Madison University 
 
 Cornell University 
 
 Ingham University 
 
 Manhattan College 
 
 •College of St. Francis Xavicr 
 
 Location. 
 
 Frederick, Md 
 
 Westminster, Md.... 
 
 Amherst, Mass 
 
 Boston, Mass 
 
 Boston, Mass 
 
 Cambridge, Mass. ... 
 College Hill, Mass. . . 
 Williamstown, Mass, 
 
 Worcester, Mass 
 
 Adrian, Mich 
 
 Albion, Mich 
 
 Ann Arbor, Mich..., 
 Battle Creek, Mich... 
 Benzonia, Mich. .... 
 
 Detroit, Mich , 
 
 Hillsdale, Mich 
 
 Holland, Mich , 
 
 Kalamazoo, Mich. . . 
 
 Olivet, Mich 
 
 Collegeville, Minn.., 
 
 Minneapolis, Minn.. 
 Minneapolis, Minn.. 
 Minneapolis, Minn. . 
 Minneapolis, Minn.. 
 Northneld, Minn... 
 Clinton, Miss 
 
 Holly Springs, Miss 
 
 Oxford, Miss 
 
 Rodney, Miss 
 
 Tougaloo, Miss 
 
 Bolivar, Mo 
 
 Canton, Mo 
 
 Cape Girardeau, Mo 
 
 Columbia, Mo 
 
 Fayette, Mo , 
 
 Fulton, Mo 
 
 Glasgow, Mo 
 
 Glasgow, Mo 
 
 Greenwood, Mo. ... 
 
 Huutsville, Mo 
 
 La Grange, Mo 
 
 Liberty, Mo 
 
 St. Joseph, Mo 
 
 St. Louis, Mo 
 
 St. Louis, Mo 
 
 St. Louis. Mo 
 
 Springfield, Mo 
 
 Stewartsville, Mo... 
 
 Warrenton, Mo 
 
 Crete, Neb 
 
 Lincoln, Neb 
 
 Nebraska City, Neb, 
 Omaha. Neb 
 
 Osceola, Neb 
 
 Elko, Nev 
 
 Hanover, N. H 
 
 Jersey City, N. J.... 
 
 Newark, N. J 
 
 New Brunswick, N.J 
 
 Princeton, N. J 
 
 South Orange, N. J. 
 
 Alfred, N. Y 
 
 Allegany, NY , 
 
 Annandale, N.' Y. . . . 
 
 Aurora, N. Y 
 
 Brooklyn, NY 
 
 Brooklyn, N. Y 
 
 Brooklyn, N. Y 
 
 Buffalo, N. Y 
 
 Buffalo, NY 
 
 Buffalo, N. Y 
 
 Canton, N. Y 
 
 Clinton, N. Y 
 
 Elmira. N. Y 
 
 Fordham. N. Y 
 
 Geneva, N. Y , 
 
 Hamilton, N. Y 
 
 Ithaka, N. Y 
 
 Le Hoy. NY 
 
 ManhattanvHle, N. V 
 New York, N. Y 
 
 Org. 
 
 1829 
 1867 
 1821 
 1864 
 1869 
 1638 
 1852 
 1793 
 1843 
 1859 
 1861 
 1841 
 1874 
 1863 
 
 1855 
 1863 
 1855 
 1859 
 1857 
 
 1874 
 
 1874 
 1868 
 
 1866 
 1850 
 
 1869 
 1848 
 1871 
 
 1871 
 
 1858 
 1843 
 
 1840 
 1857 
 1849 
 1866 
 1866 
 1870 
 
 1859 
 1849 
 1867 
 
 1849 
 1829 
 1859 
 1873 
 1863 
 1864 
 1878 
 1871 
 
 1878 
 
 1879 
 1874 
 
 1770 
 
 1868 
 1770 
 1747 
 1856 
 1857 
 1859 
 1860 
 1868 
 1855 
 1HU 
 1869 
 1870 
 
 1861 
 1H56 
 1812 
 
 1866 
 
 1841 
 18'J5 
 
 1846 
 
 1868 
 
 IS 24 
 
 1868 
 I8i. 
 
 Religious 
 Denomination 
 
 Non-sect 
 
 Meth .Protest. 
 
 Congreg 
 
 Rom. Cath. . . 
 Meth. Episc. 
 
 Non-sect 
 
 Universalist. . 
 Congregation. 
 Rom. Cath. . . 
 Meth. Prot. . . 
 Meth. Episc. . 
 
 Non-sect 
 
 7th Day Adv.. 
 
 Cong 
 
 Rom. Cath. . . 
 FreeWillBapt. 
 Reformed .... 
 
 Baptist 
 
 Cong.& Presb. 
 Rom. Cath. . . 
 
 Evang. Luth.. 
 
 Presbyt 
 
 Non-sect 
 
 Congregat. ... 
 Baptist 
 
 Meth. Episc. . 
 
 Non-sect 
 
 Non-sect 
 
 Congregat. ... 
 
 Baptist 
 
 Christian 
 
 Rom. Cath. . . 
 
 Non-sect 
 
 Meth. Episc. . 
 S. Presbyt. . .. 
 Meth. Episc. . 
 
 Noii- sect 
 
 United Presb. 
 
 Baptist 
 
 Baptist 
 
 Rom. Cath. . . 
 
 Rom. Cath. .. 
 Rom. Cath. .. 
 
 Non-sect 
 
 Congregat. ... 
 
 Non-sect 
 
 Meth. Episc. . 
 
 Cong 
 
 Non-sect 
 
 Rom. Cath. .. 
 
 Meth. Episc. . 
 
 Nun sect 
 
 Non-sect 
 
 Rom. Cath. . . 
 Reform. Dutch 
 
 Presbyt 
 
 Rom. Cath. . . 
 7th Day Bapt. 
 Rom. Cath. . . 
 Episcopal .... 
 
 Presbyt 
 
 Non-sect 
 
 Rom. Cath. .. 
 Rom. Cath. .. 
 Rom. Cath. .. 
 Evang. Luth.. 
 Rom. Cath. .. 
 Universalist. . 
 
 Presbyt 
 
 Presbyt 
 
 Rom. Cath. . . 
 Episcopal .... 
 
 Haptist 
 
 Non-sect 
 
 Presbyt 
 
 Rom. Cath. . . 
 Rom. Cath. . . 
 
 President 
 or other Chief Officer. 
 
 PI 
 
 Thomas A. Gatch, A.M 
 
 Rev. James Thomas Ward, D.D. 
 Rev. Julius H. Seelye,D.D..LL.D. 
 
 Rev. Jeremiah O'Conner, S.J 
 
 Rev.Wm. F. Warren.S.T.D.,D.D.. 
 
 Chas. W. Eliot, LL.D [LL D. 
 
 Rev. Elmer Hewitt Capen, D.D. . 
 
 Franklin Carter 
 
 Rev. Edward D. Boone, S.J 
 
 Rev. G. B. McElroy, D.D.. Ph.D. 
 Rev. L. R. Fiske, D.D, LL.D.... 
 
 James B. Angell, LL.D 
 
 James White 
 
 L. D. Maltby, A.M 
 
 Rev. James J. Walshe, S.J 
 
 Rev. De Witt C. Durgin. D.D. .. 
 Rev. G. Henry Mandeville, D.D. 
 
 Rev. Kendall Brooks, D.D 
 
 Rev. Horatio Q. Butterntfld, D.D. 
 
 Rt. Rev. Abbot Alex. Edelbrock, 
 
 [O.S.B. 
 
 Prof. Georg Sverdrup 
 
 Rev. D. C. John, D.D 
 
 Rev. Edward D. Neill 
 
 William Walter Folwell, LL.D. . 
 
 James W. Strong, D.D 
 
 Rev. W. S. Webb, D.D 
 
 Rev. W. W. Hooper, A.M 
 
 Alexander P. Stewart 
 
 Rev. Hiram R. Revels 
 
 Rev. G. Stanley Pope 
 
 Rev. J. R. Maupin, A.M 
 
 J. C. Reynolds 
 
 Rev. J. W. Hickey, CM 
 
 S. S. Laws, A.M., M.D.. LL.D. .. 
 Rev. Eug. R. Hendrix, A.M..D.D 
 
 Rev. Jos. H. Pritchett, A.M. . . 
 
 W. Q.Bell. A.B 
 
 Rev. J. B. Weber, A.M 
 
 J. F. Cook, M.A..LLD 
 
 Rev. W. R. Roth well, D.D 
 
 Rev. Brother Arthemian 
 
 Rev. Brother James 
 
 Rev. R. J. Meyer, S.J 
 
 Rev. William G. Elliot, D.D. . 
 Rev. Nathan J. Morrison, D.D 
 
 Rev. W.O. H. Perry, A.M 
 
 Rev. H. A. Koch, D.D , 
 
 Rev. D. B. Perry, A.M 
 
 H. E. Hitchcock 
 
 Rev. R. A. Sehaffel, S.J. 
 
 W. C. Dovey 
 
 Rev. Sam. C. Bartlett,D.D.,LL.D 
 
 Rev. John McQnaid, S.J 
 
 Rev. Frederick Hoesel, O.S.B. . . 
 Merrill Edw. Gates, Ph.D., LL.D 
 Rev. James McCosh. D.D.. LL.D 
 Rev. James H. Corrigan, A.M. .. 
 
 Rev. J. Allen, D.D., Ph.D 
 
 Vv.Rev.Fr.Leoda Saracena.O.S.F 
 Bev.Rob.B.Fairbairn,D.D.,LL.D. 
 Rov. Edward S. Frisbee. D.D. .. 
 
 D. H. Cochran, Ph.D., LL.D 
 
 Bro. Jerome Magner. O.S.F 
 
 Rev. J. A. Uartnett. CM 
 
 Rev. Martin Port. S.J 
 
 Rev. Brother Frank, F.S.C 
 
 Rev. A. G. Gaines, D.D. . . 
 
 Rev. Henry Darliu, D.D., LL.D.. 
 Rev. Augustus W. Cowles, D.D.. 
 
 Rev. F. Wm. Gockeln, S.J 
 
 Rev. Robert G. Hinsdale. S.T.D. 
 Rov. Ebenezer Dodge, DD..LL.D. 
 
 Andrew D. White, LL.D 
 
 Dr. E. B. Walsworth 
 
 Rev. Brother Anthony, F.S.C.... 
 Rev. Sam. U. Frisbee", S.J 
 
 3 
 
 40 
 
 13 
 
 90 
 
 25 
 
 352 
 
 16 
 
 100 
 
 
 90 
 
 66 
 
 929 
 
 13 
 
 75 
 
 11 
 
 CO 
 
 St. 
 
 10 
 
 92 
 
 513 
 
 51 
 106 
 125 
 
 40 
 
 120 
 
 62 
 
 150 
 
 50 
 
 13 
 
 90 
 
 8 
 
 90 
 
 8 
 
 CO 
 
 6 
 
 100 
 
 150 
 
 50 
 CO 
 50 
 
 16 52 
 
 140 
 565 
 
 65 
 
 50 
 
 120 
 
 14 
 
 140 
 
 13 
 
 64 
 
 16 
 
 187 
 
 ia 
 
 0b 
 
 u 
 
 68 
 
 ii 
 
 ii a 
 
 50 
 
 375 
 
 10 
 
 50 
 
 39 
 
 280 
 
 10 1 120 
 
COLLEGES AND UNIVERSITIES IN THE UNITED STATES. — Continued. 
 
 NaMK. 
 
 Location. 
 
 Org. 
 
 Religious 
 Denomination 
 
 President 
 or other Chief Officer. 
 
 ri 
 
 30 
 
 13 
 31 
 
 16 
 
 15 
 39 
 11 
 
 4 
 
 7 
 
 8 
 
 8 
 
 10 
 
 6 
 
 12 
 
 12 
 
 9 
 
 10 
 
 22 
 
 23 
 
 9 
 
 10 
 
 4 
 8 
 
 9 
 
 32 
 
 8 
 
 10 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 10 
 
 12 
 4 
 6 
 
 16 
 6 
 7 
 
 6 
 4 
 3 
 
 7 
 
 18 
 
 8 
 
 6 
 
 12 
 22 
 
 10 
 6 
 
 8 
 9 
 
 8 
 
 7 
 
 St. 
 
 "Coll. of the City of NewYork 
 
 NewYork, N. Y 
 
 NewYork, N. Y 
 
 NewYork, N. Y 
 
 NewYork, N. Y 
 
 Pougkeepsie, N. Y. 
 
 Rochester, N. Y 
 
 Schenectady, N. Y... 
 [N. Y. 
 Suspension Bridge, 
 
 Syracuse, N. Y 
 
 Chapel HUl, N. C 
 
 Davidson Coll., N. C. 
 Happv Home, N. C. . 
 Mt. Pleasant, N. C... 
 
 Raleigh, N. C 
 
 Trinity College, N. 0. 
 Wake Forest, N. C. . . 
 Weaverville, N. C. .. . 
 
 1847 
 1754 
 1838 
 1831 
 1861 
 1850 
 1795 
 
 1856 
 
 1K70 
 1789 
 1867 
 1837 
 1847 
 1859 
 1866 
 1852 
 1834 
 1874 
 1872 
 1879 
 1804 
 1856 
 1864 
 1874 
 1872 
 1832 
 1870 
 
 1826 
 1852 
 1850 
 1873 
 1843 
 1824 
 1831 
 1868 
 1826 
 1854 
 1835 
 1843 
 1825 
 1837 
 1833 
 1876 
 1873 
 1866 
 1870 
 1845 
 1851 
 1850 
 1847 
 1849 
 1854 
 1859 
 1870 
 1866 
 1852 
 1850 
 1868 
 1876 
 1854 
 1876 
 1859 
 1865 
 1865 
 1854 
 1819 
 1867 
 1866 
 1846 
 1783 
 1862 
 1832 
 1870 
 1832 
 1870 
 1832 
 1868 
 1853 
 1846 
 1856 
 1850 
 1817 
 1868 
 1872 
 1852 
 
 Non-sect 
 
 Non-sect 
 
 Rom. Cath. .. 
 Meth. Episc. . 
 
 Evang, Luth. . 
 Meth. Episc. S. 
 
 UniversaUst . 
 Ger. Bapt. . . . 
 
 Meth. Episc. . 
 Meth. Episc. . 
 
 Rom. Cath. . . 
 Rom. Cath. . . 
 
 Non-sect 
 
 Lutheran .... 
 
 Meth. Episc. . 
 Protest. Episc. 
 
 Christian .... 
 
 Non-sect 
 
 Unit. Presbyt. 
 Congregat. . . . 
 F. W. Baptist. 
 Assoc. Presby. 
 Meth. Episc. . 
 
 Eng. Luth. ... 
 Refor. Church 
 Swedenborg. . 
 Unit. Breth. . 
 Ref. Presbyt.. 
 Afr. Meth. Ep. 
 Methodist . . . 
 
 Christian .... 
 Meth. Episc. . 
 Meth. Ep. S. . 
 
 Christian .... 
 Meth. Episc. . 
 
 Christian 
 
 Unit. Breth... 
 Meth. Episc. . 
 
 Non-sect 
 
 Lutheran 
 
 Unit. Breth... 
 Rom. Cath.. .. 
 Meth. Episc. . 
 Non-sect 
 
 Lutheran..... 
 Evang. Luth.. 
 
 Reformed .... 
 
 Rom. Cath 
 
 Meth. Episc. . 
 Refor. Church 
 
 Non-sect 
 
 Unit. Presbyt. 
 
 Alexander S. Webb. LL.D 
 
 F. A. P. Barnard, S.T.D., LL.D , 
 
 S. D. Burchard (L.H.D. 
 
 John Hall, D.D 
 
 Rev. Samuel L. Caldwell, D.D... 
 
 Martin B. Anderson, LL.D 
 
 Rev.Eliph. N. Potter, D.D. , LL.D. 
 
 Very Rev. P. V. Kavanagh, CM. 
 
 C. N. Sims, D.D 
 
 Kemp P. Battle. LL.D 
 
 Rev. Stephen Mattoon, D V 
 
 Rev. A. D. Hepburn. D.D 
 
 Rev. Robert L. Abernethy, A.M.. 
 
 Rev. G. D. Bernheim, D.D 
 
 Rev. H. M. Tupper, AM 
 
 Rev. B. Craveu, D.D., LL.D 
 Rev. W B. Royall 
 
 277 
 
 92 
 145 
 
 212 
 
 206 
 390 
 189 
 
 "Rutgers Female College . . . 
 Univers. of the City of N. Y. 
 
 "University of Rochester. . . 
 
 Union College 
 
 College and Seminary of Our 
 
 Lady of Angels 
 
 "Syracuse University 
 
 University of North Carolina 
 
 
 
 
 20 
 
 
 
 
 117 
 
 O. Cone, D.D 
 
 Elder S Z. Sharp, AM. ... 
 
 C5 
 
 
 Athens, 
 
 
 
 William H. Scott 
 
 V> 
 
 
 Rev. William Nast, D.D 
 
 80 
 
 German Wallace Colleg i . . . . 
 •Hebrew Union College .... 
 
 Cincinnati, 
 
 Cleveland, O 
 
 College Hill, 
 
 Delaware, O 
 
 52 
 
 Rev. P. J. Hurth, C.S.C 
 
 John I. Coghlan, S J 
 
 110 
 
 
 *>?0 
 
 "University of Cincinnati. . . 
 Adalbert College of Western 
 
 
 
 Carroll Cutler 
 
 80 
 
 P. V. N. Myers, A.M 
 
 
 
 Rev. Prof. M. Loy, A.M 
 
 40 
 
 •Ohio Wesleyan University . . 
 
 Rev. Chas. H.Payne, D.D. , LL.D. 
 
 Rev. Win. B. Bodine, D.D 
 
 Rev. A. Owen, D.D 
 
 B. S. Dean 
 
 335 
 
 287 
 60 
 
 
 Granville, 
 
 39 
 
 "Western Reserve College . . 
 
 Marietta College 
 
 *Mt Union College 
 
 Hudson, 
 
 Iberia, O 
 
 New Concord, 
 
 Oberlin, 
 
 Rev. Carroll Cutler, D.D 
 
 John P. Robb, A.M 
 
 Rev. lsr.W.Andrews,D.D.,LL.D. 
 O. N. Hartshorn, LL.D 
 
 12 
 69 
 
 
 Rev. George C. Vincent, D.D. . . . 
 
 
 
 63 
 
 Oberlin College 
 
 Rev. James H. FairchilJ, D.D.. . 
 
 A. A. Moulton, A.M 
 
 Rev. William Ballantine, A.M... 
 
 370 
 
 Rio Grande College 
 
 "McCorkle College 
 
 Sago, O 
 
 18 
 
 
 Scio, O 
 
 50 
 
 
 Tiffin, 
 
 Eugene H. Foster, A.B., A.M 
 
 Rev. J. B. Helwig, D.D 
 
 Rev. Geo. W. Williard, D.D,. ... 
 
 Rev. Frank Sewall, A.M 
 
 Rev. H. S. Thompson, D.D 
 
 Rev. Benjamin F. Lee, D.D 
 
 J. C. Ward 
 
 25 
 
 84 
 
 
 
 
 
 Wooster, 
 
 95 
 
 
 10 
 
 J. B. Unthank 
 
 00 
 
 Rev. A. A. E. Taylor, D.D 
 
 O. J. Wait 
 
 ?no 
 
 Yellow Springs, 0. . . 
 
 8 
 
 
 W. H. DeMotte, LL.D 
 
 
 
 Eugene City, Oreg. . . 
 Forest Grove. Oreg. . 
 La Grande, Oreg , , 
 McMinnville, Oreg. . 
 Monmouth, Oreg. .. . 
 Philomath, Oreg. . . . 
 Salem, Oreg 
 
 B. L. Arnold, Ph.D 
 
 J. W. Johnson 
 
 
 
 
 Rev. John R. Herrick, S.T.D. . . . 
 George M. Irwin, A.M 
 
 10 
 
 Blue Mountain University . 
 
 
 
 D. T. Stanley 
 
 35 
 
 "Willamette University .... 
 Western Un. of Pennsylvania 
 
 "Lebanon Valley College . . . 
 
 Dickinson College 
 
 Rev. Wayne S. Walker, A.M 
 
 Chas. Edw. Lambert, A.M., B.D. 
 
 Henry M. McCracken, D.D 
 
 Rev. B. Sadtler, D.D 
 
 Rev. D. D. DeLong, A.M 
 
 Rev. Hilary Pfraengle, O.S.B. . . . 
 Rev. James A. McCauley, D.D... 
 Col. Theo. Hyatt, M.A 
 
 
 
 75 
 80 
 
 Beatty, Pa 
 
 
 
 inn 
 
 Pennsylvania Military Acad. 
 
 
 100 
 
 Rev. W. C. Cattell, D.D., LL.D. . 
 
 Rev. H. W. Roth, A.M 
 
 Rev. H. K. Craig, D.D 
 
 Rev. Thomas G. Apple, D.D 
 
 Rev. David J. Hill, A.M 
 
 Rev. I. N. Rendall, D.D 
 
 Rev. Brother Angelus, O.S.F. .. 
 Rev. Lucius H. Bugbee, D.D. .. 
 Rev. Geo. B. Russell, D.D 
 
 ?% 
 
 
 
 
 Thiel College 
 
 Haverford Coll., Pa.. 
 Lincoln Univ., Pa. . . 
 
 105 
 55 
 
 
 
 "Franklin&Marshall College 
 University at Lewisburg . . . 
 
 70 
 7"> 
 
 
 New Wilmington, Pa. 
 
 
 Palatinate College 
 
 110 
 
 
 80 
 
COLLEGES AND UNIVERSITIES IN THE UNITED STATES. — Concluded. 
 
 Name. 
 
 Location. 
 
 Org. 
 
 Religious 
 Denomination. 
 
 President 
 or other Chief Officer. 
 
 La Salle College 
 
 •St Joseph's College 
 
 University of Pennsylvania. 
 Cath.lic College of the 
 
 Holy Ghost 
 
 Lehigh University 
 
 ♦Swarthrao're College 
 
 •Augustinian College oi 
 
 Villanova 
 
 Washington & Jefferson Coll. 
 
 ♦ Waynesburg College 
 
 Brown University 
 
 College of Charleston 
 
 South Carolina College 
 
 Erskine College 
 
 *Furman University 
 
 Newberry College 
 
 Claftlin University 
 
 Wofford College 
 
 Adger College 
 
 East Tennessee Wesleyan 
 
 University 
 
 ♦Beech Grove College 
 
 * King College 
 
 ♦Southwestern Presbyt. Un. 
 
 Hiwassee College 
 
 Southwestern Baptist Univ. 
 ♦University of Tennessee. . . 
 
 Cumberland University 
 
 Manchester College 
 
 Mary ville College 
 
 Bethel College 
 
 Christian Brothers' College. 
 
 Mosheim College 
 
 Carson College 
 
 Central Tennessee College . . 
 
 Fisk University 
 
 Vauderbilt University 
 
 •University of the South . . . 
 
 Burritt College 
 
 •Greenville and Tusculum 
 
 College 
 
 ♦Winchester Normal 
 
 ♦Woodbury College 
 
 ♦Texas Military Institute . . 
 
 Texas State University 
 
 ♦St. Joseph's College 
 
 University of St. Mary 
 
 ♦Southwestern University . 
 ♦Henderson Male & Female 
 
 College 
 
 Baylor University 
 
 ♦Mansfield Male & Female 
 
 College 
 
 ♦Salado College 
 
 Austin College 
 
 Trinity University 
 
 ♦Waco University 
 
 Marvin College 
 
 University of Deseret 
 
 University of Vermont 
 
 Middlctmrg.College 
 
 ♦Norwich University 
 
 Randolph Macon College . . . 
 
 Emory & Henry College 
 
 Hampden Sidney College . . . 
 Washington^ Lee University 
 
 Richmond College 
 
 Ri .auoko College 
 
 ♦University of Virginia 
 
 ♦College of William & Mary. 
 Washington University 
 
 • Holy Angels' College 
 
 thany College 
 
 ♦West Virginia College 
 
 West Virginia University ... 
 ♦shepherd College 
 
 * Lawrence University 
 
 Beloit College 
 
 ♦Galcsvillo University 
 
 University of Wisconsin .... 
 
 .Milton College 
 
 ♦Marquette College 
 
 ♦Racine College 
 
 Ripon College 
 
 Pio Nono College 
 
 Northwestern University . . 
 
 Philadelphia, Pa 
 
 Philadelphia, Pa 
 
 Philadelphia, Pa 
 
 Pittsburgh, Pa 
 
 South Bethlehem, Pa 
 Swarthmore, Pa 
 
 Villanova, Pa 
 
 Washington, Pa 
 
 Waynesburg, Pa 
 
 Providence, R. I 
 
 Charleston, S. C 
 
 Columbia, S. C 
 
 Due West, S. C 
 
 Greenville, S. C 
 
 Newberry, S. C 
 
 Orangeburg, S. C. ... 
 Spartanburg, S. C. . . 
 Walhalla, S. C 
 
 Athens, Tenn. 
 
 Beech Grove, Tenn. . 
 
 Bristol, Tenn 
 
 Clarksvillr, Tenn.. .. 
 Hiwassee Coll.,Tenn. 
 
 Jackson, Tenn 
 
 Knoxville, Tenn 
 
 Lebanon, Tenn 
 
 Manchester, Tenn. . . 
 
 Mary ville, Tenn 
 
 McKenzie, Tenn 
 
 Memphis, Tenn 
 
 Mosheim, Tenn 
 
 Mossy Creek, Tenn. . 
 
 Nashville, Tenn 
 
 Nashville, Tenn 
 
 Nashville, Tenn 
 
 Sewanee, Tenn 
 
 Spencer, Tenn 
 
 Tusculum, Tenn. 
 Winchester, Tenn. 
 Woodbury, Tenn. 
 
 Austin, Tex 
 
 Austin, Tex 
 
 Brownsville, Tex. 
 Galveston, Tex, . . 
 Georgetown, Tex. 
 
 Henderson, Tex. ... 
 Independence, Tex. 
 
 Mansfield, Tex 
 
 Salado, Tex 
 
 Sherman, Tex 
 
 Tehuacana, Tex 
 
 Waco, Texas 
 
 Waxahachie, Tex. . . . 
 Salt Lake City, Utah. 
 
 Burlington, Vt 
 
 Middlebnrg, Vt 
 
 Northfield, Vt 
 
 Ashland, Va 
 
 Emory, Va 
 
 Hampden Sidney, Va. 
 
 Lexington, Va 
 
 Richmond, Va 
 
 Salem, Va 
 
 Univ. of Virg., Va. . . 
 Williamsburg, Va. .. 
 Seattle, Wash. Terr. 
 Vancouver City, " " 
 
 Bethany, W. Va 
 
 Flemlngton, W. Va. . 
 Murgantown, W. Va. 
 Shepherdstown, W. 
 Appleton. Wis. . . [Va. 
 
 Beloit, Wis 
 
 Galesvillo, Wis 
 
 Madison, Wis 
 
 Milton, Wis 
 
 Milwaukee, Wis 
 
 Racine, Wis 
 
 Ripon, Wis 
 
 St. Francis Sta, Wis.. 
 Watertown, Wis 
 
 1867 Rom. Cath. 
 1851 Rom. Cath.. 
 1749 I Non-sect. 
 
 1878 Rom. Cath.... 
 1866 Prot. Episc. . . 
 1869 Friends 
 
 1842 
 
 1802 
 
 1850 
 
 1765 
 
 1792 1 
 
 1804 
 
 1839 
 
 1851 
 
 1858 
 
 1869 
 
 1854 
 
 1882 
 
 1867 
 1868 
 1868 
 1874 
 1849 
 1874 
 1808 
 1842 
 1866 
 1819 
 1855 
 1871 
 1869 
 1853 
 1866 
 1867 
 1875 
 1860 
 1848 
 
 1794 
 
 1860 
 1868 
 
 1865 
 1854 
 
 Rom. Cath... . 
 
 Presbyt 
 
 Cumb.Presby. 
 
 Baptist 
 
 Non-sect 
 
 Non-sect 
 
 Ass. Ref. Pres. 
 
 Baptist 
 
 Evang. Luth.. 
 Meth. Epis 
 Meth.Ep. Sth. 
 S. C. Presbyt. 
 
 Meth. Episc. . 
 
 Non-sect 
 
 Presbyt 
 
 Presbyt 
 
 M.th.Ep. Sth. 
 
 Baptist 
 
 Non-sect 
 
 Ctimb. Presb. 
 
 Non-sect 
 
 Presbyt 
 
 Curab. Presb. 
 Rom. Cath. . . 
 
 Lutheran 
 
 Baptist 
 
 Meth. Episc. . 
 Congregat. . . . 
 Meth. Ep. Sth. 
 Prot. Episc. . . 
 Christian 
 
 Non-sect 
 
 Non-sect 
 
 Non-sect 
 
 Rom. Cath. .. 
 Rom. Cath.... 
 1840 Meth. Episc. S. 
 
 1873 
 1845 
 
 1869 
 
 1860 
 
 1849 
 
 1863 
 
 1861 
 
 1870 
 
 1S50 
 
 1791 
 
 1800 
 
 1*34 
 
 1832 
 
 1839 
 
 1783 I 
 
 1777 ! 
 
 1844 
 
 1853 
 
 1825 J 
 
 1690 
 
 1862 i 
 
 1866 
 
 1841 
 
 1868 
 
 1867 
 
 1871 
 
 1853 
 
 1847 
 
 1859 
 
 1848 
 
 If 67 
 
 1852 
 1863 
 1870 
 1865 
 
 Non-sect. 
 Baptist .. 
 
 Non-sect 
 
 Non sect 
 
 l'r.sb Old Sell. 
 Cumb. Presb. 
 
 Baptist 
 
 Non-sect 
 
 Non-sect 
 
 Non-sect 
 
 Congregat. . . . 
 Prot. Episc. .. 
 
 Method 
 
 Method 
 
 Presbyt 
 
 Non-sect 
 
 Baptist 
 
 Lutheran .... 
 
 Nou-soct 
 
 Non-sect 
 
 Non-sect. .... 
 
 Rom. Cath 
 
 Christian 
 
 Fr. Will Bapt. 
 
 Non-sect 
 
 Non-sect 
 
 Meth. Episc. . 
 Congr Jit Presb. 
 
 Presbyt 
 
 Non-sect 
 
 7th day Bapt. 
 
 Prot. Episc. . 
 Congr.fc Presb. 
 Rom. Cath.. . . 
 Evang. Luth.. 
 
 Rev. Brother Romuald 
 
 Rev. B. Villiger, S.J 
 
 Wm. Pepper, A.M., M.D., LL.D., 
 
 P. W. Power 
 
 Robert A. Lamberton. LL.D. .. . 
 Edward H. Magill, AM 
 
 Rev. Joseph A. Coleman, O.S.A.. 
 
 Rev. J. D. Moffat, D.D 
 
 A B. Miller. LL.D 
 
 Rev. E. G. Robinson, D.D. , LL.D 
 
 H. E. Shepherd 
 
 J. M. McBryde 
 
 Rev. William M. Grier, D.D 
 
 Rev. Charles Manl v, D.D 
 
 Rev. G. W. Holland, AM 
 
 Rev. Ed. Cooke,M.A.,D.D.,S.T.D 
 James H. Carlisle, A.M., LL.D. . 
 Francis P. Mullally, D.D 
 
 Jno. F. Spence, D.D., S.T.D 
 
 M. Parker 
 
 Rev. J. D. Tadlock, D.D 
 
 Rev. J. N. Waddel, D.D., LL.D. . 
 Rev. J. H. Brunner, A.M., D.D. 
 Geo. W. Jarnian. M.A., LL.D.... 
 Rev. Thomas W. Humes, S.T.D 
 
 Nathan Green, LL.D 
 
 Clark & Estill 
 
 Rev. P. M. .Bartlett, D.D 
 
 W. B. Sherrill 
 
 Brother Maurelian 
 
 J. C. Barb 
 
 B. G. Manard, D D 
 
 Rev. J. Braden, D.D 
 
 Rev. E. M. Cravath, M.A 
 
 Landon C. Garland, LL.D 
 
 Rev. Telfair Hodgson, D.D 
 
 A. S. Seitz, Acting Prest 
 
 Rev. W. S. Doak, D.D 
 
 James W. Terrell 
 
 Col John G. James 
 
 O. N. Hollingsworth 
 
 Rev. A. M. Truchard 
 
 Rev. F. Asbury Mood, A.M., D.D. 
 
 Rev.Wm. Carey Crane.D.D.LL.D. 
 
 Rev. John Collier 
 
 George D. Alexander 
 
 E. P. Palmer, D.D 
 
 S. T. Anderson 
 
 Rev. R. C. Burleson , D.D 
 
 Gen. L. M Lewis, D.D 
 
 John R. Park, M.D 
 
 Rev. Matthew H. Buckham, D.D. 
 Ri v. Cyrus Hamlin, D.D., LL.D. 
 
 Rev. William W. Bennett, D.D.. 
 
 Rev. David Sullins, D.D 
 
 Rev. J. M. P. Atkinson, D.D. ... 
 
 Gen. G. W. C. Lee 
 
 B. Puryear. M.A., LL.D 
 
 Julius D. Dreher, A.M 
 
 James F. Harrison, M.D 
 
 L. J. Powell 
 
 Rev. Louis de G. Schram 
 
 W. K. Pendleton, LL.D 
 
 Rev. D. Powell 
 
 Wm. L. Wilson 
 
 Joseph McMurran, A.M 
 
 Rev. E. D. Huntley, D.D., LL D 
 Aaron L. Chapin, DD., LL.D. ... 
 
 J. W. McLaury, A.M 
 
 Rev. John Bascom. DD.. LL.D. . 
 Rov. William C. Whitford, A.M.. 
 
 Rev. Joseph F. Rigga, S.J 
 
 Rev. Stevens Parker, S.T.D. 
 
 Rev. Edw. H. Merrell, A.M , D.D 
 Rev. Win Neu 
 
 Rev. Augustus F. Ernst 
 
 PI St. 
 
 14 217 
 86 1 903 
 
 s 
 
 26£ 
 
 5 
 
 30 
 
 9 
 
 147 
 
 6 
 
 55- 
 
 6 
 
 48 
 
 4 
 
 24 
 
 7 
 
 100 
 
 4 
 
 50 
 
 6 
 
 173 
 
 6 
 
 84 
 
 10 
 
 78 
 
 3 
 
 25 
 
 12 
 
 22 
 
 4 
 
 50 
 
 16 
 
 50 
 
 4 
 
 60 
 
 4 
 
 75 
 
 17 
 
 10 
 
 If, 
 
 35 
 
 4:: 
 
 250 
 
 L6 
 
 13 
 
 130 
 180 
 
 166 
 
 43 
 
 200 
 
 90 
 
 1 
 
 30 
 
 8 
 
 64 
 
 13 
 
 72 
 
 6 
 
 
 in 
 
 100 
 
 6 
 
 40 
 
 7 
 
 107 
 
 7 
 
 95 
 
 6 
 
 
 14 
 
 114 
 
 9 
 
 145 
 
 in 
 
 120 
 
 860 
 
 97 
 
 70- 
 
 345 
 
 241 
 
 85 
 
 80 
 32 
 
 ^A OF THR $^ 
 
 'university; 
 ;:foto