^MMII t i' WORKS BY MARQUIS DE NADAILLAC. Prehistoric America. By the Marquis de Nadaillac. Translated, with the permission of the Author, by Nancy Bell (N. D'Anvers), author of " History of Art." Edited, with notes, by W. H. Dall. Large octavo, with 219 illustrations . . . $5 00 Popular edition , . . . . . . . 2 25 Chief Contents. — Man and the Mastodon — The Kjokken- moddings and Cave Relics — Mound-Builders — Pottery — Weapons and Ornaments of the Mound-Builders — Cliff-Dwellers and Inhabitants of the Pueblos — People of Central America — Central American Ruins — Peru — Early Races — Origin of the American Aborigines, etc., etc. " The best book on this subject that has yet been published, . . . for the reason that, as a record of facts, it is unusually full, and because it is the first comprehensive work in which, discarding all the old and worn-out nostrums about the existence on this continent of an extinct civilization, we are brought face to face with conclusions that are based upon a careful comparison of architectural and other prehistoric remains with the arts and industries, the manners and cus- toms, of " the only people, except the whites, who, so far as we know, have ever held the regions in which these remains are found." — Nation. The Customs and Monuments of Prehistoric Peoples. By the Marquis de Nadaillac. Translated, with the permission of the Author, by Nancy Bell (N. D'Anvers). Fully illustrated. 8vo. Chief Contents. — The Stone Age, its Duration, and its Place in Time — Food, Cannibalism, Mammals, Fish, Hunting and Fishing, Navigation — Weapons, Tools, Pottery ; Origin of the Use of Fire, Clothing, Ornaments ; Early Artistic Efforts — Caves, Kitchen-Middings, Lake Stations, " Terremares," Cran- noges, Burghs, " Nurhags," '*Talayoti," and "Truddhi" — Megalithic Monuments — Industry, Commerce, Social Organiza- tion ; Fights, Wounds and Trepanation — Camps, Fortifications, Vitrified Forts; Santorin; the Towns upon the Hill of Ilissarlik — Tombs — Index. G. P. PUTNAM'S SONS, Publishers, new YORK and LONDON. geSEUB^ Of THE UNIVERS: MANNERS AND MONUMENTS OF PREHISTORIC PEOPLES THE MARQUIS DE NADAILLAC CORRESPONDENT OF THE INSTITUTE AUTHOR OF " l'aM^RIQUE PrShISTORIQUE," " LES PREMIERS HOMMES KT LES TEMPS PRfiHISTORIQUES," ETC. WITH 113 ILLUSTRATIONS TRANSLATED BY NANCY BELL (N. D'Anvers) AUTHOR OF "the ELEMENTARY HISTORY OF ART," "tHE LIFE-STORY OF OUR EARTH," "tHE STORY OF EARLY MAN," ETC. ;iSELIB^5^v "^ Of TH€ ^ 1 NIVERSITlj 3 3 J ClLiFOBHj^ P / V, , . : ) > ^ G. P. PUTNAM'S SONS NEW YORK LONDON 27 WEST TWENTY-THIRD STREET 24 BEDFORD STREET, STRAND ®l^e ^nitkerbotker ^«ss 1892 % S'OS'S'^ Copyright, 1892 BY NANCY BELL Electrotyped, Printed, and Bound by TEbe fmfclicrbocftcr presa, "Wcw l^tft G. P. Putnam's Sons L',h TRANSLATOR'S NOTE The present volume has been translated, with the author's consent, from the French of the Marquis de Nadaillac. The author and translator have carefully brought down to date the original edition, embodying the discoveries made during the progress of the work. The book will be found to be an epitome of all that is known on the subject of which it treats, and covers ground not at present occupied by any other work in the English language. Nancy Bell (N. D'Anveks). SOUTHBOURNE-ON-SEA, 1891. CONTENTS. CHAPTER I'AGB I. The Stone Age, its Duration, and its Place in Time i II. Food, Cannibalism, Mammals, Fish, Hunt- ing AND Fishing, Navigation . . 47 III. Weapons, Tools, Pottery ; Origin of the Use of Fire, Clothing, Ornaments ; Early Artistic Efforts ... 79 IV. Caves, Kitchen-Middings, Lake Stations, '' Terremares," Crannoges, Burghs, " Nurhags," " Talayoti," and " Trud- dhi *' 127 V. Megalithic Monuments . . . .174 VI. Industry, Commerce, Social Organiza- tion ; Fights, Wounds and Trepana- tion 231 VII. Camps, Fortifications, Vitrified Forts; Santorin; the Towns upon the Hill OF Hissarlik 279 VIII. Tombs . -343 Index . .383 ILLUSTRATIONS. FIGURE PAGB Fossil man from Mentone .... Frontispiece 1. Stone weapons described by Mahudel in 1734 . 8 2. Copper hatchets found in Hungary and now in national museum of Budapest .... 20 3. Copper beads from Connett's Mound, Ohio (natural size) 21 4. Stone statues on Easter Island • • • • 37 5. Fort-hill, Ohio 39 6. Group of sepulchral mounds 40 7. Ground plan of a pueblo of the Mac-Elmo valley . 41 8. Cliff-house on the Rio Mancos .... 42 9. House in a rock of the Montezuma canon . . 43 1. Fragments of arrows made of reindeer horn from the Martinet cave (Lot-et-Garonne). 2. Point of spear or harpoon in stag-horn (one third natural size). 3. and 4. Bone weapons from Denmark. 5. Harpoon of stag-horn from St. Aubin. 6. Bone fish-hooks pointed at each end, from Waugen. 11. Bear's teeth converted into fish-hooks. ) 02 12. Fish-hook made out of a boar's tusk. j A, Large barbed arrow from one side of the Plan- ' tade shelter (Tarn-et-Garonne). 10. i ' B. Lower part of a barbed harpoon from the Plan- 61 65 tade deposit. 14. Ancient Scandinavian boat found beneath a tumulus at Gogstadten 73 15. Ancient boat discovered in the bed of the Cher . 75 vl!} ILL US TRA TIONS, "■!;: 17. A lake pirogue found in the Lake of Neuchatel. ) As seen outside. f 7^ _. and 3. Longitudinal and transverse sections. ) Stones used as anchors, found in the Bay ofl Penhouet. i g I, 2, 3. Stones weighing about 160 lbs. each. 1 4. and 5. Lighter stones, probably used for canoes. J 18. Scraper from the Delaware valley. ) 19. Implement from the Delaware valley, [ 20. Worked flints from the Lafaye and Plantade shelters (Tarn-et-Garonne) 83 21. I. Stone javelin-head with handle. 2. Stone hatchet with handle 89 22. I. Fine needles. 2. Coarse needles. 3. Amulet. 4 and 6. Ornaments. 5. Cut flints. 7. Fragment of a harpoon. 8. Fragments of reindeer antlers with signs or drawings. 9. Whistle. 10. One end of a bow (?). II. Arrow-head. (From the Vache, Massat, and Lourdes caves) . 91 23. Amulet made of the penien bone of a bear and found in the Marsoulas cave .... 92 24. Various stone and bone objects from California . 93 25. Dipper found in the excavations at the Chasscy camp 95 26. Pottery of a so far unclassified type found in the Argent cave (France). 98 27. I. Lignite pendant. 2. Bone pendant. (Thayngen cave) 107 a8. Round pieces of skull, pierced with holes (M. de Baye's collection) no I Part of a rounded piece of a human parietal. \ 99. \ Stiletto made of the end of a human radius. [• in ( Disk, made of the burr of a stag's antler. ) 30. Whistle from the Massenat collection . . 112 31. Staff of office . .113 32. Staff of office, made of stag-horn pierced with four holes 114 33. Staff of office found at Lafaye. ) 34. Staff of office in reindeer antler, with a horse [• 115 engraved on it (Thayngen). ) ILL US TRA TIONS, ix 35. Staff of office found at Montgaudier . . . 117 36. Carved dagger-hilt (Laugerie-Basse). \ 37. The great cave-bear, drawn on a pebble found in ]• 118 the Massat cave (Garrigou collection). ) 38. Mammoth or elephant from the Lena cave. ) 39. Seal engraved on a bear's tooth, found at Sordes. ) 40. Fragment of a bone, with regular designs. Frag- ment of a rib on which is engraved a musk-ox, found in the Marsoulas cave .... 120 41. Head of a horse from the Thayngen cave. j 42. Bear engraved on a bone, from the Thayngen >• 121 cave. ) 43. Reindeer grazing, from the Thayngen cave . . 122 44. Head of Ovibos 7?ioschatus^ engraved on wood, found in the Thayngen cave . . . . .123 45. Young man chasing the aurochs, from Laugerie . 124 46. Fragment of a staff of office, from the Madelaine" cave. 47. Human face carved on a reindeer antler, found in the Rochebertier cave. 48. The glyptodon 128 49. Mylodo?i robiistiis . . . . . . .129 50. Objects discovered in the peat-bogs of Laybach, A. Earthenware vase. B. Fragment of orna- mented pottery. C. Bone needle. D. Earthen- ware weight for fishing-net. E. Fragment of jaw- bone 152 51. Small terra-cotta figures found in the Laybach pile dwellings. . . 153 52. Small terra-cotta figures from the Laybach pile dwellings 154 53. Nurhag at Santa Barbara (Sardinia) . . . 168 54. " Talayoti " at Trepuco (Minorca) . . . 170 55. Dolmen of Castle Wellan (Ireland) . . • i75 56. The large dolmen of Careoro, near Plouharnel . 176 57. Dolmen of Arrayalos (Portugal) . . . .177 58. Megalithic sepulchre at Acora (Peru) . . .178 59. The great broken menhir of Locmariaker with Caesar's table . 186 125 ILL US TRA TTONS. 60. Covered avenue of Dissignac (Loire-Inferieure),view of the chamber at the end of the north gallery 61. Covered avenue near Antequera 62. Ground plan of the Gavr'innis monument 63. Monoliths at Stennis, in the Orkney Islands . 64. Cromlech near Bone (Algeria) 65. Dolmen at Pallicondah, near Madras (India) 66. Dolmen at Maintenon, with a table about 19 J feet long 67. Part of the Mane-Lud dolmen 68. Sculptures on the menhirs of the covered avenue of Gavr'innis 69. Dolmen with opening (India) .... 70. Dolmen near Trie (Oise) .... 71. Bronze objects found at Krasnojarsk (Siberia) 72. Prehistoric polisher near the ford of Beaumoulin Nemours 73. Section of a flint mine 74. Plan of a gallery of flint mine 75. Picks, hammers, and mattocks made of stag-horn 76. Cranium of a woman from Cro-Magnon (full face) 77. Skull of a woman found at Sordes, showing a severe wound, from which she recovered 78. Fragment of human tibia with exostosis enclosing the end of a flint arrow .... 79. Fragment of human humerus pierced at the elbow joint (Trou d' Argent) .... 80. Mesaticephalic skull, with wound which has been trepanned 81. Trepanned Peruvian skull .... 82. Skull from the Bougon dolmen (Deux-S^vres), seen in profile 83. Trepanned prehistoric skull .... 84. Prehistoric spoon and button found in a lake station at Sutz 85. General view of the station of Fuente-Alamo . 86. Group at Liberty (Ohio) .... 87. Trenches at Juigalpa (Nicaragua) . 88. Vases found at Santorin ILL USTRA TIONS. XI FIGURE 89. Vase ending in the snout of an animal, found on the hill of Hissarlik 90. Funeral vase containing human ashes. 91. Large terra-cotta vases found at Troy 92. Earthenware pitcher found at a depth of \g\ feet. 93. Vase found beneath the ruins of Troy. Terra-cotta vase found with the treasure of Priam. Vase found beneath the ruins of Troy. Earthenware pig found at a depth of 13 feet . Vase surmounted by an owl's head, found beneath the ruins of Troy ...... Copper vases found at Troy Vases of gold and electrum, with two ingots (Troy), Gold and silver objects from the treasure of Priam, Gold ear-rings, head-dress, and necklace of golden beads from the treasure of Priam Terra-cotta fusaioles ..... Cover of a vase with the symbol of the swastika Stone hammer from New Jersey bearing an unde ciphered inscription ..... Chulpa near Palca ..... Dolmen at Auvernier near the lake of Neuchatel 107. A stone chest used as a sepulchre . 108. Example of burial in a jar .... Aymara mummy Peruvian mummies . . . . . Erratic block from Scania, covered with carvings Engraved rock from Massibert (Lozere) 94 95 96 97 99. 100. lOI. 103. 104. 105. 106 109 no III 112 326 328 329 330 333 334 335 ZZ^ 339 340 341 357 359 361 Z^Z 365 367 379 380 UNIVERSITl MANNERS AND MONUMENTS OF PREHISTORIC PEOPLES. CHAPTER I. THE STOISTE AGE : ITS DURATION AND ITS PLACE IN TIME. The nineteentli century, now nearing its close, has made an indelible impression upon the history of the world, and never were greater things accomplished with more marvellous rapidity. Every branch of science, without exception, has shared in this prog- ress, and to it the daily accumulating information respecting different parts of the globe has greatly contributed. Regions, previously completely closed, have been, so to speak, simultaneously opened by the energy of explorers, who, like Livingstone, Stanley, and Nordenskiold, have won immortal renown. In Africa, the Soudan, and the equatorial regions, where the sources of the Nile lie hidden ; in Asia, the interior of Arabia, and the Hindoo Koosh or Pamir mountains, have been visited and explored. In America whole districts but yesterday inaccessible are now intersected by railways, whilst in the other hemisphere Australia and the islands of Polynesia have been colonized ; new 2 PREHISTORIC PEOPLES. societies have rapidly sprung into being, and even the unmelting^ ice of the polar regions no longer checks the advance of the intrepid explorer. And all this is but a small portion of the work on which the present generation may justly pride itself. Distant wars too have contributed in no small meas- ure to the progress of science. To the victorious march of the French army we owe the discovery of new facts relative to the ancient history of Algeria ; it was the advance of the English and Russian forces that revealed the secret of the mysterious lands in the heart of Asia, whence many scholars believe the Euro pean races to have first issued, and of this ever open book the French expedition to Tonquin ma}^ be con- sidered at present one of the last pages. Geographical knowledge does much to promote the progress of the kindred sciences. The work of Cham- pollion, so brilliantly supplemented by the Vicomte de Rouge and Mariette Bey, has led to the accurate classi- fication of the monuments of Egypt. The deciphering of the cuneiform inscriptions has given us the dates of the palaces of Nineveh and Babylon ; the interpreta- tion by savants of other inscriptions has made known to us those Hittites whose formidable power at one time extended as far as the Mediterranean, but whose name had until quite recently fallen into complete ob- livion. The rock-hewn temples and the yet more strange dagobas of India now belong to science. Like the sacred monuments of Burmah and Cam- bodia they have been brought down to compara- tively recent dates ; and though the palaces of Yucatan and Peru still maintain their reserve, we are able to fix their dates approximately, and to show that long be- THE STONE AGE. 3 fore their construction North America was inhabited by races, one of which, known as the Mound Builders, left behind them gigantic earthworks of many kinds, whilst another, known as the Cliff Dwellers, built for themselves houses on the face of all but inaccessible rocks. Comparative philology has enabled us to trace back the genealogies of races, to determine their origin, and to follow their migrations. Burnouf has brought to light the ancient Zend language, Sir Henry Rawlin- son and Oppert have by their magnificent works opened up new methods of research, Max Miiller and Pictet in their turn by availing themselves of the most diverse materials have done much to make known to us the Aryan race, the great educator, if I may so speak, of modern nations. To one great fact do all the most ancient epochs of history bear witness : one and all, they prove the exist- ence in a yet more remote past of an already advanced civilization such as could only have been gradually at- tained to after long and arduous groping. Who were the inaugurators of this civilization ? Who were the earliest inhabitants of the earth ? To what biological conditions were they subject ? What were the physical and climatic conditions of the globe when they lived ? By what flora and fauna were they surrounded ? But science pushes her inquiry yet further. She desires to know the origin of the human race, when, how, and why men first appeared upon the earth ; for from whatever point of view he is considered, man must of necessity have had a beginning. We are in fact face to face with most formidable problems, involving alike our past and future ; problems 4 PREHISTORIC PEOPLES, it is hopeless to attempt to solve by human means or by the help of human intelligence alone, yet with which science can and ought to grapple, for they ele- vate the soul and strengthen the reasoning faculties. Whatever may be their final result, such studies are of enthralling interest. " Man," said a learned mem- ber of the French Institute, " will ever be for man the grandest of all mysteries, the most absorbing of all objects of contemplation." ^ Let us work our way back through past centuries and study our remote ancestors on their first arrival upon earth ; let us watch their early struggles for exist- ence ! We will deal with facts alone ; we will accept no theories^ and we must, alas, often fail to come to any conclusion, for the present state of prehistoric knowl- edge rarely admits of certainty. We must ever be ready to modify theories by the study of facts, and never forget that, in a science so little advanced, theo- ries must of necessity be provisional and variable.. Truly strange is the starting-point of prehistoric science. It is with the aid of a few scarcely even rough-hewn flints, a few bones that it is difficult to classify, and a few rude stone monuments that we have to build up, it must be for our readers to say with what success, a past long prior to any written history, which has left no trace in the memory of man, and during which our globe would appear to have been subject to conditions wholly unlike those of the present day. The stones which will first claim our attention, some of thera very skilfully cut and carefully polished, have been known for centuries. According to Sueto- ' M, Gaston. THE STONE AGE. $ nius, the Emperor Augustus possessed in his palace on the Palatine Hill a considerable collection of hatchets of different kinds of rock, nearly all of them found in the island of Capri ^ and which were to their royal owner the weapons of the heroes of mythology. Pliny tells of a thunder-bolt having fallen into a lake, in which eighty-nine of these w^onderful stones were soon afterwards found/ Prudentius represents ancient German warriors as wearing gleaming ceraunia on their helmets ; in other countries similar stones ornamented the statues of the gods, and formed rays about their heads.^ A subject so calculated to fire the imagination has of course not been neglected by the poets. Claudian's verses are well known : Pyrenseisque sub antris Ignea fluminese legere ceraunia nymphae. Marbodius, Bishop of Rennes, in the eleventh cen- tury, sang of the thunder-stones in some Latin verses which have come down to us, and an old poet of the sixteenth century in his turn exclaimed, on seeing the strange bones around him : Le roc de Tarascon hebergea quelquefois Les geants qui couroyent les montagnes de Foix, Dont tant d'os successifs rendent le temoignage. With these stones, in fact, were found numerous bones of great size, which had belonged to unknown creatures. Latin authors speak of similar bones found in Asia Minor, which they took to be those of giants ^ Pliny calls them ceraunia gemma ("Natural History," book ii., ch. 59; book xxxvii., ch. 51). 2 S. Reinach proves clearly enough that the collections of the Emperor Augustus were from Capri. 6 PREHISTORIC PEOPLES. of an extinct race. This belief was long maintained ; in 1547 and again in 1667 fossil remains were .found in the cave of San Ciro near Palermo ; and Italian savants decided that they had belonged to men eighteen feet high. Giiicciadunus speaks of the bones of huge elephants carefully preserved in the Hotel de Ville at Antwerp as the bones of a giant named Donon, who lived 1300 years before the Christian era. In days nearer our own the most cultivated people accepted the remains of a gigantic batrachian ^ as those of a man who had witnessed the floo^ uud it was the same with a tortoise found in Italy scarcely thirty years ago. Dr. Carl, in a work published at Frankfort^ in 1709, took up another theory, and, such was the general ignorance at the time, he used long arguments to prove that the fossil bones were the result neither of a freak of nature, nor of the action of a plastic force, and it was not until near the end of his life that the illustrious Camper could bring him- self to admit the extinction of certain species, so totally against Divine revelation did such a phenomenon appear to him to be. Prejudices were not, however, always so obstinate. For more than three centuries stones worked by the band of man have been preserved in the Museum of the Vatican, and as long ago as the^time of Clement VIII. his doctor, Mercati, declared these stones to have been the weapons of antediluvians who had been still ignorant of the use of metals. ' This skeleton was discovered in 1726 by Scheuchzer, a doctor of (Eningen, and by him placed in the Leyden Museum, with the pompous inscription : Homo diluvii testis {Philosophical Transactions, vol. xxxiv.). Cuvier, by scraping away the stone, revealed the true nature of the fossil. « *• Ossium Fossilium Docimasia." THE STONE AGE. *J During the early portion of the eighteenth century a pointed black flint, evidently the head of a spear, was found in London with the tooth of an elephant. It was described in the newspapers of the day, and placed in the British Museum. In 1723 Antoine de Jussieu said, at a meeting of the Academie des Sciences^ that these worked stones had been made where they were found, or brought from distant countries. He supported his arguments by an excellent example of the way in which savage races still polish stones, by rubbing them continuously together. A few years later the members of the Academie des Insci'iptions in their turn, took up the question, and Mahudel, one of its members, in presenting several stones, showed that they had evidently been cut by the hand of man. " An examination of them," he said, " affords a proof of the efforts of our earliest ancestors to provide for their wants, and to obtain the necessaries of life." He added that after the re- peopling of the earth after the deluge, men were ignorant of the use of metals. Mahudel's essay is illustrated by drawings, some of which we reproduce (Fig. 1), showing wedges, hammers, hatchets, and flint arrow-heads taken, he tells us, from various private collections.^ Bishop Lyttel^on, writing in 1736, speaks of such weapons as having been made at a remote date by savages ignorant of the use of metals,^ and Sir W. Dugdale, an eminent antiquary of the seventeenth century, attributed to the ancient Britons some flint ' " Mem. Acad, des Inscriptions," 1734, vol. x., p. 163. '^rMc^.%m.vol.ii.,p. 118. . '^^^TlIB^^ UNIVERSITY 8 PREHISTORIC PEOPLES. hatchets found iu Warwickshire, and thinks they were made when these weapons alone were used. ^ ■^^S Fig. I. — Stone weapons described l)y Mahudel in 1734. A communication made by Frere to the Royal Society of London deserves mention here with a few supplementary remarks.^ ' " The Antiquities of Warwickshire," vol. iv., 1656. * Arehixologia^ vol. xiii., p. 105. THE STONE AGE. 9 This distinguished man of science found at Hoxne, in Suffolk, about twelve feet below the surface of the soil, worked flints, which had evidently been the natural weapons of a people who had no knowl- edofe of metals. With these flints were found some strange bones with the gigantic jaw of an animal then unknown. Frere adds that the number of chips of flint w^as so great that the workmen, ignorant of their scientific value, used them in road-making. Every- thing pointed to the conclusion that Hoxne was the place w^here this primitive people manufactured the weapons and implements they used, so that as early as the end of last century a member of the Royal Society formulated the propositions,^ now fully accepted, that at a very remote epoch men used nothing but stone weapons and implements, and that side by side with these men lived huge animals unknown in historic times. These facts, strange as the^^ppear to us, attracted no attention at the time. JBF would seem that special acumen is* needed for every fresh discov- ery, and that until the time for that discovery comes, evidence remains unheeded and science is altogether blind to its significance. But to resume our narrative. It is interesting to note the various phases through which the matter passed before the problem was solved. In 1819, M. Jouannet announced that he had found stone weapons near Perigord. In 1823, the Rev. Dr. Buckland pub- lished the " Reliquiae Diluvianse," the value of which, though it is a work of undoubted merit, was greatly lessened by the preconceived ideas of its author. A few years later, Tournal announced .his c^coveries ^ Castelfranco : Revue d' Atithropologie, 1887. in lO PREHISTORIC PEOPLES. the cave of Bize, near Narbonne, in which, mixed with human bones, he found the remains of various animals, some extinct, some still native to the district, together with worked flints and fragments of pottery. After this, Tournal maintained that man had been the contempprary of the animals the bones of which were mixed with the products of human industry.* The results of the celebrated researches of Dr. Schmerling in the caves near Liege were published in 1833. He states his conclusions frankly : ^' The shape of the flints," he says, " is so regular, that it is impossible to confound them with those found in the Chalk or in Tertiaiy strata. Reflection compels us to admit that these flints were worked by the hand of man, and that they may have been used as arrows or as knives." Schmerling does not refer, though Lyell does, and that in terms of high admiration, to the courage required for the arduous work involved in the exploration of the caves referred to, or to the yet more serious obstacles the professor had to overcome in publish- ing conclusions opposed to the official science of the day. In 1835, M. Joly, by his excavations in the Nabrigas cave, established the contemporaneity of man with the cave bear, and a little later M. Pomel announced his belief that man had witnessed the last eruptions of the volcanoes of Auvergne. In spite of these discoveries, and the eager discus- sions to which they led, the question of the antiquity of man and of his presence amongst the great Quater- ' AnnaUs des Sciences Naturelies, vol. xvii., p. 607. Cartailhac : Mat&iaux, X884. ^ * ** Recherche^ur les Ossements Fossiles de la Province de Liege." THE STONE AGE, II nary animals made but little progress, and it was reserved to a Frenchman, M. Boucher de Perthes, to compel the scientific world to accept the truth. It was in 1826 that Boucher de Perthes first pub- lished his opinion ; but it was not until 1846 and 1847 that he announced his discovery at Menchecourt, near Abbeville, and at Moulin-Quignon and Saint Acheul, in the alluvial deposits of the Somme, of flints shaped into the form of hatchets associated with the remains of extinct animals such as the mammoth, the cave lion, the Rhinoceros incisivus, the hippopotamus, and other animals whose presence in France is not alluded to either in history or tradition. The uniformity of shape, the marks of repeated chipping, and the sharp edges so noticeable in the greater number of these hatchets, can- not be sufficiently accounted for either by the action of water, or the rubbing against each other of the stones, still less by the mechanical work of glaciers. We must therefore recognize in them the results of some delib- erate action and of an intelligent will, such as is pos- sessed by man, and by man alone. Professor Ramsay ^ tells us that, after twenty years' experience in examin- ing stones in their natural condition and others fash- ioned by the hand of man, he has no hesitation in pronouncing the flints and hatchets of Amiens and Abbeville as decidedly works of art as the knives of Sheffield. The deposits in which they were found showed no signs of having been disturbed ; so that we may confidently conclude that the men who worked these flints lived where the banks of the Somme now are, when these deposits were in course of being laid down, and that he was the contemporary of the ani- ' Athenceum^ i6 July, 1859. 12 PREHISTORIC PEOPLES. mals whose bones lay side by side witb the products of his industry. This conclusion, which now appears so simple, was not accepted without difficulty. Boucher de Perthes defended his discoveries in books, in pamphlets, and in letters addressed to leai'ned societies. He had the courage of his convictions, and the perseverance which insures success. For twenty years he contended pa- tiently against the indifference of some, and the con- tempt of others. Everywhere the proofs he brought forward were rejected, without his being allowed the honor of a discussion or even of a hearing. The earliest converts to De Perthes' conclusions met with similar attacks and with similar indifference. There is noth- ing to surprise us in this ; it is human nature not to' take readily to anything new, or to entertain ideas opposed to old established traditions. The most dis- tinguished men find it difficult to break with the prejudices of their education and the yet more firmly established prejudices of the systems they have them- selves built up. The words of the great French fabulist will never cease to be true; Man is ice to truth ; But fire to lies. One of the masters of modern science, Cuvier, has said ' : " Everything tends to prove that the human race did not exist in the countries where the fossil bones were found at the time of the convulsions which* buried those bones ; but I will not therefore conclude that man did not exist at all before that epoch ; he may • " Discours sur les Revolutions du Globe/'third edition, p. 13, Paris, Didot, 1861. THE STONE AGE. 13 have inherited certain districts of small extent whence he repeopled the earth after these terrible events." Cuvier's disciples went beyond the doctrines of their master. He made certain reservations ; they admitted none, and one of the most illustrious, Elie de Beaumont, rejected with scorn the possibility of the co-existence of man and the mammoth.^ Later, retracting an asser- tion of which perhaps he himself recognized the ex- aggeration, he contented himself with saying that the district where the flints and bones had been collected belonged to a recent period, and to the shifting de- posits of the slopes contemporary with the peaty alluvium. He added — scientific passions are by no means the least intense, or the least deeply rooted — that the worked flints may have been of Roman origin, and that the deposits of Moulin-Quignon may have covered a Roman road ! This might indeed have been the case in the Departement du Nord^ where a road laid down by the conquerors of Gaul has completely disappeared beneath deposits of peat, but it could not be true at Moulin-Quignon, where gravels form the culminating point of the ridge. Moreover, the laying down of the most ancient peats of the French valleys did not begin until the great watercourses had been replaced by the rivers of the present day ; they never contain relics of any species but such as are still ex- tant ; whereas it was with the remains of extinct mam- mals that the flints were found. It was against powerful adversaries such as this that the modest savant of Abbeville had to maintain his opinion. '^ No one," he says, " cared to verify the facts of the case, merely giving as a reason, that these ' Acad, des Sciences, iSth and 23(1 May, 1863. 14 PREHISTORIC PEOPLES. facts were impossible." Weight was added to Lis complaint by the refusal in England about the^ same time to print a communication from the Society of Natural History of Torquay, which announced the discovery of flints worked by the hand of man, asso- ciated, as were those of the Somme, with the bones of extinct animals. The fact appeared altogether too incredible ! But the time when justice would be done was to come at last. Dr. Falconer visited first Amiens and then Abbeville, to examine the deposits and the flints and bones found in them. In January, 1859, and in 1860, other Englishmen of science followed his exam- ple ; and excavations were made, under their direction, in the massive strata which rise, from the chalk forming their base, to a height of 108 feet above the level of the Somme. Their search was crowned with success, and they lost no time in making known to the world the results they had obtained, and the convictions to which these results had led.^ In 1859 Prestwich an- nounced to the Royal Society of London that the flints found in the bed of the Somme were undoubtedly the work of the hand of man, that they had been found in strata that had not been disturbed, and that the men who cut these flints had lived at a period prior to the time when our earth assumed its present configuration. Sir Charles Lyell, in his opening ad- dress at a session of the British Association, did not hesitate to support the conclusions of Prestwich. It ' Lubbock : "On the Evidence of the Antiquity of Man Afforded by the Physical Structure of the Somme Valley " i^Nat. Hist. Revieiv, vol. ii.). Prestwich: " On the Occurrence of Flint Implements Associated with the Remains of Extinct Species in Beds of a Late Geological Period " {Phil. Trans., i860). Evans : " Flint Implements in the Drift " {Arch., 1860-62). THE STONE AGE. 15 was now the turn of Frenchmen of science to arrive at Abbeville. MM. Gaudry and Pouchet themselves extracted hatchets from the Quaternary deposits of the Somme.^ These facts were vouched for by the well- known authority, M. de Quatrefages, who had already constituted himself their advocate. All that was now needed was the test of a public discussion, and the meeting of the Anthropological Society of Paris sup- plied a suitable occasion. The question received long and searching scientific examination. All doubt was removed, and M. Isidore Geoff roy-Saint-Hilaire was the mouth-piece of an immense majority of his col- leagues, when he declared that the objections to the great antiquity of the human race had all melted away. The conversion of men so illustrious was fol- lowed of course by that of the general public, and, more fortunate than many another, Boucher de Perthes had the satisfaction before his death of seeino^ a new branch of knowledge founded on his discoveries, attain to a just and durable popularity in the scientific world. It must not, however, be supposed that popular superstition yielded at once to the decisions of science, and it is curious to meet with the same ideas in the most different climates, and in districts widely separated from each other.^ Everywhere worked flints are attributed to a supernatural origin ; everywhere they are looked upon as amulets with the power of protect- ing their owner, his house or his flocks. Russian peasants believe them to be the arrows of thunder, and fathers transmit them to their children as precious * Acad, des Sciences, 1859, 1863. ^ Cartailhac : * * L' Age de Pierre dans les Souvenirs et les Superstitions Populaires." l6 PREHISTORIC PEOPLES, heirlooms. The same belief is held in France, Ireland, and Scotland, in Scandinavia, and Hungary, as well as in Asia Minor, in Japan, China, and Burmah ; in Java, and amongst the people of the Bahama Islands, as amongst the negroes of the Soudan or those of the west coast of Africa,^ who look upon these stones as bolts launched from Heaven by Sango, the god of thunder ; amongst the ancient inhabitants of Nicaragua as well as the Malays, who, however, still make similar implements. ' The name given to these flints recalls the origin attributed to them. The Romans call them ceraunia from Kepavvo?^ thunder, and in the catalogue of the possessions of a noble Veronese published in 1656, we find them mentioned under this name.^ Every one knows Cymbeline's funeral chant in Shakespeare's play : Fear no more the lightning flash Nor the all dreaded thunder-stone. In Germany we are shown Donner-Keile^ in Alsace Donner-Axt^ in Holland Donner-Beitels^ in Denmark Tordensteerij in Norway Tordenheile, in Sweden Tho?'- soggar, Thor having been the god of thundpr amongst northern nations ; while with the Celts ^ the Menguriin^ in Asia Minor the Ylderim-tachiy in Japan the liai-fu- 8ehi-7W-ru% in Roussillon the Pedrus de Lamp, and in Andalusia the Piedras de Hayo have the same significa- ' A short time before his tragic end, the noble and patriotic Gordon sent to Cairo three hatchets or stone wedges found amongst the Niams-Niams, who said they had fallen from Heaven, and who worshipped them with supersti- tious nits {Bull. Institut j^^'pticn, 1886, No. 14). • " Museo Moscardo," Padova, 1656. • According to M. Pitre de Lisle, the Bretons think that these stones vibrate at every clap of thunder. THE STONE AGE, 1/ tion. The inhabitants of the Mindanao islands call these stones the teeth of the thunder animal, and the Japan- ese the teeth of the thunder/ In Cambodia, worked stones, celts, adzes, and gouges or knives, are known as thunder stones. A Chinese emperor, who lived in the eighth century of our era, received from a Buddhist priest some valuable presents which the donors said had been sent by the Lord of Heaven, amongst which were two flint hatchets called loui-hong^ or stones of the god of thunder. In Brazil we meet with the same idea in the name of cwisco, or lightnings, given to worked flints ; whilst in Italy, by an exception almost unique, they are called linguesan Paolo. May we not also attribute to the worship of stones some of the religious and funeral rites of antiquity? According to Porphyry, Pythagoras, on his arrival on the island of Crete, was purified with thunder-stones by the dactyl priests of Mount Ida. The Etruscans wore flint arrow-heads on their collars. They were sought after, by the Magi, and the Indians gave them an honored place in their temples. According to Herodotus, the Arabs sealed their engagements by making an incision in their hands with a sharp stone ; in Egypt the body of a corpse before being embalmed was opened with a flint knife; a similar implement was used by the Hebrews for the rite of circumcision ; and it was also with cut stones that the priests of Cybele inflicted self-mutilation in memory of that of Atys. At Rome the stone hatchet was dedicated to Jupiter Latialis, and solemn treaties were ratified by the sacrifice of a pig, the throat of which was cut vrith a sharp flint. According to Virgil, this custom was ^ Roulin : Acad, des Sciences, December 28, 1868. 1 8 PREHISTORIC PEOPLES. handed down to the ancient Romans by the uncouth nation of the Equicoles. At the beginning of the Christian era, the heroes commemorated by Ossian still had in the centre of their shields a polished stone consecrated by the Druids, and a saga maintains that the ceraunia assured certain victory to their owners. On the other side of the Atlantic, the Aztecs used obsidian blades for the sacrifices, in which hundreds of human victims perished miserably ; and similar blades are used by the Guanches of Teneriffe to open the bodies of their chiefs after death. At the present day, the Albanian Palikares use pointed flints to cut the flesh off the shoulder-blade of a sheep with a view to seeking in its fibres the secrets of the future, and when the god Gimawong visits his temple of Labode, on the western coast of Africa, his worshippers oifer him a bull slain with a stone knife. Lumholtz,^ in the second .of his recent explorations in Queensland, tells us that the natives still use stone weapons, varying in form and in the handles used, and that the weapons of the Australians living near Darling River, as well as those of the Tasmanians, are without handles. During the first centuries of the Christian era, strange rites were still performed in honor of dolmens and menhirs. The councils of the Church condemned them, and the emperors and kings supported by their authority the decrees of the ecclesiastics.^ Childebert in 554, Carloman in 742, Charlemagne by an edict issued at Aix-la-Chaj^lle in 789,^ forbid their subjects to practise these rites borrowed from heathenism. But ' " Congr^s d' Anthropologic et d'Archeologie Prehistorique," Paris, 1889. 'Council of Aries in 452, of Tours in 567, of Nantes in 658, of Toledo in 681 and 692, and of Leptis in 743. 'Baluze: "Capitularia Regum Francorum," vol. i., pp. 518, 1234, 1237. THE STONE AGE. I9 popes aud emperors are alike powerless in this direc- tion, and one generation transmits its traditions and superstitions to another. In the seventeenth century a Protestant missionary called in the aid of the secular arm to destroy a superstition deeply rooted in the minds of his people ; in England, sorcerers were pro- ceeded against for having used flint arrow-heads in their pretended witchcraft ; in Sweden, a polished hatchet was placed in the bed of women in the pangs of labor ; in Burmah, thunder-stones reduced to powder were looked upon as an infallible cure for ophthalmia; and the Canaches have a collection of stones with a special superstition connected with each. But why seek examples so far away and in a past so remote? In our own day and in our own land we find men who think themselves invulnerable and their cattle safe if they are fortunate enough to possess a polished flint. Prehistoric times are generally divided into three epochs — the Stone Age, the Bronze Age, and the Iron Age. We owe this classification to the archaeologists of Northern Europe.^ It is neither very exact nor very satisfactory, and fresh discoveries daily tend to unsettle it."^ Alsberg maintained that iron was the first metal used, founding his contention on the scarcity of tin, the difficulty of obtaining alloys, and on the sixty-one iron foundries of Switzerland which may date from prehistoric times. The rarity of the discovery of iron objects, he urged, is accounted for by the ease with which such objects are destroyed by rust. There has never been a Bronze or an Iron age in America, so ^ Steenstrup, Forchammer, Thomsen, Worsaae, and Nillsson. The commis- sion appointed by the Copenhagen Academy of Sciences presented six reports on the subject between 1850 and 1856. * " Die Anfang des Eisens Cultur," Berlin, 1886. 20 PREHISTORIC PEOPLES, that it would seem very doubtful whether all races went through the same cycles of development. I my- self prefer the division into the PalcBolithic period, when men only used roughly chipped stones, and the Neoliihic period, when they carefully polished their stone weapons. '^ There may" says Alexander Ber- trand,* "be one immutable law for the succession of strata throughout the entire crust of the earth, but there is no corresponding law applicable to human Fig. 2. — Copper hatchets found in Hungary, and now in the National Museum of Budapest. agglomerations or to the succession of the- strata of civilization. It would be a very grave error to adopt the theory according to which all human races have passed through the same phases of development and have gone through the same complete series of social conditions." It may perhaps be convenient to introduce a fourth period when copper alone was used and our ancestors were still ignorant of the alloys necessary for the pro- * '* Archeologie Celtique et Gauloise," p. 46. THE STONE AGE. 21 duction of bronze. Hesiod speaks of a third genera- tion of men as possessing copper only, and although it does not do to attach undue importance to isolated facts, recent discoveries in the Cevennes, in Spain, in Hungary, and elsewhere, appear to confirm the exist- ence of an age of copper (Fig. 2). We may add that the mounds of North America contain none but copper implements and ornaments, witnesses of a time when that metal alone was known either on the shores of the Atlantic or of the Pacific ^ (Fig. 3). It is impossible to fix the duration of the Stone age. It began with man, it lasted for countless Fig. 3. — Copper beads, from Connett's Mound, Ohio (natural size). centuries, and we find it still prevailing amongst certain races who set their faces against all progress. The scenes sculptured upon Egyptian monuments dating from the ancient Empire represent the employment of stone weapons, and their use was continued throughout the time of the Lagidse and even into that of the Roman domination. A few years ago, on the shores of the Nile, I saw some of the common people shave ^ Dr. Much : " L'Age de Cuivre en Europe et son Rapport avec la Civilisa- tion des Indo-Germains," Vienna, 1886. Pulsky : " Die Kupfer Zeit im Un- garn," Budapest, 1884. Cartailhac : "Ages Prehistoriques de I'Espa^e et du Portugal," p. 211. E. Chantre : Mat., June, 1887; and Berthelot : Journal des Savants, September, 1889. 22 PREHISTORIC PEOPLES. their heads with stone razors, and the Bedouins of Gournah using spears headed with pointed flints. The Ethiopians in the suite of Xerxes had none but stone weapons, and yet their civilization was several centuries older than that of the Persians. The excavations on the site of Alesia yielded many stone weapons, the glorious relics of the soldiers of Vercingetorix. At Mount Beuvray, on the site of Bibracte, flint hatchets and weapons have been discovered associated with Gallic coins. At Kome, M. de Rossi collected similar objects mixed with the ^s rude. Flint hatchets are mentioned in the life of St. Eloy, written by St. Owen, and the Merovingian tombs have yielded hundreds of small cut flints, the last offerings to the dead. William of Poitiers tells us that the English used stone weapons at the battle of Hastings in 1066, and the Scots led by Wallace did the same as late as 1288. Not until many centuries after the beginning of the Christian era did the Sarmatians know the use of metals; and in the fourteenth century we find a race, probably of African origin, making their hatchets, knives, and arrows of stone, and tipping their javelins with horn. The Japanese, moreover, used stone weapons and imple- ments until the ninth and even the tenth century a.d. But there is no need to go back to the past for examples. The Mexicans of the present day use ob- sidian hatchets, as their fathers did before them ; the Esquimaux use nephritis and jade weapons with Rem- ington rifles. Nordenskiold tells us that the Tchout- chis know of no weapons but those made of stone ; that they show their artistic feeling in engravings on bone, very similar to those found in the caves of the south of France. In 1854, the Mqhavi, an Indian THE STONE AGE. 23 tribe of tlie E-io Colorado (California), possessed no metal objects ; and it is the same with the dwellers on the banks of the Shingu River (Brazil), the Oyacoulets of French Guiana, and many other wandering and savage races. Pere Pelitot tells us that the natives living on the banks of the Mackenzie River are still in the stone age; and Schumacker has given an interest- ing example of the manufacture of stone weapons by the Klamath Indians dwelling on the shores of the Pacific. It has been justly said : " The Stone age is not a fixed period in time, but one phase of the de- velopment of the human race, the duration of which varies according to the environment and the race." ^ In thus limiting our idea of the stone age, we may conclude that alike in Europe and in America,^ there has been a period when metal was entirely unknown, when stones were the sole weapons, the sole tools of man, when the cave, for which he had to dispute possession with bears and other beasts of prey, was his sole and precarious refuge, and when clumsy heaps of stones served alike as temples for the worship of his gods and sepulchral monuments in honor of his chiefs. Excavations in every department of France have yielded thousands of worked flints, and there are few more interestins^ studies than an examination of the mural maj) in the Saint Germain Museum on which are marked with scrupulous exactitude the dwelling-places of our most remote ancestors, and the megalithic monu- ments which are the indestructible memorials of our forefathers. ^ Irene'e Cochut : " These presentee a la Faculte' de The'ologie Protes^^ite de Montauban," ^ See my translation of the author's admirable and exhaustive work on " Prehistoric America," chapters i. and iv, — Nancy Bell. 24 PREHISTORIC PEOPLES, In the Crimea were picked up a number of small flints cut into the shape of a crescent exactly like those found in the Indies and in Tunis, and the Anthropo- logical Society of Moscow has introduced us to a Stone age the memory of which is preserved in the tumuli of Russia. On the shores of Lake Lagoda have been found some implements of argillaceous schist, in Carelia and in Finland tools made of slate and schist, often adorned with clumsy figures of men or of animals. The rigor of the climate did not check the develop- ment of the human race ; in the most remote times Lapland, Nordland, the most northerly districts of Scandinavia, and even the bitterly cold Iceland, were peopled. The Exhibition of Paris, 1878, contained some stone weapons found on the shores of the White Sea. On several parts of the coast of Denmark we meet with mounds of an elliptical shape and about nine feet high, with a hollow in the centre, marking the site of a prehistoric dwelling. It was not until about 1850 that the true nature of these mounds was determined. Excavations in them have brought to light knives, hatch- ets, all manner of stone, horn, and bone implements, fragments of pottery, charred wood, with the bones of mammals and birds, the skeletons of fishes, the shells of oysters and cockles buried beneath the ashes of ancient hearths. To these accumulations the char- acteristic name of KitchenmiddingSy or kitchen refuse, has been given. Several caves have recently been examined in Poland, one of which, situated near Cracow, appears to belong to Palaeolithic times. Count Zawiska has already given an account of his interesting discoveries to the THE STONE AGE. 2$ Prehistoric Congress at Stockholm. In the Wirzchow cave he identified seven different hearths, and took out of the accumulations of cinders various amulets, clumsy- representations of fish cut in ivory, split bones, bears', w^olves', and elks' teeth pierced with a hole for thread- ing, and more than four thousand stone objects of a similar type to those found in Russia, Scandinavia, and Germany. We meet with similar traces of successive habitation in a cave near Ojcow; the valuable contents of which included some beautiful flint tools, some awls, bone spatulse, and some gold ornaments, mixed, in the lower of the hearths, with the bones of extinct animals, and in the upper, with those of species still livings The discoveries made in the Atter See and in the Salzburg lakes with those in the Moravian caves prove what had previously been very stoutly denied, the ex- istence in those districts of ancient races at a very remote date. The most ancient inhabitants of Hungary, however, cannot be traced further back than to Neolithic times. In that country have been found, with polished stone implements, thousands of objects made of stag-horn, or bone, almost all without exception finely finished off. The discovery of copper tools and ornaments of a peculiar form in the Danubian provinces, bears wit- ness to a distinct civilization in those districts, and confirms what we have just said about a Copper age. From the Lake Stations of Austria and Hungary, we pass naturally to those of Switzerland. We shall have to introduce to our readers whole villages built in the midst of the waters, and a people long completely forgotten. In many of these stations, none but stone implements have been found, and on the half-burnt 26 PREHISTORIC PEOPLES. piles on whicli the huts had been set up, it is still easy to make out the notches cut with flint hatchets. We meet with similar pile dwellings, as these struc- tures are called, in France, Italy, Germany, Ireland, and England, for from the earliest times man was con- stantly engaged in sanguinary contests with his fellow- men, and sought in the midst of the waters a refuge from the ever present dangers surrounding him. The discoveries made in Belgium must be ranked amongst the most important in Europe, and we shall often have occasion to refer to them. Holland, on the other hand, having much of it been under the sea for so long, yields nothing to our researches but a few arrow-heads, hatchets, and knives made of quartz oi' diorite, and all of them of the coarsest workmanship. No less fruitful in results to prehistoric science are the researches made in the south of Europe. The con- gress that met at Bologna, in 1871, showed us that in the Transalpine provinces man was witness of those physical phenomena which gave to Italy its present configuration ; and the exhibition in connection with the congress enabled us to get a good idea of the primitive industry which has left relics behind it in every district of the peninsula. Some hatchets of a similar type to the most ancient found in France were dug out of a gravel pit at San Isidro on the borders of the Manganares, associated with the bones of a huge elephant that has long been extinct ; and a cave has recently been discovered near Madrid from which were dug out nearly five hundred skeletons, the greater number thickly coated with stalagmite. Near the bodies lay several flint weapons. THE STONE AGK. 27. and some fragments of pottery/ Cartailhac tells us of similar discoveries in various parts of Portugal.^ The caves of Santander liave yielded worked bones and barbed harpoons ; and those of Castile, various objects resembling those of the Keindeer period of France. It is, however, an interesting and important fact that the reindeer never crossed the Pyrenees. Although so far excavations have been anything but complete, we are already able to assert that during Palaeolithic times the ancient Iberia was occupied by races whose industrial development was similar to that of modern Europe. It will be well to mention also the excavations made on the slopes of Mount Hymettus, and in the ever- famous plains of Marathon. Finlay has brought to- gether in Greece a very interesting collection of stone weapons and implements which he picked up in great numbers at the base of the Acropolis of Athens. All these discoveries prove the existence of man at a time about which but yesterday nothing was known, and to which it is difficult as yet to give a name, this existence being proved by the most irrefragable of evidence, the work of his own hands. Although the proofs of there having been a Stone age in Western Europe are absolutely convincing, it is difficult to feel equally sure with regard to the portions of the globe where so many districts are closed to the explorer. Everywhere, however, where excavations have been mad^ they have yielded the most remarka- ble results. M. d e Ujfa lvy has brought diorite and serpentine hatchets and wedges from the south of ' Acad^mie des Sciences, May 23, 1881 ; " Antiquites du Musee de Minous- sink," Tomsk, 1886-7. * " Les Ages Prehistoriques en Espagne et en Portugal." i8 PKEHlSTOkIC PEOPLES. Siberia, and Count Ouvaroff tells us of a Quaternary deposit, the only one known at present at Irkutsk, in Eastern Siberia, containing cut flints. Near Tobolsk, Poliaskoff found some beautifully worked stones. Other archaeologists tell us of having found, in the east of the Ural Mountains and on the shores of the Joswa, hammers, hatchets, pestles, nuclei the shape of polygonal prisms, and round or long pieces of flint, all pierced with a central hole, which are supposed to have been spindle whorls. Lastly, Klementz tells us that the lofty valleys of the Yenesei and its tributaries were inhabited in the most remote times by races who V developed a special civilization. At the other extremity of the great Asiatic conti- nent, a deposit of cinders found at the entrance of a . cave near the Nahr el Kelb yielded some flint knives or scrapers, and more recently a prehistoric station has been made out at Hanoweh, a little village of Lebanon, east of Tyre. The flints are of primitive shapes, not unlike the most ancient forms found in France. They were discovered in a mass of debris of all kinds, forming a very hard conglomerate. Some teeth, which had belonged to animals of the bovidse, cervidse, and equidae groups, were got out with con- siderable difficulty, but the bones in the conglomerate were too much broken up to be identified. Worked flints and arrow- or spear-heads were also found in con- siderable quantities in various parts of the table-land of Sinai, and at the openings of the caves in which the ancient inhabitants took refuge. It was with stone tools that these people worked the mines riddling the sides of the mountains, and it is still easy to make out traces of their operations. THE STONE AGE. 29 We have already alluded to Japan ; for a long time the barbarian Ainos, the earliest inhabitants of the country, were acquainted with nothing but stone. Flint arrows were presented to the Emperor "Wu-Wang eleven hundred years before our era ; the annals of one of the ancient dynasties speak of flint weapons, and an encyclopaedia published in the reign of the Em- peror Kang-Hi speaks of rock hatchets, some black and some green, and all alike dating from the most remote antiquity. Agates worked by the hand of man are found in great quantities in the bone beds of the Grodavery. Some javelin heads in sandstone, basalt, and quai-tz, with scrapers and knives, most of them flat on one side and rounded on the other, appear to be even more ancient than the agate implements. Some of the celts resemble those of European type, others the flint weapons found in Egypt, and the clumsiest forms may be compared to those still in use amongst the natives , of Australia. We may also mention a somewhat rare type lately discovered in the island of Melas, which have been characterized as saw-bladed knives. A letter from Rivett-Carnac announces the discovery of weapons and stone implements in Banda, a wild mountain dis- trict on the northwest of India. The scrapers, he says, strangely resemble those of the Esquimaux, and the arrow-heads those of the most ancient inhabitants of America.^ Many megalithic monuments are met with in places widely removed from each other in the vast Indian Empire. Captain Congreve, after describing the cairns ^ " Stone Implements from the Northwestern Provinces of India," Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, Calcutta, 1883. 30 PREHISTORIC PEOPLES. with their rows of stones ranged in circles, the kist- vaens or dohnens, the huge rocks placed erect as at Stonehenge, the barrows hollowed out of the cliffs, declares with undisguised astonishment that there is not a Druidical monument of which he had not seen the counterpart in the Neilgherry Mountains.^ General Faidherbe divides x\frica into two distinct regions — one north of the Great Desert, where the inhabitants and the fauna and flora have all alike cer- tain characteristics in common with those of Europe ; and the other south of the Sahara, which was at one time separated from that in the north by a vast inland sea. In this southern region we are in Nigritia, or the Africa of the negroes, where the inhabitants in their physical characteristics and in their language, the mammals, and the plants, differ altogether from those of the north. In one point, however, these two regions resemble each other : in both we recognize a Stone age, which existed in Algeria and in Egypt, as well as on the banks of the Senegal and at the Cape of Good Hope. The valley of the Nile from Cairo to Assouan has yielded a series of objects in flint, porphyry, and hornblendic rock, retaining traces of human workman- ship, and reminding us of similar implements of Euro- pean type. These objects,'^ says M. Arcelin, are always found either beneath modern deposits or at the surface of the upper 2}lateaux at the highest point to which the river rises ; nothing has, however, been found in the alluvial deposits of the Nile, in spite of the most persevering search. At the Prehistoric Congress held ' Literary y our tml of Madras, vol. xiv. ' '* L'Age de Pierre et la Classification Prehistorique d'apres les Sources l&gyptiennes," Paris, 1879. THE STONE AGE. 31 at Stockholm, some worked flints were produced that had been found in the Libyan Desert. This once inhabited district, now without water or vegetation, can only be reached at the present day with the greatest difficulty. Is not this yet another proof of the great changes which have taken place since the advent of man ? Lastly, the Boulak Museum contains a whole series of stone weapons and implements, show- ing in their workmanship a progressive development similar to that we find in Europe. Many archaeologists are of opinion that the worked flints found in the plains of Lower Egypt date from Neolithic times. Those alone are Palaeolithic which have been found in a deposit hard enough for the hollowing out of tombs, which are certainly earlier than the eighteenth dynasty. We must add, however, that neither with the Palaeo- lithic nor with the Neolithic relics have been found any bones of extinct animals. Some savants go yet. further : they think that these worked stones are but chips split oif by the heat of the sun.^ A ]3henomenon of this kind is mentioned by Desor and Escher de la Linth in the Sahara Desert ; Fraas quotes a similar observation made by Livingstone in the heart of Africa, and one by Wetzstein, w4^o, not far from Damascus, saw hard basalt rocks split under the influence of the early morning freshness. I have myself noticed similar phenomena in the Nile valley, but it must be added that the fragments of rock broken off by the combined influence of heat and humidity present very notable differences to those worked by the hand of man, and cannot really be mistaken ferf- them. 1 Pitt Rivers : " On the Discovery of Chert Implements in the Nile Valley," British Association, York, 1881. 32 PREHISTORIC PEOPLES, In Algeria have been preserved some most interest- ing relics of prehistoric times. If I am not mistaken, Worsaae was the first to note the worked stones in the French possessions in Africa. They have been picked up in great numbers, especially near the watercourses at which the ancient inhabitants of the country slaked their thirst, as do their descendants at the present day. The exploration of the Sahara daily yields unexpected discoveries ; and already fifteen different stations for- merly inhabited by man have been made out. In those remote days a large river flowed near Wargla, which was then an important centre, and a number of tools picked up bear witness to the former presence of an active and industrious population. At one place the flint implements, arrow-heads, knives, and scrapers are all of a very primitive type, and were found sorted into piles. This was evidently a de^ot^ probably forming the reserve stock of the tribe. Wargla or perhaps Golea at one time appears to have been the extreme limit of the Stone age in Algeria, but quite recently traces of primitive man have been discovered amongst the Tuaregs. These relics are hatchets made of black rock, and arrow-heads not unlike those which the Arabs attribute to the Djinn ; but as we approach the south we find the flints picked up more clumsily and unskilfully cut — a proof that they were the work of a more barbarous people with less practical skill. It is the megalithic monuments of Algeria, of which we shall speak more in detail presently, that are the most worthy of attention. As in India, we meet with them in thousands, and in certain parts of the conti- nent they extend for considerable distances. They consist of long, square, circular, or oval enclosures — THE STONE AGE, 33 dolmens similar to those of Western Europe, — and almost always surrounded by circles of upright stones. The silence of historians respecting them need not make us doubt their extreme antiquity, for did it not take a very long time to induce the scientific men of our day to turn their attention to Algeria at all ? The exploration of Tunisia has enabled us to study the Stone age in that district, and a few years ago it was announced that nearly three thousand objects of different types had been found in thirteen different localities/ My son found near Gabes an immense number of small worked flints not unlike a human nail, the origin and use of which no one has been able to determine. The association of weapons and imple- ments roughly finished off, with chips and stones still in the natural state, bears witness to the existence at one time of workshops of some importance. The recent discoveries of Collignon correspond with those in Algeria, and complete our knowledge of the basin of the Mediterranean. In the Cave of Hercules, in Morocco, which Pompo- nius Mela spoke of as of great antiquity in his day, have been found a great many worked flints, such as knives and arrow-heads. We shall refer later to the important monument of Mzora and the menhirs sur- rounding it, the builders of which certainly belonged to a race that lived much nearer our own day than did the inhabitants of the Cave of Hercules. The south of Africa is not so well known as the north, and the difficulty of making explorations is a great obstacle to progress. For some centuries, how- 1 Belluci : " L'Eta della Pietra in Tunisia," Roma, 1876, Bol. della Soc. Geog. Italiana, 1876. 34 PREHISTORIC PEOPLES. ever, polished stone hatchets from the extreme south of the continent have been preserved in the museums of Leyden and Copenhagen, under the name of thunder- stones^ or stoTies of God. A great many are found in British South Africa, especially at Graham's. Town and Table Bay/ Gooch, after describing the physical con- figuration of the Cape, says that stone implements are found in all the terraces at whatever level of the Qua- ternary deposits. With these stone objects were found a good many fragments of coarse hand-made pottery, that had been merely baked in the sun, and was strengthened with good-sized pieces of quartz. Similar peculiarities are noticed in ancient European pottery. We shall have to refer again to these singular analo- gies, one of the chief aims of this book being to bring them into notice. In the torrid regions between the Vaal and the Zambezi rivers, we find traces of a race of a civilization different from that of the savages conquered by the English. At Natal the gradual progress of these ua- known people can be traced step by step. To the earliest period of all belong nothing but roughly hewn flints, and no traces of pottery have been found ; then follow flint arrow-heads of more distinct form, and here and there fragments of sun-dried pottery. Of more recent date still are polished stone weapons and more finely moulded pottery ; whilst to the latest date of all belong weapons of considerable variety of form, better adapted to the needs of man, and with these weapons were found huge stone mortars which had been used for crushing grain, and bear witness to the use of vegetable diet. * " The Stone Age of South Africa," Journ. Anth. Institute, 1881. THE STONE AGE. 35 We also meet with important ruins in the Transvaal. Some walls are still standing which are thirty feet high and ten thick, forming imperishable memorials of the past. They are built of huge blocks of granite piled up without cement. We know nothing of those who erected them ; their name and history are alike effaced from the memory of man, and we know nothing either of their ancestors or of their descendants. In the Antipodes certain curious discoveries point to the existence of man in those remote and mysterious times, to which, for want of a better, we give in Europe the name of the Age of the Mammoth^ and the Rein- deer ; and everything points to the conclusion that man appeared in the different divisions of the earth about the same time. Probably the first appearance of our race in Australia was prior to the last convul- sions of nature which gave to that continent its present configuration. ^^ Scientific studies," says M. Blanchard,^ ^' lead us to believe that at one period a vast continent rose from the Pacific Ocean, which continent was broken up, and to a great extent submerged, in convulsions of nature. New Zealand and the neighboring islands are relics of this great land." In the Corrio Mountains in New Zealand, at a height of nearly 4,921 feet above the sea-level, have been found flints shaped by the hand of man, associated with a number of bones of the Dinornis, the largest known bird. Other facts bear witness to an extinct civilization, which we believe to have been extremely ancient, but to which, in the present state of our knowledge, it is impossible to assign a date. In the island of Tonga-Taboo, one of the Friendly group, is a Revue des Deux-Mondes , March i, 1878. 36 PREHISTORIC PEOPLES, remarkable megalith, the base of which rests on up- rights thirty feet high, and supports a colossal- stone bowl which is no less than thirteen feet in diameter by one in height. In the same island is a trilithon con- sisting of a transverse bar resting on two pillars pro- vided with mortises for its reception. The pillars weigh sixty-five tons, and a local tradition affirms that the coralline conglomerate out of which they were hewn was brought from Wallis Island, more than a thousand miles off. It is difficult to explain ^ how the makers of this trilithon managed to transport, to work, and to place such masses in position. In a neighbor- ing island a circle of uplifted stones, covering an area of several hundred yards, reminds us of the cromlechs of Brittany. The so-called Burial-Mound of Oberea at Otaheite, if it really was constructed with stone tools, is yet more curious. Imagine a pyramid of which the base is a long square, two hundred and sixty feet long by eighty-seven wide. It is forty-three feet high. The top is reached by a flight of steps cut in the coralline rock, all these steps being of the same size and perfectly squared and polished.^ On a rock at the entrance to the port of Sydney a kangaroo is sculptured. In Easter Island (Rapa-Nui) La Perouse discovered a number of coarsely executed ])ust statues (Fig. 4). There are altogether some four hundred of them, forming groups in different parts of the island. The excavations conducted by Pinart in 1887 have proved these figures to be sepulchral monu- ments. He managed to make a considerable collection of crania and human bones. Round about the crater ' De Quatrefages : Rev. iV Ethnographic, 1883, p. 97, etc, ' Sir J. Lubbock : " Prehistoric Times," pp. 483, 549. Fig. 4, — Stone statues on Easter Island. 37 38 PREHISTORIC PEOPLES, of the Kana-Raraku volcano, forty of these figures have been counted, all of a similar type, all cut in one piece of solid trachyte rock. In another place are eighty busts with longer noses and thicker lips, forming a group by themselves. The largest of them is some thirty-nine feet high. On the sides of the volcano, scattered about amongst the statues, have been picked up a considerable number of knives, scrapers, and pointed pieces of obsidian, which were probably tools thrown away by the sculptors of the figures. These monuments and sculptures are certainly the work of a race very different from the present natives^ who are altogether incapable of producing anything of the kind, and who retain absolutely no traditions re- specting their predecessors. This complete oblivion, which may appear rather strange, is by no means rare amongst savage races, and Sir John Lubbock cites a great many very curious examples. " Oral traditions," says Broca, " are changed and distorted by each suc- ceeding generation ; and are at last effaced to give place to others as transitory, and thus the most important events are, sooner or later, relegated to oblivion." ^ We have dwelt at considerable length in another volume ^ on the earliest inhabitants of America. Much still remains unknown in spite of the considerable and important work done of late years. The very name of the New World seems to be altogether out of place, America being as old, if not older, than any continent of the Eastern Hemisphere. Lund has brought for- ward weighty reasons for his theory that the central plateau of Brazil was already a country when the rest ' ^jj. /rrtWf^w, le Havre, 1877, Discours (VOuvei-ture. ^ " Prehistoric America," Paris, New York, and London. THE STONE AGE. 39 of the continent was still submerged or at least repre- sented merely by a few small islets. This theory, how- ever, even if it could be absolutely proved, would not help us to ^yi the date of the earliest presence of man in America, still less to say by what route he arrived there. Certain facts, amongst which I would, in the first place, quote the discoveries of Dr. Abbott in the alluvial deposits of the Delaware and those recently announced Fig. 5.— Fort Hill, Ohio. in Nevada,^ prove the contemporaneity of men like our- selves with the great edentate and pachydermatous mammals, which were the most characteristic creatures of the American fauna. The prehistoric inhabitants of North America were familiar with the mastodon, those of South America with the glyptodon, the shell of which on occasion served as a roof to the dwelling of primeval man, which dwelling was often but a den ^ See my translation of " L'Amerique Prehistorique," chap. i. the Mastodon." — Nancy Bell. Man and 40 PREHISTORIC PEOPLES, hollowed out of the ground. As in Europe, the early inhabitants of America had to contend with pow^erf ul mammals and fierce carnivora; and in the West as in the East man made up in intelligence for his lack of brute force, and however formidable an animal might be, it was condemned to submit to, or disappear before, its master. In course of time Sedentary replaced Nomad races ; shell heaps, some of marine, some of liverine and lacustrine species, but all alike mixed with a great Fig. 6. — Group of sepulchral mounds. variety of rubbish, were gradually piled up extending for many miles and covering many acres of ground, bearing witness to the existence of a population already considerable. In other parts of America prehistoric races have left behind them huge earthworks, lofty masses which were probably fortifications (Fig. 5), temples, and sepulchral monuments (Fig. G). These earthwoi'ks extend through- out North America from the Alleghany Mountains to the Atlantic, from the great lakes of Canada to the THE STONE AGE. 41 Gulf of Mexico. The name of the people who erected them is lost, and we must be content with that of Mound Builders, which commemorate their vast under- takings. At a period probably nearer our own, Arizona and New Mexico were occupied by other races, who built the ^o-QSiWQdi puehlos^ which were regular phalansteries, Fig, 7. — Ground plan of a pueblo of the Mac-Elmo Valley. or communal dwellings, each member of the tribe having to be content with one wretched little cell (Fig. 7). At some distance from the men of the pueblos lived the Cliff Dwellers, about whom we know next to nothing ; a few stone weapons and countless fragments of pottery being all they have left behind them. These men established themselves in situations which are now inaccessible, hewing out a dwelling in ■\y^ 42 PREHISTORIC PEOPLES, Fig. \. — Cliff-house on the Mancob. the rocks on the mountains (Figs. 8 and 9) with -won- derful perseverance, and closing up the approaches with adobes or sun-dried bricks, making incredible efforts to obtain for their families what must have been at the best but a precarious shelter/ These prehistoric races were suc- ceeded in America by the Toltecs, Aztecs, Chibcas, and Peruvians, all known in history, though their origin is as much involved in obscurity as that of their predecessors. Temples, pal- aces, and magnificent monu- ments tell of the wealth which gold gives, a wealth, alas, which also enervated the vital forces, so that the Spanish and Portuguese met with but little serious resistance in their rapicj conquests. Such are the facts with which we have to deal. In ' Many interesting details respecting the Cliff Dwellers are given in De Na- daillac's " 1/Amerique Prehistoriqiie," chap. V. — Nancy Bell. THE STONE AGE. 43 the following chapters we shall consider more at length the problems they present, but already we are led to one important conclusion : in every part of the globe, Fig. 9. — House in a rock of the Montezuma Canon. in every latitude, in every climate, worked flints, whether but roughly chipped or elaborately polished, present analogies which must strike the most superfi- cial observer. "We find them," remarks an American 44 PREHISTORIC PEOPLES. author, "in the tumuli of Siberia, in the tombs of Egypt, in the soil of Greece, beneath the rude monuments of Scandinavia ; but whether they come from Europe or Asia, from Africa or America, they are so much alike in form, in material, and in workmanship, that they might easily be taken for the work of the same men." At a meeting of the British Association for the Advancement of Science in 1871, Sir John Lubbock showed worked flints from Chili and New Zealand with others found in England, Germany, Spain, Aus- tralia, the Guianas, and on the banks of the Amazon ; which one and all belonged to the same type. Moi'e recently the Anthropological Society of Vienna com- pared the stone hatchets found near the Canadian lakes and in the deserts of Uruguay, with others from Catania in Italy, Angermiinde in Brandenburg, and a tomb in Scandinavia, deciding that they were all ex- actly alike. Lastly, those who studied at the French Exhibition of 1878 the hatchets, hammers, and scrapers', the bone implements, pottery, and weapons brought from different places, the inhabitants of which had no communication with each other, could not fail to notice in their turn how impossible it was to distinguish be- tween them. "So evident is this resemblance," says Vogt,^ " that we may easily confound together imple- ments brought from such very different sources." The same observation applies to megalithic monu- ments. Everywhere we find these primitive structures assuming similar forms. It is difficult enough to believe that the wants of man alone, such as the craving for food, the need of clothing, and the necessity of defend- ing himself, have led in every case to the same ideas and the same amount of progress. Even if this be * Congrh des Naturalistes Allemands^ Innsbruck, Sept., i86g, THE STONE AGE. 45 proved by tlie worked flints, we cannot accept a similar conclusion with regard to the megalithic monuments, which imply reflection and a thought of the future far beyond the material needs of daily life. Is it not more reasonable to regard a similitude so striking as a proof of the unity of our race ? The human bones discovered are yet more convincing testimony. Excavations have yielded some which may date from the very earliest period of the existence of man upon the earth. They have been found in caves and in the river drift, beneath the mounds of America and the megalithic monuments of Europe, in the ice- clad districts of Scandinavia and of Iceland, and in the burning deserts of Afiica, but not one of them owes its existence to men of a type different from those of his- toric times or of our own day.^ MM. Quatrefages and Hamy in their magnificent work " Crania Ethnica," have been able to distinguish prehistoric races and indicate the area they occupied. These races are still represented, and their descendants of to-day retain the characteristics of their ancestors. One final conclusion is no less interesting. These absolutely countless flints, these monuments of im- posing size, these stones of immense weight often brought from afar, these marvellous mounds and tumuli, bear witness to the presence of a population which was already considerable at the time of which ^ ' ' Quaternary man is always man in every acceptation of the word. In every case in which the bones collected have enabled us to judge, he has ever been found to have the hand and foot proper to our species, and that double curva- ture of the spinal column has been made out, so characteristic that Serres made it the distinctive attribute of his human kingdom. In every case with him, as with us, the skull is more fully developed than the face. In the Neanderthal skull so often quoted as bestial, the cranial capacity is more than double that ever found in the largest gorilla." De Quatrefages: " Hommes Fossiles et Hommes .Sauvages," p. 60. 46 PREHISTORIC PEOPLES. . we are endeavoring to make out the traces. A long series of centuries must liave been needed for a people to increase to such an extent as to have spread over entire continents. And time was not wanting. What- ever antiquity may be attributed to the human race, whatever the initial date to which its first appearance may be relegated, this antiquity is but slight, this date is but modern, if we compare it with the truly incalcula- ble ages of which geology reveals the existence. At every turn we are arrested by the immensity of time, the immensity of space, and yet our knowledge is still confined to the mere outer rind of the earth, and science cannot as yet even guess at the secrets hidden beneath that rind. In concluding these introductory remarks, w^e must add that very great difficulties await those who devote themselves to prehistoric studies — difficulties such as none but those who have attempted to conquer them can realize. The rare traces of prehistoric man must be sought amongst the effects of the cataclysms that have devastated the earth, and the ruins piled up in the course of ages. We must show man wrestling with the ever-recurrent difficulties of his hard life, and gradually developing in accordance with a law which appears to be immutable. Such is the aim of this work, and it is with gratitude that we assert at the beginning that the pianta uomo, the human plant, as Alfieri calls our race, was endowed by the Creator from the first with a very vigorous vitality, to enable it to contend with the dangers besetting its steps in the early days of its existence, and with a truly marvel- lous spirit, to be able to make so humble a beginning the starting-point for a destiny so glorious. CHAPTER II. FOOD, CANIS^IBALISM, MAMMALS, FISH, HIJTs'TING, AND FISHING. The first care of man on his arrival upon the earth was necessarily to make sure of food. Wild berries, acorns, and ephemeral grasses only last for a time, whilst land mollusca and insects, forming bat a misera- ble diet at the best, disappear during the winter. Meat must certainly have been the chief food of prehistoric man ; the accumulations of bones of all sorts in the caves and other places inhabited by him leave no doubt on that point. The horse, which in Europe was hunted, killed, and eaten for many centuries before it was domesticated, was an important article of diet, and was supplemented by the aurochs, the stag, the chamois, the wild goat, the boar, the hare, and failing them, the wolf, the fox, and above all the reindeer, which multi- plied rapidly in districts suitable to it. The elephant bones picked up on Mount Dol and elsewhere are nearly all those of young animals ; and it is probable that they had been killed for food by man. In the Sureau Cave in Belgium,^ in that of Aurignac in ^ In this cave were found the bones of 45 bears. In the Goyet Cave (which bears the number 3), were found complete sets of the bones of 12 mammoths, 8 rhinoceroses, 57 bears, 57 horses, 24 hyaenas, 35 reindeer, 6 uruses, 2 lions, with the bones of a great number of goats, chamois, and boars. Dupont : ' * L'Homme pendant I'Age de la Pierre," p. 86. 47 48 PREHISTORIC PEOPLES. France, and Brixliam in England, have been found complete skeletons of the Ursus spelceus^ whicl; had evidently been dragged in v^ith the flesh still on them, for all the bones are in their natural j30sition. In other caves, the thorax and the vertebrae of the skele- tons were missing ; the cave-man, having despatched his victim, had evidently taken only the more succu- lent parts into his retreat. Beasts of prey merely gnavs^. the comparatively tender and spongy tops of the bones, leaving the hard, compact parts untouched. In the caves that were inhabited by man, however, we find the apophyses neglected, whilst the diaphyses are split open. We cannot7^her3ofepltralSe^smy mistake on this point, or attribute to the beast of prey what is certainly the work of man. Whilst he evidently preferred to hunt and eat the larger mammals, man when pressed by hunger did not despise the small rodents, which were, of course, more easily captured. Amongst piles of the bones of horses and stags have been found the remains of martens, hedgehogs, and mice ; and from the Thayngen Cave have been taken the bones of more than five hundred hares. In Belgium the water-rat seems to have been considered a dainty, and in the Chaleux Cave alone were found more than twenty pounds' weight of the bones of this creature, nearly all bearing traces of having been subjected to the action of fire. "* The remains of birds are rarer, and Broca has re- marked that the most ancient hunting implements which have come down to us ; those from the Moustier Cave, for instance, were adapted rather to attack ani- mals that would show fight than those that would simply fly or run away. The Gourdan Cave, however, FOOD, CANNIBALISM, MAMMALS, HUNTING. 49 has yielded tlie bones of the moor-fowl, the partridge, the wild duck, and even the domesticated cock and hen ; the Frontal Cave, the thrush, the duck, the par- tridge, and the pigeon ; and in other caves were found the bones of the goose, the swan, and the grouse. Milne-Edwards enumerates fifty-one species belonging to different orders found in the caves of France, and M. Riviere picked up the remains of thousands of birds in those of Baousse-Rousse on the frontier of Italy/ The skulls of the mammals had been opened, and the bones split. Brains and marrow probably figured at feasts as the greatest delicacies. Travellers, whose tales are a help to us in building up a picture of the remote past of our race, relate that the Laplanders, as soon as an animal is killed, break open its skull and devour the brain whilst it is still warm and bleeding. This was probably also the custom amongst prehistoric cave-men. The flesh of animals was not, alas, the only meat eaten, and excavations in different parts of the globe have led to the discovery of traces of the practice of cannibalism which it is difficult not to accept.^ Dr. Spring noticed at Chauvaux a great many bones which were nearly all those of women and children, side by side with which lay others of ruminants belong- ing to species still extant. All these bones had alike been subjected to great heat, and none but those which had contained no marrow were left unbroken. This appears an incontrovertible proof of cannibalism, and ^ These birds belonged to the rapaces, passeres, gallinaceous, wading, and web-footed groups. Every order is represented, and nearly all the bones were those of edible species, which had certainly served as food to man. 2 Richard Andree : " Die Anthropophagie eine Ethnographische Studie," Leipzig, 1887. 50 PREHISTORIC PEOPLES. Dr. Spring concludes that it was certainly practised by the earliest inhabitants of Belgium. We must add, however, that other excavations in the same cave at Chauvaux prove that it was used as a burial-place, some skeletons being ranged in regular order with weapons and stone implements placed beside them.^ M. Dupont mentions having found in the caves of the Lesse, which date from the Reindeer period, human bones mixed with other remains of a meal. He notes a similar fact in another cave that he con- siders belongs to Neolithic times. " But," he adds, " none of these bones bear any trace of having been struck with a flint or other tool with a view to their fracture. If any of them are broken it is transversely, and the cause of the fracture has been merely the weight of the earth above them ; moreover, they show no trace of the action of fire." ^ M. Dupont, therefore, still retains some doubt of the cannibalism of the cave- men of the valley of the Lesse, and attributes the presence of the bones of the dead amongst the rubbish of all kinds accumulated by the living, to their idleness and indifference. One example at the present day tends to confirm this opinion, for travellers tell us of the same revolting carelessness amongst the Esqui- maux, who cannot certainly be classed amongst cannibals. The Abbe Chierici, speaking at the Brussels Con- gress ^ of the excavations in one of the Reggio caves, remarked that human bones were mixed with those of ' *' Les Homraes de Chavaux et d'Engis" Bui. Acad. Roy. de Belgique, vol. XX., 1853 ; vol. xviii. (new series), 1863 ; vol. xxii., 1866 ; Mat&iaux, 1872, p. 517. ^ "L'Homme pendant les Ages de la Pierre," p. 225. ' " Compte Rendu," p. 363. FOOD, CANNIBALISM, MAMMALS, HUNTING. 5 1 animals, and that both showed traces of having been burnt. These bones date from the Neolithic period, and with them were picked up various objects of re- markable workmanship, including fragments of pottery, half a grindstone for crushing grain, and some admira- bly polished serpentine hatchets. Other facts leave no doubt of the cannibalism of the earliest inhabitants of Italy. Moreover, hesitation on this point is impossible for other reasons, as Roman historians allude to the practice. Pliny,^ in saying how little removed was a human sacrifice from a meal, adds, that it ought not to surprise us to meet with this mon- strous custom amongst barbarian races, as it prevailed in ancient times in Italy and Sicily. It is generally admitted that we can tell whether the fracture of long bones was intentional by the way iu which they were broken. This fact, which is true alike with the bones of men and of animals, is the most important proof we have of the cannibalism of the men of the Stone age. To the examples already given, we can easily add others culled from France. In the Pyrenees and in the caves of Lourdes and Gourdan, for instance, human bones have been found mixed with the cinders and ashes of the hearth, and still bearing the marks of the implements with which they were broken. At Bruniquel a human skull was found which had been opened in the same way as the heads of ruminants amongst which it was picked up, and on its external surface were deep notches, which appear to have been made with a flint hatchet. Similar traces of revolting feasts on human flesh are not at all rare ; near Paris, at * " Hist. Nat.," book vii., sec. 2. 52 PREHISTORIC PEOPLES, Villeneuve-Saint-Georges, and at Varenne-Saint-Maur, for instance.' The excavations in the Montesquieu- A vantes Cave, about six miles from Saint-Girons, have brought to ^ight a hearth covered ovei* with a layer of stalagmite; numerous fragments of human bones, crania, femora, tibiae, humeri, and radii were found in this layer, and in that of the subjacent clay. In many cases the medullary orifice had been enlarged to make it easier to get out the marrow. It is impossible to attribute this to a rodent, for the bones gnawed by animals of that kind present a regular series of marks. The con- clusion is inevitable : these bones, alike of men and of animals, were the remains of a meal.^ In Kent's Hole, the celebrated cave in Devonshire, amongst many objects dating from the. Stone age, were found some human bones bearing traces of having been gnawed by man. The eminent anthropologist, Owen, came to a similar conclusion — that cannibalism had been practised — after examining the jaw-bone of a child found in Scotland ; and so did the Rev. F. Porter, after the ezcavations near Scarborough, where several skeletons were found under a tumulus, which had apparently been thrown where they were discovered by accident. The Cesareda caves in Portugal have yielded some bones split lengthwise ; and beneath the dolmen near the village of Hammer, in Denmark, human bones and those of stags have been found half gnawed, and show- ing only too clearly the origin of the marks upon them. Worsaae quotes similar facts at Borreby, Chantres re- ^ Belgrand : " Le Bassin Parisien," vol. i., p. 232. '^ Bull. Soc. Anth., 1869, p. 476. — Ac. des Sciences, 1870, first week, p. 167. FOOD, CANNIBALISM, MAMMALS, HUNTING. 53 fers to the same thing in the caves of the Caucasus, Captain Burton at Beitsahur, near Jerusalem, Wiener in the sambaquis of Brazil, even in deposits which he considers of recent origin/ Brazil is not the only part of the American continent in which we find traces of the use of this revolting food. In the kitchen-middings of Florida Wyman found human bones, which had been intentionally broken, mixed with those of deer and beavers. The marrow had been taken from all of them and eaten by man. Yet more recent discoveries of a similar kind have been made in New England.^ We must, however, add that many of these facts are contested. Every people considers it a point of honor to repudiate the idea that its ancestors fed on human flesh, and yet everywhere history tells us of the prac- tice of cannibalism. Herodotus speaks of it amongst the Androphagse and the Issedones, people of Scythian origin; Aristotle amongst the races living on the borders of the Pontus Euxinus ; Diodorus Siculus amongst the Galatians ; and Strabo, in his turn, says : " The Irish, more savage than the Bretons, are cannibals and poly- phagous ; they consider it an honor to eat their parents soon after life is extinct." ^ From the ancient tombs of Georgia have been taken human bones that have been boiled or charred, which were doubtless those of the victims eaten by the assist- ants in the fetes which have ever accompanied funeral rites. In the fourth century of our era Jerome speaks of * Archives du Mus^e National de Rio de Janeiro, vol. i., 1876. ^ See my translation of De Nadaillac's " Prehistoric America," pp. 53, 58, and 59." — N. D'Anvers. '^ " Geography," book iv. 54 PREHISTORIC PEOPLES. having met in Gaul with the Attacotes, descended from a savage Scotch tribe, who fed on human .flesh, and that though they possessed great herds of cattle and flocks of sheep, with numbers of pigs, for whom their vast forests afforded excellent grazing grounds ' ; and though the Scandinavian kitchen-middings have not so far yielded any traces of the practice of canni- balism, Adam of Bremen, who preached Christianity at the court of King Sweyn Ulfson, represents the Danes of his day as barbarians clad in the skins of beasts, chasing the aurochs and the eland, unable to do more than imitate the cries of animals and devouring the flesh of their fellow-men.^ Nothing could exceed the barbarity of the Mexican sacrifices, the numbers of the victims, and the refine- ments of torture to which they were subjected. Pris- oners, who had often been fattened for months pre- viously, perished by thousands on the altars. The palpitating flesh was distributed amongst the assistants, and a honible custom compelled the priests to clothe themselves in the still bleeding skins of the unfortu- nate wretches, and to wear them until they rotted to pieces. Without going back to an antiquity so remote, in how many different regions of Africa and America, and in how many islands of Polynesia have not our sailors and missionaries reported the practice of canni- balism in our own day % It is difficult, therefore, not to believe, although the fact cannot perhaps be very distinctly proved, that the first inhabitants of Europe ' " Opera," vol. ii., Migne edition, p, 335. Richard, of Cirencester, says that the Attacotes lived on the shores of the Clyde, beyond the great wall of Hadrian. '^ bchweden's " Urgeschichte," p. 341. FOOD, CANNIBALISM, MAMMALS, HUNTING. 55 degraded as were the conditions of tlieir existence, did eat human flesh and acquire a depraved taste for it ; impelled thereto not only by the pangs of hunger, but also by a revolting superstition. Animals, however, were very plentiful all around. Stags, elks, aurochs, horses, and the large pachyderms multiplied very rapidly in the wide solitudes, the pasture lands of which afforded them a constantly renewed supply of food, and the beasts of prey in their turn found an easy prey in the ruminants.^ The ways of animals do not change, and the travellers who are exploring the interior of Africa tell us that now, as in the day we are trying to recall, hundreds of elephants and rhinoceroses congregate in a limited area, whilst innumerable herds of giraifes, zebras, and gazelles graze peacefully in the presence of man, whose destructive powers they have not yet learnt to dread. Delegorgue speaks of one lake peopled by more than one hundred hippopotami, and of a region less than three miles in diameter containing six hundred elephants. Livingstone tells us that he saw troops of more than four thousand antelopes pass at a time, and that these animals showed absolutely no fear. We may give a yet more curious instance. Captain Gordon ' The felidae were very numerous in Europe in Quaternary times. We may mention two species of lions, Leo nobilis and Leo spelceus, the latter often con- founded with the Felis spelceus of such frequent occurrence in French caves, two species of tigers, Tigris Edwarsiana and Tigris Europcsa, the largest of the Quaternary felidse, which was some twelve feet long. We also know of seven species of leopards, six species of cats, from the Serval to a little felis smaller than our domestic cat ; two species of lynx, and lastly the machairodus, a beast of prey of considerable size, characterized by having exceptionally long upper canines serrated like a saw. Probably these beasts of prey were not all contemporaries, but succeeded each other. (Bourguignat :" Histoire des Felidse Fossiles en France dans les Depots de la Periode Quaternaire," Paris, 1879.) 56 PREHISTORIC PEOPLES, 1 Cumming, crossing the plains stretching away on the i north of the Cape, saw troops of gazelles and ante- .lopes, compelled by a long drought to migrate in I search of the water indispensable to them, and he 'describes with enthusiasm one of these migrations, telling us that the plain was literally covered with animals, the hurrying herds defiling before him in an endless stream. On the evening of the same day, a yet more numerous herd passed by in the same direc- tion, the numbers of which were absolutely incalcu- lable, but which, according to Cumming, must have exceeded several hundred thousand. Such must have been animal life in Europe in Quaternary times. " Grand indeed," cries Hugh Miller, " was the fauna of the British Isles in those days. Tigers, as large again as the biggest Asiatic species, lurked in the ancient thickets ; elephants, of nearly twice the bulk of the largest individuals that now exist in Africa or Ceylon, roamed in herds ; at least two species of rhinoceros forced their way through the primeval forest, and the lakes and rivers were tenanted by hippopotami as bulky and with as great tusks as those of Africa." ' Material proofs of the presence of animals are not wanting. The accumulation of coprolites in the cave of Sentenheim (Alsace) bears witness to the number ^f bears which once haunted it. Nordmann took from a cave near Odessa 4,500 bones of ursidse, associated with no less numerous relics of the large cave-lion and cave-hyena.^ The Kiilock Cave, now some six hundred ' "Testimony of the Rocks," p. 127, Edinburgh and Boston, 1857. ' Ossements Fossiks Trouvh h Odessa, The cave-hyena resembles that now living at the Cape. FOOD, CANNIBALISM, MAMMALS, HUNTING. 57 J and fifty feet above the river, contained the remains of no less than 2,500 bears, and similar relics occur by- thousands in the osseous breccia of Santenay and in the cave of Lherm, where they form a regular ossuary. It would be easy to quote similar facts from Belgian, German, and Hungarian caves. In almost every case the position of the skeletons seems to show that the bears sought a last refuge in the caves, and that death had surprised them during their winter sleep. Pachy- derms were no less numerous than bears. The remains of mammoths are found from the north of Europe to Greece and Spain, and we meet with them in Algeria, in Asia from the Altai Mountains to the Arctic Ocean, and in America in Mexico and Kentucky. They seem to have entrenched themselves especially in Siberia, whence tusks are still exported as an article of commerce. In the extreme North, those parts of Wrangel's Land which have been explored are strewn with the bones of mastodons, and in some parts of Sonora and Columbia these remains form almost inexhaustible deposits. Animals of the cervine and equine groups were, if possible, yet more numerous. M. Piette estimates the number of reindeer whose bones he has picked up in the Gourdan Cave as over 3,000, and the number of cervidse found at Hohlefels is positively incalculable. In 1826, Marcel de Serres called attention to the great number of the bones of animals of the equine family found in the neighborhood of Lunel-Viel ; at Solutre, the remains of horses cover a great portion of the slope which stretches from the eastern side of the mountain to the bottom of the valley. Here are found those vast accumulations to which the inhabitants of the vv 58 PREHISTORIC PEOPLES. valley give the characteristic name of horse-^valls. The number of horses, the bones of which have gone to form these walls, may be estimated without exaggera- tion at 40,000. The bones are mixed together in the greatest confusion, many of them show traces of having been burnt, and the flesh of the horse was evidently the favorite diet of the people of Solutre/ ^ At first man obtained by force, often aided by strat- egy, the animals he coveted. He had not yet learnt to tame them and reduce them to servitude. Neither the reindeer nor the horse was as yet domesticated, and neither in the caves nor in the various deposits else- where has a complete skeleton been found, but only — a very significant fact — the bones on which had been the greater amount of flesh. The absence of any remains of the dog, so indispensable an animal in the keeping of flocks, is yet another proof that domesti- cation was still unpractised. It was with most miserable weapons, such as a few stones, scarcely even j*ough-hewu, and a few flint ar- rows, that the cave-man did not hesitate to attack the most formidable animals, and with such apparently inadequate means he succeeded in wounding and even killing them. The French Museum possesses mammoth and rhinoceros bones bearing fine scratches produced by the weapons which had been used to despatch the animals. The metacarpus of a large beast of prey, found at Eyzi^s, retains marks no less clear, and the skull of a bear from Nabrigas has in it a large wound which must have been made by a missile of some kind. In Ireland a stone hammer was found wedged into * Ducrost and Arcelin: " Stratigraphie de 1' Eboulis de Solutre," Mat., 1876, p. 403. Archives du Museum d' Hist. Nat. de Lyon, vol. i. FISH AND FISHING. 59 the head of a Cervus megaceros j in Cambridgeshire, the skull of an Ursus spelceus still containing the frag- ment of a celt which had given the animal his death- blow ; at Richmond (Yorkshire) the bones of a large deer which had been sawn with a flint implement. The fine collection in the University of Lund, contains a vertebra of a urus pierced by an arrow, and the Copenhagen Museum, the jaw of a stag pierced by a fragment of flint. Steenstrup mentions two bones of a large stag into which stone chips had penetrated deeply, and in which the fracture had been gradually covered over by the bony tissue. A bone of some bovine animal with an arrow deeply imbedded in it has been taken from a bed of peat in the island of Moen, cele- brated for its tumuli and the number of objects found in them. At Eyzies, a flint flake has been found firmly fixed in one of the lumbar vertebrae of a young reindeer, and M. de Baye mentions an arrow with a tranverse edge stuck in the bone of a badger.^ The Abbe Ducrost found a flint arrow-head sticking in a vertebra of a horse. Nor were those already mentioned the only animals on which man made war. We shall speak presently of the contests with each other, which began amongst men in the very earliest days of humanity. Human bones, perforated by arrows and broken by stone hatch- ets, bear ineffaceable traces to this day of homicidal struggles. In many places fresh-water and marine fish were utilized as food by man. In the numerous caves of the Vezere, in those of Madeleine, Eyzies, and Bruniquel, excavations have brought to light the vertebrae and ^ M. de Baye found a great many similar arrow-heads in the Petit-Morin caves. 6o PREHISTORIC PEOPLES, other bones of fishes, amongst which predominate chiefly those of the jack, the carp, the bream, the chub, the trout, and the tench — in a word, all the fish which still people our rivers and lakes. In the Lake Stations of Switzei'land, fish of all kinds are no less abundant. At Grardeole, amongst the bones of mammals have been found the shells of mollusca, and remains of the turtle and of goldfish. Fish was not, however, caught by all these primitive people, not even by all those who lived by the sea. In researches carefully carried on for years in the Maritime- Alps, M. Riviere found neither fishing-tackle nor fish-lines. Whilst the cave-men of the south of France seem not to have utilized any but fresh-water fish, the Scandi- navians, at a date probably less remote however, did not hesitate to brave the ocean. The kitchen-middings contain numerous remains of fish, amongst which those of the mackerel, the dab, and the herring are the most numerous. There, too, we meet with relics of the cod, which never approaches the coast, and must always be sought by the fisherman in the open sea. Although we are in a position to assert that men were able to catch fish during every prehistoric period, if not in every locality, we can speak less positively of their niode of doing so. The earliest fishing-tackle was doubtless of the most primitive description : the bone of some animal, a fragment of hard wood, or even a fish-bone pointed at each end and pierced with a hole, served their purpose (Fig. 10). The Exhibition of Fishing-Tackle held at Berlin in 1880 contained several such implements, some of wood, others of bone. Others have also been found in the Madeleine Cave, and in different stations of the ancient inhabitants of Switzer- FISH AND FISHING. 6 1 land. It is interesting to note their resemblance to those still in use amongst the Esquimaux. Fig. io. — i. Fragments of arrows made of reindeer horn from the Martinet Cave (Lot-et-Garonne). — 2. Point of spear or harpoon in stag-horn (one third natural size). — 3. and 4. Bone weapons from Denmark. — 5. Harpoon of stag- horn from St. Aubin. — 6. Bone fish-hooks pointed at each end, from Wangea. Prehistoric man also turned to account the teeth of animals. We may quote in this connection the molai*s 62 PREHISTORIC PEOPLES. of a bear from which the enamel and the crown have been removed, and the thickness of which has been lessened by rubbing (Fig. 11). The small flints picked up in great numbers in the department of the Gironde also date from a remote antiquity; they are sixteen millimetres long by four wide, and though we cannot assert it as a fact, they are supposed to have been used for catching fish. The Museum of Lund possesses two flint fish-hooks of a curved shape, one of them, which is four centi- metres long by nearly three wide, was found by the seashore; the other and smaller one came from the Fig. II, — Bears' teeth converted into fish-hooks. Fig. 12. -Fish-hook made out of a boar's tusk. shores of Lake Kranke.^ Fish-hooks made of bone, which is more easily worked than flint, very soon re- placed those in that material. They are numerous in the Lake Stations of Wangen, Mooseedorf, and St. Aubin. Some are cut out of the horns of oxen, others of stags' antlers ; while others again are made of boars' tusks (Fig. 12), but all alike greatly resemble modern forms. The peat-bogs of Scania have yielded a bone fish-hook seven centimetres long, which is considered very ancient, and the Museum of Stettin j^ossesses one, also very old, found in a marly deposit of Pomerania. "We must not forget to mention, although it probably * Nilsson : " The Primitive Inhabitants of Scandinavia." FISH AND FISHING, 63 belongs to a much more receut period, a fish-hook in reindeer horn, now in the Christiania Museum. It was found in a tomb in the island of Kjelnoe, not far from the Russian frontier. Numerous skeletons, wrapped up in swathings of birch-bark, repose in this tomb. All around lay fragments of pottery, lance- and arrow- heads,^ and combs of reindeer horn, the date of which it is impossible to fix exactly. In America, stone fish-hooks are rare. The most ancient are of bone, and resemble those now in use. They have been picked up in Dakota, and in the cinder- heaps of Madison ville (Ohio), in Indiana, in Arkansas, on the shores of Lake Erie, and in a kitchen-midding of Long Island. The greater number of them are pol- ished, and some of them have near the top a hole by which they could be fastened to a line or cord. The fish-hooks of California are remarkable for their rounded forms and sharply curved points ; the top was covered with a thick layer of asphalt to which the line was probably fastened. They are numerous in all the islands of the Pacific coast. In that of Santa Cruz Schumacker excavated a tomb which must have been that of a fish-hook manufacturer, for care had been taken to place near the deceased, not only the imple- ments of his craft, but also a number of fish-hooks in various stages of advancement. The Californians used the shells of the Mytihis Calif ornictis and Haliotis to make fish-hooks, and these were even more curved than those made of bone. The shape seems but little suited ^ Captain Edward Johnson, who travelled about in New England from 1628 to 1632, relates that the children there spent their days in shooting at the fish that appeared on the surface of the water, succeeding in catching them with marvellous skill. " A History of New England," London, 1654. 64 PREHISTORIC PEOPLES, for fishing, but even in our own day the natives of the Samoa Islands use similar tackle with great success. The Indians of the northwest coast make fish-hooks of epicea wood, and those of Arizona utilize for the same purpose the long spikes of the cactus. It is very prob- able that European as well as American races knew how to use wood in the same manner. During the lapse of centuries, however, these fragile objects have been reduced to dust, and we are unable to make any further conjectures on the subject. The use of bronze, the first metal to be generally employed, does not seem to have introduced any great modifications in fishing-tackle. Bronze fish-hooks are, however, thinner and lighter than those in other materials, and resemble those in use amongst fishermen at the present day. A certain number have been found in the Lake Stations of Switzerland, in lakes Peschiera and Bourget, as well as in Scotland, Ireland, and the island of Fiinen off the coast of Denmark. We must not omit to mention the important foundry of Larnaud, or the cache of Saint-Pierre-en-Chatre, both so rich in bronze objects. In America, where the copper mines of Lake Superior were worked at a remote antiquity, a few rare copper fish-hooks have been found, the greater number in the Ancon necropolis.* Gold fish- hooks are comparatively more numerous, and have been discovered in New Granada and the Cauca State.'^ One of these was found some forty-nine feet below the sur- face of the ground, and as there is no trace of disturb- ance, we cannot assign to it a recent origin. The gold * Reiss and Steubel : "The Necropolis of Ancon in Peru," London and Berlin. ^ MaUriaux, 1870, p. 348. FISff AND FISHING, 65 fish-liooks are about four inches long, and look like big pins with the lower end bent back upon the upper. Other fishing implements were also used by our prehis- toric ancestors. At Laugerie- Basse a rough drawing shows us a man striking with a har- poon a fish that is trying to escape. These harpoons were generally made of reindeer horn (Figs. 10 and 13). Some had but one barb, others several. One of the largest was found in the Madeleine Cave ; it is eight inches long, and has three barbs on one side and ^YQ on the other. Most o£ these weapons have a notch in the handle, with the help of which they could be firmly fastened to a spear or lance. Different fashions prevailed in different localities, and sinews, leather thongs, roughly plaited cords, creepers, and resinous substances were often pressed into the service. Many harpoons have been found in the caves of the south of France ; others come from Belgium, from Keyserloch Fig. 13. — A, a large barbed arrow from one side of the Plan- tade shelter (Tarn-et-Garonne). B, lower part of a barbed har- poon from the Plantade deposit. 66 PREHISTORIC PEOPLES. in Germany, Kent's Hole in England, from Conches, Wauwyl, and Concise in Switzerland. Excavatipns in Victoria Cave, near Settle (Yorkshire), yielded amongst other interesting objects a bone harpoon cut to a point and with two barbs on either side. On the banks of the Uswiata, a little Polish river flowing into the Dnieper, two harpoons made out of the horns of some bovine animal were found, both in perfect preser^ vation, and with several barbs.^ Count Ouvaroff, in an excellent work published a little before his death, mentions a bone spear from the shores of the Oka, and Madsen and Montelius speak of Scandinavian harpoons. These weapons must have been especially useful in the North during the severe frosts of winter. The fisherman made a hole in the ice and struck the fish with his harpoon when the poor creatures came up to the surface to breathe, l^ From the most remote times the Americans knew how to make and use harpoons. As many as twenty- eight different kinds are known.^ In some the barbs are bilateral, but most of them have them on one side only. Some, however, are made of stag or elk horn, and one harpoon from Maine is made of whalebone. A harpoon-point found near Detroit (Michigan) is nearly a foot long by one inch thick. Excavations in a rock shelter in Alaska yielded a harpoon which lay side by side with some of the most ancient Quater- nary mammals of America. A good many copper harpoon-heads are also mentioned ; one of the largest from Wisconsin is ten inches long. Others have been found in the island of Santa Barbara (Cali- i . 1 ^ . ' Wiadomosei Arch/ologizne, No. iv., Warsaw, 1882. ^ Ch. Rau : " Prehistoric Fishing in Europe and America." FISH AND FISHING. 6/ fornia) and in Tierra del Fuego, where the natives of the present day still use similar ones. These harpoons with barbs ai-e by no means simple weapons, the idea of which would naturally occur to the human mind, so that it is really extremely strange to find weapons so entirely similar in regions so different and so widely separated from one another. This constant similitude in the working of the genius of man is, as we shall never tire of repeating, one of the most striking facts revealed by prehistoric researches. Herodotus tells that the Poeui •(Carthaginians) plunged baskets into the water and drew them up full of fish. It is probable that the Lake Dwellers of Hel- vetia employed a similar process, but these ancient Swiss were already more advanced than that. They knew how to cultivate hemp, to spin it, and to make nets of it ; the remains of some of these nets have often of late years been taken from the beds of the lakes. It is almost impossible to class with any certainty the numerous Lake Stations of Switzerland. Some few certainly date from the Stone age, others from the transition period, between it and that of the early use of metals, or even from the Bronze age. As therefore they have been occupied at different times by different people, some of them having even been still in use in the time of the Romans, it is most difficult to %.il with any precision the date to which belong the various ob- jects mixed together beneath the deep waters of the / lakes. We can only say that the nets differ very much in the size of the meshes, and the thickness of the rope used. Those found at Robenhausen are very like those in use in France at the present day. There has, in fact, been no advance in the ai't of making 68 PREHISTORIC PEOPLES. fishing-tackle since tlie remote days of the Lake Dwellers. We are ignorant of the mode of manufacture of prehistoric nets. Did the Lake Dwellers, as some archaeologists are disposed to think, use a loom ? Did they use shuttles and rollers such as are employed by the Esquimaux and Californians of the present day ? It is impossible to say, but it is supposed that the bears' teeth sharpened to a point, found in some sta- tions, were used to tighten the meshes. These meshes were generally square, and each one was finished oif with a knot of the same size at each intersection. The lead weights so indispensable to fishermen of the present day for sinking the nets, were represented in prehistoric times by stones. These stones, which are drilled or notched, are found in all the Lake Sta- tions. The fragments of pottery pierced with a hole^ found at Schussenried, a Lake Station of the Stone age on the Feder-See (Wurtemburg), were probably used for the same purpose. In some of the Swiss Lake Stations have also been found pieces of wood and cork, pierced with one or more holes, which had certainly served as floats. Numerous stone implements of the most primitive forms, often of rock not native to the country, have been found in some of the islands of Greece, as well as in Corsica, Sardinia, Elba, and Sicily. These dis- coveries bear witness to the presence of man in these islands at a very remote antiquity, though no other traces of the existence of prehistoric human beings have as yet been found there. These men can only have reached the islands by way of the sea. Boats were the only means of communication between the EFFORTS A T NA VJGA TION. 69 Lake Dwellers of Switzerland and the mainland, and, as we have seen, the ancient Scandinavians hunted fish on the deep ocean. We must therefore admit that attempts at navigation were made in the very earliest days of humanity. Man, impelled by necessity, or perhaps only by curiosity, was not afraid to launch his bark, first upon the rivers, and later upon the more formidable waves of the sea : Illi robur et ses triplex Circa pectus erat, qui fragilem truci Commisit pelago ratem Primus.^ The Latin poet is right, and we cannot but admire those who were the first to brave the terrors of the deep and the horrors of the tempest ; for they were gifted alike with the intelligence which conceives, the courage that dares, and the strength that achieves. Trees torn up by the roots by the force of the waters, and floating on the surface of those waters, naturally attracted the attention of primeval man, and the first boats were doubtless the trunks of such trees roughly squared and then hollowed out with the help of fire. Later experience led to the addition of a prow which would more easily cleave the water, and a stern which would serve as a pivot. These canoes, if such a name may be already given to them, were at first guided by branches stripped of their leaves, or with long poles. Then oars or paddles were intro- duced, which are better for beating the water, and in later barks traces have been made out of what is sup- posed to have been a mast, indicating the use of a sail. The art of navigation may now be^said to have been ^ Horace: "Odes," book i., ode iii. 70 PREHISTORIC PEOPLES, inaugurated. In different parts of Europe have been found . boats which certainly belong to very remote times, though their exact date cannot be fixed. Their construction greatly resembles that of the pirogues of the Polynesians, or the kayaks of the Grreenlanders. One of the most ancient, now in the Berlin Provincial Museum, was taken from a peat-bog of Brandenburg.^ It is 27 feet long and scarcely 16 inches wide. Sir W. Wilde describes several boats from the marshes and peat-bogs of Ireland,^ many of which have handles cut in the wood at the ends, by the help of which they could easily be dragged along overland. Sir W. Wilde adds that the Irish also used ciirraglis^ or coracles^ which were mere wicker frames covered with the skins of oxen. These frail barks introduce us to a new mode of navigation ; they are met with not only in the different countries of Europe, but also in America, and were in use there in pre-Columbian times. Even more interesting examples have been found in Scotland.^ Towards the close of last century a pirogue was taken from the ancient bed of the Clyde at Glasgow. Since then have been discovered, at depths varying from six to twelve feet, more than twenty similar boats. The deposits in which they lay had formerly been beneath the sea, but are now some twenty feet above the level of the ocean. Great changes have therefore taken place since these barks were launched upon the waves.' Their mode of con- ' Friedel : " Ftihrer durch die Fischerei Abtheilung." ^ " A Catalogue of the Antiquities in the Museum of the Royal Academy." '^ Proceedings of the Royal Academy of Scotland, vol. iii. Dr. R. Munro : " Ancient Scottish Lake Dwellings or Crannoges," Edinburgh, 1882. '* Geikie, Edinburgh Ne7V Philosophical yournal, vol. xv. De Lapparent : " Traite de Geologic, " first edition, p. 518. EFFORTS AT NA VIGA TION. /I struction is an excellent indication of the date to which they belong. Some which are hollowed out of the trunks of oaks by the help of fire, or with a blunt tool, are supposed by Lyell to date from the Stone age. Others have clean-cut notches, evidently made with metal implements. Some are made of planks joined together with wooden pegs, and one canoe found in County Gralway even contained copper nails. Most of the boats from the bed of the Clyde seem to have foundered in still waters. Some, however, were dis- covered in a vertical position, others had the keel uppermost, and these latter had evidently sunk in a storm. In one of these boats was a diorite hatchet of the kind characteristic of Neolithic times; another, the wood of which was perfectly black, had become as hard as marble, and in it was a cork plug. Then, as now, the oak which yields cork was foreign to the cold climate of Scotland. We will quote but one of the discoveries made in England. In 1881 a canoe, hollowed out of the trunk of a tree, was found at Bovey-Tracey in Devonshire. It lay in a deposit of brick-earth more than twenty- nine feet below the highest level reached by the waters of the Bovey.^ It was more than thirty-five inches wide, and its length could not be exactly determined, the workmen having broken it in getting it out. An eminent archaeologist is of opinion that this boat dates from the Glacial epoch, perhaps even from a more remote time. If this hypothesis, the responsibility of which we leave to him, be correct, this is the most ancient witness in existence of pre- ^ "Discoveries in the more Recent Deposits of the Bovey Basin," Trans. Devonshire ^jj., 1883. 72 PREHISTORIC PEOPLES. "historic navio:atioD. We must also mention a boat found near Brigg (Lincolnshire), a few feet from a little river that flows into the Humber. It is about forty- five feet long by three and a half feet wide, and is some three feet high. The prow is fluted. There are no traces of a mast, though the size of the boat must have made it difficult to manage with oars alone. One of the pirogues preserved at the Copenhagen Museum is made of one half of the trunk of a tree, some six feet long, hollowed into the shape of a trough, and cut straight at both ends.^ It is curious to compare this clumsy structure with a boat recently discovered beneath a tumulus at Gogstadten in Nor- way (Fig. 14), of which, though it dates from historic times, we give a drawing, as it is a good illustration of the progress made. The dead Viking had been laid in his boat, as the most glorious of tombs ; with its prow pointing seawards, for would not the first thoughts of the chief when he awoke in another life be of the sea which had witnessed his triumphs ? The sides of the boat, which was more than sixty-six feet long and fifteen across the widest part, were painted, and around it was ranged a series of shields lapping over one another like the scales of a fish, and not unlike the designs seen in the celebrated Bayeux tapestry. A block of oak intended to receive the mast was placed in the centre of the boat, and near the skeleton were oars some fifteen feet long and similar in form to those now in use. Inlaying the foundations of the bridge of Les Inva- lides, Paris, a boat was taken out of the mud which had lain there for many centuries. Like most of those ' " Nordische Oldsager i der kongelige Museum i Kjobenhawn." tJ3 O O 74 PREHISTORIC PEOPLES. already mentioned, it bad been made out of a single trunk roughly squared. Everywhere, we must repeat once again, man's original ideas were the same ; every- where the tree floating on the top of the water excited his curiosity, and became the starting-point for one of his most important discoveries. Traces of similar attempts at navigation are met with in other parts of France ; a canoe was found in the Loire near Saint Mars, and the Dijon Museum possesses another from the same river, the latter some sixteen feet long, and traces have been made out of what are supposed to have been seats, but may have been mere contrivances for strengthening the boat. A canoe taken last year from the bed of the Cher is of the shape of a trough closed at the end by pieces of wood fixed by means of vertical grooves. The prow had been shaped in the first instance in the trunk itself, and it was probably owing to an accident, a collision perhaps, that it had had to be mended in this way (Fig. 15). The Lake Dwellers of Switzerland owned boats from the time of their first settlement in their water homes. One of them found at- Robenhausen is more than ten feet long, and is very shallow, var^ang from six to eight inches. Like most of those ali'eady mentioned, it was hollowed out of the trunk of a tree, bulging out towards the centre, and rounded at the ends. So far none but stone tools have been found at the station of Robenhausen, so that we must presume that it was with such tools that the boat was made. The lakes of Bienne and Geneva, and the stations of Morges and Estavayer have also yielded boats which are doubtless less ancient than those of which I have just spoken. In nearly all of them the prow is curiously pointed. 1^ PREHISTORIC PEOPLES, One of them from the Lake of Neuchatel, large enough to hold twelve people, has a beak at the stern and -a rounded prow ; but there is no sign of any contrivance for keeping the oars in place. Lastly, a boat has been found in Switzerland some 3,900 feet above the valley of the Rhine, but no one can say how it came to be at such a height. These canoes, whatever their shape or size, can only have been worked by means of oars, yet oars have sel- dom been found. The Geneva Museum, however, has 8. METRES. f^ Fig. i6. — A lake pirogue found in the Lake of Neughatel. i. As seen from the outside. 2 and 3. Longitudinal and transverse sections. one which came from the muddy bed of an Italian lake, and others are preserved in the Royal Museum of Dub- lin, which have every sign of great antiquity. In de- fault of the actual oars, we have other proofs of their use. Gross ^ mentions a boat (Fig. 16) in which holes had been made in the upper parts of the sides to hold the oars. In 1882 a pirogue was taken out of the bed of the Rhone at Cordon (Ain), which had been half buried in the mud of the river. The wood was black and the upper portions were charred, but the middle part ' " Les Proto-Helvetes," Nature, 1880, ist week, p. 151. EFFORTS AT NAVIGATION, yy was still intact and very liard. The holes, pierced in the sides at regular intervals, may have served to keep the oars in place. The position of the rowers at the bottom of the boat was very unsatisfactory. It was not, however, until later that we find seats so placed as to enable the rowers to put out all their strength. At a recent meeting of the Anthropological Society (July 21, 1887) M. Letourneau observed that the rudder came into use very slowly. It was not known to the Egyptians or to the Phoenicians, nor, which is still more strange, to the Greeks and Romans. Their vessels, whatever their size, were guided by two large oars ( gubernaculum ) placed in the stern. The Chi- nese appear to have been the only people who were acquainted with the use of the rudder from time im- memorial. It is probable that from them it passed to the Arabs and even perhaps to the people of Europe. A discovery made near Abbeville is the most ancient example we have of the use of the mast. Some works being executed at the fortifications of the town, brought to light a boat which must have been some twenty-one feet long. Two projections form part of the planking, leaving between them a rectangular space in which the mast was probably fixed.^ Professor Gastaldi speaks of a wooden anchor taken from a peat-bog near Arona, beneath which was a pile dwelling. He dates it from the time when the use of bronze was already beginning to spread in the north of Italy. A stone of peculiar shape found at Niddau is, they say, an Anker stein (anchor stone). This name is also given by Friedel to a good-sized round lump of sandstone with a deep groove near the middle. Lastly, ^ " Mem. Soc. d'Emulation d' Abbeville," 1867. 78 PREHISTORIC PEOPLES, Ker viler, in crossing a basin of the Bay of Penhouet, near Saint-Nazaire, found several stones vrhich -had evidently been used to keep boats at anchor, and with the aid of which we can get an idea of the methods employed by ancient navigators (Fig. 17). Such are the only details we have on the important subject of prehistoric anchors, but we may add that ancient fishermen probably ventured but a short dis- FlG. 17. — Stones used as anchors, found in the Bay of Penhouet. i, 2, 3, stones weighing about 160 pounds each. 4 and 5, lighter stones, probably used for canoes. tance from the land, and would not need anchors, as they could easily carry their light boats on shore. We have now passed in review the conditions of the life of our remote ancestors, noting the animals that were their contemporaries, and the fish that peopled the watercourses near which' they lived, We have studied the earliest efforts at navigation, made in the pursuit of fish, and we must now go back to examine the weapons, tools, and ornaments of these ancient peoples, and trace in those objects the dawn of art. This will be the aim of our next chapter. CHAPTER HI. WEAPOIS^S, TOOLS, POTTERY ; ORIGIN OF THE USE OF FIRE, CLOTHING, ornaments; EARLY ARTISTIC EFFORTS. The Vedas show us Indra, armed with a wooden club, seizing a stone with which to pierce Yritra, the genius of evil.^ Does not this call up a picture of the earliest days of man upon the earth ? His first weapon was doubtless a knotty branch torn from a tree as he hurried past, or a stone picked up from amongst those lying at his feet. These were, how- ever, but feeble means with which to contend with formidable feline and pachydei-matous enemies. Man had not their great physical strength ; he was not so fleet a runner as many of them ; his nails and teeth were useless to him, either for attack or defence ; his smooth skin was not enough protection even from the rigor of the climate. Such inequality must very quickly have led to the defeat of man, had not God given to him two marvellous instruments : the brain which ^ Indra, the all-seer, to whom it is given to pierce the cloud, personified by Vritra, and " to open the receptacles of the waters with his far-reaching thun- der-bolts," is of course the sun, the worship of which was one of the earliest and most natural instincts of humanity ; whilst Vritra was in the first instance merely the symbol of the cloud, intervening between heaven and earth, shutting out from men the light of the sun, and keeping back the refreshing rain. The gradual conversion of these natural phenomena into a good and a malignant power, ever struggling for the mastery, is a forcible illustration of the way in which myths are evolved.-^TRANS. 79 80 PREHISTORIC PEOPLES. ^^ \ conceives, and tlie hand which executes. To brute force man opposed intelligence, a glorious struggle i which he was sure to come off victorious, for in t words of Victor Hugo, " Ceci^jlevait tuer cela." The huge animals of Quaternary times have disappeared for ever, whilst man has survived, victor over Nature herself. Even before his birth, an immutable decree had ordained that nothing on the earth should check his development. Man alone amongst the countless creatures around him knew anything of the past, and he alone was able to predict the future. Even apes, however great the intelligence that may be attributed to them, have remained very much what they .were from the first. In vain has one generation succeeded another; they still obey the dictates of their brutal instincts, as their ancestors did before them ; and if apes continue to propagate their species thousands of years hence they will remain what we see them to be now. Dogs, too, will remain dogs, elephants will continue to be ele- phants ; beavers will make their dams exactly like those of the present day, wasps will never learn to make honey as bees do, and bees will never be able, like ants, to bring up plant-lice to be their servants, or to enslave other families. Their instincts are incapa- ble of progress, and in their eai'liest efforts they reach the limit assigned to them by the Eternal Wisdom. To man alone has it been given to understand what has been done by his predecessors, to walk more firmly in the path along which they groped, to pronounce clearly the words they stammered. Without a doubt we descend from the men who lived in the midst of primeval forests, or amongst stagnant marshes, dwell- WEAPONS, TOOLS, 8 1 ing in caves, for the possession of wliicli they often had to fight with the wild beasts around them. These men, however, knew that one result achieved would lead to another, if similar means were used ; they saw that a pointed stone would inflict a deeper wound than a blunt one on the animal they hunted, and therefore they learnt to sharpen stones artificially ; the skins of beasts, flung over their shoulders, protected them from cold, and they learned to make garments ; seeds sprouted around them, and they learned to plant them ; they noticed the eifect of heat upon metals, and tried to mix them ; wild animals wandered around them, and they learned to reduce them to slavery. Every bit of knowl- edge won, and every progress made, became the starting- point for fresh acquisitions, fresh advances, which thenceforth remained forever the common heritage of the human race. It was thus that experience early taught our remote ancestors that rock chips more easily under the blows of a hammer when fresh from the quarry ; and every- M^here men learnt^ to choose the stone best suited to their purpose. For hatchets, wedges, and hammers, they used jade and kindred substances, such as fibro- lite, diorite, and basalt, which were at the same time extremely durable, and very impervious to blows. For spear- and arrow-heads, knives, saws, and all instru- ments requiring sharp points and cutting edges, they employed quartz, jaspar, agate, and obsidian, according to the situation of the worker; all these materials, though extremely hard, being easily split into thin sharp flakes. The blocks of stone were very methodi- cally cut up ; they were, in fact, to use a very appro- priate expression of M. Dupont's, scaled (ecailles). We 82 PREHISTORIC PEOPLES. give drawings of a few of these implements (Figs. 18, 19, and 20), which ilhistrate the earliest efforts of man, efforts which may be looked upon as the starting- point of all those industries which in the course of centuries have developed results which it is impossible to contemplate without astonishment. The most ancient tools which have come down to us were clumsy and heavy, cut on both sides and pointed Fig. i8. — Scraper from the Dela- ware Valley. Fig. 19, — Implement from the Delaware Valley. (Fig. 20). They may vary in material, in size, and in finish, but they can always be easily recognized.^ Were they man's only weapons ? We hesitate to be- lieve it, and the careful researches of M. d'Acy add to our incredulity.^ He tells us that at Saint- Acheul, ' De Mortillet : " Le Prehistorique," Paris, 1883, p. 133. 2 " Limon du Plateau du Nord de la France," Paris, 1878. Acheuleen et Mousterien : Revue dcs Questions Scientijiques, October, 1880. Bui, Soc, Anth., 1884, 1887. WEAPONS, TOOLS. 83 which was the very cradle of these strange discoveries, the almond shape is found mixed with the pointed amongst the Moustier flints, so that what is true in one place is not in another, and any general conclusion would certainly be premature. It would take us a long time to enumerate the coun- tries where tools of the Chelleen ^ type have been found. They are met with in the valleys of the rivers of Fig. 20. — Worked flints from the Lafaye and Plantade shelters (Tarn-et- Garonne). France, now imbedded in the flinty alluvium, now strewn upon the surface of the soil. Though rare in Germany, they are found in abundance in the southeast of England, and it is to this period that must be assigned the discoveries at Hoxne, and in the basins of the Thames, the Ouse, and the Avon. Similar dis- coveries have been frequent in Italy, Spain, Algeria, * ChelUen, so called from their having been found at Chelles (Seine-et-Marne), where the remains of the Elephas antiquus^ the most ancient of the pachyderms now known in Europe, was associated with these tools. 84 PREHISTORIC PEOPLES. and Hindostan. Dr. Abbott speaks of the finding of such implements in the glacial alluvium of the Dela- ware (Figs. 18 and 19), Miss Babitt in the alluvial deposits of the Mississippi, Mr. Haynes in New Hamp- shire, Mr. Holmes in Colombia, and other explorers in the basin of the Bridget and at Guanajuato in Mexico. Everywhere these implements are identical in shape and in mode of construction, and very often they are associated with the bones of animals of extinct species. Sometimes these Chelleen tools (the French call them coups de poing) have retained at the base a pro- jection to enable the user to grasp them better; these certainly never had handles, but it will not do to draw any general conclusions from that fact ; and an exami- nation of the collection of M. d'Acy, the most complete we have of relics of the Chelleen period, proves on the contrary that certain tools could not have been used unless they had been fixed into handles. In the following epoch, to which has been given the name of Mousterien, from the Moustier Cave (Dor- dogne), we already meet with more vai'ied forms, in- cluding scrapers, saws, knife-blades, and spear- or arrow-heads, with the special characteristic of being cut on one side only. These implements are found not only in the alluvium as are the Chelleen coups de poing , but also in the cave or rock-shelter deposits. Amongst the mammalian remains with which they are associated are those of the mammoth, the Rhinoceros ticliorliinus^ the elk, the horse, the aurochs, the cave-lion, the cave- hyena, and the cave-bear, remarkable for the constancy of their characteristics. The Elephas antiquus and the Rhinoceros MercMi that belonged to the preceding period have now completely passed away, and the WEAPONS, TOOLS. 85 reindeer, now appearing for the first time, are still far from numerous. In the Solutreen period, so named after the cele- brated Lake Station of Solutre, we find stalked arrow- heads w4th lateral notches,^ flint-heads of the form of laurel leaves, which are remarkable for their regularity of shape and delicacy of finish ; as compared with those of previous periods, the forms are much more delicate and elegant. Many of the caves of the south of France belong to this period. It is difficult to mention them all, and even more difficult to make out a complete list of contemporary mammalia ; the deposits generally actually touch those of another period, and the separa- tion of the objects in them has not always been made with all the 6are that could be wished. At Solutre, remains of the horse predominate ; whilst in other places those of the reindeer are met with in consider- able quantities, and with them are found the bones of the cave-bear, the wild cat (a creature considerably larger than the tigers of the present day), and of the mammoth, which lived on in Europe many centuries. Lastly to the Madeleine period, so named after the Madeleine Cave (Dordogne), and considered one of the most important of the cave epochs, belong tools and weapons of all manner of shapes and materials, inclu- ding bone, horn, and reindeer antlers ; from this time also date barbed arrows and harpoons, batons of office, telling of social organization ; the engravings and carv- ings on which bear witness to the development of artistic feeling. On the other hand, the flint arrow- heads and knife-blades are not so finely cut ; we see that man had learned to use other materials than stone. • De Mortillet : " Musee Prehistorique," pi. xvi. to xix. 86 PREHISTORIC PEOPLES. The reindeer is the most characteristic animal form of the Madeleine period. To the times we have just passed in review succeeded others of a very different kind, to which has been given the genera] name of Neolithic. The fauna, probably under the influence of climatic and orographic changes, underwent a complete transformation ; the mammoth, the cave-bear, the megaceros, and the large felidae died out, the hippopotamus was no longer seen, except in the heart of Africa ; the reindeer and other mammals that love to frequent the regions of perpetual snow^, retired to the extreme north; and in their place ap- peared our earliest domestic animals, the ox, the sheep, the goat, and the dog. Man, who witnessed these changes, continued to progress ; he abandoned his nomad for a sedentary life ; he ceased to be a hunter, and became an agriculturist and a shepherd. Every- w^here we meet with traces of new customs, new ideas, and a new mode of life. This progress is especially seen in the industrial arts. Metals it is true are still unknown, but side by side with tools, which are merely chipped or roughly cut, we find for the first time hatchets, celts, small knife-blades, and arrow-heads admirably polished by the long-continued rubbing of one stone on another. Polishers, so much worn as to bear witness to long service, are numerous in all collec- tions, and rocks and erratic blocks retain incisions which must have been used for the same purpose.^ It is impossible to enumerate the number of polished hatchets which have been found ; their number is sim- ply incalculable. Of all of them, however, those of ' M. de Mortillet enumerates 127 polishers found at various points in thirty departments of France. " Le Prehistorique," first edition, p. 534. WEAPONS. TOOLS. 8/ Scandinavia are tlie most remarkable for delicacy of workmanship. With the fine hatchets of Brittany, may be compared the blades found at Volgu, and pre- served in the Museum of Copenhagen, and those in pink, gray, and brown flint, from the Sordes Cave in the south of France ; but we cannot ^iii the date of the production of any of them. One of the great difficul- ties of prehistoric research, a difficulty not to be got over in the present state of our knowledge, is to dis- tinguish with any certainty the periods into which an attempt has been made to divide the life-story of man from his first appearance upon earth. Was there any abrupt transition from one period to another ? Must we accept the theory of a long break caused by geological phenomena, and the temporary depopulation which was one of the consequences of these phenomena ? Did the new era of civilization date from the arrival of foreign races, stronger and better fitted than those they succeeded for the struggle for existence ? Or are these changes merely the result of the natural progress which is one of the laws of our being? These questions cannot now be solved, and if the industries which are at the present moment the object of our researches, bear witness to the employment of a new process, that of polishing, we are bound to add that everywhere Palaeolithic forms are still persistent. Flints, merely chipped, are clumsy tools, but there is no break in their series till we come to the splendid specimens from Scandinavia or from Mexico. Of the seven types of the Solutreen period, six are met with in the time now under consideration.^ Five types of Solutreen javelins have also been found in the Durfort * Piette : Ass. Fran^. pour V Avancement des Sciences, Nantes, 1875, p. 909. 88 PREHISTORIC PEOPLES. Cave, and beneath the dolmens of Aveyron and of Lozere. Neolithic weapons, such as those found in the Moustier Cave, are not so numerous, but the type adopted there is not such a fine one nor so carefully finished, which accounts for its having been more rarely copied. If we examine the knives, awls, scrapers, and saws, we come to the same conclusion, although comparison is not so easy. " A knife is always a knife, an awl is always an awl," remarks M. Cartailhac ; " they were made at every period, and their resemblance to each other proves nothing with any certainty." Rounded stones of granite or sandstone seem how- ever to have been weapons peculiar to the Neolithic period. Dr. Pommerol recently spoke at the Anthro- pological Society of Paris, of two such rounded stones picked up in the Puy-de-D6me. Similar stones have been discovered at Viry-Noureuil, and M. Massenat has one in his collection from Chez-Pourre. Are not these rounded stones of a similar character to the holas flung by the ancient Gauls, and still in use amongst the in- habitants of the pampas of South America ? As we have already remarked, man from the earliest times must often have held in his hands the stones which served him as weapons or as tools. The marks of hammering on the smooth surfaces, the rounded projections and the grooves worked in these stones, were evidently made to prevent the hand or the thumb from slipping. Soon, however, reflection led man to understand the increase of force he would gain by the addition to the stone of a handle of wood or horn, stas: or reindeer antler. This addition of a handle was sim- ple enough : the workman merely bound it to the hatchet with fibrous roots, leather thongs, or ligaments WEAPONS, TOOLS. 89 taken from the gut of the animals slain in the chase (Fig. 21). At first sight we are astonished at the results obtained with such wretched materials, but it is impossible to dispute them, for we have seen the same thing done in our own day. Other hatchets, chiefly those of a small size, were fixed into sheaths made of stag-horn, and two chief types of them have actually been made out.* The I. 2. Fig. 21.— I. Stone javelin-head with handle. 2. Stone hatchet with handle. sheaths of the first type are short and end in quad- rangular heads. They are found most frequently in Switzerland, in the basins of the Rhone and of the Saone, and throughout the south of France. Those of the second type are pierced with a hole large enough to pass the handle through. These are found in the northwest of France, in Belgium, and in England, ^ De Mortillet : " Le Prehistorique," p. 544 ; " Musee Prehistorique," figs. 431 to 434. 90 PREHISTORIC PEOPLES. Flint arrows of triangular or oval form, notched or stalked, were everywhere used for a considerable length of time. They are found in the numerous caves of France, beneath the antas of Portugal, in the tombs of Mykenae, as well as among the Ainos of Japan and the Patagonians of South America. Their use necessarily involves that of a bow, yet we do not know of a single weapon such as that, or of one that could take its place, dating from Palaeolithic times. Probably the rapid decomposition of the wood of which bows were made has led to their disappearance. De Mortillet^ mentions a bow found in a pile-dwelling in a bog near Robenhausen, which he ascribes to the Neolithic period. Another is known which was found at Lutz, also in Switzerland. To all appearance the most ancient bows of historic times greatly resemble these two pre- historic examples. Though flint was the material par excellence of Quaternary times for weapons and tools, it could not long suffice for the ever-growing needs of man. Our museums contain a complete series of bone or stag-horn implements such as darts, arrow-heads, barbed arrows, harpoons, fibulae, and finely cut needles often pierced with eyes (Fig. 22). The invention of barbs is worthy of special notice; the series of points made the blow- much more dangerous, as the projectile remained in the flesh of a wounded animal which was not able to get it out. But this was not the only object of the barbs. Arranged symmetrically on either side of the arrow they kept it afloat in the air like the wings of a bird, which may perhaps have suggested their use and increased the effect and precision of the shot. ' " Musee Prehistorique, " fig. 410. 92 PREHISTORIC PEOPLES. The Marsoulas Cave has yielded one bevelled arrow shaft, made of reindeer antler, with a deep groove on the surface. A similar arrow-head was found in the Pacard Cave, and in other places arrows have been found with one or more grooves on the surface. Were these grooves or drills intended to hold poison, and was man already acquainted with this melancholy mode of destruction ? We know that the use of poison was known at the most remote historic antiquity.^ The Greeks and Scythians used the venom of the viper, and other peoples employed vegetable poisons. There is nothing to prevent our believing that similar methods were in use in prehistoric times. Fig. 23 — Amulet made of the penien bone of a bear, and found in the Marsoulas Cave. There is no doubt that it is the caves of the south of France which have yielded the most interesting objects ; needles with drilled eyes, and barbed arrows have been picked up in considerable numbers at Eyzies, Laugerie-Basse, at Bruniquel, Massat, and in the Madeleine Cave. Dr. Garrigou mentions some rein deer or roebuck antlers found in Ariege caves, which had been made into regular stilettos. In the deposits at Lafaye were found stilettos or bodkins, varying in length from two to six inches; needles measuring from nineteen to one hundred and five millimetres and provided with eyes; at Marsoulas were found ; <- ' T.agneau : " De I'Uusage des Fleches emppisonnees chez les Anciens Peuples I'Europe," Ac, des Insc, 2d November, 1877. WEAPONS, TOOLS, 93 an amulet made of tlie penien bone of a bear (Fig. 23), some pendants, and some pointed pieces of bone which jastonish us by the delicacy of their workmanship, and the drawings with which they were adorned. At Paviland, Dr. Buckland discovered a wolf bone cut to a point. Kent's Hole yielded a number of needles resembling those of the Madeleine Cave; at Aggtelek (Hungary) were found some bones of the cave-bear pointed to serve as daggers, cut into scrapers Fig. 24. — Various stone and bone objects from California. or pierced to serve as amulets or ornaments. In Bel- gium, objects very similar to these have been found made of reindeer antler and dating from the most re- mote times. The antlers moulted by the reindeer in the spring were in especial request. Excavations in the sepulchral mounds near San Francisco (California) have yielded thousands of bone implements (Fig. 24). Others similar to them have been found in the layers of cinders at Madison villa 94 PREHISTORIC PEOPLES. (Ohio) and beneath the numerous kitchen-middings of the coasts of the Atlantic and Pacific. The processes employed by the cave-men were very simple. In one of the excavations superintended by him, M. Dupont ^ picked up the radius of a horse bear- ing symmetrically made incisions executed with a view to getting off splinters of the bone. These splinters were rounded by rubbing either with chips of flint, or on such polishers as are to be seen in any of the museums ; then one end was sharpened, and the other, if need were, pierced with a hole. It is astonishing to find some of them as fine as the steel needles of the present day, and with perfectly round eyes made with the help of nothing but a rough flint, and there would still be some doubt on the subject, if M. Lartet ^ had not obtained exactly similar results by working on frairments of bone Avith the flints he had found in these excavations. Other experiments of a similar kind were no less conclusive, for Merk ^ perforated an ivory plaque with a pointed flint which he used as a gimlet. Some objects, which are supposed to date from Neo- lithic times, bear witness to an altogether unexpected degree of civilization. In the heart of Germany, in the peat-bogs of Laybach and Worbzig on the banks of the Saale, have been found earthenware spoons of the shape of modern spatulse; at Gerafhn on Lake Bienne, a finely shaped spoon made of the wood of a yew tree ; and at Lagozza, another in shining black earthenware. Lartet had already brought to light a bone implement covered with ornaments in relief which ' " Les Temps Prehistoriques en Belgique," p. 151. ' " Reliquiae Aquitanicse," p. 127. ^Nature, 1876, second week, p, 5. POTTERY. 95 he ascribed to the Palseolitliic period, and which he imagined had been used for extracting marrow ; and another archaeologist tells of objects in reindeer antler found in the Gourdan Cave, which he thinks were used for a similar purpose. In the Saint- Germain Museum* are preserved the remains of spoons from the bed of the Seine, and in the collections of England are fragments of bone taken from beneath the West-Kennet dolmen, which were all prob- ably employed for extract- ing marrow. But the most important discovery of all, which leaves no doubt on the subject, is that made by M. Perrault at the Chassey Camp, near Chalon-sur-Saone, beneath a hearth dating from Neolithic times. He collected fourteen earthenware spoons ; one of them of a round shape and remarkable for its size, was unfortunately broken (Fig. 25). It is of brown earthenware with a rather rough surface mixed with bits of flint, and is so much worn that it had evidently been in use a long time. Lastly two spoons, also of earthenware, have recently been found Fig. 25. — Dipper found in the excavations at the the Chas- sey Camp. 96 PREHISTORIC PEOPLES. near Dondas (Lot-et-Graronne). The use of spoons, which certainly marked considerable progress, pjust therefore have spread rapidly. Long previously, however, pottery of a great variety of form bore witness to the plastic skill of man. Every- where we find vessels of coarse material mixed with grains of sand or mica to give more consistency to the paste which was baked in the fire, and had often no further ornamentation than the marks of the fingers of the potter. Does this pottery date from Palaeolithic times, or were the earthenware vessels later additions at the time of those disturbances of deposits which are the despair of archaeologists ? A few examples may enable us better to answer this question. Fraas tells us that fragments of pottery have been found in all the caves of Germany in which excavations have been made. He quotes that of Hohlefels, where he himself picked up such fragments amongst the bones of the mastodon, the mammoth, the rhinoceros, and the cave-lion, when the remains of these animals were for the first time found in Germany. In 1872, the making of the railway from Nuremberg to Ratisbon brought to light a cave of considerable depth. In its lower deposits were found nothing but the bones of hyenas, bears, and lions, of which the cave had been the resort for centuries. Among the most ancient deposits, relics of a similar kind were found in abundance, but now mixed with numerous fragments of pottery, worked flints, and fish bones, including those of the carp and the pike, with the bones of mammals, amongst which predominated those of the rhinoceros, most of them intentionally split open. At Argecilla, twenty leagues from Madrid, Vilanova discovered a regular workshop, POTTERY. gf in wMcli were knives and flint arrow-heads, together with some very primitive pottery made of clay that had evidently been brought from a distance, as there is none in the district in which the pottery was found. In an upper deposit Vilanova collected more than two hundred implements made of diorite, a rock frequently used in Spain, some very remarkable celts of serpentine dating from the Neolithic period, and numerous frag- ments of very delicate potter}^ Not far off he dis- covered another workshop, containing some very fine hatchets perfectly polished, and some keramic ware tastily ornamented. The progress made is as marked in the weapons and tools as in the pottery. We have also seen some fragments of earthenware from the caves of Chiampo and Laglio, near Lake Como, and from that known as the Cave dei Colombi, in the island of Palmaria, which was occupied shortly before the Neolithic period. But it is Belgium which yields the most decisive proof on this subject, and a visit to the Brussels Museum is enough to convince the most incredulous. The excavations made under M. Dupont in the caves of the Meuse and the Lesse have again and again brought to light fragments of pottery, asso- ciated with the bones of Palaeolithic animals. Schmer- ling, too, had already found similar fragments in the Engis Cave, mixed with flint weapons of the rudest description ; and his discoveries have been strikingly confirmed by those recently made at Spy, near Namur,^ and by others made by M. Fraipont.^ In portions of this same Engis Cave not previously explored the ^ In this cave, in the second ossiferous deposit, were found four fragments of pottery, De Puydt and Lohest : " L'Homme Contemporain du Mammouth." '^ " La poterie en Belgique a 1' age du mammouth," Revue d' Anthropologies 1887. 7 98 PREHISTORIC PEOPLES. learned professor of Li^ge found, in 1887, fragments of a vase of ovoid form, some flints of tlie Mousterien type, and some bones of extinct mammals. Most of the pottery in the Brussels Museum is black and of primitive make ; some few fragments, however, are of finished workmanship. We may mention especially an ovoid vase, remarkable for its size and for its lateral pro- jections. This vase, which is hand-mod- elled, came from the Frontal Cave ; the clay is of blackish hue mixed with little bits of calcareous spar. M. Ordinaire, Vice- Consul for France at Callao, speaks of the cayanes or ^nacaJiuas^ which are earthen- ware basins of great symmetry of form, made by the Combos women, without turn- ing wheels or mills of any kind. Though the elegant shape of the Frontal and other vases at first surprises us, reflection convinces us that men who could cut stones with such rare skill would certainly be able to produce equally good pottery. Similar instances may easily be quoted from France. Excavations at Solutre have yielded several fragments of yellow, hand-made pottery very insufi&ciently baked ; and other pieces have been found in the peat-bogs of Fig. 26, -^Pottery of a so far unclassified type found in the Argent Cave (France). POTTERY. 99 Bastide de Beam with the bones of reindeer, and worked flints similar to those found in Quaternary deposits. We may add that at Lafaye, Bize, and Pondre (Hainault) discoveries were made of pottery mixed with human remains and with those of animals now extinct ; and in the Argent Cave (Basses- Alpes) a new type, shown in Fig. 26, has been found which merits special attention. In the very earliest days of prehistoric research the Nabrigas Cave (Lozere) was excavated by M. Joly, who found in it many fragments of pottery. In a volume published shortly before his death he relates the circumstances of his discovery, and earnestly maintains its authenticity. Later excavations, made under the direction of masters in prehistoric science, would have thrown some doubts on the as- sertions made by the professor of Toulouse, if MM. Martel and Launay had not brought forward a fresh proof in support of it. " On the 30th August, 1885,'" they say, "we picked up at Nabrigas in a deep hole, untouched by previous excavations and not displaced by water, some human bones and a piece of pottery side by side with two skeletons of Ursus spelceus. The human bones, of indeterminate race, included an upper left maxillary, still retaining three teeth, an incomplete mastoid apophysis, and seven pieces of crania, belong- ing to different individuals. The piece of pottery only measured one and a half by two and a quarter inches ; the clay is gray and friable, bound together with big bits of quartz, mica, and a few particles of charcoal." There would appear to be no sufficient reason to ques- tion the exactness of a discovery so carefully studied. ^ Ac. des Sciences, Nov. 9, 1885. We must add that at a later seance M. Cartailhac contested, if not the facts, the conclusions deducted from them. lOO PREHISTORIC PEOPLES, Many eminent archaeologists, however, maintain that pottery was completely unknown in Palaeolithic 'times, and they do not hesitate to attribute to a later period any deposit in which it occurs where its presence cannot be accounted for by later displacements. M. Cartailhac declares that he has never been able to establish either in the south of France or in the cen- tral table-land a single fact w^hich justifies us in assert- ing that the men of the Reindeer period, still less those of earlier epochs, knew how to make pottery. The first explorers, he adds, did not always distinguish with sufficient care the vestiges of different epochs, the relics of diverse origins. How often have bones carried along by water, or brought where they are found by animals, been mixed with those abandoned by men, or the deposits of the Neolithic period with those of the earliest Quaternary times ! How often have the contents of a passage giving access to a cave been confounded with those of the cave itself ! Hence deplorable errors, which it is impossible to rectify now. Evans and Geikie in their turn assert the absence in England^ of Palaeolithic pottery, and Sir J. Lubbock energetically maintains this opinion. Doubtless these are great authorities, and yet, in view of the facts now known, it is difficult to believe that man was long a stranger to the art of making pottery. Its invention required no great effort of intelligence, and its fabrication presented no great difficulties. Man had but to knead the soft clay ' But what is the value of categorical assertions of this kind in presence of the fragments of pottery found at different levels in Kent's Hole ? One of these fragments was so rotten that when placed in water it formed a black liquid mud as it decomposed. 5 5 5 1' ■> ■ ORIGIN OF THE USE OF FIRE. ,'''.; \ 5€M, which he trod under his foot, and the plasticity of which he could not fail to notice. This clay hardened in the sun, and hollows were formed as it shrunk — the first vessel was discovered ! Experience soon taught man to replace the heat of the sun by that of the fire, and to add a few bits of some hard substance to give the clay greater consistency. These first crude and clumsy vases have been preserved to our own day as irrefutable witnesses to the work of our ancestors. Though, therefore, we cannot be sure that pottery was made in Quaternary times by all the races that peopled Europe,^ it is impossible to deny that a great many of them were in possession of the art. This difference in the degree of civilization attained to by men living but short distances from each other need not surprise us, for all travellers report similar facts amongst con- temporary savage races. The baking of pottery is a proof that the use of fire was known in the most remote times. The exist- ence in various places of masses of cinders, fragments of charred wood, and half-calcined bones, proves it yet more decidedly. At Solutre, at Louverne (Mayenne), at Saint-Florent (Corsica), to give but a few examples, we find large slabs of half -calcined stone, laid flat and covered with heaps of cinders and all sorts of rubbish. These slabs formed the family hearth, where man pre- pared his food, with the help of the fire he had learnt to ignite and to keep burning. How did man arrive at a discovery so vital to his ^ I have not space to speak here of the curious pottery found in America. The most ancient specimens, moreover, are of much later date than the Quater- nary epoch. I can only refer those interested in the subject to my book on " Prehistoric America," published in French by M. Masson of Paris, and in Eng- lish in America by Messrs. G. P. Putnam's Sons, I02 PREHISTORIC PEOPLES, existence ? The Vedas assign the origin of fire to the nibbing together in a storm of the dry branches of trees. " The first men," says Vitruvius/ ^' were born, as were other animals, in the forests, caves, and woods. The thick trees violently agitated by the storm took fire, through the rubbing together of their branches ; the fury of the flames terrified the men who found themselves near them and made them take to flight. Soon reassured, however, they gradually approached again and realized all the advantages they might gain for their bodies from the gentle warmth of the fire. They added fuel to the flames, they kept the fire up, they fetched other men whom they made understand by signs all the usefulness of this discovery. The men thus assembled articulated a few sounds, which, repeated every day, accidentally formed certain words which served to designate objects, and soon they had a language which enabled them to speak and to under- stand one another. It was, then, the discovery of fire which led men to come together to form a society, to live together, and to inhabit the same places." Without pausing to consider the somewhat puerile theories of Vitruvius, or the myths which testify to the importance attached to fire by primeval man, we are at liberty to suppose that a conflagration caused by lightning or by the spontaneous combustion of vegetable materials in a state of fermentation, or other similar phenomena, made known to man the power of fire, and the use it might be to him. The accidental striking together of two flints produced a spark ; ob- servation taught men to obtain a similar result by the same process ; a great step in advance was made, and * •• De Architectura," book ii., c. i. CLOTHING. 103 tlie future of humanity was assured. M. Dupont picked up in the Chaleux Cave a kidney-shaped piece of iron pyrites, hollowed out in a peculiar manner, which had evidently been used to obtain the precious spark. The Christy collection contains a granite pebble with a hole the shape of a cup, which had evidently been used to obtain fire, by rubbing round in it a stick of very dry wood. The two methods employed at the present day were therefore already in use. Lumholz tells us that the Australians of Herbert Kivef get fire by rub- bing two pieces of wood together. The Indians of the northwest of Colorado, the Yapais of the Caroline Islands, and the Mincopies of the Andaman Isles, with many other races, know no other process. We must, how- ever, still maintain a certain reserve in dealing with the fire-obtaining implements of so imperfect a nature, and belonging to times so remote as those called prehistoric. During bad seasons, or in the bitter cold of winter, primeval man contented himself with fl.inging over his shoulders the skins of the animals he had killed. He prepared these skins with flint scrapers, and sewed them together with bone needles. In hot weather man probably roamed about stark naked. Shame is not a natural instinct ; education alone develops it. Writing in 1617, Fynes Morison speaks of having seen at Cork young girls quite naked, engaged in crushing corn with a stone. The Tchoutchi women, says Nordenskiold, wear no clothes when in their tents, however great the cold. In tropical countries men, women, and children, all completely nude, went to meet the travellers who landed on their shores. Count Ursel, in a recent jour- ney in Bolivia, in going through a little town, saw "near the public fountain some young girls already (^ 104 PREHISTORIC PEOPLES. growing up making their ablutions and playing about in the garb of the earthly paradise." Traveller^ who visited Japan a few years ago reported that the inhabi- tants, without distinction of age or sex, came out of the water in a state of complete nudity, presenting a strange spectacle to European eyes. The sight of what is actually going on amongst comparatively civilized people in our own day enables us to understand better what must have been the state of things when the whole world was in a state of barbarism. It was not until much later, in the times to which the name of Neolithic has been given, that men made stuifs, and replaced the skins of animals by lighter and more flexible garments. The inhabitants of the Lake Stations of Switzerland and of Italy cultivated hemp. At Wangen and at Robenhausen have been found shreds of coarsely woven cloth, and at Lagozza frag- ments of yet more primitive material. On some of these pieces it is supposed that traces of fringe and attempts at ornamentation have been made out. Even in the Perigord caves Lartet noticed some long slim needles which could not have been used for sewing skins ; and he concluded that they were intended for more delicate work, perhaps even for embroidery. A new art, and one which we certainly should not have expected to find is now met with for the first time. It is probable that our savage ancestors tatooed themselves, or painted their bodies, as did the Britons in the time of Caesar, and as do modern savages, or, not to go so far afield, as do English sailors and some of the workingmen of France.^ At Montastruc ' On the subject of tatooing an excellent work may be consulted by Dr. Magitot (" Ass. Fran9. pour TAvancement des Sciences," Alger, 1881). ORNAMENTS. I05 have been picked up some fragments of red chalk, and in Mayenne of red iron ore, whilst in the cave of Spy was found a bone filled with a very fine red powder, and in that of Saltpetriere some powder of the same kind was discovered preserved from destruction in a shell. Lartet and Christy have made similar discov- eries in the caves of the Dordogne ; M. Dupont in a shelter at Chaleux, and M. E-iviere at Baousse-E-ousse. The Abbe Bourgeois found at Villehonneur not only a piece of red chalk as big as a nut, but also an oval- shaped pebble, w^hich had been used for grinding it, the interstices of the surface still retaining traces of coloring matter. Red chalk was not the only substance employed. At Chatelperron, were picked up fragments of manga- nese ; at Cueva de Rocca, near Valentia, pieces of cin- nabar ; in the Placard Cave, bits of black lead ; and in the different stations in the Pyrenees, especially in that of Aurensan, ochre has been found which was doubt- less used for the same purpose. At Solutre, ochre, manganese, and graphite were found ; the last named had been scraped with a flint, and the scratches made by it are still distinctly visible. From a Westphalian cave, Schaafhausen took some dark ^^ellow ochre ; at Castern (Staffordshire), a bit of this same calcareous substance, worn with long service, was picked up ; in Cantire (Argyleshire), a piece of red hematite, which had evidently been brought from Westmoreland or Lancashire ; and lastly, in Kent's Hole was found some peroxide of manganese. All these fragments oi ochre or manganese, red chalk or black lead, were reduced to powder with the help of pebbles, artificially hollowed out. Everywhere I06 PREHISTORIC PEOPLES. we meet with these primitive mortars, and side by side with them other pebbles in their native condition, which had evidently been used for crushing the color- ing matter. A recent discovery tends to confirm the hypothesis that these colors were used for the decoration of the human body. A curious engraving on a bone repre- sents the head and arm of a man, and on the lower part of the forearm it is easy to make out a four-sided design which evidently indicated tatooing. v In every country, and in eveiy climate, we find men as well as women manifesting a taste for ornament. The progress of civilization has greatly increased this taste, but it existed as a natural instinct in the very earliest days of humanity, and the contemporary of the mammoth and the cave-bear, the cave-man cowering in his miserable den, sought for ornaments with which to deck himself. In the caves near the stations occu- pied by primeval men we find little bits of fossil coral, beads of hardened clay, the teeth of bears, wolves, and foxes, boars' tusks, and the jawbones of small mam- mals, fish-bones, and belemnites pierced with holes, and intended to be used as amulets or ornaments to be worn round the neck. At Lafaye, we find the incisors of small rodents serving the same purpose. The dweller in the Sordes Cave owned a precious necklace made of forty bears' and three lions' teeth. The teeth found often haye on them ornamental lines, which c^ doubtless indicated the rank or celebrated the deeds , of the chief. The Abbe Bourgeois describes some stags' teeth found at Villehonneur (Charente), two of which bore scratches which may have had some signi- fication. At Cro-Magnon were picked up some ivory ORNAMENTS, \Oj plaques pierced with three holes; at Kent's hole were found some oval disks measuiing five by three inches, which in the delicacy of their workmanship presented a curious contrast to the other objects taken from the same cave. In the Belgian caves were picked up some thin slices of jet and some ivory plaques, and in those of the south of France fragments of steatite, cut into rectangular and lozenge shapes, whilst in the Thayngen Cave was found a pendant of lignite (Fig. 27). Men Avere not content with natural products ; fashion demanded new forms and fresh materials. Fig. 27. — I. Lignite pendant. 2. Bone pendant (Thayngen Cave). But what most attracted the attention of the ancient inhabitants of France were bright-colored shells. The caves of Roquemaure have yielded nearly a thousand disks and beads made of cockle-shells ; at Cro-Magnon more than three hundred shells were picked up which formed a collar or necklace, which was not however so valuable as that of the man of Sordes. M. de Maret discovered at Placard numerous shells ; some belong- ing to ocean species still extant, and others fossils of forms now extinct. Many of them are foreign to the country in which . they were found. From the most remote times therefore the inhabitants of the present department of Charente fished in the Gulf of Gascony, I08 PREHISTORIC PEOPLES. crossed Aquitania, visited the shell marl deposits of Anjou and Touraine, aud penetrated as far as. the present Paris basin. The finding of the Cyprina Islandica in one of the French caves proves that the prehistoric men of France even went as far away as the north of England. This is by no means an isolated fact ; numerous shells from the department of Cham- pagne had been taken to the shores of the Lesse and the Meuse. At Solutre have been found belemnites, ammonites, and Miocene shells, which were certainly never native to that district, with pieces of rock-crystal from the Alps, and beads made of a Jadeite of unknown origin. In Scotland have been found necklaces of nerites and limpets ; at Aurignac, eighteen little plaques of cockle shell pierced with holes in the centre. At Laugerie-Basse, a man overtaken by a landslip had been crushed by the stones which had fallen upon him ; time has destroyed his clothes, but the shells with which he had decked himself are still preserved.^ He had worn four on his forehead, two on each shoulder, four on each knee, and two on each foot. All idea of these shells having formed a necklace must be abandoned ; they were all notched, and had been used either to adorn or fasten the clothes. The most interesting discoveries, however, were those made in the caves of Baousse-Rousse, of which we have so often spoken. M. R-iviere picked up the skeletons of two children, some thousand shells (Nassa neritea) artificially pierced, which had been used to deck their garments. Near an adult were other shells forming a ^ Cypraa rufa^ Cypraa lurida (Comptes rendus Acad, des Sciences^ vol. Ixxxiv., p. 1060). ORNAMENTS. 109 necklace, a bracelet, an amulet, and a garter worn on the left leg ; whilst on the head was a regular resille or net, not unlike that of the Spanish national costume, w^hich net was made of small nerita shells and kept in place by bone pins. We must also mention amongst favorite ornaments beads made of jet and of very fine ochreous clay dried in the sun, of calcareous crystalline I'ock, and of gray- ish schist, and in other places of beads of amber or of hyaline quartz, the brightness of which attracted the attention. At the station of Menieux (Charente) with flints of a type to which it is usual to give the names of Mousterien or Solutreen, excavations have yielded numerous carefully polished balls of calx, varying in diameter from one to two inches. If there had been any doubts as to their use, those doubts would have been removed by the discovery at Laugerie-Basse of a fragment of the shoulder-blade of a reindeer on which was engraved the figure of a woman wearing round her neck a necklace of clumsy round balls. Other yet stranger ornaments have been found, for which what we have said about the cannibalism of early man should have prepared the reader. Our ancestors of the Stone age adorned themselves with necklaces of human teeth, and two skeletons have been dug out wearing round their necks this token of their victories. M. de Baye possesses in his collection some round pieces of skull pierced with holes (Fig. 28), and at the meeting of the American Association in 1886, at Ann Arbor (Michigan) were presented some orna- ments made of human bones from a mound in Ohio. In taking from the gangue in which it was imbedded a skull from the megalithic monument of Vaureal, no PREHISTORIC PEOPLES. Pruner Bey noticed a fragment of a human shoulder- blade pierced with an incision in which was fixed a little rounded piece of bone. This style of ornament seems to have remained in use for many centuries, for M. Nicaise has lately discovered at Moulin d'Oyes (Marne) a necklace made of calx balls, shells, and pendants cut out of the scales of unio shells. On this necklace hung a round piece of human cranium, and in the Gallic cemetery at Varille, the exterior lamina of a human lumbar vertebra was fastened to a necklace made of coral beads. AVe are also acquainted with facts of another order, which may be mentioned in this connection. The men Fig. 28. — Round pieces of skull pierced with holes (M. de Baye's collection). of Marjevols drank out of human crania ; the Grreno- ble Museum owns a drinking-vessel of this kind ; othei's have been discovered at Billancourt, at Cha- vannes, at the Chassey Camp, and at Sutz, ^fele, and Locras in Switzerland, as well as at Brookville in the State of Indiana. Dr. Prunieres possesses half a human radius, probably that of a female, carefully polished and converted into a stiletto (Fig. 29). Dr. Garrigou has an arrow-head made of a human bone, Pellegrino a fibula converted into a polisher found in the lower beds of the celebrated Castione terremare near Parma. At the meeting of the Prehistoric Con- ORNAMENTS, 1 1 1 gress in Paris iu 1869, Pereira da Costa mentioned a femora converted into a sceptre or staff of office, and to conclude this melancholy list, Longperier mentions a human bone pierced with regular openings, which, by a strange irony of death, served as a flute to delight the ears of the living. One of the eai'liest necessities of human nature must have been companionship ; for help was absolutely Fig. 2g. — Part of a rounded piece of a human parietal — Stiletto made of the end of a human radius — Disk made of the burr of a stag's antler. necessary to enable man to cope with the dangers sur- rounding him. Tribes, formed at first of members of the same family, must have existed from the very dawn of humanity. The reindeer phalanges, pierced to serve as whistles (Fig. 30), found at Eyzies, Schussenreid, Laugerie-Basse, Bruniquel, in the Chaff and Cave and the Belgian shelters, in a peat-marsh of Scania, in the 112 PREHISTORIC PEOPLES. island of Palmaria, and in many otlier places, were doubtless used to summon men to war or to the ehase. In the Cottes Cave were found some reindeer and aurochs' shanks, which may naturally be supposed to have served the same purpose. The curious objects preserved in the Christy collections must also have been used in war or in the chase. They bear, in addition to the mark of their owner, notches of dif- ferent shapes commemorating his exploits in battle or in hunting. At Solutre, MM. Ducrost and Arcelin noticed fragments of elephants' tusks, calcareous plaques, and some sandstone disks from the Trias, with notches and equidistant lines evidently having a similar purpose. Fig. 30. — Whistle from the Massenat Collection. From whistles to regular musical instruments the transition is simple. Without describing that men- tioned by M. de Longperier, which we cannot confi- dently assert to be of great antiquity, M. Piette, in one of his numerous excavations, discovered a primitive flute made of two bird bones which, when put to- gether and blown into, produced modulations similar to those of the pipes used by the people of Oceania ; the monotonous music of which is alluded to by Cook. Some time afterwards M. Piette noticed similar bones in the Rochebertier collection. So far we know of no other discovery of a similar kind. EARLY AR TIS TIC EFFOR TS, 1 1 3 The curious objects known under the name of staves of office would, if it were needed, afford yet another proof that the men of the Stone age lived in societies, possessed an organization, and acknowledged a chief. The staves of office consist of large pieces of reindeer or stag antler, artistically worked and presenting a pretty uniform appearance. Their surface is decorated with carvings and engravings representing animals, plants, and hunting scenes. They are thicker than they are wide, and the care often taken to reduce the thickness is a proof that an attempt was made to com- bine elegance and lightness with solidity (Figs. 31, 32, 33, 34, and 35). Nearly all of them are pierced at one Fig. 31.— Staff of office. end with large holes, of which the number varies. Some of these holes were later additions. May we perhaps see in them the signs of a priesthood, in which successive ranks were attained, and in which every new achievement was rewarded with a new distinc- tion % This is difficult to prove, but these staves could not have been used as weapons or as tools ; the care taken to cover them with ornaments, with the long time required for this decoration, shows the value their owners attached to them. The impossibility of any other hypothesis is the best proof we have of their use. 114 PREHISTORIC PEOPLES. Amongst the marvellous objects collected by Dr. Schliemann at Hissarlik, were two fragments of rein- deer antler pierced with holes presenting a singular resemblance to those we have been describing. We may also compare with them the pogomagan^ the badge of office of Indian chiefs on the Mackenzie River, the Tartar hemous, the sticks on which the Australians mark by conventional signs any event of importance to themselves or their tribe, and the similar objects from Persia, Assam, the Celebes, and New Zealand. But why seek examples so far away ? Is not the Fig. 32. — Staff of office made of stag-horn pierced with four holes. memory of these ancient insignia preserved in our own day, and may they not have been the original forms of the sceptres of our kings and the croziers of our bishops ? These staves, of which hundreds have now been found, were picked up in many different places, in- cluding the Goyet Cave in Belgium, the caves of Perigord and Charente, and the Veyrier Station in Savoy. At Thayngen, as many as twenty-three were found, all pierced with one hole only.^ We must not ' On this point an excellent work may be consulted by S. Reinach : '* Le Musee de Saint Germain," p. 232. Fig. 33.— Staff of office found at Lafaye. Fig. 34. — Staff of office in reindeer antler, with horse engraved on it, found at Thayngen. 115 Il6 PREHISTORIC PEOPLES. omit to mention amongst these relics of ages gone by, one of the most interesting found in 1887 at Montgau- dier (Charente) (Fig. 35), which bears on one side a representation of two seals, and on the other of two eels, the former of which especially are executed with a truth to form, boldness of execution, and delicacy of touch which are positively astonishing when we re- member that the artist (we cannot refuse him this title) had no tools at his disposal but a few miserable flints or roughly pointed bones. The hinder limbs, so strangely placed in amphibia, are faithfully rendered ; each paw has its five toes, the texture of the skin can be made out, the head is delicately modelled ; the muz- zle with its whiskers, the eye, the orifice of the ear, all testify to real skill. The existence of the seal in the Quaternary epoch in the south of France was not known until quite recently, when Mr. Hardy found in a cave near Perigueux the remains of a seal (Phoca groenlandica ) , associated with quite an arctic fauna. In part at least therefore of the Quaternary period, very great cold must have prevailed in Perigord.^ With this staff of office were picked up some pieces of ivory covered with geometrical designs, engraved with some sharp implement, stilettos, bone needles, knives, flint scrapers, and, stranger still, the remains of the cave-lion, the cave-hyena, and the Hhmoceros tichorTiinus^ all contem]3oraries of the most ancient Quaternary fauna. It was not only on the staves of office that the men of the Stone age exercised their talent. Many and varied are the subjects which have been found en- graved on plaques of ivory or on stone, and incised on ' Vaudry: Acad, des Sciences , August 25, 1890. Fig. 35. — Staff of office found at Montgaudier. 117 Il8 PREHISTORIC PEOPLES. bears' teeth or on stag horn. We represent one form- ing the hilt of a dagger (Fig. 36), and another repre- senting a bear with the convex forehead, characteristic of the species, engraved on a piece of schist (Fig. 37), and a mammoth engraved on an ivory plaque with its Fig. 36. — Carved dagger-hilt (Laugerie-Basse). long mane, trunk, and curved tusks (Fig. 38). The artist who depicted these animals with such faithful exactitude evidently lived amongst them. The first discovery of this kind was made by Joly-Leterme in Fig. 37. — The great cave-bear, drawn on a pebble found in the Massat Cave (Garrigou collection). the Chaffaud Cave (Vienna) ; it was a reindeer bone on which two stags were represented.* fn the Lortet Cave was found the bone of a stag on * A. Bertrand : Acad, des Inscriptions, April 29 and May 6, 1887. EARLY ARTISTIC EFFORTS. . 119 which could be made out a representation of fish and reindeer, whilst at Sordes was discovered a bear's tooth with a seal engraved upon it (Fig. 39), at Marsoulas a piece of rib on which is depicted an animal said to be Fig. 38. — Mammoth, or elephant, from the Lena Cave. a musk-ox (Fig. 40), and at Feyjat (Dordogne) a bird's bone bearing on it a drawing of three horses moving rapidly along. I am obliged to pass over many other most interesting examples, but I must not omit to men- FiG. 39. — Seal engraved on a bear's tooth found at Sordes. tion the magnificent examples which form part of the Peccadeau collection at Lisle. Cartailhac mentions some chamois, an ox, and an elephant ; some engraved on the bones of deer and others on fragments of ivory, I20 PREHISTORIC PEOPLES, or on reindeer antlers. The art of tlie cave-men was now at its zenith. But for one exception to which I shall refer again, it is curious to note that we only find these engravings and carvings, which so justly excite our astonishment in a district of limited extent, bounded on the north by the Gharente, on the south by the Pyrenees and extending on the east no farther than the department of the Ariege. It is a pleasant thought that in the Fig. 40. — Fragment of a bone with regular designs. Fragment of rib on which is engraved a musk-ox, found in the Marsoulas Cave. midst of their struggle for existence, and when they had to contend with gigantic pachyderms and for- midable beasts of prey, our most remote ancestors, the contemporaries of tlie mammoth and the lion, already developed those artistic tendencies which are the glory of their descendants. I referred above to an exceptional example of pre- historic art found beyond the borders of France. In excavations in the Thayngen Cave, on the borders of EARLY ARTISTIC EFFORTS. 121 Switzerland and Wurtemberg, twenty most remarkable examples were found, in which it is easy to recognize the horse (Fig. 41), the bear (Fig. 42), and the rein- deer grazing (Fig. 43).^ All, especially the last named, are rendered with such perfection, that it was at first supposed that they were the work of a forger. A searching inquiry has proved that they are nothing of the sort ; a skilful zoologist would have been needed to represent the Ovihos moschatus (Fig. 44), which re- FiG. 41. — Head of a horse from the Thayngen Cave. Fig. 42. — Bear engraved on a bone from the Thayngen Cave. tired many centuries ago towards the extreme north. If we do find a few rare attempts at art in other dis- tricts, they are absolutely rudimentary. The staff of office found in the Goyet Cave is of very rude work- manship. The Brussels Museum contains a few other specimens, of which the most important is a fragment of sandstone from the Frontal Cave, on which a few ^ Reinach in his " Catalogue of the Saint-Germain Museum " gives the best description I know of this now celebrated reindeer. 122 PREHISTORIC PEOPLES. uncertain scratches represent what looks like a stag. Some indistinct traces of engraving have been, made out on the bones found in the Altamira Cave, near Santander, and recently a bone on which a kind of horse was engraved, was picked up at Cress- well's Crags, Derby- shire, in a cave known in the district as Motli- er Grundy^ s Parlor, This specimen, as were those of Thayngen, was associated with numerous bones of Quaternary animals, amongst which those of the hippopotamus were the most curious. The representation of the human figure is extremely rare. I have already men- tioned the young man trying to strike an aurochs which is run- ning away from him ; and the woman wear- ing a necklace. The Fig. 43- -Reindeer grazing, from the Thayngen Cave. former (Fig. 45), found at Laugerie, is engraved on a piece of reindeer antler about twenty-five centimetres EARLY ARTISTIC EFFORTS. 123 long. The auroclis with its head down and quantities of bristling hair, widely open nostrils, arched and uplifted tail, presents the appearance of a terrified animal endeavoring to escape the danger threatening it. The man is naked, and has a round head, his hair is stiff and seems to stand up on the top of his skull ; on the chin a short beard can clearly be made out ; the face expresses the delight and excitement of the chase. The neck is long, the arm short, and the spine of unusual length. In the other example of the repre- sentation of the human figure, that of the woman Fig. 44. — Head of Ovibos moschatus engraved on wood, found in the Thayngen Cave. wearing a necklace, drawn on a piece of a shoulder- blade of a reindeer, she is seen lying by a stag, and would seem to be in an advanced state of pregnancy. The piece of bone however is broken, and the head of the woman is lost, which of course greatly lessens the value of the relic. On a fragment of a staff of office from the Madeleine Cave is engraved a man between two horses' heads (Fig. 46). On a reindeer antler is represented a woman with flat breasts and very high hips, followed by a 124 PREHISTORIC PEOPLES. serpent ; a shell from the crag near Walton-on-the-Naze had a human face roughly engraved on one side. The Abbe Bourgeois, in the ex- cavations so fruitful of re- sults at Rochebertier, found a rough carving of a human face (Fig. 47) ; M. Piette at Mas d'Azil found a little bust of a woman, carved on the root of the tooth of a horse. This statuette had a low forehead, a prominent nose, a retreating chin, and breasts of the negress type of the present day ; charac- teristics quite unlike those of the skeletons taken from this cave or those near it. We wonder whether the artist meant to represent the feat- ures of a race other than his own.^ M. du Bouchet men- tions a rough sketch en- graved on a flint discovered near Dax ; the workman, doubtless daunted by the difficulties of his task, had abandoned it unfinished. It is, however, easy to tell what Fig. 45.— Young man chasing the aurochs, ' A. Mihie Edwards: Acad, des Sciences, from Laugerie. ' May 8, 1888. EARLY ARTISTIC EFFORTS. 125 it was meant for. The skull is low and flat, the nose but slightly prominent, the eyes are oblique, and neither FIg. 46. — Fragment of a staff of oflfice, from the Madeleine Cave. the mouth nor the chin are finished. The magnificent collection of the Marquis de Vibraye contains a little figure from Laugerie, representing a nude woman with- out arms. Thin and stiff, she is chiefly remarkable for the exaggerated size of the sexual organs, and for some peculiar protuberances on the loins. We dwell upon the former peculi- arity, because it is so far ex- tremely rare, whereas certain relics of the Greeks and Rom- ans, in spite of the compara- tively advanced civilization of these two great races, are such that they can only be exhibited in private museums. Such de- pravity as this implies was then quite an exception among the cave-men, and but for the one example I have just mentioned, I have no phallic representa- tions to refer to except the few from the Massenat col lection, which were shown at the Exhibition of 1889 Fig. 47. — Human face carved on a reindeer antlter, found in the Rochebertier Cave (Charente). 126 PREHISTORIC PEOPLES, We must not close this account of the art efforts of the men of the Stone age without mentioning the re- markable discovery by M. Siette, of flints covered with lines and geometrical designs colored with red chalk. These are the very earliest examples of the art of painting which have hitherto come to our knowledge. They bear witness to a remarkable progress made by our remote ancestors of the valleys of the Pyrenees. We cannot more appropriately close this chapter than by quoting the magnificent verse of Lucretius, which brings before us, better than could a long descrip- tion, the condition of these men, and the humble start- ing-point from which humanity has advanced to achieve its immortal destiny : Necdum res igni scibant tractare neque uti Pellibus et spoliis corpus vestire ferarum, Bed nemora atque caveos monteis sylvasque colebant Et frutices inter condebant squalida membra Verbera ventorum vitare imbreisque coactei.^ ^ " De Natura Rerum," book v., v. 951, etc. CHAPTER IV. CAYES, KITCHEN-MIDDINGS, LAKE STATIONS, " TERREMAEES," CRAJVTNOGES, BURGHS, ^' NURHAGS," " TALAYOTI," AND ""^"™™^" The earliest races of men lived in a climate less rigorous than ours, on the shores of wide rivers, in the midst of fertile districts, where fishing and the chase easily supplied all their needs. These races were nu- merous and prolific, and we find traces of them all over Western Europe, from Norfolk to the middle of Spain. What were the homes of these men and their families ? Did they crouch in dens, as Tacitus says the German tribes did in his day ? In his " Ancient Wiltshire," Sir R. Coalt Hoare says that the earliest human habi- tations were holes dug in the earth and covered over with the branches of trees. Near Joigny there still re- main some circular holes in the ground, about fifty feet in diameter by sixteen to twenty deep, known in the country under the name of buvards. The trunk of a tree was fixed at the bottom and rose above the ground, and the branches plastered with clay formed the roof. The fl®or of these huvards consists of a greasy black earth mixed with bones, cinders, charcoal, and worked flints. x\mongst the last named, polished hatchets predominate, which proves that these refuges were inhabited in Neolithic times, but there is nothing to 127 128 PREHISTORIC PEOPLES. prevent our supposing that they were also occupied in the Palaeolithic period. Aineghino gives a still. more striking example of an earth-dwelling. Near Mercedes, about twenty leagues from Buenos Ayres, he picked up numerous human bones, together with arrow-heads, chisels, flint knives, bone stilettos and polishers, and bones of animals scratched and cut by man. Later, Ameghino discovered the actual dwelling of this prime- val man, and his strange home was beneath the carapace of a gigantic armadillo, the now extinct glyptodon seen in Fig. 48. Fig. 48. — The glyptodon. " All around the carapace," says Ameghino, " in the reddish agglomerate of the original soil lay charcoal cinders, burnt and split bones, and flints. Digging beneath this, a flint implement was found, with some long split llama and stag bones, which had evidently been handled by man, with some toxodon and mylo- don teeth." Fig. 49 represents the now extinct mylo- don. Some time afterwards, the discovery of another carapace under similar conditions added weight to Ameghino's supposition.^ In the midst of the pampas, * •' El hombre seguramente habitaba las corazas de los Glyptodon pero no siempre las colocaba en la posicion que acabo de indicar." — " La Antiguedad del Hombre en el Plata," vol. ii., p. 532. CA VES. 129 those vast treeless plains, where no rock or accident of conformation affords shelter from heat or cold or a hiding-place from wild beasts, man was not at a loss ; he hollowed out for himself a hole in the earth, roofing it over with the shell of a glyptodon, and securing a retreat where he could be safe at least for a time. It was not until later, driven to do so by the cold, that man learnt to use the natural caves hollowed out Fig, 49. — Mylodon robustus. in limestone rocks, either in geological convulsions or by the quieter action of water. The absence in the caves which have been excavated in America of imple- ments of the Chelleen type, the most ancient known as yet, would point to this conclusion, though it is impos- sible to ^x. the earliest date of their occupation. This date, moreover, varies very much in different localities. The eai-th was but gradually peopled, and our ances- 130 PREHISTORIC PEOPLES. tors penetrated into different countries in successive migrations. Some caves have recently been discovered in Wales, in the midst of Glacial deposits.^ The Boulder Clay and marine drift on neighboring heights are incontrovertible proofs of the submergence of this region, when Great Britain was almost completely covered with ice. Excavations made in 1886 have brought to light a series of deposits, one above the other, the gravel and red earth containing Quaternary bones and worked flints, whilst the stalagmite and ooze are evidently of more recent origin. This is the usual state of things in all the English caves ; but in those of the Clyde, the bone beds had been disturbed and mixed with striated pebbles and Glacial drift. From this Hicks, who superintended the excavations, concluded that man and the Quaternary animals had lived in those caves before the Glacial epoch, and before the great submergence, which in some places was no less than some 1,300 feet below the present level of the sea. If this were so, it would be one of the most ancient proofs not only of the presence of man, but also of the kind of habitation he first dwelt in. These conclusions have, however, been hotly dis- puted. M. Arcelin^ remarks that there are in England two exceptional geological landmarks, the Forest Bed representing the last Pliocene formations, and the River Gravels, which are the most ancient Quater- nary deposits. Between the two, we find the Boulder Clay of Glacial origin. Now the fauna of the caves of the Clyde, far from resembling that of the Forest * " On Some Recent Researches in Cone-Caves in Wales," Proc. GeoL, Asso., vol. ix. "On the Flynnon, Benno, and Gwyu Caves," GeoL Mag., Dec, 1886. '^ Revue des Questions Scientifiques y April, 1887. CAVES. 131 Bed, appears to be more recent than that of the ancient deposits of the River Gravels. Amongst this fauna we find neither the Eleplias antiquus nor the Hhi- noceros Merckii ; the worked flints are not like those known as belonging to the River-Gravel type, but the relics more nearly resemble those of the Reindeer period of France. It is therefore impossible, in the present state of our knowledge, to assert that man lived in the southwest of England in the Glacial epoch, to the phenomena of which, if he witnessed them, he must eventually have fallen a victim. Our ancestors must constantly have disputed the possession of their caves of refuge with animals, but there is often a certain distinction between those chiefly occupied by man and the mere dens of wild beasts. The latter are generally more difiicult of access, and are only to be entered by long, low, narrow, dark passages. Those permanently inhabited by man are wide, not very deep, and they are well lighted. That at Montgaudier, for instance, has an arched entrance some forty-five feet wide by eighteen high. The cave- men had already learnt to appreciate the advantages of air and light. The caves are often of considerable height ; that of Massat is some 560 feet high, that of Lherm is 655, that of Bouicheta nearly 755, that of Loubens 820, and that of Santhenay i^. as much as 1,344 feet high. Those of Eyzies, Moustier, and Aurignac are also very lofty. As the valleys were hollowed out by the rush- ing torrents of the Quaternary floods, men sought a home near the waters which were indispensable to their existence, and came to dwell on the shores of rivers. The most ancient of the inhabited caves, there- 132 PREHISTORIC PEOPLES. fore, are those on the highest levels, but the difference in the nature of the country and the varying force of geological action have led to so many exceptions, that all we can say with any certainty is that the caves were inhabited at different epochs. That of Mont- gaudier, for instance, was filled with an accumulation of ooze about forty feet thick. Weapons and tools lay one above the other from the bottom to the top, and it is easy to distinguish the succession of hearths by the blackened earth, cinders, charcoal, and crushed bones lying about them. In the Placard Cave eight different deposits bear witness to the presence of man ; and these are separated by others bare of traces of human occupation. The lowest deposit, which is some twenty-five feet below the present level of the soil, contains worked flints of the Mousterien type, above which, but separated by an accumulation of debris which has fallen from the roof, comes a layer in which was found a number of arrow-heads of the shape of laurel leaves. The fauna of both these levels includes the reindeer, the horse, and the aurochs. As we go up we find, above another layer of debris^ the Solutreen type of tools and weap- ons represented by bone implements and numerous arrow-heads, this time stalked and notched. The four following levels correspond with those ■ belonging to what is known as the Madeleine type, and the arrow- heads are decorated with geometrical designs. The traces of human occupation at different times, doubtless separated by long intervals, are therefore very clearly defined. The Fontabert Cave, in Dauphine, contained, at a depth of about six feet, traces of fire and roughly worked flints, and about three feet below the surface CA VES. 133 lay the skeleton of a man, who had perhaps been over- taken by a fall of earth, still holding in his hand a polished dipper of fine workmanship. Yet a third and evidently more recent period is characterized by a jade crescent. We might easily multiply instances of a simi- lar kind, but that we wish to avoid so much repetition. We soon begin to find evidence of the progress made by man, and though in Neolithic times he still con- tinued to occupy caves he learned to adapt them better to his needs. The rock shelters of the Petit-Morin valley, so well explored by M. de Baye, are the best examples we can give. These caves are hollowed out of a very thick belt of cretaceous limestone. They date from different epochs, and each presents special charactei'istics which can easily be recognized. Some were used as burial-places, others as habitations. In the former the entrance is of irregular shape, the walls are roughly cut, and the work is of the most elementary description. The sepulchral caves were simply closed by a large stone rolled into place and covered with rubbish, the better to hide the entrance. The shelters used to live in show much more careful work, and are divided into two unequal parts by a wall cut in the living rock. To get into the second partition one has to go down steps, cut in the limestone, and these steps are worn with long usage. The entrance was cut out of a mas- sive piece of rock, left thick on purpose, and on either side of the opening the edges still show the rabbet which was to receive the door. Two small holes on the right and left were probably used to fix a bar across the front to strengthen the entrance. A good many of these caves are provided with an opening for 134 PREHISTORIC PEOPLES. ventilation, and some skilful contrivances were re- sorted to for keeping out water. Inside we find differ- ent floors, shelves, and crockets cut in the chalk, and on the floors M. de Baye picked up shells, ornaments, and flints, which were lying just where their owners had left them. Very different is all this from the Vezere caves, and everything proves an undeniable improve- ment in the conditions of life. The most interesting of all the objects found in these caves are, however, the carvings ; but few date from Neolithic times, and some archaeologists have argued from their absence in favor of the displacement every- where of old races by the incursion of new-comers. Some of these carvings represent hafted hatchets, the flint being painted black to make the raised design stand out better. Others represent human figures. In the Coizard Cave, for instance, was found a roughly outlined representation of a woman with a prominent nose, eyes indicated by black dots, highly developed breasts, but no lower limbs. A necklace adorns her throat, and a pendant hanging from this necklace is colored yellow. On the passage leading to the door is engraved another figure which was originally more accurately drawn than the others, but is not in such good preservation. In the Courjonnet Cave we see a woman with a bird's head ; she was probably one of the lares penates, the protectors of the domestic hearth. We meet with this same goddess at Santorin, and at Troy, and on the shores of the Vistula, which is a very interesting ethnological fact. The objects found in the sepulchral caves are im- portant, and included a number of arrow-heads with transverse cutting edges. There is no doubt about CAVES. 135 their use ; they have been picked up in black earth, in contact with human bones, the decomposition of the soft parts of which caused them to fall out of the mortal wound they had inflicted. With these arrow- heads were found flint knives, large sloped scrapers, polishers, and bone stilettos, the femora of a ruminant with a pig's tooth fixed on to each end, hoes made of stag horn, beads and pendants made of bone, shelly schist, quartz, and aragonite, with the teeth of bears, boars, wolves, and foxes, all pierced with holes. Some of the shell and schist beads were spread upon the surface of the skull, and perhaps formed a net or resille^ such as that already referred to as found at Baousse-Rousse. For centuries this occupation of caves continued, offering as they did a shelter that was dry and warm in winter, and cool in summer. Homer tells us that the Cyclops lived on the heights of the mountains and in the depths of the caves,^ and Prometheus says that, like the feeble ant, men dwelt in deep subterranean caves, where the sun never penetrated.^ Whilst the men of the Petit-Morin valley hollowed out caves, or enlarged those made by nature, others took refuge in huts made of dried clay and interlaced branches, or in tents of the skins of the animals they had slain, and, though these fragile dwellings have disappeared, leaving no trace, there yet remain indeli- ble evidences of the presence of many successive gen- erations. Everywhere throughout the world we find heaps of rubbish, consisting chiefly of the shells of mollusca and Crustacea, broken bones, flakes of flint, ^ " Odyssey," book ix,, v. 105-124. * ^schylus : " Prometheus Bound." 136 PREHISTORIC PEOPLES. and fragments of stone and bone implements, covering vast areas and often rising to a considerable lieigh-t. Not until our own day did these rubbish heaps attract attention, and it was reserved to our own gen- eration, so interested in all that relates to the past, to recognize their true significance. Steenstrup noticed, in the north of Europe, that these mounds consisted nearly entirely of the shells of edible species, such as the oyster, mussel, and littorina Uttorea ; that they were all those of adult specimens, but not all subject to similar conditions of existence or native to the same waters. The kitchen-middings, or heaps of kitchen refuse — such was the name given to these shell- mounds — could not have been the natural deposits left by the waves after storms, for in that case they would have been mixed with quantities of sand and pebbles. The conclusion is inevitable, that man alone could have piled up these accumulations, which were the refuse ilung away day by day after his meals. The excavation of the kitchen-middings confirmed in a re- markable manner the opinion of Steenstrup, and every- where a number of important objects were discovered. In several places the old hearths were brought to light. They consisted of flat stones, on which were piles of cinders, with fragments of wood and charcoal. It was now finally proved that these mounds occupied the site of ancient settlements, the inhabitants of which rarely left the coast, and fed chiefly on the mollusca which abounded in the waters of the North Sea. These primeval races, however savage they may have been, were not wanting in intelligence. The earliest inhabitants of Russia placed their dwellings near rivers above the highest flood-level known to KI TCHEN-MIDDINGS. 1 3 7 or foreseen by them. The Scandinavians were most precise in the orientation of their homes, and M. de Quatrefages points out that the kitchen-midding of Soelager is set against a hill in the best position for protecting those who lived near it from the north winds, which are so trying in these districts on account of their violence. At Havelse, says Sir John Lubbock, the settlement was on rather higher ground, and, though close to the shore, was quite beyond the reach of the waves. The English visitors had an excavation made whilst they were present, and in two or three hours they obtained about a hundred frag- ments of bone, many rude flakes, sling stones, and fragments of flint, together with some rough axes of the ordinary shell-mound type. The excavations at Meilgaard a little later by the same explorers were even more fruitful in results. Scandinavia does not appear to have been occupied in the Palaeolithic period, and the most ancient facts concerning it only date from the expeditions of the Romans against the Teutons, and our knowledge even of them is very incomplete.* We are still ignorant of much which may have been known to the Carthaginians and the Phoenicians. It is possible that in the remote days under notice the Scandinavians were ignorant of the art of tilling the ground, for so far no cereal or agricultural product of any kind has been discovered, nor the bones of any domestic animal, except indeed those of the dog, which may, however, have been still in a wild state. Amongst the bones collected from the kitchen-middings, those of the stag, the kid, and the ^ A. Maury : "La Vieille Civilisation Scandinave," Revue des Deux Mondes, September, 1880. 138 PREHISTORIC PEOPLES. boar are much the most numerous. The bear, the urus, the wild cat, the otter, the porpoise, the seal, and the small mammals, the marten, the' water-rat and the mouse, have also been found. At Havelse were collected more than 3,500 mammal bones, amongst which do not occur those of the musk-ox, the reindeer, the elk, or the marmot ; their absence bearing witness to a more temperate climate than that of the present day in the regions under notice. The stag antlers found belong to every season of the year, from which we may conclude that the people of these districts, like the cave-men of the Pyrenees, had given up a nomad life and remained at home all the year round, living in the dwellings they had built upon the shores of the sea. Amongst the birds found, we may mention the large penguin, now extinct, the moor-fowl, which fed entirely on pine buds, and several species of ducks and geese ; whilst amongst the fish were the herring, the cod, the dab, and the eel. The numerous relics of chelonia prove the existence of numbers of the turtle tribe in the North Sea. A great variety of objects, most of them of a coarse type, have been found beneath the kitchen-middings ; metals are however completely absent, and it is proba- ble that they were quite unknown to the Scandinavians for several centuries after their arrival in the country. It is easy to quote similar facts in other countries. In 1877, Count Ouvarof mentioned, at the Archaeologi- cal Congress at Kazan, some kitchen-middings near the Oka, a little river flowing into the Volga near Nijni- Novgorod. In excavating some hougrySy or little mounds of sand overlooking the valley, he discovered KITCHEN-MIDDINGS, 1 39 amongst the layers of alluvium, successive deposits of cinders and fragments of charcoal, which appear to have been the remains of a fire. A little lower down in another deposit were fragments of pottery, stone weapons and implements, and an immense number of shells. Judging from these relics of their daily life, this numerous population must have fed exclusively on fish and mollusca, for excavations brought to light but few mammal bones. The mollusca were all of species that only live in salt water. From this we know that the waves washed the shores near this hougry, and that a milder climate probably prevailed in these regions, making life more supportable. Virchow has recognized on the shores of Lake Burt- neek in Germany, a kitchen-midding belonging to the earliest Neolithic times, perhaps even to the close of the Palaeolithic period. He there picked up some stone and bone implements, and notices on the one hand the absence of the reindeer, and on the other, as in Scandi- navia, that of domestic animals. But in this case, the home of the living became the tomb of the dead, and numerous skeletons lay beside the abandoned hearths. Similar discoveries have been made in Portugal ; shell- heaps having been found thirty-five to forty miles from the coast, and from sixty-five to eighty feet above the sea-level. Here also excavations have brought to light several different hearths; and in many of the most ancient kitchen-middings in the valley of the Tigris were found crouching skeletons, proving that here too the home had become the tomb.^ Similar deposits are by no means rare in France. M. du Chatellier mentions one in Brittany, which he * F. de Olivera : "As Ragas dos Kjoekkenmoeddings de Mugem," Lisbon, 1881. 140 PREHISTORIC PEOPLES. estimates as 325 cubic feet in size. From it he has taken spear- and arrow-heads, knives and scrapers, some highly finished, others but roughly cut and often with scarcely any shape at all. The population was evidently ichthyophagous, to judge by the vast accu- mulations of shells of scallops, oysters, limpets, pectens, and other mollusca. The few animal bones are those of the stag, the bear, and certain wading birds. At Canche, near Staples, has been made out a series of mounds forming a semicircle some eight hundred and fifty feet in extent. These mounds are made up of successive layers of shells and charcoal, the relics of successive occupations. Lastly we must mention a kitchen-midding situated at the mouth of the Somme, w^hich is eight hundred and twenty feet long by about one hundred wide. It consists principally of shells of adult species, with which are mixed fragments of coarse black pottery and numerous goat and sheep bones, the latter bearing wdtness to a more recent date than that of the kitchen-middings of Scandinavia or of Germany. Throughout Europe similar facts are coming to light. Evans mentions heaps of shells on the coasts of England. Chantre speaks of others near Lake Gotchai in the Caucasus, and Nordenskiold of others at Cape North, to which he wishes to restore its true name of Jokaipi. He says these mounds are exactly like those of Denmark. It is, however, chiefly in America that these heaps attract attention, for there huge shell-mounds stretch along the coast in Newfoundland, Nova Scotia, Massa- chusetts, Louisiana, California, and Nicaragua. We meet with them again near the Orinoco and the Missis- sippi, in the Aleutian Islands, and in the Guianas, in KI TCMEN-MIDDINGS, 1 4 1 Brazil and in Patagonia, on the coasts of the Pacific as on those of the Atlantic. Owing to the darker color of the vegetation growing on thera, the shell-heaps of Tierra del Fuego are seen from afar by the navigator. For a long time the true character of these mounds was not known, and they w^ere attributed to natural causes, such as the emergence of the ancient coast-line from the sea, and it was not until lately that it was discovered that they were the work of men. Some ' of these kitchen-middings are of great size. Sir Charles Lyell describes one on St. Simon's Island, at the mouth of the Altamaha (Georgia), which covers ten acres of ground and varies in height from ^nq to ten feet. It consisted almost entirely of oyster shells. In America, as in Europe, excavations brought to light hatchets, flints, arrows, and fragments of pottery. Another of these mounds, near the St. John River, consists, as does that visited by Lyell, of oyster shells, and is of extraordinary dimensions, being three hundred feet long, and though the exact width cannot be made out, is certainly several hundred feet across. Putnam^ gives an account of the excavation of one of these mounds formed of shells of the Mya^ Venus, Pecten, Buccinum, and Natica genera. It stretched along the sea-coast for a distance of several hundred feet, it was from four to ^\Q feet thick, and penetrated some distance below the surface of the ground. The valves had been opened with the aid of heat, and the animal bones found with the shells had been broken with heavy hammers which w^ere found in the kitchen-midding. The bones in- cluded those of the stag, the wolf, and the fox. Fishes were also represented by remains of the cod, the plaice, ^ Report Peabody Museum, 1882. 142 PREHISTORIC PEOPLES. and chelonia by turtle shells. Some bird bones were also found, and the knives, arrow- and spear-heads, scrapers, etc., were all of the rudest workmanship. Mr. Phelps has superintended yet more important excavations at Damariscotta^ and all along the coast to the mouth of the Penobscot. In the lowest layers he made out ancient hearths, and found numerous frag- ments of pottery which are the most ancient examples of keramic ware found in New England, and were covered with incised ornamentation of considerable refinement. The kitchen-middings of Florida and Alabama are even more remarkable. There is one on Amelia Island which is a quarter of a mile long with a medium depth of three feet and a breadth of nearly five. That of Bear's Point covers sixty acres of ground, that of Anercerty Point one hundred, and that of Santa Rosa five hundred. Others taper to a great height. Turtle Mound, near Smyrna, is formed of a mass of oyster shells attaining a height of nearly thirty feet, and the height of several others is more than forty feet.^ In all of them bushels of shells have already been found, although a great part of the sites they occupy are still unexplored ; huge trees, roots, ' and tropical creepers having, in the course of many centuries, covered them with an almost impenetrable thicket. Whether man did or did not live in the basin of the Delaware at the most remote times of which we have any knowledge, we meet with traces of his occupation in the same latitude at more recent periods. At Long- Nick-Branch is a shell-mound that extends for half a ' Report Peabody Museum, 1882 and 1885. 2 Brinton : " Notes on the Horidian Peninsula," Philadelphia, 1849. KITCHEN-MIDDINGS. 1 43 mile, and in California there is a yet larger kitchen- midding. It measures a mile in length by half a mile in width, and, as in similar accumulations, excavations have yielded thousands of stone hammers and bone implements (Fig. 24). The shell-mounds of which we have so far been speaking are all near the sea, but there is yet another consisting entirely of marine shells fifty miles beyond Mobile. This fact seems to point to a considerable change in the level of the ground since the time of man's first occupancy, for he is not likely to have taken all the trouble involved in carrying the mollusca necessary for his daily food so far, when he might so easily have settled down near the shore. I cannot close this account of the kitchen-middings, without calling attention to two very interesting facts. The importance of these mounds bears witness alike to the number of the inhabitants who dwelt near them, and the long duration of their sojourn. Worsaae sets back the initial date of the most ancient of the shell- mounds of the New World more than three thousand years. This is however a delicate question, on which in the present state of our knowledge it is difficult to hazard a serious opinion. It is easier to come to a con- clusion on other points: the close resemblance, for instance, between the kitchen-middings of America and those of Europe. In both continents we find the early inhabitants fed almost entirely on fish ; their weapons, tools, and pottery were almost identical in character; and in both cases the characteristic animals of Qua- ternaiy times had disappeared, and the use of metals still remained unknown. Are these remarkable coin- cidences the result of chance, or must we not rather 144 PREHISTORIC PEOPIES. suppose that people of the same origin occupied at the same epoch both sides of the Atlantic ? The man of the kitchen-middings evidently had a fixed abode. Long since, the tent, the temporary shelter of the nomad, had given place to the hut. We have already said what this hut may have been like, but the most certain data we have as to human habita- tions at this still but little known epoch, are those sup- plied by the Lake Stations of Switzerland, and it is to our own generation that we are indebted for the first discoveries relating to them. The memory of these Lake Stations had completely passed away, and it was only the long drought which desolated Switzerland in 1853 and 1854, and the extra- ordinary sinking of Lake Zurich, revealing the piles still standing, that attracted the attention of ar- chaeologists. In the space still enclosed by these piles lay scattered pell-mell stones, bones, burnt cinders of ancient hearths, pestles, hammers, pottery, hatchets of various shapes, implements of many kinds, with innu- merable objects of daily use. These relics prove that some of the ancient inhabitants of Switzerland had dwelt on the lake where they were found, in a i-efuge to which they had probably retired to escape from the attacks of their fellow-men or wild beasts. ^ Though they had succeeded in getting away from these enemies, they were to fall victims to a yet more formidable adversary, and the half-burnt piles have preserved to our own day the traces of a conflagration that destroyed the Lake dwelling so laboriously constructed. - The discovery of these piles excited general interest, an interest that was redoubled when similar discoveries revealed that all the lakes of Switzerland were dotted Lake stations. 145 Math stations that had been built long centuries before in the midst of the waters. Twenty such stations were made out on Lake Bienne, twenty-four on the Lake of Geneva, thirty on Lake Constance, forty-nine on that of Neuchatel, and others, though not so many, on Lakes Sempach, Morat, Mooseedorf, and Pfeffikon. In fact more than two hundred Lake Stations are now known in Switzerland ; and how many more may have com- pletely disappeared ? There is really nothing to surprise us in the fact of buildings rising from the midst of waters. They are known in historic times ; Herodotus relates that the inhabitants of pile dwellings on Lake Prasias success- fully repelled the attacks of the Persians commanded by Megabasus. Alonzo de Ojeda, the companion of Amerigo Vespucci, speaks of a village consisting of twenty large houses built on piles in the midst of a lake, to which he gave the name of Venezuela in honor of Venice, his native town. We meet with pile dwell- ings in our own day in the Celebes, in New Guinea, in Java, at Mindanao, and in the Caroline Islands. Sir Richard Burton saw pile dwellings at Dahomey, Captain Cameron on the lakes of Central Africa, and the Bishop of Labuan tells us that the houses of the Dayaks are built on lofty platforms on the shores of rivers. The accounts of historians and travellers help us to understand alike the mode of construction of the Lake Stations and the kind of life led by their in- habitants. The Lake dwellings of Switzerland may be assigned to three different periods. That of Chavannes, on Lake Bienne, belongs to the earliest type. The hatchets found are small, scarcely polished, and ^wa ys of native TINIVERSITl 146 PREHISTORIC PEOPLES. rock, such as serpentine, diorite, or saussurite ; tlie pot- tery is coarse, mixed with grains of sand or bits of quartz ; the bottoms of the vases are thick, and no traces of ornamentation can be made out. The pile- dwellings of the second period, such as those of Locras and Latringen, show considerable progress ; the hatchets, some of which are very large, are well made. Several of them are of nephrite, chloromelanite, and jade ; and their number, as compared with those in minerals native to Switzerland, varies from five to eight per cent. Here and there in rare instances we find a few copper or bronze lamellae amongst the piles. The pottery is now of finer clay, better kneaded ; and or- namentation, including chevrons, wolves' teeth, and mammillated designs, is more common. The handle, however, is still a mere projection. The third period, which we may date from the transition from stone to bronze, is largely represented ; copper weapons and tools are already numerous, and bronze is beginning to occur. The stone hatchets and hammers are skilfully pierced, and wooden or horn implements are often found. The vases are of various shapes, all provided with handles, and are covered with ornaments, some made with the fingers of the potter, others with the help of a twig or some fine string. On the other hand, there are no hatchets of foreign rock ; commerce and intercourse with people at a distance had ceased, or at least become rarer. The tools are fixed into handles of stag horn, whicli are found in every stage of manufacture. The jiersonal property of the Lake Dwellers included bead necklaces, pendants, buttons, needles, and horn combs. The teeth of animals served as amulets, and the bones that were of denser material LAKE STATIONS. 1 4/ than horn were used as javelin- or arrow-heads. The ar- rows were generally of triangular shape and not barbed.^ The distance from the shore of the most ancient of the Lake dwellings varies from 131 to 298 feet. Gradually men began to take greater and greater precautions against danger, and the onost recent sta- tions are 656 to 984 feet from the banks of the lake. The piles of the Stone age are from eleven to twelve inches in diameter ; those of the later epochs are smaller. They are pointed at the ends, and hard- ened by fire. When the piles had been driven into the bottom of the lake, a platform was laid on them solid enough to bear the weight of the huts. This platform was made of beams laid down horizon- tally, and bound together by interlaced branches. Two modes of construction can easily be distinguished. In one the platforms were upheld by numerous piles, ten yards long, firmly driven into the mud. This is how the Pfalilhauten^ Palafittes, or pile dwellings situated in shallow waters were generally put together. In other cases it seemed easier to raise the soil round the piles, than to drive them into the hard rock which formed the bed of the lake. Care was then taken to consolidate them, and keep them in position with blocks of stone, clay, and tiers of piles. Keller gives to these latter the name of Packwerhauten, and other German archae- ologists call them Steinberg en. The mean depth of the waters in those parts of the lakes formerly occupied by the pile dwellings is from thirteen to sixteen feet, and we can still make out the piles when the water is calm and clear. Worn though ' We take many of these details from Dr. Gross' excellent work on the ** Pile Dwellings of Switzerland." 148 PREHISTORIC PEOPLES, they may be, their tops still emerge at a height varying from one to three feet above the mud at the bottom of the lake. Their number was oi-iginally considei'- able, and it is estimated that there were forty thousand at Wangen, and a hundred thousand at Robenhausen. The area occupied by the stations varies considerably ; according to Troyon, that at Wangen was seven hun- dred paces long by one hundred and twenty broad. Baron von Mayenfisch explored seventeen sites in the Lake of Constance, the area of which varies from three to four acres. At Inkwyl is a little artificial island about forty-eight feet in diameter. The Lake dwelling of Morges, which was still inhabited in the Bronze age, covers an area of twelve hundred feet long by a mean width of one hundred and fifty. It is, however, useless to enumerate the various calcu- lations that have been made, as they are founded on nothing but more or less probable guesswork. Excavations show that the huts that rose from the platforms were made of wattle and hurdle- work. In different places calcined and agglutinated fragments have been picked up, and pieces of clay which had served as facing. The house to which they had be- longed had been destroyed by fire, and the clay, hard- ened in the flames, had resisted the disintegrating action of the water. On one side this clay is smooth, and on the other it still retains the marks of the inter- laced branches, w^hich had helped to form the inner walls. Some of these marks are so clear and regular that Troyon, noticing the way they curve, was able to assert that the huts were circular, and that they varied in diameter from ten to fifteen feet. A recent discovery at Schussenreid (Wurtemberg) gives completeness to our knowledge of the Swiss LAKE STATIONS, 1 49 Lake dwellings. In the midst of a peat-bog rises a hut known as a Knuppelhau, which is supposed to date from the Stone age. It is of rectangular form, and is divided into two compartments communicating with each other by a foot-bridge consisting of three beams laid side by side. The floors of this hut are made of rounded wood, and the walls of piles split in half. Excavations have brought to light several floors, one above the other, and divided by thick layers of clay. The rising of the level of the peat doubtless compelled the Lake Dweller to add by degrees to the height of his house. The Proto-Helvetian race were well-developed men, and the bones that have been collected show that they were not at all wanting in symmetry of form or in cranial capacity. The crania found are distinctly doli- chocephalous, and their owners had evidently attained to no small degree of culture and of technical skill. Judging from the length of the femora found, though it must be added that they are mostly those of women, the ancient Lake Dwellers were not so tall as the present inhabitants of Europe. The smallness of the handles of their weapons and tools points to the same conclusion.^ Though the importance and number of the dis- coveries made in Switzerland render it the classic land of Lake Stations, it is not the only country in which they have been found. They have been made out in the Lago Maggiore and in the lakes of Varese, Peschiera, and Garda in Lombardy ; in Lake Salpi in the Capitanata, and in other parts of Italy. Judging from the objects recovered from these stations, they be- longed partly to the Stone and partly to the Bronze age. ^ Virchow : " Drei Schadel aus der Schweiz." 150 PREHISTORIC PEOPLES. The pile dwelling of Lagozza is one of the most interesting known to us. It forms a long sq^uare, facing due east, and covers an area of two thousand six hundred yards, now completely overgrown with peat six and a half feet thick. Amongst the posts still standing can be made out a number of half-burnt planks, which are probably the remains of the platform. One of the posts was still covered with bark, and it was easy to recognize the silver birch (Betula alba). Other posts consisted of the trunks of resinous trees, such as the Pinus picea, the Pinus sylvestris., and the larch, which now only grow in the lofty Alj)ine valleys. Amongst the industrial objects found in the Lagozza pile dwelling were polished stone hatchets, hammers, polishers of hard stone, knife-blades, flint scrapers, and seven or eight arrows with transverse cutting edges, a form rare in Italy. Castelfranco,^ from whom we borrow these details, has also, in the excavations he superintended, picked up a number of earthenware spindle-whorls with a hole in the middle, amulets, and numerous pieces of pottery, some fine and some coarse, according to the purpose for which they were intended. The first mould had in most cases been covered over with a layer of very fine clay spread upon it with the aid of a kind of boasting-chisel. We may also mention a bone comb. The combs found in Swiss Lake dwellings are of horn, with the exception of one from Locras of yew wood. What chiefly distinguishes the Lagozza pile dwelling, however, is the absence of the bones, teeth, or horns of animals, and also of fish-hooks, harpoons, or nets, so that we must conclude that the inhabitants did not ' Revue d^ Anthropologies 1887, p. 607. LAKE STATIONS, 151 huiit or iish, that they did not breed domestic animals, and were probably vegetarians. The researches of Professor Sordelli confirm this hypothesis ; from amongst the objects taken from the peat he recognized two kinds of corn ( Triticum vulgare antiquorum and TriticuTYi vulgare hibernum)^ six-rowed barley (Hor- deuTYi Jiexastichtcm)^ mosses, ferns, flax, the Indian ^oipipjY JPapaver samniferunij, acorns, and an immense number of nuts and apples. The acorns are those of the common oak, and their cups and outer rind had been removed, so that they had evidently been prepared to serve as food for man ; the apples were small and coriaceous, resembling the modern crab-apple ; the Indian poppy cannot have grown without cultivation ; but this was perhaps but an example of the same species already recognized in the Lake dwellings of Switzerland. It is difficult to say whether it was used for food or whether oil was extracted from it. We have already spoken of the discoveries made in Austria and Hungary. Count Wurmbrand has de- scribed the difficulties with which explorers had to contend. The lakes have in many cases become inac- cessible swamps, and in others, the waters having been artificially dammed to regulate their overflow, the sites of the pile dwellings are so far below the level of the lakes that any excavations are impossible. Loug and arduous researches have, however, been rewarded with some success, and the numerous objects recovered bear witness, as in Switzerland, to the gradual progress made by the successive generations who occupied these pile dwellings. A lake near Laybach had been converted in drying 152 PREHISTORIC PEOPLES. up into an immense peat-bog, nearly thirty-eight miles in circumference, bounded on the right and left by lofty mountains/ When this bog was under water it had been the site of several Lake Stations. One, for instance, has been made out over three hundred and twenty yards from the bank. The piles, which 1 1 1 I^H 1 By m H ^^ liiif J 11 H ^^3 .^^B ■ ^^ T'rj 1 s B Wmm^ m s ■1 l^H jM 1^ - - ^ S ^^"^^^^ M dITth.c:,, ' _ ^-= s^^^S Fig. 50. — Objects discovered in the peat-bogs of Laybach. A. Earthenware vase. B. Fragment of ornamented pottery. C. Bone needle. D. Earthen- ware weight for fishing-net. E. Fragment of jawbone. consisted of the trunks of oaks, beeches, and poplars, varying from eight to ten inches in diameter, were placed at regular intervals. The objects taken from the peat-bog are simply innumerable (Fig. 50), and in- ^ G. Cotteau: Nature, 1877, first week, p. 161. LAKE STATIONS. 1 53 elude hundreds of needles of different sizes, stilettos. dagger-blades, arrows, and hatchets, with stag-horn handles. Coarse black earthenware vases are equally numerous and are of a great variety of form, but their ornamentation is of the most primitive description, and was done sometimes with the nail of the potter, and sometimes with a pointed bone. Little earthenware figures (Figs. 51 and 52) were also found, some of which were sent from the Laybach Museum to the Fig. 51. — Small terra-cotta figures, found in the Laybach pile dwellings. French Exhibition of 1878. One of them is said to represent a woman, probably an idol. This is one of the first known examples of the representation of the human figure from a Lake dwelling. At Nimlau, near Olmutz, the drying up of a little lake brought to light a Lake Station surrounded by the trunks of oak trees of a large size. They were piled up, one above the other, and strongly bound together with osiers. These trunks were evidently intended to fortify the station. The mode of construction of the Lake Stations of the marshes of Pomerania is very different from that employed in Switzerland or in Austria. The founda- tions rest on horizontal beams, kept in place either by great blocks of rock or by piles driven in vertically. In many cases notches had evidently been made, the better to place the cross-beams ; whilst in others 154 PREHISTORIC PEOPLES, forked branches had been selected, so that a second branch coukl be fitted into the fork. Primeval .man soon learnt to appreciate the solidity of such a combi- nation. Do these stations, however, really date from prehistoric times ? Virchow, returning to his first opinion, now thinks that the pile dwellings of Ger- many belong to the same epoch as the intrenchments known as Burgwallen^ when metals and even iron were already in general use. They were inhabited until the thirteenth century, and it is easy to trace in them, as in those of Switzerland, the signs of the suc- cessive occupations, the dwellings having evidently been abandoned and restored later by fresh comers. Fig. 52. — Small terra-cotta figures, from the Laybach pile dwellings. At the meeting of the British Association at New- castle in 1863, Lord Lovaine described a Lake Station in the south of Scotland, and Sir J. Lubbock mentions one in the north of England. Others are known at Holderness (Yorkshire), at Thetford, on Barton Mere, LAKE STATIONS. 1 55 near Bury St. Edmunds ; but judging from tlie de- scription of them they are not of earlier date than the Bronze age. Other stations are more ancient. A few years ago a number of piles were found a little above Kew, be- neath a layer of alluvium, and embedded in the gravel which formed the ancient bed of the Thames. All around these piles were scattered the bones of animals, of which those of the Bos longifrons were the most remarkable. The long bones had been split to get out the marrow, an evident proof of the intelligent action of man. In London two similar examples were found' on the site of the present Mansion House, and beneath the ancient walls of the city. They are supposed to date from times earlier, not only than the cutting out of the present course of the Thames, but before that invasion of the sea which preceded the formation of the Thames valley, now the home of more than four million men and women. The Lake Stations of France are less important than those of the neighboring countries. It is sup- posed that Vatan, a little town of Berry, was built on the site of a Lake city. It is situated in the midst of a dried-up marsh, and at different points piles have been removed which were driven deep into the mud. We also hear of pile dwellings in the Jura Mountains, in the Pyrenean valleys of Haute-Garonne, Ai-iege, and Aude, as well as in those of the Eastern Pyrenees. In the department of Landes, which on one side joins the plateau of Lannemezan, and on the other the lofty plains of Beam, are many marshy depressions, where have been found numbers of piles, with charred wood and fragments of pottery. 156 PREHISTORIC PEOPLES, Discoveries no less curious have been made in the Bourget Lake, but the dwellings rising from its sur- face date from a comparatively recent epoch. The numerous fragments of pottery found prove that terra- cotta ware had attained to a beauty of form and color unknown to primitive times. Indeed some of the vases actually bear the name of the Roman potter who made them. We must also assign to an epoch later than the Stone age the buildings, remains of which have been found in the peat-bogs of Saint-Dos near Salies (Basses-Pyrenees). At a depth of about thirty- two inches has been found a regular floor formed of trunks of trees resting on piles and bound together in a primitive fashion with the filaments of roots. These piles bear a number of deep clean-cut notches, such as could only have been made with an iron implement. in other parts of France there are Lake Stations, which were occupied until the time of the Carlovin- gians. To this time belong the pile dw^ellings of Lake Paladru (Isere), which w^ere abandoned, so far as we can tell, by their owners when they were swamped by the rising of the water. When the Lake Stations of Europe were inhabited, the characteristic animals of the Quaternary epoch, such as the elephant, the rhinoceros, the lion, and the hippopotamus had disappeared from that continent, and their place was taken by the earliest domestic animals. The Lake fauna of Switzerland includes about seventy species, thirty mammals, twenty-six birds, ten kinds of fish, and four reptiles.^ The mam- mals were the stag, the dog, the pig, the goat, the sheep, and two kinds of oxen. These animals were ^ Rutimeyer : " Fauna der Pfahlbauten in der Schweiz." LAKE STATIONS, 1 57 already domesticated ; there can be absolutely no doubt on this point, for in many Pfahlhauten their very dung has been found, a conclusive proof that they lived side by side with man. The remains of the stag and of the ox are more numerous than those of any other animal, and it is easy to see that every day the importance of a pastoral life became more clearly recognized: In the most ancient Lake Stations, those of Mooseedorf, Wangen, and Meilen, for instance, the stag predominates ; in those of the western lakes, which are comparatively more recent, relics of the ox are more numerous. In the Lake village of Nidau, w^hich dates from the Bronze age, a greatly increased number of bones of domestic animals have been found, whilst those of wild creatures become rarer and rarer. The progress of domestication is evi- dent, and it is no less certain that the lapse of centuries must have been required for the formation of the herds which evidently existed in certain localities. It is possible that these animals may have first entered Europe in the wake of foreign invaders, and before being reduced to servitude, they may have roamed about in a wild state, and even have been contempora- ries with species now extinct. However that may be, there can be no doubt on one point, they could not domesticate themselves; one race of creatures after another must have fallen under the subjection of man, who gradually became the master of all the animals that are still about us. We do not meet in the pile dwellings with the com- mon mouse, the rat, or the cat, and the horse is very rare. It is the same with the kitchen-middings and the caves occupied in Neolithic times. The disappearance 158 PREHISTORIC PEOPLES. of the horse, so numerous in earlier epochs, is general, and this would be inexplicable if history did not -solve the mystery. The Bible, which gives us such complete details of the pastoral life of the Hebrews, speaks for the first time of the horse after the exodus from Egypt of the children of Israel, and in Egypt itself the horse is not represented in any monument of earlier date than the Seventeenth Dynasty. It is the same in America, animals of the equiue race, that were so numerous in early geological times,. had long since disappeared on the arrival of the Spaniards, and the horses they brought with them inspired the Mexicans and Peruvians with unutterable terror. Domestic animals require regular food through the long winter months; so that their presence alone is enough to prove that their owners were tillers of the soil. The discovery in many of the Helvetian Lake Stations of calcined cereals confirms this hypothesis. Amongst the cereals found, corn is the most abundant, and several bushels of it have been collected. In the department of the Gironde, regular silos or subterra- nean storing-places for grain have been found in which the calcined corn was stowed away. In the Lake Sta- tions have also been found millet, peas, poppy-heads, nuts, plums, raspberries, and even dried apples and pears, doubtless set aside as a provision for the winter. From the water at Cortaillod, have been taken, with a few ears of barley, cherry-stones, acorns, and beech- nuts^; and at Laybach, some water-chestnuts (trapa natans) of a kind that has long since disappeared from Carniola. Sometimes the cereals were roughly roasted, crushed, aud put away in large earthenware vessels ; "^ Anzeiger fiir Schweizerische Alterthunis KundCy April, 1884. TERREMARES, 1 59 but in some places, regular flat round loaves of bread have been found about one or two inches thick, which were baked without leaven. We may w^ell assert that great changes had taken place since the first arrival of man upon the earth. The so-called terremares of Italy date from the same period as the Danish kitchen-middings and the Swiss pile dwellings. They are met with chiefly in Lombardy and in the ancient duchies of Parma and Piacenza, and consist of low mounds rising from thirteen to sixteen feet above the surface of the soil. In some cases a number of tei^remares^ close to one another, form regular villages covering an area of from ^y^ to six miles square. Excavations of the terremare have brought to light rows of piles from seven to ten feet long, connected by transverse beams, forming a regular floor, from which rose huts built in a similar way to those of the Swiss pile dwellings, of interlaced branches or of clay and straw, for no trace has been made out of the use of bricks or of stones. The refuse of the kitchen and rubbish of all kinds rapidly accumulated round about these huts, and formed the first nucleus of the mound, which soon grew to a considerable height as one occupant of the house succeeded another. When the refuse became too much of a nuisance, the owner of the hut set up fresh piles at a greater height on the same site, laid down another platform, and built a new hut. In some places three such platforms have been found one above another. As in the Lake Stations, excavations of the terremares have brought to light numerous bones of domestic animals ; but those of wild creatures, such as bears, stags, roedeer, and boars, are even rarer than in Switz- erland. The inhabitants evidently had other resources l6o PREHISTORIC PEOPLES, than hunting at their command, and though the pro- cesses they employed were but elementary, they culti- vated corn, beans, vines, and various fruits. Though iron was still unknown, some bronze objects have been found in certain terremares^ but these were only roughly melted pieces of metal, showing no traces of having been either hammered or soldered. Amongst the pottery found in the terremares, we must mention a number of small objects not unlike acorns in form, pierced lengthwise, and decorated with incised lines, some straight, others curved. Italian archaeologists call ih^m. fusa'ioles, and Swiss savants, who have found a great many in the lakes of their native country, give them the name oi pesons defuseau. Both these names connect them with the process of spinning ; but their number renders this hypothesis inadmissible, and when we give an account of the excavations carried on at Hissarlik, under Dr. Schliemann, we shall be able to determine their character (see Chapter VII.). At Castione, near the town of Parma, and in sev- eral other parts of the provinces of Parma and Reggio, terremares have been discovered risino; from the midst of vast rectangular basins artificially hollowed out. Some have concluded from this that the terremare- colli, as the inhabitants of the terrennares have been called, were descended from the people who built the pile dwellings of Switzerland, and that, faithful to the traditions of their race, they hollowed out ponds in default of natural lakes. If this were so, Italy must have been peopled with a race that came over the Alps.^ Who or what this race was can only be matter ^ Comte Conestabile : " Surles Anciennes Immigrations en Italic." Heilbig : " Beitrage zur Altitalischen Kultur und Kund Geschichte," i. Band. G. Bois- ^vtx \ R^vue des Deux-Mondes , October, 1879. TERREMARES. l6l of conjecture. It cannot, however, have been the Ligures, a branch of the great Iberian family, who were totally ignorant of culture, and to whom the builders of the most ancient of the terremares were certainly superior ; nor can it have been the Etruscans, for all relics of that race, which are moreover easily recognizable, \^ ere found quite apart from the deep de- posits containing the terremares. Many indications point to the conclusion that when the Celts came down into Italy their knowledge of metallurgy was already more advanced than that of the builders of the terre- mares. We are therefore disposed to think with Heil- big, that the terremarecolli were the Itali, of Arian race, who were the ancestors of the Sabini, Umbri, Osci, and Latins. In the great migrations of races, the Itali had separated themselves from their brethren the Pelasgi, who had remained in Epirus, and, continuing their march, they peopled Switzerland and crossed the Alps, settling down in the fertile plains watered by the Po, where it is easy even now to prove their presence. In superintending the excavation of a terremare at Toszig, in Hungary, Pigorini,^ was greatly struck by the resemblance between it and similar erections in Italy, especially that of Casarolo. This is very much in favor of the Itali having been the builders. But the objects collected in some of the terremares^ those of Varano and Chierici for instance, prove that they were inhabited from Neolithic times, so that the Itali of Italy, if Itali they were, did but follow the tradi- tions of their predecessors. In spite, however, of zealous study, all that relates to the origin of tribes * Bui. di Palethnologia Ital., 1879. The terpens of Holland, though of much more modern date, greatly resemble the terremares. 1 62 PREHISTORIC PEOPLES. and races remains involved in the greatest obscurity, and we can but look to the future to supply what the present altogether fails to give. We have yet other tokens of the presence of the ancient races who peopled Italy. Dr. Concezio Rosa ^ noticed in the Abruzzi extensive black patches on the ground, which bore witness to the former residence of men. The excavation of these Fondi di Oabane, as they are called, led to the finding of a great many stone knives and scrapers with numerous bone stilettos and the bones of various animals, all of them of species still living. Later, similar fondi were found between the Eastern Alps and Mount Gargano. In Eeggio, at Rival tella, at Castelnuovo de Sotto, and at Calerno, they formed regular groups, and from one of these stations more than one thousand worked flints were collected. We mention them especially because they were of loz- enge (selci romhoidali) and half-lozenge ( semi-rorribi ) shapes, which are forms unknown in other districts. With these flints were hand-made vases with handles, the clay unmixed with sand or quartz and ornamented with lines, grooves, and raised knobs. These vases differ greatly from those found in the terremares ; are they then, as has been said, of earlier date ? It is im- possible to come to any decision on the point. Before closing our account of prehistoric buildings surrounded by water, we must say a few words on crannoges though there is the greatest difference of opinion as to their date. Crannoges are artificial islets raised above the level of certain lakes in Ireland and Scotland ^ by means of a ' " Ricerce di Archeologia Preistorica nella Valle della Vibrata." ^ Wylie, Arch. Brit., vol. xxxviii. Wylde, Proc. Royal Irish Acad., vol. i..p. 420. CRANNOGES, 1 63 series of layers of earth and stone, and strengthened by piles, some ujjright, others laid down lengthwise. Wylde counted forty-six in Ireland in his time, some of them of considerable extent. That of Ard'kellin Lough (Roscommon) is surrounded by a wall of dry stones resting on piles. In other places have been found the remains of stockades very intelligently set up in such a manner as to break the force of the shock of the water. To add to the difficulties of dealing with the subject of crannoges, they were successively occupied for many centuries. They are mentioned in the most ancient Irish legends, and even in the sixteenth century they served as refuges for the kings of the country in the constant rebellions that took place. The objects taken from the lakes belong to very different epochs, and it is impossible to say anything positive as to the time of their construction. A hut found in Donegal may, however, date from an extremely remote age.^ It rested on a thick layer of sand brought from the neighboring shore, and was covered over by a bed of peat not less than sixteen feet thick. Since the hut was deserted by man the peat had gradu- ally accumulated till it had at last invaded the dwelling itself. The hut included a ground-floor, and one story about twelve feet long by nine wide and four high. The walls consisted of beams scarcely squared, joined to- gether with wooden mortices and pegs. The roof, which Avas probably flat, consisted of oak planks, the spaces between which had been filled in with mortar made of sand and grease. On the ground-floor lay several flint ^ Arch. Brit., vol. xxvi., p. 361. Proc. Royal Irish Academy, vol. vii., P- 155. 164 PREHISTORIC PEOPLES. implements, showing no signs of having been polished, a quartz wedge, and a stone chisel, which had evidently seen long service. This chisel, the discoverers say, corresponded exactly with the notches around the mortices. A regular paved way, formed of sea-beach pebbles placed on a foundation of interlaced branches, led up to a hearth made of flat stones measuring some three feet every way. All about lay fragments of charcoal and broken nuts, the latter partly burnt. Another hut, with an oak floor resting on four posts, has recently been discovered in County Fermanagh, beneath a deposit of peat about twenty feet thick. No trace of metal has been found in either of these Irish huts, and the thickness of the peat beneath which they lay is another proof of their great antiquity. One serious objection, however, is this : Were the Irish sufiiciently advanced in prehistoric times to be able to erect dwell- ings implying so considerable an amount of civiliza- tion ? Crannoges are met with in Scotland as well as in Ireland^ and excavations in Loch Lee have enabled explorers to make out their mode of construction. The Lake Dwellers began by piling up a number of trunks of trees in the shallower waters of a lake. They then strengthened these trunks with branches or beams about which the mud collected till the whole formed an islet. All about this islet, beneath the waters^ of the lake, were found various objects in stone, wood, and horn, as well as some canoes several feet long. Similar crannoges are to be seen on the lakes of Kin- cardine and Foi-far, which Troyon thinks date from the Stone age.^ If he be right, and we should not like to * * Habitations Lacustres des Temps Anciens et Modernes," p. 170. BURGHS, '' NURHAGSr '' TALAYOTir 165 make any assertion one way or the other, the bronze objects and the enamelled glass bowls found near these dwellings prove that they were occupied by several successive generations. It is probable that Lake dwellings were also used in Asia and in Africa from prehistoric times. History tells us that the inhabitants of Phasis, the Mingreli- ans of the present day, lived in reed huts on the water, and that they went from one islet to another in canoes hollowed out of the trunks of oak-trees. A bas-relief from the palace of Sennacherib, preserved in the British Museum, represents warriors fighting on artificial islands made of large reeds. But here w^e enter the domain of history, and we must return to Neolithic times, and speak of the habitations built of more durable materials and the ruins of which are still standing. It is impossible to say w^ith any certainty to what period the most ancient of these structures belong. It is probable that man early learned to pile up stones, binding them together at first with clay, and then with some stronger cements. The hurghs of Scotland, the nurhags of the island of Sardinia, the talayoti of the Balearic Isles, the castellieri of Istria, are all ancient witnesses of the modes of building employed in the most remote ages. Burghs J hrocks^ or hrouglis are numerous in Scotland,^ and also in the islands of the Atlantic. For a long time they were supposed to be of Scandinavian origin, but Sir J. Lubbock^ remarks with reason that no 1 R. Munro : " Ancient Scottish Lake Dwellings or Crannoges, with a Supple- mentary Chapter on Remains of Lake Dwellings in England," Edinburgh,. 1882. '^ " Prehistoric Times." Wilson : " Prehistoric Scotland." 1 66 PREHISTORIC PEOPLES. building at all like tliem exists in Norway or in Denmark, and it is difficult to admit the idea that the Scandinavians set up in the islands tributary to them buildings which were unknown to their own mainland. We are therefore disposed to think that these curious structures, which were inhabited until the twelfth and thirteenth centuries of the Christian era, are of much earlier date than the first invasion by the Northmen, and that the burgh still standing on the little island of Moussa, one of the Shetlands, is one of the best examples that we can quote. A tower, forty-one feet high, rises on the borders of the sea. The walls are of unhewn stones, piled up without cement, and they form two circles, separated by a passage four feet wide. In each story are a series of very small openings, intended to admit air and light to the cell-like. rooms inside, and to a staircase that leads to the top of the tower. The only way into this burgh is through a door only seven feet high, and so narrow that it is impossible for two people to go in abreast. The regularity of the building of this burgh, and the architectural knowledge it implies, prevent our ascribing it either to the Stone or even to the Bronze age ; but we find in Scotland itself more ancient examples, if we may so express ourselves, of domestic architecture. These examples are subterranean dwel- lings, made of rough-hewn stones of considerable size, laid down in regular courses, to which the names of earth-houses, Picts' houses, and weems have been given. The walls convei'ge towards the centre, leaving an opening at the toj), which was covered in with large flat stones. These dwellings are certainly of earlier date than the burghs, and the discovery of a Picts' B URGHS. ' ' NURHA CS," " TA LA YO Tir 1 6^ house actually beneath the ruins of a burgh enables us to speak with certainty on this point. In Ireland similar proofs have been found of the great antiquity of man. More than one hundred towers have been found in that country, all built of large stones, and varying in height from seventy to one hundred and thirty feet, with a diameter of from eight to fifteen feet. The most diverse origins have been attributed to these towers, from prehistoric times to the centuries immediately preceding the Christian era ; from the time of the Druids to that of the Friars. According to the point of view of different archae- ologists, they have been called temples of the sun, hermitages, phallic monuments, or signal towers. We meet with a similar problem in considering the nurhags, as in considering the burghs. They have been justly called a page of history, written all over the sur- face of Sardinia by an unknown people. Count Albert de la Marmora counted three thousand of them a few years ago, and more recent explorers tell us that this number is greatly exceeded. Like the burghs, which they strangely resemble, the nurliags are conical towers with very thick walls made of huge stones, some hewn, others in their natural state, arranged in regular courses without mortar. On entering one of them we find ourselves in a vaulted room, which looks exactly like one half of an %^^ in shape. In the upper stories are two, and sometimes three rooms, one above the other, to which access is gained by steps cut in the walls. The whole structure is crowned by a terrace (Fig. 53). We must add that the entrance to the nurJiag is through an opening on a level with the ground, and so low that one can only go in by crawling on the stomach. i68 PREHISTORIC PEOPLES. Many conjectures have been made as to tlie use of these towers. Were they temples in which to worship, or trophies of victory ? Their number is against either of these hypotheses. Were they then habitations or towers of observation ? Not the former certainly, for no one could live between walls sixteen or twenty-two feet thick, shut out from air and light. Some travellers think they were tombs, but excavations have brought to light no bones or sepulchral relics. We can com- FiG. 53. — Nurhag at Santa Barbara (Sardinia). pare them to nothing but the Towers of Silence, on which the Parsees expose their dead to the birds of heaven, which are ever ready rapidly to acquit them- selves of their melancholy functions. The origin of the nurliags is as uncertain as their use. Diodorus Siculus considered them very ancient, and one fact has come to light in our day which enables us to arrive at a somewhat more exact de- cision. The island of Sardinia was taken by the Romans from the Carthaginians in 238 b.c, and an BURGHS, '' NURHAGS;' '' TALAYOTi:' 1 69 aqueduct, the ruins of which can still be seen, was built by the conquerors on the foundations of an ancient narhag, so that the latter must belong to an earlier date than the third century before our era. Fergusson, who speaks with authority on everything relating to the monuments of the Stone age, assigns the nurJiags to the mystic times of the Trojan War. In all probability they were built by an invading people. La Marmora thinks these invaders were the Libyans; M. de Rougemont, in his history of the Bronze age, says that the curved vault is the char- acteristic feature of Pelasgian architecture, which is often confounded with that of the Phoenicians. Al- though any final conclusion would be pi'emature, we ourselves think that the builders of the nnrliags belonged to the great stream of emigration from the East, the course of which is marked by megalithic monuments in so many parts of the world. In some instances, nurhags were surrounded by cromlechs, of which most of the stones have now been thrown down. Some of these stones bore prominences resembling the breasts of a woman. The accumulations of earth and rubbish about the turhags are, some of them, from six to ten feet high. In the lower deposits have been found coarse pottery, with no attempt at ornamentation, fragments of flint, and obsidian hatchets of black basalt, or porphyry of the Palaeolithic type, arrow-heads, flint knives, stones used in slings, and numerous shells ; whilst in the upper deposits were picked up black pottery and fragments of bronze belonging to the transition period between the Stone and Metal ages. All over the island of Sardinia, side by side with I/O PREHISTORIC PEOPLES. the nurhags^ rise tombs t(^ whicli have been given the name of Sepolture del GigaiUi. They are from thirty -two to thirty-nine feet long by a nearly equal width, and are built, some of huge slabs of stone, some of stones of smaller size. They are in every case surmounted by a pediment, formed of a single block, and often covered with sculptures dating from different epochs. These sepulchres are certainly of later date than the nurliags^ and in them have been found numerous implements of bronze, but none of stone. Fig. 54.—" Talayoti" at Trepuco (Minorca). The talayoti^ of which one hundred and fifty are still standing in the island of Minorca, are cii-cular or ellip- tical truncated cones, built of huge unhewn stones, laid one on the other without cement (Fig. 54). The most remarkable of all of them, tliat at Torello, near Mahon, is thirty-three feet high. In many cases there are two stones, one placed upright, the other across it, in front of the talayoti. The meaning of these biliths is un- known. Yet another series of cyclopean monuments are known under the name of nanetaSy and are not unlike BURGHS, " JVURJ/AGS," " TALAYOTL" I /I overturned boats. Seven sucli nanetas are still to be seen in the Balearic Isles. Tlie one which is best pre- served consists of large unhewn stones of rectangular shape, enclosing an inner chamber about six feet in width. The roof having fallen in, its height cannot be exactly determined ; we only know that the lateral walls are some forty-five feet high. In Algeria also have been preserved some towers built of stones without cement. Some of them are square (hasina) and surmounted by a small dolmen, others are round (chouchet) and closed at the top by a large slab of stone, as in the mirliags we have just described. It is difficult to bring this account to a close without mentioning the trnddhi and the speccliie of Otranto.^ A truddhu is a massive conical tower consisting of a heap of scarcely hewn stones piled up without cement and with an exterior facing. Inside is a round room, the roof of which is formed by a series of circular courses of stone projecting one beyond the other. Sometimes a second chamber rises above the first, which is reached by steps cut in the facing, w^hich- steps also lead to the platform on the top of the tower. •Thousands of truddlii are to be seen in Italy ; they date from every epoch, and the people of Lecce and Baii continue to erect them as did their fathers before them. Side by side with the truddhi rise the speccliie ^ which are conical masses of stone, of greater height and prob- ably of more ancient date than the towers. Lenormant thinks they were used to live in ; but his opinion has ' Nicolucci : " Scelse Lavorate, Bronzi e Monumenti di Terra d'Otranto." Lenormant, Revue d' Ethnographie, February, 1882 {Bui. Soc. Anth., 1882 and 1884), S. Reinach : '* Esquises Archeologiques." 7 I}r2 PREHISTORIC PEOPLES. been much questioned, and it is necessary to speak on this point with great reserve. The castellieri of Istria, which the Slavonian peas- ants call starigradj are as yet but little known. Doubt- less an examination of them will bring out their resemblance to the nurhags and talayoti. They are, however, more than mere towers, forming regular en- ceintes between walls formed of two facings of dry stones, the space between which is filled in with smaller stones. There are fifteen of these castellieri in the dis- trict of Albona, a little town on the southeast of Trieste. They were at first attributed to the Roman epoch, but later researches relegate them I'ather to prehistoric times, and the discovery near them of numerous stone implements rather tends to support this latter opinion, but it must not be considered conclusive. Perhaps we ought also to connect with the earliest ages of humanity the stations recently discovered in Spain by MM. Siret.^ These were evidently centres of population, surrounded by walls of a very primitive description. We shall have to refer again to these dis- coveries ; we will only add now that in the black earth forming the soil were found worked flints, polished diorite hatchets, pierced shells, with various pieces of pottery, and mills for grinding corn. So far, however though many of the stations have been explored, no trace has been found of the use of metals. A vast period of time, countless centuries, indeed, have passed away since the close of the Palaeolithic epoch. The burghs, nurhags^ and castelliei'i show the progress of civilization, and at the same time prove that this progress extended throughout Europe, and that at ^ " Les Premiers Ages du Metal dans le Sud-Est de I'Espagne," Brussels, 1887. CASTELLIERI. 1 73 a time not so very far removed from our own. The close resemblance between buildings of different dates enables us to speak with certainty of the connection between the races which succeeded each other in Europe. The importance of these conclusions is very great, and will be brought out still more in our study of megalithic monuments. CHAPTER V. MEGALITHIC MONUMENTS. Megalithic monuments are perhaps the most inter- esting of all the witnesses of the remote past, into the history of which we are now inquiring, and of which so little is known. From the shores of the Atlantic to the Ural Mountains, from the frontiers of Russia to the Pacific Ocean, from the steppes of Siberia to the plains of Hindustan, we see rising before us monuments of the same characteristic form, built in the same manner. This is a very important fact in the history of hu- manity, and of which it is difficult to exaggerate the importance. What is the age of all these monuments ? Were they all erected by one race, which has thus carried on its traditions from one generation to another ? Were they the temples of the gods of this race, or the tombs of their ancestors ? Did the people who set them up come from the East, or did they come from the North, on their way to the warmer regions of the South ? These and many other questions are eagerly discussed, but in the present state of our knowledge not one of them can be answered in a perfectly satisfactory man- ner. Scire ignorare magna scieritia^ said an ancient philosopher, and this is a truth which we must often repeat when we are dealing with prehistoric times. 174 MEGALITHIC MONUMENTS. 175 Under the name of megalithic monuments we include tumuli^ dolmenSy cromlechs^ tnenhirs^ and covered avenues. It may at first sight appear strange to include tumuli amongst stone monuments, but they almost always en- close a dolmen, a cist, or a crypt communicating w^th the outside by a covered passage. The excavation of more than four hundred tumuli in England has brought to light now a stone coffer made of a number of stones set edgeways and called a Mstvaen : now of a tomb Fig. 55. — Dolmen of Castle Wellan (Ireland). hollowed out beneath " the surface of the ground, and enclosed by huge blocks of stone/ Mounds are as numerous in Portugal as tumuli in England, and the fact that they are of low height has led to their being called mamoas or maminhas^ which signifies little mounds. In Poland, tumuli consist of piles of massive stones ; beneath each is a cist made of four large slabs, and containing as many as eight or ten urns full of ^ Bateman : " Ten Years' Diggings," Preface, p. il. 17^6 PREHISTORIC PEOPLES. calcined bones. The excavation of a tumulus in the plain of Tarbes brought to light an enormous blCck of granite resting on blocks of quartz. The spaces between these blocks were filled in witk rubble made of small stones cemented into one mass with clay. Edwin- Harness Mound, near Liberty (Ohio), is 160 feet long by eighty or ninety wide, and thirteen to eighteen Fig. 56. — The large dolmen of Coreoro, near Plouharnel. high in the middle. It contained' a dozen sepulchral chambers. More rarely tumuli are merely artificial mounds of earth, sometimes rising to a great height. Those of North America are the most remai'kable known. That of Cahokia is now ninety-one feet high,^ and was for- * W. MacAdams : polls, 1883. rhe Great Mound of Cahokia." Am. Ass., Minnea- MEGALITHIC MONUMENTS, 1 77 merly surmounted by a low pyramid, now destroyed. Its base measure^ 560 feet by 720, the platform at the top is 146 feet by 310 feet wide, and it has been esti- mated that twenty -five million cubic feet of earth were used in its construction. Major Pearse mentions a tumulus near Nagpore, which is 3,900 feet in circumfer- ence, and 174 feet high. Another between Tyre and Sarepta, is 130 feet high by 650 in diameter. It has never been excavated.^ Fig. 57. — Dolmen of Arrayolos (Portugal). The dolmen type of monument is a rectangle of un- hewn upright stones covered over with a slab laid across them ; this slab being the largest block of stone that could be found in the neighborhood or obtained by the builders. Dolmens are generally found either on the top of a natural or an artificial mound, in the middle of a plain, or on the banks of a watercourse. We must mention, amongst others, those in Persia, which are some 7,000 * Pelagaud : " Prehistoire en Syrie." 1/8 PREHISTORIC PEOPLES. feet high and from twenty-one to twenty-six feet long by six wide ; that near Mykense, that of Aum^de-Bas, excavated by Dr. Prunieres ; that of New Grange, in Ireland, surmounted by a cromlech of stones of consid- erable size, many of them brought from a distance ; that of Ilellstone, near Dorchester, consisting of nine upright stones supporting a table more than twenty-seven and a half feet in circumference, seven feet wide and two and a half thick. The dolmens near Saturnia, one of the most ancient Etruscan towns, include a quadrangular room, sunk some feet into the earth, and having walls Fig. 58. — Megalithic sepulchre at Acora (Peru). made of blocks of stone and a roof of a couple of large slabs, sloped slightly to let the rain run off. We give illustrations of the dolmens of Castle Wellan in Ireland (Fig. 55), of Coreoro near Plouharnel (Morbihan) (Fig. 56), of Arrayolos in Portugal (Fig. 57), and Acora in Peru (Fig. 58), which will enable the reader to judge of the different modes of construction employed in building these megalithic monuments. In some cases the dolmen, which alone is visible from without, is placed upon a mound, covering a hidden MEGALITHIC MONUMENTS. 1/9 sepulchral chambei', whilst in others the crypt is replaced by a simple stone cist, generally of rectangular shape. We may mention in this connection the dolmen of Bekour-Noz at St. Pierre Quiberon, which is remarkable for its great size, and rises from the midst of a ceme- tery in which a great, many coffins have been found. The bones they contained were unfortunately dispersed at the time of their discovery. Dolmens are scattered .about in great numbers in the Kouban basin and all along the coasts of the Black Sea occupied by the Tcherkesses. These curious ves- tiges of an unknown civilization are still an unsolved enigma to us, as are those of Western Europe ; they are generally formed of four upright slabs surmounted by a fifth laid horizontally, and one of the supporting slabs is nearly always pierced with a small round or oval opening. Excavations have brought to light arrow- heads, rings, and bronze spirals, but Chantre, an authority of considerable weight, and who has more- over had the advantage of actually seeing these mega- lithic monuments of the south of Russia, attributes the objects found beneath them to secondary inter- ments, and does not hesitate in assigning the more ancient monuments themselves to the Stone age. We must not omit to mention the dolmens found in the southern portion of the island of Yezo (Japan),^ nor that described by Darwin at Puerto Deseado (Pata- gonia). They are both very similar to those of Europe. To resume, dolmens, called Hunengi^aber in Ger- many, stazzona in Corsica, antas in Portugal, and stendos in Sweden, have all alike one large flat horizontal slab ' Moore, Popular Science Monthly, New York, March, 1880 ; Zeitschrift fur Ethnologic : Berlin, 1887. l8o PREHISTORIC PEOPLES. placed on two or more upright unhewn stones. This is the one fixed rule ; local circumstances, perhaps-even the caprice of the builders, decided the position and the mode of erection. Often, as I have already re- marked, dolmens are buried beneath tumuli, but ex- ceptions to this are numerous. General Faidherbe, after having examined more than six thousand dol- mens in Algeria, affirms that the greater number have never been covered with earth.^ In the Orkney Islands there are more than one hundred dolmens without tumuli, and Martinet failed to find any trace of mounds in Berry. In Scotland and Brittany we find dolmens buried, not beneath mounds of earth, but under accumulations of pebbles, called cairns in Scot- land and galgals in Brittany. However minor details may vary, and they do vary infinitely, one main idea everywhere dominated the builders, and that was the desire to protect from all profanation the resting- place of what had once been a human being. Cromlechs are circles of upright stones often sur- rounding dolmens or tumuli. Sometimes they form single circles, and at others two, three, or even seven separate enclosures. They are common in Algeria, Swe- den, and Denmark, and in the last-named country two kinds are distinguished : the langdyssers, which form an ellipse, and the rundyssers which form a perfect circle. In other countries cromlechs are not so numer- ous ; there are but few in France, of which we may name those of Kergoman (Morbihan), Lestridion in Plomeur, and Landaondec in Crozon (Finistere). The last-named, known as le temple des faux dieux, is closed by a double row of small menhirs. In Italy, the only ' " Monuments de Roknia," p. i8. MEGALITHIC MONUMENTS. l8l cromlechs known are those of Sesto-Calende and those of the plateau of Mallevalle near Ticino. One of the latter still retains in their original position fifty-nine huge granite blocks, forming a circular en- ceinte, a semicircle, and an entrance avenue. A few leagues from the ancient Tyre can still be seen a circle of upright stones. Ouseley describes another at Darab, in Persia ; a missionary speaks of three large circles at Khabb, in Arabia, which circles he compares with those at Stonehenge ; and Dr. Barth tells us of a crom- lech between Mourzouk and Ghat. A kurgan, or tumulus, having been opened in the Kherson district, three or four concentric circles were discovered beneath it, surrounding a structure of con- siderable size.^ The cromlech of Anajapoura in Cey- lon, probably, however, erected comparatively recently, consists of fifty-two granite pillars, about thirteen feet high, encircling a Buddhist temple. At Peshawur is another circle, fourteen of the stones of which are still upright, whilst traces can be made out of an outer enceinte of smaller stones ; in Peru there are several cromlechs, whilst others have been found at the foot of Elephant Mount, in the desert plains of Australia. The last-named vary from ten to one thousand feet in diameter, but excavations beneath them have brought to light only a few human bones. At Mzora, in Morocco, the traveller will notice a mound of elliptical shape, some 21 or 22-^ feet high, flanked on the west by a group of menhirs, and sur- rounded by an enceinte of upright stones which now ' Haxtausen : " Mem. sur la Russie," vol. ii., p. 204 ; A. Bogdanow : '* Mat, pour Servir a I'Histoire des Kourganes," Moscow, 1879 ; Margaret Stokes : " La Disposition des Principaux Dolmens de I'lrlande," Rev. Arch., July, 1882. 1 82 PREHISTORIC PEOPLES. number about forty. In 1831, there were still ninety, and on the south side v\^ere noticed two round p'illars parallel with each other, which probably formed an entrance.^ This group evidently originally formed the centre of a series of megalithic monuments, for on the north and southwest some fifty monoliths can still be made out, some still erect, others fallen.^ It was in Great Britain, however, that cromlechs appear to have reached their highest development. That of Salkeld in Cumberland includes sixty-seven menhirs ; that near Loch Stemster in Caithness, thirty- three, whilst in Westmoreland, Long Meg and her danghters are still the objects of superstitious rever- ence. The remains at Avebury are among the most remarkable prehistoric monuments still extant, and evidently originally formed part of a most important group. This group had an outer rampart of earth, with a. ditch on the inner side, within which was a circle of upright stones, probably numbering as many as one hundred. Within this circle were two others of smaller size, each in its turn enclosing yet another circle of upright stones. In the middle of one of these inner circles, that on the north, was a dolmen, whilst that on the south enclosed in the centre bat a single upright menhir. The stones used in constructing these various groups were all such as are still to be found on the Wiltshire downs. From the southeastern portion of the extensive earthen rampart, a stone avenue extended for a considerable distance in a perfectly straight line, and is still known as Kennet's Avenue, ' Sir A. de Capell Brooke : " Sketches in Spain and Morocco." ^ Tissot : " Recherches sur la Geographic Comparee de la Mauritanie Tingitane." MEGALITHIC MONUMENTS. 1 83 on account of its leading to the village of Kennet. The remains on Hakpen Hill and on Silbuiy Hill are all supposed to have been originally connected with those at Avebury. The remains at Hakpen consist of relics of two circles, one about 140 feet in diameter, the other not more than forty. About eighty yards from the inner circle was found a double row of skeletons, all with the feet pointing towards the centre. Silbury Hill is itself an artificial conical mound, the largest in England, 170 feet high, on which w^ere originally no less than 650 upright stones, of which only twenty are still standing, surrounded by a trench. In the centre of the circle of stones a single menhir of great height still remains with three others sloped so as to form a kind of crypt. The megalithic monuments of Stonehenge, which are probably better known than any others in the world, are perhaps also the most curious. The group is sup- posed to have originally consisted of an outer stone concentric circle some one hundred feet in diameter, formed by thirty piers of solid masonry, of which about twenty can still be made out, some few standing, others lying broken upon the ground. This outer circle enclosed a second of similar shape but lesser diameter, within which again were two elliptic circles, the outer consisting^ of ten or twelve sandstone blocks some twenty-two feet high, standing in pairs, each pair united by a slab laid horizontally across, so as to form a trilithon. The inner ellipse was formed by nineteen upright masses of granite, within which was the famous slab of blue marble, by many supposed to have been an altar. The pillars and lintels of the outer portico, and those of the trilithons, are fitted together with the r84 PREHISTORIC PEOPLES. greatest skill, with tenons and mortices, a remarkable exception to the general rule with megalithic monu- ments. Everywhere in the neighborhood of Stone- henge, as far as the eye can reach, are tumuli, all nearly equidistant from the principal group of monuments, a fact which has led many archaeologists, including Henry Martin, to look upon Stonehenge as a temple sur- rounded by a necropolis. Excavations at Stonehenge have yielded a few human bones which have escaped the flames, with some stone and bronze weapons. The megalithic monuments of Ireland are not less important, and a recent survey has reported no less than 276 still standing.^ The cromlechs of Moytura^ are supposed to commemorate the fearful combats which took place between the Firholgs, or BelgSG as they are called by Irish antiquaries, and the Tuatha de Dananns, when the plains of Sligo and Meath were dyed with blood, before the former were vanquished and retired to Arran. There are still no less than fourteen dolmens and thirty-nine cromlechs. The bones picked up beneath the stone circles, which keep alive the memory of these sanguinary conflicts, are those of the warriors who fell on the battle- field, but the story of how they met their fate belongs rather to history than to the subject we are considering. It is the same with the two huge monoliths of Cornwall, which commemorate a battle between the Welsh King Howel Dha and the Saxon Athelstane, as well as with the cromlechs of Ostrogothland, where, in 736, took ' Margaret Stokes : "La Distribution des Principaux Dolmens de I'lrlande." Revue Arch., July, 1882. * Sir W. Wilde : " Ireland, Past and Present." Miss Buckland : " Cornish and Irish Prehistoric Monuments," Anth. Inst., Nov., 1879. O'Curry : " Lectures on the Manuscript Materials of Irish History." MEGALITHIC MONUMENTS. 1 85 place the battle in which the old King Harold Hilde- brand was overcome and killed by his nephew, Sigurd- Ring. A group of forty-four circles also marks the site of the celebrated combat of 1030, in which Knut the Great defied Olaf the patron saint of Norway. We may also name in this connection the twenty circles of stone erected at Upland in memory of the massacre of the Danish prince, Magnus Henricksson, in 1161. Yet another group of circles marks the spot where, about 1150, the Swedish heroine, Blenda, overcame King Sweyne Grate. We might easily multiply instances of the erection in historic times of similar monuments, but we have said enough to show that the megalithic foi-m was by no means confined to prehistoric days. Menhirs properly so called, also known as leclis in Brittany, are in reality isolated monoliths or single upright stones, often of considerable size. One of the best known is that of Locmariaker (Fig. 59) which was nearly seventy feet high.^ It was still standing in 1659, but is now overturned and broken into four pieces. The fiat stone resting on one portion of it is known as Caesar's table. On some menhirs, notably on Sweno's pillar in Scotland, a cross has been cut on one side, showing either that this form of monument was early adopted by Christians, or more probably, that it was adapted to their use after having long previously been a relic of prehistoric times. On the other side of Sweno's pillar is a bas-relief of fairly good execution. In some cases menhirs mark the site of a tomb, and sometimes, as is the case with the obelisks of Egypt, they commemorate some happy event. A standing stone in Scotland preserves the memory of ^ Bui. Soc. Pol. du Morbihan, April, 1885. MEGALITHIC MONUMENTS. 1 87 the battle of Largs, which took place in the thirteenth century, and a piously preserved legend tells how the menhir of Aberlemmo was set up in honor of a victory over the Danes in the tenth century. Some archaeologists, in view of the shape of certain menhirs and the superstitions connected with them, think they must be phallic monuments. Menhirs in France are quoted in this connection, cut into the form of the phallus ; and the same form occurs in some menhirs near Saphos, in the island of Cyprus,^ and in others found amongst the ruins of Uxmal, in Yucatan. Herodotus relates that Sesostris caused to be set up, in countries he conquered, monoliths bearing in relief representations of the female sexual organs. These are, however, but exceptions, isolated facts, and it would certainly never do to argue from them that men- hirs were connected with the worship of the generative powers of nature. It is extremely difficult to get at the statistics of menhirs. A great many have been overthrown, and yet more have disappeared altogether. Probably, be- sides the alignments or stone avenues, there are not more than twenty still standing.^ One thing is certain, the monolithic form of monument has always had a great attraction for the human race, and we meet with it in Egypt, Assyria, Persia, and Mexico, as well as in England and Brittany. The historian speaks of such monuments in the earliest of existing records; Homer refers to them in the Iliad,^ and in the ^ S. Reinach, Rev. Arch., 1888. Wilson : " Megalithic Monuments of Brit- tany." Cartailhac : " La France Prehistorique," in which the measurements are given of the principal monuments of Brittany. 2 A. Bertrand : " Archeologie Celtique et Gauloise," p. 105. "Iliad, book xxiii,, v. 380. 1 88 PREHISTORIC PEOPLES. Bible we find it related that the Lord ordered Joshua to set up twelve stones in memory of the crossing of the Jordan by the Israelites.^ Alignments are groups of menhirs set up in one or more rows. Sometimes large slabs are laid across them, when they are called covered avenues. One such alignment at Saint Pantaleon (Saone et Loire) consists of twenty menhirs. The menhirs of El Wad, in Algeria, form long avenues, running from west *to east. The Arabs call them essenam, and according to tradi- tion they were erected in fulfilment of a vow made in the hope of arresting the march of an enemy. The tumulus of Run-Aour (Finistere) has two avenues run- ning at right angles to one another.^ This disposition, which is very rare, also occurs at Karleby, in Sweden, and by a remarkable coincidence the length of the ave- nues (about thirty -nine and fifty -five feet), is the same in both cases. Sometimes such avenues form communica- tions between several dolmens, leading us to suppose that near the chief slept the members of his family or his favorite companions. The covered avenues are often built beneath masses of earth, and the inner rooms became regular hypogea, These hypogea, or subterranean chambers, are very common near Paris, and we may mention amongst many others those of Meudon, Argenteuil, Conflans- Sainte-Honorine, Marly, Chamant, La Justice, and Com- pans. The tombs of Denmark, the Gang Graben of Nilsson, show an arrangement somewhat similar, a vast subterranean chamber being reached by a passage end- ing in a small stone cist. The tumulus of Dissignac, 'Joshua, chap, iv., v. 12, ei seq. ' P. du Chatellier, M^m. Soc. d* Emulation des Cdtes-du-Nord, vol. xix. MEGALITHIC MONUMENTS. 189 near Saint-Nazaire (Fig. 60), shows this strange arrange- ment of two galleries running parallel with each other at a distance of about eighteen feet. The walls and ceilings are made of slabs, and the interstices are filled in with flints. These galleries are some thii-ty feet long, and their height insensibly increases from about three to nine feet. Fig. 60. — Covered avenue of Dissignac (Loire-Inferieur) ; view of the chamber at the end of the north gallery. We must also mention the Cueva de Mengal, near the village of Antequera, in the province of Malaga (Fig. 61) Twenty stones form the walls of the crypt, ^y% blocks of remarkable size serve as a roof, and to ensure solidity three pillars are set upright inside of the junc- tion of the roof blocks. The crypt is some seventy- nine feet long, its greatest width is about nineteen feet, and its height varies from about eight to nine feet. The IQO PREHISTORIC PEOPLES. length of the Pastora room, near Seville is about eighty- seven feet, but its height is not to be compared, with that of the one at Antecj^uera. The square crypt at Pastora is very interesting. One of the roof stones having been broken, it has been strengthened by the addition of an inside pillar/ At Gavr'innis, the length of the passage leading to the cry23t exceeds forty-two feet (Fig. 62), and the Long Fig. 6i. — Covered avenue near Antequera. Barrow of West Kennet is more than seventy-three feet long by a width in some parts exceeding thirty-two feet. In the Long Barrows of Littleton, Nempnitt, and Uley, the crypt is reached by an avenue, the entrance of which is closed by a trilithon, and a similar arrangement is met with in many megalithic monuments of Scania. The sepulchral chambers of oval shape, such as that met with in the island of Moer^were surmounted by ^ Cartailhac : " Les Ages Prehistoriques en Espagne et en Portugal." MEGALITHIC MONUMENTS, 191 a tumulus some 100 yds. in circumference ; twelve un- hewn stones formed the walls, and five large blocks the roof. In removing the earth from the Moen tomb, the bones of several human individuals were found ; and a skeleton, doubtless that of the chief, lay stretched out in the middle of the chamber, whilst the bones of the others had evidently been ranged against the walls either in a sitting or crouching position. With the bones were found a flint hatchet, which appeared never to have been used, a number of balls of amber, and several vases of different shapes. Fig. 62. — Ground plan of the Gavr'innis monument. The megalithic monuments of Mecklenburg are sup- posed to date from Neolithic times, and are constructed in two very different ways. The Hunengrdher, formed of huge blocks of granite set up at right angles to each other, resemble- the covered avenues of France and elsewhere ; in the so-called Riesenhetten, or giant's beds, on the contrary, the sepulchral chamber is merely sunk in the ground. We must also mention the so-called Grotte des JFees, or fairy grotto, forming part of so many of the mega- lithic monuments of^ Provence. This fairy grotto includes an open-air" gallery cut in the mountain limestone and roofed in with huge flat stones. This 192 PREHISTORIC PEOPLES. gallery leads to a sepulchral chamber not less than seventy-nine feet long. The stones used for the covered avenue of Mureaux (Seine et Oise) came from the other side of the Seine, so that the builders must have crossed the river in a raft. Excavations have brought to light several skeletons that had been buried without any attempt at orientation, the bones of which were still in their natural position. The objects found in this tomb were very numerous and belonged to the Neolithic period.* We have now specified the chief forms and modes of arrangement of megalithic monuments, and must add that they are often found in juxtaposition. At Mane- Lud, for instance, on a rocky platform which had been artificially smoothed, and which is some 246 feet long by 162 in area, we find at the eastern extremity an avenue of upright stones, on the west a dolmen, and in the centre a crypt surmounted by a conical pile of stones. Between the cone and the avenue the ground is covered with an artificial 2>aving of small stones cemented together, and known in France as a nappe p>ierreuse^ and amongst the stones forming this paving were found quantities of charcoal and bones of ani- mals. The megalith was completely buried beneath a mound of earth, or rather of dried mud, the amount of which was estimated at more than 37,986 cubic feet. At Lestridiou (Finistere), a cromlech forms the start- ing-point of an alignment formed of seven rows of small menhirs, the mean height of which above the ground does not exceed three feet; and these align- ments lead up to two covered avenues and a central dolmen. In other cases, in England and the land of * Verreaux, V Anthropologies 1890, p. 157. MEGALITHIC MONUMENTS. 193 Moab for instance, alignments simply lead to crom- leclis ; whilst in some few cases, as at Stennis (Fig. 63), the menhirs are scattered about a plain in great num- bers, with nothing either in their form or their position, or in the traditions relating to them, to throw the slightest light on their origin. ^ jm^^^^^^^^^^^ wms^ I ^^^^^^^6 ^^^^ _^v_^^ !■' 1 1 1 ■ himmjjmLjJJ I'll^^B I ^^H|K.- .-'.. H ^^^^k^^^^hI 1 ^^^■^^_^ 1 ^HR pS^^E-i^'— 'jIb^^B^^^ _jljj4 1 E-^^i ' w=-^ n ' ij III ■^^^^^B B ^^^^t-3 ■ fT ±^^^^£ ^y Fig. 63. — Monoliths at Stennis, in the Orkney Islands. One of the most important monuments that have come down to us is that of Carnac. The alignments of Menec, Kermario, and Kerlescant include 1,771 men- hirs, of which 675 are still standing. The alignments 194 PREHISTORIC PEOPLES. of Erdeven, whicli succeed those of Carnac, extend for a length of more than a mile and a half. They origi- nally included 1,030 menhiijs, of which 288 are still extant. The archaeologists of Brittany, carried away per- haps by their patriotic enthusiasm, claim that when these monuments were intact they included two thou, sand menhirs. What is really certain, however, is that a definite plan was evidently followed, the distances between the alignments tallying exactly ; the menhirs being set up in straight parallel lines gradually de- creasing: in size towards the east. Excavations near them have brought to light fragments of charcoal, masses of cinders, chips of silicate of flint, with numerous fragments of pottery, and tools made of quartzite, gran- ite, schist, and diorite, similar to those met with under all the other megaliths of Morbihan. This is yet another proof, if such were needed, that they were all the work of the same race and all probably date from the same period. The number of megalithic monuments in the world is simply incalculable. M. A. Bertrand estimates the total number in France as 2,582, distributed in ^tion which lasted for no less than five years, forming at the end of that time an island some 400 feet high by 3,279 feet in circumference. In 1866, after many violent shocks of earthquake, the ground was rent asunder on this island and masses of volcanic matter were belched forth, whilst on the other side of the island the soil sank to such a degree that canoes were used to get to * Fouque, Nature, 1876, second week, p. 65. SANTORIN, 309 houses which but the day before were nine feet above the sea-level. This eruption went on until 1870, and the quantity of scoriae vomited forth during its continuance welded three islets, which had hitherto been separate, to the principal island, of which they now form part. On entering the Bay of Santorin we see on every side banks of lava, beds of scoriae, and piles of cinders of a purplish-gray color rising in cliffs to a height of more than 1,312 feet. All these ma- terials are the result of innumerable eruptions, and the central crater of the volcano is probably situated about the middle of the bay. It is supposed that at one time a conical mountain, from 1,958 to 2,600 feet high, rose where soundings now give a depth of water of over 1,300 feet. A sudden break up of the moun- tain probably produced this abyss, and formidable eruptions have led to the pouring forth of immense quantities of pumice-stone. The three islets mentioned above would be the remains of the old central cone, and a bed of pumice-stone from 98 to 131 feet thick is spread over the whole of their surface, telling of a violent cataclysm of which neither history nor tradition has preserved the memory. The letters of Pliny the Younger ^ say that the erup- tion of Vesuvius which caused the destruction of Portici lasted ^\^ days, and we know that the houses are covered with a uniformly distributed bed of pum- ice-stone some thirteen feet thick, and of cinders about three feet thick. Everything points to the conclusion that a very similar catastrophe overtook Santorin ; there too whole villages were buried beneath cinders, stones, ^ Book vi., chap. xvi. and xx. — Pliny the Elder, uncle and father by adoption of Pliny the Younger, lost his life in this catastrophe, which took place in 79 A.D. 310 PREHISTORIC PEOPLES. and molten lava, belched forth by a volcano in action ; there too men were the witnesses and the victims of the eruption, as is proved by an accidental circum- stance which took place some twenty-three years* after/ The removal of the pouzzolanaj so called after the volcanic ashes of Pozzuoli in Italy for the works on the Isthmus of Suez, necessitated important excavations, and the cuttings revealed the existence of dwellings which had been hidden away from the light of day for many centuries. The masses of rubbish hiding these prehistoric ruins were some sixty-five feet high, and consisted chiefly of volcanic ashes piled up, for some accidental reason, in comparatively modern times. Beneath the jpouzzolana a thin layer of humus con- tains fragments of pottery of Hellenic origin ; which marks the close of the historic period, and covers over the mass of pumiceous tufa vomited out by the vol- cano. It was in this tufa, which is eight feet thick, that the first signs of buildings were discovered. Fur- ther excavation brought to light two houses with doors, windows, and bearing walls. In one of these houses there were five different rooms. Other dis- coveries rapidly succeeded each other, alike in the island of Therasia and at Acrotiri, the principal island, which has given its name to the group. The plan of these houses is an irregular parallelogram, the angles of which are rounded and the sides more or less curved. This arrangement differs greatly from that adopted in Greece as well as from that in use at Therasia after the time of the volcanic eruptions. The ' Cigalla : Acad, des Sciences, November 12, 1866. Fouque : Acad, des Sciences, March 25, 1867. " Un Pompei Prehistorique," Revue des Deux- Mondes, October 15, 1869. SANTORIN, 311 houses too are quite different in their mode of construc- tion. The walls consist of great blocks of lava placed one above the othei", without any trace of cement or of lime, and are merely kept in place by a reddish earth mixed with chopped straw or marine algae. Large branches of olive or cypress trees, still with the bark on, are imbedded in the masonry. These pieces of wood, the size of which varies considerably, were prob- ably added to give the necessary solidity to the walls in the numerous earthquakes, the disastrous effects of which were only too well known to the ancient inhabitants of Santorin. It is curious and interesting to note the use of the same expedient among the inhabitants of the islands of the Archipelago who are still exposed to the same danger. The doors and windows are clumsily arched, and the roof seems to have been a low vault. It was made of stones and coated with clay and supported by the trunks of olive trees, the charred remains of which lay upon the floors of the crushed homes. These trunks show no sign of having been touched with metal tools ; not a metal nail or clamp has been found, and we cannot but conclude that the remains belong to the age when stone alone was employed. The inside walls were not glazed or decorated in any way, except in one instance, that of a house at Acrotiri, from which the rubbish has been cleared away, revealing on the walls a layer of lime on which was some colored ornamentation which still retained an extraordinary brilliancy when it was discovered. In all the houses and in every room of each were found beneath the tufa burying them masses of lava and^volcanic scoriae, forming a most eloquent witness 312 PREHISTORIC PEOPLES. of the cause of their destruction. Near one of the houses of Therasia is a little cylindrical structure, about three feet high ; which cannot have been a well, as it rests directly on impermeable lava, arid was certainly not a cistern, as it is too small for that. May it, as some think, have been an altar ? We cannot tell, and though the religious sentiment was probably no more absent among these primitive races than it is among the barbarous peoples of our own day, it does not do to express an opinion in the absence of positive proof. Successive excavations have yielded a number of objects which throw a new light upon the manners and customs of the inhabitants. Terra-cotta vases are more numerous than anything else (Fig. 88), and among them preponderate large yellow vessels capable of holding about one hundred quarts. Most of them have a clumsy brim, and a rough attempt has been -made at ornamentation by the potter with his fingei's on the damp clay. Other vases of finer clay, colored red or yellow, are covered with ornaments and graceful arabesques ; the gai'lands of fruit and flowers are often of I'emarkably beautiful workmanship. Cups with well-shaped rounded handles, made of some kind of red ferruginous earth, others of gray material, were picked up in all the houses. These various vessels were used for many different pui'poses ; some to cook food, the marks of the hearth being still on them, whilst others retained some of the chopped straw with which the domestic animals had evidently been fed. The most curious of all are those which are supposed to represent a woman ; the front part projecting and surmounted by a narrow neck bent backwards, with two brown prominences supposed to stand for breasts, uH 314 • PREHISTORIC PEOPLES. and dots round the upper part representing a necklace, while ear-rings are indicated by elliptical bands of different colors. We shall have to refer again to these curious vases when we speak of the discoveries made at Troy ; we need only add now that the pottery found at Santorin differs completely, alike in form and orna- mentation, from the Greek, Phoenician, and Etruscan specimens, of which the museums of Europe contain so many. They are evidently therefore not of foreign origin, but of native manufacture. The absence of clay in the island of Santorin has thrown some doubt on this, however, but the researches of M. Fouque have revealed the former existence of a large valley, at the base of the principal, cone, which valley ran down to the sea-shoie near the island of Aspronisi ; and in which probably was found the clay which the potters of the district soon learned to turn to account. With these vases were found some trouo^hs for hold- ing crushed grain, and lava discs very much like those still in use among the weavers of the Archipelago to stretch the woof of their tissues ; skilfully graduated lava weights, the correlation of which is very evident, as they weigh 8, 24, and 96 ounces ; a flint arrow- head and a saw of the same material with regular teeth ; together with a great variety of other objects, including many obsidian arrows and knives, reminding us in their shape of those characteristic of the Stone age in North Europe. Two rings of gold beaten very thin, and a little copper saw with no trace of any alloy, are, so far, the only metal objects found in the excavations. The origin of the former, moreover, is very uncertain, and there has been much discussion as to where the rings SANTORm, 315 came from. In spite, however, of all the gaps in the evidence about them, there remains no doubt that the inhabitants of Santorin v^ere farther advanced in civilization than the Lake dwellers of Switzerland, the builders of the terremare of Italy, or the Iberians of the south of Spain, who were very probably their con- temporaries; and we cannot refrain from expressing our admiration of the wonderful progress made by the inhabitants of the little group of volcanic islands under notice. Before the catastrophe which overwhelmed them, Santorin was covered with comfortable and solidly built houses. Men knew how to till the ground, and gathered in crops of cereals, among which barley was/ the most abundant, then millet, lentils, peas, coriander,' and anise ; they had learned to domesticate animals, as is proved beyond a doubt by the number of bones of sheep and goats ; they kept dogs to guard their flocks^ and horses to aid in agricultural work ; they knew \o\\\ to weave stuffs, to grind grain, to extract the oil from olives, and even to make cheese, if we may give that name to the pasty white stuff found at the bottom of a vase by Dr. Nomicos. They were acquainted with the arch, and they used durable and brilliant colors. The copper saw is an example of the first efforts of the natives at metallurgy ; the gold and obsidian which were foreign to the island bear witness to commercial relations with people at a distance. They loved art, as proved by the shape of their vases and the ornamenta- tion on many of them, which is really often worthy of the best days of Greece. All around we see signs appearing as it were suddenly of a civilization, the origin and tendencies of which are alike still unknown. 3i6 PREHISTORIC PEOPLES, But one human skeleton has so far been found in Santorin, and that is of an inhabitant who had evi- dently been overtaken in his flight and crushed beneath the burning scoriae from the volcano. This man was of medium height, and is supposed to have been between forty and forty-eight years old. The bones of the pelvis are firmly consolidated, and the teeth are worn with mastication. Let us endeavor to guess at the period when the people of Santorin lived. De Longperier tells us that vases similar to those left by them are represented on the tomb of Rekmara amongst the presents offered to Thothmes III., who lived in the eighth century e.g., but if so the people of Santorin appear to have bor- rowed nothing in their intercourse with Egy[)t. The first invasion of Greece by the Phoenicians is supposed to have been in the fifteenth century e.g., but the buildings, the pottery, and the various implements of Therasia and Acrotiri differ essentially fi'om those of the Phoenicians, who, moreover, from the earliest times, used metals. Must we not therefore conclude that the catastrophe which overwhelmed Santorin took place before the fifteenth century b.c. ? Con- jectures as to the date of the fatal eruption, however plausible, are of no use in anything relating to the origin of the people, or the time of their first occupa- tion of the island. On these points all is still hope- less confusion, and we must wait for further discoveries before we can hope to come to any conclusions in the matter. We have gone back to the very earliest days of man upon the earth ; we have shown that he was the con- temporary of the mammoth and the rhinoceros, of the THE TOWNS UPON THE HILL OF HISSARLIK, 317 cave-lion and the cave-bear ; we have seen him crouch- ing in the deep recesses of his cave and fighting the battle of life with no weapon but a few scarcely sharpened flints, leading an existence infinitely more wretched than the animals about him. Not without emotion have we watched our remote ancestors in their ceaseless struggle for existence ; not without emotion have we seen them gradually growing in intelligence and energy, and attaining by slow degrees to a certain amount of civilization. Santorin is a striking and brilliant proof of their progress, and we shall appre- ciate this progress yet more when we have examined the ruins piled up on the hill of Hissarlik. There we shall close this portion of our work, for from the time when the buildings of which these remains were the relics met their doom, the use of metals, copper, bronze, gold, silver, and iron became general. History began to be written, and it is her task to tell us of the migra- tions of races, the early efforts of historic races, the foundation of empires. In a word, the prehistoric age was over ; that of self-conscious portraiture was now to begin. A few years ago I was on the ancient Hellespont and my fellow-travellers, grouped about- the deck of our vessel, wei'e trying to make out on the receding coast of Asia the sites of Troy and of the tumuli which were then still supposed to have been the tombs of Achilles, Patrokles, and Hector, but which are now, thanks to the able researches of Dr. Schliemann, known to belong to a comparatively modern epoch. The streams, bearino^ the ever memorable names of Simois and Scamander, were also eagerly pointed out by the watchers, recalling the words of Lamartine : 3l8 PREHISTORIC PEOPLES, Le nautonnier voguant sur les flots du Bosphore Des yeux cherchait encore Le palais de Priam et les tours d' Ilium. Great indeed is the privilege of genius, immortalizing all that it touches ; for it must be pointed out that Troy was never an important town, and the war in which it disappeared was in reality but one of the incessant struggles between the petty princes of Greece and Asia. When I visited the East, scholars were not at all agreed as to the site of the town which was so long besieged by the Greeks ; and certain sceptical spirits even went so far as to deny that there ever was such a person as Homer at all, or that if there were, he wrote the epic poem which has borne his name so long. Tradition, however, was pretty constant in pointing to the hill of Hissarlik as the site on which Troy was built. Strabo was quite an exception in relegating the town to the lower end of the bay, where the miserable little village of Akshi-koi now stands. In 1788 a new idea was started ; Lechevalier in his account of his journey in Troas claims to have recognized the site of Troy at Bunarbashi. At that time erudition was not very profound, and Lechevalier's site was accepted ; indeed it was long maintained, and quite recently it has been defended by Perrot. But the nineteenth century is more exacting ; the most plausible hypotheses are not enough without facts to support them, and excavations at Akshi-koi and at Bunarbashi show that there never was a town on either of these sites. Excavations on the hill of Hissarlik, begun by Dr. Schliemann in 1871, and carried on under his superin- tendence for more than ten years, have, on the contrary, THE TOWNS UPON THE HILL OF HISSARLIK. 319 yielded most definite, satisfactory, and conclusive results. At a depth of fifty-two feet the diggers came to the virgin soil, a very hard conchiferous limestone. The immense masses of debris of which the embankment is made up date from different epochs ; we have before us, if we may use such an expression, a perpendicular Pentapolis or series of five ancient cities one above the other. One town was destroyed by assault and by fire ; another rapidly rose from its ruins, built with stones taken from the midst of those very remains. The study of the piled-up rubbish enables us to build up again a picture of the remote past with all its vicissitudes, and Virchow may well say that the hill of Hissarlik will for ever be considered one of the best authenticated witnesses of the progress of civilization.^ The first layer of rubbish rests on the rock itself, and may very well have belonged to the town built by Dardanus, of which Tlepolemus relates the destruction by his grandfather Hercules.^ According to the Homeric story six generations, and according to generally ac- cepted modern calculations two centuries, separate Dardanus from Priam. If therefore we accept 1200 B.C. as the date of the Trojan war, the town built by Dardanus would date from 1400 b.c, and we should possess data, if not absolutely certain, at least approximately so.^ ' Schliemann : " Troy and its Remains," translated by Philip Smith, London, Murray, 1875 ; " Uios Villa et Pays des Troyens," translated by Mme. E. Egger, Paris, Hachette, 1885 ; E. Burnouf : Revue dcs Deux-Mondes, January I, 1874 ; Virchow : " Alt Trojanische Graber und Schadel." 2 Iliad, canto v., v., 692. ^ Egyptologists tell us that in the fourth year of the reign of Ramses II., or about 1406 B.C., the Hittites placed themselves at the head of a coalition against the Egyptian Pharaoh. With these Hittites, or Khittas, whose descendants still dwell in the north of Syria, were the Mysians, the Lycians, the Dardanians, and other tribes. 320 PREHISTORIC PRO PIES. There remain but a few relics of the buildings erected by the first inhabitants of the hill of Hissarlik, .which relics consist of great blocks of irregular size, with remains of bearing walls composed of small stones cemented together with clay and faced with a glaze which has withstood the wear and tear of centuries. The second town, which w^ould appear to have been that described in the Iliad, was probably built by a race foreign to those who erected the first. The hill, which was to become the Acropolis of the new town, was surrounded by the new-comers with a wall several feet thick, of which the foundations consisted of unhewn stones ; whilst the upper part was made of artificially baked bi'icks, the baking having been done after they were put in place, by large fires lit in vacant places left at regular intervals ; an arrangement recall- ing what we have said in speaking of vitrified foi'ts.^ It is also interesting to note a similar mode of construc- tion at Aztalan in Wisconsin in structures which prob- ably date from the time of the Mound Builders. The walls at Hissarlik were protected by re-entering angles and projecting forts. The interior of the enceinte was reached by three doors, and it is still easy to make out the ruins of the different buildino^s. A room sixty -five feet long by thirty-two wide is surrounded by very thick walls, and towards the southeast is a square vestibule, opening into the room by a large door.^ These, Dr. Schliemann thinks, were the naos and j^^'o- »"Ainerique Prehistorique " (Masson), translated by Nancy Bell (N. D'Anvers), and published by Murray, London ; Putnam, New York. « " Troy and its Remains," plate ix. See also excellent essay on the same subject by S. Reinach, which appeared in the Revue Archcologique in 1885. Later investigations by Dr. Schliemann also brought to light a remarkable resemblance between the buildings at Hissarlik and those of Tiryns. THE TOWNS UPON THE HILL OF HISSARLIK, 32 1 naos of a temple dedicated to the tutelary gods of the town. Quite close to them is another building with similar dispositions; a square vestibule giving access to a large room, which in its turn leads to a smaller a^^artment. These two buildings, which are reached through ^propylceum, are the only ones of which the explorers have been able to make out the measure- ments with any exactitude. Other ruins are evidently remains of the royal resi- dence. The homes of the people were clustered on the sides and at the foot of the hill. After the destruction of the town by the Greeks, the Acropolis formed one vast mass of ruins, from which bits of walls stood out here and there as mute witnesses of the catastrophe. The thin layer of black earth covering the ruins seems to point to the speedy rebuilding of the town. The houses of the third settlement are very irregularly grouped, and consisted mostly of one story only, containing a number of very small rooms. Some of the walls are of bricks with glazed facings, others of very small stones cemented together with clay. In one house of rather larger size than the others was found some cement made of cindei's, mixed with fragments of charcoal, broken bones, and the remains of shells and pottery. On the northwest the new colonists erected walls in place of those which had fallen down, but they were of very inferior masonry, coarse bricks baked on the spot, in the way customary among the Trojans, having formed the material. The destruction of the third town was more com- plete than that of Troy. The walls of the houses can still be made out rising to a certain height, and it was 322 PREHISTORIC PEOPLES. upon them as foundations that the fourth colony set up their abodes. These dwellings are smaller still, with flat roofs formed of beams on which was laid a coating of rushes and clay. Every generation appears to have been poorer than the last, alike in material wealth and in fertility of resource. The fifth colony spread northwards and eastwards. Their homes were built very much in the same style as those of their predecessors. The resemblance does not end there, and Dr. Schliemann notes that among the ruins of the three towns, which successively rose from the site of Troy, are found similar strange- looking idols, hatchets in jade, porphyry, diorite, and bronze, goblets with two handles, clumsy stone ham- mers, trachyte grindstones, and fusaioles or perforated whorls bearing symbolic signs of a similar form. Evi- dently the men who succeeded each other after the great siege of Troy on the now celebrated hill of Hissarlik belonged to the same race, perhaps even to the same tribe. There are, however, certain notable differences which must not be passed over. The later pottery is not of such fine clay or so well moulded as the earlier specimens, nor are the stone hammers, which appear to have been the chief implements used, of such good workmanship. The piles of shells left to ac- cumulate about the houses of the fourth and fifth towns can only be compared to the kitchen-middings 80 often referred to, and there is no doubt that those who left such heaps of rubbish about their dwellings could not have been so civilized as were the celebrated Trojans. Beneath the ruins of the Greek town, which strictly speaking belongs to history, Schliemann found a quan- THE TOWNS UPON THE HILL OF HISSARLIK. 323 tity of pottery of curious shapes and very different to anything he had previously discovered. He ascribes them to a Lydian colony which dwelt for a short time upon the hill. This pottery resembles that known as proto-Etruscan, of which so many specimens have been found in Italy. Probably the makers of both were contemporaries. By numerous and careful measurements Dr. Schlie- mann has been able to determine exactly the thickness of the layers, which correspond with the different periods during which Hissarlik was inhabited. The remains of the Greek and Lydian towns extend to a depth of ^\ feet beneath the actual level of the soil; the fourth layer, from 7^ to 15 feet; the third, from 15 to 22| feet; Troy itself, from 22| to 32 feet; and lastly Dardania, from 32 to 52 feet. The last layer carries us back to the golden age of Greek art, where all doubt is finally at an end. The bas-reliefs of remarkable workmanship bear witness to the Ilium, founded in memory of Troy. This is the town visited by Xerxes, Alexander the Great, and Julian the Apos- tate.^ That the town still existed about the middle of the fourth century is proved by medals taken from the ruins, but it evidently fell into decadence soon after that time, for its very name was forgotten by history, and it was reserved for our own time to resus- citate the aucient city of Priam and its successors from the ruins which had been piled up by the destructive hand of man and by the lapse of time. But this task has been nobly achieved by the enthusiasm, scientific ' The British Museum contains a manuscript of the fourteenth century, in which is a letter from Julian, written when he was emperor, between 361 and 363 A.D., and relating to his visit to Ilium. 324 PREHISTORIC PEOPIES. acumen, and we may perhaps add good-fortune of an arcbaH)logist who cherished a positive passion, for everything I'elating to Homeric times. Tlie number of objects picked up at different stages of the excavations was very considerable. Dr. Schlie- mann neglected absolutely nothing that appeared to him at all worthy of his collection, which now belongs to the Royal Museum of Berlin and contains some twenty thousand objects, including weapons and im- plements, some of stone, others of bronze, and thou- sands of vases and fusaioles, gazing upon which we see rise before our eyes a picture of a civilization unknown before but through the Iliad and a few meagre historical allusions. Before we note in detail the most remarkable of the objects in Dr. Schliemann's collection, we must add that recent researches have also brought to light the remains of a little temple dedicated to Pallas Athene and referred to in history, as well as those of a large Doric temple erected by Lysimachus, and of a mag- nificent theatre capable of holding six thousand spec- tators, and which probably dates from the end of the Roman Republic. The human bones picked up among the ruins of the different towns may be attributed to the practice, already general, of cremation. Virchow lias examined the skull of a woman found at Troy, which is of a pronounced brachycephalic type (82.5). The crania from the third town, on the other hand, are dolichocephalic, the mean cranial capacity being sixty- seven. If we could reason with any certainty from cranial capacity, this would appear to point to a differ- ent race, but it would not do to come to any positive conclusion with only one Trojan cranium to judge by. THE TOWNS UPON THE HILL OF HISSARLIK. 325 But to return to Dr. Schliemann's fine collection. The pottery from the first town, found at a depth of from thirty-two to fifty-two feet (Fig. 89), is superior alike in color, form, and construction, to the keramic ware of the following periods. The potter's wheel was unknown, or at least very rarely used,^ and pottery was hand- made and polished with bone or wood polishers, the marks of w^hich can still be made out. The forms are varied and often graceful, many of them, as do those Fig. 8g. — Vase ending in the snout of an animal. Found on the hill of Hissarlik at a depth of 45 J feet. found in the mounds of North America imitating those of the animals among which the potters lived. The usual color of the keramic ware is black, some- times decorated with white lozenge-shaped ornaments. Some vases have also been found colored red, yellow, ' The potter's wheel was, however, in use at a very remote antiquity. In China its invention is attributed to the legendary Emperor Hwang-Ti, who is supposed to have lived about 2697 B.C. The wheel was also known from the very earliest times in Egypt, and Homer (Iliad, c. xviii., v. 599) compares the light motions of the dancers represented on the shield of Achilles to the rapid rotation of the potter's wheel. 326 PREHISTORIC PEOPLES. and brown, and even decked with garlands of flowers and fruit, as are some of those of Santorin. We must also mention some apodal vases, and others with three feet, used for funeral purposes, containing human ashes (Fig. 90). The terra-cotta fusaioles, found in such numbers among the ruins of the towns that rose successively from the hill of Hissarlik, are, on the other hand, rare at Dardania, if we may retain that name.^ Excavations have brought to light more than six hun- dred celts or knives, generally of smaller size than those found in Denmark or France. Rock of many kinds, including serpentine, schist, felsite, jadeite, diorite, and nephrite, were used; and saws of flint or chalcedony, some toothed on one side only, others on both, are of frequent occurrence. They were fixed into handles of wood or hoi-n, and kept in place with some agglutinative substance, such as pitch, several of them still i-etaining traces of this primitive glue. We must also mention awls, pins of bone and ivory, and Fig. 90. — Funeral vase containing human ashes Found at a depth of 50 feet. * Rivett-Carnac : " Memorandum on Clay Discs Called Spindle Whorls and Votive Seals Found at Sankisa " (Behar), Journal Asiatic Society of Bengal, vol. xlix., p. I. 328 PREHISTORIC PEOPLES. ossicles or knuckle bones, in every stage of manufac- ture, confirming the accounts of Greek historians, who tell us of the great antiquity of the game played with them. The Dardanians used wooden and bone imple- ments and weapons almost exclusively. It is impossible to say whether they were acquainted with the use of metals, but we might assert that they were if we could Fig. 92. — Earthenware pitcher found at a depth of 19^ feet. Fig. 93. — Vase found beneath the ruins of Troy. quite certainly attribute to them a certain mould of mica schist, found at a depth of 45^ feet, which had been used in the process of casting spits and pins, which are supposed to be of moi-e ancient date than the fibulae. The most valuable objects of the collection come from the deposits representing the town of Troy ; they are all twisted, broken, and charred, bearing witness THE TOWNS UPON THE HILL OF JIISSARLIK, 329 to the fierceness of the flames in which the town per- ished. These discoveries reveal to us the daily life of the people of Troy. Judging from the num- ber of boarsHusks found, hunting must have been a favorite pastime with them. The bones of oxen, sheep, and goats, of smaller species than those of the present day, have also been found. Horses and dogs were rare, and cats unknown. The domestic poultry of the present day was also wanting, no remains of birds having been found except a few bones wild goose. Fish and Fig. 94. — Terra-cotta vase found with the treasure of Priam. the of the wild swan and mollusca, as proved by the immense numbers of bones and shells, formed an important j)art of the diet of the Trojans. They also fed largely on cereals, which thev cultivated with success ; and wheat, the grains of which w^ere very small, was known to them. The preservation of these vege- table relics was due to carbonization. Fig. 95. -Vase found beneath the ruins Troy. 330 PREHISTORIC PEOPLES. The pottery discovered is of an infinite variety, and includes jars from 4| feet to 7f feet high (Fig. 91), of which Schliemann found more than six hundred, nearly all of them empty. Their size need not surprise us, for Ciampini ^ speaks of a pottery dolium of such vast size and height that a ladder of ten or twelve rungs was needed to reach the opening.^ With these jars were found some large goblets, some long-necked ves- sels (Fig. 92), some amphorae, and vases with three feet (Fig. 93). Some of the vases had lids the shape of a bell (Fig. 94), others were provided with flaps or Fig. g6. — Earthenware pig found at a depth of 13 feet. horns by which to lift them (Fig. 95). The potter gave free vent to his imagination, but the decorations representing fish-bones, palm branches, zigzags, circles, and dots, are all of very inferior execution. Two series of terra-cotta objects deserve special ' •* De Sacris ^Edificiis," ch. ix., p.' 128. * It is interesting to note the discovery of urns closely resembling those of Troy, and containing human remains, in Persia (Sir W. Ouseley : " Travels in Persia"), and at Travancore, in the south of Malabar, where, according to tra- dition, they were intended to receive the remains of young virgins sacrificed in honor of the gods. — " Some Vestiges of Girl Sacrifices," Journ. Anth. Inst., May, 1882. THE TOWNS UPON THE HILL OF HISSARLIK. 33 1 mention, one representing animals, generally pigs (Fig. 96), though an example has been found of a hippo- potamus ; a fact of very great interest, as this animal does not live at the present day anywhere but in the heart of Africa. We know from this terra-cotta rep- resentation that it lived in Greece in the days of Troy. Pliny speaks of it in Upper Egypt in his day, and according to Mariette it lived thirty-five centuries be- fore the Christian era in the delta formed by the mouth Fig. 97. — Vase surmounted by an owl's head. Found beneath the ruins of Troy. of the Nile. The second series of objects referred to above as of special interest are vases representing the heads of owls with the busts of women (Fig. 97). It is easy to make out the beak, eyes, and ears of the bird, and the breasts and navel of the woman. In 332 PREHISTORIC PEOPLES. some instances the face, breasts, and sexual organs of a woman are represented by a series of dots forming a triangle with the point downwards/ Other dots represent a necklace, and very similar designs are to be seen on the Chaldean cylinders. Can we then con- nect them in any way with the relics of Troy, and is it possible that the Trojans and Chaldeans were of common origin ? However that may be, the constant repetition of these signs proves that they were of hieratic character. Terra-cotta was also used for a very great number of other purposes, as was the case eveiy- \vhere before the introduction of metals. Some deep and some flat plates made of very common clay have been found, together with buttons, funnels, bells, chil- dren's toys, and seals on which, some authorities think, Hittite characters can be made out. No lamps, or any- thing that could serve their purpose, have been found. The Trojans probably used torches of resinous wood or braziers, when they required artificial light. It would be impossible to give a list of the objects of every variety found among the ruins of Troy, with the aid of which we can form a very definite idea of tlie private life of its people. Some fragments of an ivory lyre, and some pipes pierced with three holes at equal distances, bear witness to their taste for music ; a distaff, still full of charred wool, deserted by the spin- ner when she fled before the conflagration, tells of domestic industry and manual dexterity, while marble • The vulva was sometimes represented by a large triangle. The same pecu- liarity occurs on some black marble statuettes, found in the tombs of the Cyclades and Attica. Three such statuettes from the island of Paros are in the Louvre, and the British Museum owns a rich collection. Dr. Schliemann also mentions a female idol made in lead of very coarse workmanship, in which the sexual organs are represented by a double cross. THE TOWNS UPON THE HILL OF HISSARLIK. 333 and stone phalli prove tliat the generative forces of nature were worshipped/ The weapons and implements found included haema- tite and diorite projectiles used in slings, stone hatchets, and hammers pierced to receive handles, flint saws and obsidian knives. Metallurgy began to play an im- portant part, and stone with its minor resisting power was quickly superseded by bronze. In fact, Virchow Fig. 98. — Copper vases found at Troy. ' The phallus was, as we have already stated, the symbol of generative force. Its worship extended throughout India and Syria; a. gigantic //W/«j- adorned the temple of the mother of the gods at Hierapolis, and it was carried in triumph in processions through Egypt and Greece. It is still worshipped in some places at the present day. Near Niombo, in Africa, there is a temple 334 PREHISTORIC PEOPLES. was certainly justified in saying tliat the whole town belonged to the Bronze age. Iron was still unknown, at least so far no trace of it has been found, either among the ruins of Troy or of the towns which suc- ceeded it. Several crucibles and moulds of mica, schist, or clay have been found with one of granite of Fig. 99. — Vases of gold and eiectrum, with two ingots, found beneath the ruins of Troy. rectangular shape bearing on each face the hollows in- tended to receive the fused metal. The Schliemann containing several phallic statues ; at Stanley-Pool the fete of the phallus is celebrated with obscene rites. The Kroomen observe similar ceremonies at the time of the new moon, and in Japan on certain fete days young girls flourish gigan- \\cphalli at the end of long poles. Thephallus is also often represented on the monuments of Central America — on the stones of the temples of Izamal and the island of Zapatero, for instance. Possibly the worship of the productive and generative forces of nature was the earliest religion of many primitive peo- ples, but all that :s said on the subject must be sifted with considerable care. THE TOWNS UPON THE HILL OF HISSARLTK, 335 museum possesses numerous battle-axes^ of bronze, some double-bladed daggers with crooked ends, lances similar to those discovered at Koban,^ and thousands of spits, some with spherically shaped heads, others of spiral form. Some of these spits are made of cop- per, as are some large nails weighing thirty ounces, Fig. 100. — Gold and silver objects from the treasure of Priam. SO that this metal was evidently still often used in a pure state. At the foot of the palace, the ruins of which rise from the Acropolis at a depth of 27^ feet, the pick- * Similar hatchets of pure copper (Fig. 2) have been found in Hungary, and Butler (" Prehistoric Wisconsin") speaks of them also as being found in North America. ^ The tin used in making bronze probably came from Spain or Cornwall, perhaps also from the Caucasus, where small quantities of it are still found. It was doubtless imported by the Phoenicians, the great navigators of antiquity. See Rudolf Virchow's '* Das Grtiberf eld von Koban im Lande der Osseten," Berlin, 1883. 33^ PREHISTORIC PEOPLES. axes of the explorers brought to light metal shields, vases (Fig. 98), and dishes mixed together in the greatest confusion, often soldered together by the intense heat to which they had been subjected. They Fk;. toi. — (lold ear-rings, head-dress, and necklace of golden beads from the treasure of Priam. had probably been enclosed in a wooden chest that was destroyed in the conflagration.^ We are aston- * This idea gains probability from the fact that the remains of a key were picked up near the treasure, which we have reason to suppose belonged to Priam. THE TOWNS UPON THE HILL OF HiSSARLIK. 337 ished at the wealth revealed to us. Cups, goblets, and bottles of gold (Figs. 99 and 100) lay side by side with golden necklaces ^ and ear-rings of elec- trum.^ The ornaments that had belonged to women are especially curious. At one place alone several dia- dems (Fig. 101) were picked up, with fifty-six ear-rings, six bracelets, and nine thousand minor objects, such as rings, buckles, buttons, dice, pins, beads, and ornaments of a great variety.^ All these treasures were piled up in a great silver vase, into which they had doubtless been hastily thrown in the confusion of a precipitate flight. They are all of characteristic forms, quite un- like anything in Assyrian or Egyptian art. Were they made in Troy itself ? Dr. Schliemann doubts it ; he thinks that the makers of such clumsy pottery are not likely to have been able to produce jewelry of such delicate and remarkable workmanship. I should not like to be so positive, for even amongst the most advanced peoples we find very common objects mixed with others showing artistic skill. "Why should it not have been the same at Troy ? I think that in future Trojan art must take its place in the history of the progress of humanity. The nineteenth century has brought that art to light, and by a strange caprice of chance the treasures of Priam adorn the museum of Berlin, and we have seen the diadem of fair Helen exhibited in the South Kensington Museum of London.* ' The gold may have come from the mines of Astyra, not far from Troy. ^ Electrum was the ancient name for amber, but was also given to an alloy of gold and silver, the yellow color of which resembles that of amber. ^ Dr. Schliemann gives a very careful description of all these objects. See " Troy and its Remains," Figs. 174 to 497, pp. 260 to 353. 4 The XPV^^I^^^^ ^^ diadem of the wife of Menelaus is a narrow fillet from which hang several little chains formed of links alternating with small leaves. 338 PREHISTORIC PEOPLES, Treasures nearly as valuable as tliose we have been describing were found in earthenware vases in several other parts of the ruins. Unfortunately, many of the objects found were stolen and melted down by the workmen, whilst others were taken to the Imperial Palace at Constantinople, whence they are doomed to be dispersed. In 1873, however. Dr. Schliemann was fortunate enough to hit upon a deposit containing twenty gold ear-rings, and four golden ornaments which had formed part of a necklace.^ Similar orna- ments w^ere found at Mykense, near Bologna, in the Caucasus, in the Lake dwellings, and, stranger still, on the banks of the E,io Suarez in Colombia.^ I will not add more to what I have already said about the towns which succeeded each other on the ruins of Troy, and of which the successive stages of rubbish on the hill of Hissarlik are the only witnesses left. The flames spared none who settled on that doomed spot, and new arrivals disappeared as rapidly as they came. The Ilium of the Greeks and Romans alone enjoyed any prosperity, but it too was in its turn swept away ; and at the present day a few wandering shepherds and their flocks are the sole dwellers upon the hill immortalized by Homer. Before concluding this chapter I must refer once and ending in rather larger leaves, these leaves all representing the woman vi'ith the owl's head, so characteristic of Trojan art. The golden objects are all sol- dered with the same metals, which modern goldsmiths seem unable to do. At Tiryns, which we believe to have been contemporary with Troy, the art of soldering was unknown, and ornaments were merely screwed together. ' Bastian, Zeitschrift der Berliner Gesellschaft filr Erdkunde, vol, xiii., plates I and 2. Mf we accept 1200 b.c as the date of the Trojan war and the eighth century as that of the foundation of Ilium, the towns that succeeded each other on the hill of Hissarlik only lasted four centuries altogether. THE TOWNS UPON THE HILL OF HISSARLLK. 339 more to a fact of considerable interest. In that part of the deposits of Hissarlik which represents Troy, Dr. Schlieraann picked up the perforated whorls to which the name of fusaioles has been given (Fig. 102), and of which we spoke in our account of the Lake Dwellings of Switzerland. These fusaioles are gener- ally of common clay mixed with bits of mica, quartz, or silica, though some few have been found at Mykenae and Tiryns of steatite. The clay whorls before beino^ baked were plunged into a bath of a very fine clay of gray, yel- ^'^^- 102. -Terra-cotta fusaioles. low, or black color, and then carefully polished. They nearly all bear ornaments of very primitive execution, such as stars, the sun, flowers, or animals, and more rarely representations of the human figure. We ourselves think these fusaioles are amulets which were taken to Troy by the Trojans, and piously pre- served by their successors. One important fact tends to confirm this hypothesis. A great number of them bear the sign .of the sioastiha^ (Fig. 103), the cross with the four arms, the sacred symbol of the great Aryan race so long supposed to be the source of all the Indo-European races. The swastika is engraved, not only on the fusaioles, but also on the diadems of the daughters of Priam, on the idols the Trojans wor- shipped, and on numerous objects from the Lydian and Greco-Eoman towns. We meet with the double cross among the prehistoric races of the basin of the * In the Vedas the word swasti is often used in the sense of happiness or good-fortune. 340 PREHISTORIC PEOPLES. Danube, who colonized the shores of tlie Troad and the north of Italy, and it was introduced with the products of that antique civilization on the one side to the Greeks, the Etruscans, the Latins, the Gauls, the Germanic races, the Scandinavians, and the Bretons ; and on the other to the people of Asia Minor, Persia, India, China, and Japan/ This sign of the swastika meets us at every turn; we find it on many ancient Persian books, on the tem- ples of India, on Celtic funeral stones, and on a Hittite cylinder. It is seen on vases of elegant form from Athens and Melos ; on others from Ceres, Chiusi, and Cumse, as well as on the clumsy pottery recently dis- covered at Konigswald on the Oder and on the borders of Hungary; on bronze objects from the Caucasus, and the cele- brated Albano urn ; on a medal from Gaza in Pales- tine and on an Iberian medal from iVsido. We see it on the Gallo-Roman rings of the Museum of Namur, and on the plaques of the belt, dating from the same epoch, which form part of the magnificent collec- tion of M. Moreau. Schliemann tells us of it at Mykenae and at Tiryns. Chautre found it on the necropoles of the Caucasus. It is engraved on the walls of the catacombs of Rome, on the chair of Saint Ambrose at Milan, on the crumbling walls of Portici, and on the Fig. 103. — Cover of a vase with the symbol of the swastika. Found at Troy. ' Comte Goblet d'Auriella, Bui. Acad. Royale de Belgique, \i THE TOWNS UPON THE HILL OF HISSAKLIK. 34 1 most ancient monuments of Ireland, where it is often associated with inscriptions in the ogham character/ The swastika occurs twice on a large piece of copper found at Corneto, which now belongs to the Museum of Berlin. Cartailhac noticed it in the citania of Por- tugal, some of which date from Neolithic times.^ The English in the Ashantee war noticed it on the bronzes they took at Coomassie on the coast of Guinea, and it has also been found on objects discovered in the Eng- lish county of Norfolk. Moreover, if we cross the Atlantic we find the same symbol engraved on the temples of Yucatan, the origin of which is unknown, on a hatchet found at Pember- ton, in New Jersey (Fig. 104), on vases from a Peruvian sepulchre near Lima, and on vessels from the puehlos of New Mexico. Dr. Hamy, in his " American De- cades," represents it on a flattened gourd belonging to the Wolpi Indi- ans, and the sacred tambours of the Esquimaux of the present day bear the same symbol, which was prob- ably transmitted to them by their ancestors. The universality of this one sign amongst the Hindoos, Persians, Hittites, Pelasgians, Celts, and Germanic races, the Chinese, Japanese, and the primitive inhabi- tants of America is infinitely strange, and seems to prove the identity of races so different to each other, alike in appearance ' G. Atkinson, Congres Pj-e'historique, Lisbon, 1880, p. 466. 2 "Ages Prehistoriques en Espagne ct Portugal," figs 410, 411, 412, p. 286. Fig. 104. — Stone hammer from New Jersey bear- ing an undeciphered in- scription. 342 PREHISTORIC PEOPLES. and in customs, and is a very important factor in deal- ing with the great problem of the origin of the human species. We have dwelt much on the discoveries of Dr. Schliemann, but we must add that, like all great dis- coveries, they have been very vigorously contested.* Boetticher, for instance, considers the ruins of Hissar- lik to be nothing more than the remains of a necropolis where cremation was practised according to the Assyrio- Babylonian custom.^ A distinguished and very honest savant, S. Reinach, constituted himself the champion of this theory at the meeting of the Congress in Paris in 1889. Schliemann replied very forcibly, and the meeting appeared to be with him in the matter, as were also a number of men of science who visited Hissarlik in 1888, and we think that in the end history will adopt the opinion of the great Danish antiquarian. We have now passed in review the chief of the works left behind him by man from the earliest days of his existence to the dawn of historic times. We must still show prehistoric man in the presence of death, the universal destroyei", and learn from the evidence of the tombs of the remote past how our ancestors met the common doom. ' Aussland, 1883. Zeitschrift fur Museologie und Antequaten Kunde, 1884. Musoeon, 1888 and 1889. * VJrchow, who visited the remains at Hissarlik, treats this idea &<> furchtbaren Unsinn (ridiculous nonsense). CHAPTER VIIL TOMBS. The true history of man will be found in his tombs, says Thucydides ; and as a matter of fact the sepulchre has ever occupied much of the thoughts of man, the result of a religious sentiment, a conviction that all does not end with the life which so quickly passes by. From the very earliest times we meet with tokens of the hopes and fears connected with a future exist- ence ; but, as I have already stated, the human bones that can with certainty be said to date from Palaeolithic times are very rare. We know but very few facts jus- tifying us in asserting that the contemporary of the mammoth and of the cave bear had already learnt to respect the remains of what had once been a man like himself. One of these few facts deserves, I think, to be noticed with some detail. In 1886, excavations in the cave of Spy^ (Namur), ' The true name of this cave is the Betche aux Roches. A very excellent essay on the subject was read by the explorers, MM. de Puydt and Lohest, in August, 1886, to the Historic Society of Belgium, and " Les Fouilles de Spy,'' by Dr. Collignon, published in the Revue d' Anthropologie , 1887, may also be consulted. Excavations were also carried on in the same cave in 1879 by M. Bucquoy {Bui. Soc. Anth. de Belgique, 1887). He distinguished five ossiferous levels and picked up some flints of the Mousterien type, and even some Chelleen hatchets, to which he gave the name of coups de poing. — Fraipont and Lohest; " Recherches sur les Ossements Humains Decouvertes dans les Depots Quater- naires d'un grotte k Spy." 343 344 PREHISTORIC PEOPLES. or rather in a terrace some thirty -six feet long by nine- teen and a half wide giving access to it, brought to" light two human skeletons. One was that of an indi- vidual already advanced in life, probably of the femi- nine sex, the other of a man in the prime of life. These skeletons were imbedded in a very hard breccia containing also fragments of ivory and numerous flints of very small size. Some of them had very fine scratches on both sides. From what I could learn on the spot, the skeletons when found were in a recum- bent position. The bones, few of which were missing, were still in their natural position, and near to one of them were picked up several arrow- or lance-heads, one of which, of phtanite, some two and a half inches long, was of the purest Mousterien type. The bones were those of short, squat individuals, and the skulls were of the type of the Canstadt race, the most ancient of which anything is known ; the thickness of the crania was about one third of an inch. The forehead is low and retreating, the eyebrows are prominent, and the lower jaws strong and well developed. At the same level and in that immediately above it were picked up the remains of the mammoth, the Mliinoceros tichorJiinus, the cave bear, and the large cave hyena, the reindeer, and numerous other mammals belonging to the Quaternary fauna. Everything points to the conclusion that the man and woman whose remains have so opportunely come to light were con- temporary with these animals, and that their bodies were placed after death in the cave in which they were found. Belgium has furnished numerous examples of sepul- chral caves, of a date, however, less ancient than that TOMBS, 345 we have been .considering. Eecent excavations in the Chauvaux Cave revealed two skeletons leaning against the walls in a crouching position, the legs tucked under the body. In the Gendron Cave M. Dupont discov- ered seventeen skeletons lying in a low, narrow passage, stretched out at full length with the feet toward the wall, and arranged in twos and threes, one above the other. In the middle of all these dead was the skele- ton of one man placed upright, as if to watch over the other bodies. The Duruthy Cave at Sordes opens near the point of junction of the waters of the Pau and Oloron, whence their united waters flow into the Adour. At the northern extremity of this cave is a natural niche in which lay more than thirty skeletons, some of men, some of women, and some of children, mixed together in the greatest confusion. Worked flints, bone stilet- tos, and ornaments lay around, all of the forms charac- teristic of Palaeolithic times. It would seem that we have here evidence of the practice of a funeral rite, which consisted in first stripping the bodies of flesh, and then laying the bones in caves, where they were often left unnoticed by the living occupants of the same refuge.^ The caves of Baousse-Rousse, near Mentone, give fresh proof of the extension of this rite, if we may so call it. The skeletons lay upon a bed of powdered iron ore, in some cases as much as two fifths of an inch * We borrow these details from a valuable work by Cartailhac {Mat,, 1886, p. 441 ; Hev. d'Atith., 1886, p. 448). The conclusions of our learned colleague are that we really know nothing of the funeral rites of the men of Chelles and Moustier, and that it is to the Solutre'en period that we must assign the first really authenticated tombs. Cartailhac's admirable book, " La France Prehistorique," p. 302, should also be consulted. 346 PREHISTORIC PEOPLES. thick, and this accumulation could not h^ve taken place if the skeleton had not been deprived of its flesh before inhumation. The flesh must have been taken oif by some rapid process, for the bones remain, as a general rule, in their natural positions, united by their tendons and ligaments. In Italy, says Issel, the cave men buried their dead in the caves they lived in, a thin layer of earth alone separating them from the living; the bodies, adds Pigorini,^ generally lay on the left side, the head rested on the left hand, and the knees were bent. Beside the skeleton was placed a vase containing red chalk, to be used for painting the body in the new world it was supposed to be about to enter. We could quote similar discoveries in Sicily, Bel- gium, and the southern Pyrenees. Beneath the tumu- lus of Plouhennec, in Brittany, bones were strewn about in the greatest disorder. Some archaeologists are of opinion that the openings in certain dolmens were used for throwing in the bones of the dead who successively went to join their ancestors. In many of the Long Barrows of England the bones appear to have been flung in pell-mell ; the space was too narrow to hold the complete body, so that before inhumation the flesh must have been separated from the bones. In no other way can we explain the confusion in which the human remains lay when they were discov- ered.^ Pigorini thinks this is a proof that primitive i-aces worshipped their dead, and held their bodies in veneration.^ Perhaps they even carried them about in their migrations. However that may be, the custom ' *' Ipui Antichi Sepolcri dell Italia." ' ArchcEological Jflurnal, vol. xxii. ' Mat&iaux, 1885, p. 299. TOMBS, 347 of separating the flesli from the bones was continued until cremation became general. This would explain the huge ossuaries found in regions so widely sepa- rated. Although, however, the mode of sepulture we have just described was practised for a long time in certain places, we cannot admit it to have been general. In certain megalithic tombs we find dispositions similar to those described in speaking of the Gendron Cave. Excavations beneath the Port-Blanc dolmen (Morbi- han ) brought to light a rough pavement on which lay numbers of skeletons, closely packed one against another, which skeletons were probably those of men who had been held in honor, and to commemorate whom the dolmen was set up. Separated from them by a layer of stones and earth rested another series of skeletons, not so closely packed as the first. The new-comers had respected their predecessors, and no one had violated the sanctuary of the dead. Similar facts were noted at Grand Compans, near Luzarches,* and it is evident that successive inhumations beneath dolmens often took place, and instances might, if necessary, be multiplied. Another singular funei'al rite was practised in remote antiquity. Many of the bones found in the various caves of Mentone were colored with red hema- tite.^ As this was only the case with the bones of adults, those of children retaining their natural white- ness, it evidently had some special significance. In 1880, the opening of a cave of the Stone age in the district of Anagni, a short distance from Rome, brought ' This dolmen was carefully excavated by MM. Hahn and Millescamps, Bui. Soc. Anth., 1883, p. 312. ' Riviere : Congres des Sciences G/ographiques, Paris, 1 878. 348 PREHISTORIC PEOPLES. to light the facial portiou of a human cranium, colored bright red with cinnabar. Nor are these by any means exceptional cases, for similar coloration was noticed on bones picked up at Finalmarina and several other places in Liguria and Sicily. The custom had therefore become general in the Neolithic period in the whole of the Italian peninsula.^ We also meet with it in other countries ; at the Prehistoric Congress, when in session at Lisbon, Dolgado added to what was said about the discoveries in Italy the fact that the cave men of Furninha practised a similar rite. In the hur (janes of the department of Kiew crania were found colored with a mineral substance, fragments of which were strewn about near the skeletons. The most ancient of the hurganes appear to date from the Stone age, for in them were found implements made of flint and reindeer-horn, mixed with the bones of rodents ^ long since extinct in that district. A similar practice is met with in the tombs of Poland, many bones being covered with a coating of red color, in some instances one fifth of an inch thick. Excavations in the Kitor valley (province of Irkutsk, Siberia) have brought to light several tombs which appear to date from the same period as the hurgaties of Kiew. The dead were buried with the weapons and ornaments they would like to use in the new life which had begun for them. The tomb was then filled in with sand, with which care was taken to mix plenty of red ochre. It is difficult not to conclude that this was a relic of a rite fallen into desuetude. » Aiti della R. Acad, del Lined, 1 879-1 880. Pigorini : Bui, de Pal, lialiana, 1880, p. 33. * Soc. Anth. de Munieh, 1886. TOMBS. 349 At the present day certain tribes of North America expose their dead on the tops of trees, and before burying the bones, when stripped of their flesh, cover them with a coating of a bright red color. In the island of Espiritii Santo many human bones have also been picked up painted with an oxide of argillaceous iron. These customs, strange as they may appear, were evidently practised in honor of ancestors; ata- vism is as clearly shown in customs and traditions as in physical structure. At Solutre is a sepulchre formed of unhewn slabs of stone. The body of the dead rested on a thick bed of the broken and crushed bones of horses. The remains of reindeer were mixed with the human bones. Were these too relics of funeral rites, and were the animal bones those of the horses and reindeer that had belonged to their hunter ? It is impossible to say. Solutre, situated as it was on an admirable site on a hill overlooking the valley of the Seine, protected from the north winds and close to a plentiful stream, has also been a favorite resort of man. In the tombs all ages are mixed together, and if some do indeed date from Neolithic times, others are Roman, Burgun- dian, Merovingian. There may be among them a certain number dating from the Reindeer period ; that is about all we can assert with any certainty in the present state of our knowledge. The Abbe Ducrost, however, in an important essay ^ asserts that he has found incontrovertible proofs of the interment of Solu- treens on the hearths of their homes in Palaeolithic times. If this be so, the custom is one of frequent occurrence, and has been continued for centuries ; for ' Soc. A nth, de Lyon, 1889. 350 PREHISTORIC PEOPLES. De Colanges, in his fine work on ancient cities, shows that at Rome the earliest tombs were on the hearth itself of the dwelling. De Mortillet, on the other hand, dwells very earnestly on the mode of inhumation at Solutre, and sees in the juxtaposition of human remains and the debris of hearths but the result of displacement, and of the regular turning upside down of which the hill of Solutre has been the scene. To this Reinach replied, to the effect that, whereas a few years ago De Mortillet's authority led many archaeologists to suppose that the men of the Reindeer period did not bury their dead, facts, ever more im- portant than theories, have now proved beyond a doubt that this very decided opinion is a mistake. Not only did the men of remote antiquity bury their dead; they laid them, as at Solutre, on the hearths near which they had lived/ The dead were often buried seated or bent forward, and it is interesting to note the same custom beneath the mounds of America and the tumuli of Europe. It is touching to see how in death men wished to recall their life on earth ; the cradle was, so to speak, repro- duced in the tomb, and man lay on the bosom of earth, the common mother of humanity, like the child on the bosom of his own mother. Perhaps, too, the seated position was meant to indicate that man, who had never known rest during his hard struggle for existence, had found it at last in his new life. The men of the rough and barbarous times of the remote past were unable to conceive the idea of a future diffei'ent to the present, or of a life which was not in every respect the same as that on earth had been. ' " Histoire du Travail ea Gaule," p. 24. TOMBS. 351 Whatever may have been the motive, this mode of burial was practised from the Madeleine period/ At Bruniqiiel, in Aveyron, the dead were found crouching in their last home. This position is, however, pecul- iarly characteristic of Neolithic times, and is met with throughout Europe. Eight skeletons were recently discovered bending forward in the sepulchral cave of Schwann ( Mecklenburg ). In Scandinavia there are so many similar cases that it is difficult to make a selection. In the sepulchral cave of Oxevalla ( East Gothland) the dead are all in crouching attitudes and tumuli dating from the most remote antiquity cover over a passage, formed of immense blocks of stone, leading to a central chamber, in which are numerous seated skeletons resting against the walls. On the shores of the Mediterranean, excavations of the Vence Cave (Alpes-Maritimes) brought to light a number of dead arranged in a circle as if about to take a meal in common. The bodies were crouching in the position of men sitting on their heels ; the spinal column was bent forward and the head nearly touched the knees. In the centre of this strange group were roticed some fragments of pottery and the remains of a large bird, a buzzard probably. Perhaps its death among the corpses was a mere accident.^ The dolmens of Aveyron yielded some flint-flakes and arrow-heads, pieces of pottery, pendants, and bone, stone, shell, and slate-colored schist beads. Beneath one of these dol- mens w^as found one small bronze object, quite an ex- ' Troyon : " De 1' Attitude Repliee dans la Sepulture Antique," Revue Arch., 1864. 2 MaUriaux, 1875, p. 327. 352 PREHISTORIC PEOPLES. ceptional instance of the occurrence of that metal. The skeletons rested against the walls. In one of the tombs some human bones, which had been originally placed at the entrance to the cave, had been moved to the back ; the vanquished had here, as in life, to give way before the conquerors. Excavations in the Mane-Lud tomb have led explorers to suppose that here too the corpses were buried in a crouching position. It is the same at Luzarches and in the Varennes cemetery near Dormans.^ In the last named were found traces of a fire that had been lit above the tomb, and some pottery was picked up ornamented with hollow lines, filled with some white matter not unlike barbotine. M. de Baye says this mode of interment is confined to the district of Marne ; but for all that he himself gives an example of its practice elsewhere.^ In the prehistoric tombs discovered at Cape Blanc- Nez, near Escalles (Pas-de-Calais), the position in which the body had been interred could be made out in four instances. The ends of the tibiae, humeri, and radii were united, the bones of the hands were found near the clavicles, so that the bodies had evidently been bending forward with the arms crossed and the fingers pointing toward the shoulders.^ Similar facts are quoted from ^ a cave at Equehen on the plateau which stretches along the seashore on the east of Boulogne. The bodies, to the number of nine, were crouching with the face turned toward the entrance of the cave, which was closed with great blocks of sandstone. Two polished stone hatchets, broken doubtless in ' A. Nicaise : Mat&iaux, 1880, p. 186. ' Arch. Prtfhistorique, p. 178. ^ Congrh Pr^historique de Bruxelles, p. 299. TOMBS. 353 accordance with some sepulchral rite, had been placed near the skeletons. Numerous human bones were found in the Cravanche Cave near Belfort, which probably dates from the close of the Neolithic period, judging from the total absence of metal and the shape of the flint and bone imple- ments picked up. Here too the bodies were bent almost double, the head drooping forward and the knees drawn up nearly to the chin. Several of these skeletons were completely imbedded in the stalagmite which had formed in the cave, the head and knees alone emerging from the solid mass. The position in which they were originally placed had thus of necessity been maintained.^ A similar rite, for rite we must call this mode of burial, was practised in Italy, and the Chevalier de Rossi speaks of a tomb of the Neolithic period at Cantalupo, near Rome, in which one of the bodies was placed in the crouching attitude, which he says is familiar to all who have studied ancient tombs.^ This practice was still continued in protohistoric times ; Schliemann noticed it in the excavations he superin- tended at Mykense, and Homer says that amongst the Lybians the dead were buried seated. The necropolis near Constantine contains numerous megalithic monuments. These are either round or square cromlechs surrounding sarcophagi, or circular enceintes, in which the dead were laid in a trench. In the former there are always a great many funeral ^ Bui. Soc. Anth., 1876, p. 191. Grad : Nature, 1877, ist week, p. 314. ^ Memorie sulle scoperte paleoethnologiche della campagna roinana. Pigorini adds in his turn : " I cadaveri erano abitualmente ^dagiati sul fianco sinistro, col cranio appogiato sulla mano sinistre e le ginocchia alquanio piegate in guisa che tavolta si trovarono le tibie assai prossime alia cassa toracica," 23 354 PREHISTORIC PEOPLES. objects in the tomb, and the body of the dead is in a crouching posture ; in the latter there are few -things beside the corpse itself, and that is in a recumbent position. Do these peculiarities denote different races ? Do the tombs all date from the same period, or are these arrangements but fresh indications of the differ- ence everywhere maintained between social classes? It is difficult to decide, and we must be content with enumerating facts. We may add, however, that the crouching position of corpses is constantly met with in Africa^ and in North and South America, from Canada to Patagonia.^ The funeral rites of which we have spoken necessar- ily imply burial ; man did not abandon to wild beasts or birds of prey the bodies of those who had once been like himself. At Aurignac, at Bruniquel, and in the Frontal Cave, the cave man had taken the precaution of closing with the largest stones he could find the entrances to the last resting-places of those belonging to him. The caves of L Homme Mort, and of Petit- Morin which date from Neolithitic times, retain traces of similar blocking up. There were five entrances to the cave of Garenne de Verneuil (Marne) in which was a regular ossuary ; the floor was paved and the roof kept up with eleven upright stones. The objects in the tomb with the dead were a clumsy earthenware vase, a few flint knives, and some shell necklace beads. The sides of the almost inaccessible mountains of Peru are pierced, at a height of several hundred feet, with numerous caves which have nearly all been arti- ' Pallery : " Mon. Megalithiques de Mascara," BuL Soc. Ethn., 1887. 'Bancroft: "The Native Races of the Pacific," vol. i., pp. 365, etc. Moreno : " Les Paraderos de la Patagonie," Rev. d'Anth., 1874. TOMBS. 355 ficially enlarged. It was in them that the Peruvians placed their dead, and the people of the country still call them Tantama Marca or abodes of desolation. The entrances were concealed with extreme care, but this care did not save the tombs from violation ; the greed for the treasures supposed to be concealed in the tombs was too great for respect to the unknown dead to hold curiosity in check. In other cases, the dead was laid near the hearth which had been that of his home when living, and his abode during life became his tomb. The dolmens, cella, and Gangrahen in Germany, and the barrows in England, appear to bear witness to the prevalence of a similar custom in those countries ; and we find the same idea perpetuated even when cremation became general. At Alba, in Latium, at Marino, near Albano, at Vetulonia and Corneto-Tarquinia were discovered urns with doors, windows, and a roof imitating human dwellings.^ Later, other modes of sepulture came into use. In Marne M. Nicaise made out seven funeral pits ^ resem- bling in shape, he tells us, long-necked bottles with flat bottoms. One of these pits at Tours-sur-Marne con- tained at least forty skeletons, and among the bones were found thirty-four polished stone hatchets, fifty knives, two flint lance-heads and a great many arrows with transverse edges, a necklace of little round bits of limestone, several fi^agments of coarse pottery which had been mixed with grains of silica and baked in the fire, and lastly three little flasks made of staghorn * " Necropole de Colonna, prov, de Grosseto," R. Acad, dei Lined, Roma, 1885. "^ Bui. Soc.Anth., 1880, p. 895. 356 PREHISTORIC PEOPLES. hollowed out in a curious manner and witli stoppers of the same material. These quaint little flasks doubtless contained the coloring matter with which the dead had painted their bodies when alive. All the objects of which we have spoken belonged to the Neolithic period ; but a flat bronze necklace bead made by folding a thin slice of metal, a radius, and a bit of rib bearing green marks resulting from long contact with metal, ap- pear to ^^ the date of this pit at the transition period between the Stone and Bronze ages. If this be so it is quite an exceptional case of a sepulchral pit dating from this time, for most of those known are of much later origin. Those for instance of Mont-Beuvray, Bernard (La Vendee), and Beaugency are not older than Gallo-Roman times.^ According to Count Gozza- dini, those of Manzabotto in Italy, which are twenty- seven in number, date from the IVth century after the foundation of Rome, and are of Etruscan origin. They are constructed with small pointed pebbles, with no trace of cement, and resemble in shape a long amphora vase, or perhaps, to be more accurate, the clapper of a bell. They are from six and a half to thirty-two and a half feet deep, with an opening varying in diameter from one foot to nearly two and a half feet.^ We have said so much in preceding chapters on monuments erected in memory of the dead, that but little remains to be added here. Doubtless there are many distinctions to be noted at different times and in different countries, but everywhere the aim remains ' Abbe Baudry et Ballereau : " Les Puits Funeraires du Bernard," La Roche- sur-Yon, 1873. * " Renseignements sur une Ancienne Necropole Manzabotta, pres de Bologna," Bologna, 1871. TOMBS. 357 the same, and the means used for attaining that end are radically the same all the world over. Take for ex- ample the Aymaras, the most ancient race of Bolivia and Callao; they laid their dead sometimes beneath megalithic monuments (Fig. 58, p. 178) resembling the dolmens of Europe, sometimes beneath towers or chul- pas, which are however probably of more recent date. Chulpas, generally of square or rectangular form, consist of a mass of unhewn stones faced outside with blocks of trachyte or basalt, painted red, yellow, or white. A very low door, always facing east, as if in honor of the rising sun, gives access to a cist in which the dead was laid. The chul/pa of our illustration (Fig. 105) is situated near the village of Palca; it rises from an exca- vation four feet deep ; ^^^- 105.— Chulpa near Palca. its height is about sixteen feet, and the cornice consists of ichu, a coarse grass which grows in abundance on the mountains, and which after being firmly compressed was cut with the help of sharp instruments. The human bones, which were mixed together in the greatest confusion, made a heap in the sepulchral chamber more than a foot high. The mounds of Ohio also cover over sepulchral 358 PREHISTORIC PEOPLES. chambers of a peculiar construction, being often formed of round pieces of wood, ^nq to seven feet long by five to six inches in diameter ; near the bodies were placed a few ornaments, chiefly copper ear-rings, shell beads, and large flint knives. Most of the skeletons lay on the bare earth ; but one exception is mentioned in wbich the ground was paved witb mussel shells. A remarkable discovery has quite recently been made at Floyd (Iowa), the account of wbich in Nature for January 1, 1891, we will give in the words of Clement Webster : " In making a thorough explora- tion of the larger mound . . . the remains of five human bodies were found, the bones even those of the fingers, toes, etc., being, for the most part in a good state of preservation. First, a saucer or bowl-shaped excavation has been made, extending down three and three-quarter feet below the surface of the ground around the mound, and the bottom of this maca- damized with gravel and fragments of limestone. In the centre of this floor five bodies were placed in a sitting posture with the feet drawn under them, and apparently facing the north. First above the bodies was a thin layer of earth and ashes, among which were found two or three small pieces of fine-grained charcoal. Nearly all the remaining four feet of earth had been changed to a red color by the long-continued action of fire." Mr. Webster goes on to describe the various skeletons and says of one of them, that of a woman : "The bones in their detail of structure indicated a person of low grade, the evidence of unusual muscular development being strongly marked. The skull of this personage was a wonder to behold, it equalling if not rivalling in some respects and in inferiority of grade. TOMBS. 359 the famous Neanderthal skull. The forehead, if fore- head it could be called, is very low, lower and more animal-like than in the Neanderthal specimen. . . . <^^ <5^ <* ^ a^ Q ^^Q ^^<^^ Fig. io6. — Dolmen at Auvernler near the Lake of Neuchatel. The question has been raised how was it that these five bodies were all buried here at the same time, their bodies being still in the flesh." . . . AVebster adds that the probability is that all but one of the 360 PREHISTORIC PEOPLES, had been sacrificed at the death of that one, who had most likely been a chief. We have seen that men began by placing the bodies of their dead in caves, and only later took to burying them underground when caves were not to be had. Very often the corpse was placed between large un- hewn stones to keep off from it the weight of the tumulus above. Such were the last resting-places alike of the men of Solutre and of those of Merovingian times. In the necropolis of Vilanova, which is supposed to date froiiL times prior to the foundation of Rome, the tombs enclosed a chest, the walls of which consisted of slabs of sandstone set on edge and connected by a con- glomerate of small stones. At Marzabotto, the chests are made of bricks, and placed beneath a heap of peb- bles. We reproduce a chest discovered near the Lake Dwellings of Auvernier in Switzerland (Fig. 106) ^and another (Fig. 107) brought to light by MM. Siret in the south of Spain. These drawings will help us bet- ter than long descriptions to form an idea of this mode of burial. In other cases the dead body was enclosed in earthen- ware jars. At Biskra in Algeria, two of these jars were found together ; the one containing the head, the other the feet of the departed. In some instances the jar was replaced by a large clumsy earthenware basin, some six and a half feet long by three feet wide. Such basins are mentioned as having been found near Athens, but there is nothing to help us to determine their date. ' Gross : " Les Proto-Helv6tes." Morel-Fatio : " Sepultures des Populations Lacustres de Chamblandes." As at Auvernier, a great many bears' tusks were found lying near the dead, which may possibly also have had something to do with a funeral rite. TOMBS, 361 The ancient Iberians used one large jar only (Fig. 108) in which the dead was placed in a crouching position, still wearing his favorite ornaments. The vase was closed with a stone cover and placed in the tomb. We meet with the practice of a similar mode of interment in historic times. The Chaldeans placed their dead in earthenware vases ; two Jars connected at the neck serving as a coffin. Excavations in Nebuchadnezzar's \3wrx^'''''^^ :iili^RiM-^i:3.^-^ Fio. 107. — A stone chest used as a sepulchre. palace brought to light bodies bent nearly double and enclosed in urns not more than three feet in height by about two feet in width. On the western coast of Mala- bar, as far as Cape Comorin, we find near megalithic tombs large jars four feet high by three feet in diameter filled with human bones. This mode of sepulture was practised at Sfax,in the Chersonesus of Thracia, and at the foot of the hill on which Troy was built. The tu- 362 PREHISTORIC PEOPLES, mulus of Hanai-Tepeli covered over a huge amphora in which crouched a skeleton, and the wealthy Japanese loved to know they would rest in huge artistically decorated vases, masterpieces of native pottery. If we cross the Atlantic, we meet with the same custom in Peru, Mexico, and on the shores of the Mississippi. At Teotihuacan, the bodies of children were placed head downwards in funeral urns,* and excavations in the alluvial deposits of the Mississippi yielded, among immense quantities of pottery, two huge rectangular basins glued together with clay and containing the body of a young child. It is indeed interesting to meet with the same practice in so many different places and to find the genius of many races expressing itself in the same way in so many diverse inventions, produced at times so widely separated. It is probable that early man also turned to account the trees he saw growing around him, using them as coffins for his dead. But the rapid decay of this fragile case led to its total disappearance. A few ex- ceptions must, however, be mentioned. In 1840 some dredgers took from the bed of the Saone, at Apre- mont, from beneath a bed of gravel ^\'^ feet thick, the trunk of a tree which still contained the bones that had been placed in it. Similar discoveries were made in the Cher, and in the celebrated cemetery of Hallstadt, near Salzburg. The cairns of Scania cov- ered over split trunks of oak and birch trees, which had been hollowed out to receive the dead. At Gris- thorpe, near Scarborough, in England, a coffin was found made of scarcely squared planks roughly put togethei' ; and another very like it was discovered at * D. Charnay : North American Review, January, 1881. 364 PREHISTORIC PEOPLES. Hove, in Sussex, the latter containing a splendid am- ber cup, evidence of the wealth of the man w-ho had been buried in this primitive coffin/ The ancient Caledonians sewed up their dead in the skins of oxen before burying them. The Egyptians also embalmed the ibis, the ox, the cat, the crocodile, and other animals deified by them, and the bodies of these creatures were then placed in vast subterranean chambers, where they have been discovered in the present day in great numbers. The Guanches of Teneriife, the last representatives of the Iberians, and probably the most ancient race of Europe, took out the intestines of the corpse, dried the body in the air, painted it with a thick varnish, and finally wrapped it in the skin of a goat. This last custom was evi- dently a relic of the original idea of embalming, with a view to rendering the mummy as nearly as possible indestructible and, to use a happy expression of Michelet, to compel death to endure (forcer la mort de durer). Our own contemporaries are thus able to look upon the very features of those who preceded them on the earth some forty centuries ago ; and but yesterday photography reproduced in every detail what was once Ramses the Great, one of the most glorious kings of history. Embalming was also practised in America. Recent travellers report ^ having seen in Upper Peru tombs of the shape of beehives, made of stones cemented with clay,^ each tomb containing one mummy or more in a crouching position (Figs. 109 and 110). This custom was still practised for many centuries ; Garcilasso de la ' Stuart : " The Early Modes of Burial." ^ Vidal Seneze: Bui. Soc. Anth., 1877, p. 561. 365 Fig. 109. — Aymara mummy. 366 PREHISTORIC PEOPLES, Vega tells us that the dead Incas were seated in a temple at Cuzco, wearing their royal ornaments as if they were still alive ; their hands were crossed upon their breasts, and their heads were bending slightly forward/ The facts enumerated above prove that burial was long practised, though it is impossible to say when it first came into use. About the time of the beginning of the Bronze age, or perhaps even earlier, however, a remarkable change took place in the ideas of man, and the dead instead of being buried intact were con- sumed by fire on the funeral pile. "What can have been the origin of this custom? What race first practised it ? It has long been sup- posed by many archaeologists that it was the Aryans from the lofty Hindoo Koosh Mountains who first in- troduced into Europe a civilization more advanced than that which had hitherto obtained there, and taught the people to cremate instead of bury their dead. This theory was accepted for a considerable time without question, but of late years a new school, headed by Peuka, has arisen who claim that the re- formers came not from the East but from the North. The Marquis de Saporta had indeed before suggested that the primitive races who were the contemporaries of the mammoth and the rhinoceros came originally from the polar regions, where the remains of a luxuriant vegetation prove that climatic conditions prevailed in remote times of a very different character to those of the present day. The lignites of Iceland are made up of tulip, plantain, and nut-trees, even the vine sometimes occurring. In the ferruginous sand- stones, associated with the carboniferous deposits of ' " Histoir^ des Incas," Paris, 1744, chap, xviii. TOMBS, 367 Spitzberg, the beech, tlie poplar, the magnolia, the plum tree, the sequoia, and numerous coniferous trees can be made out. The sturdy sailors who dare the regions of perpetual ice come across masses of fossilized wood in Banks, Grinnell, and Francis Joseph's Lands, at 88° N. Lat. Among this fossil wood Heer made out the cypress, the silver pine, the poplar, the birch, and some dicotyledons with caducous leaves. These were not relics of wood which had drifted where it Fig. 1 10. — Peruvian mummies. was found on floating ice, but of an actual local vege- tation, as proved by trunks still erect in their original positions, buds, leaves, and flowers in every stage of growth, fruits in every stage of ripening. The very insects that had lived on honey from the flowers or on the leaves themselves could be identified. In those remote days, life, abundant life, similar to that now only found in the temperate countries farther south, flourished in those polar regions, so long supposed to have never been anything but lifeless deserts. 368 PREHISTORIC PEOPLES. All this, plausible as it is, does not, however, appear to be conclusive on the point under discussion ; and though we may have to abandon the idea of the Aryans having introduced cremation, we are scarcely, I think, in a position to say that races from the North were the first to practise it. I have dwelt more fully on the question of the origin of races and the evidence which language seems to give of a common source in two papers called ^' Les Premiers Populations de I'Europe," which appeared in the Correspondent for October 1 and November 25, 1889. Whatever may be the final decision on the much contested points involved in this controversy, one thing is certain that cremation, involving though it does a complete revolu- tion in manners and customs, spread with very great rapidity. We meet with it from Greece to Scotland and Scandinavia, from Etruria to Poland and the south of Russia, in China as in Yucatan and certain parts of Central America. In the early days of history, cremation w^as practised all over Europe. The Greeks attribute its inaugura- tion to Hercules, and the funeral pile of Patrokles is described in the Iliad. The Pelasgians and the Proto- Etruscans burned their dead, ^ and we are told of the incineration of contemporaries of Jair, the third judge of Israel. On the other hand, the earliest inhabitants of Latium buried their dead. Visitors, who probably came by way of the valley of the Danube, introduced the new custom, and for a long time the two rites were practised side by side. At Felsina and at Marzabotto we find instances alike of inhumation and cremation, and at ^ Conestabile : " De I'incineration chez les Etrusques." TOMBS. 369 Vilanova only half the tombs are those of corpses that had been cremated. In 865 of the tombs excavated in the Certosa, near Bologna, only 115 show signs of cremation having been practised. At Kome, the two rites were long both performed, probably, however, by the two distinct peoples who formed the primitive population of the town of Romulus. We know that Numa Pompilius forbade the burning of his corpse; Cicero relates that Marius was buried, and that Sulla, his fortunate rival, was the first of the Cornelia gen% whose body was committed to the flames. We do not know how early cremation was introduced in Gaul; we can only say that Cgesar found it generally practised when he made his triumphal march across the country.^ The celebrated excavations of Moreau prove that in- humation and incineration were both practised among the Gallo-E-omans established in the eastern provinces of France. We mav even assert that the two rites were practised long before the introduction of the use of metals. One thing is certain, the custom of cremation was but slowly abandoned as Christianity spread, for Charlemagne, in an edict dated 789, ordered the punish- ment of death for those w^ho dared to burn dead bodies. What we have just said about historic times applies equally to more remote epochs. Thanks to the learned researches of Dr. Prunieres^ we are able to trace for a great length of time the modes of sepulture adopted in Lozere. The cave men of the eroded limestone dis- tricts of Les Causses took their dead to the caves in which their ancestors had been laid, and the invaders, who were probably more civilized than those they * A. Bertrand : " Arch. Celtiqueet Gauloise," Introduction. * Ass. franfaise, Nantes, 1875 ; Havre, 1877. 24 370 PREHISTORIC PEOPLES. dispossessed, placed theirs beneath the dolmens which they erected in their honor. In the sepulchral .caves of E-ouquet and of V Homme Mort we find inhumation ; beneath the megalithic monuments dating from the end of the Neolithic period, we meet with the first traces of cremation, but so far of a very incomplete cremation ; the action of the funeral fire had not been intense, and the bones were hard and resisted the heat. Noting beneath certain dolmens a few bones black- ened by fire mixed with large quantities unaffected by it, one is inclined to think with the learned Doctor, that after practising cremation men had reverted to the old mode of burial. In the tumuli of the Bronze age, on the other hand, where the date can be deter- mined with the aid of the ornaments and trinkets scat- ered about, the ustion was more complete ; the bones are friable and porous, crumbling into dust when touched, and there is nothing to indicate that inhuma- tion and cremation were both practised. It is strange indeed to find that incineration was practised from Neolithic times in the wild moun- tains of Lozere. There can be no doubt on the point, however, and excavations beneath the dolmen of Mar- connieres strikingly confirm the earlier discoveries of Dr. Prunieres. Beneath a layer of broken stones and a very thin pavement, was found a mass of human bones in the greatest confusion ; some still retaining their natural color, others blackened and charred by fire. Among these bones was picked up an arrow of rock foreign to the country, three admirably polished lance-heads, and some finely cut flint-darts. The dol- men contained no metal objects, and there was no trace of metal on any of the bones. TOMBS. 371 At the same period the two rites appear to have been practised simultaneously in Armorica, but there incineration was the dominant custom. In one hun- dred and forty-five niegalithic monuments supposed to date from the Neolithic period, seventy -two give proof of incineration and twenty of inhumation only. The others yielded a few cinders, but it was impossible to come to any definite conclusion. In many cases, as we have seen, the megalithic monument was sur- rounded by a double or triple enceinte of stones without mortar. Inside these enceintes were some small circular structures made of stones reddened by the action of heat. In the lower part of these structures were openings to admit a current of air to fan the flames. These strange structures, full of cinders and black greasy earth, bear the significant name of Ruches de Cremation} Of thirty-nine sepul- chres of the Bronze age twenty-seven gave evidence of incineration, two of inhumation, whilst ten decided nothing one way or the other.^ The dolmen of Mont St.-Michel and that of Tumiac are separated by a short distance only; they were erected by the same race and probably about the same period, yet at Mont St.-Michel we find incineration, while inhumation was practised at Tumiac. How explain this difference in funeral customs ? Does it imply a diversity of race, of caste, of religion, or of social position, or may it not rather be explained as being merely the result of those later displacements which upset the most careful reasoning ? ' Luco : " Exposition de Trois Monuments Quadrilateres par feu James Miln," Vannes, 1883. 2 P. du Chatellier : "Mem. Soc. d'Emulation des C6tes-du-Nord," Saint Brieuc, 1883. 372 PREHISTORIC PEOPLES. Whatever may have been the cause of the different modes of burial, we meet with them in every country. In Scandinavia, during the Bronze age, cremation and burial were practised in about equal proportions. Similar facts are noticed in Germany, but in the North incineration predominates, while in the West it is in- humation. Beneath the cairns of Caithness in Scotland, we find some bodies lying at full length, while others are in a bent position, and large jars of coarse pottery filled with cinders and calcined bones which had be- longed to men of medium height. One of the largest of these jars is fifteen or sixteen inches high by forty- nine wide at its largest part.^ In excavating the barrows of the Orkney Islands, Petrie noted the prac- tice of both modes of burial ^ ; but were those buried in manners so different contemporaries ? This is M^hat we are not told, and what we have to find out. At Blend owo in Poland, beneath a cromlech was found an urn filled with calcined bones, and thirty cen- timetres lower down a skeleton was discovered buried in the sand. Near this body was found a coin of Theodosius, and we wonder in vain whether both the individuals, whose remains are thus within a common tomb, lived at the same time. Throughout Pi'ussia and in the Grand Duchy of Posen skeletons and jars containing human ashes are met with in the same tombs.^ We must not forget to note, especially, the necropolis of Hallstadt, which was situated in the heart of the district of Bohemia occupied by the Boii. ' Proceedings Soc. A nth. of Scotland, ^2iXi\x2sy 1 1, 1886. 2 " On the Ancient Modes of Sepulchre in the Orkneys" {British Association. 1877). 2 Kohn and Mehlis : " Ziir Vorgeschichte des Menschen im Ostlichen Europa," lena, 1879. TOMBS. ' 373 The most ancient of the tombs in these vast burial- places date from about two thousand years before the Christian era, and the Hallstadtian period, as it is sometimes called, culminated during the first half of the millennium immediately before the coming of Christ/ Nine hundred and ninety-three tombs have been excavated ; all, to judge by the objects found with the human remains, belonging to the Bronze age; of these ^N^ hundred and twenty-seven contained buried bodies, and four hundred and fifty-three cremated relics.^ This is a larger proportion than in the primi- tive necropoles of Italy. In the tombs in which burial was practised, the bodies were laid in the trench without covering, and the remains of anything in the way of slabs or coffins or protecting planks are very rare ; in those tombs in which cremation had been the rule, ustion had often been very incomplete, sometimes the head and some- times the feet having escaped the flames. Similar facts are noted at Watsch, at San Margare- then, and at Vermo in Styria, at Rovesche in Southern Carniola, and at Rosegg in the valley of the Drave. At Watsch, but ten skeletons were found, among two hundred examples of incineration. In the cremation sepulchres, if we may so call them, the cinerary urn was protected by large slabs; while in those where burial was practised, the bodies were simply confided to the earth as at Hallstadt ; but by a singular contrast, the latter tombs contained much more important ^ Hochstetter : " Die neueste Graber Funde von Watsch. und S. Margarethen und der Kultur Kreiss der Hallstadter Period," Wien, 1883. Siebenter : " Bericht der Prehistorischen Commission," Wien, 1884. ■^ In these tombs were found 64 gold objects, 5,574 bronze, 593 iron, 270 amber, 73 glass, and 1,813 terra-cotta. A. Bertrand : Rev. d Ethnographie, 1883. 374 PREHISTORIC PEOPLES. relics, the objects with the dead being more valuable and of finer workmanship. At Rovesche, the urn was placed in a square chest made of unhewn stones. The buried bodies lay with the head turned toward the east, an urn was placed at their feet, and their shrouds were kept in place by bronze fibulae, while on the fingers were many rings of the same metal. Lastly, to conclude this gloomy catalogue, excava- tions in the mounds of Ohio and Illinois^ have shown that there too cremation and inhumation are met with in sepulchres which everything tends to assign to the same race and the same period.^ The sepulchral crypts of Missouri contain several skeletons which had been subjected to intense heat. The human bones were mixed with the remains of animals, fragments of char- coal, and pieces of pottery, with some flint weapons. In a neighboring mound excavations revealed no trace of cremation ; the bodies were stretched out upon the ground, and those who discovered them picked up near them a valuable collection of flints and of carefully made pottery. There is however nothing to show whether those who buried and those who burnt their dead belonged to the same race or lived at the same time. Cremation long survived among the most savage tribes of Alaska and California, where it is still practised, and the Indians of Florida preserve the ashes of their fathers in human skulls. In California, the relations of the deceased covered their faces with a thick paste of a kind of loam mixed with the ashes of the dead, and were compelled to wear this sign of their grief until it fell oif naturally. ' Smithsonian Report, i88i. * Putnam, xii. and xx. Reports of the Peabody Museum. TOMBS. 375 Although we meet with the burial of the dead either in a recumbent or a crouching position, everywhere the minor ceremonies connected with death are innumera- ble ; each people, each race, indeed, having its own cus- tom, handed down from one generation to another, and piously preserved intact by each successive family. Feasting was from the earliest times a feature of the funeral ceremonies. An edict of Charlemagne forbids eating and drinking on the tombs of the deceased, and Saint Boniface, the apostle of Germany, complains bit- terly that the priests encouraged by their presence these feasts of death. We meet with the same kind of thing among the lower classes at the present day, and the cemeteries of Paris are surrounded with cafes and wine shops, where too often grief is drowned in wine. The custom of holding these feasts really comes down from the earliest inhabitants of Europe, and the savage cave man gorged himself with food upon the tombs of those belonging to him. At Aurignac, in the cave of L' Homme Mort, in the Trou du Frontal, broken bones and fragments of charcoal bear witness to the repast. Similar traces of feasts are met with beneath the dolmens and the tumuli. From the Long Barrows have been taken the skulls and feet of bovidse, and it is probable that the other parts of the body had been devoured by the assistants, and that the head and feet were placed in the tomb as an offering either to the dead or to the divinities who are supposed to have presided at the death. In the ancient sepulchres of Wiltshire Sir R. Colt Hoare picked up the bones of boars, stags, sheep, horses, and dogs ; which he too con- sidered were the remains of funeral feasts. Were feasts the only ceremonies connected with in- 3/6 PREHISTORIC PEOPLES. terments \ We think not. The body was often placed in the centre of the sepulchral chamber, and aroun*d it were ranged the wives, servants, and slaves of the de- ceased, condemned to follow their chief into the un- known world to which he had gone. Beneath a dol- men of Algeria was found a crouching skeleton with two crania lying afc his feet, which crania had doubtless belonged to victims immolated in his honor. The barrows of Great Britain preserve traces of human sacrifices, and Csesar says in speaking of the Gauls: "Their funerals are magnificent and sumptuous. Everything supposed to have been dear to the de- funct during his life was flung upon the funeral pile ; even his animals were sacrificed, and until quite recently his slaves and the dependants he had loved were burnt with him." ^ The facts we have been noticing prove that early man cherished hopes of immortality. All was not ended for him with death ; a new life commences beyond the tomb, marked — for his ideas could go no farther — by joys similar to those he had known on earth, and events such as had occurred during his life. What else could be the meaning of the weapons, the tools of his craft, the vases filled with food placed near the de- funct, the ornaments and colors intended for his adorn- ment, the wives, slaves, and horses flung into the same tomb or consumed upon the same pile ? It is pleasing to find this supreme hope among our remote ances- tors ; and clumsily as it was expressed, it implies a be- lief in a being superior to man, a protecting divinity according to some, but according to some few others a ' " De Bello Gallico," book vi., cap. xix. Consult also Pomponius Mela: " De Situ Orbis," book iii., cap. ii. TOMBS, 377 malignant and tyrannical spirit. Tlie proofs so far to hand are not enough to justify us in seriously asserting that ancestors were worshipped by prehistoric man. But the subject is too important for us to refrain from 2:)utting before the reader such indications of this wor- ship as have been collected, and which are necessarily connected Avith the moral and material condition of our remote ancestors. The radius of a mammoth was discovered at Chaleux, occupying a place of honor on a large sandstone slab near the hearth. The Chaleux Cave dates from the Keindeer period ; at which time the mammoth had long since been extinct in Belgium, so that there can be no doubt that the cave man had taken this bone from the alluvial deposits of the preceding epoch, and this huge relic of an unknown creature had been the object of his veneration, a lar or protective divinity of his home. A somewhat similar fact was discovered at Laugerie- Basse and, by a strange coincidence, certain tribes of North America of the present day preserve the bone of a mastodon or of a cetacean in their huts as a pro- tection to their homes. From Paleolithic times men were in the habit of cutting celts or hatchets in chalk, bitumen, and other fragile substances, which were certainly of no practical use. Thousands of similar objects in harder rock, but showing no sign of wear or tear, have also been found, and there is little doubt that they all alike served as amulets. This superstitious respect for cei-tain objects lasted for many centuries, and was handed down from one generation to another. The tombs of the Bronze and Iron ages are often found to contain ilint hatchets, some of them broken intentionalbfr*T>5»^|p^^'^ I ^^^^ [( €NIVERSIT¥ 378 PREHISTORIC PEOPLES. already said, that they were connected with funeral rites of the nature of which we are ignorant. We also find votive hatchets beneath dolmens. By the side of some skeletons at Cissbury lay flint celts. A hatchet one and a quarter feet long was found in a Lake Station of Switzerland. It was of such friable rock that it can have been of no use but as a symbol ; perhaps, indeed, it may have been a badge of office. Lastly, Merovingian tombs contain hundreds of small flint celts, the last pious offerings to the departed.^ We find hatchets engraved on the megalithic monu- ments of Brittany, on the walls of the caves of Marne, and we meet with them again on the other side of the Atlantic, evidently bearing the same signification, im- plying respect for them as means of protection. De Longperier has published a description of a Chaldean cylinder, on which was represented a priest presenting his offering to a hatchet lying on a throne, and a ring was picked up at Mykense, on the stone of which was engraved a double-bladed celt. We find the same idea in many different mythologies. The word Nouter (God) is translated in Egyptian hieroglyphics by a sign resembling a celt, and the hatchet of Odin is engraved on the rocks of Kivrik. On a number of Gallo-Boman ci'p'pi., we find a hatchet beneath which we read the words, Dis Manihus, and lower down the dedication, Suh Ascia dedicavit. At all times and everywhere the hatchet appears as the emblem of force, and is the object of the respect of the people. * In his fruitful excavations of Gallic, Gallo-Roman, and Merovingian tombs, Moreau collected no less than 31,515 flint celts or hatchets, which had evidently been votive offerings. See Album de Caranda : " Fouilles de Sainte Restitute, de Trugny, d'Armentiere, d'Arcy, de Brenny," etc. TOMBS. 379 The tradition of its value and importance is handed down from ancestors to descendants throughout many- generations. May we give a religious interpretation to the basins and cups hollowed out on rocks and erratic blocks and on the so-called Roches MoutonnSeSy with other monu- FlG. III. — Erratic block from Scania, covered with carvings. ments that have endured for many centuries (Figs. Ill and 112) ? Or must we attribute them merely to passing caprice ? Their number and importance we think forbid the latter idea. We find such blocks in Switzerland, in England, France, Italy, Portugal, and on the frozen shores of the Baltic. They are no less 38o PREHISTORIC PEOPLES. numerous in India, and they figure in the curious picto- graphs of the two Americas. There is no doubt that we have here a common idea, and one it is impossible not to recognize. How else can we account for the similarity of arrangement in the cup-shaped sculptures Fig, 112. — Engraved rock from Massibert (Lozere). from the tumuli of Schleswig-Holstein and those on the Indian rocks of Kamaou, or between those of Algeria and of England ? In Brittany and in Scotland these cup-like sculp- tures are found on rocks and menhirs, on the walls of TOMBS. 381 sepulchral chambers, on stones forming the sides of histvcens, accompanied in many instances with radi- ated circles, which do not, however, help us to under- stand them better. In Scandinavia they are known as Elf en Stenars^ or elf stones, and the inhabitants come and place offerings on them for the Little People, Accorling to a touching tradition, these little people are souls awaiting the time of their being clothed once more in human flesh. In Belgium these strangely decorated stones are attributed to the Nutons, dwarfs who are very helpful to mortals. In every country there is some legend sacred to the sculptured stones. Such are the only facts we have been able to collect respecting the religious feeling of prehistoric races. They are not sufficient to authorize any final conclu- sion on the subject. At every turn we are compelled to admit our helplessness. But yesterday this past w^ithout a limit was absolutely unknown to us, and to-day we are but beginning to be able to obtain a glimpse into its secrets. We have been the laborers of the first hour, it wall be for those who come after us to complete the task we have been able but to begin. May a genuine love of truth be to them, as we may justly claim it has been to us, the only guide. INDEX. Abbeville, ii, 14, 77 Abbott, on discoveries on the Dela- ware, 39 Abruzzi, the, 162 Acora (Peru), 178 Acorns, 151, 158 Acrotiri, island of, prehistoric houses under volcanic ashes, 311 ACY, d', on earliest tools and weapons, 82, 84 .■Egean Sea, volcanic eruption in, 308-316 Africa, Stone age in, 30 ; human bones in, 45 ; Lake dwellings of, 165 Central, pile dwellings in, 145 North, dolmens the work of a powerful race, 196 ; see also "Al- geria," " Morocco, "and" Tunisia." South, pottery and worked flints in, 34 Aggetelk (Hungary), 93 Ainos, the, 29, 90, 266 Alabama, kitchen-middings of, 142 Alaska, Quaternary mammals of, 66 Algeria, Stone age in, 32 ; dolmens and cromlechs, 33, 180 ; mammoth in, 57 ; ancient towers, 171 ; covered avenues, 188 ; a field for research, 195 ; megaliths of, 196 ; djedas of, 198 ; dolmens with circular open- ings, 211; rich in stone implements, 234 ; practice of trepanation in, 266 ; funeral jars of, 360 ; cup- stones in, 380 Alignments, 188-194; of menhirs in Northern India of present day, 222 ; in Kermario group, 224 Alpes-Maritimes, enceintes of, 286 Altamira cave (Santander), 122 Alt-Sammit, 216 Amber beads, 109 ; yellow amber from Baltic in tombs of Switzerland and France, 246 ; in Aurensan Cave (Bagneres-de-Bigorre), 247 ; amber cup at Hove, 364 Amelia Island, 142 America, Mound Builders and Cliff Dwellers of, 3 ; copper implements from mounds of, 21 ; antiquity of, 38 ; prehistoric races, 39 ; edentate and pachydermatous mammals, 39 ; fortifications, earthworks, temples, and sepulchres of, 40 ; shell heaps of, 40 ; stone weapons and pottery of Mound Builders, 41 ; cannibalism in, 57 ; pachyderms of , 57 ; fishing- tackle in, 63-65 ; absence of Chel- leen implements in caves of, 139 ; kitchen-middings in, 140-142 ; fish food in, 143 ; horses extinct in, on arrival of Spaniards, 157 ; tumuli in, 176 ; great numbers of worked stones in, 234 ; instances of trepana- tion in, 267-270 ; colossal earthen fortifications of Mound Builders, 296, 297 ; brick buildings in, 320 ; similar modes of sepulture to those in Europe, 350 ; practice of em- balming in, 364 ; cup-stones in, 380 383 384 PREHISTORIC PEOPLES, Amiens, ii, 14 Amphoroe, 330 Amulets, see " Ornaments." Anchors, 77 Ancress (Jersey), 216 Ancerty Point, 142 Angami-Nagas, the, of Northern India, 222 Animals of Stone age extinct in France, 11 ; edentate and pachy- dermatous mammals of America, 39 ; animals used for food, 47 ; plentiful as in South Africa at present time, 55 ; Quaternary ani- mals in Europe, 56 ; tiger, elephant, rhinoceros, and hippopotamus in British Isles, 56 ; great number of bears, 56, 57 ; mammoth from North Europe to Greece, Spain, and Algeria, 57 ; in Asia from Altai Mountains to Arctic Ocean, 57 ; in America, in Mexico and Kentucky, mastodon in extreme North, Sonora and Columbia, 57 ; cervidae in Gourdan Cave and at Hohlefels incalculable, 57 ; horses at Lunel-Viel and Solutre, 57 ; horse-walls^ 58 ; no domestic ani- mals, 58 ; from Moustier Cave (Dordogne), mammoth. Rhinoceros tichorhinuSy elk, horse, aurochs, cave-lion, -hyena, and -bear; Elephas antiquus and Rhinoceros Merckii died out, 84 ; reindeer appears, 85 ; reindeer characteristic of Madeleine period, 86 ; mastodon, mammoth, rhinoceros, and cave-lion at Hohle- fels, 96 ; at Ratisbon, hyenas, bears, and lions, 96 ; Ursus spelceus at Nabrigas Cave, 99 ; seal in cave- near Perigueux of Quaternary period, Il6 ; Quaternary animals extinct in kitchen-middings, 143 ; in Lake Stations, 156 ; in mega- lithic monuments, 222 of Neolithic period underwent complete transformation, the mega- ceros, mammoth, cave-bear, and large felidse died out, domestic animals, ox, sheep, goat, and dog appear, 86 ; no domestic animals in Scandinavia, 137 ; earliest found in Lake Stations, 156 ; Lake fauna of Switzerland, 156, 157 ; prog- ress of domestication, 157 ; mouse, rat, cat, and horse rare in pile dwellings, 157 ; Lake village of Nidau, wild animals rare, 157 ; horse extinct in America, 158 ; domestic animals of terremares^ 159 ; wild animals very rare, 159 ; Neolithic animals in megalithic monuments, 222 ; boar, ox, sheep, and goat in Troy, horse and dog rare, cat un- known, 329 ; hippopotamus still known, 331 Anise, 315 Anker stein, 77 Antas, of Portugal, 179 Apples at Lagozza, 151 ; in Lake Stations, Switzerland, 158 Arabia, cromlechs in, 181 Arcelin, on Nile valley deposits, 30 on Boulder clays of Great Brit- ain, 130 on manufacturing centre at Kalabshee, 240 Arctic fox, 253 Ardkellin Lough, crannoge at, 163 Argent (Basses-Alpes), 99 Argenteuil, 188 Ariege, 92 Arrayolos (Portugal), 178 Arrows, see "Weapons and Tools," _Art of prehistoric man at Sydney and Easter Island, 36-38 ; staves of office carved, 113 ; seals and eels carved on staff, 116; geometrical designs on ivory, 116 ; numer- ous engravings on stone and bone, 118, 119 ; art of cave-men at its zenith, 120 ; only found in INDEX. 385 South France, and at Thayngen Cave, 120, 121 ; found with Qua- ternary animals, 122 ; carvings of human figure rare, 122-125 J colored designs from Pyrenees, 126; carved and painted flints, 134 ; Sweno's pillar (Scotland), 185 ; carved and engraved dolmens, 207-209 ; colored ornamentation at prehistoric house at Santorin, 311 ; vases covered with arabesques and garlands of fruit and flowers, 312, 315 ; art in Troy, 337 Aryan race, 286, 339, 366, 368 Asia, Stone age in, 27-30 Asia Minor, gigantic bones found in, 5 ; manufacturing centre in Stone age, 240 Assyria, cromlechs in, 188 Atavism, 349 At WATER, on fortifications at Old Fort (Kentucky), 299 Aumede dolmen, 250 Aurensan Cave, 247 Aurignac Cave, 47, 131 Aurochs, 47, 84, 122, 132 Australia, probable appearance of man before the continent attained its present configuration, 35 ; cromlechs in, 181 ; practice of trepanation in, 277 Austria, Lake Stations of, 25, 151-153 Avebury, cromlechs of, 182-184, 224 Avening, 213 Avenues, covered, 188-194, 197 ; see also " Megalithic Monuments." Avenue des Mureaux, 261 Avrigny (Seine-et-Marne), 261 Aymaras, the, of Bolivia and Callao, 357 Aztalan (Wisconsin), 320 Aztecs, the, 18, 42 Balance-stones, 207 Balearic Islands, talayoti of, 165 ; nanetas of, 170 Baltic Sea, shores of, cup-stones on, 379 Baousse-Rousse caves (Mentone, ^9, 105, 108, 135, 345 Barbs, invention of, 90 Barley, 151, 158, 315 Barry Hill, vitrified fort at, 301 Barton Mere, Lake Station of, 154 Basina, 171 Baume-Chaude caves, 249, 258, 275 Bear, 56, 57, 84, 86, 96, 138 Bear's Point, 142 Beech, 367 Beech-nuts, 158 Bekour-Noz, 179 Belgium, pile dwellings in, 26 ; can- nibalism in, 50 ; great number of bears in caves of, 57 ; harpoons from, 65 ; objects made of reindeer antler, 93 ; pottery from, 97 ; pieces of jet and ivory plaques from caves, 107 ; importance of discoveries in caves of, 233 ; cup-stones in, 381 Bellehaye (Normandy), 213 Berbers, the, 196 Bertrand, on diversity of develop- ment in human races, 20 ; on mega- liths of France, 194 ; on enceintes of France, 283 Betula alba, 150 Bienne Lake, 145, 265, 288 Birch, 367 Birds, bones of, 24 ; Dinomis of New Zealand, 35 ; remains of birds rarer than of animals, 48 ; great numbers in caves of France, and at Baousse- Rousse, 49 ; moor-fowl, partridge, wild duck, and domestic fowl in Gourdan Cave, 49 ; thrush, duck, partridge, and pigeon in Frontal Cave, goose, swan, and grouse in other caves, 49 ; birds from kitchen- middings, 60 ; of Scandinavia, 138 ; wading birds in Brittany, 140-, ostrich eggs at prehistoric workshop in Algeria, 234 ; wild swan and wild 386 PREHISTORIC PEOPLES, goose in Troy, 329 ; also represen- tations of the owl, 331 ; a large bird in sepulchral cave, 351 Bize Cave (Narbonne), 10 Black Sea, dolmens near, 179 ; dol- mens with circular openings, 211 Blanchard, on origin of New Zea- land, 35 Boar, 47, 137, 329 Boats, 68, 70-76. See also " Canoes." BoETTiCHER, on Hill of Hissarlik, 342 Bohemia, trepanation in, 265 ; vitri- fied forts in, 301 Bone and horn implements, 90 ; from sepulchral mounds, 93 Bones of animals, 47-49, 55-59 birds, 24, 35, 48, 49, 60, 140, 329 fish, 59, 60. See also " Kitchen- middings." human, 36, 45, 49-52, 59. 249-256 Bos longifrons^ from Lake Station at Kew, 155 Boucher de Perthes, on contem- poraneity of men with extinct ani- mals, 11-15 Bougon dolmen, 262 Bouicheta Cave, 131 Boule, on early mining, 242 Bou-Merzoug, 197 Brachycephalic skull, 324 Brandenburg, 44 Brandon (Suffolk), flint quarries at, 237, 241, 242 Brazil, 17, 38, 53 "Bream, 60 Breton dolmens, 215 British Isles, fauna of, in Quaternary times, 56 ; bronze and iron objects in, 219 Brittany, dolmens in, 180 ; menhirs in, 185 ; alignments in, 194 ; great number of menhirs, 194 ; highest development of dolmens in, 214; relics in dolmens, 214, 215; hatchets engraved on megalithic monuments of, 378 Brixham, 48 Broca, on hunting implements, 48 on resemblance between dolmens of Europe, Africa, and America, 225 on trepanation, 258, 268, 274, 276 Bronze age, the, 19, 148, 258-260, 294, 334 Bronze, the first metal generally used, 64 ; in ierremares, 160 ; weapons at Stonehenge, 184 ; in megaliths of France, 218 ; bronze beads, 258 ; idols, 296 ; bronze in Troy, 334 Bruniquel Cave, 50, 51, 59, 92, iii, 351, 354 Buccinum, 141 BucKLAND, Miss, on resemblance between relics from Cornwall and Mycense, 248 Buenos Ayres, earthen dwellings near, covered with carapace of glyptodon, 128, 129 Burghs of Scotland, 165, 166 Burgwallen of Germany, 154 Burial-Mounds of Oberea, 36 ; of Otaheite, 36 Burial of chiefs in dolmens, 258 Burial of dead and cremation, 368- 374. See also " Sepulture." Burmah, 16 Burtneek, Lake, 139 Bury St. Edmunds, Lake Station near, 155 Buvards, earliest habitations, 127, 128 Bytchiskala, 265 Cabul, valley of, 201, 226 Caches^ 64, 235 CcBsar's Camp, 285 Caesar's Table, 185 Cairns, 180, 220, 302 Caledonians, the, 364 California, fishing-tackle used in, 63 Camp des cayeux, 236 Camper, on extinction of races, 6 Camps. See ^^ Enceintes." INDEX. 387 Canada, 40, 44 Canche, 140 Cannibalism, of cave-men, 49 ; prac- tised in Belgium, 50 ; burnt human bones in Reggio Cave, 51 ; human bones fractured in same way as animals for food, 51 ; at Montes- quieu-Avantes a hearth covered with human bones, 52 ; gnawed human bones from Kent's Hole of Stone age, 52 ; similar finds in Scotland, Portugal, Denmark, the Caucasus, near Jerusalem, in Amer- ica, 52, 53 ; barbarity of Mexican sacrifices, 54 ; evidence of canni- balism in Trou d' Argent Cave, 253 Canoes, 69, 71-73, 164 Canstadt race, the, 344 Carl, on fossil bones, 6 Carnac, 193, 194, 205, 219, 223 Caroline Islands, pile dwellings in, 145 Carp, 60 Cartailhac, on discoveries in Portu- gal, 27 on similarity of implements at different periods, 88 on circular openings in dolmens, 214 on contents of dolmen of Grailhe, 215 on builders of megalithic monu- ments, 224 on early mining, 247 on trepanation, 263 on citanias, 292 on the swastika, 341 Carved and engraved dolmens, 207-210 Carved rocks at Sydney and Easter Island, 36 Carvings, see " Art of prehistoric man." Castelfranco, on pile dwelling at Lagozza, 150 Castellet Cave, 252 Castellieri of Istria, 172 Castelnuovo de Sotto, 162 Castione, 160 Castle Spynie, vitrified fort at, 301, 302 Castle Wellan, 178 Castrum Gredonense, 286 Cat, rare in pile dwellings, 157 ; un- known in Troy, 329 Catenoy (Oise), camp of, 284, 285 Caucasus, the, 52, 213, 219 Gausses, les, 246 Cave-bear, 253, 344 ; -hyena, 116, 344 ; -lion, 96, 116, 253, see also ' ' Animals " Cave-men, see " Man, prehistoric." Caves, remains of men and animals in, at San Ciro (Palermo), 6 ; at Hoxne (Suffolk), 9 ; at Nabrizas Cave, 10 ; near Cracow, 24 ; near Madrid, 26 ; at Santander, 27 ; near Nahr el Kelb, 28 ; Cave of Hercules (Mo- rocco), 33 ; of Sureau (Belgium), 47 ; of Aurignac (France), 47 ; at Brixham, 48 ; at Thayngen, 48 ; at Chaleux, 48 ; at Moustier, 48 ; at Gourdan, 48 ; at Frontal, 49 ; caves of France, 49 ; of Baousse-Rousse (Mentone), 49 ; of the Lesse, 50 ; of Reggio, 50 ; of Lourdes, Gourdan, and Bruniquel, 51; of Montesquieu- Avantes, 52 ; of Kent's Hole (Tor- quay), and Cesareda (Portugal), 52 ; of the Caucasus, 52 ; of Sentenheim (Alsace), 56 ; of Kulock, 57 ; of Lherm, Belgium, Germany, Hun- gary, and Gourdan, 57 ; at Eyzies, and Nabrigas, 58 ; of the Vezere, 59 ; at Madeleine, Eyzies, and Bruniquel, 59 ; Madeleine, 60, 65 ; of South of France, Belgium, and Keyserloch (Germany), 65 ; at Kent's Hole, and near Settle (Yorkshire), 66 ; at Hoxne, 83 ; at Marsoulas, Picard, Eyzies, Laugerie-Basse, Bruniquel, Massat, the Madeleine, and Ariege, 92 ; at Kent's Hole, 93 ; at Aggetelk (Hungary), 93 ; 3S8 PREHISTORIC PEOPLES. at Gourdan, 95 ; at Engis, 97 ; Frontal, 99 ; Argent (Basse-Alpes) and Nabrigas, 99 ; at Chaleux, 103 ; at Spy, 105 ; at Kent's Hole, 107 ; of Belgium, Roquemaure, 107 ; of Baousse-Rousse, 108 ; at Eyzies, Schussenreid, Laugerie- Basse, and Chafifaud, m ; at Cottes, 112 ; of Perigord and Charante, 114 ; at Thayngen, 114; of Chaffaud (Vienna) and Lortet, 118 ; at Marsoulas and Feyjat, 119 ; at Thayngen, 120 ; at Goyet and Frontal, 121 ; at Alta- mira and Cresswell's Crags (Derby- shire), 122 ; at Madeleine, 123 ■ absence of Chelleen implements in caves of America, 129 ; caves in Wales in Glacial deposits, 130; dis- tinction between caves of men and those of animals, 131 ; height of caves of Massat, Lherm, Moustier, Bouicheta, Loubens, Sauthenay, Eyzies, and Aurignac, 131 ; ooze in Montgaudier Cave, 132 ; eight different deposits in Placard Cave, 132 ; Neolithic caves hollowed out of limestone, 133 ; carvings in Coizard Cave, 134 ; household gods at Courjonnet Cave, 134 ; sepulchral caves, 134, 135, 246, 250, 370 Cayanes^ 98 Celebes, pile dwellings in, 145 Cella, 355 Celts, the, i6r, 195 Ceraunia, 5, 16-18, 34 Cervus megaceros, 59 Cesareda (Portugal), 52, 255 Cetati de pamentu of Roumania, 295, 296 Ceylon, cromlechs in, 181 Chaffaud Cave (Vienna), iii, 118 Chalacayo (Lima), 268 Chaldeans, the, mode of sepulture of. Chaleux Cave, 48, 103, 105, 233, 377 Challas Cave (Savoy), 252 . Chamant, 188 Chamber's Island, 269 Chamois, 47 Champollion, on monuments of Egypt, 2 Chantre, on shell heaps in the Cau- casus, 140 on dolmens of South Russia, 179 on ornaments of dolmens in the Caucasus, 219 Charante, 114 Chassey Camp, 95, 283, 284 Chateauvieux, vitrified fort at, 303 Chauvaux Cave, 255, 345 Chelleen period, 83, 84, 129 Cherry, 158 Chierici, on bones from Reggio Cave, 50 Chierici, terremare of, 161 Chili, 44 China, 16, 77 Chincas, the, 42 Chouchet of Algeria, 171 Chub, 60 Chulj)as of Bolivia, 357 Circular openings in dolmens, 211- 214, 346 Cissbury, Camp at, 288-291, 378 Ciianias, 292 Cliff-Dwellers, 3, 41 Closmade:uc, on Island of Gavr'innis, 209 Clothing of prehistoric man, 103 ; cloth first woven in Neolithic age, 104 ; coarse hempen cloth from Lake Stations, Switzerland, 104 Cockleshells, 24, 107 Cod, 60 Coins, Gallic, 22 ; coins of later date than the monuments in which found, 220 ; Roman coins at Mane-er- H'roek, Finistere, Locmariaker, in Gloucestershire and Derbyshire, 220; silver coins of Caliphs of Bagdad in INDEX, 389 Coins — Continued. Scotch barrows, 221 ; Roman coins at Hastedon (Namur), 281; at Pont- de-Bonn (Namur), 282 ; coin of Theodosius in cromlech at Blen- dowo (Poland), 372 Coizard Cave, 134 CoLANGES, DE, on Sepulture, 350 Coline des Mulcts, enceintes^ 287 Colombia, gold ornaments in, 338 Combs of reindeer-horn, 63 ; combs from Lake Stations, Switzerland, 146 ; bone comb from Lagozza, 1 50 Commerce, or barter, birth of, 244 ; shells taken long distances, 244 '; also hatchets, daggers, and nuclei, 246 ; coral and amber, 246 ; and minerals, 247 ; rapid development of, in Neolithic times, 247 ; gold cups from Cornwall and Mykense of similar workmanship, 248 ; shells, mica, and obsidian in tumuli of Ohio, from long distances, 248 ; jade celts and ornaments in Amer- ica, 248 ; gold and obsidian in island of Santorin, 315 Comox (Vancouver Island), 255 Compans, 188 Concise, Lake Station, great number of worked stones at, 234 ; a manu- facturing centre, 237 ; red coral from Mediterranean at, 246 CONDER, on megaliths in Syria, 199 Conflans-Sainte-Honorine, 188, 212 CONGREVE, on megalithic monuments in India, 29 Commana (Finistere), 207 Constance, Lake of, 148 Constantine, 353 Copiapo (Chili), 255 Copper, an age of, 21 ; in Hungary, 25, 65 ; prehistoric stations between Almeria and Carthagena of Copper age, 294 Copper mines, Lake Superior, 64 rings, 358 ; copper saw, 314 Coracles, 70 Coral, 106, 246 Coriander, 315 Cork float, 68 ; cork plug, 71 Corn, 151, 158, 295 Cornwall, 184, 213 * Cotes-du-Nord, 194 Cottes Cave, 112 Couedic, 208 Coups de poing, 84 Courjonnet Cave, 134 Covered avenues, 188-194; see also " Megalithic Monuments." Cracow, caves near, 24 ; bone imple- ments, flints, and pottery found near, 233 Craig Phcedrick, vitrified cairn at, 302 Crania, of Lake Stations, Switzerland, 254 ; see also " Trepanation." Crannoges of Scotland and Ireland, 162-164 Cre'cy-sur-Morin sepulchre, 261 Cremation, 218, 219, 324, 342, 366 ; practised all over Europe, 368 ; slowly abandoned, 369 ; see also " Sepulture." Cresswell Crags (Derbyshire), 122 Crimea, 24, 225 Cro-Magnon caves, 106, 249 Cromlechs, 180-185 ; in Algeria, 105 ; still erected in India, 222 ; see also " Megalithic Monuments." Crypts, 189, 190, 205 Cueva de Mengal (}Aa.\a.ga), 189 CuviER, on antiquity of man, 12 Cypress, 367 Cyprina Islandica, 108 Cyprus, cromlechs in, 186 Dab, 60 Dahomey, pile dwellings in, 145 Dallas (Illinois), 269 Dampont (Dieppe), 262 Danubian Provinces, early civilization in, 25 Delaware, the, alluvial deposits of, 39 390 PREHISTORIC PEOPLES, Denmark, kitchen-middings of, 24 ; cannibalism in, 52 ; cromlechs in, 180 ; covered avenues in and tombs of, 188 ; rich in flint implements, 234 ; trepanation in, 266 ; vitrified forts 6f, 301 Dessignac, 189 Devezes, 258 Dinomis, 35 Discs, 107 ; of lava, 314 ; see also "Whorls." Djedas, of Algeria, 198 Dog, 86, 137, 156, 329 Dol Varchant, 208 DoLGADO, on bones of the dead colored red, 348 Dolmens, rites in honor of, 18 ; in India, 30, 33 ; human bones in, 52 ; types of implements in, 88 ; general description of, 177-180 ; in Algeria, 195-198 ; in Syria, 199 ; in India, 2CO ; dolmens all tombs, 202 ; most numerous in France, 204 ; carved and engraved, 207 ; superstitious origin of, 212 ; pierced with circular openings, 211-214 ; human and in- dustrial remainsin, 214-221 ; variety of construction, 226 ; used for burial of chiefs, 258 ; circular openings in, 346 ; tombs, 355 ; see also '* Mega- lithic Monuments." Domestic animals, 49, 58, 86, 156-159 Donegal, 163, 164 Dolichocephalic skulls, 262, 265, 272, 324 Du Chatellier, on enceinte at Ros- meur, 283 Duck, 49, 138 DUCROS, on Palaeolithic origin of Solutreen remains, 349 DuGDALE, on flint hatchets, 7 DuPONT, discoveries by, 94, 97, 345 Durfort Cave, 87, 88 Duruthy Cave (Sordes), 345 Dyke of Zeedyck, 282 Dykes in England, 288 Earliest habitations, 127, 128, 135 Earthern ramparts at Willem and Houlem, 282, 283 Earthworks in America, 40 ; in North America, 296-300 Easter Island, bust statues, engraved rocks, and human bones in, 36-38 Edentate mammals of America, 39 Eels, 116 Egyptian monuments, 21 ; worked flints in, 31 ; cromlechs in, 188 Elephant, 47, 56, 156 Elephas antiquus, 84 Elf en Stenars, 381 Elk, 84 Embalming, 364 EnceinteSy 195, 197, 198, 224 ; a gen- eral term for camps and fortifica- tions, 280 ; Neolithic examples at Hasted on (Namur), 280, 281 ; at Pont-de-Bonn (Namur), 282 ; in Limburg and Liege, 282, 283 ; numerous in France, 283 ; in the Vosges Mountains and at Rosmeur (Finistere), 283 ; at Chassey (Saone- et-Loire), 284 ; at Catenoy (Oise), 285 ; Castrum Gredonense^ a Neo- lithic station, 286 ; pile dwellings and terremares fortified, 287 ; for- tifications of Great Britain, 288 ; camp at Cissbury, 288-291 ; German fortifications, 291 ; at Potzrow and I Zahnow on piles, 292 ; mounds j between Thorn and the Baltic, 292 ; citanias in Portugal, 292 ; fortified town at Mouinho-da-Moura, 292 ; prehistoric stations of Stone, Copper, and Bronze ages, 294 ; cetati de pamentu of Roumania, 295, 296 colossal earthworks of America, 296 ; Mound-Builders, 297 ; Fort Hill, 297 ; Newark, 298, 299 ; Lib- erty (Ohio), 299 ; unique intrench- ments at Old Fort (Kentucky), at Juigalpa (Nicaragua), 300 vitrified forts, 300 ; in Scotland, INDEX, 391 Enceintes — Continued. Bohemia, France, Denmark, and Norway, 301 ; the most celebrated at Barry Hill and Castle Spynie (Invernesshire), Top-O-Noth (Aber- deen), 301 ; vitrified cairns in Ork- ney Islands, Craig Phoedrick and Ord Hill of Kissock (Moray Firth), 302, 303 ; forts at Chateauvieux, 303 ; and Ribandelle, 304 ; probably not prehistoric, 305 ; processes of vitrification, 305-308 ; vitrified walls at Hissarlik, 320 ; sarcophagi or enceintes near Constantine, 353 Engis Cave, 97, 98 England, pile-dwellings in, 26 ; har- poons in, 65 ; canoe in Devonshire, 71 ; tools of Chelle'en type in, 83 ; absence of Palaeolithic pottery in, 100 ; ancient pottery in North of, 142 ; Lake Stations in, 155 ; tumuli enclose tombs, 175 ; alignments of, lead to cromlechs, 183 ; alignments, 193 ; crypts, 205 ; circular openings in dolmens, 213 ; contents of, 217 ; discontinued in, 223 ; antiquity of, 224 ; cup-stones in, 379 Engraving, see "Art of prehistoric man." Entre- Roches (Angouleme), 263 Erdeven, 194 Esquimaux, the, 22, 50 Essenam, 188 Esthonians, the, 195 Europe, Stone age in, 9-14, 24-27 ; animal life in, 56 ; fish food in, 143 ; iron rare in prehistoric times of, 219 ; cremation practised all over, 368 Evans, on shell heaps in England, 140 Eyzies Cave, 58, 59, 92, 11 1, 131 Faidherbe, on division of Africa, 30 on dolmens of Algeria, 180 Feasts of death, 375 Feder-See, 68 Feraud, on megaliths of Algeria, 197 Fergusson, on megaiithic architec- ture, 203 Ferns, 151 Feyjet (Dordogne), 119 Finistere, 188, 202, 207, 210, 218, 220, 283 FiNLAY, researches in Greece by, 27 Finns, the, 195 Fire, prehistoric use of, proved, loi ; used in mining, 241 ; surprising skill in management of, 306 Fish, skeletons of, and shells of oysters and cockles in kitchen- middings, 24 ; shell heaps in Ameri- ca, 40 : fresh-water and marine fish used as food, 59 ; in French caves bones of the jack, carp, bream, chub, trout, and tench, 60 ; from Lake Stations, Switzerland, remains of mollusca, turtle, and goldfish, 60 ; Scandinavians caught mackerel, dab, and herring, 60 ; in kitchen- midding near the Oka (Nijni-Nov- gorod) remains of salt-water mol- lusca, 139 ; similar. remains all over Europe, 140; shell heap, St. Simon's Island (Georgia), of oyster shells, 141 ; many others similar, 142, 143 Fishing-tackle, the earliest hooks of bone or wood, 60 ; of teeth of ani- mals, 61 ; flint fish-hooks, 62 ; also of horn and boars' tusks, 62 ; stone hooks rare in America, 63 ; bone the most ancient there, 63 ; a fish-hook manufactory on Santa Cruz Island, shells used by Cali- fornians, 63 ; bronze hooks, 64 ; a few of copper in America, gold hooks more numerous in New Granada, 64, 65 harpoons of bone in France, Belgium, Germany, England, Switzerland, and Scandinavia, 65, 66 ; in Alaska, one found beside most ancient mammals of America. 66 392 PREHISTORIC PEOPLES. Fishing-nets of hemp from Lake Sta- tions of Switzerland, 67, 68 ; weights of stone.and floats of wood and cork from Lake Stations of the Stone age, 68 Flax, at Lagozza, 151 Flints, see " Weapons and Tools." Floquet, on dolmens as tombs, 202 Florida, kitchen-middings in, 142 Flute, III, 112 Fondi di Cabane of Italy, 162 FoNDOUCE, on megaliths as the pro- duce of progressive civilization, 225 ; by various races, but all of one type, 227 Fontabert Cave, 132 Food of prehistoric man chiefly meat, 47 ; bones split open by cave-men, 48 ; large mammals preferred, rodents also eaten, 48 ; bones of birds rarer, 48 ; remains of birds in Gourdan Cave, 49 ; fifty-one species of birds in caves of France, and great numbers at Baousse-Rousse, 49 ; brains and marrow dainties, 49 {see ** Cannibalism ") ; horseflesh favorite diet at Solutre, 58 ; in caves of Vezere, Madeleine, Eyzies, and Bruniquel bones of the jack, carp, bream, chub, trout, and tench, 60 ; Lake Stations (Switzerland), all kinds of fish, 60 ; salt-water fish from kitchen-middings, 60 ; mam- mals, birds, and fish from kitchen- middings, 138 ; fish food in Brittany, 140 ; in England and America, 143 ; Lagozza a vegetarian settlement, 151 ; domestic animals in Lake Stations, 156 ; stag and ox most numerous, 157 ; corn, millet, peas, nuts, plums, and other fruit from pile dwellings, 158 ; from Cortaillod barley, cherry-stones, acorns, and beech-nuts, 158 ; water-chestnuts, from Laybach, 158 ; stores of grain in fortified camps of Spain, 295 ; stores of millet in cetati de pamentu of Roumania, 296 ; barley, millet, lentils, peas, coriander, and anise in island of Santorin, 315 ; fish, mollusca and cereals chief food in Troy, 329 Fort Hill, 297, 298 Fortifications, see " Enceintes." Fosses de Trajan, 295 Foundry of Larnaud, 64 Fowl, domestic, 49 Fox, 47 Fraas, on pottery found with remains of giant mammals, 96 France, caves of, 49 ; harpoons found in, 65 ; caves of, 90 ; in caves of South of, needles with eyes, barbed arrows, and stilettos of deer antler, 92 ; ornaments of bright colored shells in caves of, 107 ; carved and engraved stones and bones of, 120 ; Lake Stations of, 155, 156 ; few cromlechs in, 180 ; megaliths in, 194 , crypts in, 205 ; dolmens with circular openings, 211-213 ; con- tents of dolmens, 216, 217 ; gold ornaments in, 217 ; megaliths dis- continued, 223 ; antiquity of, 224 ; prehistoric workshops of, 238 ; implements of rocks foreign to the country, 246 ; trepanation in, 258- 264 ; enceintes in, 280-283 ; vitrified forts in, 301 ; cup-stones in, 379 Fr^re, on worked flints, 8, 9 Friedel, on Ankerstein, 77 Frontal Cave, 49, 98, 121, 244, 354, 375 Funen, island of, 64 Funeral rites, 53 ; similar in all coun- tries, 228 ; trepanation a rite, 269, 270 ; possible rites, 345, 346 ; bones of adults colored red, 347-349 ; funeral customs and feasts, 375 ; see also " Cremation " and " Sepul- ture." vases, 220, 295, 360 INDEX. 393 Fusa'ioles, i6o, 322, 324, 326, 339 ; see also " Whorls." Galgals of Brittany, 180 Galles, on hatchets from dolmens of Brittany, 214 Game played with knuckle bones, 328 Gang Graben, of Denmark. 188 Gangraben, of " Germany, 355 Garenne de Verneuil (Marne), 354 Gaudry, on hatchets from the Somme, 15 Gavr'innis, Isle of, igo, 205, 209 Gendron Cave, 345, 347 Germany, remains of bears in caves of, 57 ; harpoons found in, 65 ; pottery in caves of, 96 ; fortifica- tions in, 291 ; burial and cremation in, 372 Giant mammals, see " Animals." Gibraltar, 255 Gironde, department of, subterranean storing-places for grain, 158 Glacial epoch in England, 71, 130, 131 Glass bowls, 169 Glutton, 253 Glyptodon, 39,. 128 Goat, 47, 86, 156, 217, 329 Gods, 134, 322 Gold buckle at Aspatria (Cumberland), 220 chains in dolmen at Finistere, and Leys dolmen (Inverness), 218 cups from Cornwall, Mycenae, and Troy, 248, 337 diadem from Troy, 337 fish-hooks, 64-66 necklaces and other gold orna- ments from New Grange (Ireland) and dolmens of France, 218 ornaments at Ojcow, 25 ; in great variety from Troy, 337, 338 plate, and gold olives from dol- mens of France, 217 rings at Santorin, 314 Goldfish, 60 Goose, 49, 138, 329 Gourdan Cave, 48, 51, 57, 95, 251 Goyet Cave (Belgium), i [ i, 114, 121 Grain, stores of, 158, 295 Grand Pressigny, 235, 246, 296 Great Britain, age of deposits in caves of, 130 ; highest development of cromlechs in, 182 ; fortifications in, 288 Grez, 233, 286 Grindstone for crushing grain, 51, 296 Grottes-des-FJes, 191 Grouse, 49 Guanches, the, 364 Gubernaculum^ 77 Guerin mound (Paris), 260 Guisseny tumulus (Finistere), 259, 272 Hallstadt (Bohemia), necropolis of, 362, 372 Hallstadtian period, 373 Hamy, on scarcity of human remains in Palaeolithic caves and mounds, 231 on wounds in bones, 249 Hare, 47, 48 Harpoons, 65-67 Hartmannsweiller Kopf (Alsace) en- ceinte of, 301 Ilastedon (Namur), 280, 281 Hatchet, the, a sacred symbol, 378 ; see also " CerauniaJ* Hatchets, see " Weapons and Tools." Havelse, 137 Haxthausen, on kurganesy of Russia, 195 Hearths, loi, 136, 284, 349 Heidenmaiier of Saint Odila (Her- meskiel), 291 Heilbig, on terremarecolliy 161 Hellstone (Dorsetshire), 178 Helvetians, proto-, 149 Hemp used for fishing-nets, 67 ; for coarsely-woven cloth, 104 394 PREHISTORIC PEOPLES, Hercules, caves of, 33 Herodotus, on pile dwellings, 145 Herring, 60 Hindoo Koosh Mountains, 201 Hippopotamus, 9, li, 56, 86, 156, 331 Hissarlik, Hill of, 317-338 HoARE, on earliest habitations, 127 on remains of funeral feasts, 375 Hohlefels, 57, 96 Holderness (Yorkshire) Lake Station, 154 Holed stones, 213 Homicidal struggles, commencement of, 59 Hordeum hexastichum, 151 Horses, 47, 58, 132, 157, 158, 329 Horse-walls, 58 Hove, 364 Hoxne, 9, 83, 237 Human sacrifices, 51, 54, 376 Hungary peopled in Neolithic times, 25 ; bears in caves of, 57 ; bone daggers and amulets, 93 ; Lake Stations of, 151 Hiinengrdber of Germany, 179, 191 Hunting implements, 48 Hyena, 84, 96, 116, 344 Iberians, the, 286, 361, 364 Iceland, 45 Idols, 296, 322 Incas, the, 366 India, Stone age in, 29 ; Chelleen tools and weapons in, 83 ; great number of megaliths in, and legends connected with them, 200, 201 ; dolmens with circular openings, 2ir-2i3; megalithic monuments still erected in, 222 ; cup-stones in, 379 Industrial arts, progress in, 86 centres, see " Workshops." Inscriptions, cuneiform, 2 in old Irish cipher on megaliths, 222, 341 Insects, 367 Ireland, pile dwellings in, 26 ; a stone hammer in head of a Cervus mega- ceros, 58 ; bronze fish-hooks, 64 ; boats from bogs, 70 ; crannoges in, 162-164 ; round towers of, 167 ; cromlechs of, 184, 185 ; crypts in, 205 ; iron knives and rings, bone needles, copper pins, and glass and amber beads in Cairn of Dowth, 120 ; great number of bone imple- ments in cairn near Lough Crew, 120 ; rich in flint implements, 324 Irish cipher writing on megalithic monuments, 222, 341 Iron age, 19, 377 found at Carnac, and in Mega- liths of England and Scotland, 219 ; rarer than bronze in Europe and America, 219 ; iron knives, 220 Istria, 165, 172 IsSEL, on sepulture in Italy, 346 Italy, flint weapons in, 26 ; pottery in, 97 ; Lake Stations of, 104, 149- 151 ; terremares of, 159-162 ; great number of truddhi in, 171 ; crom- lechs in, 180 ; bones of the dead colored red in Neolithic times, 347, 348 ; funeral pits in, 356 ; cup- stones in, 379 Jack, 60 Jade, hatchets and hammers, 8t ; from pile dwellings, 146 ; celts and ornaments in America, 248 Japan, use of stone implements in, 22, 29 ; dolmens in, 179 ; trepana- tion in, 266 ; sepulture in decorated vases, 362 Japanese, the, 17 Java, pile dwellings, 145 Javelins, 87 Jellalabad, 201 Jersey, contents of dolmens in, 216 Jet, 107, 109 Jeuilly, 263 INDEX. 395 Joigny, 127 JOLY, on contemporaneity of man with cave-bear, 10 — on human bones, pottery, and skeleton of Ursus spelceus in Nabrigas cave, 99 JouANNET, on stone weapons near Peripord, 9 Juigalpa (Nicaragua), 300 Jura Mountains, pile dwellings in, 155 Kabyles, the, 196, 277 Kamena baba, 195 Kent's Hole (Torquay) 52, 66, 93, 105, 107 Kern, 301 Kew, 155 Keyserloch, 65 Khassias, the, 222 Kherson, 181 JCistvaens, 175, 220, 381 Kitchen-middings , in Denmark, 24 ; in Florida, 53 ; in Scandinavia, 54 ; in Long Island, 63 ; on Atlantic and Pacific Coasts, 94 ; in Scandi- navia, 136, 138 ; in France, 139 ; at Canche, 140 ; in America, 140- 143 ; Quat^nary animals disap- peared in, and similarity of, in Europe and America, 143 Kit's Cotty House, 213 Klementz, on Valley of the Yenesei, 28 Kuloch, 57 Kurganes, the, 181, 195, 348 La Justice (near Paris), 188 La Marmora, on age of nurhags, 169 La Mouline (Charante), 201 La Muela de Cherte (Maeztrago), 294 La Perouse, on sculptures of Easter Island, 36 Lagozza, 94, 104, 150 Lake Bienne, 145, 265, 288 Burtneek, 139 - — Constance, 145, 148 Lake Geneva, 145 Maggiore, 149 Salpi, 149 Stations of Austria and Hun- gary, 25 ; of Switzerland, 25 ; of Belgium, 26 ; fish in stations in Switzerland, 60 ; bone fish-hooks at Wangen, Mooseedorf, and St. Aubin, 62 ; bronze hooks in Switzer- land, 64 ; Lake Stations of Switzer- land from Stone age to time of Romans, 67 ; fishing in, 68 ; boats in, 74 ; first discovered, 200 ; sta- tions in Switzerland, 145 ; pile dwellings still used, 145 ; of Swit- zerland of three periods, 145 ; gen- eral description, 146-149 ;- local names for, 147 ; great numbers at Wangen and at Robenhausen, 148 ; stations of Italy, 149 ; at Lagozza, 150 ; a vegetarian station, 151 ; of Austria and Hungary, 151 ; near Laybach, 152 ; construction of Lake Stations of Pomerania, 153 ; station in Scotland, 154 ; in Eng- land at Holderness, Thetford, Bar- ton Mere, near Bury St. Edmunds, near Kew, and in London, 154, 155 ; in France at Vatan, the Jura Moun- tains, Pyrenean valleys, and in the department of Landes, 155 ; in Bourget Lake, Saint-Dos, and Lake Paladru, more recent stations, 156 ; Lake fauna, 156 ; in Lake village of Nidau domestic animals more general and wild animals rarer, 157 ; Lake dwellings probable in Asia and Africa, 165 ; amber from Baltic in Lake dwellings of Switzer- land, 246 ; village of Lake Bienne of Stone age fortified, 288 ; sepulchral chest Lake Station of Auvemiec (Switzerland), 360 Zurich, 144 Lares penates, 134, 377 ; see also^ "Idols." 396 PREHISTORIC PEOPLES. Lamaud, 64 I.augerie-Basse, 92, iii Laybach, 1 51-153 Lechevalier, on site of Troy, 318 Lechs of Brittany, 185 Lenormant, on use of specchie, 171 Lentils, 315 Les Gausses, 369 Lesse, caves of the, 50 Lestridiou (Finistere), 192 Lewis, on fortifications at Old Fort (Kentucky), 299 Lherm Cave (Belgium), 57, 131 V Homme Mort Cave, 250, 258, 272, 273, 354, 375 Liberty (Ohio), 299 Liege, caves, jo enceintes, 283 Limburg, 282 Limpets, 108 Lion, 84, 96, 156 Little People, 381 Littorina littorea, 136 Livingstone, on South Africa, 31, 55 Livres de beurre, 246 Lizieres, 262 Loaves of bread, 159 Loch Stemster (Westmoreland), 182 Locmariaker (Brittany), 185 Lombardy, Lake Stations of, 149 ; terremares of, 1 59 London, 7, 155 Long Barrows, 190 ; at Moustoir- Carnac, 205 ; West Kenret, 216 ; nearly all buried in long barrows had met with a violent death, 254 ; bones and flints in, 346 ; remains of funeral feasts in, 375 Long Meg and her daughters, 182 Long-Nick Branch, 142 LONGP^RIER, on ancient vases, 316 on hatchets as sacred symbols, 378 Lortet, 118 Loubens Cave, 131 Lourdes Caves, 51 Lozere, 88, 99, 215, 218, 246, 257, 258, 369, 370 Lubbock, on prehistoric sculpture, 38 on worked flints from Chili and New Zealand, 44 on absence in England of Palaeo- lithic pottery, 100 on settlement at Havelse, 137 on burghs of Scotland, 165, 166 on ancient fortifications of Great Britain, 288 Lund, on scarcity of human bones in caves of Brazil, 231 on crania pierced by a tool, 255 Museum of, 62 University of, 59 Lyell, on flints from bed of Somme, 14 on shell heaps of Georgia, 141 Mackerel, 60 Madeleine Cave, 59, 60, 65, 85, 92, 93, 123 period or type, 85, 132, 351 Madisonville (Ohio), 255 Madras, 201 Madrid, caves near, 26 Magnolia, 367 Mahudel, on worked stones, 7 Malabar, iron used in, 219 ; mode of sepulture in, 361 Mammals, see " Animals." Mammoth, 57, 84, 86, 96, 253, 344, 377 Mamoas, or maminhas, of Portugal, 175 Man, prehistoric, 7 ; flints found at Hoxne, 8, 9 ; contemporaneity of •man with extinct mammals doubted, 7-13 ; established by Boucher de Perthes, and confirmed by Falconer and others, 14, 15 ; diversity of de- velopment in human races, 20 ; im- plements similar to prehistoric still used by uncivilized races, 22, 23 ; extreme North peopled, 24 ; kitchen- middings in Denmark, 24 ; discov* INDEX. 397 Man, prehistoric — Continued. eries in Poland, Russia, and Austria confirm the great antiquity of man, 25 ; in Hungaiy of Neolithic times, Lake Stations of extinct races, 25 ; pile dwellings in France, Italy, Germany, Ireland, England, and Belgium, 26 ; signs of man in South of Europe, 26, 27 ; Stone age in Europe, 27 ; in Siberia and Pales- tine, 28 ; in Japan, Egypt, Isle of Melas, and India, 29, 30 ; worked flints in North and South Africa, 30-34 ; ruins in the Transvaal, 35 ; man appeared in all countries about the same time, 35 ; worked flints with bones of Dinornis in New Zealand, 35 ; megalith and trilithon at Tonga-Taboo, pyramid in Ota- heite, 36 ; bust statues and tools of obsidian in Easter Island, 36-38 ; man contemporary with edentate and pachydermatous mammals in America, 39 • huge earthworks of, throughout North America, 40 ; Mound- Builders, 41 ; pueblos, 41 ; Cliff Dwellers, 41 ; succeeded by Toltecs, Aztecs, Chibcas, and Peruvians, 42 ; in every part of the world, worked flints and megalithic monuments, 43-45 > gradual development of man, 46 food of, chiefly animal, 47 ; the horse, 47 ; large mammals and rodents, 48 ; birds rarer, 48, 49 ; cannibalism, 49-53 ; fish food, 59, 60 ; ancient Scandinavians deep-sea fishermen, 60, 69 early use of boats by, 69-76 ; gradual use of oars, mast, rudder, and anchor, 76, 77, see also " Fish- ing-tackle," and " Boats." first weapon of a knotty branch, 79 ; instinct taught, 80, 81 ; most ancient tools, 81 ; gradual develop- ment of skill and ingenuity, 82, 83 ; Chelleen period, 83, 84 ; Mousterien period, 84 ; Solutreen period, 85 ; Madeleine period, 85 — in Neolithic period abandoned a nomad for a sedentary life, ceased to be a hunter, became an agricul- turist and shepherd, 86 ; metals still unknown, but stone polished, 86 ; handles to tools, 88 ; use of bone and horn, 90 ; needles with eyes and barbed arrows, 92 ; unexpected civilization of Neolithic times, 94 ; earthenware spoons, 94 ; vases, 98 ; use of fire proved by baked pottery, loi ; family hearths, loi ; Lake Stations of Italy, cultivated hemp, 104 ; at Wangen and Robenhausen coarsely woven cloth, 104 ; in Peri- gord caves needles too fine to sew skins, 104 ; tatooing, 104, 105 ; use of ornaments of teeth or jet, 106 ; shells, ivory, amber, crystal, coral, and human bones, 106-110; whistles and flutes, in, 112 ; carved and engraved bone for staves of office, 1 1 3-1 16 ; hilt of dagger and other objects, 116, 118 ; art of cave-men at its zenith, 120 ; engraving on wood, 123 ; colored designs, 126 — in caves of Great Britain before Glacial epoch, 130 ; progress in Neolithic times, 133 ; huts of clay, and tents of skins, 135 ; intelligence of primeval man, 136 — of Scandinavia renounced no- madic life, 138 ; metals unknown to them, 138 ; man of kitchen-middings fixed abodes, 144 ; proto- Helvetians well-developed men, 149 ; pastoral life, 157 ; agriculturists, 158 ; terre- marecollioi Italy agriculturists, 159 ; of uncertain origin, 160, 16 1 ; emi- gration of races, 161 ; crannoges in Ireland, 162 ; huts in Ireland under peat 164 ; construction of crannoges 398 PREHISTORIC PEOPLES. Man, prehistoric — Continued. in Scotland, 164 ; of Stone age, 164 ; probably occupied by successive generations, 165 ; burghs of Scot- land, 165 ; Puts' houses, 166 ; nur- hags of Sardinia, 167, 168 ; talayoti of Minorca, 170 ; nanetas of Balearic Isles, 170 ; truddhi and specchie of Italy, 171 ; castellieri of I stria, 172 ; progress of civilization, 172 builders of megalithic monu- ments, 174 ; human bones at Stone- henge, 184 ; at Moen, 191 ; at Mureaux, 192 ; vanished races of Yenesei, 195 ; pow^erful races in North Africa, 196 ; skeletons at La Mouline, 201 ; at Maupas, 202 ; earliest inhabitants of tombs re- moved, 203 ; intelligent workmen, 206 ; skulls at Vaureal, 216 ; rich offerings in tombs, 217, 218 ; prog- ress in industrial arts, 220 ; in archi- tecture, 225 ; similarity of aspira- tions and powers in all men, 225 ; no certain knowledge of the build- ers of megalithic monuments, 227- 230 • bones of, scarce, worked flints very abundant, 231-235 ; growth of populations in Palaeolithic times, 231-235 ; the extreme North more populous then than now, 236 ; more civilized than Lake dwellings, and megalithic monuments of South, 236 ; all the continents peopled, civilization almost identical, 240 ; signs of division of labor, 240 ; of long travel, 244-248 ; daily life of Stone age, 248 ; struggle for ex- istence, 249 ; skulls and bones with scars and flint points still in them, 249-256 ; early attempts at surgery, 252 ; skill in, and nursing, 256, 257 ; trepanation, 257-278 ; a pos- sible funeral rite, 269 ; still prac- tised, 270 ; as a treatment of dis- eases, 271 ; long continuance of practice, 272 — first made weapons, then fortifi- cations, 279 ; Neolithic enceintes, 280-286 ; of Portugal, 293 ; and of Spain, of Stone, Copper, and Bronze ages, 294 ; inhabited by agricultur- ists, 295 ; coarse pottery, grind- stones for crushing grain and bronze idols from cetati de pamentu of Roumania, 296 ; strongholds of Mound-Builders of America, 297 ; intelligence shown in choice of sites, 297 ; fortifications a proof of combined action, 308 — at Santorin (^gean Sea), 310 ; two gold rings and a little copper the only metals found, 314 ; ad- vanced civilization, 315 ; solidly built houses, and other signs of, 315 ; one human skull, 316 ; gradual progress, 317 ; Hill of Hissarlik a witness of, 319 ; hunting a favorite pastime, 329 ; pottery of infinite variety, decoration inferior, 330 ; figure of hippopotamus, and busts of women with heads of owls, 331 ; the swastika, sacred symbol of Aryan race, found in all parts of the world, 339-341 ; proves identity of origin, 341 skeletons of, at Spy (Namur) with implements of Mousterien type, and Quaternary fauna, 344 ; two in Chauvaux Cave, 345 ; in Gendron Cave seventeen skeletons, in Duruthy Cave thirty, with Palaeo- lithic implements, and at Baousse- Rousse, 345 ; dead buried in caves still inhabited, 346 ; openings in dolmens used for throwing in bones, when separated from flesh, 346 ; successive inhumations in dolmens, 347 ; bones of adults colored red in Neolithic Italy, 347 ; in Portugal, Russia, Poland, and North America, 348, 349 ; earliest tombs on the INDEX, 399 Man, prehistoric — Continued. hearth, 350 ; modes of sepulture of Neolithic age, 351-354 ; caves and tombs closed, 355 ; urns from Italy imitating human dwellings, 355 ; forty skeletons at Tours-sur-Marne, of transition period between Stone and Bronze age, 355, 356 ; five human bodies in good preservation at Floyd (Iowa) of very low grade, 358 {see also ** Sepulture ") ; crema- tion first practised, 366 ; continued side by side with burial, 368, 374 ; feasts at funerals, 375; human sacri- fices at funerals, 376 ; signs of be- lief in immortality, 376 ; sacred symbols, bones of extinct animals, and hatchets, 377, 378 ; cup-sculp- tures, 379 ; legends sacred to, 381 Mane-Lud dolmen, 204 Mantegazza, on trepanation in Peru, 267 Marconnieres dolmen, 370 Marne, caves, 246-259 funeral pits, 355 megalithic monuments, 378 Marsoulas Cave, 92, 119 Marzobotta, 360 Massat, 92, 131 Mastodon, 39, 57, 96 Masts, 77 Maupas, 201, 202 Mayenfisch, von, on pile dwellings, 148 Mecklenburg, megalithic monuments in, 191 ; crypts in, 205 ; contents of dolmens, 216 Megaceros, 86 Megalithic Monuments, in India, 29 ; in Algeria, 32 ; in Tonga-Taboo, 35, 36 ; in all countries, 44, 45 witnesses of the remote past, 74 ; tumuli of England enclose a kist- vaeny 175 ; mamoas of Portugal, 175; tumuli in Poland, 175; Edwin- Harness Mound (Ohio), 176 • dolmens, 77 ; of Persia, near Megalithic Monuments — Continued. Mykenae, of New Grange (Ireland) Arrayolos (Portugal), Hellstone (Dorsetshire), Castle Wellan (Ire- land), and Acora (Peru), 178 ; of Bekour-Noz, in the Kouban basin, and coasts of Black Sea, of Stone age, 179 ; in Yezo (Japan) and Puerto Deseado (Patagonia), 179 ; general description of, 180 cromlechs common in Algeria, Sweden, Denmark, 180 ; few in France and Italy, 180 ; at Tyre, in Persia, Arabia, and between Mour- zouk and Ghat, 181 ; of Anajapoura (Ceylon), at Peshawur, in Peru, and Australia, 181; atMyzora(Morocco), 181 ; highest development of, in Great Britain, 182 ; at Salkeld (Cumberland), Loch Stemster (Caith- ness), Long Meg and her daughters (Westmoreland), 182 ; of Avebury, 182, 183 ; of Stonehenge, 183, 184 ; of Ireland, of Cornwall, at Upland (Gloucestershire), 185 menhirs of Brittany, 185; Sweno's pillar (Scotland), in memory of vic- tories, 185, 186 ; in France, Cyprus, and Yucatan, 186 ; in Egypt, As- syria, Persia, and Mexico, 188 alignments, or covered avenues, called essenam by Arabs, 188 ; often built beneath masses of earth, such near Paris, the Gang Graben of Den- mark similar, 188 ; covered avenues at tumulus of Dessignac, 189 ; at Cueva de i]/(?«^a/ (Malaga), at crypt at Pastora (Seville), at Gavr'innis, and the Long Barrows at West Kennet, Littleton, Nempnitt, and Uley, 189, 190 ; sepulchral chamber of oval shape in island of Moen, 190, 191 ; megaliths of Mecklen- burg of two kinds, 191 ; the Grotte 7, 218 ; bronze in France and Algeria, 218 ; iron rare in Europe and America, 219 ; stone, bronze, and iron at Carnac and Rocher, 219 ; bronze and iron in British Isles, 219 ; iron sword inlaid with silver in cist at Aspatria (Cumberland), 220 ; in cairn of Dowth (Ireland) iron knives and rings and copper pins, 220 to do honor to the dead, 221 ; only bones of Neolithic animals in them, 221 ; erected from Stone age to present day, 222 ; discontinued in France and England in 8th or 9th century, in Scotland and Scan- dinavia later, 223 ; not mentioned by Roman historians of Britain, Gaul, or Germany, or by early French writers, 224 ; proofs of an- tiquity in France and England, 224 difficulty of ascertaining by whom built, 224 ; megalithic zones, 225, 226 ; dolmens vary in construc- tion, 226 ; all of one general type, 227 ; use of circular openings in, 346 ; Port-Blanc dolmen, 347 ; megaliths near Constantine, 353 ; dolmen of Maconnieres, 370 ; of Mont St. Michel and Tumiac, 371 Meilgaard, 137 Menhirs, 18, 180-188, 197, 199, 222 ; see also " Megalithic Monuments." Mentone, 345, 347 Merovingian tombs, 22, 264, 272, 349. 378 Mesaticephalic skull, 265 Metallurgy, 161, 294, 315, 334 Metals unknown to prehistoric Scan- dinavians, 138, 143 Meudon, 188 Mexicans, the, 22 Mexico, earthworks in, 41 ; barbarity of sacrifices in, 54 ; polished flints in, 87 ; cromlechs in, 188 INDEX, 401 Michigan, 248 Midjana, megaliths at, 197 Millet, 158, 296, 315 Milne-Edwards, on birds in French caves, 49 Minano, pile dwellings of, 145 Minerals foreign to the country in which found, 247 Miners and mining, 28, 241, 242, 290 Moab, alignments in, 193 ; menhirs in, 199 Mobile, 143 Moen, island of, 190, 191 Mollusca, in pile-dwellings of Switzer- land, 60 ; fish-hooks of Mytilus Californicus and Haliotis in Cali- fornia, 63 ; in caves of France, fossil and recent shells, 107 ; Cyprina Islandica in French cave, and Nassa nerita at Baousse-Rousse, 108 ; salt-water shells at Oka (Russia), scallops, oysters, limpets, and pectens in Brittany, 139, 140 ; shells at mouth of the Somme, 140 ; oyster shells at St. Simon's Island, 141 ; in mound near St. John River, Mya, Venus, Pecten, Buccinum, and NaHca, 141 ; pearl oyster shells at Chaleux, Frontal, and Nuton caves, at Thayngen, and in Italy, 244 ; arctic marine mollusca in caves of Cro-Magnon, Madeleine, Bize, and Solutre, 244 ; fossil shells of cretaceous strata, South of France, 244 ; specimens from Isle of Wight at Laugerie-Basse, 244 ; pearl oysters of Indian Ocean in South of France, 244 Monastier (Lozere), 201 MoNTAiGLON, DE, on vitrification, 307 Montesquieu- Avantes Cave, 52 Montgaudier Cave, 132 Monuments, see " Megalithic Monu- ments." Moor-fowl, 49, 138 Mooseedorf, 64, 145 Morbihan, 180, 194, 202, 209, 210, 212, 213, 215, 260, 347 Moreau, 369 Morges, Lake, 148 Morocco, cromlechs in, 180 Mortars, for crushing grain, 34 ; for grinding paint, 105, 106 MoRTiLLET, on inhumation at Solutre, 350 Mother Grundy's Parlor ^ 122 Mouinho-da-Moura, 292 Mound-Builders, 3, 41, 297-299, 320 Mouse, 157 Moussa (Shetland), 166 Mousterien period, 84, 132, 344 Moustier Cave, 48, 83, 84, 131 Moustoir-Carnac, 205 Mur de Barrez, flint quarries, 241, 242 Mureaux, 192 Mussels, 136 Mya, 141 Mykense, 90, 178, 248, 338, 378 Mytilus Californicus, 63 Nabrigas Cave (Lozere), 10, 58, 99 Noes dolmen, 266 Nagpore, 201 Naneias of Balearic Islands, 170 Nassa, 108 Natal, 34 Natica, 141 Navigation, 69, 70 Neanderthal skull, 359 Necklaces, see "Ornaments." Needles of bone, with eyes, 90 ; in Lake Stations, 145, 146 NfiLATON, on trepanation, 268 Neolithic period, 20, 31 ; giant animals died out, and domestic animals appeared, 8^ ; man adopted seden- tary life, 86 ; weapons of, in Mous- tier Cave, and rounded stones, 88 ; pile dwelling of, 90 ; civilization of, 94 ; clothing in, 104 ; megaliths of, 191, 202, 222 ; rapid development of commerce in, 247 ; trepanation 402 PREHISTORIC PEOPLES, Neolithic period — Continued. in, 257-259, 261 ; sepulchres of, 261, 262 ; modes of sepulture in, 351, 356 Nerita, 108, 109 Neuchatel Lake, 145 Nevada, 39 Newark (America), 298, 299 New Grange (Ireland), 178, 205, 218 New Guinea, pile dwellings of, 145 New Zealand a portion of a submerged continent, 35 ; Stone age in, 35 ; worked flints from, 44 Nicaragua, jade celts and ornaments in, 248 Nile valley, implements of flint and porphyry in, 30 Nogent-les-Vierges, 250 'NoRDENSKiOLD, on stone weapons of the Tchoutchis, 22 on women of, 103 on shell heaps at Cape North, 140 NoRDMANN, on bones from cave near Odessa, 56 Normandy, enceintes in, 283 North, the, peopled in most remote times, 24 ; abundant life in, 367 Northumberland, megaliths in, 209 Norway, boat in tumulus in, 72 ; vit- rified forts in, 301 Nuclei, 28, 246, 281 Nurhags, of Sardinia, 165 ; construc- tion of, 167, 168 ; great antiquity and uncertain origin of, 169 ; tombs side by side with them of uncertain date, 170 Nuts, 151, 158 Oars, 77 Ogham, 222, 341 Ogris, the, 195 Ohio, mounds of, 269, 357, 358 Old Fort (Kentucky), 299, 300 Oleron, Isle of, 218, 232 Ord Hill of Kissock, 302, 303 Orkney Islands, dolmens in, 180; megaliths in, 195 ; crypts in, 205; vitrified forts in, 302 Ornaments, from Wirzchow Cave, amulets and fish cut in ivory, 25 ; fringed cloth from Lake Stations of Italy, 104 ; fine needles for (pos- sible) embroidery, 104 ; love of ornaments a natural instinct, 106 ; cave-men wore fossil coral, beads of clay, teeth, tusks, fish-bones, and belemnites as amulets, 106 ; necklace of bears' and lions* teeth, 106 ; ivory plaques with three holes from Cro-Magnon, 106 ; delicate oval discs from Kent's Hole, 107 ; slices of jet and ivory plaques from Belgian caves, 107 ; bright colored shells from French caves, necklace of three hundred, 107 ; shells brought from a distance, 108 ; necklaces of nerites and limpets in Scotland, shells used to fasten clothes, 108 ; at Baousse-Rousse a necklace, bracelet, amulet, garter, and net for head of nerite shells, 108, 109 ; beads of jet, crystal, gray schist, amber, and hyaline quartz, also polished balls of calx, 109 ; neck- laces of human teeth, 109 ; pendants of human bone, no; staves of office of antlers engraved, 11 3-1 16 ; staff with geometrical designs found with Quaternary fauna, 116 ; beads and other ornaments in sepulchral caves, 135 ; dolmens carved and engraved, 207-210 ; amber beads and necklace of calaite, and ivory ring from dolmens of Brittany, 214 ; glass beads and amber bowls, 215 ; beads of blue glass, enamel, and amber, 215 ; gold ornaments in France, Scotland, and Ireland, 217, 218 ; in the Caucasus, blue glass beads and bronze rings, 219 ; at Aspatria, gold buckle, 220 ; in INDEX. 403 Ornaments — Continued. Posen, silver and gold ornaments, 220 ; stone and bronze beads in Lozere caves, 258 ; gold ornaments in great variety in Troy, 337, 338 ; similar ornaments at Mykenae, near Bologna, in Lake dwellings, and in Colombia, 338 ; necklace of bits of limestone from Neolithic funeral pit at Tours-sur-Marne, 356 ; copper rings and shell beads in mound in Ohio, 358 ; amber cup in rough plank coffin at Hove, 364 Orry's Grave (Isle of Man), 213 Ors (Isle of Oleron), 218, 232 Ossuaries, 347, 354 Osteitis and caries, possible treatment of, 271 Ostrich, 234 Otaheite, 36 Otranto, 171, 195 Otter, 138 OuvAROFF, on Siberia, 28 on bone spear, 66 on excavations at Oka (Russia), 138 Ovibos moschatus, 121 Owl, 331 Ox, 86, 156, 157, 217, 329 Oyes Cave, 251 Oyster, 24, 136, 290 Pachydermatous mammals of North America, 39 Palaeolithic period, 20 ; caves of, in Poland, 24 ; worked flints of, 31 ; chipped flints of, 87 ; an ornamented bone implement of, 94 ; pottery unknown in, 100 ; Scandinavia not peopled in, 137 ; finds of human bones in, 231, 232 ; valley of the Seine inhabited in, 233 ; workshop of, 237 ; trepanation in, 263 ; see also "Quaternary period" and "Stone age."_^ Palestine, Stone age in, 28 Pallas, on kurganes of Russia, 195 Papaver somniferum ,151 Paris, covered avenues near, 188 ; environs of, rich in deposits, 233 Park Cwn (Wales), 205 Parma, terremares in, 159 Partridge, 49 Pastora (Seville), 190 Patagonia, dolmens in, 179 Pears, 158 Pearse, on tumulus at Nagpore, 177 Peas, 158, 315 Pecten, 140, 141 Pedras fittas of Sardinia, 195 Penguin, 138 Penka, on Northern origin of Euro- pean civilization, 366 Perigord Caves, 9, 104, 114, 246 Persia, dolmens in, 178 ; cromlechs in, 181, 188 Peru, cromlechs in, 181 ; trepanation in, 267 ; sepulchre in, 341 ; em- balmed bodies in, 364 Peruvians, the, 42 Pesons de fuseau, 160 Petit-Morin Caves, 134, 135, 251, 354 Pfahlbauten, Palafittes, 147 Phoca gmnlandica, 116 Piacenza, 159 Picard Cave, 92 Picts^ houses^ or Weems, 166 Pig, 156, 217 .Pigeon, 49 PiGORiN, on mode of sepulture, 346 Pile dwellings, 26, 144, 145, 147-149, 153, 159, 163, 287 Pinus picea^ 150 Pinus sylvestris, 150 Pitt-Rivers, on ancient fortifications of Sussex, 288 Placard Cave, 105, 107, 132 Plouhennec, tumulus of, 346 Plourouses, 202 Plum, 158, 367 Poisons, 92 404 PREHISTORIC PEOPLES. Poland, caves of, 24 ; tumuli in, 175 ; trepanation in, 266 ; burial and cremation in, 372 POMEL, on man and the cave-bear, 10 Pomerania, Lake stations of^ 153 PoMMEROL, on rounded stones, 88 Pont-de-Bonn (Namur), 282 Poplar, 367 Poppy, Indian, 151, 158 Porpoise, 138 Portugal, caves in, 52 ; mamoas of, 175 ; dolmens in, 178 ; antas in, 179 ; citanias in, 292 ; cup-stones in, 379 Posen, tumuli in, 220 Pottery, hand-made, 34 ; from cliff dwellings, 41, at French Exhibi- tion, 1878, 44; of Neolithic period, 51 ; spoon of black earthenware, 94 ; others of brown, 95 ; pottery of great variety, 96-101 ; most ancient found in England, 142 ; almost identical in Europe and America, 143 ; of Lake dwellings of Switzer- land, 146 ; earthenware spindle- whorls, 150 ; little figures and black vases, 153 ; terra-cotta ware, \^t\ fusa'ioles in terremares^ 160; vases with handles and ornaments from fondi^ 162 ; vases from dol- mens, 215 ; ornamented pottery from Alt-Sammit 216 ; Neolithic vases, 216 ; fragments of pottery at West Kennet, with tusks of extinct boars, 217 ; glass beads in Ireland, 220 ; funeral vases in Posen, and Prussia, 220 ; pottery hand-made and mixed with crushed shells, 285 ; frag- ments at Cissbury, 290 ; terra-cotta vases at San tori n, 312-314 ; coarse pottery from colonies at Hissarlik succeeding the Trojan, 324 ; supe- rior in first town, 325 ; ornamented with flowers and fruit, 326 ; vases of great size, 330 ; jars, basins, and amphorce used as funeral urns, 362 ; jars of coarse pottery filled with bones at Caithness, 372 Potzrow, 292 POUCHET, on hatchets from tha Somme, 15 PRESTWICH, on flints from th-j Somme, 14 Pr^vot, on vitrification, 307 Proust, on megaliths of France, 195 Pruniere, on human bones bearing scars, 250 on skill of Neolithic bone-setters, 257 on trepanation, 257, 258 on implied belief in future life, 275 on operation on the forehead, 277 on Neolithic station at Grez, 286 on sepulture of cave-men, 369 Prussia, funeral vases, silver and gold ornaments, and tumuli in, 220 ; burial and cremation in, 372 PULLIGNY, de, on enceintes of Nor- mandy, 283 Pyrenean valleys. Lake Stations of, 155 Pyrenees, the, 126 Quaternary period, deposits of, 10 ; of the Somme, 15 ; in South Africa, 34 ; animal life in, 56 ; mammals of, 66 ; huge animals of, 80 ; flint tools and weapons of, 90 ; pottery unknown in, loi ; great cold of, 116 ; animals of, 116, 122 ; depos- its of, 130 ; floods of, 131 ; animals of, extinct, 143, 156, 222 ; existence of man in, 234 ; trepanation in, 263 ; see also " Palseolithic period " and " Stone age." QuATREFAGES, DE, on Quaternary deposits of the Somme, 15 on prehistoric races, 45 INDEX. 405 QuATREFAGES, DE, on kitchen-niid- dings facing south, 137 on fortification on the Nive, 285, 286 Races, prehistoric, 42, 45 Raspberry, 158 Rat, 157 Reggio, 162 Reinach, on sepulture, 350 Reindeer, 47, 84, 85, 86, 132, 344 Reindeer period, 27, 35, 50, 63, iii, 113, 377 Religious rites in which flint knives were used, 17, 18 ; condemned by church, 18, 19 ; used by sorcerers in England, 19 ; barbarity of sacri- fices in Mexico, 54 ; respect for the dead, 217 ; offerings in tombs, 216- 218 ; portions cut from the skull after death, a rite, 274 ; see also " Sepulture." Re'sille, 108, 135 Rhinoceros, 56, 96, 156 incisivus, 11 Merckiiy 84 tichorhinuSy 84, 116, 344 RiALLE, DE, on monuments of Tunisia, 198 Ribandelle, 304 Riesenbetten , 191 Rivatella, 162 Robenhausen, 148 Rochebertier, 124 Roches Moutonne'esy 379 Rodents, 48 Rodmarden, 213 Roe-deer, 217 Roknia (Algeria), 266 Rondelles, 258, 259, 262, 263, 266, 274, 275 Roquemaure Cave, 107 Rosa, onfondi, 162 Rosmeur (Finistere), 283 Rossi, de, on Palaeolithic workshop at Ponte-Molle, 237 Roucfi, DE, on monuments of Egypt, 2 Roumania, earthworks in, 294-296 Round towers of Ireland, 167 Rounded stones of granite or sand- stone, 88 Rovesche, 373 Ruches de Cremation ^ 371 Rudders, 77 Ruins in the Transvaal, 35 Run-Aour (Finistere), 188 Rundyssers, 180 Runes ^ 291 Russia, dwellings above flood line in, 137 ; kitchen-mi ddings in, 138 ; kurganes of, 195 ; valla in, 295 Sacred symbols, 339, 377 Sahara, desert of, 30-32 Saint-Acheul, 83, 233 St. Affrique dolmen, 263 St. Andrew (Winnipeg), a manufac- turing centre, 240 St. John River, 141 Saint-Martin-la-Riviere, 262 Saint-Pierre-en-Chatre, 64 St. Quentin, 263 St. Simon's Island, 141 Salkeld (Cumberland), 182 Salzbourg, 290 San Ciro Cave (Palermo), 6 San Margarethan, 378 Santa Cruz, island of, 63 Santandar Caves, 27 Santhenay Cave, 131, 134 Santorin, Island of, 134, 308-316 Saporta, de, on Northern origin of European civilization, 366 Sardinia, nurhags of, 165 Saturnia (Italy), 178 Sauvag^ire, on megaliths of France, 224 Saw-bladed knives, 29 Scandinavia, worked flints in, 44 ; human bones in, 45 ; deep-sea fish in kitchen-middings of, 60 ; har- 4o6 PREHISTORIC PEOPLES. Scandinavia — Continued. poons in, 66 ; attempts at naviga- tion in, 69 ; polished flints in, 87 ; not peopled in Palceolithic times, no domestic animals, 137 ; orientation of houses in, 137 ; nomadic life in, 138 ; dead buried in crouching posi- tion, 351 ; burial and cremation in, 372 ; El fen Stenars of, 381 Sceptre, 11 1 Schaafhausen, vitrified ramparts at, 301 Schlaken Wdlle, 301 SCHLIEMANN, on Hill of Hissarlik and Troy, 317-339. 342 SCHMERLING, researches of, near Liege, 10 discovery of pottery and Mous- terien flints in Engis Cave, 97 on scarcity of human bones in Belgian caves, 231 Schussenreid Cave, iii, 148 Science, prehistoric, starting-point of, 4 Scotland, bronze fish-hooks in, 64 ; pirogue from ancient bed of the Clyde, 70 ; shell necklaces found in, 108 ; Lake stations of, 154 ; crannoges of, 164 ; burghs of, 165, 166 ; Picts' houses of, 166 ; dol- mens in, 180 ; gold ornaments found in, 217 ; iron in monuments of, 219 ; megalithic monuments dis- continued in, 223 ; vitrified forts in, 301-303 ; burial and cremation in, 372 ; cup-sculptures on menhirs iu,- 380 Seal, 116, 138 Sentenheim Cave, 56 Sepolture dei Giganti, of Sardinia, 170 Sepulchral caves, objects found in, 134, ^35. 246 ; human remains in V Homme Mort Cave, and a cave at Nogent-les-Vierges, 250 ; in- humation in caves of Roquet and L Homme Mort, 370 Sepulchral chambers, or crypts, 188- 192, 205, 261, 262 mounds in America, 93, 357, 374; sec also "Megalithic Monu- ments" and " Tombs" Sepulchre, Neolithic, at Crecy-sur- Morin, 261 ; and at Dampont (Dieppe), 262 Sepulture, similarity of, at Solutre and in Merovingian times, 360 ; stone chests for sepulture, 360 ; earthenware jars used by ancient Iberians, Chaldeans, W. coast of Malabar, in Thracia, and at Troy, 361 ; similar custom in Peru. Mex- ico, and on shores of the Missis- sippi, 362 ; trunks of trees used as coffins at Apremont, Hallstadt, in the cairns of Scania, at Gristhorpe, and Hove, 362, 364 ; ancient Cale- donians sewed up their dead in skins, 364 ; embalming in Tene- riffe, Egypt, and Peru, 364 ; burial and cremation proceeded side by side all over Europe, 368-378 ; burial customs, 373, 374 ; mounds of Ohio and Illinois, 374 ; crema- tion still practised by savages of Alaska, California, and Florida, with other strange customs, 374 ; feasts of death, 375 ; human sacri- fices in honor of dead, 376 ; belief in immortality by cave-men, 376 ; bones of extinct animals venerated in succeeding epochs, 377 ; flint hatchets intentionally broken in tombs of Bronze age, 377 Settle (Yorkshire), 66 Sheep, 86, 156, 217, 329 Shell-heaps of America, 40, 140 ; at St. Simon's Island (Georgia), near St. John River, 141, and in Florida and Alabama, 142 ; in California and at Mobile, 143 ; at Hill of His- sarlik, 322, 329 ; see also " Kitchen- middings." INDEX. AOT Shells of Mytilus Californicus and Haliotes made into fish-hooks, 63 ; necklaces of Nassa and Nerita, 108 ; pendants of scales of unio shells, no ; see also " Mollusca," and '* Shell-heaps" Siberia, flints in, 28 ; Stone age in, 28 ; mammoth in, 57 ; prehistoric civilization of, 236 Silver ornaments, 220 ; vase, 337 Solutre Cave, 57, 58, 85, 98, 108, 112, 232, 244, 349, 350, 360 Solutreen period, 85, 87, 132 Somme, the, bones and flints found near, 11, 14 ; kitchen-midding at mouth of, 140 Sordes Cave, 87, 106, 249, 345 Spain, pottery in, 97 ; circular open- ings in dolmens in, 211; prehistoric stations in, 294 Spiennes, 241, 242 Spindle-whorls, 28, 150, see also " Fusa'toles" and " Whorls." Spring, on human bones at Chauvaux, 49 Spy Cave (Namur), 97, 105, 343, 344 Squier, on fortifications at Old Fort (Kentucky), 299 Stag, 47, 137, 156, 157 Staves of office, 111-116 Stazzona of Corsico, 179 Steenstrup, on kitchen-middings,i35 Stendos of Sweden, 179 Stone age, 19 ; not a fixed period, 23 ; in Western Europe, 27 ; in Pales- tine,^ 28 ; in Algeria, 32 ; in Tunisia, 33 ; cannibalism in, 51 ; human bones of, 52 ; Lake stations of, 68 ; boats of, 71 ; ornaments of, 109 ; staves of office, 113, 116; art of, 126 ; Lake dwellings of, 147, 149 ; monuments of, 169 ; mode of life in, 248 ; places of refuge in, 279 ; successive Stone ages, 294, see also ** Neolithic period," and " Quater- nary period." Stonehenge, 183, 185, 254 Store-houses for grain, 158, 295 Sureau Cave (Belgium), 47 Surgery, early attempts at, 252, 256, 271, see also " Trepanation." Swan, 49, 329 Swastika, 339-341 Sweden, bronze fish-hooks in, 64 ; cromlechs in, 180; alignments in, 188 ; dolmens with circular open- ings in, 211 Sweno's pillar (Scotland), 185 Switzerland, Lake Stations of, remains of fish in, 60 ; bronze fish-hooks, 64 ; harpoons at Concise, 65 ; of Stone and . Bronze ages, 67, 68 ; boats used in, 68, 69, 74 ; discovery of, 144 ; of three periods, 145 ; construction of, 147-149 Lake fauna of, 156, 157 ; forti- fied village in, 287, 288 ; cup-stones in, 379 Sydney, 36 Syria, tumuli in, 198 Talayoti of Balearic Islands, 165, 170 Tantama marca of Peru, 355 Tatooing in early times, 104 ; red chalk, red iron ore, and a fine red powder, also a pebble used to grind it, found in France, 105 ; fragments of ochre, manganese, red chalk, and black lead frequent, also hollowed stones in which to crush them, 106 ; an engraving of a tatooed man, on a bone, 106 Taylor, on megaliths of India, 200 Tchoudes, the, 195 Temples, rock hewn, 2 ; in America, 40, 42 ; at Hissarlik, 320, 324 Tench, 60 Terremares, of Italy, construction of, 159 ; bronze objects found in them, 160 ; fusaiolesy uncertain use of, 160 ; at Caslione terrcmares in arti- ficially hollowed basins, 160 ; im- 4o8 PREHISTORIC PEOPLES, Terremares — Continued. certain origin of terremarecolli, i6o ; terremares at Toszig in Hungary, i6i ; fortified terremares, 286 Thayngen Cave (Belgium), 48, 107, 114, 120, 233, 244 Therasia, Island of, prehistoric houses under volcanic ashes and tufa, 310 Thetford, Lake Station, 154 Thrush, 49 Thunder-stones, 17, 34, see also " Ce- j raunia.^' Thuot, on vitrification, 307 Thurmam, on burials in long barrows, 254 Tiger, 56 Toltecs, the, 42 Tombs, in Sardinia, 170; kurganes of Russia, 195 ; megalithic monuments either tombs or in honor of the dead, 201 ; all dolmens tombs, 202, 203, 246 ; burial of chiefs in dolmens, 258 ; tombs at Trupschutz (Poland), 266 ; at Spy (Namur), 344 ; at Chauvaux, Gendron, and Duruthy, 345 ; at Baousse-Rousse, 345, 346 ; in Italy, Sicily, Belgium, the Pyre- nees, and in Brittany, and Long Barrows of England, 346 ; Port- Blanc dolrnen (Morbihan) and Grand Compans (Luzarches), 347 ; cave of Stone age near Rome, 347 ; sepulchre at Solutre, 349 ; at Schwann (Mecklenburg), Oxevalla (East Gothland), Vence Cave (Alpes- Maritimes), 351 ; dolmens of Avey- ron, 351 ; tombs at Mane-Lud, Luzarches, Cape Blanc-Nez, and Equehen, 352 ; Cravanche Cave (Belfort), 353 ; at Aurignac, Bruni- quel, Frontal Cave, and caves of L Homme Mori, 354 ; Tantama Marca, of Peru, 354 ; funeral pits of bottle shape at TouBs-sur-Marne^ 355 Tombs of transition period between Stone and Bronze ages, 356; others of later date in Italy, 356 ; Aymaras • of Bolivia buried beneath megalithic monuments resembling dolmens, or in chulpas, 357 ; mounds of Ohio cover sepulchres, 357, 358 ; remark- able discovery at Floyd (Iowa), 358 ; inhumation, 370 ; first traces of cremation, 370, 371 ; beneath cairn at Caithness large jars, at Blendowo (Poland) an urn filled with burnt bones, 372 ; necropolis of Hallstadt (Bohemia) of Bronze age, 373 TopiNARD, on trepanation, 272 Top-O-Hoth (Aberdeen), 302 Torquay, 14 Toszig (Hungary), i6i TOURNAL, researches by, near Nar- bonne, 10 Tours-sur-Marne, 355 Trepanation, early practice of, dis- covered, 257 ; examples, 258-268 ; a funeral rite, 269, 270 ; North American instances posthumous, 270 ; possible reason for practice as treatment of diseases, 271; examples from early Neolithic to Merovingian times, 272 ; subjects operated on young, 273 ; a religious rite, 274, 275 ; modes of operation, 276 ; spoken of by ancient historians, 277 ; still practised, 277 Triticum vulgar e antiquarum, 151 vulgare hibernum, 151 Trou d'Argent Cave (B asses- Alpes), 253 Trout, 60 Troy, 134, 317-320, 324-338, 361 Troyon, on crannoges of Scotland, 164 Truddhi and specchie, of Otranto, 171 Tumuli, 45, 175, 176, 188, 197, 198, 201-203, 295, see also *' Tombs." Tunisia, workshops of, 33 ; megalithic monuments in, 198 Turtle, 60, 138 INDEX. 409 Turtle Mound, near Smyrna (America), 142 Tygelso (Scandinavia), 255 UjFALVY, researches by, in Siberia, 27 Uley (Gloucestershire), 190, 205, 254 Upland, 185 Ursus spelcBus^ 48, 59, 99 Valla of Roumania, 295 Varano, terremare of, 161 Vaureal, 250 Vegetable products used in Lake dwellings, comb of yew wood, pile dwellings at Lagozza made of silver birch, pines, and larch, 150 ; prob- ably a vegetarian settlement, no remains of animals, but two kinds of corn, mosses, ferns, flax, the Indian poppy, acorns, nuts, and apples, 151; in Swiss Lake Stations, corn, millet, peas, poppy-heads, nuts, plums, raspberries, and dried apples and pears, 158 ; from Cor- taillod, barley, cherry- stones, acorns, and beech-nuts, 158 ; at Laybach, water-chestnuts, 158 ; from some places loaves of bread, 159 ; corn, beans, vines, and various fruits cultivated by dwellers in terremares^ 160 ; stores of grain in fortified camps of Spain, 295 ; stores of millet in cetati de pamentu of Rou- mania, 296 ; in island of Santorin barley, millet, lentils, peas, cori- ander, and anise, 315; wheat known in Troy, 329 ; lignites of Iceland formed of tulip, plantain, and nut- trees, 366 ; in Spitzberg the beech, poplar, magnolia, plum, sequoia, and numerous coniferous trees, 167 ; in Banks, Grinnell, and Francis Joseph's Lands the cypress, poplar, silver-pine, and birch, in every stage of growth, 367 Vence Cave (Alpes-Maritimes), 351 Venezuela, 145 Venus ^ 141 Vezere Cave, 59, 134 Vilanova, 360 Villevenard Cave, 251 Villers-Saint-Sepulchre (Oise), 212 ViRCHOW, on kitchen-midding at Lake Burtneek, 139 on age of Lake stations, 154 on trepanation, 266 on vitrified forts, 301 — — on Hill of Hissarlik, 319 on Bronze age in Troy, 334 Vitrified forts, see ^'Enceintes:* Vivarais Cave, 252 Volcanic eruption in ^Egean Sea, 308 Vosges Mountains, enceinte on, 283 Wading birds, 140 Wales, caves in, 130 ; crypts in, 205 Wankel, on deposit at Prerau (Olmutz), 253 on trepanation, 265, 272 Water-chestnuts, 158 Watsch, 373 Weapons and tools of earliest man, 4 ; rock hatchets from Capri, 5 ; human origin of worked-stones recognized, 6, 7 ; worked flints at Hoxne (Suffolk), 9 ; stone weapons in Perigord, 9 ; worked flints near Narbonne, 10 ; near Liege, and Abbeville, and at Amiens, 11 ; at Torquay, and from the Somme, 14, 15 ; universally believed to be of supernatural origin, 15-17 ; stone weapons still used, 22 ; thousands of worked flints in France, 23 ; crescent-shaped flints in Crimea, 24 ; implements of schist and slate in Russia and Finland, 24 ; in kitchen-middings of Denmark, knives and hatchets of stone, horn, and bone, 24 ; in Wirzchow Cave amulets, fish cut in ivory, and four 4 TO PREHISTORIC PEOPLES, Weapons — Contin ued. thousand stone objects, 25 ; flint tools and bone spatuloe at Ojcow, in many Lake stations none but stone implements, 25 ; flint weapons in Italy, 26 ; in Portugal, 27 ; worked bones in Spain, 27 ; serpentine hatchets and wedges from Siberia, 27, 28 ; hammers, hatchets, pestles, and spindle-whorls from Ural Moun- tains, flints from Nahr el Kelb, Lebanon, and Sinai, 28 ; flint weapons from Japan, 29 ; worked agates, ancient javelin heads, in basalt and quartz, from Godavery, saw-bladed knives from Isle of Melas, and stone implements from Northwest India, 29 Stone age in Africa, 30 ; series of stone weapons and implements in Boulak Museum, 31 ; no bones with flints of Lower Egypt, 31 ; worked stones in Algeria, 32 ; stone objects and workshops in Tunisia, and worked flints in Morocco, 33 ; stone hatchets in Southern Africa, roughly-hewn flints, arrow-heads, mortars for crushing grain, at Natal, stone weapons of Cliff Dwellers, 41; in all countries, worked flints, 43, 44 construction and materials of, hatchets, wedges, and hammers of jade, fibrolite, and basalt, sharp- pointed and cutting tools of quartz, jaspar, agate, and obsidian, 81 ; Moustier flints almond-shaped and pointed, 83 ; Chelleen type abun- dant in France and England, found in Italy, Spain, Algeria, Hindostan, and America, 83, 84 ; Mousterien epoch more varied forms, 84 ; Solu- tr^en period stalked arrow-head, and more elegant forms, 85 ; Made- leine period great variety of shapes and materials, 85 ; Neolithic period polished weapons and tools, 86 > fine specimens from Scandinavia, Brittany, and Mexico, 87 ; rounded stones the weapons peculiar to^ Neolithic period, 88 ; flint arrows triangular, or oval, 90 ; a bow from pile dwelling, Robenhausen, and one from Lutz, 90 ; bone and horn implements, 90 ; invention of barbs, 90 ; bevelled arrow, 92 ; possible use of poison, 92 ; needles with eyes, barbed arrows, bodkins, and amulets of bone, 92, 93 ; numbers of bone implements at San Fran- cisco, Madisonville (Ohio), and in kitchen-middings of Atlantic and Pacific coasts, 93, 94 ; processes of cave-men simple, Neolithic prog- ress, 94 ; earthenware spoons in Germany and Italy, 94 ; narrow spoons of bone and horn, 95 ; in Spain Neolithic implements of dorite and serpentine, 97 ; work- shops with highly polished hatchets, 97 — in sepulchral caves, 135 ; tools with horn handles from Swiss Lake Stations, 146 ; polished stone imple- ments, arrows with transverse cut- ting edges, earthenware spindle- whorls, and bone combs from Lagozza, 150 ; lozenge-shaped worked flints from fondi, 162 ; un- polished flints and quartz wedgt from hut in Donegal, 164 ; at Moei tomb a flint hatchet, balls of amber and vases, 191 ; tools of quartzite granite, schist, and diorite in align ments of Brittany, 194 ; polishin stone and cup-stones from megalith of France, 194 ; hatchets of quart, ite, fibrolite, diorite, nephrite, ana jadeite from Brittany, 214 ; hatchets and celts of foreign stone, 215 polished stone weapons from West Gothland, 217 ; iron sword, inl;- INDEX. 411 Weapons — Continued. with silver, fragments of shield and battle axe, and iron bridle-bit from Aspatria (Cumberland), 220 ; in Ireland, iron knives and rings, | copper pins, and a great number of | bone implements, 220 ; hatchets vary in different districts, 227 — — immense numbers of, 231 ; at j Solutre 4,000 flints, at Ors 8,000 j objects, 232 ; in Thayngen Cave I 12,000 chipped stones, in caves of Belgium 80,000, at Grez 60,000 worked stones, and arrows of every known type, 233 ; environs of Paris rich in deposits, 233 ; also Ireland, Denmark, Algeria, and America, 234 ; flints of Grand-Pressigny, 235 ; caches, 235 ; bronze hatchets, daggers, and bridle-bits from Siberia, 236 ; from Concise knives, stilettos, arrow-heads, and chisels of boars' tusks, 237 ; at St. Julien-du-Saut stone implements of every epoch, 238 {see "Workshops"); polishers at Loing (Nemours), 238 ; mining implements, 241, 243 ; in France implements of rock foreign to the localities, 246 ; hatchets and nuclei from Pressigny le Grand, in bed of the Seine, in Brittany on banks of the Meuse, and in Scotland, 246 ; pick-hammers from Lake of Bienne, 255 ; beautiful darts and polished boars' tusks from Lozere Cave, 258 ; hatchets of coralline limestone, jade, fibrolite, and serpentine, flint knives, arrows feathered or stalked, from Saint-Martin-la-Riviere, 262 ; mar- row spoon and button from Lake Station, Switzerland, 288 ; weapons of Mousterien type at Cissbury, also wooden picks, 290 ; similar picks in copper mines of Asturias, saltmines of Salzburg, and petroleum well, United States, 290 ; from Roumania grindstones for crushing grain, 296 ; from Santorin (^gean Sea) troughs for crushed grain, lava discs used in weaving, lava weights, flint arrow- head and saw, obsidian arrows and knives, and small copper saw, 314 ; stone implements from 3d, 4th, and 5th colonies of Hill of Hissarlik, 322; stone and bronze implements from Troy, 324 ; celts and saws of rock, with handles of wood or bone, awls and pins of bone and ivory, 326 ; haematite and diorite projec- tiles, 334 ; Bronze age in Troy, spits and nails of copper, 335 ; metal shields, vases, and dishes, 336 ; fusa'ioles, construction of, 339 from funeral pits at Tours-sur- Marne, 355, 356 ; celts and hatchets as amulets, 377 ; flint hatchets in- tentionally broken a funeral rite, 377 ; votive hatchets beneath dol- mens, 378 ; hatchets engraved on megaliths, 378 Weaving, 314 Webster, on sepulchral mound at Floyd (Iowa), 358 Weisgerber, on Algerian megaliths, 197 West Kennet, 190, 216, 217, 254 Whistles, 112 Whittlesey (America), 299 Whorles of flint, 28 ; of earthenware, 150 ; see also ** Fusa'ioles " Wiltshire, dolmens with circular open- ings, 213 Wirzchow Cave, 25 Wolf, 47 Wooden picks, 290 Workshops of Stone age in Tunisia, 33 ; at Argecilla, 96, 97 ; in Al- geria, 197 ; at Wargla (Algeria), 234 ; at Grand-Pressigny, 235 ; on shores of the Bay of Kiel, and in other places, 236 ; at Spiennes, Hoxne, Brandon, Bellaria, and 412 PREHISTORIC PEOPLES, Workshops — Continued. Rome, 236, 237 ; Concise a manu- facturing centre, 237 ; manufacto- ries of France, 238 ; of Algeria, Asia Minor, and America, 240 ; at flint quarries at Spiennes, Brandon, and Mur Barrez, 241-243 ; of Neo- lithic date, 244 ; camp at Cissbury. 290 ; in Spain workshops of metal- lurgists, 295 WoRSAAE, on age of shell heaps of America, 143 Written characters at Cissbury, 29I WuRMBRAND, ou Lake Stations of Austria and Hungary, 151 Wylde, on Irish crannoges, 163 Yenesei, the, 195, 236 ; valleys of, 28 Yezo (Japan), dolmens of, 179 Yucatan, cromlechs of, 186 ; temples of, 341 Zahnow (Posen), 292 Zeedyck, 282 ^ I JUL 25 ^^l DAY USE RETURN TO A1ITHR0P0L06Y LIBRARY This publication is due on the LAST DATE and HOUR stamped below. ..III N 1 4 1 9 ; DEC 11 Wl RBl7-40m-8,'72 (Q4186810)4188— i i|B U.C. BERKELEY LIBRARIES <:D37^D7hDS