f LIBRARY UNIVERSITY OF CALf^ORHIA SAN Dl£GO UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA, SAN DIEGO 3 1822 02704 1011 GN B7 Social Sciences & Humanities Library University of California, San Diego Please Note: This item is subject to recall. Date Due MAY 'i 6 ^nn? CI 39 (5/97) UCSD Lib. HANDBOOK TO THE ETHNOGRAPHICAL COLLECTIONS PLATE I. BRITISH MUSEUM ^j^ HANDBOOK TO THE ETHNOGRAPHICAL COLLECTIONS WITH 15 PLATES, 275 ILLUSTRATIONS AND 8 MAPS FKLNTED BY ORDER OF THE TRUSTEES 1910 Price Two Shillings \^AU Jtiyhls JicneinU] OXFORD PRINTED AT THE UNIVERSITY PRESS BY HORACE HAKT PRINTER TO THE UNIVERSITY PREFACE The present publication is called a handbook rather than a guide, as the continual increase, and consequent re-arrange- ment, of the collections renders allusion to particular cases impossible. The great amount and variety of the available information on the peoples of the whole uncivilized world, their beliefs, habits, and productions, have rendered concise treatment a necessity; but it is hoped that even this short abstract from an immense material will enable the visitor to grasp the scientific value of ethnographical oltjects, and to perceive their relation to the products of more advanced civilizations exhibited in other parts of the Museum. Many of the older specimens in the gallery have a connection with British enterprise and exploration which adds consider- ably to their interest : thus, the voyages of Cook, Vancouver, and others, including the explorers who took part iu the search for Franklin, are represented in the Museum ; and the magnificent collection of the London Missionary Society, now shown in the Pacific Section, illustrates another phase of British enterprise among uncivilized peoples, in which we may take legitimate pride. India and its l)orderlands are represented only to a limited extent. The India Museum at South Kensington illustrates the industrial arts of Hindustan, leaving to the British ^Museum the ethnography of the primitive tribes. It has however, l)een difficult to avoid some overlapping of the two collections without causing gaps in both, and some confusion may exist in the public mind as to their respective functions. Countries like Assam, Bhutan, and others on the confines of VI PREFACE India are l>ut poorly illustrated in either institution, in spite of the great importance attaching to their adequate repre- sentation, whethei' regarded from the imperial or purely scientific standpoint. It is obvious that almost insuperable difficulties beset the formation of a representative ethnographical collection within the space available, even if it were limited to the races within the empire. At no period in the world's history has any one nation exercised control over so many primitive races as our own at the present time, and yet there is no institution in Gi-eat Britain where this fact is adequately brought before the public in a concrete form. Meanwhile civilization is spreading over the earth, and the beliefs, customs, and products of practically all aboriginal peoples are becoming obsolete under new conditions which, though interesting from an economic point of view, have onlj'^ a secondary importance for the ethnologist. In proportion as the value of Anthropology is appreciated at its true woi'th, the material for anthropological study diminishes ; in many cases native beliefs and institu- tions described in the book have already become obsolete, though it has been found convenient, in mentioning them, to use the present tense. Such facts alone enforce the necessity for energetic action before it is too late. It is hoped that the two indexes will add to the utility of the volume. It is proposed that the collections illustrating Ancient America and tlie Oriental Religions shall form subjects for separate guides at some future date. The Trustees are indebted to the Council of the Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland for the loan of the following blocks, figs. 1, 8, 11, 17, 31, 32, 67, 71, 109, 11:2, 121, 149, 171, 173-6, 191-3, 195-9, 203, 205, 215-20. 236, 240, 246, 248. 256, 257, and 261. and the PREFACE Vll following gentlemen for permission to use the illustrations indicated: to Capt. F. R. Barton, C.M.G. for fig. 1; to Mr. C. W. Hobley, C.M.G. for figs. 171, 173, and 178 : to Dr. C. J. Newcombe for fig. 236; to Mr. J. Edge-Partington for fig. 32 ; to Mr. H. Ling Roth for figs. 74, 151, 158, KO, 161, and 265 ; to Mr. W. Scoresby Routledge for figs. 174 and 176; and to Mr. E. Torday for fig. 24. The greater part of the text is the work of Mr. T. A. Joyce, Assistant in the Department, though Mr. 0. M. Dalton, Assistant-Keeper, has collaborated in certain sections. The whole has been prepared under my direction, and I have read tlirough the proofs. CHARLES H. READ, Keeper. Department of British and Mediaeval Antiquities and Ethnography. Fehntari/. 1910. CONTENTS List of Plates . List of Illustrations . ixtkoduction Asia Oriental arms and armour Northern and Central Asia India and Ceylon . East Asia and Indo-Chinu Indonesia Australia .... Oceania .... Papuasians . Polynesians and Micronesians Africa (including Madagascar) . America . . . . . North America .South America General Index .... Cteografhical and Tribal Inl>ex FAOE X xi 1 45 105 45 56 72 81 86 106 117 181 119 146 183-247 248-290 248 276 291 299 LIST OF PLATES PAGE I. Robe from the Chilkat country, NW. Coast of America F i-ontlspwce II. Japanese warrior /o/wre ;». 54 III. Iron scale-armour, Tibet ........ VO IV. Carved liouse-boards, Borneo ....... 9(; V. Spear-lieads, Western Australia . . . . . .112 VI. Clubs and dancing-shield, British New Guinea .... 126 VII. Masks, New Guinea 132 VIII. Figure of Tangaroa, Austral Islands 158 IX. Jade neck-ornaments {Tiki), New Zealand ..... 172 X. Embroidered dress of palm-cloth, BuShongo, Congo State . . 218 XI. Portrait-figure of Boiie Pelenge, BuShongo, Congo State . . 222 XII. Ivory standing-cup, Benin, West Africa ..... 238 XIII. Bronze head of a girl, Benin, West Africa ..... 240 XIV. Wooden dancing-rattle, Haida, Queen Charlotte Islands . . 260 XV. Mask of Nulmal, Kwakiutl, NW. coast of America . . . 262 MAPS A. Oceania and Indonesia B. Africa . . . . C. Madagascar . 116 182 244 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 0. Sinnet cuirass, Gilbert Islands 1. Pile-houses, British New Guinea 2. Relic of cannibalism, Fiji Islands . o. Fish-hooks, Oceania .... 4. Wooden clubs, Fiji Islands 5. Stone-bladed adzes, Oceania . fi. Boomerangs, Australia 7. Methods of producing fire 8. War-adze, New Zealand . 9. Cei'emonial adzes, Mangaia 10. Adze-blades of stone and shell, Melanesi 11. Carved canoe figure-head, New Zealand 12. Smelting furnace. Upper Nile . 13. Wooden shield, New Guinea . 14. Ornament taken from bird-life, Solomon Islands 15. Ornament taken from insect-life, Congo State IG. Ornament taken from a creeper, Borneo . 17. Model totem-pole. Queen Charlotte Island^ 18. Board for moulding infant's head, Borneo 19. Woman with lip-ornaments. Upper Nile 20. Wooden lip-plug, Queen Charlotte Islands 21. Wooden mask, Queen Charlotte Islands . 22. Girl with ear-ornaments, British E. Afri 23. Tatuing implements, Tahiti 24. Woman with cicatrization, Congo State 25. Figure used in divination, Congo State 26. African currency .... 27. Wampum, N. America 28. Carved wooden funnel. New Zealand 29. Soul-trap, Puka-puka ... 30. Property of a dead man. New (4uinea 31. Sacrificial vase, Uganda ... 32. Miniature liut with skull, Solomon Islands 33. Wooden masks, Vancouver Island . 34. Mask, New Ireland .... 35. Toothache charm, Andaman Islands 36. Wooden figure, Hawaii . 37. Message-sticks, W. Australia . 38. Helmet of Shah Abbas, Persia 39. Various oriental arms 40. Various oriental arms 41. Various oriental arms 42. Japanese swords .... 43. .Japanese wenjions .... 44. Japanese helmets .... 45. Japanese archer .... 46. Bow and case, Central Asia 47. Fish-skin coat, (Jilyak 48. Bark vessel, Gilyak Xll LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS Tin. 49. Ainu man ...... 50. Moustache stick, Ainu 51. Wooden pipe, Ainu .... 52. Brass brooch, Tibet .... 53. Various objects, Tibet 54. Copper kettle, Tibet .... 55. Wicker strainer, Tibet 5G. Tea-churn, Tibet .... 57. Copper teapot, Tibet .... 58. Copper ladle, Tibet . 59. Teacup, Tibet ..... ()0. Betel-chewing apparatus, Ceylon (')1. Wooden mask, Ceylon 02. Wooden mask, Ceylon (53. Wooden figure, Nicoljar Islands <)4. Andaman Islander with bow . (55. Pig arrow, Andaman Islands . C(). Painted skull, Andaman Iislands ()7. Various objects, Assam <>8. Naga warrior, Assam ()9. Basket, Assam 70. Various olijects, Sumatra , 71. Shooting with the blow-gun, Bni-neo 72. Metal ear-ornament, Sumatra . 73. Basket, Borneo .... 74. Loom, Philippine Islands 75. Kris, Java ...... 7(>. Indonesian swords . , . , 77. Indonesian swords , . . . 78. Blow-gun, Malay Peninsula 79. Indonesian shields . . . , 80. Indonesian shields , , . . 81. Shields, Borneo . , . , 82. Shield, Philippine Islands 83. Fish-scale armoui", Borneo 84. Leather puj^jiet, Java 85. Musical instrument, Java 86a. Wooden figure of liornbill, Borneo S()B, Bark book with charms, Sumatra , 87, Bark belt, Australia .... 88, Natives of Gippsland, Australia 89, Boomerangs, Australia 90, Wooden clubs, Australia . 91, Wooden clubs, Australia , 92, Wooden clubs, Australia , 93, Wooden sword-club, Australia 94, Spear-throwers, Australia 95, Wooden shields, Australia 96, Wooden shields, Australia 97, Message-sticks, Queensland, Australia 98, Churinga of wood and stone, Australia 99, Spears, Melanesia .... 100, Lime spatulao. New Guinea 101, Adze with jade blade. New Caledonia 102, Ceremonial axe, New Caledonia 103, Pottery, Fiji Islands 104, Bark-cloth and printing-board, Fiji Islands 105, Wooden bowl, Solomon Islands PAor; 62 64 64 (■)6 67 (>8 68 <)9 70 71 71 73 74 78 79 80 83 84 85 88 89 90 90 92 9.J 94 95 96 97 98 99 lOO 101 102 103 104 105 107 107 108 108 109 110 110 111 112 113 114 115 121 122 123 124 125 126 127 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS XUl FIG. 106. Wooden clubs, Fiji Islands 107. Wooden clubs, New Caledoni;i 108. Wooden clubs, New Hebrides . 109. Stone-headed clubs, New Guinea 110. Speai' with obsidian blade, Admiralty Islands 111. Wooden shield, New Guinea . 112. Wooden fish containing skull, Solomon Islan 113. Mask of turtle-shell, Torres Straits Islands 114. Wooden dancing-club, Santa Cruz Islands 115. Drum, New Guinea ..... 11(>. Wooden gong. New Hebrides . 117. Wooden bull-roarer, New Guinea . 118. Figure of a god. New Hebrides 119. Ceremonial carving. New Ireland . 120. Mask, New Caledonia .... 121. Adze with shell blades, New Hebrides . 122. Wooden clubs, Solomon Islands 123. Wooden clubs. New Britain Archipelago 124. Skull with nose-ornament, New Guinea 125. Bambu pipe, Torres Straits Islands 12G. Fish-hook, Tonga 127. Fish-hook, Tahiti 128. Stone In-ead-fruit splitter, Hawaii . 129. Stone pounders, Polyneslii 130. Block for j^rinting bark-clotli, Samoa 131. Head-ornament, Marquesas Islands 132. Feather cloak, Hawaii .... 133. Stone adze-blades, Polynesia . 134. Stone-bladed adze, Tahiti 135. Wooden cUibs, Tonga and Samoa 136. Sharks'-tooth weapons, Hawaii 137. Wooden spears, Polynesia and Micronesia 138. Wooden foot-rest for stilts, Marquesas Island 139. War god, Tahiti 140. Figure from sacred enclosure, Hawaii 141. Shrine for figure of goddess, Tahiti. 142. Mourner's dress, Tahiti .... 143. Wooden bowl, Hawaii .... 144. Feather war-gods, Hawaii 145. Feather gorget, Tahiti .... 146. Wooden club, Marquesas Islands 147. Wooden figure, Easter Island . 148. Wooden bowl, Pelew Islands . 149. Chart, Marshall Islands .... 150. Figure of a Maori chief .... 151. Neck-ornament made from a skull, New Zeal 152. Wooden carving from a house. New Zealand 153. Wooden feather-box, Now Zealand . 154. Wooden feather-box. New Zealand . 155. Wooden door-lintel, New Zealand . 156. Maori house ...... 157. Fish-hooks, Now Zealand 158. Wooden clui). New Zealand 159. Shark-tooth knife. New Zealand 160. Genealogical staff. New Zealaiiiano', Congo State. 211. Azandeh harp, Congo State 212. Wooden rattle. West Africa . 213. Wooden fetish figure, French Congo 214. Yoruba quartz stool, West Africa 215. Steatite figure. Sierra Leone 216. Bronze plaque, Benin .... 217. Bronze plaque, Benin .... 218. Bronze jjlaque, Benin .... 219. Bronze jjlaque, Benin .... 220. Bronze plaque, Benin .... 221. Brass vase, Aslianti ...... PAGE 187 189 190 191 192 193 194 195 196 197 198 199 200 201 202 204 205 206 207 208 209 210 212 213 214 215 216 217 217 218 219 220 220 220 221 222 223 223 224 224 225 226 228 229 230 231 232 233 284 235 236 237 288 288 238 239 239 240 LIST OF ILLUSTliATlONS XV FIG. 222. 223. 224, 225 22(). 227. 228. 229. 230. 231. 232. 233. 23 i. 23.5. 230. 237. 288. 239. 240. 241. 242. 243. 244. 245. 246. 247. 248. 249. 250. 251. 252. 253*. 254. 255. 256. 257. 258. 259. 260. 261. 262 263. 264. 265. 266. 267. 268. 269. 270. 271. 272. 273. Ka))yle pottery, Algeria . Drum, Nigeria ..... Druiu. Ashanti ..... Fetish-horn, Nigeiia Variou.s objects, Eskimo . Arrow-straightener, E>kim<) . Arrow-heads, Eskimo Carving on ivory, Eskimo Various objects, Eskimo . Various objects, NW. coast of America Stone Club-head, NW. coast of America Various objects, NW. coast of America B:irk liat, Alaska .... Basket-woi-k hat, Nootka Sound Totem-jjole, Queen Charlotte Islands Fish-hooks, NW. coast of America Knives, NW. coast of America Wooden food -bowl, Queen Ciiarlotte Isliind;^ Shale pipe, Queen Charlotte Islands Stone club, NW. coast of America . Stone axe, NW. coast of America War-club, Nootka Sound . Whale's-bone club, Nootka Sound Various objects, NW. coast of America ' Copijer,' British Columbia Wind instruments, Queen Charlotte Islands Ceremonial rattle. Queen Charlotte I.slands Ceremonial rattle. Queen Charlotte Islands Ceremonial mask, NW. coast of America Ceremonial head-dress, Nootka Sound Moose-antler comb. New England . Wooden club. Plains Indians . Hide shield, Cree Indians Stonebladed knife, British Columbia Buffalo-hair bag. Plains Indians Basket, California .... Feather head-dress, British Guiana Various objects, South America Cas.sava grater, British Guiana Large pottery vase, Peru . Ceremonial cigar-holder, Amazon Wooden clubs, British Guiana Wooden clubs, South America . Stone axe, Brazil .... Quiver for blow-gun darts, Peru Bone tlute, British Guiana Wooden trumpet, Brazil . Ceremonial trumpet, Brazil Wooden trum])et, Brazil . Shrunk head, Ecuador Various objects, South Amei-ii-a Scraper, Tierra del Fuego PAGK 241 242 242 243 249 250 251 252 252 254 254 255 256 256 257 258 259 260 261 262 262 263 263 264 265 266 267 267 268 269 270 270 271 272 273 274 277 278 279 280 280 281 282 283 284 285 285 28() 287 288 289 290 ^/ftTinrjT-pjpj^ <'^Mm Enlarged Fig. 0.— Cuirasri of siimet coconut fibre,, from tl.e Gilbert Isl;ui^ing a relation one to another, make up the trih:\ It is a very common practice, especially where • mother-right ' prevails, for K. C Fig. 9. — Ceremonial adzes from Mangaia i Hervey Islands^ witli stone blades and hafts carved in designs derived from the human form. 18 INTRODUCTION Fig. 10.— Types of adze-blades of stone and shell from Melanesia, a. Malekula, New Hebrides (shell). b, c.New Caledonia (jade). ff. Banks Islands (shell), e. Fiji Islands (shell). '/• San Cristoval, Solomon Islands. (/. Admiralty Islands, h. Fiji Islands, i. Savo, Solomon Islands. INTRODUCTION 19 each clan to take its name from some animal or plant ; this animal or plant is known as its ' totem ', from a North American Indian word, and the clansmen who recognize it use it as their badge or cognizance, tatu it on their bodies, or paint it on their houses and utensils (fig. 17). Frequently this totem animal or plant comes to be regarded as the ancestor of the Fig. 11. — Carved figure-head [tau-ihu) of a canoe. N. Now Zealand. clan and tlie good spirit of all the kindred. The totemic system, the origin of which is still debated, has great importance in connection with primitiv'e marriage and relationship, since the totems are used as marks of prohibited degrees. No man may marry a woman who l)ears the same totem as himself; he is therefore obliged to seek a wife among the mendjcrs of another clan. This practice of ' marrying out ' is termed Exogamy ; the C 2 Fig. 12.— Pj-imitive smelting furnace with four blast-pipes. Jui the Upper Nile {after Schveinfurth). of Fio. 1.3. — Wooden shield from the Papuan Gulf, New Guinea. INTKOBUCTION 21 reverse, where memljers of an organization are obliged to marry within its limits, is called Eadofjamy} The rules controlling primitive marriage are hardly less various than the ceremonies l)y means of which it is per- formed. Both are too numerous for description in the present place, but the majority are based upon such elementary practices as marriage by capture, purchase, or exchange. In connection with marriage a few words may be said about Fui. 14. — Ornament taken from Ijiril-Iife fi.sh-hawk;. New Georgia, Solomon Islands. personal adornment, since it seems certain that the primary motive of embellishment is the desire to attract members of the opposite sex, and that it thus forms an important aid to sexual selection. It is true that this subject belongs in part to each of the sections into which this introduction is divided ; since many material objects are manufactured and used for purposes of personal adornment, and it has been proved that much jewellery is in its origin anuiletic, serving to protect ' A concrete instance ol' toteniic organization is given on p. 11-i in con- nection with Australia. 22 INTRODUCTION Fig. 15. — Ornament taken from the insect world and basket-work. Stem and bowl of BuSliongo pipe. Congo State. INTHODUCTION 23 r m east-fable of the Hottentot to the poetical mj'th of the Polynesian, from the rude ceremony of Fig. 38. — Wooden ceremonial masks from Vancouver Island, rei^resenting resijectively a Ijeaver, an eagle, and a cannibal spirit. the Eskimo to the elal)orate ritual of Ancient Peru. Among the commonest motives of primitive ritual is the desire of pleasing the gods or spirits of the dead, and so bringing about their presence. By the solenni performance of rites and ceremonies supposed to imitate divine actions the gods are gratified and their presence is invited hy their worshippers : a very early stage in the development of the drama in Greece is to be found in the games or actions performed at the tombs of heroes. The dances of the savage are religious in this sense, so are some of his games, so also is his music, for it seems probable that music was developed as an accompaniment to the cereiiKjiiiul dance. The rliythiuic songs which accompany 38 IXTRODUCTTON the (lance are intended to lieiohten the relif^ions feeh'ny modern commercial enterprise : in some cases the peoples them- selves are dying out, or, like the Tasmanians, are already extinct. Ethnographical collections are necessarj^ for the effective study of human development ; it is no less important to make them as representative as possil)le before the opportunity is ii're\(jcab]y passed. Fif;. .37. — ' Message-sticks' from Western Australia. 44 INTRODUCTION It may be added in conclusion tliat the relative amount oi' space assigned in this guide to ditibrent tribes or regions has necessarily been determined rather by the extent to which they ai-e rei)resented in the Collection than by their intrinsic importance. There is unfortunately no illustration of the ethnography of Europe, and therefore the primitivi; life of our continent is not discussed with that of others. Parts of the world which in themselves deserve ample treatment are dismi.ssed in a few paragraphs, while districts of less signifi- cance receive greatei" attention. For example, Central Asia is very Ijrietly described, while small areas such as the Andaman and Nieobar Islands are treated at what may a})pear dispro- portioiiate length. Defects of this kind are inlierent in all attempts at comprehensive treatment within a restricted compass, for few ethnographical collections are of uniform excellence throughout. The antiquities from Ancient Mexico and Peru, exhibited in the American Room, will form the subject of a separate Guide. ASIA The series from this continent are not extensive, the civilizations of the Nearer and the Further East being practically unrepresented. Turkey and Persia are without illustration ; the work of these countries in the Museum, like that from China and Japan, is primarily of artistic or archaeological interest, and exhibited else- where. India is also scantily represented for the reasons given below. ORIENTAL ARMS AND ARMOUR A. Indo-Persian The influence of Persia upon the armourer's art in India was very marked, particularly during the period of the Mogul Empire, and many types are common to both countries. The chief seats of manufacture were in the north-west of India, especially at Lahore. The typical armour suit consisted of a shirt of chain-mail {Zirah baktar), over which was buckled a cuirass in four pieces — breast- and back-plates with side-plates — called in Persian char- ama. On each fore-arm was an arm-guard {dasfdna), that on the right arm usually being longer than the other, as it was not protected by the circular target or shield {dhdl). The head was covered by a hemispherical helmet with a nasal coming down in front, and with a curtain of chain-mail hanging from the sides and back resembling the mediaeval camaiJ. Specimens of all these objects may be seen in the wall-cases, many of them )>eautifully carved, chased, and damascened. Specially worthy of notice is the helmet of Shah Abbas the Great of Persia, upon one of the front shelves (fig. 88). In connection with the body-armour of the East, it may be noted that European chain-mail, which preceded complete plate- armour, may have been influenced to some extent by oriental models perhaps at the time of the Crusades, for linked chain-mail was n(jt in common use in the West before the thirteenth century. The light parrying-sljelds made of two reversed antelope-horns, (>r of metal in imitation of these, form a connecting link )>etvveen defensive and oflensive arms, as the tips of the horns could also be us(;d as (higgers (tig. 40 h). Of the olfensive weapons, swords are the most numerous. Tiie most important typ<'S r('j)resented in the Collection are illustrated herewith. Fig. Hi) c shows the Persian and Afghan hilt: fig. 89, / an ordinary form of tulwar, the sword in general use 46 ASIA in India. The K/utnda, fig. 39^, is a sword largely used by Rajputs and Mahrattas, and the gauntlet-sword {Faki), fig. 39 fc, was the especial weapon of the Mahratta Cavalry. It was usually furnished with a flexible blade of European manu- facture, and was used for thrusting only. The short crutch- sword, or dagger {Zafar Talilah, fig. 39;^), was placed by Rajahs at the corner of the divan as a precaution against surprise. Fig. 88.— Steel helmet, damascened and chased, of Abbas the Great, Shah of Persia (1586-1628). Dated 1625-6. Fig. 39 d illustrates the formidable Khyber knife used by Afghans and l)y the neighbouring tril^es of the North-West Frontier. The sword in fig. 39 a is a typical Turkish yataghan. Fig. 41 a represents the Sinhalese sword (Ceylon). Of the dnggers, figs. 39 h and m are Persian, with hilts of typical forms, often of carved ivory or of brilliantly enamelled metal, while the blades are finely damascened. Circassian daggers (fig 39^j) have some ORIENTAL ARMS AND ARMOUR 47 resemblance to the Persian types. Fig. 39 e represents a common form of straight Indian dagger ; the point has in this case been thickened, to penetrate chain-mail. Fig. 39 r is a curved Indian dagger. Fig. 39 1 has a blade of Arab type, but comes from Cutch, of which place the gilt metal-work on the hilt is characteristic. Fig. 39 /« is a thrusting-dagger (jaindhar) of a shape peculiar to India. Fig. 39 o, also peculiar to India, is called bichwa, or scorpion's sting ; it is a secret weapon kept a h c (I e f (I h /.• 2) 'I m r s t Fig. S'J. — Various oriental arms, to which reference is made in the text, concealed up the sleeve, and was often used in treacherous attacks in conjunction with the hdffhnak or 'tiger's claws' (fig. 39^), which was worn on the fingers and used to eviscerate an enemy. Both these weapons are said to have been employed by the Mahratta King Sivaji on a historical occasion. Fig 39 s is the national dagger of the Kafirs of the Hindu Kush, an isolated mountain tribe apparently retaining in its art remote Greek influences which may d;ite from Hellenistic times. Of other weapons, sjjcars were in general use ; they nearly always had leaf-shaped iron heads with sockets. 48 ASIA Battle-axes were widely distributed in Persia and India. The wedge-shaped axe (fig. iO m) is the commonest form. Fig. 40 n is a type of battle-axe or crow-bill common in Cutch : it usually has a thin stiletto screwed into the end of the shaft. Of maces (fig. 40/) the type with six flanges or wings {Shnskhnr) occurs both in Persia and India. Other maces have globular heads with spikes after the manner of the 'morning Star'. Akin to these are the hand-flails, with morning-stars at the end of chains. The cow-liead mace is a Persian weapon. & g i Fig. 40. —Various oriental arms, to which reference is made in the text. The bow is the short composite liow (flg. 40 c) made of layers of wood, horn, and sinew glued together and covered by an orna- mental casing of birchbark or lacquer, usually coloured and gilded. This type of weapon was used over the whole of Western and nomadic Asia from Turkey to China ; it was probably invented in a legion where wood suitable for making the long plain bow was not available, perhaps in North Central Asia. It was introduced into China by the Tartars, and spread into India from the north. The earlier stages of manufacture may be represented by the bows of the Eskimo and of certain tribes of Californian Indians (pp. 258, 271 \ In all cases the object has ORIENTAL ARMS AND ARMOUR 49 been to obtain the maximum amount of elasticity and resistance in a bow of small dimensions. The composite bow is of great antiquity, and has been found in tombs in ancient Egypt, whither it had probably been inti'oduced from Assyria. It was the weapon of the ancient Scythians, from whom, according to Herodotus, the Persians learned the art of archery. The principle was adopted in Europe in mediaeval times, especially for cross- bows. The oriental method of drawing the bow differs from the European. The first finger is only used to steady the string, the release being effected by the right thumb, which is provided for this pui'pose with a peculiar ring (fig. 40 a) often made of jade, the projecting portion of which bears the whole strain of the string. The wrist of the left hand is usually provided with a bracer to protect it from the recoil. The arrows have heavy polished steel heads, often barbed. The quiver {tarhtsh) carries the bow as well as the arrows. Cannon and small fire-arms were introduced into India chiefly by Europeans in the sixteenth century. Persia did not adopt artillery until about a century later. The gun of the East, made and used by the Hindu, the Persian, and the Arab alike, is the long-barrelled matchlock {tomdar). Similar weapons were made with flint-locks, when they were called banduq. The Chinese matchlock used in Tibet (see p. 70) is shorter and of clumsier manufacture. Pistols were commonly used, especially in India, where they were sometimes combined with daggers or even with swords. An interesting missile weapon peculiar to the Sil'Jts of the Punjab is the Chakram or sharp-edged quoit. Several of these were carried on the conical turban and detached when requii-ed. Tliey were thrown with the first finger, by which a rotary motion was imparted to them. (Fig. 40/.) B. Arms op Aboriginal Tribes, and of the Inhabitants OF Further India Defensive armour was not in general use, and where employed was of a primitive kind. A dress from the Khonds, an aboriginal tribe of Orissa, is shown on the east side of the Gallery. Offensive Weapons. From the various swords and daggers of this class a few only can bo specially noticed. Fig. 41 A represents the broad-bladed knife used by the Coorgs of the Western Ghats. It is worn on the back passed through a brass I'ing. K. E 50 ASIA Fig. 41// illustnites the well-known curved knife {Kitlri) of the Gurkhas of Nepal. Fig. 417i is an t'xaini)le of the peculiar Nepalese sword called Korali, which almost always has a small ilower-shaped ornament, supposed to be the Buddhist lotus, inlaid in the blade Fig. 41 I is another distinctive Nepales'^ sword {li'diii Jhio). It is commonly engraved on the Ijlado with a human eye. said to be a Buddhist s3'mbol, and is stated in its larger and heavier forms to ])e used as a sacrificial knife. u be (I c / h Fi<;. 41. — Various oriental arms, to wliich reference is made in tlie text. Figs. 41 (7 and c are swords from Assam, the long two-handed weapon from the Khassia Hills, the shorter sword Avith tufts of hair from the Garo or the Naga. Fig. 41 f is the ordinary dlui or Burmese sword used in Bmina and >Siam and northwards to the Tibet Border. The shape has some analogy with that of the Japanese sword. Fig. 41 ?> is a typical Tibetan sword. The spears of this group are of great variety, but all have iron ORIENTAL ARMS AND ARMOUR 51 heads, usually socketed. Perhaps the finest spears are those made by the hill tribes of Assam (see p. 85). In the wall-case may be seen two spears or javelins, supposed to be Indian, fitted with a cord-loop for the fingers about the middle of the shaft in order to add to the momentum when the javelin is thrown. This contrivance recalls the ame)dum of the Eomans and the dy^i'Av/ of the Greeks, both of which were permanently attached to the spear-shaft and travelled with it, thus contrasting with all the other devices for throwing javelins. Battle-axes of various forms are frequent in this class, especially in Southern and Central India. Figs. 40 /( and h are from the Khonds of Orissa. Fig. 40 c represents a form of the Ihio or axe used l>y the Naga of Assam (see p. 85). The clubs and maces are of rude construction ; a peculiar straight club with projecting iron rings is peculiar to Tinnevelly, South India, where it used to be carried by robbers. The bows used by this group are plain bows, made of a single l)iece of wood or bamboo. The arrows, usually made of reed, have iron heads ; blunt-headed arrows were used for killing birds. Fig. 40 d illustrates the pellet-bow [Gulel), a weapon found all over India, and in Burma and Siam. It does not discharge an arrow, but pellets of hard clay, small stones, &c. It is now used rather as a toy or for killing birds or for driving cattle than as a weapon. In the hill country of Burma and among the Garo of Assam a cross-bow is used, i^erhaps imported from the Far East. The cross-bow used in the Nicobar Islands (see p. 76) was probably derived from Burma. Missile weapons of a very primitive kind, recalling the boomerang of Australia, are found in this group. They are used for knocking over hares, and occur among the Koli, an aboriginal tribe of Guzerat, where the form more nearly approaches the Australian, and in Southern India near Madura, where the form differs. (See fig. 40^.) Slings were used by the Khonds of Orissa and in Southern India. Matchlocks resemble those of the former class, though the finish is inferior. Where used about the North-East Frontier of India they are usually of the heavy Chinese style. C. Japanese Akms and Armouk The arms of a Japanese warrior, before the introduction of modern \veapons, consisted of swords, spears, )>ows and arrows, and matchlocks. From the remssed. From this time onwards the forms of botli helmet and bod}" armour underwent but few changes except- ing those dictated by fashion or fancy, when they were no longer required for the purposes of war and were worn merely as objects of pomp and display. (Fig. 44.) Armour. General Karnes — Yoroi, Gnsohj. (See PI. II.) Kahiifo. General name for helmet. HacJii. Crown of helmet. Shikoro. Curtain covering the neck. Majii-zaslii. Peak in front. FiiM-gayesM. Curved wing pieces at the sides. 3faye date. Badge inserted in front of the helmet. Tsnnotnoto. Curved horn-shaped jjieces in front of the helmet. MenTxO. General name for the vizor. Yodare-laJce. Gorget hung from the vizor. Do. General name for the corslet or armour for the trunk. Tatatami do. Folding corslets, as distinct frona those in one piece. They were fastened by cords or clamps at one side. PLATE ir. J;iIi;ui»;m; wariiMC in full aniiviir. i^Frnni a Japaiicsc ilrawing.) \_Face p. 5-4 56 ASIA have been quite equal in i)0\ver to any of later date. Tlie modern bows are in all essential details the same as those of mediaeval times (fig. 45). MalcJdocks. The Japanese first became acquainted with fire arms when the Portuguese Mendez Pinto touched at the island of Tanegashima on the south of Kyushu in 1543. The manufacture of match- Fiu. 45.— Japanese mounted archer (from a Japanese drawing;. locks began at once, and until quite recently, with the exception of rude cannon, the matchlock musket and pistol were the only firearms in use. Short muskets or pistols seem to have first been made, and these are still called, in the colloquial, Tanegashima, the name of the island mentioned above. NORTHERN AND CENTRAL ASIA This vast area, comprising Kussian Central Asia, Siberia, Turkestan, Mongolia, Tibet, and Northern China, is very scantily represented in the collection. The inhabitants almost all belong NORTHERN AND CENTRAL ASIA 57 to the northern branch of the Mongolian race/ with more or less admixture of other blood as we recede from the home of the true Mongols in the regions north and east of Tibet. The people over the central and southern part of the area are nomadic stock- breeders living on the produce of their herds (horses, sheep, camels), and dwelling in tents of skin and felt. The exceptions to this rule are chiefly found upon or near the borders, and will be noticed in their several places. In the sub-arctic regions along the north of the continent the tribes largely depend for subsistence upon their herds of reindeer. The principal tribes of Russian Central Asia are the Turkoman and the Kirghiz, in A^hom the Mongolian stock is modified 1)y a certain admixture of Indo-European blood ; they were oi'iginally nomadic, but some have now adopted a settled life. Their dress, which is very similar in tho case of males and females, is composed Fig. 46. — Bow, arrows, and bowcase and quiver of hide. Central Asia. of a kaftan (a long loose garment of fur, felt, or linen), under Avhich in winter are worn a shirt and trousers with the ends stuck into high soft boots reaching to the knees ; on the head a cap of sheepskin or felt is usually worn. The men's hair is simply cut, l)ut that of the women often very elaborately dressed and loaded with ornaments. The principal food of the Asiatic nomads is derived from his herds ; it is largely composed of the milk of mares and camels and of a coarse kind of butter. Their utensils are chiefly of wood, for, like most nomadic peoples, they do not manufacture pottery. Society is patriarchal, the head 1 It is convenient to draw a distinction between the words Mongolian and Mongol. The former is the wider term, including great ethnical families as far apart as the Chinese and the Turks; the latter is specific, and denotes the comparatively small jiopulation of Mongolia proper. The My the British expedition (PI. III). It is interesting for comparison with somewhat similar armour found in East Siberia, with the mail suits of Japan (PI. II), and with the armour made of plates of bone and slats of Avood used by the Ckukchi, Koriak and the coast tribes of North-West America. Hemispherical shields of l)asket-work form are carried for additional defence. The bow is always of the composite variety, and the arrows have fiat heads of large size. Another missile weapon is the sling made of woven goats' hair. The religion of Tibet is Buddhism, corrupted by magical beliefs, and the W'orship of demons. It was first introduced towards the middle of the seventh century a.d., but did not really flourish until about a hundred years later. The Tibetan written character, a PLATE III. Iron scale-aniioui'. Tibot. [_Fuce p. 70 NORTHERN AND CENTRAL ASIA 71 modification of a North Indian alphabet of the seventh century, was introduced with Buddhism. In a. d. 747 the Guru Padma- Sambhava of Udyana, north-west of Kashmir (now deified), was invited to Tibet by the reigning king, and lie is the founder of Lamaism. La-ma is a Tibetan word meaning the Superior One, and is a title which should properly be given only to abbots and superiors. The Lama of Saskya was accorded temporal power by Kublai Khan in the thirteenth century, but the Ming dynasty of China raised the heads of two other monasteries to equal rank. It was now that the religious hierarchy overshadowed and reduced the j)ower of hereditary secular chiefs. Sects appear to have developed from the eleventh century, initiating a reform against the depravity of the Lamaism of the time. The Gc-lug-pa sect (the 'Virtuous order'), attained the pre-eminence, and secured the priest-kingship of Tibet. In a.d. 1650 the priest-king was con- firmed in his authority by the Chinese Emperor ; the pretension to represent a divine reincarnation dates from this period, though the theory of reincarnation had l^een recognized earlier. The suc- ceeding Lamas down to the present^ time have all been members Fi(i. .58. — Copper ladle used in tea-making. Fig..59. — Wooden metal- Tibet, lined teacup. Tibet. of the Ge-lug-pa, which ranks as the orthodox sect. With the other reformed sects, it is distinguished by the wearing of yellow caps ; the older unreformed sects wear red caps, and the Bon-pa or sects largely representing beliefs surviving from pre-Buddhist times, wear black. The dress of the Lamas, originally based upon the costume worn by Indian Buddhists, has received many additions, partly due to the influence of a colder climate. Although yellow may occur, it is not, as in Southern Buddhism, the general colour, and red is more usual. Two patched lobes are worn, over an inner vest, one of them being often a mere skirt covering only half the Ijody : a mantle or cloak of a < rescent-shape may be thrown over the .slujulders. The legs are protected Ijy trousers, and the feet covered by boots of red pnrti-coloured felt with hide soles. From the girdle are suspended a pen-case, purse, amulet-box and other small accessories ; the rosary of 108 beads is usually carried on the wrist like a bracelet, or worn round the neck. On the shaven head is a hat or cap of felt or flannel, though a straw hat may Ije worn in summer. The begging-bowl is not a regular jiart of a Lama's equipment, the monasteries l>eing sufficiently well 72 ASIA endowed to obviate the necessity for house toliouse begging on the part of its inmates. The chief Lamas of all the great monasteries are regarded as reincarnations of saints, the Grand Lama of Lhasa, however, represents the celestial Bodhisatva Avalokita. The Tibetan family is under the absolute control of the father ; but when the eldest son marries, the father hands over the family ])roperty to him, keeping only sufficient for his personal needs. The other sons have the right to live upon the property, but not to administer it ; in the same way they are all potentially husbands of their elder brother's wife, not being allowed to take wives them- selves. The social system is in fact based upon the two laws of primogeniture and polyandry. A strong feeling of kinship keeps clan sentiment alive in Tibet, and there is a sense of common re- sponsibility among relations, but the existence of the theocratic government of the Lamas robs the persons, who without it would be chiefs or kings, of the influence naturally belonging to them. Society is aristocratic, and it is extremely difficult for a man born in a lower rank to rise to a higher. Hereditary nobles hold lands from the state in addition to their private property, and on these lands exercise the rights of government ; persons living on these lands are practically serfs. There is, however, in Tibet a class of inde- pendent freeholders. The musical instruments used by the people are whistles made from bamboo or the bone of the eagle's wing, jew's-harps of bamboo, and banjos or guitars with three or more strings. Tibetans are fond of singing and dancing, and in their dances both sexes take part. In Lamaistic ceremonies drums, trumpets, conch- trumpets, flageolets and cymbals are used. The mystery- plays, in which dances occur, involve the use of fantastic masks. Examples of these ol)jects are exhibited in the third Religious Gallery. INDIA AND CEYLON The collections representing Indian industrial art are at South Kensiugton ; the objects in the British Museum are chiefly derived from the primitive tribes, or illustrate nsages and superstitions of ethnographical interest. There may have heen an al)Oi'iginal negrito population in India, and at different times Mongolian, Lidonesian, and Arab elements have come in fi'om the north-east and west ; but the main population of the peninsula results from the crossing of two races, the tall, light-complexioned Indo-Afghans, with more or less straight hair, and tlie short, dark Melano-Indians, or Dravidians, with hair which is often curly. The former race predominates in the north-west and in the valley of the Ganges ; the latter is more numerous in the central and southern parts of the country, and to it the primitive tribes represented in the Collection belong. INDIA AND CEYLON 73 To its Kolariar, branch ])elong the Santal or Sonthal of Western Bengal ; "while the Khonds of Orissa are of the northern div'ision. The southern division includes the Kurumba and Irula. who are jungle-tribes, and the Toda of the Nilgiri Hills, who are pastoral. It is natural that the influence of Central Asia should affect the peoples of the north and east. Thus the tribes of the Himalayan regions, such as the Gurkha of Nepal and the Bhutia and Lepcha of Sikkim, are related to the inhabitants of Tibet. The tribes of Assam about tlie Middle Brahmaputra have affinities not only with Tibet but also with Burma (see p. SI). The people of Fig. 60. —Apparatus for betel-chewing, Sinhalese, a. Mortar for pounding areca-nut. h. Box and sjiatula for lime. c. Knives for slicing areea-nut. Ceylon are partly of the Indo-Afghan race, but have been modified by contact with the more primitive Vedda (see below). Their ethnography is fairly represented in the Collection, as also is that of the inhabitants of the Nicobar and Andaman Islands. Ceylon, the Taprobane and the Serendib of the ancients, was colonized in the sixth century b. c. by Hindus from Bengal, who afterwai'ds received the distinctive name of Sinhalese. The colonists found tlie island inhabited by snake-and-spirit worship- pers, who may be partially represented to-day by the Vedda, a I>rimitive people inha))iting the interior. During the earlier centuries of our era, wlien Buddhist art readied a high level in Ceylon, there was a continuous Tamil innnigration from Southern 74 ASIA India. Tlie island has been subjected at different times to Chinese, Mahiy and Arab influence ; while from the sixteenth century it has been held successively by the Portuguese, the Dutch and the British. Ceylon was in quite early times an emporium for the trade of the Far East on the one side, aud of Africa, Arabia, and Europe on the other ; but the >Sinhalese themselves have never been navigators. The art and general culture of Ceylon are naturally more closely connected with India than with any other country, though the Sinhalese have developed a distinctive artistic style. Brahmanism and Buddhism co-exist in the island, but the more primitive veneration for evil spirits, the so-called devil-worship, is still Fig. 61. — Shilialcse mask used in devil-dances. tolerated by the established religions. The set of grotesque painted wooden masks on exhibition is connected with these beliefs. The large central mask represents the principal demon of disease (fig. 61). and the surrounding smaller masks are either his avatars or incarnations, or else sul)ordinate demons (fig. 62). Each mask is associated with a particular malady (malarial fever, dysentery, &c.). The devil-dancers, after preliminary ceremonies, put on the masks and dance before the sick man, uttering the invocations proper to the several spirits. The masks are not intended to drive the devils away, but rather to attract them to the spot ; when they are supposed to have arrived, and to be refreshing themselves with the offerings, the 'priest' professes to discover the spirit which has actually caused the disease, and to persuade him to desist. INDIA AND CEYLON 75 The Vedda are very primitive forest-dwellers, in physical character similar to the Toda, Tamil, and other Dravidian tribes of India, with the exception that they are of shorter statiu-e, and also to the Sakai of the Malay Peninsula. Their hair is long and wavy or curly ; skin colour varies from a chocolate-brown to a copper-brown, the purer tribes Ijeing the fairer. The nose is well formed and prominent, and the limbs small-boned and slender. Clothing, now of imported cloth, consisted originally of l^arkcloth, worn as a bandage by the men and as a skirt by the women ; no mutilations of any sort were practised, in fact even the piercing of the ears for ornaments appears to be a habit of recent introduction. They lived chiefly in rock-shelters, but small leaf huts are now sometimes constructed ; down to fifty years ago, fish, game, honey, and yams, procured with the aid of a digging- stick, were their sole food. Pottery, made by both sexes, seems to be an art of recent acquisition. and iron is obtained from the Sin- halese. Finds of quartz flakes and arrow-heads in some of the rock- shelters show that a stone-age existed at no very remote date. The Ijow and arrow are the only Aveapons, and the latter, which is feathered and furnished with a head of Sinhalese iron, is the only and universal tool. The Vedda live in small family grouj^s, each led by some individual respected for his prowess in liunting or his force of j^ersonal character ; they are monogamous, and it is con- sidered fitting for the children of a brother and sister to intermarry ; marriage is prohibited, howevei", between the children of two brothers or of two sisters ; widows remarry. Each section of Vedda, in former times, had its own hunting-grounds, and trespass was fiercely resented. After death the body was simply left in the rock-shelter, which was deserted. Dances of a mimetic character are per- formed, but there are no musical instruments ; time is kept by the dancers slapping their sides ; there seem to ])e no games, except that a ladder is sometimes hung over a rock for the children to play at taking honey. lieligion consists in the worship of the spirits {Yala) of ancestors and of certain heroes, one of whom is considered tlie h)rd of the dead. These spirits when properly invoked possess the performer of the ceremony, who is generally the leader of the group, and deliver oracles, chiefly in connexion with hunting, through liis mouth. Fk;. 62.— Sinhalese mask used in devil-dances. 76 ASIA The Vedda have now lost many of their more primitive characteristics owing to contact with the Sinhalese, The Nicobar Islands The Nicobar group, containing twelve inhabited islands, lies off the Malay Peninsula, and forms with the Andamans a series of stepping-stones of volcanic origin connecting Burma with Sumatra. The islands were known to the ancient geographers. They were occupied by Great Britain in 1869. The principal inhabitants are of Indonesian blood, and quite distinct from their neighbours the Andamanese, But in the interior of great Nicobar, the most southerly island, dwells an aboriginal Indonesian race called Sho))i Pen, which may once have occupied the whole group. They are a straiglit-haired people of a comparatively fair complexion, in a very primitive stage of culture. Their huts are usually circular, and built on piles six or eight feet high. The clothing of the males is a narrow loin-cloth {chaicut) ; of the females, a kind of petticoat of split coconut leaves, calico, and bark-cloth. By way of ornament, both sexes pierce the lobe of the ear and place in the aperture cylinders of wood or rolls of red cotton-cloth. The padded hats and head- pieces of coconut-fibre are worn as a protection when fighting with a kind of quarter-staff. For cooking they use a vessel made of bark ; fire thej' commonly obtain by friction. The Nicobarese are good potters, but bamboos and coconuts are largely employed for domestic utensils, and the folded spathe of the areca-palm serves the same purpose. The weapons principally consist of spears. Bows are not used, but a small crossbow is employed for shooting pigeons. The idea of the cross-bow probably came through Burma. The coast tribes, or the majority of the in- hal)itants, represent a somewhat higher degree of civilization. They have a vigesimal system of numeration, and employ tally- sticks of palm-spathe in reckoning the number of coconuts, which are tlie principal objects of trade. The figures which they paint upon boards, representing certain sequences of ideas, may be called ideograms, and represent an earl}' stage in the art of writing. The Nicobarese have been in possession of iron since they were first known to Europeans, and their spear-heads are all made of this material. Though they are now supplied with matches, the fire-saw, made of two pieces of bamboo, is still in use, but on ceremonial occasions they employ the fire-drill, the fire thus produced being called ancient fire. (Cf. the Need-fire of the British Islands.) The fire-saw is a contrivance found further east in the Malay Archipelago, for instance, in the Kei Islands, near New Guinea. The principal industry is the cultivation of coconuts, which INDIA AND CEYLON n form the staple trade of the islands. Fish are caught with traps and hooks, or speared at night with three-pronged spears. The canoe is the outrigger, a kind of boat used from Ceylon to the easternmost islands of the Pacific. The belief that Nature is full of evil and good spirits influences the whole life of the people. Almost the entire art of the Nicobarese is devoted to the single object of gratifying good spirits and scaring away evil ones (fig. 63). Various charms, often con- FiG. C;J. — -Wooden figure for scaring evil sijirits. Niccibar Iishuids. sisting of young coconuts, are suspended in front of the houses for a similar purpose. The dead are buried, but after a certain lapse of time the body is exhumed and the bones disposed of anew. This is made the occasion of a memorial feast held in honour of the deceased, during which the skull is decorated with a peculiar kind of hat. The custom of exhuming the dead and holding a second feast is frequently met with in the Oceanic area. (See pp. lo4, 178.) Musical instruments ai-e a bamljoo flute, aiul two kinds of liddlo nuide of palm-wood, played with a bow. 78 ASIA The Andaman Islands This group lies immediate]}^ to the noitli of the Nicobar Islands, but is inhabited by a people of a different race. The Andamanese are negroids with dark skin and curly hair. They are of diminutive stature, the average height of the males Ijeing only 4 ft. 11 inches. They probably represent a primitive race which occu- pied Southern Asia in remote times. The Islands were known to the geo- grapher Ptiomey (a.d. 140-60), to the early Arabian voyagers, and to the Chinese, who visited them in early times in search of hvche-de-mer and edible birds' nests. Both the Arabians and Marco Polo speak of the mon- strous appearance and ferocity of the people. But since the British occu- pation (1789-96. and 1857 onwards) it has been shown that when kindly treated they are of a lively and friendly disposition. When first discovered the Andamanese had fire, which they kept alive but were unable to produce. Their cooking was done by broiling or baking their food in hot stones ; and they were able to make a rude kind of pottery. Be- fore the introduction of iron their implements were made of shell and stone. They support themselves almost entirely by hunting and fishing, spearing turtle and shooting wild pig, being very expert with the bow. Their houses are not built on piles, and are often mere lean-to huts thatched Avith palm- leaves. There are various tribes on the islands, subdivided into communities under local chiefs, Avhose authority, however, is very limited. Intertribal feuds were comjiion. Fig. 64. -Andaman Islander strins boAv. INDIA AND CEYLON 79 No clothing is worn, with the exception of ornamental belts, garters, bracelets and neck- laces of leaf, bone, wood or shell ; women wear a small leaf apron. The head is commonly kept clean-shaved from early youth, a flake of quartz or a splinter of glass being used as a razor. Cicatrization is universal, and is also executed with a flake or piece of glass ; no pigment is rubbed into the wounds. The bod}'^ is in ad- dition ornamented with stripes of Avhite and red- coloured clay, each design having its significance, one meaning that the wearer is in mourning, another that he is about to take part in a festivity, &c. The principal weapon of all tribes is the long- bow (fig. (54) : arrows, none of which have leathers, are tipped with iron hammered out cold on a stone (fig. 65). Another important Aveapon is the harpoon used for turtle or large fish. When the turtle is struck, the head of the harpoon is detached and the shaft floats. The implements used are : stone hammers, and ' anvils ', which are little more than lumps of stone capable of Ijeing held in the hand ; quartz flakes, chipped off by i^ercussion, for shaving and tatuing ; cyrena shells, used as scrapers ; knives made of sharpened splints of bamboo, or of boars' tusks with the inner edge sharpened. There is no trace of the existence of stone adze-heads, all the adzes now known having iron heads. Among utensils may be mentioned large pinna shells, used as vessels for paint or as plates ; nautilus shells, serving for drinking-vessels ; joints of bamboo, used as receptacles for food or water ; rude earthenware pots, made without a wheel, baskets made of cane ; string and nets made of the bark-fil)res of trees. Utensils and weapons were ornamented by carving with a cyrena shell or by the application of patterns in red or white clay. The Andanianese have no musical instruments except u rude sounding-board, on which the con- ductor at dances marks time by kicking it with his foot. The Andamanese live in constant fear of evil spirits. Both sexes go through initiatory ceie- 1-': (•.5 ])<>on nr shooting daman h Har- ■o\v for )igs. An- l.'uuls. 80 ASIA monies at puberty, and different kinds of food are forbidden on certain occasions. The dead are buried within the encampment in a sitting posture and wrapped up in leaves. The encampment is then deserted for three months, after which the l>ody is exhumed, and washed in Fia. 06. — Skull of a near relative, painted and carried as a memento by a mourner. Andaman Islands. the sea. Necklaces are then made of the bones, which are worn as mementoes by relations and friends, and ai'e thought to cure pain or disease. Thus a man afflicted with toothache ties such a necklace round his face (fig. 35). The skull of the deceased is also worn round the neck as a mark of affection (fig. Q6). The numbers of the Andamanese are diminishing, and it is probable that the race will be extinct before very many years. 81 EAST ASIA AND INDO-CHINA The greater part of Eastern Asia is inhabited by three mixed races of Mongolian stock, the Chinese, Koreans, and Japanese. The home of the purest type of Chinese was the province of Kangsu in the north-west of the country, whence they spread east and south, mixing with North Mongolian peoples — Tungus, Manchu, and Mongol. The Manchu, to which the present Chinese dynasty belongs, are of the Tungus family. The in- hal)itants of Southern China are Southern Mongolians. The Koreans, who are related to the Chinese, have received an ad- mixture of Tungus and Japanese elements. The JajDanese are derived from both Northern and Southern Mongolian stocks, but are also affected by intermarriage with Indonesians, and (in the north) with the Ainu. The common objects in domestic use in Japan are not represented in the Collection except in a series of models ; but specimens of arms and armour are on exhibition (see p. 51), as well as antiquities of the dolmen period. Indo-China forms the great peninsula of South-Eastern Asia, including Assam, Burma, Siam, the Malay Peninsula, Annam, Cambodia, and Cochin- China. The collections representing it in the Museum being of small extent, only the general ethnical relations of the people can be mentioned, a detailed account being given of those tribes which are more fully represented. Indo-China is occupied by more than one race. Fii'stly there are the scattered remains of early populations which may be described as aboriginal, some, like the Semang of the Malay Peninsula, being negritos ; others, like the Moi of the hill- country of Annam and the Naga of Assam, of Indonesian origin. Upon these supervened various South-Mongolian peoples which mingled with them in various degrees, rendering classifi- cation extremely difficult. The most important are the Thai, who came from Sze-Chuen and Yunnan in the south of China, and include the Siamese ; the Shan, who dwell to the north-west oi Siam ; the Tho of North Annam ; and the Lao of Cambodia. The Annamese are of a similar origin, and have spread steadily southwards, bringing with them an atti nuated Chinese culture. The Burmese descended into their present country from the mountain-valleys to the south-east of Tibet. The Khmer of Cambodia are probably a mixture of Malaj'ans with other Indo- nesians. The Malays proper came as a reflux of the Malayans from Sumatra in the twelftli century. A.'^sam. The name Assam is derived from tho Ahom, a In'anch of the great Thai family, who cuncpiered the valley at an early period, and intermarried with the Hindu inhabitants. The chief K. G 82 ASIA hill tribes encircling the valley are : on the west, the Daplila, Miri, and Abor ; on the north, the Mishmi and Khamti ; on the east, the Kachin, or Singpho, the various Naga tribes, the Jaintia, Khasia, and Garo. To the south-east of the Naga are the Kuki (Chin and Lushai), belonging to the same ethnical group as the Kachin, who claim to be an elder branch of the Burmese family. All the tribes, with the possible exception of the Aka, belong to the group of the human race known as the Tibeto-Burman. Thus they all have yellowish skins, straight bkack hair and a Mongoloid cast of countenance. Tliey are fierce and energetic in character, not averse from trade, cultivating rice, cotton, and grain, though for the most part on a primitive system. Rice, dried fish and meat form the staple articles of food, and from rice is obtained the favourite rice-wine called Zu. The more easterly Naga smoke tobacco in pipes resembling those used by the Shan. Fire is usually obtained by means of flint and steel. All the tribes have been in possession of iron since they have been known to Europeans. Dolmens resembling those of the neolithic age in Europe are found in the Khasia hills, the inhabitants of which, the Khasia, perhaps represent the oldest stratum of population in Assam. The tribes dwell in villages on the tops of hills and defonded by ditches and stockades. The houses are large and long with angular roofs descending almost to the ground on each side, and thatched with grass or palm-leaf. The wall at the front end is formed of massive planks set vertically and often curiously carved. As the houses are constantly Ijuilt on sloping ground facing down the slope, the verandah at the front has often to be supported upon piles, recalling the pile-built houses of the neighbouring Shan tribes. In the Naga villages there are two large houses set apart, one as a sleeping-place for unmarried men. the other for unmarried women ; there is also a village hall where the elders meet. The various triljes are divided into clans, several of which may inhabit one village. There are chiefs, but the real authority lies with the council of elders and warriors. Men and women generally wear a broad loin-cloth, the women adding to this a separate cloth fastened over the breast ; both sexes throw another cloth over the shoulders on occasion. Some of the Naga tribes wear a kind of kilt, the addition of rows of cowrie-shells signifying that the wearer has taken the heads of enemies. It is said that different Naga clans can be distinguished by the difterent patterns of their kilts. The ornaments worn by the Naga are conspicuous, like those of Borneo, through the employment of tufts of human hair and of goafs hair dyed red ; the addition of cowrie-shells is also characteristic. Breast-ornaments, coronals and armlets decorated in this style, are worn. Warriors wear conical caps of coloured Fig. G7.— Objects from tlio Niiga of Assam. 1. A duo (see p. 84). 2 Neck- lace of carnehan shell and j^lass beads. 3. Necklace of shell and glass be-ids worn with pendant at back of neck. 4. Necklace of shell and -hiss beads 5. Ainilet of rattan with fringe of hair. 0. Brass head-band with shell pendant. 84 ASIA cane, chiefs' hats being distinguished by feathers. Girdles of split cane or stomachers faced with brass j^lates are worn round the body, and in thfse the dao or knife (fig. 67. 1) is often carried. "Warriors also wear a kind of legging of coloured cane. Fig. r>8. — Naga warrior with shield and spears. As in tlie case of all the Tibeto-Burman peoples, whether in Assam, North Burma, or Siam, tatuing is generally practised. With the Naga tlie marks on the face have often a definite meaning ; thus they may reveal the number of enemies' heads taken. Charms such as pierced tigers' teeth are in frequent use. There is little pottery and few metal utensils. Vessels for domestic use are made of wood, bamboo-joints, or horn. Baskets (fig. 69) are made, of which an example may be seen in the EAST ASIA AND INDO-CHINA 85 ornamental carrying basket in the Collection ; this is suspended on the back and supported by a band passing across the forehead. The iron hoe seems to be the only agricultural implement, but the dao with its chopper-like blade may be used as a utensil as well as a weapon. The weapons of the Assamese consist chiefly of spears and daos. The speai-s are barbed, and their shafts often ornamented with a thick pile of goat's hair dyed red (fig. 68). Oblong wooden shields are used, often with long sticks fringed with coloured hair projecting from their tops. The Angami Naga, the Garo, and the Khasia carry swords with straight Fig. 69. — Basket ornamented with bird-skins and wooden heads. Naga, Assam. guards. Cross-bows are used on the north-east border of Assam by the Singpho or Kachin. as also in parts of North Siam. Guns are made by the Shan. An important means of offence employed by many hill tribes consists of panjis or small i)oisoned slips of bamboo, stuck freely about the paths near villages with the points uppermost. The religion of the hill tribes is confined to the worship of spirits who are believed to cause death and disaster. Hinduism and Mohammedanism are the religions of the low country. The dead are buried in various ways ; sometimes they are laid on platforms over which wooden effigies of the deceased are erected. 86 ASIA INDONESIA Indonesia is the collective term -wliich may be taken to include the Malay Peninsula with tlie islands lying immediately off the coast and to the east as far as New Guinea. Of these, the Andaman Islands, inhabited by negritos, and the Nicobar Islands by primitive Indonesians, belong politically to India, and are therefore treated separately. The other islands included in the term are. to mention the most important, Sumatra, Java, Bali, Borneo, Timor, Celebes, the Moluccas, and the Philippine Islands. It seems probaljle that man has existed in these parts from a very early date ; stone implements have been found in the Malay Peninsula, where they are said by the present natives to be thunder- bolts used by Djinn ( Java and Celebes) ; and in Java was found a portion of a skull exhibiting the combined characteristics of man and ape, which has been supj^osed to belong to an ape-like ancestor of the human race. It is probable that the islands have been con- nected at previous periods with the mainland and with one another ; in fact, it is stated that, as late as a. d. 163, a narrow causeway existed between Sumatra and Malacca. Consequently it is not surprising to find still on many of the islands representatives of a very primitive stage of culture. By far the largest portion of the population belongs to the section of mankind known as Indonesian, which seems to be an admixture in various proportions of primitive Indian and Southern Mongolian stocks, with, locally, a tinge of negrito blood ; the culture of the Indonesian tribes varies from extreme primitiveness to a comparatively high civilization. Negritos occur on the Malay Peninsula and the Philippines ; they have also, quite recently, been reported in Sumatra, One other element is found, which is only distinguishable in the Malay Peninsula, and that is an element akin to the Australians, Dravidians, and Vedda, viz. the Sakai. It would seem that the Polynesians passed through these islands on their way from India to the Pacific ; the most obvious traces of them are to be found in the population of the Mentawi Islands off Sumatra. In the islands of the extreme south-west Pa]nians are found, and Chinese traders and settlers are now practically ubiquitous. Contact with the Arabs was established in the thirteenth century, when Mohammedanism was introduced into Malacca, spreading gradually as far as the Philippines. With the Indonesians are included the Malays, who, as a race, are comparatively modern ; they arose in Sumatra as the result, most probably, of a second influx of Indian blood, spread rapidlj' to the mainland, where about 1160 they founded Singapore, and to Java. Endowed with more initiative than the rest, they became the pioneers of trade, founding small states wherever their wanderings led them, often on the ruins of a previous settlement. INDONESIA 87 Such a state was Brunei in North Borneo. M'hich until about 1400 A.D. was tributary to the great Hindu kingdom of Majapahit in Java. The Mahiys became thus a race of seafarers, and their settlements were always on the coast or along navigalile rivers, where in later years they degenerated in parts into ferocious jnrates. What the Malays were in the west the Bugi of Celebes were in the east, and their trading voyages extended as far as Sumatra. As might be expected, the Indonesians of the west are more Indian in type, and bear a general resemblance to theBurmese ; farther east they become more Mongolian, until in Celebes and the Philippines individuals are found who might well be mistaken for Japanese. In Java the Indian influence is particularh^ strong and was accompanied by the introduction first of Buddhism, and, at a later date, of Hinduism. In the Malay Peninsula, besides Malays and Siamese, are found in the jungle the Jakun. a primitive Indonesian tribe ; the Sakai, of Dravido-Australoid stock ; and the Semang. who are negritos. In Sumatra the Indonesian tribes are Achehnese in the north, the Batak and related tribes in the north-east and east, the Malays in the west, and the Rejang and Lampong in the south. In Java are found the Sundanese in the west, the Javanese proper in the centre and east, the Tenggerese in the east, and the primitive Kalang in scattered groups. In Borneo are a large number of tribes which may be grouped under three heads : the Iban or Sea-Dyak. physically resembling the specialized Malay branch ; the Kelamantan. divided into nomad hunters (Punan. Ukit. &c.), and settled agriculturists (Land-Dyak. Sibop, Kanowit. Milanau. Kadayan, Long Kiput, Barawan, Kelabit, Dusun. Murut. &c.) of the northern portion of the island ; and Kenyah-Kayan tribes of the southern half, some of whom have migrated northwards and are noAV found among the Kelamantan. Malays are found in the state of Brunei and elsewhere, and also a considerable number of Chinese traders. Besides Indonesians, a Papuan admixture is iound on Timor. In Celebes the original population appears to have been the Toala, a very primitive branch of Indonesians with a stone-age culture. Another series of Indonesian tribes on a higher cultural plane, who have, however, intermixed to a large extent with the aborigines, are the Toradja, of whom the best known tribes are the Macassar and Bugi. Most advanced are the Minahassa, who seem to be comparatively recent immigrants, })Ossibly from the Philippines. In the Philippines are a large number of tribes, both Indonesian and Negrito, exhibiting almost every stage of culture from the lowest upwards. The civilized tribes, the Visaya of Mindanao and the central islands, the Tagalog, Ilocano, Bicol and similar tribes of JiU/.on, will not l>e described in any detail ; of the other Indonesians the most important are the Manobo, Mandaya, Sul)ano and i>agoJ)o of Mindanao, the l?ukidnon of Mindanao and the Fig. 70.— Objects from the Batak of Sumatra. 1. Brass pipe. 2. Knife and slioatli. 3. Brass belt with fire-steel. 4, 5. Staves carried by priests. 6. Buffalo-horn for containing charms. 7. Buffalo-liorn bullet-poucli. INDONESIA 89 central islands, the Tagbanua and Batak of Palawan, the Igorot and Ilongot of Luzon. The negrito tribes are called collectively Aeta and are found chiefly in Luzon. Besides these must be mentioned the Moros, found in most places south of Luzon, who are Mohammedanized Indonesians with a certain amount of Arab intermixture, mucli addicted to piracy. The collections in the Museum from these countries, except that from Northern Borneo, are inconsiderable, consequently only the more salient points of their culture will be mentioned. The Indonesian is everywhere short in stature, with long, lank black hair on the head and little or none on the face and body; ■vi-tsn^ . i^t^ i y ^^jTfc^ Fig. 71. — Kenyali sliootiiig with tlio blow-sun. the skin colour varies from olive to pale brown or brownish yellow ; the nose is generally somewhat depressed, but without being conspicuously broad at the nosti'ils; the cheekbones are usually prominent, and the Mongolian form of eye frequently occurs. The Negrito is distinguished by even shorter stature, and short, tightly curled or frizzy hair. dark-l)rown skin, broad nose, and a certain amount of i)rognathism. The Dravido-Austra- loid element — the Sakai— is short, with wavy or cmly hair, longer faces than the races described above, and brown in colour. Bark-cloth is worn as clothing l)y tlie men among all the most primitive Indonesian tri]>es, usually in the form of a bandage (fig. 71): i\v women generally wear tlie Sarong, a skirt 90 ASIA made bj' sewing together the ends of n long strip of textile niatovial. Among the more cultured tribes men wear breeches and jacket, and women two sarongs or sarong and robe. In Borneo, particularly among the Iban, the women wear a j)eculiar kind of corset, made of cane hoops covered with brass rings. The negrito tribes and the Sakai wear little clothing ; the last and the Semang make peculiar fringed girdles from a black thread-like fungus ; bark-cloth is used by both, and bunches of leaves by the latter. Tatuing is found in its most elaborate form among the Mentawi Islanders and certain of the Visaya ; it occurs also in Borneo and the Fig. J2. — Metal ear-ornament. Batak of Sumatra. Fig 73. — Basket. Kelamanlan, Borneo. Philippines, where the head hunting triljes commemorate their exploits in this manner, and among the Sakai. Cicatrization as a form of ornament is particularly characteristic of the last. The practice of filing or chipping certain of the teeth is found in each group of islands, though not in every tribe ; the teeth are often stained black in addition, or inlaid with brass wire (Malay). The greatest variety of ear-ornaments is found in Borneo, where, besides the heav}^ weights in the lobes, a series of small rings are often worn in the upper portion (Iban). The large j^lugs and heavy ornaments worn in the lobe cause the latter to become elongated, often to an exaggerated degree ; a form of deformation which is also found in the Philippines (Igorot, &c.) and Celebes. INDONESIA 91 The spirally-coiled wire ornaments of the Batak are especially characteristic (fig. 72). Head-deformation is practised in parts of Borneo, where a special apparatus is affixed to the head of an infant in order to broaden it (fig. 18). Girls are usually the victims of this treatment. Circumcision does not seem to be a typically Indo- nesian practice ; it is found sporadically, but is as a rule neither universal nor obligatory (except of course among Mohammedan tribes). Nose-pins are worn by the Semang, and particularly the Sakai. Painting is employed for ornament by the Semang, Sakai and Jakun (among whom it is supposed to possess also protective magical and medicinal powers), and in Java, where the upper class powder the body with yellow, red, or pink pigment on state occasions. The Indonesian is on the whole an agriculturist, and his chief crop is rice ; a few of the more primitive tribes, such as the Kalang of Java, Kubu of Sumatra, Punan of Borneo, Toala of Celebes, Tagbanua of Palawan, and the negrito tribes, are in the main hunters, elsewhere cultivation is assiduously practised. At the same time hunting and fishing are not neglected, since pastoral life does not seem to develop to any great extent and meat and fish are everywhere regarded as desirable. Rice and sugar-cane, the latter among the Igorot, are fermented to produce a kind of beei". Fishing is an important industry among the Malays, and the practice of the art is hedged about with many superstitions ; in places the fishers use a special language when engaged on their occupation, believing that the ordinary dialect would bring ill luck. The Sakai and negrito tribes eat many loots and tubers which are poisonous, and need careful prepara- tion in order to neutralize their noxious properties. The Malay and Bugi are keen traders, and their vessels are to be found almost everywhere along the coasts. An important article of trade is constituted by the edible nests of a swift which builds in caves in all the islands, particularly in Java and Borneo. These nests are exported to China, where they are highly esteemed as table delicacies. The Semang and Sakai and other wild tribes collect gutta, camphor, resin, and tin, which they sell to traders. Wealth among a great number of Indonesian tribes is reckoned in gongs ; in Borneo in brass guns also, and particularly in old Chinese pots, which are greatly valued and regarded as heirlooms ; among the Igorot value is reckoned in unhusked rice. The habit of chewing the areca-nut witli the Intel-leaf and lime may be said to be universal, though not so common among the negrito tribes ; tobacco-smoking is similarly widespread, and the huge brass pipes of the Batak of Sumatra are especially characteristic (fig. 70. 1). Fire isi)roduced byfiint and steel (fig. 70. :i), )jy friction (sawing or twirling), and, in the PliiU])pines, Borneo, Sumatra, and among some a.->/tf4: ,i;i).^tl,;i/ .'>Ul)iiil; E^Pf^*^ 'ii^ij-'Hi-' < " --jy ' vV' iV iv j'l/v 'ni(f liLvJ J ' Fig. 74. — Primitive loom with single heddlo from the Igorot of the Philippines. INDONESIA 93 of the MaLays, by means of the fire-piston (see p. 14 and fig. 7, h). Cannibalism is reported of the Batak of Sumatra, and, ceremonially and for magical reasons only, of some of the Borneo tribes. The habitations show considerable variety of pattern locally, but one characteiistic scorns typical of the Indonesians — the construction of the dwelling on piles, which in Borneo sometimes attain a height of forty feet. Communal houses accommodating a large number of families are found in parts of Sumatra, the Mentawi Islands, Borneo, and parts of the Philippines (Mandaya). The Igorot are peculiar in Ixiilding stone huts of three kinds, one as a council-hut, which is usually forbidden to the women, huts for married couples, and other huts for unmarried girls. Tree- dwellings are found among the Semang, Sakai, Kubu of Su- matra, and in the Philippines (Tinguianes) ; cave - dwellings, or more strictly rock-shelters, among Semang, Sakai, and Toala of Celebes ; small leaf-shelters are often constructed on the ground by the negritos and some of the forest tribes of Sumatra ; and there is a primitive tribe in Sumatra which inhabits huts built on rafts ; the Orang Laut or Sea-Gypsies, a Malay people, live for the most part on board their jirimitive craft. The plough is used in Java, Sumatra (Batak) and in parts of the Philippines, elsewhere its place is taken by the hoe or digging-stick ; everywhere rice is reaped ear by ear with a peculiar form of knife ; equally widespread is the typical axe-adze with small movable blade and springy handle, as efficient in Indonesian hands as it is paltry in appearance. Wooden dishes, coconut \ essels and spoons, wooden mortars for husking rice, are almost universal, and bamboo-joints are used as cooking-vessels in Borneo and by the negritos of the Philippines and the Sakai. I>asket-work is manufactured by the women (in Borneo by the men also) and everywhere reaches a high level, particularly in Borneo (fig. 78). Weaving is also women's work, and the textiles of Java, Sumatra (Batak), Borneo, and the Philippines (Visaya, Bagobo, &c.) are especially worthy of mention (lig. 74). In Borneo Fig. 75. — Kris with damascened blade and ivory hilt. Java. 94 ASIA a pattern is dyed on the warp before weaving, portions Ijeing 'reserved' by binding tightly with bark so that they shall not absorb the dye. In Java patterns in several colours are applied to the completed fabric, the portions of cloth which it is desired to ' re- serve' from the action of a given dye being covered with wax ; after the cloth has been dipped the wax is removed by boiling ; the pro- a h c Fig. 76. — Indonesian swords, a. Celebes, h. Timor, c. Timor. cess is repeated for each colour, and the cloth is called hatil'. Bark- cloth is made in every island. Pottery is not made to any great extent except by the Mala3^s and certain communities among the Igorot. As regards metal, the early Mentawi Islanders and the Toala were stone-age j^eoples, but everywhere else the art of metal-working is practised, and in places reaches a very high level ; the Malaj^s, Kenyah-Kayan, and some of the Philippine INDONESIA 95 Islanders make beautiful kris- and sword-blades, and the gold- and silver-work of the first is famous ; the Javanese and Moros cast and bore cannon and even the Igorot cast brass by the cire j)erdue process. Kafts are found among the Sakai, small dug-outs, with Fig. 77. — Indonesian swords, a. Nlas. h. Celebes, c. Kenyah-Kayan, Borneo, d. Sulu. or without an additional gunwale, among most tribes, and larger boats, capable of carrying sixty or seventy men. with a flat-roofed cabin from wdiich to fight, are found among the Iban ; these are propelled with paddles, and sails are rarely used in Borneo. Sailing-vessels, liowever, are handled with dcxleiity by the Malays and J5iigi — indeed, it was only under compulsion from the former 96 ASIA that the Dian took to the sea, though as pirates they soon surpassed their masters in Ijloodthirstiuess and daring. The art of the negritos and Sakai is very primitive and consists mainly of small diaper patterns scratched on utensils and ornaments. These pat- terns are conventional representations of plants and animals, and their in- tention is invarialjly to afford magical protection to the owner from some specific ill or from general misfortune. Speaking generally, Indonesian decora- tive art is characterized hy a tendency to irregular scroll-work, hence the fre- quency of plant designs (fig. 16) which lend themselves naturally to such treat- ment without much conventionaliza- tion. When the Indonesian artist comes to deal with human and animal figures he invariably so far conven- tionalizes according to his own peculiar methods that they become grotesque, and in many cases absolutely unrecog- nizable as the forms of living creatures (PI. IV) ; this tendency is seen particu- larly in Borneo, where decorative art reaches a very high standard, the phyllomorphic scroll-work of the Iban being particularly worthy of mention (fig. 10). Even in Java the same tendency to conventionalize is seen in the figures which represent divine and heroic characters in the shadow and puppet plays, and which are very grotesque (fig. 84). The spear, with blade of wood, bam- boo or iron, is practically universal ; one interesting variety with ferocious- looking barbs is carried by Igorot as a defence not against man but against spirits. Swords, or analogous weapons, are found amongst nearly all the Indo- nesians, and the types vary according Fig. 78. — Blow-gun, showing outer and inner tube, and quiver witli darts. Sakai of tlie Malav Peninsula. PLATE IV House-boards carved and painted witli designs denveil clii.lly licni tiic dog. Kenyah-Kayan trilies, Borneo. \_Face p. 9. f/. .Java. are not found, the axe ap])ears, as among a certain section of the Igorot. This axe is furnished with a spike at the back. The how is typical of the negrito, and is found wherever negrito tribes appear ; it is rare among Indonesians, but occurs in Java and the l)resence of stone arrow-heads shows that it was used by the Toala (Celebes). The pellet-bow occurs in Sumatra (Batak). Slings are found in Java and Sumatra (Batak), but the arm of projection tyi)ical of the Indonesian is the blow-gun. which is K. II 98 ASIA found among the Sakai. Semang (sometimes), in Sumatra. Borneo (where it is sometimes furnished with a • sight '), and Pahiwan in the Philippines (iigs. 71, 78). It was also used in Java in early days, but is now obsolete there. Shields ai'e widely distributed amongst the Indonesians, and are all of vegetable material (tigs. 79, 82). A circular form is in use in Java, the old rectangular pattern being obsolete ; both shapes are found in Sumatra, the Fig. 80. — Indonesian shields, a. Celebes, h. Moluccas, c. Moluccas d. Ceram. rectangular among the Batak ; long hexagonal shields of wood with tufts of human hair are typical of the Kenyah-Kayan tribes (fig. 81), hexagonal or oval shields of M^ood or wicker of the Kelamantan. The Igorot shield of wood has three projections from the uj^per border and two from the lower (fig. 82). while the negrito shield has a straight upper l)order and a rounded lower. Some form of body-armour is found amongst most Indonesians, quilted in Borneo and the Philippines, corslets of hide or woven work in Celebes, and so on. In Borneo the Kayan and others INDONESIA 99 often wear a skin jacket over the armour, or a wadded coat covered with fish-scales (fig. 83), and a stout cane cap. Mail and body-armour are found in the Philij^pines (Moros). In the Mentawi Islands. Borneo, and Philippines the custom of head-hunting is found in its extreme form. In the older days no ceremony, religious or civil, no important act of social life. Fig. 81.— Wooden shields, one decorated for war with human liair. Kenyah-Kayan tribes, Borneo. marriages and funerals and the like, could be accomplished without the taking of a head. In war the account of heads was carefully kept on both sides, and on making peace the accounts were balanced, if unequal, l^y monetary compensation. Tlie heads Avpines, and shamanistic witch-doctors of either sex are found. Fig. 86a. — Wooden figure of a lioi-nbill used in (•cronionif^. Ihan. Borneo. The Semang api)ear to have no fear of ghosts, but they recognize a thunder-god and several minor deities; the Sakai, on the con- trary, hold beliefs similar to those of the Indonesians. In the more civilized communities other foiins of religion are found ; in Java Buddhism was introduced at a very early date, and the mighty ruins of Boro-Budur, similar in style to those of North- West India, prove that it brought Avith it an advanced culture. Later it was replaced 1)y Hinduism, and later still, at the fall of Majapahit in 1475. Islam became the national religion : a few Hindu families fled to Bali, where the old religion is still found. Islam as a religion seems suited to the Indonesians, particularly the Malays, who accepted it readily: it reached Acheh in Sumatra INDONESIA 10:^ in 1206, the Malay Peninsula in 127C), became the state religion in Brunei about 1400, and in Java in 1475, and obtained a footing in Celebes in 1495. To the Moros, the piratical Moslems of the Philippines, allusion has already been made. Christianity is found among many of the Philippine tribes (notably the Tagal and Visaya). The acceptance of Islam or Christianity by no means extinguished the old belief in spirits, and many of the ancient superstitions and practices still survive among converted tribes. Charms and anmlets are universal, and far too various to describe ; it need only be mentioned that particular virtues are attached to peculiarl)' shaped stones, especially in Bdi-neo. One of the distinguishing characteristics of Indonesian religion is the attention paid to omens— chiefly observed from the voices and Fig. 86b. — B;uk ))ook witli charms written in native serijd. Batak of Sumatra. movements of birds. The tribes of Borneo in particular are slaves to this form of superstition. Other forms of divination are by con- sulting magic books of bark (fig. 86 b), or bamboo calendars (Batak of Sumatra), by casting bears" teeth as dice (Kayans) and haruspica- tion with chickens (Igorot). Belief in lucky and unlucky days is universal, and a form of sundial is used in Borneo to distinguish l)et\veen the two. Sickness is attributed to one of two causes : possession of the i)atient by a spirit, or the absence of the patient's soul, and the treatment applied by the witch-doctor is intended either to expel the intruder or recall the wandering soul. In some cases the name of the sufferer is changed in the hope of deceiving malevolent spirits. Belief in transmigration occurs among the Sakai ; elsewhere the disembodied soul is regarded as leading an indeterminate sort of existence in the aii\ or in a heaven which corresponds to the death whereby it died (Borneo). 106 AUSTRALIA The great island-continent of Australia, nearly one-half of which lies within the tropics, is fringed round its coasts with forest and parlvland, and crossed from north to south by a central belt of grassy country, which divides the great central area of scrub or desert into two sections. The eastern of these is relieved by large tracts of grassland, but the western and central portions are absolutely uninhabited. Owing to the nature of the country, and more especially to the uncertain nature of the water supply, the aborigines were forced by circumstances to live the life of nomadic hunters, and had not advanced very far in the scale of civilization at the date of their discovery. The racial affinities of these people have been the subject of much discussion, but the general theory seems to be that they are a low branch of the Dravidians of India, and there- fore distantly connected with the brunette peoples of Europe. In the north-east both culture and physique have been affected by the proximity of New Guinea and the islands of Torres Straits ; traces of Melanesian contact are found down the east coast. The natives are tall and sinewy, with fine chests, but poorly shaped legs; their colour shows considerable variation from medium-brown to dark chocolate ; hair is dark brown or black, long and wavy or curly ; the older men grow long beards, and hair in abundance is found on the body. The features are coarse, the nose broad though not depressed, the lips thick though not everted ; a noticeable trait is the excessive projection of the bony l^rominences above the eyes, which give the males a truculent and scowling appearance. This peculiarity, which is present also in the earliest prehistoric skulls, together with a general ' ill-filled ' appearance of the cranium, seems in the main a characteristic of the Australian peoples. Clothing, with the exception of bark belts (fig. 87), is taken almost exclusively from the animal kingdom. In either case it is reduced to an absolute minimum, and by no means regarded as essential. It consists mainly of fringes or tassels of string made from the hair of the opossum ; or girdles of similar material, or of human hair. The southern natives (Victoria) are the most clothed ; among these, aprons of hide and feathers are found, as well as rugs of ojiossum-skin (fig. 88). The hair is either left to grow naturally or confined by a net or band : ochre is often thickly applied. Forehead-ornaments of kangaroo teeth are found, and n( cklaces of the same, or of fur-string or sections of reed. Cane armlets occur in the central region. The wearing of nose-pins is AUSTRALIA 107 almost iiniversfil, as well as the scarring of the body. The latter is largely ceremonial, and, like the extraction of one or more incisor teeth, an accompaniment of initiation-ceremonies, The Fio. 87. — Bark belt worn by mon. North- West Australi; Fio. 88. — Natives of Giitjislanil in IVoiit .,f baik slieltors. Atislralia. Australians are essenti:illy nomadic, living on game and llio wild fruits and roots. Cultivation, even of tlic^ most primitive dcscrij)- tion, is not found fxccj.t in ])ails (.f llio west. Fishing is largely 108 AUSTIJALTA Fig. 89. — Non-returning boomerangs used in war. a. Victoria. b, c, and d. Northern Australia. Fig. 90.— Wooden clubs from New South Wales, Australia. AUSTKALTA 109 practised by tribes who have the opportunity, by means of harpoons, spears, traps, nets, dams and poison ; and the collection of shellfish is one of the most important of the duties of the women. As trackers and hunters the Australians excel ; and their skill in capturing and killing wild game with the aid of the most primitive contrivances is wonderful. Cannibalism is no- where regular: in some places those killed in war or dying of Fig. 91. — Wooden clubs, &c. from Australia, a, h, c. New South Wales. d, e. Victoria. /. Boomerang, W. Australia, g. N.-W. Australia, g. Weet- ivtd, Victoria. disease are eaten, elsewhere the practice is purely ceremonial ; in Victoria it is regarded as the most fitting method of disposal of deceased relatives. The dried vegetable pltur'i is eaten as a stimulant, and forms by far the most imi)ortant, indeed almost the only, ol>ject of commerce between tribe and tribe. Food is cooked either directly over the fire, or by means of hot stones. Habitations are of the most ludimentary nature, consisting mainly of small shelters or wind-screens of leaves ((Queensland), l)ark and no AUSTRALIA rushes (West), or wood and turf (Victoria) (fig. 88), but stone walls have been reported in the North-West, and a central pole in Victoria. *'""'i,4/i gsiHiilir - C2> Fig. 92. — Wooden clubs fi-om Aus- tialia. a. Noi'tli-West. b, c. Victoria. Fig. 93. — Wooden sword-club. Port Es- sington, N. Australia. The commonest form of canoe is a sheet of bark taken in one piece from the tree, but canoes of several bark-sheets sewn together are found (east and north coasts) ; dug-outs are made in New South Wales and Queensland, and single or double out- AUSTRALIA 111 riggers, due undoubtedly to foreign influence (New Guinea), in the north. At the time of their discovery the Australians were living in the neolithic stage of culture ; their only implements were of chipped and ground stone, teeth, shells, bone, and wood. After the arrival of the Europeans, beautiful ' neolithic ' spearheads were made from glass-bottles and telegraph-insulators (Plate V). Wooden digging-sticks are used by the women to procure yams. The ■c^ V Seciio ■< giT5r-T]a Fig. 94. — Spcar-th rowers from Australia. 1, 2, 3. West Australia. 4. Northern Territory. 5. Now South Wales. 6. Victoria. spinifex gum and beeswax were most valuable in affixing stone flakes and other cutting-instruments to handles, and were often supplemented by a l)inding of fibre-string or kangaroo sinew. Fluids were contained in vessels of skin, shell, bark, wood and, in the north, gourds and baskets. Two-ply string is made of vege- talde fibre and hair (opossum or human), and various forms of baskets and net bags are manufactured. Fire is produced by friction, usually by twirling (e. g. fig. 7 d), but the sawing method is known in the eastern and central sections of the continent (fig. 7 g). Art is 112 AUSTK'ALIA at a low stage, but attempts at pictorial representation ai-e found in rock drawings in Victoria, New South Wales, Queensland, the Central district, and Kimlierley, as well as the ceremonial drawings on the ground performed by the central tri))es and those on bark of the eastern. Of weapons mostjieople would legard the boomerang as the most characteristic, and this is true with tlie reservation that the boomerang proper, the variety which returns when a l> c Fig. 95. — Wooden parryiny-shielils. a. W. Au:4r;ili;i. h, c. Victuria. thrown, is not a weapon of war but only of the chase (fig. 6). The 'war' boomerang does not return (fig. 89). In addition, the Australians possess a great variety of clubs (figs. 90-92) for throwing and striking, 'swords' (fig. 93). and spears; the last-named may have points of wood, stone, and, in later times, glass or telegraph wire. Spears are thrown by means of a shaft of wood furnished with a peg which fits into the butt, a mechanical contrivance of great ingenuity, also found among the Eskimo, and the inhabitants PLATE V. Spfiiilifacls (Vi'in Wcstoiii Australia, a. Cliert. h, c. Clialcciliiiiy. il. Madg from a telcgrajih insulatox". e. Bottle-j-la^ss. [Face p. 112 AUSTRALIA u; of Western, North, and Central South America, as well as among the ancient Mexicans (fig. 94). The bow and arrow, of undoubted Papuan origin, occurs in the extreme north of Queensland. Parrying-shields are found in Queensland (fig. 95), and shields for use against spears in most places (fig. 96) ; these, like Fig. 9C. — Wooden spear-sliields from Austialhv. a. New South Wales. b. Qucenslanil. c. Victoria. the other weapons, vary in type according to the district from which they come. Actual war is practically unknown in Australia, but .skirmishes with other local groups in consequence of blood- feuds, and duels between individuals are frequent ; in these women participate, using yamsticks as weapons. Government seems to Ije vestf-d in ln';uliiicn and a couiici] formed of the leaders 114 AUSTRALIA of the • totem " or local groups. Sometimes the position of headman is hereditary (Victoria), but often some additional qualification is sought, such as skill in magic. The social organization is complex, and tlie study of it has given rise to endless controvers)^ ; here it can only receive the briefest mention. A tribe is usually divided into two groups, called technically ]ilu-atries ; the members of each phratry may not marry, but must seek their mates from the other phratry. Each phratry may be divided into two or four classes. Children inherit some- times the phratry of the father, sometimes that of the mother, Imt their class is a different matter. If it is imagined that there are two phratries X (classes A and B) and Y (classes C and D), and that children inherit the phratry of the mother, then matters would arrange them- selves thus : A man of class A can only marry a woman of class C : their children will be- long to class D. Suppose these children are a boy and a girl, and they both marry, then the l^oy's children will belong to class A. the girl's to class C, and so on. There are various modi- fications and exceptions, but the above illustrates the system. There is another division into totem-kin ; this is quite inde- pendent of the class division, though one totem is usually con- fined to a phratry. The totem- kin are represented each by a badge, usually an animal or plant, which the members re- frain from eating (except at times ceremonially) ; and it is often believed that a supernatural bond exists between the members of the totem and the species of the totem animal or plant. Members of the same totem may not marry, and the totem is inherited sometimes from the mother, sometimes from the father. Wives are gained by exchanging a sister, by elopement, or by kidna^iping ; in the latter case a inore or less friendly duel with the woman's relatives ensues. Boys undergo a series of Fig. 97. — 'Message-sticks' from N. Queensland. AUSTRALIA 115 initifition ceremonies during which teeth are extracted, scars made, circumcision and (in some localities only) the miJca opera- tion is performed. The disposal of the dead is most commonly by burial ; but exposure on a stage or in a tree is the rule among the central tribes. Cremation is found in New South Wales, and in parts the dead are eaten (east of Gulf). Mourning is usually expressed by gashing the body, painting, shaving the head, and the like. Writing is unknown, but notched sticks are used as aids to memory (figs. 37 and 97). As far as our evidence goes, however, it Fig. 98. — Chnringa, ceremonial objects of stone (in tlie centre) or wood, covered with totemic carvings or e.igle-down (specimen at bottom). Arunta trilje. Central Australia. seems that the notches and marks made by one native cannot be read by another unaided ; such sticks, accompanied ])y verbal messages, pass from tribe to tribe, and act as credentials to the messenger as well as help to fix the message in his memory. Music is of the most primitive description ; tlie time is beaten with sticks or boome- rangs or with the hands on opossum skins rolled up or stretched between the knees. Songs and dances are very varied, and pass from one tribe to another over the whole continent; the per- formers are decorated with paint and bird"s-down, and various ornaments. Many dances are ceremonial and connected with initiation ceremonies or ceremonies designed to further the I 2 ^- ^'.^..^^ AUSTRALIA 117 increase in number of the totem animal. Games of all sorts are very numerous ; cat's-cradle is known, and the children play with tops, balls, toy weapons, and the like : a peculiar toy is the tveet-iveet or ' kangaroo-rat ', which the practised player can throw to enormous distances (fig. 91 Ji). Wi-estling and practising with weapons are universal, and 'make believe' games almost innumerable. The Australians give various accounts of the soul's fate after death ; it travels west, lives in the sky, in trees, under the sea ; it maybe reincarnated in another man, black or white. Some tribes believe that the work of creation was performed by certain mythi- cal ancestors (Dieri, N. Arunta), and etiological myths generally are very common. Gods, who are often sky-gods, vary from tribe to tribe. Magic is largely practised, evil magic by any one who has a grievance against another, curative magic only by the jiroperly qualified magician. Evil magic is worked on an enemy by ap- pearing to insert bones, stones, &c. in his body, or to remove in equally mysterious fashion certain of his essential internal organs : especially powerful magically are quartz crystals and human kid- ney-fat. Accredited magicians are often subjected to a special initiation ceremony, which includes the supposed killing and bring- ing to life again of the candidate. Rain-making is widely practised. OCEANIA The inhabitants of Oceania, including the Pacific Islands, New Zealand, New Guinea and Australia, fall into tliree main groups : (a) Australians, {h} Papuasians, and (c) Polynesians. Of these the Australians are treated separately above and no further mention need be made of them here. Of the other two, the Papuasians show negroid characteristics, such as a dark skin, frizzy hair, and broad noses ; the Polynesians display Caucasic traits, such as brown skin, straight or wavy hair, and medium or narrow noses. The Papuasians fall into two groups : (1) Papuans, distinguished by tall stature, darker colour, prominent hooked noses, and more frizzy hair, and (2) Melanesians, characterized by shorter stature, less dark colour, dejiressed noses, and less frizzy, or even curly, hair. The Polynesians may also be divided into two groups: (1) Polynesians proper, tall, with skin colour not darker than Southern Europeans, and (2) Micronesians, less tall, and with a tinge of yellow in the complexion owing to the 2)resence of some Mongolian element (possibly Malayan). 118 OCEANIA These peoples are distributed as follows : — The Papuans occupy New Guinea and the ishmds of Torres Straits ; they have, moreover, contributed a considerable element to the population of the Admiralty Isles, and, in a less degree, to that of the Bismark Archij)elago, The Melanesians inhabit tlie southeast end of New Guinea, and the islands eastward as far as Fiji, where they have mingled to some extent with Polynesians ; their northern limit is the Admiralty group ; their southern, Tasmania. The Polynesians are spread over a large area, occupying the islands from Tonga, where they have mixed with Melanesians, to Easter Island, and from the Hawaiian Group to New Zealand. Certain isolated islands belonging geographically to Melanesia, such as Ontong Java (Leueneua) and Rennell Island, are inhabited by Polynesians. The Micronesians people the islands to the north-west of the greater portion of Polynesia: viz. the Ellice, Gilbert, Marshall, Caroline, Marianne and Pelew groups. As regards the Papuans, it seems reasonable to suppose that the type was evolved in New Guinea and spread thence to the islands of Torres Sti-aits. The actual home of the Melanesians is more difficult to fix. The most primitive are — or rather were — the Tasmanians, who lived in a stage of culture lower than any other known tribe ; their presence on a small island, combined with their lack of skill in navigation, appears remarkable until it is remembered that part of Eastern Australia, Tasmania, and New Caledonia at one time probably formed a large island, separated from Western Australia by a strait. As the land assumed its present configuration, sections of this people were cut off in New Caledonia, where they progressed and developed, and in Tasmania, where they remained stationary. Thus they were protected from the inhabitants of what is now Western Australia ; the other primitive Melanesians were killed off or absorbed by the latter when the strait separating the respective territories disappeared. With regard to the history of the Polynesians, more is known, and still more can be conjectured, from evidence afforded by language and native traditions. The same language is found throughout the islands, and the myths and genealogies of noble families correspond to a remarkable degree. By a com- parisun of genealogies obtained in various islands, the order in which the latter were occupied can be conjectured with some certainty. It would appear, for reasons too intricate to be explained at length, that the Polynesians were originally an inland people of Caueasic affinities, living in or near the valley of the Ganges. Moving hence, they gradually made their way to Java, where they remained for some time, acquiring a thorough knowledge OCEANIA 119 of seamanship, and adopting the breadfruit as a staple diet instead of rice, which had hitherto been their chief food. Meanwhile they had come in contact with the Malays, and the contact between the two races had exercised a considerable effect on both, especially in the matter of language. From Java they proceeded by sea through the Molucca Straits and down the north coast of New Guinea to Fiji, Tonga and Samoa, which seem to have formed a sort of rallying ground. From this centre were peopled the Hawaiian Islands, which remained isolated for about five hundred years, and the Eastern Pacific as far as Easter Island. With the exception of Hawaii, frequent intercourse was long maintained between the various islands, and it is likely that the coast of America was reached, where certain food-plants, such as the sweet potato, were obtained. Dissensions, however, appear to have broken out between the Western Polynesians and the Eastern, who were doubtless the more enterprising and adventurous ; at the same time, encroach- ments on the part of the Melanesians began to occupy the attention of the inhabitants of the Western Islands, and further exploration and naval enterprise was left to the Eastern Poljniesians, particularly the inhabitants of the Tahitian and Hervey groups. Hawaii was revisited, and New Zealand, which had been discovered some time previously, was finally colonized by a lai'ge fleet which set sail from Earatonga. The Micronesians for the most part seem to be derived from a branch of the Polynesian people which possibly separated from the rest in the Molucca Sti'aits, and peopled Micronesia from west to east. THE PAPUASIANS The Melanesians proper, as said above, inhabit the islands of Tasmania (formerly), Fiji, New Caledonia, New Hebrides. Banks, S.mta Cru/, Solomon, New Britain, New Ireland, Admiralty, those oft' the south-east coast of New Guinea, and part of the south-east coast itself. In Fiji, and to a less extent in New Caledonia, they are mixed with Polynesians ; in New Britain, New Ireland, the Admiialty group, and New Guinea, with Papuans ; the Melanesians, or better Papuo-Melanesians, of New Guinea ai)pe;ir to l>elong to two distinct migrations, and will be mentioned respectively as the eastern Papuo-Melanesians, in- jialjiting the islands off the south-east coast ; and the western Pa2:)uo-Melanesians, occupying part of the south-east coast itself. Among the former a slight Polynesian element has been traced. The Pai)uans inhal>it the rest of New Guinea, and appear to have spread thence over tlio islands of Torres Straits, where, in the 120 OCEANIA southernmost islands, they have come in contact with Australian culture. The Papua sians belong to the negroid stock, but considerable variation of pliysical tyi)e jn-evails among them ; skin colour varies from chocolate to bronze, the Papuans being darker than the Melanesians. Stature is comparatively short, except among the Papuans, who are further distinguished by large and pro- minent noses, those of the Melanesians being smaller and more or less depressed. Hair for the most part is frizzy, though curly and even wavy hair occurs sporadically in certain tribes. A slight degree of prognathism is not uncommon. Clothing is verj^ scanty throughout Papuasia, and complete nudity of either sex is not uncommon locally ; materials for clotliing are taken from the vegetable kingdom, bark-cloth girdles for the men and fringed skirts for the women being the most common patterns. Among the Tasmanians alone skin cloaks (kangaroo) were occasionally seen. Head deformation is occasion- ally found, notably in the New Hebrides, and piercing and distention of the ear-lobes are common. Tatu proper is found practically everywhere except among the Papuans ; cicatrization frequently by burning, among the inhabitants of Fiji, New Caledonia, Tasmania, and New Ireland, and the Papuans of New Guinea. The septum of the nose is often pierced, and a pin worn in the hole (area from the Solomons to New Guinea) or a ring (Torres Island) : in some cases the side of the nostril is pierced (New Britain), or a small hole made in the tip of the nose to receive the point of an ornamental pin (Solomon Islands). The hair is frizzed out in a mop in Fiji, New Ciiledonia, and New Guinea, elsewhere it is kept short ; in some islands it is bleached, and combs are common as ornaments, those of the Solomons and Admiralty being the most decorative. As regards ornaments, necklaces of string and shell were worn by the Tasmanians ; elsewhere strings of shells and shell-beads, teeth, and seeds ; armlets of shell, pendants of shell, turtle-shell, boars tusks, and the like are w^orn in great variety. Especially characteristic are the cachalot ivory pendants and shell and ivory breastplates of the Fijians, the jade beads of New Caledonia, the shell breast ornaments of the Solomons, the turtle-shell fretwork of the Solomons, New Ireland, Admiralty, and New Guinea, and the boar's tusks of New Guinea and the New Britain Archipelago ; the ornaments of the Admiralty Islands are very similar to those of the Papuans. Habitations vary greatly in pattern and in size, from the rude wind-screens of the Tasmanians to the large communal dwellings of New Britain and PajKian New Guinea. A circular ground-plan is found in interior Fiji, New Caledonia, and locally in New Ireland, and was the usual pattern originallj" in the Banks Islands. Elsewhere buildings are rectangular. Pile-houses are common THE PAPUASIANS 121 -Typos of spears from Melanesia, a. Fiji Islands (pointed with sting-ray spinosj. b. Fiji Islands, c. New Caleddnia. d. Espiritu Santo, New Hebrides, e. New Ireland (fish-spine barbs). /. Bougainville, Solomon Islands (with flying-fox bone barbs), rj. Florida, Solomon Islands (human bono ])oint). h. Ysabel, Solomon Islands. 122 OCEANIA on the coast in the Solomons (Florida Islnml). New Britain and New Ireland, Admiralty Islands and New Uuinea, and many of the villages extend some distance out into the sea. The Tasmanians lived mainly on shell-fish, wild produce, and such game as they cuuld secure with their primitive weapons; the Fio. KHi. — Spatulae for lime used in betel-chewing (the central speiimen made of ttirtle-shell from S.E. New Guinea Archipelago. rest of the Papuasians are on tlie whole jirimarily agriculturists and. in a nearly equal degree, fishermen. In the larger islands there is usually a sharp distinction between the coast people, who are mainly fishers, and the inlanders, who are agriculturists ; the latter are always by far the more primitive, and in many cases are practically the serfs of the former. The plantations, in which THE PAPUASIANS 123 both sexes work, are very well tended ; irrigation is practised, and in places aqueducts are constructed (New Caledonia, New Guinea). Fish are almost everywhere captured by hooks (Hg. o rt-c), spears, and traps : but two devices are ^vorthy of special mention. In New Guinea the bait is sometimes suspended from a kite, so that it trips along the surface of the water ; in Torres Straits the natives, when fishing for turtle, attach a line to the tail of a remora or sucker-fish, which finds and attaches itself to a turtle, thus acting as a guide to the fisherman. Hunting is not much practised except in New Guinea, owing to the paucity of game ; here the game is driven Fi(i 101. — Working-adze with jade blade. New Caledonia. into nets. Cooking is performed by heated stones or locally in l)ots or shells, fire being procured by friction, usually l)y rubbing a stick along a groove. A mild intoxicant is prepared from the 2)iper mcfJiifsficuni in Fiji, New Hebrides, and Banks Islands, l)ut the i^ractice has undoubtedly been introduced from Polynesia. Betel chewing is found as far east as Santa Cruz (fig. 100). Cannibalism occurs sporadically in all the groups except the Banks Islands and Santa Cru/ (fig. 2) ; the victims are almost invariably foemen killed in battle. Canoes are found everywhere; even the Tasmanians constructed canof-shaped rafts of Ijark. The commonest craft is the dug-oul with single outrigger, which is Connd almost every- 124 OCEANIA Fig 102— Ceremonial axe with jade blade, the handle bound with flying-fox fur braid. New Caledonia. THE PAPUASIANS 125 where except in pari of the Solomon Ishands ; here fineh'-made plank-built canoes are found, often ornamented with shell inlay. Large double canoes are built in Fiji, New Caledonia, and New Guinea ; these are furnished with sails, and are capable of perform- ing considerable voyages. Thus pottery is traded along the coast of New Guinea ; drums, arrows, and clubs from New Guinea to Torres Straits, &c. Various forms of currency are in use in different islands, but strings of small shell discs are universal ; other forms are whale's teeth (Fiji) ; flying-fox-fur braid (New Caledonia) ; mats (New Hebrides) ; arrows (Torres Island) ; feathers (Santa Cruz) ; por- poise-teeth and shields (Solomon Islands) ; stone axes (New Guinea). Fig. 103. — Pottery vessels from Fiji. The inhabitants of all the islands were living, at the time of their discovery, in the stone age ; the implements of the Tasmanians consisted mainly of rudely chipped stone flakes of palaeolithic type. Elsewhere in this area the chief tool is the adze or axe, with polished blade of stone or shell (figs. 10 and 101) ; the latter in the New Hebrides (fig. 121), Banks Islands, Santa Cruz, and locally in New Guinea. Of the stone blades the best are the jade ceremonial axes of New Caledonia (fig. 102), and the fine adzes manufactured on Murua and traded thence to New Guinea. Stone pestles and mortars are found in the ground in south-east New Guinea, but the natives do not know their use and regard them as charms ; in fact the food of the present-day native does not require sucli implements in its preparation. Obsidian, where it occurs, and sharks' teeth are used in carving, and shells and bamboo splinters as knives. The best pottery is made in Fiji (fig. 103) and New Guinea ; the pots of the former exhibit groat variety of shape, and are covered with vegetable varnish ; in New Guinea the Motu people are the 126 OQ^ANIA best potters, but none of the present-day ware equals the fragments which are dug uyi in great (juautities in several localities on the south-east end of the island. Pottery is also made in New Caledonia, one of the New Hebrides (Espiritu Santo), and ihe Admiralty Islands. Bark-cloth (fig. 104) is manufactured in most islands, but nowhere attains the excellence of the best Polynesian fcqM (see p. 149). Looms are found in Santa Cruz, and were formerly used by the Banks Islanders, but are now obsolete in Fig. 104. -Slieet of tapa with wooden beater and jirinting- board. Fiji. that island. Food-vessels are largely carved from wood, the most noticeable being the large kava-bowls of Fiji ; the inlaid food-bowls of the Solomons, often in bird form (fig. 105) ; and the elaborately carved bowls of the Admiralty Islands. Other ve.ssels are constructed from gourds, baml)oo joints, and coconuts. The decorative art of the Melanesians, excepting the Tasmanians, is of a fairly high order, es]iecially in the Solomon Islands and New Guinea. In both these islands human, bird, and fi.sh forms appear more or less conventionalizedjn almost every pattern (figs. I'LATE VI. 'J'wo cliilis and ilaiii-iiin-^liii-M Cioin SK. M.\v (iuiii.a aiik> IVmih New Guinea, a, h. Bark-ilutli : Ilcni.-i y Tasnuin, and named liy him Prince William Islands ; it was formally proclaimed a Fi«. 119. — Ceremonial carving from :i 'temple'. New Ireland. 110 OCEANIA Fig. 120. — Ceremonial mask from New Caledonia. British colony in 1875. Tlie larsest of the group is called Viti Levu, and it was in this island that early in the eighteenth century there was an up- heaval among the mountaineer Mela- nesian tribes which resulted in one of them, the tribe of Mbau, becoming paramount. This island was less af- fected by the Poly- nesians in early days than the rest, many of which were peopled by half- bi'eeds. From the year 1790 the Ton- gans for many years sent an annual war- like expedition to Fiji. New Caledonia and Loyalty Islands New Caledonia was partly dis- covered by Captain Cook, but the work was completed by d'Entrecasteaux; the Loyalty Islands, of which the chief are Uvea, Ligu, and Mare, were dis- covered by Captain Butler about 1800. New Caledonia was annexed by France in 1853, and a penal settlement was es- tablished there. The THE PAPUASIANS 141 inhabitants have been affected by contact with Polynesians, who in early days made voyages thither, and who introduced their speech and customs into the island of Uvea. New Hebeides The following are the principal islands of the New Hebrides, reading from north to south : Espiritu Santo, Aurora (Maiwo), Aoba, Pente- cost (Aragh), Malekula, Ambrym, Api, Vate, Eromanga, Tanna, Fu- tuna, and Aneiteum. The northern portion of the group was dis- covered by Quiros, the greater part of the southern by Cook, who gave the name New Hebrides to the whole chain in 1773. Poly- nesian settlements are found in this group also. Banks Islands This group consists of the following islands: Vanua Lava, Gaua, Mota, Valua, and a few smaller islets; the group, which was dis- covered by Quiros, and was annexed l)y Great Britain in 1898, proper- ly includes the smaller group called Torres Islands. Santa Chuz Islands These islands, Santa Cruz, Utupua, Vani- koro, Tukopia, and others, were discovered by Mendana in 1595, and again by Carteret in 17(j7, who called Santa Cruz Egniont Island , they were annexed by Great Britain in 1898. Fui. 121. -Double adze with shell blades. Aiubi-ym Island, Now Hebrides. Fig, 122. - Wooden clubs from the Solomon Islands, a. Malaita. Cristoval. c. Ysabel. d. Florida, e. Malaita. h. San THE PAPUASIANS 143 Solomon Islands This group was discovered by Mendana in 1567, but has not even yet been completely explored ; the chief islands, reading from east to west, are San Cristoval, Ulana, Malaita, Guadalcanar, Florida, New Georgia (Rubiana), Vella La- vella, Ysabel, Choiseul, Short - land, Bougainville, and Bouka. The two islands last named belong to German}', the others to Great Britain. Geographi- cally belonging to this group are Leueneua (Lord Howe Island or Ontong Java) and Rennell Island, both of which are peopled by Polynesians. New Britain, New Ireland, AND New Hanover New Britain was discovered by Dampier, and New Ireland by Lemaire and Schouten ; it was left for Carteret to dis- cover that they were sejsarate islands and to name them ; the same navigator discovered New Hanover. The inhabitants of the south-west portion of New Bi'itain differ from those of the Gazelle peninsula, who are immigrants from New Ire- land. Among them in the interior are still found an aboriginal inland tribe called Baining, of very primitive habits. The south-west po2>u- lation of New Britain has been affected by Papuan influences. The three islands now belong- to Germany, and the first two have been renamed recently Fir;. ]2.'5. — Wooden clubs, a, b. New Iieliiiid. c. J)uke of Ymk Island. 144 OCEANIA Neu-Pomiuern and Neu-Mecklenburg respectively, tlu- wliuk' chain being termed Bismarck Archipelago. Admiralty Islands These islands were discovered bj' Lemaire and Schouten in 1016, and now belong to Germany, being included in the so-called Bismarck Archipelago. The inhabitants, both from their appear- ance and culture, seem to have ))een strongly influenced l)y the Fig. 124. — Human skull with nose-ornament (hane}:a\ British New Guinea. Papuans of the opposite New Guinea coast. Admiraltj" Island is a typical example of a large Melanesian island in the arrangement of its population. Round the coasts are the most advanced tribes, warriors and fishermen ; in the highlands of the interior are the most primitive tril)es ; and bet^^•een the two are tribes who partake of the characteristics of both, that is to say, they are neither wholly seamen nor whollj'^ agriculturists, but active in both departments. The coast people are called Moanu, the inlanders Usiai, and those between Matankor. The Usiai are practically the serfs of the coastal people. THE PAPUASIANS 145 New Guinea and Toeres Straits With this large island may be included the following groups : the d'Entrecasteaux Islands, the Trobriand Islands, and the Louisiade Archipelago, all at the south-east end of the island ; the Kei and Aru groups off the south-west coast, the Schouten Islands to the north, and a number of scattered islands along the north-west coast. New Guinea was discovered Ijy J. de Meneses in 1524, but named by Ortiz de Retes in 1545. The mapping of the coast-line was performed piecemeal by many explorers, but the interior is at present unknown. The d'Entrecasteaux group was first sighted by the navigator whose name it bears ; the Louisiade Archipelago was named by Bougainville in 1793 in honour of Louis XV of France. New Guinea and the adjacent islands are divided between Holland, Great Britain, and Germany ; Holland Fig. 125. — Bambu tobacco-pipe. Torres Straits. occupying that portion of the island west of 141° long., Great Britain the southern half of the remainder, and Germany the northern half. In speaking of the inhabitants it must be remembered that the interior of the island is unknown. The main stock of the popu- lation is Pajiuan, with local Polynesian admixture along the north coast and islands off the south-east end. Along the south coast, east of Cape Possession, on the extreme south-east corner of the island, and in the Ti'obriaud, d'Entrecasteaux, and Louisiade Islands the population is mainly Melanesian, and the term Papuo-Melanesian is used of them. Indications show th.at the Melanesian element is due to two distinct migrations ; thus it can be divided into eastern Papuo-Melanesian, occupying the islands and the south-oast corner of the mainland, and western Papuo- Melane.sian, occupying the soutli coast as far as Cape ]\)ssession. The islands of Torres Straits, lying between New Guinea and Cape York, i\ustralia, are ])eopled by Papuans, and the E. L 146 OCEANIA culture is almost ontii-ely Papuan ; only in tlie most southerly islands, such as Muralug, is any Australian influence apparent, and that onl}^ to a slight degree. POLYNESIANS AND MICRONESIANS The word Polynesia, which is of Greek derivation, means ' many islands', and is given to the scattered groups of the Pacific which Fui. 126.— Lnrge fishhook of wliale's bone, turtle-sliell. and l^earl-shell. Tonga. Fig. 127.— Fisli- liook of bone and pearl-shell. Tahi- ti an Group. xte* Fig. 128.— Stone bread- fruit splitter. Hawaiian Is- lands. form a great triangle with the apex at Easter Island in the east, and the base between New Zealand and Hawaii in the west. Polynesia thus lies further to the east than Melanesia, and occupies the centre of the Ocean. Geologically, the islands may be divided into two classes : the high, which are volcanic and often well-wooded ; and the low, which are coralline, and generally have a poor soil. Prior to the advent of the Europeans the POLYNESIANS AND MICRONESIANS 147 only animal of any size was the dog. Parts of Polynesia have been known since the times of the Spaniard Quiros (sixteenth century) and the Dutchman Tasman (seventeenth century). But the eighteenth century witnessed the most important discoveries, and in this period fall the voyages of Anson, Wallis, Cook, Bougainville, La Perouse, and other famous navigators. The Polynesians are of a hospitable disposition, and their culture stood on a higher level than that of their Melanesian neighbours. The Polynesian is a born navigator, possessed from very eai*ly times of good sea-going canoes ; in these he crossed expanses of ocean which seem considerable even in the days of steam naviga- tion. In the absence of direct evidence other than that of oral tradition the date of the principal migrations is impossible to determine with any degree of exactness, but at the time of their discovery the inhabitants of many groups had lived long enough apart to suffer from the effects of isolation. The Polynesians, with the exception of the Easter Islanders, Avere unacquainted with the art of writing ; they could neither make pottery nor weave on the loom ; and they did not know the use of metals. Their houses are of different shapes, but are usually oblong, with a timber framework with strong central pillars, and a roof covered with grass or palm leaf. Each house was occupied by a single family. Blocks of stone or coral were not used in domestic architecture, but were employed in building raised mounds in sacred enclosures or in erecting graves of chiefs. At the close of the eighteenth century the animal food of the natives was represented chiefly by the flesh of pigs, dogs, and iish ; the former animal had been introduced by foreign vessels. Meat was principally reserved for chiefs and the more important j^eople, but fish were caught in lai'ge numbers both with hook and net (figs. 3, d-li, 126 and 127), and commonly eaten raw with sea- water as a condiment. The reefs lying off the shore of so many islands, and forming large calm lagoons, provided excellent fishing grounds. The most important vegetable foods were j^rovided by the bread- fruit tree and the tarn [cAiladhim cscHlentum). The latter was chiefly grown in irrigated fields : its root was pounded (fig. 129) into a kind of flour, mixed with water, and then allowed to ferment. The paste or pudding which resulted, known as Foi, was made in all the islands. In addition to Ijreadfruit and taro, the coconut could almost always be obtained. In the absence of large cooking vessels capal)le of being placed on the fire, meat was baked on hot stones. The process is some- what as follows. A pit, three feet or more in diameter, is. dug in the ground and filled with wood, which is then set on fire. Upon the blazing wood are laid stones capable of retaining heat without splitting. These fall to the lj(jttom whi'U the wood is Ji 2 148 ocf:ania Fio. 129. — Poi pounders from Polynesia. 1,2, 3. Hawaiian Islands. 4, 5, 6. Tahiti. 7, 8. Marquesas Islands. 1>. Mangaia, Hervey Islands. consumed, and the animal to be cooked, first wrapped up in bread- fruit or other large leaves, is deposited upon them, yams, taro, breadfruit, &c., being placed above. The whole pit is then filled up Avith leaves and covered over with eartli in order to retain POLYNESIANS AND MICRONESIANS 149 the heat. After some hours the meat is found to be perfectly cooked. Clothing was very simple. Men wore a long narrow strip of bark-cloth {ta2Xi), passed round the waist and l^etween the legs, called maro or malo- Women had a kind of petticoat reaching to the knees, made of bark-cloth or grass. In most islands a large piece of bark- ^^^m^tt ■1 vWi 1 r iB^^^ini iiiiiiii '^j^^^^^^^^^K^ *^^^^^^^^^^^^^^B - jBH^k. ^^^^^^^^^Km "„ llra^fcns.n'v. "•i><.;^S^H^^^K\>'' l^^l^^^^" 1 ( ■^ •.i <^' jSh'Ir'li'TT j ^HL/ m )?" M ^^^^^H /■,fc ^Hl-7' /f ^^^ "^^^^^^] ^^ mg^. .^^mmi;' H^g^ hH^' ^^^^^Kk i B 0r "T n^^VV iw-j HL^ Fig. 130. — Block for printing pattern on tapa, made of palm-leaves and strips of cane. Samoa. cloth would be used as a cloak and thrown round the .shoulders in cold weather. As Polynesia produced the finest bark-cloth in the world, a short description of the process will be appropriate. The branches and roots of straight young saplings, usually of the Paper Mulberry {mortis papurifcra), Init sometimes of other species of trees, were cut off, and tlie bark detached in long strips. These strips were then immersed in water for several hours, and when they were sufliciently soaked were taken out and 150 OCEANIA laid on a fiat ])iece of M'ood. The inner Lark was now detached from the outer by scraping witli a piece of shell, and carefully washed. The strips were laid out side by side until they covered a space of the required size, three layers being i)laced one above the other. They were left thus until the following day, by which time the percolation of the water which they had absorbed through the washing caused them to adhere together. The whole piece was now taken to a flattened beam or board, and beaten or felted together by repeated blows from short mallets of hard wood, the sides of which are usually grooved in different ways. During this opera- tion water was continually thrown upon the cloth. When the piece had been felted to a uniform consistency, it was dried, and finally ornamented with coloured designs, either applied with the free hand, or more rarely printed I)}' means of large frames (fig. 130) 01' stamps, as in Samoa and Fiji. When very large sheets Fig. 131. — Hpad-b;ind of sinnet with ornaments of pearl-slicll and turtle-shell. Marquesas Islands. were required, smaller pieces were joined together by means of gum made from the breadfruit tree, or by stitching. Unless oiled, tapa rapidly deteriorated when exposed to the rain. The whole process of manufacture was carried out by women. The embellishment of the person l)y tatuing was very general, men being more extensively ornamented than women. Most of the work was executed upon the middle and lower part of the body, between the whilst and knees ; decoration of the face was rarer, but was carried to perfection in New Zealand. The usual process of tatuing was as follows : after tracing the design upon the skin, the operator took a little adze-shaped instrument with a serrated bone edge, and placing it upon the skin, followed the lines of the i^attern, hammering or tapping it with a small wooden instrument shaped like a paddle (fig. 23). The colouring material was supplied by the soot of burned wood. The personal ornaments of the Polynesians were manufactured POLYNESIANS AND MICRONESIANS 151 chiefly of sliell (fig. 131) and whale-ivory. They consisted of neck- hxces, armlets, breast-ornaments &c., thelatter sometimes suspended on cords of finely-plaited human hair. In Easter Island and the Marquesas group the lobes of the ears were distended by large ear- plugs. Feathers also served as ornaments, and in the Marquesas and Easter Island a feather coronet was in use. The gorgeous cloaks and helmets from Hawaii are tlie most conspicuous ex- amples of Polynesian feather-work (fig. 132). In some groups, as for instance in Hawaii and Tahiti, the natives wore necklaces and wreaths of flowers. 1 ^^^^^^s mmmm^ f- 1 ^^H /ll -■-"^ ^^ m > ^ i <^B ■ ^1 J i^k^H^^. m * ■■ . "' ,i».«<'.- Fig. 132. — Cloak of red and yellow featheis worn liy men of rank. Hawaii. As the Polynesians were without metal, the materials available for the manufacture of implements and weapons were limited to stone, shell, bone, wood, and teeth. Far the most important im- plement was the adze, the edge of which was invariably ground. Witli this stone adze the greater part of the canoo building and wood-carving was done (figs. 5, 9, 12S, 133, and 131). In the aljsence of pottery, food and water vessols were made of wood (fig. 143) or gourds. The most important domestic in- dustries were the manufacture of tapa, and the plaiting of mats for Fig. 133. — Types of stone adze-blades from Polynesia. b. Marquesas Islands, c. Hervey Islands. (L Samoa. Zealand (found associated with remains of the moa). h. Chatham Islands. Zealand. «. Tongan Islands. e. Tahiti. /. New g. Easter Island. A'. Hawaiian Islands. I. New Zealand (jade), m. New POLYNESIANS AND MICRONESIANS 153 bedding, for hangings, or for canoe-sails. Canoe-makers and house-builders formed in many cases a kind of caste, and were men of a certain rank. The principal weapon of Poljaiesia was the club of hard wood made in very various shapes, and often finely carved (figs. 185 and 146). Next in importance were spears (fig. 137) and daggers or knives, the latter sometimes edged with sharks' teeth, as in Hawaii (fig. 136). Tlie bow was not a serious weapon ; it was found in some islands, e.g. in Tahiti and Tonga, but was princi- pally used for killing rats or in shooting-matches. It was of the ' plain ' variety ; the arrows were without feathers, and tipped with bone or wood. The principal missile weapons were the sling and the javelin : in the Marquesas, heavy stones were thrown. The chief musical instruments were drums, cylinders of bamboo used to beat time in dances, conch- shell trumpets, and flutes of bam- boo, played not with the lips but with the nose. In Hawaii whistles were made from diminutive gourds, and a simple stringed instrument was found. In all the islands elaborate ceremonial dances, performed by men or women, were of regular occurrence, and often accompanied by songs or recitatives eml^odying national legends or myths. The people were fond of indoor and ovxtdoor games. Of the latter kind, surf-swimming on flat boards, sledging down hills, and bowling with discoidal stones (Hawaii)^ may be particularly mentioned. Social and political life was more highly developed than in Melanesia, and at the time of the first European discoverers there were already signs of decay. Though the condition of women was in many islands comparatively high, yet the whole sex was subjected to numerous disabilities. Certain kinds of food were often for)>iddeu to them, and in most islands they were not allowed to eat with the male memljers of their family. Women took their share in field-work with the men, and, as already noticed, the making of bark-cloth or tapa was their pai'ticular j)rovince. Family ties were lax, and the custom of infanticide was common. As in Melanesia the interests of th(^ family was wholly subordinated to the tribe. ' Called Ulumaika. Fig. 134. — Stone-bladed adze. Tahitian Group. Fig. 135.-Wooden clubs. 1, 3, G, 7. Tonga. 2, 4, 5. Samoa. POLYNESIANS AND MICRONESIANS 155 Society was marked by class divisions almost as sharp as those of caste. The people were grouped in three great classes : chiefs, freemen, and slaves. Political power was almost entirely in the hands of the higher classes. In the larger island-groups, where a permanent monarchy had been established, the inferior chiefs formed a kind of court. Though the actual king was often considered to be of divine descent, sometimes, as in Tonga, there were two supreme chiefs. Of these one was a sacred person, who took little part in the administration of the country ; the other Fig. 13<). — Weapons armed with shaik-teetli. Hawaiian Islands. was of lower rank, l>ut conducted all affairs of state and led the ai-my to battle. The religious beliefs of the Polynesians, like their .social institutions, were more highly developed than among the ]*apuasians. Upon a foundation of animism and ancestor-worship the)^ had erected a polytheistic .system. The most conspicuous of the greater gods were Tangaroa or Taaroa (PI. VIII), and Tane or Kane. For another, Kongo or Lono, Captain Cook was mistaken by the natives of the Hawaiian Lslands. {See tlu; fine series of gods in Wall-cases 141 143.) In connection with this polytheistic wor.shij) had grown uj) an influential order of priests, 156 OCEANIA «»J i e a be J ■ Fig. ] 39.— Figure of the god of war, Oro, consisting of a piece of Avood covered ■with woven sinnet ; the eyes and arms are roughly indicated with sinnet- braid. Tahiti. J^ .^ a^K^J-^^^itkik feLJK^&.^^H N ( I fim^^^k^ •'^. f ' %iC^ ^VT - s > ■ ^'liSK^^HK^-^^HK --- - "' '^AjJ^-'^^^''' Fig. 140. — Wnoden figure from a sacred en- closure {heiau), Hawaii. usually kept in large temple enclosures [momi, Jiciau), in or near which the higher priests lived (fig. 140). Many of these temjdes possessed the right of Sanctuary, and in them were performed the human sacrifices which were almost universal throughout Polynesia. It was only to be expected that with a clearly-defined caste-system and a powerful priesthood, the theory of talm {see p. 30) should have been developed in the interests of the privileged classes. HATE Vllt. Wooden figuie ol' Tan;^;uoii Upao Valiii, tlit; l*olyncsi;iii «t';i-god, ropreseiited in tlio act of creating tlie other gods and men. Wlien found the liollow back contained a number of small idols. Ruriitu Island, Austral Gri)up. IFace p. 158 POLYNESIANS AND MICRONESIANS 159 The chiefs and priests were themselves sacred or tabu, and the common people might neither touch their persons, their garments, or their utensils. The tabu was regarded as contagious, and as highly dangerous to those of low rank. If a slave touched the head of a high-priest or chief he might either be killed if detected, if not, die of fright at the imaginary consequences of his action. Everything in the world was divided into two great classes, moa or under tabu, and noa or free, the first being entirely reserved for the gods, the privileged nobles, and priests. Thus many kinds of food were often moa, and might not be eaten by women or slaves. A man who had incurred fahu might not feed himself. A king's Ijarber might not use his hands in eating, because the king's head was sacred. In Tahiti, upon the sickness of a man of rank, his whole district was declared fabu ; no food might be cooked or fire lighted in it. Fio. 141. — Shrine for the fisjcure ol a goddess. Tahiti. After death the noble Polynesian was supposed to go to a future world, generally imagined to lie below the earth or in the west l>eyond the setting of the sun. There he led an existence resembling that which had been his lot on earth. The soul was not suppo.sed to reach the other world easily or at once. It lingered for a time about its former home, and was conceived as a possible source of danger to tlio living. The bodies of un- important persons were treated with little ceremony after death. Noljles and chiefs were sometimes exposed on a platform in a half-mummified condition, until the flesh could be scraped away: the bones were then tied in a bundle and deposited in some safe place such as a temple : sometimes the body was actually buried in the house ; sometimes in a sacred place, where a terraced mound was raised over it. It was a common custom on the death of a king for the whole po]>ulation to mutilate themselves by gasliing the face or body, or by cutting oiV a iingor. It is impossible in what follows to do ukh-o than provide a few 160 OCEANIA facts as to the discovery of the various groups of ishinds, in addition to the above general remarks, which apply to Polynesia as a wliole. Exceptions are made in the case of New Zealand and Hawaii, the collections from which are of especial importance. Samoa (Navigators' Islands) The three large islands of this group are called Savaii, Upolu, and Tutuila. They were discovered by the Dutch under Koggewein in A, D. 1722, and were visited later in the same century l)y Bougainville and La Perouse. Tonga (Fkiendlv Islands) This group lies to the east of Fiji, the three most important islands being Tongatabu, Namuka. and Vavau. There are active volcanoes in the group, but most of the islands are low and of coral formation. Tonga was discovered by Tasman in a. d. 1643, and visited by Captain Cook in a. d. 1773 and a. d. 1777. The name 'Friendly Islands' was given by Cook, although, unknown to themselves, he and his company had the narrowest escape from being assassinated while on shore here. The Tongans are physically and mentally among the finest of the Polynesians. In the south of the Island of Tongatabu is the megalithic structure of which a sketch is exhibited in the Wall-case. Hawaiian Islands (Sandwich Islands) This volcanic group, lying on the twentieth degree of north latitude, consists of several islands, of which the most considerable are Hawaii, Kauai, and Oahu, the last possessing the considerable port of Honolulu. Though it is possible that Hawaii may have been known to Spanish sailors at an earlier date, it was first made known to Europe through the voyage of Captain Cook in a, d. 1778. As already mentioned, the great navigator was taken for a god named Lono and everywhere received with respect ; but a quarrel having arisen between the natives and his crews, he was assassinated on the beach at Keala Keakua Bay in February, A. D. 1779. Captain Vancouver, K. N., visited Hawaii three times during the course of a surveying voyage. He first touched there in A. D. 1792, when the well-known King Kamehameha was the reigning king. This remarkable ruler was succeeded by his less callable son Liho-Liho, who visited England in a. d. 1824 and died in London in the same year, together with his queen and many of his suite. His remains lay in state in the Church of St. Martin's in the Fields, and were transported to Hawaii on H.M.S. Blonde in 1825. The Hawaiians were a warlike people with many fine fjualities, but have been unable to withstand the influences of civilization POLYNESIANS AND MICHONESIANS 161 and are now dying out. They were reuiarkal)le for the work which they executed in feathers, represented in the collection by numerous cloaks (fig. 132). helmets, and necklaces, as well as by the grotesque war-gods upon the central shelf (fig. 144). The faces of the idols were nearly always distorted into highly con- ventionalized forms, the resemblance to human features sometimes almost entirely disappearing (fig. 140). They were kept in or near palisaded teniple-inclosures called I/eidii, many of which had the right of sanctuary like the Cities of refuge of the Jews. The heads of the war-gods are of wickerwork made of the aerial roots of a kind of fig-tree called ic-ie {FrcifcinetfiaArnoffU), covered with string network to which the feathers are attached. The eyes are made of plates of pearl-shell, to which are added large wooden pupils, and the head is often adorned with human hair. The helmets, which were worn only by chiefs, are made in much the same way as the idols {see also fig. 36) though in several examples the feathers have entirely disap- peared. Their curious resem- blance to antique forms has given rise to the improbable theory that their shapes may have been suggested by the hel- mets of early Spanish visitors to the Islands. It is safer to con- clude that these crested helmets are developments of elaborate fashions of dressing the hair such as are familiar to ethno- logists in vjirious parts of tlie world. The cloaks, both the large and small, were worn by chiefs, the feathers being fixed to a ground of netwoik. Similar cloaks seem to have been worn by the Kings of Tahiti, but none have been preserved. The colours principally used are red and yellow, the red usually forming the background, on which various geometrical designs were woi ked in y.'llow and Idack. In most E. M Fig. J 42. — Ceremonial dress worn at burial ritea by the chief mourner. Tahiti. 162 OCEANIA cases the feathers were obtained from two kinds of birds, the iiwi {vesfiaria coccinea) and the oo {acrulocercus nohilis), the former supplying the red, the latter the yellow feathers. Of the two colours, the yellow was considered superior, and no one but the king was permitted to wear a cloak entirely of yellow. But in the case of the king, the yellow feathers were procured from another bird, the JIamo [drcpanis pac'ijka) now extinct, and were of a richer colour, with something of an orange tint. There is only one royal yellow cloak now known to exist, and that is in the Bernice Pauahi Bishop Museum at Honolulu, and the small ' tippet * in the centre of the case is made of these feathers, and Fig. 143. — Food-bowl of wood inlaid with shell and boue. Hawaiian Islands. probably belonged to one of the Hawaiian kings. Mamo feathers were rarely used in the variegated cloaks and tippets. The yellow feathers in these are nearly always derived from the yellow tufts growing near the wings of the oo. The idea that each l>ird only supplied a single feather, and that therefore these cloaks were of fabulous value is based upon an exaggeration. A considerable number of Hawaiian feather cloaks is in existence, and the series in the Museum is of high quality, the specimens from Windsor Castle deposited by H.M. the King, being exceptionally well preserved. Several of these cloaks probably date from the visit of Liho-Liho, or even earlier, and may have been gifts to George III and George IV. Tippets and cloaks of inferior quality were covered with cocks' feathei's. POLYNESIANS AND MICRONESIANS 163 Tahiti (Society Islands) This group lies to the east of Tonga, and was discovered by Captain Wallis in a. d. 1767: two years later it was visited by Captain Cook. It was the earliest scene of the labours of the London Missionary Society in the South Seas, the first mission- aries landing in the Duff in a. d. 1797. Though the Tahitians did not produce canoes of such high finish as those of New Zealand and Hawaii, they built them in large numbers, and possessed regular war-fleets. The canoes Fig. 144. — War-gods of rcil foatlior-work. Hawaiian Islands. were single and double, and both prow and stern were elevated : sometimes a stern-post would be 15 or 18 feet high and orna- mented with carved figures of gods. Each canoe had a particular name. War-canoes had a platform near the centre for some 50 fighting men, and were about 60 feet long, while sacred canoes carried small houses containing the image of the god, where prayers and sacrifices were offered: ))oth war and sacred canoes were decorated with streamers of coloured tupa and feathers. The small coasting-canoes were dug-outs, to tlie upper edges of which a gunwale was .sewn with stout sinnet cord. If the canot* was single, an outrigger {ama) consisting usually of a light spar of hibiscus, was fixed to (lie l^t't side, l»y means of two horizontal M 3 164 OCEANIA poles, from five to eight feet long, secured by sinnet. Some- times a plank was fixed across the canoe at right angles to its axis, from the upper bar of the outrigger to a point overhanging the water on the opposite side, and l)y standing or sitting on different parts of this, the native could easily trim tlie vessel. Sails were triangular in shape with the apex uppermost, and were made of pandanus matting. Large double canoes were more difficult to construct, and were made by a privileged caste of builders, all of noble birth and attached to the household of the king. These boats were built up from a keel, and the adzing of the planks, smoothing and polishing with blocks of coral, and the sewing them together. 1 1 jmagjSjam^ ■»- — , ^JN J i^^jmSt/t^lffi- ■ ■■■^iv-ai'*' ,^^1 ^^^^^P^N ■ B^^ '^9 MP >^ H ns "^ w mB \ 1 I ■ 'k$i Fig. 145. — Feather gorget. Tahiti. demanded great skill. Eeligious ceremonies were performed both when the keel was laid down, and when the completed canoe was launched. The average breadth of a canoe was about two feet, and the depth two to three feet. Eudders were not employed, the steersman using a long paddle at the stern. The crew worked with single-bladed paddles of hibiscus wood, .seated two or three feet apart facing the bows. Five or six strokes were given on one side of the canoe, then a similar number on the opposite side, the signal for the change being given by the ' stroke ' who knocked his paddle violently against the side of the canoe. Masts were movable, and only set up when sails were spread. When out of sight of land, the canoes were navigated by the position of the stars. With a few modifications what is here POLYNESIANS AND MICRONESIANS 165 said may be applied to the canoes of other islands, since Poly- nesian navigation was everywhere carried out under very similar conditions. Tahitian bows and arrows were among the best in Polynesia, but, as already noted, were chiefly used for shooting-matches. Archery was thus little more than a game, and like other Poly- nesian games was considered to have a sacred character. Before commencing a match, the competitors visited the mora i ov temple, and performed several ceremonies ; they then put on a particular dress and repaired to the archery ground. They did not aim at a mark, but each attempted to shoot further than his adversary, standing upon a low stone platform. After a match, which was often attended by the king and chiefs, the competitors once more visited the temple, changed their dress again, and bathed their persons before they were allowed to refresh themselves, or even enter their dwellings. The bows w^ere of a light tough wood called xyurau, and the strings of native flax. The arrows were of slender bamboo reeds, without feathers, tipped with hard wood and not barbed. Quivers were made of a joint of bamboo capped with a coconut shell. The Hervey (Cook) Islands, with Manihiki, the Austral Group, and the Paumotu (Low Archipelago) The Hervey group consists of nine or ten islands both of volcanic and coral formation, situated to the south-west of Tahiti. The greater part were discovered by Captain Cook in his second and third voyages, but Rarotonga is said to have been first seen by Williams the missionar}^. The most important islands are Mangaia, Rarotonga, Atiu, and Aitutaki ; the smaller are Takutea. Mitiero, and Mauki or Parry Island. The name Hervey was given by Captain Cook in honour of Captain Hervey. afterwards Earl of Bristol, and one of the Lords of the Admiralty. The Austral or Tubuai group lies to the south-east. The principal islands are Rurutu (Oheteroa), Tubuai, Vavitao, and Rimitera. Rurutu was discovered by Captain Cook in a. d. 17()9. All the islands are small. The Low Archipelago, or Paumotu, is a vast collection of coral islands extending over IG degrees of longitude, and now belonging to France. The most impoi'tant island is Anaa or Chain Island. The discovery of the Archipelago began in the seventeenth century. Manihiki or Ilumjjlirey Island, lies about one degree north of tlie Hervey group, and was discovered by Captain Patrickson in 1822. Special attention may be drawn to the curious ' soul trap " from Pnka Pukaor Danger Island (iig. 20). as it illustrates the primitive belief in the niatorial character of the soul (see aljovo, j), 82). These traps were used )jy priests for catching the souls of enemies 166 OCEANIA or sick men. and were called ere vaenia. The Kev. W. W. Gill, who brought them to England, was given the following account of their use by the priests themselves : ' If a person had the misfortune to offend the "sacred men", a soul trap would be suspended by night from a branch of [a tree] over- shadowing his dwelling . . . The priest would sit opposite Avatching. If an insect or small bird chanced to fly through one of the loops, it was asserted that the soul of the culprit, assuming this form, had passed into the trap.' The spirit Vaerua presiding over the spirit- world was now believed to hurry off the soul to the shades and there feast u2)on it. The friends of the now soulless man thereupon proceeded to make intercession for the return of the soul, which was granted or refused by the priests according to circumstances. If they refused, the culprit gave himself up for lost, and generally pined away from sheer flight. In cases of sickness the trap was susjiended at the re- quest of friends ■who desired to know whether the patient would recover or not. If the priest re- ported that his spirit had not entered the snare, it was inferred that he would recover. Fig. 146.^ — Head of wooden club. Marquesas Islands. Marquesas Islands The islands composing this group, which lies off the Paumotu or Low Archipelago, were discovered at various times, and by men of different nationalities. The earliest visit of Europeans was POLYNESIANS AND MICRONESIANS 167 made by a Spaniard, Alvaro de Mendana, in command of an expedition sent out by the Marques de Canete, Governor of Peru, in A. r>. 1595, Mendana named the southern 2:>art of the group Las Marquesas out of respect to the Governor. One island was discovered in A. d. 1774 by Lord Hood when a midshipman of Captain Cook's ship the liesolut'wn. The more northerly part of the archipelago, which contains Nukuhiva the principal island, was discovered by Captain Ingraham of Boston, U. S.A , in a. d. 1791. The French Captain Marchand followed in the same year. In A. D. 1793 Captain Eoberts of the United States gave the northern group the name of the Washington Islands, by which they are often known. The whole archipelago was annexed by France in 1842. The islands are volcanic, rising high out of the water. The inhabitants at the time of the discovery were physically a fine race, but are now dying out. They were cannibals, and con- stantly engaged in warfare for the possession of the narrow fertile valleys leading down fiom the mountains. They were tatued in a remarkably elaborate manner, the designs being re- produced in their carvings in wood, bone, and shell. In their religious practices they resembled the Tahitians and other Poly- nesians, and had a morai or temple in every district. Kapa Ntri (Easter Island) This is the most easterly island in Polynesia, and the furthest outfjost of the Polynesian race. It is only about twelve miles long, is entirely volcanic with several large extinct craters, and without large trees or running water. It is more than 2000 miles from the coast of South America. The first European to touch at Easter Island w^as the Dutch navigator Eoggewein, who landed on Easter Day, a. n. 1721; later visitors to the island were Captain Cook and La Perouse. The population is supposed to have been once about 3000, but by 1891 it had fallen to about a hundred persons. The natives rather resembled the Marquesans, and were of an amiable character, but their state of civilization did not rank so high as that on some of the larger groups. All the more remarkable are the stone buildings at the south-west end of the island, and the stone terraces found on almost every headland, which were some 200 to 300 feet long, and 20 to 30 feet high on the outer side. On these were placed large slabs \\\wn which in turn stood numbers of monolith images, now thrown down and mutilated. These figures, wliich wore trunks terminating at the hips, were often more than 20 feet high, and were carved out of the trachytic lava found at the cast end of tin; island. On tlie top of their Hat lieads were placed hats or crowns of a red tufa found only at the o])i)osite 168 OCEANIA Fig 147.^ Wooden figure J'ruin Kapa Nui '^Easter Island; POLYNESIANS AND MICRONESIANS 169 end of the island. The faces always look slightly upwards : the noses are broad, the lips are thin, and the lobes of the ears long and pendent. Two of these figures were brought to this country by the officers of H,M,S, To])aze which visited the island in 1868, and are now to be seen in the front Portico of the Museum : a sketch of the largest, ' Hoa-haka-nana-ia ' is exhibited in the Wall-case : it will be seen that the back is ornamented with symbolic carved designs. This figure was not found on a platform, but in one of the old stone houses {Tau-ra-rc-(jna) near the volcano called Terano-Kau, and was originally coloured red and white. The origin of these figures and structures is obscure, but it seems most reasonable to believe that the people who made them came from the west and Fig. 148.— "SVoiMltn \u>\\\ iiilairs of the present inhabitants. Terrace- work of a similar kind is not unknown in other Polynesian islands, and the absence of large trees would explain the fact that all the figures are of stone ; the trachyte of Avhich they are made is not more difficult to carve than the wood of which the large figures of the Maori were made. Some connection between the statue makers and the present islanders may perhaps be inferred from the general re.semljlance Ijetween these great stone carvings and the small carved wooden figures (fig, 147) which are certainly more modern. It may also be noted that .-imid the carvings on the back of one of the statues, the paddle-shaped objects used in dancing are represented. The statues do not appear to have Ijeen wor.shipped, but to have l^een erected to commenioiate important men, A most interesting fact connected with Easter island was the di.'scovery 170 OCEANIA of a number of wooden tablets on which lines of hieroglyphs were carved. These tablets are now widely scattered, the British Museum possessing a single example. It has been claimed that these characters are legible and translations of several tablets have been published, but the results have not found general acceptance. Fig. 149. — Native chart from the Marshall Islands. Micronesia Micronesia, derived from the Greek words milros small, and nesos island, is composed of several groups lying north of Melanesia ; the most important are the Gilbert or Kingsmill Islands, the Carolines, the Marshall Islands, the Mariannes or Ladrones and the Pelew Islands. Nearh' all the islands are of coralline formation. As might be expected from their geographical situation, the islanders of Micronesia have been less isolated and more exposed to foreign influences than the Polynesians. Physi- POLYNESIANS AND MICRONESIANS 171 cally they have Malayan, Polynesian, and Melanesian affinities. Ethnographically, they display the same blending of different characteristics. Thus the institution of club-houses is universal, society is divided into classes much as in Polynesia ; the priesthood is powerful, and the tahu is a great force in religious and social life. Commerce and trade early reached a high development, and society was based more directly upon an economic foundation than elsewhere in the Pacific. Exchange of products was encouraged by the use of several kinds of currency, such as beads, and small discs of white shell and turtle-shell strung together in large numbers in the form of necklaces. The excellence of the Micronesian canoes also was in favour of commerce. The people were good navigators, and the Marshall Islanders were in the habit of making ' charts ' of open cane-work to which shells or stones were fastened in different places to mark the relative position of various islands (fig. 149). Though wearing little clothing, the Micronesians were fond of ornaments, especially of elaborate hair-combs often decorated with feathers, and pro- jecting some distance from the head : in the Caroline Islands girdles were beautifully woven of banana-fibre. Their principal weapons were spears, slings, and clubs, the bow taking a secondary position. Armour of coconut fibre (fig. 0) and weapons edged with sharks' teeth are characteristic of the Gilbert Islands. New Zealand The inhabitants of New Zealand are termed Maori, a variant of the word Mahori, which is the i-acial term applied by Polj^nesians generally to themselves. New Zealand was visited early by Polynesian explorers, some of whom settled there, and, under the name of Moriori, shortly afterwards colonized the Chatham Islands. For years there was occasional communication between New Zealand and the rest of Polynesia, and finally reports con- cerning the jade and the gigantic birds (moa) found on the island caused the inauguration of a colonizing expedition on a far larger scale than before ; a fleet of canoes manned by the boldest and most adventurous of the Polynesian chiefs sailed fi-om Tahiti via, Raratonga, landed in New Zealand and eventually made themselves masters, killing or enslaving the former and more jjrimitive settlers. One canoe returned, but from that year communication between New Zealand and the rest of Polynesia was suspended. It is a matter of dispute whether New Zealand was ever inhabited by Melanesians, but on the whole the evidence seems to be against the theory. This migration took place some time in the fourteenth century, and it is interesting to note that the New Zealanders have developed on lines ratlier different from tlie rest of the Polynesians. The less relaxing nature of the climate enabled 172 OCEANIA tliem to keep their energy unimpaired ; while the necessity of constructing more sul)stanli;il ]i;ibit;itions and clothing, and of expending greater labour in provision of food, gave an impulse to Fig. 150. — Figure of a Maori chief wearing garments of woven liax, on his head two huia feathers, and round his neck a jade tiki. In his hand is the weapon called liani or taiaha. New Zealand. the arts of invention and manufacture. Thus physically, in- tellectually and culturally they stand at the head of the Poly- nesian peoples. The clothes of the Maori were made almost entirely of flax tLA't'K IX. ^;-* Jail.' li.rk oiiiam.nis Tiki) from New Zcaliind. 'I'h.' lai-vst cxami)!.' Ix.iv tlir naiuo hn-liii/ni/i-re Kohu Kohu and holoiigcd to the cliiui' Jloni II. kc. [Fare p. 1 72 POLYNESIANS AND MICRONESIANS 173 carefully piei^ared and woven to form a variety of cloth known as ' tied-cloth ' (tig. 150). The two i:)rincipal garments were a skirt and a cloak, and the latter varied greatly in jjattern and quality, some being entirely covered with feathers of the moa or kiwi ; others with a long nap of reeds or tiax stems were used as protection against rain, and cloaks made of dog skins were also found. A variety of ornaments, sharks' or human teeth, jade and whale-ivory pendants, bird skins, were worn in the ears, and a grotesque figure {tili) of jade or a whale's tooth round the neck ; these jade figures are especially characteristic and were highly valued as heir- looms in the family to which they l^elonged (PI. IX, and fig. 151). The form of tatu was peculiar to that island and was called il/o/.o. It consisted literally in out- ting grooves in the skin, and rubbing in a dark pigment (fig. 152). Men of high birth were elabo- rately tatued on face and thighs ; women on chin, lijis, and sometimes thighs also. The tail- feathers of the Jniia bird were worn in the hair by chiefs, and carefully preserved in beautifully carved wooden boxes (figs. 153, 154). Large and substantial wooden houses (fig. 156) were built, rectangular in plan, with a gabled roof and verandah and sunk fioor ; in the better examples the lintels, posts and gables were elaborately carved (fig. 155) and painted : the interior walls were often covered with reeds of different colours woven to form a pattern. Storehouses were sometimes built on piles. Fortified villages (pcf) were built on hills and protected by paliisades, ditches, earthworks, and the like. The staple food was taro. sweet potato, and the root of the fern ; but a great variety of wild fruits, roots and bark were collected and prepared for eating. Meat and fish were eaten when obtained, and fishing formed an important part of the occupation of men (fig. 157) ; birds were snared or speared and rats were killed for food. Cooking was performed in ovens on hot stones {sec above, p. 147) and the food was served in baskets. Cannibalism ai)pears not to have been very extensively practised in early 151 — Neck-oniament {tiki) made fnun a human skull. New Zealand. 174 OCEANIA times, but later became one of the chief incentives to war. Enemies killed in battle or prisoners were the victims, and in some tribes the women took their share in the feast. Like the rest of the Polynesians the Maori were absolutely ignorant of any metal, their tools were made of jade, stone (fig. 133, /, /, m), obsidian, shell, bone, and teeth, and the results accomplished Fig. 152.- -Wooden figure from a Maori chiefs house ; to illustrate the usual tatu of a man. New Zealand. with such apparently inadequate instruments were surprising. In particular, huge canoes sometimes eighty feet long and six feet broad were built of enormous planks cut from the solid tree and lashed together ; the figure-heads (fig. 11) and stern- posts were elaborately carved and painted, and the seams carefully caulked. Sails of rushes were used, but the outrigger was not employed. POLYNESIANS AND MICRONESIANS 175 Unlike the other Polynesians, the Maori did not manufacture bark-cloth, but alone practised a primitive foi-m of weaving ; the material was flax, which grew wild in great abundance and was carefully prepared before use. Maori decorative art as seen in their carvings is quite dis'iinctive, and on a high level ; it is dis- tinguished by the constant recurrence of beautifully executed spirals, and human and animal grotesques ; house-gables, door- lintels, canoe-prows, feather-lioxes, and flutes, were especially selected as objects for ornamentation. The chief occupation and pastime of men was war ; expeditions against hostile tribes were planned in the winter and carried out in the summer. Spears (fig. 138, f, g) were used, but are very rare in museums, except a form of spear called hani used mainly for Fig. 153. — Wooden box fur tlie feathei's worn in the hair by chiefs. New Zealand. ceremonial purposes and carried as a sign of rank (fig. 150). Short spatulate clubs of jade, basalt, whale's bone, and wood were called mere, and were used by men of high rank, chiefly for killing prisoners ; long axe-shaped clul>s, teivlia-tewha, were used rather for directing evolutions and only secondarily for striking a blow. Adzes (fig. 8) were used, and a kind of javelin-club of whale's bone called hocroa, which was connected with the thrower by a cord. Spears were thrown by means of a cord tied to a stick ; specimens of these ' throwing whips ' are now very rare. As soon as iron axes and guns were introduced by Europeans, they became the chief weapons of war. The population was divided into three classes : chiefs, freemen, and slaves. The first were regarded almost as incarnate divinities ; so sacred were their persons, that it was believed that a commoner who used any utensil or implement belonging to a chief would 176 OCEANIA -.A^' Fig. 154. — Wooden box for feathers worn by chiefs. New Zeahind. • mm i0f *-,. ■• i r r *■ - '- T * Fig. 1.55.— Door-lintel, showing spiral and grotesque ornament. New Zealand. POLYNESIANS AND MICRONESIANS 177 Fig. 156. — Maori house with storehouse on right. New Zealand {cifter Angas). Fi(i. \~u. — Fishliooks from New Zeulaiid. «. bono and halbiHs-sheW. b, bono, haliotis-H\u:\\ and wood. c. nioa-l)one. E. N 178 OCEANIA die. The divine powei- was supposed to reside in the chiofs eye- balls, and a chief would swallow the eyeballs of a slain foe in order to absorb his divinity. The education of children of high rank was seriously undertaken, and consisted mainly in connnitting to niemoi-y long genealogies (fig. 160) and tribal tradi- tions. Marriages were arranged by the relations of the woman, whose inclinations Avere not necessarily con- sulted, or a man would carry off a girl : even in the first case some form of mock abduction was generally ob- served. There was no cere- mony, but their friends usually plundered the couple of nearly all their property and often beat them. This treatment was ))y custom inflicted on any person who had experienced any sudden stroke of good or bad luck. Tiie bride's j^arents often stii)ulated that the man should live in their tribe, but in any case the children were regarded as belonging to the father, though the status of a man was largely influenced l)y that of his mother. The position of women was high and they were even permitted a voice in tribal councils. Property was inherited by the children, and proprietary rights, especially in land, were extremely complicated and very strictly regarded. Methods of disposing of the dead varied in details from place to place, but the procedure was in the main similar ; the body was buried in the hut or deposited in a casket formed of part of an old canoe ; of rare type. NcwZaalaml. after an interval, in the case of chiefs, a memorial feast was held, the bones were scraped, jiainted red and ornamented with feathers, wrapped in a mat and placed in a hollow tree or cave, or in a small canoe elevated on a pole or staging, or burnt. The heads of relations and distinguished enemies were often preserved by smoking after POLYNESIANS AND MICRONESIANS 179 the brain and eyes had been removed ; the first were regarded as mementos, and often brouglit out and bewailed ; the second, as trophies to be displayed on gala occasions. The musical instruments of the Maori do not exhibit great variety ; long trumpets of wood (fig. 161), conch-shells with a wooden mouthpiece, finely carved w^ooden flutes (fig. 162), and whistles of wood or bone, complete the list : the last named were often made from the bones of slain foes. Singing and dancing were favourite amusements ; the dances in particular were very elaborate, most of them being panto- mimic and descriptive of certain occu- pations and incidents. Other forms of amusement were wrestling, foot and canoe racing, tops, cat's-cradle, and a whole variety of games very similar to those played by children in Europe. The Maori had a large pantheon, practically the same as the rest of the Polynesians, and a very rich mytho- logy. The gods were of every degree, from the great deities of sea, sky, &c., to the minor spirits who manifested themselves in the form of moths and the like ; rocks and trees had their guardian atua, and offerings of food were made to them. Besides the deities, the Maori mythology contained a number of heroic or semi-divine characters. Such was Maui, who fished up the North Island from the bottom of the sea wuth a hook made of his grandfather's jawbone. Small figures of the gods, consisting of a grotesque head on a {)ointed stick, were used in making offerings. But the supernatural belief which entered into and aftected every department of native life was the Ijelief in tabu (see p. -30). Persons and things were either inherently tabu, such as chiefs and their possessions, graveyards and the like ; or the tabu was imposed by a chief or priest upon growing crops, certain objects or localities, or it was communicated to certain individuals by certain actions. A definite class of priests existed, whose duties were to lay and remove tabus, to make offerings to the gods, to ])erfurm the incantati(ms inseparable from every important action in a native's life, to practise divination and to oljserve omens. Fret^uently the priest delivered oracles under the direct inspira- N 2 Fig. 159.— Sacrificial kriif'o edged with shark-teeth. New Zeahind. 180 OCEANIA 'ill ^m Fio. IGO.— Genealogi- cal staff {tvhuka2)apa) of the Ngati-Raugi tribe. New Zealand. Fig. IGl.— War- trumpet ijyu-Mea). New Zealand. POLYNESIANS AND MICRONESIANS 181 tion of the god, 1 ait other forms of divination were also known. The priests were also the doctors, but they relied more on their incantations than on their slight botanical knowledge. Each form of sickness was believed to be caused by a definite god. Black Fio. 1G2.— Wooden 'flutes' from New Zealand. magic was practised by individuals, and also by the jiriests when the object was a hostile tribe. Human sacrifices were occasionally made on important occasions (fig. 159). The Maori believed in an afterworld composed of various spheres where each soul took its i)osition according to its rank and personal merit. t;.);::-.-.:;;^| PARK LAND I I DESERT NORTHERN UMIT Or BANTU TRIBE Map B. — Africa. 183 AFRICA The population inhalnting the Continent of Africa may be divided into five stocks: Libyan, Hamite, Himyarite (Semite), Negro and Bushman, exclusive of the modern European population, and the Indians and Chinese introduced by them. The first two have been supposed by some to be related, if not identical, on the ground that the Libyans speak a Hamitic language ; but linguistic evidence is by itself of very doubtful value, and the arguments against such relationship are many and weighty. The Negro peoples may be divided into Negroes proper and Bantu. The former are the parent stock, and display great j^hysical uniformity, combined with extraordinary linguistic divergence ; the converse is true of the Bantu, all of whom speak dialects of one language. Negro and Bantu territory is separated by a line irregularly drawn from the mouth of the Rio del Rey in the west almost to meet the Congo at about 21 deg. East, then describing nearly a semi- circle, and crossing and recrossing the Congo a little to the south of Stanleyville ; thence to the northern extremity of the Albert Nyanza, and finally, with a southerly trend to the coast, following the Tana from source to mouth. The Pygmies are a branch of the Negroes proper, and their short stature is doubtless due to natural selection. Of these five stocks, the Negro and Bushman are, as far as can be seen at present, aborigines ; the Hamite and Himyarite are immigrant, and seem to be related, most probably through a common ancestor. The Himj^arite is a dark brunette ; the Hamite is distinctly )>rown, and possibly modified by a Dravidian element ; the Libyan is connected with the dolmen- builders of Europe, and is distinctively 'white'; the Negro is a dark bronze or chocolate (' black ') ; and the Bushman a yellow- ish brown. The reason for the pigmentation of the darker races is obscure, but there seems ground for the supposition that it is protective ; it has been suggested that it is a safeguard against the short-waved rays (from the violet end of the spectrum) to which the X-rays belong, for such rays in excess are destructive of proto- plasm. The antiquity of man in Africa is very difficult to determine. Stone implements of palaeolithic type have l)een found in various districts, such as Egyi)t, Somali-land, the Zambesi valley. Cape Colony and Algeria ; celts c)f neolithic type in the Welle district of the Congo Free State and along the west coast of Africa, where they are believed by the present natives to bo thunderljolts. These celts are particularly numerous on the Gold Coast (one, 28 in. in length, is exhibited in Table-Case 182). Arrowheads and 184 AFRICA pounders of neolithic type are found in the West Sahara, and stone and obsidian flakes are found in British East Africa. Of all these only those from Egypt and the Zambesi valley have been found in localities Avhich furnish any idea of their age ; but these two cases suj^ply geological evidence in favour of immense antiquity \ Historical evidence for the use of stone imjilements is very slight ; stone implements were in general use in Egypt during the IVth dynasty and were employed for ceremonial purposes as late as the XlXth. Of the other inhabitants of Africa, the Bushman and Bube (of Fernando Po) alone were living in the stone age at the time of their discovery, and the former were even then rapidly obtaining iron weapons from the surrovinding tribes. The reason for this scarcity of culture based on stone is prol)ably to be found in the Avonderful minei'al wealth of the continent and the richness of its ores, which rendered the stone age of short duration. In fact, it is reasonable to suppose that whole tracts of Africa never knew stone-age man, but were first peopled at a comparatively late period by tribes who had already solved the secret of metallurgy. The question of the peopling of Africa, the migrations and interminglings of the original stocks, is a difficult subject and in the present state of our knowledge it is only possible to put forward a tentative theory. Africa has a central region of dense forest which covers the area drained by the northern tributaries of the Congo and the lower portion of its southern tributaries, and extending along the west coast nearly as far as the Senegal River. North, east, and south of this forest ai-ea is a wide region of parkland enclosing two deserts, one to the north (Sahara) and one to the south (Kalahari), of which the former is by far the larger. It would seem likely that the cradle of the Negro, who is tirst and foremost an agriculturist, must be somewhere in the neighljourhood of the great lakes. The race expanded rapidly and without interference, until the advent into Somali-land of the Hamites, a purely pastoral people, who crossed over from Arabia. In this way pressure was applied from the east^, and the Negro stock was forced into the marshes of the Nile Valley, and along the open country north of the forest to the west coast, where Negroes of the primitive type are still to be found. At the time when those movements took place, the lower valley of the Nile was already occupied by the Predynastic Egyptians, who may belong to the parent stock of both Semite and Hamite. After the Hamites had expelled the Negroes from the 'Horn of Africa', one of their pioneer branches, already containing a tinge of negro blood, found its way south down the eastern strip of parkland and mingled with the Bushmen to form the Hottentot people. The way to the south was, however, soon closed by the * The age of the Zanil)esi piihieoliths has recently been disputed. AFRICA 185 Negroes and the tribes of mixed blood, to which the contact between Negro and Hamite gave rise. Such tribes received no recognition from the true Hamites, amongst whom jjurity of blood is a matter of the highest consideration ; they were therefore forced to cast in their lot with the Negroes, with the result that their Hamitic physical traits were almost merged in those of the Negro, and a slight element of Hamitic blood was diifused among a large number of negro tribes. In this way arose the first Bantu tribes, who seem to approach the Hamites in those points in which they differ from the Negro proper. As these tribes increased in numbers and felt the want of expansion, they took the only route open to them and passed down the eastern highlands to the south, where they soon drove the Bushmen into the desert. The peopling of the forest area followed much more slowly and was effected mainly from the north and north-east, but also to some extent by way of the Zambesi valley ; the first migrants to West Africa were driven into the forests along the coast by the subsequent arrivals. Next to tribal pressure, one of the most potent causes of the migrations of peoples has been the craving for salt, and the desire to control the sources of its supply. In West Africa there seems to have been a continual movement of tribes toward the sea, where this commodity could be obtained, and in general tribal movements in Africa have been from north to south and from east to west. Only at a late period did a reflex movement occur, of which the most considerable was the northward migration of a number of peoples of Zulu blood. In addition to the Hamitic and Himyaritic immigrants, Asia may have made other and lesser contributions to the development of Africa by way of Madagascar, but in all probaljility these affected its culture rather than its racial stocks. The culture of the inhabitants of the various regions, desei-t, parkland, and forest, naturally varies in accordance with environ- ment. In the desert (Bushmen, Tuareg) and in the heart of the forest (Pygmy) man is nomadic ; in the less dense portions of the forest he is settled and agricultural ; in the parkland he adds the care of cattle to that of his fields (except where natural checks such as the tsetse-fly occur), or is entirely pastoral and therefore semi-nomadic. To speak very generally, the following differences exist between the cultures respectively of forest (and its borders) and parkland. Among the forest jDeoples clothing is made of vegetable substances ; the bow is the chief weajion and its string is of fibre or cane ; basket-work belongs to the woven type ; rectangular houses are found. Among the inhabitants of the parkland, clothing is made of skins ; where the bow is found, the string is of sinew ; the spear is the chief weapon ; basket-work belongs to the coiled type and houses are circular. Large states or confederations of tribes have developed in the parkland or on Fig. 163.— Types of African shields, a. Buduma tiibe, L. Chad (wood > h. Azandeh tribe, NE. Congo Free State (wicker), c. Momfu tribe, NE Congo Free State (wicker), d. Zuhi-Xosa tribes, S. Africa (hide), e. BaGanda tribe, Uganda Protectorate (wood covered with wicker). /. BaNo-ala tribe. Upper Congo (wicker), g. Tuareg, Sahara (hide), h. Acholi tribe Uganda Protectorate (hide), i. Mangbetu tribe, NE. Congo Free State (wood"^ Fk;. 1(;4.— Tvpcs of African spears. 1. Masai, E. Africa Protectorate. 2. Masai, old pattern. 3. Ballima and other Hamitic trihes, west of Victoria Nyanza. 4. Dorobo, elepliant liarpoon, E. Africa Proteotorato. 5. Somali. 6. Mobenge tribe of Ababwa, hipi>opotanius harpoon, Welle, Congo State. 7. Mobati tribe of Ababwa, Welle, ConRo State. 8, Mangbotu, Well(>, Congo State (copper blade). 9. Azandeh, W.dh', Congo State. 10. See 7. 11. Upper Congo. 12. See 8. 13. WaNg.nin, Lualaba River. 14. BaKnssii, Upper Congo ^copper;. 1.5. I^aSuto, Sonth Africa. 16. AwaNkondo, Lake Nyassa. 17. MaTabili, Soutii Africa. 18. Fang, (Jaboon River. 19. Upper Benue River. 20. Galjoon. 21. Bi.ssagos Islands. (For a Zulu assemu see Fig. 103, ri.) 188 AFRICA the fringe of the forest where the latter is not sufficiently dense to hinder communication. In the thicker portions the central control of a wide area is impossible, and each village is independent. The chief food-plants are. in the forest, manioc ; on the parkland, maize ; in the north, millet. The Negro is principally a vegetarian, not from choice, but because meat is difficult to obtain, and cattle, where found, are regarded mainly as wealth, so that they are rarely slaughtered for food. It is worthy of note that the two main food-plants of Africa, maize and manioc, are both of American origin. As regards religion, ancestor-worship becomes the dis- tinguishing feature only among those people who have been led by the sight of men wielding great power in this world to believe that the souls of the great are powerful after death. Thus in the denser forest where the tribe is split up into petty village com- munities, in which no man takes great precedence of another, ancestor-worship is at a minimum, but is found at its height amongst the peoples who have constituted states and dominions. Kain- making is hardly found in the forest area, but, in those j^arts of the open country where the rainfall is precarious, and the whole jirosperity of the tribe is staked yearly on the timely appearance of rain for the crops or the pastures, the rainmaker becomes a personage of paramount importance. In the forest is found animistic belief in a variety of minor supernatural forces, of the trees, streams, rocks and even animals. It would be possible to cite a very large number of differences of this nature, all de- pending on envu'onment. For the purposes of this Guide, Africa has been divided into districts which are necessarily arbitrary and artificial. Until more is known of the inter-relations of most of the interior tribes any attempt to group the peoples on any other than a geographical basis is sure to be unsatisfactory. The list of tribes is of course abridged, but sufficient names are mentioned to give a general idea of the population of Africa ; they belong to tribes which are either in themselves important or well represented in the Museum Collection. In the first section will be considered the drainage-area of the Nile north of about 10 deg. N., including Egypt, the Egyptian Sudan, Abyssinia, with Somali and Galla lands. The ethnic affinities of the peoples inhabiting this region are in many cases veiy obscure, and involve many important questions which cannot be answered until further evidence has been collected. The Egyptians inhabit the lower portion of the Nile valley ; the high ground on the east is occupied by a number of tribes called Anti by the Ancient Egyptians, Blemmyes by the Romans, and Beja by the Arabs. They include the Ababdeh, Bisharin, Beni Amer, Habab and Hadendoa, and are usually said to be in the AFRICA 189 main of Hamitic stock, but for some reasons it seems preferable to regard them i-ather as very early Himyarites who have been influenced, though slightly, by contact with the Negro. It was by people of Beja affinities that the Christian kingdom of Meroe was founded, which lasted from the sixth century until its over- throw in the fifteenth by the Funj, a negro people under Arab leadership. These peoples are but poorly represented in the Museum Collection. West of the Nile are the districts of Kordofan and Dar Fur. In the former are found those tribes which were called by the Ancient Egyptians Mentiu, by the Romans Nobatae, and are known to-day as Nuba. These include the Baggara and the Berabra (Danakala, Mahass, Sukkot, Haifa), who seem physically Fio. 165. — Hide shields of the Hamitic tribes, a. Coastal Somali. h. Inland Somali (also Galla and Danakil). to stand midway between the Egyptians and the Negroes ; they seem to have little affinity with the Beja peoples, but, on tlie other hand, may possibly be connected distantly with the Libyans. Dar Fur was in early days the seat of a negro kingdom established by the For, though some of the kings aj^pear to have been of Arab extraction. Many of the tribes mentioned now contain an Arab element, and Aral) tribes of every degree of racial impurity are scattered throughout the territory. Arab immigration com- menced in the seventh century, and has profoundly affected the original inhabitants ; the Mahdist movement, in which the Baggara jdayed a i)rominent part, completed the growing ethnic confusion, wliicli it is now extremely difficult to disentangle. Matters have been complicated by the fact that many tribes have adojDted fictitious genealogies in order to boast of an Arabian origin. In 190 AFRICA the same way, a great number of elements liave combined in various proportions to form the population of Abyssinia ; Negro, Semite and Hamite are all represented. South of Abyssinia are the true Hamites, Galla (Oromo), Somali, and Danakil (Afar). The fii-st named appear to have i-eached the African coast Ix'fore the others, and the pressure of the Somali behind them induced them to move towards the south-east, the Somali occupying the ground which they evacuated : hence the existence of serf tribes of Galla among the southern Somali. The fact that an original negro population was displaced by the Galla seems proved by Fig. 16(j.- -Throwiiig chiljs from the Nile Valley. Ancient Egyptian. h. Modern, c, d. existence amongst them of negroid tribes in a similar condition of dependence. The south-eastward movement of the Galla did not, however, continue long ; the Masai, apparently connected with them both l)y blood and by culture, diove them back in a northerly direction, until they came into contact with the Danakil, the last tribe to ariive, with whom to some extent they intermingled. The northward ex})ansion, however, did not cease there, with the result that a strong Galla element is to be found in the j^opulation of southern Abyssinia. During the early struggles with the warlike negroes of the south-east, it would seem that a branch of Galla penetrated inland, establishing themselves on the north and AFRICA 191 east of Victoria Nyanza, vvliere they are known to-day variously as BaHima, WaTusi, WaRuanda, and so forth. Throughout this area clothing is now made principally of cotton, though hides are found among Danakil, Somali and Galla, the latter also using bark-cloth. Tatu is not very common, but is found among the lower orders in Egypt and among the For. The fashion of frizzing out the hair into a large moj), common amongst Baggara and Beja, earned for them the nick- name of ' Fuzzy-wuzzies ' in the Mahdist war. Silver ornaments are frequent, especially in Al>ys- sinia. Circumcision is universal. With the exception of the Egyptian Fellahin, and a section of the Abj'ssinians and For, the whole population of this region is devoted to a pastoral life, keeping- camels, cattle, goats, sheep and horses. Bee-keej^ing is largely l^ractised in Abyssinia. Huts are everywhere circular (except among the Egyptians), and in their struc- ture reflect the life of the peoi>le ; those of the nomads being com- posed of mats or hides, those of the more settled peoples of branches or cla}'. The former peoples live chiefly on flesh and milk, the latter are mainly vegetarian. Fish is eaten by the coastal Galla. Beer (merissaj is manufactured from grain, and also, in Galla-land, mead from honey. Hunting is practised, chiefly Ijy the Beja, Baggara and Somali. Coiled basket-work is uni- versal, and of good quality, milk- vessels being often made of this material (Somali, Abyssinians) ; pottery is poor, and amongst the nomads is often ejitirely absent, being replaced by wooden or horn vessels. Some of the best smiths are found amongst the Foi-, who show remarkable skill in all crafts. IJecorative art amongst the Moslem tribes is con- fined to geometrical forms, and practically the sole representa- Fi( ](>7. — Tobactcu pipes. Upper Nile. 192 AFRICA tions of the human form are found in Abyssinian Christian manuscripts, where tlie devils are represented in i)rofile, tlie saints full face. Among the Hamites the lozenge is the leading motive in decoration, and walls of huts are often ornamented with patterns. The chief weapons are sword and socketed spear (fig. 164. 5). Bows are not common (Nuba, Galla) ; wrist- knives and slings (Galla) and throwing-knives (For) are found, as also are clubs. Circular hide shields (Beja, Hamites (fig. 1G5), Abyssinians) and occasional suits of chain -mail and quilted armour (Baggara, Nuba) form the defensive armour. Among tlie nomad tribes, the social system is purely patriarchal, but among the more settjed Galla a more democratic constitution prevails. Abyssinia is ruled by a sovereign now styled Kas, but formerly Negus, who is at the head of a feudal system of military nobles. JT i T Fig. 168. — Tobacco pipes. Upper Nile. Except among the Moslems, marriage is by purchase. The dead are buried. Inheritance by the sister's son has been reported of the Beja and (formerly) the For ; elsewhere property descends to the children of the deceased. A great variety of musical instruments is found amongst the Egyptians, but elsewhere only drums, flutes, pipes and, sporadically, harps. Among other amusements chess is found in Egypt and Abyssinia, cards among the Egyptians and Somali ; the Fellahin fight with staves and wrestle, and regular tournaments take place in Abyssinia : a game with a ball is played by the Galla. Mohammedanism prevails over Egypt and the Sudan, Somali- and Danakil-lands, and a small part of Galla-land and Abyssinia. In the latter a monophysite Christianity is the state religion, but Jews are numerous ; a .Jewish dynasty ruled in the tenth century. The Pagan Hamites (chiefly Galla) worship a sky-god, and regard certain animals (crocodiles, lions, snakes), trees and grass as holy. Ordeals are found among the Hamites ; a belief in wer-animals among the Galla ; the wearing of amulets is universal. AFRICA 193 The vallej^s and marshes of the Upper White Nile are inhabited by a race of pure negroes, who on the whole are very similar in physique and customs. They probably belong to a very early branch of the negro race which entered its present abode under pressure of the Hamitic immigration into Africa. The chief tribes are as follows : The Shilluk inhabit the north bank on either side of the Sobat confluence ; the Nuer, related in speech but differing in physique, are found on the south bank from the Sobat con- fluence to the Bahr-el-Arab. The pastoral Dinka, who, with the Shilluk, may be taken as typical of this group, are scattered over a wide extent of country between the Bahr-el-Ghazal and the region east of the Sobat. South of the Dinka, between the Bahr- FiG. 169. — Nilotic tribes, a. Iron lighting-wristlet, Mittu tribe, Upper Nile. h. Ivory armlet, Shilluk tribe, Ui)per Nile. c. Iron fighting-wristlet with guard for edge, Acholi and Lango, Uganda Protectorate, d. Ivory- hunting-horn, Dor tribe, Upper Nile. el-Gebel and Bahr-el-Ghazal, are the .Jur, who still preserve the tradition that they have moved up from the south ; while the upper tributaries of the latter river are occupied by the Dor. This tribe seems related to the Mittu (Upper Nam Rohl) and connects the Nilotic negroes, physically, with the Zandeh peoples to the west. The Jibbeh on the upper Sobat, to judge from their fairer complexion and otlier physical characters, must have received a tinge of Hamitic blood ; and the Bari of the upper Bahr-el-Gebel are distantly connected with the Masai. Soutli of the Bari, on the west bank are the Madi, Lendu and Alur, and east of thorn between tlie Bari and Victoria Nyanza are the Latuka, Aclioli, and Lango, of whom the first seem to stand midway between tlie Bari and Masai. Kound Kavirondo Bay is an isolated K. O 194 AFllICA group of Nilotes called Jji-Luo, who seem to have acted as a check upon the northward expansion of the Bantu peoples. Thus in the north and centre of this group are found the purest and most Fig. 170.— Nilotic shields. 1. Wood, Mundu, 2. Wood, Dinka. o. Hide, Lango. 4. Hide, Dor. typical tribes (Shilluk, Dinka, Alur, Acholi), while in the south- west and south-east are signs of admixture with Zandeh and Hamitic peoj^les respectively. The iS'ilotic tribes are distini^uished bv the extreme scantiness AFRICA 195 of their clothing, men and unmarried girls go as a rule completely nude, and married women wear merely an ornamented goatskin or a fibre ' tail ' to mark their superior' jDOsition. Most tribes extract the lower incisors and pierce the lips for ornaments (fig. 19). Hair-dressing and head-dresses are varied and often very elaborate. Armlets of iron and ivory and necklaces of beads made from ostrich egg-shell are the chief ornaments. Circumcision is not found. The principal occupation of these tribes is cattle-breeding, though the Dor, Jur, and Ja-Luo are mainly smiths and agri- 171. — Ja-Luo warriors witJi featlur head-dresses, shields and speais. Kavii-ondo. culturists. Milk is the chief article of diet among the pastoral tribes, of whom the Dinka are the chief. Fishing is largely practised ; huts are throughout circular with conical or domed roofs, and pile-houses are found (Nuer). Tobacco is much smoked, many of the pipes being of enormous size (figs. 167, 168). The Jur and Dor are skilful smelters and workers of iron (fig. 12), and baskets and wooden pillows are found amongst most tribes. Art is chielly limited to the rude geometrical paintings on Acholi huts, the memorial figures carved by the Dor, and the clay models of cattle made by the Dinka. The cliief weapons are the club, socketed spear and bow ; but wrist-knives (Acholi, Jibbeh, Latuka, fig. 169, c), spiktd wristlets eak a language akin to Bari, but whoso physical characters have been modified by the admixture of non-Nilotic blood. It may be regarded as certain, both on physical and cultural grounds, that the race wliicli coml)ineandoned them. Missile clubs are universal, and also axes with very narrow blades passing through knobbed hafts. 210 AFRICA The eastern tribes live under the personal rule of chiefs ; the BaRotse empire is administered by means of an elaborate oi'ganiza- tion of officials with the king at the head. The clan sj'stem exists among BaEotse and MaNganja. Marriage is by purchase. Initiation ceremonies are performed on boys and girls at pubertj^ : burial customs are too various for description : contracted burial is found among the AwaNkonde and AJawa, upright burial among the MaKorikori. The poison ordeal is very prevalent. All these tribes are fond of music and dancing, especially in the Fig. 18.5.-- Knives with wooden sheath?, and wooden pillows. MaKalanga, Mashonaland. south and west. Drums, rattles, xylophone.s, and ' pianos ' with iron keys (e. g. fig. 201) are universal ; flutes and horns (Nyassa) and the musical bow (in the south and west) are also found. A form of mancala (see p. 202) is general throughout Nyassa-land. Ancestor-worship is universal, and the mus^imo (ancestral spirits) are of primary importance, though a vague supreme divinity, to whom no offerings are made, is usually recognized. Belief in trans- migration is common (lower Zambesi, MaKalanga, BaEotse). Divination by means of wooden dice or knuckle-bones is also frequent, especially among the BaEotse and MaKalanga : black magic is much feared, and many hundreds have fallen victims to the charge of sorcery. AFRICA 211 The tribes next to be considered are those inhabiting a more southerly region of British South Africa than those last described, and German South-West Africa. They can be divided into three main groups. Bushmen, Hottentots (or Khoi-Khoin), and Bantu. The Bantu also fall into three main divisions. Firstly there is the central group or BeChuana, whicli at the beginning of the nine- teenth century occupied the greater part of the interior plain north of the Orange Kiver, and include among many others the BaHurutse, BaTlapin. BaKolong, BaKwena, BaMangwato and BaSuto tribes : the so-called Kalahari Bushmen are usually to be reckoned as be- longing to this group. In the second place we iind the eastern or Zulu-Xosa group, which occupied the eastern coast south of the Sabi river, and in recent times part of the interior highlands also ; it includes the AmaXosa, AmaTembu, AmaMpondo, AmaZulu. AmaSwazi, AmaTonga, and many others. The third or western group occupies the tract between the western fringe of the Kalahari desert and the Atlantic, including the OvaHerero, OvaMpo, and Berg-Damara (the last of Hottentot speech). The Bushmen, now nearly extinct, in early times occupied practically the whole of South Africa, but were rapidly being forced into the arid interior plains and mountains by Bantu and Hottentots when the white settlers arrived. The Hottentots can be divided into three groups, the Namaqua of Namaqua-land, the colonial Hottentots from the Cape eastward to Bantu territory, and the Korana on the Orange, Hart, and Vaal rivers. The Bushmen are the aborigines, and formerly extended much farther north, since their remains have been found in British Central Africa : the Hottentots seem to be related both to the Bushmen on the one side and the Bantu on the other. The BeChuana were later arrivals than the Hottentots, though they belong to an earlier wave of migration than the Zulu-Xosa, who, however, travelled more quickly and finally outflanked them. The BeChuana migration took place in several successive waves, the later comers overtaking the pioneej's and either annihilating them or reducing them to the condition of the most abject serfdom. The Leghoya, BaKalahari, and BaLala are relics of these pioneers, and the last now exhibit to a greater or less degree a strain of Bushman blood. The tribal history of South Africa as far as is known is a tangled skein of migration, war, secession, and extermination ; and tribal movements, such as that which resulted in the MaKololo occupation of Barotseland mentioned above, are common. Two of the most important of these need especial mention, the migrations of the MaTal)ili and ANgoni. In 1817 Umsiligazi. one of the iitdiiiia (headmen) of the great Zulu chief Chakn, revolted and fled nortli with a large following. These were the MaTabili : they settled lirst iu (he Transvaal, but later, owing to the arrival of the Boers, moved further north into that portion of the country known as Matal)i- P 2 010 AFRICA Fig. 186. — Digging stone Aveight. liland {.^ee above, p. 208). The WaHehe of the Kuaha river, a Swazi tribe, were in occu- pation of the country at the time, but were driven out to the north. The history of the ANgoni is simihar : they also revolted from Chaka, and after wandering on the Sabi River joined Umsiligazi's band of MaTabili about 1830 : but their chief Zun- gandawa quarrelled with Umsiligazi, and after a battle led his men further north, crossed the Zambesi and fought their Avay through to Fipa on Tanganyika. Before this one of his head-men, Chikusse, had left him and settled to the south of Nyassa. After Zungandawa's death the ANgoni gradually split up : dissensions arose among his sons ; powerful induna seceded and set up as chiefs on their own account. One branch went north, and succeeded in penetrating as far as the Victoria Nyanza, where they are known as Ruga-Ruga : others are found to the east of Nyassa, under the name of MaViti, and in Portuguese territory, where they are called Landin. Other marauding tribes of Zulu origin, more or less connected with the ANgoni, are the MaZitu to the north of Nyassa, the WaTuta to the north of them, and the MaNgwangwara to the east. Dress is composed entirely of skins (or, in rare cases, bark-cloth) and the skin mantle (/caross) is very characteristic of the area ; the peculiar costumes of the Herero Avomen with their leaf-like appendages and iron and egg- shell beads call for special mention. Hair- dressing is not elaborate : Zulu married men wear a libre 'head-ring' sewn to the hair and plastered with wax or earth. Ornaments are worn in great variet)'. The Namaqua alone tatu ; tooth mutilation is found among the Herero, nose-piercing among the Bushmen. Circumcision is found amongst all the Bantu except the Zulu tribes, amongst whom it was abolished by Chaka. The Bushmen are hunters, the Hottentots and Western Bantu pastoral, the eastern and central Bantu agri- ;-stick with horn point and Bushman. S. Africa. AFKICA 213 culturists usually possessing at the same time large herds of cattle, and the diet of the people varies accordingly. Cattle are only occasionally slaughtered for food. Huts are of two kinds, beehive (East and West Bantu and Hottentots), and circular with conical roof (BeChuana) ; the temhe, or continuous line Fig. 187. — Axes from South Africa, a, b. Zulu (agriculture), c. Zulu-Xosa (war). (/. BoCliuana (war), e, /, g. BaSuto (war). /(. BeCiiuana (war). of dwellings, is found amongst the WaHehe. Pile and tree dwellings were adopted Jjy tlio BaKucna (BeCliuana) tribe after they had Ijcen bnjken up by raiders. 'J'ohacco is used overywlu're for smoking and snulling. Tlie liiishmen were living in the stone age at the time of their discovery, using stone knives, which thoy often i)repared on the spot and threw away after use ; and a digging-stick with stone weight and horn point ((ig. l-SO). All 214 AFRICA the other tribes smelt and work iron, and the BeChuana excel in this respect, as in all crafts. Wooden vessels and even baskets (the coiled variety) are used for milk, and rude pots are also made which are far inferior to those of the MaKalanga. The Bushmen are remarkable for their cave-paintings and sculp- tures, depicting hunting-scenes, dances, &c., which display a capacity for artistic expression far beyond most African tribes. The Zulu and Xosa ai'e the fighting tribes, none of the rest being at heart warlike: and among the former a very strict disciplinary system was estab- lished by the great chief Chaka, who abolished the throwing- assegai, which is the typical weapon of this area, and intro- duced the stabbing-assegai : by this reform he forced upon liis warriors the necessity of coming to close quarters, and from that time the Zulu became the domi- nant people. Bows and arrows (fig. 188) were the weapons of the Bushmen, the latter poisoned : clubs [kerrics) are universal. Axes with hafts of wood or rhino- ceros horn are common (fig. 187). Shields of hide are found amongst all Bantu except the Herero: those of the Zulu are oval (fig. 163 d), of the BeChuana round, square, wdnged (fig. 189), or like a flattened hour-glass. The Bushmen live in small scattered groups : the Hottentots under patriarchal chiefs whose power is limited by a council, the Bantu under absolute chiefs who, among the military tribes, were regarded almost as deities. The BeChuana are divided into tribes, each with a sihoho (crest a a Fig. 188. —Bushman arrow-heads, S. Africa, a. Shite point, b. Quartz tiakes. c. Iron. d. Bone. AFRICA 215 or emblem), usually an animal or plant, which they refrain from eating. Initiation is practised on Xosa and BeChuana boys. The dead are buried in various fashions. Musical instru- ments are not numerous, the most widespread being the musical bow : primitive drums are found amongst the Bushmen, reed flutes amongst the Bushmen and BeChuana, and 'pianos' with iron keys (e. g. fig. 201) among most tribes. Dancing is popular everywhere. Various games are played : characteristic of the eastern Bantu was the sport of racing trained oxen. Eeligious ideas are vague : Bushmen and Hottentots believe in a number of evil spirits needing propitia- tion : ancestor-worship is charac- teristic of the Bantu. Personal charms and protective magic are universal, and rain-making is of great importance to the agri- cultural ti'ibes, especially the BeChuana. Fear of sorcery is very common among the eastern Bantu tribes, and the ' smelling- out ' and slaughter of thousands of alleged sorcerers was carried out on a wholesale scale, the practice relieving the chief of obnoxious or too powerful sub- ordinates. The mythology and folklore of this region is very rich, especially amongst Hotten- tots and Bushmen. The area next under con- sideration is that to the north and east of the regions described f,,;. J89.— Hide .shLM. BaSuto, in the last two sections ; it is S. Africa, bounded on the north by the river Congo and, to the east of the upper waters of that river, by the equator. This enormous tract comprises so great a number of tribes that only the more important can be men- tioned here. On the high jdateau forming the watershed of the Zambesi and Kasai are found the Lobale and Luchaze, who seem to show affinities with the tribes of BaEotseland : to the north of them are the BaLunda, amongst whom a mighty empire flourished in the eighteenth and latter part of tlio nineteenth centuries, extending from the Kwango to beyond the Lualaba. A word must be said about the rise of this emijire, since it explains 216 AFT.^IC.V tlie position of many of the neighbouring tribes at the present clay. Al)out three centuries jigo the BaLunda, who lived mainly by agriculture, recognized as ruler an immigrant hunter from the BaLuba to the north-east : he gradually extended his power and laid the foundations of the Lunda empire. He had with him a number of BaLuba followers, who, however, were far out- numbered by the subject BaLunda. Certain irreconcilable Lunda chiefs from time to time seceded and travelled west, followed by a few adherents : better armed than the aborigines they encountered, they often imposed themselves as rulers, and, becoming merged in their subjects, constituted a new tribe. In Fio. 190. — Wooden pigment-boxes. BaMbala tribe of BuShongo, Congo State. this way arose the Kioko. formerly to the south-east ot the Ba- Lunda, but now scattered among them, of whom the MaKosa between theKwango and Kasai are a branch : the Songo between the Kwango and Kwanza: the Imbangala between the Tala-Mugongo range and the Kwango, and the related Ba-Achinji on the opposite bank, also the Hollo Bondo and Jiuga furthei- west. To the south of these Angola is peopled by a number of tribes usually termed collectively Ganguela, and the state of Bihe was founded by an admixture of Songo and Ganguela called Binbundo. The Imbangala are a mixture of immigrants and BaPindi aborigines, but the main body of BaPindi migrated to the country between the Kwilu and Wissman Falls on the Kasai ; at a later time, a branch of the Imbangala, under the name of BaKwese, occupied AFRICA 217 a tract of the country to the south-west of them. The son of the BaLuba chief (who founded the Lunda empire) by a Lunda woman of chiefly rank, was named Yanvo. and subsequently ' Muata Yanvo ' became the hereditary title of the rulers of the Lunda empire. These rulers continually added to their sphere of influence by sending out relatives to form tributary kingdoms ; in this manner arose the states of Kazembe on the east and Mai on the north. The former grew so powerful that it finally became independent as the power of the parent state declined : it was, however, over- thrown by Msiri, a WaNyamwezi adventurer, who became chief of the BaSamba in the south : Msiri himself was overthrown on the arrival of Europeans. Further north on the Lualaba was another kingdom, Kasongo, ruled ))y chiefs of the same family as the founder of the Lunda Empire, BaLuba, or as they were called in the east, WaRua. This great people, divided into a great number of tribes, Fif;. 191. -Wooden snuff-mortar. Ba- Mbala, Kwilu River. Fig. 192. — Wooden head-rest. N. BaMbala, Kwilu River, Congo State. have spread across the continent as far as the Kasai, dividing the BaKete aborigines, wlio are found to the east of that river, into two portions : in the west the BaLuba are known as BashiLange. An important section of BaLuba called BaSonge (including the BaSanga), to whom the Zappo-Zapp, a mongrel tribe, are related, are found Ijetween the Lul)i and Lomami. North of them are the BaTetela people, including tlje Ba- Kussu and MaNyema who have wandered down from the north- east. East of the Lualaba to the ncntli of the BaLuba are the 218 AFRICA WaKegga, the MaNyemn, and the BaKuimi. WaNgenia, a water-folk, are found ahnost everywhere in the Lualaha. In the area drained byJ^Kasai north of the BaKete are the BaKuba, arrivals from the north, who call themselves BuShongo, or ' peoi:)le of the throwing-knife '. They are divided into a number of sub- Fk;. 108. — Old wooden cup. BuShongo, Congo Free State. tribes, of which the most important are the BaMbala (chief tribe), BaNgendi, BaNgongo, and Isambo, the last of which is independent. The BuShongo are particularly interesting as the founders of an empire which reached its zenith just about the same date as the foundation of the Lunda empire, and still survived when the latter had fallen into decay ; they were originally immigrants from the north, from the neighbourhood of the Ubangi and 8hari rivers. North of them again are the far less civilized BaSongo Meno, with PLATE X. Old embroidered dancing-dress of palm-fibre. Ba-Ml)ala tribe ul' BuShongo, Congo State. [Face i>. 21S AFRICA 219 whom they have to some extent intermingled, and the BaNkutu ; nortli of the hitter are the Akehi and a large number of tribes known as BaLolo and Mongo. Scattered bands of pygmies are also found in the forests of this region, especially in the BuShongo country. Between the Kasai and the Loange are the Bashilele, and TuKongo, both of whom are early branches of the BuShongo people. Between the Loange and Kwango are a large number of tribes, BaBunda. WaNgongo, BaSongo, BaSamba, BaMbala, BaYaka, BaHuana, and BaYanzi. The last two appear to be of northern origin, and the BaHuana niay be related to the BaTeke of Stanley Pool. Between the Kwango, the coast, the lo\ver Congo, and the peoples of Angola are the BaKongo, including the Bashi Kongo, often wrongly called Muchi-Kongo, BaSundi. and BaBwende. Fig. 194. — "Wooden standing- cups. BaMbala tribe of BuShongo, Congo State. In this region the culture of the parkland merges into that ot the forest. In the east the BaTetela and BaLuba, in the south the BaLunda, Kioko, Lovale, &c., represent the former. The culture associated with the forest-area and its borders as opposed to that of the eastern and southern j^arkland is found in its greatest purity among the Kwilu tribes. Except the tribes mentioned as possessing the parkland culture, who wear skins, the peoples of this area wear palm-cloth ; bark-cloth is known to the BuShongo. Hairdressing is often very elaborate and the varieties are too numerous to mention. Painting with the I'cd dust of the tulaiJa wood is common throughout the Kasai watershed, and cicatrization (figs. 24, 195) and tooth mutilation reach their most elaborate pitch in this area. Circumcision is nearly universal and often, in the west usually, accomi)anied I>y iniliation into a secret society. All these tribes arc agricultural and most Fig. 195. -Wooden figure from the Bena Lulua of the Kasai District, Congo Free State, showing cicatrization. Fig. 196. —Wooden cups. a. BaBunda, h. BaPindi ; Kwilu district. Fig. 197. — W^ooden cup from the BaYaka, Kwilu River. AFEICA 231 are expert hunters also: the chief food is manioc and, to a less extent, maize, but meat is preferred. Canni])alism is very common (especially the BaTetela, N. BaMbala, BaHuana, and BaYanzi). Tobacco smoking and snuffing (fig. 191) are universal. Circular Fig. 198. — Palm clotli witli inwovuii patterns iioiu tliu Kwilu. u and c. BaPindi, h. BaBunda. huts are found amongst some tribes in the south and oast and beyond (Lovale, BaTetela, BaBiho, &c,) : elsewhere the buildings are rectangular. Pile-dwellings exist among the BaLolo. The tribes of the Kasai watershed and the BaLuba are craftsmen of no mean order ; while the BuShongo, in wood-carving and cloth 222 AFRICA embroidoiy, f;i.v siu'pivss ivny other African people (Pis. X iind XI and figs. 15, 190, 198, and 194). Most tribes work iron and copper (the last coming from the Katanga), and the most skilful smiths are the Kioko, BaLnba, BiiShongo, BaYanzi. and some tribes of Angola. The art of the BuShongo is remarkable : not only are their wood-carvings exceedingly graceful in outline Fig. 199. — Objects from the Kvvilu district, a. BaBunda hunting-whistle. h. BaYaka fetish mask. c. BaPindi hoe-handle. d. BaBunda sword, e. BaKwese basket. and covered with patterns of singular beauty, similar to the embroidered designs on their cloth (which often recall our ' Late Keltic' period, PI. X), but the art of portraiture is practised amongst them, and the wooden statues of their early kings are the most striking products of indigenous African art (PI. XI). The two forms of culture in this district are illustrated by the weapons : in the west centre and north the bow is almost the sole weapon : in the east PLATE XL Contemporary iiortrail-liyme in wood ol' J;opo riaoiigc, yroal-cliic'f of tho BuShonyo, c. 1790. Kasai District, Congo State. [Face p. 222 AFRICA 223 Fig. 200.— Wooden gong. MaNyema tribe, E. Congo Free State. Frci. 201. — 'Piano' witli gourd lesonatoi-. Lobale tribe, Zanibesi-Con£?o watershed. and south .spears aie i'uuiid also ((iy. 1G4. I:>, 14), and the bowstrings are occasionally of sinew (Lobale). Knives (fig. 208, a, g, h) and axes are found in a variety of forms : the throwing-knife exists only in conventional form as currency among the BaSongo Meno and BaNkutu, and in tlio name of the BuSliongo, which means •people of the throwing knife '. Swords (MaNycma, BaBunda, 224 AFRICA Fig. 202.— West African type of liarp. Fig. 203. — Friction-diiiin. BaYaka, Kwilu River, Congo Free State. fig. 11>9, (1. BaLolo) and cluLs (BaTetela, Angola) are rare. Shields occur sporadically, but tend to become obsolete. The tribes are governed either Ijy independent village chiefs AFRICA 225 (parts of Angola, BaMbala, Southern BaHuana, BaYanzi, Ba- Songo Meno, JBaNkutu, &c.), or by paramount chiefs administering a wide tract of country through a hierarchy of officials (BaLuba, BaLunda, Bc^Tetela, BuShongo, Northern BaHuana, BaYanzi, BaKongo, &c.). Esj^ecially noteworthy are the empires es- tablished by Muata Yanvo (Lunda), Kazembe, Kasongo, and Fiu. 201.- -Liiryo wooden cu remonial mask. Coiiso State. EaTetela tribe, Msiri (BaLuba). and those on the Kwango (BaYaka), among the BuShongo, and at San Salvadoi-, the old capital of the kingdom of Kongo. The ollicial hierarcliy and the system of etiquette pre- vailing at the courts of some of these paramount chiefs (especially BuShongoJ are astonishingly elaborate. Marriage is by purchase, but the consent of the woman is in almost every case necessary. A decayed form of totemism exists among the western BuShongo. K. Q 226 AFKICA Inheritance viiries, but tlu- descent of property Jiud rank in the female line is very common. Burial customs are various and are frequently accompanied by human sacrifice. Gambling and dancing are the usual forms of amusement, and mancala {sec p. 202) is sporadic. Drums and gongs (fig. 200) are found almost every- where, and many tribes have evolved a system of telegraphy by means of the latter (wooden pattern), the BaTetela being the most adept. 'Pianos' with iron or cane keys (fig. 201), harps, and -whistles (fig. 199, a) are also widespread: harps (fig. 202), musical bows (Angola, BuShongo), friction- drums (BaTetela, BuShongo, BaKete, Kwilu tribes, fig. 203, Angola), xylophones (BaSonge, BaTetela, BuShongo, BaKwese, and Angola), nose-flutes (Balluana), and bull-roarers (BuShongo) also occur. The most common belief is in an evil spirit which is sujiposed to possess people and by their means cause death to others. Indi- viduals accused of possession are usually suljjected to a poison-ordeal: other means of divination are too numerous to mention. Fetish figures are very common, but usually depend for their power upon the 'medicine' applied to them (fig. 205). Some tribes Ijelieve in a supreme creator, and ancestor- worship, chiefly confined to the ancestors of the chief, is found among those triljes who have formed large states. Many, if not most, of these tribes believe that man possesses a double soul, one element of which leaves the body during sleep (this explains dreams), and the other only at death. Belief in transmigration is sporadic amongst the Kwilu and Kasai tribes. Fig. 205 .—Wooden fetish figure plas- tered with magic clay without wliicli the figure has no sujxn'natural value. Northern BaMbala, Kwilu River, Congo State. The next area is extensive and may be divided into two sections. Of these the western comprises the negro and Bantu inhabitants of the land drained by the Congo and its tributaries to the west of the Ubangi, and by the Ogowe Kiver (corresponding apjjroxi- niately to French territory south of 6 deg.). The eastern includes the negro and Bantu triljes between the Congo and the equator on the south, 6 deg. north on the north, the Nilotic tribes on the east, and the Ubangi and Gribingi on the west. The collections illustrating the ethnograjjhy of the eastern section will be found on the eastern side of the Gallery, those relating to the western section opposite: the division is purely arbitrary and necessitated only by considerations of space, for, AFRICA 227 etlinographically speaking, the one group merges insensibly into the other. Moreover the eastern border of the eastern section marches with the western border of the Nilotic tribes, who are connected both by blood and culture with the negro peoples of the Congo Free State. On the Lower Congo on the north bank are the MaYombe, the BaSundi, BaBwendi, and BaLali, all closely connected with the BaKongo of the fourth section, the fourth being a mixture of BaKongo and BaTeke. These BaTeke inhabit a large area between the BaLali, the Alima, and the Upper Ogowe ; colonies are also found south of the Congo, and it will be remembered that the BaHuana claim relationship with them. As far as it is known, the BaTeke are aborigines of the Upper Ogowe watershed, as the Bulu and BaSheke of the Lower Ogowe and Gabun. Into this territory have penetrated peoples of Kongo stock (Ba- Vili) from the south, the IBenga from the north, and the BaKota and Enenga, the BaKalai, the Osyeba, and the Fang from the north-east. The history of these migrations is too complicated to give in detail, but it may be stated that the migration of the BaKota and Enenga took place under pressure from the Ndri, a negro tribe between the Upper Sanga and Ogowe ; that of the BaKalai under pressure from the Fang, of whom the Osyelja were the advance- guard. The Fang appear to have travelled under pressure from the Momfa, right across from the Welle district in a north- westerly direction, until they were driven southwards and west- wards by a people who may have been Fula. In addition to these more extensive migrations, the Mpongvve and Orungu peoples have moved in a northerly direction coastwards from the Upper Ngounie, and the Galoa have spread from the same neighbourhood along the main stream of the Ogowe. The Okanda Aduma (linguistic) family came, according to tradition, from the north, and include the Eshira. Thus all tribal movements in this region have been towards the sea, and seem to a great extent focussed on the Gabun and Ogowe estuaries. Beyond the BaTeke are the BaBoma : further still, on the Lower Sanga, the BaSanga ; and between the last and the Ubangi, the BaLoi and Bonjo. AH these tribes are Bantu, but a number of negro tribes are found in this section between the Upper Sanga and the Ubangi, such as the Ndri, Banziri, Togbo, Languasi, and Manjia, of whom the Togbo are comparatively recent arrivals from the north-east. The eastern section comprises a far smaller percentage of Bantu peoples. The triangular point of land at the Ubangi- Congo confluence is inhabited by the BaBangi who have spread far down the Congo as traders. It is said that the BaYauzi found at Stanley Pool are in reality BaBangi, but this is at least ^ a 228 AFRICA uncertain. These BaYanzi differ cultiually in many respects from the BaYanzi ''on the Kwilu, and there seems little in common between the two exce2)t the name. No less enterprising are the neighbouring BaNgala, of whom the inland section is called Ngombe : ' next come the BaPoto and then the BaSoko, north of whom are the many subtribes of the Ababua people. The Fig. 206. — Knives and axes from West Africa. «. Daliomi. b. Aslianti. c. Fang and other Gaboon tribes, d. Fang throwing-knife. e. Sheath of d (brass). /. Gaboon tribes, g. Dahomi. negro tribes are more numerous. East of the Ubangi and north of the Bantu are the Mongwandi. Sango, Watet, «S:c. ; north of the Welle is the great Azandeh nation (including the Abandia, Bombe. Makarka, and Mundu) whose eastern neighbours are the Sakara ; on the west are the Dor, described in the section on the Nilotic tribes. On the Gribingi are the Sara, Gaberi, &c. South-east of the Azandeh are the Abarambo, Mangbetu, Mege, Maigo, Momfu, Abisanga, Mabode, and Bakumu. The history AFRICA 229 of the peoi)ling of this district is very obscure : the scattered Momfu and Mege may have been the first arrivals, the former coming from the east ; the Abisanga may liave followed shortly after, and then the Mangbetu. who conquered the foregoing tribes and impo-ed their language and customs on them. The expansion of the Mangljetu received its first check at the hands of the Azandeh, who had meanwhile arrived from the north-west, and appear to have affinities with the Fula. Internal dissensions fostered by the Arabs arose ; the empire established by Munza broke up ; and the Mangbetu disappeared as a power, and even Fig. 207. — Knives from tlie Welle District, Congo State, a. Azandeh th rowing-knife, b. Mangbettu chief's knife. as a people, for those who still bear the name are by no means pure-blooded. The language and customs, however, remain. Pygmies are found sporadically in both sections of this area, though they are more numerous in the east. They are known as variously Akka, Tikitiki, Wochua, BaLia (Welle Basin), BaMbute and BaTwa (Ituri-Aruwimi and Semliki basins), Beyaga, Bebaya'a, and Betsan (Upper Sanga), BaBongo (Ogowe basin). ►Skins and palm-cloth form the principal clothing in the west: bark-clotli is typical of the Welle watershed : women as a rule wear little clothing. Cicatrization, which is univeisal, is most extensive among the Bantu tribes of the east. Tooth-mutilation Fift, 208. — Types of knives from tlie Congo Free State. «. MaNyema, Upper Congo, h. Ababvva, Welle District, c. Makarka, Welle District. d. Momfu, Welle District (woman's knife), c. Mangbetu, Welle District. /. BaTetela, Upper Congo, g. Kasai. h. BaTetela, Upper Congo, k. Mege, Welle District. 1. Mobati tribe of Ababwa. m. Ibembo. Kubi River. AFRICA 231 and extraction are sporadic, and lip-plugs and nose-ornaments are found amongst the negro tribes of the west, the latter among some of the western Bantu also (Fang, Okanda, BaBuende). Hairdressing is as a rule elaborate, and wooden shapes, used as foundations, occur in the west (Fang, BaKalai). Circumcision Fifj. 209. — Kiiivps from the Conso Statt c. Mom f 11. a. CaPoto. b. BaNgala. is universal in the Ogowe basin, non-existent among the negroes in the west, and, in the oast, recorded only of the Mangbetu. Among ornaments, the enormous Ijrass neckrings worn by the women of the BaBoma and neighbours are the most remarkable. All these trilies except the Pygmies are agricultural : and the men are also expert hunters and fishers. Manioc and maize are the staple food, except in the north, where millet is found. Cannibalism 232 AFRICA is the rule rather than the exception (especially among the Fang, Ndri, BaNgala). and tobacco-smoking is universal. Huts are rectangular or circular, according as the tribe is respectively Bantu or negro. Pile-dwellings are found on the west coast. Pottery is good in this area, and the Bantu are superior to the negroes in this respect, especially in the east. Weaving is not so extensively practised as in the last area described. The working of iron, esj^ecially in the Welle district, reaches a high level. Spears are found throughout the whole area (fig. 164. G-12, 18 and 20), but bows are more frequent in the west. Throwing-knives are found in both divisions (figs. 206, d and 207. a) : the crossbow only among the Fang. Swords and knives exist in a bewildering variety FiC4. 210. — 'Piano' witli resonator made of a liumaii skull. jg^BaBangi tribe, Congo Free State. of patterns in the east (figs. 207-209), and shields are also found here in greater numbers (fig. 163, h, c, f, i). In the west they are of wicker (though the Fang once used elephant-hide bucklers). In the east shields made of wood (Mangbetu, Abarambo, Ababwa), or covered with hide (Sara), are also found. In the west govern- ment is by petty chiefs : in the east, among the Bantu, a class of nobles often acts as a check on the chief, but among the negroes chiefs exercise, or once possessed, a widely extended power (Mangbetu, Azandeh). Marriage is by purchase. As to in- heritance little is known, but it seems to be generally true that the son is the heir. Burial of the dead is usual, though the BaKalai cremate. Drums, wooden gongs, and whistles, are universal, and gong-signalling is common. The xylophone is AFRICA 233 found in the east (Azandeh, Abavambo), the ' piano " with iron keys (e.g. fig. 201) in the west (BaTeke") ; a solitary specimen, with cane kej'S and resonator made from a human skull, represents the eastern division (fig. 210). Stringed instruments are rare except among the BaTeke, Azandeh (fig. 211), and Abarambo. Gourd rattles are more common in the west, wicker in the east. Little is known of the amusements of this region, though mancala {sec p. 202), almost certainly of recent introduction, is played by the Azandeh. Most tribes have a vague idea of a supreme sky-god, but the active side of religion consists mainly in the jDropitiation of ancestral ghosts (chiefly in the west), and of evil spirits (chiefly in the east). Amuletic fetishes are found throughout ; those in the west are usually anthropomorphic, those in the east not. The poison ordeal and other forms of divination are very widespread. The Pygmies are nomad hunters, living in small circular beehive huts. For the most part they copy the dress, ornaments, &c., of the Fk;. 211.— Harp. Azandeh tribe, NE. Congo Free State. surrounding agricultural tribes, and are armed chiefly with the bow and poisoned arrows ; a few spears and iron heads for arrows they obtain from their neighl)ours. They live in small groups centring round some expert hunter. They bury their dead, and some of them appear to have a vague belief in transmigration. The next area to be described is very extensive, and embraces that portion of Africa between the region last described and the Atlantic on the south, the Egyptian Sudan and Libyan desert on the east, the Atlantic on the west, and the Mediterranean on the north. Though so large, it is represented in the Museum Gallery ]>y comparative!}- small collections, and will therefore be treated as shortly as the complicated nature of its ethnology admits. Three races are involved : the Negro (including l>oth the Negro and Bantu) in the south ; the Libyan or Berber ; and the immi- grant Semite (Arab) in the north. The Bantu enter but little into 234 AFRICA the ethnology of this area. Ijeing confined to the Camenins and the neighbouring island of Fernando Po. The true negroes may be divided into those of lower type and culture inhabiting the coast and more densely forested districts, and those of higher type and culture found in the more open country inland. Owing to the fact that the inland tribes have continually pressed southwardstowards the coast (a pressure which has resulted in spasmodic invasions of different parts of the coast area accom- panied by annihilation or enslavement of the low-type negroes), the two types merge one into the other ; but it is probal)le that the lower type represents the first wave of negro immi- gration which peopled West Africa, while the higher represents a second. These higher type ne- groes merge insensibly into the Libyan or Berber tribes on. the north; and there are numerous tribes show- ing mixture of black and white elements in every proportion ; white, because the Libyans are essentially a white race, in all prob- ability identical with the dolmen-builders of Europe. I Infiltration of Libyan blood ~^ into the Western Sudan Loanso, had been taking place from the earliest times ; but the expulsion of the Moors from Spain at the end of the fifteenth century, and the exclusion of the peoples of North Africa from Europe, led the latter to turn their attention to the south ; and a century later a regular invasion of the Western Sudan resulted. The confusion and desolation resulting from the wars waged by the Moorish troops Und View tShcM^ji^ rnsitfe Fi( 212— Wooden rat lie. West Africa. AFRICA 235 ^r. with the negroids and with each other left a lasting mark upon West Africa, which the later Fulani domination in the Hausa states only served to emphasize. Of the Bantu trihes may be mentioned here the Bube of Fernando Po, the Diialla of the Cameruns river, the BaKoko north of the Nyong. the BaKwiri to the noi-th of the last, the Abo hill- people of the river of that name, and the BaKundu of the foi'est Avest of the Mungo River. Further inland are the Yaunde, who are immigrants from the south and re- lated to the Mpongwe, the Shinga, and their neighbours the Bati. Beyond these are the negro tribes, the Mabum and Banyang of the forest, the Wute, Bali and other tribes of the parkland, many of which emigrated thither from Ada- mawa when the latter was con- quered by the Fula. The little- known Munshi, Yergum and Montoil of the Benue, the Kibyen, Sura and Rukuba of Bauchi pro- vince, Northern Nigeria and the many tribes between the last and Lake Chad, of which little but the names are known, seem to show an affinity with this group ; to the last also are related the tribes of the Shari watershed, some of whom were included in the area last described (Ndri, Mandia, &c.) ; the others are the Laka, Uia-uia, Awaka, Akunga, Tumok, Gaberi, and Sara. The Buduma of the shores and islands of Lake Chad must also be included. These tribes are little known and appear to be related to the negroes of the higher culture on the one side, and (perhaps more closely) to the Nilotic peoples on the other. To return to the coast: in Southern Nigeria are found, amongst others, the Ekoi, Ikwi, Efik and Akunakuna, Aro and Inokun on the Cross River, and to the west the I))il)io, of whom the Efik are an offshoot ; beyond are the Andoni and I jo, the latter of whom have mixed with the Efik to produce the Fig. 213. — Fetish figure covered with nails and knife-blades, each of which represents a petition. Chiloango River, French Congo. 236 AFRICA tribes of New Calabar and with the Ibo to produce the popula- tion around Brass. North of the last are the Jekri and Sol)o, of whom the former seem to be related to the numerous Ibo tribes; and the Bini, who seem to a certain extent connected with the Yoruba. West of the Bini are the Yoruba tribes who moved south from the interior at the beginning of the eighteenth century ; at first they were a united people undor one supreme chief, but later the central control became weaker and weaker. The movement of the Yoruba to the coast was a consequence of the overrunning of the northern part of their territory by the Hausa after the conquest of the latter l)y Fula. Fig. 214. — Ceremonial stool of solid quartz. Yoruba, West Africa. Next follow the Ewe-speaking tribes in Dahomey and Togo. Of these the best known are the Dahomi, who were continually engaged in strife with the Yoruba. Further west still are the Tshi-speaking tj-ibes of the Gold Coast, also immigrants from inland, of whom the Fanti and Ashanti are the best known. Beyond are the Agni-speaking peoples of the Ivory Coast, and then the tribes of Liberia, including the Grebo, Kru, Basa, Kpwesi. Gora, Vai and Gbandi. Then follow in order the Mendi tribes of Sierra Leone, and the Timni, Bagnori and Felup of French and Portuguese Guinea. Before dealing with the negroes of the higher type, it will be best to say a word about the white Libyans to the north. The Berbers or Libyans, of whom the settled Chawia (Aures Mts.) and Kabyles (Bougie and Fort National), and the Nomadic Tuareg (Sahara), may be taken as typical, have greatly affected the history AFRICA 237 and ethnology of the negro tribes of the south, with whom they have mingled to form tribes of every shade of complexion. Whitest of these mongrel tribes are the Tibbu of Tibetsi and some of the Fula, a people originally of Senegal, but now set tied as far east as Dar Fur. Some sections of the Fula have so mixed with the Songhai, Hausa, and other negro tribes that Fula of every shade are now found. Much has been wiitten about this peo2>le : they have been identified as Hamites, as the relics of the shep- herd kings of Egypt, as descendants of the Ancient Egyptians, and as the lost tribes of the Jews. But there seems little doubt that they are really of Libyan extraction. They first appear in history as settled in the extreme west near the Jolof (Senegal), who are now quite negroid, but in early times regarded themselves as a white people and were always considered by the early Arabs to be of Fula blood. This much is certain, that their lui- Fici. 215. — .Stoiitilc figure from MfiulilaiHl, .Sierra Leone. 238 AFRICA grations have been from west to east, and any theory which derives this people from the east must rest on a purely conjec- tural westward movement assumed to have taken place in pre- FiG. 210. — Bronze 2)laque shuwing king in supernntural cliaracter, wear- ing coral dress. Benin, West Africa. Fig. 218— Bronze plaque, Bini war- rior bringing in a wounded captive. Benin, West Africa. I'lo. 1'17. — Br^jiizu plaque, digni- tary in court dres.s with attendants. Benin, West Africa. historic times. The Tukulor and the many Mandingo tribes between the Upper Niger and the Atlantic, who belong mainly to the higher type of negro, possess an infusion of Libyan blood. These tribes PhA.'nl XII. Ivory .stiiiidiiig cii]) in three sections, sliosviiif; lOnicjiiian inlluiiico (sixtc'cnt li ci-ntiiry). Ik'niii, West AtVii-ii. [Face p. 238 AFRICA 239 were the nucleus of the great negroid kingdom of Ghana (tenth and eleventh centuries, extending from the Senegal across the bend of the Niger). Negroes of the higher type are the Songhai situated within the bend of the Niger and to the east of it, who based a third emj^ire on the ruins of that of Melle, the successor of Ghana (thirteenth and fourteenth centuries) ; their power at its zenith in the sixteenth centurv extended from Lake Chad to the Fig. 219. — Bronze plaque showing European in sixteen tli- century dress. Benin, West Africa. Fig. 220. — Bronze plaque showing Spanish soldier in sixteenth-century dress with matchlock. Benin, West Africa. Atlantic. The Hausa states, consisting originally of the seven towns of Biram, Gober, Kano, Eano, Zaria, Katsena, and Daura, were oi'iginally peopled ))y a negro race apparently similar to the early Songhai ; they were conquered at the end of the tenth century l>y another negroid j^eople of n^ysterious allinities coming from the east, who founded an empire lasting (with intervals such as the conquest Ijy the Songhai in ir>12, and by the Moors in 1595) until tliey wei'o subjected l>y the Fula in 1807. The states of Bornu to the east of the Hausa, and of Kanem to the north-east 240 AFRICA of Lake Chad , are peopled by Kanuri and Kanembu respectively, both of whom contain a Libyan (2>rol)abIy Tib))u) strain ; the Bagirmi to the south of Kanem are more negroid, and form a link between the central Sudanese negro and the negroes of Central Africa. The people of Wadai are the Tama and Massalit negroes, and the Maba, who are a mixture of Negro, Tula and Arab. In this division clothing is fur- nished almost entirely by the itfll^/'t ^'^S®^^^-*^® kingdom, though the iBLP^ ^Jl ,^ Bube formerly wore skins, and XjtW^^K^j/^ amongst the inland and desert MPft _ jR JM Jy tribes becomes very complete. Here the Tohe or wide-sleeved tunic is the typical costume, with or without trousers. Tuareg men and many Fula and Tibbu wear a veil illtham) which covers the lower part of the face, and is never removed. Cicatrization is found throughout the dark- skinned peoples ; tatu among the fair-skinned. Nose and lip orna- ments are found chiefly on the Upper Benue and Chad drainage areas, and tooth-mutilation is common among the negroid tribes. Hairdressing is very varied, and in places most elaborate. Circumcision occurs among all Mohammedan peoples, and the tribes of the Cameruns and the coast as far as the Ewe. The ornaments of the Kabyles are particularly tasteful, and merit especial mention. The negro races are agriculturists and traders ; the Fula, Tuareg, and Tibbu are pastoral nomads ; the Berber agricul- turists. Trade flourishes in this area on a larger scale than elsewhere in Africa. Manioc (forest area) maize and millet (parkland) and yams (Cross River) are the staple crops. Huts are Ijoth rectangular (Cameruns, except the Shinga ; and coast, except the Ikwe, as far as Liberia) and circular (Upper Benue, and Chad drainage areas and part of Liberia). The higher type of negroes of the Sudan were in past times great builders, and constructed large mud-walled cities with a peculiar type of architecture. Hunting and tishing are practised everywhere. Horses, introduced into the Sudan by the Fula, are found amongst the Bini, Yoruba, Mendi, Gaberi, Kibyen, and neighbours ; camels are largely em- ployed )jy the Tuareg and Tibbu. Cannibalism is not common (Munshi, Ijo, Aro). Stone-working is represented by a peculiar Fig 221. -Large brass vase from Asliaiiti. PLATE XI It. Bronze licjid uf a ^^irl wiiiriiig coral-lii'n<1 lifad-tlnss. Benin, West Africa. [Face p. 240 AFRICA 241 ceremonial stool from the Yoriiba (fig. 214) ; not less interesting, though less remarkable owing to the softness of the material from which they are made, are the steatite carvings found in the Mendi country, which are probably the work of previous negro in- habitants (fig. 215). Iron-smelting and working are widespread, except among the Bube, who were living in the stone age at the time of their discovery ; the Bini acquired the art of bronze cast- ing by the cire perdue process from the Portuguese of the sixteenth century 1 (PI. XIII and figs. 216 220). Brass (fig. 221) and gold working and casting is largely practised in Ashanti. The best Fig. 222. — Painted pottery. Kabyle, Algeria. pottery is made by the Kabyles (fig. 222) ; that of the negro tribes calls f(jr no special remark, and the baskets (coiled in the i>arkland, woven in the forest) are inferior to those of the Congo area. Among the nomad triljes most of the utensils are of wood. Cotton weaving and dyeing (indigo) is one of the staple industries of the Hausa country, and the Bini, Ashanti, and Mendi are also good weavers. The leather-work of Tuareg, Fula, Mandingo and Hausa is celebrated. The sj^ear (fig. 164. 19, 21) as a weapon is ])ractically universal, as are bows and arrows (except Tumok, Galjeri, Sara). The knife with a ring-handle is charac- teristic of part of this area (Wute, Bali, Munshi, Montoil), and throwing-knives are found locally (Gaberi, Sara, Laka, Tibbu), 1 This question is treated in Ciill in Antiqinties from Benin in Ike British Museicm. 242 AFRICA also clubs Jind swovds (the latter amongst all the Lil>yan tribes). Shields are of vegetable substances (negroid tril)e8, fig. 103, a) and hide (Libyan, fig. 163, g) ; and chain-armour, introduced by the Arabs, is seen occasionally in the Sudan. A military organiza- tion existed in some negro states (Dahomey, Ashanti, Yoruba) and the Amazon corps of Dahomey is Ainious. In the Cameruns, forest and coast area, government is by petty chiefs ; larger king- doms with a hierarchy of court officials are found among Bini, > 'i^ Fig. 223.— Type of drum common in British West Africa ; the note can be altered by pressing the strings. Fig. 224 . -Drum sounded at human sacrifices. Ashanti, West Africa. Dahomi, and Ashanti ; patriarchal chiefs among the nomads and a democratic constitution amongst the Berbers. Marriage is by purchase, and the dead are buried with varying ceremonies ; in most cases the heir is the son (Bali, Ijo, Jekri, Bini, Yoruba, Kru), less often brother (Ewe, Tshi) or sister's son (Bube). Descent is reckoned in the female line by Ewe, Tshi, all higher type Sudanese negroes, and Tuareg. The game of mancala {sec p. 202) is found throughout the whole area under various names, and all kinds of competitive sports are largely 2:)ractised. Drums (figs. 223, 224) are found everywhere except among the Bube ; AFRICA 243 also gongs of wood and iron, the former pattern being used in the Cameruns for transmitting messages. ' Pianos ' (e. g. fig. 201) are found amongst Bali and Ikwe, and the xylophone amongst most of the western tribes, notably the Mandingo. Harps (Cameruns, Bini, Liberia), musical bow (Bube), horns (fig. 225), flutes and the bull-roarer (Bali, Efik, Bini, Yoruba) are also used ceremonially ; some sort of fiddle is found wherever Mohammedan influence has penetrated. It is difficult to write in general terms of religious beliefs since research has hitherto been unequal. Some districts have been closely studied (Yoruba, Ewe and Tshi), but practically nothing is known of the paganism round Lake Chad. Belief in vague evil spirits is found in the Cameruns, but gods with well-defined functions are found along the coast to the west ; tree and animal worship is also common, and of the latter form suake-worship is the most im- Fra. 225. — Ivory fetish-horn ornamented with[.human skulls ; from a juju-house. Andoni country, S. Nigeria. portant. This, which seems to have prevailed amongst the primitive Hausa and Mandingo, has Ijeen carried by slaves to the West Indies, where it is known as Voodoo. Human sacrifice was a great feature of the cult of the roj'al dead and other ceremonies in the large kingdoms of the west (Ashanti, Dahomey, &c.). Belief in a double .soul (Ewe, Tshi) and in transmigration (Banyang, Ikwe, Ibo, Yoruba) both occur. Connected with religion are the powerful secret societies which flourish among the negroes of this area ; many of these are very large, far transcending the limits of the tribe, and exercise great political power. Some of them (such as the Leopard society of the Mendi) make murder their prime object. Poison ordeal and other forms of divination are general. The Sudanese and Berber tribes are all Mohammedan, though the religion is debased and certain restrictions, such as the veiling of women, are neglected ; the Fula have been chiefly responsible for the spread of this religion amongst the negroes. The use of charms is universal amongst Mohammedans and pagans alike. R 2 iBETSIMlSARAKA A NOS V Mat C— Madatiascar. 245 Madagascar The population of the island of Madagascar has long been a puzzle to anthropologists, and the many attempts to disentangle the various elements of which it is composed have given rise to a large number of theories which it is impossible to discuss at length. The points to be noted are these : — The greater part of the population is negroid ; the language spoken over the whole of the island and many institutions and customs are Malay o- Polynesian. A small section (Antimerina) — forming the domi- nant people in the nineteenth century — is of fairly pure Malay (or Javanese) blood, but is composed of sixteenth-century immigrants, whereas the language belongs to a very early branch of the Malayo-Polynesian family. It would be natural to suppose that the negroid element was African, for in later times large numbers of Africans have been brought over by Arabs and other slavers ; but there are several objections to this view. In the first place, the natives of the neighbouring coast are not seamen, and the voyage to Madagascar offers peculiar difficulties owing to the strong currents. In the second place, it seems impossible that the first inhabitants, supposing them to be African, should have abandoned their own language in favour of one introduced by a small minority of immigrants ; the few Bantu words found in Madagascar may well have been adopted from the slaves. In the third place, the culture exhibits no distinctively African features, but is far more akin to that of south-east Asia. There is much to be said, therefore, for the view that the earliest and negroid inhabitants of Madagascar were Oceanic negroids, who have always been well known as expert seamen. Since the coming of the negroid population, which probably arrived in very early days, various small bands of immigrants or castaways have landed on the shores of Madagascar and imposed themselves as reigning dynasties on the surrounding villages, each thus forming the nucleus of what now appears as a tribe. The subsequent movements and conquests of these dynastic families and their subjects form the history of Mada- gascar. A certain number of the immigrant stocks can be dis- tinguished from the writings of early travellers ; the oldest being the Zafy-Ibrahim, now merged in the Betsimisaraka (see map for present position of the tribes). These seem to have come from Arabia, but in early times, since they recognized the patriarchs but not Mohammed. South of them landed the Zafy- Kamini, also Arabs, )>ut dating from after the Ilejira, possibly aljout 1150, and coming probably via India. They and a ))rancli called Zafy-Koml>o provided ruling dynasties for the Antanosy, an. — Adze of bone and iron, pick of wood and ivory, and hide scraper of bone and iron. Eskimo. In the hut the lamp is the most important article of furniture. It is made of stone, and fed with seal-oil. Over it the stone cooking- pot is suspended, and wet clothes are placed to dry. Fire was generally produced by means of pyrites and steel (tig. 7, a), but some- times the method of friction was employed, one stick being made to revolve upon another by means of a drill (fig. 7, c). The food of the Eskimo is entirely animal, and as a result of the great cold large (luantities of meat, fat, and blubber are con- sumed, while much seal- and walrus-blood is drunk. On account of this need of animal food, the greater part of their time is occupied by hunting and fishing. Seals are sometimes stalked while they lie asleep out of the water ; but one of the usual methods is to wait near one of their breathing-holes in the ice. The approach of the seal is sometimes indicated by the use of a small ivory float, which is forced uj) by the animal's head as it rises: the hunter then launches liis harpoon. But seals and 250 AMERICA walruses are often hunted from canoes, in whicli case a longex* and lighter harpoon is used, to the shaft of which an inflated bladder is attached. When the seal is struck, the small head of the harpoon is detached from the shaft and remains fixed in the wound, while the shaft itself, made buoyant by the bladder, floats on the surface of the water, impeding the movements of the seal while it is alive, and marking its position when it is dead. The heads of harpoons are of bone and ivory tipped with iron, though formerly slate and stone points were used. To lend this weapon greater velocity it is launched by means of a spear-thrower or throwing-stick, an instrument also found in other parts of the world {see index). The harpoon is also used for killing bears, but reindeer and birds are shot with bows and arrows (fig. 228). The Eskimo bow is made of drift-wood, to which the necessary elasticity is given by a 'backing' of sinew, not moulded to the wood as in the case of the composite bows of Asia and America {see pp. 48 and 49), but simply lashed in position. The arrows are feathered, and have points of bone or of bone and iron. The bow is held horizontally, and only used at very close range. An in- genious contrivance rather like the Patagonian ' bolas ' is also used for knocking down bii'ds on the wing. It consists of seven or eight sinew cords nearly three feet long, and tied together at one end, while to the opposite ends weights of ivory or stone are attached. Before being launched at the bird, the sling is whirled round the head so that when it leaves the hand a rotatory movement is imparted to it and all the weights fly apart, the striking diameter of the weapon covering live or six feet. The bird is thus brought to the ground, whether it is struck Ijy the weights or entangled in the strings. Fish are either caught on barbed bone or ivory hooks, wliich from their general resemblance to small fish can be used without bait ; or are speared with peculiar fish-spears and very light harpoons. These are not thrown by the unaided hand, but from throwing-sticks. The canoes or Kaijalc used by Eskimo men are made of a light wood and whalebone framework covered with skin from which Fig. 227. — Arrow-straight- ener of bone. Eskimo. NORTH AMERICA 251 the hair has been removed. They are about 25 ft. long and entirely decked except in the middle, where there is a circular aperture for the occupant's body. They are propelled by a double- bladed paddle, and in a general -vvay resemble the ' Eob Koy ' type Fig. 228. — Arrow-heads of antlei-, one with stone bhule. Eskimo. of canoo. Women use a roomy open skin boat (iwtial) shai)ed like u trougli, and capable of holding aljout twenty j)eople. With the umia/c single-bladed paddles are emi)loyed, anil a low lug-sail made of strii)S of walrus-intestine sewn together is sometimes hoisted. Fig. 229. — Canning on ivory ^depicting a wliale-liuiit. Eskimo. Fig. 230. — Objects from the Eskimo, a. Ivory lamp-feeder, h. Antler club: c. Tobacco-pipe of ivory, d. Snow-knife of bone. e. Gaff for salmon. /. Arrow, g. Slate hide-scraper, h. Iron hide-scraper. NORTH AMEKICA 253 On land, the Eskimo travel on snow shoes or in wooden sledges of various forms the runners of which are usually covered with l^lates of bone. They are drawn by teams of native dogs harnessed with light seal-hide traces, The Eskimo are possessed of great mechanical and considerable artistic skill. Before iron was known to them they made flint spear and arrow-heads, flaking them not by percussion, but by pressure applied by a horn implement. Their carving is done by means of knives with curved blades, and holes are drilled by a bow-drill, the bow of which is usually made of bone or walrus- ivory, while the shaft is held steady not by the hands but by the teeth, between which a wooden mouthpiece is held [see fig. 7, e). On these bow-drills and other utensils hunting and other scenes are often carved with great fidelity to nature (fig. 229), while similar scenes are painted on paddles and other wooden objects. Great skill is also shown in carving models and implements out of ivory. Pol3"gamy prevails among the Eskimo, who live in small com- munities, the exigencies of their life preventing the formation of large societies. They are fond of dancing, and in some parts employ masks, but their only musical instj'ument is a kind of tambourine. They believe in a future life, and in the existence of spirits with whom their shamans are able to communicate. The dead are buried or exposed in the snow, with them being placed the dress, implements, and weapons used during life in order that they may continue to be of service in the other world. The Indians of the North-West Coast of America The tribes inhabiting the west coast of North America and the adjacent islands differ considerably in culture from other North American tribes and are best treated separately ; they may most conveniently be grouped under the following headings : the Tlingit of the coast of Alaska ; the Haida of Queen Charlotte and Prince of Wales Islands; the Tsimshian of the neighbouring islets opposite coast ; the Nutka and Kwakiutl of Vancouver Island and the adjacent coast ; the Salish of East Vancouver and the coast south of the last ; further south still, the Kutenai and Chinook. These tribes, the differences between which are primarily linguistic, may be divided into two groups differing slightly in culture: the northern group, comprising the Tlingit, Haida, Tsimshian, Nutka, and Kwakiutl, is the better represented in the Museum Collection ; the southern group embraces the remaining tribes. It may be men- tioned here that the Aztec tribes of Central America seem to have been related to these tribes of the north-w&st coast, who themselves show considerable resemblance, both physical and cultural, to certain triljcs on the coast of north-east Asia. The skin colour is a pale brown of a more or less yellowish 254 AMERICA tinge ; the hair is bhick and mostly straiglit, al)undant on the head l)ut sjxarse on the face ; the nose is less aquiline than that of the Indians further east, and is often depressed. Eyes are brown a c Fig. 231. — Olijects from tlie NW. coast of America, a. Wooden comb representing the bear. Haida. b. Wooden jMpe representing the killer- whale. Tlingit. c. Bone ^soul-case' inlaid with abalone shell {halioiis). Haida. Fig. 232. — Stone club-head. Tsimskian, NW. coast of America. and the stature decreases from nortli to south as far as Harrison lake, where it again commences to increase slightly. Clothing, consisting of shirt, leggings and blanket, is fairly complete in this region, and is made of deer and otter skins, woven bark-fibre, mountain-goat wool, dog's hair and the like. The blankets of NORTH AMERICA 255 Fig. 233. — Objects from the N\V. coast of America, a. Stone-bladcd adze. h. Stone adze-blade, c. Stone axe-blade, d. Stone pigment-grinder, Haida. e. Stone-club inlaid with abalone shell {haliotis) chleHy fur killing slaves, Vancouver Island. /. Stone pounder, Vancouver Island, g. Fragment of stone club. h. Stone adze-blade. the Chilkat country tire especially famous (PI. I). Hats (figs, 234: and 285) are found in some variety, the best-known pattern, with a broad brim and cylindrical projection on the crown, varying in size with the social status of the owner. Cranial deformation is found towards the south, the head of the infant is moulded into Fig. 234. — Bai'k hat with ornaments of wah'us-ivory and -whiskers. Tlingit, Alaska. Fig. 235. —Basket-work hat, whaling scene inwoven. Nootka Sound, North-West America. NOETH AMERICA 257 a cone (Vancouver Island), or broadened and flattened (further south) ; a cradle with special fittings for the head is often used to produce the desired effect. Personal ornaments are numerous, and include labrets or ornaments worn in the lower lip (women only, figs. 20, 21), ear and nose ornaments, necklaces of shells and puffin-beaks, pendants of shell and carved horn, and combs (fig. 231, a) ; the abalone shell {haJiotis) is particularly prized. Tatuing is practised in the north, but is less extensive towards the south, ii . '- j' . 1 :. I ;^ 1 .!:. i [. 1 old house, llakla, Queen Charlotte Island. The pole is now in the British Museum.) and painting, especially on ceremonial occasions, is universal. The tribes live by hunting and fishing and the collection of a great variety of wild vegetable produce ; for these jjurposes they scatter over the country in the summer, living in temi^orary camps at the hunting and fishing grounds. For tlie winter, per- manent and very solid dwelling-liouses, rectanguhir in shape, are l>uilt of massive beams and planks, and usually allord slielter to several families : those of the llaida an; i)aiticulaily well con- structed. Pile dwellings arc found locally, but the most charac- E. 8 258 AMERICA Fig. 237 — Fishhooks from the NW. coast of America. 1 is tipped with a bird's claw, the rest liave Imnc points ; the shank of 6 is of stone, tlie rest of wood. 8 is furnished witli a whale-bone snood. 3 and 4 are for halibut ; 2 and 5 are gigs for ' snatching' fish. NORTH AMERICA 259 teristic feature of the dwell- ings of this region are the huge totem posts erected before the dwellings of Tlin- git, Haida and Tsimshian, carved with the family crests of the owner (figs. 17, 236). Good canoes are made of wood by all these tribes, the best by the Haida ; some of these are very large, carrying up to thirty-six men. In the noi-th the bottom is rounded, and the stern-jjost projects backward ; further south the bottom is flat and the stern- post perpendicular. Bark canoes, sharply j)ointed either end, are used by the Ku- tenai. Food consists principally of fish and berries, the former being dried and stored ; game, wild-fowl, birds' eggs, potatoes, certain kinds of bark, sea-weed, are also eaten, oil procured from fish or blubber being the uni- versal condiment. Fishing, therefore, is the principal pursuit of the men, and the appliances in use are ex- tremely varied. Hooks of wood and bone (fig. 237), lines of spruce or cedar-bark, kelp, or whalebone, gigs, gaffs, harpoons, spears, rakes and nets are used, and weirs are built. Sea-otters are har- pooned and clubbed. Deer are driven into nets or de- coyed with calls ; birds are netted, or knocked over with clubs at night when dazzled by the torches of the hunters. The weaving of blankets (PI. I) is an important in- Fh:. 2:JS.— Knives IVoni ( he NW. const of Aiuerifji. a. liun inlaii Willi CdplxT. b. Coppei-. . 2 260 AMERICA dustry, and is performed by women. Copper was worked to a small extent in early days, and metal generally, as soon as iron was obtained from the whites, was worked with groat skill, as shown by the magnificent knives made by the Haida from dis- carded files obtained at the timber stations (fig. 238). In old days tools were principally of jadeite or other hard stone (figs. 232, 233). Baskets of fine quality, boxes of wood and bark for storage, si)oons of horn and wood, and wooden dishes (fig. 239), Avere made in great quantity, and the last three were often covered with admirably executed carvings. In carving, as in most crafts, the Haida are the most proficient, and their carvings are frequently inlaid with abalone shell ; the i)ipes carved from shale are particularly Avorthy of mention (fig. 240). The art of this region is quite peculiar, and consists chiefly in the repe- tition of animal and bird designs which form the totems of the Fig. 239. — Wooden food-bowl. Hnida of Queen Charlotte Islands. various clans ; these totemic designs, whether carved or painted, are carried out with remarkable certainty of line, and are highly decorative ; much artistic taste is shown in the shapes of carved bowls and other utensils. Bows and arrows are used in war and hunting ; the former is usually the jilain type and broad, though a narrow pattern, occasionally reinforced with backing, is found among the Tlingit. Clubs of stone, bone or antler (figs. 241-4, 245, h), daggers of bone and copper, are found, and also cuirasses of wooden plates, recalling the defensive ax-mour of North-East Asia. There are usually three grades of society : hereditary chiefs, commoners, and slaves ; the chiefs form a council, and their respective importance varies according to wealth and personal character. The tribes are divided into clans, each with a totem animal or bird, and descent is reckoned in the female line among the northern tril^es. and in the male line among the southern ; the Kwakiutl being in a transitional stage between the two systems. PLATE XIV. Wodilcii (|;il|cilli;-lMtll(' lipli si'lil ill- llir l,c;ir. ll;iiy their way of life to the Pueblopeopleweretheneighbouring Yuma and Pima of Arizona. North of the Northern Algonkins, stretcliing from Alaska to Hudson's Bay, lay the Tinne or Athapascans, who also had isolated branches much further south, such as the Umqua and Hupa of Oregon, and the dreaded Apache and Navajo of Arizona, New Mexico, and Colorado. Last came the Californian tribes, divided into numerous small groups, among which may ]>e mentioned the Klamath, Modoc, Euroc, and Pomo. FrG. 246. — ' Copper ' used as a liigh iniit of currency ; (he paint- ing represents the bear. Tsini- shian, British Columljia. 266 AMERICA With the advance of the European rate the old tribal territories passed for the most part out of Indian hands. Many tribes, especially those in the east and centre of the United m Fig. 247. — Whistle and oboes of wood used in ccrcinonials. Queen Charlotte Inlands. Haida of States and Canada, are extinct ; others have Ijeen removed from their homes and placed in the Indian Reservations. Only in thinly inhabited regions in the north and west the tribes still occupy their ancient territory. NORTH AMERICA 267 The reintroduction of the horse into America by the Spaniards in the sixteenth centiuy. and the spread of that useful animal to the north, must have changed the whole life of the Indian tribes in the plains of North America, and greatly contribvited to a Fig. 248. — Ceremonial rattle of pufHu-beaks. Haida of Queen Charlotte Islands. Fig. 249. — CVremonial rattle in tlic form of the mythical ' thiuuler-binl '. Haida of Queen Charlotte Islands. nomadic existence. At tlie time when ]"]nrope;uis came into general contact with them they seemed in the main a people of mounted hunters and warriors, under chiefs whose authority was controlled by the council of the fighting men of the tribe. Their picturesque and warlike life led tho Europeans to draw too distinct a dividing line between these nomadic horsemen and the 268 AMERICA settled and semi-civilized peoples to the south and south-east. But wliere a settled agricultural life was possible, the natives had no inherent oujection to it: much of their apparent savagery must bo ascribed to the nomadic conditions which the multii^li- cation of horses encouraged. The colour of the American Indian's skin is a coppery brown ; the cheek bones are prominent, and the nose aquiline. The hair is long and black, but the face is kept smooth. His dress was made of carefully prepared skins of the deer or mountain-goat. Tiie skins were washed in wood ashes and water, and the hair scraped off. They were then pegged out on the ground or on a frame, Fig. 250. — Ceremonial mask representing the raven. NW. coast (if America. while the brains of the animals from which they were taken were well rubbed into them. Finally, they were carefully scraped and pressed with a bone knife, and fumigated for several days in wood smoke, after which they were both soft and waterproof. All this work was done by women. The garments usually worn were a long coat, long leggings from the ankles to the hips, and soft shoes or mocassins, all of which might be freely adorned with bead-work, or coloured sections of porcupine-quills. If a man had slain enemies, he fringed his leggings and sleeves with tufts of hair taken from their scalps ; if he was a warrior, his exploits would also be painted on his coat. Warriors on the Avarpath wore little cloth- NOKTH AMERICA 269 ing, and disguised their faces with black and red paint, but the chief went into battle in his full paraphernalia, generally including a row of eagles' feathers reaching from the back of the head to the heels. The dress of women much resembled that of the men, but the coat or upper garment was much longer — women also tatued themselves, rubbing charcoal and vermilion into the punctures, thus producing a pattern in red and blue. Both sexes generally possessed a big robe of bison-skin for cold weather. Before glass or porcelain beads wei-e introduced from Europe, the Indians of the Eastern States used as ornaments small cylindrical shell beads, in two colours, white made from the columella of univalves like Fig. 251. — Ceremonial head-dress from Nootka Sound. NW. America. Fulyur carica , and i^ui'iAe made from the hard-shell clam, Venus mercenaria, from which white beads were also produced. The drilling and polishing of such beads cost innnense labour. They were called ivampum, served largely as a currency, and were made up into necklaces and belts, the purple l^eads being the more valuable (fig. 27). Wami^um belts were exchanged as symbols of peace after the conclusion of hostilities, or were treasurijd up in the tribe to commemorate particular episodes of tribal history. Significant figures of men, peace-pipes, &c., were worked in white on purple, or vice versa, and the tribal ' Keepers of the Wampum ' were acquainted with the meaning of every belt. A well-known wami)um belt, given to William Penn, founder of Pennsylvania, when he made a treaty with the Indians 270 AMERICA in 1682, is now preserved in Philadelphia. A wampum belt in the collection is identified as having been made by Iroquois, on account of the diagonal purple bands which are said to represent the sloping rafters of an Iroquois house. Machine-made Fig. 252. — Moose-antler comb from New England, U.S.A. (Sloane Collection, 1753.) Fjg. 253. — War-club. Plains Indians. North America. - beads were early introduced by Eui'opean traders, and the real native wamjium gradually became extinct. The commonest form of dwelling was the jDointed skin tent (wigwam or tijnj. Wooden poles were placed in a circle converging inwards, and crossing each other at the top. Eound these was NORTH AMERICA 271 stretched the covering of dressed skin, often ornamented with paint- ings illustrating exploits of the occupant, and with tufts of hair taken from the scalps of enemies. When the camp was moved, a horse was harnessed to the poles of the wigwam, on which the skin covering was placed ; women and children sat on the top, and were dragged on this primitive wheelless carriage to the next camping-ground, Some of the settled tribes west of the Mississippi lived in solidly constructed huts of timber covered with earth, and with rounded tops on which men could walk or sit. With other tribes, notably the Iroquois, were found 'long houses', in which a whole clan lived together, each family having its own com- FiG. 254.-111(16 shield. Cree Indians. North America. partment. Before the introduction of firearms the weapons of the Indians were wooden clubs (fig. 253), circular shields of bison-hide (fig. 254), bows (in some cases of the composite type strengthened with a backing of sinews), arrows with chipped stone heads, and axes or tomahawks. The head of the tomahawk was originally of stone, but it was soon replaced by the iron head of European im- portation. It is common for sucli iron tomaliawks to have a pipe- bowl cast at tlie back of the head, the wooden handle being then pierced to serve as a pipe stem. The scaljung-knife, by which a circular piece of skin was removed from the back of the head with the hair adhering to it, was always in later times an ordinary butclier's knife impoi'ted from Europe. The tobacco-pipe played a great part in Indian social life, and 272 AMERICA smoking wns invested with a ceremonial significance. It was the accompaniment of negotia- tions for war and peace, and the pipes used for such purposes, called caliimeis, were almost sacred objects. The red stone used for making the bowls was procured from a quarry west of Lake Michigan ; the wood which furnished the stems was usually ash. The stem of a calumet was commonly adorned with eagles' feathers and tufts of white horse or bison hair dyed red. East of the Mississippi and south of the St. Lawrence agri- culture was general ; it was also practised by some of the settled tribes further to the west. The princi2)al oV)ject of cultivation was maize (Indian corn). Work in the fields chiefly devolved upon women and children ; and the implements used were of a primitive character, consisting of a digging-stick and perhaps a rude wooden pick or hoe. Besides the fresh meat of the buffalo, deer and other animals, dried and preserved flesh was often prepared as food. The pemmican of the bison-hunters consisted of strips of meat dried and pounded up into a mass with an equal quantity of melted fat. Household utensils were earthenware pots, wooden dishes and spoons, baskets, mats, bags (figs. 256, 257). The Assiniboin east of the Eocky Mountains were not able to make pots, and, like the Pacific tribes, heated their water by throwing hot stones into it. When the ground was covered with snow the Indians used snowshoes as a means of approaching the bison or the deer. Fig. 255. — Ancient stone knife-blade in modern setting. British Columbiii, NOKTH AMERICA 273 These were made of a framework of ash wood filled in like a racquet with a network of thongs, and were some five feet long by eighteen inches broad. The weight being thus distrii)uted over a large surface, the wearer was enabled to glide over the surface of the snow without sinking in. For navigating the rivers, various forms of canoe were used, the most characteristic being made of birchbark on a light wooden frame, and paddled from one side. On the Pacific coast canoes were all made of wood, but some Californian tribes possessed nothing but rafts. Fig. 2-jO. — Buffaln-hair bag. Plains Indians. N. America. The tribal and clan system prevailed over the whole North American continent, each clan usually having as its symbol a particular kind of animal called a totem (see p. 19). The totem- animal might not be eaten by any member of the clan, and no clansman might marry a woman having the same totem as himself. Descent was usually reckoned in the female line, and where a family owned land it would often belong to the mother rather than the father. Land was considered to belong to the tribe as a whole, l>ut families who cultivated plots acquired a prescriptive right to their ownership. Marriage was almost universally a question of ])iirehase, and the number of a man's wives was regulated by his means. On reaching jc T 274 AMERICA udult years, Ijotli sexes were subjected to painful trials of endurance, especially severe in the case of youths aspiring to bo warriors. The Indians had hardly any musical instruments other than small drums and rattles, l)ut they were fond of dances in which as Fig. 257.— Basket with inwoven pattern. Umqiia Indians. California. a rule only men took part ; they were usually of a ceremonial character, intended to secure success in hunting or for similar purposes. Athletic games were popular, especially a ball game, of the type now familiar under the form of Lacrosse. The poAvers of nature, the winds and the four quartei-s of heaven, were reverenced by the North American Indian, and NORTH AMERICA 375 there were numerous myths and creation legends. All kinds of spirits were feared and propitiated, the Shaman or 'medicine-man' always holding an important position in the tribe. 'Temples' and graven figures only begin to appear in the south-eastern states towards the borders of the Central American civilizations. Among many tribes there existed important religious societies, the memljers of which were initiated into particular mysteries, and were known by particular symbols. There was a universal l^elief in a future life. In addition to his clan totem, each Indian had his ' individual toteni ' which he chose for himself on arriving at adult age. It was the custom for the boy at this time to leave his home for some solitary place and there to fast until exhaustion ended in sleep. Whatever beast or reptile appeared to him in his dreams became his ' personal totem ', and when he had killed a member of the species he stuffed the skin and carried it ever after- wards upon his person ; this was the well-known ' medicine-bag '. the most sacred treasure an Indian could possess. The success of all enterprises depended on its safe-keeping ; it was worn or carried on the body, and never parted with except in death. If by chance a man lost his bag, he was disgraced until he succeeded in taking another from the body of a slain enemy. Methods of disposing of the dead were exceedingly various. Sometimes the corpse would be exposed on a platform, or in a tree, or in a canoe ; sometimes it would be buried ; but whatever the method adopted, food, weapons, pipe, medicine-bag and other objects were deposited with the dead to be useful to him in the spirit world. The sedentary tribes living in New Mexico and Arizona in the south-west of the United States represented a culture distinct from that of the North American Indians. They were called by the Spaniards, who discovered them in the sixteenth century, Puehlo Indians, because they lived in towns or collections of rectangular houses often of more than one story in height, and built of adobes (sun-dried bricks) or squared stones ; some of these houses were very large, and occupied l)y a whole clan. They were acquainted with the method of cultivating fields by means of irrigation, and their skill in weaving and in making pottery was hardly excelled by the peoples of the more civilized states in the south. Their religion was accompanied by numerous ceremonies and rituals, and they had various religious societies and brotherhoods which could only })e entered by a regular process of initiation. Ceremonies of initiation were usually performed in a subterranean hall or room called Klva. Socially they were divided into clans, each having its own totem. The Pueblo district is connected with the district of the Cliff-dwellers, who inhabited buildings erected in the mouths of caves on the faces of the cliffs, or built upon the ledges of precipices only to be climbed l>y ropes. The Ilopi, who spoke T 2 276 AMERICA a Shoshone dialect, .and the Yuma and Pima of the lower Colorado River, also lived in settled communities. The fact that the Puel)Io Indians were drawn from different stocks suggests that their culture was of local origin determined by their peculiar environ- ment. SOUTH AMERICA Apart from the high plateaux and mountainous country of the Andes, to which the old Indian civilizations were practically con- fined, the southern continent may be divided into two unequal parts : a northern and larger, almost entirely within the tropics, and including the basins of the Amazon and Orinoco with most of the River Parana ; and the smaller peninsula south of the Tropic of Capricorn, including Chili south of the Desert of Atacama, the Pampas of Argentina, Patagonia and Tierra del Fuego, and also the Gran Chaco, north of the Pampas, inhabited by equestrian peoples. Northern Division The northern division forms a vast triangle with its apex at Cape Branco, the most easterly promontory of Brazil, while its base runs in a slanting direction along the eastern slopes of the Andes and across Paraguay, terminating in Rio Grande do Sul, the most southerly province of Brazil. This large area, which is occupied to a great extent by tropical forest, thus includes almost the whole of Brazil, the Guianas, Venezuela, and parts of Colombia, Bolivia, and Paraguay. It is often called the Amazonian Region. The inhabitants of this division are peoples with straight black hair and brown skins of various shades, well formed, of medium height, and generally of an apathetic and passive disposition. In spite of great diversities of dialect and appearance, the}^ may be divided into four main groups, the Guarani-Tupi, the Arawak or Maipure, the Carib, and the more primitive tribes now isolated in the eastern half of the country. The great Tupi family is supposed to have originated in the region of Uruguay, and to have spread northwards in three directions, along the east coast to the mouths of the Amazon, up the great southern tribvitaries of that river in Central Brazil, and along the slopes of the Andes to the districts watered by the upper affluents of the Madeira. The most westerly tribes are the Omagua and Cocama of East Equador and the Mundrucu of the Tapajoz. They have now almost disappeared from the coasts, but ai'e still numerous in Eastern Bolivia, l^etween the Paraguay and Parana, and along a greater part of the courses of the Madeira and Tapajoz. The more primitive tribes were probably driven into the less eligible parts of the interior by the advance of the SOUTH AMERICA 277 Tupi, who monopolized the coasts and the best river valleys. These peoples, under the names of Botocudo, Ges, &c., given to them for various reasons by Europeans, are still to be found in large grou23s isolated from one another. A collective name, Tapuya. was given to them by the Tupi. and this may be con- veniently retained. The Coroados, found in various parts from Matto Grosso to Eio Grande, are classed by some as Tapuya, but seem to be of a distinct and superior type. The Caribs also appear > i / ^\ ' ^^^^^Hu^^^^k^ MM^^^T^^^^M ^^ ^^fad^^^ ^^^BS^^i^» ^^t^ ' ^ ^H Ni .^^^^^^^K^^^^m Fig. 258. — Tiaia of feathers. British C4uiana. to have moved in a northerly direction, probably from the Province of Matto Grosso, whore Carib tribes (Bakairi) are still living. At the time of Columbus they had spread north of the Amazon into Guiana and Venezuela, and nuide numerous conquests in the Antilles, where some of their descendants are still to l)e found. Physically they rather resemble the Arawak, though taller and more eneigetic. The tribes of modern Venezuela are chiefly Caribs. The Arawak family at the tiiue of the discovery occupied the 278 AMERICA Antilles and tho Bahamas and the northern coast from Colombia to the months of the Amazon. From this position they have been driven by the Caribs, though they are still numerous in Guiana. They also occupied a great tract in the interior of the continent Fig. 259. — Objects from South America. 1. Stone pendant, Uaujies River, Brazil. 2. Tube for taking snuff, Guahibo Indians, Venezuela. 8. Blunt wooden arrow-head for birds, Paraguay. 4 and 5. Ear-ornaments, Tocantins River, Brazil. 6 and 7. Stone lip-ornaments, Tocantins River, Brazil. from the Upper Orinoco to the east of Bolivia, where the Moxo are an important tribe. West of the Arawak are numerous smaller groups, and the ethnology of the whole region east of the Andes as far south as the Gran Chaco is complicated to an extra- SOUTH AMEKICA 279 ordinary degree. Among the more important tribes of this linguistic family may be mentioned the Guarano or Warrau, the Otomaeo of the Rio Meta, a jirimitive tribe at the mouth of the Orinoco once living in pile-dwellings in the swamps, the Tucans of R. Uaupes, the Jivaro of Eastern Ecuador, the Zaparo imme- diately south of the Jivaro on the upper Amazon, the Pano (in- cluding the Conibo) of the upper Ucayali River, the Chiquito and the pale-skinned Urucares of East- ern Bolivia. The inhabitants of the inacces- sible parts of the interior, where European goods do not easily penetrate, are still living in the stone age, and afford some of the best remaining examples of primitive culture. Throughout the tropical area clothing is reduced to a minimum, though absolute nakedness is seldom found. The hair is usually worn long at the back and cut in a fringe across the forehead : gor- geous plumes and coronets of red. blue, and yellow feathers are worn by the men on festal occasions (fig. 258). Necklaces and other ornaments are made of jaguars' teeth and claws, seeds, wing-cases of beetles, beads, &c. The upper edge and lobe of the eai', as well as the septum of the nose, is often perforated to receive feathers and other ornaments, and many tribes wear a thorn or a peg of metal, stone, or other material in the lower lip. Some of the more primitive eastern tribes wore large wooden plugs, like those known in East Africa, not only in the ear-lobe but in the lips as well (fig. 259. 4-7) ; the name Botocudo is derived from the Portu- guese word ljolo(/i(e, a plug. Tribes on the upper Tocintins and Araguaya Rivers are in the habit of distending the ear-lobe till it hangs down to the shoulders. Tatuing by i)uncture is freely practised by many tribes, especially the Mundrucu, the instruments used being thorns, or the sharp ribs of palm-leaves. Women Fio. 260. — Board set with stono cliij)s for grating cassavii. British Guiana. 280 AMERICA are more usually tatued than men, and the faces of some of the women of the central tribes are covered with elaborate i>atterns. Painting of the body, usually with such vegetable substances as the juice of the hoia fruit {(/enija canito), is common in the northern part of the region. Fig. 261. -Pottery Vaso (diam. 44 in.) for cassava-Avine from the iieiglibour- hood of Iquitos, Peru. Many of the more primitive tribes occupy mere shelters, but as a rule houses are rectangular in plan, built of posts and bambu with a ridge-roof covered with leaves or grass ; the ends and sides are often left open. Many houses are occupied by more than one family, and sometimes there are large communal houses. Near the ordinary dwellings stands a hut containing objects used in religious ceremonies, and serving as a residence for the priest or Fig. 262. — Cigar-holder, used in ceremonial smoking. U23per Amazon. shaman. Villages were often palisaded. Pile dwellings were once common on the north coast ; those on the shores of Lake Maracaybo gave rise to the name Venezuela or ' Little Venice '. Cooking-pots, mats, baskets, wooden stools and hammocks woven of cotton or bast, are the principal furniture. The food of the Indians consists of the flesh of fowls, monkeys, peccaries, iLc, and manioc, maize, sweet-potatoes, (S:c. Cultivation is primitive, and SOUTH AMERICA 281 the principal agricultural implement was a stick. From manioc Cassava bread is prepared, the grated root being washed and strained in the Zehacan, an elastic tube of plaited reeds with a loop at each end. The tube is filled with wet meal, and one loop is passed over a rafter or pole. At this stage it is a short thick cylinder. The lower end is then steadily pulled until the water is all strained out, and the length of the cylinder is doubled. The manioc roots were grated on a board set with sharp points of quartz, instruments made in great numbers in the Ijasins of the Fio. 263. — Wooden clubs from British Guiana, c. With stone bhide. d. With wooden imitation. upper Amazon and Orinoco (fig. 260). Various tribes of South America still consume edible earth or clay. Intoxicating drinks, made from palms, cassava (fig. 261), maize, bananas, &c., were in use before the arrival of Europeans ; a decoction of cocoa-beans was also known. Tobacco-smoking and snufl-taking were almost universal (fig. 2()2) ; it was from the Arawak that the cu.stom was introduced into Europe in the six- teenth century. >Snuft' was not taken in the European manner. )>ut by the use of tubes of bone, single or double, by means of which it was inhaled into the nostrils (fig. 259. 2). Two kinds of snuff are employed, powdered tobacco, and jXOvVcf or cunipa, made 282 AMERICA from the pulverized seeds of the Fiptadenki Niopo ; the hxtter is l)y far the more powerful narcotic. Snuft'-taking is common in the basins of the Amazon and its tribu- taries, and of the Orinoco ; it was known in Haj'^ti, ancient Mexico, and Peru, in which country it may have originated, the snuff being at first made from tobacco, and later from the more powerful Nlopo. The custom of chewing coca as a stimi;- lant was probably also disseminated from Peru. Implements and utensils were almost entirely of stone, bone, teeth, &c., the knowledge of metals not having passed beyond the civilized countries of the Andes. Pottery (fig. 261) was made by the principal groups, and was especially excellent among Arawak and Cariljs. Though bark-cloth was manufactured by some tribes of the interior of Brazil (Caraya, &c.), the knowledge of weaving cotton-cloth was widely extended. The bast of trees is also used for plaiting and weaving, the Arawak making their hammocks of this material, while the Caribs use onlycottonfor this purpose. The carv- ing of figures representing the human body was rare, and artistic capacity was chiefly manifested in ornament. The weapons still in use where European civilization has not pene- trated are made of stone, wood and bone. The clubs (figs. 263, 264) are usually of hard dark red-coloured wood, short, flat, and squared at the upper end ; in th« north they are usually rectangular in section. Spears are in common use, and the throwing- stick is found in rare instances (Central Brazil), though its use must formerly have been widely extended, Bo^^s and arrows are almost universal, and are beautifully finished and decorated ; Fig. 264.— Wooden from S. America. «. clubs North Brazil. h. British Guiana c. British Guiana. SOUTH AMERICA 283 palm wood from the heart of the tree is often employed in making bows, which are of the plain variety and distinct from those of North America. Fig. 26t5. — Stone axe. Tocantins River, ]]razil. Tlie haljit of poisoning arrows was general in the Amazonian i-egion, the best known poison being the Curari, ijrocured from tlie roots of S(n/chuos toxifcra. The i)oints of arrows were made of reed or hard wood, chipped stone or Hint heads not being found as in North America. 284 AMERICA The blow-gun is a characteristic weapon in Guiana and on the upper Amazon. Tlie arrows are very slender, wads of raw cotton at the butts fitting exactly into the bore of the tulje like the blocks of pith on the similar arrows of the Malays. Quivers are made of plaited reed or of bambu (fig. 266). Ground stone axes (fig. 265), often of very elegant shapes, were in general use, and wooden and hide shields were formerlv carried in defence. Fig. 266. — Bambu quiver for blow-gun darts, with gourd for holding cotton. Ucayale River, Peru. Tapirs, monkeys, and other animals are hunted, and fish are speared, netted, and stupefied with narcotics. Navigation is not highly developed ; canoes were of the dug-out class. But the more primitive tribes had no canoes at all, and did not even know how to swim. Society was organized on the clan or gentile system, though there was no universal rule that descent and inheritance should pass in the female line ; where it so passed it favourably affected SOUTH AMEBIC A 285 the position of women. The curious custom of the Convade was known to some tribes, and some form of initiation or test of en- durance was commonly imposed on adolescents of both sexes. As priest and doctor the peay or shaman was as important a person as in North America. Ceremonial dances were general, and among ceremonial objects the bull-roarer occurred in Central Brazil. There is a general be- lief in a future life. The dead Fig. 267. — Flutes of jaguai'-bouo. M.TCUsi of British Guiana. Fig. 268. — Wooden trumpet. Rio Tocantins, Brazil. 286 AMERICA are buried, and their houses often destroyed ; the remains of the Tupi and the Caribs were deposited in large pottery urns, recalling the custom in certain parts of Europe in prehistoric times. {Guide to the Antiquities of the Bronze Age, p. 66.) \ III' SouTHERX Division This region is bounded by the Amazon-La Plata watershed on the north, and by the hills of South Brazil on the east. Its most northerly dis- trict is the Gran Chaco, a rolling wooded country west of the Parana, intersected by three large rivers, en- joying a mild climate, and abounding in fish and game. It is inhabited by several stocks, the most important being the Guaycuru, who are closely related to the Araucanians of Chile, the two being often comprised in one family called the Aucanian group. The principal tribes of the Guaycuru are the Al>ipone, the Toba, the Mbocobi, the Mbaya, and the Cadioeo or Cad- iiveo. The first of these tril^es has been extinguished by the second in historical times. These Guaycuru tribes are mounted hunters and fisher- men caring little for agriculture, though the land is occasionally cultivated, as by the Caduveo, who were also expert weavers, and made painted pottery without the wheel. Formerly they were armed with clubs, lances, bows and arrows, but at the present time numbers are possessed of guns. Before the introduction of iron, knives were made of the teeth of the j^nranya fish, of shell and stone, and with these the heads and scalps of enemies were cut off. Clothing was scanty, consisting of a loin-covering, with a skin cloak, for cold weather. Women were profusely tatued, especially upon the face, the instrument used being a thorn, and the colouring matter provided by the juice of the Genipapa oUongifolia, with which the bodies of the men were often painted. Their houses were easily moved, and were inhabited by the whole clan, each clan having its chief. Their religion was Fig. 269. — Ceremonial trumpet of bark. Uaupes River, Brazil. SOUTH AMERICA 287 compounded of animistic beliefs, and their • medicine-men ' were held in high repute : the Mbaya believed in a good and an evil spirit. The dead were buried in cemeteries, and if a warrior was killed in the enemy's country his bones were if possible brought home for interment. The other principal stocks of the Gran Chaco are the Lule, Mataco, Payagua, and Charrua. The three former are not eques- trian tribes, the Payagua being an aquatic people living on the Paraguay River. The Charrua of the Uruguay River are a wild race of horsemen who use the holas. The Lengua, often mentioned as a Chaco tribe, are by some considered a branch of the Chiquito of East Bolivia. In the mountain valleys of the Cordilleras, Salta, Jujuy. and Tucuman, in the north-west of the Argentine Republic, and on the west of the Chaco, dwelt the Calchaqui, a people proltably of the Aucanian stock, who built dwellings and tombs of faced stone. Their land is known to have at one time formed part of the empire of the Inca, and the objects found there show evident traces of Peruvian influence. South of the wooded Chaco stretch the treeless Pampas, which in part resemble the Prairies of North America. The inhal)itants are mosth^ mounted nomads, despising agri- culture, and dwelling in skin tents or brush- wood huts grouped togetlier in tolderlas or encampments. Their food is animal, and they hunt the ostrich and guanaco, using the holas as tlieir principal weapon. The holas consists of a cord or thong at each end of which is a stone ball, either tied to the thong by means of a groove in its surface, or else sewn up in leather (fig. 272, a). Sometimes the cord is doubled for half its distance and has thus two balls at one end. In this c;ise the third Indl is smaller, and is held in the hand when the missile is tlirown. Smaller bolas are used for killing birds, and mayjjo Fig. 270. —Trumpet from Brazil. 288 AMERICA compared with the similai' object used by the Eskimo (p. 250). Lances with iron heads and iron knives are now forged. Clothing consists of short drawers, and cloaks of guanaco and horse-skin with the hair worn inside ; in the case of men, garments of European origin are now common. Women w^ear cloaks over a long undergarment : they also weave ponchos and blankets out of wool. These peoples show some skill in making horse- trappings and other objects out of leather, and manufacture silver ornaments, principally out of dollars. They have no regular tribal names, and are usually re- ferred to by the Aucanian words, PueJchc, Moluche, and HuUlkhe, meaning northern, eastern, and western peoples respectively. The Araucanians of the Pacific coast of Chile, near relatives of the Pampas tribes, are a people of medium stature with a copi^er- coloured skin : they are of a war- like and independent character. They were able to resist the encroachments both of the Inca and the Spaniards, though the influence of the Peruvian empire extended into the northern part of tiieir territory. To the south of the Pampas dwell the Patagonians, who are physically different from their northern neighbours, by whom they are called Tehudclie or Southerners. They are of greater average height, and very tall men are common among them, though the tales of im- mense giants brought home by early travellers are probably exaggerations. Their w^iy of life closely resembles that of the inhabitants of the Pamelas, and like them they are equestrian nomads. The archii^elago of islands at the south and south-west corner of the continent is chieflj' occupied by the Fuegians, so named from Tierra del Fuego, or Land of Fire, given to the largest island by Magalhaes in a. d. 1520, on account of the fires which were Fig. 271. — Shrunk human head. Jivaro, Ecuador. SOUTH AMERICA 289 always kept burning in the fish- ing canoes round the coast ; but the east coast of Tierra del Fuego is inhabited by a hunting tribe, the Ona, who are related to the Patagonians. The west and south-west of the archipelago are occupied by two tribes of Fuegians, the Yahgan and the Alakaluf. These people belong- to a very low stage of culture, but this is chiefly due to the wretched lives they have to lead in a cold, damp climate on in- hospitable shores. They are of medium height and fairly good phj^sique, norare their intellectual powers quite so low as was at one time supposed. In spite of the coldness of the climate the Fuegians wear very little clothing, only a loin-cloth, with a loose skin to throw over the shouldei'S. Necklaces of bone, dentalium and other shells are worn, and the head is adorned with feather crowns. Their houses are made of boughs or skins laid over a pole framework, but a great part of their time is passed in their narrow boats or canoes, which are made either of birch-bark or wood, and always have a clay fire-place in the centre. In these canoes they hunt sea- lions and large fish, formerly relying entirely on spears and harpoons headed with ])one, but now using instruments of iron. Besides spears and harpoons, they have a sling for killing birds, and bows and arrows. The bow is plain, with a string of sinew ; the arrows are commonly headed with glass, like the spear-heads of the Australians, the woi'k being done by pressure with a bone E. U a Fir;. 272.- Objects from South America. a. Bolus with stono weiglits. Aryentiiio. h. Wooden chil). Britisli Guiaiia. c. Stone- lie;nlcd chih. Avinara. Ptru. 290 AMERICA tool' aiul nut by percussion : but tiint is also used t'ur tlie points ot" weapons. The principal utensils are baskets, and water vessels made of Ijark. The Fuegians live principally on molluscs and tish ; the former are eaten raw, the latter usually fried or stewed. When meat can be procured it is eaten raw. Fire is obtained by striking- together two pieces of pyrites (fig. 7 a). Fig. 273. — .Scraper cuiisi.-,tiiig ui' ;i shell lilado laslied to a pebble. Tiei ra del Fiiego. The people go about in family groups, and polygyny is usual. They have religious ideas of a vague kind, distinguishing between good and bad spirits, but seem to have had no amulets, idols or ritual, tliough they had witch- doctors or shamans. The dead are buried, and their souls are supposed to wander in the forests. The Chono living north of the Fuegians on the Pacific coast are said to have had red hair and light complexions ; their relation to the Araucanian family it is difficult to define with precision. 1 Cf. Guide fo Ihc Antiquities of flu- atone Age. \>. ]U7 : bone fabrifator from Grimes' Graves. GENERAL INDEX N.B. — TIic pcKje-numhtrs in ilalicfi refer to illustrations. Agriculture, 12. 13. 26. 30, 31. Africa, 185, 188, 195. 196, 198, 200, 202, 204, 208, 212. 219. 231, 210, 2-47, 212, 213,' 222. America, 268. 272, 275. 280, 281. 286. Asia, 70, 91, 93. Oceania, 107, 122, 123. Albuquerque, 4. Amulets, 21, 68. 77, SO, 96. 105, 192. 202, 233, 243, 247. Ancestor worship. 36. Africa, 188, 202, 206, 210, 215. 226. 233, 243. Asia, 75. OceanicL, 117, 137, 155, oH. Ancestral spirits, 35. Africa, 206, 233. Asia, 104. Oceania, 117. 136, IdS. Animism, 32, 35. Africa, 188. America, 263, 287. Oceania, 155. See Spirit-WdTsliip, Anson, 7, 147. Armour — Africa, 192, 242. America, 260. Asia, 45, 54. 55, 70. 98, 99, li)l. Oceania, 171, 'xri. Arrows, 49, 51, (50, -'14, -J-jI, 2o2, 2iS. See Bdws. Art, 16, 17. Africa, 191, 195, 209, 214. 222. 247. America, 253, 260, 271, 282. Asia, 74, 96. Oceania, 112, 126, 127, 175. Illustrations passim. Assegai, 209, 214. Axes (metal) — Africa, 209, 214, 22:5, •--'/.•;, 2:'s. America, 27 J . Asia, 48, 51, 4S. Hall -gam. vs. 102, 135, 192, 274. Jiambu knives, 79, 125, 129. .S. Madagascar, 247. Oceania, 129. Bogle, 67. Bolas, 250, 287. 288, ^su. Boomerang, 12. 112, 14. HiS. lUU. Borobudur, 104. Bougainville, 7, 145, 147, KiO. Binv, 12. Afica, 185, 192, 195, 201, 205, 214, 222, 223, 233, 241, 247. Americ'i, 250, 260, 271, 282, 283, 286, 287. Asia, 48, 49, 51, 55, 56, 60, 63, 70, 75, 79. 79, 97, 4S, r,o. 62 '.S, Oceania, 113, 129, 153, 165, 171. Bow, (:'omiM)site, 48, 49, 51. Cd. 250, 2(U>, 271, 4S, r,H. ■',;. Bow, Pel let, 51, 97, 4S. ' Bow-ring, 49, 4s. Ih-acer, 49. 129. liialnuanism. Srr Hiuduism. 292 GENERAL INDEX Brass in Africa, 241, :J40. Bread-fruit, 11'.), 147, 148. Bronze in Africa, 241, i'-W, 2:>0. Buddhism, 65, 70-72, 74. ,S7. Bull-figliting, 247. Bull-roarer, 183, 226, 243, 285, m. Burial — Africa, 192, 196, 201, 210, 215, 226, 232, 233, 242, 247. America, 253. 261, 275, 286, 287. 290. vista, 63, 77, 85, 101. Oceania, 115, 134, 159, 178. See Funeral customs. Byron, 7. Cabot, .Tdlia, 5. Cabral,5. Caltrop, Assam, 85. Calumet, 272. Cannibalism — Africa, 204, 209, 221, 231. America, 262. Asia, 93. Oceatiia, 109, 115, 123. 167. 173, 174, s. Cards, 192. Carteret, 141. 143. Cartier, 5. Cassava. See Manioc Cassava-press. 281. Casting, 95, 241. Caucasian. 11 , 61. Cave-dwell iiiss, 93. Chaka, 211, 212, 214. Chakram, 49, 4S. Charts, 171, 170. Chess, 192. Chikusse, 212, Christianitj-, 105, 192, 247. Christy, Henry, 1. Churinga, J7j. Cicatrization, 25. Africa, 199, 204, 208. 219, 229, 240, 36, 220. Asia, 79, 90. Oceania, 107, 115, 120. Circassians, 58. Circumcision — Africa, 191, 195, 208, 219, 231, 240. 247. Asia, 91. Oceania, 115. Clan, 17. See Social organization. Cliff-dwellers. 275. Clothing, 25. ■ Africa, 185. 191, 195, 199, 204, 208, 212, 219. 229, 240, 246. 1U7, lUH, 202. America, 248, 254, 268, 260, 270, 286, 288, 289, 2r>(>, 269. Asia, 57-60, 63, 67, 68, 71, 75, 76. 79, 82, 84, 89. 90, ',;>, 62. Occunia, 106, 120, 149, 161. 171. 172, 173, 107. 1.-j1, 161, 172. Club— Africa, 192, 195, 201, 205, 214. America, 260, 271, 282, 286, 252, 254, 255, 262 264, 270, 2S1, 282, 289. Asia, 63. Oceania, 112, 127, 153, 171, 175. 12, 108-110, 128-131, 135, 142, Us', 154, 166, 178. Club-houses, 133, 171. Coca, 282. Cock-fighting, 102. Columbus, 4. Communal houses, 93, 100, 120, 271. 280, 286. Composite Bow. Sec Bow, Compo- site. Cook, Captain James, 6, 7, 140, 141. 147, 155, 160, 163, 165, 167. Cooking, 76, 78, 93, 109, 123, 147- 149, 173, 249, 272. Cortes, 5. Cotton, 82, 191, 208, 209, 241, 280, 282, 284 Couvade, 100-1, 285. Cranial deformation, 24. 01, 120. 255-257, 24. Cremation, 61, 63, 101, 115, 134, 232, 261. See Funeral customs. Crossbow, 51, 63, 76, 85, 232. Cuirass, 54, 260, xri. Curari, 283. Currency. 28, 91, 125, 171, 223. 261. 269, 29, 30, 265. Cvmbals, 72, 247. Daggers, 46, 47, 49, 52, 129, 153, 260, 47, 48, 53, 259. See Knives. Dampier, 143. Dancing, 37. 38. Africa. 215, 226, lUU. 200. America, 253, 261, 274, 285. Asia, 75, 102. Oceania, 115, 135, 153, 179. i-9-5. Dao, 51, 84, 85, 48, 81. Deformation and Mutilation, 24. See Cranial deformation. Ear- ])iercing. Lip-piercing, Nose- piercing, Tootli-mutilation. Deniker, Dr. .T.. 25. Desideri. 66. Dha, 50, r,o. GP]NERAL INDEX 293 Diaz, 4. Dice, 105, 210, 261. Digging-stick, 75, DS, 218, 272, 281, 21-2. Divination, 40, 41. Africa, 206, 210, 22(>, 233, 248, 247, 27. Asia, 105. Oceania, 139, 179, 181, 202. Dorville, 66. Drake, 6. Dreams, 31, 32, 36, 139, 226, 275. Drum — Africa, 192, 196, 201, 206, 210, 215, 226, 232, 242, 247, iSG, 2i2. America, 253, 274. Asia, 61, 72, 103, Oceania, 136, 153, IHr,. Dyeing, 94, 241. Ear-piercing, 24. Africa, 199, 26, 197, 198. America, 257, 279, 278. Asia, 75, 76, 90, 90. Oceania, 120, 161, 172. Embroidery, 63, 222. Endogamy, 21. d'Entrecasteaux, 7, 140, 145. Ethnography, Definition of, 10. Ethnogi'aphy, Value of, 41. Exogamy, 19, 100. Exi>osure, 75, 201, 258. See Platform- burial. Fadi, 247. Feathei--boxes, 173, I'io, 176. Feather-work, 125, 151,161, 162, 173. 151, mn, 164. Female descent, 17, 133, 226. 242, 260, 273, 284. Fern-root, 173. Fiddle, 77, 103, 243. Fire, Production of, 13. 14, /".. Africa, l-'i. America, 249, 290, m. Asia, 61, 62, 68, 76, 91, 7.i, H7, Ss. Oceania, 111, 123, lo. Fire-arms, 49, 95. Fishing, 31. Africa, 195, 231, 240. 247. America, 249, 250, 257, 259. 281. 286, 289, 252, 258. Asia, 60, 63, 77, 78, 91. Oceania, 107-9, 122, 123, 147, 178, 9, 116, 1:7. Fish-bcjih' armour, 98. lot. Fishskin, 60, ofy. Flageolets, 72, 192. 2)7. Flutes— Africa, 192, 205, 210, 215, 226, 243, 247. America, 285. Asia, 11, 103. Oceania. 137, 153, 179, 181. Food, 11, 12, 30. Africa, 188-191, 195, 204, 213, 221, 231, 240, 206, 218-220, 280. America, 248, 249, 259, 272, 280, 290, 260, 279. Asia, 57, 58, 60, 62, 69, 75, 78, 91, 64. Oceania, 109, 122, 123, 147, 159, 172, 173, SI, 127, 148. 162, 169. Football, 102, 135. Franks, Sir A. W., 1. Friction-drum, 201, 226, 224. Funeral customs, 33. .Africa, 192, 196, 201, 210, 215, 226, 232, 233, 242, 247, 36. America, 253, 261, 275, 285-287, 290. Asia, 61, 63, 75, 77, 80, 85, 101. Oceania, 115, 134, 135, 147, 159, 178, 83, 133, 144, 161. Future life, 32, 33. Africa, 188, 202. America, 253, 275, 285, 290. Asia, 61, 64, 105. Oceania, 117, 127, 138, 159, 181. Gabet, 67. di Gama, Vasco, 4. Games, 37. Africa, 192,201, 215, 226, 242, 247. America, 261, 274. Asia, 102. Oceania, 117, 135, 158, 165, 179. Gilbert, 5. Glass implements, 111, 289, 290. Gods, 25, 35, 37, 38, 104, 117, 155- 159, 161, 163, 179, 181, 192, 197, 202, 210. 226, 243, 247, 41, 138, 158, 159, 163,208. Gong, 103, 136, 226, 232, 136, 223. Gong-signalling, 136, 226, 232, 243. Grueber, 66. Guardian s])irit, 3(5. Guitar, 61, 72. Habitations — Africa, 185, 191, 195, 2(«», 201, 209, "218,22], 240. America, 249, 257, 270, 271, 275, 280, 286, 287, 289, 257. Asia, 57, 58, 60, 62, 65, 68, 69, 75, 78, S2, 98. Oceania, 109, llO, 120, 117, 172, 178, 7, 107, nn, 177. 294 GENERAL INDEX Hairdressing — Africa, 191, 195, 199, -201, 208, 212, 231, 240. America, 268, 279. Asia, 57, 68, 79. Oceania, 106, 120, 161. Hammocks, 280, 282. Hani, 172, 175, i?;?. Harp, 103, 136, 192, 205, 226, 248, 247, 224, 2SS. Harpoons, 63, 79, 249, 250. 289. Haruspieation, 41. 105, 202. Head-compression. See fh-anial de- formation. Head-hunting, 82. 84. 99. 1 29. Head-ring, 212. Heads, Preserved. 99, 178, 179, 2S8. Helmet-breaker, 52, ~)o. Helmets, 45, 54, 151, 161. Ui. r>:,. Hemp, 209. Henry the Navigator, 4. Hindus and Hinduism. 74. 81. 85. 87, 101, 104, 246. Hoa-haka-nana-ia, 1()9. Hoeroa, 175. Hood, 167. Horns. 196, 201. 205, 210, 243, 7.%', 243. Horse, in America. 267 ; in Sudan, 240. Hue, 67. Human sacrifice, 33, 34, 135, 181, 206, 226, 243, 261, :;4, 17U. 242, 255, 2G2. Hunting, 12, 31. Africa, 198, 200, 204, 209. 212. 231, 240, im. America, 249, 257, 259, 260, 267. 272, 284, 286, 289, 280, 256. Asia, 63, 69, 75, TU. Oceania, 109. Iglu, 249. Inao, 62. 63. Infanticide, 153. Ingraham, Captain. 167. Initiation — Africa, 191, 210, 215, 219. America, 274, 275, 285. Asia, 79, 80.' Oceania, 115, 117. 133. Intoxicants, 62, 82, 91, 123. 191.281. 280. Irrigation. 123, 147, 275. Jade, 120. 125, 171. 174. 175. IG. IS. 12^, 124, 152. Jar-l.urial, 101, 286. .Tews' liarp, 61, 63, 72, 103, 136. Kaftan, 57. Kamehameha, 160. Kane. See Tane. Kaross, 212. Kasongo, 225. Kava, 123. Kayak, 250, 251. Kerrie. See Club. Khyber knife, 46, 47. Kite. 123, 135. Kiva, 275. l-Ciwi, 173. Knives — Africa. 192, 223. 232. 241, 210. 228- 2H1. America, 260, 271. 286, 288. 25r,, 2G4, 272. Asia, 46, 49, 50, Oo. 79, 47, 50, 88. Oceania, l-2o, 129, 153, 155, J7'.i. See Daggers. Kris, 97, 100, 9S. Kukri, 50, 50. Labrets. See Lip-piercing. Lamaism, 65, 70-2. Lamps, 249. Law, 27. Lemaire, 143, 144, Leopard Society, 243. Liho-Liho, 160, 162. Lip-])iorcing, 24. Africa, 195, 199. 208, 231, 240, 24. America. 249, 257, 279, 24,25, 278. Lit ham, 240. Livingstone, 208. Logic, Primitive, 31, 32. London Missionary Society, The, 163. Lono. See Eongo. Maces, 48, 51, 48. Mackenzie, 6. Magalhacs, 5, 288. Magellan. See Magalhaes. Magic, 39, 40, 96, 105, 117, 138, 139, 181, 204, 206, 210. 215, 226, 247, 275. Magyar, 57, 58. Mahdist War. The. 189. Mai, 217. Mail, 45, 70, 192, 242. See Armour. Maize, 188, 221, 231, 240, 272, 281. Majapahit, 87. 100, 101, 104. Mana, 137 8. Mnnoala. 201, 202, 210. 233, 242. 247.' GENERAL INDEX 295 Manioc, 188, 2l'I. 2:]1. 240, 281. Manning, G7. Maori, 30. See New Zealand. Mappa Mundi, -t. Marchand, Captain, 1G7. Marriage, 19, 21. Africa, 191, 102, VM\. 205. 210. 225. ' 232, 242, 247. Amerira, 258, 273. Asia, 61, 75, 100. Oceania, 114. 133, 184. 178. Masks, 88, 72. 74, 133, 135. 253. 87, 88, 74, ;.-.. 184, 140, 222, 22o, 208. Matchlocks, 49, 51, 56, 70, 2W. Maui, 179. Mead, 191. See Intoxicants. Medicine, 39, 105, 139, 158. 181. 263. 40. Medicine-nicn. See Shaman. Mendana. 143. 167. de Meneses, 145. Men's house, 82. 93, 138, Mere, 175. Message-sticks. 115, 48. 114. Metallurgy — Africa, 191, 195, 200, 204, 209. 222. ' 232, 241, 247, 20, 28S-24ii. America, 260. ,'?o9. Asia, 94, 9.5. Mika. 115. Millet, 62. 188. 231. 240. Moa. 171. 173. Mocassin, 268. Modesty, 25. Mohammedanism, 85, l(i4, 192, 240, 243. Moko, 178. Moorcroft. 67. Morality, 28. Mother-right, 17. Mourning customs— Asia. 79, .SO. Oceania, 115, 179. Mouth organ, 103. Msiri, 217, 225. Muata Yanv... 217. 225. Music. 37. 38. Africa. 192, 196. 201. 205. 210, 215, 226,' 282, 283. 242, 243, 247, 1U8. 190, 222, 224, 282-284, 242, 248. America, 253, 261, 274, 2r,r,. 207. 28r)-2S7. Asia, 61, <')3, 72, 75, 77, 79, 108. Oceania, 115, 136, 158, 179. 18-',, l8o. 180, 181. Musical l.ow. 210, 215. 226, 248. Navigati<)n — A mcrira, 250, 251 , 259, 278, 2Sl . 289. Asia, 60, 68, 77, 95. Oceania, 110, 128-125, 147, 163-165, 171, 174, 19, 170. Nomadic life, 12, 18, 65, 107, 185, 191, 192. 288, 240, 241, 267, 287, 288. Nose-flutes, 103, 186, 153, 226. Nose-piercing, 24. Africa, 212, 231, 240. America, 257, 279. Asia, 90. Oceania, 106, 120. Oaths, 27. Obsidian, 125, 127, 129, 174, 184. Obsidian knives, 129. See Knives. Odoricus, 65. Omens, 40, 105, 139, 179. Ordeals, 27. Africa. 192, 205, 210, 226, 288, 243. Ornaments, Personal, 21, 25, 28. Africa, 191, 195, 199, 200, 204, 208, 212, 231, 240, 247, 7.9-3, JO.;. ]97^ 202, 204. America, 257, 279, 288, 289, 2r,4. 230, 269, 270, 277, 278. Asia, 63, 68, 79. 82, 84, 91, W, .S'.3, 90. Oceania, 10(). 115, 120, 150, 151, 161, 171, 173, loO, 164, 172, 178. Outriager, 77. 110, 123. 168. Painting, 19, 25. Africct', 219, 200, 216. America, 257, 269, 280, 286, 2.-,--,. Asia, 79, 91. Oceania, 106, 115. Palm-cloth, 219. 229. Pan-pipes, 136, 20.5. Parrying-shields, 45, 113, 196, 4S, 112, 194. Pastoral life, 12, 13. Africa, 185, 191, 193, 195, 198, 200, 204, 209, 212, 240, 247. Asia, 57, 58, 65. 70. 73. 91. Patrickson, 16(>. Pelele, 208. Sen Lip-piercing. Pellet-bow, 51, 97, 48. Pemmican. 272. P.nn, William, 2C,0. La Perouse, 7, 14 7, 160, 167. P('rsf)nal ornaments. SreCJrnamcnts, Personal. Phratrv, 114. • Piano', 205, 210, 215, 226. 23:5, 248, - - '! --"-• Pigmentation, 183. 296 GENERAL INDEX Pile-houses — Africa, 195, 209, 213, 221, 232, 247. America, 257, 280. Asia, 76, -82, 93. Oceania, 120-122, 173, 7. Pilgrim Fathers, 5. Pinzon, 5. Pipe. See Tobacco-smoking. Pituri, 109. Pizarro, 5. Platform-burial, 85, 101, 115, 134. 159, 178, 261, 275. See Funeval customs. Plough, 70, 93. Pocahontas, 6. Poi, 147, 148. Polo, Marco. 3. 78. Pt)lyandry, 72, 100, 205. Polynesia, Stone l)uildiri<>s in, 107, 169. Poncho, 288. Possession (supernatural\ 38, 75, 139, 181, 226, 261, 263. Pottery,' 16. Africa, 191, 205, 209, 214, 232, 241, S4, SOo, 241. America, 272, 275, 280, 282, 286, 5.S0. Asia, 62, 75, 78, 79, 94. Oceania. 125, 126, 147, 125. Prayer, 36. Priest,'27, 30, 36, .39, 137, 155, 158, 179, 181, 206, 280. Property. 17, 25-27, 30. Africa, 192, 201, America, 261, 273. Asia. 1o. Oceania, 134, 178, 33. - Pueblo, 265, 275. Puppet-shows, 101. van der Putte, 67. Quiros, 141, 147. Quoit, 49, 48. Raft-dwellings. 93. Rainmakins, 40, 117, 188, 196, 202. 215. Ralegh, 5. Rattle, 61, 103, 210, 233, 261, 274, 234, 2G7. Reburial, 77, 80, 134. 178. See Funeral customs. Reed-instruments, 103, 261, 26(j. Religious beliefs and practices, 28- 41. Africa. 188, 192, 196, 202, 205, 206. 210, 215, 226, 233, 243, 247, 27, 34, 208, 220, 220, 23o, 236, 238, 242, 243. America, 261, 262, 265, 274, 275, 280. 285-287, 290, 2.-)4, 266-269. Asia, 58-63, 70, 71, 73-75, 77, 79. 85, 103, 104, 67, 77, 88, 104, lOo. Oceania, 114, 136, 137, 155-159, 164- 167, 175, 178, 179, 31, 40, 41, 115, 137-139, 157-159, 161, 163, 168, 179. de Retes, 145. Rice, 70, 82, 91, 93, 119, 247. Rice-beer. See Intoxicants. Rites, 36. Roberts, Captain, Itw. Robertson Smith, 41. Rock-shelters, 75, 93. Roggewein, 160, 167. Ron go, 155. Rosaries, 68, 71. Rubruquis, 3. Sacred king, 30. 1.55. Sacrifice, 33, 34, 40, 135, 181, 197, 206, 226, 243, 247, 261, 34, 179. 242, 255, 262. ' Salt, as affecting migrations, 185. Sanctuary, 158,^161.' Sarong, 89, 246. Scalps, 268, 271. Schouten, 143, 144. Sebitoane, 207. Secondary interment. See Reburial. Secret societies. 27, 132, 133, 219, 243, 275. Sekeletu, 207, 208. Shaman, 38, 39, 58, 59, 61, 104. 105, 253, 262, 275, 280, 285, 287, 290. Shell implements, 16, 79, 111, 125, 151, 174, 286, 9, 18, 141, iln. Shields— Africa, 192, 196, 201, 205, 209, 214, 224, 232, 242, 186, 189, 194, 195, 202, 207, 215. America, 271. 284, 271. Asia, 45, 70, 85. 98, 48, 84, 97-100. Oceania, 113, 129. 20, 112, US, 132. Siboko, 214. Sky-gods, 117, 179, 192, 202, 233. Slavery. 101. 155, 175, 204, 205. 261. Sledge, 59, 60, 63. 250. Slings. 51, 70. 97,' 129, 153, 171, 192, 205, 247, 289. ' Smelling-out ', 215. Smith, John, 6. Smoking. See Tobacco-sniokinii. Snake-worship, 73, 243, 192, 243. Snowshoes, 59, 60, 253, 272. 273. Snuff, 200, 213, 221, 281, 282, 217, 278. Social organization, 17-21, 25-28. Africa, 185, 188, 192. 196. 2fM). -Joi, GENERAL INDEX 297 205, 210, 214, 224, 225, 232. 233, 242, 247. America, 258, 260, 267, 273, 284, 285, 290. Asia, 57, 61,62, 72, 75, 78, 82, 99. 100. Oceania, 113, 114. 131-134, ' 153. 155, 175, ISO. de Soto, 5. Soul, 32-35. Africa, 188, 226. 243, 34. America, 263, 290. Asia, 61, 64, 101, 105. Oceania, 117, 127, 138, 139. 159. 165, 166, 181, 3.3. Soul-trap, 32, 165-166, 53. Spears — Africa, 185, 192, 195, 201, 205,209. 223. 232. 233, 241, 247, 187, 171, 202. America, 282, 286, 288, 289. Asia, 47, 50, 51, 54, 63, 70, 85, 96, 53, 84. Oceania, 112, 127, 153, 175, 171, 121, 1S2, 156, 172. Spear-tiirowers, 12. America, 250, 282, 264. A.liii), IU2, L'4:!. 247. Wayniig. 101-102. yo?. Tribe, 17. : Weaving- Trumpets, 72, 179. 217, 1.^0, 2Sr,-os:. j Africa, 222, 232, 241, 247, I>i'/. Tsetse-flv. IS.",, 2()«». Amnlca, 254. 25y, 275, 280, 282, Tukula, 21'.». 286, 288, 2;.3. Turner, <',7. Asia, 63. 70, f/-?. Tylor, Prof., :{2. 42. Oceania, 126. 147, 171-173. 175. Wiiistles, 153, 172. 179. 196, 226, 232, Ulu Maika, 153. 2-22, 2W. Umiak, 251. Wigwam, 270, 271. Umsiligazi, 211, 212. Wine, ^'ee Intoxicants. Urn-hurial. 101,286. Witcli-doctors, 38. Sw Shaman. Wonion, Industries of, 93, 15(». 153, Vancouver, Captain, 6. KUi. 2(io. 268, 272. Vespucci, 5. Wrist-knives, 195. 201. /!/•!. • Vinland,' 3. Writina', 42, 103. 147, 170. ■■,;. nc. Violin. Sep Fiddle. Voodoo. 243. Wallis, 7, 163. =^=^^' 243 Wampum, 269, 30. War, 28. Yataghan, 46. 47. Africa, 200. 206, 214, 242. America, 267. Asia, 95, 99, Zitliers, 201. Oceania, 113, 127, 140. 163, 175. Zungandawa, 212. Xylophone, 102, 103, 205. 210. 22r,, GEOGRAPHICAL AND TRIBAL INDEX N.B. — Thf imge-mmihers in i/nh'rs n-fer fu iUiistriifions. Ababdeli, 188. Ababiia, 228, 232, 7.s;. ^30. Abandia, 228. Abarambo, 228, 232, 283. Abbas, Shah, 45, 4«. Abipone, 286. Abisanga, 228, 229. Abo, 235. Abor, 82. Abyssinia, 190, 191, 192. Achelinese, 87. AChewa, 206. Achikunda, 206. Achipeta. 206. Acholi, 193, 194, 19.5. 196, JS6, 193. Adainawa, 235. Admiralty Islands, 31, 122,126,127, 129, 132, 133, 134, 1.36, 137, 144, IS, 183. Aduma, 227. Aetii, 89. Agar, see Danakil. Afghan, 45, 46. Africa, 183-243, lo, 20, 22, 24, 26, 27, 29, 34, 1 80-243. Agni-speakinu tribos, 236. Ainu, 61-5, HI, (i2, Hi. A.Ta\va,204, 207, 208, 210. Aka, 82. AKamba, 198. 199. 20<), 201. Akela. 219. AKikuyu, 198, 199. 200, 201, '2(i, 1 98 -200. Akka, 229. Akuna-kiina. 2."{5. Akunga, 2;i5. Alakaluf, 2.S9. Aljjoiikin. 263, 264, 265. ALuii<;u, 206, 209. Alur, 19.i, 194. AManibwc, 20(5. AmaMpondo, 211. Ainaravi, 206. AmaShuina, 208. Air.aSwazi, 203, 211. AmaTembu, 211. AmaTonga, 211. AmaXosa, 211, 214. 215, ISO, 213. AmaZulu, 20.3, 205, 211. 212, 214, ISO, 213. America, N., 248-76. America. S.,' 276-90. Andamanese, 37. 78-80, 40, 78-80. Andevo, 247. Andoni, 235. Andriana, 247. ANgoni, 203, 207. 211. 212. Annamese, 81. Antakarana, 246. Antalaotra, 246. Antambahoaka, 246. Antanala, 245. Antanosy, 245. Auti, 188. Antiboina, 247. Antifasina. 246. Antimcrina, 246, 247. Antimoro, 246. Antisaka, 246. Antivondro, 246. Apache, 265. Appalacliians, 26.5. Aral)s, 47, 49, 72, 80, 89, 189, 201,202, 203.229. 233, 240, 242, 245, 41. Araplio, 264. Anincanian, 286, 288. Arawak, 276, 277, 278, 281, 282. Ar.), 235, 240. Am Islands, 145. ASenga, 206. Ashanti, 2.36, 241, 242, 243, 2-2S, 240, 242. Awsanitso, 50, 51. 7.3, 81-5. Assinibnjn. 265, 272. Athapascan, 265. ATonga, 206, 208. Aucanian, 286, 287. Austral Islands, 165, V). Australia, 106-17, 14, /"i, 43, 107-1--,. Australians, Eacial af- finities of, 106, 146. Awaka, 235. AwaNkonde, 206. 209. 210, 1S7. AWemba, 206, 209. Azandeh, 193, 194, 228, 229, 232, 233, 180, 187, 229 233. Aztec, 253. BaAchinji, 216. BaBangi, 227, ■.'•>>•.'. BaBihe. 221. BaBisa, 206. BaBoma, 227, 231. BaBonsio, 229. BaBunda, 219, 223, 220- 222. RaBwende, 219, 227, 281 BaGaiida, 35, 203, 204, 205, 206, 34, ISO, 2()--,. ■JOS. Baggara, 139, 191, 192. Bagirmi, 240. Bagnori, 236. Bagobo, 87, 93. BaHima, 191, 203, 204, 205, 206, /,S7. 200, 207. Balluana, 219, 221, 225. 22('> 227, BaHurutsc, 21 1. Baining. 143. Bairo, 203, 201. Bakaiii, 277. BiiKalaiiari, 21 I. BaKalai, 227, 232. BaK.tc, 217, 218, 226. BaKoko, 235. BaKongo, 219, 22-5, 227. BaKota, 227. BaKuba. 218. 300 GEOGRArHlOAL AND TRIBAL INDEX BaKumu, 218, 228. I BaKun.lu. 285. BaKussu, 217, 1H7. I BaKwena. 211, 21:3. BaKwese, 216, 22(5. BaKwiii, 235. BaLala, 207, 211. BaLali. 227. Bali. 28.5, 241. 242.2.8. BaLoi. 227. BaLolo, 211). 221, 224. BaLuh:i, 210, 217, 219,1 222, 225, 220. \ BaLunila. 215, 21G. 217, 218, 21i», 225. BaMangwato, 208, 211. BaMbala (BuShongo), 218, 2m, 219. BaMbala (of the Kwilii . | 219, 221, 225, 217. 226. BaMbuto, 229. BaNgala, 228, 282, ISn 231. BaNgendi, 218. BaNgongo, 218. BaNkoiijo, 203, 204. Banks Island. 120, 128. 125, 126. 127, 131, 132. ! 133, 135; 137, 141, 18. BaNkutu, 219, 223. 225. Bantu, 183, 185, 194, 198. 202. 203, 211, 212, 213, 214, 215. 226.229,231, 232, 233^ 285. BaNyai, 207. Banvang, 235, 243. BaNyoro, 203, 204. 205. Banziri, 227. BaPiudi, 216. 220-22. BaPoto, 228,' 2S1. Bara, 246, 247. Barawan, 87. Bari, 193, 196. 197. 198. BaRolong, 211. BaRotse, 207, 2ofS, 209, 210, 215, 209. Basa, 236. BaSamba, 217, 219. BaSanga, 217, 227. BaSheke, 227. BashiKongo. 219. BashiLele, 217. 219. BaSoga, 203. BaSoko. 228. BaSonge, 217, 226. BaSongo, 219. BaSongo Meno, 218. 228 225. BaSiunbi, 227. BaSundi, 219. BaSuto, 207. 211, 187. 213, 21',. Batak (ol Sumatra), 87, 91.93,97,100,102,103, 88, 90, lOr,. Batak (of Palawan, 89. BaTeke, 219, 227. 233. BaTetela, 217, 219, 221, 224, 225, 226. 22--,. 230. Bati. 235. BaTlapin. 211. BaTonga, 207. BaTumbuka, 20(>. BaTu-a, 229. BuVili, 227. BaVinsa, 203. BaYaka, 219. 22->, 220, 222 224. BaYa'nzi, 219. 221, 222. 225, 227, 228. Btbaya-a, 229. BeChuana, 207,208, 211. 213, 214, 215, 213. Beja, 188, 189, 191, 192. Bena Lulua, 220. Benga, 227. Beni Amer, 188. Meiabra, 189. Berber. 233, 2S4. 236, 242. 243. Berg Daniara, 211. Betaniniena, 246. Betsan, 229. Betsileo, 245, 247. Betsimisaraka, 246. 247. Beyaga, 229. Ijezanozano. 246. Bliutia, 78. Bicol, 87. Bihe, 216. Binbundo, 216. Bini, 236, 240, 241. 242. 243, 238, 239. Bisharin, 188. Bismarck Arcliii)elago, 144. Blackfoot, 264. Blemmyes, 188. Bombe, 228. Bonjo. 227. Borneo, 87, lo, 23, 24, 89, 90, 95, 99, 101, 104. Bornu, 239. Botccudo, 277, 279. Brunei, 87. Bube, 184, 235, 241,242, 243. Buduma. 235. Wi. Bugi, 87, 91, 95, 100, 97. Buhl, 227. Buquidnon, 87. Burlat, 58. Burmese, 50, 81, l-J, 50. Bii-shmen, 37, 183, 184, 185, 211,212,213,214, 21.5, 212, 214. BuShongo, 218, 219, 221, 222, 223, 225, 226, 22, 27, 216, 218, 219. Cadioeo, 286. Caduveo, 286. Calchaqui, 287. Carib, 276, 277, 278, 282, 286. Caroline I.slands. 170, 171, 156. Cayuga, 263. Celebes, 87. 90, 94, 95, 97, 9S. Ceram, 98. Ceylon, see Sinhalese. Charrua, 287. Chatham Islands, 171, 152. Chawia, 236. Cherokee, 265. Cheyenne, 264. Chickasaw, 2G5. Chilkat, 255, 264. Chin, 82. Chinese, 57, 81, 87. Chippewa, 264. Chiquito, 279. 287. Choctaw, 265. Chono, 290. Chukchi, 58, 70. Circassian, 46, 47. Cocama, 276. Comanche, 265. Conibo, 279. Cook Islands, sec Hervey Islands. Coorg, 49, 50. Coroados, 277. Cree, 264, 271. Crow, 265. Cutch, 47, 48, 47, 48. Dahomi, 236. 242, 248, \ 228. Dakota, 265. ' Danakala, 189. Danakil, 190, 191, 192, 189. Danger Island, see Puka Puka. GEOGRAPHICAL AND TRIBAL INDEX 301 Daphla, 82. Delaware, 264. Dinka,193. 194, 195, 196, 197, 194. Dor, 193, 195, 196, 228, 193, 194. Dorobo, 198, 200. 201, iST. Dravidian, 72, 106, 183. Dualla, 235. Dusun, 87, Dyak, 87 {see Ibau). Easter Island, see Rapa Nui. Efik, 235, 243. Egypt. Ancient, 184, lOn. Egyptians, 188, 192. Ekoi. 235. Elgunono, 200. Enenga, 227. d'Entrecasteaux Island^s, 145. Eshira, 227. Eskimo, 48, 112. 218 53, 16, 249--y2. Euroc, 265. Ewe. 236. 242. 243. Fang, 227. 231. 232, 228. .Fauti,236. Fellahin, 191, 192. Felup. 236. Fiji Islands, 120. 125, 126. 127,131, 133, 135. 136, 189-40, 150, 8, 12 121, 12--,, 12G, 128. Finns, 57, 58. For, 189, 191, 192. Friendly I^ilands, Tonga. Fuegians, 25, 288, 290. ir,, 290. Fiila. 227, 228, 229, 236, 287, 239. 240, 243. Fung, 189. 187 123, 132, 187, Gilbert Islands, 170, 171, xci, loH. Gilyak, 58,59,61, r,9, 61. Gora, 226. Grebe, 236. Griqua, 207. Guarani, 276. 279. Guaycuru, 286. Gurkha, 50, 73, 60. Habab, 188. Hadendoa, 188. Haida, 258, 257, 259, 2<;0, 23, 24, 23, 2o4, 255, 257-61, 266, 267. Haifa, 189. Karaites, 183, 184, 185, 189, 190, 191, 192, 193. 194, 197, 203, 237. Hausa, 235. 236. 237, 239, 241, 243. Hawaii, 146, 151. 158, 155, 160-2, 165, 9, 13, 41, 146, 148, 151, 152, 155, 156, 158, 162, 163. HeiTey Islands. 165-6. 152. Hidatsa, 265. Himyarites, 1S3, 189. Hopi, 265, 275. Hottentots, 184. 211. 213, 214, 21.5. Hova, 246, 247. Huilliche, 288. Humphrey Islaml, >. Inca, 287, 288. India, 45-51, 47, 4s, 50. India and Ceylon, 72 6. Indo-Afglian, 72. Indf)-CbinPso. 57. 81. Indonesian, 72, 75, 81, 86-105. Indo-Persian, 45. Innuit, 248. Inokun, 235. Iroquois, 263, 270, 271, 50. Irula, 73. Isambo, 218. J;ikun, 87, 91, 100, 103. .Ja-Luo, 194, 195, 196, 208, 195. Japanese, 51-6, 57, 70, 81, 53, 55-6. Java, 87, 95, 101, 245, 246, 75, 97, 102, 108. Jekri, 286, 242. Jibbeh, 193, 195. Jivaro, 279, 288. .Jolof, 237. Jur, 193, 195, 20. Kabyles, 23*5, 240, 241. 241. Kachin, 82, 85. Kadayan, 87. Kafir, 47, 47. Kalahari Bushmt^n, 211. Kalang, 87, 91. Kamtchadal, 58. Kanem, 239. Kanembu, 240. Kanowit, 87. Kanuri, 240. Kararaojo, 198. 199. Kavirondo, 203, 205. Ki.yan, 87, 94, 97, 98, 101, 95, 99. Kiizembe, 217, 225. Kei Islands, 145. Kelamantan, 87, 98, loo. 101, 90, 10 J. Kenyah, 87. 94. 9s. |oi, 95, 99. Khamti, 82. Khasia, 82, 85. Kluncr, 81. Khoi-Khoin, see llottni- tots. iKhonds, 49, 51, 73, 48. I Kibyen, 235, 240. Kingsmill Islands, see (Jilbort Islands. Kioko, 216, 219, 222. Kirghiz, 57, 58. Kitwara, 203. Klamatli, 265. 302 GEOGRAPHICAL AND TRIBAL INDEX K.)li, 51, 4S. Koreans, 57, 81. Koiiak, 58, 70. Kpwesi, 236. Kill, 236, 242. Kiibu, 91,93. Kuki, 82. Kuiuniba, 73. Kutenai, 259. Kwakiutl, 2-53, 2(;0, 262. Laclrones, 170. Laka, 235, 241. Lampong, 87. Lamut, 58. Land-Dyak, .S7. Landin,"203, 207, 212. Lango, 193. 196, I'M, 194, 100. Lauguassi. 227. Lao, 81. Latiika, 193, 195. 198. Leglioya, 211. Leiidu, 193. Lougua, 287. Lepclia, 73. Leueneua, 1 18, 1-13. Lil)vans, 183, 189, 233, 2.34, 236, 238, 240,242. Lobale, 215, 219, 221. 223, i';?-;. Long Kipiit, 87. Lord Howe Island, set- Leueneua. Louisiade Archipelago, 145. Low Archipelago, see Pan mot u. Luchaze, 215. Lule, 287. Lunibwa, 198. l'-)7. Lubhai, 82. Maba, 240. Mabode. 228. MaBoma, 207. Mabum, 235. Macassar, 87, 100. MaChinjiri, 206. Macusi, 28-',. Madagascar, 245, 247. Madi, 193. Mahafaly. 240. Maliass, 189. MaHenge, 204. Mahratta, 46, 47, 4:. Maigo, 228. Maipure, 276. MaKalanga, 207. 208, 209, 210, 214, :Jin. MaKalaka, 207. Makarka, 228, 2:J(). MaKololo, 207, 208, 211. MaKonde, 204. MaKorikon, 207, 210. MaKosa, 21(>. MaKua, 204. Malays, 81, 86 7, '.tl, 94, 95, 100, 104. 118, 171. 245, 246. MaMboe, 207, 209. MaMbunda, 207. Manaliiki, 165. Mancliu, 57, 81. Mandan, 205. Mandaya, 87, 100. Mandia, 235. Mandingo, 238, 241, 213. MaNengo, 207. Mangaia {see Ilerve^' Islands^ 16.5, n, US. MaNganja, 206, 208,209. 210. Mangbetu, 228, 229, 231, 232, 181), 187, 229, 280. MaNgwangwara, 203, 212. Manjia, 227. MaNkoe, 207. Maiiobo, 87. MaNtati, 207. MaNyenia, 217, 218, 223, 20. 223, 230. Maori, 30, 171 81. Marianne If>lan(ls, 31. 170. Maro-serang, 240. Marquesas, 151, 153. 166-7, y^.v, ir,o, l->2, 157, 100. Marshall Islands, 170, 170. Masai, 190, 193, 19(), 197, 198, 199, 200,201,202. 187, 201, 202. Mashona, 207. MaShukolumbwe, 208. Maskoki, 265. Massalit, 240. MaSupia, 207, 209. MaTabili, 208, 211, 212, 187. Mataco, 287. Matankor, 144. MaViti, 203, 212. MaYombe, 227. MaZitu, 203. 212. Mbau, 131, 140. ! Mbaya, 286. Mbocobi, 286. Mege, 228, 229, 2-30. Melanesians, 117, 118, 119, 138, 140, 145 53, 155, 171. Melle, 239, 241. Mendi, 236, 240,241,243. Mentawi Islands, 86. 90, 94. Meroe, 189. Mentiu, 189. Mexicans, Ancient, 1 13. I Micmae, 264. Micronesians, 117, 118, 119, 146, 170, 171. Milanau, 87, 24. Mineliassa, 87. Miri, 82. Mishmi, 82. Mittn, 193, 196, Jl, 193. Moanu, 144. Mobile. 265. , Modoc, 265. Mohawk, 263. Mohican, 264. iMoi, 81, Moluccas, 86, us. Moluche, 288. Moinfu, 227, 228, 229, 180, 230, 281. Mongo, 219. Mongol, 57, 58, 69. Mongolian, 11, 57. 65, 72, 117, 248. Mongwandi, 228. Montoil, 235, 241. Moors, 234, 239. Moriori. 171. Moros, 89, 95, 105. Moxo, 278. Mpongwe. 227, 235. Muiidrucu, 276, 279. Mundu, 196, 228. J04. Munshi, 235, 240, 241. Munza, 229. Murut, 87. Muscogee, 265. Naga, -50, 81, 82-4, 85, 48, oO, S3-r,. Namaqua, 211. 212. Nandi, 198, 200, 201, 202. Natchez, 265. Navaho, 265. Navigators' Islands, see Samoa. GEOGRAPHICAL AND TRIBAL INDEX 303 Ndri, ■2-21, 2:5l', 2:35. Nei-Tito, 72,- 81, 81), 87, 89, 93, 96, 97, 98, 102. Ne-TO, 183, 184, 185-89, 190, 193 foil.. 22(5, 229, 231, 232, 233.234,241. Negroid, 11, 120, 245,240. Nepal, 50, 73. r>(i. New Britain, 122, 127, 129, 131, 132, 133, 134, 136, 139, 143. New Caledonia, 120. 123, 125, 126,127, 129,131, 133, 134, 135.136, 138, 140, IS,' 121, 12H. J 24, 129, 14(1. New Caledonia, geo- graphical relation to Australia, 118. New Guinea. 122, 123. 125, 127. 129, 132, 133, 134, 135,136, 137, 145, 7, 20, 38, 122. 131, 1S2. 1S5, 1ST, 144. New Hanover, 143. New Hebrides, 120, 123, 12.5, 126. 127, 129, 131, 132.133, 134. 135, 136. 137, 138, 141, IS, !-ji, ISO, 130, 13S, 14 J. New Ireland, 120, 122, 134, 136, 143, 3s, 121. ISO, 143. New Zealand, 146, 150, 165, 171-81, ir>, 19, lo2, lo6, 172-81. Nias, 95. 97. Nicobar Islands, 51 . 76 -7, 77. Nilotic Negros, 193-7, 202, 226, 227. 235. 191. 192. Niue. 13, l'>(). Nobatae, 189. North-West Coast of America, 253-63, 2'>4- 'i.'y. Nuba, 189. 192. Nuer, 193, 19.->, \'M\. Nutka, 25.3. 0<;eania, 117. Okanda, i;27, 231. Omagua, 276. Oiia, 299. Oneida, 263. Onondaga, 263. Onlong .lava, .we Leue- neua. Orang laut, 93. Orochon, 60. Oromo, .see Galla. Orungu, 227. Ostiak, 58. Osyeba, 227. Otomaco, 279. OvaHerero. 211, 212. OvaMpo, 211. Pampas Indians, 2x7. Pano, 279. i'apiian, 87. 117, 1 18, 133, 145, 2ii. Papuasians, 117, 119-46, 245. PapiioMelanc'sian. 138, 145. Patagonians, 288. Paumotu Aicliii)clanfi. 16.5. Pawnee, 265. Paj'agua, 287, Pelew Islands, 170, WU. Per.-ians, 45, 46, 47, 48. 49, 58, i«, 47, 48. Philippine Island.-^, 87-9. 92, 100. Pima, 265, 276. Plains of North America, 263, 30, 270-4. Polynesians, 30. 86, 117, 118, 119, 123, 126, 140, 14.5, 146-81, 245. Porno, 265. Powhattaii, 264. Pueblo Intlians. 265. 275. 276. Pnelche, 288. Puka Puka, 165. 33. Punan, 87, 91. Pygmies, 183. 185, 219, 229, 231, 233. Rajput, 46, 4:. Rapa Nui, 146, 151, 1(17- 70, 132, los. Rarotonga, 1<)5. Rejang, 87. Rennell Island, IIS, M;i. Rotiimali, /■;. Kuga-Riiga, 212. Rukuba, 2.35. Sakai, 86, 87, 89, 90, 91, 93,95,96, 9S, 100, 10], 103, 101. 10.5, .%■. Sakalava. 24r), 217. Hakara, 228, Samoa, 150, 160, 149, 152, 154. Samoyede, 58-9. Sandwich Islands, see Hawaiian Islands. Sango, 228. Santa Cruz, 123, 125,126, 127, 129, 131, 136, 137, 14], 135. Santal, 73. Sara, 228, 232. 235, 241. Savage Island, see Niue. Schouten Islands, 145. Sea-Dyak, 87. Semang, 81, 87, 90, 91-3. 98, 100, 101, 104. Seminole, 265. Semites, 183, 190, 233. Seneca, 263. Shan, 81. Shawnee, 264. Shilluk, 19.3. 194, 193. Shinga, 235. Shom pen, 76. Shoshone, 265, 276. Siamese, 81, 48. Sibop, 87. Sihanaka, 246. Singpho, 82, 85. Sinhalese, 46, 50, 73, oO, Sioux, 265. Snake Indians, 265. Sobo, 236. Society Islands,see Tahiti. Solomon Islands, 122. 125, 126, 127, 129,131, 132, 133, 134, 135, 136, 137, 138, 143, 9, 18, 21, 36. 121, 122, 127, 133. Somali, 190, 191, 187, 189. Songhai, 237, 239. Songo, 216. Sontlial, 73. South America, 276-9(», 277-90. Subano, 87. Suk, 198. 11)9. 20(1. 201. Sukkot, 1S9. Suhi, 95. Sundanese, 87. Sura, 235. Swaheli, 203. Swazi, see AmaSwa/.i. Tagalog, 87, 105. Tagbanua. 89. 91, 10.;. Tabid, 151, 153, 15'.», 161, 16:! 5. u v., I to, 304 GEOGRAPHICAL AND TRIBAL INDEX 14S, 162, 153. Z.-).S, loO, 161, 164. Tama, 240. Tamil, 73. Tapuya, 277. Tasmanians. 31, 43, 118, 120, 122, 123, 134, 135, 13(). Tehuelche, 288. Tenggere.se, 87. Thai, 81. Tho, 81. Tibbu, 237, 240, 241. Tibetan, 50, 57, 58, (55-72. Tibeto-Burmese. 82. Tikitiki, 229. Timni, 236. Timor, 87, 94. Tingiiianes, 93. Tiiineh, 265. Tlingit, 253, 259, 260, 254. 256, 264. Toala, 87, 91, 93, 94. 97. Toba, 286. Todn, 73. Togbo, 227. Tonga, 140, 153, 155, 160, 165, 146, 152, 154. Toradja, 87. Torres Island, 125, 141. Torres Straits, 123, 129, 132. 133, 134, 135, 136, 137, 139, 145, ISt, 145. Trobriand Island-s, 132. 145, 1S2. Tshi, 236, 242, 243. Tsimshian, 253, 259, 254. 265. Tuareg, 185, 236, 240, 241 , 242, 186. Tiican, 279. Tugeri, 136. TiiKongo, 219. Tukulor, 238. Ttimok. 235, 241. Tungus, 58. Tupi', 276, 286. Turk, 46, 48, 57, 58, 47. Turkiina, 198. 199. 200. 201. Turkoman. 57, 5.S. Tusearora. 263. Uia-uia, 235. Ukit, 87. Umqua, 265, 27i. Urucare.s, 279. Usiai, 144. Ute, 265. Vai, 236. Vazimba, 246, 247. Vedda, 73, 75-6. Visnya, 87, 90, 93. 100, 105. WaCbn-a, 198, 200, 201. WaDigo, 199. WaDuruma, 199. WaFipa, 203. WaGindo, 204. WaGiriama, 199, 200, 201. WaGogo, 203, 204, 205. WaHehe, 203, 212, 213. WaHha, 203. Waltawa, 206. WaKhutu, 203, 205. WaKwafi, 198, 200. 201. WaNgenia, 218, IST. WaNgong<., 219. WaNvamwezi, 203, 204, 216, 204. WaNyika, 206 WaPokomo, 199. WaRegga, 218. WaRori, 203. Warrau, 278. WaRua, 217. WaRiianda. 191, 203. WaRundi, 203. WaSagara, 203. WaSambara, 203. WaSaramo, 204. WaScgnha, 203. WaSliaslii, 203, 2(>1, -'O.'S. WaSiba, 203. WaSinja, 203. WaSukuma, 203, 205. WaSungu, 203. WaTaita, 198, 201. Watet, 228. WaTusi, 191, 203, 207. WaTuta. 203, 212. WaYao {see Ajawa), 204 Winnebago, 265. Wochna, 229. Wute, 235, 241. Wyandot. 263. Xosa, see AmaXuN.-i. Yao, sec Ajawa. Yaunde, 235. Yergum, 235. Yoruba, 236. 240, 241. 242, 243, 2S6. Yuma, 265, 276. Zaly-Uirabim, 245. Zafy-Kazamambo, 245. Zafy-Manara. 246. Zufy Manelo, 246. Zafy-Ramini, 245, 246. Zafy-Rombo, 2)5. Zafisoro, 246. Zaparo, 279. Zappo-zapp, 217. Zarabcliavana, 246. Zimbabwe, 208. Zulu, see Amazulu. Zulu-Xosa, 211. Zuni. 265. 000 850 843